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THE 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
Pe. MAGAZINE 


AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY 


Epiror: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army 
W J McGEE 
Chief Department of Anthropology and Eth- 
nology, Louisiana Purchase Exposition 
€. HART MERRIAM 
Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Dee 
partment of Agriculture 
WILLIS L. MOORE 
Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture 
0. H. TITTMANN 
Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey 


0. P. AUSTIN 
Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor 
DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 
Agricultural Explorer of the Department 
of Agriculture 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 
Chief of the Division of Mineral Resources, 
U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
Chief of Alaskan Division, U. S. Geological 
Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University of Chicago 
G. K. GILBERT 
U.S. Geological Survey 
ALEXANDER McADIE 
Professor of Meteorology, U. 8. Weather 
Bureau, San Francisco 
ALMON GUNNISON 
President St Lawrence University 


VOL. XVI—YEAR 1905 


PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HuBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 


\QA 5188 


DECEMBER I, 1905 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY was organized and incor- 

porated under the laws of the District of Columbia January 27, 1888. 

The object of the Society is the increase and diffusion of geographic 
knowledge. ‘The Society accomplishes its object : 


1. By encouraging worthy plans for exploration and by helping such projects 
when its resources permit. 2. By publishing an illustrated monthly Magazine 
and many large maps. 3. By an annual series of thirty addresses at the National 
Capital, most of which are published in the Society’s Magazine. 4. By the 
maintenance of a library. 


MEMBERSHIP 


Is not confined to professional geographers, but includes many who are interested 
in the advance of geographic knowledge. Its present membership, at the close of 
the eighteenth year of its history, is 10,000, of whom 1,400 are resident in 
Washington and 8,600 distributed throughout every State in the Union and in 
many foreign countries. Candidates for admission in the Society must be pro- 
posed by members. ‘The membership fee is $2 per annum, with no entrance fee. 
Life membership fee is $50. All members receive free of charge the Magazine 
-and maps published by the Society. 


OFFICERS 


The affairs of the Society are conducted by a Board of twenty-four managers 
elected by the Society. Eight members of the Board are elected at each annual 
meeting of the Society. The present officers are 


WILLIS L. Moore, President. HENRY GANNETT, Vice-President. 
JoHN Joy Epson, 7veasurer. O. P. Austin, Secretary. 
E1uiza R. ScipMor#, Foreign Secretary. GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, Fditor. 


BOARD OF MANAGERS 


1903-1905 1904-1906 1905-1907 
Q. P. AUSTIN HENRY F. BLOUNT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
CHARLES J. BELL C. M. CHESTER ALFRED H. BROuKS 
T. C. CHAMBERLIN F. V. CoviLLE HENRY GANNETT 
GEORGE DAVIDSON D. C. GILMAN A. W. GREELY 
JOHN Jovy EDSON S. H. KAUFFMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 
DAVID G. FAIRCHILD WILLIS L. MOORE ANGELO HEILPRIN 
A. J. HENRY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL R. H. TITTMANN 


CC. HarRY MERRIAM R. D. SALISBURY - OHN M. WILSON 


CONTENTS 


Page 
The Character of our Immigration, Past and Present; by Z. F. MCSwkeEnvy, formerly 
Peer Commissioner of Immigration. 7.0.56... ee eee ee eae cae ve nec eens I 
perm seMt a TeeLOMECIT AIT TOOL. Hae cao ape ssi giceieid cove a's ec niciee ) oeiec ad eh acaba seed tects s rs 
Ee ELS UNE Roary he So RS et, Pe iid Belew cece ale Co SSO Wee, Cw ns bbe 27 
Stree smmeiG GlestMe WHILE SLALES!. . css ice cbs be ce cece cases oes vceeececesecatrae eb mes 39 
ae SAN EMC ITC SLUM OLTIOS Critics eis AMON to die Socks Soe eee winis ho aleetrnnee + bi ets eae alee 46 
Dials) ince \ay Walch 2 Sap i acre sa ep ities ot Pee er Saar oT ty ore nt aR a eh I Qt a 50 
Why no Americans have received Nobel PAZ OS oye) v0 ane ee Fal ia ee ita inte, NONI apc carm eee are ete at 30 
See ern MOE MenE AMTICO so. wcll ee oa ale Glee eleleecdcdaeca shes ti beele dwt aaeb es Oh MeO 
PenenicamMOrest GONPTESS. . 2... 6s eee ee eee MOTI Peeyathd cre ae skeraat Ap caret oy Se ceaaee che cee arar ea. 50 
me euro MmATIGeIN AULT AlIZALION iixiv. dines Se ses ele Pcl Ol elves sence ee eeeelswegewed ciel 51 
ESE tay Co MNS, Gacesse i arc cr ea RRL Oe pm a MR i Mega RCE Rett, Me canst lag 52 
Mimi mmeunenerick. Way Detweiler)in si. 6.6666. See eee eo eee ete nee eee 52 
ere RPE MMRDA UGC eS uc en kB 2 ocd dl Ala tutes ar ape ar ticle cabs « Sraebeare aces slerckseoe «a Nl 52 
‘* New Physical Geography ”’ feaiph Sia art,) sap e te tee cl 1s emer yen Seemed feone 52 
PmewNomenrectallic, Minerals’? (George P. Merrill)... 00. 620 ee he ee ce ees 52 
*‘Dodge’s Elementary Geography ’’ (Richard Elwood Dodge)................-..... 53 
AMG MAIMeeGPnaplic GOCICLY .. 0518s. ccc cca eke tee wees SUEREI Derren Soman mk, A 53 
sti eMUORMPNPCCEIIOS STOO5 2, fn Pils dc > bose oh ele we eed ect abe ed esc eie ti cnenscen 54 
Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projection, 25 x 45 inches........... pees ... Supplement 
Russia ; by Hon. CHaRLES EMORY SMITH, formerly Minister to Russia and ex-Postmaster 
eee ee eee ce Seta) 2 his Seeeee ete wate cere kicks ba we kal ede ae Gee 55 
Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World, with maps ; by GEORGE W. 
WL RPP TE La TEE POA Lo oy AUR 30 i aie ar GR ence n tE 63 
The Wonderful Canals of China; by U. S. Consul GEORGE E. ANDERSON, Hanectads 
INR, ss so cla.g’c 6 DRANG Sa cian mm oe ARR eM ane a tl ne eo EAPC A 68 
Sear reco Ny MeAIUCIMMOALI TIT Clee ete ae NUNP VOM BSc cine wR MeL ei eiisiayac. = Veothele clean Gare eevee eaelor 70 
ii Rimes cy On eenitiCy by WeWhn Dios 25. ution oh eka ccs sole vce Ss ie on bee mele ees 7 
French Conquest of the Sahara; by CdHirRLES RABOT, Editorial Sécretary of ‘‘Za Geo- 
graphie,’’ Member of the Council of Societé de Geographie de Paris.... ............. 76 
Observations on the Russo-Japanese War in Japan and Manchuria; by Dr. Louis L1IvINc- 
PTOI STN GINURUNT sauce Fe mete ESAT gh, le RRs MD ed ies crocs eh ae ona oP Rn Atel cheat RNa 80 
ete al De imme EVA ITO SV 704%. 2 svete a's 'et/achele ) sac sve cla tieve cio thee wie Tk ce a ware eee les SEA 2 Ry tol s ge mOe 
EM eC eGo oer oOClehyn ko) Pees co's. 2's sit ate he «ied cas a vin eae ewe eee dee eke By COT, 
Gharhot cme World i.e) he. ek. sn, SUR Ager al ic EMS Dd Dei ipr ae in LW heaee fee 87 
moreson: te Philippines. (0)... 005.606. BE Bae fal 5 rhs: con Ras OR Sg tnt ea CUM ERE SRR Sh Ny ae 87 
Transportation in England..... A Meo CIA A ae Es” (S04, hot aA a di ead eo ts Reg HatASizots: 
To Observe Solar Eclipse Bana eet NS RRNA cn oles 2a ik eae a RR NEAGLE thd, SR Aen Ae 88 
J SAE ES Ol BURUAOIE Gy lB) Oi ek ge a Memes rl Ire cab N  eee2 a a R O OLPs LAA MEME Ai oto: 
Be meme em uC TiceUt ne eth SPUN M2 cis A Alien sees N ete seer aloe mw Oo ia oa v5 GM gteere ate B eelaiea dels BN 89 
Searmemhometrom lelee.. 7 Anil Selomddellprimtr 22323800. .o0% tail Meee aes aa VL ee 89 
Pe eNetucalistam the Gulatas / \(Hugéene Amdréy sie yee. UO Oa ae 89 
Place binhppine Islands, 1893-1898’ (Blair and Robertson)... :.2.6.2......05..0 0085 gI 
pote tie Nile with General’Grant’”? (Elbert KE’ Farman) al) ie0s. 00. ee ee. gI 
MemuonuieryNorkiiand i riuiilie Kip Baker): (oe0¢cdlaf cecei cee Mice eca ad le. gI 


‘* Select List of Books Relating to the Far East’’ (E:lited by Prentiss Ciark Griffin).. 91 
‘Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography ’’ (Charles A. McMurry)............. 92 


IV THe NatTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


: Page 
‘* Students’ Laboratory of Physical Geography’’ (Albert Perry Brigham)............ i 
““The Land of Riddles—Russia of Today” (Hugo Ganz)... ......2.....s0eun ee 92 
National Geographic Society. 2... 0.0000. e 0s dea) ees ce levee Danke ee 92 
The Characteristics of the Japanese People ; by Baron KENTARO KANEKO, of the House 
of Péersof Japan. oso... cc. cel ow te 0 0b us 0 ocd ele ors ele pee leit tials cia esha 93 
Geographic Names in the United States and the Stories they Tell ; a Rive WHITBECK, 
New Jersey State Normal School. 20.0. cc cea. sleet a gaeles | ee er 100 
A Growing Camp in the Tanana Gold Fields, Alaska by SIDNEY PAIGE, of the U.. S: 
Geological Survey oof eco se i ee wie tees thas etete te Sea a «oh eect siete ae eee 104 
The Industrial Training of the German People....//............,. 000 00 ee ee III 
Philip Nolan alid the ‘‘ Levant ;’’ by HDWARD E. HALE... ..).32..., 5p eeeee ee 114 
Progress in'the Philippines. ....... 2.06.05 bie eis ee wale oes « «nut sae kee 116 
the Gardens of the West... ..c:a¢ cles 0 ptteines Jaci: oJ 0 es ee ere ee 118 
Thei@auseiof the Harth’s Heat, ..2./....oscceee cee. ee eee Re eer te 124 
Maps recently issued by the Geological Survey...... 0 ... ccc cece cece ccececcccetevrees 125 
Notes from our Consuls ......0. 220.0000 cec see te eee ss + eo sledmeiaes chops ean 126 
Work of the Coast and Geodetic Srevey eT a MR ATI cin iehacctc ap sgiioaes 127 
dhe Australian Wattle Tree. ..<) cave. <i treat - sagt « «ee ee op a egater el Narra 130 
U; S. Weather Bureau im Hawatt ooo 0 oie -epntetbenis «joie we «aso cchape oceveh ele pao gnnae ean 131 
Decisions of U.S. Board on Geographic Names. ..... a... s4. . .- «oc. eee eee 131 
Geographic Literature . 2... ieee ces ye ode cele oo cle se es ue «oy fo ncte ee 132 
‘‘Arbitration in the Hague Court’’ (John W. meee PP Nees dBoeycigettene enters 133 
‘*Japan by the Japanese’’ (edited by Alfred Stead).......:..0...)@ seemen see 133 
‘‘ Dai Nippon” (Japan) (Henry Dyer). occ. a. os ws Sos oy, Ge 134 
“The Laud of Riddles’’. (Dr Hugo .Ganz)i3i.20. i... 000 ee nae ir 
‘North America” (Israel Cook, Russelb) in occ cco..c, 0. « 5-2 occ uyero\s le papel ieee 135 
‘‘Fetichism in West Africa’’ (Robert Hamill Nassau)......-:... <..¢ 90s eee 135, 
‘‘ Japanese Life in Town and Country ’’ (George William Knox) io « We ae OEE 135 
‘* The Proceedings of the American Forest Congress”... .... «7.1.5 ae eee 136 
“The Bahama Islands’. 2.00050. fon oe eie bine sia ticlee elt ds na a 136 
‘*Check List of Large Scale Maps Published by Foreign Governments ’’ (compiled 
under direction of Philip Lee Phillips) ic cagipce Fe 36 o-oo i+ nol ty 136 
‘‘ Rarthquakes”’ (Clarence Edward. Dutton) ij iqe5 0... sey. <)>- © ol be er ac ESO 
‘‘The United States of America’’ (Edwin Earl eearica) vidas ore 0) ¢ ececeheieleee eee er 136 
“A, A. Catalog of 8,000 Volumes for a Popular Library ’’ (cdnae Melvil Dewey). 136 
‘* Swedish Life in Town and Country”’ (O. G. Van Heidenstam). ... <5. 22255 oaepeee 136 
‘* Historic Highways of America’? (The Arthur H. Clark Co.) ........ ............ 136 
‘*Students’ Laboratory Manual of Physical Geography’’ (Albert Perry Brigham).... 136 
‘* Physiography’’ (T. H. Huxley and. R. A, Gregory)............. 3s) 0 eee 136 
National Geographic Society..... (gaia eile Spiel Cloke, Glee eR ae ee oie 9:0) e 0k bes Se tos ¢ aici a 
A Revelation of the Filipinos; by GILBERT H. GROSVENOR.. .......00.-eeeeeees Pre ee 
Commander Peary’s New Vessel .o ows. .- 4.0 oicjous osm ee ew esata sete beila feist lca © o-= ge 192 
Some Lessons in Geography; by EDWARD ATKINSON 2... 0 02005 <-> oo es) sje ee 193 
The Ziegler Polar Expedition. 2.5.1.5 5. 2a) 0's» dpewuebaee ble aetemebeper a> oie sk ert Dosa ee 198 
Eighth International Geographic Congress................ riba aibss enaltey aexsat an She + sie eee o heee 198 
Geographic Literature. 2.30/00). Jjcispinsorene is nie Hininja/ ote! ancl ee Re Mellon stam pte eee at hee ietey ch ee 199 
‘‘ Through Town and Jungle”’ (William Hunter Workman and Fannie Bullock Work- 
IMAN) eich sb Sin on eo ere nie nie nue, 5 oye a B-Wiy of weal athe HERR Pe Riel ate rer 199 
‘‘ The Story of the Kongo Free State’’ (Henry Wellington Wack)...............+05 200 


‘Breaking the Wilderness?’ (F. S. Dellenbaugh)-:....)..56¢icnicpene 4 ee oe eee 200 


CONTENTS V 


Page 
pe tereInINCO OTA DIUIC SOCICLY oe ok eee een cee ene ce eiite viet ds cele sbi es Beles ale 200 
The Fisheries of Japan; by HuGH M. Smit, Deputy U. S. Fish oumerictione? ered tne les 201 
A Chapter from Japanese History; by Ext Hiokt, First Secretary of the Japanese Lega- 
iat Ce PEE NF S20 acs oes cNolter aot vista cio) oiei cle Gis 6 20, Seliehe, a 6.e\e, Shei cl'e owe ei ale! sislblecd «ale ele wel we ea 220 
Our Smallest E eeecsiog=—Cuam : by WILLIAM B. Soyer GAP Renae, Ais PIR eM Ee CT aren ge 229 
The Milch Goat......... RP ee Ma ala Sele Wig Hate We Slt is 6 HE ha eka RETR Ape ety eae TACs 237 
RereromalGseamrapnic SOCIELY.. «of... .eli ca ciee ss thos aie lewd cette oeeeces a cae ane SADE 241 
erent ANTS Ge lees rie 28 os tic) score ate Tie ales < wie Wee bilities (ols elES WE Sie bleleleealt es 242 
ee woeammeents oF tlie United: States...) 6..is.cjc eee elec cee es ee cede ee velnelneeiees Ape 2A 
Bee oM ea MEN CH FO SIELD SCM OOLS: So cicks cia: os cicpeve sv mymig hs 61 tiie, bn lo olle’e tle 'h a) 'felarw ale oialsteSiwie wre obreee tid ate 244 
dime Activity-or-Shishaldin Volcano; by HOMER P. RITTER....0 20.06.02 eel te ete wees 249 
Cotton Cultivation in the British Empire; by C. M............ heaie ahs oh ame OY Deygieaey a ten veka 249 
Beier me iotomiCOny A MAL ACY |. sscclsies oc ele ei eceieis'c ciwe eb o cele’ ne cate piaigiel@ wie! ly eialg a Bib algiacs 249 
The Economic Importance of the Plateaux in Tropic America; by J. Russert, SMITH, 
Sea a oe cL sic cicrier i's) evo fe Grave ot oie alle @ Ve oe ahaa wR BEB) diel e OD a'e ietele ella al ales lar kar h whale desea 250 
The Exploration of Alaska; by ALFRED H. Brooks, Chief a Alaskan Division, Cesige: 
Leal  SUEVEY x. 5 oe. Reena, erent ee nis hei wre: pcelge am ebe eck evelg lor fo sate TelieboMe ERM acs Ma da Ia ale oes 251 
ere eM LY PEE A LUTE). 2 sew ich sl. lea e nie ve, dese ts sieve, o5s9'b; (lose # wt ole i 'efsbeefe, ot org aleve alplele ava Sheletalene Hee 252 
‘‘Anemia in Porto Roco’’ (Bailey K. Ashford)....... pipet ret gata et le She eee stl ap alte 252 
‘‘Sweden ; Its People and Its Industry” (edited by Gustav Sundbarg).............. 252 
umeentootin vCiliianee MH. Pickering) (5 6.) 05 fi ccin ie tein vide ino alee wa ulate be oe si clepeleyes 253 
“* Harly Western Travels, 1748-1845 ’’ (edited by Reuben G. RH eaireaye ae Te, 253 
‘*The Future of Road-making in America’’ (Archer Butler Hulbert)........... .... 253 
Maher reat-American.Canals’’ (Archer B. Hulbert) ...0 20.00.00. 000 octet ecw eee’ 254 
‘‘ Historic Highways; Pioneer Roads’’ (Archer B. Hulbert)..... ... PA Pee SR Para dk Hap 254 


Forecasting the Weather and Storms; by Prof. WiiLis L. Moore, LL.D. , Chief United 
States Weather Bureau and President National Sees as Society. With 20 full-page 


Spree Sem PEM NUS GT ARKO MG 10.5 .)c Sleneaie, Shave vad tae ses is <BR o'als wen Shale \w e oie'vie” Uatuhatallelrs (ek e's At Sible 255 
What is the Population of China? by Rear Admiral C. EK. CLARK............. ceeee. nest 200 
Notve.@utune article ‘‘ Horecasting the Weather,’’ etc..<...........6..4. she tote eect are leva takeNe reyes 306 
Nateom aap showing seat of war in Hastern Asia... 5... sce eee ee teens eneneceoes 306 
eccteeaemey MMT oe MEINGO ys fa ysle)s fe 6./in ti eek = s wieys' oe wieGel elie) 6 Pile Sin lotiae done) eyote wiatelslelniepelece a\Ga 307 

‘*Hxcursions and Lessons in Home Geography ’’ (Guanes AS McMurry, PhDs)... in. 207 
‘The Philippine Islands, 1493-1895” (edited by Emma Helen Blair and James Alex- 
ENGIIZIP IRRCIDY SELES VO Ws MEN AE A aaa aoe AAORaReL ge ORE IC.) Oa Ong ner nC RTO MP be 307 
‘‘Along the Nile with General Grant’’ (Elbert E. Farman) tetanes chown es a ea ACIS 307 
**Dodge’s Advanced Geography ’’ (Richard Elwood Dodge)................0. cece 307 
Suet mited (States of America” (Hdwin H..Sparks). . 02.250. eet ee basses ne eas 308 
eauiurics der itandelsgeographie ’? (Dr Max Hekert).. .. 0.4 eee sept cs ehieee ge en oo 308 
Map showing seat of war in Manchuria (18 x 44 inches) ...............2-+cceee. iCupplenent 
Evolution of Russian Government ; by EDWIN A. GROSVENOR, LL.D., Professor of 

Modern Gevernment and International Law in Amherst College.................-.05. 309 
The Purpose of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance ; by Hon. Exr Hroxt, First Secretary of the 

Japanese ee areas Any oare fei eee ets Ac aiee eS ares el. ce etal ate Om pe eee ae 223 
ve Purple Veil—A Romance of the Sea; by, H. A. Lys... .ceccececcccecssccccescvccvas 239 
Seem Rrece UIT CMON ATTICS ar ere hin ieee yey ed chs MR ( a aN ae mies Sb sph wavs. ala EN we Ee nee dee oh ot Rie 342 
eetonute ofthe National Geographic Society... oc fo. cs cece ee ot lee eee tweedy seth ens 342 
COS GARGereeyal ible NIB a Vee eae ai Se naa es el ae ea Le ane ar re eS 342 
Pin Ow ds Geom rap mical. Balances. 2.0: fe. b 2.) cocci 6 ues cece es witls 0.9 ele ge deiale eyele's 343 


em FRO MMLC A Nene ee ee ace Aca er ayerdie odo aeeiane Sa tyoticle'e Gt elses Sesion cs Redan’ 349 


VI Tuer Nationa, Geocrapuic MAGAZINE 


Page 
Mr William Ziegler. Obituary... 20. 0..000 coe ys wees cee eee bliss 355 
The Foreign Commerce of Japany. . i... | ae at ea ee o0 EA 357 
A‘ Tribute to'American Topographers } by A. OB 3225.90) eae oe? So. 358 
““the Negritos-of Zambeles?? <0 vin. s.554:s cons eb we Ba ero aoe oe ne 358 
Decisions of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names.............. MAE er i is Sk aera: 358 
Geographic Literature... 5.02.6 one oi eo ais abe eines SRI 360 
‘“ Harthquakes’’ (Clarence Edward Dutton, Major U. S. A.).... 0... 0 . 460 
‘“ Thomas Hutchins ’’ (edited by Frederick C. Hicks)... 7. ..... 03.) 360 
’ Geographen Kalendar, 1905-1906 ’’ (Herman Haack) }7/72 77 ee 350 
The Philippines ; by Hon. WILLIAM H. TaFt, the Secretary of War. ...... .......... 361 
Forestry Abroad and at Home ; by GIFFORD Pincuot, Chief of the Bureau of Forestry.. 375 
Phe Central Great Plains... se... DL WE, Be oa ee 
Deforestation and Climate... 02... 0.2. evil eo o'ele ele eee eloe ck ee an 397 
The Prosperity-of Mexico. 00.000. oe, Re 398 
Map of the Philippines (23x36 inches). 0230 0.) jcceates Supplement 
Commercial Prize of the Orient ; by Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics 
and Secretary of the National Geographic Society .... 2.255.) .....7 ee 400 
Maps recently published by the U. S. Geological Survey: -../.7.7.7.0-23)0 ee eee A423, 
Some Notes on the Fox Island Passes, Alaska; by J. J. GILBERT, U.S. Coast and Geodetic 
NOUEVE YE vend fal none ae ie eaten eee ee tn | ay PYAAR 1G eee a eee a ahem rhiden mae Pee 
A’Comiparison of Sweden and Norway..... 02505... M007. U7 ee 429 
European Population; by WALTER J. BALEARD..... ......008 occ. oe eee 432 
Jiapaniand the “United States. 2 ca. semele secs ages) SL ees VEPs oy, 432 
Our Immigration im 1905 oi. ee eee ie ee a etle ees ee ass 434 
Note on Maprof the Philippines, 702. o. oS ce ees ae oe ee Bue itn ine 434 
Exports of. Manufacttlres. (2. ce ee cee ae ee) wes oe noe aes ee 434 
Comparative Statement showing number of Aliens admitted to the United States in 1905. 435 
Statistics Of Cities ooo. dvs cs cele ss Be ce ee | cen, vista Sino are ane Ee en) ae or A37 
The Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property in the United States. a anen tae oe 438 
ihe Ziecler Polar Hxpedition 24... -. 4. ene aes sesh 66) Galetelel fst 9 «aaa aearire 439 
The Highest: Daim in the World... 0.5 0. es. sos os eb oe + cee ee Sas a Rae 440 
Note on Map of PanamaCanal ...... <ipaee a bo. 544 wea o 0 blades Rie ys le tbe cologne AAI 
Improvements in the Republic of Panama....... Rin RRR 8 574 se agen BB . ase oa a eee 441 
Geographie Literature. ooo. cj. ce ess e's e 0, ‘vile 4 os cucle ced aus le 6 RE Cite tr 443 
‘“The Philippine Islands’’)(Blair and Robertson). /.. /222530..20..... o.ce eee oe 443 
“Antarctica”? (Otto Nordenskjold and J. C. Anderson)... -....... .. 124. 443 
Some Recent Government Reports... 2... oe ee eine ow ale see he 6 oie tps ones eee 443 
‘*Long Range Weather Forecasts’’ (KE. B. Garriott)...... pee ase oe net ca re 443 
**Soil Inoculation for Legumes.’’ (George IT. Moore). 305... ..:.... 0 4) eee 443 
‘* Periodic Variation of Rainfall in the Arid Region’’ (William B.Stockman)........ 443 
‘*Seeds and Plants Imported, 1900-1903,”’ (David G. Fairchild) .................. , AAS 
Map of the Region of the Panama Canal, 24°x 33 inches...) a.e ees ace eee Supplement 
The Panama Canal: by Rear Admiral CoLmBy M. CHESTER, ULSJA\.. 2.2... acre 445 
Progress on the Panama Canal; by GILBERT H. GROSVENOR......./... ,.:.2.) 5 eee 467 
The Great Canals of the World rls. eo a tueale es ous escorts sere en ene 475 
(he Peace of Latin America) of see. ed. ia toe bed 4 spb on) a beeecd se lah ienas ate face te ian eae 479 
Forestry in: Califortita i. ac 65s de ce oc wn cle Slave ois d oe Gee & sich peeate ee go SRR tae 480 
Chinese Labor for MExtco.. oo jc ise eiece . oie e cine occ clavole susie. toes )itis Beste ene oe me chee 481 
Polar Explorations 0 ee ess lah and Gal wligte alate cies c'y wise 10 0 ale at eee ea 482 


The Population of Japan; by WALTER J. BALLARD PIS A ions ese acre Sa Ae a bo 482 


CONTENTS VII 


Page 
Geography ; by Rear-Admiral Sir W. J. L. WHARTON, K. C. B., F. R. S.............00 483 
Mersupposed birthplace of Civilizations) 1.) fos ek eee ole ec ewe ede dae cep eesceces 499 
imupemeavor Children in the United. States: . 2... acres veces e cee voucos  aeeaecsecees 504 
Pema EN. Bes a aes ke. ge biel aeslalete oie soi e sale seer eee wa cac ee Ieee! Nise ys omntigte 5038 
Meer M COU AVAGKAL | cis'5 5011. ee vis icle co) le ae oN Smells dale le welds tie ties sid ebele ale Misses 513 
ene Smee MMI PINES... tadel sole ese ie Sele ses acl ce ceeecncescesie ns Ea etehaL ane ah eeers 513 
ee ee SUOMLOLGLLC MVEA. @). 05. Bei Sulak 55.825 sie. dy 12, Pat diale wince laiclel bce Wieig hi cease Rebs ee 514 
Reve er eUOLO@ LGR WW CMlATO. 5.5 2-5). foxcis cferets c/a ene) anh eiaed blero Sell Gre RIGS S clale We wale S bl cure SOMES 515 
Pia eutMe Gee A 1TLCSC BOY COLL? Wiis nie die ol Sch 8 die tb ve Ved Sowide esiee decease tole elolaceescae 516 
Immigration to the Southern States ; Summary of a Study by Prof. WALTER L,. FLEMING. 517 
nla OneAtGCOPTap AIG Publication... i226 1/6) Hace, t laele o's e eldle wiblblee ole ele ei els wlele’s oiplaveia as bs 519 
PISA REDOMS i. 0... ee ee neste eceuls sees aie eee Vai bit Ne Pues MenteeD ie Oia: bmagra dhe 519 
Pere MMC MIOUCC TALE EC sete eye dina a1 tess BCs Hiese! so loe acts sod ojeisie we Sieleolgatale diets cle ween atl adetelenen 520 
‘*Commercial Geography” (Henry Gannett, Carl Louise Garrison, Jand apie J. 
Pet REES EG) Riemmmme eR AM tet eed Viet she cha cha te a, <s, anelaisierase Milsford iene: tS.elel Mict acs clabede Ider glehela te oreia ert 520 
‘‘ The Italians in America’’ (Elliot Lord, John J. D. Trenor, and Gaerne J. Barrows). 524 
7 hweyhar-Mastern Tropics’’ (Alleyne Ireland; F. R..G. S.)... 0. sec ese sec es aes 525 
“A Century of Expansion’ (Willis Fletcher Johnson, L. H. D.)............cecee cee 526 
Some Recent Government Reports....... Dh ater a eterna eh as EAC ALD PENIS oferty tere eS 27, 
NamenalnGeortapiic Society, MEetngs.Of. ... 0. us recess beac cece cise eececsosunses cals 527 
The Parsees and the Towers of Silence at Bombay, India; by WILLIAM THOMAS FEE, 
Hen OMmoHinGeneral PBOMDAY 0... 20cae se cee s fem sincdosncnserenecedelne scgesseneet 529 
China and the United States; by Str CHENTUNG LIANG-CHENG, K. C. M. G., Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from China to the United States.......... 554 
What Has Been Accomplished by the United States Toward Building the Panama Canal ; 
by THEODORE P. SHONTS, Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission.............. 558 
Russia in Recent Literature ; by General A. W. GREELY, Chief Signal Officer, U.S. A.... 562 
Sula aVeMP ES EVO AST AL 00a) 5.5 ye.) fetehe. Cds ches eZ lsbevesa Sa Listolaiers held a ia%elel blatle,o dials ere rceate nies shale 568 
Annual Dinner of National Geographic Society.......... jaro Magis wc Ree a srg hg hated son a Meatee cbt 570 
PEC ee a eseitUre. hy NV oi Jin BALLARD 9.51. cl kee ob es's coves, lohwes wcll cease cete 570 
Miomad ceeroduction Of Gold... 0.5. ci ice ecw eee c ee css sees POR AA re Re Abr Re ii 571 
iniuiomISMINOt OVEDPOPUlAteG s. 5255 cece ss sce cece cee See cd ceeds ceeded eves ecea's Serres 572 
‘‘An Observer in the Philippines’’ (J. B. Devin) pe Aged UN gta ore a) ae eens A etme tts Or 8 yee 573 
Pei deememilippine Islands’’ (KF. W.Atkinson).b:6is2 6s. eels Bese Weed led eweedeccbens 574 
SOuceemimppine Problem.” (HH. P. Willis). $2580.05. else cee Manteo ess ee nhs Seca 574 
ae Autre i ns clan (Wee Vrs COOLEY, is Someta) taet cdi cteuta ie) Sco she orSie crac! aie o) ato artis Srelelalicl 2 u/ahate ies abi ere 575 
‘© Two Bird Lovers in Mexico’’ (C. W. Beebe) ............. sad uae PAD on of oe ke Pees 575 
Se eiizomarsketches: ) (iA Munk) is... cease sk seek eek eek ewes EASY a cel al ohabts Mice sh odie 575 


Rea COMA MLICT SOCICL Yn oviotyer? sot wie shee one a eusPaSistece oiulaln 4ic'e le Doss go's woeteca a> teres % 575 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Diagram showing wave of immigration into the United States from all countries during 
tHE) PASt (25 VEATS .). (aici locas. core esg-oneisre Soe 0.574466 dlacatherseeen eee eee Jee thes Eee 6 
Diagram showing total immigration inte the United States. .....5.550).2. ee 17 
Chart showing the ratio of criminality of immigrants...... ......... ce eee eee eee ace 19 
United States Immigration Island, New York Harbor............... -eceeceece se eens 20 
United States Immigrant Station, Ellis Island, looking north toward New York ei 1904. 21 
Children’s roof garden, Ellis Island Station, New York........... cccececceccecccceees b 
Aliens entering Ellis Island Station... 2.0... . 2c neee ee wo pores lene oe eee te 23 
Types of aliens awaiting admission at Ellis Island Station......... ..... cee ceecceeecees 24 
Types. of aliens awaiting admission to Ellis Island Station...............cceseeeeeecees 25 
The palace of the Dalai-Lama at Lhasa. ........0 6 e08 scented teeta cieiele wate ele einen ee 28 
Another view of the palace of the Dalai-Lama....... wine ve cele oS CUM ALE tise eee 29 
A view of the palace of the Dalai-Lama from the west............. 6-00-00 scnceccuces 30 
Avstreet scene in Thasa....... 0b bole cle ods DOU VRS. 2 31 
Palace of the old King of Tibet.at Lhasa... ........0.00.20 00. 20) PE Sa Se. 82 
Buddhist temple in the center of Lhasa... eae oho sean els ell te eee i proktgg 
A view of Lhasa froma neighboring hill, ...0000....).0000/4.. 220), a ee ee 34 
The outskirts Of Thasa.....:).csccossvstece esc ce e o's e'e/ess ele oneteie’ o/c) o%' /bilh\ ened SLT REDS tote een a an aT 35 
On the road which’ circles Lhasa. .\.4.05 200. 60 oe eI. OSes Ge eee 36 
Women from the country on the way to market in Lhasa..............2. 202+. eeeeee ees 37 
A farming isceneain Tibet). go). Vtg) ace Ee ELTA, EE ee es 
Chart of the world on Mercator’s projection, 25x 45 inches.............-2seeees Supplement 
Map showing the conditions of the coast surveys of the world. ..............-.+0e-00-: 64-65 
The Bore coming up the Petitcodiac River at Moncton, N. B...........-.-c0.0+++es000% iL: 
High tide on the Petitcodiac River at Moncton, N. B ........... cc cec cece cece cencnees G3 
Low tide on the Gaspareaux River, Wolfville, N. S.....53..3 .j.ce: > - oe «ai «) ole pie eer 74 
High tide on the Gaspareaux River, Wolfville, N. S...........0.0: ewes ses cic emey eee 75 
Seenes on Lake: Tehad i iis) Ste aia abicrals <\ola lace ec ope Late beset aioe elenetetneee eeeteee 78 
A flock of goats on the ranges of Arizona... .. ..i:sssis. Ad tale samplers «se cle ole): cre eee 85 
Pelée, with its terminal tower or obelisk ........0..:c0cwed teeth ods o's oc betileed some eee 86 
Qn the winter trail to the Tanana gold fields, Alaska... 022)7: <9. 93. ©. :cotitas' eee 105 
One of the first to reach the Tanana gold fields . .).. 60. ys Sa ois oleic cytes 2 Be 106 
The ‘first boat out’’ after the ice—“ White Horse ’* 5% Oars. fa Be ios cays pe cee 109 
The Tanana gold fields... ).. 0.007 oa. 3 vw tye meee sienecg cde beh so SORES <i fo) a ea sa 
The technical high school at Charlottenburg, Germany. ........... ohn coel's Salad oy oe ea 112 
The technical high school at Stuttgart, Germany,...... 92.2. idee ce: «|. - se ee 113 
saltyRiver Canyon, Arizona: 0.0 2.) 1. eee ee ee Hep ekbic Sito 's.ce 5 «alls see eee 118 
Av ty picalidam site, Windy Gap, ‘Colorado...0. 22)... .), ee eee etre oie pee pie tales II9 
Site of proposed dam in Gunnison Canyon, Colorado... ...055. "e596 eee +s + ue ee 120 
Garfield Point in Grand River Valley, Colorado... ..20s.2J2.. meee eye = 0 > ee 121 
Sage brush deserts (Minidoka Land) south of Snake River, Idaho..... a tio wa ols vies Sie 122 
Shoshone Falls, Snake River, Idaho .. 4.2... 5.0 nes 0 c'ere.s een mistele alate telel sie 1 =) Selenetetele eae 122 

Fifteen lignite beds in single section of Little Missouri River near Johnson’s Ranch, North 
TD ANC OLA Fs a uotlaie nveile nia: loco ie) afcge alctse ay 2. «jee ¥e: clade ateseseceiiells\ene penstenate etal cee Ue leiiel (ps weston 123 
Four coal beds each 4 or 5 feet thick on Little Missouri River ..... .........ceceerecees 124 
A rabbit drive in Southern California «o.oo. .2 6 eee oie snes wie'e » l peretteyps sini cit eiey >hehena oreneean 128 


(v1II) 


List oF ILLUSTRATIONS IX 


Page 
i Worecwits of.a,rabbit drive in Southern California........ 0 secu eee cee seeewecens 129 
Seema teanark from a 9-year Old wattle tree o 2. ice. eee cet e eter cesar cece 131 
Pec Orson tie HilipitiO CENSUS 6) o), 6.6555 <i eetecie cece het ene ela ee eet sewines 153 
‘Governor-Supervisor Ortega and Bee is ates of la Unién (igeanos) he ESC RSs HET eee 154 
-“Governor-Supervisor Ramos and presidentes, Province of Tarlac (Tagalogs)............. 155 
Enumerators, Province of Lepanto-Bontoc (Igorots)...........:... eee e ee eee ce tees 156 
I. Carabao carts. 2. Hemp fiber as brought to market. 3. Trotting bull of ‘Panay. 4. 
Typical wonden-wheeled bull cart. 5. Carabao with sled........... . PCN Set Aaa 157 
“Census enumerators, Province of la Laguna (Tag4logs).............00- 20sec cee ee ences 158 


1. Maguindanao Moro, wife of Chief Ali. 2. Moro women of upper place Zamboango. 
3. Dato and bride. 4. Moros of Lake Lanao, Mindanao. 5. Jol6 Moro, adult male... 159 
I. Moro showing one way of wearing the sarong. 2. Sanguil Moro warrior in brass nee 
met and cuirass. 3. SAmal Moros, characteristic dress. 4. SAmal Moro of Zamboanga. 
Pena Oo hloro.. Oy Vakan MOL. 5 ie cc: cece as sno cle sc nace cd sole nein ewe wulee epee 160 
Bagobos, Island of Mindanao...... Se CORIO NG REINO DENCE Oe CRN Uaivis Sein heeR oe tioene a neces Cie Ce 161 
a. Igorot girl, showing method of stretching hole in lobe of ear. 2. Igorot woman, hair 
bound up with grass chaplet. 3. Igorot boy. 4. Igorot father and daughter. 5. Igorot 


watrior in his prime........... Sie oS CUR Ris are or Rene pee orem ae Mr oie rt o 162 
a. Girl spinning. 2. Young woman in pipical dress. 3. Woman and child. 4. Girl 

operating cotton gin........... RPM fal aE ai ore trait eee ened soe, Slatin tons OP ae Se MBAS Ov oio olay aga eda ae cee 163 
a. Mayoyao EOE ‘“‘headman’’ of Banaue. 2. Igorot. 3. Igorot eal in fern leaf cos- 

A oe Ts Rohl oso al kn Foy 6b 9.6) viet o 6: sen! idl sie ep ai aie, e ernbh erwialle eee gy bier eie kore be wg bid wae 164 _ 


a. Native woman eee Negrito blood (Remontado). 2. Young man (Remontado). 3. Girl 
(Remontado). 4. Native man with Negrito blood (Remontado). 5. Girl (Gaddan). 6. 
pera ee Meg ence CI Pe Perc s.c 5's Shs. deka ehcvalal eve sa lcret Sects lagalesags oc miei Sialeate <. ele sles 4 eldeere ed salbse 165 

aq. Young Negrito women. 2. Negritos making fire by rubbing two pieces of bamboo to- 
gether. 3. Group of Negritos, Province of Zambales. 4. Negrito showing filed teeth. 


Aestirosim the forest; Provitice of Isabela .......... 0 eecic cs ce cee ceee sn eenesececs 166 
a. Tiruray dancer at Cottabato. 2. Ataof Davao. 3. Group of Mangyans of Mindoro. 
4. Mangyan, Province of Mindoro. 5. Monteses, Province of Misamis. .:............. 167 


a. Poling a casco. 2. Canoes made from the log of a single tree. 3. Single-stick out- 
rigger, Laguna de Bay, Lfizon. 4. Moro Vinta. 5. Outriggered sailing craft of Panay 


Ere Meets SLO e sda Es oe alu Slopabeneuape ace dweta tude picl's lace ons tueeele Wet que acetare dle bus 168 
I, Moro divers, Tapul group. 2. Double-masted outrigger, Laguna de Bay, Liizon. 3. 
Sailing craft, Visayas. 4. Moro vinto at Jol6. 5. Moro vinta with thatched awning.. 169 
I. Fishing in the surf with a scoop net. 2. Selling the catch at the beach. 3. Seine 
fou eavith fleet of fishing boats in the background, ..2......0 cicscccsee cebueeseseee 170 
I. Fish nets in position for catch. 2. Lifeonthe net raft. 3. Fish weirs, mouth of Pasig 
inivereg Ae Net tatt, net in position for catching. . 0... 66..6 cee cee edi eleedemsneecces Vigan 


a. Old Moro pirate boat. 2. Cascoes, or the common lighter of the Philippines. 3. Pas- 
senger raft on the Magat River, Province of Nueva Vizcaya. 4. Single-stick outrigger. 172 


I. Hauling logs with carabao. 2. Ropemaking, Manila. 3. Filipino sawing mill......., 173 
a. Typical Filipino village, Boac, Marinduque. 2. The gap of Vigan, Ilocus Sur. 3. 
street in Baliuag (Tagdlogs), Bulacan. 4. Village of Romblé6n..................0006. 174 


it. Moro houses on Rio Grande Cottabato, Mindanao. 2. Moro split-bamboo house of com- 
mon people and slaves. 3. Mixed native architecture of civilized tribes. Stone and 
mortar superstructure and wooden framework. 4. Example of fine Nipa structure.... 175 
a. Gadd4n tree house. 2. A dwelling of the Mamantias. 3. Tinguian house at Padan- 
ier tees ASML TOP LOSS rrr renter iti ee clehe Leh is cate Gin TO ata clelaak oiled alle died Viale a 176 


X THe Nationa GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Page 
1. May6én volcano. 2. Magellan monument, Island of Mactan, erected on the spot where 
he was killed. 3. Giant forest tree of Mindanao, showing natural buttresses of trunk. 
4. Buri palm. 5. Tree fern, province of Benguet. 6. Moro watchtower, Dumaguete, 
Negros oriental. 7. Native boats...2.......s..0..000: essen sete 1o ee 177 
. Church at Malate, Manila. 2. Augustinian church, walled city, Manila. 3. Cikieedl ae 
the Recoletos, walled city, Manila. 4. Church at Albay, Albay. 5. Fortified church, 
at Béac, Marinduque. 6. De Loma church, Manila..............27. 04) Se 178 
. Tobacco fields, provinces of Cagayan and Isabela. 3. Tobacco leaves arranged in ~ 
‘hands’? for curing. 4. Sugar cane, showing the luxurious growth. 5. Crude method 
of extracting the juice of the sugar cane. 6. Teosinte, or forage plant, recently intro- 


lan 


> 


duced into the Philippines by the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila................. .... 179 
I. Tunnels on gold quartz veins, Benguet Province, Luzén. 2. Blacksmith shop. 3. 

Saltmaking..... die ep nee eet ee bela een e coe eee Saale 5 Mere enh eee) eet et een ia res 180 
I. Threshing rice by beating sheaves or stones. 2. Mill for winnowing rice by hand. 


3. Hulling rice in wooden mortar with wooden pestles. 4. Planting rice. 5. Hulling 

TICO So ec ee bee ee o) lee ee cee eb cote cle are nehe eet er 181 
I. Filipinos making rope. 2. Mocanos spinning cotton, Luzén. Primitive loom of the 

Ilocanos, Luzén..... 
I. Climbing the coconut palm for tuba. 2. Husking and splitting coconuts fo ence! 

3. Coconut tree and fruits... ee ss 2 et eee ont eke Ge nn 183, 
1. Coffee plant, showing the remarkable luxuriance of the growth. 2. Sirimpnie abac4 

(hemp). 3. The abacda, or ‘‘Manila hemp’’ plant. 4. Cacao tree, showing fruit at 


maturity. 5. Fine samples of Manila hemp, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. ........ 184 
Silver pitcher, presented to David T. Day by the National Geographic ,excursionists to 

MEXICO, cei 28 oe a se ow lle 1a9 
Hauling a yellow-tail net, Southern Shikoku <2... 700.00... eee hee ee Pee 202 
A fishery experiment station in the Province of Tosa ................--- +200: re ee 204 
A trained fishing cormorant, with its cage. 215.0. .002 cece see ee ee 205 
A cormorant trainer and fisherman. ....0........ -.0. 1. ene sce ae) oe ee 206 
Fishing with cormorants, Nagara River.............0e000: UN eid ous 56 8 0's 6 9 ae 207 
Spreading the wet funori on mats to bleach and dry .....)..2.-.%82----- «2s ee 208 
Sprinkling the sheets of funori to prevent curling. ....... 223.0229. o> ae ee 209 
Gathering the dried sheets of funori for baling and shipment............ .....---.-206- 210 
Gathering kelp with poles and drags 22. $2.0 200. cca co weln ale ole esta cine, tc ree tee 211 
Drying kelp on the beach in Hokkaido’. . .2 7 ola Fe eet 212 
Women engaged in sorting the crude kelp:. (.0/2.0.0.4. 02. s ete oe ee ee 214 
View at an Osaka kombu factory... 2. 0 Se ee eee ree ES 
Wonlen divers, province of Shima, 0/0... ol ek sb oieiere 0 otete oie o cet ne ney 216 
The forest, Island-of Guam... 2... 2606 Do pes De ee eet bo ReSA Rinses 230 
On the main road across the Island of Gila wee calor e Shire wob.a bale Dieteee aalbitgs te Oe gee ee ae 235 
A fish intoxicant; the fruit of the Barringtonia speciosa, natural size...............-.-- 232 
A coffee tree in full bloom), Island of Guat... 05322) )0. 022. ee ee. ee Sie eect octane 234 
Betel-nut palms... Re. Sn ne RE ie See eno a 235 
Flame tree in the Plaza Caguas, Porto Rico...) 2.31). Pees acl sere ool alert eee 238 
A splendid specimen of the Ceiba tree, or ‘‘ silk cotton,’’ near Ponce, Porto Rico........ 239 
A group of Sequoia gigantea, Mariposa grove, California............-...ceeeeeceee PF OBRO 
A group of mileh goats. 302.0 eNOS Oe, AD OS IO, tonne 241 
One of the common prickly pears of Texas in full fruit............. 0... eee ee cee eee 242 
Singeing the prickly pear of Texas with a torch... 2... -oci.5-/ctarcrstesstoetel ete alte fel sr eee eee 243, 


A type of pear cutter, as set up and operated:. 2... 05 se eis pre iettete ne 243 


List oF ILLUSTRATIONS XI 


Page 
©_ Herm rich. mess at Scituate, Massachusetts... 0 2 eed be eee e et cee cece 244 
Bleaching and curing Irish moss at Scituate, Massachusetts. .......... 0.2.00. e eee eee 245 
Excellent examples of weathering near Logan Butte, Cook County, Oregon ............ 246 
emi alia with a-derrick Oma WeStErn farm... 1. .eeeeke tee es eee ete tees 247 
Se nme alae beak COVIOM pases be bets ete oc en eee ew cas lee eed et tetieecabe 248 
mem iian mt OOOCOVETS. COyVlOM i seas eis le ee cec chases ee eo veas 248 
fraren Northern (Manchuria (18 x44 inches)... 0... ee ce tee tc erence Supplement 
Srnec ee ber storis,, Decemiber'I5, 1893, 8a. mi... co eee ec cece eee aes 268 
me Liem iater storin, December 15; 1893, 8 a. Me ooo) se ee el Dacca dees eens 269 
Chart III. Winter storm, December 16, 1893, 8 a. m........... Wa sreet rade ee aes oe eae 270 
Sunwear eveold wave.. \aluary. 7, 1886, 7 Alms oe ee ee eke bee te lee a beara beads 27% 
Serine emOOlGemave JaluMaty. O, 1900, 7 A. WM. oe cle iesls et code cltee sds cle sine esacen sees 272 
Sia eeColdawave, jailary 9, 8867 a. M1... kk ck tees tec esas NRA Meh: 272, 
Senay ie Cold. wave, Jaitary 10,'1886; 7 a. MPs... nk eek ene tee cee eee scene 274 
Crna. west Indian hurricane; August 27, 1893, 8 a. M..... 06. cece cee cae veer eee: 275 
Ghante«, west Indian hurricane, August 28, 1893, 8 a: mM... 2.16. cee cece ee ene batt abet 276 
Sunapee west Indian hurricane, August: 29, 1893, 8a, mM... eee ede eee 277, 
itn a eotiie Galveston HUTricane, 1900, i ek eee lec abet we beeet cs py ae 278 
it eM omigietraCl. TO AU OUST is. Wisc2 cis Ginn owe eaiets ee Hels Welles owe ecdeweeedace sees 279 
Guacemetelee storm tracks tor February. «00... 610.5 ore cee cle cece cece eel abate. 280 
Gara ieNiorimal storm tracks for May... oe cc he ek occ seseceedececsees 281 
Chart XVIII. Tornado at Louisville, Ky., March 27, 1890. Weather map 8 p. m. of this 

HESS wea ceo Cage BORE CS ee en ne Oa RL eM ea Ree. SS a er 282 
Ghar < 1X Tornadoes of 1889—a year of small frequency...........00...c0ce seer e eee 283 
Chart XX. Tornadoes of 1893—a year of small frequency............. 0... eee ee eee 284 
Chart XIV. The average lines along which the centers of storms move in July in the 

ester TeSIGE MMM SETA TS NOLS, Pest tetyns <6 no sv5! su ewdto’s. nie oe! lobe(afabele'alleip te sici'slesrel aves de Me aale se settee 290 
Chart XV. The average lines along which the centers of storms move in January in the 

PO tpl tt STMISPMCLC lois c) cos 5's ow oselesn- oc wie oo cele levefele e's CRS heer as Rn ee aE LR oa 291 
peagoadtiscene at NMurion, Arkansas, 1903.......01. Wea bone ce ccc cee wu we lesces sebtsees 293, 
The rush of water through the Holly Bush crevasse, Arkansas, 1903 ...... .......- . sees 295 
Strengthennig the levees in preparation for the coming of a flood, Lagrange, Mississippi, 

He Ii POMERAT Yeh cies Rober Ws voavs) ot afar sie sta) wicks ics’ “cuemleedahe, Gow SM Alc ers S gas WbbrSis dg ania Delgisé BEL Gees 296 
Chart XVI. Showing method followed in developing normal storm tracks, etc.......... 297 
Scene in the freight yards at Kansas City after the visitation of a flood, 1903............ 298 
Hees GUE SE OMC RIMES y OUIS OOS '.2 5 oi bw oie. Sate visio) wr etcl eugene ha eee eine liv oo bla eee en ohh in 206, 
Craueishowin= the low central near New Orleans 2000. oni oe a vee c awe eects sees 300 
Map showing seat.of warin Manchuria, 18x 44 inches.......6.05....0.0..cc0eeee ee. Supplement 
Seeman or lsat at: WOM /. cere:) <<) sw s'elStele heise alos cee eBlOdcs cletececece see Baeble ic 
Latest picture of the Tsar of all the Russias and his interesting family, including Baby 

“TST OOS le CURE he BR ON Be Se On en ena ec Poi ae eee aC ReneS eee 314 
Sereno MIMO LTAA TIONS +p V\LOSCOW? 15 «5. c10te sero. -o ie orale inrsde <oPemae So fold ke ais lee ee TET als Sa ars 
Bacrowd tit, l heater Square, Moscow... .........0.. eve ees PRUE ORM ARR St eR ai let UN 316 
Priests of the orthodox Greek Church on a float upon the Neva River, St Petersburg..... 27 
Splendid temple of our Saviour in a western district of Moscow.............0005 ceeueee 318 
Old defenses of the Kremlin—the citadel of Moscow.......... 0.0.00. ccc eee cece ee ce eens 319 
Russian cloth market in ‘‘ the Fair’’ of Nijni-Novgorod, Russia... ........-.....-..05 320 
MreniHanceutplace.s Viboros dunlandf0 Wr898 Oe ole See bee ee ke A 321 
Be LCESD UL OPE rrr es Vay og pee eel wie vie More. ewe d Melee eee ab eo few es 322 


A reservoir after evaporation. Turning up the salt, salt fields, Solinen, Russia.......... Bee 


XII THe NatrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
Moscow workmen in\one of the street markets.......55.00024. 60 0udss2-)0-ceeeeuee eee 324 
A characteristic Russian troika (three-horse carriage) before the old Petrofski palace in 
the northwest suburb of Moscow.: 2.2.02. .nci4) eee vai Ce shat pyaiatb: cet te%e eRe abcienon aaa 325 
Siberian village of the Tartars, Nijni-Novgorod, Russia ...5.25.2:0n0. 1.21) eee ee 326 
Wheat for export at Russia’s great southern seaport, Odessa... s.c5.). -2s) we ae eee 327 
‘Country women tramping into Krief, Russia, with the morning supply of milk. ......... 328 
Fig. 1. Three eggs embedded in gelatinous membrane in which they are laid...... ..... 337 
Fig. 2. Young angler taken out.of the egg just previous to hatching.................... 338 
Hig. 3. Young angler not long after hatching.:... S. cus. . 22 tee » ASG TS. SORE cane vee tee 338 
Fig. 4. Young angler with 2 elongated dorsal rays, etc............ Jd OR ee ee 338 
Fig. 5. Young angler showing still greater increase in length). <9iceue.. see ee ee ee 339 
Fig. 6.. Young angler in oldest pelagic stage.......is.. =.aeee sean hte: Reh ee 339 
Fig. 7. Young angler of oldest pelagic stage, seen from above .i).;.g5 31. epee eae 339 
Fig. 8. Young angler with most of the characteristics of adults. )..0.0). cis; sees ee oe 340 
Fig. 9..The common anyler. 2.0.0.0 60s ssWhe. De daleueds «Ngee aie eer Ba bs as 341 
Diagram showing production of principal minerals...... alate « BUG Sy weal abe oon ree 343 
Map showing value per square mile of minerals in United States.................. ceeee 343 
A -vein in a 1,200-foot level, Daly-Judge mine, Park City. Utah. -2:2-¢ see 344 
An electric coal-cutter. .. 00.0. c05 sacs eee e wea dises eee. 04.0 TAPE. cyan nein 345 
View near western end of Great Canyon Sandstone Quarry, Amberst, Ohio: sisi.) (Lee 346 
team) drill used im stone quarrying i... eee ce soc ae ols ee Speight ES 347 
Large granite column-cutting lathe at Vinalhaven, Maine PEE Pet i kee hs 348 
Porto Rico—molding bricks by Hand, ... 2. 00.0 sie ose eieisie ee 0°) «hehe eee ee Han 228849 
‘The Grand (Victoria) Falls... ... ... 0. si'ss-asisiied dew foe 2G bs sab at vidios ee 350 
‘View of falls seen through the jaws of the gorge.......... as 0 fayette lek alas Sete caheves 351 
View looking, into chasm from.its eastern end) 4)... :19. .i:. . se ee ean ee era eI oe A We 352 
View of bend. in canyon, . 6... aces bce bate bee ebees Dene) wee ee miele cree 353 
‘The rich and evergreen forest fed by the mists from the falls... ............. Tew are a 334 
Portrait of Mr William Ziegler ........cccee eee es ce we va osm © cle pine tetat aac er 358 
Map of the Philippine Islands (23x 26imcehes): ..... ) uc ae eek. depen Supplement 
Woung Filipinos: cc:i..05 aot een. ieee elt Lah ht ace eee 367 
Primary pupils in a, municipal school, Manila... :6¢2 9:1... ..5.cReee ete eee vo Sebi temas 368 
Boys in the Normal High School, Manila. ....00. 6.00 ct ee bs otis cs) teen 8 er 369 
An exceedingly productive spruce forest in, Bavaria!. .)...ss.f04 (ogee) Gt ee eee 376 
Elephants used for dragging logs in the forests of Burma................ JiSSiorx, 152 dhs 379 
Piling timber in the lumber yards:of Burma... 20... 2.6.00.2 an «fo tele ot )efe) oo eee ea 380 
Piling timber in the lumber yards of Burma. .:.;°.'51. oi. .'. .ctiels Aas 381 
A mixed forest in need of an improvement cutting, »... 2. :):.00i. )- Gee 2s See 382 
A mixed forest after an. improvement cutting.............. +s. @Rieeiy hee eee 383 
‘Conservative lumbering in the Adirondack Mountains, New York........ Ly. Bee GOED 384 
Wieasteful lumbering on the Pacific slope... .j. cui st ie ete Be ee  waiinse 385 
Artesian well at Woonsocket, South Dakota........... POPPTTU Roe or se ec ee 389 
Artesian well at Lynch, Nebraska, . ooo... ecco ce ew) 0s) Oe: ARR ere ee 390 
Pulpit Rock, Kansas’: .-2. 2.uh ih sce oad tines! alae Bee. 1 Se ee 391 
Big Badlands, South Dakota, east of Hloar Trails. coriicere oi eh CURE ee 392 
Greenhorn limestone in Benton group, near Thatcher, Colorado. ..............-.-:.000- 393 
Jat Rock oo inn csieie tise sein ope are, octal tall cies « Pood hha Wis EERE Ws. lake CLReR ee, Sate wstcu ke pa 394 
Archway eroded in Monument Creek sandstone, at ‘‘ Elephant Rock,” near Monument, 
Coloradowe sé itd be ae hs Pees EAS ® Be Oe Oey SU hr . 395 


List oF ILLUSTRATIONS XIII 


Page 
Samper tie Philippine. Islands, 23 x 36 inches... 20.560... cece ec ele cones .. Supplement 
Map illustrating the obstacles to land transportation which rendered early commerce be- 

tween Occident and Orient extremely difficult........ ...... .......-. We oNtetae oteen sal see OO 
Diagram showing the growth of the world during the nineteenth century............... 402 
Diagram. A comparison of the Orient and the remainder of the world in area, popula- 

MietnrGaireGads. telegraphs, and. COMMIMETCE. 60.06. cc cece eee ce eee ecw epeceeeeeus 403 
fide snecescive advances of Russia tothe Pacific. ......... 020 e ee ec e e ee tect e ces eees 404 
Transportation in China. Camel train outside of the Pekin wall..... ............. 1 AOS, 
imine inperiace OE GLI Wall oF 5 oe. 0 eyie wo hae ee oes (oe belie et vecceeenes SES mM pi A aN 405 
An illustration of the enormous deyclopiient of the commerce of Japan resulting from 

PMO CnUNAEUONCOL CAT AYS:) (--)s6 «hele sce elelateves vis oe onli e heise ele ein wade Pie we nele oa lev ois 406 
The network of railroads covering India today and the resultant vast increase in her 

Sate eae MS Teg ass doc Sul PD sh ofa! cue af el eae Sabie viele die SS a eat ee: ieee ta dad oes | 407 
Railways constructed aad proposed in China. BRS Fay ov ret ok Setter oy Seay ONat a seam ia See PEASY PORE bea BeGe 408 
See ere Seren ou Gem OLDIE At OOA (.). 15:0. sania: ocos cise: eft v olare ele Fes 'e sis is nce wiguere Seg carey Wells ded ss 409 
Paeeniarison or japan, India, and China today... 0.020. coca cece cee ciiscecereceuance AIO 
Elephants with howdahs (Bangkok) which have been eclipsed in popularity By, the Amer- 

Peammen Cr Weta Cat ON: OPPOSILE PALE i. win ood ees sie cele isles See le bie e shee dedecddeat Gaeee's 412 
Ha Sa OMNMa CAAAICUN PE VEE Feit. fof U IE 3 avakerole's a's 6 slafo geet seid w dare! al we'd 6 Sa cidin ole evel ela ete ee ohy 413. 
iiwe awakening of the Hast. -A school for girls, Bangkok.:............0.0.cceeececeecs 414 
A group of Chinese watching an American railway engineer.......................0.... AI5 
Saas erate AE EVV fogs ssc oie c=, s/o ws s'nsn oe S o'lejabere cis wielepater> aie eros a ales aloes vie viele sed cea eleges 416. 
omone ot meniterior canals Of Ching... 2 3.35.5 cc tie wbe eee e fee e tee eeecuceceuces GIF 
Pete Montene CMita..> A COUNTY CALbs 6.6.6 be cc i sie le cee eee ee ve cmos ecsekueds 4.8 
eater eer te IMUM MUTA aie 5 occ ie ole <a > Greteiehe! sae iche eels fiele tsa: al a efeit, ofoie 026 ¢ s''ele e/aidie uiave sieges AIQ 
iaeiaieemeowater currents of the Pacific. ........6...scbetie cece ste secedecwccusececa 420 
fpanese peasants watching a wrestling contest... 0.0.0... 66. ccc ete cece eee cece cones 433 
Map OrmtHe Lanaiia Canal (25x 33 1nches)..........6.+--5-..e+ee02-seess0---s. SUpplement 
imumca@cavcuts of the world’s greatest canal. ... 2.6.0... cece cece we cece cndeecans 451 
Seneca MRAM YL BIO) SOO yet sf. abc sus se cPouel nts vie, «ve lelo eters a GPa als ale) aie lol's Se a gts wesele wleverd a © dls vee k's 452 
Meme Flo ream Oot LOONIE O TOE CM 20s terse): < oie» a lslal a cje sie jece sywie'+/e sais’ pielevy)eie vidal c sine ous ele et ale 453. 
Ment nes mCEIMNE NENCOIIA cee nh, ohey foyer slo ok, Lan eiferece wk 6. ae a) Vis’ ef'oicim sie ¢ oieteve eee be le nuelhod orale aie penne 454 
Pa amesioMelbatawork 1 the Culebra Cut. cis. ui seeelew ee ede seu cb cle sucess lecliee ya 458 
Panama soldiers at a village on the Bayano River, guarding the pass on the route from 

TDL STERNUM. Sy sy 2k ae se A MRO A a Saale sys Anya 461 
Landing pigs in ane eR OmOL Pana ilaeC lly ic fo) oe ie beyasetacadeetsieis tse as! cnet sieleraiciiol< Wilc se ks 465 
Indian ‘‘ dug-outs ’’ on the Chagres River bringing bananas, the chief export 3 Panama, 

2D GEE. 16 oo direte clea BANE en Re Soe nS en 466 
Diagram showing yearly amount of rainfall in inches on the Panama PSUs is ce eee: 467 
Map ot the region of the Panaria Canal (24 x 33 inches)........ 1........c0000, Supplement 
fi era IL (Ee OTL CL LY, sop ers) oh 4s .08) 0,6 o/oie oie 30 wiclens oicieielaetels id's cclewiecceiecte acess tuiens 499 
Peace advaucina across the Gesert. 2.5 2. ce eee ke ce ale ede Se eeeu eee te 500 
PMC eo MleCCie Vale SAMARK ANG. 5.0) ts 5 cists tiv oo clepees Selene feb teh decesecvielee “ace. 501 
Folds in the limestone in the Sugun Valley west of Shor rane lookinge. west.73. 00)... 502 
iimestone gorge of the western*Kichik Alat......2........000-e ees spac afout ae vels DAR Leah SOs 
em Siete sae role Oy ell @vee foe Macc. clo, euspels ich odtete! else 21a) susleserei'e ola aint a slleiel dae 6 ee Goo «aso. 504 
Map showing number of children under 5 years of age to I,ooo females 15 to 49 years of 

age, 1890 MaDe ett ee eee see ouch cere cc cue os Fev (ora) siederliavohr ciSlehelobetivave Sic oyevsiie. #6 0/6! we » 506 


XIV Tue NatTionaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 
Page 
The town of Ketchikan, Alaska, in the spring of 1905.... ........... . a CS ee 509 
Philippine method of threshing rice, government rice farm, Murcia .................... 510 
Threshing rice with American machinery, government rice farm, Murcia. .. .... ...... 511 
Map of Alaska, showing mineral deposits so far as known........ .....- cece cece eee 512 
Map showing relative density of railroads in United States and Europe ................. 421 
Map showing American. fisheries. +. 6.0.5. 0.6 ..,-cjeiete ¢.cb Biells ele ltel sie Ale Seen Sen 522 
Diagram showing share of the United States in the world’s industries and products...... 532 
Fire temple at Udvada ... 2.23 tiesto ESE te ee 535 
Imterior of fire temple... 52 wo nie Geeucs steer beaacekeuie cna. Je ititg SE, Fy eae ae 536 
A Parsee. lady in regulation dressis iis: os. a2)... lest etite ofa Pas: Bee eee ae ee ee ti 537 
The business prince and philanthropist of Bombay.............s.calhase Hasse ene 538 
A Parsee schoolmaster and his class of boys... .52.. 5... 3). shine ee i 54) SRS 
Navrozjee Maneckijee Wadian 2... e-em Site eyes _ sor ete aged eA ee 540 
A Parsee bride and groom. 3. ij... 65 see's oe es sie oteys ave wo) oR ee Geass Selle 541 
A Parsee school girl in regulation dress........ 2.0... 0.0... s.0s.+ ody io Bee: Rae: dees aes Se 
A Parsce school girl... .. vigjeceis ie. sehen We evele he wal lelove’e ol aPK iol | abe RN e eke ot re 543 
The Framjee Dinshaw. Petit.Parsee sanitorium 0.) 4.24)... ¢/6..s 420) 1.2 544 
Sir Jamsetjee Jijibhai, third baromet .....0 2.060.000) ons + Seep 2 ee 545 
MPAs Parsee Wed@ing (2 ow. Sec eae pegeiore Risse oc ece ies) tre soe ecco iy « mieuele ae Caen ear 547 
The tower of silence at Uran.. 2... 1.0.0 nitidin a a itdess 508 SOs ee SU 548 
A-model of a tower of silence, 4. o..404 01) ue ae Lie. Pee ee eee ier, ane Lt So oe 549 
The vultures encircling a tower of silence... 20. 0... 42 wy. <: ose ++ + eee er » 550 
Ground plan, tower of silence, Malabar Hill... 2... 2. dhniei). alee tee eee ee ee 552 


Map of new Erie Canal)... ....5 00. eens enc sree wn winidia). Sa oelalsoe: sls ra:aheee tht tee se 569 


JANUARY, 1905 
CONTENTS 


The Character of Our Immigration — Past and Present. By 
Z.F. McSweeny. WithChatt .......2.2. 
Out Immigration in 1904. With Maps and IIlustrations 
Views of Lhasa. Illustrated . . . . . 1... . 
The Farmers of the United States 
Educating the Filipinos . 
Geographic Notes ... . DS a mgt 
x Why N o Americans Have aa Nobel Prizes | 
| Progress i PAT sa) oy tie 4h ot Tek eg 
We Mbeooraphic Literature . 6 2 
National Geographic Society . . . . . - . 


_ Published by the National Geographic Society, 
_ Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
; Washington, Dic, 


5 50 a Year ino ae | | 25 Cents 2 Number 


Entered at the tatady bh a in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


| GEOGRAPHIC | 
MAGAZINE. 


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| Ak NationaL. GEOGRAPHIC Society, at Washing- 
KX) .ton, D:.C. . All editorial ‘communications _ ; 
should be padre: to the Editor of the Nationa ~ 
_ Gerocrapuic Macazine, Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
Washington, D. C. Business communications — 
should be addressed to the National Geographic 
_ Society, Hie Memorial Hall, Washington, i 
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| | Associate Editors, ed Beis 1 : Deas. 
GENERAL A. W.GREELY © 0. H. TITTMANN Are ey 


oes Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Mee ik Superintendea! of tae S Coast : 
HN CO vit ‘i RRR alt Slivbseniiaiiiay's < | ; 


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Chief, Department of Anthropology fe 0.1 P. AUSTIN iy a at 
and Ethnology, Loutsiana Pur- AAR Chief of et Puen of: Statistics, 


chase pace gee aA lea Department of Commerce and ie 
te an i Ney . ae _ Labor A rake ON oad 


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a ee Agricultural Explorer of the Depart 
aia ll ne meene edie ae fae 


VoL. XVI, No. 1 


L] 


WASHINGTON 


| | | WATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGA ZIINIE 


JANUARY, 1905 


THE CHARACTER OF OUR IMMIGRATION, 


Fes dn NID 


PRESENT * 


By Z. F. McSweeny 


FORMERLY ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF IMMIGRATION 


HE subject of our immigration is 
perhaps the most discussed and 

| least understood public question 
now before the people. Onone side we 
find a portion of our citizens claiming 
that all kinds of economic and social 
evils are to be attributed to immigra- 
tion. The supporters of the other side 
are equally positive that the nation’s 
growth and progress are due to these 
alien races. The arguments pro and 
con are generally made to prove a special 
case, and as such are not always to be 
reliedon. On one thing both will agree, 
that for the poor of Europe, America 
spells ‘‘opportunity.’’ Previous to the 
past five decades of emigration the world 
has never witnessed such prodigious 
achievements, such wonderful enter- 
prise and real progress in all the things 
that contribute to make a nation great. 


WORLD MIGRATIONS 


The causes of migration have been 
manifold. Now it was famine, again the 
taste for conquest, that caused a people 


_of modern life. 


to take up its household goods and push 
out into unknown lands. Ambition 
fired the soul of one; religious persecu- 
tion or political revolutions inflamed 
another; while the love of gold was 
always a potent factor. 

‘‘FEmigration’’ and ‘‘immigration,’’ 
as we understand them, are phenomena 
In prehistoric and his- 
toric times, up to the discovery of 
America, men moved in tribes and on 
eareers that were chiefly of conquest. 
In vain do we seek, in these migrations, 
for any parallel to the influx that is 
now pouring upon us. 

A new kind of migration began with 
the discovery of America and the new 
route to India around the Cape of Good 
Hope, and may be called ‘‘coloniza- 
tion.’’ Those who took part in this 
movement utilized the newly discovered 
countries, first, merely for the purpose 
of booty ; afterward for the establish- 
ment of trading posts. 

The beginning of this century dis- 
closed a movement far different from 


*An address to the National Geographic Society. 


2 Tue NatrionaL GeocraPrHic MAGAZINE 


either of these ; it is not a national, but 
a private one. The citizens of other 
states come here, not in conquering 
hosts, but as individuals—to a nation 
for the most part foreign to the one 
they left, in customs, in manners, and 
in government. Ina word, the migra- 
tions of the nineteenth century were not 
conquest or colonization, but ‘‘ emigra- 
tion.’’ 

‘Long before history began to be re- 
corded, multitudes of people went out 
from Central Asia. ‘There the Aryan 
race—the most important of the human 
family—had its rise. But the popula- 
tion soon outgrew the means of sub- 
sistence. Migration became a necessity. 
The Celts first spread over Europe ; then 
came the Teutons. Of the Semitic 
branch of the Aryan race the Jews par- 
ticularly wandered farand wide. First, 
to Egypt they went ; then, through the 
wilderness to Canaan ; subsequently, in 
the various captivities to Babylon. 

Greek colonists formed fromthe begin- 
ning an organized political body. Their 
first care, upon settling in a strange land, 
was to found @ city, and) toverect mut 
those public buildings that were essen- 
tial to the social and the religious life of 
a Greek. The spot was usually seized 
‘by force and the inhabitants enslaved. 
‘This sort of migration aided the father- 
land and bettered the condition of the 
people taking part in it, for the migrants 
often made rapid progress in their new 
abodes, and added more arms to the 
strength of the mother country. 

No voluntary migrant ever left Rome; 
the colonies she sent forth were intended 
to bridle subjugated provinces, and, as 
a writer well said, ‘‘ should be regarded 
rather as the outposts of an immense 
army, the headquarters of which were 
at Rome, than as an establishment of 
individuals who had bidden ‘adieu’ to 
their mother-country and intended to 
maintain themselves in their new coun- 
try by their own industry.’’ 

Yet they were of advantage to the 


empire, for they strengthened her power 
abroad, and alleviated the distress at 
home by removing from the city a large 
number of the excessive population ; 
but that policy did not result in as per- 
manent improvement as was anticipated, 
for the city population increased in num- 
bers more rapidly than the surplus could 
be absorbed by the foundation of new 
colonies. 

A great wave in the migration of na- 
tions was that which swept over Europe 
and buried forever, under its onward 
rush, the old Roman Empire with its 
civilization. Out of this conquest grew 
chaos at first, then slowly new states 
began to rise upon its ruins, which were 
finally united in the Holy Roman Em- 
pire of the German nation. ‘There were 
attempts, first by the Turks and later 
by the Arabs, to better their conditions 
by an invasion of Europe; but they 
were driven back by the sturdy Cru- 
saders, and with their driving back was 
rung down the curtain on that gigantic 
drama known as ‘‘ Migration of Na- 
tions ’’—closed perhaps forever. 

Modern migration dates from the dis- 
covery of America, though it was not 
for centuries later that it assumed any 
great proportions. Europeans came in 
large numbers; they were merchants, 
workers, and planters. The natives 
furnished the labor. The value of the 
colonies to the mother country was no 
longer merely “‘ militahy =" =e owas 
‘‘commercial.’’ The planters received 
their capital from the home country and 
disposed of their products and made 
their purchases there. ‘Their intention 
was to build up a country that would be 
self-supporting and enjoy the same civ- 
ilization as the mother country. Atthe 
same time they did not separate them- 
selves from the parent, but continued 
under her political control. The rela- 
tions between the two countries were 
for the most part friendly and loyal. 
They were still ‘‘ Frenchmen” or 
‘f Bnglishmen’’ or “* Dutch,” as they 


THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION a 


had been at home. The title of ‘‘Ameri- 
can’’ was yet to come. It is not too 
much to say that the migrations of these 
centuries, from the fifteenth to the nine- 
teenth, changed the whole aspect of the 
world. We can scarcely picture to our- 
selves the limitations of medieval life 
confined within the bounds of western 
Europe. ‘This colonization established 
world commerce and brought the prod- 
ucts of the whole earth to the inhab- 
itants of Europe ; it magnified the scale 
of things ten-fold. It did more; it 
changed the relative position of nation- 
alities; it made the English race and 
speech dominant throughout the world. 


EARLY AMERICAN IMMIGRATION 


But with the Declaration of American 
Independence a new movement in the 
history of changes in peoples became 
evident. It has since then grown in 
intensity almost every year, until it has 
become an important phenomenon of 
social life. It is not to be judged by 
any of the previous migratory efforts ; 
it must rather be considered on its own 
basis and with respect to its influence on 
the civilization of modern Europe. 

The Pilgrim fathers, fleeing to New 
England because of religious and politi- 
cal persecution, were the first real colo- 
nial settlers of America. It was real 
loveof liberty and freedom that brought 
them, and not the visions of Indian 
wealth or mines of gold and fisheries of 
pearl, with which the Spanish adven- 
turers in Peru and Mexico had aston- 
ished Europe, but the desire to worship 
God in their own way and to open an 
asylum to all victims of oppression 
throughout the entire world. 

At the same time emigrants from Hol- 
land had commenced the settlement of 
Manhattan Island, and English settlers 
came to the western part of Long Island. 

Contemporaneously, Gustavus Adol- 
phus—at war with the Catholic powers— 
wished to found a new Sweden in Amer- 
ica, which would be devoted to the up- 


lifting of the Lutheran religion, and he 
sent acolony of Swedes to the Delaware. 

Peter Stuyvesant, when he was gov- 
ernor of New Netherlands, became in- 
volved in difficulties with the New 
England colonies, and also with those 
Swedish settlers on the Delaware; and 
while he failed in his attempt to get the 
New England colonies under the Dutch 
rule, he did succeed in defeating the 
Swedes, who accepted Dutch sover- 
elgnty. 

Religious toleration was the rule, and 
Bohemian, English, French, Germans, 
Italians, and Swiss were induced to 
come to the new colony. 

Another colony of great importance 
to the country was that founded by 
Lord Baltimore in Maryland. ‘This 
colony was Catholic, but the principle 
of religious freedom, which has since 
become a part of our national life, was 
first inaugurated in this territory. 

French Huguenots, coming here after 
the edict of Nantes, formed an impor- 
tant settlement in the south. 

The Quakers, who came to the United 
States in the latter part of the 17th cen- 
tury, by the straightforwardness of their 
dealings with the Indians, did much to 
supplement the civilizing influence that 
was being carried on by the Jesuits in 
French Canada, to whom no little credit 
is due. Without regard to their per- 
sonal comfort or safety, these priests in- 
stituted a missionary work among the 
Hurons, Iroquois, and Algonquins, 
which lasted until the annihilation of the 
Huron tribe. They entered into the 
daily life of the Indians, and it required 
years of good example to make the 
slightest impression. Their sufferings 
and martyrdom are incredible; but as 
fast as one was massacred another was 
sent to take his place, and the recog- 
nition of the Puritan governor of New 
England in inviting Jesuit missionaries 
to be his guests and the guests of the 
colony is the best proof that these 
Protestants were convinced of the ex- 


4 Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


cellence and far-reaching influence of 
these Canadian priests. Their human- 
izing influence was felt forever after- 
ward. ‘The Indians came to know that 
they could depend upon the word of 
these missionaries and the Quakers, 
which made their subsequent dealings 
with all white men more peaceful. 

Not the least important of the alien 
forces that combined to make the colo- 
nial history of this country were the 
thousands of Irish, who were sent to 
‘ England after the time of Cromwell, 
compelled to give up their Irish names, 
and given such names as ‘‘ Brown,’’ 
SwWihite,’” 9 ““Blacks 9h Carpenter a 
*‘Shoemaker,’’ etc., after they set- 
tled in Virginia and northward. It is 
stated—which fact seems to be borne 
out by the parliamentary discussions in 
England after the war of the Revolu- 
tion—that one-third of the American 
soldiers in the Revolution were of Irish 
birth or descent. 

This short history of the colonial set- 
tlement of the United States is necessary 
in order to emphasize the point that 
what we call ‘‘American character’’ is 
really a combination of the racial char- 
acteristics of the alien forces that came 
to the United States prior to the War 
of the Revolution. As President Roose- 
velt said in writing of New York city 
Or1775: 

‘‘New York’s population was com- 
posed of various races, differing widely 
in blood, religion, and conditions of 
life. In fact, this diversity has always 
been the dominant note of New York. 
No sooner had one set of varying ele- 
ments been fused together than another 
stream has been poured into the cru- 
cible.’’ 

In New York particularly this diver- 
sity of race is most noticeable. Baron 
Steuben was a Prussian ; Hamilton was 
born among the West Indian Islands, 
of Scotch parents; Hoffman, the son of 
Swedish parents; Herkimer, a German; 
Jay, Dutch’:’ Clinton? Irish; Sehinvier 


Hollander; Morris,Welsh. This amal- 
gam of blood and diverse races has re- 
sulted in the acknowledged highest na- 
tional character known to the civilized 
world, and the fusion of their ideas has 
had immense effect on the permanency 
of the institutions we now enjoy. 


IMMIGRATION DURING NINETEENTH 
CENTURY 


It is not necessary to go deeply into 
the story of immigration during the 
early part of the past century. It is 
interesting, pathetic, and in some of its 
details horrible. In the suburbs of 
Montreal is a stone with the inscription 
that it is ‘‘sacred to the memory of six 
thousand emigrants who died of ship 
fever in one year—1847.’’ ‘The condi- 
tions of immigration were then vastly 
different. Immigrants were subjected 
to treatment that would seem incredible 
now. Most of them could not pay their 
passage, and were sold on arrival by 
the shipping companies into temporary 
servitude as ‘‘indented servants.’’ Dur- 
ing the whole of the eighteenth century 
the prepayment of passage was the ex- 
ception and subsequent slavery the rule. 
As a consequence old people would not 
sell well, and their children had to serve 
longer to make up for them. When- 
ever a ship arrived at New York or 
Philadelphia, the immigrants were put 
up at public sale. Families were sepa- 
rated forever. A master not wishing 
to keep his servant could transfer him 
to another. Parents sold their children 
for a period of years in order to become 
free themselves. The treatment of these 
poor creatures can be easily imagined. 
This state of affairs continued until 
1819,when a law was passed compelling 
certain improvements and the manifest- 
ing of emigrants from 1820. Since this 
law went into effect the number of im- 
migrants arriving yearly has practically 
been an almost infallible industrial ba- 
rometer. — 

The variations in our immigration 


THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 5 


represent the ups and downs of business 
and commercial prosperity. The busi- 
ness panics of 1837, °57, °73, and ’93 
are accurately recorded, taking about 
two years to make their influence felt. 
In short, although the chart on page 6 
shows simply the number of immigrants 
who have come to the United States since 
we began to take immigration statistics, 
it is a most accurate financial history 
during that time. 

The year 1881-’82 marks the climax 
of the older immigration and the begin- 
ning of the new. That from Ireland, 
which received its impetus from the hor- 
rible condition of their native land thirty- 
five years before, was still continuing 
with undiminished force. That from 
Germany reached in 1882 its maximum 
@f 193,000: It, too, received its first 
impulse in 1847, in the depressed indus- 
trial conditions in which revolutions and 
political disturbances had left the coun- 
try, but there is no special reason for a 
maximum during that year, unless it be 
a knowledge of the peculiar opportu- 
nities then offered by this country and 
the infectious example of others who 
were starting in this direction. 

The Germans coming to the United 
States have been of differenttypes. First, 
in the early part of the century, Penn- 
sylvania Germans were hyper-orthodox 
Lutherans ; in 1848, Free-Thinkers, fol- 
lowed by Roman Catholics and Social 
Democrats. 

The Scandinavian, which completes 
the list of the distinctive elements of this 
older immigration, seems to have emi- 
grated, not because of any serious polit- 
ical or industrial conditions like the 
others just mentioned, but because of the 
special inducements which this country 
offered him to pursue here the same vo- 
cations to which he was accustomed at 
home with the hope of greater rewards. 

The horizon of the Germans, Irish, 
and Scandinavians was filled with the 
one radiant idea of making for them- 
selves a home in this country, and of 


becoming in the highest sense American 
citizens. 

Such an immigration as that of 1882 
represents the natural increase of a pop- 
ulation of about 50,000,000 people. In 
other words, we had then a foreign 
population almost equal to our own, 
contributing to our growth by its natu- 
ral increase. 

To the ordinary person living outside 
the great cities, the designation ‘‘im- 
migrant’’ brings to mind the Irish, 
Germans, or Scandinavians—the people 
just mentioned—who, even up to 1885, 
constituted such an overwhelming ma- 
jority of the total arrivals at our ports. 
They may still be seen everywhere—in 
the manufacturing trades or as shop- 
keepers, household servants, merchants, 
and professional men. ‘They have bet- 
tered their condition in life and added 
to the general prosperity of the country 
as well. 

Seeing them on all sides, the unin- 
formed observer fails to realize that 
their compatriots are no longer coming, 
but in their stead are new forces—Med- 
iterranean, Oriental, and Slavic races— 
whose predominance in numbers at pres- 
ent is absolute. 

The Carpathian and Baltic Moun- 
tains are nearer the mining districts of 
Pennsylvania today than Boston was 50 
years ago. 


IMMIGRANTS FROM ITALY, AUSTRIA- 
HUNGARY, AND RUSSIA 


In 1882 a circle drawn over the map 
of Europe, taking in all points from 
which we were receiving immigrants, 
would have its center in the city of 
Paris. In 1902 a circle of the same 
size, including the source of the present 
immigration to the United States, would 
have its center located in Constanti- 
nople. 

In classifying immigration, the Immi- 
gration Bureau relies in the main upon 
differences in language. Let us nowat- 
tempt to briefly note their more marked 


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THE CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 7 


racial characteristics and the motives 
which actuate their coming. 

From Italy, Austria, and Russia, in 
the order named, we are receiving the 
present immigration. 

Italy encourages emigration and de- 
rives much benefit therefrom. 

The economic conditions of Austro- 
Hungary are such that there is every 
inducement for the peasant class to seek 
the prosperity which this country offers. 

Attempts have been made to provide 
employment by large appropriations for 
state railroads and canals, but without 
appatent eifect. Seen from this side, 
there seems to be an unceasing war be- 
tween Bohemian and German, Croat, 
Pole,and Hungarian, whichpermanently 
-threatens the nation’s progress, while 
parliamentary efforts seem to be limited 
to the playful exchange of inkpots,rules, 
and cuspidors between opposing factions. 

The real Russian never comes to the 
United States, except an occasional stu- 
dent or business man. The govern- 
ment’s policy isto encourage those racial 
elements who do not accept the national 
religion and customs to leave, and keep 
the others at home. There are at least 
50 well-defined races in Russia, each 
with a different language. It is not nec- 
essary to do more here than to call atten- 
tion to the mighty strides with which 
Russia is pushing to the front in com- 
merce and modern methods. Like Eng- 
land and Germany, this country will use 
every effort to keep those of its citizens 
who will fight within the jurisdiction of 
its flag. 

First of all racially, in numerical im- 
portance in the year just passed, stand 
the Italians, with 196,208 arrivals— 
159,329 being southern Italians, accord- 
ing to our classification,and coming from 
Sicily and that portion of Italy south of 
Rome. 

This part of Italy was already repre- 
sented in the immigration twenty years 
ago, but was composed chiefly of arti- 
sans, barbers, restaurant keepers, fruit 


venders, etc. Now the majority of Ital- 
lan immigrants enter the field of un- 
skilled labor. 

A. people who have contributed a 
share at least toward bringing an undi- 
vided country out of the turmoil of 2,000 
years of European wars and politics 
deserve the right to be regarded favor- 
ably in a consideration of their ultimate 
influence upon the national life of their 
adopted land. 

The Italians come here to work and 
they do work, and their potentiality for 
improvement and progress is remarka- 
ble, and while they are ‘‘ birds of pass- 
age,’’ this tendency is lessening year by 
year. The objection to this race is in 
its adherence to the idea that they are 
colonists of the mother land, and while 
here, subject to her authority. The 
‘‘TLa Colona’’ idea makes the assimila- 
tion of the Italian much more difficult. 

Our history shows that while our 
early colonial settlers were dependent 
upon their government entirely for sup- 
port, they were a motley set of shiftless 
adventurers. Left to themselves, they 
became brave and daring pioneers. 

The northern Italian is a type which 
belongs to the older period of immigra- 
tion, and has little to differentiate him 
in economic possibilities from the Swiss, 
French, or Germans. It is interesting 
to note, however, that the Italian an- 
archist is the product of northern, rather 
than of southern, Italy. 

Next in numerical importance stand 
the Hebrews, with 106,236, who, with 
the exception of a few hundred, belong 
to that branch of the Hebrew race which 
for centuries has found its home in Rus- 
sia, Austria, and Roumania. A Hebrew 
element has existed in our population 
fromits earliest history. The immigra- 
tion of this particular branch, however, 
dates back scarcely twenty years, and is 
distinctive from the fact that it has been 
largely artificial and assisted from the 
start. They come to stay, to cast their 
lot with us for wealor woe. ‘They come 


8 Tue NationaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


in response to no demand for that which 
they can bring, and are unfitted by lack 
of physical development to enter the 
general industrial field. They bring 
with them, however, intellects which 
are the products of thousands of years of 
mental training and sharpened by exer- 
cise among hostile surroundings. A Jew 
has his face turned toward the future, 
and, by virtue of the tremendous power 
of his religion, has been able to impress 
himself as a living force in every coun- 
try in the world except China. Coming 
to England ten years before they came 
here, the same industrial problems of 
crowding in certain trades and working 
in sweat shops were manifested, but 
there, as here, they have by organiza- 
tion been able to practically free them- 
selves. In New York today in the 


sweating trades alone the Jew has been. 


pushed upward by the Italians, and they 
in turn are being uplifted by the Arme- 
nian and Syrian coming into this indus- 
trial field. 

The Polish immigration now amounts, 
in round numbers, to about 67,000 per 
year, equally divided between Russia 
and Galicia, with about one thousand 
from the Polish provinces of Germany. 

The woes of Poland have aroused 
world-wide sympathy for a hundred 
years. In the past its political dis- 
turbances have given rise to an immi- 
gration largely taking on the character 
of exile. For thirty years the objec- 
tions to Russia’s policy in its Polish 
provinces have been more sentimental 
than practical, and Polish immigration 
in its modern sense is due not to perse- 
cution at home, but rather to the dis- 
covery of a profitable field for employ- 
ment here for laborers of the peasant 
class. More, perhaps, than any other 
element in this later immigration, ex- 
cept the Hebrew, it comes here to stay. 
As we see them they are illiterate, 
strongly religious, and moderately am- 
bitious to become citizens. In Buffalo, 
for instance, where they have a large 


settlement, they are buying homes, and 
their mortgages are regarded as the 
most desirable sort of investment. 

Weare now receiving every year close 
upon 30,coo Slovaks, from the mount- 
ainous regions of northern Hungary— 
a Slavish people, speaking a tongue 
akin to the Bohemian, living in their 
own lands in mud huts without chim- 
neys. 

They, too, areextremely illiterate, and 
turbulent under leadership. ‘These peo- 
ple have, nevertheless, a strong instinct 
of sincerity and honesty and a higher 
degree of personal self-reliance than 
most branches of the Slavish race. They 
can call up no past record of prominence 
in the milder arts, but point with pride 
to a language and territorial boundary 
which has remained intact through cen- 
turies of attempted foreign aggression. 
Sturdy, robust, and inured to hardships, 
they have no difficulty in finding a place 
in ourindustrial system. ‘They exhibit 
a strong and apparently increasing ten- 
dency to return to their Hungarian 
mountain sides, and have as yet given 
little indication of the direction in which 
their future influence upon this nation 
will lie. 

The fertile country of central Hun- 
gary furnishes no emigrants, but further 
north, in the districts less favored by 
nature, thereis an emigration of Magyars 
amounting to about 23,0o00a year. They 
are evidently induced by the example of 
the Slovaks, whom they resemble in 
every way except language, the former 
being of Slavish and the latter of Tura- 
nian origin. The same similarity con- 
tinues here—both seek the same general 
localities and enter the same field of 
labor as the Poles and Lithuanians. 

The Croatians and Slovenians, from 
the south of Austria, have only com- 
menced to come to this country in the 
last 15 years, and have already colo- 
nies in southern California and Oregon, 
with large numbers in the Pennsylvania 
mines. 


‘Tue CuHaracTer oF Our IMMIGRATION | 9 


From Carnolia, Krainers have been 
coming here for 70 years, following 
some Krainer missionaries who came 
here and settled on the northwestern 
border. ‘These missionaries have been 
followed by their countrymen, who have 
formed settlements. They are in most 
respects a desirable people, and come 
here to remain, and are rapidly becom- 
ing citizens. 

Dalmatian settlements are rapidly 
forming in the United States, especially 
in the more growing sections of Cali- 
fornia. 

The whole Balkan territory is begin- 
ning to feel the fever of emigration, and 
only the prohibitive rates for passage 
keep the semi-civilized tribes of Bosnia, 
Servia, Herzgovinia, and Bulgaria from 
coming here. Inthe near future cheap 
river transportation will be provided on 
the Danube River to the Black Sea, 
whence they can come to the United 
States. Then we may expect them in 
large numbers. 


THE FINNS 


Up to 1899 the Finlanders had lived 
contentedly enough under Russian rule, 
and, on the whole, the Czars punctili- 
ously observed their oath to maintain 
inviolate the constitutional liberties of 
Finland. In that year, however, the 
present Czar wiped out the Finnish con- 
stitution and promulgated a rescript that 
all questions held by the Russian min- 
isters at St Petersburg to concern the 
Muscovite Empire of old should be 
treated by them and Finland put under 
the general conditions of other Russia. 
Prior to that time no enactment had the 
force of law unless it emanated from the 
Finnish Parliament. The protest on 
the part of Finland to this action was 
immediately responded to by almost 
every other civilized country in the 
world, but without avail. The press is 
muzzled, the right of public meetings 
prohibited, and private gatherings for- 
cibly dispersed. In July, 1901, by spe- 


cial ukase, the Finnish military act of 
1878 was abrogated and the army broken 
up. Those Finnish officers who did not 
choose to serve in Russian regiments 
were sent into private life. 

When we consider that among the 


Finnish people it is stated that only one 


man in I,200 cannot read nor write, 
while in Russia the illiteracy ranges 
from 47 to 66 per cent, according to dis- 
tricts, and Finnish customs, language, 
manners, religion, and ideals are all 
different, it seems that this movement 
will practically destroy the Finnish peo- 
ple. In 1899 we commenced to get what 
promised to be a considerable immigra- 
tion from this territory, but the British 
government, alert to the advantage of 
securing such a desirable people, have, 
by reason of special inducements, di- 
verted the Finns to Australia and other 
British colonies. 

Greek immigration consists mainly of 
boys and young men, there being but 
one woman to thirty males. Some work 
in mills in Massachusetts, but the bulk 
are brought over to peddle fruit and 
peanuts, in which business they are 
displacing the Italians. It is generally 
understood that they are brought over 
by padrones and paid $100 per year for 
their services in peddling. 

The Syrian immigration now amounts 
to over 3,000 yearly. The movement 
seemed to receive an impetus by the 
World’s Fair of 1893. Like the Greek, 
they are mainly controlled by padrones. 
Though the movement is actually less 
than ten years old, Syrians are now 
trudging over the whole of the Western 
continents with their packs and baskets 
of gew-gaws. They are not only around 
the well-settled districts, but are actually 
among the remote fishing hamlets of 
Newfoundland and Gaspé, everywhere 
among the villages of Mexico, in Brazil, 
Argentina, and in Patagonia. 

In character they have changed little 
since they were described in the Old 
Testament. ‘They have all the vices of 


10 


the oriental races, but without many of 
the virtues. They are the toughest 
problem that official and private charity 
has to meet in the communities in which 
they live. 


CHINESE 


Ever since the beginning of time there 
has been a constant struggle for assimi- 
lation between races, in which the ab- 
sorbent quality of the United States has 
proven superior to that of every other 
nation in the world, with the single 
exception of the Chinese. 

On the other hand, assimilation of 
the Chinese is impossible. ‘Their fe- 
cundity and lack of interest in any other 
civilization but their own, their habits 
and customs and unwillingness to ac- 
cept new ideas, offers no material to 
work on. 

One of our best and clearest thinkers 
on this question claims that the danger 
from Chinese immigration is that, if 
allowed to come here unopposed, they 
will in time monopolize all industrial 
occupations, and the American people, 
both of native and alien descent, will 
shrink to a superior caste, who would 
temporarily hold their own in govern- 
ment, education, and culture, but would 
finally and hopelessly be displaced as a 
race, and American labor and American 
manhood would diminish and fade away 
before the influx of this inferior and 

rolific race from the Orient, as in clas- 
sic times the Latin husbandman van- 
ished before the endless number of 
slaves poured into Italy by triumphant 
generals. 

One of the most interesting questions 
in connection with the Chinese is their 
climatic adaptability. While it is be- 
yond question that the Northern races 
of Teutonic and Celtic descent are supe- 
rior economically and militarily over ali 
known races of the earth, in climates 
different from their own they are un- 
able to compete with inferior races. 

The Latin races—French, Spanish, 


Tue Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Italian, and Portuguese—are much more 
successful in tropical settlements than 
the English or German; but the most 
remarkable adaptability to climatic con- 
ditions is manifested by the Chinese. 
They succeed in the far South, where 
the white man cannot live, and are suc- 
cessfully working in the North, where 
the mean temperature is below freezing. 

The trouble with the Chinese is that 
they are 400 million strong. Itistothe 
interest of the Chinese government to 
allow them to migrate to foreign lands. 
The history of Europe shows that the 
Jews have clung to racial characteristics 
with the utmost tenacity since they were 
driven out of Alexandria by Cyril. 
They have gone from one country to 
another ; have been oppressed, and have 
absorbed the best traits of all with whom 
they came in contact. They have at- 
tained prominence in the business and 
financial marketsthe world over. Wher- 
ever they have gone they have always 
remained Jews—true to their religious 
and racialideas. While they have been 
able to maintain their racial individ- 
uality in every other country, whole 
tribes have gone into China, and in the 
course of a hundred years have been 
completely absorbed. 

No foreign influence has ever gone 
into China that has made the slightest 
impression on the Chinese race, and 
while they have been the migrant race of 
the world, they always remain Chinese. 
Their history in California, where 10 
per cent are professional criminals, does 
not show any special reason for encour- 
aging more to come. 


OUR IGNORANCE OF THE PEOPLES 
BLENDING INTO THE “AMERI- 
CAN” RACE 


For fifty years we have been getting 
alien emigrants, and most of our people 
have become accustomed to the sight of 
foreigners, but as a matter of fact they 
know very little about them—whence 
they come, their racial traits or habits. 


THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 


I have spoken to high-school gather- 
ings and teachers, and have been utterly 
amazed at the lack of knowledge of geog- 
raphy, and especially of racial geog- 
raphy, which is manifested throughout 
the United States. 

If it is true that each incoming racial 
element leaves its indelible imprint on 
the character of the people of the United 
States, and that our national character 
has been built up from the diverse races 
that have come here, it would seem to 
be unquestioned that our educational 
methods should include the study of 
racial geography to equip students who 
are being turned out of our colleges with 
a knowledge of the races that are an- 
nually coming into the American life, 
and especially with their economic, 
moral, and social effect on the commu- 
nity. The National Geographic Society 
can well initiate this work by agitating 
for a more comprehensive and scientific 
study of racial geography in our various 
institutions of learning in the United 
States. 

The Romans and the Greeks regarded 
all strangers as barbarians. Most sav- 
age tribes have no word to differentiate 
between these two terms. 

This feeling, inherited through the 
ages, is at the bottom responsible for 
unthinking opposition to immigration, 
and unfortunately comes often from 
those who were themselves aliens but a 
short time before. As the proselyte be- 
comes the most rabid opponent of his 
former religion, so the recently natural- 
zed foreigner is often the loudest in his 
demands to close the doors to others. 

Migration and the tendency of races 
to move from one place to another have 
been the strongest instincts in human 
nature. The counter-instinct, equally 
strong, of self-preservation has made the 
opposition of the resident races always 
to be considered. As the Greeks and 
Romans considered a stranger a bar- 
barian and an enemy, so did the first 
colonial settlers of the United States re- 


ie | 


gard later comers as a danger to them. 
As early as 1765, as told by Edward 
Eggleston, William Penn expressed him- 
self as being apprehensive of the coming 
of the Pennsylvania Dutch to his colony. 
In 1819 and 1820, although the migra- 
tion of that period was very small, the 
municipal authorities of New York ex- 
pressed apprehension as to the effect on 
the public institutions of the 10,000 or 
12,000 immigrants, the total number of 
the arrivals at that period. 

In 1850 the Know-nothing movement 
was the direct result of the exodus of 
the Irish and Germans to the United 
States, which had begun in the 4o’s. 

The discussion of the Kansas and 
other border states land acts in the 4o’s 
and 50’s, concerning the question as to 
whether the aliens should have the 
privilege of occupying these lands on 
the same terms as the natives, brought 
forth expressions of opinion from Clay, 
Calhoun, and Seward, which were gen- 
erally expressions of fear as to the eco- 
nomic effect on the United States of the 
introduction of these aliens. 

Washington, Madison, and Jefferson, 
in the early life of the Republic, gave 
the question some attention, and were 
in turn either openly opposed to or 
doubtful as to the effect of the intro- 
duction of alien races. 

The Civil War and the immediate 
response of the alien residents of the 
United States in enlisting to enter the 
armies of the North stopped emigration 
discussion for twenty years. 


WHAT WILL BE THE EFFECT OF OUR 
UNCHECKED IMMIGRATION 


During all the years that immigra- 
tion inspection has been in progress no 
steps have been taken to scientifically 
ascertain the real danger or value to the 
United States of the immigrant forces 
coming to this country. The investi- 
gations of the Bureau of Labor have 
shown that the economic dangers that 
were feared in the early 50’s have not 


12 


been realized. Since 1870 wages have 
steadily risen, the conditions of employ- 
ment have been improved, and the hours 
of labor reduced. The purchasing power 
of every dollar earned has been increased 
by 60 per cent, and this during the pe- 
riod of heaviestimmigration. It would 
be unfair to claim that immigration had 
any influence in this eonnection; rather 
we should attribute it to the organiza- 
tion of labor; and, broadly speaking, 
labor organizations have been supported 
by and have found their best members 
among the immigrants. Whatever dan- 
ger there may be is in the undue pre- 
ponderance of criminals, insane, and 
those becoming public charges. There 
is no means of accurately determining 
how much damage has been done in this 
direction, or whether the undoubted 
beneficial effects, which have been dem- 
onstrated in a thousand directions, can 
be offset. Immigrants come here at the 
age when people are most liable to com- 
mitcrimes. ‘They are freed from moral 
restraint and all fear of loss of caste, 
which, even in the lowest order of so- 
ciety, is, next to religion, the strongest 
deterrent to crime. Some day we may 
hope to see both sides fairly weighed 
and an exact judgment rendered, which, 
with our defective sources of informa- 
tion, is not possible today. 

When we consider this question it 
compels us to pause in wonder as to 
what its effect will be on the future of 
the American people. If, in spite of 
our institutions and forms of govern- 
ment, the alien races that have already 
come and are still coming can succeed 
in undermining our religious, political, 
and economic foundations, it will be 
because we willingly succumb, through 
inertia, to their influences. Rome, 
Babylon, and all the nations of the 
world that have fallen have done so 
because they abandoned their moral, 
religious, and social ideals, their de- 
cline in most cases being contemporane- 
ous with the introduction of alien races. 


THe NatTionaL GeocraPrHic MAGAZINE 


If such is to be the result in this coun- 
try, it will simply be history repeating 
itself ; but I have confidence enough in 
the morals and character of the Ameri- 
can people to believe that the races in- 
troduced among us will take from us 
only that which is good, and through 
education we will give them stability 
and the power to become thoroughly 
assimilated. 

The privilege of intercourse with na- 
tive children and school instruction lifts 
up the immigrant in the second gener- 
ation to the level of his fellows. 

The children of the ignorant, illiter- 
ate, and once despised German and Irish 
have grown up to match the native 
American of several generations in 
brawn and brain, wit and culture, and 
are today working with them, side by 
side, in every line of social, scientific, 
intellectual, political, and mechanical 
endeavor. 

This is easily understood when we 
watch the avidity with which foreign 
children embrace the educational ad- 
vantages of our schools, and especially 
note their docility and amenability to 
discipline. They have a practical idea 
of the value of education and regard it 
as an asset to increase their earning ca- 
pacity. During the past few years in 
New York the end of each school term 
shows that the Jewish children have 
obtained more honors than all the others 
put together. 


CONTRACT-LABOR LAW 


I have not the time to take up in de- 
tail the question of the violation of the 
alien contract-labor law by aliens, but 
it is a most important matter and is de- 
serving of attention. For a number of 
years after its passage but little effort 
was made in the direction of its en- 
forcement. Subsequently, after the 
service passed under federal control, a 
vigorous attempt was made to show re- 
sults that afterward were found by the 
labor organizations to be worthless, 


THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 


cruel, and unnecessarily severe to the 
immigrants. 

The alien contract-labor law, which 
was passed for the protection of the 
American workmen, to prevent the in- 
troduction of alien laborers to take the 
place of native labor on strike, is so 
well known in Europe that those de- 
siring can violate this law with impu- 
nity, inasmuch as the only means of 
detecting such violations is the immi- 
grant’s own confession. 

A system has grown up whereby 
aliens are brought to this country to 
work under contract, and the place of 
employment, the name of the employer, 
and all the essential facts which, if in 
the knowledge of the alien and ad- 
mitted by him to the inspecting officer, 
might convict him are withheld from 
him until after his arrival here. This 
system, which has been in active opera- 
tion for several years, is responsible for 
the open and flagrant violation of this 
law. The law needs to be strengthened; 
the real danger to the American work- 
man, however, does not come from the 
aliens coming under contract, but from 
the class so well described in the Presi- 
dent’s annual message as ‘‘ below a cer- 
tain standard of economic fitness to 
enter our industrial fields as competi- 
tors with American labor.’’ 

There is more danger from a dozen 
aliens who are thrown on the streets of 
New York penniless and friendless, and 
compelled to take any situations that 
they can get, without regard to wages 
or conditions, or starve, than from dou- 
ble or treble the number of contract 
laborers. 

The first means the lowering of all 
standards of living, and is beyond com- 
petition; the latter at its worst can be 
partially kept under control, even with 
our present defective laws and adverse 
court decisions. 

The intending traveler is schooled to 
pass every question long before sailing, 
and when a new scheme to evade the 


aS 


law is discovered and provided against, 
it only takes about a month for the 
immigrant arriving to know all about 
the new regulation. 

Anarchists and criminals are not boast- 
ing of their record before inspection, 
and while the proportion of immigrants 
who actually possess criminal records at 
home is comparatively small, those that 
have criminal proclivities constitute a 
larger proportion. Many of the former 
class, and most of the latter, will be 
able to evade any form of inspection 
that may be devised. Their undesira- 
bility can only be demonstrated by their 
careers after landing in this country. 
It is perfectly proper to adopt any meas- 
ures to prevent the coming of such peo- 
ple. But however well such an inspec- 
tion service be organized and conducted, 
it must, to accomplish to any extent the 
desired object, be supplemented by some 
provision for apprehending and deport- 
ing those who gain admission to the 
country from lack of evidence at the 
time of examination to show that they 
are not entitled to land. 


THE. EXAMINATION OF IMMIGRANTS 


Immigration inspection, in the sense of 
sifting the desirable from the undesira- 
ble and deporting those not coming up 
to a certain standard, has only been in 
operation since 1890. Prior to 1857 in- 
coming aliens landed at the docks. In 
that year, mostly for health reasons, 
Castle Garden was opened as an immi- 
grant landing station,continuing as such 
until 1890. 

Secretary Windom in that year took 
the service under federal control and 
moved the station tothe Barge Office in 
New York. The building of a new 
wooden station at Ellis Island caused the 
removal there in 1892; in 1897 this was 
burned down, necessitating again going 
to the Barge Office for over three years. 
The new immigrant buildings on Ellis 
Island are especially constructed forthe 
work of receiving,examining, detaining, 


14 


and giving medical attention to the in- 
coming hosts, as many as 7,000 having 
arrived in one day. 

We are fortunate in having associated 
with us a large number of earnest and 
hard-working missionaries, representing 
every race and religious denomination, 
whose constant presence not only brings 
comfort and help to the arriving alien, 
but also acts as a powerful protection 
against extortion or abuse of any char- 
acter. Every year since coming under 
federal control the conditions surround- 
ing the immigrant have improved, until 
today he is absolutely free from organ- 
ized plunder. 

In former days, as one of the state 
commissioners said in 1869, they were 
robbed:and plundered from the day of 
their departure to the moment of their 
arrival at their new homes, by almost 
every one with whom they came in con- 
tact. They were treated worse than 
beasts and less cared for than slaves, 
who, whatever their condition may be 
in other respects, represented a smaller 
or larger amount of capital, and as val- 
uable chattels received from the owners 
some help and protection. 

There seemed to be a secret league, a 
tacit conspiracy on the part of all parties 
dealing with immigrants, to fleece and 
pluck them without mercy, and hand 
them from hand to hand as long as any- 
thing could be made out of them. The 
thousands who died from ill treatment 
on the voyage were thrown into the 
ocean with as little ceremony as old 
sacks or broken tools. If crosses and 
tombstones could be erected on the 
water as on the western deserts, the 
routes of the immigrant vessels from 
Europe to America would long since 
have assumed the appearance of crowded 
cemeteries. 

While every means is employed by the 
federal government to provide precau- 
tionary measures, petty extortion from 
immigrants will exist as long as credu- 
lity and ignorance exist on one side and 


Tue NatrionaL GgEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


human depravity on the other; but I can 
confidently assert that every legitimate 
means, almost amounting to paternal- 
ism, is exercised by the immigration 
service to give the arriving immigrant 
that first impression of our laws and 
form of government that will place him 
on the road to good citizenship, while 
at the same time strictly carrying out 
the present defective laws. 

In every other kind of function which 
comes within the purview of govern- 
ment officials, the thing to be dealt with 
1s merchandise or finances, while in the 
immigration service we have to deal 
with people. No two persons will look 
alike, nor can any rule be established 
that will make human beings equal ; 
therefore the result of inspection must 
depend, in a large measure, on the dis- 
cretion of the examining official. The 
best law in the world, with poor offi- 
cials, would be of little protection to 
the country, while the present law, in- 
sufficient as it is in many respects, has 
done wonders in keeping out undesira- 
bles. Immigration inspection should 
be considered just as much a patriotic 
duty as is fighting for the honor of the 
flag. 

By our present system of selection, 
the officers charged with this delicate, 
responsible, and most important duty 
are chosen for their positions under the 
same methods and with the same test 
as would be applied to men whose duty 
is to weigh coal, merchandise, or add 
up accounts. Under the present con- 
ditions, the authority to pass immi- 
grants is mainly in the control of the 
officers who were originally appointed, 
not because of their zeal or sympathy 
with the spirit which prompted immi- 
gration legislation, but because they 
had knowledge of foreign languages, 
which enabled them to converse with 
the incoming aliens. Special induce- 
ments should be given to natives of the 
United States who will fit themselves 
linguistically, in addition to the other 


THE CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 


qualifications, to enter the service. From 
top to bottom, it should be placed upon a 
scientific basis, entirely outside the con- 
trol of politics. 

The voluntary, unsought, and unso- 
licited emigration to the United States 
has been the means of building up an 
intellectual, energetic, and prosperous 
community. Our country has received, 
not the high born, but the strong and 
always the oppressed, whose past history 
made them all the more appreciate their 
condition here. 

The children of the colonial period 
were pushed upwards in the social scale 
by the immigrants, who in turn push 
each other upward as they come in. 

It is not true that the native of four 
or five decades ago stepped from one 
occupation to the other. The upward 
movement was gradual, and the pro- 
motion was rather that of generations 
than individuals. 

Science and invention are working 
together to abolish occupations at the 
lower end of the scale and creating new 
ones at the top. The laborer of Europe 
has his place in the economy of our 
age. His whole drift is upward, in 
spite of all the counteracting influences 
to the contrary. 

Since 1850 the immigrants have al- 
ways been found on the side of law, 
public decency, and public morals, as 
instanced in the response to the call for 


2 
troops in the Civil War, the agitations 
for change in money standards, etc. 
Ever since 1870 those states having the 
preponderance of aliens could be relied 
upon to vote on the right side in moral 
questions in the same proportion in 
which aliens existed in their commu- 
nity. 

In what I have said I have tried to 
be fair, but I cannot close without say- 
ing that our hospitality is abused, and 
by reason of our defective laws and 
the general knowledge of the means to 
evade them in Europe we are receiving 
an increasing number whose coming 
will do us no good, but harm. 

We have no right to oppose needful 
measures of legislative relief out of 
sympathy for the sufferings of the peo- 
ple thus seeking admission to our shores, 
or out of respect to the traditions which 
up to now have caused this country to 
be regarded as an asylum. 

There is only one Ellis Island in the 
world ; no other country has its mate, 
because none offers the inducements to 
the poor of the world that we do. Let 
us thank God that this is so and pray 
that we may be able to keep it so, and 
that the twentieth century may bring 
to America the fruition of all its hopes, 
and the standard of progress and free- 
dom which its history has inspired be 
the torch that will light the world in 
the same path. 


OUR IMMIGRATION DURING 1904 


O one can read the report for 
N 1904 of the Commissioner Gen- 
eral of Immigration, Frank P. 
Sargent, without being seriously im- 
pressed with the laxity of our present 
immigration laws and the urgent need 
of more stringent regulation of our im- 
migration. The number of immigrants 
for 1905 bids fair to reach the one mil- 
lion mark. Only a few less than 10,000 


landed at New York in two days in 
November, the least popular season of 
the year for newcomers. The follow- 
ing facts are taken from Mr. Sargent’s 
report : 

The striking and significant feature 
of the table of immigrants for 1904 
is that the chief diminution is shown 
in the arrivals from Austria-Hungary, 
amounting to 28,855, and from Italy, 


16 


to 37,326, these two countries aggre- 
gating 66,181, or twenty-odd thousand 
more than the total net decrease for 
the fiscal year 1904. ‘The countries of 
northern and western Europe, with one 
notable exception, show increases, Great 
Britain’s increase being 18,643. The 
one exception to the foregoing state- 
ment is shown by the decrease of 18,265 
in the arrivals from Sweden. 

The only other figures in this table 
to which attention need be directed are 
those showing an increase of nearly 100 
per cent in the arrivals from China, and 
a decrease of 5,704 in those from Japan, 
the latter easily traceable to the pend- 
ing war in the East. 

Of the 812,870 aliens arriving in 1904, 
549,100 were males and 263,770 were 
females—an increase in the females as 
compared with last year of 19,870 anda 
decrease in males of 64,046. As re- 
spects age, 109,150 were under 14 years, 
657,155 were between 14 and 45, and 
46,565 were 45 or over; 3,953 could read 
but not write, 168,903 could neither read 
nor write, and, it is presumed, the re- 
mainder, 640,014, could both read and 
write. It also appears that 103,750 of 
these aliens had already been to this 
country, and that 95,575 brought with 
them $50 or more each, while 501,530 
brought each less than $50. The total 
amount of money shown to officers by 
these 812,870 aliens was $20,894,383, or 
$4,776,870 more than was brought by 
the 857,046 arrivals of the last year. 
This fact, taken in connection with the 
circumstances already referred to as to 
countries from which the increases of the 
year under consideration came, furnishes 
assurance of a marked improvement in 
the character and thrift of the more re- 
cent immigration. The 28,451 English 
immigrants brought with them in the 
fiscal year 1903 $1,405,365; this year the 
41,479 of the same race brought $2,736,- 
182; the 35,366 Irish last year had 
$796,082, while the 37,076 Irish this 
year showed $1,092,781; 71,782 German 


Tue NatTionaL GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


immigrants last year had $2,480,634, 
this year 74,790 possessed in hand 


$3,622,675. 


Comparative Statement Showing the Number 
of Aliens Arrived in the United States, by 
Countries, during the Fiscal Years ended 
June 30, 1903 and 1904, respectively, Showing 
Increase and Decrease for Each Country. 


| 


o o) 

Ww mM 

wo iso} 

Country. 1903. 1904. v 2 

3) 1S) 

Vu 

Rs a 
Austria-Hungary............ 206;01T) | 177405 Olan cones sees 28,855 
Beloit, sch Ano, ee cee ee 3,450 3,97 5204s vedas 
Denmark... tecocvestssceccsces 7,158 Se5 250) ale SO7a lee eee 

France, including Cor- 

sica........ eee Py rmame os i: 5,578 | 9,406] 3,828 |........... 
German Empire............ 40,086 | 46,380] 6,294 |.......... 
Greenies. ciscseseueses sueee 14,090 | 11,343 |.-.eeeeeeee 2,747 
Italy, including Sicily 

and’Sacdittia ices nae 230,622 | 193,296 |.. ........| 37,326 
Netherlands\.....20.c.ne: 3,998 | 4,916) 918 |........... 
NOE WAY datecectdceons atensseceeen 2A,AGI" | 23,808 lvcocasers= 653 
Portugal, including 

Cape Verdeand Azore 

EslanGe b..c26 soncscacers. eee O3317 | = Gy FES esteem 2,602 
VO UM ATA, waco see eoteneene eee FO;3 ON 7,087 ssemenrces 2,223 
Russian Empire and 

Binaries. ciccaene: 136,093 | 145,141 | 9,048 |........... 
Servia, Bulgaria, and 

Montenegro............000+ 1,761 T5325 | teesieeeeees 436 
Spain,including Canary 

and Balearic Islands..., 2,080] 3,996) 1,916 ]........... 
Swiedetiinvesc.cs-ssceessss0- 6-52: 46,02 2 OBG| scenes 18,265 
Switzerland..........0..0c0.s0. 35983) || 5.026: al, CAON eee es 
Turkey in Europe......... T, 520 45 344n| ms Zora ieee 
United Kingdom : 

Eugland,..24..005 26,219"|' 38\020u) 124050 — ee 
Ireland..... sc) 35,310) || aos 8 
Scotlandecccee--cse-eess 6,143 | 11,092] 4,949 |......cce 
Wal OS ecco ereensetes 1,275 1,730 AS 5a | tern sees 
Europe, not specified..... 5 143 138) eae eee 

MP OUALS, =2,cee-nencoesevrnereess 814,507 | 767,933 |-vswsaseces 46,574 
Chinas. cotter ee 2,209 A5B OO} 2sCOON| Fee ee 
JEN OHI TG aopcmrsesoaaose soy sancnoon IGQOS'| 14,2644|.+-- sass 5,704 
Di (ob bz Wanewen ee Sr men renee Hey 94 261 DOV newaoeee 
Grapkey inPASiayoncsecaccssK 7, TS)  e5e2e oil aacenssenes 1,883 
Other Asiaiy..c...-seneusssess 577 PR ea we Sy. IG) | Ree ye 

TotalcA Sia <.c224.:icecesess 29,966 |} 26,186 |........... 3,780 
UM friars teu tooctesteckces econ 176 686 SLOn| stn ee 
Australia, Tasmania, 

and New Zealand........ I,150 1,461 QUST) ee ae 
Philippine Islands......... 132 52) | cececseees 80 
Pacific islands, not spec- 

MOG eaaectnesssshoneacarets 67 A2)\\.ssccseee 25 
British North America...| 1,058 2.837.) al. 7710s eeee eee 
British Hondurag........... 81 109 8 
Other Central America.. 597 GOS) He eon eesseeeens 
IML OX COvretcoscsesscsteosseoeceets 528 T,009 ASIIG| Sones 
South America............06 589 1,067) els O7Gu peers 
West Indies................06 8,170i|| 10,93) s 24O2a) nn eeeeeee 
All other countries........ 25 90 O5aloteeweees 

Ota Mse.seceeteersesseceene 857,046 | 812,870 |........0.. 44,176 
Aliens in transit............ 64,269 | 27,844 |.....-000-- 36,425 

Total alien passengers | 921,315 | 840,714 |.....-..0 80,601 


Z 


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1904 


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18 


OUR GOVERNMENT SHOULD ASSIST 
THE IMMIGRANTS TO DISTRIBUTE 
THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY 


‘“The failure of the government to 
provide for the distribution of aliens 
through the United States, and the ex- 
ertions of foreign countries combine,says 
Mr Sargent, to maintain alien colonies 
in thiscountry. Such colonies are open 
to objection not merely on political 
grounds, but for social and sanitary rea- 
sons ina far greater degree. It cannot, 
in justice to the interests of our coun- 
try and to the preservation of its insti- 
tutions, be too urgently or too fre- 
quently repeated that in confining our 
treatment of the all-important immigra- 
tion problem to the exclusion of such 
of certain enuinerated classes as we can 
detect our policy is superficial. The 
practical and pressing question 1s, What 
shall be done with the annual arrivals of 
aliens, approximating now 1,000,000 ?”’ 
The present immigrants throng to the 
states which now need them least, to 
overcrowded cities, and entirely neglect 
the western states, where there is a 
scarcity of laborers. 


FOREIGN COLONIES IN THE UNITED 
STATES 


All the political and social, and occa- 
sionally religious, resources of some 
countries are being directed to one end, 
to maintain colonies of their own peo- 
ple in this country, instructing them 
through various channels to maintain 
their allegiance to the country of their 
birth, to transmit their earnings here to 
the fatherland for the purchase of ulti- 
mate homes there, and to avoid all in- 
tercourse with the people of this coun- 
try that would tend to the permanent 
adoption of American ideals. Thus 
emigration from certain foreign coun- 
tries has become, ina much larger sense 
than the public imagines, a revenue re- 
source to those countries, of immediate 
benefit to them to the extent of the 
aggregate remittances, of prospective 


Ture NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


benefit to them because it insures the 
return of theemigrant with his accumu- 
lated savings. 


ABILITY TO READ AND WRITE 


An examination of the ability of the 
immigrants to read and write shows sur- 
prising extremes, of which the following 
are specially noteworthy : 

Only 3 per cent of 10,077 Finns from 
Russia were illiterate ; 

4 per cent of 40,526 Germans from the 
German Empire ; 

4 per cent of 22,507 Germans from 
Austria-Hungary ; 

I per cent of 36,486 Buahisi: 

I per cent of 11,226 Scotem= 

3 per cent of 36,747 Irish, and 

I per cent of 59,878 Scandinavians. 

On the other hand, as large a propor- 
tion as 36 per cent of 32,577 Poles from 
Russia could not read or write, and the 
same illiteracy is true for the Poles from 
Germany and Austria-Hungary; 23 per 
cent of 77,544 Hebrews from Russia 
could not read or write and 20,211 He- 
brews from Austria-Hungary showed 
the same degree of illiteracy. 

The percentage of illiteracy among 
the north Italians is only 13, yet it is as 
high as 48 among the south Italians. 
We are receiving nearly six times as 
many south Italians as we are north 
Italians, and yet the latter are far more 
desirable immigrants than the former. 


AMBITIONS OF CERTAIN IMMIGRANTS 


One member of a large family from 
eastern Europe, composed of a father, 
mother, and six children all under ten 
years of age, with hardly any money, 
and bound for the tenement district of 
New York city, was recently asked at 
Ellis Island how he intended to provide 
a competent subsistence for his family if | 
allowed toland. Heanswered: ‘‘ What 
do I care for a big houseif I can get one 
room to sleepin. ‘That is all we want ; 
that is the way we did in Russia.’’ 

This particular family was excluded. 


Our ImMmicraTION DuRING 1904 


aay) 


ALIENS DETAINED IN PENAL, REFORMATORY, AND CHARITABLE 
INSt@ITUTIONS, SHOWING FOR EACH RAGE THE RATIO OF 
CRIMINALITY, AND ‘THAT SAID RATIO CORRESPONDS LARGELY 
ee PROPORTION OF RECENT ARRIVALS 


GRAND 
WHO ARE CRIMINALS OF RACE 


PROPORTION OF ALIEN INMATES 
ARRIVED WITHIN 5D YEARS 


Ss TT EVION CS 
SLAVIG 


IBERIC 


AVERAGE OF 
= ALL RACES 


From F. P. Sargent, Commissioner General of Immigration 


This chart shows the ratio of criminality of the four principal grand divisions, viz. : Keltic, 
Teutonic, Slavic, and Iberic. The Iberic division leads in criminality, with Slavic second, 
Teutonic third, and Keltic fourth. ‘The Iberic ratio of 39 per cent is thought not to show the 
true condition, as it was found impracticable in the compilation of these figures to exclude the 
Italian (north) who belong with the Keltic grand division from the Italian (south) who belong 
with the Iberic grand division. In this connection it is pointed out that there were 809 aliens 
confined in the institutions of the United States proper for murder, 253 of whom were Italians ; 
there were 373 confined for attempts to kill, 139 of whom were Italians. This is a ratio of one 
Italian to two aliens of all other races. From this diagram it will be seen that the racial divisions 
that have the largest percentages of recent arrivals detained are the ones that have the highest 
ratio of criminality. (See pages 26 and 27.) 


But we are receiving many other fam- 
ilies of a similar character bound for the 
tenement districts of our large cities, 
and with aspirations as narrow as those 
above described, whom it is not possible 
to exclude under existing law, for it 
does not necessarily follow that they are 
likely to become public charges from the 
fact that they will go to an overcrowded 
tenement district and occupy inadequate 
quarters. 

Of the so-called ‘‘Americans’’ who 
have obtained their citizenship by rush- 
ing to the United States, living here 
long enough to take out papers, and 


then hurrying back to their, native 
land, Inspector Marcus Brown gives 
the following illustration : 

‘The conditions I found to exist 
there (Jerusalem) are even worse, if 
such be possible, than in Syria. Inthe 
city of Jerusalem alone I found over 
1,000 ‘American citizens,’ the vast 
majority of whom, being Hebrews, live 
there ostensibly for religious reasons. 
A number of them are engaged in some 
business pursuits. These, however, are 
in the minority, the prevailing majority 
living on charity, mostly on the so-called 
‘chaluka’ (the biblical one-tenth) , which 


HE NatIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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2:2 


23 


IMMIGRATION DurING 1904 


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26 


they obtain from all over the world, 
either through organized charitable or- 
ganizations or from private individuals. 


These people send out thousands upon 


thousands of letters annually begging 
charitable contributions, and they cause 
Dr Merrill, the United States consul, 
and his dragoman no end of trouble. 

‘These alleged ‘American citizens,’ 
although they enjoy and avail them- 
selves of the high privilege and protec- 
tion of American citizenship, are, in 
truth and in fact, not Americans at all, 
and quite a number of them have be- 
come naturalized by fraud.” 


PUBLIC CHARGES 


Although each year several hundred 
aliens have been returned to the coun- 
tries whence they came because they 
were public charges, and several thou- 
sand others were originally refused ad- 
mission to the United States because 
likely to become public charges, the 
recent investigation of the charitable 
institutions of the country conducted 
by the Bureau of Immigration actually 
found about 30,000 alien paupers, in- 
cluding insane, in the public institu- 
tions and another 5,o00 in the chari- 
table institutions under private control. 
About 10,000 alien criminals were found 
in the penal institutions, making alto- 
gether a grand total of 45,000, 40,000 
of whom are supported exclusively at 
public expense. In addition thereto, 
there are probably 65,000 naturalized 
foreigners in these institutions. 

The states in which are located the 
large cities have the largest proportions 
of aliens detained in their institutions. 
For instance, out of 44,985 aliens in 
all the institutions of the United States, 
12,440, or 28 per cent, are in the State 
of New York ; 5,601, or 12% per cent, 
in Pennsylvania; 5,490, or 12 per cent, 
in Massachusetts, and 3,359, or 714 per 
cent, in Illinois, making a total of 26,- 
890 in the four states mentioned, which 
is 60 per cent of the entire number in 
the United States. 


Tue NationaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


The enormous proportion of aliens taken 
care of in the insane and charitable insti- 
tutions of the United States 1s shown by 
the fact that the proportion of alien popu- 
lation to citizens in the whole United States 
7s I to 75, while within the insane and 
charitable institutions the proportion ts I 
alien to 6 United States citizens. ‘The 
proportion in penal institutions has not 
yet been determined, but is undoubt- 
edly even greater than 1 to 6. 


RACIAL DISTRIBUTION 


Increasing proportions of immigrants 
are going to Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
West Virginia, while the percentage for 
the neighboring State of New York has 
gradually decreased from 42 per cent in 
1892 to 32 per cent im 1604. “Lhe far 
Western States are attracting increasing 
proportions and the Middle West and 
South decreasing percentages year by 
year. 

It is of interest to note in this connec- 
tion the uniformity of the fluctuation of 
immigration to the New England States, 
each of them having attracted increasing 
proportions from 1892 to 1895 or 1896, 
with decreased percentages since (leav- 
ing out of consideration the increase for 
Vermont during the past three or four 
years). 

Iberic and Slavic divisions :* About 
70 per cent of the immigration going to 
the seven states, New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, New Jersey, Ohio, Delaware, 
Maryland, and West Virginia, which 
group receives 60 per cent of the entire 
immigration tothe United States, belong 


* The different races or peoples or eaore 
properly, subdivisions of race coming from 
Europe have been grouped by Mr Sargent into 
four grand divisions, as follows : 

Teutonic division, from northern Europe: 
German, Scandinavian, English, Dutch, Flem- 
ish, and Finnish. 

Iberic division, from southern Europe: South 
Italian, Greek, Portuguese, and Spanish ; also 
Syrian from Turkey in Asia. 

Celtic division, from western Europe: Irish, 
Welsh, Scotch, French, and north Italian. 

Slavic division, from eastern Europe: Bo- 
hemian, Moravian, Bulgarian, Servian, Monte- 


Our ImMmicraTion DurInNG 1904 


to the Iberic races of southern Europe 
(principally south Italian) and Slavic 
races of eastern Europe, including Mag- 
yars from Hungary. Of the great bulk 
of immigration going to New York 34 
per cent is south Italian and 23 percent 
Hebrew. Other Eastern and Southern 
States and Indiana, Illinois,and Missouri 
get large percentages of immigrants be- 
longing to the Iberic and Slavic divis- 
jons. Louisiana is conspicuous because 
of heavy percentage of south Italians. 

Teutonic division: The Northwestern 
States get heavy percentages of 1mmi- 
grants of Teutonic blood from northern 
Europe, the States of Michigan, Min- 
nesota, North and South Dakota, Iowa, 
Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah each re- 
ceiving from 65 to go per cent of immi- 
grants of this class. 

Celtic division: New England and 
some of the Southern States show mod- 
erate proportions of immigrants of the 
Celtic division. This class of immi- 
grants, however, is most conspicuously 
represented in the Southwest and Rocky 
Mountain regions. 

Mongolic division: Most of the immi- 
grants of the Mongolic division, prin- 
cipally Japanese, go to Hawaii and the 
acitic coast. Of all the immigrants 
going to Hawaii 82 percent are Japanese. 


negrin, Croatian, Slovenian, Dalmatian, Bos- 
nian, Herzegovinian, Hebrew, Lithuanian, 
Polish, Roumanian, Russian, Ruthenian, and 
Slovak. 

The Mongolic division has also been added, 
to Include Chinese, Japanese, Korean, East 
Indian, Pacific Islander, and Filipino. 

Under ‘‘all others’’ have been included 
Magyar, Turkish, Armenian, African (black), 
and subdivisions native to the Western Hemi- 
sphere 

By reason of blood mixture this classification 
is somewhat arbitrary, especially with regard 
to Finnish, Scotch, and southern Germans. 


Ay 


OCCUPATIONS 


Examination shows that immigration 
to the mining regions of the Alleghenies, 
Lake Superior, and Rocky Mountains 
is composed of comparatively few fam- 
ilies and a very large proportion of la- 
borers, while that to the agricultural dis- 
tricts of the Middle West and South is 
composed of comparatively few laborers 
and large proportions of families. The 
latter fact is conspicuously the case with 
regard to the tier of seven prairie states 
and territories from North Dakota to 
Texas, where nearly half the immigra- 
tion consists of women and children 
classed under the head ‘‘nooccupation,’’ 
with a corresponding decrease in the 
proportion of laborers. It is notable 
also that the Teutonic element in the 
immigration to this tier of states greatly 
predominates. 


VIEWS OF LHASA 


HE pictures of Lhasa published in 
this number of the NATIONAL, 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE are selected 
from a seriesof 50 Tibetan photographs 
which were recently presented to the 
National Geographic Society by the 
Imperial Russian Geographical Society 
of St Petersburg, The pictures were 
taken by the Buriat Tsybikoff and the 
Kalmuck Norzunoff on their recent 
semi-official expedition to Tibet. The 
notes given under the pictures are from 
Tsybikoff’s narrative as published in 
the Annual Report of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution for 1903. 
Those desiring further information on 
the subject are referred to the above 
narrative and also to this Magazine, 
July, page-202, and May, page 228, 
1904, and September, page 353, 1903. 


OGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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Tue Nationa, GrocrarHic MAGAZINE 


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THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED STATES 


‘“ The activities of our age tn lines of research have reached the tillers of the soul and 
inspired them with ambition to know more of the principles that govern the forces of 
nature with which they have to deal.’’—President Roosevelt in his message to 


Congress, December 8, 1904. 


The report for rgog of Flon. James Wiaitson, 
[t ts a story of remarkable development and of wondrous 
We recommend it for perusal by every reader of this Magazine. 


small volume of 114 pages. 
wealth. 
jollowing ts an abstract of the report. 


AVORED with continued pros- 
kK perity in 1904, the farming ele- 
ment of the people has laid 
broader, deeper, and more substantial 
the foundations of a magnificent agri- 
culture. A period of some industrial 
depression during the last two years has 
been saved by the farmers from the 
severer conditions that must otherwise 
have befallen in consequence of the ab- 
sorption of a large portion of the readily 
convertible capital of the non-agricul- 
tural classes into great and prevalent 
speculations. 


WEALTH PRODUCED BY FARMERS 


As great as the financial successes of 
agriculture were in 1903, hitherto with- 
out equal, those of 1904 advanced some- 
what beyond them. While some pro- 
ducts have fallen behind in value, others 
have more than filled the deficit, and 
the general result is that the farmers 
have produced in value much more 
wealth than they ever did before in one 
year. 

One conspicuous item that has con- 
tributed to this is the corn crop. The 
farmers could from the proceeds of this 
single crop pay the national debt, the 
interest thereon for one year, and still 
have enough left to pay a considerable 
portion of the governments yearly ex- 
penses. The cotton crop, valued for lint 
and seed at 600 millions, comes second, 
while hay and wheat contend for the 
third place. Combined, these two crops 
will about equal in value the corn crop. 
Notwithstanding the wheat crop shows 


Secretary of Agriculture, makes a 


The 


a lower production than any year since 
1900, the farm value is the highest since 
1881. Potatoes and barley reached their 
highest production in 1904; savein 1902, 
the oat crop was never so large by 60 
million bushels. The present crop of 
rice promises a yield of goo million 
pounds—30o0 million more than ever 
before. 

Horses and mules reach the highest 
point this year, with an aggregate value 
exceeding 1,354 million dollars. Onthe 
other hand, cattle, sheep, and hogs all 
show a slight decline. 

The steady advance in poultry leads to 
some astonishing figures. Zhe farmers’ 
hens now produee 173 billions of dozens of 
eggs, and at the high average price of the 
year the hens during their busy season lay 
enough eggs in a single month to pay the 
year’s interest on the national debt.* 

After a careful estimate of the value of 
the products of the farm during 1904, 
made within the census scope, it is safe 
to place the amount at 4,900 million dol- 
lars after excluding the value of farm 
crops fed to live stock in order to avoid 
duplication of values. This is 9.65 per 
cent above the product of 1903 and 31.28 
per cent above that of the census year 
1899. 

Some comparisons are necessary to 
the realization of such an unthinkable 
value, aggregating nearly five billions of 
dollars. Zhe farmers of this country have 
intwo years produced wealth exceeding the 
output of all the gold mines of the entire 


* Every American is thus eating about 245 
eggs a year. 


40 


world since Columbus discovered America. 
This year’s product is over six times the 
amount of the capital stock of all na- 
tional banks; it lacks but three-fourths 
of a billion dollars of the value of the 
manufactures of 1goo, less the cost of 
materials used; it is three times the 
gross earnings from the operations of the 
railways and four times the value of all 
minerals produced in this country. 

The year 1904 keeps well up to the 
average of exports of farm products dur- 
ing the five years 1899-1903, amounting 
to over 859 millions, while the average 
for the five years was nearly 865 mill- 
ions. During the last 15 years the bal- 
ance of trade in favor of this country, 
all articles considered, exceeded 4,384 
million dollars, but taking farm pro- 
ducts alone, these showed a balance in 
our favor of more than 5,300 millions. 

The increase in farm capital the Secre- 
tarv estimates conservatively at 2,000 mill- 
ion dollars within four years—this with- 
out recognizing the marked increase in 
the value of land during the past two 
years. The most startling figures shown 
as illustrating the farmers’ prosperity 
are those presented by deposits in banks 
in typical agriculturalstates. The Sec- 
retary selects for this illustration Iowa, 
Kansas, and Mississippi. ‘Taking all 
kinds of banks, national, state, private, 
and savings, the deposits increased from 
june 20;751896, to October 3, 1904) 10 
Iowa, 164 per cent, in Kansas 219 per 
cent, and in Mississippi 301 per cent—in 
the United States 9i per cent. A simi- 
lar favorable comparison may be made 
as to the number of depositors. 


GENERAL PROSPERITY OF THE 
FARMER 


The diffusion of well-being among 
fariners throughout all parts of the coun- 
try is one of the most conspicuous feat- 
ures of the recent agricultural develop- 
ment. ‘This attracted attention a year 
ago and is now even more noticeable. 
The great South is more especially en- 
joying this growth of well-being, owing 


Ture Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


to the enhanced value of the cotton crop 
in addition to the general progress in 
agriculture. ‘The Eastern farmer, who 
was long on the verge of bankruptcy in 
competition with the virgin soil and 
rapid expansion of the northern half of 
the Mississippi River Valley, has sur- 
vived that competition and now enjoys 
more normal conditions, owing to the 
creation and maintenance of many large 
near-by markets by many varied indus- 
tries. The Pacific coast has long been 
prosperous, with its world-famous spe- 
cialties ; the mountain states are glad 
with the fruits and promises of irriga- 
tion; in the older prairie states the 
farmer has seen his land go from $1.25 
an acre, or from a homestead gift, to 
groo and ¢150, and the ‘‘ Great Amer- 
ican Desert,’’ as it was called when it 
was nothing but a buffalo range, is now 
peopled by a progressive race of farmers, 
whose banks are filled to overflowing 
with the proceeds of their products. 


EDUCATIONAL WORK 


The elements of agricultural science 
are gradually finding their place in the 
primary and secondary schools through 
the instruction of teachers. 

We buy over $200,000,000 worth of 
products from tropical countries that 
cannot be grown in continental United 
States. Through scientists sent from 
the United States to the several island 
groups the department is instructing 
the people of our island possessions to 
grow these things, such as coffee, rub- 
ber, fibers, drug plants, nuts, fruits, 
spices, and the like. 

Our farmers buy $100,000,000 worth 
of machinery every year. A_ better 
knowledge of its use and care 1s neces- 
sary. Several agricultural colleges are 
taking up this inquiry and giving in- 
struction in regard to machinery and 
farm buildings. 


WEATHER BUREAU FORECASTS 


The regular forecasts of the Weather 
Bureau for 36 and 48 hours in advance 


 'Tur FarMERS OF THE UNITED STATES 


have been made daily throughout the 
year, besides special warnings of gales, 
cold waves, frosts, heavy snows, floods, 
etc., which have been issued for the 
benefit of commercial and agricultural 
interests. Forecasts are issued, more- 
over, for the first three days out of 
steamers bound for European ports. 
The river and flood service had several 
opportunities to demonstrate its useful- 
ness and growing efficiency, and owing 
to the advices and warnings of the Bu- 
reau the dangers of the great ice gorges 
in the Susquehanna, Allegheny, and 
Ohio rivers were much minimized. 

The national weather and crop bulle- 
tins were issued from 143 section cen- 
ters. Besides the extensive distribution 
of the forecast cards, over 5,000 railroad 
stations have been supplied with bulle- 
tins, and the Bureau has availed itself 
extensively of the rural free delivery 
and the rural telephone system, so 
that forecasts are quickly disseminated 
throughout a large territory at a mini- 
mum of expense. 


MOUNT WEATHER OBSERVATORY 


The main building of the Weather 
Bureau Observatory at Mount Weather, 
Va., has been completed, and the phys- 
ical laboratory to be erected in another 
year is being planned. When the equip- 
nient is ready apparatus will be utilized 
to explore the atmosphere to altitudes 
of from 3 to 10 miles. 

During the year arrangements were 
perfected for a generous increase in the 
number of daily telegraphic weather re- 
ports, and the Secretary reports several 
submarine cables laid. The Weather 
Bureau has now 158 stations completely 
equipped, while 130 steel towers with 
improved equipment for displaying 
storm warnings are now installed along 
the shores of the Great Lakes and the 
Atlantic and Pacific seacoasts. 


INSPECTION OF ANIMALS AND MEAT 


_ Besides safeguarding the live-stock 
industry at home, the department is 


Al 


fostering the foreign trade. ‘The total 
export of animal products in the past 
fiscal year exceeded $223,000,000. The 
total inspections for export were—for 
cattle, 790,496 ; forsheep, 534,850 ; and 
for horses, 3,293. There was a great 
increase in the number of cattle and 
sheep exported, but a considerable re- 
duction in the number of horses. The 
loss on cattle in transit to British ports 
was but 0.17 per cent, and on sheep 
0.94 per cent. Clearances of vessels 
carrying live stock numbered 774. 

The inspection of import animals calls 
for the utmost vigilance in order to pre- 
vent the introduction of animal diseases. 
Importations of pure-bred animals were 
light, but a very large number were im- 
ported from Mexico for breeding pur- 
poses. 

Inspection of animals and their prod- 
ucts was maintained at 51 establishments 
in cities. Of ante-mortem inspections 
about 65,000,000 were made and of post- 
mortem 40,000,000, an increase in both 
cases over the previous year. The micro- 
scopic inspection of pork is restricted to 
that destined for countries requiring it, 
and the number of carcasses inspected 
in 1904 Was 313,445, of which 2,643 
were found to be trichinous. 


PRODUCING NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS 


Preliminary steps have been taken to 
conduct feeding and breeding experi- 
ments in several states looking to the 
development of breeds of animals suit- 
able to our conditions of climate and 
soils and capable of meeting the demands 
of commerce at home and abroad. 

The spread over several of the moun- 
tain states of a cattle mange required 
vigorous intervention by the depart- 
ment. It was necessary to detail a large 
force of experts to supervise the dipping 
of the herds in order to eradicate the 
parasite. Cooperation with most of the 
states has been arranged, and the rest 
promise to secure state legislation to 
compel all flock and herd masters to 
clean their stock. 


42 


STUDY OF PLANTS IN PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS 


Special efforts have been made to en- 
courage the study of plants in the pub- 
lic schools. The Secretary argues that 
our system of elementary education 
leaves no impression on the child’s 
mind of the importance, value, and use- 
fulness of farm life, whilein many ways 
he is brought early into contact with 
facts pointing to the value of commer- 
ciallife. Hecalls attention to the rapid 
advances made in agriculture along all 
lines, and notes the need for bright 
young men in this field, which he be- 
lieves offers opportunities as great as in 
any other. ‘The distribution of seed is 
being handled in such a way that en- 
couragement of plant growing will be a 
feature of it in connection with public 
school work. 


NEW PLANT INDUSTRIES 


Under the head of new industries de- 
veloped the Secretary enumerates, first, 
rice, of which, under the encourage- 
ment of the department, there has been 
enormouslyincreased production in Lou- 
isianaand Texas. Preliminary estimates 
give the area devoted to rice in 1904 in 
these two states at 600,000 acres, and 
the crop will approximate 650,000,000 
pounds. In reference to durum or 
macaroni wheat the success attending 
its introduction continues unabated. 
Probably no less than 14,000,000 bush- 
els of such wheats will be grown this 
year. Thedurum wheats are now being 
handled without difficulty by many 
millers. These wheats have been found 
valuable for bread and can be grown 
successfully where many other crops 
fail. Efforts are also being made to in- 
troduce the raw material for the manu- 
facture of fine mattings. 


IMPROVEMENT IN SUGAR-BEET SEED 


In regard to the sugar beet the chief 
effort of the department has been to 
effect improvement in the seed and to 
study the diseases with a view to the 


Tue NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


discovery of remedies. Strains of pedi- 
greed seed are being established in New 
York, Michigan, Utah, and Washing- 
ton, having already assumed commer- 
cial importance in the last two states. 
It seems to be a question of but a few 
years when the entire 5,000,000 pounds 
used in the United States will be pro- 
duced at home. American-grown seed 
has produced beets testing as high as 
24 per cent, and the average in all beets 
tested from American-grown seed in 
1903 was 15.8. The average percent- 
age in all beets grown in the United 
States is but a little over 11 per cent. 
During the season of 1904, 14,000 
pounds of American-grown seed were 
distributed by the department for test- 
ing in comparison with imported seed. 
The factories also bought 34,500 pounds 
of American-grown seed. Interesting 
experiments in fertilizing were con- 
ducted, one in particular showing the 
difference of over twenty dollars per 
acre as the result of fertilizing with 
nitrate of soda. 

In the matter of developing sugar- 
beet seeds with single germs, which 
would greatly diminish the labor of 
thinning, the Bureau work has been 
very satisfactory. 


NEW CITROUS FRUITS 


Harly oranges secured as a result of 
crossing the sweet orange with the hardy 
Japanese orange are now ready to dis- 
tribute, and this work will be inaugu- 
rated the coming winter. The oranges 
are valuable for marmelades and may 
be grown in nearly all the Southern 
States. Other citrous fruit developed 
from the investigations of the Bureau 
of Plant Industry, such as the tangelo, 
across between the tangerine and the 
pomelo, promise to be exceedingly val- 
uable. 


AMERICAN TEA AND AFRICAN DATES 


As heretofore, investigation in Amer- 
ican tea production has been continued 
in cooperation with Dr C. L. Shepard, 


THe Farmers oF THE UNITED STATES 


whose gardens now yield from eight to 
ten thousand pounds of tea annually. 
The work of establishing a plantation 
in Texas has also been continued. En- 
couraging results have also been secured 
in the establishment of the African date 
in Arizona and California. 


ROPPY ALKALOIDS 


In Vermont previous success in grow- 
ing opium poppies has been repeated 
with even better results. The attempt 
to cultivate this plant has been made 
with a view to supplying our demand 
for poppy alkaloids for medicinal uses. 
As the result of the repeated experi- 
ments, success has at last attended the 
effort to obtain morphine directly from 
the juices of the plant. If this can be 
done commercially, the plants produced 
in American fields will replace oriental 
opium as a crude source for morphine. 


CULTURAL WORK ON COTTON 


Special work has been done on cotton 
with a view to bringing home to farmers 
of Texas and Louisiana, especially in 
the boll-weevil districts, the advantages 
of better methods of cultivation and the 
value of early maturing seed. 

The Bureau of Plant Industry has 
had the advantage of closest cooperation 
with the Texas Agricultural College, 
and also with the Louisiana authorities. 
As a feature of the work in the South, 
diversification farms were established at 
various places with a view to showing 
the value and importance of diversified 
agriculture. The business interests in 
the respective communities gladly co- 
operate in this matter with the Bureau, 
so that they involve but a trifling ex- 
pense to the government. ‘Thirty-two 
of these farms have been or are about 
to be established. Extensive work has 
been inaugurated in Texas with a view 
to breeding new types of cotton better 
adapted to meet the conditions brought 
about by the invasion of the cotton boll 
weevil. Reference is made to the dis- 


3 


covery of the Guatemalan ant by an 
officer of the Bureau, and to the trans- 
fer of the study and distribution of this 
ant tothe Bureau of Entomology. Men- 
tion is also made of an effort to combat 
the boll weevil by producing a variety 
of cotton not subject to injury by this 
pest. 

The Secretary believes it to be within 
the range of possibility that resistant 
varieties of cotton may be found in 
tropical America or developed by selec- 
tion. Asa feature of the work in Texas, 
a special effort has been made to obtain 
information as to the best methods of 
combating the cotton root rot, a disease 
which has been very serious the past 
season. 


FORAGE CROP INVESTIGATIONS 


More attention has been given to al- 
falfa in the eastern half of the United 
States in the past two years than to any 
other crop. The department has dem- 
onstrated that this valuable crop can be 
grown in almost every state in the 
Union. A large amount of information 
has been gathered the past year as tothe 
carrying capacity of the ranges in vari- 
ous parts of the West. Intelligent man- 
agement will bring the ranges back to 
their primitivs state of productiveness, 
but there is no chance of improving 
range conditions except where stockmen 
are able to control the ranges upon 
which their stock feed. It has also been 
demonstrated that many new plants may 
be introduced upon the range success- 
fully. Plants that may be grown upon 
alkali lands have been studied. 


INVESTIGATIONS OF STANDARD 
GRASSES 


Investigations of standard grasses have 
been carried on, and it is hoped that 
within a few years it will be possible to 
offer farmers small quantities of seed of 
improved forms of all the standard 
grasses. A considerable number of na- 
tive American grasses have shown them- 


4.4 


selves adapted to the regions where at 
present hay grasses are wanting. It is 
believed that hay grasses can be found 
on the Western plains where the aver- 
age annual rainfall does not exceed 15 
inches. It has beenfound that a num- 
ber of plants can be made to furnish sat- 
isfactory pasture throughout the winter 
months in the South, and cooperation is 
planned with Southern experiment sta- 
tions and farmers to test a number of 
such plants for winter-pasture purposes. 


NBW FORAGE CROPS FOR THE GULF 
REGION AND THE PACIFIC COAST 


The agrostologists are studying the 
forage value of the velvet bean, beggar 
weed, Mexican clover, and cassava for 
for the region adjacent to the Gulf of 
Mexico. The Bureau of Plant Industry 
is seeking to provide suitable forage 
crops for southern Florida, and it is also 
searching for forage crops to grow alter- 
nately with wheat in the great wheat 
regions on the Pacific coast, so that the 
farmers may secure more than one crop 
every other year, 


MARKETING OF FRUITS 


Much attention has been given to the 
development of the trans-Atlantic ex- 
port trade. Large and profitable ship- 
ments of Bartlett pears were made from 
eastern orchards to British markets. 
It is known that more than 75,000 pack- 
ages of this variety were exported, while 
the total shipments of eastern-grown 
summer and fall pears amounted to at 
least 165 carloads. 

An encouraging beginning has been 
effected in commercial shipments of 
American apples to French markets. 
The most important experimental ex- 
port work has been done upon winter 
apples. ‘The proportion exported has 
risen from less than 1 per cent of the 
estimated total in 1899-1900 to nearly 
43%4 per cent in 1903-1904, a total of 
Over 2,000,000 barrels, valued at nearly 
$5,500,000. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGaZINE 


COLD STORAGE OF FRUIT 


The cold storage of fruit has grown 
to large proportions, nearly 3,000,000 
barrels having been cold-stored in the 
United States during the last winter as a 
result of investigations during the past 
year. It is found that the condition in 
which the fruit is grown and the man- 
ner of handling it determine to a large 
extent its keeping quality and ultimate 
value. Fruit intended for storage must 
be handled with the utmost care in pick- 
ing, packing, and shipping, and stored 


quickly after picking, in well-ventilated 


rooms with a temperature from 31° F. 
LO 2a 


PLANT-BREEDING WORK 


Much important work has been done 
in plant breeding. Great advances have 
been made in securing new and desirable 
long-staple cottons. Important results 
have been obtained in the breeding and 
improvement of corn and of oats and 
potatoes. Some of the most important 
investigations in breeding and selection 
have been inaugurated in connection 
with the growing of tobacco. Extensive 
work has been carried on in Connecticut, 
and the work has shown unquestionably 
that the desirable characteristics in the 
leaf can be fixed in the first year’s se- 
lection. 


CROPS REQUIRING LITTLE WATER 


It is believed that a profitable system 
of agriculture can be developed for the 
semi-arid area of the United States by 
securing crops which will grow with a 
very small amountof water. Consider- 
able progress has been made in this di- 
rection. 


MEANS OF DESTROYING ALG IN 
WATER SUPPLIES 
The Secretary calls attention to the 
investigations carried on by the plant 
physiologist with a view to finding 
methods of destroying noxious algee in 
water supplies, the method consisting 


THe FARMERS OF THE UNITED STATES 


in using extremely dilute solutions of 
copper sulphate. Numerous tests have 
been made in cooperation with boards 
of health and water engineers, and the 
method has been proved remarkably 
efficient. The fact that one part of 
copper sulphate to 100,000 parts of 
water will at ordinary temperature com- 
pletely destroy the bacteria causing ty- 
phoid fever and Asiatic cholera suggests 
the great usefulness of copper in fight- 
ing these and other diseases. 


PRESENT FORESTRY SITUATION 


The present situation as regards for- 
estry in the United States the Secretary 
regards as exceedingly hopeful. The 
lumber industry seems to be awakening 
to the fact that lumbering with refer- 
ence to future as well as present profits 
may be good business. The general 
adoption of forestry as an established 
policy now depends primarily on busi- 
ness conditions. Extensive investiga- 
tions of forest conditions are still ur- 
gently needed. Studies which individ- 
uals cannot undertake, but which must 
be made if the wealth-producing power 
of the country asa whole is to be brought 
to the highest point, need to be prose- 
cuted in the public interest. The fur- 
therance of that part of this depart- 
ment’s work which is directed toward 
informing the small owner how he can 
to advantage practice forestry on his 
own account is of the first importance. 


IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY 
OF FOREST CONDITIONS 


There is now no considerable portion 
of the United States for which the Bu- 
reau of Forestry has not at hand special 
knowledge bearing directly on questions 
pertaining to the use of the forests. In 
the work of building up a sound perma- 
nent policy for the forests of the na- 
tional domain, this department contin- 
ues to render important service, and it 
is plain that the ultimate function of 
the Bureau of Forestry as a part of the 


45 


government administrative equipment 
is gradually defining itself. The work 
to which the bureau must hereafter 
chiefly devote itself includes scientific 
study of problems having a practical 
bearing on forest utilization ; coopera- 
tion with states seeking advice concern- 
ing forest legislation, administration, or 
the formulation of a state forest policy ; 
and, finally, the discharge of any duties 
assigned to it by the national govern- 
ment in connection with the administra- 
tion of publiclands. The forester is at 
present the official adviser in technical 
matters of those departments having in 
charge forested lands. The greatest 
need of the West, says the Secretary, 
is water, and in many states future set- 
tlement and prosperity depend abso- 
lutely upon its conservation, and this 
again largely, in many cases wholly, 
depends upon the preservation of the 
forests. 

The work of planting on forest re- 
serves has been begun in California, 
Colorado, and Nebraska. 

He expresses gratification atthe recog- 
nition by Congress of the work of the 
bureau which has enabled it to increase 
its force within six years 16-fold, and 
its expenditures 12-fold. That this lib- 
erality is true economy is demonstrated 
by the fact that a szngle discovery now 
commonly applied to the production of tur- 
pentine ts effecting a savingannually equal 
to the total RENEE of the Bureau for 
Six years, 


FOREIGN PLANTS IMPORTED 


No less than 1,429 selected kinds of 
seeds and plants were introduced from 
foreign countries and established in the 
United States. These included 350 date 
suckers representing 42 varieties, Ig va- 
rieties of grapes from Russian Caucasus, 
33 varieties of mangoes of recognized 
superiority from central India, 157 bush- 
els of berseem from the valley of the 
Nile, 2,000 pounds of the famous new 
barley from Moravia, 200 trees of the 


46 


hardy Vladmir cherry from Russia (dis- 
tributed in the Northwest), and many 
others. 


NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA 


Extensive practical tests were made 
the past season with nitrogen bacteria 
for use in connection with the legumi- 
nous crops. Results have been even 
more successful than was anticipated. 
The several strains of bacteria sent out 
from the department have proved valu- 
able even on soils containing the uncul- 
tivated organisms in abundance. ‘The 
material for inoculating an acre of soil 
costs the department about one cent per 
acre and the farmers scarcely anything 
to apply it. The demand for the organ- 
isms is constantly increasing. 


THE SOIL SURVEY 


The study of soils and their manage- 
ment with regard to their values for pro- 
ducing crops has been continued. Soils 
vary greatly in the several states, and a 
general knowledge of their composition 
is of prime importance before the tiller 
can put them to their most profitable 
use. The Bureau of Soils is mapping 


Tue NaTIonNaL GgeocrAaPHIC MAGAZINE 


the various areas to the end that resi- 
dents on each may as soon as possible 
learn the peculiarities with which they 
have todeal. The department is seek- 
ing to introduce plants from foreign 
countries to diversify American agri- 
culture. A knowledge of the character 
of the soils from which they come and 
on which they have been developed is 
imperative, and suggests the wisdom of 
becoming familiar with the soils as well 
as the climate to which these new plants 
are introduced. 

The total area surveyed and mapped 
by the bureau during the fiscal year was 
Over 29,000 square miles, and the total 
area surveyed at the close of the fiscal 
year exceeded 74,000 square miles, or 
47,868,800 acres. During the past year 
68 areas in the different states were 
surveyed. A table presents the area 
surveyed in 1904, and previously re- 
ported in each state, and shows that the 
total cost of the year’s survey was 
$72,601.41, of which $2,377.57 was paid 
by state organizations. ‘The cost of 
work in the field per square mile was 
therefore $2.21, and the average total 
cost per square mile, $2.50. 


EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS 


HE last report of the Superin- 
tendent of Education of the 
Philippine Islands, David P. 
Barrows, describes very clearly the edu- 
cational policy that has been adopted 
for the Filipinos and the manner in 
which that policy is being carried out. 
The following paragraphs are from the 
report : 


THE FILIPINO DIALECTS CANNOT BE 
DEVELOPED INTO A NATIONAL 
LANGUAGE 


There are between 40 and 50 dialects 
inthe Philippine Islands. The question 
has been frequently raised whether these 


Filipino languages are sufficiently re- 
lated so as to fuse into one common 
tongue,and the Bureau of Education has 
received its most vigorous criticism in 
the United States because of its alleged 
attempt to supplant and destroy what 
might, in the opinion of absentee critics, 
become a national and characteristic 
speech. Such criticisms could only pro- 
ceed from a profound ignorance of the 
nature of these languages and the people 
who speak them. All of these dialects 
belong to one common Malayan stock. 
Their grammatical structure is the same. . 
The sentence in each one of them is 
built up in the same way. ‘The strik- 


le Saas 


EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS 


ing use of affixes and suffixes, which 
gives the speech its character, is com- 
montothemall. There are, moreover, 
words and expressions identical to them 
all. A hundred common words could 
readily be selected which would scarcely 
vary from one language to another ; but 
the fact still remains that, while simi- 
lar in grammatical structure, these lan- 
guages arevery different in vocabulary— 
so different that two members of any two 
different tribes brought together are 
unable to converse, or at first even to 
make themselves understood for the 
simplest steps of intercourse. The 
similarity in structure makes it very 
easy for a Filipino of one tribe to learn 
the language of another; but never- 
theless these languages have preserved 
their distinction for more than three 
hundred years of European rule and in 
the face of a common religion and in 
spite of considerable migration and mix- 
ture between the different tribes. This 
is as true where different populations 
border one another as elsewhere. In 
no case is there any indication that these 
languages are fusing. The Filipino ad- 
heres to his native dialect in its purity, 
and when he converses with a Filipino 
of another tribe ordinarily uses broken 
Spanish. 


TO THE FILIPINOS A NATIONAL LAN- 
GUAGE IS A NECESSITY—THEY 
PREFER ENGLISH 


For common intercourse, as well as 
for education, the Filipino demands a 
foreign speech. To confine him to his 
native dialect would be simply to per- 
petuate that isolation which he has so 
long suffered and against which his in- 
surrection was a protest. Opponents of 
English education find no sympathizer 
among the Filipino people. The ad- 
vantage which the possession of the 
English language will give him is read- 
ily understood by the Filipino, and it is 
fortunate that the acquisition of the 
Spanish tongue was largely denied him 


47) 


and that it never won his affection. 
English is the “ngwa franca of the Far 
East. It is spoken in the ports from 
Hakodate to Australia. It is the com- 
mon language of business and social 
intercourse between the different na- 
tions from America westward to the 
Levant. To the Filipino the possession 
of English is the gateway into that busy 
and fervid life of commerce, of modern 
science, of diplomacy and politics, in 
which he aspires to shine. 

Knowledge of English is more than 
this—it is a possession as valuable to 
the humble peasant for his social pro- 
tection as it is tothe man of wealth for 
his social distinction. If we can give 
the Filipino husbandman a knowledge 
of the English language, and even the 
most elemental acquaintance with En- 
glish witings, we will free him from that 
degraded dependence upon the man of 
influence of his own race which made 
possible not merely insurrection, but 
that fairly unparalleled epidemic of 
crime which we have seen in these 
islands during the past few years. 

Another form which criticism fre- 
quently takes, not alone in the United 
States, but among Americans in these 
islands, is that in giving the Filipino 
this primary education we are impair- 
ing his usefulness as a productive la- 
borer, separating him from agriculture 
and the trades, making every school- 
boy ambitious to become an escribiente, 
and filling their minds generally with 
distaste for rural life. American in- 
vestors and promoters in the Philip- 
pines at the present moment are deeply 
disgusted with the Filipino asa laborer 
and are clamorous for the introduction 
of Chinese coolies. They claim that 
the Filipino hates and despises labor for 
itself, will not keep a laboring contract, 
and cannot be procured on any reason- 
able terms for various enterprises in 
which Americans desire to invest effort 
and money. When, however, we look 
a little more closely into the demands 


48 


of these men, it is apparent that what 
they really want here is a great body 
of unskilled labor, dependent for living 
upon its daily wage, willing to work in 
great gangs, submissive to the rough 
handling of a ‘‘boss,’’ and ready to 
leave home and family and go anywhere 
in the islands and to labor at day wages 
under conditions of hours and methods 
of labor set by their foreign employers. 

Now the Filipino detests labor under 
these conditions. It is probably true 
that he will not work in a gang under a 
‘‘boss,’’ subjected to conditions of 
labor which appear to him unnecessarily 
harsh and onerous. And, looking at 
the matter in a broad sense, I am not 
sure but that those who have this peo- 
ple’s welfare most at heart may con- 
gratulate the Filipino on this state of 
mind. Give him a piece of land to cul- 
tivate, especially if he can be assured 
that it is his own; let him choose for 
his labor the cool dark hours of the 
early dawn and evening ; let him work 
in his own way, unharassed by an over- 
seer, and the Filipino will make a fairly 
creditable showing as a laborer. We 
must recognize these preferences of his. 
I believe we should accept them and 
should seek to develop here in the Phil- 
ippines, not a proletariat, but every- 
where the peasant proprietor. Where- 
ever we find the Filipino the possessor 
of his own small holding, there we find 
him industrious and contributing largely 
to the productive industry of the islands. 
I have in mind one beautiful little val- 
ley in the Ilokano country, famous for 
the quality of its tobacco, where the 
land-tax collections showed a year ago 
2,200 smiall independent properties in a 
single municipality. 

Now it is with this peasant-proprietor 
class particularly in mind, and trusting 
in the outcome of our efforts to greatly 
increase this class, that we must lay out 
our course of primary instruction. If 
he has his small home and plot of 
ground, the possession of English, the 
ability to read, the understanding of 


Tue NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


figures and those matters of business 
which affect him, and even the knowl- 
edge of other lands and peoples will not 
draw him from his country life and 
labor. It will, I hope, increase his con- 
tentment as it increases his independ- 
ence, and as it raises his standard of life 
and comfort and increases his desires it 
will make him a better producer and a 
larger purchaser. Just now his mind 
is influenced by the evil example of his 
past instructors, who, while they taught 
him much that was good, taught him 
also that labor was vile. 


THE AMERICAN PURPOSE IS TO 
DIGNIFY LABOR 


But this attitude toward bodily labor 
which so disgusts Americans with the 
wealthy and more cultivated class ap- 
pears to be nota racial feeling, but a 
result of Spanish training. If we look 
at those Malayan tribes which escaped 
the Spanish civilization—the Igorrotes 
in the north and the Moros in the 
south—we find that the man skillful 
with his tool and cunning of hand en- 
joys additional reputation. Moham- 
medanism has never despised the artisan 
or the tradesman, and this may some- 
what account for it; but, anyway, in 
Mindanao and Sulu one constantly finds 
that even the datto, or petty king, may 
be a famous forger of weapons and spend 
many hours each day beside his anvil 
and bellows. I have in mind asalip, or 
religious leader, on the island of Basilan 
whose fame is widespread as a builder 
of boats. These facts should encourage 
us to hope for a change of attitude on 
the part of the people toward learning and 
practicing manual trades, even though 
at the present time such teaching has 
met little favor with the Filipinos, the 
young e/egante of Manila disdaining to 
soil his fingers with the grip of a tool. 


THE PRESENT WORK 


The latest reports obtainable from the 
province show that we have about 2,000 
primary schools in operation. ‘These 


EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS 


employ the services of about 3,000 Fil- 
ipino teachers. Instruction is given 
wholly in English. The only books 
used are English text, and the teaching 
approximates American methods. The 
subjects taught are English language, 
primary arithmetic, and primary geog- 
raphy, with supplementary reading in 
Philippine and American history and in 
elementary human physiology. About 
150,000 children are today receiving 
instruction in these schools. School- 
houses are crowded to the very limits of 
health and efficiency, and the Filipino 
teachers are teaching an average of 4o 
pupils. 

The probable school population is a 
million and a half in the christianized 
provinces. 

To properly cover the field we need 
a force of about 10,000 Filipino primary 
teachers and at least four times the 
amount of school-room space that we at 
present possess. This would make pos- 
sible the primary instruction of 600,000 
Filipino children, and would give to 
every child in the Christian population 
of the islands the advantage of four 
years of primary instruction, to be se- 
cured between the ages of 6 and 14. 

High schools have been organized in 
every school division. 

The system of public instruction in- 
troduced into the islands is thus emi- 
nently practical. The purpose of those 
who are directing the course of studies 
is to exalt the dignity of labor. Effort 
is made to train the eye and the hand 
as well as the head. In the provincial 
secondary schools two years’ courses in 
mechanical drawing, wood working, and 
iron working are prescribed for students 
in arts and crafts, and give the stu- 
dents a fair knowledge of mechanical 
drawing, blacksmithing, and tool mak- 
ing. A more advanced course includes 
architecture, cabinet making, carriage 
building, wood turning, and pattern 


aS) 


making. There are also courses for 
machinists and steam engineering. 

Tools and equipment have been se- 
cured for eight different schools with 
wood-making machinery and for three 
schools in iron-working outfits.  Par- 
ticular attention is given to the care of 
instruments and tools. 

Particular attention has been given 
to normal school work in order to train 
up a class of native teachers for the 
public schools of the islands, and this 
course has been pursued with eagerness 
by hundreds of natives, but at present 
there is no institution in the Philippines 
in which instruction is given in English 
of a sufficiently advanced character to 
fit students to enter American colleges. 
It is therefore proposed to offer in the 
normal school preparatory courses of 
an advanced nature adequate for the 
attainment of this purpose. 

Another school that will have a pro- 
found influence in the development of 
the islands is the Nautical school. The 
coast line of the islands is greater than 
that of the United States, and as there 
is at present almost a total lack of rail- 
ways, and the highways being in poor 
condition for the most part, the waters 
of the archipelago must continue to be 
used as a means of transportation. 
There are at present 103 students in the 
school, and every member of the last 
three graduating classes are employed 
(with one exception) at salaries rang- 
ing from $275 to $60 per month, one 
being a mate on a Japanese liner. 

The course of study pursued covers 
a period of four years and includes 
English, mathematics, navigation, sea- 
manship, geography, chemistry, and 
history. ‘The students are from 22 dif- 
ferent provinces, and, owing to their 
training, their Malay blood, and ac- 
quaintance with the water from child- 
hood, make excellent seamen and are 
proud of their profession. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOES 


CHART OF THE WORLD 


HE chatt of the world; 45 x 25 

inches, which it was announced 

in the December number of this Maga- 

zine would be published as a supplement 

to this number has been delayed in pub- 

lication, and will be published as a sup- 
plement to the February number. 


~ WHY NO AMERICANS HAVE RE- 
CEIVED NOBEL PRIZES 


ROBABLY the first thought of 
Americans on reading the an- 
nouncement of the award of the ‘‘ No- 
bel Prizes’’ of $40,000 each for 1904 
was surprise that not a single American 
received a prize. Americans are doing 
noble work in the physical sciences, in 
literature, in medicine and surgery, in 
chemistry, and in the humanities. A 
prize of about $40,000 is awarded an- 
nually for achievements in each of these 
branches, and yet no American has re- 
ceived a prize. ‘The reason is not lack 
of appreciation abroad of what we are 
doing in this country, but the neglect 
of Americans to apply for the prizes, 
owing to misunderstanding of the man- 
ner in which the awards are made. In 
the awarding of prizes only those per- 
sons are considered who are formally 
nominated as candidates by some insti- 
tution, college, or scientific society of 
rank and character. Not a single 
American, we are informed, has yet 
been presented for consideration, and 
the impression abroad is that Americans 
are not interested in the prizes. ‘The 
awards are made in physical sciences 
and chemistry by the Academy of Sci- 
ence of Stockholm, in medicine by the 
medical faculty of the university, in 
literature by the Swedish Academy, 
_and in the humanities by the Norwe- 
gian Storthing. Mr W. E. Curtis in 
his public letter of December 26 calls 
attention to this mutual misunderstand- 
ing. It is to be hoped that hereafter 
for each prize the name of at least one 


American will be formally presented as 
a candidate. Any one can compete, 
but his or her name must be presented 
by a worthy institution. 


THE STORY OF THE FLAMINGO 


NE of the most fascinating descrip- 
tions of animal life published for 
many years appears in the Century Mag- 
azine for December. It is the story of 
the Flamingo, by the well-known natu- 
ralist, Frank M. Chapman. For centu- 
ries queer stories have been told about 
this splendid bird, that it straddled its 
nest and did other ridiculous things, but 
the flamingo is shy and scarce and has 
always eluded the hunter. The only 
flamingo colony now known in North 
America is in an out-of-the-way island 
of the Bahamas. This colony Mr Chap- 
man has been seeking for many years, 
but it was not till May, 1904, that he 
discovered its exact location. Behinda 
cleverly constructed blind he spent sev- 
eral weeks right in the midst of the col- 
ony. He secured many photographs, 
which the Century Magazine reproduces, 
several of them being in colors. The 
flamingo is the largest bird of brilliant 
plumage in existence. It is gregarious 
and exhibits a strange combination of 
grace and gawkiness. Since Mr Chap- 
man’s visit others have succeeded in vis- 
iting the flamingo colony with disas- 
trous results. ‘‘Fresh meat is rarer 
than pink pearls in the outer Bahama 
Islands. Young flamingoes are excel- 
lent eating, and are consequently much 
sought after. Asa result of this perse- 
cution on the nesting ground, they are 
steadily diminishing in numbers, and 
the passage of a law designed to protect 
them is greatly to be desired.”’ 


AMERICAN FOREST CONGRESS 


URING the first week of the new 
year a notable congress of per- 

sons and associations interested in the 
preservation and best use of our forests 


GeEoGRAPHIC Noress 


will assemble in Washington, D. C. 
The meeting is held under the auspices 
of the American Forestry Association, 
by whom it was called. The purpose 
of the Congress ‘‘is to establish a 
broader understanding of the forest in 
its relation to the great industries de- 
pending upon it; to advance the con- 
servative use of forest resources for both 
the present and the future need of these 
industries; to stimulate and unite all 
efforts to perpetuate the forest as a per- 
manent resource of the nation.’’ 

On Monday, at 12 o’clock noon, Jan- 
uuary 2, the delegates will be received 
in a body at the President’s New Year’s 
reception at the White House. 

Morning and afternoon sessions will 
be held on January 3, 4, 5,and 6in the 
National Rifles’ Armory. On the after- 
noon of January 5 a special meeting 
will be held in the Lafayette Theater, 
which will be addressed by the Presi- 
dent of the United States and other 
men prominent in our industrial and 
national life. 


IMMIGRATION AND NATURAL- 
IZATION 


RESIDENT ROOSEVELT in his 
last message to Congress states very 
clearly the principle which has guided 
us in the making of immigration laws 
of the past and which should also guide 
us in our revision of theselaws. ‘‘First 
and foremost, let us remember that the 
question of being a good American has 
nothing whatever to do with a man’s 
birthplace, any more than it has to do 
with his creed. In every generation, 
from the time this government was 
founded,men of foreign birth have stood 
in the very foremost rank of good citi- 
zenship, and that not merely in one, but 
in every field of American activity ; 
while to try to draw a distinction be- 
tween the man whose parents came to 


this country and the man whose ances- © 


tors came to it several generations back 
is a mere absurdity. Good American- 
ism is a matter of heart, of conscience, 


51 


of lofty aspiration, of sound common 
sense, but not of birthplace or of creed. 
The medal of honor, the highest prize 
to be won by those who serve in the 
Army and Navy of the United States, 
decorates men born here, and it also 
decorates men born in Great Britain 
and Ireland, in Germany, in Scandi- 
navia, in France, and doubtless in other 
countries also. In the field of states- 
manship, in the field of business, in the 
field of philanthropic endeavor, it is 
equally true that among the men of 
whom we are most proud as Americans 
no distinction whatever can be drawn 
between those who themselves or whose 
parents came over in sailing ship or 
steamer from across the water and those 
whose ancestors stepped ashore into the 
wooded wilderness at Plymouth or at 
the mouth of the Hudson, the Dela- 
ware, or the James, nearly three centu- 
ries ago. No fellow-citizen of ours is 
entitled to any peculiar regard because 
of the way in which he worships his 
Maker, or because of the birthplace of 
himself or his parents, nor should he be 
in any way discriminated against there- 
for. Hach must stand on his worth as 
a man and each is entitled to be judged 
solely thereby. 

‘“There is nodangerof having toomany 
immigrants of theright kind. It makes 
no difference from what country they 
come. If they aresound in body and in 
mind and, above all, if they are of good 
character, so that we can rest assured 
that their children and grandchildren 
will be worthy fellow-citizens of our 
children and grandchildren, then we 
should welcome them with cordial hos- 
pitality. 

‘* But the citizenship of this country 
should not be debased. It is vital that 
we should keep high the standard of 
well-being among our wage-workers, 
and therefore we should not admit. 
masses of men whose standards of living 
and whose personal customs and habits 
are such that they tend to lower the 
level of the American wage-worker, and 


52 


above all we should not admit any man 
of an unworthy type, any man concern- 
ing whom we can say that he will him- 
self be a bad citizen, or that his children 
and grandchildren will detract from, in- 
stead of adding to, the sum of the good 
citizenship of the country.”’ 


PROGRESS IN CHINA 


ROW TEAMS bh CURA TStinehis 
public letter of December 12 

says that cable dispatches from China 
bring the news that the empress dow- 
ager has issued an edict requiring all 
of the soldiers in the army to wear 
Kuropean dress and cut off their queues. 
Her orders have already been obeyed 
in the province of Honan. The viceroy 
of Honan, who has been so prompt in 
carrying out these instructions, has a 
son being educated in the United States, 
and the youngster had not been six 


GEOGRAPHIC 


New Physical Geography. By Ralph 
S. Tarr. Illustrated. Pp. xiii +457. 
New York: The Macmillan Co. 1904. 
$1.00. 


Starting with the earth as a planet, 
Professor Tarr, in successive chapters, 
treats the physiographic features of our 
globe, finally winding up with man, 
whose advance he very rapidly sketches 
down tothe period of civilization. Being 
intended for secondary classes, the au- 
thor very properly confines his effort to 
stating in clear, simple language the 
main results that have been generally 
agreed upon by the majority of investi- 
gators. He avoids the great disputed 
questions or very briefly considers both 
sides. His general aim is descriptive 
rather than philosophical or theoretical; 
for instance, he does not attempt to ex- 
plain that distressingly difficult subject 
of high tides on opposite sides of the 
earth at the same time. In the main 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


weeks in this country before he cut off 
his own queue to escape the teasing 
of ‘his schoolmates. The viceroy was 
greatlv shocked when he heard the 
news, because a young man without a 
queue in China is quite as conspicuous 
as a young man with one would be in 
the United States. It was difficult to 
reconcile the old gentleman to the situa- 
tion, but he seems to have obeyed impe- 
rial orders in that respect very promptly. 


OBITUARY 


REDERICK MAY DETWEILER, 
of the firm of Judd & Detweiler, 
printers, who have printed the Na- 
TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for 15, 
years, died at his home in Washington, 
November 9, 1904, at the age of 74. 
Mr Detweiler was elected a member of 
the National Geographic Society in 
1889. 


LITERATURE 


his statements are lucid and direct, and 
the whole book is most admirably suited 
for the grade of pupils that it appeals to. 
The ‘‘summaries,’’ of which there are 
several hundred, should every one be 
stricken out. Predigested food is disas- 
trous for developing powers of thought. 
There are several appendixes and a very 
useful index. C. Me 


The Non-Metallic Minerals. Their oc- 
currence and uses. By Geo. P. Mer- 
rill. Illustrated. Pp. xi+ 414. New 
York: John Wiley & Sons. 1904. 


$4.00. 

Although our author necessarily uses 
scientific symbols, his language is so 
simple and clear in the descriptive por- 
tions, that he has furnished a very in- 
teresting and valuable book that appeals 
to both the educated general reader as 
well as to the specialist. Usually he 
gives the scientific formula and compo- 


GEOGRAPHIC 


sition of each mineral, its locality and 
its uses. In the case of the more im- 
portant ones, he adds the method of 
manipulating and fashioning them for 
commercial purposes: Often he quotes 
from well written, popular accounts of 
these processes. As he gives the tech- 
nical as well as common names, a per- 
son of average intelligence can readily 
appreciate what is said. His scheme 
of classification provides for 14 great 
groups, as carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, 
etc. Illustrations abound, specimens 
in the National Museum being freely 
called into service. Brief select bibliog- 
raphies are found where needed. A 
good index ends the volume. C. M. 


Dodge’s Elementary Geography. By 
Richard Elwood Dodge. Illustrated. 
Ep.23t. 8 by 40 inches. Chicago, 
New York, London: Rand, McNally 
& Co.-- 1904. . $0.75. 

A splendid conception is this volume 
based upon, that of starting with what 
the child knows the most about, and 
gradually proceeding to other and larger 


LITERATURE 


53 


notions, until the whole world is in- 
cluded. ‘The young learner here begins 
with his home, and passes from that to 
the village, the town, government, land 
surface, water, atmosphere, transporta- 
tion, and maps. Then he is led intoa 
general description of the different por- 
tions of the globe, It is all told ina 
simple language, and most abundantly 
and beautifully illustrated. But it isto 
be feared that, being a university pro- 
fessor who prepared it, he has shot over 
the youthful heads. Certainly some of 
the maps, such as those on pages 66, 
67, 129, must be too detailed for this 
grade of pupils. There is also too much 
reliance in the text on mere memory, 
very little of connected idea being ap- 
parent in the way of cause and effect. 
There is much confusion of thought on 
pages 68 and 69 on ‘‘heat belts’’ and 
‘athe hot belt.” Bipure 3667 1s japa- 
nese, not Chinese. Yokohoma is not a 
fine harbor as that phrase is understood. 
Of course the maps are well done, and 
the suggestions are first class in many 
instances. C. M. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


ANNUAL MEETING 


HE annual meeting of the National 
Geographic Society will be held 

at Hubbard Memorial Hall, corner Six- 
teenth and M streets, Washington, D.C., 
Jantiary, 13, 1905, at 8 p. m. Hight 
members of the Board of Managers are 
to be elected to fill vacancies caused by 
the expiration of the term of office of 
the class of 1902—’4, as indicated in the 
list of Board of Managers published on 
another page of this Magazine. Nomi- 
nations for these positions will be pre- 
sented by a committee on nominations 
named by the Acting President, but ad- 
ditional nominations may be presented 
at the annual meeting by members of 
the Society. The annual report of the 
Secretary will be presented, summariz- 
ing the work of the Society during the 
year 1904. A lecture by Mrs W. H. 
Norton, wife of the United States Consul 


to Harput,on ‘‘ Travelsin Asia Minor,’’ 
will be given, taking the place of the 
usual annual address by the President. 
The Board of Managers expresses the 
hope that members of the Society will 
attend and participate in this annual 
meeting. The following amendment to 
the By-laws, which has been approved 
by the Board of Managers, will be pre- 
sented for action by the Society : 


Article IV (Officers), section 1. Omit the 
sentence ‘‘ Of the eight members elected at 
each annual meeting, not less than four nor 
more than six shall be residents of the District 
of Columbia.’’ 

The section will then read : 

SECTION 1. The administration of the So- 
ciety shall be entrusted to a Board of Managers 
composed of twenty-four members, eight of 
whom shall be elected by the Society at each 
annual meeting, to serve for three years, or 
until their successors are elected. A majority 
of the votes cast shall be necessary for elec- 
tion. 


OPE MUSTIN, Secrclary. 


a 


PROGRAM OF MEETINGS, 1905 
THE POPULAR COURSE 


January 6, 1905.— “‘Japan.”’ By 
Baron Kentaro Kaneko, of the House of 
Peers of Japan, LL. D., Harvard Uni- 
versity, 1899. 

January 20.—‘‘ Russia.’’ By Hon. 
Charles Emory Smith, formerly Post- 
master General and Minister to Russia. 


February 3.--‘‘ The Philippines.’’ 
The Secretary of War, Hon. Wm. H. 
Taft, formerly Civil Governor of the 
Philippine Islands, has accepted the in- 
vitation of the Society to deliver the 
address on this subject, provided that 
the demands of public service do not 
interfere. 

February 17.— ‘‘ Manchuria and 
Korea.’’ By Mr Edwin V. Morgan, 
U. S. Consul to Dalny. Illustrated. 

March 10,—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ 
Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. 
N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval 
Observatory. Illustrated. 

March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize 
of the Orient and its Relation to the 
Commerce of the United States.’”’ By 
Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau 
of Statistics. Illustrated. 

March 3{.—‘‘ From Lexington to 
Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, 
of the Century Company. Illustrated. 

April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll 
Weevil.’’ By Dr L.O. Howard, Chief of 
the Bureauof Entomology. Illustrated. 

April 28.—‘‘ Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr 
G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National 
Geographic Society. Illustrated. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 
Thursday, January 12, 1905,—Gen- 


eral subject, ‘‘ The Reclamation Ser- 
vice.’ MrF. H. Newell, Chief Engi- 


neer, and other engineers of the Recla-. 


mation Service, will describe the differ- 
ent irrigation works now being con- 
structed. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


January {3.—Annual meeting. Re- 
ports of officers and elections. 


January 27.\General subject, 
‘<’The American Deserts.’’ 


I. Vegetation. By MrF. V. Coville, 
Botanist of the Department of Agri- . 
culture. : 

2. Physiography. By Dr G. K. Gil- 
bert. 

3. Introducing the Date Palm. 
Mr W. T. Zwingle. 


February 10.—General subject, ‘‘ Pro- 
gress in Animal Husbandry.’’ There 
will be papers by Mr George M. Rom- 
mel, Mr G. Fayette Thompson, and 
others of the Department of Agricul- 
ture, on the work and plans of the 
Department for producing distinctive 
American breeds of Horses, on the An- 
gora Goat, the Fat Tailed Sheep, the 
Barbadoes Woolless Sheep, on the in- 
troduction of the Bos indicus, ete. * 


February 24.--General subject, ‘‘ The 
Botanical Investigations of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture.’’ By Mr F. V. 
Coville, Botanist, and members of his 
staff. | 


March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- 
gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by 
Dr George T. Moore and others on ‘‘ In- 
oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting: 
Municipal Water Supply Systems,’’ etc. 

March 17.—General subject, 

‘“Japan.”’ 

The Geography of Japan. By Mr 
Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- 
nese Legation. 

The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh 
M. Smith. 

Agriculture in Japan. 
G. Fairchild. 

April 7,—General subject, 

‘* Forestry.’’ 

Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr 
Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. 
Bureau of Forestry, and a paper om 
Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. 
Fairchild. 


By 


By Mr David. 


FEBRUARY, 1905 
CON TENTS 


"Chart of the World on Mercator’ s Projection, 25 by 45, inches. 

. _ Supplement 
Rosia By Hos. Charles Emory Smith, foetal Minister to 
Russia and Ex-Postmaster General . . . . . 55 


| . ) Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Chatte of the World. By 


PAGE 


he The Wonderful Canals of China. By U. S. Consul George 
EL Anderson, of Hangchau, China . . . «68 
ye Geography and Culture . . . Ot ahi Vet) fal line fia Ghat BOAO 
- Tides in the Bay of Fundy. Hitsteated ia aah Ainge & 

The French Coaquest of the Sahara. By ae Rabot. Tikes: 


EE a Ne ale 78 
Observations on the Russo-Japanese Wat in Thea and Man- 
churia. By Dr Louis Livingstone Seaman... af do OO 


National Geographic Society . . ROI Ss PRS: cauenteina ny gTE ih) Age 


nt ‘Published by the National Geographic Society, 
Eke | _ Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
Oe ey Nia a a i a _ Washington, D. c. 


George W. Littiehales. With Map. . . : 63 


Hetcine fhe Parmer: / Tlastrated’: .1)..0 08) oe Gn oe) nD 


PO ari ates i ee ad Li ee aaa 
[Saperap hic Literature Be ae ees EE ag 


oe x 50 a Year | bo ees e a a8 25 Cents a Number 


“NATIONAL | 
| GEOGIRAPIBIIC [- 
MAGAZINE 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publisheds by 4 
_ Nationa, GeroGRapPuic Society, at Washing- 
| ton, D. C. All editorial | communications 

should be addressed to the Editor of the NaTionaL 

Grocraruic Macazine, Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
_ Washington, D. C. Business communications — 
should be addressed to the National Geographic 
a Dc Hubbard Memonial Hall, Washington, 


= SS =, ae 


. a5 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


7 ae Associate Editors | 
GENERAL A. W. GREELY O. H. TITTMANN | 


oe Signal Officer, U. S. Army Superintendent of the U.S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey eee. 
w J McGEE | ne : it 
Chief, Pepin or Anthropology 0.P. AUSTIN — | | ‘ie 
and Ethnology, Louisiana re LN Chief of the doles of Statistics, Ht 
chase Exposition de Department f Conan and 


rie Ni i 


fhe os ¢. HART ios es | 3 oe ‘DAVID T. DAY | i" 
ief of the Biological Survey, rs Chief of the Division ineral 
Depariment of doen ( Me Rescues U. S. el ; 


WILLIS L. MOORE MEDAL we. TARBELL  _ 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, Ue 5.. A Autor of “Life of Napol ‘ 
Department of Agriculture Ae “Lye of mahi ih "ele. a 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD  ~— CARL LOUISE GARRISON 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart Pals py! eines of Morgan Schoo if 
ment of ETS. ‘ Ss aN ae EN RS es: Be Cc i 


901 
849 | 9 
1904-1 iS 
J) 1077} 11 
2/4 


, | 


Chart of the World on Mereator’s Projection, showing Submarine Cables and Connections, and also Tracks for full-powered Steam Vessels. == | E. 


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ae : — oe ae ; ee ee es a ET a a5 : Supplement to the National Geographic Magazine for February, 1905. 


Vou. <Vi, No: 2 


WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY, 1905 


RUSSIA* 


By Hon. CHARLES Emory SMITH 


FORMERLY MINISTER TO RUSSIA AND EX-POSTMASTER GENERAL 


T the very outset I shall throw 
A myself on your kind indul- 
gence. I hope you will not 
think me one of that rash company, 
more numerous in enrollment than po- 
lite in name, that rush in where angels 
fear to tread. Believe me, I know full 
well the difficulty and the delicacy of 
my venture, and have known it from 
the start. ‘The only excuse that can be 
pleaded in extenuation of the hazard is 
that the persuasiveness of your commit- 
tee, if not greater than the restraint of 
my warning good sense, was at least 
more potent than the firmness of my 
resolution. 

Russia just now is at the best a tempt- 
ing but perilous theme. MHalfa century 
hence it will be possible to look back 
through the clear perspective of years 
and measure the true relations of the 
events of today to a new career of prog- 
ress and greatness. But in the present 
hour we see the portents without the 
promise, and Russia is shadowed by the 
gloom of the clouds without the gleam 
of thesun. The inherent difficulties of 
the subject are enhanced by the per- 


sonal position of the speaker. There 
are phases on which it is becoming that 
I should speak with reserve—perhaps, 
to use an Hibernianism, with silence— 
on the principle, ‘‘the wisest word I 
ever said was the word that wasn’t 
spoken.’’ Itis true that the diplomatic 
trust was laid down some years ago, 
and the easier, if not higher, diplomacy 
of American free speech was resumed ; 
and you will permit me to amend the 
words of the poet and say: 


More true joy returned Marcellus feels 
Than exiled Minister with a Senate at his heels. 


But there are obvious proprieties 
which follow the minister even in retire- 
ment; yet while they should be re- 
spected, there is still large room for free 
expression. I did not hesitate to say 
in St Petersburg, looking out from the 
Foreign Office upon the broad Alexan- 
der Place, from the center of which 
rises the stately and splendid memorial 
shaft to the first Alexander, that there 
were things in Russia which we of the 
United States, in the best spirit of sin- 
cere friendship, could wish otherwise, 


*An address to the National Geographic Society, January 20, 1905. 


56 


and I do not hesitate to say it here. 
Russia does not resent honest criticism. 
She criticises herself. Her statesmen 
are sensible of her relations to the spirit 
of the age and are conscious of her diffi- 
culties and shortcomings. She only 
asks—and does she not rightly ask ?— 
that judgment shall be pronounced in 
good faith, and with an honest purpose 
to be fair. She is often silent when in 
justice to herself she ought to speak. 
To my mind it is a mistaken policy, for 
while it avoids answer where answer 
would sometimes be difficult, it leaves a 
hundred misrepresentations to pass un- 
challenged ; but, mistaken or not, it is 
the tradition of a power which meets 
political hostility or thrifty sensational- 
ism with disdain. 

. And certainly, if there be a grateful 
sense of invaluable service, we of Amer- 
ica ought at least to seek to be fair. 
We never can be deaf to the call of 
humanity. Wecannot be blind to the 
errors which have followed unfortunate 
counsels. We must deal with living 
issues and with present events as truth 
requires ; but we can and we ought to 
fulfill the obligations of duty and speak 
the voice of judgment in the spirit of 
honest and manly friendship. For Rus- 
sia was our truest friend in the hour 
of our supreme trial. Tradition has 
handed down this impressive truth, and 
both the public archives and the un- 
written records confirm it. You know 
that in the critical period of the civil 
war, when we were threatened with 
French and English intervention, the 
Russian fleet appeared in the harbor 
of New York. The testimony is not 
wanting which discloses the inspiration 
and the purposes that placed it within 
that friendly and protecting proximity. 
There has been some dispute over this 
question, and the attempt has been 
made to discredit the sympathetic atti- 
tude and the actual service of Russia, 
but the evidence is clear and conclu- 
sive. 


THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Shortly after the war began in 1861, 
the Secretary of State, Mr Seward, 
addressed the European governments, 
setting forth the American position. 
Prince Gortchakoff, the great Russian 
chancellor, wrote these words in reply : 

‘“The Union is not simply in our 
eyes an element essential to the univer- 
sal political equilibrium. It constitutes 
besides a nation to which our august 
master and all Russia have pledged the 
most friendly interest, for the two 
countries, placed at the extremities of 
the two worlds, both in the ascending 
period of their development, appear 
called to a natural community of inter- 
est and of sympathies, of which they 
have already given mutual proofs to 
each other.’’ 

That unequivocal answer, made at the 
very beginning, plainly indicated the 
friendly attitude of Russia. Through 
the Russian government, with its spe- 
cial sources of information, President 
Lincoln’s administration was kept ad- 
vised of what the other governments of 
Europe were meditating and proposing. 
Official France was hostile. The French 
people were sympathetic, as they had 
been from the days of the American 
Revolution. But Louis Napoleon, who 
was then on the throne, had his own 
designs, which were disclosed in Mex- 
ico. Official England, unlike the offi- 
cial England of these later years, was 
also hostile. A large proportion of the 
English people, many of whom in Lan- 
cashire deeply suffered on account of 
our war and the deprivation of cotton, 
were right in theirinstincts. The great 
and good Queen was our steadfast friend. 
But Palmerston and Lord Russell, and 
even Mr Gladstone, whom we have all 
so greatly admired and honored, looked 
on our struggle with unkindly thought. 

In the early days of the war Secretary 
Seward was apprised, through the lega- 
tion at St Petersburg, that the French 
and English governments had come to 
an understanding for joint action re- 


Russia 


specting the American war involving 
the possible recognition of the Southern 
Confederacy. When, soon afterwards, 
the French and English ministers ap- 
peared at the State Department together 
his information prepared him to meet 
them. Knowing their object, Mr Seward 
politely avoided receiving them jointly 
and adroitly turned one off with a dinner 
invitation while he saw the other alone. 
But the joint movement of the two gov- 
ernments went on. Joint action on 
neutrality pointed the way to joint ac- 
tion on intervention. Who could meas- 
ure the dangers of such a portentous 
step? Would Mr Lincoln’s government, 
already absorbed in a life-and-death 
grapple with a giant rebellion, also ac- 
cept the gage of war with the united 
strength of the two great nations of 
western Hurope ? Couldit hope to pre- 
vail against these combined perils, or 
would the unequal struggle leave the 
Union irretrievably divided and broken ? 

That was the startling menace. Rus- 
sia’s feeling was known, and before the 
blow was struck it was important to 
know what Russia would do. Louis 
Napoleon took steps to ascertain—I 
have reason to believe through an auto- 
erapn letter to the Czar, Alexander 
II, advising him that the French and 
English governments believed the time 
had come when they ought to mediate 
or intervene between the North and 
South, and inviting him to join in the 
movement. ‘The Czar declined to do so 
unless Mr Lincoln’s government should 
request it. But the menace continued, 
and thereupon the Russian fleet steamed 
into the bay of New York and cast an- 
chor within sight of Trinity spire. All 
the world knew what that act meant; 
Louis Napoleon knew, and the threat- 
ened intervention never came. 

This chapter of past judgments does 
not justify any misjudgments now, but 
it does impose the obligation of seeking 
to pronounce present judgments in a 
fair and just spirit. Russia is engaged 


57 


at this hour in a foreign war which has 
thus far been full of surprises and dis- 
asters, and she is at the same time in the 
throes of a domestic agitation which, let 
us hope, will lead to a great advance 
for the Empire. No treatment of the 
general subject can ignore these phases, 
and they will be the better understood 
if we look at them against the back- 
ground of the national structure and 
organization and character. 

Russia is a country of extraordinary 
contrasts ; of imperial splendor and of 
widespread poverty,; of the magnifi- 
cence of the court and of the squalor 
of the moujik; of the stately grand- 
eur of St Petersburg or the pictur- 
esque orientalism of Moscow, and of 
the dreary, dead level of dull and end- 
less plains; of the highest culture 
and the broadest ignorance; of the 
boundless treasures of the unequaled 
Winter Palace, with its 500 opulent 
rooms, or of imposing St Isaac’s, with 
its malachite columns and its golden 
dome, and of the boundless destitution 
of almost uncounted millions; of the 
literary genius of Poushkin and Gogol, 
of Tourgenieff and Tolstoi, and of the. 
dense illiteracy of the masses; of the 
pictorial wonders of Verestchagin and 
of the most primitive agricultural and 
industrial arts—in a word, of the high- 
est development of grace and culture in 
social life and of the deepest penury and 
hardship on the broad national field. 

And as it is a country of extremes in 
condition so it has been portrayed in 
extremes of opinion. On the one hand 
it has been painted in the blackest of 
colors. It has been pictured as a land 
of Tartar barbarism and of Muscovite 
tyranny, where the Siberian exile is the 
expression of all cruelty and the Jewish 
proscription as the embodiment of all 
intolerance and persecution. Its gov- 
ernment has been described as a des- 
potism tempered by assassination. On 
the other hand it has been delineated 
in some quarters as a benign and patri- 


58 


archal system, where the sole thought 
of the Little Father is the welfare of the 
millions of his people, and where the ac- 
knowledged grace of the throne is ac- 
cepted as the proof of the general prac- 
tice. It is easy to produce striking 
effects with strong pigments. There 


would be a ready and startling sensa- 


tionalism in a vivid picture of terrors 
and in a flaming outburst of rhetoric. 
But, as generally happens, the truth lies 
between the extremes. It is not all 
black or all white, but it has its lights 
and its shadows, .and the faithful de- 
lineator must sacrifice the bold outlines 
of a fanciful sketch for the more sub 
dued tones of historic verity. 

The character of autocratic rule man- 
ifestly depends very much on the char- 
acter of the autocrat. It is true that in 
these modern days even the autocrat is 
largely the creature of conditions. Im- 
perial will is molded and circumscribed 
by historic tendencies, by overmastering 
public opinion, and by the spirit of the 
age. But, on the other hand, the cur- 
rents of national development fall into 
the eddies of personal impulse. With 
the vast machinery of a great modern 
nation autocracy becomes bureaucracy. 
But the autocrat makes the bureaucrats, 
and so determines the trend. There are 
settled traditions and tendencies in Rus- 
sia, but they are affected and modified 
by the dominant temper and influence 
of the hour. When Russia passed from 
the scepter of Nicholas I to that of Alex- 
ander II she advanced from the virile 
and robust imperialism of an iron dic- 
tator to the progressive and expand- 
ing liberalism of an enlightened ruler. 
When she passed from the control of 
Alexander III to that of Nicholas II 
she went from the secure, harsh, rigor- 
ous sway of a firm, self-poised, austere 
monarch to the turbulent reign of a 
kind, well-meaning, and uncertain sov- 
ereign. ? 

The present Czar is conscientious and 
devoted in public purpose and amiable 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


and exemplary in personal life. Hehas 
been surrounded by conflicting influ- 
ences, and each of the opposing forces 
has appeared at one time or another to 
be dominant. The Czar’s disposition 
and tendency have been liberal, as was 
indicated in the noble impulse which 
convoked The Hague Conference. If at 
times there has been a backward move- 
ment it was because reactionary elements 
outside of the throne gained a tempo- 
rary ascendancy, and if lamentable er- 
rors plunged the empire into a war for 
which she was so illy prepared, it was 
because irregular influences, outside 
of the ministry, that were mistakenly 
trusted, gave evil counsels. 

Asa rule, Russian ministers are not per- 
sonal favorites, but are often able states- 
men, marked for their places by capacity 
and fitness. Their commission comes, 
not from title of nobility, but from the 
higher title of brains. Curiously as it 
may cross the prevailing conception of 
the Russian system, many of them have 
sprung directly from the ranks of the 
people. M. de Giers, the astute Min- 
ister of Foreign Affairs, who succeeded 
Gortchakoff and who so long guided the 
foreign policy of his country, did not 
inherit rank or fortune. Equally with- 
out rank was Vishnegradski, the Min- 
ister of Finance, a remarkably able man, 
whose range of vision covered the finance 
of all nations, who carried on his table 
the first free-silver bill just as it was 
lying on the desks of the American Sen- 
ate, and whose acute and profound ob- 
servations, if they could have been prop- 
erly reported, would have instructed and 
startled the American people. 

His successor, de Witte, who was so 
long the master spirit of the Russian 
government, who then fell into disfavor, 
and whoin the present crisis appears to be 
again rising into favor and ascendancy, 
is no less a man of the people: He 
made his first mark as a subordinate 
railway official, and was rapidly pro- 
moted until he became the most power- 


RussIa 


ful minister of the empire. Many 
others might be named to illustrate the 
same truth of high individual advance- 
ment without title or favor and solely 
on merit. Russiahas ministers, but no 
ministry. There is no united, coher- 
ent, responsible governing body. Hach 
minister acts only for himself and is re- 
sponsible only to the Emperor. Often- 
times ministers antagonize and intrigue 
against each other. Witte and Plehve 
were at swords’ points. Thus the bu- 
reaucracy lacks unity, cooperation, and 
efficiency. It is disorganized and dis- 
cordant. Sometimes an individual min- 
ister shows tremendous energy in the 
administration of his department, but 
the coordinated work which gives 
united force and strength is missing. 

Below the chiefs the system has the 
vice of venality. It is this which has 
sapped the strength of the navy and 
impaired the efficiency of the army. It 
is this which has provided the gun of 
inferior range and imparted structural 
weakness to the battleship. Russia has 
prodigious resources and almost un- 
limited power, if it can be made avail- 
able. She has the giant’s strength, but 
the giant’s strength enfeebled by a 
vicious system and an improvident 
sloth. There is personal valor and 
symptomatic defect. There is the bril- 
liant dash of the daring Makaroff, but 
a strange paralysis and fatality of the 
fleet. There is the skillful generalship 
of Kuropatkin, with the patience of 
Fabius and the fight of Marius, but a 
want of preparation which leaves him 
always with inferior numbers. ‘There 
is the intrepid courage of the heroic 
Stoessel and his fire-tried troops at Port 
Arthur, which has excited the admira- 
tion of the world, but there is at the 
same time the lack of equipment which 
crippled his defense. The fighting 
quality and the latent power are there, 
but reconstruction is needed to bring 
the fruits. 

In some directions Russia has made 


Sy 


remarkable advances in recent years. 
The energetic and far-reaching policy 
of Witte as Finance Minister, with its 
striking results, has been the subject of 
great praise and great criticism. It 
had two central and fundamental con- 
ceptions. The first was to make Russia 
wholly self-sustaining and industrially 
great by a system which should protect 
and foster herown manufactures. The 
second was to concentrate all power and 
control in the hands of the government 
by substituting state for local taxation, 
by the promotion of state ownership of 
railroads, and by the creation of great 
state monopolies, like those in spirits, 
drugs, and kindred articles. The fruits 
have been tremendous, though possibly 
in some directions open to question. 

The industrial progress of Russia in 
the face of serious obstacles has been 
signal. Within ten years the number 
of hands employed increased from 
1,318,048 to 2,098,262 and the value 
of the output more than doubled. The 
chief industries are textiles and mines 
and metals. Cotton manufactures have 
been rapidly developed. The consump- 
tion of cotton has increased in little 
more than a decade from 117,000,000 
kilograms to 257,000,000, and the num- 
ber of spindles in operation is about 
7,000,000. In iron manufacture Rus- 
sia holds the fourth. place among the 
nations, ranking next to Germany and 
ahead of France. From 1892 to 1900 
the annual production of metallic arti- 
cles rose in value from 142,000,000 
roubles to 276,000,000. 

The advance was so rapid that after 
1900 there was a reaction, followed by 
an industrial crisis. In his report on 
the budget for 1902, M. Witte ascribed 
the depression to a succession of bad 
harvests and a withdrawal of foreign 
capital, caused by the Boer war and the 
resulting stringency in the European 
money markets. Doubtless also the 
extraordinary development had engen- 
dered speculation and overproduction. 


60. 


The great growth had come in spite of 
deficient transportation, of ignorant and 
debilitated labor, and of the meager 
purchasing power of the mass of the 
people. Russia has made much head- 
way in recent years in remedying the 
first defect. From 1892 to 1902 more 
than 17,000 miles of railroad were 
opened. Within the Russian Empire, 
not including Manchuria, 4,100 miles 
of railway were under construction in 
-19g01. With his early training, M. 
Witte naturally made railroad develop- 
ment a vital part of his great and vig- 
orous policy of national upbuilding—a 
policy which was largely instrumental 
in this industrial and commercial ex- 
pansion. In ten years the passenger 
traffic on the Russian railroads has mul- 
tiplied almost five-fold and the freight 
trafic more than eight-fold. 
But there is a deeper and more rad- 
ical difficulty. It is suggested in the 
observations of Prince Mestschersky, 
the bold and brilliant editor of the 
Grashdanin, of St Petersburg. Writ- 
ing in 1901, he said: ‘‘It would be 
more logical for the development of 
mills and works to begin with the de- 
velopment of the people, so as to create 
a consumer, than to begin with the de- 
velopment of factories, mills, and rail- 
roads for a people wanting in the very 
first elements of prosperity.’’ His con- 
ception is that the hope of Russia lies 
in an improved condition and advance- 
ment of the peasantry. The weakness 
of the Russian system is in the back- 
wardness of agriculture. The agricult- 
urists constitute 78 per cent of the 
population, and for the most part are 
surrounded by the most unfortunate 
conditions. Their implements are of 
the most primitive character. The crop 
yield per cultivated dessiatin is lower 
than in any other country in Europe. 
Be)gium, which ranks first, produces 
an average of 128.5 poods of grain per 
des siatin, a pood being equal to 36 
pounds, while the Russian average is 


Tue NatTionaL GeoGrapHic MaGAZzInge 


only 38.8 poods. Even this disparity 
does not indicate the full gravity of the 
case, for Russia produces less grain per 
head than is consumed per head in other 
countries, and at the same time she is 
the second grain-exporting country in 
the world. 

This fact tells the story of her own 
deprivation, and it is emphasized by 
some particular inquiries. It is esti- 
mated that the people on the farms re- 
quire from 20 to 25 poods of grain per 
head for their support and that of their 
live stock during the year, and these 
figures are much below the consump- 
tion in other lands. Yet it often hap- 
pens that in a considerable number of 
provinces the harvest is far less than 
even this meager requirement. The 
result is that Russia is frequently af- | 
flicted with famines, that the consump- 
tion of bread has fallen off about 70 per 
cent, and that the number rejected from 
the military service through physical 
disqualification has increased 14 per 
cent within seven years. During the 
great famine of 1891, which extended 
over ten provinces, more than a million 
horses perished, leaving many of the 
peasants with no means of cultivating 
the land. The crop failure of 1898 did 
not cover so wide an area, but it was 
even worse where it prevailed. It left 
over 12,000,000 people in abject desti- 
tution and more than 8,000,000 suffer- 
ing from actual famine. In 1900 and 
1901 famine again desolated the land. 
All this entails chronic impoverishment. 
The arrears in the redemption of the 
land on the part of the former serfs are 
constantly increasing, and the economic 
conditions which affect them are grow- 
ing worse. 

The amelioration of this situation lies 
at the foundation of the present agita- 
tion for political reform and enlarged 
freedom. Undoubtedly, the popular 
restiveness has been quickened by the 
war and its demonstration of the defects 
of the existing system; but the recent 


Russia 


striking manifestations are only the sud- 
den culmination of a movement which 
has been in progress for sometime. To 
understand it we must grasp some fun- 
damental elements of the Russian pol- 
ity. Russia presents a curious paradox. 
Theoretically it combines the most ex- 
treme autocracy with the most extreme 
democracy. The great body of the 
people are divided and organized into 
‘‘mirs,’? or communes. The mir is 
what we would call the township organ- 
ization. Land is held in common and 
is apportioned for cultivation among 
the families of the mir according to 
their respective needs. ‘The communal 
assembly makes the apportionment and 
the periodical redistributions ; it gov- 
erns other questions relating to the land, 
the harvest and other local affairs, and 
its government is more like that of the 
New England town-meeting than any- 
thing else. As far as it goes, it is a 
perfect democracy. All the people as- 
semble on the village green, under the 
presidency of the starosta, or village 
elder, and determine all questions within 
their scope by a majority vote. 

The mirs are grouped into cantons or 
districts, and the districts elect repre- 
sentatives to the zemstvos, which are the 
provincial assemblies. Without going 
into minute details, all classes are repre- 
sented. The ultimate elective bodies 
are not large in proportion to the total 
population, but they are distributed 
among peasants, individual landholders, 
merchants, nobles, and urban electors. 
In 361 district assemblies, with 13,196 
members, 38 per cent were peasants, 35 
per cent nobles, 15 per cent merchants, 
and the remainder officials or priests. 
The provincial assemblies or zemstvos 
have over 1,200 members in all, and 
they operate chiefly through executive 
comniittees, of which the nobles consti- 
tute far the larger proportion. The 
mir deals with the land, farming, and 
the immediate local concerns. The dis- 
trict assembly, which corresponds more 


61 


nearly with our county organization, 
looks after roads, schools, sanitary mat- 
ters, and like questions. The provin- 
cial assemblies have the care of prisons, 
hospitals, charities, main roads, mutual 
insurance, and other subjects of more 
than local range. 

The zemstvos were among the reforms 
instituted by the liberal and enlightened 
Emperor, Alexander II. They were 
created in 1864, and sprang from a com- 
mission appointed for the purpose of 
‘conferring more unity and independ- 
ence on the local economic administra- 
tion.’’ Theoretically they went far to- 
ward establishing a system of local 
autonomy, but practically they have 
been largely nullified by the overruling 
power of the provincial governors, who 
stand for the bureaucracy. Their au- 
thority and independence have from time 
to time been curtailed. Nevertheless, in 
their form as local representative assem- 
blies, even with their limited electorate 
and scope, they furnish the basis and 
nucleus for wider representative insti- 
tutions. ‘Their liberal spirit and inde- 
pendent purpose have been the most 
characteristic features in the new re- 
form movement. 

In January, 1902, the present Em- 
peror created a Central Committee of 
Agriculture, under the presidency of 
M. Witte, to consider the measures nec- 
essary to meet the existing difficulties. 
This body was supplemented by local 
advisory committees, which, rather by 
local choice than by central design, were 
made up largely from the zemstvos. 
The majority of these committees made 
somesignificantrecommendations. They 
urged that elementary education should 
be increased ; that zemstvos should be 
established in provinces where they did 
not exist, and made more representative, 
with larger powers; that the system 
of village communes should be recon- 
structed so as to give the peasants equal- 
ity with others, and that free discussion 
of economic questions should be allowed. 


62 


A little later a memorandum was pre- 
sented to the Czar recommending that 
their old powers should be restored to 
the zemstvos, that they should be ar- 
ranged in groups, and that these groups 
should elect delegates to a central or 
national zemstvo. 

The effect of these various demonstra- 
tions was seen when in February, 1903, 
the Czar issued a manifesto holding out 
high promise. He declared that the fun- 
damental principle of property in com- 
mon must be held inviolable, but he 
said that relief for the individual must 
be found, and added: ‘‘A reform is to 
be effected by local representatives in 
provincial government and district ad- 
ministration.’’ These assurances were 
neutralized when the influence of Witte 
waned and the reactionary Plehve 
gained more power; but they and the 
manifestations which led to them were 
the forerunners of the more impressive 
demonstrations that have recently been 
witnessed. ‘The meeting of the zemstvo 
presidents at St Petersburg in Novem- 
ber last was in many respects the most 
remarkable assemblage in Russian his- 
tory. It was almost like a states gen- 
eral. It put forth a declaration of prin- 
ciples which is equivalent to a demand 
for a national representative assembly 
with political voice and rights and with 
a direct advisory part in legislation and 
government. It plainly declared that 
there is an estrangement between the 
government and the people; that it is 
due to fear of popular initiative, and 
that it has led to great wrongs in the 
arbitrary bureaucratic system which has 
come between the throne and its sub- 
jects. It calls for the overthrow of this 
centralized administration of local af- 
fairs; for independent legal tribunals 
for the protection of personal rights; 
for free speech, free press, and free con- 
science ; for equal civil and political 
rights for peasants; for the greater inde- 
pendence and extension of the zemtsvo 
institutions, and for national represen- 


THe NatIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tation through an elective body which 
shall participate in legislation. 

These demands are unprecedented in 
Russia, and their concession would in- 
augurate a revolutionary change. It 
was not to be expected that they would 
all be granted at once. The ukase 
which the Czar has issued in response 
to this call marks a large advance. It 
charges the Council of Ministers with 
the duty of framing measures to secure 
equal rights to the peasants; to safe- 
guard law and unify judicial procedure 
for the protection of personal rights ; to 
assure a more independent and complete 
administration of local affairs through 
local institutions ; to deal with state in- 
surance for workmen ; to reduce the dis- 
cretionary authority which has bred the 
administrative process;to promote larger 
religious toleration, and to provide 
greater freedom of the press. This isa 
long stepin liberalism. It does not es- 
tablish representative institutions ; it 
does not provide for elementary educa- 
tion ; but it does look toward a larger 
local control of local affairs, toward the 
relief of the peasants from the rigorous 
conditions which surround them, and 
toward the removal of the arbitrary re- 
strictions which now burden the people; 
and the ukase itself distinctly treats 
these reforms as the beginning of ‘‘a 
series of great internal changes impend- 
ing in the early future.’’ 

In considering the character, trend, 
and methods of these changes the pecu- 
liar conditions of Russia must ever be re- 
membered. Whatever advance has been 
made there uptothis time has come from 
the top and not from the bottom. The 
great mass of the people are simple, 
illiterate, and inert. The disturbances 
which have occurred from time to time 
have been mostly on the surface. ‘The 
greatdeeps have not been moved, though 
the caldron is now seething as never 
before. The new industrial conditions 
of recent years, to which reference has 
been made, have produced a class of 


MarInE HyproGRAPHIC SURVEYS 


workmen and artisans in the cities who 
are more alert than the supine peas- 
antry and who are the source of the 
present discontent and uprising. 

The whole fabric of society, it must 
also be borne in mind, rests upon the 
church which is the very foundation 
of the state and to which in its ritual 
and observances all, from the Czar to 
the humblest moujik, are supremely 
devoted. ‘The first need of the people 
is economic improvement and their re- 
lease from the harsh conditions of their 
restricted communal life. The report 
of Witte on the elevation of the peasant 
contemplates some reconstruction of the 
mir and the opening of broader callings 
and opportunities to those who are prac- 
tically bound to the soil. It is urged 
with force that real social emancipation 
cannot come without political enfran- 
chisement. ‘The one will undoubtedly 
promote the other, and under the quicker 
impulse of these later days the nation is 
moving forward to both. 

Russia is passing through the dark 
valley of deeptrials. Sheis paying the 
appalling cost of grievous mistakes ; but 
enormous as that cost is, it will still be 
cheap if, through these bitter experi- 


MARINE HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS 


63 


ences and this new awakening, the great 
empire shall be put upon the higher 
pathway of wiser counsels and liberal 
advancement. ‘The history of Russia 
isavaried story. It isilluminated with 
the progressive measures of the great 
Emancipator. It is darkened with the 
shadows of Kishinev and the Finnish 
oppression. ‘The far-reaching reforms 
which are now dawning on the nation 
give promise of a new and more hopeful 
era. Russia has prodigious recupera- 
tive power. She was prostrate after 
the Crimean war, but soon recovered 
her strength. She was humiliated and 
straitened after the Turkish war, but 
started againuponanewcareer. Sheis 
patient, tenacious, and persistent ; she 
has the traditions and the indomitable 
faith which have come down from Peter 
the Great ; she has the vast though dor- 
mant resources of imperial domain and 
power ; and if through the disasters she 
is now suffering she shall throw off the 
shackles of the bureaucracy that have 
weighed her down and come to share 
the progressive spirit of the age, she will 
through present tribulations and final 
regeneration enter, as we hope she may, 
on a new and brighter epoch. 


Ob 


THE COASTS OF THE WORLD* 


By’ Georce W. LITTLEHALES 


HE accumulated stock of marine 

| hydrographic knowledge in its 
availability for the construction 

of navigational charts of the coasts of 
the world is divided into four classes 
for the purposes of this communication. 
Upon the accompanying world chart the 
extent of coast line comprised within 
each of these four classes is indicated by 
appropriate symbols depicting the coasts 


that are completely surveyed, those that 
are incompletely but serviceably sur- 
veyed for purposes of navigation, those 
that are explored for purposes of navi- 
gation, and those that are unexplored 
for purposes of navigation. 

It should be made clear with reference 
to those coasts which are classed as being 
completely surveyed that, excepting in 
rare instances, no greater completeness 


*An address to the Eighth International Geographic Congress, September, 1904. 


Tue NatTionaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ne - ae 
eho Pei na esi ras 


oe 


ete oy see | 
Ta POLINE 


: ety ‘ 
~ 


TASMANIA 
1S 


ECUADOR) 


eas 
Stans 
Se 


Map showing the Condition of the Coast Surveys of the World 


has been attained in the portrayal of the 
forms and characteristics of the strip of 
the sea bottom which borders the coast 
than is yielded by measurements ob- 
tained by dropping a sounding-plummet 
at close intervals, and that nearly all 
coasts and harbors, whatever may be the 
initial completeness of the surveys, re- 
quire reexamination in the course of 


time to disclose the altered conditions 
that are produced by natural agencies 
and artificial developments. 

It will not escape attention that while 
there is a comparatively small total ex- 
tent of completely surveyed coast which 
bounds the world’s seats of enlighten- 
ment and wealth in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, the extent of coast that is unex- 


MarinE HyproGRAPHIC SURVEYS 


FALKLAN ) 
y,\S. 


4 
7 


| 
ie a 2c a) 
BRITISH INDIA tu 


VS 


BAY OF {+ 
7* 

BENGAL « 

& + os 


EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS. 


— complete/ surveyed” | ; : 
wud Incompletely but serviceably surveyed tor na vWigasion. 

xxxx Explored Tor purposes of navigation. 

m—~ unexplored Lor purposes of navigation. 


Go" 40° 20° OF 20° 40° 60° 30° 100° 


Map showing the Condition of the Coast Surveys of the World 


plored for purposes of navigation is yet 
smaller and is almost confined to the 
frozen regions of the earth, which are 
unvisited by commerce and unpeopled. 
A prominent feature of the investigation 
and one which can not fail to bring a 
realization of the great responsibility 
resting upon navigators and the skill and 
caution required of them in the naviga- 


tion of coastal waters in nearly all parts 
of the world is the immense extent of 
the coast line which, while sufficiently 
known to be approached, can not be 
navigated with security. 

It isin general useless for the nautical 
surveyor of the present day to devote 
himself to the rapid reconnaissance of a 
coast in the manner that proved so ac- 


66 


ceptable in the middle of the last cen- 
tury, for such a survey would not 
now prove beneficial with reference to 
any but the unexplored regions. 

The parts of the world that have been 
completely surveyed and the parts about 
which, from the standpoint of the ma- 
rine hydrographer, nothing is known 
are equally beyond our concern at pres- 
ent, for on the one hand the needs of 
commerce and navigation have been met 
and on the other hand commerce and 
navigation have as yet no needs. It is 
to the vast extent of the coasts of the 
world concerning which marine hydro- 
graphic knowledge exists in varying de- 
grees of incompleteness that we should 
address ourselves with a view of direct- 
ing attention to the faults which may 
be corrected and to the wants which 
may be supplied. 

Leaving our own completely sur- 
veyed Atlantic seaboard, we come at 
once among the oldest colonies in the 
Western Hemisphere and in a sea of 
great present and prospective impor- 
tance, upon coasts concerning which 
there is no adequate information for the 
construction of chartsand the guidance 
of shipping. The coasts of the Island 
of Haiti, outside of the more important 
ports and harbors, are very imperfectly 
charted. Our knowledge of the har- 
bors of Cuba has been lately much im- 
proved, but the sections of coast con- 
necting these harbors is not yet well 
represented. No better portrayal of the 
north coast of South America from 
Panama to Trinidad has ever been af- 
forded than that which resulted from a 
cursory examination made in the early 
part of the last century. There are 
doubtless many places along this coast 
where future surveying operations will 
develop useful anchorages for the im- 
provement of commerce and the safety 
of vessels. The ports leading to many 
of the important maritime centers of 
Brazil have been efficiently surveyed, 
but the general approaches to the coast 


THe NatrionaL GEocraPHic MAGAZINE 


are not completely developed. In the 
Rio de la Plata navigation has been ren- 
dered fairly safe, but of the intervening 
coast, until the Strait of Magellan is 
reached, it may only be said that, be- 
yond several isolated local surveys lately 
executed by the Argentine government, 
nothing has been done since the general 
examination in 1830. The efforts of 
British and Chilean hydrographic sur- 
veyors have effected much improvement 
during the last generation in the charts 
of the Strait of Magellan and through- 
out the waters of Chile, although the 
whole labyrinth of channels in southern 
Chile is still inadequately known for the 
purposes of the many steamers that are 
continually passing through; and with 
reference to the entire western coast of 
South America, the efficient surveying 
operations have clustered around local 
developments that were taking place 
here and there, leaving no general sur- 
vey of the whole coast by which it can 
be laid down in sufficient detail. 

The surveys of the immediate ap- 
proaches to Panama, although imper- 
fect, are serviceable ; and the same may 
be said of the Central American and 
Mexican coasts which connect the Re- 
public of Panama with the completely 
surveyed Pacific coast of the United 
States. Of the coastal waters in the 
northeastern Pacific much more is 
known in relation to the waters of the 
British dominions than with reference 
to the Alaskan coasts. Indeed the ma- 
rine hydrographic surveys of Alaska 
are as yet very incomplete, especially in 
the Aleutian Islands, where many coasts 
remain barely explored. Russian Si- 
beria and Korea have for the most part 
only been hydrographically explored ; 
but nearly all of the coasts of the Em- 
pire of Japan have been completely sur- 
veyed and charted, and the coasts of 
China, together with the China Sea, 
where British surveying ships have 
worked continuously for fifty years to 
put in their right positions the multi- 


MarINE HyproGRAPHIC SURVEYS 


tude of rocks and shoals which encum- 
ber this region, are now well known. 
Much, however, yet remains to be done 
on the eastern and southern confines of 
this sea. Only the most important har- 
bors and sections of coast in the Philip- 
pines and the Dutch East Indies have 
been well charted. Parts of Tonquin 
and the southern, and especially the 
eastern, passages into the China Sea need 
much additional examination in detail. 
Australia and New Zealand are envel- 
oped with good nautical charts, which 
are constantly being amended as new 
developments give rise to increased 
needs for more detailed surveys, and 
most of the important harbors and the 
thickly inhabited maritime sections have 
been quite completely done. The Coral 
Sea, or what is termed the outer pas- 
sage between Australia and the Indian 
Ocean, is now much improved beyond 
its former state, owing to the necessity 
of providing more direct routes than 
those which were formerly followed, 
and most of its dangerous reefs are now 
set down in the charts. British India 
is better surveyed than many other parts 
of the best-known coasts of the world, 
and the shores of the Red Sea and the 
Mediterranean have been minutely sur- 
veyed excepting in a few parts where 
minor details are not now important. 
Of the coast of Africa, aside from 
that portion which fronts on the Red 
Sea and the Mediterranean, the most 
vaguely charted portion is that of So- 
maliland, and the most completely 
charted parts are embraced in that 
well-surveyed section, including Mada- 
gascar, which extends southward from 
Zanzibar around the Cape of Good 
Hope to the regions of Table Bay. The 
whole of the west coast can now be laid 
down with closeness to its true position 
on the face of the globe, and while some 
parts of it have been merely explored 
by the nautical surveyor, many other 
parts are better known, and some of the 


67 


harbors and off-lying islands have been 
surveyed with considerable approach to 
completeness. 

The coasts of Europe, excepting the 
Spanish peninsula and those parts bor- 
dering on the Arctic Ocean, are com- 
pletely surveyed, and an important cen- 
ter of activity in marine hydrography 
has for many years existed in Great 
Britain, resulting not only in elaborate 
surveys of the waters of Great Britain 
and Ireland, but in meeting the demand 
for reliable nautical charts in every part 
of the British Empire and in whatever 
other parts of the world British trade 
has been active or springing up. 

Nearly a century has now elapsed 
since the close of the era of discoveries 
among the vast groups of islands and 
coral reefs with which the immense 
area of the Pacific Ocean is studded, 
and the chaotic state of geography at 
that time, in which it was sometimes 
impossible for discoverers to return to 
the islands discovered, has given place 
to a state of order at the present day. 
The ships of all the great maritime na- 
tions have contributed in a greater or 
less degree to this advance by fixing 
the correct geographical positions of 
individual islands, by surveying har- 
bors and anchorages in the various 
groups, and by disproving the existence 
of many supposed rocks and dangers 
which were set down in the older charts 
from reports of former navigators, often 
doubtless based upon misleading ap- 
pearances of the sea. 

But important as is the surveying 
work that has already been accom- 
plished in the Pacific, it is only the 
beginning of that which is to come. 
There is scarcely an island group in the 
whole of Oceania that is completely 
charted. ‘The great work that remains 
to be done here ought to progress more 
rapidly in the future, since all these 
lands have at length been parceled out 
among leading nations of the world. 


THE WONDERFUL CANALS OF CHINA | 


By U.S. Consut Greorce E. ANDERson, Hanccuau, CHINA 


HERE are several features in 
the canal system of China, 
especially of the Imperial or 
Grand Canal, which can be studied with 
profit by the people of the United States. 
One of these is the use of the canal for 
the production of food in addition to 
its uses as a means of transportation. 
Allied to this is the use of the muck 
which gathers at the bottom of the 
waterway for fertilization. Another is 
the use of every particle of plant life 
growing in and around the canal for 
various purposes. 

The Chinese secure a vast quantity 
of food of one sort or another from 
their canals. To appreciate the exact 
situation with respect to the waterways, 
it must be realized that the canals of 
China cover the plain country with a 
network of water. Leading from the 
Grand Canal in each direction are 
smaller canals, and from these lead still 
smaller canals, until there is hardly a 
single tract of 40 acres which is not 
reached by some sort of a ditch, gen- 
erally capable of carrying good-sized 
boats. ‘The first reason for this great 
network is the needs of rice cultivation. 
During practically all of the growing 
season for rice the fields are flooded. 
Wherever a natural waterway can be 
made to irrigate the rice fields it is used, 
but, of course, from these to the canals 
or larger rivers there must be water- 
ways. Where natural streams cannot 
thus be adapted the Chinese lead water 
in canals or ditches to the edge of their 
fields and raise it to the fields of rice by 
the foot-power carriers which have been 
described so often by tourist writers. 
However the water is supplied to the 
rice, it is evident that there must bea 
waterway leading to the field and back 
to a principal stream, which is gen- 


erally a branch canal. These water- 
ways naturally take upa considerable ~ 
portion of the land, and the Chinese 
make as profitable use of them as of the 
land itself. 

The first use of the waterways is for 
fishing. The quantity of fish taken 
from the canals of China annually is 
immense. ‘The Chinese have no artifi- 
cial fish hatcheries, but the supply of 
fish is maintained at a high point by 
the fact that the flooded rice fields act 
as hatcheries and as hiding places for 
the young fish until they are large 
enough to look out for themselves. In 
the United States this fish propagation 
annex to the canals is probably neither 
possible nor needful in view of the work 
done by the state and national bureaus ; 
but in China it is nothing less than 
providential. 

Along the canalsin China at any time 
may be found boatmen gathering muck 
from the bottom of the canal. This 
muck is taken in much the same man- 
ner that oysters are taken by hand on 
the Atlantic coast In place of tongs 
are large, bag-like devices on crossed 
bamboo poles, which take in a large 
quantity of the ooze at once. This is 
emptied into the boat, and the process 
is repeated until the boatman has a 
load, when he will proceed to some 
neighboring farm and empty the muck, 
either directly on his fields—especially 
around the mulberry trees, which are 
raised for the silk-worms—or in a pool, 
where it is taken later to the fields. 
From this muck the Chinese farmer 
will generally secure enough shellfish 
to pay him for his work, and the fer- 
tilizer isclear gain. ‘The fertilizer thus 
secured is valuable. It is rich in nitro- 
gen and potash and has abundant hu- 
mus elements. This dredging of the 


THe WonpDERFUL CANALS OF CHINA 


canals for fertilizers is the only way by 
which the Chinese have kept their ca- 
nals in reasonably good condition for 
centuries. The fertilizer has paid for 
itself both ways. Recently there were 
complaints filed at Peking that the 
ashes from the steam launches plying 
on the canals were injuring the muck 
for fertilizing purposes, and the prob- 
lem has been considered a serious one 
by the Chinese government. 

In addition to securing fertilizers 
from the canals, and thus keeping the 
eanals in condition, the farmers help 
keep them purified by gathering all 
floating weeds, grass, and other vege- 
table debris that they can find upon 
them. Boatmen will secure great loads 
of water plants and grass by skimming 
the surface of the canal. The reeds 
growing along the canals are used for 
weaving baskets of several grades and 
for fuel. In short, no plant life about 
the canal goes to waste. 

Where there are so many canals there 
1s more or less swamp ground. In 
China this is utilized for the raising of 
lotus roots, from which commercial 
arrowroot is largely obtained. There 
is no reason why much of the waste 
swamp land in the southern portion of 
the United States should not be used 
for a similar purpose, and the commer- 
cial returns from a venture of this sort 
in that part of the country ought to be 
satisfactory. Where the canals of 
China widen, by reason of natural 
waterways or for other reasons, the ex- 
panse of water not needed for actual 
navigation is made use of in the raising 
of water nuts of several varieties, espe- 
- cially what are known as water chest- 
nuts. These nuts are raised in immense 
quantities. They are, strictly speak- 
ing, bulbs rather than nuts. ‘They are 
rich in arrowroot and are prolific, an 
acre of shallow water producing far 
more than an acre of well cultivated soil 
planted in ordinary grain or similar 
crops. These nuts, also, could be pro- 


69 


duced to advantage in the United States 
where there is land inundated for the 
growing season to a depth which will 
give ordinary water plants a chance to 
thrive and which is not capable of being 
drained for the time being. The nuts 
or bulbs are toothsome when roasted, 
and are wholesome, but probably would 
be more valuable in the United States 
for the manufactured products which 
can be secured from them. 

There are duck farms all along the 
canals in China. ‘These are profitable. 
Chinese canals, as a rule, considering 
the population upon them and their 
varied uses, are cleaner than canals in 
the United States. There are few if 
any factories tocontaminate them. The 
Chinese use of certain sewage for fer- 
tilization also prevents contamination to 
agreatextent. The canal water is used 
for laundry, bath, and culinary pur- 
poses indiscriminately. A canal in the 
United States could never be what it is 
in China, but the Chinese have a num- 
ber of clever devices and ideas in con- 
nection with their canals which can 
be adopted in the United States with 
profit. 

The Grand Canal system in China 
has existed in almost its present shape 
since about the time Columbus discov- 
ered America. ‘The Grand Canal itself, 
extending from Hangchau to Pekin, is 
about a thousand miles long. Much of 
it is banked with stone, and all of it is 
in such condition that with the expendi- 
ture of a little money the system could 
be put upon a modern and effective 
basis. As it is, the canal handles prac- 
tically all the internal trade of China, 
and this trade is far greater than its for- 
eign trade. The coming of railroads 
will affect the canals somewhat, but not 
so much as may be imagined, for the 
railroads will very largely build up a 
trade of theirown. A little money will 
make China’s canal system in the future 
what it has been in the past, the greatest 
on earth. 


GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE* 


the various wars of the past ten 

years have educated the people in 
geography. Southeastern Kurope,South 
Africa, the West Indies, the China 
coast, Japan, Korea, and Siberia have 
in their turn been ‘‘ discovered’’ by mil- 
lions of people who had previously en- 
tertained very hazy notions as to their 
existence on the face of the earth. Yet, 
rather singularly, there are more com- 
plaints today concerning the ignorance 
of geography among all classes, high 
and low, than ever before. 

The universities, colleges, and schools 
are under more criticism than hitherto 
for their alleged failure to give to geog- 
raphy, broadly considered, its proper 
place in their courses of study. A year 
or two ago Mr Bryce delivered an ad- 
dress before a geographical society in 
England in which he emphasized the 
importance of geography in any scheme 
of education or culture. Lord Salis- 
bury, not long before he died, surprised 
his countrymen by saying that many of 
their misconceptions concerning inter- 
national questions originated in the 
misleading scales of the maps of differ- 
ent countries and continents. It needs 
but a moment’s reflection, indeed, to be 
convinced that while people in general 
have lately increased their stock of 
geographical knowledge, owing to these 
sensational wars and the closer jostling 
of the nations, we have only begun to 
realize how ignorant we are concerning 
the earth we live upon. 

The great extent of the average per- 
son’s real ignorance of geography is 
almost invariably shown whenever he 
begins to probe into some question of 
history or international politics. Very 
soon he discovers, rather to his surprise, 
that the whole matter may rest upon 
some simple fact of geography. A classic 
illustration is the discovery of America, 


| T has been often remarked how much 


which was the immediate result of the 
closing of the old Mediterranean trade 
routes to the Orient by the conquering 
Turks. Most people have a general 
idea that Columbus was seeking a new 
way to the Indies when he made his 
historic voyage, yet they never get far 
enough along to understand clearly why 
he was seeking that route. ‘They do not 
know anything about the ancient routes 
through Asia Minor and around the 
Black Sea and what the Turks did to 
them. History cannot be intelligently 
understood, of course, without a clear 
knowledge of the geography of history. 
Huxley believed this so strongly that he 
never read a book of history or travels 
or international politics without an atlas 
by his side for constant reference. Yet 
most of the histories that are published 
even in our time are singularly deficient 
in good maps, and, strange to say, the 
great Cambridge series of modern his- 
tory, planned by the late Lord Acton, 
contains not a single map in the first 
four volumes already printed. 

Certain facts of geography account 
for very much of what goes on in our 
owntime. The Boer war cannot be thor- 
oughly understood unless one knows the 
peculiar relation that South Africa bears 
to India and Australia from the British 
point of view. The war between Rus- 
sia and Japan is an insoluble mystery 
until one observes the position of Korea 
and the Sea of Japan with reference to 
the Russian outlet upon the Pacific. 
Why is Russia today such a despotism ? 
Even that question should be answered 
in the light of the geography of the 
Russia of Ivan the Terrible and Peter 
the Great. What makes Ireland so 
poor? ‘The climate, due to the island’s 
geographical position with reference to 
the trade winds of the Atlantic, cannot 
be ignored in seeking an explanation of 
Ireland’s position the past sixty years. 


* From the Springfield Republican, December 18, 1904. 


TIDES IN THE 


Why does Japan wish to expand in ter- 
ritory? We need only study the phys- 
ical character of Japan toknow. Why 
is Nevada such a backward state, and 
why is Arizona such an unpromising 
candidate for statehood? Here again 
geography can give an answer. Why 
did the negro race in central Africa re- 
main for ages in an isolated, uncivilized, 
undeveloped condition? To answer 
that fully one must take account of the 
Sahara desert on the north and the great 
forest belt which follows in a wide, deep 
margin the west African coast. 

Yet geograph*, with most people, has 
always been a ‘‘dry’’ study. Just why 
this is so might be discussed, perhaps, 
so as to yield interesting conclusions. 
Possibly, as taught for so long in the 
past, it was too unreal, too make-believe, 
too artificial to arouse interest, especially 
the interest of those with little imagina- 
tion. The north was always up, the 
south down, the east at the right and 
the west at the left of the page. To 
be sure, the earth was round, with flat- 
tened poles, because the book ‘said so ; 
yet what one in a thousand, since the 
globular condition of the earth was 
accepted as a. fact by the civilized 
world, has easily comprehended the sig- 
nificance of the great and small circles 


DEBS IN LAE 


HE accompanying platesof high 

and low tides in the Bay of 

Fundy are enlarged from pho- 
tographs taken by Mr Roland Hayward, 
of Milton, Mass.,in the summer of 1903. 
The views are of double value—first, in 
showing tides of unusual strength, and, 
again, in being taken from the same 
points for both high andlowtides. ‘The 
following general statements are from 
an article by Chalmers in the Report of 
the Geological Survey of Canada for 


1894 (1895): 


Bay or Funpy 


71 


as to distances over continents and 
oceans ? Then, too, the misconceptions 
one may draw from the ordinary maps 
are enormous, as Lord Salisbury inti- 
mated so strongly. We are so accus- 
tomed to large maps of our little corners 
of the earth that when we see maps of 
Asia, or Africa, made of the same size, 
our ideas as to the extent of those re- 
gious go hopelessly astray. When some 
one comes along and tells us how many 
Frances or Germanys or Englands could 
be embraced within the boundaries of 
Tibet, we are well-nigh upset. When 
President Roosevelt talks about ‘‘ the 
mastery of the ‘ Pacific,’ ’’ notone Amer- 
ican in 500 can conceive the proposition 
in terms of geography, and geography 
has a treniendous lot to do with inter- 
national politics. 

It issaid that geography is still largely 
a monopoly of the German schools; in 
England, they are poorly off, according 
to the complaints lately made in the 
London press. It isencouraging, how- 
ever, to note a growing insistence every- 
where upon fuller geographical knowl- 
edge and more nearly correct geograph- 
ical ideas. No one can be a man or 
woman of real education and culture in 
the future to whom geography, in no 
narrow sense, is virtually a closed book. 


joa MON a ANY DN 


The mouth of the bay is 48 miles 
wide and from 70 to 110 fathoms deep. 
The bottom rises at a rate of 4 feet toa 
mile for 145 miles, to the head of the 
bay. On the coast near the mouth the 
spring tides vary from 12 to 18 feet. 
Within the bay the spring and neap 
tides are as follows: Digby Neck, 22, 18; 
Se Jolm~275 22". sPetitcodiac River, 
46, 36; Cumberland Basin, 44, 35: Noel 
River, in Cobequid Bay, 53, 31. The 
last named is, according to Chalmers, 
the greatest tidal range authentically 


: ‘FC (N ‘WO}UOIW 3e IOATY oVIpooyeg 9yj dn Surmoo s10g ay J, 


3 'T (N ‘MOJO 3e IDA OVIPOd 9g 9Y} UO Oply, YS 


‘S°N ‘OTIAJ[OM\ ‘ToARY XNvoredsey oy} UO Spl], MO’T | . 


‘SUN ‘OTTAOM ‘oATY Xnvoredseyy 94} uo apry, ys 


TAO 


reported for any part of the bay. At 
the head of the bay high tide is about 
20 feet above mean sea-level. Low tide 
is as much below. The tidal bore is 
seen in Maccan River, entering Cum- 
berland Basin; but it is stronger in 
Petitcodiac River, entering Shepody 
Bay. It is best seen at Moncton, where 
the first pair of views is taken. 

Mr Hayward gives the following de- 
tails : 

The Petitcodiac River turns at Monc- 
ton from a northeast to a southeast 
course, then entering the northwestern 
branch of the bay. The mud flats are 
three-quarters of a mile wide at Monc- 
ton. The retiring tide leaves them cov- 
ered with ripple-marks. The low-tide 
view was taken at 10.05 a. m., August 
9.1903)! looking easterly., Here, the 
foaming and roaring bore advances 
against a swift fresh-water stream, ris- 
ing rapidly. Its height was about 3% 
feet ; its progress was 5 miles an hour. 
High water, as shown in the second 
view, is reached about three hours after 
the arrival of the bore. 

The second pair of views was taken 
at Wolfville, on the eastern arm of the 
bay near the mouth of the Gaspareaux 
River; on September 7 and 8,1903. The 
piles in the pier are stated to be 60 feet 


Tue NaTionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


high. The great inconvenience attend- 
ing so strong a range of tide may be 
imagined. ! 

It may be well to recall a feature of 
the Bay of Fundy tides set forth by 
M.S. W. Jefferson a few years ago in 
his articles in this magazine, to the 
effect that the Fundy tides are practi- 
cally synchronous fiom the mouth to 
the head of the bay, while the Chesa- 
peake tides, for example, are progress- 
ively later and later from mouth to 
head ; but the estuaries at the head of 
the Bay of Fundy have progressive 
tides, asin the Petitcodiac. The synch- 
ronous ‘‘ swash’’ tides of the bay may be 
easily imitated in a model of an irregu- 
lar shore on which a shallow sheet of 
water lies. Tide-like oscillations in the 
water may be made by an oscillating 
plunger ; and when the proper period 
of oscillation is chosen, the tide in a 
funnel-shaped bay will have small range 
at the mouth and great range at the 
head, and the time of high or of low 
tide will be essentially synchronous all 
along the bay sides. At the same time 
a neighboring bay of different form may 
have progressive tides whose advancing 
waves may assume the form of a bore 
if the proper variation of breadth and 
depth of channel is given. 

W. M. D. 


FRENCH CONQUEST. OF THE. SAB ARS 


By CHARLES RABOT 


EDITORIAL SECRETARY OF ‘‘LA GEOGRAPHIE,’’ MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL 
OF SOCIETE DE GEOGRAPHIE DE PARIS 


O traverse the Sahara from north 

to south, to join Algeria to the 
Sudan through the great des- 

ert of North Africa, and to subjugate 
the nomads who wander through that 


immense region has been one of the 
principal aims of France in recent years, 


and one which she has at length attained 
at the price of long and persevering ef- 
fort. The hostility of the Touaregs was 
foralongtimean obstacle. Established 
in the oases scattered over the Sahara, 
these Berber fanatics and brigands were 
accustomed to scan the whole desert, and 


* An address to the Eighth International Geographic Congress, September, 1904. 


FRENCH CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA 79 


as soon as they spied a caravan to fall 
upon it toroband massacre. Often, too, 
they were wont to attack the tribes of 
the extreme south of Algeria, who had 
already submitted to French influences. 

After the disaster to the Flatters 
mission in 1881 and several other out- 
rages committed by the Touaregs, the 
French military authorities had post- 
poned for a while all further desire to 
penetrate into the Sahara and remained 
simply on the defensive. 

During this period of official inac- 
tion, M. Foureau accomplished a series 
or very) fruittul expeditions in the 
desert regions south of Algeria. From 
1883 to 1897 he traveled no less than 
13,200 miles, of which 9,600 were in 
regions entirely unknown. 

Not only did M. Foureau notably 
augment our geographic knowledge by 
this journey, but he inaugurated a 
mode of traveling which has been very 
fruitful for the exploration of the Sa- 
hara. Instead of being accompanied 
by a heavy caravan, lie preceding mis- 
sions, this traveler adopted the mode of 
life and transport of the natives, taking 
with him only a few faithful Arabs. 
His little troop was mounted on ‘‘ me- 
haris,’’ used by the Touaregs—rapid 
camels, which are to the ordinary cam- 
els of the caravan what race-horses are 
to cart horses. Thanks to the mobility 
of his caravan, M. Foureau could per- 
form long raids without being attacked 
by the Touaregs. Meanwhile, from 
1890 to 1892, a French officer, Colonel 
Monteil, accomplished the crossing of 
the Sahara from Tchad to Tripoli by 
the caravan route. 

The French, however, had never aban- 
doned the idea of a junction of Algeria 
to the Sudan. In 1896 a member of 
the Geographical Society, M. Renoust 
des Orgeries, encouraged this idea by 
giving the society $50,000 to organize 
an expedition to carry out this program, 
and in 1899 M. Foureau received per- 
mission to traverse the Sahara and to 


make his way through the desert to the 
French possessions in Central Africa. 
To ensure the safety of his caravan and 
to compel a respect for the French flag 
from the brigands of the Sahara, the 
government gave M. Foureau a numer- 
ous military escort, commanded by 
Major Lamy. 

This Foureau expedition started from 
Ouargla (in South Algeria) at the end 
of October, 1898, and a year later (No- 
vember 2, 1899) arrived at Zinder, at 
the northeast extremity of French Su- 
dan. In the: April following, aiter 
having gone round Lake Tchad by the 
north and east, the expedition had ef- 
fected a junction with the French troops 
upon the Chari, the principal affluent 
ofthe Nchad: 

The march of the expedition was very 
slow and painful in consequence of the 
enormous caravan track behind it. Part 
of its camels soon succumbed to the 
fatigues of the journey, and it was 1m- 
possible to purchase new beasts of bur- 
den from the nomads. The Touaregs, 
confident of their strength, threw them- 
selves at various times against the little 
troop; but, having learned in these en- 
counters that they could not be victori- 
ous, they abandoned active hostilities 
and limited themselves to creating a 
complete dearth of supplies around the 
explorers. It was only through the 
energies of M. Foureau and of the mili- 
tary chiefs that the expedition was able 
to get along at all. 

The slowness of this journey has had 
very favorable results from the scientific 
point of view. It has permitted M. Fou- 
reau to acquire a very complete knowl- 
edge of the country and to collect a very 
rich harvest of observations of interest 
to all fields of geography. A great 
work setting forth these scientific obser- 
vations is in course of publication and 
is being offered to all important geo- 
graphic societies. 

The Foureau mission opens a new era 
in the French penetration of the Sahara. 


78 


At the moment when this expedition 
was setting out the French government 
gave up the defensive attitude, and, 
abandoning the merely defensive policy 
observed since the Flatters mission in 
1881, decided to extend further south- 
ward the zoneof French influence, which 
then did not pass 30° latitude north. On 
the 28thof December, 1899, M. Flamand, 
a naturalist, was instructed to make a 
study of the region which it was pro- 
posed to annex, and was attacked at [n- 


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; a ty v | je 
Sic, 4 . ee / 
a LY, 
‘i i 7 { 


Tue Nationa, GEocrRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Mediterranean to the northern curve of 
the Niger at Timbuctoo. 

This military advance has had inter- 
esting results from the point of view of 
geography. An excellent map on the 
scale of I:250,000 has been made by 
Lieutenant Nieger of the whole region 
of Touat and Tidikelt, hitherto im- 
perfectly known. Moreover, M. Fla- 


mand has published interesting notes on 
the morphology and geology of this part 
of the desert. 


To ensure protection of 


- 


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aoe 


Scenes on Lake Tchad 


Sala. Immediately the French troops 
advanced on their ‘‘meharis,’’ com- 
manded by Captains Germain and Pein, 
two brilliant Sahara officers. Some 
months later the French occupied the 
chain of oases of Gourara, Touat, and 
Tidikelt, more than 300 kilometers in 
length, which runs along the subter- 
ranean courses of rivers descending from 
the high plateaus of Morocco and Al- 
geria. In this way the French had ad- 
vanced nearly half the distance from the 


the oases thus acquired against the in- 
cursions of the Touaregs, the military 
authorities recognized the necessity of 
abandoning the old mistake of simply 
remaining on the defensive. In order 
to assure the tranquillity of the country, 
it was necessary at the first attack from 
the brigand tribes to pursue them vigor- 
ously through the desert, and not to 
give up until a sharp lesson had been 
inflicted. 

This result could only be obtained by 


FRENCH CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA 


a very mobile and acclimatized troop. 
It was decided therefore to undertake 
the creation of troops mounted on 
‘‘meharis’’ and composed of natives 
under the command of French officers. 
This organization was inspired from 
that of the famous ‘‘dromedary com- 
panies’’ instituted by Bonaparte in 
Beypt, and by that.of the “‘ camel 
corps’’ recently adopted in the Sudan 
by the British army. 

Since that time the French troops 
have been on an equality of speed and 
mobility with the Touaregs, while their 
superiority of arms ensures victory even 
against superior numbers. 

These Saharan troops once organ- 
ized, the officers commanding the ex- 
treme southern posts upon the Algerian 
frontier undertook long raids into the 
Sahara, traversing and surveying vast 
unknown regions and at the same time 
acting as a vigilant police. On March 
26, 1901, the Touaregs having come to 
rob the people of Tidikelt, Lieutenant 
Cottenest started with 130 native troops 
and reached the mountain mass of the 
Hoggar and inflicted a severe lesson 
upon the brigands, returning to In- 
Sala after having traveled 1,000 miles 
in 62 days in a country entirely hostile. 
The same year, from the 16th of May 
to the 15th of June, Major Laperrine 
explored the Mouydir, a plateau sur- 
rounded by valleys from 200 to 300 
meters deep and containing an abun- 
dance of water, wood, and excellent 
pasture. 

Some time later, in 1902, Lieuten- 
ant Guilho-Lohan returned to the Hog- 
gar plateau and pushed south to 22° 
latitude north. In 1903 Lieutenant 
Besset effected a raid of 750 miles in 
the south, and some months later Major 
Laperrine, accompanied by Professor 
Gautier, directed a new reconnaissance 
in the Mouydir and the Ahnet. At the 
same time Captain Pein effected a raid 
round the Temassinine in the region 
situated farther east. 


eo 


These different expeditions have com- 
pleted and transformed the situation of 
the Sahara. The Touaregs, finding 
themselves chastised for the smallest act 
of rapine and always overtaken in their 
haunts, have now given their submis- 
sion to Captain Metois, commanding at 
In-Sala. Only the tribe of Azguers, 
which wanders in the eastern Sahara, 
has as yet refused to accept French 
domination. | 

Accordingly a new and decisive oper- 
ation was undertaken. At the com- 
mencement of February, 1904, Major 
Laperrine, quitting In-Sala at the head 
of a troop of ‘‘ meharistes’’ and taking 
his route south, succeeded in travers- 
ing the Sahara and meeting a second 
troop of ‘‘meharistes’’ which had set 
out from Timbuctoo. In this way was 
effected the junction of Algeria with 
the Niger, previously accomplished by 
M. Foureau, but now by a more eastern 
route. 

In this expedition Major Laperrine 
was accompanied by an astronomer, 
M. Villate. From a geographical point 
of view these raids have had very im- 
portant results. The officers who have 
commanded them have brought back 
precise methods and numerous obser- 
vations of interest. Asa result of the 
reconnaissance in which he took part in 
1903, Professor Gautier has made a 
geological map of Mouydir and Ahnet, 
in the very center of the Sahara. 

The junction of the parties from In- 
Sala and Timbuctoo took place on 
April 18, at the well of Tioniaoune by 
20° 10’ north latitude. The party from 
Algeria, under Commandant Laperrine, 
had come through Inzize and Timissao. 
After he succeeded in joining hands with 
the southern party, the commandant 
pushed a little farther south, as far as 
the well of Tin Zaouatem by 19° 57’ 
north latitude, but soon resumed the 
journey northward to In-Sala, follow- 
ing afreshitinerary. Scarcity of water 
and the heat (it was in May) made the 


80 


homeward journey very trying, part of 
the men having to travel as far as 320 
kilometers with hardly any water. 
News received from this expedition 
points to the extension southward of 
the volcanic formations discovered by 
M. Gautier in Mouydir. 

Thanks to M. Foureau and to the 
officers commanding the posts of the 
extreme south of Algeria, considerable 
progress has been accomplished by the 
new method of exploring the Sahara by 
the .employment. of “‘umehara”’  (sin- 
gular of ‘‘mehari’’). This camel can 
bear, besides his rider and his arms and 
accoutrements, 30 days’ victuals and two 
skins of water. With this load he can 
march from 3 to 34% miles an hour and 
amible ata pace of 5 amiles)” Im the 
raid executed in 1903 by Commandant 
Laperrine and Professor Gautier 69 miles 
were traversed in 29 hours. 


Tue NatTIonNaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


One has no need for anxiety as to feed- 
ing the mehari; the desert flora suffices 
for its food, and in summer it can endure 
5 days without drinking, while when 
plants are green it can go without water 
{OF 1S OF 20 Gays: 

By this method of penetration in the 
Sahara, M. Foureau and these French 
officers have there accomplished pro- 
gress as important as that effected by 
Nansen in his Arctic exploration. By 
adopting the means of locomotion and of 
existence of the Polar peoples, the Nor- 
wegian explorer gained a memorable 
victory. In the same way, by borrow- 
ing from the inhabitants of the Sahara 
their mode of life and locomotion, the 
French have triumphed over the obsta- 
cles which the nature of the soil and of 
the inhabitants had set against the ex- 
ploration of the great desert of northern 
Africa. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE RUSSO-JAPANESE 
WAR, IN JAPAN AND MANCHURIA* 


By Dr Louis LIvINGsTONE SEAMAN 


HE Japanese soldier has been 
taught how to treat his intes- 
tines, and consequently his in- 
testines are now treating him with equal 
consideration. His plain, rational diet 
is digested, metabolized and assimilated. 
It is not an irritating, indigestible, fer- 
menting mess, acting as a local irritant 
and producing gastritis, duodenitis, en- 
teritis, colitis, hepatitis, and the long list 
of inflammatory intestinal processes with 
which we were all so familiar in the hos- 
pital wards at Camp Alger, Chattanooga, 
Tampa, Cuba, Porto Rico, Montauk 
Poimt ce, aiiinoosr 
The great hospitals are there, interne, 


contagious, and infectious departments, 
their conspicuously empty beds voicing 
more eloquently than words the most 
important lesson of the war. A few 
cases of diseases of the respiratory sys- 
tem are found—colds, bronchitis, and 
an occasional pneumonia—contracted 
through exposure in fording rivers, ex- 
haustive marches, and bivouacking on 
wet ground, a few more of typhoid (1 
saw only three in Manchuria), occasion- 
ally one of dysentery, and a number of 
cases of beri beri, that former scourge of 
oriental armies. 

But of all the many thousands gath- 
ered in these institutions there were but 


* Abstract of an address to the National Geographic Society, December 9, 1904. ‘Those 
desiring further information on this subject are referred to Dr Seaman’s instructive book 


recently published by D. Appleton & Co. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


afew medical cases, and of these scarcely 
a baker’s dozen came under the heading 
of ‘‘ Diseases of the digestive system.”’ 
Therein lies one of the greatest secrets 
of the Japanesesuccess. Napoleon never 
made a more truthful statement than 
when he said: ‘‘An army fights on its 
belly.’’ The Japanese have that belly, 
and they take good care to keep it in 
fighting order, not by insulting it three 
times a day by cramming it with mate- 
rial totally unsuited to the soldier’s ne- 
cessities, thereby exciting irritations and 
disease, but by supplying it with a plain, 
palatable, easily prepared and easily di- 
gested ration that can be thoroughly 
metabolized and converted into the 
health and energy that make its owner 
the ideal fighting machine of the world 
today. 

The organization of the medical de- 
partment of the Japanese army and navy 
is modeled after that of the Germans, 
with many added improvements. Too 
much praise cannot be bestowed upon 
the medical department of the army and 
navy for their splendid preparatory work 
in this war. The Japanese are the first 
to recognize the true value of an army 
medical corps. The medical officer is 
omnipresent. You will find him in 
countless places where in an American 
or British army he hasno place. Heis 
as much at the front asinthe rear. He 
is with the first screen of scouts with his 
microscope and chemicals, testing and 
labeling wells so the army to follow shall 
drink no contaminated water. When 
the scouts reach a town he immediately 
institutes a thorough examination of its 
sanitary condition, and if contagion or 
infection is found he quarantines and 
places a guard around the dangerous 
district. Notices are posted, so the ap- 
proaching column is warned, and no 
soldiers are billeted where danger exists. 
Microscopic blood tests are made in all 
fever cases and bacteriological experts, 
fully equipped, form part of the staff of 
every divisional headquarters. 


81 


Russo-] APAN ESE War 


The medical officer is also found in 
camp, lecturing the men on sanitation 
and the hundred and one details of per- 
sonal hygiene—how to cook, to eat, and 
when not to drink, to bathe, and even 
to the direction of the paring and cleans- 
ing of the finger nails to prevent danger 
from bacteria. Up to August 1, 9,682 
cases had been received at the reserve 
hospital at Hiroshima, of whom 6,636 
were wounded. Of the entire number 
up to that time only 34 had died. 

It is the rule of the Japanese surgeons 
at the front to do little or no operating 
except in cases of extreme emergency or 
where hemorrhage threatens immediate 
death. All cases are treated by the ap- 
plication of the first aid dressing and 
then sent to the rear as quickly as pos- 
sible, thence by hospital boat or trans- 
port to the base hospitals in Japan. 

If the testimony of those conversant 
with the facts can be accepted, supple- 
mented from my own limited observa- 
tions, the loss from preventable diseases 
in the first six months of this terrible 
conflict will be but a fraction of 1 per 
cent. This, too, in a country notori- 
ously insanitary. Compare this with 
the fearful losses of the British from 
preventable diseases in South Africa, 
or, worse, with our own losses in the 
Spanish-American war—where, in a 
campaign the actual hostilities of which 
lasted six weeks, the mortality from 
bullets and wounds was 268, while that 
from disease reached the appalling num- 
ber of 3,862, or about 14 to 1, or 70 per 
cent—I per cent against 70 per cent. 

Naturally one asks, Were these re- 
sults anticipated? As an answer, the 
statement of a distinguished Japanese 
officer, when discussing with me the 
subject of Russia’s overwhelming num- 
bers, is pertinent. ‘‘ Yes,’’ he said, 
‘‘ we are prepared for that. Russia may 
be able to place 2,000,000 men in the 
field. We can furnish 500,000. You 
know in every war four men die of dis- 
ease for every one who falls from bul- 


82 


lets. That will be the position of Russia 
in this war. We propose to eliminate 
disease as a factor. Every man who 
dies in our army must fall on the field of 
battle. In this way we shall neutralize 
the superiority of Russian numbers and 
stand on acomparatively equal footing.’’ 

Japan is the first country in the world 
to recognize that the greatest enemy in 
war is not the army of the invader, but 
of a foe more treacherous and danger- 
ous—preventable disease, found lurking 
in every camp. 

If wars are inevitable and the slaugh- 
ter of men must go on—and I believe 
wars are inevitable and that most of 
them are ultimately beneficial—then, for 
the love of God, let our men be killed 


Tue Nationa, Grocrapuic MacaZIne 


legitimately, on the field, fighting for 
the stake at issue—not drop them by the 
wayside by preventable disease, as we 
did in the Spanish-American war—1,400 
for every 100 that died in action. Itis 
for the 1,400 poor devils who are sacri- 
ficed—never for the 100 who fall gal- 
lantly fighting—that I offer my prayer. 
The state deprives the soldier of his 
liberty, prescribes his exercises, equip- 
ment, dress, diet, the locality in which 
he shall reside, and in the hour of dan- 
ger expects him, if necessary, to lay 
down his life in its defense and honor. 
It should therefore give him the best 
sanitation and the best medical super- 
vision that the science of the age—be it 
Japanese or Patagonian—can devise. 


HELPING THE FAKMERS 


In the January number of this Magazine considerable mention was made of the 


work of the Department of Agriculture during 1904. 


The following paragraphs 


give information on certain lines of work which were not then described for lack of space. 


RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS 


HE Secretary of Agriculture re- 

ports much progress made dur- 
ing 1904 on the alkali reclama- 

tion tracts established during the year 
previous, and indications point to the 
complete reclamation of the lands under 
experimentation at an early day. At 
the inception of the work on a 4o-acre 
tract near Salt Lake City, a soil survey 
showed the first 4 feet of soil to con- 
tain more than 6,650 tons of soluble 
salts. In May, 1903, eight months 
after, there had been removed by drain- 
age nearly 50 per cent of this immense 
total, and in the following October only 
I,221 tons remained in the entire tract. 
The progress of similar work on a 20- 
acre tract at Fresno, Cal., has been no 
less gratifying. The Secretary declares 
his full confidence in the final success 
of this work and a firm belief that it will 
lead to individual or concerted action 


on the part of those most interested, 
with the result of greatly benefiting both 
the agricultural and stock-raising in- 
terests. 


GROWTH OF CUBAN SEED TOBACCO 


In the line of tobacco investigations 
which are carried on by the Bureau of 
Soils the most important work during 
the year was the experimental growing 
of Cuban seed tobacco on certain soils 
in Texas, Alabama, and South Caro- 
lina. Samples of tobaccos grown in 
1903 were submitted to the trade, and 
the Texas leaf was found to have con- 
siderable merit both in regard to flavor 
and aroma. Some have pronounced it 
to be superior to any filler yet grown in 
this country. The Alabama filler leaf 
is considered fair. Final judgment of 
the success of this venture, however, 
must await further advices from dealers 
and manufacturers. Growing of the 


HELPING THE FARMERS 


Cuban type of filler has also been tried 
in Ohio. The most important work in 
Ohio, however, has been the further in- 
troduction of the bulk method of fer- 
menting cigar tobaccos. Over 655,000 
pounds were fermented in 1902, over 
4,000,000 in 1903, while in 1904 the 
quantity so fermented exceeded 10,000,- 
ooo pounds. Considerable demand has 
been made the past year upon the Bu- 
reau to assist the growers of the heavy 
export types. Experiments have been 
undertaken to grow the tobacco with 
different fertilizers and under different 
methods of culture to see which will 
give the best financial results. Itis yet 
too early to give the results of the pres- 
ent season’s work. 


SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO 


In 1903 the Department of Agricul- 
ture had practically ceased its work in 
Connecticut in the production of shade- 
grown tobacco, but in 1904 it conducted 
aa experiment at Tariffville, Conn., 
where a crop has been produced on a 
4-acre plat. Tobacco of this type was 
exhibited at the JIouisiana Purchase 
Exposition and received a grand prize 
asa leaf of the highest excellence for 
cigar wrappers. The Secretary presents 
a table which shows that 134 bales of 
Connecticut shade-grown tobacco have 
been sold for domestic use at an average 
price of $1.26 plus, the highest price 
obtained being $1.75 per pound for light 
wrappers. One hundred and forty-four 
bales were sold for export at an average 


of $0.34. 


HXPERIMENTAL WORK IN COMBAT- 
ING THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 


The most important work of the Bu- 
reau of Entomology during the year has 
been its combat with the Mexican cot- 
ton boll weevil. Under the provisions 
of the special appropriation of $250,000, 
made available January, 1904, this work 
was greatly enlarged. Over a thousand 
acres, divided among thirteen experi- 
mental farms, were devoted to experi- 


8 3 


mental work, and it 1s believed that the 
cultural system these farms were de- 
signed to illustrate has so far proved 
to be the only practicable means of con- 
trolling the weevil. This is the out- 
growth of several years of experimenta- 
tion. 


COLONIZATION OF THE GUATEMALAN 
ANT 


The discovery of the Guatemalan ant 
and its colonization in Texas is a feature 
of distinct encouragement. The emi- 
nent danger of the spread of the weevil, 
however, to other States indicates the 
necessity of continued active and ener- 
getic work on the part of the general 
government. 


MEANS OF COMBATING THE BOLL- 
WORM 


Field experiments have demonstrated 
that the cultural system of control rec- 
ommended for the boll weevil furnishes 
the very best means also against the 
bollworm. Spraying and dusting with 
arsenical potions and the value of truck 
crops have been made the subject of 
careful experiments, and the depart- 
ment is now able to recommend meas- 
ures which will greatly reduce damage 
from this pest. 


BENEFICIAL INSECTS 


The possibility of keeping injurious 
insects in check by the introduction of 
their natural insect enemies is a popular 
subject with fruit growers and farmers, 
and notable success has been achieved 
in this direction. 


STUDY OF INSECTS DAMAGING 
FORESTS 


The general information gained from 
the study of insects damaging forests, 
carried on both in the field and in the 
laboratory, has greatly advanced the 
knowledge of forest insects and the 
means of controlling them. An expert 
has been placed in charge of investiga- 
tions of insecticides, and fumigation 


84 


experiments with fruit stock and build- 
ings and granaries are now under way, 
as well as cooperative work between the 
Bureaus of Entomology and Chemistry 
on the composition of insecticides. 


BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 


The work of the Biological Survey 
has been continued along three princi- 
pal lines: First, investigations relating 
to the geographical distribution of ani- 
mals and plants, including biological 
surveys and the determination of the 
life and crop belts; second, investiga- 
tions of the economic relations of birds 
to agriculture; third, supervision of 
matters relating to game preservation 
and protection and the importation of 
foreign birds and animals. In carrying 
out this threefold mission the Biolog- 
ical Survey is divided into three sec- 
tions—that of geographical distribu- 
tion, that of economic ornithology, and 
finally one of game protection and in- 
troduction. 


OF BIRDS AND MAM- 
MALS 


IMPORTATION 


Constant vigilance is necessary to pre- 
vent the introduction into the United 
States of birds or animals likely to be- 
come pests. The permits issued during 
the year numbered 318, and included 
1,470 mammals and 250,000 birds. 


ENFORCEMENT OF GAME LAWS 


Six convictions for illegal traffic in 
game were secured during the year 
under the Lacey act, making 42 convic- 
tions secured in cases passing through 
this department. In Alaska the game 
law has accomplished two main objects— 
the shipment of deer heads has been 
stopped, and the export of heads of big 
game as trophies has been curtailed. 


PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES 


Object-lesson roads have been con- 
structed with the cooperation of the 
office of public road inquiries in Arkan- 
sas, Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia, and 


THe NatTIionaL GreocGrRAPHic MAGazINE 


West Virginia. These were mostly first- 
class macadam roads. It has also coop- 
erated at several points in the South in 
constructing experimental roads of a 
mixture of sand and clay. In the ab- 
sence of stone and gravel, this mixture 
may be used to great advantage. Much- 
has been accomplished during the year 
in the development of good roads by 
the state-aid plan. The main features 
of this plan as now adopted in several 
states are a state highway commission, 
appropriations from the state treasury 
to pay a portion of the expense, the bal- 
ance being divided between the counties, 
towns, and the owners of property along 
the improved roads. Since 1890 eleven 
states in all have provided, in a greater 
or less degree, the state aid. 

Much time has been spent in study- 
ing the physical properties of clays in 
an endeavor to devise methods by which 
they can be utilized in road making. 
Of 228 samples of road materials re- 
ported during the past year, 35 were 
clays. Clinkered clay has been suc- 
cessfully used for some time past asa 
railroad ballast. Hxperiments were 
made with samples of the so called 
gumbo clay from the Yazoo district of 
Mississippi, and following these ex- 
periments the Office of Public Road 
Inquiries built an experimental road in 
Yazoo City, which has been reported 
successful. The Division of Tests has 
not confined itself to investigations of 
clays in their use as road material, but 
to their useful properties for any pur- 
pose, with a view to developing the use 
of native clays, of which the produc- 
tion already exceeds $2,000,000 an- 
nually, while of foreign clays over 
¢1,000,000 worth are imported. 


OILS AND ASPHALTUM FOR ROADS 


The suggestion of the Division of 
Tests to road builders throughout the 
country to make experiments with mix- 
tures of crude oils and crude asphaltum 
in road building has resulted in some 
cases very satisfactorily. 


HELPING THE FARMERS 


A SCHOOL FOR ROAD BUILDING 
RECOMMENDED 


f £In connection with the subject of road 
materials the Secretary of Agriculture 
urges the desirability of a school for 
road building in connection with the 
department, the students to consist of 
men who have already received degrees 
from reputable engineering schools. 


EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN ALASKA 


P6Many interesting experiments have 
been carried on in Alaska. Distribu- 
tion was made, moreover, of vegetable 
and flower seeds to some 1,500 persons, 
many of whom report success, and con- 
firm the possibility of raising hardy veg- 
etables in nearly all parts of the territory 
south of the Arctic Circle. In general, 
the experimental work in Alaska has 
shown that live stock could be success- 
fully maintained at many points. Sheep 
raising has not proved successful, and 
the Secretary expresses the opinion that 
Alaskan grass lands as a whole can be 
most profitably used at present through 


85 


. 


dairying. ‘The Secretarysaysitisdoubt- 
ful if equally good opportunities for 
dairymen can be found in the United 
States today. 


PUBLICATION WORK 


The publication work of the depart- 
ment is a faithful reflex of its activity 
and growth. The number of publica- 
tions issued during the past year aggre- 
gated 972, of which 379, comprising 
23,000 pages of matter, werenew. The 
number of copies of all publications 
printed during the year amounted to 
nearly 12,500,000. Of farmers’ bulle- 
tins, of which 6,500,000 copies were is- 
sued during the year, nearly 5,000,000 
were distributed upon the orders of 
members of Congress. Educational in- 
stitutions are becoming more frequent 
applicants for publications, mainly for 
class work, and the Secretary suggests 
a plan by which, with the approval of 
Congress, unused congressional quotas 
of the department’s publications might 
be made available. 


From David Griffiths, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


A Flock of Goats on the Ranges of Arizona 


Tue NatTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


86 


| 


Mee ete es Se : ee ee Sa eee) 


tn aA 


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‘(SO[IME QA yNOGe JO [VAIOJUL Ue ssotOe puUe ‘Jsedq}IOU-Y}IOU SaLAOOT) a1191q }G JO UOT}IIS UIay}NOs 9Y} WOIf Uses SY 


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GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE annual meeting of the National 

Geographic Society was held at 
Washington, January 13. Eight mem- 
bers of the Board of Managers were 
elected to serve for the three years, 
1905-1907, as follows: 

Alexander Graham Bell, Alfred H. 
Brooks, Henry Gannett, General A. W. 
Greely, Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Angelo 
Heilprin, O. H. Tittmann, and General 
John M. Wilson. 

Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago, was elected to fill 
the vacancy in the Board caused by the 
resignation of Prof. Wm. M. Davis, of 
Harvard University. 

The report of the Secretary, Hon. 
©. P. Austin, showed that the present 
membership of the Society is 3,400, of 
whom 1,125 are residents of Washing- 
ton and 2,275 distributed throughout 
the United States, Alaska, Philippines, 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. ‘The net 
gain in membership for 1904 was 789. 
During 1904 the Society held 12 scien- 
tific meetings, 16 special meetings, and 
4 field meetings. | 

At a meeting of the Board of Man- 
agers January 27 Dr Willis L. Moore, 
Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau, was 
elected President of the Society. Dr 
Moore has been actively identified with 
the Society for many years, serving on 
the Board of Managerssince 1899. At 
the same meeting Mr Henry Gannett, 
Geographer of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, was elected Vice-President. 
Mr Gannett was one of the incorporat- 
ors of the Society, in 1888, and with 
the exception of the year 1903, which 
he passed in the Philippines, he has 
served continuously on the Board since 
the Society was founded. ‘ 


CHART OF THE WORLD 


HROUGH the courtesy of the 
Hydrographic Office of the Navy 
Department, and more particularly of 


Captain H. M. Hodges, hydrographer, 
and Mr George W. Littlehales, the 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
publishes as a supplement to this num- 
ber a chart of the world on Mercator’s 
projection, showing the submarine cable 
lines and their connections and ocean 
routes. Cable and telegraph lines are 
printed in red and ocean routes in blue. 
The latest cable lines are shown—as, 
for instance, the Alaskan cables of the 
U. S. Signal Corps and the wireless 
connection across Norton Sound. The 
tables of distances printed on the bot- 
tom of the chart will doubtless be found 
very convenient by many. One table 
tells at a glance the comparative dis- 
tances of New York and Shanghai, or 
Yokohama by the Panama, Suez, and 
Cape of Good Hope routes. Another 
table gives the distances of our Gulf 
ports from the Atlantic end of the 
Panama Canal (Colon), and also from 
each other. The chart can be easily 
detached from the Magazine and hung 
on the wall for more convenient use. 


NOTES ON THE PHILIPPINES 


NE of the most striking facts in the 
report for 1904 of Col.Clarence R. 
Edwards, U.S. Army, Chief of the Bu- 
reau of Insular Affairs, is the statement 
that only $5.300,000, or less than 8 per 
cent, of the $69,000,000 worth of goods 
entering and leaving the Philippine Isl- 
ands in 1904 were carried in American 
bottoms. What a lamentable instance 
of the insignificance of our merchant 
marine, which, like our iron, coal, and 
agricultural industries, ought to be the 
greatest in the world. 

During the year nearly 13,000 Ameri- 
cans went to the Philippines with the in- 
tention of making their permanent home 
there. Most of them did not specify the 
nature of their occupation, but among 
those who did were 333 teachers, 117 en- 
gineers, 50 physicians, 47 clergymen, 33 
lawyers, 406 clerks and accountants, 186 


83 


merchant dealers and grocers, 58 mari- 
ners, and 18 miners. Many of these had 
received civil-service appointments from 
the United States. The administrative 
acts of the Bureau during 1904 were pre- 
viously described by Colonel Edwards in 
the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
of June and July. 

‘The question of labor in the Philip- 
pines has ceased to be a critical one, 
says the Collector of Customs for the 
Philippine Islands in his report for 
1904. Despite the gloomy predictions 
of many thoroughly sincere investi- 
gators and writers on the subject, the 
Filipino laborer has conclusively dem- 
onstrated that he is a practicable and 
dependable element in the industrial 
development of the Islands. In the 
past two years several immense enter- 
prises have been successfully carried on 
solely with the aid of Filipino laborers. 
All goods arriving at or leaving the port 
of Manila are handled by natives. Dur- 
ing the past year the operation of the 
customs ‘Arrastre plant’ has been en- 
tirely in the hands of native labor, in- 
cluding the steam tramway and four 
large steam cranes. 

‘“The Filipinos make good clerks, 
copyists, typewriters, sub-inspectors, 
and, in some instances, excellent fidu- 
ciary officers. In the handling of cash, 
in subordinate positions. they have 
shown a high degree of accuracy and 
integrity. As marine officers and engi- 
neers, especially in the latter position, 
they have exhibited a skill, fidelity, and 
courage which entitle them to unstinted 
admiration.’ 


TRANSPORTATION IN ENGLAND 


T the present time, when there is 

so much comment on transporta- 

tion rates in the United States, the fol- 

lowing statements from an American 

consul in England of conditions in that 
country may surprise some of us:* 


*W. P. Smith, U. S. consul. Tunstall, Eng- 
land, Consular Reports, January 25, 1905. 


Tue Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


‘‘The carriage for a ton of apples 
from Folkstone, on the south coast of 
England, to London, is $5.86, while 
goods of the same class are carried from 
California to London for $3.81. Itcosts 
$9.73 to send a ton of British meat from 
Liverpool to London, while it costs only 
$6.09 to send a ton of foreign meat to 
the same market. The Irish farmer 
who wants to get his produce to London 
has to pay $22.88 carriage per ton on 
his eggs from Galway, while the Danish 


farmer can send eggs into the London 


market for $5.85, the Russian for $5.10, 
and the farmer in Normandy for $4.05. 
The man down in Kent, who is almost 
at the London market, has to pay $6.10 
per ton to the railway companies for 
carrying the produce of his orchard to 
London, while the same class of freight 
is brought from Holland for half the 
money.”’ 


TO OBSERVE SOLAR ECLIPSE 


EAR Admiral C. M. Chester, su- 
perintendent of the Naval Ob- 
servatory, has submitted a recommmenda- 
tion for provision for a naval expedition 
in 1905 to observe a total solar eclipse. 
He proposes to select an observation 
station among the high hills bordering 
on the Mediterranean, to work with 
some ship as a base near Valencia, and 
another station in the uplands, with 
headquarters on board a vessel on the 
northeast coast of Spain. 


Ranges of Arizona.— David Griffiths is 
the author of a recent bulletin pub- 
lished by the Department of Agricult- 
ure, describing the ranges of Arizona 
and the measures necessary for their 
protection. Therangescan carry with- 
out injury one horse or cow to 50 or 
1oo acres. The range-owners have 
lately begun goat-raising with consid- 
erable profit. The picture on page 85 
shows a flock of goats on one of these 
ranges. Excessive stocking has been 
destroying the value of the ranges. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


The Tower of Pelee. By Angelo Heil- 
prin. With 23 full-page plates. Pp. 
62. 9% by 12% inches. Philadel- 
pita: 3 B. Lippincott Co. 1904, 
$3.00 7é1¢. 

This exceedingly handsome volume 
isasupplement to ‘‘ Mont Pelée and the 
Tragedy of Martinique,’’ published by 
Professor Heilprin in 1902. In it the 
author discusses the peculiar spine or 
obelisk which was thrust up the throat 
of Mont Peléein 1903, rising to a height 
at times of nearly 85c feet, and which 
has since entirely disappeared. The 
series of views of this obelisk taken by 
Mr Heilprin and published in the vol- 
ume are remarkably fine. One of them 
is republished in this Magazine on page 
86. Mr Heilprin also publishes several 
pictures of glass water bottles and wine 
glasses which show marked deforma- 
tions of substance without breakage. 
“There are no indications of glass flow, 
and the only apparent change that the 
glass has undergone is an acquired mur- 
kiness. The substance had evidently 
yielded to pressure impacts at a time 
when it was subjected to and softened 
by great heat. This condition sufh- 
ciently explains the similar condition of 
objects found at Pompeii, and does away 
with the necessity of assuming that the 
deformation was the result of aslow and 
steadily progressing molecular change 
whose workings extended through cen- 
turies (!)’’ Mr Heilprin believes that 
Pompeii was destroyed in very much the 
same manner as St Pierre and not, as 
has been generally assumed, by ‘‘ simple 
incineration. ”’ 


A Naturalist in the Guianas. By Eu- 
Poneeandre. lack: Ga S.,4k. Z. S., 
M.S. A. With 34 illustrations and 
amap. Preface by Dr J. Scott Kel- 
tie. New York: Charles Scribner’s 
Sons. 1904. 

This is a real book by a naturalist 
and explorer of the old type, and from 
preface to conclusion is full of vivid and 


MTR RATURE 


sharply drawn pictures. To any one 
who loves the solitude of the forest or 
who has felt the charm of the tropical 
jungle the book must appeal in the same 
way that Belt’s ‘‘ Naturalist in Nica- 
ragua’’ or Bates’ ‘‘ Travels on the 
Amazon’’ have for many years fired 
the imagination of the youth of America 
and England; but to the writer the book 
has an additional reality and an inde- 
scribable fascination, for it describes the 
travels and ghastly hardships of a friend. 

In 1899, while traveling with Mr 
Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago, I met 
the author in the Port of Spain, and I 
shall never forget the enthusiasm with 
which Mr Lathrop announced the dis- 
covery of this unusual naturalist. We 
traveled with him later from La Guayra 
to Panama, and the last time I saw him 
he was running home a charge in his 
muzzle-loader after a shot at some gor- 
geous Colombian song bird. 

To the public at large South America 
isa puzzle. It reads of the great in- 
dustrial and railway development of the 
Argentine, of the immense waterway of 
the Amazon, of the beauties of Rio de 
Janeiro, and of the ancient Inca civil- 
ization of Peru, but there is a silence in 
the popular literature regarding the im- 
mense center of the continent, to which 
these civilizations of the Argentine, Chili, 
Peru, and Venezuela form the merest 
fringe. Eugéne André has pushed his 
way along the watercourses and through 
the jungles of this greatest of all unex- 
plored tropical regions of the world, and 
this book which he has written gives a 
picture of the extreme discomforts, the 
real hardships, and the frightful ex- 
posure to disease and starvation which 
attends the work of exploration in the 
uninhabited tropical forest. To a boy 
familiar with the popular literature on 
tropical forests nothing could be more 
delightful than to make one’s way, with 
hunting outfit and canoes, from Rio to 
Panama, living on the game and the 
fruits of the forest. André’s account of 


go THe NatrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


his explorations dispels any illusions of 
the luxury of travel in tropical forests 
and makes the hardships undergone 
by Wallace in the Aru Islands or by 
Schweinfurt among the Naim Naim 
people of Central Africa seem insignifi- 
cant. 

The book describes two expeditions, 
in 1897-1898 and 1900-1901, from Trin- 
idad up the Orinoco toward the head- 
waters of the Caura, with side trips up 
the Nichare and cross-country expedi- 
tions cut through the forest to Mounts 
Turagua and Améha, two of those re- 
markable mesa-like mountains which 
are characteristic of southern Venezuela. 
It isa narrative of daily experiences and 
observations and sparkles with that 
humor which is a necessary quality of 
a good explorer. The observations on 
animals and plants are unusually vivid 
and interesting and written with care, 
yet nowhere prosaic. Hisability totake 
the reader into his confidence and to 
picture the trials of a naturalist in the 
tropics may be illustrated by the follow- 
ing: 
‘“Tf the hornets pay attention to the 
person of the collector the ants devote 
themselves to looking after his collec- 
tions, sothat what with having to dodge 
a being with wings and a sting who 
means business when he has made his 
mind up, and trying to devise ways for 
keeping his property out of the way of 
an insect that can find a grain of sugar 
in astackof hay, the amateur naturalist 
acquires his first real knowledge of the 
powers of those so-called lower forms 
Gt life?’ 

It were beyond the province of a re- 
view to enter in any detail, but as I 
run over the pages of my friend’s book, 
to collect the materials for which has 
twice almost cost him his life, certain 
of his observations seem most worthy 
of attention. His observations on the 
healthfulness of Ciudad- Bolivar, situated 
on the edge of a swamp into which all 
the village refuse is dumped, those.re- 
garding the Indians’ confirmative belief 


in the mosquito as a carrier of the ma- 
larial fevers, and the presence of malig- 
nant ulcers in certain localities, remind- 
ing one of the Bagdad boil, have a bear- 
ing upon recent medical researches. 
His descriptions of the parasol ants, 
Oecodoma, and the manufacture of their 
fungus gardens remind one of Belt’s 
historic descriptions. His remarks re- 
garding the power of insects to locate 
at a distance the objects of their desires 
and make straight for them is as inter- 
esting as anything Maeterlinck has 
written about the bee. 

The ichthyologist will find valuable 
observations in the book on the strange 
cannibal fishes of the Caura,and laugh at 
the antics of the alligator disturbed by 
the explosion of a dynamite cartridge in 
its particular pool. The rubber experts 
will read with interest of the forests of a 
new rubber tree discovered on the Ni- 
chare, a branch of the Caura, and of the 
Indian method of tapping the rubber tree 
in thisregion. Those who know the cu- 
marin perfume of the Tonka bean will be 
interested to learn that these forests fur- 
nish the world with the sweet-smelling 
bean, and that their collection is a lucra- 
tive business. The geologist will find 
enough of interest in André’s descrip- 
tions of the formations of the rocky can- 
yous and river bottoms of the Caura and 
mesa-like mountains to hold his atten- 
tion. The ornithologist will find de- 
scribed and pictured in cromolithographs 
at least two rare gorgeous tropical birds 
and mention of the habits of many other 
new species, while those ladies who wear 
egrets without a thought of where they 
come from will get from these pages the 
scolding of an ornithologist for assisting 
in the extinction of the beautiful trop- 
ical birds from which at their death the 
graceful egrets are plucked. The ex- 
citing part of the book to the average 
reader, however, begins in chapter XVIII 
with adescription of the wrecking in the 
rapids of the boat containing all the pro- 
visions, clothes, tools, and note books of 
the party. From this point on,the center 


sie + 2 


GEOGRAPHIC 


of interest changes and fastens upon 
the hardships of this little band of al- 
most naked men in their weary marches 
through the tropical jungle. Without 
shelter from the tropical rains, with 
no food but occasional game and wild 
fruits, with fever-racked and emaciated 
bodies, and with discontent and mutiny 
among them, they dragged their way, 
aided by the remaining small canoe, 200 
miles through the forest toward the out- 
skirts of civilization. Twenty-six days 
can seem a lifetime and proved to all but 
six of the party of fourteen their closing 
days. 

But it would be a mistake if I were 
to give the idea that the book is a 
gloomy account of hardships. On the 
contrary, it is full of a sparkle of inci- 
dent and vividness of description that 
makes it stand out from the common- 
place of ordinary works of travel and 
worthy of a place on the same shelf of 
honor of a naturalist’s library with 
Darwin’s and Humboldt’s travels, Wal- 
lace’s ‘‘ Malay Archipelago,’’ and Belt’s 
““Naturalist in Nicaragua.”’ 

DAVID FAIRCHILD, 
Agricultural Explorer. 


THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1493-1898 


T is strange that Messrs Arthur H. 
Clark Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, have 
not received better support for their 
magnificent series of volumes on the 
Philippine Islands. The history of the 
islands during the first three centuries 
after their discovery is buried in letters 
and manuscripts which were inaccessi- 
ble until the Clark Co. began their pub- 
lication under the editorship of Miss 
Blair and Mr Robertson. As to under- 
stand the Filipinos we must understand 
their complex past, the publication is 
patriotic as well as enterprising in plan. 
The publishers have issued the follow- 
ing statement : 


‘‘The support accorded our publication, 
‘The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898,’ has been 
so inadequate that we are facing a serious 
financial loss upon it. We have issued the 


LITERATURE 


QO! 


work faithfully from month to month, and ex- 
pect to complete it and fulfill our obligation to 
those who have supported it, even at a loss to 
ourselves. Thus far less than Ioo sets have 
been placed in this country, although a larger 
number have been placed in the important 
libraries of Europe, India, Australia, the Far 
East, and the Philippines. Of the sets in this 
country nearly all are in public institutions ; 
the remainder are in large private collections, 
which are not likely to come into the market 
for many years, if ever. 

‘“ With much regret we are now compelled 
to limit the edition to the number of sets act- 
ually ordered. Beginning with volume 22, to 
be published February I, 1905, only enough of 
each volume will be printed to fill orders re- 
ceived before that date Of the volumes al- 
ready issued the excess above the subscribed 
number will then be destroyed, and the work 
will never be reprinted. 

‘‘ The series is the only work making these 
sources available in any language, and ‘its use- 
fulness and importance to public men, stu- 
dents, and in large private libraries must in- 
crease from year to year, particularly when the 
current volumes cover more recent years and 
when the index volumes make the sources 
more easily available. 

‘‘Our interest in the islands must grow 
greater year by year because of the complex 
oriental problem, the conflicting claims of 
other nations in the Far East, the Chinese 
problem and race question, both in the South 
and Far East, the educational and religious 
situation, the failure of Philippine tariff sys- 
tems of the last four centuries, the comparison 
of Spanish, British, and American colonial 
policies, etc. 

‘‘This set furnishes the final sources indis- 
pensable for a proper understanding of these 
problems. Few subjects are discussed so 
widely, yet soignorantly, as matters relating 
to the Philippines. 

‘Only seven sets exist outside of public in- 
stitutions, and all free sets for review must be 
discontinued.’’ 


BOOKS RECEIVED 
Along the Nile with General Grant. 


By tibert H. Harman, . Pp. 330. 
81% x 5% inches. New York: The 


Grafton Press. 1904. 

Out of the Northland. By Emilie Kip 
Baker. Pp. 165. 534 x 4% inches. 
New York: The Macmillan Com- 
pany. 1904. 25 cents. 

Select List of Books Relating to the Far 
East. Compiled under the direction 
of Appleton Prentiss Clark Griffin. 


92 


Pp. 73. 1034 x 7% inches. Wash- 
ington : Government Printing Office. 
1904. 

Excursions and Lessons in Home Geog- 


raphy. By Charles A. McMurry. 
Pp. 152. 7% °x 5% inches. New 
York: The Macmillan Company. 
1904. 


THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Students’ Laboratory of Physical Geog- 
raphy. By Albert Perry Brigham. 
Pp. 153. 734 * 5% inches. New 
York: D. Appleton & Co. 1905. 

The Land of Riddles—Russia of Today- 


By HugoGanz. Pp.330. 8%x5% 
inches. New York: Harper & Bros. 


1904. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE address on the Philippines 

previously announced for Feb- 

ruary 3 has been postponed 

until after the adjournment of Congress, 

as it is believed that official demands will 

then permit the Secretary of War to ad- 
dress the Society on this Subject. 


POPULAR MEETINGS 
National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. 


February 3.—‘‘The Evolution of Rus- 
sian Government.’’ By Dr Edwin A. 
Grosvenor, Professor of International 
Law and Modern Government in Am- 
herst College. 


February 17.— ‘‘ Manchuria and 
Korea.’’ By Col. W. S. Schuyler, 
US. A. Tilustrated: 


March 10.—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ 
Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. 
N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval 
Observatory. Illustrated. 


March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize 
of the Orient and its Relation to the 
Commerce of the United States.’’ By 
Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau 
of Statistics. Illustrated. 

March 3{.—‘‘ From Lexington to 
Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. Ells- 
worth, of the Century Company. I1- 
lustrated. 

April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll 
Weevil.’’ By Dr L. O. Howard, Chief 


of the Bureau of Entomology.  Illus- 
trated. 
April 28.—‘‘ Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr 


G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National 
Geographic Society. Illustrated. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, 8 p. m. 


February 10.—General subject, ‘‘ Pro- 
gress in Animal Husbandry.’’ There 
will be papers by Mr George M. Rom- 
mel, Mr G. Fayette Thompson, and 
others of the Department of Agricul- 
ture, on the work and plans of the 
Department for producing distinctive 
American breeds of Horses, on the An- 
gora Goat, the Fat Tailed Sheep, the 
Barbadoes Woolless Sheep, on the in- 
troduction of the Bos indicus, etc. 


February 24.—-General subject, ‘‘ The 
Botanical Investigations of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture.” -By Oi FE. ¥- 
Coville, Botanist, and members of his 
staff. 


March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- 
gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by 
Dr George T. Moore and others on “‘ In- 
oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting 
Municipal Water Supply Systems,’’ etc. 


March 17.—General subject, 
‘“Japan.’’ 

The Geography of Japan. By Mr 
Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- 
nese Legation. 

The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh 
M. Smith. 

Agriculture in Japan. 
G. Fairchild. 

April 7.—General subject, 

‘* Forestry.”’ 

Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr 
Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. 
Bureau of Forestry, and a paper om 
Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. 
Fairchild. 


By Mr David 


‘GieNATIONAL 
CEOCRAPHIC | 


MAGAZINE 


MARCH, 1905 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 


_ The Characteristics of the Japanese People. By Baron Kentaro 
Kaneko, of the House of Peers of Japan .. 94. 
Geographic Names in the United States and the Stories They 
Tell. By R. H. Whitbeck, of the New Jersey State Normal 
School §... 100 
A Growing Gains in the meats. Gold Fields, rae By 
Sidney Paige, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Itlustrated 
_ The Industrial Training of the German People. IBlustrated . 
Philip Nolan and the “Levant.” By Edward Everett Hale . 
Progress in the Philippines . SYP ct ly Mee A Sa PR hn ah WK 
The Gardens of the West. Illustrated -. 
The Cause of the Earth’s Heat : 
Maps Recently Issued by the U.S. Geological Skea 
Notes from Our Consuls . . . . PORN 
Geographic Notes. Illustrated 
Geographic Literature : 
National Geographic Society . 


_ Published by the National Geographic Society, 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
Washington, D. C. 


” 
Ba $2.50 a Year | - 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 


a 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the 

Nationat Geocrapuic Society. All editorial 

communications should be addressed to the 
Editor of the Nationat GrocrapHic Macazine. 
Business communications should be addressed to 
the National Geographic Society. 


as CENTS A NUMBER;; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chie} Signal Officer, U. S. Army” 


W J McGEE 


Chie}, Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Loutstana Pur- 
chase Exposition 


Cc. HART MERRIAM 


Chie} of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of A on af 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 


O. H. TITTMANN 
Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


oO. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 


Department of Commerce and 
Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, 1 2), on 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 


Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 
Chief of the Division of Mineral 


kesources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS Y 
U.S. Geological Survey. 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


A es of Natural Sciences, Phila~ 


delphia. 


R. D,. SALISBURY 
University of Chicago. 


G. K. GILBERT 


U.S. Geological Survey. 


ALEXANDER McADIE 
Professor of Meteorology, U. S. 


Weather Bureau, San Francisco. mz 


ALMON GUNNESON 


; 
? 
i 
H 
q > 

" y 
, . 
rT | a 
| 
| 

a 

y 


3 eas 


President St. Lawrence sik ihonce: 4 4 


VoL. XVI, No. 3 


WASHINGTON 


Marcu, 1905 


MAGA ZIUNIE, 


THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 
JAPANESE PEOPLE“ 


By Baron KENTARO KANEKO, OF THE House oF PEERS OF JAPAN 


CONSIDER it the greatest honor 
| ever conferred upon me to speak 
before you here at the National 
Capital of the greatest Republic. As 
your President has announced, I have 
been out of practice in speaking the 
English language for nearly twenty-five 
years, and when I was asked by the 
Society to make an address I declined, 
because to speak in a foreign tongue 
after being out of practice so many years 
is a difficult task, and besides I can 
hardly convey my ideas and make you 
understand what I have in my mind. 
But the request was so sincere and so 
earnest that I felt that if I still declined 
I might offend the Society, so I accepted 
at last with hesitation, but with the 
greatest pleasure. 

The subject of Japan is being written 
and talked about a great deal at this 
moment; therefore the subject I have 
selected for tonight is rather a different 
one, and might be called ‘‘ The Charac- 
teristics of the Japanese People.”’ 

You have no doubt heard and read 
much about Japan, and my country is 
already familiar to you, but we have so 


far been misrepresented in many ways, 
even in the circle of scholars and learned 
communities. We have been often called 
a race of imitators or a race of copyists. 
To be sure, we have copied many things 
entirely foreign to our own institutions, 
but in so doing we follow always a cer- 
tain principle. This misrepresentation 
arises from the fact that a foreign ob- 
server fails to distinguish between the 
outward appearance of human activity 
and the inner workings of man’s mind. 
Many travelers come to our country; 
they pass through from one end of the 
Empire to another; they go through the 
streets and squares; they see the people 
and buildings, and when they come 
home they say ‘‘ the Japanese are copy- 
ists and they are a race of imitators,’’ 
because they only see the outward ap- 
pearance of our activity, but, unfortu- 
nately, never study the inner workings 
of our minds; therefore I have selected 
tonight this subject to present before 
you—the inner workings of the Japanese 
mind. The subject is rather gigantic— 
you might think too gigantic—but I 
will try to explain as clearly as I can. 


* An address to the National Geographic Society, January 6, 1905. 


94 


“ADOPT, ADAPT, ADEPT”? 


The Japanese have a ‘peculiar char- 


acter. When they come in contact with 
a foreign civilization they always go 
through three stages of evolution: First, 
they pass through the stage of imita- 
tion. At this period they imitate every- 
thing that comes from a foreign source, 
and I might say that they blindly copy. 
But after some years of imitation they 
arrive at the stage of adaptation; then 
at last they reach the stage of origina- 
tion. ‘These three stages are clearly 
shown by our history, if we only ex- 
amine into the inner workings of Japa- 
nese mind. 


THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CHINESE 
CIVILIZATION 

About 1,500 years ago, when we in- 
troduced the Chinese civilization into 
our country, we copied everything after 
Chinese fashion. At that time we had 
no national alphabet. There were some 
sorts of signs to express ideas in writ- 
ing, and even these signs differed in 
different parts of the country. The 
Chinese had a highly developed type 
of hieroglyphics to express their ideas; 
therefore at one time the Chinese hiero- 
glyphics took such a hold on the mind 
of the Japanese that we adopted them 
as our national language. The impe- 
rial edicts were written in Chinese hie- 
roglyphics and government records were 
kept in that language; even Chinese 
scholars were employed in the govern- 
ment service as clerks and secretaries, 
and the Japanese language was almost 
on the verge of destruction and ruin. 

This same phenomenon was found 
even in England when she introduced 
the Norman-French civilization. The 
Norman-French language was taught 
in schools and was spoken at the palace, 
as well as in.the upper circles. The 
legal briefs in the courts were prepared 
in the Norman-French, and the judg- 
ments of the court were given in that 
language. ‘Take, as an example, meat. 


Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


When an animal is found in the field it 
is called an-ox; but when it is prepared 
and served on a nobleman’s table it is 
called beef, which comes from ‘‘ beuf ’’ 
of the Norman-French. So, again, 
when prepared on the table it is called 
mutton—‘‘mouton,’’ from the Norman- 
French; but when found in the field it 
is called a sheep. In Japan we went 
on exactly in the same way as the En- 
glish people. Among the upper classes, 
as well as at the court, we used entirely 
the Chinese hieroglyphics. Every doc- 
ument of the government was kept in 
Chinese hieroglyphics, and the Japanese 
language was only spoken among peas- 
ants and in a remote part of the coun- 
try, where the Chinese civilization did 
not reach. 

Therefore this period might be called 
the era of imitation. Did our country 
remainlong at thatstage? Fortunately 
there came a scholar—the most famous 
scholar we ever had—by the name of 
Mabie, who returned from China in 735 
A.D. Hewasin China many years for 
his education at Chinese schools. When 
he came back he saw what was most 
needed in his native country, and he 
invented out of the Chinese hieroglyphics 
the forty-seven characters of our alpha- 
bet, founded upon the principle of pho- 
netic language. As you know, the Japa- 
nese language is phonetic, whereas the 
Chinese is hieroglyphic. Thisalphabet 
is called Shin Kana, which means a gen- 
uine alphabet, in order to distinguish 
from another and later invention of al- 
phabet called Kata Kana. ‘This period 
might be considered as the dawn of our 
era of adaptation, for we did not remain 
long in the stage of imitation, but soon 
began to realize the future of our civil- 
ization, and became conscious of the 
necessity of our national linguistic in- 
dependence. ‘Therefore the invention 
of the alphabet of 47 letters is always 
considered to have given birth to the 
Japanese literature, and is reckoned as 
the beginning of Japanese civilization. 


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 


After passing through the stage of 
adaptation, we soon entered into the 
_ stage of origination. In the year 757 
A. D. acollection of old Japanese poems 
was compiled in the newly invented 
phoneticlanguage. Again, in 798 A.D. 
the history of Japan was for the first 
time written in the new language—not 
in Chinese hieroglyphics as formerly. 


THE PART PLAYED BY WOMEN IN 
JAPANESE LITERATURE 


In the early part of the eleventh cen- 
tury ‘‘ The Tale of Prince Gengie’’ was 
compiled by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady- 
in-waiting to the Empress, and about 
the same time another book, ‘‘ The 
Scrap book Under the Pillow,’’ was 
written by another lady-in-waiting by 
the name of Seisho Nagon. ‘This lady, 
while on duty, observed everything 
going on in the political as well as social 
circle of the imperial court, and at night 
when she retired she used to write what- 
ever she saw during the day in a scrap- 
book which she kept under her pillow. 
This custom she kept up during her life- 
time, and afterward the scrap-books were 
compiled and published in book form. 
These two books, ‘‘ The Tale of Prince 
Gengie’’ and ‘‘ The Scrap-book Under 
the Pillow,’’ are considered even now as 
our Japanese classics, and are studied in 
our colleges and universities as much as 
Chaucer’s ‘‘Canterbury Tales’’ and 
Spencer’s ‘‘ Fairy Queen’’ in your col- 
leges. So you see that our women took 
a first rank in Japanese literature, and 
men (unfortunately for them) must be 
contented to occupy a second position, 
for men did not prove themselves capa- 
ble of such a literary work, and those 
ladies fully mastered the new language 
and wrote in a most beautiful style, 
which had never yet been excelled by 
any man or woman. This period is 
called the era of origination in our liter- 
ature. 

Next we come to the subject of re- 
ligion. We have passed through three 


Us 


stages in our religion just as much as 
in our literature. 

Buddhism was first introduced into 
Japan through Korea in the year 552 
A. D.—that is, 1,353 years ago. At 
first Buddhism was embraced by the 
higher classes, particulary among schol- 
arly circles, but the lower classes or 
common people still clung to their old 
faithof Shintoism. Those who believed 
in Buddhism went so far as to copy the 
ceremonies and ritualisms. The doc- 
trine of Buddhism was written in the 
Chinese language, and the believers 
offered their prayers in that tongue. 
At one time Buddhism made such a 
stride as to become almost a state re- 
ligion, but the common people still op- 
posed it, with a determination to uphold 
their own Shintoism. Consequently a 
most terrible struggle began between the 
two religions—Buddhism in the hands 
of the upper classes and Shintoism in the 
hearts of the common people. Such a 
contest as this blocked every step in 
Japan’s progress, but finally the states- 
men and priests began to understand 
that they no longer could force upon the 
people a blind imitation of Buddhism, 
and they changed their policy and tried 
to find out some means to meet the re- 
quirements of the time. Here again we 
reach the stage of adaptation. 


THE GREAT DAIBUTSU 


They invented an ingenious theory of 
explaining and interpreting the religious 
principle of Buddhism. ‘They adapted 
the theory of Monotheism as well as 
Polytheism by saying that there is only 
one Supreme Power, which is personified 
in the form of various gods and god- 
desses, according to the different coun- 
tries and different institutions. Thus 
they reconcile the principle of the one 
Supreme Power in Buddhism with the 
Polytheistic theory of Shintoism. 

In order to convince the popular mind 
with this theory, Emperor Shomu pa- 
tronized a movement to erect a large 


96 


bronze statue of Daibutsu or Buddha at 
Nara, and this statue was erected in 752 
A. D., after fourteen years in casting 
and construction. No doubt some of 
you who have visited Japan have seen 
the statue, but no foreigner has so far 
ever examined into its history and in- 
vestigated why it was erected at the 
ancient capital of Nara. Thus Emperor 
Shomu succeeded in reconciling the two 
conflicting religions of Shintoism and 
Buddhism. ‘This period might be called 
the era of adaptation of the Indian re- 
ligion in Japan. Henceforth Buddhism 
swept from one end of the country to 
the other, converting a large number of 
people by thetheory that ‘‘ Shintoism is 
for the living and Buddhism for the 
dead,’’ or, in other words, that while 
we are living on this earth the Shinto 
gods protect us, but when we die our 
soul returns to the last repose, where 
Buddha reigns. 


THE MARTIN LUTHER OF JAPAN 


In the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
tury there was one priest by the name 
of Shinran, who is considered in our re- 
ligious history as a Japanese Martin 
Luther. He revolutionized the funda- 
mental principle of Buddhism by a new 
doctrine, for up to that time Buddhism 
strenuously upheld a monastic life, and 
the priests were compelled to live in celi- 
bacy and abstain from eating any animal 
food. But this famous priest, seeing the 
popular mind already turned toward 
Buddhism, started anew doctrine that a 
priest, being human, is just as much 
susceptible as laymen, and abstinence 
from human wantsis against the laws of 
nature ; moreover, a priest must live 
among the people so as to understand 
the real nature and feeling of man and 
woman; therefore a monastic life should 
be given up and priests should eat ani- 
mal food and get married, if they de- 
sire so to do. From this period the 
progress of Buddhism with this new 
doctrine was wonderful and took com- 


Tue Nationa, GeocrarHic MAGAZINE ~ 


plete hold of the popular mind. Even 
at the present time this Shinran sect 
of Buddhism has the largest number 
of believers in Japan. ‘Thus the Japa- 
nese have gone through three stages—of 
inuitation, of adaptation, and of origina- 
tion—and in the last stage Shinran was 
the originator of the new form of 
Buddhism just as much as Martin Lu- 
ther was of the Protestantism of the 
Christian religion of the West. 

Next in the sphere of government 
and law we find the same three stages 
of evolution. After the introduction of 
Chinese civilization our governmental 
organization was moulded after the fash- 
ion of the governmental system of the 
To dynasty of China. In the year 701 
A. D. we reorganized the departments 
of our government in accordance with 
the principles and forms of the Chinese 
system, and adopted the Chinese law in 
every branch of our national affairs. At 
the palace the Emperor as well as the 
petty officials wore the Chinese headgear 
and gown. We blindly imitated every- 
thing Chinese. This new regime for 
the organization of the Japanese Em- 
pire was embodied in the laws of the 
Taiho era (7o1 A. D); but this wholesale 
change in the political institution was too 
much for Japan to carry out at that time. 
Therefore those laws were only exe- 
cuted around the capitol of Kioto and 
were not carried out in the remote parts 
of the country. 

But the Hojo dynasty, the second 
military Shogunate of Japan’s feudal- 
ism, discovered the weakness and de- 
fects in the laws of Taiho, because the 
laws of a foreign country could never 
be executed in toto, for the simple rea- 
son that every nation has traditional 
laws of its own which every law-giver 
must not disregard. ‘Therefore Taka- 
toki Hojo, a great statesman, investi- 
gated the old customs and traditions of 
Japan and modified: the Chinese-imita- 
tion laws of the Taiho era so as to meet 
the requirements of the country. 


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE J APANESE PEOPLE 


This modification is found in a com- 
pilation of the customs and traditions of 
old Japan,iwhich was promulgated in the 
fifty articles of Teiyei era (1232 A.D.). 
This is something like the Justinian 
Roman laws compiled in the reign of 
Emperor Justinian. This period we 
call the era of adaptation in our legal 
evolution. 


THE JAPANESE JURY OF TWELVE 
JUDGES FOUNDED 670 
YEARS AGO 


No doubt an American audience will 
be much interested to know that as 
long, ago.as the year 1232 A. D. a 
Japanese statesman made the laws in 
touch with the popular feeling, for by 
the laws of the Teiyei era he established 
a council of state with twelve judges, 
the same number as the English jury. 
These twelve judges sat in the council 
chamber, before whom all litigation was 
brought for investigation and decision. 
The plaintiff and defendant had their 
spokesmen, who argued and defended 
the case; and afterward the twelve 
judges retired into a closed chamber, 
where an oath was administered to them 
as follows : 

‘““During the deliberation of a case, 
and the decision afterward between 
right and wrong, neither family con- 
nections, nor sympathy with or antipa- 
thy against, the party shall influence. 
Fear not a powerful family, or favor not 
a friend, but speak in aceordance with 
the dictates of truth. Should there be 
a case decided wrong and redress re- 
fused to a man, we shall be punished by 
all the gods and goddesses of the realm. 
Thus, we swear and affix our signa- 
tures.’’ 

This is the oath they take before they 
deliberate and examine the case. Here 
we have the law, whose spirit and prin- 
ciple are exactly the sameas the Anglo- 
Saxon common law. Again, in 1336 
A. D. the laws of the Kenbu era were 
promulgated by the Asikaga dynasty. 


o7 


This era, combined with that of the Hojo 
dynasty, might be called the stage of 
adaptation ; but the era of origination 
begins later on with the Tokugawa dy- 
nasty, because the Shogunate of that 
family made for the first time the distinc- 
tion of the laws between the sovereign 
de jure and sovereign de facto by pro- 
mulgating ‘‘ The Seventeen Articles for 
the Imperial Family ’’ and ‘‘ The Eigh- 
teen Articles for the Military Ruler,’’ 
and then again they made the laws for 
the people, which were denominated as 
‘“The One Hundred Articles of the 
Tokugawa Regime.’’ ‘Thus the laws— 
imperial, military, and common—were 
executed throughout the whole country 
without an intermission until the impe- 
rial restoration in 1868. With this 
theory of the characteristics of the Jap- 
anese people in our minds, we will find 
the same three stages of evolution 
throughout the whole course of our 
national progress in arts, architecture, 
industry, commerce, ete. 


THUS OUR TRAINING FOR CENTURIES 
HAD EQUIPPED US TO ASSIMILATE 
ANOTHER CIVILIZATION 


Therefore, when we were confronted 
at the time of the imperial restoration, 
in 1868, with a new type of civilization, 
the western civilization, we were fully 
equipped by our individual strength and 
national power to assimilate the foreign 
civilization with our own, for we had 
gone through many hard and persever- 
ing struggles—religious, social, and po- 
litical—for many centuries, and without 
fear could welcome the modern culture 
and science. 


WE STRIVE. TO MARK OUT A ‘‘GRAND 
POLICY FOR A CENTURY TO COME’”’ 


Here I might refer to one fact, that 
the Japanese are a little different from 
the western people in regard to their re- 
spect for the past, for they adore the 
past and the history of their ancestors 
much more than occidental people do. 


98 


As keenly and as profoundly as we look 
toward our future and our prosperity— 
the future of our family and our na- 
tion—we cling still more keenly and 
more delicately to our past—the tradi- 
tion of our forefathers and our nation. 
We always look ahead in search for 
something higher than our present con- 
dition for our descendants. Our pres- 
ent welfare and happiness is nothing to 
us when compared with an illustrious 
past and a great future for our family 
and our nation. 

Thus looking forward to our future, 
we constantly strive to mark out ‘‘ the 
grand policy for a century to come.”’ 
This is a rather high-sounding word, 
but when we examine our history we 
always find it underlying in our national 
movements—social, religious, and polit- 
ical—because the Japanese from time 
immemorial have shown their peculiar 
characteristic to mark out what they 
will do for the future. In order to es- 
tablish this grand policy they always 
study the problem with a far-reaching 
foresight. This trend of mind is the 
characteristic of our race. When they 
contemplate a great problei for national 
affairs they never think of themselves, 
but always look forward through the 
labyrinths of the future to find out 
the surest way to attain their ultimate 
aim and goal. According to Japanese 
notion, compared to this grand policy 
for the future the present welfare and 
happiness of ourselves dwindles into 
nothingness. This policy was clearly 
and positively marked out by our Em- 
peror on his ascension to the throne, 
in 1868. Uponthat memorable day he 
swore before the nation in his ‘‘ Five Ar- 
ticles of the Imperial Oaths’’: ‘‘ Seek 
knowledge in the civilized world, and 
discriminate the good from the bad and 
adopt the best; and finally establish 
the national assembly where all the im- 
portant affairs of nation shall be decided 
by public voice.’’ This is the funda- 
mental principle of our national aspira- 


Tue Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


tion, closely followed by the Emperor 
himself and down to the meanest peas- 
ant. In order to carry out this policy 
we must first bearin mind and maintain 
the past traditions of our country and 
then engraft upon them the western 
culture and science. 


WHAT WE HAVE TAKEN FROM EUROPE 
AND AMERICA 


With this view we began to reorgan- 
ize our country in 1868. Since the im- 
perial restoration we have studied the 
systeins of government of the United 
States and European countries. As you 
have divided your government into 
different departments, we divided our 
government into similar departments. 
We adopted a compulsory system of 
national education, exactly on the same 
plan as your common-school system, of 
eight years of compulsory education. 
A boy and girl must attend school as 
soon as they attain the age of six, and 
remain there until the age of fourteen. 
The first four years we teach them the 
Japanese and Chinese languages, and 
the latter four years we add English ; 
therefore when a boy and girl graduate 
from our common schools they can read 
and speak English. By teaching the 
Chinese and English languages besides 
our own we bring up a new generation 
prepared to seek knowledge in the outer 
world, as commanded by the Emperor. 

In the organization of our army 
we copied the German system, and in 
our navy the English and American. 
In our code of laws we imitated La Code 
Napoleon, and afterward the German 
principle and method. In finance we 
copied your system by adopting your 
gold, silver, nickel, and copper money, 
and we went so far as to copy the green- 
backsfrom you. Our first paper money 
was made and printed in New York in 
1870, and if you will take up those old 
Japanese greenbacks you will find them 
exactly the same as yours, and no differ- 
ence except in the writing. 


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 


When we come into contact with a 
foreign civilization we at first blindly 
imitate it, because that is, according to 
our idea, the shortest cut to our ultimate 
goal; but we are never satisfied to re- 
main forever in the stage of imitation. 
This is clearly shown by our progress 
during the last thirty-seven years since 
the introduction of the western culture 
and science. Our recent evolution dif- 
fers from the case of our forefathers in 
this respect, that our era of imitation 
after 1868 was very short, and the stage 
of adaptation began very soon after, and 
even the latter stage was simply a pass- 
ing phenomenon before we reached the 
stage of origination. The proof of this 
fact was fully shown by our constitu- 
tion. If you examine the constitution 
of Japan from the first article to the 
last you will find it quite different from 
those of American or European coun- 
tries, yet its frame and foundation are 
in accordance with the principles of the 
western constitutions. Therefore I 
might say that the constitution of Japan 
is a living monument of the origination 
of Japanese statesmanship. 

Again, in the realm of science, we 
have already reached the stage of origi- 
nation by Dr Kitasato’s discovery of a 
new bacteria. He discovered it in Ger- 
many and was decorated by the German 
government ; and Dr Takamine, who is 
now living in New York, discovered 
adrenalin, a medicine which is used to 
stop bleeding, particularly by oculists 
in operations on the eye. Next comes 
Baron Ito, whose untiring investigation 
in botany made his name recognized by 
both American and European scientists. 

Major Shimose’s smokeless powder is 
a Japanese invention, and is acknowl- 
edged far more powerful than the En- 
glish lyddite or the French melinite. 
This powder is by an actual test five 
times as strong as the European pow- 
ders. When a shell that is filled with 
lyddite or melinite is fired it will break 
into ten or fifteen pieces, whereas the 


oe 


same shell filled with Shimose’s smoke- 
less powder when exploded bursts into 
2,000 to 2,300 pieces. It is now con- 
sidered the most powerful smokeless 
powder ever invented, and its inventor 
is a majorinthe Japanese army. Thus 
we have already entered into the era of 
origination. 

In closing I may here sum up in a few 
words that although we dearly cling to 
the memory of the past, yet we eagerly 
hope for a great future, and in order to 
realize this. hope we mark out the 
‘‘grand policy of a century to come’’ 
with a far-reaching foresight. For 
means to carry out this policy we come 
to Europe and America. We goto Ger- 
many to study the German system of 
exactness, for they are noted for thor- 
oughness in everything, but their system 
was found by our experience to be too 
stiff and inflexible. Asexact and thor- 
ough as their system is, it is much more 
liable to leave us handicapped; therefore 
we come to America, for the Americans 
are the most practical people in the 
world. ‘They cannot mark out such an 
exact system as the Germans, but they 
always use their common sense and come 
out successfully whenever they encoun- 
ter a difficulty. They do not care so 
much for academic principles, but they 
have the tact tosolve any question from 
a practical point of view; thus in Anglo- 
Saxon practicability we found our in- 
dispensable rescue. 


OUR ASPIRATIONS 


This ‘‘ grand policy ’’ for our national 
affairs, marked out ‘‘for a century to 
come’’ by our far-reaching foresight, 
coupled with German exactness and 
American practicability, will be the fu- 
ture course of the Japanese people. 
Then you will ask, What are your aims 
and aspirations? ‘Tothis question I an- 
swer that our national ambition is by 
engrafting the western culture and 
science upon our own institutions to 
blend together and assimilate the two 


IrOO. 


types of civilization—oriental and oc- 
cidental—and by doing so to bring forth 
a new type of civilization, in which 
the culture and science of the two hemi- 
spheres will meet, not in conflict, but in 
harmony, so as to enable us toshare the 
inheritance of Christian religion, ori- 


/ 


THE NATIONAL GrocRaPHic MAGAZINE 


ental philosophy, Greek art, Roman 
law, and modern science. 

Thus we hope in the course of the 
twentieth century to have at least one 
fruit out of our earnest and persevering 
efforts to contribute to the progress%of 
mankind. 


GEOGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED 
STATES AND THE STORIES 


THEY 


TELE 


By R. H. Wuirzseckx, New Jersey State NoRMAL SCHOOL 


HE geographical names of a 
country tell much of its history. 
Each race that inhabits a region 
gives its own names to mountains, rivers, 
and lakes, or adopts names previously 
given. Astronger people may, in later 
centuries, destroy or drive out every 
member of the earlier race. The latter 
may hand down no written sentence of 
its own history, yet some record of the 
race will be preserved in the geograph- 
icalnames which survive. The Romans 
were not able to vanquish the Britons. 
Comparatively little of Roman civiliza- 
tion penetrated the British Isles. The 
fact that the Roman ‘‘conquest’’ was 
little more than a mz/itary occupancy is 
attested by the geographic names which 
the Romans left, most of which termi- 
nate in -caster or -chester, from the 
Roman military word castra, a camp. 
Each wave of invasion—Roman, Angle, 
Danish, Saxon, or Norman—left its 
story in the names which it gave, and 
which remain like the stranded boulders 
of a glacier long since melted away. 
The varied history through which dif- 
ferent sections of the United States have 
passed is told in the varied nature of its 
geographic names. ‘The red man built 
no cities in whose ruins we may read the 
story of his past, for the Indian was not 


a builder. He has left no roads or for- 
tresses or castles; his methods of warfare 
called rather for a forest trail and an 
ambuscade, and these leave no ruins. 
Were a traveler to examine every valley 
and hill, every pass and ford and moun- 
tain from Maine to Florida, he would 
now find few traces of the red man in 
any material thing which survives him. 
But on every hand he would find the 
record of Indian occupancy in the names 
of rivers, creeks, and lakes in which the 
red man fished and on whose shores he 
camped and hunted and warred. The 
mountains seem to have had little at- 
traction for the Indian, and it is seldom 
that a mountain bears an Indian name. 
The red man cared little for the bays 
and inlets along the coast; he made little 
use of the offshore islands; hence it is 
that among the hundreds of local names 
given to islands and bays along the coast 
of America one seldom meets an Indian 
word. But the streams and lakes were 
the Indian’sdelight. Ontheir surfaces 
or along their banks most of his time 
was spent. Along their sides ran his 
trails and on their shores stood his vil- 
lages. Every considerable stream and 
every lake had its name. When the 
pale face came he found the lake and the 
stream already named. When he traded 


GEOGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES 


with the dusky brothers for his furs or 
when he bargained for his land it was 
convenient to employ the geographical 
terms already in use by the Indian. 
Sometimes the white man gave the river 
or lake a new name, as did Hudson and 
De la Ware and Champlain, but oftener 
he accepted the original, and today the 
most frequent reminder that we have of 
the unfortunate race is the hundreds of 
Indian names, mostly of rivers or lakes, 
sometimes of cities, counties, and states, 
named after the tribes that dwelt in the 
vicinity. 

The extent to which the early settlers 
adopted Indian names differs widely in 
different partsofthecountry. Twenty- 
four rivers of Maine, 17 out of 28 rivers 
of Connecticut, 40 rivers in Georgia, 32 
in Florida, and most of those of Penn- 
sylvania, New York, Ohio, and Indiana 
have Indian names. In Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, and the large majority of trans- 
Mississippi States Indian words are 
much less common than they are east of 
the Appalachians. For example, only 
7 of Tennessee’s 30 important streams 
carry Indian names, and not one large 
stream wholly in Kentucky and not one 
in the great State of Montana has an 
Indian name. 

Next after rivers lakes remind us 
most frequently by their names that the 
red man once dwelt by their waters. 
Hundreds of New England lakes, par- 
ticularly of Maine, most of the impor- 
tant lakes of New York, and 4 out of 
the 5 Great Lakes tell of the Indian. 

Even in those states where rivers and 
lakes most generally bear Indian names 
the political divisions, the mountains, 
and the shore features do not. Only 2 
of the original 13 states, Massachusetts 
and Connecticut, and 3 of the mountain 
states, Arizona, Utah, and Wyoming, 
have Indian names, while 16 of the 18 
Mississippi Valley states have such 
names. The two exceptions are Wis- 
consin and Louisiana, both of French 
origin. 


IO! 


Of the 150 cities in the United States 
with 25,000 or more people less than a 
dozen have names of Indian origin. In 
most cases where states, counties, or 
cities bear Indian names they have bor- 
rowed them from rivers or lakes which 
already bore them. New York has 20 
counties with Indian names, and leads 
all of the states in this particular. Six 
out of the 16 counties of Maine have 
Indian names; but aside from Maine 
and New York Indian words form but 
a very small proportion of the county 
names in the United States. In the 
geographical names of Indian origin the 
differences in tribal dialects are every- 
where striking. The horrible words of 
the Russian language do not differ more 
widely from the soft, mellow language 
of Italy or France than do the Indian 
naimes in northern New England from 
those of New York. Indian words in 
Connecticut differ radically in sound 
from those of New Jersey, and those of 
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida 
differ equally from all others. 

Contrast the unspeakable names of 
the lakes of Maine with the delightfully 
euphonious names of the lakes of New 
York : 


Maine New York 
Chesuncook Seneca 
Pamedecook Owasco 
Motesentock Otsego 
Molechunkemunk Onondaga 
Moostocmaguntic Cayuga 
Mallawamkiag Cayuta 
Cauquomogomoc Oneida 


Again note the difference in sound of 
the words from different parts of Con- 
necticut : 


Mashapaug Housatonic 
Pistepaug Mystic 
Wangumbaug Niantic 
Warematg Scantic 
Pomeraug Willimantic 
Quinebaug Yantic 


It is evident that the above words tell 
of very different dialects, and hence of 
different tribes. The characteristic 


[LO2 


terms found in New Jersey and in Vir- 
ginia, for example, tell a similar bit of 


history : 

New Jersey Virginia 
Musconetcong Chickahominy 
Hopatcong Mallapony 
Pohatcong Potomac 
Watchung Rappahannock 
Minnisink Shenandoah 
Navesink Appomattox 


When we pass into South Carolina, 
Georgia, and Florida, we find an en- 
tirely different set of sounds predomi- 
nating in the geographical words: 


Allapoha Chattahoochie 
Altamaha Auchee Hachee 
Tallapoosa Caloosahatchee 
Oostanaula Chilloccohatchee 
Soquee Choctawhatchee 
Oconee Contoohatchee 
Ohoopee Fahkahnatchee 
Ochmulgee Ulcofauhachee 
Kissimmee Withlochoochee 


While 17 streams in Florida have 
names ending in ee, only 3 in the nearby 
State of Mississippi have such names, 
suggesting that tribal boundaries were, 
on the whole, rather definite, and that 
tribal dialects dominated over well-de- 
fined areas. These geographical words 
show how widely the Indian dialects dif- 
fered in their prevailing sounds. ‘The 
ear of the Iroquois evidently delighted in 
vowel sounds, and most of the Iroquois 
geographical names terminate in avowel, 
usuallyaoro. The tribes of New Eng- 
land show no such preference. In fact, 
their long words, loaded with conso- 
nants, seem like a train of half articu- 
late grunts. Thetribes of New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, and Virginia had more 
musical ears and dialects. Most of the 
words which they have bequeathed us 
are pleasant to the ear and flow smoothly 
from the tongue. But when one exam- 
ines the words by which the red men of 
the South Atlantic States called their 
lakes and rivers, he is led at once to sus- 
pect that a crew of shipwrecked Chinese 
must some time have been stranded on 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


these shores and have tacked to the orig- 
inal names a liberal sprinkling of char- 
acteristic Chinese ee’s. With the excep- 
tion of the Great Lakes region, the 
Atlantic coastal states are the only ones 
which are fully strewn with Indian 
names. Other regions have them, but 
not in abundance. 

There are other linguistic trails over 
our land besides those left by the red 
men. Upthe Hudson and Mohawk goes 
the trail of the Dutchman, his footsteps 
marked by Fishkill, Catskill, Peekskill, 
and Shawangunk Kill; by Rhinebeck 
and Rhinecliff; by Stuyvesant, Rens- 
selaer, and Amsterdam. 

In northern New York and Vermont 
is the trail of the Frenchman who dotted 
his path with Richelieu, Ausable, St 
Albans, Vergennes, and other terms of 
Gallic sound. The so-called Pennsyl- 
vania Dutchman has spread himself 
thoroughly over the land of Pennsyl- 
vania, and still reminds us: of his na- 
tionality by the several hundred burghs 
which he founded. The Swede has left 
a memorial of himself along the Dela- 
ware in Swedesburg,Swedeland,Swedes’ 
Ford, and Swede Furnace. 

The trail of the explorer-priest ex- 
tends from the mouth of the St Law- 
rence to the mouth of the Mississippi 
and along the larger branches of both 
rivers. His mind was bent upon mis- 
sionary enterprises and his calendar was 
filled with saints’ days. Those who 
came after him—to hunt, to trap, to 
trade, or to settle—were like him— 
Frenchmen and Catholics—-admirers of 
the saints, whose names they gave to 
the rivers which they discovered, the 
trading posts, and the forts which they 
established or the settlements which 
they made. Such are St Lawrence, St 
John, St Peter, St Hyacinthe, St Cath- 
erine, St Thomas, St Mary, St Paul, St 
Anthony, St Joseph, St Charles, St 
Louis, St Francis, and St Martin, all 
and many more scattered along the path 
of the French explorers from Newfound- 


GEoGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES 


land to Louisiana. Hundreds of other 
French words mark the pathway of La 
Salle, Father Hennepin, and their fol- 
lowers; Wisconsin, Eau Claire, Fond 
du Lac, La Crosse, Des Moines, Des 
Plaines, Vincennes, Prairie du Chien, 
Pierre, Versailles, Louisiana, Baton 
Rouge, and New Orleans. 

The geographical names in the two 
neighboring States of Mississippi and 
Louisiana tell differences in the early 
history of the twostates. Notacounty, 
island, lake, river, or city in Mississippi 
has a ‘‘saint’’ in its name, while 9 
counties (or parishes) in Louisiana and 
40 towns, rivers, or lakes do homage to 
the saints in their names. 

The French occupation of Louisiana 
obliterated most of the Indian words. 
The most conspicuous reminder of the 
French settlers is seen in the ‘‘bayous.’’ 
This is the French word for small 
stream; one scarcely hears of a creek 
in Louisiana. They are all bayous. 
In Maryland they are ‘‘ runs.’’ 

In Kentucky and Tennessee the vocab- 
ulary of the priest is strikingly absent ; 
neither state has a county or stream 
named after a saint, but the vocabulary 
of the hunter and trapper is found 
everywhere ; for example, in Tennessee 
we find the streams telling of the hunter 
in such names as Buffalo, Duck, Elk, 
Forked Deer, and Little Pigeon. 

Montana and Idaho geography tells 
unmistakably of the invasion of the un- 
schooled miner. He sought the moun- 
tains with their treasuresof ore. Almost 
every peak and range of these states bears 
a name which reveals at once that it was 
given by men who thought or cared little 
for the names which history or literature 
might suggest. Such men would natu- 
rally select Bear’s Paw, Big Horn, Snake 
Head, Saw Tooth, Bitter Root, and Seven 
Devils. 

Indian names are seldom met with in 
these mountain states. In fact, if one 
scans a list of the geographical words 
in Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colo- 


103 


rado he will scarcely suspect that Indian 
tribes ever lived within their borders. 

The early settlers of Nebraska, Kan- 
sas, Dakota, Wisconsin, and Iowa were 
of a very cosmopolitan character, of 
varied nationalities, creeds, and ideals. 
They came from the Eastern States and 
from foreign countries, and to their set- 
tlements gave names that tell of the 
places in the Hast, or across the sea, 
whence these pioneers came. 

Though Texas was formerly a part of 
Mexico and was subjected to Spanish 
influences, yet one fact at least reveals 
how slight was the real hold of Mexico 
upon Texas—the relative infrequency 
of names with the prefix san or santa. 
Like the French in the St Lawrence 
and Mississippi Valleys, the Spaniards 
in the regions which they explored were 
inclined to leave a spattering of saints’ 
names. Where Spanish influence really 
dominated there the san and santa is 
frequent, and there rivers are ‘‘rios’’ 
and mountains are ‘‘sierras.’’ While 
such words are often found in Texas— 
as, for example, San Antonia, San 
Diego, and Rio Grande—yet these 
names are relatively infrequent, but 
naturally increasing as you approach 
the Mexican border. 

The stronger hold of the Spanish 
upon California is seen in its 10 coun- 
ties and 15 important streams with 
names beginning with san or santa. 
Nearly all of the large cities and over 
150 towns of California tell of the Span- 
ish settlement—San Francisco, Sacra- 
mento, Los Angeles, San Diego, Ala- 
meda, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, and 
many more. Indian names are seldom 
found. 

In the early fifties two important 
events were taking place on opposite 
sides of the earth—in Europe the Cri- 
mean war, in America the rush for the 
gold fields of California. In 1854-55 
came the famous siege of Sebastopol in 
the Crimea. Half way around the 
world, in the land of new-found gold, 


104 


men were founding towns and adopting 
names for places, and among the names 
which the California miners selected 
are seven ‘‘ Sebastopols,’’ another illus- 
tration of how geographical names re- 
cord history. 

In Arizona and Colorado the trail of 
the Spaniard is everywhere visible. 
Twenty larger streams of the latter 
State are aios.’’ In thestormer tire 
Spanish mesa, butte, el, san, and santa 
are constantly met with, yet of the 14 
importaut mountain passes in Arizona 
not one has a Spanish name. 

The desert lands of Nevada did not 
tempt the cavalier or the priest to build 
forts and missions. ‘There was little to 
attract them into its sandy wastes. 
Less than a half dozen of the 40 1mpor- 
tant mountains and peaks are named in 


Tue NatTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


the Spanish tongue, and not a county 
in the state has a Spanish name. ‘The 
place names of Oregon and Washington 
tell the checkered history of those states. 
Capes Foulweather and Disappointment 
speak of unhappy voyages. Astoria 
recalls the fur trade that helped to found 
the Astor fortune. The neighboring 
towns of Harrisburg and Lebanon sug- 
gest colonies of people from southeast- 
ern Pennsylvania. Salem suggests 
Massachusetts, and Albany speaks of 
New York. In both Washington and 
Oregon Indian names are rare. In Ore- 
gon not a saint, san, or santa is attached 
to a county or important natural feature. 

Thus does history unwittingly record 
itself. Thus is a key which admits us 
to a glimpse of past events found in the 
place names of any region. 


A GROWING CAMP IN THE TANANA 
GOLD PIEUDS; ALASKA: 


By SIDNEY PAIGE, OF~THE 


many and how widely separated 

localities the question, ‘‘ Going to 
the Tanana?’’ wasasked and the reply, 
‘“YVes,’’ given during the past two years 
in Alaska. From Skagway, in the south- 
east, to Cape Prince of Wales, in the ex- 
treme west, from Dawson, onthe Yukon, 
to St Michael, on the coast, the querv 
has been rife, and the ‘‘ayes have 
seemed to have it’’ everywhere. 

A glance at a map of Alaska will re- 
veal the nearly central position of the 
lower Tanana Valley, just now the focus 
of interest for so many hopeful souls. 
A new camp is always an alluring 
‘‘proposition,’’ but one that stands the 
test of time becomes a veritable magnet 
to that great mass of shifting and rov- 
ing fortune-hunters, the Western placer- 


[ is impossible to know in how 


U.S. GEoLoOGIGAL SURVEY 


miners. The Tanana fields have stood 
the test, and Fairbanks town, with all 
the strength of its new life and impor- 
tant position, means to rival Dawson, 
across the line. 

Six miles to the south flowsthe Tanana 
River, second in size only to the Yukon, 
which it meets 150 miles to the west and 
with which it forms the great highway 
to and from the ‘‘ diggins.”’ 

During the summers of 1903 and 1904 
great numbers used this easy but long 
trail to Fairbanks. 

The White Passand Yukon Railroad, 
leaving Skagway on tide water, climbs 
the mountains of the coastal range, and, 
following the beautiful shores of Lake 
Lindeman and Lake Bennett, brings the 
traveler to Whitehorse, famous for its 
rapids, which in the olden days brought 


* Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 


Syeda eal 


ANANA GoLp FIELDs, ALASKA 


LO 


Photo by Sidney Paige 


On the Winter Trail to the Gold Fields 


1O THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MaGaZzINE 


Photo by Sidney Paige 


One of the First to Reach the Tanana Gold Fields 


Tue Tanana Gop FIELDs, ALASKA 


to grief so many a hopeful tenderfoot. 
Down the river, through Lake Lebarge 
and the ‘‘ Five Fingers,’’ one can jour- 
ney under many different class tickets. 
There is the first-class ticket on the 
first-class boat, which means that you 
may have a stateroom if you are lucky, 
or the floor under a table if you are 
not, and there is the second-class ticket 
on the first-class boat, which means you 
may sleep above the boiler if cold- 
blooded, or on the bow of the boat if 
warm ; then follow the first and second 
class tickets on the second-class boats, 
which cost as much as if they were first- 
class, but always inspire the sentiment, 
melt Id only stayed to: home with 
mother.’’ ‘The wise and independent 
traveler eschews both classes and masses 
and takes to the open boat, in many 
ways the most attractive mode of travel- 
ing. The river flows swiftly ; the days 
are endless and the scenery beautiful 
and varied; hills and valleys, cliffs and 
flats, fly by as one takes the midstream 
to escape ‘‘ them pretty little > the 
mosquitoes, and 50 miles in a day’s 
run before camp is pitched requires 
little effort. If in great haste to tread 
the streets of gold and collect the nug- 
gets waiting, ‘‘ watch and watch’’ will 
enable you to utilize the long Arctic 
days. At Gibbon you await the first 
steamer up the Tanana, for ascending 
by small boat means much hard poling 
and tracking on the bank, 15 miles 
being a big day’s work. The light- 
draught steamer is crowded, and you 
are in luck if you find space for your 
blanket on a secluded spot of the deck. 
But all are gay and hopeful, and dreams 
of a farm in southern California, with 
an orange grove about the house, ora 
brown-stone front on Fifth avenue in 
the East put energy into the weary. 

It is another matter to reach Fair- 
banks from the ‘‘outside’’ after the 
‘‘freeze up.’’ The shortest route is 
over the mail trail, by dog sled from 
Valdez, on Prince William Sound, a 


107 


weary stretch of 4oo miles of mountain 
and lowland, not to be undertaken by a 
‘“cheechaco’’ (Alaskan tenderfoot) un- 
less he possesses not only the right stuff, 
but also a reserve fund to call on in 
time of need. Strange as it may seem, 
the closing in of winter opens up the 
country to the ‘‘sourdough,’’ for dogs 
can pull where horses fail, and the pros- 
pector with his team and ‘‘ grubstake’”’ 
roams at will. 

Level spruce-covered ridges rising to 
bare rounded domes, with horizon lines 
as straight as a rule, characterize the 
Tanana gold fields. Gently sloping val- 
leys with hillsides at low angles are seen 
on every hand, and only a clear day re- 
veals far to the south across the wide 
valley of the Tanana the snow-capped 
Alaskan range towering to the clouds 
and culminating to the southwest in 
Mt McKinley. 

Fools, and many of them, rush into a 
new mining camp, but the presence of 
angels would be rather a disturbing 
element in the general scramble for 
good ‘‘pay.’’ Moreover, their wings 
would become torn in the brush and 
their robes muddied by the heavy trails. 

Fairbanks is a thriving town of some 
two thousand souls and growing. In 
fact, it grows as yon watch it, and it 
grows as you give up the watching and 
turn for a few moments of sleep. It 
has not yet, and it is to be hoped never 
will, bear the name of city, so often ill 
applied in the northern camps, where 
each collection of log cabins is dignified 
by that addition to the name of the first 
prospector who struck pay. ‘The main 
street fronting Chena Slough already 
puts to shame many a town of ten times 
its age on the ‘‘ outside.’’ 

On the main street alone there are as 
many as ten saloons, all in active busi- 
ness, to say nothing of the hospital, 
dwellings, sawmills, drug stores, and 
coinmercial companies’ posts, where can 
be bought anything from a paper of 
pins to a folding bed or from a roll of 


108 


wall paper to a polished: oak dining 
table. He that imagines that luxury 
does not exist in our far northern camps 
would need settle but one small bill for 
furnishing to become entirely convinced 
of the luxury of all things, even a sack 
of flour. 

Houses front the slough which would 
do credit to our eastern shores. Steam 
laundries vie with the force of muscle 
in producing the spotless white shirt 
bosom, and bootblacks at ‘‘two bits’’ a 
shine, ever ready, await you, that the 
mud of the trail may be cleaned from 
your boots before entering your carpeted 
cabin. 

Justice is rendered daily in the court- 
house (used on Sundays as the church), 
and if a man’s claim be ‘‘jumped’’ he 
needs but bring suit, and then go seek 
another claim—‘‘ broke.’’ 

If you would know the creeks, don’t 
go tothem. Enter a saloon, and in five 
minutes, mid the melodious tones of 
‘‘Mamie, come kiss you honey boy,’’ 
screeched from the latest phonograph, 
and the jostling of the eager crowd 
about the gaming tables, endeavoring 
to lose in the shortest possible time their 
hard-won gold, you will hear more of 
the ‘‘ good pay’”’ and rich ‘‘ fractions’’ 
than you could learn in a month at the 
bottom of a wet drift. ‘‘Sellit?’’ ‘‘ No; 
not for $50,000 ;’’ and he wouldn’t, 
either, though before the winter is over 
he’ll probably work ‘‘ day shift’’ onthe 
end of a wooden windlass hoisting a 
ten-pan bucket 60 feet at 4o° below 
Zero. 

The continuous buzz of the sawmills, 
turning out 50,000 feet of spruce lum- 
ber a day, would suggest a western 
logging camp. Lumber is as essential 
in mining as is water, and with the 
prices up to $200 a thousand the owner 
of a mill needs no gold mine to make 
his fortune. 

Enter a restaurant, and anything from 
a cup of good coffee, well served, to a 
four-course dinner is yours. Broiled 


Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


caribou steak and mushrooms are in- 
viting, served with lettuce and green 
peas; but don’t do it often, or you’ll 
probably work your way out in the fall 
as a deck hand on a flat-bottom stern- 
wheeled steamboat bound south. 

When you are able to drag yourself 
from the allurements of the metropolis 
and start for the creeks, take the ridge 
trail. Some one may tell you to follow 
the telephone line, as it is straight. It 
is straight enough—one of the few 
straight things in the country, in fact— 
and the walking is good when you get 
down to it, but it’s a long ways down 
and you must need make special efforts 
to extract each separate foot. The ridge 
road is high and dry, through a stretch 
of spruce and birch timber, and, if you 
have dragged yourself through the mud 
and water of acreek trail, seems a boule- 
vard. The freight of all the creeks 
passes this route, and the lead horse of 
a pack train steps aside to let pass the 
two-ton four-mule freighter as it toils 
along, jolting over the old roots and 
stumps of the former wood. ‘Ten miles 
beyond, in the bottom land at the junc- 
tion of Gilmore and Goldstream, this 
same freighter will sink axle deep in the 
mire, and probably leave half its load 
by the wayside for a second trip. L/t- 
tle wonder that freight rates are ‘‘two 
bits’’ a pound, or $500 a ton, a mere 
bagatelle when your claim carries fifty 
cents to the ‘‘ pan,’’ but ruinous when 
it averages only five. 

A newly opened gold placer in an 
Alaskan camp is far from an inviting 
sight. Heavy freighting, accompanied 
with frequent rains, produces in the 
freshly thawed ground of the creek bot- 
toms a result not conducive to good 
walking, to say the least, and in a short 
while the foot trail has spread itself far 
up on the hillsides in a vain endeavor 
to find a dry and firm piece of moss 
upon which to settle. But it is on the 
creeks that the work begins. The 
glamor and fascination of the infant 


Tue Tanana Gop FIELps, ALASKA 


The ‘‘ First Boat Out’’ after the Ice. 


city have disappeared, and men shovel 
and sweat for their daily bread and the 
other man gets the gold. 

Everywhere the sluice box and the 
piles of ‘‘ tailings ’’ catch your eye, and 
the incessant chug chug of pumps and 
dummy engines with the rhythmic 
dumping of the gravel greets your ears. 

Descending one of the many shafts 
sunk to bed rock through the frozen 
gravel, the shift boss will show you 
where the best pay lies, and while you 
stoop to examine the spot a chunk of 
the roof may catch you in the back of 
the neck. But it seldom sloughs off in 
more than 40-pound pieces, so there is 
no danger. 

The mass of miners are wage-earners, 
and they earn their wage. To work 
all day at the end of a No. 2 shovel is 
not all honey and treacle, nor does it 
lead to high ideals and gentle philoso- 


109 


Photo by Sidney Paige 


White Horse 


phy to sweat out your ten hours in a 
steam-filled drift of frozen gravel forty 
feet below the creek, and when the 
whistle blows issue to a hasty wash, a 
dinner, and a crowded bunk-house. 
But there is the ever-present possibility 
of a good strike ora profitable ‘“‘lay’”’ 
ona rich claim. The day is 24 hours 
long and the sun shines most of the 
time, and when the snow falls and the 
trail freezes over, the wage-earner is his 
own master again. With the hard- 
earned ‘‘grub stake’’ and his team of 
dogs he hits the trail for the new coun- 
try, and it is ‘‘mush’’ until the coming 
spring, when, if he hasn’t struck it dur- 
ing the short days of the Arctic winter, 
he returns to the end of a No. 2 to try 
it again next fall. Ask as many as you 
willif they are ‘‘ goin’ out this winter,’’ 
nine times out of ten the answer comes, 
‘“Not till I go with a full poke.’’ And 


) 


110 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Photo by Sidney Paige 


The Tanana Gold Fields 


then Seattle and all that goes with it, 
and broke in a short six months. 

The hospitality of the old Alaskan 
pioneer is proverbial, and in the Fair- 
banks camp there is many a proof of it. 
When noontime and a stranger come 
about the same time the result is a 
stranger before a full table heaped with 
all that money and a generous hand can 
procure in that far-away land ; and even 
if the miner’s ground happens to fall 
where the bed rock was smooth and the 
pay had slipped to the claim below and 
his shelf showed but few fresh cans of 
‘‘carnation cream,’’ the same hearty 
welcome would await the newcomer as 
if the poke were full and hopes high— 
a meal to share and a blanket in the 
cabin on the floor. Strong, healthy, 


cheerful, mostly hopeful,seldom rich, but 
always hospitable, defines the Alaskan 
miner. 

Cleary, Fairbanks, and Pedro Creek 
are yet the mainstay of the camp. One 
claim on Cleary yielded $1,000 a day 
from the solidly frozen gravel 20 feet 
below the surface. Confidence is ex- 
pressed by the fact that several claims 
during the past summer changed hands 
at as high a figure as $60,000. 

Underground mining, or drifting, as 
it is termed, is probably the most eco- 
nomic method of extraction on Cleary 
and Fairbanks Creeks, for the deep, 
barren overburden of muck and gravel 
places open-air work out of the question. 

The primitive hand windlass is dis- 
appearing, its place being taken by the 


INDUSTRIAL I RAINING OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE 


self-dumping carriers and steam hoists. 
Wood fires are no longer used for thaw- 
ing, the steam point being far more 
efficient. 

During the night shift the steam 
points are driven in the face of the drift, 
and after ten hours’ thawing the mate- 
rial is extracted the following day by 
steam hoist and self-dumping carrier. 

Already keen competition is lowering 
the wage and reducing the cost of sup- 
plies, and a reduction in cost of extrac- 
tion and consequent greater profit is 
the result. Machinery of the necessary 
class, boilers, pumps, steam winches, 
hoists, points, and miners’ supplies of 


IIl 


all kinds are entering the camp in large 
quantities. As the cost of mining is 
lowered, the area of workable ground 
is increased. 

The building of better roads would 
immensely aid the miner whose ground, 
though not marvelously rich, still affords 
good ‘‘ pay’’ under more economic con- 
ditions. Itis probable the gold-produc- 
ing field will grow, though the test of 
time is the only reliable one. Certain 
it is, however, that there exist hun- 
dreds of square miles in this region that 
have barely been scratched, and the 
hopes and spirits, at least, of the camp 
are high. 


THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF THE 
GERMAN PEOPLE 


NE of the most important gov- 
() ernment publications in some 
time has been issued by the 
Bureau of Statistics of the Department 
of Commerce and Labor. It is entitled 
‘“Industrial Education and Industrial 
Conditions in Germany,’’ and contains 
a number of special reports by our con- 
suls in Germany, which give an ex- 
cellent and thoughtful appreciation of 
the rapid growth and prosperity of the 
German Empire. This progress is due 
mainly to the thorough training which 
the German workmen and working 
women, of high and low degree, have re- 
ceived in the German technical schools, 
which since the union of the German 
states, in 1870, have been fostered 
everywhere by principalities, cities, as- 
sociations, and private benefactors. 
These schools are open, not toa class 
or to a country, but to the world. In 
their halls rich and poor meet on equal 
terms as learners. They require com- 
paratively little money, but educate 
thousands of hands and heads. ‘They 
throb with the life about them, and 


grow with the world without. They 
are the most powerful weapons of 
German industry. They are the iron- 
clads of commerce. 

A very large majority of the students 
who attend the trade schools of Ger- 
many have had more or less preliminary 
training and practical experience in the 
trades in which they desire to perfect 
themselves. 

Almost all trade schools have special 
workshops or factories associated with 
the school building. 

In them are found the most modern 
machines, the latest inventions, and the 
most practical methods. Every move- 
ment of the student is guarded, every 
act is followed, every mistake is cor- 
rected as soon as it happens by teachers 
who have had good preparatory train- 
ing, who, in most cases, come directly 
from their trade and who are fresh and 
up to date in their practice. 

How different the situation of the 
young apprentice in his father’s factory. 
He may be alone at his machine for 
hours at a time. He may commit a 


a2 


Tue NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


The Technical High School at Charlottenburg, Germany 


legion of errors without detection until 
the products of his experimentation are 
placed upon the market, as experience 
has frequently proved. 

Drawing is made a most important 
branch of study. It lies at the basis of 
a large majority of advanced studies and 
is the A B C in the curriculum of many 
a trade school. In day schools, evening 
schools, and Sunday schools it is the 
same thing—drawing! drawing! It is 
an aid, rather than an injury, to the 
memory. It trains the mind as well as 
the eye. It is as great an aid to the 
reasoning powers as is logic or mathe- 
matics. 

Experience in Germany apparently 
shows that, as a rule, those schools 


which are under private management 
exact the highest tuition fees and ara 
the most inefficient. 

Out of 519 students who attended the 
commercial high school of Leipzig in 
1902-1903 213 were foreigners (110 of 
these Russians). Another striking illus- 
tration is found in the tanning school of 
Freiberg, Saxony, where 42 out of 76 
students enrolled in 1902-1903 were for- 
eigners. In 1903 the ten technical high 
schools had an enrollment of 2,242 for- 
eigners out of a total attendance of 
14,420. 

These hundreds of foreigners return 
to their various countries and there give 
no mean aid in the development of in- 
dustries which are in direct competition 


INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF THE GERMAN 


PEOPLE 


[13 


The Technical High School at Stuttgart, Germany 


with those of Germany. German steel 
thus meets German steel; Germanarmor, 
put on in Germany, turns to meet Ger- 
man armor. On the basis of self-pro- 
tection and national defense the Empire 
cannot be criticized for wishing to close 
its industrial institutions to the rest of 
the world. 

Russia probably profits most in this 
international educational game. Her 
students are found in institutions every- 
Where. Through personal contact with 
some of these the writer was surprised 
to note their broad intelligence, their 
mental keenness, and their linguistic 
accomplishments. Many of these men 
speak four or five languages with ease. 

The Emperor a few years ago issued 
the watchword, ‘‘ The future of the 


German Empire lies on the seas.’’ It 
had a force similar to Bismarck’s famous 
declaration that ‘‘ The nation that has 
the schools has the future.’’ Commerce 
and industry were the great hope then, 
and commerce and industry remain the 
ambitiontoday. Education was chosen 
as the powerful weapon with which to 
attain this future. Today this weapon 
is but just making itself felt. The in- 
dustrial schools are still young. Inthe 
future more will be heard from the young 
merchants and manufacturers who daily 
go out from these institutions. ‘The 
greatest danger of Germany to the world 
is probably not in war, but in peace. 
Her energy is turned to conquests in 
the industrial world. Her marvelous 
development is industrial, not political. 


Ti4 


Such a development may well be re- 
spected and feared; and if we would 
better arm ourselves against industrial 
encroachments and equip ourselves for 
a continuance of our present encour- 
aging commercial expansion with the 
most effective weapons, we would do 
well to take the example and lesson of 
Germany to heart by looking seriously 
and long to our own industrial schools, 
good though they are, and improving 
and developing these in the light of 
American conditions and of foreign 
experience: 

In a comparatively short time Ger- 
many has become one of the great work- 
shops of the world, and has secured a 
place in the front rank of manufactur- 
ing nations with but little assistance 
from nature.and in the face. of many 
difieulties. It 1s not a. rich country’: 
its natural resources are moderate; its 
position is disadvantageous for trading ; 
it has enjoyed peace for but thirty years ; 
it has never enjoyed security, and tran- 
quillity has been purchased at the cost 
of an immense military burden. In all 
these matters it presents a striking con- 
trast to the United States, which has 
had every conceivable advantage. Then 
its people are not particularly inventive 
and have not fashioned for themselves 
superior weapons in the shape of new 
mechanical appliances and revolution- 
izing processes, like the earlier inven- 
tions of England and the later ones of 
America. Nor do they possess excep- 
tional skill in special directions like the 


Tue NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


French. Even in ‘science, wherein 
their intellectual strength is greatest, 
they have no general advantage over 
England and France, for all three coun- 
tries can show records of equal luster, 
whether in physical or biological science; 
and yet Germany has advanced from 
comparatively small beginnings so rap- 
idly that she now does what no other 
country, though possessing superior ad- 
vantages or fewer difficulties, can do; 
she successfully challenges England in 
nearly all the great branches of indus- 
try in which England is or was the 
strongest. Other countries challenge 
in this or that or they have special lines 
of their own ; Germany is an all-round 
competitor, and the most formidable we 
have; and not we only; she competes 
with other countries in the products in 
which they are strongest—with the 
United States in electrical machinery 
and small machine tools, with France in 
dress materials, as she does with Eng- 
land in shipbuilding and large ma- 
chinery. To complete the tale, I must 
add that while doing this and maintain- 
ing the most powerful military system 
in the world Germany has at the same 
time modernized, regulated, and im- 
proved the conditions of civil life more 
completely than any othercountry. She 
has done all those things in the way of 
sanitation, public health, street archi- 
tecture, and public order that other ris- 
ing industrial countries, and conspicu- 
ously the United States, have been too 
busy to do. 


PHILIP NOLAN AND-THE. «LEVANT. 


TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA- 
ZINE for December closes with a refer- 
ence to a story which I wrote in the 
year 1863 called ‘‘ The Man Without a 
Country.’’ That story begins with these 
words : 


| HE curious paper which Dr 
Hague has printed in the Na- 


‘I suppose that very few casual 
readers of the New York Vfferald of 
August 13 observed, in an obscure 
corner ainong the ‘deaths,’ the an- 
nouncement, ‘Nolan. Died on board 
the United States corvette Levant, lati- 
tude 2° rr’ S}, longitude 131 7 Wee 

I had full right to say that very few 


Puitiep NoLaN AND THE “LEVANT” 


readers observed it, because nobody ob- 
served it. The story was a fiction, and 
with the right of an author of fiction I 
made this statement, which is unequiv- 
ocally true. 

I speak of this with a certain sensi- 
tiveness, because I have been accused 
of being a forger and counterfeiter for 
using such language. But it is one of 
the privileges of authors of fiction to 
make their narrative as plausible or 
probable as they can, if they give suff- 
cient clues to the reader, from which he 
may know that he is reading fiction. 
In this case I began by placing the sup- 
posed action of part of the book on 
board a ship which had disappeared 
more than two years before. I knew 
that she had disappeared, the Navy De- 
partment knew she had disappeared, 
all well-informed readers knew that she 
had disappeared. Even among four 
thousand newspapers in the country the 
editors of two knew that she had dis- 
appeared. With my eyes open I inten- 
tionally gave this ready clue toany care- 
ful reader, that from the beginning he 
might know that the story was a par- 
able; and if there are any of such 
croakers left, as I suppose there may 
be in the office of one newspaper known 
to me, I will say to them that from the 
time of the Pharaohs down parable has 
been a method of instruction employed 
by teachers, even of the highest dis- 
tinction. 

The Navy Department did not know 
where the Levant disappeared. All 
they knew was that Captain Hunt, of 
the Levant, was under orders to proceed 
as rapidly as possible from Hilo to the 
American coast, and that he started out 
to obey these orders, and the ship has 
never since been heard from by any 
trace whatever, unless it be in certain 
wreckage found on the south shore of 
Hawali in June, 1861. 

The Navy Department knew this, but 
I did not know it. I only knew that 
she had disappeared somewhere in the 
Pacific Ocean two years before. 


115 


To carry out the specific purpose to 
which I have alluded I meant to have 
these latitudes and longitudes indicate 
a spot high onthe Andes, It was more 
than twenty years afterward that I 
found that in some accuracy of some 
proof-reader, possibly by some blunder 
of mine, the spot indicated is in the 
Pacific Ocean, where I did know she 
had disappeared. But alas the manu- 
script copy is lost and I cannot find who 
made this change. This is in point of 
fact not far from the Marquesan Isl- 
ands, and, oddly enough, in the story 
Nolan is supposed to have been at those 
islands with Essex Porter. But I had 
nothing to do with this. I placed the 
ship on the Andes with the specific pur- 
pose which I have named. 

I should perhaps have never discov- 
ered my own error but that many years 
ago my friend, James D. Hague, who 
knows the bottom of the Pacific better 
than I do the surface of the United 
States, called my attention to the in- 
structions which Captain Hunt had on 
his last voyage in the Levant. I had 
never looked for those instructions, hav- 
ing no occasion to for my purpose. It 
seems that Mr Hague was in Honolulu 
at the time when the Levant? sailed ; 
that Hunt was his friend, and that they 
bade each other good bye on the day of 
her parting. As the reader knows, she 
was never again heard of but from the 
silent record of the spar which has been 
found on the island of Kaalualu. But 
Mr Hague has brought together in his 
interesting paper the evidence which 
shows that almost certainly Hunt in- 
tended to sail on a line nearly east from 
the Hawaiian Islands. In that region 
on any of the more recent atlases there 
is a spot of blue water. On Rand and 
McNally’s elegant atlas of the world I 
find not a speck for thirty degrees of 
north latitude from the equator, for 
twenty degrees of latitude south of the 
equator. On the old Spanish charts, 
however, and on charts copied from 
them Mr Hague and the officers of ma- 


116 


rine hydrography have found indica- 
tions of reefs and evenislands. One of 
the last of them is De Graves’s Island 
of 1859. Almost anywhere in this area, 
itself larger than some of the smaller 
planets of the solar system, the bones of 
the Levant may lie. In this region, as 
the map on page 479 of the NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE shows, five 
degrees of longitude and two of latitude 
have now been searched in vain. 

Mr Hague, however, is kind enough 
to assure me that if my fictitious char- 
acter, Philip Nolan, ever had some sub- 
liminal form he or his spirit, if they 
were on the Levant, may still haunt the 
reef or atoll under the shadow of cocoa- 
nuts or bananas or bread-fruit trees. 
Nolan would have been twenty-five 
years old in the year 1805. ‘Thus his 
one hundred and twenty-fifth birthday 


Tue Nationa Geocrapuic MAGAZINE 


would be found inthis year. If the cli- 
mate is healthy for subliminal people, Dr 
Hague assures me that if I will land 
with him on that reef I may meet for 
the first time in the flesh and blood the 
somewhat bended form of my old hero. 
He will forgive me that I placed him 
on the Andes, where men do not live so 


long. ERS, 
It may be well to repeat Mr Hague’s 


summary : 

‘“’The cruise of the 7acoma has there- 
fore negatively and conclusively dis- 
posed of half a dozen or more reported 
islands ascharted in certain defined po- 
sitions, and it has definitely eliminated 
from further consideration of doubtful 
reports an area of about 10,000 square 
miles, leaving a still questionable region 
of twice or three times that area open 
to further search.”’ 

EDWARD EH. HALE. 


PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES 


Report of the Philippine Com- 

mission for 1904 which will most 
strongly appeal to usis the account given 
of what is being done to develop the re- 
sources and capability of the people. 
Scientific agriculture, which is doing so 
much for the United States, will soon, 
at small expense, increase many times 
the return of every farmer in the islands. 
The government experts are introduc- 
ing American machinery, improved va- 
rieties of plants, and new animals and 
new crops. ‘The natives seem to appre- 
ciate very quickly that greater intelli- 
gence in their work means not only 
greater returns in money, but also 
shorter hours of work. 

Filipino labor is abundant and satis- 
factory. Lhe’ chief of the Bureau ‘of 
Agriculture was at first ridiculed when 
he insisted that Filipinos must drive the 
teams and do the plowing on the gov- 


U NDOUBTEDLY that part of the 


ernment farms, but they are now doing 
it on every farm controlled by the bu- 
reau. Furthermore, they are doing it 
as well as Americans ever did and at 
prices amounting to but 6 to Io per cent 
of what it formerly cost to get Ameri- 
cans to perform the same work. 

A steam thresher, introduced by the 
bureau, got so much more rice from the 
stalks than the natives had been accus- 
tomed to obtain by tramping it out 
under foot after it had stood for weeks 
and been subject to the depredations of 
thieves and rats that they at first con- 
ceived the idea that rice hidden inside 
the separator was allowed to flow from 
the spout of the machine, thus aug- 
menting the real output. 

A period of three months is ordinarily 
consumed in threshing rice by native 
methods, and 25 per cent of the crop is 
often lost. Native methods of hulling 
and cleaning are very crude and the 


PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES 


valuable by-products are all lost, while 
rice threshed by steam power is ready 
to go to the cleaning iil] at once, and 20 
per cent of the rough rice is saved in 
bran and polish, which make excellent 
cattle food. ‘The rice crop being thus 
quickly disposed of, the farmer and his 
laborers have time to put in other 
crops. Several steam threshers have 
been bought by Filipino farmers. 

Experiments in growing Indian corn 
have been successful. A crop may be 
matured in less than three months. 
The meal, pound for pound, is more 
nutritious than rice. The average rice 
crop, which requires six months to 
grow, does not yield more than 750 
pounds of cleaned rice per acre, while 
the average corn crop is 15 bushels per 
acre, which is more than equivalent in 
food value to 750 pounds of cleaned 
mee, It is-apparent, therefore, that the 
successful stimulation of corn produc- 
tion will greatly increase the available 
food supply. 

Attempts are being made to use the 
castor bean, which grows all over the 
islands.. Little use heretofore has been 
made of its fruit, while much castor oil 
is imported at a high price. Press 
cake obtained from this bean is worth 
approximately $20 gold per ton for fer- 
tilizer. 

The stimulation of cocoanut produc- 
tion, at present a source of considerable 
wealth to the Philippines, has been 
begun. The trees thrive on ground 
which is worthless for other purposes. 
They requiré comparatively little care, 
and when grown in large numbers are 
not often seriously injured by the at- 
tacks of insects or by unfavorable cli- 
matic conditions other than long-contin- 
ued drouth. At present nuts are, asa 
rule, planted haphazard, without regard 
to the productivity of the trees from 
which they come. Plantations are cul- 
tivated little, if at all. Fruit is often 
harvested before maturity; no use what- 
ever is made of the husk except for fuel. 


any 


Copra is sun dried at considerable ex- 
pense and with constant risk of heavy 
loss from sudden showers, or, during 
the rainy season, is placed in bins and 
smoked over slow fires; naturally the 
product is of a very inferior quality. 

It seems that certain trees make ex- 
cellent growth and fruit heavily when 
planted in sea sand, which is almost 
without plant food, provided their roots 
are laved by the rising tide and the sea 
breeze fans their leaves. Should it 
prove that their ability to live and flour- 
ish is dependent upon the presence of a 
nitrogen-producing organism capable of 
eultivation and distribution, so that the 
barren wastes of sand along our long 
coast can be made to produce cocoanuts 
advantageously, it would obviously be 
more economical to plant them there 
than to give up rich soil to their culti- 
vation and incur the expense of pur- 
chasing and using artificial fertilizers. 

It is found that horses and mules 
stand the heavy work on the rice farm 
as well as in the Southern States of 
America. A native teamster with 4 
mules plows 4 acres of land per day, 
while a native plowman with 4 Chinese 
oxen plows 2% acres per day. ‘The 
ordinary Filipino, using 2 carabaos, is 
able to plow about one-fifth of an acre 
per day; he must have twocarabaos how- 
ever, in order that they may be inter- 
changed every two or three hours and 
allowed to get their mud baths, with- 
out which they soon become incapaci- 
tated for work. 

The archipelago has a coast line more 
than double that of the United States, 
and not more than ro per cent of this 
has been adequately charted. ‘The ex- 
act geographical situation of a great 
portion of the east coast of the islands 
has never been determined, and there 
has been considerable uncertainty in 
regard to many other points. Much 
has already been accomplished by the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, nearly 100 
topographic sheets having been issued. 


113 


With the opening of the Pacific Cable 
the exact longitude of Manila has been 
determined from San Francisco dur- 
ing the year, and several other points 
hitherto in doubt have been cleared up. 


THE GARDENS 


HERE is now lying in the Treas- 
ury vaults the sum of nearly 
$30,000,000, which is reserved 

exclusively for the government irriga- 
tion projects of the West. This immense 
sum has been realized during the past 
three and one-half years from the sale 
of public lands, and the amount is in- 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpuic MAGAZINE 


The bureau will compile data from 
which it will eventually plot an accu- 
rate coast line. In two cases the actual 
surveys show a discrepancy of nearly 
four miles over the previous reports. 


OF THE WEST 


creasing daily at a very rapid rate. 
Work has already been begun on eight 
great projects which will make gardens 
of nearly one million acres, an area 
equal to the State of Rhode Island and 
probably capable of generously support- 
ing a population of several million 
people. 


From F. H. Newell, U.S. Geological Survey 


Salt River Canyon, Arizona 


Looking down stream from point about half a mile above dam site. 
high and costing $3.000,000 is to be built across the canyon. 


A giant dam 240 feet 
The water is reserved for Phoenix, 


60 miles down the river, where about 200,000 acres will be irrigated. The project also includes 
a series of power plants which will supply water to nearly 60,000 acres in Salt River Valley. 


11g 


Tur GARDENS OF THE WEST 


[LY 0} [[P Wor Yo}a13s plnom wep pesodoid oy, 


opelojod ‘dex Apurpy ‘91S weg jeordAy, Vv 


AJAING [BOTBOTOIH “S$ “O ‘[]PMON °H “A WoIg 


120 


Tue NationaL GeoGraPHic MAGAZzInt 


From F, H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey 


Site of Proposed Dam in Gunnison Canyon, Colorado 


The precipitous canyon walls are 2,000 feet high. 


It has been decided to build a dam across 


the canyon and then to bore a tunnel through the canyon wall just behind the dam, which will 


carry water to Uncompahgre Valley. 
dreds of feet by ropes. 


The projects already commenced are : 


State. Project. 
Arizona . . Salt River. 
California Yama: 
Colorado Uncompahgre Valley. 
Idaho . Minidoka. 
Nebraska. North Platte 
Nevada . . Truckee-Carson. 


New Mexico. Hondo. 
South Dakota . Belle Fourche. 


The following projects, to irrigate 
another half million acres, have been 
approved and will be soon commenced: 


The men who took this photograph were lowered hun- 
See the NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, January, 1904, page 27. 


State. Project. 
Montana. . Milk River. 
North Dakota. Fort Buford. 
Dozia.. s)  Biatord fs, 
Dow y .) 4. Bismarck Ing. 
Washington . Palouse. 
Wyoming . Shoshone. 
Oregon Malheur. 


The Third Report of the Reclama- 
tion Service; F. H. Newell, Chief-En-= 
gineer, now in press, contains an inter- 
esting comparison of the relative cost to 
the public of government and private 


THe GARDENS OF THE WEsT 121 


1 Survey 


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From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geolo 
It is proposed to construct works to 


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Tue GARDENS OF THE WEsT 


123 


From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey 


Fifteen Lignite Beds in Single Section of Little Missouri River near Johnson’s 
Ranch, North Dakota 


There are about 250,000 acres along the Little Missouri River in North Dakota which if 


reclaimed would make ideal farms. 


This large area is, however, distributed in small terraces, 


none Over 15,000 acres in extent, from 50 to 1oo feet and more about the river bank, so that if 
it were not for the very lucky deposits of fairly good coal along the river it would not pay to 
reclaim any of them; but with this coal pumping plants can be very cheaply operated. The 
Reclamation Service has already approved projects to reclaim two terraces on the river. 


irrigation works. By the terms of the 
reclamation law the cost of every irri- 
gation enterprise constructed by the 
government must be paid back by the 
people benefited within ten years after 
completion of the work. ‘The repay- 
ment is made by installments. As the 
government charges no interest and 
seeks no profit, government irrigation 
works cost the people considerably less 
than works built by private corpora- 
tions. The illustrations on pages 118 
to 124 have been chosen to show the stu- 
pendous magnitude of some of the proj- 
ects and the natural difficulties that 


have to be overcome. Irrigation on 
such an enormous scale has never been 
undertaken in the history of the world. 

The reclamation law is working ad- 
mirably. It is elastic and equally fair to 
all sections. ‘Too much confidence and 
praise cannot be given Mr Newell and 
his efficient corps of engineers for the 
ability and good judgment with which 
they are carrying out the provisions of 
thelaw. The picture on page t20 shows 
that not only engineering skill but cour- 
age and coolness are constantly needed 
to solve the many varied problems of the 
work. 


THE CAUSE OF THE EARTH’S HEAT 


ROF. ERNEST RUTHERFORD 
contributes to Harper's Magazine 
for February an intensely inter- 

esting article on the cause of the earth’s 
heat, which he is inclined to believe is 
radium. From his article we may draw 
much comfort, for whereas Lord Kelvin 
and later scientists have been arguing 
that all of our descendants must become 
extinct in about five million years, Prof. 
Rutherford gives the hope that our race 
may hold out for five hundred millions 
of years, which is quite a bit longer. 
All estimates, of course, are based on the 
duration of the heat from thesun. Our 
new knowledge of radium seems to show 
that the sun’s heat is diminishing much 
more slowly than has been generally 
supposed. 


After describing the heat inside the 
earth and the various present theories 
to account for this heat, Prof. Ruther- 
ford proceeds to tell some of the remark- 
able characteristics of radium. 

““In the course of a. year one pound 
of radium would emit as much heat as 
that obtained from the combustion of 
100 pounds of the best coal, but at the 
end of that time the radium would ap- 
parently be unchanged and would itself 
give out heat at the old rate, and it 
would emit heat at the above rate for 
about one thousand years.”’ 

The heat which radium gives off seems 
to be caused by the breaking up of the 
radium atom into tiny particles, which 
fly away with tremendous velocity; but 
notwithstanding their great speed, most 


North Dakota. 


From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey 


Four Coal Beds each 4 or 5 Feet Thick on Little Missouri River, near Mikkelson, 


See preceding page 


CAUSE OF THE Eartu’s Hzat 


of the particles are caught by the outer 
walls of the atom and their energy of 
motion converted into heat. ‘‘ The ra- 
dium, in consequence, is heated by its 
self-bombardment.’’ 

The emanations of radium and of 
other radioactive substances are present 
everywhere in the atmosphere. Every 
falling raindrop and snowflake carries 
some of this radioactive matter to the 
earth, while every leaf and blade of 
grass 1s covered with an invisible film 
of this radioactive material. These em- 
anations are not produced in the air 
itself, but are exhaled from the earth’s 
crust, which is impregnated with radio- 
active matter. 

The question, then, arises, Is the 
amount of radioactive matter present 
in the earth sufficient to heat it to an 
appreciable extent? Prof. Rutherford 
believes that it is. The present loss of 
heat from the earth is equivalent, he 
says, to that supplied by the presence 
of about 270,000 tons of radium, which, 
if distributed uniformly throughout the 
earth’s crust, corresponds to only five 
parts in one hundred million million per 
unit mass. The radioactivity observed 
in soils corresponds to the presence of 
about this proportion of radium. 

According to Prof. Rutherford’s view, 
the present internal heat of the earth 


£25 


tends to be maintained by the constant 
evolution of heat by the radioactive 
matter contained in it. - The calcula- 
tions of the age of the earth made by 
Lord Kelvin, which were based on the 
theory that the earth was a simple cool- 
ing body, in which there was no further 
generation of heat, cannot, then, apply, 
for the present temperature gradient 
of the earth may have been nearly the 
same for a long interval of time. 

The new knowledge which the dis- 
covery of radium and of its properties 
has given inclines the author to the 
theory that there is available in the sun 
a vast store of atomic energy. ‘‘If or- 
dinary matter in breaking up emits as 
much heat as radium, then it can be 
deduced that the duration of the sun’s 
heat would be prolonged for about one 
hundred times the estimate founded on 
the condensation theory. . . . If 
this heat of atomic disintegration is 
available, it would suffice to keep up 
the present output of energy from the 
sun for about five thousand million 
years, a period of time which probably 
both geologists and biologists would 
consider sufficient for the processes of 
organic evolution, while the duration 
of the sun’s heat in the future may pos- 
sibly be extended for a hundred times 
the estimate made by Kelvin.”’ 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


MAPS RECENTLY ISSUED BY THE 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
HE Batavia quadrangle, situated 
in western New York, in Genesee 
and Wyoming counties. It embraces 
an area of about 220 square miles. In 
addition to Batavia, a town of about 
10,000 inhabitants, the smaller villages 
of Bethany, Pavilion, Wyoming, Dale, 
Linden, Lagrange, and Warsaw are 
shown on the map. 

The Greene quadrangle of New Vork, 


including a portionof Chenango, Broome, 
and Cortland Counties. The area rep- 
resented includes the thriving village 
of Greene, in Greenetown; portions 
of the towns of Smithville, German, 
and McDonough, in Chenango County; 
the village of Whitney Point, in the 
town of Triangle; portions of the 
towns of Barker, Nanticoke, and Lisle, 
in Broome County ; the town of Wil- 
let and portions of the towns of Cin- 
cinnatus, Freetown, and Marathon, in 


126 


Cortland County. This region is ac- 
counted one of the best dairy sections 
in the state. 

The Vina quadrangle of California. 
The area represented embraces about 
150,000 acres in the most fertile part of 
the Sacramento Valley, including por- 
tions of Tehama, Butte, and Glenn 
Counties. 

The Kaweah quadrangle, in Califor- 
nia. It takesin the eastern slope of the 
Sierras and covers a country that ranges 
in elevation from 500 or 600 feet above 
sea-level in the valleys of the west to 
12,400 feet, the height of the summits 
in the northeast part of the quadrangle. 

The Lake City quadrangle, in Colo- 
rado. The range of altitude in the 
quadrangle amounts to over 6,300 feet, 
extending from an elevation of about 
8,000 feet above sea-level on the Gun- 
nison River, in the northeastern por- 
tion of the quadrangle, to the summit 
of Uncompahgre Peak, the loftiest point 
in southwestern Colorado, a massive 
mountain that rises to a height of 14,- 
206 feet. 

The Niwot quadrangle of Colorado. 
Besides the oil wells in the southwestern 
part of the quadrangle, this area con- 
tains extensive coal mines. 

Longmont, the most important town 
of the quadrangle, is the center of ex- 
tensive sugar-beet and canning indus- 
tries. The whole quadrangle is covered 
with fine farms, on which large crops 
of hay, alfalfa, and fruit are raised. The 
high degree of cultivation seen here is 
due to an extensive system of irrigation. 
The water for this purpose is taken 
from Boulder, Lefthand, and St Vrain 
Creeks. 

The Osoyoos quadrangle,in Okanogan 
County, Washington. Thisquadrangle, 
which lies immediately south of the in- 
ternational boundary line and west of 
the Republic quadrangle, embraces an 
area of nearly 800 square miles. 

The Ovando quadrangle, in Montana, 
about two-thirds of which is in the 


Tue NatTiona, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Lewis and Clarke Forest Reserve, just 
west of the Continental Divide in north- 
ern Montana. 

Weston and Vadis quadrangles, in 
West Virginia, which include portions 
of Harrison, Upshur, Lewis, Doddridge, 
and Gilmer Counties, constituting a re- 
gion that is interesting for its undevel- 
oped coal fields. 

Salineville quadrangle, which is sit- 
uated in the east central part of Ohio. 
It embraces about 226 square miles and 
contains portions of Columbiana, Car- 
roll, and Jefferson Counties. 

The topographic maps of the United 
States Geological Survey have gained 
wide popularity in the last nine years. 
Whereas only 86,974 maps were dis- 
tributed in 1895, there were S5or,775 
maps sent out in 1904. ‘These were 
distributed as follows: through retail 
sale, 47,906; through wholesale sale, 
293,653; through members of Congress, 
27,987; to libraries and institutions, 
75,012: for. official tse,757, 107 
though the retail price of each map is 
only five cents and the wholesale price 
but two cents, the considerable sum of 
$8,976.36 was received for maps. 


NOTES FROM OUR CONSULS 


HE following consular reports give 

facts of interest in different parts 

of the world. Persons may obtain from 

the Bureau of Statistics copies of these 

reports, as long as a limited edition will 

permit, by giving the number of the re- 
port desired : 

Damascus- Mecca Railroad, No.2191.— 
The road has been completed as far as 
Ma’an, 300 miles south of Damascus. 

Trade and Possibilities of Arabia, 
No. 2190.—Probably few people except 
the Germans realize the possibilities of 
Arabia. With irrigation and railways 
the country could be vastly developed. 

Trade of Japan During the War, 
No. 2190.—The exports increased $15,- 
000,000 and the imports $25,000,ooodur- 


GEOGRAPHIC Norss 


ing 1904. ‘The total foreign commerce 
of Japan for 1904 reached $34,000,000. 

Reclamation of Mesopotamia, No. 
2186.—Chaldzea, once the richest and 
most coveted part of the East, but long 
stagnant and desert, is on the eve of 
being made fertile again. 

Simplon Tunnel, No. 2181.—The 
longest tunnel in the world, 12% miles, 
is nearly completed. 

Yukon ‘Territory, No. 2179.—The 
territory produced $93,025,000 during 
1898-1903, of which $65,046,178 went 
to the assay offices at Seattle and San 
Francisco. Of the 12,000 population, 
7,200 are Americans. 

Cotton Culture in India, No. 2179.— 
Attempts to grow the long-staple Egyp- 
tian cotton have been unsuccessful. In- 
dia, the second cotton-growing country 
of the world, produces 2,000,000 bales a 
year as against an average of 10,000,000 
bales in the United States. 

Railroads in China, No. 2179.—A 
number of concessions for new railways 
have been granted. 

Development of Korea’s Resources, 
No. 2178.—Next to the Japanese and 
Chinese, Americans far outnumber every 
other nationality in Korea. The Amer- 
ican electric railway and electric light 
and telephone systems at Seoul are very 
successful. 

Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, No. 
2178.—The plans for this splendid new 
line are rapidly nearing completion. 

Commerce and Industries of Korea, 
No. 2176.—1904 was the most pros- 
perous year in Korea’s history. She 
has not been troubled by the war, but 
has received large sums for her laborers 
and supplies. 

Railroads in Korea, No. 2177.—The 
Seoul-Fusan line is completed, that from 
Seoul to the Yalu nearly completed, 
and the line from Seoul to Gensan pro- 
gressing., 

Future of Liberia, No. 2172.—-The 
climate is comparatively good, the re- 
sources awaiting development many, and 
the ultimate future reported bright. 


127 


Agricultural and Commercial Condi- 
tions in Southern Brazil, No. 2171.—A 
scarcity of labor is handicapping this sec- 
tion, which is oneof the most progressive 
and prosperous in South America. 

Russian Crops in 1904, No. 2154.— 
The Russian crops in 1904 are officially 
reported as having been considerably 
larger than the average in recent years. 

Commerce and Industries of Cuba in 
1904, No. 2149.—Exports from the 
United States to Cuba in 1904, the first 
year under the new reciprocity treaty, 
amounted to$32,000,000,and were larger 
than in any earlier year in the history 
of our trade with that island, and were 
38.9 per cent in excess of those of 1903. 

The World’s Silk Production, No. 
2130. 

Panathna s-Commerce, No. 2130, 


WORK OF THE COAST AND GEODETIC 
SURVEY 


R O. H. TITIMANN, in his re- 
port for 1904 as Superintendent 
of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
announces the completion of the deter- 
mination of the difference of longitude 
between San Francisco, Cal.,and Manila, 
P. I., thus connecting the longitude cir- 
cuit around the earth. This work was 
made practicable by the generous cooper- 
ation of the officers of the Commercial 
Pacific Cable Company, who placed their 
cables and operators at the service of the 
Survey. Incidentally, during the prog- 
ress of this work, the longitude of Hono- 
lulu, Hawaii, of Midway Island, and 
Guam Island were determined. 

The triangulation along the ninety- 
eighth meridian was extended toward 
the north and toward the south from 
the portion already completed, the total 
extension amounting to 500 kilometers 
along the meridian, and the work was 
in progress at the close of the year. 

The location on the ground and mark- 
ing of the boundary between Alaska 
and the British possessions, as laid down 
by the Alaska Boundary Tribunal, was 
inaugurated under the direction of the 


THe NatTionaL GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE 


128 


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12 


GEOGRAPHIC Noress 


130 


Department of State by the Superin- 
tendent as Commissioner of the United 
States in cooperation with the Com- 
missioner of Great Britain. 

The various operations of the mag- 
netic survey of the country show a 
gratifying progress during the year. 
The determination of the magnetic dec- 
lination, dip, and intensity was made in 
327 localities, embracing 367 stations, 
distributed over 24 states and territories 
and 2 foreign countries. An extensive 
investigation was made of the marked 
local disturbances in the vicinity of Ju- 
neau, Alaska, 45 stations being occu- 
pied for this purpose. In codperation 
with the Louisiana Geological Survey, 
the magnetic survey of the state was 
completed. Effective cooperation was 
secured with an expedition sent to the 
Bahama Islands by the Baltimore Geo- 
graphical Society, and valuable results 
were thus obtained without expense to 
the: Survey. 

Excellent progress was made in se- 
curing magnetic observations at sea 
during the voyages of the ships of the 
Survey to and from their fields of work. 
In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 92 
results of magnetic declination and 33 
results of magnetic dip and intensity 
were thus obtained, nearly all of them 
derived from complete swings of the 
ships forward and back. 

Continuous records of the variations 
of the magnetic elements were secured 
throughout the year at five magnetic 
observations situated at Cheltenham, 
Md. ; Baldwin, Kans, -sitka, Alaska: 
near Honolulu, Hawaii, and Vieques, 
P.R. During the year a large number 
of magnetic storms were recorded, the 
most remarkable one occurring October 
31-November 1. 

During the year a bureau of inter- 
national research in terrestrial magnet- 
ism was created by the Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington, with an officer 
of the Survey, the inspector of magnetic 
work, in charge as director. 


‘Tue Nationa, GeocrRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


A continuous record of tide observa- 
tions with self-registering gauges was 
obtained during the year at 8 stations, 
including 1 station at Hawaii and 1 in 
the Philippine Islands, and for a por- 
tion of the year at an additional station 
which was established on the Gulf of 
Mexico, at Galveston. 

The electric tide indicator installed 
in the Maritime Exchange at Philadel- 
phia continued to give satisfaction. A 
similar apparatus was installed during 
the year in the Maritime Exchange at 
New York. 

The tide indicators established for 
the use of mariners in New York har- 
bor, in the Delaware River at Reedy 
Island, and in San Francisco Bay con- 
tinued in operation during the year. 

Compass deviation ranges were es- 
tablished by marks placed on the inner 
Delaware breakwater, which will prove 
of great value to shipping, as any ves- 
sel can now determine the corrections 
to her compass while swinging at an- 
chor in the national harbor of refuge. 

The field work necessary for the re- 
vision of two volumes of the United 
States Coast Pilot, covering the coast 
from Point Judith;-R.°1.,: to: Chesa- 
peake Bay entrance, Virginia, was com- 
pleted. 

Hydrographic surveys were made in 
16 states and territories, topographic 
surveys in 9, triangulation in 14, and 
leveling in 6. 

The primary triangulation along the 
Pacific coast north of San Francisco 
was continued. 

In Alaska a survey was made of Da- 
vidson Inlet, work was continued in 
Prince William Sound, and two vessels 
were dispatched to make a survey of 
Kiska harbor, Aleutian Islands. 

In Porto Rico hydrographic work 
was continued in the harbors and bays 
and offshore. 


The experts of our Department of Ag- 
riculture are constantly on the hunt for 


GeEoGRAPHIC Norss 


From David G. Fairchild, Dept. Agriculture 


Stripping the Bark from a 9-year-old 
Wattle Tree 


new species of plants which can be 
grown profitably in the United States 
or in our island possessions. One of 
the latest suggestions is that the Aus- 
tralian wattle tree, which gives excel- 
lent bark for tanning purposes and 
which grows nearly as rapidly as the 
bamboo, requiring little care, be intro- 
duced into Hawaii. A bulletin on the 
subject by David G. Fairchild has been 
published by the department. The ac- 
companying illustration shows a laborer 
stripping the bark from a wattle tree. 


The U.S. Weather Bureau has estab- 
lished a section of its Climate and Crop 
Service in Hawaii. About 40 voluntary 


131 


meteorological stations have been estab- 
lished and equipped with instruments 
of standard pattern and the cooperation 
of a large number of Climate and Crop 
correspondents has been secured. ‘The 
regular issue of weekly Crop Bulletins 
was began January 9, 1905. 


DECISIONS OF U. S. BOARD ON GEO- 
GRAPHIC NAMES 


December 7, 1904 


Ashnola; river, Okanogan County, Washing- 
ton (and British Columbia, Canada; crosses 
boundary at 120° 20’) (not Na-is-nu-loh, 
Ashtnulon, Naisnuloh, Nais-nu-loh, Nais- 
nutho, nor Ashanola). 

Bear Lodge; mountains, Crook County, Wyo- 
ming (not Bearlodge). 

Cakepoulin ; creek, Franklin township, Hun- 
terdon County, New Jersey (not Cake- 
paulins). 

Central City ; town, post-office, railroad sta- 
tion, and county seat, Gilpin County, Col- 
orado (not Central). 

Chewack ; creek, tributary of Methow River 
(from the north, mouth at Winthrop), 
Okanogan County, Washington (not Che- 
wuch Creek, Chewach Creek, Chewack 
Creek, Chiwak, Chewach, Chewuck, nor 
North Fork). 

Conconully ; lake, Okanogan County, Wash- 
ington (not Salmon). 

Egg; island near easternmost point of Una- 
laska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Ugal- 
gan nor Ugalgal).* 

Ellemeham ; mountain, Okanogan County, 
Washington (not Ellemachun, Elloma- 
chan, nor Mt Ellemeham). 

English ; bay indenting the eastern shore of 
Unalaska Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska 
(not Samganuda).* 

Fraser ; river, tributary from south to Grand 
River, post-office, and precinct, Grand 
County, Colorado(not Frazier nor Frazer). 

Indian ; creek, tributary from south to Bear 
Creek, Clear Creek County, Colorado (not 
South Fork Bear Creek, Rocder, nor Yan- 
kee). 

Lake Clear; lake or pond in Harrietstown, 
Franklin County, New York (not Big Clear 
Pond nor Clear Pond). 

Latah ; creek, Spokane and Whitman Coun- 
ties, Washington, and Kootenai County, 
Idaho,tributary from southeast to Spokane 
River at Spokane (not Hangman, Hang- 
mans, Latah and Hangman’s, Latah and 
Hangman, Lau-taw, nor Camas Prairie). 


* Revision of previous decision. 


£32 


North Head ; cape, the northern point of Aku- 
tan Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not 
Sigak) * 

Old Baldy ; peak in the Santa Rita Mountains, 
Santa Cruz County, Arizona (not Baldy, 
Mt Wrightson, nor Santa Rita). 

Queneska ; island in Shelburne town, off Shel- 
burne Point, in Lake Champlain, Vermont 
(not Hog, Whites, nor White’s). 

Reed ; post-office and railroad station, Hender- 
son County, Kentucky (not Reads). 

Rillito; creek, four miles north of Tucson, Pima 
County, Arizona (not Rita). 

Rollins ; pass, over Front Range (Continental 
Divide), latitude 39°56’, Boulderand Grand 
counties, Colorado (not Boulder nor Rog- 
ers): 

Rootok; island near west end of Aratanak 
Island, Krenitzin group, eastern Aleu- 
tians, Alaska (not Aektok nor Rootak).* 

Salmon; creek, tributary from the north to 
Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wash- 
ington (not Conconully, Concunully, nor 
White Salmon). 

San Antonio; creek or river emptying into 
the Pacific Ocean three miles north of 
Purisima Point, Santa Barbara County, 
California (not Jesus Maria River, Guay- 
mas River, nor Los Alamos). 

Simon; pond, town of Altamont, Franklin 
County, New York (not Simons, Big Si- 
mon, Big Simons, Simonds, nor Big Si- 
monds). 

Sinlahekin ; creek, tributary from the south 
to Palmer Lake, Okanogan County, Wash- 
ington (not Sinlehekin, Sinlahekim, War- 
ing-Sinlehegan, Waring, Toudes Coulé, 
nor Sinlahegan). 

Sunset; island, Colchester town, in [Lake 
Champlain, Vermont (not Hog Back). 
Valdez; glacier, narrows, port, summit, and 
town, Prince William Sound, eee (not 

Valdes).* 

Vance; creek, tributary from ore to Bear 
Creek, Clear Creek County, Colorado (not 
Little Bear). 

Whalebone; cape between Usof and Three 
Island bays, on south coast of Unalaska, 
Alaska. 


January 4, 1905 


Bergenfield ; borough, post-office, and railroad 
station, Bergen County, New Jersey (not 
Bergenfields nor Bergen Fields). 

Bruster ; town and post-office on the Columbia 
River,Okanogan County, Washington (not 
Brewster ). 

Chiliwist ; creek, tributary from the northwest 
to the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, 
Washington (not Chilliwist, Chiliwhist, 
Chilliwhist, nor Chilowist). 


*Revision of previous decision. 


THe NarionaL GroGRAPHIc MAGAZINE 


Ecorse ; river, township, post-office, and rail- 
road station , Wayne County, Michigan(not 
Ecorce, River aux; Ecorces, nor Ecorces). 

Esty ; aoe north of Ithaca, New York (not 
Estey 

Factory ; ee in Wayne and Lawrence Coun- 
ties, Tennessee (not Factory’s, Factor’s, 
nor Factors). 

False Bottom; creek in Tawrence and Butte 
Counties, South Dakota(not Falsebottom). 

Indian ; creek in Wayne and Hardin Counties, 
Tennessee (not Reinness, Reinse’s, nor 
Reinses). 

Kougarok; river tributary to the Kuzitrin 
River, mountain, mining district, and min- 
ing town, Seward Peninsula, Alaska (not 
Kugruk, Koogrock, Kougrok, Kugrock, 
nor Kugruk City). 

Kugruk ; river, flowing into Kotzebue Sound, 
just east of Cape Deceit, Alaska (not 
Swan). 

Kugrupaga ; river, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 
flowing into the Arctic Ocean, at longi- 
tude 166° 45’ (not Kugruk nor Koogrook). 

Loup Loup; creek, tributary to the Okanogan 
River, near Malott, Okanogan County, 
Washington (not Loop Loop, Loop-Loop, 
nor Looploop). 

Palisades ; township, Bergen County, New 
Jersey (not Palisade). 

Rogers; island in Hudson River, Columbia 
County, New York (not Rodgers). 


Wannacut; lake, Okanogan County, Wash- 
ington, T. 39 N., R. 26 E. (not Wauna- 
kee, Wennacut, Wonacot, Warnacott, 
Wanicot, Wanacott, Wannicutt, nor Wan- 
nicut). 

Weatherford ; creek, Wayne County, Tennes- 


see (not Rutherford, Rutherford’s, Ss, nor 
Rutherfords). 


February 1, 1905 


Belleview ; township, Washington County, Mis- 
souri (not Belview, Bellview, or Bellevue). 

Chilicotal; spring and mountain, Brewster 
County, Texas (not Chili Corte, Chili 
Cortal, nor Chili Cotel). 

East Branch Chenango River ; stream, branch 
of Chenango River, in Oneida, Madison, 
and Chenango Counties, New York (not 
East Chenango River nor Chenango 
Creek). 

Kennyetto ; creek, Fulton County, New York 
(not Kenneto). | 

Mount Vernon; post-office and town, Hills- 
boro County, New Hampshire (not Mt 
Vernon nor Mont Vernon). 

San Cristobal; lake, Hinsdale County, Colo- 
rado (not San Christobal, San Cristoval, 
nor San Cristopal). 

Staser ; post-office and railroad station, Van- 
derburg County, Indiana (not Stacer, Sta- 
cers, nor Stasers). 


GEOGRAPHIC 


. Arbitration in The Hague Court. By 
John W. Foster. Pp. 147. Boston 
and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & 
Co. 1904. $1.00 xet. 

The efforts of President Roosevelt in 
advancing the interests of international 
arbitration make this little volume of 
special interest. As is expected from 
a man of Mr Foster’s experience and 
ability, the merits of international arbi- 
tration are concisely and forcefully, as 
well as clearly, set forth. The volume 
covers the inception, progress, and pres- 
ent condition of international arbitra- 
tion. It makes clear the methods and 
processes to be followed, concerning 
which there exist misunderstandings in 
the minds of many. The Hague Con- 
vention recognizes two classes of con- 
troversy, the first of a judicial char- 
acter, and the second questions regard- 
ing the interpretation or the application 
of international treaties. 

The Washington conference of 1890 
recommended an arbitration treaty with 
the stipulation that the sole question 
which any nation is at libérty to decline 
to arbitrate is a question which might 
emperil its independence. Chile and 
Argentina have united in such a treaty, 
while the Netherlands and Denmark 
agreed to submit to The Hague Court 
all mutual differences and disputes that 
cannot be solved through diplomatic 
channels. 

The Hague Court does not sit as a 
collective body, but the nations submit- 
ting cases for arbitration select by 
mutual agreement one, three, or five 
members from the personnel constitut- 
ing the court, which in its membership 
is practically a permanent panel of in- 
ternational jurymen. 

With regard to rehearings, they are 
to be permitted only on the discovery 
of new facts, previously unknown to 
the tribunal and the parties, which 
must be of such a character as to exer- 


LITERATURE 


cise a decisive influence on the judg- 
ment. 

General Foster considers the much- 
criticised decision of the tribunal con- 
ceding preferential treatment to allied 
powers in the Venezuelan case, but 
believes with Mr MacVeagh that the 
presence of thirteen nations before the 
tribunal was such a valuable object les- 
son of the wisdom and efficacy of arbi- 
tration as to offset any other disadvan- 
tages. 

General Foster wisely suggests that 
The Hague Court should be made a truly 
international tribunal by adding to its 
personnel representatives from all the 
American republics. He favors a pro- 
hibitive rule regarding a member of the 
permanent panel appearing as counsel 
for the litigating party, and believes 
that the question of expense should be 
carefully considered, as it is now prac- 
tically prohibitive against smaller states 
of limited resources. There should 
also be suitable rules regarding the 
language to be used in arguments and 
the familiarity of the judges therewith. 

General Foster shows the necessity 
of fostering and stimulating an intelli- 
gent interestinarbitration. It is hoped 
that the final outcome in the United 
States will be to further the interests of 
peace, and justify his statement that 
‘‘The Hague Court will long stand as 
a beacon light in the tempestuous sea 
of international politics, and its in- 
fluence and efficiency grow with ad- 
vancing years.’’ A.W.G 


Japan by the Japanese. Edited by Al- 
fred Stead. Pp. xxvii+697. New 
York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 1904. 
£5.00 2et. 


Mr Stead has rendered a service to 
all students of Japan by bringing to- 
gether what might be called ‘‘ the docu- 
ments in the case,’’ which are indis- 
pensable to any one desiring to obtain a 


134 


correct idea of the development of that 
country as regards constitutional gov- 
ernment, the growth of education, the 
creation of its finance system, the de- 
velopment of its industries, the forma- 
tion of an army and navy, and its de- 
velopment or means of creation and 
establishment of a system of justice— 
in short, the creation of a modern and 
western civilization. Art and litera- 
ture, the press, the merchant marine, 
and labor organizations all find a place 
in this storehouse of Japanese facts. 
All these articles are written by men 
who have taken part in this great work 
of transition and reconstruction, and 
among them are a number of interna- 
tionalrepute. Marquis Ito has written 
on the development of constitutional 
rights, the duties of political parties, 
and the growth of Japan; Field Mar- 
shal Yamagata on international policy 
and the growth of the army, the latter 
subject being supplemented by Field 
Marshal Oyama’s account of the army 
of today. Rear Admiral Saito tells of 
the creation of the navy, and the Count 
Okuma of the foreign policy and the 
growth of education. Professor Imazo 
Nitobe contributes a most interesting 
chapter on the religion and moral ideas 
of the Japanese. Count Inouye deals 
with the various phases of Japanese 
finance, while Baron Shibusawa gives 
a survey of the industrial situation. 
Baron Suyematsu treats of the problem 
of the Far East, and a chapter is given 
to Formosa. The very brief article by 
Professor Maruse on women is apolo- 
getic and inadequate. Mining, labor, 
railways, the press, art, and literature 
are treated as to their development and 
present condition by equally competent 
authorities. 

It must be understood that these arti- 
cles are from the Japanese standpoint, 
and of course, as far as opinions go, are 
subject to refutation in many respects. 
The authors occasionally admit the ne- 
cessity of moral improvement as well as 
of industrial development. 


THe NaTionaL GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


The great value of the book lies in 
the mass of statistical data, which are 
logically and sequentially arranged. 
The volume will long remain a work of 
reference, more or less standard. 

There might well be added to this 
book a compendium volume, ‘‘ Japan 
in the Beginning of the Twentieth Cen- 
tury,’’ published by the Imperial Japa- 
nese Commission to the Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition, by Secretary Yama- 
naki, of the department of agriculture, 
which was printed and distributed in 
limited numbers. A. W. G. 


Dai Nippon (Japan). By Henry Dyer. 
Pp. xvi + 450. Illustrated. New 
York: Charles Scribner’sSons. 1904. 
$3.50 net. 


This is a valuable study of the evolu- 
tion of modern Japan, tracing its con- 
version, in a single generation, from a 
feudality into a constitutional govern- 
ment, based on deliberate assemblies, 
national concord, findividual legal rights, 
institution of justice, and the fostering 
of world-wide knowledge. 

Mr Dyer’s long service in Japan, be- 
ginning as first principal of the Imperial 
College of Engineering at Tokyo, quali- 
fies him for this difficult study, which is 
commended to every investigator of Jap- 
anese affairs. The growth of educa- 
tional institutions, the organization of 
anefficient army and navy, the establish- 
ment of railways, telegraphs, and steam- 
ship lines, the advance of industries, the 
growth of commerce, and the creation of 
a national system of finance have been 
accomplished so successfully in the past 
thirty years as to excite the attention 
and merit the admiration of the world. 
How these wonders have been wrought, 
their influences on art, on social condi- 
tions, and on the individual and the na- 
tion are clearly set forth. 

The discussion of the oriental mind, 
with its preéxistent trend and its nature 
worship, is curious as explaining the 
dominant features of the Japanese—pa- 
triotism and loyalty. The chapters on 


_ GrocraPHIc LITERATURE 


international relations, foreign politics, 
and recent events are worthy of most 
careful perusal, giving as they do an 
insight into the causes of the present 
war. Ee NVEG. 


The Land of Riddles (Russia of Today). 
By Dr Hugo Ganz. ‘Translated from 
the German by Herman Rosenthal. 
Pp. vi + 331. New York: Harper 
and Brothers. 1904. $2.00 zet. 


This volume is not a study of Rus- 
sian institutions, but a compilation of 
journalistic articles based on interviews 
with various officials and business men. 
Dr Ganz doubtless made the most of his 
opportunities in Russia, but his guesses 
must be received as such and not as 
solutions of the current complex prob- 
lems—economic, military, and _polit- 
ical—which seriously threaten the sta- 
bility of Russian institutions. Labor, 
education, the press, military adminis- 
tration, methods of public business, are 
riddles which Dr Ganz does not con- 
sider. A. W. G. 


North America. By Israel Cook Rus- 
sell. Illustrated. Pp.x-+435. New 
York: D. Appleton and Co. 1904. 
This important volume in the World 

Series is highly commended as not only 

specially worthy of study by geograph- 

ical students, but also of interest to gen- 
eral readers. Topography and geol- 
ogy are admirably treated, under the 
head of five physiographic provinces, 
though with too great fullness. The 
chapter on climate, following text-book 
methods, fails to convey, to unscientific 
readers at least, an adequate idea of the 
dominant or varying weather conditions 
of North America, and the illustration 
of the ice palace, while attractive, is not 
in harmony with the rest of the volume. 

The omission from the volume of po- 
litical or economic geography is to be 
regretted, especially when it is consid- 
ered that from these standpoints the 
influence of this continent has very ma- 
terially modified the march of human 


HOS 


progress throughout the entire world. 
The aborigines are treated most graph- 
ically and the views advanced regarding 
them command respect, although not 
alwaysconvincing. ‘The most instruct- 
ive matter is the recognition and pres- 
entation of the admirable work of Dr C. 
Hart Merriam, who has solved the prob- 
lem of geographical life distribution, by 
the formulation of the life-zones and 
crop-zones of North America. Professor 
Russell writes in a clear style and log- 
ical manner, qualities not always com- 
bined, and this volume will add to his 
literary and scientific reputation. 
A. W. G. 


Fetichism in West Africa. By Robert 
Hamill Nassau. Pp. xvii+ 389. Il- 
lustrated. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner’s Sons. 1904. $2.50 et. 

This is an important contribution to 
our knowledge of the religious beliefs 
and superstitions of the nativesof French 
Congo and adjacent regions. It is the 
outgrowth of forty years of missionary 
work by Dr Nassau, and justifies the 
action of the American Board of Foreign 
Missions in fostering its preparation. 
Preexistence, spirit power, nature ado- 
ration, and ancestor worship are the 
bases on which rest the universal prac- 
tices in Africa of witchcraft, charms, 
blood-sacrifices, and other forms of feti- 
chism. Its practical effects in depopu- 
lation, assassination by poison, and co- 
ercion are vividly described, as also the 
strange secret societies of various kinds 
which exist among the women. The 
folklore reveals the existence of tradi- 
tions also prevalent far remote from 
Africa. AL W. G. 


Japanese Life in Town and Country. 
By George William Knox. Pp. xii + 
267. Illustrated. New York: G.R. 
Putnam’s Sons. 1904. 

This volume, partly a reprint of vari- 
ous articles, is an interesting, sketchy 
account of every-day life as seen during 
fifteen years’ residence in Japan. The 


1376 


impressions regarding servants, mer- 
chants, trade methods, and domestic 
life are unattractive from a western 
standpoint. Contrasts of theold samu- 
vat (nobility) and the new are more 
promising. Dr Knox gives credit to 
Japan for choosing freedom, self-gov- 
ernment, progress, and modern science, 
and forecasts its future world influence 
as important. eG (ee 


T he Proceedings of the American Forest 
Congress held at Washington, D. C., 
January 2 to 6, under the auspices of the 
American Forestry Association, will be 
issued in book form on March 15. The 
volume will contain about 400 pages 
and will be handsomely bound in cloth. 
It will contain the complete addresses by 
President Roosevelt, Secretary Wilson, 
and about fifty other prominent speakers 
who were on the program, including not 
only those most prominent in State and 
national forest work, but the leaders in 
the railroad, lumbering, mining, graz- 
ing, and irrigation industries. The price 
of the volume is $1.25, prepaid to any 
address. Published for the American 
Forestry Association by the H. M. Suter 
Publishing Company, Washington, D.C. 


“The Bahama Islands” will be issued as 
the first monograph of the Geographical 
Society of Baltimore early in March. 
The volume is illustrated with g2 plates, 
of which 25 are color-illustrations of 
vegetation, fishes, maps, charts, etc. In 
June, 1903, the Society equipped and 
sent out to the Bahama Islands a scien- 
tific expedition under the direction of Dr 
George B. Shattuck, of the Johns Hop- 
kins University. Investigations were 
carried on in geology, paleontology, 
tides, earth magnetism, climate, kite- 
flying in the tropics for atmospheric 
observations, agriculture, botany, mos- 
quitoes, fishes, reptiles, birds, mam- 
mals, medical conditions, social condi- 
tions, and the history of the islands, 
compiled from original records in pos- 
session of the government. The book 


Tue NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


will contain chapters on each of these 
subjects. The chapter on geology is 
written by Dr George B. Shattuck, of 
the Johns Hopkins University, and Dr 
Benjamin Le Roy Miller, of Bryn Mawr 
College; that on paleontology by Dr 
Wm. H. Dall, U. S. National Museum; 
that-.on tides by L. P2Shidy ess. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, and so on. 


BOOKS RECEIVED 


Check List of Large Scale Maps Pub- 
lished by Foreign Governments, Com- 
piled under the direction of Philip 
Lee Phillips. Pp. 58. 10se7imelies: 
Washington: Government Printing 
Office. 1904. 

Earthquakes. By Clarence Edward 
Dutton, Major, U. S. Aa yeaa 
814x534 inches. New York: G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons. 1904. 


The United States of America. By 


Edwin ErleSparks. Twovols. Pp. 
385 + 385. 8 x 5% inches. New 
York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1904. 


A. L. A. Catalog of 8,000 Volumes for 
a Popular Library. Editor, Melvil 
Dewey. Pp. 485. 934 x 7% inches. 
Washington: Government Printing 
Office. October, 1904. 


Swedish Life in Town and Country. 
By O. G. Von Heidenstam. Pp. 286. 
744 X 5 inches. New York: G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons. 1904. $1.20. 


Historic Highways of America. Vol. 
14. The Great American Canals. 
The Erie Canal. Vol. ti. By Ar- 
eher Butler Hulbert. Pp. 224. 7% 
x 5 inches. Cleveland, Ohio: The 
Arthur H. Clark Co. 1904. 


Students’ Laboratory Manual of Physi- 
cal Geography. By Albert Perry 
Brigham. Pp. 153. 734 x 5% inches. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1904. 

Physiography. By T. H. Huxley and 
R. A. Gregory. Pp. 423. 7x 4% 
inches. New York: Macmillan & 
Co. 1904. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


The annual reception of the Society 
will be held at the home of the Society, 
Hubbard Memorial Hall,Saturday even- 
ing, March 11. 


POPULAR MEETINGS 
National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. 


March 8.—‘‘ Manchuria.’’ By Col. 
W.S. Schuyler, U. S. Army, who has 
recently returned after spending eight 
months with the Russian armies in 
Manchuria. Illustrated. 


Match J0.—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ 
Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. 
N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval 
Observatory. Illustrated. 

March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize 
of the Orient and its Relation to the 
Commerce of the United States.’’ By 
Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau 
ot Statistics. Illustrated. 


March 3!.—‘‘From Lexington to 
Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, 
uf the Century Company. Illustrated. 

April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll 
Weevil.” By Dr L. O. Howard, Chief of 
the Bureau of Entomology. Illustrated. 

April 28.—‘* Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr 
G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National 
Geographic Society. Illustrated. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, 8 p. m. 


March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- 
gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by 
Dr George T. Moore and others on ‘‘ In- 
oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting 
Municipal Water Supply Systems,”’ etc. 


March 17,—“‘ Japan.”’ 

The Geography of Japan. By Mr 
Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- 
nese Legation. 

The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh 
M. Smith. 

Agriculture in Japan. 
G. Fairchild. 


By Mr David 


April 7.—‘‘ Forestry.”’ 

Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr 
Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. 
Bureau of Forestry, and a paper on 
Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. 
Fairchild. 

For the benefit of the many new mem- 
bers of the Society the by-laws are re- 
printed below. 


BY-LAWS OF THE NATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC SOCIETY. 


ARTICLE I.—Name. 


The name of this Society is 7hke National 
Geographic Society. 


ARTICLE II.—Odzect. 


The object of the Society is the increase and 
diffusion of geographic knowledge. 


ARTICLE III.—Membership. 


SECTION I. The Society shall consist of mem- 
bers, honorary members, fellows,* and patrons. 

SKC. 2. Members shall be persons interested 
in geographic science. 

SEC 3. Honorary members shall be persons 
who have attained eminence by the promotion 
of geographic science. They shall not be mem- 
bers of the corporation, nor shall they vote or 
hold office. 

Sec. 4. Fellows shall be persons engaged in 
scientific work pertaining to geography. They 
shali be members of the corporation. 

SEC. 5. Patrons shall be persons interested 
in geography who have contributed one thou- 
sand dollars or more to the objects of the So- 
ciety ; they shall be entitled to all the privi- 
leges of membership for life. 

SEC. 6. The election of members, honorary 
members, fellows, and patrons shall be en- 
trusted to the Board of Managers. 


ARTICLE IV.— Officers. 


SECTION I. The administration of the Soci- 
ety shall be entrusted to a Board of Managers 
composed of twenty-four members, eight of 
whom shall be elected by the Society at each 
annual meeting, to serve for three years, or 
until their successors are elected. A majority 
of the votes cast shall be necessary for election. 

SEC. 2. The Board of Managers shall elect 
annually from their own number a President 

* No fellows have as yet been elected. 


138 


and a Vice-President, and shall elect annually 
a Treasurer and a Secretary. 

SxEc. 3. The President shall preside at the 
meetings of the Society and of the Board of 
Managers, or may delegate this duty. The 
President and the Secretary shall sign all 
written contracts and obligations of the 
Society. 

SEc. 4. In the absence of the President his 
duties shall devolve on the Vice-President. 

SEC. 5. The Treasurer shall have charge of 
the funds of the Society, under the direction 
of the Board of Managers, and shall make col- 
lections and disbursements and render an an- 
nual report, and his accounts shall be audited 
by a committee of the Society, not members 
of the Board, annually and at such other times 
as the Board miay direct. 

SEC. 6. The Secretary shall record the pro- 
ceedings of the Society and of the Board of 
Managers, conduct correspondence, and make 
an annual report. 

Src. 7. The Board of Managers shall fill 
vacancies arising in the Board. 

SEc. 8. All officers shall serve until their 
successors are chosen. 


ARTICLE VI.—Commiuttees. 


SECTION 1. The Board of Managers shall 
select annually from its own number an Ex- 
ecutive Committee. 

SEC. 2. There shall be standing committees 
on Publications, Communications, Admissions, 
Research, and Finance, whose chairmen shall 
be members of the Board of Managers. These 
committees shall be appointed immediately 
after the annual election of the President, to 
serve until their successors are designated. 

SEC. 3. The committees of the Society and of 
the Board of Managers shall be appointed by 
the President except when otherwise provided. 
The President shall be a member ex officio of 
every committee. 


ARTICLE VI.— Finances. 


SECTION I. The fiscal year of the Society 
shall begin on the first day of January. 

SEC. 2. The annual dues of members shall 
be two dollars, payable in January. 

SEC. 3. Fellows shall pay an initiation fee 
of ten dollars on notice of election 

SEC. 4. Members or fellows may commute 
annual dues and acquire life membership by 
the payment at one time of fifty dollars. 

SEC. 5. Members or fellows whose dues re- 
main unpaid on March 1 shall be notified by 
the Treasurer that unless the dues are paid 
within one month they will be in arrears and 
not entitled to vote at the annual meeting, to 
receive the publications of the Society, or to 


THe NaTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


purchase lecture tickets on members’ terms. 
Members or fellows one year in arrears shall, 
after formal notification, be regarded as hav- 
ing withdrawn from the Society. 

Skc. 6. The funds of the Society may be in- 
vested and loans may be negotiated in the in- 
terests of the Society, and any other financial 
business germane to the purposes of the So- 
ciety may be transacted, by the Board of Man- 
agers. 


ARTICLE VII.—WMeetings. 


SECTION I. Regular meetings of the So- 
ciety shall be held on alternate Fridays from 
November until May. 

SEC. 2. Special meetings may be ordered by 
the Board of Managers or called by the Presi- 
dent. 

SEc. 3. The annual meeting shall be held in 
the District of Columbia on the second Friday 
in January. 

SEC. 4. Twenty members or fellows shall 
constitute a quorum. 

SEc. 5. Regular meetings of the Board of 
Managers shall be held on the same days as the 
regular meetings of the Society ; special meet- 
ings may be held at the call of the President 
or on notice signed by five members of the 
Board: Provided, That for any of its own 
meetings the Board may substitute meetings 
of the Executive Committee. 

SEc. 6. Lectures and lecture courses may be 
provided by the Board of Managers. Free ad- 
mission to such lectures shall not be a preroga- 
tive of membership, but tickets shall be sold to 
members and fellows on more favorable terms 
than to non-members: Provided, That each 
life member who acquired life membership 
prior to the year Igor shall be entitled to two 
admissions to each lecture and course. 


ARTICLE VIII.—FPublications. 


‘The Society shall publish a journal or peri- 
odical under the title, Zhe ational Geo- 
graphic Magazine, which shall be sent to all 
members and fellows of the Society not in 
arrears, and may be placed on sale. 


ARTICLE IX.—Amendments. 


These By-Laws may be amended by a two- 
third vote of the members present at any regu- 
lar meeting, provided the proposed amend- 
ments are reported by the Board of Managers, 
and provided that notice thereof has been sent 
to all members of the Society not less than ten 
nor more than sixty days before the meeting. 
The publication of proposed amendments in 
The National Geographic Magazine shall be 
deemed a notice within the meaning of this 
article. 


seR 


CONTENTS 


m REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS, 
ILLUSTRATED BY 130 PICTURES SHOWING THE 
TYPES OF PEOPLE, THEIR MANNER OF LIFE AND 
INDUSTRIES, THEIR COUNTRY AND RESOURCES 139 


PAGB 


| Some Lessons in Geography. By Edward Atkinson . . °°. 193 


The Ziegler Polae Expedition . . . . . 1. 1 wwe 598 
The Eighth International Geographic Congress . . . . 198 
Geographic Literature . . . . . 1. . HaWiate eure at aly Bee 


_ National Geographic Society . . . STE Mee hah . 200 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


. au ha a Year ) —25:Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


| NATIONAL ~ 
i GEOGRAIPIEUIC 
MAGAZINE 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publish by the 


NatIonaL GEOGRAPHIC Geri 


All Be FR 


communications should be addressed to the — 
Editor of the Nationa GrocrarHic MaGazine. 
Business communications should be addressed to 
the National Geographic Society. 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army 


W J McGBE 


Chief, Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition 


C. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 
Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. 
Department of A. griculture 


O. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Contes BAreey, 


O. P. AUSTIN 
| Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 


Department of Commerce and 


Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 
Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 


Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 


Chief of the Division of Mineral ~— 


Ke: C.S. Geological avira 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
U.S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- ‘ 
delphia 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University of Chicago _ 


G. K. GILBERT 
U.S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE 


Professor of Meteorology, UL s. y Be | 


Weather Bureau, San Francisco he 


ALMON GUNNESON | iii 
President St. Lawrence University 


Dubbed Memorial Hall, Washington, D. G t 


You. XVI,‘Noi 3 


WASHINGTON 


APRIL, 1905 


een VELATION: OF THE FILIPINOS 


THE SURPRISING AND EXCEEDINGLY GRATIFYING CONDITION OF THEIR 


EDUCATION, INTELLIGENCE, AND ABILITY 


REVEALED BY THE 


First CENSUS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND THE 
UNEXPECTED MAGNITUDE OF THEIR RESOURCES 
AND POSSIBILITY FOR DEVELOPMENT 


The following article ts a summary of the report of the Census of the Philippine 
Islands by General J], P Sanger, Director, and Messrs Henry Gannett and Victor A. 


Olmstead, Assistant Directors, 
Census April 8. 


which 1s published by the United States Bureau of the 
The report makes four large handsome volumes, conprising about 


3,500 pages and containing 28o illustrations and go maps and colored diagrams. Tt 
 gtues the most comprehensive and able description of the people and geography of the 


wslands that has yet appeared. 


Junds to 4,000 copies, which were exhausted even before publication. 


Unfortunately the edition was limited from lack of 


Through the 


courtesy of General J. P. Sanger, Director, the National Geographic Magazine 
republishes the principal results of the Census, and also a large number of the exceed- 
ingly beautiful pictures with which the report ts tllustrated. 


HE details of the census of the 

: Philippine Islands will undoukt- 
edly surprise us all, for the re- 

port shows that the condition of the Fil- 
ipinos is much superior from every point 
of view, in education, ambition, capac- 
_ ity, and possessions, than has been gen- 
erally supposed. The census was taken 
in March, 1903, and is the first system- 
atic collection of Filipino facts that has 
been made. As it was directed by con- 
servative men, therecan be no question 
that the statements reported are correct. 
‘The work was under the general super- 
vision of General J. P. Sanger, Director, 


and Messrs Henry Gannett and Victor 
H. Olmstead, Assistant Directors, who 
had made such a success of the Amer- 
ican censuses of Cuba and Porto Rico. 
These three gentlemen, with the coop- 
eration of Governor Taft, have per- 
formed an achievement of which we 
may justly be proud. The word census 
in the Philippines was originally the 
synonym of everything repulsive, forall 
that it meant to the natives was a basis 
for more taxation. Through the tactful 
diplomacy of General Sanger, however, 
the feeling of the Filipinos was com- 
pletely changed, and all of them seem 


140 


to have joined in competition to see who 
could most help the work. But though 
eager to help, the Filipinos had to be 
trained for the work, and this required 
more tact and time. Then no accu- 
rate maps were to be had, so that, every- 
thing considered, the census was a most 
difficult undertaking, and its completion 
within the allotted two years reflects 
great credit on the Directors. 

The principal object of the census, as 
stated in the act of Congress, was to se- 
cure statistics of population and a gen- 
eral knowledge of social conditions as a 
basis for the establishment of a Philip- 
pine Legislature, which the law directs 
shall convene two years after the publi- 
cation of the reportsof the census. This 
Legislature is to consist of two houses— 
the Philippine Commission and the Phil- 
ippine Assembly. 


CENSUS WAS TAKEN BY FILIPINOS 


The provincial governors were ap- 
pointed supervisors of the census, and 
under their direction the enumeration 
was taken. They had assembled in 
Manila several months before the task 
was begun and were there instructed as 
to their duties. 

In the execution of the field work and 
the preliminary examination of the 
schedules 7,627 persons were engaged, 
and of this number 118 were Americans, 
I Japanese, 6 Chinese, and 7,502 Fili- 
pinos ; so that it may be said, in all sin- 
cerity, that it was a Filipino census of 
the Philippine Islands. Of the 7,502 
natives employed 40 were women, who 
fully sustained the opinion of Arch- 
bishop Nozaleda that ‘“‘the Filipino 
women are better than the men in every 
way.’ 

This was the first attempt on the part 
of any tropical people in modern times 
to make an enumeration of themselves. 

The margin of error in the number of 
civilized Filipinos, Chinese, and other 
foreigners probably does not exceed a 
fraction of 1 per cent. It was feared 


Ture Nationa, GeoGraPHic MAGAZINE 


that quite a large number would try to 
avoid the enumeration ; but except in 
a few instances there is no evidence of 
such an intention. 
several remote and obscure barrios or 
sitios which were not found in the orig- 
inal lists prepared by the supervisors, 
and which had been overlooked, appar- 
ently, sent runners to notify the census 
officials that they had not been enumer- 
ated. On account of the absence of well- 
defined boundaries between municipal- 
ities and barrios, some apprehension was 
felt as to a duplicate enumeration, but 
this was obviated by posting a printed 
notice of the enumeration on every 
house, boat, or other place occupied as 


a dwelling, which was not removed until_ 


the census was at an end. 


Among the changes to be made will 
be, probably, the introduction of the 
American mule and the substitution of 
American cattle for the Indian humped 
cattle. That cattle-raising may become 
a profitable industry there is no ques- 
tion, as there are large areas of grazing 
land suitable for cattle ranches, and 
horses, mules, and cattle thrive in the 
climate of the Philippines. 

Statistics show that the great agricult- 
ural wealth of the country is in the cul- 
tivation of sugar, hemp, tobacco, and 
coffee. Tobacco of fine quality is raised 
in the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela, 
and when carefully handled and thor- 
oughly cured makes excellent cigars and 
cigarettes. The poverty of the average 
tobacco-grower, however, compels him 
to dispose of his crop before it is ready 
for use, and this, together with the crude 
methods observed in handling it, has 
given to Manila cigars a bad reputation 
among tobacco connoisseurs. When the 
tobacco-growers are able to hold their 
crops long enough and to resort to care- 
ful and scientific methods in its cultiva- 
tion and preparation, the best Manila 


On the contrary, 


SS ee ee ae 


eee a 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


cigars will compare favorably with the 
best Habana cigars. No estimate can 
be made at this time of the productive- 
ness of the islands in hemp, inasmuch as 
it grows wild as well as under cultiva- 
tion, and there are many acres of wild 
hemp which have never been touched; 
moreover, the methods employed in 
stripping hemp are of the crudest kind. 
This valuable crop and its full develop- 
ment merely await the influence of 
American invention and capital. 

As compared with the total area of the 
islands, the amount of land under culti- 
vation is small, but it should be remem- 
bered that the islands of Mindoro, Para- 
gua,and Mindanao, which are among the 
largest of the group, are very little cul- 
tivated. Again, the methods followed, 
including the implements in use, are 
most crude, and something better must 
be substituted before the yield will equal 
the production of intelligent American 
farmers. Rotation in the crops, irriga- 
tion, and the use of fertilizers are al- 
most unknown, nature receiving but 
little aid from artificial means.* 


THE HEALTHFULNESS OF THE 
ISLANDS 


No better illustration of the salubrity 
and healthfulness of the climate of the 
Philippine Islands could be given than 
that afforded by the health report of the 
army, both in war and peace. This 
shows conclusively that, under the in- 
telligent management of our medical 
staff and the care bestowed on the sol- 
diers by their regimental and company 
officers, men who are in good health 
when they arrive in the Philippines, and 
who observe the health rules laid down 
for their guidance, are, on the whole, as 
nearly immune from disease as within 
the territory of the United States. The 
statistics of the Surgeon General of the 
Army show that for the calendar year 

*See ‘‘Progress in the Philippines,’ pp. 


116-118, NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
March, 1905. © 


141 


1902 the number of soldiers constantly 
sick in the United States was 5.33 per 
eent of the command, and in 1903, 4.85 
per cent; in the Philippines, for the 
same period, the percentage of con- 
stantly sick was 6.88 and 6.62, respect- 
ively, an average difference of 1.66 per 
cent, 

That long exposure to the climate is 
enervating there can be no doubt, but 
the effect is easily avoided by periodical 
changes to acolder climate. This has 
been conclusively proven by the old 
Scotch, English, and other white resi- 
dents of the islands, who, after a resi- 
dence of over forty years, broken by such 
removals, enjoy excellent health. For- 
merly it was necessary to take a sea voy- 
age in order to find relief, but with the 
completion of the electric railroad at 
Baguio, in the province of Benguet, this 
will no longer be needful, as the climate 
at that altitude will afford the requisite 
change. 


TEACHING THE PEOPLE TO TAKE 
CARH OP THBWIR HH AIT EH 


Nothing that has been done by the In- 
sular government deserves more com- 
mendation or reflects more credit on the 
administration than the measures taken 
to arrest and stamp out cholera, bu- 
bonic plague, and smallpox, to prevent 
the spread of leprosy, and to teach the 
natives how to guard against the dread 
diseases, tuberculosis, dysentery, and 
malarial fever. Only those acquainted 
with the native character and the in- 
sanitary conditions formerly prevailing 
everywhere, and particularly in Manila, 
can fully appreciate what has been done 
or that many years must pass before a 
majority of the native population will 
recognize the benefit of medical treat- 
ment and adopt sanitary rules. On the 
other hand, a large part of the popula- 
tion has already been benefited, and the 
experience thus gained is sure to be in- 
fluential. 

A serious feature in the mortality 


142 


among the natives is the large death rate 
among young children, and this can 
hardly be charged to the climate. Asis 
well known, a large proportion of Fuili- 
pino women are unable to nurse their 
children. Asa result, the children be- 
gin to eat solid food long before they can 
digest it, and cholera infantum or con- 
vulsions end their lives. It is not dif- 
ficult to predict the result when babies 
three or four months of age are given 
rice, and even bananas and mangoes, as 
a regular diet. A propaganda among 
the women, having for its object their 
instruction in the care of infants, is nec- 
essary, and it is understood has been at- 
tempted, but as yet has not become gen- 
eral. 

As to the other data, the conspicuous 
facts are the entire absence of hospitals 
except in a few large cities, the exist- 
ence of but twelve public libraries with 
4,019 volumes; the great preponderance 
of churches, the small number of news- 
papers, and the comparatively small 
number of paupers and criminals. 


THE LABOR PROBLEM 


Labor and wages are burning ques- 
tions, and a great deal has been said and 
written to demonstrate the lazy habits of 
the Filipinos and the worthless charac- 
ter of their manuallabor. These strict- 
ures usually begin and end with unfa- 
vorable comparisons between Filipinos 
and Chinese, Americans, or other foreign 
populations. There are two sides to this 
very interesting and important question, 
and through the efforts of Governor 
Taft, the Philippine Commission, and 
the army it has been made perfectly 
plain to unprejudiced persons that the 
Filipino has greater intelligence and ca- 
pacity than he has been given credit for. 

What the Filipinos need in order to 
demonstrate their capacity as laborers is 
a fair opportunity under reasonable con- 
ditions, not as rivals of the Chinese or 
other people, but of each other, as is the 
rule in the United States, where, if China- 


Tue Nationat GeocraPpHic Macazine 


men were permitted to enter unrestrict- 
edly into competition with American 
labor, the value of wages would soon re- 
duce the average American laborer to a 
state of poverty. If American labor can- 
not compete successfully with Chinese 
labor, it should not be expected of Fili- 
pino labor, and the Filipino should not 
be judged by suchastandard. The so- 
called aversion of the Filipino to labor 
is not believed to be so entirely natural 
and instinctive as it is the result of causes 
to which very little reference is usually 
made. The habits of centuries, al- 
though artificially acquired, may well be 
mistaken in any people for natural traits. 
Thus, the abuse of the Filipinos through- 
out the first two hundred years of their 
experience with the early colonists, the 
assiduous and ceaseless efforts of their 
teachers to humble their pride, stifle 
their ambition, and impress upon them 
the dominant race, and the utter hope- 
lessness of any kind of equality with 
them have no doubt had their effect in 
causing indifference, shiftlessness, and 
recklessness. 

It may be said that the Filipinos are 
generally subordinate to lawful author- 
ity ; that, under competent officers, they 
make excellent soldiers, and will in the 
course of time, it is believed, make good 
citizens. In fact, it 1s not too much to 
expect that, under the guidance of a free, 
just, and generous government, the es- 
tablishment of more rapid and frequent 
means of communication, whereby they 
can be brought into more frequent con- 
tact with each other and with the gen- 
eral spread of education, the tribal dis- 
tinctions which now exist will gradually 
disappear and the Filipinos will become 
a numerous and homogeneous English- 
speaking race, exceeding in intelligence 
and capacity all other people of the 
tropics. 


DOCKING IMPROVEMENTS AT MANILA 


The necessity for railroads connect- 
ing the rich agricultural regions with 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


the principal seaports is strongly em- 
phasized by the great lack of docks and 
wharves throughout the islands. But 
few ports have docks at which an inter- 
island steamer can unload, and conse- 
quently every pound of freight and 
all passengers must be landed in small 
boats. One of the great drawbacks to 
the commerce of the Philippines has 
been the lack of dock facilities in the 
harbor of Manila for ocean going ships. 
As a result, all vessels exceeding 15 feet 
draft must be lightered while lying at 
anchor some distance from the wharves 
and at considerable expense, more espe- 
cially during the prevalence of the rainy 
season, when frequent typhoons inter- 
rupt the work of loading and unload- 
ing. ‘This great obstacle to commerce 
will soon disappear, however, through 
the foresight of the Philippine Com- 
mission in making ample appropria- 
tions for the improvement of the Pasig 
River and the construction of an arti- 
ficial harbor south of and adjoining 
the entrance to the river, with wharves 
capable of receiving and discharging 
at all seasons the largest sea-going 
vessels. 

These improvements, which are to be 
completed by June 30, 1905, at a cost 
of about $4,000,000, will make Manila 
one of the great ports of the orient. 
Direct trade with the United States will 
then be the rule and not, as in the past, 
the exception. Manila will become a 
great mercantile depot and point of dis- 
tribution of American and foreign mer- 
chandise of all kinds, destined for either 
the Philippines, China, or other points. 
The development of the abundant coal 
deposits in the Philippines, with the 
harbor improvements above referred to, 
will make Manila the chief coaling port 
in the East, surpassing Nagasaki in this 
respect, for the coal is of a quality equal 
to that of Japan and the coaling facili- 
ties of Manila will be much superior to 
those of the Japanese city. The com- 
mercial importance of Manila will be- 


143 


come still more apparent when the Pan- 
ama Canal is completed. 


USE OF LIQUOR AND TOBACCO 


The value of manufactured tobacco 
far exceeds any other industrial pro- 
duct, liquors and other beverages come 
next, and the two combined make 38.5 
per cent of the value of all manufact- 
ured products. It should not be in- 
ferred from this that the Filipinos use 
these articles in excess, or that intem- 
perance prevails, for, while nearly the 
entire population use liquor and tobacco 
in some form, they do so in great mod- 
eration. ‘That the state of manufact- 
ures in the Philippines is what it is 
should occasion no surprise when we 
review the colonial system of govern- 
ment which generally prevailed for so 
many centuries. Underthissystem the 
Filipinos received but little encourage- 
ment to engage in industrial pursuits, 
and manufactures were not developed. 
The capital invested in manufactures 
exceeds $20,000,000. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN THE LAW COURTS 


Many important and salutary changes 
have been made by the Insular govern- 
ment. Stenographers and typewriters 
have been substituted for longhand 
writers in the courts. The Spanish co- 
lonial judiciary as it existed in the Phil- 
ippines at the time of American occupa- 
tion has been transformed into a system 
under which, says Chief Justice C. S. 
Arellano in the chapter on ‘‘ The Judi- 
ciary,’’ ‘‘ we have a more simple code 
of civil and criminal procedure, follow- 
ing American methods, and an avoid- 
ance of the great delays which previ- 
ously existed in the disposal of cases 
and criminals. In fact, delay is now 
more a question of a sufficient number 
of judges than, as formerly, of volumi- 
nous and abstruse forms and of petty 
interlocutory appeals or other means of 
obstructing and arresting the course of 
justice.” 


144 


The successive steps taken in chang- 
ing the judicial system are of great in- 
terest, and illustrate in a conspicuous 
manner: the adaptability of American 
legal institutions to the greatest of our 
new possessions. 

Until January 1, 1906, Spanish will be 
the official language of all the courts, and 
after that English ; meanwhile the su- 
preme court and courts of first instance 
may in any case order a duplicate record 
of acase in the English language when- 
ever, in the opinion of the court, the pub- 
lic convenience and the interest of the 
litigant parties will be promoted thereby. 
This is a fortunate settlement of a diffi- 
cult question, and is equally fair to the 
English and Spanish speaking lawyers, 
besides preventing the resentment which 
would have followed had English been 
forcibly imposed on the people by opera- 
tion of law. 


EXPLORATION IS IN PROGRESS 


Although Spain had jurisdiction over 
these islands for more than three centu- 
ries, little topographic information had 
been acquired regarding them, except 
such as was of a very general character. 
The coasts were badly mapped and in 
many places are now known to have 
been miles out of position. The coast 
charts, made from Spanish surveys, are 
so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, 
worse than useless to mariners, while of 
the interior of the larger islands little 
was known except what could be seen 
from the sea. Many maps of the archi- 
pelago have been published embodying 
the knowledge which had been acquired 
both during the days of the Spanish 
jurisdiction and in more recent times, but 
they are all very much of the same char- 
acter. 

Since American occupation much ex- 
ploration and surveying have been done. 
Wherever military operations have ex- 
tended, surveys have been made and 
maps prepared. In this way there have 
been produced maps covering a large 
part of Luzon, including the entire cen- 


Tue NaTIoNAL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


tral portion of that island. Maps have 
been made of several of the Visayan 
Islands. The operations against the Ma- 
lanao Moros have resulted in a map of 
Lake Lanao and its surroundings in 
Mindanao. ‘The island of Jolo has been 
mapped. 

The great work of charting the coasts 
and harbors of the Philippines was com- 
menced three years ago by the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, work- 
ing in cooperation with the Philippine 
government, and progress is being made . 
in the preparation of accurate and trust- 
worthy charts of these dangerous coasts. 


THE ISLANDS ARE OF VOLCANIC 
ORIGIN 


The entire archipelago is mountain- 
ous or hilly. In the islands of Luzon, 
Negros, and Mindanao are broad plains 
and level valleys, but in general there is 
comparatively little level land. Tropic 
vegetation extends high up on the slopes 
and covers the lesser mountains and 
hills. Thus the ruggedness of a moun- 
tain region is softened into rounded out- 
lines. The mountain scenery is every- 
where beautiful, but rarely appeals to 
the eye with the element of grandeur. 

The archipelago is, for the most part, 
of volcanic origin. It contains twelve 
volcanoes which have been in eruption 
within historic times, and scores which 
are extinct or quiescent. Most of the 
surface of the islands is floored with vol- 
canicrocksand ash. Innorthern Luzon 
there are, however, large areas under- 
lain by metamorphic rocks, granites, 
schists, and the like; and several isl- 
ands, notably Cebu and Bohol, are cov- 
ered with a veneer of coral limestone. 
The occurrence of these coral limestones 
of very recent disposition, at various 
places in the archipelago and at great 
altitudes, as in Benguet province at a 
height above sea of 5,000 feet, shows 
that great oscillations of level have oc- 
curred at times geologically very recent. 
Of these oscillations there are other 
abundant evidences in the existence of 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


lakes and marshes, waterfalls, and ele- 
vated beach lines, showing that the 
whole archipelago is in a condition of 
unrest. 


THE COASTLINE IS GREATER THAN 
THAT OF THE UNITED STATES 


The coasts of the archipelago are forthe 
most part intricate ; how intricate may 
be realized from the statement that these 
islands, with an area of about 115,000 
square miles, have a coast line more 
than double the length of that of the 
main body of the United States. They 
are in part the result of volcanic action 
and in part the work of coral animals. 
Vulcanism has brought up the land from 
great depths in the form of thousands of 
large and small islands, fringed with 
coral reefs. some of which have been 
brought to the surface, while others lie 
immediately below it. 

With such a broken coast, harbors of 
one sort or another arenumerous. Most 
of them are of sufficient depth to admit 
large vessels, but are so difficult and 
dangerous of entrance, owing to the 
reefs which obstruct them and to the ab- 
sence of lights, channel buoys, range 
stakes, and accurate charts, as to be of 
little value except to those who know 
them well. Owing to the alternating 
character of the winds which prevail 
throughout most of the archipelago, the 
northeast trade wind from October to 
June and the southwest wind during the 
rest of the year, many, if not most, of 
the harbors furnish shelter during only 
a part of the year. 

All the principal islands and groups of 
islands have harbors for the largest ves- 
sels in all kinds of weather at all seasons, 
except the island of Bohol, which has 
no harbors, and there are many har- 
bors which are safe only according to the 
season of the year. 


THE EQUATORIAL CURRENT, TIDES, 
AND RIVERS 


The dominating feature of the cur- 
rents in the islands is the great equa- 


% 


145 


torial current, which, sweeping across 
the Pacific from east to west in a broad 
belt, divides east of these islands. The 
northern portion, which farther northis 
known as the Japan current, sends nu- 
merous streams through the passages 
among the islands, thus forming a com- 
plicated system of currents almost im- 
possible of description. The system is 
still further complicated by surface 
drifts, set in motion by the southwest 
wind in the summer and fall, making 
currents in various directions among the 
islands at different times of the year. 

Tides in the archipelago are exceed- 
ingly irregular, differing greatly in dif- 
ferent places, owing to the directions in 
which tidal waves move, and differing 
also greatly at different times of the 
month. For details regarding them ref- 
erence should be made to the sailing di- 
rections prepared by the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

There are few rivers in the Philippine 
Islands, the Cagayan of northern Luzon, 
the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the 
Augusan of Mindanao being the only 
three which can be classed as large 
streams. These, which are in approx- 
imately the same class, havea length ex- 
ceeding 200 miles, and owing to the 
abundance of precipitation carry large 
volumes of water even during the low 
stage. The Pampanga River of central 
Luzon is nearly as large, and this is fol- 
lowed in magnitude by the Ango of cen- 
tral Luzon and the Arbra in the northern 
partofthesameisland. Probably there 
are no other streams in the islands which 
exceed 109 miles in length. 


3,141 ISLANDS 


Mr G. R. Putnam, in charge of the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey in the Philippine Islands, at the in- 


stance of the Director of the Census, 


made acount and measurement of all 
the islands and islets comprised in this 
archipelago, including everything, how- 
ever small, which at high tide appeared 
as aseparate island. The total number 


146 


thus enumerated by him was 3,141, and 
are listed in tables ; of these 1,668 were 
listed by name, while 1,473 are, so far 
as known, without names. The num- 
ber found is nearly twice as great as 
heretofore known; as more accurate 
charts of the archipelago are made, it is 
believed the number will be increased. 


AREA OF THE ISLANDS 


The total area of the islands is 115,026 
square miles. There are two islands 
with areas exceeding 10,000 square 
miles each, namely, Luzon with 40,969 
and Mindanao with 36,292. ‘Thereare 
g islands each of which has an area of 
more than 1,000 square miles and less 
than 10,000. ‘There are 20 between 100 
and 1,000 square miles, 73 between Io 
and 100 square miles, and 262 between 
I and 10 square miles. ‘The remaining 
number, 2,775, or seven-eighths of all, 
have areas less than a square mile each. 


VERY FEW MAMMALIA 


The fauna most closely resembles that 
of the neighboring Malayan Islands, but 
at the same time shows certain remark- 
able differences from them. ‘Thus there 
are very few mammalia in comparison 
with the number in Borneo and Java. 
There are but two species of monkeys, 
but three representatives of the car- 
nivora, and of the deer tribe but six spe- 
cies. Small rodents are very scarce 
except in the large seaports, while, on 
the other hand, there are at least 30 spe- 
cies of bats. There are no large mam- 
malia except the carabao, a few of which 
are still found wild, and the timarau or 
antelope buffalo of Mindoro. Altogether 
there are but 23 species of terrestrial 
mammals known on the islands. 

Not only does the fauna of the Phil- 
ippine Islands differ in certain marked 
respects from that of the adjacent islands 
of the East India archipelago, but the 
different islands of the Philippines differ 
among themselves in their fauna. The 
timarau is found only in Mindoro, por- 


Tue NationaL GeocraPpHic MaGazine 


cupines are found only in Paragua and 
in the Calamianes Islands, and there are 
numerous species of animals which have 
been found only in certain parts of the 
archipelago. 


GREAT VARIETY OF BIRDS 


Such peculiarities of distribution of 
land animals may be explained easily, 
but it is not so easy to explain similar 
facts concerning the distribution of 
birds. Paragua and the Calamianes Isl- 
ands possess several species which are 
not found elsewhere in the archipelago, 
but which are similar to species found in 
Borneo. Of the 286 species of birds 
foundin Luzon 51 atleast are not known 
to occur outside of that island. The avi- 
fauna of Samar and Leyte contains 22 
species not found elsewhere, and simi- 
larly in Mindanao and Basilan are found 
17 species peculiar tothoseislands. One 
of the most striking cases, however, is 
that of Cebu, which, although a near 
neighbor to Negros on one side and Bo- 
hol on the other, contains 9 species of 
birds not found elsewhere. ‘The total 
number of species of land birds known 
is a little over 300, a larger number than 
in Java; of these many are game birds, 
such as snipe, plover, quail, duck, and 
geese. Inspite of this richness of spe- 
cies there are many important genera 
found in the other Malay Islands which 
are not represented here, while on the 
other hand more than two-thirds of the 
Philippine species are peculiar to that 
group of islands. These facts strongly 
emphasize the isolation of the archipel- 
ago. 


THE FORESTS 


The forests of the archipelago are of 
wide extent and embrace a great variety 
of woods, many of them highly valuable. 
Woods suitable for the finest cabinet- 
work, for veneering, and for artistic pur- 
poses, and also woods adapted to ship or 
house building and other-economic uses, 
are found in great abundance. There 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


are also many gutta-percha, India-rub- 
ber, and other gum-producing trees, dye 
and medicinal woods and plants, and 
other forest growths, most of which are 
mentioned in connection with the sub- 
ject of agriculture. The enormous ex- 
tent and wide range of usefulness of 
Philippine forest products will render 
them, under the careful management and 
conservation provided for by law, second 
only to agricultural products as a source 
of insular wealth and prosperity. 

The number of different kinds of trees 
is not known, but the report of the chief 
of the Philippine Forestry Bureau for 
1902 shows that 747 species of wood 
were brought to the market during the 
year ending June 30, i902. The num- 
ber of useful woods is undoubtedly 
larger than the number marketed, and 
in addition the forests contain many trees 
the woods of which are not used for do- 
mestic or economic purposes. 

Summarizing the information at hand, 
it appears that approximately 70 per 
cent of the area of the archipelago, or 
80,000 square miles, is forested. The 
forested area was estimated by Fernando 
Castro in 1890 at about 48, 112,920 acres, 
or 75,150 square miles. ‘This estimate 
includes all the woodland, public and 
private, and amounts to 66 per cent of 
the totalarea. An official estimate made 
in 1876 gave an area of about 80,000 
square miles. 


WEALTH OF TIMBER 


Little is known concerning the stand 
of timber peracre. The Forestry Bureau 
has made careful examinations at sev- 
eral places in the islands and has meas- 
ured sample acres containing more than 
10,000 cubic feet, or 100,000 board feet, 
per acre, and it reports large areas of 
virgin forest, of which the average stand 
is 7,000 cubic feet peracre. It is prob- 
able, however, that this is much above 
the average of the wooded area of the 
islands ; still enough is known to hazard 
the conjecture that the average stand of 


147 


timber in the islands may exceed 2,0co 
Chibie Teck per acte. 

If this estimate of average stand is not 
excessive, the amount of timber in the 
archipelago is in the neighborhood of 
1,000,000 million feet B. M., or more 
than double the amount in the States of 
Oregon and Washington together. 

The stumpage value of the above 
tinber to the government, at an aver- 
age of three cents gold per cubic foot, 
is not far from three billion dollars, and 
it is easy to foresee that when the lumber 
industry reaches any considerable mag- 
nitude the receipts from it will form no 
inconsiderable part of the income of the 
government. 

The islands are well supplied with 
streams having sufficient volume of 
water for floating logs. Most of these 
can be made good driving streams by a 
little work inthe way of removing snags 
and sandbars. It must be remembered, 
however, that most of the timber in the 
Philippines is too heavy to float, and 
that the logs must be buoyed by bamboo 
poles. It may be discovered, when log- 
ging operations on a large scale are in- 
stituted, that logging railways will be 
more economical than driving the logs 
in the streams. 

Logging is carried on at present on a 
small scale and with very primitive ap- 
pliances. The logs are dragged out of 
the woods by carabaos to the railroad 
or to the streams, down which they are 
floated by the aid of the bamboo. 


EXCELLENT COAL IN, ABUNDANCE 


Unless all indications are deceptive, 
the mineral wealth of the Philippine 
Islands is very great. Coal, of Tertiary 
age, of widely differing qualities, from 
lignite so soft and impure as to be prac- 
tically worthless up to that equal in 
steam capacity to the best Japanese coal, 
is found scattered widely over the archi- 
pelago. Indeed, there are few prov-. 
inces in which it has not been found. 
Many of the prospects which on the sur- 


148 


face appear almost worthless, owing to 
weathering, may, with depth, develop 
into a better quality. Gold also is very 
widely distributed, but thus far the 
veins and placers are poor and cannot 
be worked at a profit under present con- 
ditions of transportation and labor. 
Valuable deposits of copper and iron 
have been discovered, and in years past 
have been worked to a limited extent. 
Indications of asphaltum and petroleum 
have also been discovered, yet the min- 
eral production of the islands was in 
1903 practically nothing. 

Coal is now being mined on Batan 
Island by the United States, which has 
leased a tract of coal land, for the sup- 
ply of the army transports. Analyses 
show that it equals the best Japanese 
coal. Some is also mined by private 
parties. 

It is altogether probable that in the 
near future the Philippine Islands will 
produce not only enough coal for their 
own supply, but may furnish coal for a 
large part of the commerce of the Pa- 
cific—a fact of prime importance in de- 
termining the course of that commerce. 

Gold has been mined for centuries by 
the Igorots in Lepanto-Bontoc and Ben- 
guet, both from veinsand placers. ‘The 
total output has been small, as both 
classes of deposit are of low grade, but 
the Igorot is contented with low wages, 
especially if he is working for himself. 
Since American occupation this moun- 
tain range has been prospected by Amer- 
icans and several hundred claims have 
been located. Little work has been 
done on them, and it is not believed that 
any deposits likely to prove profitable 
under present conditions of labor and 
transportation have been discovered. 


APPARENTLY THE ISLANDS HAVE 
ENOUGH GOOD IRON ORES TO 
BUILD UP EXTENSIVE 
MANUFACTORIES 


The deposit of iron ore in Angat and 
neighboring parts of Bulacan province 


THe NaTionaL GrocraPHIc MAGAZINE 


appears to be extensive and rich. The 
ore is hematite and magnetite, princi- 
pally the latter, and runs from 50 per 
cent to 63. per cent of metallic iron. 
The deposits extend over a belt 4o 
miles in length, varying greatly in 
breadth, lying on the west slope of the 
range which forms the eastern portion 
of the province. The ore was mined to 
a small extent during the Spanish dom- 
ination, but without financial success. 
Little prospecting of the deposits in 
place has been made, the ore having 
been taken mainly from boulders on the 
surface. It was smelted with charcoal 
in small, crude blast furnaces. 

This property has been examined and 
reported on by the mining bureau of the 
Insular government, and it appears prob- 
able that it may be made of great value 
to the archipelago, not only rendering 
it independent of the rest of the world 
in matter of pig iron, but it may build 
up extensive manufactories of iron and 
steel in these islands. 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 


The most important commercial prod- 
uct of the islands is abaca, or Manila 
hemp. This is indigenous to all prov- 
inces, but the fiber is unlike the hemp 
of other tropical countries, and is found 
only in the Philippine Islands. The 
value of the exportations of this prod- 


~ uct exceeded nineteen millions of dol- 


lars in I902, or was two-thirds of the 
value of all exports. Nearly all of this 
material is shipped in the raw state to 
Europe and America for manufacture 
into cordage. Although a large area 
was devoted to the cultivation of hemp, 
much of the product that was exported 
was gathered wild. 

The exportation of the dried kernel 
of the cocoanut, known as copra, is 
steadily increasing, and promises to be- 
come of great commercial importance. 
The value of the exports of copra and 
cocoanuts for 1902 was $2,701,783. The 
cocoanut palm flourishes luxuriously in 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


the Philippines, and when its products 
are systematically harvested it is a 
source of unfailing revenue and profit, 
supplying several by-products of com- 
mercial value. 

The demand for rice throughout the 
archipelago far exceeds the domestic 
supply, and it will probably be neces- 
sary to continue to import it indefinitely, 
as the cultivation of hemp and other 
products is much more profitable. Itis 
probable that the cultivation of cacao, 
from which the chocolate is derived, is 
likely to greatly increase and become 
one of the principal producing products 
of the islands, as the cacao of the Phil- 
ippine Islands is superior to that grown 
anywhere else in the world. 


THE POPULATION 


The total population of the Philippine 
archipelago on March 2, 1903, was 
7,635,426. Of this number 6,987,686 
enjoyed a considerable degree of civil- 
ization, while the remainder, 647,740, 
consisted of wild people. There were 
14,271 white, 8,135 being Americans 
and 42,097 yellow, of whom g2I were 
Japanese and 41,035 Chinese. 

Of the eight civilized tribes the largest 
is that of the Visayans, who occupy most 
of the Islands lying between Luzon and 
Mindanao, and form nearly one-half of 
the entire civilized population. Taga- 
logs occupy the provinces in the vicinity 
of Manila. They rank second, with a 
little more than one-fifth of the civilized 
people, and the Ilocanos rank third, with 
approximately one-eighth. 

The civilized people, with the excep 
tion of those of foreign birth, were prac- 
tically all adherents of the Catholic 
church, while of the peoples here classi- 
fied as wild a large proportion, probably 
inore than two-fifths, were Mohamme- 
dans in religion and were well known in 
the islands as Moros. The remaining 
three-fifths belonged to various tribes, 
differing from one another in degrees 
of barbarism. With the exception of 


- 


149 


the Negritos and the people of foreign 
birth, all the inhabitants of these islands 
are believed to be Malays. 

The people of the Malay race consti- 
tute most of the inhabitants of the Malay 
peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Cel- 
ebes, and other associated islands, to- 
gether with the Philippines. The total 
number of Malays is somewhere in the 
neighborhood of 40,000,000, of which 
Over 28,000,000, or three-fourths, are 
found in Java, most of the remainder 
being in the Philippine Islands. 


INCREASE IN POPULATION RAPID 


At the beginning of the century Java 
had a little more than double the popula- 
tion of the Philippine archipelago. At 
the end of the century it had four times 
as many people. 

The cause of this is not easy to deter- 
mine So far as known, the people of 
Java have been quite as subject to epi- 
demics and diseases as the people of the 
Philippines, and there is no apparent 
reason for the more rapid growth. 

The average annual rate of increase 
of the Philippines in the last half cen- 
tury has exceeded that of all the coun- 
tries of the world, with the exception of 
the United States, Russia, and Japan, 
and has equaled that of Denmark. It 
was nearly three times as large as that 
of British India and Spain, nearly six 
times as large as that of France, and yet 
it was less than half as great as that of 
the United States. 


SURPRISING ABILITY TO READ AND 
WRITE 


Literacy among the people of the Phil- 
ippines means the ability to read and 
write in any language—English, Span- 
ish, or a Malay tongue. Since, in all 
probability, less than ro per cent of the 
people of the islands can speak Spanish 
or English, the fact is unquestionable 
that the majority of the people reported 
as literate can read and write only the 
native tongues. This is a result of the 


150 


policy of the friars, who, from motives 
of their own, discouraged the learning of 
Spanish by the natives in order that 
they might act as intermediaries between 
the people and the civil authorities, and 
thus retain their influence over their 
charges. 

A little less than one-third of the 
Filipino males of voting age are able to 
read and write. 

There were 1,161,925 males who were 
able to read, constituting 47 per cent of 
all males 10 years of age and over. In 
other words, nearly one-half of the males 
could read. The number of females 
able to read was 1,049,509, Or 42 per 
cent of all the females 10 years of age 
and over, a proportion considerably less 
than of males. Of all those who could 
read, males constituted 52.5 percent and 
females 47.5 per cent. 

The number of males who could both 
read and write was 735,564, or 29.8 per 
cent of the male population 10 years of 
age and over. The number of females 
who could both read and write was only 
a little more than one third as great, 
being 267,024, or only 10:7 per cent of 
the females 1o years of age and over. 

From the above it appears that, while 
nearly two-thirds of the males who were 
taught to read were taught to write, 
only about one-fourth of the females 
received an equal degree of education. 
Far less attention evidently has been 
paid to the education of women in the 
Philippines thantothat of men. Inthe 
United States, Cuba, and Porto Rico 
literacy, by whichis meant the ability to 
both read and write, was somewhat lower 
among females than among males— 
that is, a slightly larger proportion of 
those who were taught to read were also 
taught to write among males than among 
females—but the proportion there was 
only a fraction of that which prevailed 
in the Philippines. 

The number of males reported as 
having received superior education was 
59,020, or 2.4 percent of those 10 years 
of age and over, and of the females 


~ 


Tue Nationa, Geocrapuic MaGAZINE 


17,607, or seven-tenths of 1 per cent. 
Education among males was thus nearly 
three and a half times as great as among 
females. oo ne a 

The most literate tribe of the prov- 
inces is the Pampangan, 48.4 per cent 
of whose males of voting age were able 
to read and write. Next to the Pam- 
pangans are the Tagalogs, with 43.1 per 
cent, while the lowest are the Visayans, 
with only 32.2 per cent. Measured by 
the proportion having superior educa- 
tion, the Tagalogs are easily first, fol- 
lowed by the Pangasinanes and Zamba- 
lans, while the Visayans are still at the 
foot of the column. 


THE FILIPINO IS AMBITIOUS TO 
LEARN 


According to Hon. W. H. Taft, Sec- 
retary of War and formerly Governor 
of the Philippine Islands, the ‘‘ go per 
cent of the Christian Filipinos who do 
not speak Spanish are really Christians. 
They are capable of education, and they 
have no caste orarbitrary customs which 
prevent their development along the 
lines of Christian civilization. They 
are merely ina state of Christian pupil- 
age; they are imitative; they are/elad 
to be educated, glad to study some lan- 
guage other than their own, and glad 
to follow European and American ideals. 
They differ utterly in these respects from 
the East Indians, from the Malays of 
Java, and the Malays of the Straits Set- 
tlements, and thus make our problem 
different from and vastly easier than 
that of England and Holland.’’ 


EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 


At the date of the census there were 
2,962 schools in the archipelago, an aver- 
age of three for each municipality. Of 
these, 55 per cent were pubiic, about 33 
per cent were private, and the remainder 
were under the control of the Roman 
Catholic Church. Of the total enroll- 
ment 6 per cent were reported for the 
primary schools. ‘There are but two 
institutions devoted to higher education. 


‘( ACR'REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


Five per cent of the civilized population 
of the Philippine Islands are enrolled in 
the schools. ‘This‘proportion is only a 
little over one-fourth of that for the 
United States, but it represents practi- 
cally a two years’ growth,'as the school 
system may be said to have commenced 
with American occupation. One-sixth 
of all children of school age are enrolled, 
and three-fourths of that number are in 
the public schools. ‘The attendance is 
62.5 per cent of the enrollment as com- 
pared with 70 per cent in the United 
States. Boys constitute three-fifths of 
the pupils in the Philippines, while in 
the United States the schools are almost 
equally divided as tosex. Six thousand 
teachers are employed, four-fifths of 
whom are Filipinos receiving an aver- 
age annual salary of $125.02. The 
average public-school teacher has charge 
of 73 pupils, while in the United States 
the number is 36. Of the 3,461 school 
buildings, the majority of which are 
public, approximately one-third are 
built of durable materials. There is 
great need of additional school facilities 
and better buildings and equipment, and 
there is a general demand for an increase 
‘in the number of American teachers. 


THE USE OF ENGLISH IN THE 
SCHOOLS 


Although the study of English has 
met with some opposition, this opposi- 
tion isdiminishing. Eleven per cent of 
the pupils throughout the archipelago 
are reported as understanding the lan- 
guage, and this may be regarded as very 
satisfactory progress for the short space 
of two years. In Manila there are 21 
night schools, with an enrollment of 
more than 4,000 adults, who are en- 
gaged in acquiring the English lan- 
guage. During the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1903, about $1,500,000 were 
expended for educational purposes.* 


* See “ Educating the Filipinos.” NATIONAL, 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, January, 1905, pp. 
46-49. 7 


I51 
DENSITY OF POPULATION 


The density of population of the isl- 
ands, as a whole, was 67 per square mile; 
that of Java'was not less than 553, or 
more than eight times as great ; that of 
the main body of the United States was 
26,,and that of, the State of. Indiana, 
which most nearly approached that of 
the Philippines, was 70 per square mile. 

The most densely populated of the 
provinces, Ilocos Sur (on the west cen- 
tral coast of Luzon), had 398 inhabitants 
to asquare mile. This was slightly ex- 
ceeded by Rhode Island among the 
States, with 407, but in turn it exceeded 
Massachusetts, the second most densely 
populated, which had 349. Near this 
state in density were Cebu, with 337, 
and Pangasinan, with 334, to a square 
mile. These three were the only prov- 
inces with more than 300 inhabitants to 
a square mile. 

Luzon is the largest island, with an 
area of more than 35 per cent of the 
whole archipelago and a population 
almost exactly one-half that of all. Min- 
danao, the second in rank, has an area 
of 31 percent of that of the archipelago, 
while its population was only 7 per cent. 
These two islands together contain two- 
thirds of the area and 56 per cent of all 
the people. 

Asa rule, the density increases as the 
size of the island diminishes. This is 
due to the fact that the population in 
large part is a seaboard population, no 
less than 65 per cent of it living in mu- 
nicipalities bordering on the coast. Per- 
haps a fairer measure of the density of 
the population throughout a large part 
of the archipelago at least would be to 
divide the population by the length of 
thecoast line. Nearly two-thirds of the 
Christian population, 65 per cent, live 
on or near the seacoast, and 35 percent 
live inland. 


THE PEOPLE LIVE IN VILLAGES 


There are in the Philippine Islands 
about 13,400 barrios, which may be re- 


162 


garded as the equivalent of villages. 
The average size of a barrio or village 
in the Philippine Islands is 500 people. 


CHARACTER OF THE HOUSES 


The streets, as a rule, are not paved, 
and the roads generally are in poor con- 
dition, especially in the rainy season. 
For potable water, except in Manila, 
reliance is placed on wells and cisterns, 
and very little attention has ever been 
paidtosanitation. The houses of people 
of means are built of stone, brick, or 
wood, and their homes are provided with 
all available comforts. But it is safe to 
say that nine-tenths of the houses in the 
Philippines are built of bamboo, thatched 
with nipa, cogon, or other grasses, and 
are admirably adapted to the climate 
and to the condition of the occupants. 

Owing to their long subjugation to 
friar and civil power, all parts of the 
islands have received a similar grade of 
culture. A town in the Cagayan Val- 
ley presents the same style of architect- 
ure, the same surrounding barrios, has 
the same kind of stores and similarly 
dressed people as a Christian munici- 
pality on the Island of Mindanao. In 
spite, however, of these facts the popu- 
lation has remained separated into prac- 
tically the original tribes or groups, 
each speaking a different idiom and feel- 
ing strongly its separateness from the 
other. 


THE TRIBES DO NOT MIX WITH EACH 
OTHER 


An examination of the map showing 
the distribution of the tribes or peoples 
of the Philippine Islands shows that, 
generally speaking, the various tribes 
have kept very closely to themselves. 
To show how elosely, it may be said 
that, after eliminating from considera- 
tion the municipalities in the provinces 
of Benguet and Lepanto-Bontoc and 
those of the comandancias, in 179 mu- 
nicipalities every male 21 years and over 
was of one Christian tribe, while 94 


Tue NaTIoNnAL GeocrAPHic MAGAZINE 


towns contained only one person differ- 
ent from the prevailing tribe. In 620 
municipalities, or nearly two-thirds of 
all, at least 99 per cent of the men were 
of one tribe, and in 820 at least 90 per 
cent were of one tribe. 

There is one tribe, and one only, 
which seems to possess a migratory, col- 
onizing disposition ; that is the Ilocano, 
and even they, whenever they have in- 
vaded the territory of other tribes, have 
mixed with them very little, forming 
villages by themselves. 


THE AVERAGE AGE OF THE FILIPINO 


Of the total native population of 
6,931,548, 3,443,816 were males and 
3,487,732 were females, the proportions 
between the sexes being 49.7 per cent 
males and 50.3 per cent females. 

The average age of the people of the 
Philippine Islands is 23.9 years. This 
is 2.4 years less than the average age of 
the people of the United States, which is 
26.3 years, and is greater than that of the 
negroes in the United States, 23.2 years. 
The average age of the brown people in 
the Philippines was 23.8 years, a trifle 
less than that of the total population. 
The average age of the Chinese was 33.4 
years, much less than that of the same 
people in the United States, which was 
40 years. The average age of the white 
people in the Philippines was 30.3 years. 


THE FILIPINO FAMILY 


Although the Filipino families have 
been diminished in size by insurrections 
and cholera, the average family consists 
of 4.7 persons, and this is still about 
equal to that of the United States. The 
largest families are found among the 
Cagayan and Visayan tribes, and the 
smallest among the Ilocanos. About 
one-sixth of the population is comprised 
in families of 5 members. Families of 
8, 9, and 10 persons form in each case 
a smaller proportion of the population 
than do families of similar size in the 
United States, Porto Rico, and Cuba ; 


ie 


2 


= 


PRSEiorwansmcencens 


SOME SUPERVI 


Gov. Porr 
balan), 


C 


OR 


1ANO Lesaca, Province of Zambales (Zam- 


Gov. Francisco Dicuoso, Province of Isabela (Caga- 


yan). 


Gov. GRaAz10 Gonzaca, Province of Cagayan (Cagayan). 
Gov. Junio Agcaoti, Province of Ilocos Norte (Llo- 


eano). 
x : r 
Gov. Juan Vinuamor, Province of Abra (Ilocano). 


(15 


oa 


LILY TOLLE ADOT © 


OF THE CENSUS. 


6. Gov. Mena Crisotoao, Province of Ilocos Sur(Ilocano). 
7. Gov. CEFERINO JOVEN, Province of Pampanga (Pam- 


pangan). 

8. Gov. Macario FAvina, Province of Pangasinan (Pan- 
gasinan). 

9. Gov. BERNARDINO Monreat, Province of Sorsogoén 
(Bicol). 


) 


’ 


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( 156 ) 


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1, 5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 


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3. DATO AND BRIDE. 4. MOROS OF LAKE LANAO, MINDANAO, 5. JOLO MORO, ADULT MALE. 


(159) 


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( 161 ) 


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HAIR BOUND UP WITH GRASS 
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1, 3, 4, 5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 


G HOLE IN LOBE OF EAR. 2. IGOROT WOMAN. 


CHAPLET. 3. IGOROT BOY. 4. IGOROT FATHER AND DAUGHTER. 


( 162 ) 


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COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER, 


TINGUIANES.—1. GIRL SPINNING. 2. YOUNG WOMAN IN TYPICAL DRESS. 
4. GIRL OPERATING COTTON GIN. 


( 163 ) 


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COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 


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( 164 ) 


MAYOYAO IGOROT, ‘‘HEADMAN’”’ OF BANAUFE 


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COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 
1. NATIVE WOMAN WITH NEGRITO BLOOD (REMONTADO). 2. 
(REMONTADO). 4. NATIVE MAN WITH 
6. WOMAN (GADDAN),. 


YOUNG MAN (REMONTADO). 
NEGRITO BLOOD (REMONTADO). 


3. GIRL 
5. GIRL (GADDAN). 


( 165 ) 


‘VIAAVSI AO AONIAONd ‘LSHYO AHL NI SOLIMDAN “G “HLATL GATTI DNIMOHS OLIVDAN ‘P 
‘SHTIVANVZ JO AONIAOU ‘SOLIMDAN AO dNOUD ‘G “ATHLANOL OOMNVA AO SHOAIA OML DNIAGTOAU Ad Gud ONIMVW SOLIMDAN °% “NYWOM OLIYDAN 


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( 166 ) 


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( 169 ) 


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(172) 


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(174) 


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C175.) 


1. GADDAN TREE HOUSE. 


» 
PADANGITA 


pee 


COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 


A DWELLING OF THE MAMANUAS. 3. TINGUIAN HOUSE AT 


A FEAST IN PROGRESS. 


( 176 ) 


5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 


MAYON VOLCANO, 2. MAGELLAN MONUMENT, ISLAND OF MACTAN, ERECTED ( THE 
SPOT WHERE HE WAS KILLED. 38. GIANT FOREST TREE OF MINDANAO, SHOWING NAT- 
URAL BUTTRESSES OF TRUNK. 4. BURI PALM. 5, TREE FERN, PROVINCE OF BENGUET. 
6. MORO WATCHTOWER, DUMAGUETE, NEGROS ORIENTAL. 7, NATIVE BOAT 


(x77) 


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(178 ) 


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(179 ) 


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( 181 ) 


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1. FILIPINOS MAKING ROPE. 2. ILOCANOS SPINNING COTTON, LUZON. 3. PRIMITIVE LOOM OF THE 
ILOCANOS, LUZON. 


( 182 ) 


a 


1. CLIMBING THE COCONUT PALM FOR TUBA. 2. HUSKING AND SPLITTING COCONUTS FOR COPRA. 
s 3. COCONUT TREE AND FRUIT. 


( 183 ) 


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SASS 


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cerns iuatmrormsrseeie 


SR 


LS AEROS BER 


1. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER, 


1. COFFEE PLANT, SHOWING THE REMARKABLE LUXURIANCE OF THE GROWTH. 2. STRIPPING 
ABACA (HEMP). 38. THE ABACA, OR ‘‘MANILA HEMP,’’ PLANT. 4. CACAO TREE, SHOWING 
FRUIT AT MATURITY. 5, FINE SAMPLES OF MANILA HEMP, BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE, 
MANILA. 


( 184 ) 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


this indicates that, although the propor- 
tion of population under 201s unusually 
large in the Philippines, large families 


are hot as numerous there as in other . 


countries. 
PROPORTION OF BABIES 


The population under 1 year of age 
numbered 167,905. This was 2.4 per 
cent of the total population. For com- 
parison we have a similar proportion in 
Porto Rico of 2.7 percent ; inthe United 
States, 2.5 per cent, and in Cuba, 1.5 per 
cent. ‘The low proportion in Cuba was 
supposed to be due to the disturbed con- 
ditions in the island prior to the taking 
of the census. Similar causes doubtless 
accounted for the small proportion of 
this class in the Philippines. 

The children under 5 years numbered 
1,054,096, which was 15.1 per cent of 
the total population. The same class in 
the United States formed 12.1 per cent ; 
ia Perto Rico, 15,8 per cent, and in 
Cuba, 8.3 per cent. 

The number under 1o years of age 
was 2,014,160, or 28.8 per cent of the 
total population. The same class in the 
United States formed 23.8 per cent; in 
Porto Rico, 30.9 per cent, and in Cuba, 
@2.7 per cent. 

The number of children between 5 
and 17—that is, of school age—was 

Be0e7 5307, Of 30. 6 per cent of the popu- 
lation. The proportion of school chil- 
dren in Porto Rico was 32.8 per cent, a 
little greater, while, on the other hand, 
that in the United States was 28.3 per 
cent, or slightly less. 


PROPORTION OF ADULTS 


Persons between 20 and 29 were in 
smaller proportions in the Philippines 
than in either the United States, Cuba, 
or Porto Rico. Between 30 and 39 
years, 40 and 4g, and 50 and 59 there 
were larger proportions in the Philip- 
pine Islands than in Porto Rico, but 
smaller proportions than in either the 
United Statesor Cuba. Between 60 and 


185 


69 the proportion was greater than in 
Cuba or in Porto Rico, but less than in 
the United States. Between 80 and 89 
and at more advanced ages the propor- 
tions in the Philippine Islands exceeded 
those of either of the three countries 
used in comparison. 

In the Philippine Islands no fewer 
than 3,553 persons were reported as 
being more than too years of age. Itis 
not probable that a Filipino ever reached 
that age, orthat many have exceeded the 
age of 80 years. To test the question, 
several hundred of these cases of reported 
great age were returned to the supervis- 
ors of the census with instructions to 
have the cases investigated thoroughly, 
and, if possible, the ages verified by ref- 
erence to the baptismal certificates. 
Owing to the destruction of records dur- 
ing the recent insurrection, it was possi- 
ble to obtain this evidence in only a very 
few cases, but in every such case the re- 
ported age was reduced greatly. The 
average reduction in all such cases was 
from 106 years to 83 years—that is to 
say, the true age was about four-fifths 
the reported age. 


‘THE MARRIED STATE 


Of the total male population of the 
Philippines 58.6 per cent were reported 
as single, and of the female 54.1 per 
cent. These proportions also were 
slightly less than in the United States, 
which were for males 60.6 per cent and 
for females 55.1 per cent. 

As in Cuba and Porto Rico, the mar- 
ried may be divided into two classes, 
those legally married and those living 
together by mutual consent, or, as they 
will be spoken of hereafter, consensually 
married. The legally married num- 
bered 2,314,583, constituting 33.1 per 
cent of the entire population, a propor- 
tion somewhat less than the United 
States, where it was 36.5 per cent. It 
formed a strong contrast with the pro- 
portion in Cuba, which was only 15.7 
per cent, or less than half as great a 


186 


proportion. The number consensually 
married was 233,670, forming only 3.3 
per cent of the population. This class 
was in the Philippines much smaller 
proportionally than in Cuba, where it 
formed no less than 8.4 per cent of the 
population. Adding together the le- 
gally and consensually married, the pro- 
portion of all married persons in the 
Philippines became 36.4 per cent of 
the population, or about the same as in 
the United States, while in Cuba the le- 
gally and consensually married together 
formed only 24.1 per cent of the popula- 
tion. 

The proportion of married in the Phil- 
ippines, including those legally and 
consensually united, is greater than in 
Japan, Germany, Austria, Canada, Mex- 
ico, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Ar- 
gentina, Cuba, and Porto Rico, but less 
than in British India, where infant mar- 
riages are so prevalent, and in the United 
States. It is rather extraordinary that 
seven-tenths of all the prostitutes re- 
ported in the islands were from foreign 
lands, which speaks volumes for the 
chastity of the Filipinos. 


THE WORKERS 


The occupations of the Filipinos are 
few in number and present little variety. 
There is little cooperative work, very 
little use of machines, and little special- 
ization of function. A majority of the 
male Filipinos farm on a small scale, 
those living near the coast alternating 
that occupation with fishing. Most of 
the women who were returned as having 
occupations were spinners and weavers, 
weaving in their homes on hand looms 
the beautiful, delicate 7usz, prima, and 
sinamay. They weave also hats and 
mats of the finest quality, all this work 
being done in a small way as a household 
occupation, alternating with the duties 
of housekeeping. 

With this introduction the reader will 
be prepared for the statement that a large 
proportion of the people, much larger 


Tue NationaL GgeocrapHic MaGAZINE 


than in the United States or in almost 
any other country, were reported as en- 
gaged in gainful occupations. Indeed, 
out of a civilized population of 6,987,686 
in the Philippine Islands no less than 
3,037,880, or 43.5 per cent, were in this 
class, as compared with 36.3 per cent in 
the United States, 33.1 per cent in Porto 
Rico, and 39.6 per cent in Cuba. 


THE SURPRISING NUMBER OF WOMEN 
WORKERS 


This excessive proportion was, how- 
ever, due to the large number of women 
workers, namely 1,025,287, as is shown 
by the following table, in which the pro- 
portions of wage-earners among the 
males and the females are given for the 
above four countries : 


Country. Male. | Female. 
Philippine Islands 32.3 57.6 29.4 
United States’... tie aan ee 58.7 12.8 
Porto: Rito: zie ct eee 56.9 9.9 
CulbacocG fone eee 68.2 8.8 


From the above table it appears that 
the proportion of women engaged in 
gainful occupations in the Philippines 
was more than double that of the United 
States, three times that of Porto Rico, 
and more than three times that of Cuba, 
while the proportion of working males 
was about equal to that in the United 
States and Porto Rico and less than in 
Cuba. 

This remarkable showing is in part 
explained by the fact that a large pro- 
portion of the women assist in supply- 
ing the family exchequer by spinning 
and weaving and to a less extent by 
working in the fields. 

Persons not engaged in gainful occu- 
pations include women engaged in 
housework, children at school, and 
other dependents. 

Farmers and farm laborers constitute 
more than two-fifths of all who are en- 


pines, 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


gaged in gainful occupations. A much 
smaller proportion are engaged in manu- 
facturing and mechanical pursuits, while 
the number in professional service is 
exceedingly small, forming less than 
one per cent of the entire number gain- 
fully employed. 

Among the Filipinos themselves there 
ace. 1 326 physicians, 676 priests, and 
G27 lawyers. Nearly one-half of the 
Chinese wage-earners are merchants or 
salesmen. Of the foreign or white pop- 
ulation a small proportion is engaged in 
agriculture, but most of them are found 
in the trades and professions. 

The following table shows the pro- 
portion of the wage-earners in each age 
group to the total population, and with 
it, for comparison, corresponding fig- 
ures fram the census of 1899 for Cuba 
and Porto Rico. 


oe Porto 

Age period. lepine "Cuba. Race 
Islands. ; 

MeOMe@ FA years......... 16.8 24.6 | 22.4 
MskO) 24 Years -....... 66.9 ie tee (acy ete) 
By ro 34 years...... | Mod 58.5 | 54.3 
me tO.44 years......... 74.3 60.4 | 56.9 
Wako 54 yeats..... ... ead za5 60.3. 55.4 
mye O4 years... ....| 65.8 59.57) 53.2 
G5.yeats and over......|- 427 Beton addins 


EXCESS OF BIRTHS OVER DEATHS a 
LARGE 


The average excess of births over 
deaths in the Philippine Islands for the 
last 25 years is 8.8 per thousand, but 
excluding the cholera years (1879, 1889, 
and 1890), when the death rate exceeded 
the birth rate, it was 17 per thousand 
per year. This is higher than that of 
the United Kingdom, Sweden, Nor- 
way, Japan, Italy, and Germany, but 
slightly less than that of the United 
States. Itis many timesthat of France 
and Ireland and double that of Switzer- 
land. Yet with this great excess of 
births over deaths, the population has 


187 


not increased rapidly. It has taken 
nearly sixty years to double in number, 
and is now only four times as great as 
at the beginning of the century, while 
in that time the population of the United 
States has multiplied fifteen times. The 
cause for this is the epidemics, such as 
cholera, plague, and smallpox, especially 
the first, which periodically sweep over 
the islands and ina single year wipe out 
the gains of the preceding two or three 
years. Sothe population has grown by 
a series of regular and rather rapid ac- 
cretions, succeeded by sudden and great 
losses. Thus the cholera epidemic of 
1879 must have destroyed 400,000 lives, 
equivalent, approximately, to the nor- 
mal increase in three years. ‘The chol- 
era epidemic of 188 9 and 1890 was not 
so severe, its victims numbering in the 
two years about 260,000, while that of 
the year 1902 must have destroyed over 
200,000 people. 

The death rate for the year 1902, 63.3 
per thousand, was just about double the 
normal, and was in large part due to 
the prevalence of cholera. Other things, 
such as the loss of crops through locusts, 
the loss of carabao, and the after effects 
of the insurrection, by which the consti- 
tutions of those affected by it were un- 
dermined, through hardship, exposure, 
and want of food, probably contributed. 


TERE; CAUSH OF DEATH 


The smallest proportion of deaths oc- 
curred in the cool season (November to 
February). Inthe warm season (March 
fo June) there occurred 28.4 per'cent, 
and in the wet season (July to October) 
not less than 47.1 per cent. 

Of all the deaths that occurred in the 
Philippine Islands in the year rgo02, 311 
out of every thousand, or nearly one- 
third, were caused by Asiatic cholera. 
The large death rate from this source 
may be regarded as extraordinary. It 
was not so, however, with the fatality 
from malarial fevers, which are always 
prevalent in the islands, and probably 


188 


little more so during this year than in 
preceding years. ‘The deaths from this 
cause constituted 26.8 percent of all the 


deaths, or somewhat more than one- . 


fourth. ‘These two causes, cholera and 
malarial fevers, caused nearly three- 
fifths of all deaths. Dysentery and 
diarrhea together caused 69 out of each 
thousand deaths, and was third in rank 
of fatality. ‘The fourth disease in fa- 
tality was tuberculosis, whose victims 
numbered 66 out of every thousand, and 
the victims of smallpox, which raged in 
many parts of the islands during the 
year, were nearly as numerous, num- 
bering 34 out of each thousand. 
victims of beri-beri, a disease which is 
peculiar to the brown and yellow people, 
due probably to insufficient nutrition, 
numbered 13 out of every thousand, and 


diseases of the stomach caused 12 deaths > 


per thousand. No other disease caused 
as much as 1 per cent of all the deaths. 
Puerperal septicemia, bronchitis, ty- 
phoid fever, diphtheria, croup, and 
meningitis each had a few victims, but 
in each case less than 1 per cent. 


CONTRAST WITH THE UNITED STATES 


These figures are in strong contrast 
with those which prevail in the United 
States. In that country the most fatal 
of all diseases is commonly tuberculosis, 
which is usually credited with a little 
over one-tenth of the deaths. Nextto 
that is pneumonia, in a nearly equal pro- 
portion. This latter is well-nigh un- 
known in the Philippines, its victims 
numbering in 1902 only one in a thou- 
sand of the deaths. é , 

In the United States dysentery and 
diarrhea together carried off about 4.4 
per cent, only two-thirds the proportion 
in the Philippines, which was 6.9 per 
cent, while heart disease, which is al- 
most unknown in the Philippines, caused 
6.7 per cent of all deaths in the United 
States. Typhoid fever is vastly more 
prevalent and deadly in the United 
States than in the Philippines, its vic- 


The . 


THe NaTionaL GrocraPHic MacGaZzINE 


tims numbering 3.4 per cent of all deaths 
in the United States, while in the archi- 
pelago the number was trifling. It is 
much the same with meningitis, which 
in the United States carried off 2.5 per 
cent. Malarial fevers, prevalent as they 
are in some parts of the United States, 
are seldom fatal there, only 1.4 per cent 
of all the deaths being due to this cause. 
Kidney diseases, old age, apoplexy, and 
many other diseases which claim numer- 
ous victims in the United States were 
either unknown in the Philippines or 
claimed very few victims. 


THE AVERAGE FILIPINO FARM IS 
VERY SMALL 


Nearly half the parcels of occupied 
lands are less than one hectar (2.471 
acres) in size, while thousands of tracts, 
one-fifth of the total number, contain 
less than 1,075 square feet. Thesesmall 
parcels of land, many of them no larger 
than ordinary kitchen gardens in the 
United States, are resided upon by, cul- 
tivated by, and contribute materially to 
the subsistence of their owners or oc- 
cupants, and the presentation of agri- 
cultural statistics for the Philippines 
would be extremely faulty and incom- 
plete were they not included. 

The people of the Philippines are ex- 
tremely gregarious ; the isolated farm- 
house, so familiar in rural sections 
throughout the United States, is practi- 
cally unknown in these islands, whose 
inhabitants almost universally live in 
communities and largely subsist on such 
products of the soil as can be cultivated 
or gathered from wild growths in the 
immediate vicinity of their dwelling 
places. 

This custom of herding together is not 
due alone to the social, company-lc ving 
disposition of the people. It has been 
rendered necessary by the ladronism and 
the raids of Moros that prevailed 
throughout the islands for centuries. 

This has been one of the greatest ob- 
stacles in the way of agricultural de- 


A. REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


velopment and is in a large degree the 
cause of the numerous small land hold- 
ings. Another reason is the great pro- 
ductiveness of the soil and the variety of 
crops that can be raised ona small piece 
of land. 

The average size of all farms in the 
Philippines is only 346.8 ares—equiva- 
lent to 8.57 acres. Inthe United States 
the average size of all farms is shown by 
the census of 1900 to have been 146.6 
acres, making a ratio as to size of about 
=7 £01. 


VAST EXTENT OF UNUSED LAND 


The spaces of land between their vil- 
lages are as a rule unpopulated, and 
these intervening tracts, frequently of 
great extent, are almost wholly uncultt- 
vated and practically unused, except in 
a limited way for grazing purposes or 
in the utilization of such wild growths 
of fruits, vegetables, or fiber plants as 
they produce. 


MOST OF THE FARMERS OWN THE 
LAND 


In the archipelago, as a whole, by far 
the largest proportion of the 815,453 
Christian farmers own the land they 
cultivate, while tenants who pay a share 
of products as rental come next in order 
numerically ; tenants who pay their rent 
in cash, while not comparatively numer- 
ous, exceed the combined numbers of 
those who are designated as ‘‘labor ten- 
ants’’ and the occupants of land who 
pay no rent. 

A comparison of the Philippine statis- 
tics relating to tenure with those given 
in the United States census reports for 
1900 shows that the percentage of own- 
ers is much larger in the islands than in 
the United States. 

More than four-fifths (80.8 per cent) 
of Philippine farms are cultivated by 
their owners. The great majority of 
individual holdings, regardless of ten- 
ure, are of small areas—88.9 per cent 
containing less than 5 hectares, 70.4 


189 


per cent less than 2, 49.8 per cent less 
than 1, and 21.7 per cent less than 0.35 
of a hectare. 


PAUPERISM UNKNOWN 


Pauperism is almost unknown among 
the people of the islands, their wants 
being few and easily supplied. Little 
clothing is required, and the simple food 
upon which the masses of the people 
subsist, consisting mainly of rice, fruit, 
and fish, can, asa rule, be had with little 
exertion. The few who, from old age 
or accident, are unable to provide these 
necessaries for themselves are usually 
taken care of by relatives or friends. 

The total number of paupers in the 
archipelago, exclusive of Manila, on De- 
cember 31, 1902, was but 478, or less 
than I in each 10,000 of the inhabitants. 
This may be contrasted with the corre- 
sponding proportion in the United States, 
112, L2-Ner 1O),O00, 


PROPORTION OF CRIMINALS SMALL 


The number of criminals in confine- 
ment December 31, 1902, in the Philip- 
pines was less than 8 in each 10,000 of 
population. In the United States in 
1890 there were about 13 in each 10,000 
of the inhabitants. Considering the un- 
settled condition of affairs in the island 
during the six years prior to the census, 
the showing is not only favorable, but 
remarkable, and indicates that the Fili- 
pinos as a race are not especially dis- 
posed toward crime. 

The most common crimes are ladron- 
ism, theft, assault, and murder. ‘The 
causes are traceable to the ravages of 
the war, to the poverty and unrest which 
followed, accentuated by the subsequent 
failure of crops and loss of farm ani- 
mals. Inthe majority of the provinces 
crime is said to be decreasing. 

In most of the provinces reporting, 
the convicts are employed on public 
work, such as the building and repair- 
ing of roads and bridges. Ina few of 
the provinces it has not been found ex- 


190 


pedient todo this, and they are employed 
in the prison in petty manufactures, such 
as making chairs, baskets, hats, rope, etc. 


THEY ARE PROVING THEMSELVES 
GOOD WORKMEN 


A report made to Governor Taft No- 
vember 4, 1902, by J. B. Aleshire, major 
and quartermaster, United States Army, 
in charge of army transport service at 
Manila, clearly demonstrates the avail- 
ability of native labor and strongly re- 
futes the frequently expressed idea that 
such labor cannot be profitably em- 
ployed. His report shows that upward 
of 1,800 Filipino laborers, skilled and 
unskilled, were on the pay-rolls of the 
Quartermaster’s Department, a large 
proportion of whom were given regular 
and almost continuous employment. 
About 450 of the employees were en- 
gaged as launch and lighter officers and 
crews and were rated as unskilled, hav- 
ing been principally engaged in the 
handling of coal, freight, baggage, 
forage, etc. 

Major Aleshire says: 

““Chinese labor was formerly employed 
for the handling of coal, but has been 
abandoned and replaced by Filipino 
labor, which by practical tests during 
several months averaged more tons per 
day per man and at a much lower rate 
per ton. 

‘“The attendance of the Filipino la- 
borer has been and is excellent. They 
do not absent themselves after Sundays, 
holidays, or fiestas, nor during such 
days should they be notified in advance 
they will be required to work. Their 
physical strength is much improved, 
and they are capable of doing as much 
and as hard work as any laborer we 
have in the orient.’’ 

Governor Taft, in referring to the 
labor question in an address at Manila, 
said : 

‘‘T know the disposition of most 
Americans here is to open the doors and 
let in the Chinese, sothat we may have 


THe NaTIonaL GEeoGrRaPHic MAGAZINE 


Chinese cheap labor in the islands, but 
I am emphatically opposed to the gen- 
eral policy of admitting the Chinese, 
first, because the Filipinos have the 
strongest opinion that it will be for their 
detriment, and, second, because I believe 
the history of the Straits Settlements 
shows that it will not be for their pros- 
perity as distinguished from the material 
prosperity of the islands. I am opposed 
to admitting any Chinese labor until it 
shall be made to appear that the great 
works of construction which are essen- 
tial in the islands cannot be carried on 
satisfactorily with Filipino labor.”’ 

The rates of wages which have pre- 
vailed since American occupation, while 
low as compared with wages in the 
United States, have been substantially 
double those paid under Spanish do- 
minion. 


THE FILIPINO IS A NATURAL-BORN 
FISHERMAN 


Fish forms one of the principal items 
of food of the Filipino people, and a 
large proportion of the people are fisher- 
men. 

Fish are caught by various devices. 
In favorable situations the shores are 
lined in the shallow waters with traps, 
weirs, or corrals butlt of bamboo, and 
in them a large part of the catch is 
made. Nets and seines of various pat- 
terns are also extensively used, as well 
as the ordinary hook and line, and in 
some localities the spear. 

The markets of Manila are always 
bountifully supplied with fresh fish of 
many varieties and of fine flavor, and the 
fisheries in the vicinity which supply the 
city are said to be highly remunerative. 
The same is true at other centers of pop- 
ulation throughout the Philippines. _ 

It appears from the statements of the 
supervisors that about nine-tenths of 
the people of the islands use fish as their. 
principal flesh diet. The average family 
consumes in the neighborhood of 800 
pounds of fish per annum. 


A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS 


The total annual consumption of fish 
in the islands approximates half a mill- 
ion long tons. In this industry there 
are employed, during a part or all of 
their time, the estimated number of 
II19,000 persons and 28,000 boats. 


PEARL. FISHERIES 


Fishing for mother - of - pearl shells, 
and incidentally for pearls, is carried 
on to some extent in the waters of the 
Sulu archipelago. The instruments 
used in this industry are, for the most 
part, crude and of small effectiveness, 
though there are a few shell-fishing out- 
fits equipped with modern diving appa- 
ratus—helmet, waterproof suit, pump, 
etc. ‘The shells are plentiful and valu- 
able, and pearls are frequently found, 
sometimes very fine ones of high value. 
The industry is said to be extremely 
profitable, and is believed to be capable 
of great enlargement. The investment 
of comparatively small capital will, it is 
said, yield large returns under intelli- 
gent and businesslike management. 

Captain H. R. Hickock, United States 
Army, the supervisor of census for the 
district of Siassi, gives the following in- 
teresting account of Moro fishing for 
sharks, sea worms, shells, and pearls in 
the southern seas : 

‘‘All of the Moros are fishermen toa 
greater or lessextent. Shark fishing is 
done by trolling in deep water with 
about 40 or 50 feet of line. Aftera 
shark is hooked he is first tired out and 
then drawn up to the boat and killed 
with a spear. The tails and fins are 
then cut off and traded to the Chinos, 
by whom they are then shipped to 
China. 

‘The tail and fins of a shark will aver- 
age about Io pounds in weight. The 
Chino traders recognize two grades of 
this article, for which they pay 45 and 
125 pesos respectively per picul of 137 
pounds. 

““Sea worms, which are muscular, 
gelatinous animals, living attached to 


ro. 


rocks at a depth of water of 6, 8, or 10 
feet, are also secured by the Moros and 
sold to the Chinos, who recognize ten 
classes, for which they pay from 8 to 80 
pesos per picul.”’ 


PHILIPPINE TRADE 


Philippine trade was opened to the 
world in 1834. ‘The value of imports 
for 1902 was $33,342.166, of exports 
$28,671,904. Commerce with foreign 
countries is carried on mostly in vessels 
bearing the British and German flags. 
The number of ports and subports open 
to commerce has trebled since American 
occupation began. 


OTHER NOTABLE FEATURES OF THE 
CENSUS REPORT 


The preceding pages give a summary 
of the more important geographic in- 
formation contained in the Census Re- 
port, being drawn principally from the 
introduction by General Sanger, and 
from the chapters on Geography, Pop- 
ulation, and Mortality by Mr Henry 
Gannett. 

The report contains two important 
chapters describing the characteristics 
of the civilized and non-civilized tribes. 
Every supervisor was instructed to make 
special note and record of the customs, 
character, and life of the people with 
whom he was brought in contact. The 
principal parts of these reports are pub- 
lished, supplemented by extracts from 
the speeches of Governor Taft and trav- 
elers in the islands, so that for the first 
time we have a very complete and com- 
prehensive description of every tribe. 

The following chapters also are spe- 
cially important: The History of the 
Islands, by a member of the Philippine 
Commission, IT. H. Pardo de Tavera, 
which is the first good history of the 
Filipinos that has been written and 
published in the English language by a 
Filipino ; The Judiciary, by Chief Jus- 
tice C.S. Arrelano and Assistant Justice 
Torres ; Population, by David P. Bar- 


192 


rows; Mr Barrows, as a result of his 
special study of the people, has greatly 
reduced the number of tribes into which 
the Filipinos are usually divided; the 
admirable discussion of the Climate of 
the Philippines, by José Algué, Director 
of the Philippine Weather Bureau, and 
of the Volcanoes and Seismic Centers, 
by M. Saderro Maso, Assistant Director 
of the Philippine Weather Bureau; and 
a series of articles on the agricultural 
products and possibilities of the Philip- 
pines. 

Another valuable feature of the re- 
port is the large numbcr of colored maps 
and diagrams which picture in graphic 
form the facts obtained by the census. 
Among these may be mentioned a col- 
ored map of the Philippines, 21 by 32 
inches ; a contour map; maps showing 
the distribution of forests; the mean 
annual temperature ; the mean annual 
rainfall, which shows that the rainfall 
on the eastern coast is more than double 
what it is on the western coast; the 
density of population ; the distribution 
of civilized and wild tribes. This map 
is particularly valuable, as it is the first 
attempt to show the geographic distri- 
bution of the eight civilized tribes and 


COMMANDER PEARY’S NEW VESSEL 


HE steamship which has been 
especially built for Commander 
Peary’s Arctic expedition was launched 
on March 23. Mr Peary appropriately 
named her Roosevelf, in acknowledgment 
of the great interest taken by the Presi- 
dent in polar work. 

The vessel is described as a ‘‘ three- 
masted fore-and-aft schooner - rigged 
steamship, with auxiliary sail power.’’ 
Her principal dimensions are: Length 
over all, 182 feet; beam; 35.5 feet ; 
depth, 16.3 feet; mean draft with stores, 
17 feet; gross tonnage, 614 tons, and 
estimated displacement about 1,500. 
Her model is similar to modern-built 
steam whalers, but rather more sharp, 


sea will be $100,000. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGAazIne 


the sixteen wild tribes; the areas in- 
vaded by cholera in 1902 and 1903; 
the distribution of tobacco, cotton, 
copra, etc. 

Mr W. S. Rossiter, who designed the 
typography and arranged the illustra- 
tions, merits public congratulations for 
the exceeding good taste and artistic 
appearance of the volumes. He has in- 
troduced an innovation into government 
publications. The Philippine reports 
are bound in brown buckram, stamped 
in silver, and bear the seal of the Insu- 
lar government. ‘They are printed in 
handsome type, on laid antique paper, 
and the illustrations are well grouped 
and beautifully printed. Consequently 
the volumes do not wear that ugly, 
forbidding aspect which makes the 
usual government publication, however 
worthy, sink into speedy oblivion. It 
does not cost any more to publish re- 
ports in an attractive and presentable 
form, and it is far more satisfactory to 
the public and but justice to the author. 
It is unfortunate the edition of the work 
is so small, for every public and school 
library in the United States ought to 
have at least one set. 

GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. 


the particular features being her long, 
high, raking bow, overhanging stern, 
and general wedge shape at the sides, 
in order that she may be lifted free if 
nipped in the ice. 

The steamship was built of white oak, 
the frames being treble and close to- 
gether, with double planking, making 
the walls from 24 to 30 inches thick. 
The keel is 16 inches thick, but false 
keels and keelsons form a backbone pro- 
jecting 6 feet under the entire length of 
the vessel. The bow is backed by 12 
feet of solid dead wood. Her engine 
and boilers will develop 1,000 to 1,500 
horse-power. Her cost when ready for 
The funds for the 
vessel’s construction were supplied by 
the Peary Arctic Club of New York. 


_ 


SOME LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY 


By Epwarp ATKINSON 


T the request of the Secretary I 
will venture to give the rea- 
sons why I have made an ex- 

ception to my recent rule of avoiding 
any new responsibility on account of 
advancing age, and have joined the Na- 
tional Geographic Society. In giving 
my reasons for this exception and my 
sense of the importance of this organi- 
zation I must of necessity give my per- 
sonal experience, or a part of what the 
artist, Chester Harding, called his rem- 
iniscences—a chapter from my ‘‘ ego- 
tistigraphy.’’ 

When I left school, in 1842, to begin 
work in a commission house for the sale 
of textile fabrics I had received the or- 
dinary instruction in geography by 
learning lessons out of Worcester’s 
school book. After serving the custom- 
ary apprenticeship of those days, be- 
fore porters and janitors were employed 
to do the heavy work, I happened to 
enter the counting-room of the treas- 
urer of a cotton factory, where I began 
a course of business life, which has kept 
me in more or less intimate relations 
with the cotton manufacture from 1848 
to the present time. 

It had been my practice as a youth to 
get at the underlying facts in regard to 
any pursuit to which my attention had 
been called. Therefore when I found 


that my business life might be occupied - 


in the cotton manufacture, perhaps per- 
manently, I put to myself the question, 
‘“What is cotton? Why and how does 
it spin? Where is the center of pro- 
duction ?’’ and so on. : 
On putting these questions to my 
elder associates I could get but little in- 
formation. The common impression 
among the cotton manufacturers of New 
England was that cotton was a tropical 
plant that could only be cultivated by 
negroes ; that the cotton states were 


substantially tropical states, where white 
men could not work in the field, and 
that when the crop was being gathered 
the whole area of the cotton states would 
resemble the North under a snow 
storm—white with the maturing cotton. 

This impression had been vigorously 
promoted by the slave-holding interests 
and led later to the opposition of what 
were known at the timeas the ‘‘ Cotton 
Whigs’’ to any efforts to remove the 
curse of slavery. 

I then supposed, as all my associates 
appeared to, that the reason why cotton 
could be spun was that it was barbed or 
bearded like rye, and that these barbs 
interlocked in making the thread—a to- 
tally erroneous conception. 

Not being satisfied with these condi- 
tions, I began my own researches. I 
procured books from the libraries and 
strained a point to buy some books of 
importance from my rather meager 
earnings. I found it necessary to com- 
prehend the physical geography, the 
geology, the climatology, and the chem- 
istry of the soils of all the cotton-pro- 
ducing countries; the chemistry of the 
plant, and the social conditions of each 
cotton-producing section. Of course, 
this was a matter of long, tedious, and 
often misdirected study; but in the end 
I had attained aconsiderable amount of 


-geographical knowledge. In fact, it may 


be said that when one picks out a lock of 
cotton from the boll in the cotton field, 
twists it with his fingers, and, doubling 
With theiptecth) makes a) \strong cord 
without the aid of any mechanism, he 
may find in his imagination his counter- 
part in the Aryan woman of prehistoric 
time, who, taking a lock of cotton from 
the boll in India and going through with 
the same process, made the first piece of 
cotton cord; and then as he untwists 
that strand or follows its convolutions 


WG. 


from one end of the cord to the other, by 


which the ages are united, he will find 
twisted into it the whole of human his- 
tory, all the physical sciences, and the 
record of the progress in illfare and in 
welfare which has accompanied the cot- 
ton manufacture to the present time. 

I may not enter into any minute state- 
ment of this long period of investigation. 
Suffice it that I learned how futile must 
be the effort of every tropical country 
and of almost all the semi-tropical coun- 
tries to compete in the production of the 
useful cottons of commerce with the cot- 
ton states of America, there being only 
oneexception developed by my geograph- 
ical studies. From Commodore Paige’s 
explorations on the Paraguay and Pa- 
rana rivers, subsequently sustained by 
Charles Darwin’s explorations, I became 
convincedthat the only considerable area 
of the earth’s surface where a well- 
trained, well-bred, and well-governed 
population could compete with us was 
on the great pampas of the Argentine 
and of Bolivia, which, rising in alti- 
tude as they approach the equator, repre- 
sent a huge area of the most fertile land 
which can compete in wheat and in cot- 
ton with the United States, but now form- 
ing a part of what I call ‘‘ the lost conti- 
nentof South America,’’ still waiting for 
good government and the immigration of 
Germans, Italians, Hebrews, and other 
industrious and energetic races, by whom 
that great continent may hereafter be 
developed. 

Having thus come to a clear compre- 
hension of the absolute necessity of a 
complete mastery of what may be called 
commercial geography, geology, and 
climatology, I made an effort, being one 
of the directors of the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, to induce the cor- 
poration to establish a department of 
instruction on these lines. I had made 
an investigation of the department which 
existed in the University of Edinburgh. 
I investigated as well as I could the 
courses of instruction given in Germany 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


and in Austria, and I found that we 
were then, as we are now, years behind 
these states, and to them we may now 
add Japan, where complete departments 
of instruction. on these lines are well 
established. 

The other day a professor of the De- 
partment of Commercial Geography in © 
one of the great schools in Japan called 
upon me to make certain inquiries in 
regard to specific industries, that he 
might investigate them and find out 
why they had centered at particular 
points in this country. I then learned 
that he had been sent here by the gov- 
ernment of Japan two years since, study- 
ing the geography, geology, and the 
climatology of every part of this coun- 
CLY. 

But I failed in my effort to get such 
a course established twenty-five or thirty 
years ago. ‘Today there is general in- 
terest in the subject, and it will not be 
long before every principal university 
and technical school will have such an 
established course. | 

I have made similar investigations in 
regard to wool, flax, hemp, silk, and 
other fibers, and the amazing thing to 
myself has been the ignorance of the 
great mass of the dealers and handlers 
of these fibers in respect to the very 
A BC of their production and the con- 
ditions which have centered them at 
different points of the globe. 

Were I not an old man, still burdened 
with many duties, I should feel inclined 
to take up a line of work which some 
bright investigator may well assume, 
namely, to write a treatise or book on 
the ‘‘ Natural History of Industries.’’ 
Why have the various branches of man- 
ufacture of this country centered them- 
selves around special points, not al- 
ways single points, but here and there 
throughout the country? Such investi- 
gations would of necessity. compel the 
study of commercial geography, as my 
own effort to comprehend the cotton 
plant has not yet ended, and every day 


SomME LEssons 


some new fact is developed on this line. 
Education never ends and never will. 
What have been the lessons yet to be 
applied in the cotton states of America? 
They are these: The invention of the 
cotton gin brought the curse of cotton 
upon the old cotton states, perpetuating 
slavery for nearly a century, when other- 
wise its burden might have been peace- 
fully removed by economic forces. It 
has led to the devastation of the cotton 
lands, maintained ignorance and illit- 
eracy, retarded intellectual and indus- 
trial progress down to even the last few 
years. AsTI once said in a great meet- 
ing in Georgia, ‘‘If the North, having 
discovered that it was building up a 
dangerous competition in the arts of 
which it holds the control, should come 
down with all its force upon the South 
to put back the burden of slavery upon 
you, you would fight longer and more 
strenuously to keep it off than you ever 
fought to maintain it, and you would 
secure your own liberty and the emanci- 
pation of every person, white or colored, 
by force of arms, if that were necessary.’’ 
Now, what have been the sequelee of 
slavery? As yet the masses of the cot- 
ton-growers have little comprehension 
of the conditions of climate and soil on 
mich they raise their crops. The 
greatest progress has been made in the 
Agricultural Department in making the 
production of cotton an applied science, 
but as yet it is not widely practiced. 
When common sense and a small meas- 
ure of intelligence shall be applied to 
the existing cotton fields of the South, 
the crop may be doubled without the 
addition of a single acre to the area put 
under the plow, and when the right 
types of sheep are bred to meet the con- 
ditions of the soil and the climates of 
the upland cotton district on the Pied- 
mont plateau and of the valleys among 
the hills, each section may be supplied 
with its own specific breed, as every 
county in England and Scotland now is. 
The sheep folded and fed upon the par- 


IN GEOGRAPHY 


oS 


tially exhausted cotton lands, the crop 
will be doubled. Add the wool clip 
and make that great Piedmont plateau 
the center of the fine-wool production 
of the world, as the cotton states have 
become the center of the cotton pro- 
duction of the world. 

Such is the picture which is brought 
before my mind by your undertaking 
to establish a national geographical so- 
ciety, and it is under this influence that 
I have joined one more society, while 
withdrawing from many others in which 
I have heretofore been interested. 

One lesson I learned from this inves- 
tigation, leading me to conclusions 
which may not be so acceptable to read- 
ers at the present time as they would 
be if each master of any branch of in- 
dustry would study for himself the 
geography, geology, and climatology 
on which his own branch of industry 
TEStS. 

I learned certain principles of eco- 
nomic science—a principle being ‘‘a rule 
of action, a maxim, an admitted truth 
requiring no further demonstration,”’ 
in that respect differing from a policy. 
I learned to discriminate between the 
principle of free trade and the policy of 
protection in which I had been bred and 
to which the very large majority of my 
business associates then adhered, that 
majority having been gradually changed 
until the balance is nearly the other way, 
even in the restricted lines of my asso- 
ciates. 

I learned what I venture to state as 
another principle of economic science, 
namely, high wages in money or what 
money will buy are the complement or 
correlative of low cost of labor in the 
unit of product in every branch of in- 
dustry that has passed beyond that of 
being a mere handicraft. In the handi- 
crafts the rate of wages goveriis or cor- 
responds to the cost of labor in the unit 
of product, but in the arts to which 
science, invention, and mechanism have 
been applied the cost of labor in the 


196 


unit of product is diminished in just 
proportion to the advance in the rate of 
wages that are secured by those who be- 
come skilled in the conduct of the work. 
It therefore became manifest to me, as 
it is now becoming manifest to the great 
mass of the people of this country, that 
the fear of foreign so-called pauper labor, 
‘by which destructive duties on imports 
have been chiefly maintained, is foolish. 
We are surely learning that we have 
relatively the cheapest labor in the 
world, for which the highest relative 
wages are paid. 

_ Llearned. that, with the exception of 
a very few of the crude products of the 
tropics and with the exception of a very 
few arts, like the manufacture of Brus- 
sels lace and other similar luxuries which 
are produced by hand labor at the level 
of pauper wages, we might hold para- 
mountcontrol. I became convinced that 
just so fast and so far as our system of 
collecting revenue from duties on im- 
ports could be limited to the least num- 
ber of articles and collected only for 
revenue purposes would the manufact- 
ures, mechanics, arts, and agriculture of 
this country be most fully protected, the 
development of domestic industry most 
fully assured, and the imperial control 
of commerce, which of right rests with 
us on account of our control of the 1m- 
perial metal,iron, would be fully assured. 


I now recognize with much satisfac- ' 


tion that I have lived long enough to 
witness this true theory of wages and 
the source of profits generally accepted 
by men of affairs of this country, ‘and I 
may live long enough to see this coun- 
try take its true place as the paramount 
power among the nations by becoming 
the greatest’ example of the: free ex- 
‘change of product for product and serv- 
ice for service with all the states and 
nations of the world. The same study 
of geography and other factors in the 
production of fibers might lead others 
to a different conclusion. I am only 
giving my own egotistigraphy. 


Tue NatTIoNnaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


And now, having read the foregoing, I 
must yet add a few more thoughts, even 
at the risk of going beyond the limit of 
the space that you can assign to me. 
One great benefit from the organization 
of this Society may be that we may no 
longer be compelled to go to Germany 


for the best maps and commercial at- | 


lases of the world ; that we may not be 
compelled to goto England for the only 
commercial geography of any merit in 
the English language, but may secure 
such improvements in our own school 
atlases that the instruction in geogra- 
phy will be something more than memo- 
izing, as it used to be in my day, and 
something more in the line of a true 
education than I believe it now is. 

Yet again, in witness of the 1mpor- 
tance of true knowledge of commercial 
geology and geography, let it be re- 
membered that the great developments 
of science in the manufacture of iron, in 
the application of steam power, pre- 
ceded only by a few years the great 
Napoleonic wars, giving to England the 
power to develop mechanism and manu- 
factures to carry on that great war, 
developing her commerce and increas- 


ing her wealth even during that long 


struggle. 

And, again, let it be borne in mind 
that the whole basis of the modern in- 
dustrial development of Germany rests 
upon the invention of two Englishmen, 
Gilchrist and Thomas, by whom the 
manufacture of basic steel was made 
possible from the phosphoric ores in 
Germany, thus enabling Germany to 
rival England in the development of 
mechanism and manufacturing arts and 
to take a position equal to Great Britain 
in the production of iron and steel. 
These two remained dominant forces 
until through the development of the 
yet greater deposits of iron and coal of 
the United States we were enabled to 
take the dominant position in the pro- 
duction of the imperial metal, which 
lies at the foundation of all the indus- 


—_ 


SomME LEssons 


trial arts and of the great commerce of 
the world, placing us where we are now 
in the production of iron and steel, more 
than equal to Great Britain and Ger- 
many combined, nearly half the product 
of the whole world. Had it not been 
for the excess in the price of iron and 
steel, which the duties on imports en- 
abled the iron masters of this country to 
charge by a far heavier price to our 
consumers than the prices charged in 
Great Britain and Germany, we might 
long since have assumed the paramount 
position which we are now rapidly at- 
taining in the export of the higher 
products of iron and steel, the ma- 
chinery, the tools, and the fabrics that 
give employment to ten skilled mechan- 
ics where the mere production of the 
crude metal gives occupation to one or 
two, being a small relative force in point 
of numnber, mostly common laborers. 
Again, the time has come when the 
forces of commerce are being summoned 
to the suppression of the brute element 
in man, from which war and warfare 
are generated. Commerce demands 
peace, order, and industry. ‘The man- 
ufacturers, the merchants, 
bankers hold paramount power when 
they choose to use it, and when they 
refuse the supplies that are wasted 
‘upon war and warfare, the end—peace 
on earth—may be within their power. 
Now they are coming upto demand 
that the ferry-ways of commerce upon 
the high seas shall be neutralized, and 
that the ‘‘ships that pass from this 
land to that, weaving the web of con- 
cord among the nations,’’ shall no 
longer be subject to destruction at the 
will of a belligerent whose only duty is 
to destroy commercial vessels. The men 
of affairs are now combining to establish 
the rights of neutrals and to stop the 
nefarious work of commerce destroyers. 
The mental energy which is developed 
in the conduct of commerce, requiring 
powers far higher than those required 
in the conduct of war, may soon assert 


and the. 


IN GEOGRAPHY 


Lo 


its power and bring into living light the 
vision of peace and good will among 
men. 

In this treatise I have given an ac- 
count of how I happened to gain a very 
considerable amount of education in 
geography through the study of cotton. 

Were I a teacher in a school, espe- 
cially in an evening school where young 
men and women occupied in the various. 
trades make an effort to continue their 
education, I would call upon each one 
to bring to the school an example of one 
of the leading subjects of trade in which 
their employersdeal. They would bring 
cotton, wool, flax, hemp, silk, and other 
fibers, gums, examples of paint and var- 
nish, food products of different kinds, 
wood, metals, leather, and many other 
common articles of trade. 

I would then take up at a venture one 
subject—-for example, a bit of leather. 
I would put my questions, ‘‘ What is. 
this?’’ The answer would be, ‘‘Leather.’’ 
‘“What is leather and how is it pre- 


pared?’’ ‘The answer would be, ‘‘ By 
tanning.’’ ‘‘ What is tanning; what is 
used ?’’ Answers would be few, if any. 


‘* Hoow many kinds of leather are there ? 
Where does each kind come from? 
From what animals? Why do we de- 
pend on this or that section for different ~ 
kinds of leather? Why are these ani- 
mals fed here and not there? What is. 
the soil? What is the climate? What 
is the fur or hair? What becomes of 
it?’’?’ and soon. And before the end of 
the winter’s course the simple subject 
of leather would have extended the 
thoughts and knowledge of the pupils 
throughout the world. 

Again, another method: Please bring 
to the next session a statement of what 
was on your breakfast, dinner, and sup- 
per table yesterday, including the cloth, 
the crockery, the table ware, and every 
article of food or beverage. ‘These being . 
listed, put the questions, ‘‘ Where did 
that table cloth come from? What was 
it made of ? Whence came the spices, 


193 


the salt, the sugar, the grain, the tea, 
the coffee, the meats, and everything 
else upon the tables? How did all these 
things get upon your table? Who 
brought them from every corner of the 
globe? What was the power by which 
your family set in motion the whole ma- 
chinery of commerce, of banking, of 
transportation, to bring to you your 
breakfast, dinner, and supper?’’ An- 
swer,‘‘ The almighty dollar,’’ provided 
it is agood dollar, which meets Cernus- 
chi’s definition—‘‘ That only is good 
money which is worth as much after the 
coin is melted.or hammered smooth as it 
purported to be worthin thecoin.’’ To 
that measure of the dollar or dollarseach 
head of a family can command, each 
family controls the services of all the 


THE ZIEGLER POLAR EXPEDITION 
R WILLIAM ZIEGLER is send- 


ing north this summer a large 
party to carry supplies to the Ziegler 
Polar Expedition. The party will sail 
from Norway about July 1 on board the 
Terra Nova, a powerful whaling vessel 
which Mr Ziegler recently purchased 
for this purpose. Mr W. S. Champ, 
the general manager of Mr Ziegler’s 
Arctic expeditions, will be in charge. 
They will try to reach Franz Josef Land, 
where the Ziegler expedition is expected 
to meet them. dn case-the ice aseas 
heavy as it was in 1904, Mr Champ will 
force the Z7errva Nova as far north as 
possible, and then allow the vessel to 
be frozen in. The party will then push 
across the ice to Franz Josef Land. 
The Ziegler North Polar Expedition, 
which, it will be remembered, set out 
in 1903, is being made under the au- 
spices of the National Geographic So- 
ciety, whose personal representative, 
Mr W.:J: Peters; is in charce of sthe 
scientific work and second in command. 
It was expected that the expedition 
would return in 1904, but the ice was 
so thick that they could neither get 


THe NatrionaL GroGRAPHIc MAGAZINE 


merchants, tradesmen, bankers, steam- 
ship lines, railways, farmers, and man- 
ufacturers of the world. The only rea- 
son and motive for the existence of all 
these forces is to supply food, clothing, 
and shelter to the multitude. All that 
we get in or outof life in a material 
sense are our shelter, clothing, and 
food. 

I think that text would develop some 
lessons in geography. Is not the right 
end to begin the one which is right at 
the hand of every youth in the land? 
Work backward from a single fact relat- 
ing to any substance, and one may de- 
velop, as I did in untwisting the strand 
of cotton, the geography, geology, cli- 
matology, and the chemistry of the soils 
and conditions of the globe. 


out nor could an auxiliary party reach 
them. They are abundantly supplied 
with provisions, and no anxiety is felt 
on that score. 

Mr Ziegler will also send a repre- 
sentative on board the Belgica, which 
is to proceed about July 1 to Shannon 
Island, on the east coast of Greenland, 


-to make sure that none of the party 


who made the polar dash have been 
carried there by the polar drift. Sev- 
eral years ago a large stock of provis- 


lions was established at this point in’ 


case the men making the polar dash 
were prevented by the drift from re- 
turning to Franz Josef Land and were 
landed on the Greenland coast. 


EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC CONGRESS 


HE proceedings of the Eighth In- 
ternational Geographic Congress 
will appear in book form about Septem- 
ber 1, forming a volume of about 800 
pages. The work is to be published by 
the United States Government pursuant 
to the following resolution, which 
passed the Senate February 21 and the 
House of Representatives March 3: 


| GroGRAPHIC Nores 


Joint resolution (\S. R. 10g) to print the 
report of the Eighth International Geo- 
graphic Congress. 7 

Resolved, etc., That the Public Printer 
be authorized and directed to print the 
report of the Eighth International Geo- 
graphic Congress, held in the United 
States in September, 1904, the edition 
to consist of the usual number for the 
use of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, and 1,500 copies to be bound 
for the use of the Eighth International 
Geographic Congress. © 

The work is being edited by the Pub- 
lication Committee, consisting of Henry 
Gannett, chairman; James Page, and 
Gilbert H. Grosvenor. All the papers 
which were presented to the Congress, 
some 220 in all, will be included, so that 
the work will be one of the most notable 
contributions to geographic science that 
has appeared for sometime. A copy of 


the volume will be sent to every mem- 
ber of the Congress. 


ee) 


On the conclusion of the Eighth Inter- 
national Geographic Congress excur- 
sion to Mexico the members of the ex- 
cursion, wishing to show their appreci- 
ation of the many courtesies, time, and 
trouble freely given by Dr David T. 
Day, chairman of the Excursion Com- 
mittee, subscribed to a handsome silver 
pitcher as a testimonial of their grati- 
tude. Lhe pitcher, designed by ‘Tif- 
fany & Co., has just been completed 
and was recently presented to Dr Day. 
A picture of the pitcher is given here 
in order that the many friends who 
joined in the presentation and who are 
now scattered over the five continents 
may see how their wish has been real- 
ized. ‘The seal of the Congress and an 
appropriate inscription have been en- 
graved on the pitcher. 


GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 


Through Town and Jungle. Fourteen 
thousand miles awheel among the 
temples and people of the Indian 
Plain. By William Hunter Work- 
man and Fanny Bullock Workman. 
8vo. Pp. 24-+ 380. Mapand 202 1l- 
lustrations. New York: Chas. Scrib- 
Men Si S50ns. 1004. 

This is a narrative, in journal form, 
of extended travels in India, mainly 
by bicycle, the chief purpose being a 
study of the architecturalremains. ‘The 
greater part of five years was occupied 
in these wanderings, during which time 
the authors covered India from the Vale 
of Kashmir to Cape Cormorin, besides 
visiting Burma and Ceylon. The nar- 
rative is well told and is of great inter- 
est, as much concerning the peoples, 
their home life and industries, is scat- 
tered about with the story of bad roads, 
bad food, and bad beds in Dak bunga- 
lows. Butthe chief interest of the book 
is in the illustrations. There are fine 
reproductions of most excellent photo- 
graphs of the wonderful architecture of 
the past, created by peoples now gone 
or degenerate. eG: 


200 


The Story of the Kongo Free State. 
By Henry Wellington Wack. 8vo. 
Pp. 15 + 634. Illustrated. New 
York and London: G. P. Putnam’s 
Sons. 1905. 

This is a history of the Kongo State, 
drawn largely from documents in the 
possession of the Belgian government, 
and is intended as a defense of the ad- 
ministration of the state against the 
attacks of the English press. What- 
ever be the merits of the controversy, 
the book is of great interest and value 
as a summary of the history of this 
most remarkable experiment in empire- 
building. Certain it is that with the 
restriction of liquor dealing and the 
abolition of the slave trade, both of 
which are due to the government of the 
Kongo Free State, the condition of the 
native races is immeasurably improved. 
Add to these the start which has been 
made in educating them and in training 
them to habits of industry, and the ex- 
istence of.the state is amply justified. 


Breaking the Wilderness. By F. S. 
Déellenbaugh. 8vo. Pp. 23 + 360. 
Illustrated. New York and London: 


G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1905. 


The purpose of this book is stated by 
the author in the preface to be “‘ to pre- 
sent a review in chronological order of 
the important events which contributed 
to breaking the wilderness that so long 
lay untamed west of the Mississippi.’’ 
Some fifty pages are devoted to the 
beaver and the buffalo on the plea that 
they induced exploration and settle- 
ment. There is nothing said, however, 
of mines of the precious metals, which 
of all attractions were far the most po- 
tent. Fifty more pages are devoted to 
the Indians, though why they should 
appear in this connection, except inci- 
dentally, is not apparent. 

The remainder of the book is occu- 
pied with accounts of certain exploring 
expeditions, beginning with the lies of 
. Cabeza de Vaca and including Coro- 
nado’s expedition and other early Span- 
ish explorations. Of those of more re- 


Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 


cent time accounts are given of the 
Lewis and Clarke, Pike, the Astor ex- 
peditions, Bonneville, Long, Fremont, 
and numerous hunters and trappers, 
finally closing with the well-known nar- 
rative of Powell’s exploration of the 
Colorado. ‘There isin the book scarcely 
an allusion to the numerous exploring 


expeditions carried on by the army since © 


1850. Hven that magnificent series of 
explorations known as the Pacific Rail- 
road surveys, from which our first map 
of the West was built up, is conspicuous 
by its absence. In later years the Sur- 
vey of the Fortieth Parallel, the Hay- 
den Survey, and the Wheeler Survey, 
which were contemporaneous with the 
Powell exploration of the Colorado, and 
certainly as fruitful in results, are not 
mentioned. The history of exploration 
of the West is yet to be written. 

This book is printed on heavy paper, 
and is finely illustrated with half-tones, 
but the pictures should, if the book 
reaches a second edition, be redistrib- 
uted. At present they bear no relation 
to the adjacent text, but have. appar- 
ently been thrown in haphazard. 

H. G 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


POPULAR MEETINGS 

National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. 

April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll 
Weevil.’?’ Dr L. O. Howard, Chief of 
the Bureau of Entomology. Illustrated. 

April 28.—‘* Niagara Falls.’? Dr G. 
K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Sur- 
vey. Illustrated. 

May 5.—‘‘ The Philippines.’? The 
Secretary of War, Hon. Wm. H. Taft. 

May 13.—The Annual Long Distance 


Excursion of the Washington members . 


of the National Geographic Society, 
probably to Indian Head. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, 8 p. m. 
April 7.—‘‘ Forestry.’’ Messrs Gif- 
ford Pinchot, Overton W. Price, and 
members of the Bureau of Forestry... 
April 2{.—‘‘ Along the Labrador 
Coast.’’ Wilfred T. Grenfell. 


fe NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 


MAGAZINE 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 


The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh ML Smith, of the Bureau 
Me Preneres.” Llusteated 6) le eae x als iol el oe. re CDOS 


A Chapter from Japanese History. By Hon. Eki Hioki, First 
Wectetaty of the Japanese Lecation, . 06). 060 8)'4). <3). 220 


Our Smallest Possession—Guam. By William E, Safford. 
Illustrated 229 


245 
242 


‘National Geographic Society . . . 
Utilizing the Desert. IIlustrated . 
Geologic Folios in Schools. Illustrated . . 244 
250 


The Exploration of Alaska . . . 
| 252 


Geographic Literature . . . . . 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


$2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


| NATIONAL | 
| GEOGRAPHIC 
“MAGAZINE _| 


A N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by he 


Nationa. GEOGRAPHIC yee All editorial 

communications should be addressed to the — 
Fditor of the NationaL Grocrapuic MaGazine. | 
Business communications should be addressed to 
the National Geographic Society. | 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army Washington, D. C. 

W J McGEE DAVID T. DAY 
_ Chief, Department of Anthropology Chief of the Division? of Mineral 


and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- R 
chase Exposition | esources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 


C. HART MERRIAM 
U.S. Geological, Survey. 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 


Department of Agriculture 
ANGELO HEILPRIN 
WILLIS L. MOORE Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. sisi ta 
_ Department of Agriculture Hs 
R. D. SALISBURY 
O. H, TITTMANN University of Chicago 
Superintendent of the U. S. Coast i 
and Senay Survey G. K. GILBERT an ie 


U.S. Geological Survey 
Oo. P. AUSTIN | 
Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
Department of Commerce and ALEXANDER McADIE 
Labor | Professor of Meteorology, U. Sui ee 
| lies ad Bureau, San meas eet rey 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD a 
ALMON GUNNISON © Bee Li 


Agricultural Explorer of the bebe ihe 
ment of Agriculture ae President St. Lawrence University ae 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. cn 


Vou. XVI, No. 5 


WASHINGTON 


May, 1905 


2HE FISHERIES OF JAPAN~ 


By Hucu M. Smiru, Deputy U. S. Fish CoMMISSIONER 


HE Japanese farmer has been 

called the root of the Empire. 

The Japanese fisherman is a 

hardly less important member of the 

body politic, and, as it is quite likely 

that fishing antedated agriculture as an 

industry in Japan, it is not inappropriate 

that the fisherman’s story be heard be- 
fore the farmer’s this evening. 

Recent developments on land and 
water in the Far Hast have led to in- 
creased study of things Japanese, and 
we have learned of so many matters in 
which the Japanese people are eminent 
and preeminent that we are perhaps 
prepared for the statement that Japan in 
various important respects is today the 
leading fishing nation and has many 
branches of the fishing industry which 
are unique. 

Probably in no other country of equal 
rank has fishing occupied a more promi- 
nent place in the material and esthetic 
development of a people. A mere 
glance at the mapof Japan suggests the 
ro6le which would be played by the sea. 
A numerous population, combined with 
a very limited area of arable land, at a 
very early period led to the development 
of important maritime interests. Centu- 


ries ago the Japanese had become the 
Phcenicians of the Far East. Their fish- 
eries grew side by side with their navi- 
gation and shipping and became rela- 
tively more and more important with 
the more complete occupation of the 
agricultural land, so that at the dawn 
of the twentieth century we have seen 
the nation blossom out not only as a 
leader in the coastwise and foreign ship- 
ping trades and in fishing, but as one of 
the great naval powers of the world. 

To quote an American student long 
resident in Japan, ‘‘Japanese art, poetry, 
romance, and folklore are full of the sea, 
its wonders and its possibilities for man. 
Even the ancient Shinto liturgies cele- 
brate the blue plain of the sea, the ship 
and her equipment, the fishers and their 
spoils. Of the two gods of daily food 
seen in nearly every Japanese house 
one sits on two bags of rice, the native 
staff of life, and the other holds a Zaz or 
bream fish under his left arm, while his 
right hand grasps a fishing pole. These 
gods are not Buddhist or continental, 
but are of pure Japanese origin.’’ 

The fisheries of Japan are less valu- 
able than those of several other coun- 
tries, but they take first rank over 


Abstract of an illustrated address to the National Geographic Society, March 17, 1905. 


Tue NationaL GeocGrapHic MAGAZINE 


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THe FISHERIES OF Japan 


those of all other nations (1) in the 
actual number of people making a live- 
lihood thereby ; (2) inthe relative num- 
ber of persons engaged in and depend- 
ent onthe industry ; (3) in the quantity 
of products taken annually from the 
water; (4) in the relative importance 
of fishery products in the domestic 
economy; (5) in the ingenuity and 
skill shown by the people in devising 
and using fishing appliances and prepar- 
ing the catch for use ;- (6)4n.the extent 
to which all kinds of water products are 
utilized ; (7) in the extent to which the 
fisheries of foreign countries have been 
studied and the best methods adapted 
to home conditions; (8) in the extent 
to which aquiculture has been carried ; 
(9) in the zeal and _ intelligence dis- 
played by the government in promoting 
the development of the fisheries and the 
welfare of the fishing population. 

From the earliest times down to the 
present day, fishing has supplied the 
staple animal foods and a large portion 
of the vegetable and mineral foods con- 
sumed in Japan, and none of the other 
great powers is now so dependent on the 
water for subsistence. So important are 
water products and so numerous are 
their kinds and the methods of prepa- 
ration, that I venture the assertion, from 
what I have seen of domestic life in 
Japan, that every day in every Japanese 
family some form of fishery food is 
served—I am almost ready to say at 
every meal. 

The Japanese fishermen as a class are 
hardy, skillful, energetic, sober, self- 
reliant, to which qualities is superadded 
a spirit of intense bravery and patriot- 
ism, which makes them invaluable, in- 
deed indispensable, in the crisis through 
which Japan is now passing. With in- 
genuity and deftness which, it seems to 
me, are unsurpassed by any other peo- 
ple, the Japanese have devised apparatus 
and developed methods which centuries 
ago brought their fisheries to a very high 
degree of effectiveness ; but not content 


203 


with this, they have within our own 
time superimposed upon and adapted 
to their own already well-nigh perfect 
fisheries all that is best and most useful 
in those of other countries, so that today 
fishing with the Japanese is more than 
a mere industry—it is almost a fine art. 


EVERY KIND OF WATER PRODUCT IS 
UTILIZED 


A striking feature of the Japanese 
fisheries, and one which might reason- 
ably be expected in a people so frugal and 
ingenious, is the utilization of all kinds 
of water products which in the United 
States and in many European countries 
are wholly or largely neglected. In 
the matter of eating aquatic animals 
and plants the Japanese have few preju- 
dices, and what they do not eat they 
utilize in other. ways. As examples 
I may mention marine vegetables, to 
which further reference will be made, 
and sharks, which are among the com- 
monest and most wholesome of the Jap- 
anese food-fishes. They are sent to the 
markets in immense numbers, reach 
there in excellent condition, and are 
butchered as beeves are in our country. 
I believe the time will come when we 
shall have attained that degree of civil- 
ization which will make fashionable the 
eating of sharks, skates, and similar 
fishes now generally discarded. Mean- 
while many of us will be content to 
eat the so-called’ “fresh fish’ of our 
markets, albeit days and weeks old, 
reeking with putrefactive bacteria, and 
kept ‘‘fresh’’ by contact with melting 
ice when not exposed to the air of a 
dirty stall. 

Some of the factors which underlie 
Japan’s prominence as a fishing nation 
have already been indicated. The geo- 
graphical position and the physical char- 
acter of the country have, of course, 
been potent in developing the fisheries. 
The extension of the Empire diagonally 
through 35 degrees of latitude and 38 
degrees of longitude, the shape of the 


204 ine 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 


A Fishery Experiment Station in the Province of Tosa 


archipelago, the thousands of islands, 
and the great length of the coast line (es- 
timated at 20,000 miles) have brought 
a large part of the population within 
easy reach of the sea. To these is to 
be added a wonderful variety of water 
life, upwards of 1,000 species of fishes 
being already known and other classes 
being correspondingly well represented. 
Furthermore, there is a remarkable 
abundance of the most useful animals— 
some fresh water or anadromous species, 
some peculiar to the inshore waters, 
others high-sea forms which come close 
to the coast in immense numbers and are 
perpetually renewed, water several thou- 
sand fathoms deep being within a very 
few miles of the main islands. 


THE GOVERNMENT FOSTERS THE 
FISHERIES 


The attitude of the Imperial govern- 
ment has had a powerful influence in 
the growth of the fisheries. Since the 
Restoration the control of the industry 
has been vested largely in the central 
government, by which everything has 


been done that the most enlightened 
civilization could require to promote the 
interests of the fishermen and insure the 
prosperity of the fisheries. Long ago 
the Imperial Fisheries Bureau was 
organized, asa branch of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and Commerce, 
and is splendidly equipped and ably 
administered by specialists in fish cult- 
ure, biology, economic fisheries, and 
fishery law. Its work is conducted on 
broad modern lines, with great stress. 
laid on scientific investigation as the 
basis for legislation and promotion. 
With characteristic progressiveness, the 
government has sent representatives to 
America and Europe to study fisheries 
and fish culture, and the best practices. 
of foreign lands have been adapted by 
the Japanese to their own special re- 
quirements. In each of the numerous 
prefectures there is a department of 
fisheries, and the local governments, not 
less than the central government, ap- 
preciate the value of experimental and 
biological work in connection with the 
fisheries, and have established many 


THe FIsHERIES 


stations and laboratories, which are ren- 
dering excellent service. 


THE IMPERIAL FISHERIES SCHOOL 


The Imperial fisheries school, located 
in the outskirts of Tokyo, is an institu- 
tion which the Japanese may be par- 
doned for regarding with great pride, 
for in no other country does there exist 
a similar establishment which can com- 
pare with this in comprehensiveness of 
curriculum, completeness of equipment, 
and thoroughness of instruction. The 
last week of my sojourn in Japan I was 
invited to speak before the faculty and 
students of this school on the fishery 
work of the United States government. 
After I had been shown about the place 
and seen something of the methods and 
equipment I felt exceedingly doubtful 
of my ability to impart any informa- 
tion. The institution aims to equip 
young men for careers of usefulness in 
connection with the fisheries. The 
graduates obtain good positions in the 
government service and in fishing, fish- 
curing, and fish-cultural establishments. 
There are three departments of study, 
each with a three years’ course, with 
provision for post-graduate work. 
There is a full corps of able professors, 
instructors, and assistants, some of 
whom have taken degrees abroad. 
English is a required study in each 
course. ‘The department of fishing in- 
cludes in its regular curriculum such 
subjects as methods of fishing, naviga- 
tion, seamanship, shipbuilding, meteor- 
ology, oceanography, applied mechan- 
ics, applied zoology, applied botany, 
mathematics, law, economics, book- 
keeping, and elementary fisheries tech- 
nology. The department of fisheries 
technology has special instruction in 
marine food products, marine industrial 
products, bacteriology, applied mechan- 
ics, chemistry, industrial chemistry, 
chemical analysis, applied zoology, ap- 
plied botany, law, economics, and book- 
keeping. Inthe department of pisci- 


OF JAPAN 205 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 


A Trained Fishing Cormorant, with Its 
Cage 


culture the subjects are fresh-water 
culture, salt-water culture, protection 
of fish, embryology, bacteriology, ocean- 
ography, chemistry, applied zoology, 
applied botany, law, economics, and 
book-keeping. The institute has an 
annual income from the government 
amounting to $70,000, and several minor 
funds. 


THE RELATIVELY LARGE NUMBER 
OF FISHERMEN 


Complete statistics of the Japanese 
fisheries have not been collated, and 
many details that one would like to know 
are not available, but enough is pub- 
lished officially to show the vast extent 
of the industry. The number of people 
who are engaged in the different branches 
iS 3,000,000, aS against about 215,000 
in the United States. Nearly one-six- 


206 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 


A Cormorant Trainer and Fisherman 


teenth of the entire population is em- 
ployed in the fisheries, as against one 
five-hundredth in the United States. 
The annual tribute which the seas, 
the rivers, and the lakes now pay to 
the Japanese fishermen is worth about 
$30,000,000. ‘The value of the United 
States and British fisheries is about half 
as much more; but while our fisheries 
produce less than 1,000,000 tons of 
products and the British only half as 
much, the Japanese yield the prodigious 
quantity of 3,000,000 tons. 

A preponderating proportion of the 
fishery products is consumed at home, 
but certain articles are, nevertheless, 
exported in large quantities, and some 
products of the Japanese fisheries may 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


be found in almost every civilized coun- 
try. Over 80 per cent of the exports 
go to China, these consisting chiefly of 
prepared seaweeds, dried trepang, dried 
cuttle-fish, shark fins, and abalone. 
Strange to say, the country which ranks 
next to China is Italy, to which the ex- 
ports comprise only coral. This is like 
‘‘carrying coals to Newcastle,’’ for 
Italy has been preéminently the coun- 
try for corals. Hereafter when an 
American lady purchases a coral brooch 
or necklace in Naples or Rome or Venice, 
she may be reasonably certain that it 
was some hardy Japanese fisherman off 
the southern coast of Kiushiu or Shi- 
koku who drew the rough coral from 
the sea. To Germany the Japanese ex- 
port agar-agar and fish oils; to Korea, 
salt and kelp; to Asiatic Russia (for- 
merly), marine salt; to Belgium, fish 
oil ; to France, abalone shells ; to Ling- 
land, fish oil, agar-agar, and sealskins ; 
to Hawaii, dried fish and cuttle-fish. 
The exports to the United States are at 
present insignificant, and consist mostly 
of agar-agar, abalone, and dried fish, 
for the use of Chinese and Japanese. 
The Japanese high-sea fisheries for 
whales, fur-seals, cod, halibut, ete., are 
important, and the lake, river, and pond 
fisheries yield large quantities of prod- 
ucts; but the coastwise fisheries alone 
are sufficiently extensive to give Japan 
its prominent position asa fishing nation. 


_ THE PRINCIPAL FISHERIES 


Some of the most valuable objects of 
the fisheries are similar to or identical 
with ours. The sea herring is king of 
fishes in Japan, just as it is in some 
European countries and in the world at 
large. Itis worth $4,000,000 yearly to 
the Japanese, and is particularly abun- 
dantin Hokkaido. Nextinimportance 
is the sardine, valued at $3,700,000. It 
is extensively canned and also eaten 
fresh and sun-dried. The bonito ranks 
third in value, the annual sales being 
$2,000,000. It is preserved ina peculiar 


THe FISHERIES OF JAPAN 


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‘IDATY BIVBEN ‘SIUCIOWIOD YM SUIYsy 


208 


Tue Nationa GeEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 
Spreading the Wet Funori on Mats to Bleach and Dry 


From certain kinds of seaweed which they call ‘‘funori’’ the Japanese make excellent 


glue. 
sheets on mats. 


The seaweed after being cleaned is soaked in fresh water and then spread out in thin 
When sufficiently bleached the sheets are gathered and rolled up in bun- 


dles. They are then converted into a glue ora paste, when needed, by being put into boiling 


fresh water. 


The glue, which also is called funori, is employed principally for the glazing 


and stiffening of fabrics and as a starch for clothing. 


way, and is always kept on hand as an 
emergency ration in Japanese houses. 
A fish similar to our scup, known as the 
tai, is worth about $2,000,000 yearly. 
It is the favorite fish for fresh consump- 
tion, and when served raw, with soy- 
bean sauce, is a delicious food. Other 
prominent products with which Amer- 
icans are well acquainted are mackerel 
($1,000,000), tunny or horse mackerel 
($900,000), amber-fish or yellow-tail 
($1,000,000), squid and cuttle-fish ($1,- 
500,000), anchovies ($800,000), prawns 
($700,000), and salmon ($600,000). 
The Japanese have no fisheries com- 
parable with our shad, river herring, 


menhaden, striped bass, whitefish, pike 
perch, lake trout, soft crab, lobster, and 
sponge fisheries, and their oyster, clam, 
salmon, mullet, cod, halibut, and whale 
fisheries are insignificant in comparison 
with ours. On the other hand, our sea 
herring, sardine, anchovy, yellow-tail, 
tunny, bonito, shark, prawn, octopus, 
abalone, and seaweed fisheries are of 
minor value compared with theirs, and 
we have no cuttle-fish, sea-cucumber, 
and coral fisheries. 

A characteristic scene in the larger 
coast towns is a crowd of men, women, 
and children on the shores at low tide 
searching and scraping and digging with | 


Tue FIsHERIES OF Japan 


209 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 


Sprinkling the Sheets of Funori to Prevent Curling 


hand or stick or rake for any little fish 
or shell or crab or bit of seaweed that 
muy serve as food. In Yokohama, where 
I first saw this practice, swarms of poor 
people appear on the beach at each pe- 
riod of low water, and seldom fail to 
carry home with them enough of the 
bounty of the sea to serve for several 
meals. Similarly, at low tide boats re- 
sort to the marshes and bars for the pur- 
pose of gathering any kinds of products 
that may have been stranded or that 
may be accessible by wading. 

The Japanese have many holidays and 
festivals. One of the national holidays 
is devoted to girls, and another, in May, 
is the special property of boys. Besides 
games and festivities in which boys are 
particularly interested, a feature of this 
holiday is the throwing to the breeze 
from nearly every house hollow paper 


and cloth fishes, some of them 20 feet 
long, representing carp and having a 
special significance. 

The Japanese make many presents, 
and it is the invariable practice to insert 
under the special cords with which a 
present is tied a peculiarly folded piece 
of decorated paper, within which is 
placed a small, thin strip of dried aba- 
lone. One of the most approved pres- 
ents for New Year’s day is a whole 
dried salmon. 

Ingenious and important uses are 
made of many products which with us 
are mere curiosities. In a town near 
TokyoI saw a shop devoted to the man- 
ufacture and sale of lanterns made from 
the dried skins of swell-fish. In the 
Loo-choo Islands water snakes are acom- 
mon article of food. They are prepared 
for market by drying in an extended or 


slightly wavy position, those I saw being 
about a yard long. 

Nothing would seem to us to be of 
less value than the dried strings of egg 
cases of whelks, which are so common 
on our sandy shores, and yet in Japan 
I saw street vendors with push-carts 
loaded with these objects dyed a bright- 
red color and tastefully arranged on 
masses of wet seaweed, and many half- 
grown girls were buying them and mak- 
ing a blowing noise by putting them 
between the tongue and palate. The 
demand for these articles is so great 
that the supply obtained naturally is 
inadequate, and a kind of culture has 
sprung up. 


FISHING JUNKS 


Fishing vessels and boats are of vari- 
ous patterns, according to the region, 


Photo by Hugh M. Smith 
Gathering the Dried Sheets of Funori for Baling and Shipment 


the fishery, etc., but all those used in 
marine fishing are alike in being very 
strongly and heavily built, many being 
almost clumsy from our standpoint. 
They are usually constructed without 
the use of nails, and are not painted. 
The boats are for the most part arranged 
for sculling instead of rowing, and their 
crews are large. It is no uncommon 
thing to find 8 to 12 men constituting 
a boat’s crew, whereas with us a simi- 
lar boat and fishery would require only 
2to4men. The sails are frequently of 
the junk rig and sometimes consist of 
five or six upright widths of straw mat- 
ting loosely laced together. The fisher- 
men venture far offshore in small open 
boats, sometimes as much as 75 miles, 
in quest of certain pelagic fishes. The 
first intimation I had of the proximity 
of the Japanese coast on the voyage 


Tue FISHERIES OF JAPAN 211 


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From Hugh M. Smith 


Gathering Kelp with Poles and Drags 


A large business is done in Hokkaido, the most northern of the main islands of Japan, in 
gathering coarse broad-fronded seaweeds (Laminariacez) termed ‘‘kombu,’’ which are used 
as pickles, seasoners, and relishes, and also as vegetables. Some varieties are served as sweet- 
meats and others made into powders and used as tea. The fishermen go to the kelp grounds. 
in open boats, each boat with one to three men and a complement of hooks, with which the 
kelp is torn or twisted from its strong attachment on the rocky bottom. The hooks are of 
various patterns; some are attached to long wooden handles, and some are weighted and 
dragged on the bottom by means of ropes while the boats are under way. 


from San Francisco was the sighting of terested it was necessary to seek the 
small fishing junks; and in ordertoin- fishermen out of sight of land. While 
spect some of the fisheries in southern the offshore fishing boats are sturdy, 
Japan in which I was particularly in- the government is not altogether satis- 


252 


fied with their suitability for the rough 
water and strong winds which prevail, 
and is endeavoring to introduce and 
popularize more seaworthy boats mod- 
eled after the American types. 


CATCHING THE YELLOW-TAIL 


Reference has been made to the impor- 
tance of the amber-fish or yellow-tail. 
Along the southern shores of Shikoku 
the taking of this species is the chief 
fishery, requiring a large outlay of cap- 
ital and employing many men. The 
apparatus used is a huge bag net, with 
long straight wings. When a school 
of fish has entered the net, the boats 
close in, the fish are driven into the 
bag, and are finally pocketed. I be- 
lieve I am safe in saying that the yel- 
low-tail nets are larger than any other 
set nets in the world and require the 
services of more men. Each net is at- 
tended by 25 to 30 boats, including a 


_ Sa —/ff 


= ee _—— 


THe NaTIoNaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


look-out boat with an elevated perch, 
and 150 to 200 men are in constant at- 
tendance. A net which I visited and 
saw drawn had two wings each 3,000 
feet long, one of them extending to the 
shore; the bag was goo feet long, 250 
feet wide at its mouth, and 125 feet 
deep. During aseason of two and a half 
months this net had stocked $50,000, 
which was an ordinary catch. On one 
occasion 10,000 yellow-tails, averaging 
20 pounds each, were taken at one haul. 
A very useful method of preserving the 
yellow-tail, which insures cleanliness 
and easy transportation, is to soak the 
fish in brine, cut it into four lengthwise 
sections several feet long, remove the 
bones, wrap each piece in rice straw, 
and wind it with a straw rope. This 
preparation is called maki-buri and is 
an excellent food product. 

The most remarkable of the fresh- 
water fishes of Japan is the ayu or sweet- 


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From Hugh M. Smith 


Drying Kelp on the Beach in Hokkaido 


THe FISHERIES OF JAPAN 


fish,and perhaps the most curious method 
of fishing is addressed to it. There is 
no time to refer in detail to this fish, and 
I can only say that it is a diminutive 
member of the salmon family, inhabits 
all the rivers of Japan and Formosa, 
being at its best in the mountain streams, 
is probably the most delicious of the 
fresh-water fishes, and has habits which 
are not possessed by any other known 
fish. It is an annual fish—the entire 
period of its life, from the egg to its 
death, covering rather less than a year. 
The Japanese have devised many appli- 
ances and methods for taking it, and, 
not content with pitting their own in- 
genuity against it, have impressed into 
their service one of the most skillful of 
fish-catching birds, the cormorant. 


FISHING WITH CORMORANTS 


The origin of cormorant fishing in 
Japan is lost in a very remote antiquity. 
At least a thousand years ago it is 
known to have flourished, and there is 
a tradition of its existence upward of 
two thousand yearsago. Much romance 
and history are connected with the fish- 
ery in the early days, and the names 
of some of Japan’s greatest warriors 
and statesmen are associated with it. 
While a commercial enterprise, it does 
not, however, give employment to many 
people and is not conducted in many 
places. It is confined to rivers, and 
the most extensive, interesting, and 
famous fishery is that in the Nagara 
River and the most noted of the cor- 
morant fishing villages is in the out- 
skirts of the large city of Gifu. 

At the time of my visit, the chief 
cormorant fisherman, whose ancestors 
for many generations had engaged in 
this fishery in the same locality, attired 
himself in the peculiar dress of the pro- 
fession for the purpose of exhibiting his 
birds and the methods of handling 
them. Later he and all the other fish- 
ermen on theriver went to a rendezvous 
and gave a practical demonstration of 
cormorant fishing. 


213 


The cormorants are controlled by 
means of a slender cord, which passes 
around the bird’s breast and is tied in 
the middle of the back. The cord is 
made of woody fibers of the cryptomeria 
tree, with the exception of ashort section 
next to the bird, which consists of 
whalebone. There is a supplemental 
cord tied around the neck at the lower 
end of the gullet for the purpose of 
preventing the fish from passing so far 
that they cannot be recovered. The 
tying of this cord is a delicate opera- 
tion, for if too tight it may injure the 
bird and if too loose it will allow the 
fish to be swallowed. 

The fishery is conducted from boats, 
which are of a special type, being long, 
narrow dug-outs, propelled primarily 
by paddles, but when en route to the 
fishing grounds often provided with a 
sail. Each boat hasacrew of 4 men and 
a complement of 16 cormorants. Late 
in the afternoon the boats start for a 
place in the river where fishing will be- 
gin, the cormorants being stowed away 
in pairsin bamboo baskets. The fishing 
grounds cover many miles, and opera- 
tions are confined to successive sections 
of the river nightly, in accordance with 
law. Stretches several thousand yards 
in length are set aside as Imperial pre- 
serves, on which no fishing is permitted. 

As soon as darkness prevails, a blaz- 
ing fire of pine wood is kindled in the 
iron basket overhanging the bow of the 
boat, and the boats drift downstream 
together, sometimes in a mixed group, 
sometimes in a line extending across the 
river, each guided and propelled by 2 
men. ‘The captain, standing near the 
bow, manages 12 cormorants and his 
assistant 4, the cords being held be- 
tween the fingers and frequently shifted 
as the birds move about. With the 
cormorants diving and darting in all 
directions, those of different boats often 
mingling, it is a wonder that they do 
not soon become inextricably tangled, 
but so skillfully are they managed that 
the lines rarely become fouled. In a 


214. 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Women Engaged in Sorting the Crude Kelp 


short time the cormorants’ gullets begin 
to bulge with ayu ; when they are well 
filled the birds are pulled up to the gun- 
wales one by one and their catch is 
gently squeezed into baskets. This 
continues for several hours, and each 
cormorant may fill its gullet fifteen to 
twenty times. 

Spectators usually go to the fishing 
grounds in a kind of barge, illuminated 
by lanterns, and eat their dinner on 
board while waiting at a convenient 
point for the fishing boats to arrive. 
During the evening when I witnessed 
the fishery the seven boats in whose 
operations I was particularly interested 
averaged 700 to 800 fish apiece, and 
the aggregate catch was worth $150—a 
very respectable sum to Japanese fisher- 
men. 

The fishery is prosecuted with enthu- 


siasm by both men and cormorants, and 
the shouts of the fishermen, the hoarse 
croaking of the birds, the rush of the 
mountain stream, the splashing and 
creaking of the paddles, the hissing of 
the embers as they fall into the water, 
the weird lights and shadows combine to 
make a performance which a westerner 
is not likely soon to forget. 


TERRAPIN FARMS 


The cultivation of water products has 
gone hand in hand with the fisheries, 
and in certain lines has attained greater 
perfection and extent than in any other 
country. The raising of terrapin, which 
with us is an unsolved problem and has 
only recently been seriously considered, 
has for years been very successfully car- 
ried on by the Japanese. I visited a 
terrapin farm near Tokyo, where 50,000 


THe FIsHerigs OF |APAN 


7 


View at an Osaka Kombu Factory 


Dyed kelp drying on poles; shredded kombu drying on mats and ready for baling 


to 60,000 artificially grown terrapin are 
placed on the market annually. With- 
out any outside aid or suggestions, the 
Japanese have evolved special methods 
for the cultivation of many kinds of 
mollusks, including the pearl oyster, the 
ark-shell, several clams, and various 
other lamellibranchs, and, in addition, 
the commonoyster. That the Japanese 
should realize the importance of oyster 
culture is not strange; but that they 
should have taken it upacentury before 
our nation was born and have recognized 
the most essential factor in successful 
cultivation, namely, individual owner- 
ship or control of the oyster bottoms, 
comes as something of a shock to our na- 
tional pride when we remember that in 
the most important oyster region in the 
world, within a short distance of the 


Capital of the United States, the vital 
principles of oyster culture are ignored 
and efforts to apply them are resisted 
sometimes by force of arms. The culti- 
vation of oysters has reached greatest 
perfection in the Inland Sea near Hiro- 
shima, and some very ingenious meth- 
ods have there been evolved, which are 
described in a paper by Dr. Bashford 
Dean recently published by the U. S: 
Bureau of Fisheries. 


JAPAN IS THE ONLY COMPETITOR OF 
THE UNITED SLATES IN THE CUL- 
TIVATION OF THE SALMON 


Among the fishes regularly cultivated 
are: tie cel, the mullete the carpeithe 
goldfish, and several salmon and trout. 
The important salmon fishery in north- 
ern Japan having suffered from deple- 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


6 


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Tue FISHERIES OF JAPAN 


tion of the streams, the government 
sent a representative to this country 
twenty years ago to study our hatching 
methods. It goes without saying that 
he took home with him a well-filled 
note book, and, in addition, the plans of 
one of our salmon hatcheries, and shortly 
afterwards from those plans built in 
Hokkaido the first salmon hatchery in 
Asia. With this as a model and center, 
salmon culture in Japan has steadily 
grown, until there are now eighteen 
salmon hatcheries in Honshu and Hok- 
kaido, and Japan has become the only 
competitor of the United States in the 
artificial propagation of salmon. 

The carp has been cultivated from 
very ancient times and now receives 
much attention. In the Tokyo district 
alone 225 acres of ponds are devoted to 
carp culture, and the annual crop is up- 
ward of 400,000 pounds, valued at 
$15,000. In one village in the Gifu pre- 
fecture 250 acres of paddy fields, in 
which there is growing rice, have re- 
cently been devoted to carp culture 
by the local agricultural society, and 
25,000,000 young fish are now procured 
there annually and sold for stocking 
purposes. It isa significant fact that 
the carp not only does not injure the 
rice plants, but benefits them by devour- 
ing destructive insects, whereas in this 
country one of the very loudest and 
longest wails against the carp is that it 
uproots aquatic vegetation. 


GOLDFISH FARMS 


The goldfish receives more attention 
than any other species, and the place it 
holds in the affections of the masses 
illustrates one of the racial character- 
istics of the Japanese—namely, the love 
for the beautiful and ornamental, and 
the time and money all classes bestow 
on things that appeal to the esthetic 
rather than to the mercenary and prac- 
tical. Although the goldfish occurs in 
a wild state in Japan, it is probable that 
China some 400 years ago furnished the 


Dey, 


stock from which the wondervful varie- 
ties of Japanese goldfish have been bred. 
It is reported that in feudal days, even 
when famine was abroad in the land and 
many people were starving, the trade in 
goldfish was flourishing. The demand 
at present appears to be without limit, 
and the output shows a substantial in- 
crease each year. Many thousands of 
people make a living by growing gold- 
fish for market, and hundreds of ped- 
dlers carry the fish through the streets 
and along the country roads in wooden 
tubs suspended from a shoulder bar. 
The leading goldfish center is Kori- 
yama, near the ancient capital city of 
Nara. Here are 350 independent breed- 
ing establishments, whose yearly product 
runs far into the millions. One farm 
which I visited was started 140 years 
ago; at first 1t was conducted merely 
for the pleasure of the owner, but it 
eventually became a commercial enter- 
prise and is now very profitable. The 
history and methods of goldfish culture 
in Japan constitute a very engaging 
theme, not less interesting to the biol- 
ogist than to the fish culturist. Some 
of the current American ideas of the 
manner in which the remarkable varie- 
ties have been produced are preposter- 
ous, and evoked much merriment among 
the Japanese when I mentioned them. 


FAMOUS WOMEN DIVERS OF SHIMA 


Shima, the smallest of the Japanese 
provinces, has been celebrated from the 
earliest times for its women divers, and 
more recently has acquired other dis- 
tinctions connected with the fisheries. 
The divers have inherited, through 
many generations, an aptitude for water 
life which makes them veritable human 
ducks. ‘The principal objects of their 
attention are pearl oysters, which exist 
in bays in all parts of Japan, but 
are particularly abundant in the cold 
clear waters of this province. The 
valuable pearl- oyster grounds have 
gradually passed under control of a 


218 


single proprietor, who employs most of 
thedivers. The supply of pearl oysters 
having been greatly reduced through 
overfishing during the years following 
the restoration, the cultivation of the 
species was taken up experimentally at 
the suggestion of Professor Mitsukuri, 
and has been carried to a very success- 
ful issue, the method being essentially 
that followed by the oyster-growers of 
New York and Connecticut. 


ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF PEARLS 


Another interesting cultural enter- 
prise has been started—also at Professor 
Mitsukuri’s suggestion—consisting of 
the production of pearls by stimulat- 
ing the mollusks artificially. This is 
brought about by inserting between the 
animal and its shell a small spherical 
nucleus of mother of pearl. This pearl- 
oyster farm in the Bay of Ago, not far 
from the famous shrines of Ise, now 
yields millions of pearl oysters and hun- 
dreds of thousands of natural and cult- 
ural pearls annually. Each year 250,000 
to 300,000 pearl oysters are treated and 
then returned to the beds, where they 
are left for four years, so that at all 
times there are on hand upwards of one 
and a quarter millions of pearl-bearing 
oysters. ‘The pearls thus produced are 
of fine form and beautiful luster, and 
are marketed in all parts of the world ; 
their only defect is that they are broadly 
attached to one of the valves, and are 
thus only half pearls. 


LARGE RETURNS FROM SEAWEEDS 


A branch of the fisheries in which 
Japan far surpasses all other countries 
as regards both extent and ingenuity of 
method is the seaweed industry. In 
the United States, notwithstanding our 
long coast line and seaweed resources, 
not inferior to Japan’s, the annual crop 
of marine vegetables is worth only 
$40,000, whereas in Japan these prod- 
ucts are worth not less than $2,000,000, 
and are exceeded in value by only four 


Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


animal products of the fisheries. Many 
kinds of alge are gathered and many 
uses are madeof them. The local con- 
sumption is enormous, and large quan- 
tities of prepared seaweeds are exported 
to China, Europe, and elsewhere. 

Among the most valuable kinds of 
seaweeds are the kelps (Laminaria), 
which are taken in immense quantities 
on the more northern coasts, particu- 
larly in Hokkaido. ‘The fishermen go 
out in small boats and gather the weeds 
from the rocks by means of long-han- 
dled wooden hooks or heavily weighted 
drags. The plants are spread flat on 
the beach to dry, and when thoroughly 
cured are packed in bundles and sent to 
manufacturers in various parts of the 
Empire, by whom they are prepared for 
market ina great variety of ways, under 
the general name of kombu. Kombu is 
one of the staple foods of the country, 
entering into the dietary of almost every 
family and being eaten alone as a veg- 
etable or as a seasoning for meats, fish, 
stews, etc. This business has been car- 
ried on since about 1730, employs thou- 
sands of men, women, and children, and 
is worth from $500,000 to $1,000,000 a 
year. 7 

Various algze with soft pulpy fronds 
are dried by the fishermen and sold to 
dealers for manufacture into a kind of 
glue. ‘The weeds are soaked in fresh 
water, made into thin, loose-meshed 
sheets, and rolled like Japanese matting. 
When ready for use such sheets are 
boiled in fresh water, and the pasty mess 
resulting is employed as a starch for 
clothing, in stiffening fabrics, in cement- 
ing walls and tiles, and in other ways. 
This business dates from about 1670, 
and is now conducted in over Too estab- 
lishments. | 

A very valuable seaweed product, and 
the one with which Americans and Eu- 
ropeans are most interested, is vegeta- 
ble isinglass or agar-agar. It is made 
from weeds rich in gelatin by boiling 
them in fresh water and straining the 


Tue FIsHERIES OF JAPAN 


pulp through coarse cloths. The busi- 
ness began about 1760. In the early 
years the product was sold in bulk, but 
at present the entire output, for conven- 
ience in handling and using, is in two 
forms—slender sticks about a foot long, 
used locally in preparing food-jellies or 
exported to America and Europe for 
making culture media in bacteriological 
work, and square bars 12 to 15 inches 
long, which are sold largely in Holland 
for use inclarifying gin. The Japanese 
name for this product is kanfen, mean- 
ing ‘‘ cold weather,’’ in allusion to the 
fact that it can be prepared only during 
winter, as a low temperature is neces- 
sary for the solidification of the jelly. 
Five hundred establishments are de- 
voted to the manufacture of kanten, and 
the output in 1902 was 3,000,000 pounds, 
valued at $750,000. The identical alga 
from which the Japanese make their 
kanten abounds on our own coasts, but 
not a piece of it is now utilized. 


EDIBLE SEAWEEDS 


One other seaweed must be referred to, 
because the supply comes almost entirely 
from planted grounds, and in the culti- 
vation of marine vegetables the Japanese 
stand alone. In all parts of the world 
there occurs a red alga known to British 
and Americans as laver, which was for- 
merly a popular food in the British Isles 
and sparingly eaten in the United States. 
From a very remote period the Japanese 
have utilized this plant, and for centu- 
ries—just how long is not known—have 
carried on an ingenious form of cultiva- 
tion. In the fall arrangements for the 
seaweed crop are made by sinking into 
the muddy bottoms of bays numerous 
bundles of brush or bamboo. ‘These 
bundles, which are prepared on shore and 
taken to the grounds at low tide, are 
planted in regular lines, deep holes being 
made for them by means of an elongated 
conical wooden frame, with handles, 
whichis forced into the mud by theweight 
of the operator. Thebrush intercepts 


219 


and affords attachment for the seaweed 
spores, which grow so rapidly that by 
January the plants have attained their 
full size and the cutting of the crop be- 
gins. The plants die about the time of 
the vernal equinox, and the active busi- 
ness is at a standstill until the ensuing 
autumn. The best grounds for the cul- 
tivation of laver are in Tokyo Bay and 
are leased by the government. In Igor 
the area planted with brush was 951 
acres, and the value of the crop was over 
$148,000, or $156 anacre. In 1903 the 
same area yielded $300,000, or over $310 
an acre. ‘The total area of cultivated 
grounds in the whole of Japan is about 
2,300 acres, and the value of the seaweed 
grown thereon is $400,000 to $500,000. 
About 3,500 families are engaged in this 
form of aquiculture. Small quantities of 
the laver are eaten fresh, but most of it 
is sun-dried before it reaches the con- 
sumer. ‘The weeds are washed, picked, 
sorted, and then chopped fine by hand, 
and the wet, chopped pieces are spread 
on small bamboo mats and pressed by 
hand into thin sheets, the mats being 
placed on inclined frames in the open 
air. When drying is complete the sheets 
are stripped from the mats, piled and 
pressed, and tied in small bundles for 
market. This product has numerous 
culinary uses and is found in every 
Japanese kitchen. 


GETTING SALT FROM THE SEA 


An important industryin some parts of 
Japan, more particularly in the southern 
districts, is the extraction of salt from 
sea water, which I. may be allowed to 
mention in connection with the fisheries. 
The output of mineral salt in Japan is 
insignificant, and the people depend al- 
most entirely on the sea for their supply 
of this indispensable article. There are 
many thousand salt fields under cultiva- 
tion, and over 100,000 people are en- 
gaged in this occupation. On the shores 
of the beautiful Inland Sea and on the 
much indented, picturesque coast of Sat- 


220 


suma I saw hundreds of these fields, 
which are large, perfectly flat areas, 
near the sea-level, with a firm, clean, 
sandy surface and intersected by nar- 
row drains or ditches, in which the tide 
flows. Water from these ditches is 
freely sprinkled by hand over the floor, 
and, in order to promote evaporation, 
the wet sand is stirred and raked with 
a kind of harrow. The sprinkling, 
stirring, and drying of the sand con- 
tinue until it can take up no more salt ; 
it is then scraped into piles with a long 
piece of plank drawn by a workman by 
means of a rope brought over his shoul- 
der,and placed in peculiar bins,of which 
each field has many, arranged in regu- 
larrows. ‘The sand is then thoroughly 
washed with sea water, and the highly 
concentrated brine resulting drains into 
vats beneath the bins. From the vats 
the brine is poured into a sluice or flume 
and conveyed to large reservoirs under 
cover. As required, it is poured on 
huge flat iron trays, under which is a 


Tur NaTionaL GeoGrRaPpHic MAGAZINE 


hot fire, and the water is driven off by 
boiling. 

The fisheries of Japan are already of 
vast extent and are exceeded in money 
value by those of only two countries. 
There is no other country from which 
western nations may learn more of prac- 
tical utility about many branches of the 
fishing industry, and there is none the 
study of whose cultural enterprises, gov- 
ernmental relations, and organization 
and fishery legislation and history will 
prove more profitable. We cannot fore- 
tell what developments the present gen- 
eration or the next may see, but events 
are moving so swiftly in the Sunrise 
Kingdom, the entire business life is re- 
sponding so quickly to the pace set by 
the twentieth century, that, whatever 
the outcome of the present war, the 
general commercial and industrial prog- 
ress will undoubtedly be imparted to 
the fisheries and will be likely to place 
the money value of the industry above 
that of all other nations. 


A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE HISTORY. 
By Ex1 Hiox1 


FIRST SECRETARY OF THE JAPANESE LEGATION 


this opportunity of addressing a 

gathering of such distinguished 
gentlemen. It gives me special pleas- 
ure to do so tonight, because this very 
day, the 21st of February, 1905, is the 
fiftieth anniversary of the exchange of 
the ratifications of the first treaty be- 
tween Japan and the United States— 
the first treaty that Japan had ever con- 
cluded with any nation of the West. 


1 affords me great pleasure to have 


THE DIPLOMACY OF COMMODORE 
PERRY 


You should be proud of the wonderful 
skill in diplomacy displayed by your 


first envoy to Japan, our honored Com- 
modore Perry, and the brilliant success 
which was achieved by him in inducing 
a nation, which had so long cherished 
the policy of seclusion and exclusion, 
to enter into treaty relations with the 
powers of the world, the accomplish- 
ment of which was brought about with- 
out the shedding of a drop of blood or 
even the happening of a single incident 
which could now revive any unpleasant 
memories. I am often led to reason, 
rightly or wrongly, that when an act 
of a man is founded on truth and kind- 
ness there is no need of the help of lan- 
guage to communicate it to others. 


* An address delivered at Washington February 13, 1905 


A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE HisTory 


The conduct of the first American en- 
voy to Japan, as well as those who fol- 
lowed him, was singularly marked with 
truth and kindness, and it is gratifying, 
indeed, to know that the annals of the 
five decades of international relations 
between Japan and the United States 
are clean records of friendliness and 
cordiality. In this counection it is per- 
tinent to quote from the writer of a 
little volume called ‘‘ Agitated Japan,’’ 
who commenced his work with the fol- 
lowing words: 

‘‘ Without the least taint of flattery 
it may be safely asserted that Japan is 
indebted to no other country so much 
as to the United States. This indebted- 
ness began on her first trial of that in- 
ternational intercourse which she has 
kept up ever since, and will doubtlessly 
continue as long as the world shall last. 
It is an undeniable fact that the honor 
of having opened the hitherto secluded 
Empire of Japan to foreign intercourse, 
commercial and otherwise, rests with 
the United States.”’ 


THE JAPANESE APPRECIATION OF 
WHAT PERRY DID 


On July 14, I9g01, a monument was 
erected in memory of our revered Com- 
modore Perry at the spot where he held 
his first conference with the Japanese 
authorities. It bears an inscription 
composed by Marquis Ito, the most 
prominent of our living statesmen, rec- 
ognizing in appropriate terms the serv- 
ices of that gallant sailor and shrewd 
diplomatist. On the occasion of the 
dedication of the monument the chair- 
man of the committee in charge said in 
his address: ‘‘It was at this spot that 
the modern civilization of our Empire 
had its beginning. aun, WWaen 
Commodore Perry set his foot on this 
shore the Japanese Empire was en- 
shrouded in the fogs of a seclusion of 
nearly three hundred years. ; 
This monument is erected to preserve in 
stone our determination never to forget 


221 


the friendship of the United States that 
sent Commodore Perry to induce us in 
a peaceful way to have intercourse with 
foreign powers.’’ 

Such is the memory that the Japanese 
of today cherish. Indeed, the more we 
study the magnitude of the transforma- 
tion that Japan has undergone since the 
advent of Perry, the higher becomes 
our appreciation of his work and the 
part played by the United States in re- 
gard to Japan. Ifthecountry had been 
forced open by any means but peaceful, 
nobody knows where that little Empire 
would stand today. Were it not for 
the policy the United States patiently 
and firmly pursued toward the upbuild- 
ing of new Japan, it is impossible to 
realize what progress she would have 
made. I am happy to acknowledge 
frankly our sense of indebtedness to you, 
and I am proud to say that your kind 
assistance was not in vain. In fact, 
these remarks might not have been quite 
pertinent to the subject chosen for the 
speech of this evening, but this very 
day being the fiftieth anniversary of 
such a memorable event in the history 
of the international relations of the two 
countries, it would not have been proper 
had I not paid my feeble tribute to the 
noble deeds of your countrymen. 


THE RESTORATION 


The subject of my speech for this 
evening is ‘‘A chapter from the Japa- 
nese history,’’ and the chapter I refer to 
is the one which deals with the history 
of the restoration consummated in the 
year 1868. It is impossible, however, 
to treat the subject thoroughly and com- 
prehensively within the limit of time 
which, in my judgment, would be en- 
durable to my audience. I shall there- 
fore confine what I have to say to the 
main course of events which resulted in 
the so-called ‘‘ restoration.”’ 

The term ‘‘ restoration’’ in the mod- 
ern history of Japan means the reinstat- 
ing of the political powers to the de jure 


222 


sovereign of Japan, the Mikado, which 
had been taken away from him for a 
period of 682 years (1186-1868) and 
which had been wielded by the de facto 
sovereign, the shogun or the military 
government. The history of Japan dates 
back 2,565 years, exclusive of the ages 
of gods, when our first Emperor, Jimmu, 
laid the foundations of the Empire, and 
our august ruler of today is the r21st of 
the Emperors descended from the direct 
and unbroken line of the Imperial family. 

Even prior to 1186 the powers of the 
Mikados had, in a large measure, passed 
into the hands of the Fujira family, but 
at that period Yoritomo, a military man 
of great ability, founded the shogunate 
or military government for the first time 
in Japanese history, whereby he prac- 
tically usurped the political powers of 
the Mikado and substituted his rule for 
that of the legitimate sovereign. It was 
an incidental consequence of one of the 
phases of human history. In Japan, as 
in other feudal countries, there had been 
an alternate tendency toward strong and 
weak central governments. In order to 
maintain peace and order and to preserve 
the nation as a compact unit against a 
strong tendency toward decentralization 
which was then prevailing, Yoritomo 
had fought a series of bloody battles 
with local chieftains and magnates, and 
finally succeeded in establishing a vigor- 
ously centralized military government 
over the whole Empire and by the side 
of that of Mikado. ‘This was the be- 
ginning of the dual government in Japan 
which so much perplexed the westerners 
at the beginning of the foreign inter- 
course. 

The letters of credence which the 
President of the United States addressed 
to the Emperor of Japan were handed 
over by Commodore Perry to the shogun 
of the time, and when Townsend Har- 
ris, the first United States minister to 
Japan, was told by the shogun that the 
treaty required the approval of the M1- 
kado he was astounded. Since the es- 


THe NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tablishment of the first shogunate by 
Yoritomo, in 1186, down to the fall of 
the Tokugawa shogunate, in 1868, all 
real power, civiland military, had passed 
entirely from the hands of the Mikados, 
they themselves being allowed to retain 
only an outward semblance of author- 
ity. It was remarkable, however, that 
through the period of nearly seven cen- 
turies when the military government 
was in predominance no one ever dis- 
puted the legality of the Imperial author- 
ity. On the contrary, all the shoguns 
formally recognized that authority by 
obtaining the Imperial sanction for the 
appointment of each successor to the 
shogunate government, as well as in 
other matters. 

It was in 1868 that this de jure sover- 
eignty of Japan was restored to full au- 
thority after the nominal existence of 
seven centuries. The manner in which 
it was brought about is almost unique in 
the annals of mankind, but what made it 
more remarkable was the inauguration of 
a new policy so radically different from 
what had existed before in Japan, upon 
which the foundation of New Japan was 
firmly laid down. 


THE FEUDAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN IN 
1868 


In order to realize the real magnitude 
of the dramatic period of Japanese his- 
tory it is necessary to know something of 
the political regime that existed in Japan 
at the time of the restoration. Roughly 
speaking, Japan, under the Tokugawa 
government, had a feudal system with 
276 daimios or feudal barons. ‘These 
barons had their own respective domin- 
ions, and within them they wielded an 
autocratic power, without any restric- 
tions outside of a certain sort of super- 
vision exercised by and acertain homage: 
paid to the chief baronor shogun. ‘The 
size of the dominions, the revenues and 
expenditures, the number of the vassals 
or retainers, called Samurai or military 
class, the barons possessed differed ac- 


A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History 


cording to the rank and influence they 
enjoyed at the time. Under the feudal 
system the people were divided into four 
classes, viz, Samurai, or military class, 
farmers, tradesmen, and merchants. Of 
these the Samurai was the privileged 
class, which was maintained at the pub- 
lic expense of each feudal lord, and it 
was in the hands of this class that the 
political activities of Japan found their 
home. 

The feudatories, with the assistance 
of the retainers or Samurai (who num- 
bered some 400,000 men, and, with their 
families, 2,000,000 people in the whole 
Empire), formed the bone and sinew of 
the nation at that time. While, in the 
latter part of the Tokugawa government, 
education was diffused more widely 
among the farmers, tradesmen, and 
merchant classes and their social status 
gained some elevation, yet they remained 
the class of producers for the support of 
a government in which they had no 
voice. 

In a word, Japan, under the feudal 
system, can be considered as having been 
divided into so many states with com- 
plete political autonomy within the re- 
spective domains of the feudatories as 
to legislative, administrative, judicial, 
and military affairs. Every institution 
was in its nature local and heteroge- 
neous. There existed no single sys- 
tem of law or finance that was common 
to the nation. 


WHAT THE VOLUNTARY SURRENDER 
OF PRIVILEGES BY THE 
SAMURAI MEANT 


The restoration of the Imperial power 
meant the unification of the govern- 
mental powers, and the unification of 
the governmental powers meant the sur- 
render of the powers, rights, privileges, 
properties, and what-not possessed by 
the feudatories and Samurai, because, 
without a complete abdication by the 
feudal lords and vassals of their prerog- 
atives, a real unification of the govern- 
mental powers and the restoration of 


228 


the Imperial authority was impossible. 
This meant to the feudal lords the sur- 
render of that exalted position which 
resembled that of an independent po- 
tentate, and taking rank not only among 
their former vassals, but even with the 
tradesmen and merchants, who, in their 
eyes, had no place in the political and 
social existence of Japan. This aban- 
donment of the high position involved 
the surrender of the landed property 
which had been inherited from time im- 
memorial. The surrender of the pre- 
rogatives and property by the feudal 
chiefs meant in the case of the Samurai, 
a class in whose hands the real political 
power of the nation rested, the loss of 
the very means of subsistence to the 
2,000,000 of the cream of the population 
of the nation ; it meant the disposses- 
sion of their military employment, the 
privilege of wearing a sword, the mark 
of a gentleman, the cherished pride of 
this class ; it meant to them that they 
had to throw away all that distinguished 
this order from time immemorial and to 
step down into the company of the peas- 
ant or the merchant and to join the ranks 
of common bread-winners, whom they 
despised ; and what was the most mar- 
velous aspect of the situation was that 
this grand coup a’etat could be carried 
out only by the efforts of those who had 
to suffer the consequences of the change. 


JAPAN IS TODAY MORE DEMOCRATIC 
THAN THE MOST DEMOCRATIC 
OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. 


And yet it wasdone. Japan of today 
is perhaps more democratic in its insti- 
tutions than the most democratic of 
European nations. Although the de- 
scendants of the old Samurai still retain 
their ancient class name, it has only a 
historic value in the political and social 
life of Japan of today. The spirit of 
equality, liberty, and fraternity per- 
vades the institutions of Japan. 

It is almost beyond human power to 
fully comprehend this most dramatic 
incident in history, which resulted in 


4 


224 


the surrender of fiefs to the Mikado. 
No annals of mankind record an inci- 
dent which appears more inconsistent 
with the course that human experience 
would have predicted. Many expla- 
nations have been attempted. ‘The 
weakened condition of the Tokugawa 
government, selfish motives of some 
ambitious southern Daimios, personal 
motives of various kinds, the inability 
of appreciating the real consequences 
of the change on the part of the Daimios 
and Samurai, are mentioned among the 
causes. Ido not hesitate to say, how- 
ever, that such a grand achievement in 
human history cannot be caused by such 
petty and selfish motives. It was solely 
and entirely due to the lofty spirit of pa- 
triotism and loyalty which found ready 
echo for action in the spirit of self- 
sacrifice nurtured for centuries under 
the rigid feudal system. 

From the following words of Captain 
Brinkley, an eminent authority on Jap- 
anese history, you will get some idea of 
the spirit of self-sacrifice: ‘‘It had so 
long been the bushi’s habit to associate 
great deeds with some form of self-im- 
molation that he had learned to regard 
the latter as a kind of finger-post to the 
former. History shows that the ro- 
mantic element occupies a prominent 
place in Japanese character, and that 
the educated classes can always be led 
into feverish pursuit of an idea which 
appeals to their sense of moral nobility. 
The atmosphere was full of loyalty and 
patriotism in 1869. The mood of the 
nation was exalted. Any one hesitat- 
ing for plainly selfish reasons to follow 
a course apparently essential to the new 
order of things, and sanctioned by the 
example of the great southern clans, 
would have seemed to forfeit the right 
of calling himself a Samurai.’’ 


THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE OF THE 
SAMURAI’S SELF-SACRIFICE 


Such was the spirit of the people of 
the time in whose hands rested the des- 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tiny of the Empire. But what was the 
immediate cause which called forth such 
a marvelous display of the extreme de- 
gree of self-sacrifice? It was the advent 
of black snips to the coast of Japan. 
It is true that the long peaceful reign 
of the Tokugawa government resulted 
in undermining its strength and power, 
which infused into some ambitious feu- 
dal barons the spirit of revolution. It 
is true that toward the end of that 
government the spirit of loyalty to the 
throne received an impetus from the 
advocates of the Imperial authority, 
but were it not for the appearance of 
the black ships of the various western 
nations along the coast of Japan and 
the pressure brought upon her by those 
powers Japan would never have seen 
the day of restoration. 

Long before the formal opening of 
the country to the world at large a 
certain sort of intercourse was estab- 
lished with the Dutch, who had been 
permitted to reside at Deshima, a little 
island lying near Nagasaki. Through 
the Dutch settlers the glimpse of the 
West was being introduced into Japan 
in a certain measure. What overawed 
the people of Japan the most at the 
time were the black ships which moved 
about on the surface of the water as 
freely as would a wagon on land, emit- 
ting big volumes of black smoke and 
raising hideous noises. It was a mar- 
vel to them that these sailing ships 
with triangular sails could go against 
the head wind. Through the Dutch 
they heard of the greatness of England 
and France. The Russian fleet made 
occasional appearances in the northern 
islands, perpetrated havoc among the 
inhabitants, and left letters of threat. 
The following extract from Mr Aston’s 
article on ‘‘ Russian Descents on Japan”’ 
is interesting in this connection : 


AN EARLY VISIT FROM RUSSIA 


‘‘From Ruitaka the Russians crossed 
over to Rushin, a small island near the 


ee 


A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History 


entrance to Soya (Japanese) harbor. 
Here they found four junks, mostly 
laden with stores for the Soya garrison. 
These junks they rifled and burnt, car- 
rying off, amongst other booty, a ten- 
pounder bronze cannon captured by 
Taikosama from the Koreans. The 
officers in charge of the junks reported 
to their government that they had been 
wrecked in the storm at Rushin. The 
Russians sent ashore the prisoners taken 
at Kushunkotan and Itorup. ‘To one 
of them was entrusted a message to the 
Japanese authorities, which was taken 
down in Japanese and ran as follows: 


‘“* To the Governor of Matsumaye : 


‘«« The distance between Russia and 
Japan being but small, our Emperor 
sent his officers across the sea to request 
that trade between the two countries 
might be permitted. If due inquiry had 
been made and a treaty of commerce 
concluded, all would have been well, but 
although our officers went repeatedly to 
Nagasaki they were sent away without 
an answer. Then things took an. un- 
pleasant turn, and our Emperor com- 
manded us to give you a specimen of his 
power in return for your refusing to 
listen to his first request. If you per- 
sist in refusing his offers, we will take 
all your northern territory from you, 
and if possible get an answer out of you 
in that way. ‘The red men (Russians) 
can always conie to Saghalien and Itorup 
and chase you about. If you comply 
with our wishes, we shall always be 
good friends with you. If not, we will 
come again with more ships and behave 
in the same way as we have done before 
this year. 

‘“ “OQROSHIYA (RUSSIA).’ ’’ 


About the time when Commodore 
Perry entered the waters of Japan, in 
March, 1853, and his return there, in 
February, 1854, the rumors of trouble 
between the Chinese and European 
powers were being constantly received 
through the Dutch by the statesmen of 


212.5 


Japan with the greatest concern. The 
incessant and increasing visits of the 
black ships and the persistent demands 
of the various powers to open the country 
to the intercourse of the world deeply 
occupied the minds of the thinking 
population of Japan. ‘They never had 
those awe-inspiring black ships on their 
side, nor had they any of those magical 
sailing ships which could steer their way 
against the head wind. They never 
heard before such a tremendous roaring 
of cannon as that sounded on those mon- 
ster vessels. The years following the 
conclusion of the first international 
treaty of Japan, in 1854, are marked 
with the tremendous agitation over all 
the Empire, and the question of national 
defense was a matter of paramount im- 
portance. 

The Tokugawa government, by the 
pressure so tactfully brought upon them 
and by the persuasion so skillfully ad- 
ministered by the American envoy, were 
finally compelled to accede to his de- 
mands, but public opinion was strongly 
opposed to the opening of the country. 
It is impossible to say whether those 
people who advocated the policy of ex- 
clusion really believed in its practica- 
bility or not, but it was a policy which 
had been followed during several centu- 
ries, and they cherished the quiet peace 
of seclusion. ‘‘Respect the throne and 
expel the barbarians’’ was the byword 
by which public opinion was guided. 
The pressure of public opinion and the 
difficulty of the situation compelled the 
Tokugawa government to openly recog- 
nize the authority of the Emperor and 
the Imperial court, around which now 
thronged the Samurai of the great and 
ambitious clansof Satsuma and Choshiu, 
and, further, to submit the treaty to the 
Kmperor and refer the same to public dis- 
cussion by the Daimios. It was an act 
which found no precedence in the history 
of the Tokugawa government. Boththe 
Emperor and the Daimios vetoed the 
action of the Tokugawa government. 


226 


THE MARTYRDOM OF LORD II 


Heavy as they felt the foreign 
pressure on one hand, the Tokugawa 
government could not ratify the Amer- 
ican treaty on account of the strong 
internal opposition. There appeared a 
martyr in the person of Ii Kamon-no- 
Kami, who assumed the portfolio of the 
premier of the Tokugawa government 
at this critical moment, and who, in de- 
fiance of the Imperial order and the 
public opinion, ratified that American 
treaty. He was areal martyr, because 
soon after he fell by the hands of assas- 
sins, being regarded by the opposition 
as a traitor to the country. Whatever 
might have been the popular verdict 
upon his conduct at the time, it is clear 
now that he acted in that spirit, as is 
explained in the following poem of his 
own : 


‘“As beats the ceaseless wave 
On Omi’s strand 
So breaks my heart for my beloved land.”’ 


Agitation was intensified by this dar- 
ing act of ord Ti. A revolutionfol 
lowed, and the Tokugawa shogunate, 
which prospered during two centuries 
and a half, and under whose wise and 
peaceful administration the arts of peace 
made such advances as to have surprised 
the world, finally came to an-end, and 
the present Emperor, Mutsuhito, was 
proclaimed on the 27th of March 1867, 
as the sole and absolute ruler of Japan. 
At the same time the feudal system, 
which was originated seven centuries 
ago, was blotted out from the pages of 
Japanese history by the voluntary sur- 
render by the shogun and Daimios of 
all the rights, privileges, and properties 
descended from their illustrious ances- 
tors or earned by their own distinguished 
exploits. This noble deed, which in- 
volved such an enormous sacrifice, was 
entirely due to the public spirit of the 
men who had been convinced by the 
turn of events that the only way of de- 
fending the country against the external 


THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


aggression was to bring about the unifi- 
cation of the administration and cen- 
tralization of power—a condition which 
was possible only on the absolute aboli- 
tion of the regime then existent. 


THE OATH. OF ACCESSION 


The Emperor, on his accession to the 
throne, proclaimed the following articles 
of oath, thus solemnly laying the foun- 
dation for the grand policy of new 
Japan: 

‘7, A broadly based deliberative as- 
sembly should be convened for the pur- 
pose of conducting state affairs in con- 
formity with public opinion. 

‘‘ 2. High and low should unite their 
minds and vigorously carry out the 
grand affairs of the state. 

‘© 3, Civilians and military, as well as 
common people, should be allowed to 
freely carry out their minds’ aspira- 
tions, and their spirit of progress should 
not be suffered to be hampered. 

“a. Cast off the uncivilized customs 
of the past and let us found our princi- 
ples on the laws of nature. 

‘"5. Seek knowledge in the world 
and strengthen the foundation of the 
Empire. 

‘“ Desiring to introduce the reforms 
unparalleled in the history we, ahead of 
all our subjects, took the oath before 
the gods of heaven and earth and sol- 
emnly established the fundamental pol- 
icy for the Empire and endeavor to lay 
the foundation for the way of promot- 
ing the happiness and prosperity of the 
people. You should likewise share the 
same principle and cooperate with us.”’ 


CHAOS HOR A PEyay 


The tasks attendant to the consum- 


“mation of this grand revolution, which 


shook to the heart the political and social 
organizations of the country, taxed the 
wisdom, energy, forbearance, and self- 
sacrifice of the patriots of Japan in a 
manner almost unknown in the history 
of mankind. An anti-foreign, con- 


A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History 


setvative, anarchistic, and destructive 
spirit pervaded all classes of the people. 
The Samurai of different Daimios sev- 
ered their allegiance with their former 
lords in order to carry out their own 
conviction by the use of swords and vio- 
lent means. Misunderstandings, jeal- 
ousies, and intrigues were rampant, and 
assassinations were of common occur- 
rence. In a word, the whole Empire 
was inastate of chaos. To tame these 
unruly elements, to infuse order and 
harmony among them, and to graft on 
them an order and regime entirely for- 
eign to the soil, and to develop them to 
the condition in which they are now 
within the short space of the last 37 
years is the grandest of the achieve- 
ments that man has ever accomplished. 


SOME OF THE PROMOTERS OF THE 
GREAT CHANGE 


The men who conceived and achieved 
this unique revolution were chiefly 
Samurai of inferior grade, without off- 
cial rank or social standing. The most 
prominent of them do not exceed 55 in 
number, and among them only 13 are 
aristocrats ; but these latter played only 
a secondary part in the movement, with 
the exception of Sanjo and Iwakura. 
The other 42 men were all young Samu- 
rai. ‘The average age of the 55 men did 
not exceed 30 years. 

The four great clans of southern 
Japan—Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and 
Hizen—promoted the revolution, and 
the prominent persons of the present era 
came chiefly from the Samurai of these 
four clans, and more particularly from 
those of Satsuma and Choshiu. Many 
great statesmen of this period have al- 
ready departed from this world, but such 
names as Saigo, Okubo, Kido, Iwakura, 
and Sanjo cannot justly be passed over 
without mention. Still alive and actively 
taking part in the affairs of state are 
Marquis Ito, who was one of the younger 
members among the promoters of the 
revolution and a statesman of the great- 


227 


est constructive genius of the Meiji era, 
whose name is connected with nearly 
every great work in the history of new 
Japan, and whose legislative career is 
crowned by the drafting of the consti- 
tution; Marquis Yamagata, to whom 
the nation is indebted for the organiza- 
tion of the efficient army now fighting 
in Manchuria and to whom was en- 
trusted the chief command of the Im- 
perial army against China in 1894; Mar- 
quis Oyama, a most genial, loyal, and 
brave general and statesman, now lead- 
ing the Imperial army in Manchuria ; 
Count Inouye, a resourceful, undaunted, 
strong-willed statesman, who held the 
portfolio of foreign affairs for nearly ten 
years at the most troublous time of 
Japan’s foreign relations ; Count Mat- 
sugata,an eminent financier, whose name 
has covered the title page of the history 
of the gold-standard system of Japan ; 
Count Okuma, now leader of the pro- 
gressive party and a politician of the 
most subtle, versatile; and vigorous in- 
tellect ; Count Itagaki, formerly leader 
of the liberal party and the most ardent 
advocate of the constitutional govern- 
ment. The careers of these men are full 
of incidents most entertaining and in- 
structive, but I have no time to dwell 
upon them here. 


HIS MAJESTY THE EMPEROR MUTSU- 
HITO 


It would be improper to close this 
speech without some allusion to our 
most beloved and revered sovereign, 
who was suddenly called to the actual 
duties of the head of the nation at the 
age of sixteen and at the most turbu- 
lent period in Japan’s history. During 
the last thirty-seven years of his most 
marked and enlightened reign he has 
given the nation the enjoyment of all 
the best fruits of the civilization of the 
West, and, above all, has raised the 
country, in the face of the immense ob- 
stacles, from the position of an insignifi- 
cant oriental state to that of a formid- 


228 


able unit in the comity of nations. 
Much need not be said about his public 
acts. Facts are too abundant and con- 
spicuous to make explanation necessary. 

His Majesty the Emperor Mutsuhito 
was born on the 3d of November, 1852, 
and ascended the throne in February, 
1867. He isa person above the ordi- 
nary Japanese height, with large, wide- 
set eyes and broad forehead. He is 
robust in health, studious in habit, 
kind and sympathetic in sentiment, and 
strong and loyal in character. Out of 
the civil list, which is only $1,500,000 
a year, he supports, borrowing the words 
of Captain Brinkley, ‘‘ the whole of the 
princely families, including that of the 
Crown Prince; he accompanies all pat- 
ents of nobility with handsome sums; 
he makes liberal allowances to cabinet 
ministers by way of supplement to their 
salaries; he pays the honoraria that goes 
with orders and medals; he gives large 
amounts to charitable purposes, many 
of which escape the public attention al- 
together, and he devotes considerable 
sums to the encouragement of art.” 
The $65,000 which were given for the 
entertainment of the soldiers on the 
11th of February last, the occasion of 
the anniversary of the foundation of the 
Empire by the first Emperor, Jimmu, 
came out of the Imperial purse. ‘‘ His 
manner of life is simple and frugal, and 
it may be trulysaid that his record does 


Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


not show one act unworthy of the rev- 
erence with which his subjects regard 
him.’’ Indeed, the people of Japan love, 
honor, and respect His Majesty, who 
has so faithfully and assiduously ful- 
filled the oath which he took on his 
accession to the throne. 

I have heard sometimes certain sar- 
castic remarks on the reports to the 
Emperor from the generals and ad- 
mirals on the field, which generally end 
with the phrase ‘‘ This glorious success 
is due to the virtue of your Majesty.”’ 
To your ears this may sound strange. 
Foreigners may take it as a mere form 
of oriental flattery ; but to our mind 
there is nothing more truthful and sin- 
cere. In Japan loyalty and patriotism 
are interchangeable terms. Were it not 
for the devotion of men and officers to 
‘“‘Our Lord and country,’’ no admiral 
or general, however great a military 
genius he may be, could ever achieve 
the glorious successes which crowned 
their efforts during the present war. 

The sentiment expressed in our na- 
tional hymn that 

‘*May our Lord’s dominion last 

Till a thousand years have passed 
Twice four thousand times o’ertold. 


Firm as changeless rock, earth-rooted, 
Moss of ages uncomputed,”’ 


truthfully reflects the hearts’ wishes of 
the fifty millions of his most loyal sub- 
jects. 


OUR SMALLEST POSSESSION—GUAM 


By WILLIAM E. SAFFORD 


Mr Safford was formerly a lieutenant in the U. S. Navy, and his cruises took 
him to many of the islands of the Pacific, where he made many notes and collections. 
Fle so felt the wantof a handy volume describing the luxuriant tropical plants, a large 
number of which are very useful, that when he later joined the botanical staff of the 
Department of Agriculture he resolved to write a book on the subject. This book, a 
volume of 420 pages, profusely tlustrated, and with an introduction by Mr frederick 
V. Coville, Curator of Botany, has just been published by the U.S. National Museum 
under the title ‘‘ The Useful Plants of the [sland of Guam.’ In it the author describes 
the principal plants used for food, fiber, oil, starch, sugar, and forage in our tropical 
islands, and he further includes much interesting information about the people of Guam 


and their descendants. 


UAM is considerably larger than 
(5 Tutuila, the most important 
of the Samoan Islands owned 
by the United States, though its chief 
port, San Luis de Apra, cannot be com- 
pared with Pango-Pango, our naval sta- 
tion in the South Pacific, and perhaps 
the finest harbor in the world. The 
advantage of Guam as a station for re- 
pairs and supplies is evident, forming, 
as it does, a stopping place for vessels 
between Hawaii and the Philippines. 
Its strategic importance has been greatly 
enhanced since ‘it has been made the 
landing place of the trans-Pacific cable, 
and the completion of the Panama Canal 
will make it still more valuable to our 
government. 

The extreme length of the island from 
north-northeast to south-southwest is 
29 statute miles. Its widthis from 7 to 
9 miles, narrowing at the middle toa 
neck only 4 miles across. On the north- 
west coast of this neck is situated Agana, 
the capital, a city of over 6,000 inhab- 
itants. The entire population of the 
island, according to the census of 1901, 
was 9,676. 


THE COMING OF MAGELLAN 


The Island of Guam was discovered 
on March 6, 1521, by Magellan, aftera 
passage of three months and twenty 
days from the strait which bears his 
name. An account of the privations 


The following article is based on this report : 


and suffering of his crew, many of whom 
died on the way across the hitherto un- 
explored ocean, is graphically given by 
Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s historian. 
He describes how the expedition arrived 
at Guam with the crews suffering from 
scurvy and in a starving condition, hav- 
ing been compelled on the passage to 
eat rats and even the leather from off the 
standing rigging to keep soul and body 
together. In comparison with Magel- 
lan’s feat of crossing the vast Pacific, 
the first voyage of Columbus from the 
Canary Islands to the West Indies 
seems insignificant. The natives of 
Guam came to meet the Spaniards in 
strange ‘‘flying praos’’ (canoes pro- 
vided with outriggers and triangular 
sails of mats). The Spaniards had 
dropped anchor, furled their sails, and 
were about to land, when it was dis- 
covered that a small boat which rode 
astern of the flagship was missing. 
Suspecting the natives of having stolen 
it, Magellan himself went ashore at the 
head of a landing party of 40 armed 
men, burned 40 or 50 houses and many 
boats, and killed seven or eight natives, 
male and female. He then returned to 
his ship with the missing boat and im- 
mediately set sail, continuing his course 
to the westward. 

The natives did not fare much better 
at the hands of later visitors. Mission- 
aries came in 1668. 


Tue NatTionaL GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


230 


‘sont 19]eM OOquIeG UI 1d}eM BuLX11e9 st Ovqeivs Sunos ay“ (urery} 


WOIf JUIMIYSTINOU I13Y} SALIOp jou Op jnq sjue[d Joy}O uO MOIS YIM sjURTdasre 


mens) jo pues] “jso1oy sy, 


WINssny [PUOTIVN ‘S “Q ‘pioyes “sy “A WO 


) 


uol}ejas9A [v}Aqdids Surmoys 


Our SMALLEST PossEssION 


2 


1 Museum 


10ona 


afford, U. S. Nati 


aS 


From W. E 


I 


On the Main Road Across the Island of Guam 


2202 THe NaTIonaAL Geocrapiuic MAGAZINE 


A Fish Intoxicant ; the Fruit of the Barringtonia speciosa, Natural Size 


The natives of Guam, and of a number of other tropical islands of the Pacific, use this 
fruit to stupefy fish (see opposite page). The species does not occur in the Hawaiian Islands, 
but it is found in the Malay Archipelago, the Andaman Islands, and Ceylon. The fruits are 
light, and as the tree grows down to the very edge of the sea, they often fall into the water 
and are carried by currents and cast upon other shores. The dried fruits are used by the 
natives as floats for their nets. 


Our SMALLEST PossEss{toONn 


" ‘Though Guam lies within the tropics, 
its climate is tempered throughout the 
greater part of the year by a brisk trade 
wind blowing from the northeast and 
east. Its mountains are not high enough 
to cause marked differences in the dis- 
tribution of rain on the island, and the 
island is not of sufficient extent to cause 
the daily alternating currents of air 
known as land and sea breezes. Gen- 
erally speaking, the seasons conform in 
a measure with those of Manila, the 
least rain falling in the colder months 
or the periods called winter by the 
natives, and the greater rainfall occur- 
ring inthe warm months, which are 
called summer by the natives. 

The mean annual temperature is about 
80° F. in December, the coldest month, 
to 82° F. in May and June, the hottest 
months. The highest absolute tempera- 
ture recorded in 1902, 90° F., occurred 
in June and July, the lowest, 66° F., in 
December. 

Though the mean monthly tempera- 
ture varies only 2° on either side of the 
mean annual temperature, yet the ‘‘ win- 
ters’’ of Guam are so definitely marked 
that certain wasps which during the 
summer make their nests in the open 
fields among the bushes invade the 
houses of the people at that season and 
hibernate there. 

The forest vegetation of Guam con- 
sists almost entirely of strand trees, 
epiphytal ferns, lianas, and a few un- 
dershrubs. ‘The majority of the species 
are included in what Schimper has called 
the Barringtonia formation. ‘The prin- 
cipal trees are the wild, fertile bread- 
fruit, Artocarpus communis ; the Indian 
almond, 7evminalia catappa,; jack-in- 
the-box,, Hernandia peltata, and the 
giant banyan. 


CATCHING FISH WITH INTOXICANTS 


The fruit of another common tree 
(Barringtonia speciosa) the natives use 
to stupefy fish. 

The fruit is pounded into a paste, in- 
closed in a bag, and kept over night. 


ae 


The time of an especially low tide is se- 
lected, and bags of the pounded fruit are 
taken out on the reef next morning and 
sunk in certain deep holes in the reef. 
The fish soon appear at the surface, some 
of them lifeless, others attempting to 
swim, or faintly struggling with their 
ventral side uppermost. The natives 
scoop them in their hands, sometimes 
even diving for them. Nothing more 
striking could be imagined than the 
picture presented by the conglomeration 
of strange shapes and bright colors— 
snake-like sea eels, voracious lizard- 
fishes, gar-like houndfishes, with their 
jaws prolonged into a sharp beak; long- 
snouted trumpet-fishes, flounders, por- 
cupine-fish, bristling with spines; squir- 
rel-fishes of the brightest and most 
beautiful colors—scarlet, rose color and 
silver, and yellow and blue; parrot-fishes 
(Scarus), with large scales, parrot-like 
beaks, and intense colors, some of them 
a deep greenish blue, others looking as 
though painted with blue and pink 
opaque colors; variegated Chaetodons, 
called ‘‘ sea butterflies’’ by the natives; 
trunkfishes with horns and armor, leop- 
ard-spotted groupers, hideous-looking, 
warty toadfishes, ‘‘ zz/fw,’’ armed with 
poisonous spines, much dreaded by the 
natives, and a black fish witha spur on 
its forehead. 

As many young fish unfit for food are 
destroyed by this process, the Spanish 
government forbade this method of fish- 
ing, but since the American occupation 
of the island the practice has been re- 
vived. 

In the mangrove swamps when the 
tide is low hundreds of little fishes with 
protruding eyes may be seen hopping 
about in the mud and climbing among 
the roots of the Rhizophora and Bru- 
guiera. These are the widely spread 
Periophthalmus koelreuteri, belonging to 
a group of fishes interesting from the 
fact that their air bladder has assumed 
in a measure the function of lungs, ena- 
bling the animal to breathe atmospheric 
air. 


234 


Tur NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From W. HK. Safford, U. S. National Museum 


A Coffee Tree in Full Bloom, Island of Guam 


Every family on the island grows its own coffee 


From W. E. Safford, U. S. National Museum 


Betel-nut Palms 


The nut is greatly esteemed by the natives of Guam, who chew it with the leaf of the betel 
pepper. It imparts ared color to the saliva, so that the lips and teeth appear to be covered 
with blood, and in time become blackened. In Guam betel chewing is a matter of etiquette 
at all wedding assemblies, festivals, and funerals. 


220 


THE NATIVES AS THE SPANIARDS 
FOUND THEM 


Both sexes were expert swimmers, 
and were as much at ease in the water 
asonland. As they threw themselves 
into the sea and came bounding from 
wave to wave they reminded Pigafetta 
of dolphins. The men were good divers. 
Legazpi states.that they would catch fish 
in their hands. The children accom- 
panied their parents while fishing, and 
were so expert in the water that Garcia 
declared that they appeared rather fish 
than human beings. 

According to the testimony of early 
writers, their houses were high and 
neatly made and better constructed than 
those of any aboriginal race hitherto dis- 
covered inthe Indies. They were rect- 
angular in shape, with walls and roofs 
of palm leaves curiously woven. ‘They 
were made of cocoanut wood and palo 
maria (Calophyllum inophyllum), and 
were raised from the ground on wooden 
posts or pillars of stone. In one of the 
narratives of the Legazpi expedition it 
is said that some of the houses sup- 
ported on stone pillars served as sleep- 
ing apartments; others built on the 
ground were used for cooking and other 
work. Besides these, there were large 
buildings that served as storehouses for 
all in common, wherein the large boats 
and covered canoes were kept. ‘‘ These 
were very spacious, broad, and high, 
and worth seeing.’’ As described by 
the missionaries, some of the houses had 
four rooms or compartments, with doors 
or curtains of mats, one serving as a 
sleeping-room, another as a store-room 
for fruits, a third for cooking, and a 
fourth asa workshop and boat-house. 

They were a happy, careless people, 
fond of festivities, dancing, singing, 
story telling, and contests of strength 
and skill, yet sufficiently industrious to 
cultivate their fields and garden patches, 
build excellent houses for their families, 
braid mats of fine texture, and con- 
struct canoes which were the admira- 


THe NaTIonaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tion of all the early navigators. They 
were much given to buffoonery, mock- 
ery, playing tricks, jesting, mimicry, 
and ridicule, offering in this respect a 
striking contrast to the undemonstrative 
Malayans. 

That they were naturally kind and 
generous is shown by their treatment 
of shipwrecked sailors cast upon their - 
shores and their reception of the early 
missionaries who founded the first 
colony on the island. These mission- 
aries complained that they could not 
make the natives take life seriously, 
saying that what they promised one 
minute they forgot the next. On the 
other hand, the missionaries spoke of 
the remarkable intelligence shown by 
the children in learning the Christian 
doctrine, the moderation of the natives 
in eating, and the absence of intoxi- 
cants. Their sense of hospitality was 
very marked Women were treated 
with consideration, and had greater au- 
thority than in almost any other land 
hitherto known. 


THE PRESENT PEOPLE OF GUAM 


The natives of Guam are, as a rule, 
of good physique and pleasing appear- 
ance. Owing to their mixed blood, 
their complexion varies from the white 
of a Caucasian to the brown of a Malay. 
Most of them have glossy black hair, 
which is either straight or slightly 
curly. Itis worn short by the men and 
long by the women, either braided, 
coiled, or dressed after the styles pre- 
vailing in Manila. 

Though the natives of Guam are nat- 
urally intelligent and quick to learn, 
little has been done for their education, 
and many of them are illiterate. The 
college of San Juan de Letran was 
founded by Queen Maria Anna of Aus- 
tria, widow of Philip IV, who settled 
upon it an annual endowment of 3,000 
pesos. ‘Through misappropriation and 
dishonesty the annual income of the 
college gradually dwindled to about 


Our SMALLEST PosskEssIoN 


1,000 pesos. ‘The greater part of this 
was absorbed by the rector, who was 
usually the priest stationed at Agana, 
and by-the running expenses of the 
school, which were the subsistence and 
wages paid to janitor, porter, steward, 
doctor, and the lighting of the building. 

The people are essentially agricult- 
ural. There are few masters and few 
servants on the island. As a rule the 
farms are not too extensive to be culti- 
vated by the family, all of whom, even 
the little children, lend a hand. Often 
the owners of neighboring farms work 
together in communal fashion, one day 
on A’s corn, the next day on B’s, and 
so on, laughing, singing, and skylark- 
ing at their work and stopping when- 
ever they feel so inclined to take a drink 
of tuba from a bamboo vessel hanging 
to a neighboring cocoanut tree. Each 
does his share without constraint, nor 
will he indulge so freely in tuba as to 
incapacitate himself for work, for ex- 
perience has taught the necessity of 
temperance, and every one must do his 
share 1f the services are to be reciprocal. 
In the evening they separate, each going 
to his own rancho to feed his bullock, 
pigs, and chickens. _ After a good sup- 


aus 


per they le down for the night on a 
pandanus mat spread over an elastic 
platform of split bamboo. 

None of the natives depends for his 
livelihood on his handiwork or on trade 
alone) —“Ihere are men who can. make 
shoes, tan leather, and cut stone for 
building purposes, but such a thing as 
a Chamorro shoemaker, tanner, stone 
mason, or merchant who supports his 
family by his tradeisunknown. Inthe 
midst of building a stone wall the man 
who has consented to help do the work 
will probably say, ‘‘ Excuse me, Sefior, 
but I must go to my rancho for three or 
four days; the weeds are getting ahead 
of mycorn.’’ And when lime is needed 
the native to whom one is directed may 
say, ‘‘After I have finished gathering 
my cocoanuts for copra I will get my 
boys to cut wood and gather limestone 
to makea kiln. Never fear, Sefior, you 
shall have your lime within six weeks.”’ 
On one occasion a blacksmith was de- 
layed two weeks in making a plow owing 
to the fact that the man from whom he 
got his charcoal had been so busy sup- 
plying visiting vessels with fruits and 
vegetables that he could not find time to 
burn it. 


PRE MILCH=GOA LE 


HE Department of Agriculture 

has been so successful in its 
experiment of introducing the 
beautiful Angora goat into this country, 
by means of which an industry worth 
several million dollars has been created, 
that it is now trying to arouse an inter- 
estin the milch goat. Every travelerin 
Europe is familiar with the sturdy little 
animal, which does not hesitate to climb 
to the attic of a dwelling and when sev- 
eral stories up allow itself to be milked. 
It is estimated that Germany owns 
about 3,000,000 of these animals, that 


they are worth about $12,000,000, and 
yield milk and kids each year worth 
$36,000,000, or three times their origi- 
nal value. 

A good goat gives four or five quarts 
of mukdaily. Itcan eat many kinds of 
herbage, so that its keep is not a diffi- 
cult nor expensive problem. ‘The milk 
is believed to be richer and freer of tu- 
berculosis than cow’s milk, and if kept 
cleanisnot odorous. Families living in 
crowded suburbs may find a solution of 
the milk problem in keeping milch 
goats. 


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OOTY OVIOg ‘souog Avau ,,‘W0}}0D AIIG,, 10 ‘sary, eqIad oq} Jo UeUOedg pipuslds VW 


Neen 


= 


2 


From Henry Gannett, U. S. Geological Survey 


1a 


. 


Grove, Californ 


iposa 


e 


tea, Mar 


ia gigan 


Group of Sequoi 


A 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


T the last meeting of the National 
Geographic Society for 1904—’05 
President Willis L. Moore announced 
that the membership of the Society had 
reached 5,000, making the National 
Geographic Society the largest geo- 
graphical society in the world. Nearly 
every section of the globe is represented 
in this membership. 

The members are reminded that the 
Society will always welcome from them 
notes of geographic development and 
interest. Members are also urged to 


send to the Society for preservation in 
its library copies of photographs taken 


From George Fayette Thompson, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


A Group of Milch Goats. 


by them, either at home or on their 
travels, that have a geographic value. 


Some features which the National 
Geographic Society will publish in its 
Magazine during the next several 
months are: 


‘An article on ‘‘Storms and Weather 
Forecasts,’’ illustrated with 20 charts, 
showing storm tracks, hot and cold 
waves, etc., by Dr Willis L. Moore, 
Chief United States Weather Bureau and 
President of the National Geographic 
Society; an address on ‘‘The Philip- 
pines,’’ by the Secretary of War, Hon. 
William H. Taft, with a new map of 
the Philippines, 23 by 36 inches and in 


(See page 237) 


DP. 


three colors ; an address on ‘‘ The Pan- 
ama Canal,’’ by Admiral C. M. Chester, 
Superintendent of the Naval Observa- 
tory ; anaddress on ‘‘ The Evolution of 
Russian Government,’’ by Dr Edwin A. 
Grosvenor, Professor of International 
Law in Amherst College; an address on 
‘“’The Commercial Prize of the Orient,’’ 
by. Honv7O.-P. Austin’ Chief orsthe 
Bureau of Statistics. 

A series of illustrated papers on some 
of the principal geographic features of 
them Wnited) States.) | lhe? Bio. horn 
Region of Wyoming,’’ by N. H. Darton; 
‘“‘The Bad Lands,’’ ‘‘ The Yosemite,’’ 
‘‘’'The Great Plains,’’ etc. 


UTILIZING THE DESERT 


NEW method of making the desert 

useful, which may perhaps give 

value to millions of acres now worthless, 

has been suggested by Mr W. P. Spill- 

man, Agrostologist of the Department 
of Agriculture. 

In certain parts of Texas ranchmen 


Tur NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


have been accustomed when forage has 
failed because of drought to cut down 
the prickly pear and* feed itatoveatile: 
They remove the thorns by singeing the 
plants ina fire or with a plumber’s gaso- 
line torch or cut the cactito pieces with 
a machine. ‘The cactus makes an ex- 
cellent food, and in some sections of 
southern Texas the stock industry is 
almost entirely dependent on it during 
portions of the year. Cacti grow scat- 
teringly in many parts of the dry region, 
but outside of southern Texas they are 
found only in limited areas in sufficient 
abundance to be used as forage. Now 
Mr Spillman suggests that varieties of 
cacti might be planted in those parts of 
the United States where they now grow 
scatteringly, and thus possibly utilize 
areas in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, 
California, Kansas, Idaho, Montana, 
Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and even as 
far north as Nebraska, which are now 
of little value. 

The Department of Agriculture has 


From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture 


One of the Common Prickly Pears of Texas in Full Fruit 


GrocraPHic Nores 24 


From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture 


Singeing the Prickly Pear of Texas with a Torch 


From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture 


A Type of Pear Cutter, as Set Up and Operated 


24.4 


THe NationaL GeoGraPpHic MAGAZINE 


From Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries 


Gathering Irish Moss at Scituate, Massachusetts 


published a bulletin on ‘‘ The Prickly 
Pear and Other Cactias Food for Stock,”’ 
by David Griffiths, which contains many 
interesting facts on this subject. It is 
believed by somie that the natural cactus 
with its long thorns would be more serv- 
iceable than the thornless cactus of Mr 
Burbank, as it would not need to be pro- 
tected against foraging cattle. 


THE SEAWEEDS OF THE UNITED 
STATES 


ITH seaweed resources certainly 

not inferior to those of Japan 

or any other country, and probably 
much superior, the United States may 
be said practically to ignore these val- 
uable products except at a few points 
on its extensive coast. Statistics re- 
cently gathered give the paltry sum of 


$35,000 as the value of the marine algze 
prepared in the United States in one 
year. ‘The business is practically re- 
stricted to Massachusetts, and is ad- 
dressed to a single species,‘the ‘‘ Irish 
moss’’ (Chondrus crispus). Consider- 
able quantities of seaweeds are used as 
fertilizer on farms adjacent to the coast, 
but this is not a commercial enterprise. 
In Monterey and Santa Barbara coun- 
ties, California, the Chinese fishermen 
dry certain algze for food, medicine, and 
feniiizer, 


GEOLOGIC FOLIOS IN SCHOOLS 


HE Germans have a study in some 
of their schools which they call 
‘‘Heimathskunde’’--the study of home. 
Pupils are instructed minutely in the 
knowledge of their immediate environ- 


GerocrRAPHIC Nores 


24.5 


From Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries 


Bleaching and Curing Irish Moss at Scituate, Massachusetts 


ment. They learn not merely the 
names and characteristics of the moun- 
tains that surround their native place 
and the streams that flow through it, 
but they study the special resources 
and industries of the locality, the 
city’s streets, parks, museums, art 
galleries, water works, garbage plant, 
mre. department, etc. It is a study 
that makes them more enlightened 
citizens. pas 

Similar studies are prosecuted in 
many American schools, and the Ameri- 
can teacher has at his command a val- 
uable aid in studying many localities, 
of which, unfortunately, few avail 
themselves. This aid consists of the 
separate folios of the geologic atlas of 
the United States which the United 
States Geological Survey is engaged in 


publishing. Each folio includes a top- 
ographic map and geologic map of a 
small area of country, together with 
explanatory and descriptive texts. Fre- 
quently these folios also contain struct- 
ure section sheets and columnar section 
sheets, maps illustrative of the artesian 
water supply of the area, diagrams of 
coal sections, or photographic reproduc- 
tions of specially interesting topographic 
features or of peculiar fossil types. 
The Survey has issued 119 geologic 
folios up to date. That means that 
teachers may have at very little cost the 
most complete and scientific description 
yet published of 119 different areas in 
the United States, each illustrated by 
the latest topographic and geologic 
maps. As text-books in geography, 
geology, and mineralogy for the limited 


24.0 THe Natrona, GreocraPHic MaAGAaZzINnE 


From Israel C. Russell, U. S. Geological Survey 


Excellent Examples of Weathering near Logan Butte, Cook 
County, Oregon 


These peculiar-shaped mounds have been carved by the action of sun 
and rain from soft shales. Numerous well-preserved bones of extinct 
mammals have been found in these beds. 


GEOGRAPHIC Nores 


area each represents, they should be 
highly appreciated. 

To encourage the purchase of these 
folios for educational purposes, the Geo- 
logical Survey has lately reduced the 
wholesale price on folios. When pur- 
chased separately, the folios of ordinary 
size cost 25 cents each, those of greater 


24.7 


of these folios, when regarded as text- 
books, consider the New York city 
follows see; tetall price) is 50, cents a 
copy, It contains! 17 pages of text, 12 
pages of maps (each one of which would 
cost 5 cents if purchased separately), 
and 2 pages of plates. Other cities 
covered by geologic folios are Washing- 


Stacking Alfalfa with a Derrick on a Western Farm 


From an interesting report on our great forage crops by A. S. Hitchcock, of the 


Department of Agriculture. 


length cost 50 cents each, and a few of 
extraordinary size cost 75 cents each. 
The Survey now offers 34 folios of the 
ordinary size for $5.10, which makes 
the price of each copy only 15 cents. 
A corresponding reduction of 4o per 
cent is made on the wholesale price of 
the large folios. 

To show how reasonable is the price 


tonjand: Chicaso,. One: folio’ (No, 50, 
Holyoke) has been issued for the New 
England=area, Lhe price of*each of 
these is 50 cents. 

Those desiring information as to the 
areas now covered by the folios should 
apply, atOuwmtnesirector sof sthe: Waited 
States Geological Survey, Washington, 
be Cc: 


From S. A. Knapp Department of Agriculture 


Carts with Bamboo Covers, Ceylon 


GEoGRAPHIC Nores 


NOTE ON THE ACTIVITY OF SHI- 
SHALDIN VOLCANO 


N March, 1903, the NATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE published some 
striking photographs of the mountains 
on Unimak Island, Alaska, and gave a 
vivid account of the nature of Shishal- 
din’s activity. 

It will not be without interest to add 
some personal observations of a later 
date. On September 14, 1904, while in 
command of the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey steamer J/cArthur and while 
passing Shishaldin at a distance of from 
15 to 18 miles, I made the following 
observations on the volcano, which was 
visible for several hours during the 
afternoon: 

The volcano was seen to be in a mild 
state of activity. In addition to a con- 
tinuous emission of dense white smoke 
or steam, circular rings apparently sev- 
eral hundred feet in diameter and of 
remarkable symmetry and whiteness 
were seen to emerge in puffs at short 
intervals from the very top of the 
mountain. 

Frequently two or three of these 
would remain visible at the same time. 

HomER P. RITTER, 
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


COTTON CULTIVATION IN THE 
BRITISH EMPIRE 


N interesting geographic contribu- 

tion is a British blue book of last 

year on cotton cultivation in the British 
Hmpire and Egypt, prepared by Prof. 
W. Dunstan, director of the Imperial 
Institute at South Kensington, with the 
aid of his scientific staff (folio, 40 pages, 
map, and diagrams). He discusses, in 
all that broad belt from 4o degrees north 
to 40 degrees south, the natural condi- 
tions and past efforts for developing the 
cotton industry in all the British pos- 
sessions that seem at all fitted by nature 
for growing this plant, with a brief 
treatment of the characteristics of cot- 
ton. He makes the fullest acknowl- 


24.9 


edgment to American works on the 
entire industry from the seed to the 
finished product, and pays high tribute 
to the knowledge and labor of our De- 
partment of Agriculture. In fact, he 
considers our ‘‘paramount’’ position 
due to the operation of this branch of 
the government. After this compre- 
hensive survey of the matter, he finds 
no hope of displacing our leadership, 
but the most promising territory for 
competition with us is in Africa, with 
something additional in the East and 
West Indies. Butto any one acquainted 
with our cotton area it is feared that 
Professor Dunstan is not a safe guide. 
In his ‘‘ sketch map of the cotton belt of 
the world ’’ he actually has cotton grow- 
ing in the United States up to the lati- 
tude of New York and thence straight 
across beyond the Mississippi River— 
at least double the space on which it 
can be possibly produced. He also has 
cotton in China as far north as Peking. 
It is most likely that such blunders 
arose from employing a purely bookish 
man to do practical work. CoNe, 


WATER EROSION THEORY A 
FALLACY 


With Apologies to Prof. H. L. Fairchild * 


HE arguments against the possi- 
bility of erosion by running streams 
may be summed up as follows: 

1. No one ever saw a stream eroding 
its bed or banks. 

2. True, some streams are often 
muddy, which is interpreted by certain 
geologists as evidence of erosion, but 
the amount of detritus thus carried is 
trifling, if itis measured without preju- 
dice. 

3. Rivers deposit detritus in certain 
places ; therefore they cannot erode. 

4. Insome places rivers flow over soft 
material without moving it ; hence they 
never erode. 


* Ice Erosion Theory a Fallacy, by Prof. H. L. 
Fairchild. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 16, pp. 


13-74. 


250 


5. In many places no deposits from 
rivers areseen. If there are nodeposits, 
there can have been no erosion. The 
amount of deposit discovered must equal 
the amount eroded, for none is carried to 
the sea or otherwise hidden. 

6. The water in the middle of a’stream 
moves faster than that near the bottom 
or sides; hence the upper layers move 
over the lower layers, and the latter thus 
become nearly stagnant, and lose what- 
ever cutting power they might have pos- 
sessed. 

7. Water, being liquid, flows around 
and over obstacles instead of cutting 
them away. The existence of an island 
in a stream is conclusive proof of the 
stream’s inability toerode. Being liquid, 
water cannot hold up its cutting tools 
to their work. 

8. The fluency of water diminishes 
with the amount of sediment carried. 
Since a river has no means of getting 
rid of its load of detritus, this load ac- 
cumulates near the mouth, where it must 
eventually become too great to allow 
erosion ; hence stream erosion, if there 
be any, must be confined to the upper 
reaches of the streams, where the load 
of detritus is moderate. 

9g. True, flowing water does change 
the form of canyons carved by other 
agencies. Thus it changes the cross- 
section of a glacier-carved valley from a 
U shape to a V shape, but we will not 
call this erosion. 

10. It is perfectly possible for streams 
to carry sharp-edged sand along their 
bottoms and sides without doing any 
erosion. 

11. If one cannot prove absolutely 
that erosion is in any case caused by 
running water, therefore it must have 
been done by ice. ) 

12. The majority of geologists and 
physiographers are in accord with these 
views. mG: 


Field Courses in Geology.—A joint an- 
nouncement has been-issued describing 
the field courses in geology which will 


Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


be given during the summer of 1905 by 
Chicago, Columbia, Harvard, Johns 
Hopkins, Kansas, Minnesota, North 
Carolina, Ohio State, Leland Stanford 
Junior, and Wisconsin Universities. 
There is also an inter-collegiate Appa- 
lachian course of five weeks’ duration, 
which will be given under the direction 
of several instructors, and will include 
the study of the tertiary and cretaceous 
formations of Maryland, the paleozoic 
strata of the Susquehanna-Juniata dis- 
trict of Pennsylvania and central New 
York, the crystalline and paleozoic rocks 
of the Little Falls district of eastern 
New York, and the metamorphic and 
triassic rocks of western Connecticut. 
The courses offered by the several uni- 
versities cover a wide range of territory, 
extending from Vancouver Island and 
California, on the Pacific coast, to 
North Carolina, Maryland, and New 
York, on the Atlantic, while one course 
is announced for Iceland, where four 
weeks will be spent in the study of 
volcanoes, glaciers, and geysers. Hach 
of these courses will be under the guid- 
ance of a geologist familiar with the 
geology of the region studied. In the 
list of instructors appear the names of 
the following well-known geologists : 

J. C. Branner|. Wim: 5B. Clan eres 
Cushing, Wm. M. Davis, A. W. Gra- 
bau,.C. W. Hall, FE. Haworth Aye Er. 
Hobbs, Charles S. Prosser, R. D. Salis- 
bury, N.S. Shaler, Stuart Weller, J. B. 
Woodworth, T. C. Hopkins, S. Barrell, 
R. T. Chamberlin, W.W. Atwood, T. A. 
Jaggar, Collier Cobb, and J. F. New- 
som. 


THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE 
PLATEAUX IN TROPIC AMERICA 


BY J. RUSSELL SMITH, PH. D. 


Tropic America presents the unusual specta- 
cle of a region in which one type of district 
supports most of the population and another 
supports the more important foreign trade. 

In temperate North America and in Europe 
the centers of population and production are 
upon the lowlands. In tropic America the 
centers of population are upon the highlands, 


GEOGRAPHIC Nores 


while the lowlands are the natural place for 
the production of the most desired products of 
that zone. Accordingly, the majority of the 
people live upon the poorest land, in positions 
very difficult of access to commerce, and the 
fertile and accessible regions are unsettled, 
while the civilized world experiences a grow- 
ing demand for the really tropical products, 
which they now produce in an unsystematic 
way. 

The tropic highlands, in one-half or more of 
their exports, are competing with temperate- 
zone lands. The lowlands are the real tropics 
of commerce. The economic question is, Can 
they become populated and developed? 

Two methods are now available—the impor- 
tation of the Asiatic coolie and the application 
of science to make these lands habitable by 
Caucasians. The first method is being suc- 
cessfully tried in some countries and the second 
is full of possibilities. Science is just begin- 
ning to be applied to the problems of eliminat- 
ing disease, improving tropic agriculture, and 
overcoming the difficulties of environment. 
The present century may witness the opening 
up of practically a new world to population 
and commerce through the settling of this 
now neglected part of the world by people 
who will at least be socially and industrially 
organized by the most advanced races. 


THE EXPLORATION OF ALASKA 


BY ALFRED H. BROOKS, CHIEF OF ALASKAN 
DIVISION, U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


The first knowledge of Alaska was obtained 
by the Russians, who in the early part of the 
eighteenth century had established themselves 
on the western shore of Bering Sea and first 
learned of the continent beyond the sea from 
the natives, for it was not until 1841 that they 
obtained any definite knowledge of North- 
western America by personal observation. It 
was then that Bering made his fateful voyage 
and definitely established at least one point on 
the mainland of Alaska. Subsequently explo- 
ration appears to have taken place from three 
directions. The Russians came from the west, 
across Siberia, Bering Sea and Straits; the 
English from the east, by way of McKenzie 
Valley, and navigators of various nationalities 
explored its coast, approaching from the south 
by following the eastern shore of the Pacific. 
Among the important expeditions were those 
led by Bering, Lutke, Kotzebue, Cook, Van- 
couver, Franklin, Beechey, Malaspina, La 
Pérouse, and several Spaniards. By the mid- 
dle of the eighteenth century the coast-line of 
Alaska was fairly well known, but the detailed 
charting has not even yet been completed, 
though the United States Coast Survey has 
been actively at work for many years. Of the 


25a 


interior of Alaska the Russians knew compar- 
atively little, though they explored the lower 
stretches of the Yukon, the Kuskokwim, and 
Stikine. The Upper Yukon was reached by 
the Hudson Bay traders in the middle of the 
nineteenth century. 

In 1865 the exploration of Alaska was much 
accelerated by the work of the corps of ex- 
plorers organized by the Western Union Tele- 
graph Company, of whom William H. Dall 
and Robert Kennicott were the most promi- 
nent. 

When Alaska came into the possession of 
the United States, but little attempt was made 
to explore its interior, though a few expedi- 
tions were sent out under various auspices. 
Thus it was that Schwatka made an explora- 
tion of the Lewes and Yukon rivers, though 
these were already pretty well known, thanks 
to the traders and prospectors. Allen trav- 
ersed the Copper, Tanana, and Lower Koyu- 
kuk rivers, while Stoney took up the explora- 
tion of the Kotzebue Sound region, and in the 
same district Cantwell and McLannigan made 
important explorations. 

Though public enterprise amounted to little, 
yet the ever-ready American frontiersman and 
prospector penetrated this wilderness and did 
much in making it known totheworld. Among 
the most prominent were Frank Densmore, 
Arthur Harper, Jack McQuestin, and Jack 
Dalton. 

In 1891 the Coast Survey was represented in 
the interior in Alaska by parties which located 
the international boundary and made an ex- 
ploration through tothe Arctic coast from the 
Yukon drainage basin. During the same period 
Schwatka and Hayes made a journey of explo- 
ration from the Yukon to the Copper by way 
of the head of the White. 

It was, however, not until the discovery of 
the famous Klondike gold fields that Congress 
awoke to the necessity of systematic explora- 
tions and surveys of this great area. Appro- 
priations for this purpose were made in 1898, 
which have been continued up to the present 
time. Muchof the interior of Alaska has been 
explored by the many parties of the United 
States Geological Survey. These have covered 
an area which can be approximated at 100,000 
square miles, and now practically every large 
river in the territory except the Noatak, Col- 
ville, and Alsek has been surveyed. All of 
the mountain ranges except those of the ex- 
treme northern part of the territory have been 
outlined by exploratory surveys, and much of 
the great interior basin has been mapped with 
a sufficient degree of accuracy for present pur- 
poses. 

Of unknown regions there are in Alaska 
only three of considerable extent. The small-. 
est of these embraces the great snow-covered 


2152 


Saint Elias range, which, though but a short 
distance from tide-water, is so inaccessible 
that little is known of its geography or geol- 
ogy. A second unexplored area lies adjacent 
to the Arctic coast and the international bound- 
ary, and extends southward down into the 
Yukon Basin,and embraces about 40,000 square 
miles that are practically unknown. 

A third unexplored area lies in the north- 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Anemia in Porto Rico. By Bailey K. 
Ashford. Bureau of Printing, San 
Juan, Porto Rico. 1905. 


Another convincing instance of the 
great work being done by our govern- 
ment to help the people in our semi- 
tropical possessions is given in the 
recently published report of the com- 
mission appointed to report on the pos- 
sibility of suppressing ‘‘anemia’’ in 
Porto Rico. Anemia has always been 
more or less active in Porto Rico, but 
after the hurricane of 1899 it became 
specially troublesome. People thought 
that it was the result of poor food, 
worry, destitution, etc., but Dr Bailey 
K. Ashford, U. S. Army, identified it 
as the same disease as tropical anemia, 
prevalent in Mexico and elsewhere, and 
caused by a parasitic worm in the in- 
testines. 

Through the cooperation of Governor 
Hunt the Porto Rican legislature in 
the winter of 1904 was induced to ap- 
propriate $5,000 for the study and treat- 
ment of the disease. Governor Hunt 
appointed as members of the commis- 
sion Captain Ashford, Surgeon W. W. 
King, and Dr Igaravidez. These gen- 
tlemen made a tour of the island, ex- 
amining and treating 500 to 600 persons 
a day. ‘The patients would begin to 
atrive early in the morning, in many 
cases having traveled since the day be- 
fore, generally on foot ; sometimes they 
spent several days on the road. Very 
bad cases were carried in hammocks to 
thecamp. In practically every case the 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


western part of the territory west of the r51st 
meridian and north of the 68th parallel. This 
also includes about 40,000 square miles and is 
almost entirely unknown, though Schrader 
and Howard have traversed its eastern mar- 
gin. Of little-known areas we have also the 
Kuskokwim Basin, which probably embraces 
some 15,000 square miles, less than half of 
which have been surveyed. 


LITERATURE 


disease was found to be caused solely 
by ‘‘uncinaria.’’ Patients were given 
a prescription which they presented to 
the apothecary, who delivered the medi- 
cine with directions as to how it should 
be taken, the patients, or those accom- 
panying them, being required to repeat 
these instructions until they were thor- 
oughly understood. They were directed 
to return in one week for reexamina- 
tion and more medicine, most of them 
doing so with considerable regularity. 
The more advanced cases were treated 
in hospitals hastily constructed of tents. 

In his report on the work of the com- 
mission Captain Ashford states that 
probably go per cent of the rural popu- 
lation of Porto Rico suffer from anemia. 
Such a large percentage of affected must 
injure the economical power of the coun- 
try. The parasitic worm usually gains 
entrance by the penetration of the larvze 
through theskin. The disease is cura- 
ble in the great majority of cases and 
can, believes Captain Ashford, be prac- 
tically stamped out of the island if hy- 
gienic laws are enforced. ‘The limited 
sum at the disposal of the commission 
enabled them to carry on their work for 
a few months only. The members re- 
ceived no salary, and each member pro- 
vided his own instruments and labora- 
tory equipment. 


Sweden: Its People and Its Industry. 
Edited by Gustav Sundbarg. Pp. xi + 
1143. Illustrated. Stockholm. 1904. 


This is the third edition, the first 


GEOGRAPHIC 


being in French and the second in Swed- 
ish, of a most comprehensive and valu- 
able hand-book of Sweden, historical 
and statistical. It comprises about one 
hundred and fifty separate memoirs, 
written by a hundred or more of the 
leading Swedish scientists and officials, 
covering almost every phase of indus- 
trial, social, commercial, or agricultural 
activities. The principal subdivisions 
are physical geography, the Swedish 
people, constitution and administration, 
education and culture, agriculture, for- 
estry, fishing, mining, manufactures, 
commerce, navigation, internal commu- 
nications, credit and insurance, indus- 
trial and labor legislation, and social 
statistics. 

The volume is provided with excellent 
maps, well chosen and attractive illus- 
trations. ‘The translation is good, the 
typography of a high order, and an in- 
dex enhances the value of the volume 
forstandard reference. The publication 
is most creditable to the Swedish gov- 
ernment and toits editor, G. Sundbarg, 
who has compiled valuable and compre- 
hensive statistics, extending in some in- 
stances totheendof 1903. A.W.G. 


The Moon. By William H. Pickering. 
Pp. vilit1o3. 125@ x 1056 inches. 
New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 
1903. $10.00 net. 


With the aim of summarizing some 
of the more recent lunar knowledge 
chiefly acquired in the Harvard obser- 
vatories located in low latitudes, Prof. 
Pickering has given us one of the most 
entertaining volumes in existence on 
this subject for the general reader. It 
has been found that the clearest atmos- 
phere can be obtained only in the trade- 
wind belt, which isso largely free from 
the terrible storms raging in the tem- 
perate zones. Hence chief progress 
has been made in the two stations of 
this foremost American university. 
Prof. Pickering treats of the origin of 
the moon, its motion, its physiography, 
with a very readable sketch of the his- 


LITERATURE 


3 


tory of lunar research. There are a 
number of beautiful illustrations based 
largely on the photographs taken by the 
author and his assistants. The whole 
volume is in the fine typographical dress 
usual with this firm of publishers. 
CoM 


Early Western Travels, 1748-1845. Ed- 
ited by Reuben G. Thwaites. Vol. 
vil, Buttrick’s Voyages, 1812-1819 ; 
Evans’ Pedestrious Tours, 1818. Pp. 
364. Vol. x, Hulme’s Journal,1818 ; 
Flower’s Letters from Lexington and 
the Illinois, 1819; Flower’s Letters 
from the Illinois, 1820-1821 ; Wood’s 
Two Years’ Residence, 1820, 1821. 
Pp 357.) Cleveland: “Arthur HE: 
Clark Co. 1904. $4.00 zet. 
Buttrick’s experiences give glimpses 

of life in Kentucky and along the 

Natchez trail, while Evans describes 

conditions in Michigan and along the 

great rivers from Pittsburg to New 

Orleans. 

Volume x covers the English settle- 
ment made under Morris Birkbeck and 
George Flower in Illinois near Cairo, 
which led to violent discussions in which 
William Cobbet was prominent. Wood 
presents in clear and definite form the 
thoroughly novel conditions of agricult- 
ure and trade of frontier life and the 
social problems which confronted the 
English colonists. 

Both volumes are specially interesting 
as illustrating the conditions of life 
west of the Alleghanies after the war 
of 1812, when tens of thousands re- 
moved trom the Atlantic states to these 
fertile regions. In general the annota- 
tions of the editor are pertinent and 
judicious. Wi xa 


The Future of Road-making in Amer- 
ica (Historic Highways of America, 
vol. 15). By Archer Butler Hulbert. 
Pp. 211. 75@x5 inches. Cleveland: 
hhe Anthiirds Clark Co.” “To905: 
With the aid of Messrs Dodge, EI- 

ridge, Page, of the United States govern- 


25 4 


ment service in Washington, and Mr 
Harrison, of New Jersey, Mr Hulbert 
gives us a Symposium on the vast prob- 
lem of good roads. He contributes the 
first paper, which forms the title of the 
volume, composed largely of extracts 
from the words of other men summing 
up the blessings of improved highways. 
His co-laborers treat of government aid, 
the advantages to farmers, the proper 
material for constructing the bed, and 
the methods followed in New Jersey. 
The volume is thus a happy combination 
of the ideal and the practical, all told 
in readable style, with the aim of popu- 
larizing the subject. “Hience technical 
details are pleasantly passed over,though 
enough of the realistic side is presented 
to assist a man of fair common sense to 
undertake some improvement himself, 
since the views of experts are rather 
liberally borrowed. One of the most 
striking utterances on this transporta- 
tion question is that of President Win- 
ston, of the North Carolina Agricultural 
College. He declares that bad roads 
are unfavorable to matrimony and in- 
crease of population. In this day of 
interest in the Racial Suicide theory 
this position should arouse the greatest 
attention. OR Gi 


The Great American Canals, vols. 1, 11. 
By Archer B. Hulbert. Cleveland : 
The Arthur Hi Clark Coe 1e04: 


1. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal: 


The Pennsylvania Canal. Pp. 231. 
Illustrated. 

1. he Brie Canal, ~Pp. 234." dlls: 
trated. 


These volumes, 13 and 14 of Historic 
Highways, supplement the series of 
memoirs on the public roads of the 
United States by accounts of the great 
waterways. ‘The Chesapeake and Ohio 
Canal was a continuance of the effort 
of the Potomac Company fostered and 
directed in its earlier years by George 
Washington to provide adequate trans- 
portation facilities to the trans-Alle- 
ghany region. Through an appropria- 


THe NatTIonaL Gzeocrapuic MAGAZINE 


tion by Congress the route for a canal 
from Washington to Pittsburg was sur- 
veyed, but construction was never com- 
pleted further than Cumbe Island, Md. 
This point was reached in 1850 after 
twenty-six years’ work and at a cost of 
more thaneleven millions. The rivalry 
between the canal and the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railway,as well asthe mixture 
of politics and business which practi- 
cally doubled the cost, affords interest- 
ing reading. 

More important was the Pennsylvania 
Canal, which by a system of railways 
and waterways 394 miles in length, 
united Philadelphia and Pittsburg. It 
consisted of a railway to Columbia, on 
the Susquehanna, whence canal-boats 
ran through to Pittsburg, crossing the 
Alleghanies by a portage road from 
Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, on the 
Allegheny. This system, although 
twice the length, cost one million dol- 
lars less than the Chesapeake and Ohio 
Canal. 

The two canals here described may 
be said to represent the rivalries of the 
ports of Baltimore and Philadelphia. 

The Erie Canal, while representing 
the commercial interests of New York, 
proved to be more permanent and far 
broader in its utilities. It affected the 
trade of the entire region of the Great 
Lakes and of the upper Mississippi, and 
this marked an important epoch in the 
commercial history of the United States. 
It is to be regretted that the space given 
to local politics was not used for an 
analysis of its economic influences. 

A. WeiG, 


Historic Highways: Pioneer Roads, vol. 
1. By Archer B. Hulbert.) eps 208- 
Illustrated. Cleveland: The Arthur 
EL. ‘Clatk .Co, “agoe4e 


This volume is rather heterogeneous 
in its material, which covers the evolu- 
tion of turnpikes from trails and brief 
experiences in frontier travels. The 
volume scarcely equals in interest others 
of the series. A. W. G. 


Vol. XVI 


CONTENTS 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS. 


A Description of Storms, Hot and Cold Waves, 
_ Tornadoes, Floods, and Weather Forecasting by 
the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau 
and the President of the National Geographic 
Society, Dr WILLIS L. MOORE. With 20 full- 
page Charts (15 being colored) and 5 Illustrations. 


Map SHOWING SEAT OF WAR IN MANCHURIA. 


Supplement. 18 by 44 Inches, in Two Colors. 
Beginning just North of Mukden, and Covering 
the Country North to Harbin and East to Vladi- 
vostok; the Map shows all Roads, Trails, and 
Mountains over which the Armies must Pass. 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall | 
eh a Washington, D. C. 
“\ $2.50 a Year | | 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., ac Second-Class Mail Matter 


| NATIONAL _ 
GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE _| 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publahes by 


the 


NationaL GEOGRAPHIC Society. All edict § 
communications should be addressed tothe 
Editor of the Nationa Grocrarnic MaGazine. — 


Business communications should be addressed to 
the National Geographic Society. 


as CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army 


Ww J McGEE 


Chief, Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Pousstage Pur- 
chase Exposition 


Cc. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE. 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. 
Department of A. griculture 


Oo. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


Oo. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
Ta ahs A of Commerce and 
abor — 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. Pr ‘ 


@. E. GILBERT 


| ALEXANDER McADIB 


ALMON GUNN ISON 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Washington, D.C. ; 


DAVID T. DAY 
Chief of the Division of Mineral 
| emilee U.S. Cae rail 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN os 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- rh 
delphia ye 
R. D. SALISBURY 
Oniversity of Chicago 
UY 5. Geological Survey 


Professor of Meteorology, U. s. By: 
heii Bureau, areal Men. ; 


sivearasnsies St. cae Univesity ay 


Pyotr. XVI; No. 6 


WASHINGTON 


LTT santtGxan Lf 
| GEOGIRAVPIBIIC 
MAGAZIINIE 


JUNE, 1905 


au 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND 
STORMS* 


By Proressor Witutis L. Moore, LL. D., 


CHIEF UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU AND PRESIDENT NATIONAL, 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE author would urge all intel- 
ligent persons to abandon the 
idea that the weather map is an 
enigma too difficult for them to solve. 
To one who will read this chapter once 
or twice, and carefully follow the charts 
as they at successive steps illustrate and 
make clear the text, the daily weather 
chart will be an object of interest as 
well as pleasure and profit. Sometimes 
the problems presented by the map 
are so simple that one possessed of the 
most elementary knowledge of its con- 
struction can accurately forecast the 
character of the coming weather; and 
again, the most expert forecaster is un- 
able to clearly foresee the impending 
changes. 

Weather maps differ as much as do the 
members of the human family ; no two 
are precisely alike, although they may 
be similar in their fundamental charac- 
teristics. Some are so radically dissim- 
ilar to others that it requires but a 
glance to learn that similar weather 


cannot follow both. Weather forecast- 
ing may be fairly placed upon a plane 
with the theory and practice of medi- 
Cites jlhe torecaster dS sin an deonee 
guided in his calculations by symptoms, 
and he is able to diagnose the atmos- 
pheric conditions with about the same 
degree of accuracy that the skilled phy- 
sician is able to determine the bodily 
condition of his patient. He is able to 
forecast changes in the weather with 
rather more certainty than the physician 
can predict the course and the result of 
a well-defined disease. While but less 
than a century ago we knew not whence 
the winds came nor whither they went, 
we are now able, through the aid of 
daily meteorological observations and 
the telegraph that joins our places of 
observation by an electric touch, to 
trace out the harmonious operations of 
many physical laws that previously were 
unknown, and that determine the go- 
ings and the comings of the winds, and 
the sequence in which weather changes 


* Copyright, 1905, by the National Geographic Society. 


256 


occur; but in weather forecasting it 
will never be possible to attain the ac- 
curacy acquired by astronomers in pre- 
dicting the date of an eclipse or the 
occurrence of celestial events. 

In this connection it is interesting to 
note that at the time of the founding 
of the first of the Thirteen Colonies, at 
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, practi- 
cally nothing was known of the prop- 
erties of the air or of the methods of 
measuring its phenomena. Today, at 
over 200 stations in the United States, 
Canada, and the West Indies, electric- 
ally recording automatic instruments 
measure and transcribe, for each mo- 
ment of time, the temperature, the air 
pressure, the velocity and the direction 
of the wind, the beginning and the end- 
ing of rainfall, the amount of precipita- 
tion, and the duration of sunshine. 

It was not until 1643, twenty-three 
years after the landing of the Pilgrims 
at Plymouth Rock, that Torricelli dis- 
covered the principle of the barometer, 
and made it possible to measure the 
weight of the superincumbent air at any 
spot where the wonderful, yet simple, 
little instrument might be placed. His 
great teacher, Galileo, who was so 
cruelly persecuted for teaching the 
truth of the Copernican theory and for 
the invention of the telescope, died with- 
out knowing of the barometer. He 
therefore never understood why “‘ nat- 
ure abhors a vacuum.’’ But meteorol- 
ogists as well as astronomers must ever 
pay homage to his great intellect, for, 
among many other valuable inventions, 
he discovered the principle of the ther- 
mometer. ‘The data from the readings 
of the barometer and the thermometer 
form the foundation of meteorological 
science. Their inventors as little ap- 
preciated the value of their discoveries 
as they dreamed of the great empire 
then just rising from the mists of the 
western seas, which should come into 
existence and first use their instruments 
to detect the inception of storms. 


THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE RESEARCHES OF BENJAMIN 
FRANKLIN 

About one hundred years after the 
invention of the barometer Benjamin 
Franklin, statesman, diplomat, patriot, 
and scientist, divined that northeast 
storms were caused by atmospheric dis- 
turbances located to the southwest of 
the regions experiencing the north- 
east winds. He compared the move- 
ment of the air to water held in a canal 
by a gate at the lower end. When the 
gate is opened the water nearest it 
moves first, then that next higher up, 
and so on, until motion is imparted to 
the water at the far end of the canal. 
His simile does not explain what actu- 
ally occurs, but it closely approaches 
the truth. It was prophetic that this 
idea should come to him long before 
any one had ever seen charts that show 
weather observations simultaneously 
taken at a system of stations scattered 
throughout a broad area. His theory 
was equally as important as his act of 
drawing the lightning from the clouds 
and identifying it with the electricity 
of the laboratory, but his contempora- 
ries thought little of it and it was soon 
forgotten. 

It will aid in understanding the cy- 
clonic motion of storms, which will be 
fully explained a little farther along in 
this chapter, to learn how Franklin 
came to reach his conclusions as to the 
cause of the northeast winds. He had 
arranged with his brother in Boston to 
take observations of a lunar eclipse at 
the same time that he himself would 
take them in Philadelphia. Early on 
the evening of the eclipse an unusually 
severe northeast storm began at the 
latter place, lasted many hours, and pre- 
vented Franklin from getting observa- 
tions. As the wind blew fiercely from 
the northeast, he reasoned that of course 
the storm came from that direction, and 
that his brother’s views in Boston also 
were obscured. What was his surprise, a 
few days later, to receive word that the 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


night was clear and that good observa- 
tions were secured, but that a severe 
northeaster began the next morning. 
He then sent out many inquiries to 
stage stations, and learned that at all 
places southwest of Philadelphia the 
storm began earlier, and that the greater 
the distance the earlier the beginning, 
as compared with its advent in Phila- 
delphia. Northeast of Philadelphia the 
time of beginning was later than at that 
city, the storm not reaching Boston 
until twelve hours after its commence- 
ment at Philadelphia. 

Franklin’s analogy of the water is all 
right so far as it goes. But if, instead 
of the canal, he had imagined a broad 
ocean, and in place of the gate he had 
located a maelstrom a hundred miles 
wide in the center of the ocean, toward 
which the waters within a circle a thou- 
sand miles in diameter were moving, 
first slowly and directly toward the 
center, then with accelerating velocity 
and increasing deflection to the right of 
the center, and finally faster and faster 
as they drew near and gyrated with 
fearful speed about the orifice down 
which they must plunge, he would have 
gained a clearer idea of the motions of 
the air in a large cyclonic storm, except 
that to make the analogy perfect it is 
necessary to invert the maelstrom and 
have the upper surface of the ocean face 
downward upon the land to represent 
the atmosphere, and then the maelstrom, 
with its vast system of in-flowing cur- 
rents, must have a movement of transla- 
tion eastward. 

The northeast hurricane that swept 
the region from Boston to Philadelphia 
was caused by the suction exercised by 
a cyclonic storm advancing from the 
southwest, which drew the air rapidly 
from Boston toward Philadelphia, while 
the source of the attraction—the center 
of the cyclone—was several hundred 
miles to the southwest of the latter 
place. The velocity of the northeast 
winds increased as the center of the cy- 


a5 7 


clone came nearer and nearer, until the 
winds reached the force of a hurricane. 
When the center of the storm reached 
the vicinity of Philadelphia the winds 
suddenly became variable and light, and 
as the center of the disturbance passed 
the winds arose as quickly as they had 
subsided, but with this difference : they 
now blew from some westerly point in- 
directly, or spirally toward the center 
of the storm that was passing eastward, 
and diminished in force as the center 
gained distance. 

Had the telegraph been in existence 
in Thomas Jefferson’s day he doubtless 
would have conceived the idea of fore- 
casting the weather. In conjunction 
with his friend, James Madison (after- 
ward Bishop), he conducted a series of 
weather observations, which were be- 
gun in 1771 and continued during the 
stirring times of the Revolution. Madi- 
son was near the sea, at Williamsburg, 
the colonial capital of Virginia; Jeffer- 


‘son was at Monticello, 120 miles west. 


They took simultaneous observations 
for several years, until the British ran- 
sacked Madison’s house and carried off 
his barometer. By comparing observa- 
tions they discovered that barometric 
and thermometric changes occurred at 
Monticello three or four hours before 
they did at Williamsburg. 


THE BEGINNING OE THE AMERICAN 
WEATHER SERVICE 


Although American scientists were 
the pioneers in discovering the progress- 
ive character of storms and in deter- 
mining the practicability of forecasting 
the weather, the United States .was the 
fourth country to give legal autonomy 
to a weather service. But it would re- 
quire an international service, embrac- 
ing all the countries of Europe, to equal 
the service of the United States in ex- 
tent of the areacovered. Furthermore, 
forecasts for the countries of western 
Europe can never cover the time in ad- 
vance or attain the accuracy of those 


Py fet >) 


made for the region east of the Rocky 
Mountains on the American continent, 
because of the ocean that lies to the 
west of these countries in Europe, from 
which observations cannot be secured. 
To be sure, wireless telegraphy may 
partly relieve the situation, but irregu- 
lar observations from moving vessels 
cannot take the place of stable land 
stations. ? 

At the time of the beginning of the 
U. S. weather service, in 1870, and for 
some years thereafter the forecasts and 
storm warnings were. looked upon by 
the press and the people more as ex- 
periments than as serious statements. 
The newspapers were prone to comment 
facetiously on them, and many were 
clamorous for the abolition of the serv- 
ice. We knew nearly as much about 
the theory of storms then as we do to- 
day; but we had never had the oppor- 
tunity to train a corps of expert fore- 
casters, such as now form a considera- 
ble part of the staff of the Chief of the 
Weather Bureau, and from which he 
himself was graduated. This could 
only be done by several years of daily 
watching the inception, the develop- 
ment, and the progression of storms. 
After a time mariners began to note 
that in the great majority of cases storm 
warnings were followed by dangerous 
winds and to take heed accordingly. 
With experience the warnings became 
still more accurate, until now no port, 
however small, is without its storm- 
warning tower, and no mariner sails 
the seas who does not consult the sig- 
nals, and no shipper of perishable com- 
modities runs his business a day in the 
winter without being in touch with the 
source of cold-wave warnings, and no 
large grower of fruits or vegetables is 
content to be excluded from the receipt 
of the frost forecasts. 

Redfield; Espy, Henry, Loomis; 
Maury, Abbe, and Lapham are the 
Americans to whom the world owes 
most for the founding of meteorological 


THe NaATIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


science and for the demonstration of the 
feasibility of weather forecasts. 


HOW THE DAILY WEATHER CHART 
IS MADE 


It is essential to a comprehension of 
the problems involved in the making of 
forecasts that one gain a knowledge of 
the methods of gathering meteorological 
observations and making weather re- 
ports. This morning at 8 o’clock— 
75th meridian time—-which, by the way, 
is about 7 o’clock at Chicago, 6 o’clock 
at Denver, and 5 o’clock at San Fran- 
cisco—the observers at about 200 sta- 
tions scattered throughout the United 
States and the West Indies were taking 
their observations, and, with the aid of 
carefully tested instruments, noting the 
pressure of the air, the temperature, the 
humidity, the rainfall or snowfall, and 
the cloudiness at the bottom of the 
aerial ocean in which we live, and which, 
by its variations of heat and cold, sun- 
shine, clouds and tempest, affect not 
only the health and happiness of man, 
but his commercial and industrial wel- 
fare. By 8.15 the observations have 
been reduced to cipher for purposes of _ 
brevity, and each has been filed at the 
local telegraph office. During the next 
30 to 40 minutes these observations, 
with the right of way over all lines, are 
speeding to their destinations, each sta- 
tion contributing its own observations 
and receiving in return, by an ingenious 
system of telegraph circuits, such ob- 
servations from other stations as it may 
require. The observations from all 
stations are received at such centers as 
Washington, Chicago, New York, and 
other large cities, and nearly all cities 
having a Weather Bureau station re- 
ceives a sufficient number of reports 
from other cities to justify the issuing 
of a daily weather map. 

Before examining the accompanying 
charts it may be well to glance at the 
central office in Washington, while the 
observations are coming in, so as to get 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


an idea of how the charts are made for 
the study of the forecast official. From 
these he gets a panoramic view, not only 
of the exact conditions of the air over 
the whole country at the moment of 
taking the observations one hour before, 
but of the changes that have occurred 
in those conditions during the preceding 
12 and 24 hours. As fast as the reports 
come from the wires they are passed to 
the Forecast Division, where a reader 
stands in the middle of the room and 
translates the cipher into figures and 
words of intelligible sequence. A force 
of clerks is engaged in making graphic 
representations of the geographical dis- 
tribution of the different meteorological 
elements. On blank charts of the United 
States each clerk copies from the trans- 
lator that part of each station’s report 
needed in the construction of his par- 
ticular chart. One clerk constructs a 
chart showing the change in tempera- 
ture during the preceding 24 hours. 
Broad red lines separate the colder from 
the warmer regions, and narrow red lines 
inclose areas showing changes in tem- 
perature of more than 1odegrees. The 
narrow lines generally run in oval or 
circular form, indicating (as will be 
shown subsequently) that atmospheric 
disturbances move and operate in the 
form of great progressive eddies ; that 
there are central points of intensity from 
which the force of the disturbance di- 
minishes in all directions. 

A second clerk constructs a chart 
showing the change that has occurred 
in the barometer during the past 24 
hours. As in the construction of the 
temperature chart, broad, heavy lines 
of red separate the regions of rising 
barometer from those of falling barom- 
eter. Narrow lines inclose the areas 
over which the change in barometer has 
been greater than one-tenth, and so on. 

Here, for instance, throughout a great 
expanse of territory, all the barometers 
are rising—that is to say, the air cools, 
contracts, becomes denser, and presses 


= 58. 


with greater force upon the surface of 
the mercury in the cisterns of the in- 
struments, thereby sustaining the col- 
umns of liquid metal at a greater height 
in the vacuum tubes. Over another 
considerable area the barometers are 
falling, as increasing temperature rare- 
fies and expands the volume of the air, 
causing it to press upon the instruments 
with less force. ‘This chart is extremely 
useful to the forecaster, since, in con- 
nection with the general weather chart, 
it indicates whether or not the storm 
centers are increasing or decreasing in 
intensity, and, what is of more impor- 
tance, it gives in a great measure the 
first warning of the formation of storms. 

A third clerk constructs two charts, 
one showing the humidity of the air 
and the other the cloud areas, with the 
kind, amount, and direction of the 
clouds at each station. It is often in- 
teresting to observe at a station on the 
cloud chart high cirrus clouds composed 
of minute ice spiculze moving from one 
direction, lower cumulo-stratus com- 
posed of condensed water vapor moving 
from another direction, and the wind 
at the surface of the earth blowing from 
a third point of the compass. Such 
erratic movements of the air strata are 
only observed shortly before or during 
rain or wind storms. 

A fourth clerk constructs a chart 
called the general weather chart, show- 
ing for each station the air temperature 
and pressure, the velocity and direction 
of the wind, the rain or snow fall since 
the last report, and the amount of 
cloudiness. The readings of the barom- 
eter on this chart are reduced to sea- 
level, so that the variations in pressure 
due to local altitudes may not mask and 
obscure those due to storm formation. 
Then lines, called isobars, are drawn 
through places having the same pres- 
sure. By drawing isobars for each dif- 
ference in pressure of one-tenth of an 
inch the high and the low pressure 
areas are soon inclosed in their proper 


260 


circles. The word ‘‘high’’ is written 
at the center of the region of greatest 
air pressure and the word ‘‘low’’ at 
the center of the area of least pressure. 
Under the influence of gravity the air 
presses downward and outward in all 
directions, thus causing it to flow from 
a’ region of great pressure toward one 
of less. The velocity with which the 
wind moves from the high toward the 
low will depend largely on the differ- 
ence in air pressure. To better illus- 
trate: If the barometer read 29.5 at Chi- 
cago, Ill., and 30.5 at Bismarck, North 
Dakota, the difference of one inch in 
pressure would cause the air to move 
from Bismarck toward Chicago so rap- 
idly that after allowing forthe resistance 
of the ground there would remain a 
wind at the surface of the earth of about 
50 miles per hour, and Lake Michigan 
would experience a severe ‘‘north- 
wester.’’ 


CYCLONIC STORMS 


- Chart No. r shows a winter storm (cy- 
clone) central in Iowa at 8 a.m., Decem- 
ber 15, 1893. The word ‘‘low’’ marks 
the storm center. It is the one place 
in all the United States where the ba- 
rometer reading is the lowest. The 
heavy, black lines, oval and nearly con- 
centric about the low, show the gradation 
of air pressure as it increases quite uni- 
formly in all directions from the storm 
center outward. 

‘ The arrows fly with the wind, and, 
as will be seen, are almost without ex- 
ception moving indirectly toward the 
low or storm center, clearly demonstrat- 
ing the effect of gravity in causing the 
air to flow from the several regions 
marked high, where the air is abnor- 
mally heavy, toward the low, where the 
air is lighter. As the velocity of water 
flowing down an inclined plane depends 
both on the slope of the plane and on 
the roughness of its surface, so the ve- 
locity of the wind as it blows along the 
surface of the earth toward the storm 


THe NatTionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


center depends on the amount of the de- 
pression of the barometer at the center 
and the resistance offered by surfaces of 
varying degrees of roughness. The 
small figures placed at the ends of the 
arrows indicate wind velocities of six 
miles per hour and more. At Chicago, 
where the wind is blowing at the rate 
of 40 miles per hour, the anemometer is 
270 feet high, while at Minneapolis, 
where the instrument is so low as to be in 
the stratum whose velocity is restricted 
by the resistance encountered in flowing 
over forests to the northward, the rate 
is not great enough to be marked by a 
figure. At Chicago and Davenport the 
wind is blowing against the pressure 
gradient, away from the low. ‘This is 
due to the fact that it has flowed swiftly 
from the south and gained such momen- 
tum that it rushes by the storm center - 
before the gradient on the north of the 
center can overcome its movement and 
tuUniatt, 

Now picture in your mind the fact 
that all the air inside the isobar (heavy 
black line) .marked 30.2 as it moves 
spirally inward is rotating about the low 
in a direction contrary to the movement 
of the hands of a watch, and you havea 
very fair conception of an immense at- 
mospheric eddy, or cyclone. 

Have you ever watched the placid 
water of a deep running brook and ob- 
served that where it encountered a pro- 
jecting crag little eddies formed and 
went spinning down the stream? Well, 
storms are simply great eddies in the 
air that are carried along by the general 
easterly movement of the atmosphere in 
the middle latitudes of both hemispheres 
and by the westerly movement of the 
general circulation in the tropics. But 
they are not deep eddies, as was once 
supposed. The low marks the center 
of an atmospheric eddy of vast horizon- 
tal extent as compared with its thickness 
or extension in a vertical direction ; thus 
a storm condition extends from Wash- 
ington to Denver in a horizontal direc- 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


tion, and yet extends upward but four 
or five miles. The whole disk of whirl- 
ing air four or five miles thick and 1,500 
miles in diameter is called a cyclone or 
cyclonic system. It isimportant thata 
proper conception of this fundamental 
idea be had, since the weather experi- 
enced from day to day depends almost 
wholly on the movement of these trav- 
eling eddies, cyclones, or areas of low 
pressure. 

That one may gain a clear under- 
standing of the difference between the 
movements of the air in the cyclone and 
the movement of the cyclone itself, or 
its translation from place to place, let 
him picture in his mind the solarsystem, 
with all of its planets and_their satellites, 
turning each upon its own axis and 
“pursuing its orbit about the sun, and 
then imagine the sun also as rotating 
and as moving forward in space without 
change in the relation of the planets to 
the sun, or the satellites to the planets, 
and he will have less difficulty in com- 
prehending the various phases of the 
translation of a cyclonic system and the 
sequence in which the force and the di- 
rection of the wind changes ; how the 
wind must blow into the front of the 
storm in a direction partly or wholly 
contrary to the movements of the storm 
itself and into the rear of the storm as 
it passes away ; how the wind increases 
in velocity as it gyrates spirally about 
the center and approaches nearer and 
nearer the region where it must ascend ; 
how centrifugal force, in causing the 
higher layers of air to move away from 
the center, tends to cause an accumu- 
lation of air about the outer periphery 
of the storm, which in turn presses 
downward and impels the surface air 
inward. ‘This whole complex system of 
motion moves forward the same as does 
the sun and his system. 

The black round disk indicates that 
the weather is cloudy at the moment of 
the observation, and the open disk clear 
sky. S. and R. stand for snow and 


Pork 


rain. The large figures in the four 
quarters of the cyclone show the aver- 
age temperature of each quadrant. The 
greatest difference is between the south- 
east and northwest sections. This is 
due in part to the fact that in the south- 
east quadrant the air is drawn north- 
ward from warmer latitudes, and in the 
northwest quadrant the air is drawn 
southward from colder latitudes. 

Chart II, constructed from observa- 
tions taken zz hours later, shows that 
the storm or cyclonic center, as indi- 
cated by the word ‘“‘low,’’ has moved 
from central Iowa since 8 a. m. and is 
now, at 8 p..m., central over the south- 
ern point of Lake Michigan. The 
shaded areas show that precipitation has 
occurred during the past 12 hours in 
nearly the entire region covered by the 
cyclone. Unfortunately for the science 
of forecasting, precipitation does not 
show that relation to the configuration 
of the isobars that temperature, wind 
velocity, and wind direction do. 

Note that none has fallen in the south- 
ern portion of Ohio, in northwest Mis- 
souri, and in West Virginia and eastern 
Kentucky, although they are near the 
storm center, while a fall has occurred 
in New England, quite remote from the 
center of barometric depression. ‘These 
facts illustrate how a forecast of rain or 
snow may fail for a portion of a state or 
for a whole state, even though the storm 
pass over the state and the wind and 
temperature change precisely as pre- 
dicted. However, all the places men- 
tioned as failing to receive precipitation 
were showered upon during the further 
progress of the storm, except northwest 
Missouri, as will be seen by referring to 
chart III of the following morning. 
The cyclone has continued its course 
toward the northeast, and has brought 
the rain area eastward to include nearly 
the whole Atlantic coast region. The 
weather has cleared on the west side of 
the storm. 

Charts II and III contain red lines, 


262 


which, like the dark shading, do not ap- 
pear on chart I, which was purposely 
left clear of these symbols, so that the 
movement of wind in accordance with 
pressure gradients could be the better 
shown. These red lines connect places 
having the same temperature. Note 
how, on both charts, they trend from 
the Atlantic coast northwestward into 
the southeast quarter of the cyclone, 
and where they leave the storm center 
how precipitately they drop away to- 
ward the southwest. A cause can be 
easily found for this by examining the 
direction of the arrows. In the first 
case the isothermals are being pushed 
northward by southerly winds, and in 
the other forced southward by winds 
from the northwest. As the cyclone 
proceeds eastward the regions now un- 
der the influence of warm southerly 
winds will be, in less than 24 hours, on 
the west side of the storm, and cold 
northwest winds will sweep over them. 
The line of arrows leading from west- 
ern Wyoming to the center of the storm 
on chart III shows the place where the 
cyclonic circulation of wind began that 
constitutes the storm and the course 
pursued by the storm center. The 
small circles surrounding crosses mark 
the places where the storm was central 
at each 12-hour interval. The figure 
above the circle indicates the date, and 
the letter below evening or morning. 
As previously explained, the large 
figures give the average temperature for 
each of the four quarters of the storm 
within a radius of 500 miles from the 
center. ‘The same information may be 
gathered from the isotherms, but cannot 
be sostrikingly presented. Now, remem- 
bering that the air ascends as it spirally 
moves around the center, one may see 
how the cold air of the northwest quar- 
ter is mingled with the warm air of the 
southeast portion, which in each of the 
three cases presented by the charts so 
far brought into the discussion is more 
than three times as warm. On chart 


Tur NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


III the two quarters are represented— 
one by 13 degrees and the other by 47 
degrees. The mixing of such cold and 
such warm masses of air and the addi- 
tion of cold due to expansion as the mix- 
ture rises is a fruitful cause of precipi- 
tation, but not the only one, for we see 
that rain has fallen in the Gulf states, 
as exhibited on chart III, probably only 
as the result of cold northwest winds 
flowing into and mingling with the 
warm air of the south. Precipitation 
may also occur as the result of the warm 
humid air of southerly winds under- 
running cold and heavier air, and by © 
other processes not yet understood. 


ANTI-CYCLONIC STORMS 


Attention is now directed to the aztz- 
cyclone or high-pressure area shown on 
these three charts as resting over the 
Rocky Mountain plateau. Hereallthe 
functions of the cyclone are reversed ; 
hence the name anti-cyclone. The air 
has a downward component of motion 
at and for a considerable area about the 
center, instead of an upward compo- — 
nent ; the winds blow spirally outward 
from the interior, instead of inward, and 
are deflected to the left of their initial 
direction, instead of to the right, and 
the air is mostly clear, cool, and dry, 
instead of cloudy, warm, and humid. 
The center of this high moved but little 
during the three 12-hour periods, but 
its area expanded eastward as the low 
advanced, and if the chart of Decem- 
ber 17, 8 p. m., were shown the high 
pressure would be seen to cover with 
clear, cool weather the region now em- 
braced within the limits of the low 
pressure. 

These are winter conditions that are 
being described. ‘The storms are gen- 
eral, not local, as in summer, when the 
highs and the lows exhibit small differ- 
ences of pressure, move slowly, and sel- 
dom embrace large areas. The summer 
type of local storms gradually merges 
into general storms as the heat of sum- 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


mer wanes, the first general rainstorms 
usually occurring during the latter part 
of September. This has given rise to 
the erroneous idea of an ‘‘equinoxial 
storm.,”’ 


HOT WAVES 


For some reason there come, in sum- 
mer, periods of stagnation in the drift of 
the highs and the lows. Atsuch times, 
if a high sluggishly rests over the south 
Atlantic Ocean between Bermuda and 
the coast of the United States and a 
low over the northern Rocky Mountain 
region, there will result what is popu- 
larly known as a warm wave, for the 
air, on account of its slightly greater 
specific gravity, will slowly and steadily 
flow from the southeast, where the press- 
ure is greater, toward the northwest, 
where the pressure is less, and, receiv- 
ing constant accretions of heat from the 
hot, radiating surface of the earth, with- 
out any cyclones to mix the upper and 
lower strata, will finally attain a tem- 
perature almost unbearable to animal 
life. This superheated condition of the 
lower stratum in which we live continues 
until the high over the ocean dies out 
or drifts away to the east and the low- 
pressure area in the northwest begins 
to gyrate as a cyclone and moves east- 
ward, mixing in its course strata of un- 
equal temperatures and precipitating 
the cool and welcome thunder showers. 


COLD WAVES 


Chart IV shows the beginning of a 
cold wave in the northwest on the morn- 
ing of January 7, 1886. Observe that 
the heavy, black isobar passing through 
Montana is marked 30.9, while the iso- 
bar curving through southern Texas is 
marked 29.8, a difference of I.1 inch in 
the air pressure between Montana and 
Texas. The red isothermal line in Mon- 
tana is marked 30 degrees below zero, 
while the isotherm on the Texas coast 
indicates a temperature of 50 degrees. 

The people of the Gulf states, with 


2:63 


a morning temperature of 4o to 50 de- 
grees, knew nothing of the great volume 
of extremely cold air to the northwest 
of them; but from the distribution of 
air pressure shown by chart IV the 
forecaster anticipated that the cold air 
of the northwestern states, on account 
of its great weight, would be forced 
southward to the Gulf and eastward to 
the Atlantic Ocean, or, more accurately 
speaking, that the conditions causing 
the cold in the northwest would drift 
southward and eastward. He therefore 
issued the proper warning to the threat- 
ened districts. 

Now turn to chart V of the following 
morning, and it will be seen that the 
cold wave has covered the entire Missis- 
sippi Valley. The 10-degree isothermal 
line has been forced southward almost 
to Galveston, where the temperature the 
preceding morning was 50 degrees. 

The low shown on the preceding chart 
as being central in southern Texas has 
moved northeastward to Alabama and 
on chart V appears as a fully developed 
storm. The difference in pressure be- 
tween the central isobar of the low and 
the central isobar of the high is now 1.4 
inches. 

The low is lower and the high is 
higher—conditions that argue ill for the 
coast line toward which the low is mov- 
ing. Next look at the arrows at the 
coast stations from Key West, Florida, 
to Eastport, Maine; they are found to 
have short bars at one end, which indi- 
cate that every port, large and small, 
between these two places is flying dan- 
ger signals, and that every promontory 
or island along this vast stretch of sea- 
shore will exhibit the warning lights of 
the Weather Bureau as soon as night 
falls. 

Twenty-five years ago mariners de- 
pended on their own weather lore to 
warn them of coming storms; then, al- 
though the number of ships plying the 
seas was much less than it is now, every 
severe storm that swept across them left 


204 


death and destruction in its wake, and 
for days afterward the dead were cast 
up by the subsiding waters and the 
shores were lined with wreckage. Hap- 
pily thisis notnowthe case. Theangry 
waters and the howling winds vent their 
fury the one upon the other, while the 
great mass of shipping, so long the prey 
of the winds and the waves, rides safely 
at anchor in convenient harbors. 

The large figures in the four quarters 
of the low again strikingly illustrate 
how great may be the difference in tem- 
perature, under cyclonic influence, be- 
tween regions separated by but short 
distances. It is certain that as the low 
or cyclonic whirl moves toward the 
northeast, along the track usually fol- 
lowed by storms in this locality, the 
cold of the northwest quadrant, by the 
action of the horizontally whirling disk 
of air that constitutes the low, will be 
driven southeastward toward Florida, 
lowering the temperature in the orange 
groves to below the freezing point. 

Chart VI shows that the center of the 
cyclone has moved during the preceding 
24 hours northeast to the coast of New 
Jersey, with greatly increased energy, 
the barometer at the center showing the 
abnormally low reading of 28.7 inches. 
Cold northwest winds, as shown by the 
arrows, are now blowing systematically 
from the high-pressure area of the north- 
western states southeast to Florida and 
the South Atlantic coast. The red iso- 
therm of 30 degrees passes through the 
northern part of Florida, where, on the 
day before, the temperature was over 
50 degrees. The cyclonic gyration of 
this storm extends 1,000 miles inland 
and probably to an equal distance out 
to sea. Heavy snow or rain has fallen 
throughout the area under its influence, 
seriously impeding railroad travel, and 
a gale of hurricane force has prevailed 
on the coast ; but when, on the day pre- 
ceding, the storm was central in Ala- 
bama all these conditions were foreseen 
and the necessary warnings issued. 


THe NAtTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Chart VII shows the conditions 24 
hours later. Thestorm center, asshown 
by the line of arrows, has been three 
days in passing from southern Texas to 
the mouth of the St Lawrence. ‘The 
temperature has fallen still lower on the 
Atlantic coast and in Florida as the re- 
sult of uninterrupted northwest winds, 
and no material rise in temperature can 
occur until the high pressure of the 
northwest is replaced by a low pressure, 
and convectional currents are drawn to- 
ward the northwest instead of being 
forced southward from that region. : 

When the charts indicate the forma- 
tion of a large volume of dense, cold air 
in the northwest, as shown by the ba- 
rometer readings, the skilled forecaster 
is on the alert. He calls for special 
observations every few hours from the 
stations within and directly in advance 
of the cold area, and as soon as he be- 
comes convinced that the cold wave will 
sweep across the country with its at- 
tendant damage to property, destruction 
to animal life, and discomfort to human- 
ity, the well-arranged system of dissem- 
inating warnings is brought into action, 
and by telegraph, telephone, flags, bul- 
letins, maps, and other agencies the 
people in every city, town, and hamlet, 
and even in farming settlements, are 
notified of the advancing cold 12, 24, or 
even 36 hours before it reaches them ; 
and it is safe to say that $10,000,000 
is a low estimate to make of the value 
of the perishable property that is pro- 
tected in the United States as the result 
of the warnings that are distributed by 
the government in advance of the com- 
ing of only one of several severe cold 
waves that occur each winter. 

In the late spring and early fall the 
highs or anti-cyclones, while possess- 
ing less energy than in the winter, may 
at times bring down to the earth such 
unseasonably cold air as to cause inju- 
rious or destructive frosts, the frosts 
being caused not necessarily by the cool 
air of the high, but by the clearness of 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


the air, which allows a free escape of 
heat from the earth by radiation at 
night. As in the case of cold waves, 
warnings are widely distributed in ad- 
vance of the high that may cause frosts, 
with great profit to the growers of tender 
fruits and vegetables. 

In a general way the degree of cold 
in a cold wave, or rather the departure 
of the temperature from the normal of 
the season, will be proportional to the 
height of the barometer, and a neces- 
sary concomitant of a cold wave is an 
area of low pressure immediately in ad- 
vance of the high pressure, the upward 
movement in one increasing the down- 
ward motion of the other; and the 
greater the difference in the barometer 
between the two the greater the velocity 
with which the air will gyrate about 
and into the low, and the greater the 
downward and outward movement of 
the air in the high, and the more intense 
the cold. It therefore follows that a 
high that is not preceded by an active 
low will have a less degree of cold for 
a given pressure, and that the extent 
and intensity of cold waves depends con- 
siderably on the form and the charac- 
teristics of the preceding low and its 
location ; if north of the center of the 
country the cold that follows will not 
reach the Gulf states in severe form, if 
at all; but if a low of considerable 
energy forms in the region of Texas 
and moves northeastward to the Atlantic 
coast, as nearly all lows do that orig- 
inate in this region, and a high of equal 
intensity develops at the same time over 
the northern plateau of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, the latter will be drawn far to the 
south as the former moves out of the 
way toward the east, and cold north- 
west winds, driven by the high and at- 
tracted by the low, flow into the Gulf of 
Mexico itself, even reaching the islands 
of the West Indies. 

It would be impossible for a cold wave 
to come upon the Pacific Coast states 
with the highs that drift in from the 


20 5 


ocean, because of the warming effect of 
the water upon the air to considerable 
elevations ; but frosts and cold waves 
visit the interior valleys of California 
and other coast states and reach almost 
to the ocean’s edge. ‘They are due to 
highs that move southward and then 
eastward along the plateau. The highs 
may be moving eastward very slowly, 
but the diameter of the areas covered by 
them may increase so rapidly that some 
cold air is pushed over the mountain 
tops and flows from the northeast into 
the interior valleys of the coast states. 
The U. S. Weather Bureau has 
adopted certain arbitrary thermal limits 
to determine what constitutes a cold 
wave. Both the extent of the fall of 
temperature and the degree of cold that 
must be reached vary for season and 
place. For example, in December, Jan- 
uary, and February a cold wave in the 
northern Rocky Mountain region occurs 
when the temperature falls 20 degrees 
in 24 hours and reaches a minimum of 
zero or lower; in Tennessee a fall of 
20 degrees, and to 20 degrees or lower 
is required, while along the Gulf coast 
afallof but 16 degrees and to 32 degrees 
constitutes a cold wave. The fall in 
temperature is reckoned from any given 
hour of one day to the same hour of 
the next day or from the minimum of 
one day to the minimum of the next. 
The area and the intensity of cold 
waves depend upon the size of conti- 
nents and their distance from the trop- 
ics. The interior of North America 
and of Siberia have geographic condi- 
tions that cause the most severe cold 
waves of any parts of the world. If 
the elevation of the Rocky Mountain 
plateau in North America were one-half 
of what it is and if the mountain chains 
were leveled away, or even trended to 
the east and west instead of north and 
south, the vaporous atmosphere of the 
Pacific, which extends upward but a 
very short distance and which decreases 
in density rapidly with elevation, be- 


206 


cause of the inability of water to exist 
in the vaporous form in considerable 
quantities except under the action of 
the comparatively high temperatures of 
the thin stratum near the earth, would 
flow far into the interior of the conti- 
nent, and by absorbing the heat of the 
sun during the day and restricting radi- 
ation from the earth at night markedly 
decrease the severity of cold waves and 
other changes in temperature. Hence 
it is seen that the height of mountain 
systems and their trend relative to large 
bodies of water and to the prevailing 
direction of winds are important factors 
in the causing of cold waves. 

As stated before, the air has a down- 
ward movement in the anti-cyclone, 
which may beso feeble as to cause only 
a slight change in temperature at the 
earth, or it may be active enough to 
lower the temperature down to the frost 
line in spring or fall, or even have such 
energy as to cause a cold wave in winter. 
In the latter case the air possesses such 
intense cold at the elevation from which 
it is drawn that, notwithstanding the 
fact that it gains heat by compression 
at the rate of about 1 degree for each 200 
feet of descent, it is still far below normal 
temperature when it 1eaches the earth. 
Its initial temperature is so low that it 
can contain only a minute portion of 
water vapor ; it therefore evaporates all 
fog or cloud as it gains in temperature 
during its fall, and by flowing away lat- 
erally along the earth it drives away the 
more humid airofthelowerstrata. The 
downward motion thus introduces con- 
ditions of clearness and deficiency of 
water vapor that promotes free radia- 
tion and the loss of much of the heat 
dynamically gained as well as that given 
off by theearth tothe air. Ittherefore 
seems that departures from the normal 
temperature of a time and place are the 
result of the motions of the air below the 
height of 10 miles. Ascending and de- 
scending currents cease before this alti- 
tude is reached, and it is probable that 


THE NatTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


the temperature of this region changes 
but little from season to season and 
from year to year, although short-period 
observations with the bolometer, which 
registers changes in the amount of heat 
that falls upon the outer limits of the 
air, indicate that in timeit possibly may 
be necessary to modify this opinion. 

Few people realize that the cold wave 
has an important therapeutic value. It 
scatters and diffuses the carbonic-acid 
gas exhaled by animal life and the fetid 
gas emanating from decaying organic 
matter. Its dense air not only gives 
more oxygen with each inspiration of 
the lungs, but the high electrification 
that always accompanies it invigorates 
man and all other animal life. ‘The 
cold north wind, if it be dry, asi 
usually is, brings physical energy and 
mental buoyancy in its pure but bois- 
terous breath. 


HURRICANES 


Most of the storms that gain such a 
velocity of gyration as to consitute hur- 
ricanes originate in the tropics and move 
northwestward to latitude 26 degrees to 
32 degrees, where they recurve and move 
toward the northeast. These are the 
most severe of all the storms that visit the 
North American continent. ‘The West 
Indies and the Philippines are the re- 
gions wherein these forceful storms 
originate in the greatest numbers, and 
the commerce of all nations has profited 
largely by the spirit that has prompted 
the United States to establish, since 
1898, a complete system of cable-report- 
ing meteorological stations in both of 
these sections, which enables a central 
station to keep mariners advised of 
danger. 

At times hurricanes remain several 
days in the Gulf of Mexico or off our 
South Atlantic coast, and the only in- 
dication we have of their proximity is a 
strong suction drawing the air briskly 
over some of our coast stations toward 
the center of the storm. Again, a 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


heavy ocean swell may be caused by the 
friction of the rapidly gyrating air on 
the surface of the water, and when the 
hurricane has a slow progressive move- 
ment, as it usually has south of latitude 
30 degrees, this swell may be propagated 
outward from the center of the storm 
faster than the storm is moving and 
reach the coast several hours before 
either the barometer or the wind move- 
ment gives any indication of the coming 
storm. 

The tracks of West Indian hurricanes 
are usually in the form of parabolas. 
These storms come from the southeast, 
but on reaching the latitude of our Gulf 
coast they, as a rule, recurve to the 
northeast and pass along our coast line 
or near to it. 

Chart VIII shows a West Indian hur- 
ricane just making its advent into 
Florida. The effect of the storm is felt 
as far north as Wilmington, where the 
wind is being drawn from the northeast 
at the rate of 24 miles per hour, and dan- 
ger warnings, as indicated by the bars 
on the arrows, are being displayed as 
far north as Norfolk, both at the regu- 
lar observation stations of the Weather 
Bureau and at all the numerous large 
and small harbors of the South Atlantic 
coast. The winds at Savannah and 
Jacksonville are moving from the north- 
east and north, respectively, at 20 miles 
per hour, which is four miles less than at 
Wilmington, farther away from the 
storm center. This apparent inconsist- 
ency may be due to the low and re- 
stricted exposure of the instruments at 
the nearer stations, but not necessarily 
so, as the winds never blow into or 
around a storm at velocities that are 
evenly and consistently in accord with 
the pressure gradients, but rather in the 
form of rising and falling gusts. 

Observe that there are no warnings 
flying at Key West; this is because the 
storm center is moving away, and the 
wind cannot therefore reach any higher 
velocity than it now has, and must 
steadily decline. 


267 


In studying the winds about this 
storm center, or rather about such part 
of it as projects over the land, recall 
the story about Franklin’s northeast 
storm. It will be seen how itis possible 
for storms to progress against the wind. 
In thunder-storms this rule does not 
hold. ‘They cover but an infinitesimal 
area in comparison with a cyclone, and 
there is a horizontal rolling of the atmos- 
phere, caused by cold and heavy air from 
above breaking through into a lighter 
superheated stratum next the earth. 
This rolling motion throws forward the 
cool air in the direction in which the 
cloud is moving. © 

Chart IX shows a slight aberration in 
the northeast course of the storm, which 
places the center inland, so that the 
whole cyclone can be charted. From 
eastern Florida the usual course is north- 
east over the ocean instead of up through 
Georgia and the Carolinas. What 
caused this storm to depart from the 
usual course? ‘The reason can be easily 
found, and it is important that one 
should find it. The high over New 
England and the contiguous ocean had 
a tendency to crowd the storm inland 
and eause it to seek the route of least re- 
sistance, and the low over the Lake re- 
gion attracted it. That is the reason ; 
it will be made plainer when we come 
to consider the translation of storms. 

The storm has been destructive to 
marine property, the wind at Savannah 
reaching 72 miles per hour, and 48 miles 
at Jacksonville, and warnings are now 
displayed at all ports northward to New 
England, as the hurricane will move 
northward between the two highs along 
the lines of least pressure. Chart X 
shows that it traveled from northern 
Georgia to central New York during 
the next 24 hours. The storm center 
passing northward over the land instead 
of the water, the hurricane winds on 
the water were onshore—a condition 
that strewed the coast with the wreckage 
of many vessels that were unable to see 
the warning signals in time to seek har- 


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CHART I.—Winter Storm, December 15, 1893, 8 A. M. 


269 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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Tur NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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Large figures show ‘average temperature in each quad- 


HIGH indicates center of anticyclone, or high-pressure 
rant of cyclone. 


area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or low-pressure 


O clear; @ partly cloudy; @ cloudy; R rain; S snow. 
area. 


| Black lines connect places. having equal be é 
[| pressure; red lines connect places having equal tempera- 


ture; arrows point in direction wind is blowing; figures 
at end of arrows show wind velocity, when it is more 


than light. 


Shading shows precipitation area of last 24 hours. 


CHART III.—Winter Storm, December 16, 1893, 8 A. M. 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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CHART IV.—Cold Wave, January 7, 1886, 7 A. M. 


area. 
; Shading shows precipitation area 
ns° - no° 


252 Tue NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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CHART V.—Cold Wave, January 8, 1886, 7 A. M. 


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FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


27.6 


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FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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Tue NaTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


CHART XI.—The Galveston Hurricane, 1900 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ZO) 


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CHART XII.—Storm Tracks for August | 


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CHART 


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XVII.—Normal Storm Tracts for May 


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THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or low-pressure 


HIGH indicates center of anticyclone, or high-pressure 
area. 


Black lines connect places having equal barometric 


Large figures show average temperature in each quad- 


1 rant of cyclone. 


Shading shows precipitation area of last 12 hours. 


Weather Map 8 P. o. of that date 


tornado tracks in red. 


CHART XVIII.—Tornado at Louisville, Ky., March 27, 1890. 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ASuanbary years jo teak e—l6g1 jo ssopeuioy—"“xxX Lavy) 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


bors of safety. It is pertinent here to 
ask the student of weather forecasting 
what would have been the direction of 
the wind and its effect on the coast line 
if the storm had followed the usual 
course and passed northeastward with 
its center over the water instead of over 
the land. By this time the reader 
should be able to answer: The winds 
would have been from the west and 
much less harmful to mariners, because 
the surface water would have been 
driven seaward instead of being banked 
up in boisterous billows upon the shore, 
and ships would have scudded out to 
ocean before the gale instead of being 
broken up on the reefs. 

West Indian hurricanes are cyclonic 
in character, but on account of the fact 
that the diameter of the whirling eddy 
is much less and the velocity of rotation 
much greater than in the average cy- 
clone, it is customary to designate them 
as hurricanes. In other words, the 
hurricane is a cyclone of small area, but 
of powerful vortical action, and conse- 
quently of great destructive force. 

Chart XI shows the track of the Gal- 
veston storm. The spirals are not true 
pictures of the storm; neither do they 
represent pressure lines, as other charts 
have done. ‘They are used to illustrate 
more clearly than can be done in any 
other way the eddy-like motion of acy- 
clone and at the same time give the 
location of the hurricane on various 
dates. 

In explaining the hurricane of Octo- 
ber 27, 1903 (chart VIII), it was stated 
that the storm was deflected a little from 
its normal course by an anti-cyclone that 
rested over the ocean. A similar dis- 
tribution of air pressure occurred on 


September 6, 1900, when the hurricane © 


was over Florida, except that the anti- 
cyclone covered the whole region from 
the Mississippi River eastward to Ber- 
muda and southward tothe Gulf. The 
storm was therefore forced to travel 
westward around the high to the Texas 


2005 


coast before it could turn to the north- 
east. It was first detected in the Carib- 
bean Sea. It then moved at the rate of 
only about eight miles an hour. It in- 
creased its speed between Florida and 
the Texas coast to about 12 miles. It 
did not become destructive until after it 
passed into the Gulf. Then its velocity 
of gyration became so great that the 
water was beaten into a fury and great 
swells were propagated outward in ad- 
vance of the storm, some of which 
reached Galveston 16 hours before the 
hurricane. As the storm passed over 
the latter city the anemometer registered 
100 miles per hour and then broke into 
pieces. This was probably nearly the 
highest velocity reached, as it occurred 
at about the time of lowest barometer, 
which was 28.48 inches. As the storm 
moved toward the Lakes its rate of trans- 
lation increased to about 60 miles per 
hour, but its destructive force was much 
less on the land than on the water, al- 
though it produced wind velocities of 
over 70 miles at several Lake stations, 
which, by the way, were amply warned 
of the coming of the storm, as were all 
Gulf ports. 

Between July and October, inclusive, 
there are annually about ten tropical 
storms that touch some portion of the 
Atlantic or Gulf coast. Onan average, 
less than one per annum is severely de- 
structive. Most of them are of sucha 
nature that if timely warnings be issued, 
as they usually are, little loss of life or 
property occurs. As to the frequency 
with which these stornis visit the Gulf, 
it may be said that the late Increase A. 
Lapham, of Wisconsin, carefully pre- 
pared a list of severe storms, more than 
thirty-five years ago, to be used by him 
as one of the arguments for a govern- 
ment weather service. He showed that 
from 1800 to 1870 ten hurricanes reached 
Some portion of the Gulf coast with a 
force so marked as to leave authentic 
records in the local annals of the region. 
This is an average of one in each seven 


286 


years. This average has been main- 
tained since 1870; but no storm has 
left such an appalling record as the one 
of September 8, 1900, known as the 
Galveston hurricane, and it is not prob- 
able that we shall again see its counter- 
part on the Texas coast in centuries. 

It is a meteorological coincidence that 
the West Indies bear the same storm 
relation to the United States that the 
Philippines do to China and Japan. 
With the new possessions of the United 
States in the Orient it has been possible 
to establish a storm-warning service that 
is as valuable to the commerce plying 
the waters contiguous to the China coast 
as the service recently organized in the 
West Indies is to our southern seas. 

The hurricanes that occur in the Phil- 
ippine Islands are called typhoons. Like 
the West Indian storms, they occur 
mainly during four months of the year— 
the middle summer and early fall. The 
late Father Vifies, S. J., a scientist who 
gave much study to tropical storms, says 
it must be admitted that cyclones do not 
form at azy place within the tropical 
zones, but that they single out for their 
formation definite regions within those 
zones. ‘These regions are always on the 
southwest periphery of some of the great 
permanent ocean anti-cyclones. The 
conditions for the development of cy- 
clones in the tropics are best satisfied 
when large continents lie to the west, 
whose coasts trend northward and south- 
ward, with extensive seas to the east. 
Such, at any rate, are the geographic 
features that concur to form the cyclone 
regions of the West Indies, of the Phil- 
ippine Islands, of the China Sea, of the 
seas of India, of the region east of Africa 
in the vicinity of the islands of Mada- 


gascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Rodriguez, © 


CLC. 

The cause of all tropical hurricanes 
may be made clear by confining the ex- 
planation to a description of the condi- 
tions that permit of the formation of the 
West Indian storms, which are as fol- 
lows: 


THe NaTIonNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


‘Normally there is a belt of heavy air, 
of about rodegrees of latitude in width, 
lying just north of the tropics, which 
interposes an almost impassable barrier 
to the movement of cyclones north- 
ward. The region of greatest pressure 
of this belt is about the middle of the 
Atlantic Ocean. By August the heat 
of summer acting on the North Amer- 
ican continent has raised the tempera- 
ture of the air over the land much more 
than it has that over the water, and the 
land portion of the high-pressure belt 
is dispersed, leaving an opening for the 
escape northward of tropical storms, 
which form in the ocean on the south- 
west periphery of the great high-press- 
ure that so persistently remains central 
over the ocean. From this place of 
origin the hurricanes are carried north- 
westward by the general circulation 
of air outward from and around the 
big high. This grand summer circu- 
lation of the air of the Atlantic Ocean 
brings the tropical storms nearly or 
quite to our South Atlantic or Gulf 
states before they recurve to the north 
east in pursuing their course around the 
high. This anti-cyclone of the ocean 
differs from those that have heretofore 
been described, in the fact that it quite 
doggedly holds to nearly the same geo- 
graphic position. It covers the whole 
southern ocean, and as the currents of 
air spirally flow outward, in a direction 
that agrees with the circulation of the 
hands of a watch, they frequently break 
up into small cyclonic whirls of 100 to 
300 miles in diameter on the outer rim 
of the large anti-cyclone, and especially 
along the southwest quarter of the rim. 
The air as it runs down through the 
anti-cyclone feeds the vortices that form 
at the outer boundaries of the high. 
The vortex may whirl with the violence 
of ahurricane, and it usually does ; but 
in its course westward and then east- 
ward it clings to the outer hems of its 
parent—the anti-cyclone. 

The wonderful sweep of the West 
Indian cyclone is made clear by the 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


statement that storms of August and 
September may form southeast of the 
Windward Islands, cross the Caribbean 
Sea, recurve in the Gulf of Mexico or 
near the South Atlantic coast, and pass 
northeastward over the Atlantic Ocean 
and be lost in the interior of Europe or 
Asia. ‘The history of these storms and 
of all others of the oceans is learned 
by collecting and charting the daily 
observations from thousands of moving 
ships in connection with the observa- 
tions of island and coast stations. 


THE TRANSLATION OF STORMS 


The air expands upward to an alti- 


tude of 50 miles or more. It is so elas- 
tic and its expansion is so rapid as it 
recedes from the earth that nearly one- 
half of its mass lies below the three-mile 
level. Our storms and cold waves are 
simply great swirls in the lower stratum 
of probably not more than five miles in 
thickness, which more than likely are 
caused by the flowing together, on about 
the same level, of masses of air of widely 
different temperatures. An elaborate 
system of cloud observations, made dur- 
ing recent years, shows that the atmos- 
phere, in the middle latitudes of both 
hemispheres, flows eastward over these 
agitations of the lower air without be- 
ing disturbed by them. 

In the temperate zones cyclones and 
anti-cyclones drift toward the east at 
the usual rate of 600 miles per day, or 
about 37 miles per hour in winter and 
22 miles per hour in summer ; but there 
is no definite rule on which the fore- 
caster can rely. Sometimes they move 
at twice this speed, and again at less 
than half of it, or, what is more embar- 
rassing to the prophet, remain station- 
ary for one or two days and die out. 
It is safest to assume that the velocity 
of translation of a storm will be the 
average of the two immediately preced- 
ing it, unless the distribution of air 
pressure over the continent is markedly 
different in the several cases. Cyclones 


287 


and anti-cyclones usually alternate, but 
not always. At rare intervals a rain- 
storm or a cold wave may be followed 
by an atmospheric action similar to it- 
self, with only a narrow neutral area 
between. The most difficult weather. 
map to interpret and make a forecast 
from is one that contains several partly 
developed cyclones and anti-cyclones, 
each of small area and little force. The 
most that can be said then is that the 
weather will be unsettled, no definite 
type of weather lasting more than a few 
hours. 

Four-sevenths of all the storms of the 
United States come from the north pla- 
teau region of the Rocky Mountains 
and pass from this sub-arid region east- 
ward over the Lakes and New England, 
producing but scant precipitation. The 
greater number of the remaining three- 
sevenths are first defined in the arid 
southwest states or territories. These 
nearly always can be relied on to cause 
bountiful precipitation as they move 
northeastward over the lower Missis- 
sippi Valley and thence to New England. 
Drouths in the great wheat and corn 
belts and elsewhere eastward are broken 
only by cyclones that form in Arizona, 
New Mexico, or Texas. Storms move 
faster in the noithern part of the United 
States than they do in the southern por- 
tion, and their tracks migrate with the 
sun. 

After the forecaster has spent many 
years in studying the courses of storms, 
he learns that, at times, through a gain 
in force that is not shown by observa- 
tions taken at the bottom of the air, 
storms suddenly develop unexpected 
energy or pursue courses not antici- 
pated in his forecast, or that the barom- 
eter rises at the center of the storm 
without premonition and dissipates the 
energy of the cyclone. Fortunately, 
such cases are exceptions. 

Chart XII illustrates the courses of 
summer storms in the United States. 
The lines show the origin and the tracks 


288 


of the centers of the cyclones for August 
during a ten-year period, the anti-cy- 
clones following about the same lines. 
Adding the numbers at the ends of the 
lines and at the braces that inclose 
groups of lines, it is found that 83 
storms either had their origin in the 
states or else came to them from the 
West Indies or passed up through the 
ocean near enough to affect the Atlantic 
coast. The influence of the high west- 
ern plateau and its mountains in the 
formation of storms is illustrated by 
the fact* that 57° 0f these stonms ad 
their inception along the mountain sys- 
tem that runs through Colorado, Wy- 
oming, and Montana, and that none 
came in fromthe Pacific Ocean. August 
storms move at the rate of 16 to 26 miles 
per hour, or about 500 miles a day. 
Wherever the storms originate they are 
seen to have a strong tendency ulti- 
mately to reach New England. 

Now turn to chart XIII, which gives 
the storm tracks for February for a 
period of ten years. Against the 83 
storms of August there are 98 shown 
for February for the same period—1884- 
1893. ‘The tracks curve down farther 
to the south, many of them come in 
from the Pacific, and a large number 
form in Texas, but, like those of Au- 
gust, they finally pass over New En- 
gland, which fact explains the varia- 
bility of the weather of the latter region. 

As regards storm conditions, the year 
may be divided into three parts in the 
Northern Hemisphere. December, Jan- 
uary, February, and March are domi- 
nated by swiftly moving storms, swing- 
ing far to the south and carrying wide 
oscillations of temperature clear to the 
northern boundaries of the tropics, with 
general precipitation ; June, July, Au- 
gust, and September, by ill-defined 
storms and a sluggish movement of 
them, with many local rains of small 
area, rather than general storms, while 
October and November are transition 
periods between the summer and the 


Ture NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE > 


winter types, and April and May be- 
tween the winter and the summer con- 
ditions. 

At times there is an abnormal change 
in the rate of drift of the highs and the 
lows simultaneously over the eastern 
and the western continents and the in- 
tervening oceans that throws weather 
forecasts temporarily into confusion. 
It is difficult to assign a reason to such 
sudden departures from usual condi- 
tions. It may be due to the accumula- 
tion of large bodies of air over conti- 
nents or oceans from which no daily 
reports can be received. When mo- 
mentum expends itself against gravity 
there may be a banking up of air in 
unexplored regions, and its potential 
may hecome suddenly available in such 
a way as to accelerate or retard the gen- 
eral drift of storms, or it may be due to 
the complex dynamics of motion of the 
vast gaseous sphere from which the 
earth receives light, heat, and various 
other radiations 

When winter has become well estab- 
lished there often develops a permanent 
high over the great plain between the 
Rocky Mountains and the coast ranges, 
which remains inactive for weeks at a 
time, lows and other highs passing 
down from the north along its east front 
without materially disturbing it. Its 
principal function is to stop the drift of 
storms into the continent from the 
ocean immediately west of it. In mid- 
summer the high may be replaced by a 
stagnant low, and hot scorching winds 
blow steadily for many days over the 
states lying east and southeast of the 
low, withering the wheat and corn of 
the central Mississippi and lower Mis- 
souri Valleys. Charts XIV and XV 
show the most frequent routes of storms 
in the Northern Hemisphere. 

The influence of the area of high 
pressure in deflecting storms from their 
normal or usual course is set forth by 
Professor Garriott in his paper on 
‘“Tropical Storms in September.’’ In 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


this paper Professor Garriott divided 
the tropical storms. of September into 
three classes, namely: First, those that 
recurved east of the sixty-fifth meridian; 
second, those that recurved between 
the sixty-fifth and ninetieth meridians ; 
and, third, those that passed west of the 
ninetieth meridian or reached the United 
States without a recurve. Of the first 
class of storms, all of which first ap- 
peared east of the fiftieth meridian or 
north of the twentieth parallel, Professor 
Garriott observesthat only two appeared 
far enough to the south to render their 
advance over or near the West Indies a 
probability, and that in every instance 
the westward movement of the cyclones 
which recurved east of the sixty-fifth 
meridian was apparently prevented by 
anti-cyclonic areas which moved east- 
ward over the Southern states and ob- 
structed the westward advance and 
forced arecurve to the northward. He 
states that the recurve of storms of the 
second class—z. e., those that recurved 
between the sixty-fifth and ninetieth 
meridians—was apparently due to the 
obstruction offered to a westward course 
by anti-cyclonic areas which had ad- 
vanced or had been drawn from the 
continent over the west Gulf and South- 
western states. A large proportion of 
the third class of storms advanced 
westward from the eastern West In- 
dies. On their arrival in about longi- 
tude west 80 degrees, the average lon- 
gitude in which September tropical 
storms recurve, the pressure over the 
west Gulf began to decrease and rain 
set in, while the interior eastern districts 
of the United States were occupied by 
an extensive area of high pressure. As 
storms prefer to follow the path of least 
resistance, the centers moved toward 
the region of decreasing pressure and 
avoided the high and increasing pressure 
to the northward. When the pressure 
continued high over the eastern districts 
of the United States the storms were 
unable to recurve, and were penned in 


289 


over Mexico or the Southwestern states. 
In such instances, Professor Garriott 
states, the cyclones developed great vio- 
lence before disappearing. Similarly 
cyclones of this class that advanced 
northwestwardly toward the Middle or 
South Atlantic coast of the United 
States were apparently prevented from 
recurving by high pressure over the 
ocean to the northward and northeast- 
ward, and, being forced upon the coast, 
developed destructive energy. 

From the foregoing it appears that 
the effect of distribution of pressure in 
determining a storm’s path is recognized 
in practical forecasting. 


NEW METHOD FOR DETERMINING 
THE DIRECTION AND VELOCITY 
OF STORM MOVEMENT 


Local Forecaster Edward H. Bowie, 
in charge of the local office of the U.S. 
Weather Bureau at St Louis, Mo., has 
devised a new method of estimating the 
future course and rate of translation of 
storms, which, while not being absolute 
in its determinations, is a marked ad- 
vance over anything heretofore accom- 
plished in this direction. The unusually 
high degree of accuracy that has at- 
tended Mr Bowie’s forecasts for the past 
several years attests the value of his sys- 
tem. Storms follow the lines of least 
resistance ; but the trouble is that with 
the movement of vast systems of air, 
due to the excessive heat of the equator, 
combined with the rotation of the earth 
and the continual breaking up of the 
currents on the outer edges of these sys- 
tems into cyclonic or anti-cyclonic vor- 
tices, the lines of least resistance are 
always changing, sometimes slowly and 
again rapidly. The usefulness of Mr 
Bowie’s work lies in the fact that while 
some of his values are but roughly as- 
signed he has been able by a study of 
the pressure gradients about the base of 
the storm, in connection with the gen- 
eral drift of the upper air, to obtain a 


‘resultant that approaches with close pre- 


Tue NaTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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cision to the line of least resistance at 
the moment of the taking of the obser- 
vations on which the weather chart is 
founded. In the majority of cases his 
system locates the place to which the 
storm center will move during the com- 
ing 24 hours with considerable accu- 
racy. It might be improved on by tak- 
ing into account the vate of change in 
air pressure at all stations during the 
two hours preceding the observations, 
and constructing a hypothetical chart 
based upon such rate continuing for 12 
or 24 hours, and then applying the sys- 
tem to the latter chart instead of the 
real weather map in the effort to deter- 
mine the future course of the storm. 
The description of Mr Bowie’s method 
is told in his own words as follows : 
‘‘Assuming erratic storm movement 
to be due to unequal pressure distribu- 
tion, itis manifest that the direction and 
velocity of storm movement could be de- 
termined were it possible to obtain cor- 
rect values that would represent the 
pressure exerted upon a storm from all 
directions and the eastward drift of air 
at high levels that carries the storm with 
it. Working on this theory, effort has 
been directed toward obtaining a value 
that would represent the 24-hour east- 
ward drift from any given locality. 
To find this value it has been neces- 
sary, first, to determine the resultant 
of the pressure from all directions to- 
ward the storm center. To represent 
this pressure from all directions, lines 
radiating from the storm center to the 
north, northeast, east, southeast, etc., 
have been given, after considerable ex- 
perimental work, a length of one centi- 
meter for each tenth of an inch tncrease 
in barometric pressure along these lines, 
working with a map the scale of which 
is 160 miles to an inch, or that of the 
Washington weather map. The result- 
ant of such lines, or forces, acting to- 
ward the storm center, which may be 
found by the rules governing the poly- 
gon of velocities, will show the direction 


Tue NatTionaL GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE 


toward which the unequal pressure is 
forcing the storm. | 

‘“Tf the’ pressure of the air trom all 
directions toward the storm center be a 
factor in determining the direction and 
velocity of movement of a storm, it is 
obvious that this resultant, representing 
the value of and direction toward which 
the unequal pressure forces the storm, 
becomes one of the components that de- 
termine the storm’s path. 

‘‘As the 24-hour movement of any 
given storm is the measure of the forces 
that determine that movement, it follows 
that by using this resultant of pressure 
toward the storm center as one of the 
components which cause the storm to 
move along its path it 1s possible to find 
the other component of motion by re- 
solving a force representing a storm’s 
24-hour movement into its two compo- 
nents. One of these components, repre- 
senting the pressure effect, being known, 
the other component, representing the 
eastward drift, may be found by the 
rules governing the parallelogram of 
forces. If there bea basis for this theory, 
it must necessarily be that the second 
component, representing the eastward 
drift, should have approximately the 
same direction and value for two or 
more storms in the same locality for any 
given month of the year, provided the 
appropriate value is given the pressure 
acting toward the storm center from all 
directions. 

‘“ This component has been found for 
a large number of storms, whose values 
when charted show an agreement that 
appears to be more than accidental or 
merely coincident. 

‘‘“Having found the component rep- 
resenting the 24-hour eastward drift, 
which component is apparently fairly 
constant in value for any particular 
locality from year to year for a given 
month and the resultant of the pressure 
exerted on the storm center from all 
directions, the value of which is a vari- 
able quantity, it is patent that the direc- 


WEATHER AND STORMS 203 


TING THE 


ForRECAS 


Co61 ‘sesueyly ‘Woes, 32 


BUI poop yy V 


294 


tion and amount of movement of a storm 
is the resultant of these two forces. 
Thus, for instance, a December storm 
charted in Colorado, subject to a press- 
ure that tends to force it southward 400 
miles in 24 hours, is during the same 
period being carried eastward 450 miles 
by the flow of the upper currents. It 
is evident that the storm’s actual path 
will lie between the two lines represent- 
ing the eastward drift and the pressure 
that forces the storm to the south, the 
resulting movement being almost due 
southeast and a distance of approxi- 
mately 600 iiles. 

‘‘From a study of storm movement 
along the lines outlined above it is ap- 
parent that the rate and direction of 
movement of a storm in relation to its 
normal movement is governed by this 
variable component, representing the 
deflective force, or the resultant of the 
pressure exerted on the storm from all 
directions ; hence it follows that when 
this deflective force 1s toward the left 
(when facing the direction of normal 
progression) the storm will move to that 
side of the normal direction of advance, 
and when toward the right the converse 
will betrue. When this deflective force 
is acting in conjunction with the east- 
ward drift the storm’s rate of movement 
will be accelerated, and when in oppo- 
sition the storm’s progress will be re- 
tarded. It appears that in nearly all in- 
stances the storm increases in intensity 
when this component, representing the 
pressure of the air toward the storm 
center, is acting to the left of the normal 
direction of advance, but when toward 
the right the storm, as a rule, will de- 
crease in intensity. 

‘‘ Naturally exceptions are to be found 
in applying the method outlined above, 
but in practically all instances the ex- 
ceptions have been the result of an un- 
foreseen increase or decrease in the press- 
ure toward the storm center from some 
one of the several directions, which, in 
addition to offering an explanation of 


THe Nationa, GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE 


the exceptions, tends to prove the cor- 
rectness of the principle. Of course the 
application of the method is limited 
when the storm center is near a region 
from which no pressure observations are 
available—as, for instance, the storms 
that move along the Canadian border. 
In cases where there are a number of 
ill-defined storm centers it is not always 
possible to determine which center will 
become the primary one and which cen- 
ters will be dissipated, and therefore 
there is more or less doubt whether the 
deductions will be borne out by subse- 
quent events. In nearly all instances 
involving exceptions the error in prede- 
termining the movement of the center is 
apparently due to inability to determine 
the exact values that should be used to 
represent the pressure toward the storm 
center from the several directions. 

‘The values determined by the meth- 
ods used in the research along the lines 
indicated above are necessarily approx- 
imations only, and therefore tentative ; 
but it is believed that by refined meth- 
ods of computation values representing 
the pressure exerted on the storm center 
as well as the normal direction and ve- 
locity of the eastward drift can be found 
that will show the exact conditions, and 
thus lead to a higher degree of accuracy 
in charting the direction and movement 
of storms. 

‘‘The accompanying charts illustrate 
the method followed in developing the 
‘normal storm tracks’ and the appli- 
cation of the system in practical fore- 
casting to determine the direction and 
rate of movement of storm centers dur- 
ing 24-hour periods. 

‘‘Chart XVI shows the method fol- 
lowed to determine the correct value for 
each tenth of an inch increase in the 
barometric readings along lines radiat- 
ing from the storm center to the north, 
northeast, east, etc., to represent the 
influence of the pressure exerted on the 
storm center from the several directions ; 
it also illustrates the method followed in 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


developing the ‘normalstorm tracks’ for 
a given locality. Inthis figure, drawn to 
to the scale of the Washington weather 
map, the vector X represents the direc- 
tion and movement in 24 hours of the 
storm that was centered near Amarillo, 
Texas, 8a.m., May 26, 1903. The vector 
X, isthe resultant of the pressure acting 
from the north, northeast, east, etc., in 
the direction indicated, and was deter- 
mined from an increase in pressure from 
the storm center outward at 8a.m., May 


Lo eftmar/llo 


a 
ot 
“4, 
gu reo 
on 


CHART XVI —Showing method followed in developing 
normal storm tracks and in ascertaining the correct 
value to represent the pressure exerted on a storm 
center that causes it to depart from a normal track, 


26, as follows: Tothe north, 0o.10inch; 
northeast, 0 00; east, 0.60; southeast, 
0.30; south, 0.30; southwest, 0.30; 
west, 0.30, and northwest, 0.20, each 
tenth of an inch being given a value of 
one centimeter. The vector Y repre- 
sents the 24-hour movement of the 
storm that was centered over Amarillo, 
Texas, at 8a. m.; May 28, 1903. The 
vector Y, is the resultant of the pressure 
exerted on the storm center, determined, 
as above, from an increase in pressure 
from the storm center toward the several 


Seale of Miles 
709 200 300 


2o7 


directions, as follows: To the north, 0.30 
inch; northeast, 0.20; east, 0.60; south- 
east, 0.30; south, 0.10 ; southwest, 0.10 ; 
west, 0.10, and northwest, 0.40. 

‘‘ The vector X being the resultant 
of the forces that propelled the storm 
in the direction and to the point indi- 
cated in 24 hours, it is possible to elim- 
inate the pressure influence (if it be 
given an appropriate value) by resolv- 
ing the vector representing the track of 
the storm into its two components, one 
of which, X,, being the result- 
ant of the pressure exerted on 
the storm, the other, X,, will 
represent the 24-hourvaluethat 
should be given the general 
circulation of the atmosphere 
that carried the storm with it. 
Similarly, Y, represents the 24- 
hour value that should be given 
the general circulation that car- 
ried the storm of May 28 with 
it. It will be observed that X, 
and Y,, representing the 24- 
hour values of the general cir- 
culation on the two dates, are 
of equal length and vary not 
more than 3 degrees 30 min- 
utes in direction, from which 
it may be assumed that the 
general circulation of the at- 
mosphere in May that carries 
the storms of the region of New 
Mexico and northwest Texas 
with it may be represented by 
a mean of a number of vectors 
determined as above. It is manifest, 
therefore, that should a storm in May 
in the region indicated be acted upon 
by a distribution of pressure whose 
resultant is zevo its 24-hour direction 
and rate of movement will be that of the 
general circulation represented by a cor- 
rectly determined mean of a number of 
vectors, suchas X, and Y,. Hence such © 
means determined for the various dis- 
tricts of the country have been desig- 
nated ‘normal storm tracks,’ and are 
shown for May in chart XVII. 


Tue NaTIonaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


8 


2, 


Co61 ‘ 


poopy @ JO UOIZEUSIA 9} 19}Je 


AyD sesuvy je SpieA JY SII 9} Ul sUV0G 


299 


ForRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


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300 


“<The value that should be given each 
tenth of an inch increase in pressure 
measured outwardly from the storm 
center is of vital importance to the cor- 
rect working of the system, and is ar- 
rived at by constructing a number of 
charts similar to that presented in chart 
XVI. From an inspection of this figure 
it is apparent that if the value given 
each tenth of an inch increase in press- 
ure be decreased the resultants X, and 
Y, will decrease in length, and the angle 
between the vectors X, and Y, will de- 
crease, but the vectors themselves will 
become unequal—that is, X, willincrease 
and Y, decrease inlength. (The work- 
ing of the system is dependent on the 
assumption that the general circulation, 
as represented by the vectors X, and 
Y,, 1s fairly constant.) If the vdlue 
given the pressure effect be increased, 
the resultants X, and Y, will likewise 
increase, and the vector X, will become 
shorter and Y, very much longer, and, at 
the same time, the angle made by these 
lines will increase, from which it follows 
that a value of one centimeter for each 
tenth of an inch increase in pressure best 
meets the requirements in this case.”’ 

To determine the future course of a 
storm inthe month of May, for instance, 
resolve the pressure forces about the 
storm center into their resultant, then 
take for the future direction and distance 
of translation of the storm the resultant 
between this force and the force illus- 
trated on chart XVII as the upper-air 
drift or normal storm track as follows : 


em C 


6b 


In which the low is central near New 
Orleans, a 6 representing the pressure 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGAaZINngé 


resultant, or line along which the low 
will be forced if acted upon by pressure 
gradient only, and 6c the normal storm 
track, or the distance and direction of 
movement of the low as the result of 
upper-air drift alone, and ac the track 
thatthe storm center will follow. Hence, 
instead of the storm moving due south 
into the Gulf as the result of pressure, 
or northeast to southwestern Virginia, 
as chart XVII shows is the place to 
which upper-air drift will carry it, it 
moves due east to Jacksonville, Florida. 


TORNADOES 


The four conditions essential to the 
formation of tornadoes are usually as 
follows: (1) A cyclone or area of low 
pressure, the center of which is to the 
north or northwest, with a barometric 
pressure not necessarily much below the 
normal; (2) a temperature of about 70 
degrees on the morning map; (3) a 
great humidity, and (4) that the time 
of year be March 15toJune15. ‘These 
conditions may and often do exist sepa- 
rately ; one or two of them may be found 
coexisting ; but so long as the third be 
absent, tornadic formation is not likely 
to occur. 

The number of these storms is not 
increasing ; the breaking of the virgin 
soil, the planting or the cutting away of 
forests, the drainage of land surfaces by 
tiles, the stringing of thousands of miles 
of wire, or the laying of iron or steel 
rails have not materially altered the cli- 
matic conditions or contributed to the 
frequency or intensity of tornadoes. As 
well might one by the casting of a pebble 
expect to dam the waters of the Missis- 
sippi as attempt the modification or re- 
striction by the feeble efforts of man of 
those tremendous forces of nature that 
surround our earth and control our 
storms and climate. To be sure, as 
towns become more numerous and pop- 
ulation becomes more dense, greater de- 
struction will ensue from the same num- 
ber of storms. RG Sr 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


It is not possible with our present 
knowledge of the mechanism of storms 
to forewarn the exact cities and towns 
that will be visited by tornadoes with- 
out alarming some towns that will wholly 
escape injury; but we know that tor- 
nadoes are almost entirely confined to 
the southeastern quadrant of the cy- 
clone, and that when the thermal, hy- 
grometric, and other conditions are 
favorable, the spot 300 to 500 miles 
southeast from the cyclonic center is in 
the greatest danger. This fact is well 
illustrated on chart XVIII, showing the 
cyclonic system that existed at 8 p. m. 
on March 27, 1890, the day of the famous 
Louisville tornado. Two red _ lines, 
drawn at right angles to each other, 
divide the area of the storm into four 
quarters. Twelve tornadoes, repre- 
sented by short red lines, mostly in the 
southeast quarter of the general cyclone, 
occurred during the afternoon or even- 
ing of the day. As most of these oc- 
curred several hours before 8 p.m., 
the time of the taking of the extensive 
system of observations on which the 
chart is based, when the center of the 
cyclone was 100 or 200 miles farther 
west, it is apparent that they all oper- 
ated somewhere within the southeast 
quarter of the general storm, although 
exceptions to this rule occasionally 
@eccur: 

It is desirable to make clear the dif- 
ference between the cyclone and the 
tornado. The majority of the press 
and many persons who should know 
better use these terms as synonymous. 
The cyclone shown on chart XVIII, 
which is fairly typical of all cyclones, 
is a horizontally revolving disk of air, 
covering the whole United States from 
the Atlantic Ocean westward to and in- 
cluding the Mississippi Valley, with the 
air currents from all points flowing 
spirally inward toward the center, while 
the tornado is a revolving mass of air 
of only about 1,000 yards in diameter, 
and is simply an incident of the cyclone, 


Oil 


nearly always occurring in its southeast 
quadrant. ‘The cyclone may cause mod- 
erate or high winds through a vast ex- 
panse of territory, while the tornado, 
with a vertical motion almost unmeas- 
urable, always leaves a trail of death 
and destruction in an area infinitesimal 
in comparison with the area covered by 
the cyclone. 

The tornado is the most violent of all 
storms, and is more frequent in the cen- 
tral valleys of the United States than 
elsewhere. It has characteristics which 
distinguish it from the thunder-storm, 
viz., a pendent, funnel-shaped cloud 
and a violent, rotary motion in a direc- 
tion contrary to the movements of the 
hands of a watch, together with a vio- 
lent updraft at the center. 

Right here it is well to inquire if a 
satisfactory reason can be given for the 
occurrence of these violent agitations of 
the atmosphere mainly during the 
spring and early summer, and usually 
only in the southeast quarter of the cy- 
clone. In answer it may be said that 
an hypothesis can be formulated that 
fairly well satisfies the requirements of 
thecase. First, one must recall the fact 
that the atmosphere, even at the surface 
of the earth, is not dense enough to 
absorb but a small part of the solar 
heat waves. ‘They therefore reach the 
earth and warm its surface, but the ab- 
sorbed heat does not penetrate to any 
great depth, because the land is a poor 
conductor, but a good absorber and a 
good radiator. The land therefore re- 
tains its absorbed heat near the surface 
and quickly and freely radiates that 
which it has absorbed. The atmos- 
phere, which is a poor conductor, is 
thus rapidly warmed at the bottom, but 
the heat is slowly conducted upward, 
and in the spring of the year the gain- 
ing intensity of the solar rays and the 
increasing hours of sunshine warm a 
thin stratum of air next the earth to an 
abnormal degree of heat in comparison 
with the stratum next above, which 


210 2 


still retains the cold of winter. This 
abnormality is accentuated in the south- 
east quadrant of the cyclone, wherein 
southerly winds still further add to the 
heat of the lower stratum and increase 
the humidity. An unstable condition 
then ensues, in which heavier air is 
superposed on lighter and much warmer 
air. This unstable equilibrium is more 
often relieved by the breaking through, 
here and there, of masses of the heavier 
air and its horizontal rolling along the 
surface of the earth, with the warm and 
cold masses driven together by electric 
explosions ; these are thunder-storms. 
But at times dry and extremely cold air 
are brought together with humid and 
very warm air, with the result that a 
narrow vertical whirl is set up which 
develops great vortical energy ; this is 
the tornado. ‘The tornado also may be 
caused, and many times is, by the cy- 
clone whirling together on the same 
level the cold currents from the north- 
west and the warm ones from the south- 
east, especially at an elevation of a few 
thousand feet, in the interior layers of 
the cyclone. The vortex then burrows 
downward to the surface of the earth, 
or dances along with the tail of the 
funnel whipping from side to side, and 
touching only the high places or noth- 
ing at all. 

Tornadoes mostly occur between 2 and 
5 in the afternoon, and generally move 
from the southwest to the northeast ; 
theirtracks may vary in width from a few 
hundred feet to one mile ; their velocity 
of translation is usually about that of 
anexpress train ; their speed of gyration 
can be measured only approximately, 
but as it is sufficient often to drive straws 
a half inch into the bodies of trees it 
must equal or exceed the velocity of a 
rifle bullet. Professor Biglow says: 
‘The vortex of a tornado obeys the 
laws of the movements of fluids in gyra- 
tory circulation. If amassof air 6,000 
feet in diameter is rotating ata half- 
mile level and it runs into a vortex so 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


that the tube is 100 feet in diameter at 
the top, and supposing the outer edge 
of the upper vortex makes 7 miles 
an hour, then at the rim of the bottom 
of the vortex we should have a velocity 
of 200 miles an hour. This causes an 
enormous centrifugal force in the lower 
tube, a high vacuum, and low temper- 
ature. The vacuum tube causes the 
explosive and disastrous effects upon 
objects in its path.” ‘The eeldvones<- 
pansion condenses the vapor that makes 
the tube visible, and the sudden con- 
densation causes electric discharges of 
great violence. A roaring like the 
sound of a thousand express trains ac- 
companies the tornado, whose track is 
usually 5 or 10 miles in length, and 
whose rate of movement is about 30 
miles per hour. 

The writer visited St Louis the day 
after the tornado of May 27,1896. He 
was especially impressed with the fact 
that many of the buildings seemed to be 
burst outward at their upper stories, 
indicating that at the time of their de- 
struction they were near the center of 
the rotating mass of air, where centrifu- 
gal force had reduced the air pressure 
on the outside to such an extent that 
the expansion of the air in the upper 
stories of the houses whose windows 
and doors were closed had produced an 
explosion of the building. In one case 
all the four walls of the upper story of 
a house were thrown outward, leaving 
the lower story intact and the roof rest- 
ing in proper position one story lower 
than in the original building. Again, 
great structures seemed to have been 
crushed over or taken up bodily and 
scattered in all directions. 

The fact that this tornado traveled 
with destructive force through several 
miles of brick buildings and yet left the 
city with greater force than it possessed 
on entering it illustrates the futility of 
planting forests to the southwest of 
cities for purposes of protection, as 
some have advocated. The strongest 


FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


trees would offer but little more resist- 
ance to the tornado than would so many 
blades of grass, and the drawing off of 
the electricity of the clouds by the pro- 
jecting points of the trees would have 
no effect, as it never has been shown 
that electricity has anything to do in 
originating tornadoes; it is rather a 
result than acause. The planting of 
trees is a useful occupation, even if they 
have no effect on tornadoes; but what 
shall one say of the municipality that 
hires a cannoneer to guard the southwest 
approaches to its city and to destroy 
with shot all tornado clouds, as a small 
western city once did. Still its action 
was no more ridiculous than is that of 
certain provinces in Europe that an- 
nually expend largesumis of private and 
public money in the shooting of hail 
clouds, or of otherwise intelligent peo- 
ple who aid and abet the most ignorant 
of charlatans in their pretensions of 
making rain or of forecasting the 
weather months in advance. 

There is a wide variation in the num- 
ber of tornadoes that occur during the 
years. Chart No. XIX shows the loca- 
tion and the direction of movement of 
all the tornadoes of a year of small 
number, and chart XX shows the re- 
sult of a year of great frequency. 


FLOODS 


With our many thousands of miles of 
navigable rivers flowing through one of 
the most extensive and fruitful regions 
of the world, daily forecasts of the height 
of water in the various sections of each 
river are of enormous benefit to naviga- 
tion, and the warnings issued when the 
precipitation is so heavy as to indicate 
the gathering, during the near future, 
of flood volumes in the main streams 
are often worth many millions to navi- 
gators and to those having movable 
property on low grounds contiguous to 
the streams. 

The feasibility of making accurate 
forecasts as to the height of water sev- 


30% 


eral days in advanee at any station of 
the system is no longer questioned, and 
at stations on the lower reaches of rivers 
one to three weeks’ forecasts are feasi- 
ble. The forecaster at each river center 
considers the rainfall, the temperature, 
the melting of snow, if there be any, the 
area and slope of the watershed, and the 
permeability of the soil. Froma study 
of floods in former years he knows the 
time necessary for the flow of the water 
from the tributaries to the main stream 
and the time required for the passage 
of the flood crests from one city to an- 
other. ‘The forecasts are, of course, 
empirically made, but still they are 
sufficiently accurate to possess great 
value to the people of the river districts. 

Some idea of the vast destruction of 
property due to floods may be gathered 
from the statement that the floods of 
1881 and 1882 caused a loss of not less 
than $15,000,000 to the property inter- 
ests of the Ohioand Mississippi Valleys. 
There was also a loss of 138 lives. In 
1884 the region of the Ohio alone suf- 
fered a loss of over $10,000,000 in prop- 
erty. In 1897 the loss along the sev- 
eral great rivers was more than the sum 
of the two large figures just written, 
and in 1903 the destruction of property 
might fairly be estimated at $40,000,000 
in value. 

From data that now covers many 
years at a large number of stations the 
following general relations have been 
deduced: The time it takes high water 
to pass from Pittsburg to Wheeling is 
one day; from Pittsburg to Parkers- 
burg, two days; from Parkersburg to 
Cincinnati, three days ; from Cincinnati 
to Cairo, six days; from Cairo to Vick- 
burg, seven days, and from Vicksburg 
to New Orleans, four days. The time, 
therefore, from Pittsburg to the Gulf is 
23 days. Similar general relations con- 


cerning the movements of other rivers 


have been determined. Since the time 
is so great—the movement of high water 
being a little slower than the current— 


304 
it follows that many interfering condi- 
tions may arise, tending to retard or 
accelerate the passage of the crest of 
the flood wave. No absolute rule is, 
therefore, possible ; but the forecasting 
of the exact flood stage many days, or 
even weeks, in advance at important 
river stations is of such frequent occur- 
rence as to indicate that, although the 
forecasts are empirically made, they 
have a substantial commercial value. 
Each forecaster in charge of a river 
center has a definite section of the river 
system to watch and for which he must 
forecast. He receives the necessary 
telegraphic reports of the daily rainfall 
that has occurred over the tributaries 
to his river district, reports of the gauge 
readings nearer the source of the main 
river than his own station, and gauge 
readings from many of the tributary 
streams. He is familiar with the area 
of the catchment basin from which his 
rainfall reports are received, the con- 
tour and configuration of the surface, 
andthe permeability of the soils A 
slowly falling rain of considerable 
amount on a nearly level and permea- 
ble soil may cause little rise, while a 
rapidly falling rain of the same amount 
on an impermeable and greatly inclined 
surface will gather quickly in the chan- 
nels of the tributaries and soon become 
a rushing torrent in the main stream. 
It is thus seen that many modifying 
conditions must be taken into consider- 
ation. The forecaster studies the his- 
tory of previous floods under various 


temperatures and absorptive conditions © 


of soil. He knows that the rainfall 
may be augmented by the melting of 
snow, if any there be on the ground, 
and that the temperature is an impor- 
tant factor in the flood; that on a 
frozen soil, under moderate heat, the 
entire precipitation, plus meltage, may 
flow away without appreciable absorp- 
tion or evaporation and create higher 
water in the rivers than would be the 
case if the soil were open, and that an 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


unfrozen but saturated soil presents to 
the flowing water practically the same 
surface, so far as the latter affects the 
flood, as a frozen soil. Of the precipi- 
tation that is absorbed a part is evap- 
orated, a part taken up by vegetation in 
making its growth, and the remainder 
sinks to the impervious rock, which 
lies at no great depth below the surface. 
It slowly follows the slope of the rock, 
and gives rise to the springs that sup- 
ply the steady flow of the streams and 
rivers. This portion of downpour, 
while unimportant in the causing of 
floods, needs to be considered by the 
river forecaster, for an abundance of 
well-absorbed rains during the spring 
and early summer means the mainte- 
nance of fair stages in navigable rivers 
during the usual low-water season, and 
forecasts of low-water stages are nearly 
as important to commerce as the pre- 
diction of flood heights. Inbrief, floods 
have their origin in the surface dis- 
charge, while the low-water flow of 
streams is mainly due to the under- 
ground waters. 

The zero of a river gauge is placed at 
the level of the lowest water known, 
and if at any subsequent time a stage 
still lower is recorded it is read as a 
minus quantity. The danger line varies 
with the locality. On the Ohio river, 
on account of its narrow channel and 
its precipitous banks, the water must 
show vertical rises varying from 30 to 
50 feet before the danger line is reached. 
At Cincinnati the danger line is 45 feet 
above the zero of the scale, and a height 
of 71 feet has been recorded. On the 
upper Mississippi the danger lines aver- 
age about 15 feet above zero, but from 
St Louis to Vicksburg they average 
about 35 feet, while at New Orleans the 
danger limit is but 13 feet above zero. 
An impermeable ground, such as that 
over granite bed rock, is marked by 
many rivulets and streams in compari- 
son with the number that are found in 
a permeable soilof equalrainfall. When 


FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS 


at great intervals a stream does appear 
in permeable ground the flow of water 
may diminish as the stream progresses, 
the water being absorbed by the soil 
or sinking through it to the bed rock. 
Much of the water absorbed never 
reaches the rivers. In the Ohio Valley 
the amount of water drained away by 
the rivers is about one-fourth of the 
rainfall, which is the same asin Europe ; 
in the Missouri Valley the amount is 
only one-eighth. These conditions have 
an important bearing when considering 
what river stages will be effected by a 
given rainfall and what will be the rate 
of rise. In an impermeable region the 
rivers rise rapidly and as quickly sub- 
side; in a permeable region the rise 
and the fall are slower in action and the 
amplitude of the movement less. 

In small rivers the slope may fall away 
at the rate of four to seven feet the mile, 
while in large rivers, like the Missis- 
sippi, the slope is only about one-fourth 
of afoot. The velocity of a river does 
not depend alone upon the slope, but 
also upon the mean hydraulic depth, 
the square root of the two measures de- 
termining it closely. 

The vegimen of a river is the history 
of its movements and their causes. It 
may be modified by a change in forest 
areas or in the area under cultivation. 
Cultivated ground allows of a much 
greater absorption than wild soil, and 
therefore holds in storage and conserves 
the supply for springs and streams after 
flood seasons have passed. It is there- 


gO) 


fore a question if civilization has not 
thereby considerably reduced the in- 
tensity of floods, notwithstanding the 
cutting away of forests, the area cleared 
of forests being small in comparison 
with the total area changed froma wild 
to a cultivated state ; but before a hasty 
conclusion is reached one should not 
forget to consider that forest coverings 
reduce to a minimum the amount of 
silt carried to streams, especially from 
steeply tilted surfaces. They hold the 
soil and prevent its washing away to the 
rivers, where it is deposited in such a 
way as to build up the river beds and 
possibly cause greater overflows than 
with the former larger volume of water 
and less silt. Many have thought that 
the leveeing up of the Mississippi River 
will cause a building up of the bottom 
of the river by the confining between 
banks of large quantities of silt-laden 
water that formerly deposited most of 
its sediment on the adjacent flats before 
moving downthestream; but here again 
account is not taken of the fact that the 
leveeing up of the river increases its 
depth, and therefore its velocity, and 
the carrying capacity of a stream in- 
creases as the cube of its velocity. It 
is probable that the bed of the river has 
not risen since a considerable portion 
was confined by levees. Many gauges 
that were established more than thirty 
years ago occasionally show minus 
readings. 

The various flood scenes illustrated 
in this paper tell each its own story. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


WHAT IS THE POPULATION OF 
CHINA? 

HEN I first studied geography 

the population of China was 

estimated at 230 millions; then came 

an advance to 360 millions; now we 

hear of over 400 millions, and if the 

latest figures are correct there is reason 
for talking of the ‘‘ Yellow Peril.’’ 

Upon what have these estimates been 
based? Has anything like a census 
ever been taken of the Chinese people ? 
Probably not, though the Peking gov- 
ernment, no doubt, receives reports con- 
cerning the number of people in the dif- 
ferent provinces. ‘The published infor- 
mation must have been derived mainly 
from travelers, missionaries, diplomats, 
and naval officers. 

From my own observations during 
the three years I was on the Asiatic 
Station, I would say that there are less 
than 200 millions of people in China, 
and perhaps some of the contributors or 
readers of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE, who have had better oppor- 
tunities to judge, will show why or to 
what extent 1 am wrong. 

I spent several months in each of the 
principal seaports from Tientsin in the 
north to Canton in the south and five 
or six months in the Valley of the 
Yangtze, going as far inland as Ichang, 
a town nearly 1,000 miles from the sea, 
and beyond the reputed populous dis- 
tricts. I noticed that the country peo- 
ple instead of living on farms were con- 
centrated in villages, and that these were 
generally small and often widely sepa- 
rated. 

The cities were limited in area and 
contained no lofty buildings, one and 
two storied houses being the rule. 
Canton is the wealthiest, and, with the 
possible exception of Peking, is the 
most populous city. I was with a 
party that made the circuit of the walls, 
several members walking the entire 
way in a little over two hours, which 
proves that the enclosed space could 
not have exceeded six square miles. 
In the northern part we saw gardens 
and unoccupied ground. Compare this 


with Manhattan Island, with its 22 
square miles and lofty tenement houses. 

The streets of a Chinese city are very 
narrow, and the people live in them and 
on the ground floor of the wide open 
shops and houses, therefore the visitor 
seems to be always working his way 
through a dense crowd. 

I believe that tigers are encountered 
in all portions of China. It is certain 
that they are killed north of Peking, as 
the skins are sold there, and at Amoy 
the missionaries, who had been inland, 
told me of the terror theyinspired. As 
there is little of the dense undergrowth 
of India it is a comparatively open 
country through which the tiger prowls, 
and his presence certainly does not sug- 
gest a land densely populated. 


Co Ey Crs 
Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy. 


The article on “Forecasting the Weather 
and Storms,” by Dr Willis L. Moore, 
Chief of the United States Weather Bu- 
reau, published in this number, is an 
advance chapter from ‘‘ The New Me- 
teorology,’’ a text-book on weather sci- 
ence which is in course of preparation 
by Dr Moore and which will be pub- 
lished in a few months by a well-known 
firm. The chapter is published here in 
advance of the appearance of the book 
through the courtesy of Dr Moore. The 
members of the Society will undoubt- 
edly enjoy the interesting and lucid ex- 
planation of storms and weather given 
by Dr Moore, and will also appreciate 
the good-will of an author who permits 
the publication of a chapter in advance 
of the completed volume. 


The map showing the present seat of 
war in eastern Asia which appears as a 
supplement to this number of the Na- 
TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE was 
prepared by the Military Information 
Division of the War Department and is 
republished by the National Geographic 
Society through the courtesy of Major 
Beach, chief of the division. It is be- 
lieved that the map will prove particu- 
larly useful to those who are following 
military developments in Manchuria. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Excursions and Lessons in Home Geog- 
taphy. By Charles A. McMurry, 
Eee Den Pp. 152. 5x 71% inches. 
New York: MacMillan Co. 


A much-needed book, containing 
many fine illustrations. The student 
can find out from its pages anything 
from the way his own particular part of 
the country was formed to the most ap- 
proved method of milking cows and 
maintaining a sanitary dairy. The 
book is written in such simple language 
and is so well expressed that any one 
can understand and enjoy it. 


The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, vol. 
XXI. Edited by Emma Helen Blair 
and James Alexander Robertson. Pp. 
317.9 G56 x08 inches. .Cleveland : 
the Arthur H. Clark Co. 1905. 

In this 21st volume the publishers 
have got down to the year 1624 in their 
monumental undertaking. This one 
deals entirely with religious matters for 
that year, being composed of sources 
bearing on ecclesiastical squabbles, the 
founding of a Japanese seminary, and 
the labors of the early Recollect Mis- 
sions. The last forms more than half of 
the book, and, like Jesuit writings, con- 
tains very valuable descriptions of the 
country, the people, and their customs. 
Ty pographically the book is almost per- 
fect for use, the print being large, the 
paper heavy, and the binding excellent. 
It seems a great pity that this enter- 
prising firm should suffer a loss in their 
effort to advance the cause of knowl- 
edge. C.M. 


Along the Nile with General Grant. 
By Elbert EK. Farman. Pp. xviii+ 
339. New York : The Grafton Press. 
1904. $2.50 net. 

The voyage of General Grant up the 
Wile to the First Cataract,’in 1877, 
serves in this volume as a reason for its 
publication. The chapters on Luxor, 
Abydos, Thebes, the Temples of Kar- 
nak, and the Islands of Philae and Ele- 
phantine are evidences of Judge Far- 


LITERATURE 


man’s careful observations of the re- 
markable antiquity of Egypt. The 
volume is unusually well illustrated, 
and will be of special interest to those 
who have made, or contemplate making, 
the tour of the Nile. Aa WG. 


Dodge's Advanced Geography. By 
Richard Elwood Dodge. Pp. 333 + 
ele 9x 7% inches. Chicago : 


Rand, McNally & Co. 1904. 


The distinguishing conception of this 
work is the emphasis laid upon the 
‘‘ causal notion’’ in geography—that is, 
that our civilization is the result of 
natural conditions. First come geo- 
graphic principles, then their application 
in the second part, with a rapid view of 
the different continents and leading 
countries of the world. The orderly 
growth of industrial life from natural 
conditions is the central theme in all 
cases. Each important region is repre- 
sented by three maps, relief, political, 
and commercial. There are many beau- 
tiful illustrations and helpful sugges- 
tions. 

The writer of the text has likely 
never gone over this ground thoroughly 
as a teacher, else some defects would be 
absent. It seems a waste of space to 
tell us that little is known about polar 
winds (50). ‘There is much haziness 
about monsoons and summer and winter 
winds (48, 49,50). ‘Thereisa trouble- 
some mixture of the terms ‘‘ miles’’ and 
‘“degrees’’ (89). It is confusing to 
speak of ‘‘northwest trade-winds’’ 
(319). Yokohama does not have an 
excellent harbor. Tospeak of Georgia 
growing sugar ‘‘extensively’’ (144) 
and then in the diagram (149) to show 
how insignificant her total is will puz- 
zle most young minds. ‘The work of 
the cartography ‘‘expert’’ is decidedly 
the most unsatisfactory part of the book. 
He has sugar-cane over nearly all of 
South Carolina (148). He has a big 
cotton area in the middle of the south 
Pacific (330). In other places he fairly 
riots in details, crowding his maps to 


308 


such an extent that they are scarcely 
more than ‘‘labored ingenuities. ’’ 
Many of them are utterly beyond the 
capacity of children of the age of those 
who are expected to study this book. 
So far as the publishers’ part goes, the 
maps are of the best workinanship, ex- 
cept that the contrast of colors in the 
physical ones is not so marked as it 
should be. 

But in spite of these weaknesses there 
is hardly a volume the equal of this 
for developing the thinking powers of 
the pupils, and hence is the best this re- 
viewer knows of. ClOME. 


The United States of America. By 
Edwin EK. Sparks. 2volumes, maps. 
Pp. xi + 425; vili+ 385. Illustrated. 
New York: G. R. Putnam’s Sons. 
1904. 

This is a most welcome and valuable 
addition to The Story of Nations’ series. 
It commences with the treaties of peace 
in 1783 and traces the evolutionary 
stages through which the United States 
passed, from a confederacy of republics 
to its present status as a powerful na- 
tion, clothed with all powers needful 
for its progress and preservation. 

Perhaps the most interesting chapters 
are those outlining the fundamental 
bases on which centralization has been 
effected. Therein Prof. Sparks clearly 
indicates the most potent lines of action 
and their specific effects. The Jeffer- 
sonian ordinance of 1784 with unquali- 
fied suffrage, the erection of the back 
lands into equal independent states, 
the home-making public-land system, 
the light-house and post-route policies, 
the assumption of the states’ debts, the 
entrustment of the militia to executive 
control, the appropriations for scientific 
purposes, the adoption of excise and 
tariff measures, and the construction of 
the general welfare clause of the Consti- 
tution are given due weight and con- 
sideration. 

As to the later phases of our national 
history, the chapter on profit-sharing 
and paternalism, on abolitionism and 


Tue Nationa, GreoGRAPHIc MAGAZINE 


colonization, and the passing of strict 
constitutional construction throw in- 
structive side lights on the march of 
eVents. 

National industrial development is 
too currant and political a topic for 
purely historical treatment, and from 
the nature of the case cannot be uni- 
versally accepted. 

Altogether, the literary style, subject- 
matter, and method of treatment are 
excellent. ‘There is not a dull chapter 
in either volume. A W..G, 


Grundriss der Handelsgeographie. von 
Dr Max Eckert (Privatdozenten der 
Erdkunde an der Universitat Kiel). 
Pp. xv +517. 9x6 anches;, Beip- 
zig: G. J. Goschen’sche Verlags- 
handlung. 1905. : 


This is a very comprehensive sum- 
mary of facts rigidly based on the great 
causal notions of geographic develop- 
ment. Following asimple and uniform 
plan, our author treats the continents 
and then the countries of the world, 
first giving a brief view of the land and 
the people of each, then the natural re- 
sources, then the industries and occu- 
pations, and, finally, communication 
and trade. ‘The three great divisions 
of the material world, plants, animals, 
and minerals, are in each case described, 
with the next section pointing out the 
industries that have sprung up in that 
country, but he leaves the student to 
supply the links of connection; and 
that brings up one serious defect of the 
work. It isa frightfully dry compila- 
tion of names and figures, unrelieved 
by any graces of expression or interest- 
ing incidents. It isdifficult tosee what 
place it would fill in education, as it is 
too heavy for American students, and 
many of the statements are annually 
superseded by almanacs or hand-books. 
It is not sufficiently scientific to be ac- 
cepted as an authority in itself, since 
the sources of information are not often 
given. For general style and interest 
it is much inferior to the International 
Geography. C. M. 


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CONTENTS : 
PAGE 


The Evolution of Russian Government. By Dr Edwin A. 
Grosvenor. I[lustrated with 14 Full-page Illustrations . 309 


The Purpose of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. a Hon. Eki 
Hioki, of the Japanese Legation . . . . 333 


The Purple Veil—A Romance of the Sea. By Hy AS irk 
Illustrated Homie 


Our Mines and Quarties. elias 

The Home of the National Geographic oR 
The Geographical Balance . 

- Victoria Falls. Illustrated 

William Ziegler. Illustrated 

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Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army 


W J McGEE 


Chief, Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition 


Cc. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. Po 
Department of A. ericulture 


Oo. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


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Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
Department of Commerce and 
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ment of Agriculture 


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Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 
Chief of the Division of Mineral 


keesources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
U.S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
deliphia 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University Me Chicago 


G. EK, GILBERT 
U.S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE 


Professor of Meteorology, U. Bi! 


Weather Bureau, San bidaisicnnv! 


ALMON GUNNISON 
President ‘Se, Lawrence Oniversty 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. bo 


Vou. XVI, No. 7 


WASHINGTON 


JuLy, 1905 


EVOLUTION OF RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT* 


By Epwin A. Grosvenor, LL.D, 


PROFESSOR OF MODERN GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL LAW IN 
AMHERST COLLEGE 


OUNTLESS questions arise at 
2 the very mention of the name 
of Russia. Many of these ques- 
tions are of vital interest and interwoven 
with the crisisin the Far East. Never- 
theless, I shall endeavor to push all other 
issues aside and devote myself entirely 
to the single subject—The Evolution of 
Russian Government. 

At the beginning I am confronted by 
one peculiar difficulty. It is that I am 
an American and that the great majority 
of my hearers are of the same nation- 
ality. I know, indeed, that in no other 
country under the sun is there so large 
an acquaintance with foreign matters as 
in the United States. In no other is 
there so large an ability to judge of for- 
eign questions, of their causes and ulti- 
mate solution. But this advantage is 
more than counterbalanced by the diffi- 
culty created in our minds through the 
rapid progress of our political life. We 
have not yet attained, nor are we alto- 
gether perfect. Sometimes things are 
done in this our boasted country which 
cause usshame. Nevertheless, we have 


represented during the last 125 years the 
foremost constitutional, self-governing 
experiment of mankind. Only a little 
more than acentury ago did our fathers 
draw up that Constitution which is still 
our organic law. There did not then 
exist a single other written constitution, 
defining civil functions and regulating 
the relations of different departments of 
state. We were the first who ever em- 
barked upon the sea of national self- 
government under the zgis of a consti- 
tution formed by the people. Hence it 
is dificult or impossible for us Ameri- 
cans to fully realize how rapidly we have 
advanced under the guidance of a brief 
but an enlightened experience. The 
rapidity with which we have rushed for- 
ward since astounds the beholder, but 
is barely perceived by ourselves. For 
we are in the very midst of the progress, 
and meanwhile receive and share all 
that is being achieved. ‘The fleet-footed 
are not tolerant of the slow. Scant pa- 
tience have we for the tardier progress 
made by nations in less favorable con- 
ditions than ourown. ‘The same step 


*An address to the National Geographic Society, February 3, 1905. 


Z10 


must they keep and push on with the 
same tireless speed. Great Britain, sur- 
rounded by the inviolate sea, and safe 
from even the threat of a hostile foot, 
has wrought out farther than any other 
people, perhaps farther than ourselves, 
the application of principles to civil and 
constitutional government. But her as 
yet unwritten, unformulated constitu- 
tion has had a thousand years for its 
making. 

The nations move on like troops of 
soldiers in a long and weary march 
Some reach the place of bivouac and 
light the camp-fires while others are 
straggling far behind. Some of the 
seeming loiterers have been pressing 
on all the time toward the bivouac as 
the rear guard, with their faces to the 
foe ; and others are struggling forward, 
wounded and disabled, with slow and 
uncertain step ; andothers still, because 
of less ability, of less forceful energy, 
but with just as strong determination 
and just as good a will, find themselves, 
when night approaches and time for 
halt has come, far from the bivouac and 
the front. Around one nation gleam 
the watch-fires of the twentieth century; 
another is fifty years behind; a third 
is groping still among the breaking 
shadows of the eighteenth century, and 
yet another has only of late emerged 
from the darkness of the middle ages. 


RUSSIA LEFT THE MIDDLE AGES IN 
1689, 240 YEARS AFTER THE REST OF 
EUROPE HAD EMERGED FROM THAT 
DARK PERIOD 


To the close of the middle ages in 
western and southern Europe are as- 
signed different dates. There modern 
times began four or five hundred years 
ago, perhaps when Constantinople fell 
or when Luther and Raphael were born 
or when America wasdiscovered. Then 
universal disorder ceased; centralized 
states stood forth; the various peoples 
felt newthrillsof national life. Withthe 
ascent of the boy, Peter, to the throne 
the middle ages were ended in Russia. 


THe NatrionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


That wasin 1689. Thus in the onward 
progress the inhabitant of other parts 
of Europe had by two hundred and fifty 
years the start of the Russian. 


THE INFLUENCE OF THE PLAIN 


The Russian had been left thus far 
in the rear by no fault of hisown. In 
natural endowment the Slav is not in- 
ferior to the Latin or the Teuton or the 
Celt. Geographic conditions and geo- 
graphic environment determined Rus-- 
sian history and molded Russian nature. 
In that enormous plain, which consti- 
tutes the Russiaof today, mountains, at 
once a bulwark and defense and inspi- 
ration, were denied him. ‘The Scotch, 
the Swiss, like the Vaudois Christian, 
could sing : 


‘‘ Hor the strength of the hills we bless Thee, 
Oh! God, our father’s God ; 
Thou hast made thy children mighty 
By the touch of the mountain sod.”’ 


But the dwellers of the plain, exposed 


_ to attack from every side in a wild and 


lawless age, had no other destiny than 
to suffer and endure. 

After the barbaric invasions ceased in 
western Europe, for generations count- 
less Asiatic hosts roamed over Russia, 
sparsely populated and difficult of de- 
fense, and devastated the land at will. 
Moreover, the sunless forest and dreary 
steppe wrought upon human nature 
their repressive influence. Physical con- 
ditions fashion character as the sculptor 
shapes the clay. Thence were devel- 
oped those traits of sluggish patience, 


_of long endurance, of morbid self-sacri- 


fice which distinctly mark the Russian 
people today. 


ADVANCES BEGIN AT THE TOP AND 
WORK DOWNWARD 


In most countries each political or 
economic advance has derived its first 
impulse from popular feeling which 
swelled into a resistless demand upon 
authority—that is, the progress has 
begun from below and worked upward. 


EvVoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT 


In Russia the very opposite is true. 
There almost every advance has re- 
ceived its first impulse from the Tsar— 
that is, the progress has begun from 
above and worked downward. Thus, 
for example, were brought about the 
emancipation of the serfs and the insti- 
tution of the zemtsvos. Peter the Great 
was the typical Russian Tsar, though 
built on the most majestic and colossal 
scale. He forced his reforms upon an 
indifferent or unwilling people. While 
many Russians are, from one point of 
view, enlightened and others are crudely 
educated and correspondingly radical, 
the fact remains that to any proposed 
change the masses block the way ; nor 
is it strange that the reforms in other 
lands extorted from the rulers by the 
people are in Russia, if they exist at all, 
forced upon theruled by the ruler. No 
other process is posstble among a people 
conservative by instinct and tolerant 
only of autocracy.* 


THE PECULIAR ATTITUDE OF THE 
RUSSIANS TO THEIR TSAR 


In May, 1896, as magnificent a pano- 
rama as I,urope has beheld was presented 
at the city of Moscow. I leave to poets 
and word-painters the description of the 
scene. It was the coronation of the 
Tsar. Its significance for us is found 
not in its attendant splendor, but in its 
enunciation throughout of the funda- 
mental principle of Russian govern- 
ment. Though the gorgeous rites con- 
tinued for hours, the culmination of each 
ceremony, whether prayer or promise or 
benediction, was always some fresh as- 
sertion or acknowledgment of autoc- 

* The Tsar’s proclamation of religious free- 
dom and equality, issued on April 30 and re- 
ceived with enthusiasm by the European and 
American world, is probably most unwelcome 
to the great majority of his subjects. It seems 
almost irony that this noble message of relig- 
ious progress will especially benefit the Ras- 
colniki, or Old Believers, the dissenters or sect 
reactionary even for Russia and bitterly hos- 


tile to all western influence and to all attend- 
ant progress. 


% 


21a 


racy. The Metropolitan of Moscow, 
having bestowed the orb and scepter on 
the new sovereign, concluded his prayer 
of consecration with the words, ‘‘ The 
Lord preserve with His pro- 
tection-the established rule.’’ In the 
profound silence the kneeling Tsar ex- 
claimed, ““iord God -of my fathers, 
Thou hast elected me to be ruler of 
this) Dhy people..47) Last act of all, 
the Metropolitan of St Petersburg an- 
nounced, ‘‘ God hath crowned this God- 
given, God-adorned, most God-fearing 
autocrat Emperor of all the 
Russias.’’ And then, turning to the 
Tsar, he said, ‘‘ Take thyself the scepter 
and orb of the Empire, the visible image 
of the sole sovereignty over the people 
given by the Most High for their gov- 
ernment, promotion, and every desira- 
ble well-being.’’ The Tsar took no 
oath of obligation like that so many 
times repeated from the steps of our Na- 
tional Capitol. He made no promise. 
He simply accepted the burden placed 
upon his shoulders. That burden is 
‘“sole sovereignty over the people.’’ 
He personifies the theory of the father 
who never grows old and never dies, 
and whose national family is made up 
of children who never reach maturity 
and are always young. A few weeks 
ago at Tsarkoe Selo the Tsar received 
the deputation of workmen. As they 
talked of him in the vestibule the only 
name by which they called him was 
°* The Little Father.’’ They were griz- 
zly veterans of labor, horny-handed by 
years of toil, and he a stripling, but to 
them the little father. When ushered 
into his presence, the first words they 
heard from his lips were ‘‘My children.’’ 
Despite the difference in years,they were 
children around their father’s feet. 
That is the attitude of the Russian 
Slavs toward their autocratic head. 
Such an idea of governmental paternal- 
ism is absolutely contrary to our own, 
nor can it be appreciated or credited 
except as one acknowledges the essen- 


R42 


tial difference of race accentuated by 
history and environment. When dis- 
cussing the French we are talking about 
a Celto-Latin race ; when the Germans, 
a’Teutonic race; when the United States 
of America, a cosmopolitan race, a min- 
gling of allthe peoples ; when the Rus- 
sians, a Slavic race, a stock distinct 
from every other European race. From 
its very cradle, through the more than 
thousand years since, the Russian branch 
of the Slavic race is, in whatever per- 
tains to government, the direct antith- 
esis of our own. It is as difficult for 
the average Russian to appreciate our 
modern, twentieth-century sentiment 
as it is for us to appreciate their docile, 
submissive sentiment, which has been 
wrought out in the interminable forest 
and steppe. : 


THE TSAR AS’ THE POLITICAL HEAD 


So the Tsar is the all-controlling, all- 
comprehending political unit. He is 
the legislative, the executive, the ju- 
dicial. His authority extends over 
8,500,000 square miles and 150,000,000 
people. He cannot know the needs of 
all nor can he reach in relief to all. 
Consequently he summons to his service 
advisory boards, on whose intelligence 
and loyalty he must depend. There isthe 
Ruling Senate — Pravitelstvuyushchiy 
Senat—established in 1710 by Peter the 
Great. It is divided into six sections, 
each presided over by a lawyer of emi- 
nence, who represents the Tsar. The 
sections are at once courts of justice 
and examining boards. In behalf of 
the Tsar the Senate promulgates the 
laws. ‘There is the Council of State, 
purely consultative, organized in 1801 
by Alexander I and reorganized on 
broader lines four years ago. It ex- 
amines proposed laws and discusses the 
budget. It is divided into four depart- 
ments, devoted respectively to legisla- 
tion, to civil and ecclesiastical adminis- 
tration, to economy and industry, and 
to commerce and sciences. There is 


Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


the Committee of Ministers, varying, 
like the Cabinet of Great Britain,in num- 
ber and office, and, moreover, including 
several high functionaries and-.Grand 
Dukes. There isthe Holy Synod, which 
superintends the religious affairs. The 
great metropolitans and bishops com- 
pose it, but its decisions have force only ~ 
as approved by the Tsar and are issued 
inhisname. There are several so-called 
cabinets, mainly philanthropic or eco- 
nomic. ‘There are the 78 governors 
general, one over each province of the 
Empire, and 792 administrative coun- 
cils, one for each provincial district. 
The members of all these different Im- 
perial boards, of whatever name or dig- 
nity, are responsible to the Tsar. 


THE VILLAGE MIR 


The Tsar may be called the infinite 
unit. In Russia there is another or an 
atomic unit, just as real, but in compar- 
ison infinitely small. This is the mir. 
None the less 777 is the most important 
word in the Russian language. It means 
the village and the village assembly. 
To the mind of the peasant it means the 
world. European Russia is made up of 
107,676 communes or villages. Each 
is and hasits mir. Asin national af- 
fairs the Tsar decides or acts through 
his senate or council or synod, so in 
local affairs the mir acts for him. Apart 
from affairs of state, in the mir the peas- 
ant has a political existence of his own. 
Over the mir, in much akin to the town 
meeting of New England, presides the 
starosta, elected by it. Several com- 
munes united compose a volost or can- 
ton, of which there are 10,530 in Euro- 
pean Russia. Tothe cantonal and pro- 
visional assemblies, each composed of 
duly elected delegates, is applied the 
name, of late become so familiar, of the 
zemtsvo. ‘The mir or volost decides all 
questions of local nature, such as con- 
cern roads, schools, health, justice, and 
acts as a peasants’ court in cases not 
involving more than 60 dollars. But 


EvoLuTIoNn oF Russian GOVERNMENT 


SES 


From ‘‘All the Russias,’’ by Henry Norman. 


Copyright, 1902, by Charles Scribner’s Sons 


The Tsar and Tsarina at Home 


over every act or meeting impends the 
shadow of the Tsar. His delegate or 
commissioner is always near and may, 
though he seldom does, reverse all the 
proceedings. Thus autocracy stands 
forth alike in the lowly mir or in the 
Imperial Senate. Not far astray is the 
Slavic proverb, ‘‘In Russia two are 
everywhere, God and the Tsar.”’ 

This system is not the result of usur- 
pation by violence or fraud. ‘The pro- 


cess of its evolution and corresponding 
sanction is to be read on every page of 
Russian history. 


THE EARLY RULERS OF RUSSIA—THE 
RURIKS 


The first articulate cry of Russia was 
a prayerforaruler. The Russian Nes- 
tor tells the story. In 862, one thou- 
sand and forty-three years ago, in their 
first assembly, the Russians said, ‘‘ Let 


14 THe NaTrionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


Latest Picture of the Tsar of all the Russias and His Interesting Family, including 
Baby Tsarevitch 


EvoLuTIon oF Russtan 


us search for a prince who will govern 
us.’’ They decided on a foreigner, the 
Norman Rurik. To him and to his 
brothers they sent messengers to say, 
‘‘OQur country is large and abundant, 
but order and justice are lacking. Come 
and take possession of it and rule over 
us.’’ It would be difficult to recall a 
similar instance in any other country. 
Rurik vouchsafed a favorable reply, and 
founded the first Russian dynasty. 

A hundred years later the sovereign, 
Wladimir, then a pagan, became a Chris- 
tian. At Kief he ordered his subjects 
to assemble on the banks of the River 
Dnieper and be baptized. They joy- 
fully obeyed. ‘‘If baptism were not 
good,’’ said they, ‘‘ our prince and our 
boyars would not have submitted to it.’’ 

The common formula of a royal order 
was, until the time of Russia’s subju- 
gation by the Tatars, ‘‘ This is my will, 
and hence the law. Hear and obey.’’ 

From 1205 to 1472 the country groaned 
under the merciless sway of the Mongol 
Tatars. Resistance was of no avail 
against the overwhelming numbers of 
the invading horde. ‘The period is fitly 
called in Russian history ‘‘ The Age of 
Tears’’ or ‘‘ The Age of Woe.’’ No 
other country of Europe has ever been 
subjected to such horrible and long- 
continued suffering. The only allevia- 
tion to the awful distress was found 
in the efforts of the royal Russian fam- 
ily—itself tributary and a vassal, always 
weak, but determined and shrewd—to 
modify the ferocity of the conquerors 
and to keep the sense of nationality 
from dying. Upon their princes, fel- 
low-sufferers with them in a common 
and intolerable subjection, the people 
looked as their only hope. When at 
last Prince Demetrius of the Don won a 
decisive victory over the horde and made 
it evident that its final expulsion was 
only the work of patience and time, the 
delirious gratitude of the people knew 
no bounds. ‘They were ready to swear 
themselves the subjects of Demetrius 


GOVERNMENT 


From ‘‘All the Russias,’’ by Henry Norman. 
right, 1902, by Charies Scribner’s Sons 


Copy- 
Home of Romanoffs, Moscow 


and his heirs forever. The city from 
which the deliverance had proceeded 
was henceforth ‘‘ Holy Mother Mos- 
cow.’’ Autocracy, by its immense serv- 
ices, had enshrined itself in the Russian 
heart. Gradually the broken horde was 
pressed back to the waste lands which 
stretch along the Azoff and the Caspian, 
nor is it strange if subjection through 
273 hideous years to inhuman Asiatic 
masters left traces, hard to eradicate, 
upon Russian character. 

From 1462 to 1584 three princes occu- 
pied the throne—Ivan III the Great, 
Wassili, and Ivan IV the Terrible, or, 
more accurately rendering the Rus- 
sian adjective, Ivan the Awful. Ruth- 
less, sometimes monstrous, but always 
mighty, always persistent in one pur- 
pose, these three built up Russia from 
its humiliation and weakness into glory 
and strength. Before Ivan IV, the mar- 
velous madman, died he had made him- 


THe NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


316 


‘OD UR] [TIMOR 94} Aq yy S1IAdoD 


HPF 


oes aR DRES 


MOOSOW ‘atenbs isa}vst,], Ul pMoIg VW 


‘QIBIIID WIM Aq ,,‘VISSNYy I9yea19 ,, WoIg 


Ee: es ca ene 
" ie ze 


EVOLUTION OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT eu ies: 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y,. 


Priests of the Orthodox Greek Church on a Float upon the Neva River, St Petersburg 


Blessing the waters to make them safe for drinking. The ikons or sacred pictures are indsipensa- 
; ble to this ceremony 


318 Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MaGaZzIne 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. 
Splendid Temple of Our Saviour in a Western District of Moscow 


Built to commemorate the disastrous failure of Napoleon’s attempt to conquer the Czar’s’empire. 
Seven thousand people attend mass at one time under the dome, which is covered with pure gold. 
The gilding of the five domes alone cost nearly a million dollars. The procession is a party of 
school girls coming from the church guarded by a vigilant chaperone. 


EvoLuTIoN oF Russian GOVERNMENT I 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
Old Defenses of the Kremlin—the Citadel of Moscow 


These walls have withstood many medizval sieges, but would fall at once if modern artillery 
or bombs attacked them. The clock tower marks the sacred Gate of the Redeemer, where the 


THE NaTIoNaL GEeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


W 
NS) 
O 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


Russian Cloth Market in ‘‘ the Fair’’ of Nijni-Novgorod, Russia 


EVOLUTION OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT BK 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


The Market Place, Viborg, Finland 


21212 


From ‘‘Greater Russia,’' by Wirt Gerrare. Copyright 


by the Macmillan Co. 
Old St Petersburg 


6 


self a ‘‘ god inthe minds of his people.”’ 
Autocracy had received a fresh sanction 
in their absolute and whole-hearted 
submission. 


THE FIRST OF THE ROMANOFFS— 
MICHAEL, A BOY OF 17—IS 
ELECTED RULER 


Suddenly the boy prince, Demetrius, 
the last heir of Ivan, died. With him 
the royal line of Rurik became extinct. 
There followed thirty years of lawless- 
ness and anarchy, of disastrous civil and 
foreign war. At last, in 1613, a great 
assembly, made up from every rank and 
class in Russia, got together in Moscow. 
A national assembly, equally represent- 
ative of a nation, neither Russia nor 
Europe had everseen. ‘This assembly, 
after long and fierce contention, chose 
Michael Romanoff as Tsar. Not a sin- 
gle condition did they impose upon that 
untried boy of seventeen thus unani- 
mously elected ruler. When he appeared 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


before them, upon their knees they 
shouted, ‘‘ Promise that thou wilt gra- 
ciously consent to rule over us.’’ And 
so with autocratic power the dynasty of 
the Romanoffs was seated upon the Im- 
perial Russian throne. ‘There is no 
other royal house reigning in Europe 
today which in equal degree owes its 
elevation to the free voice of the people. 
There is no other reigning house that 
does not trace its origin back to some 
successful warrior and owe its earliest 
advancement to the sword. In every 
other country, on some bloody plain, a 
Hastings or a Marchfield, William the 
Conqueror, the Hapsburghs, the Hohen- 
zollerns, have carved for themselves and 
their descendants a title to the crown. 
The father of Michael Romanoff was no 
brilliant soldier, only a faithful parish 
priest, who was renowned for piety and 
ability, and who because of his noble 
qualities attained high ecclesiastical dis- 
tinction. : 
Upon the autocratic throne, thus 
broad-based upon the popular will, sov- 
ereign succeeded sovereign for more 
than a century. On each monarch de- 
volved the duty of choosing his heir 
from among the male or female mem- 
bers of the Imperial family. Always 
that choice was accepted by the nation. 
Smallpox caused the sudden death of 
Peter II, in 1730, before he had ¢ex- 
pressed any preference as to his suc- 
cessor. There were then living four 
descendants. of Michael Romanoff. 
Three of them were women—Anna 
Ivanovna, Catharine Ivanovna, Eliza- 
beth Petrovna—and a male infant a few 
months old. Eight of the most power- 
ful nobles banded themselves together 
in what they termed ‘‘ The High Secret 
Council.’’ They obtained control of 
the army and of every department of 
government and administration. 


A CONSTITUTION IS OFFERED 


They then offered the crown to Anna 
Petrovna, subject to the following con- 
ditions: (1) The High Council should 


EVoLuTIon oF Russtan GOVERNMENT 22.3 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


A Reservoir After Evaporation. Turning up the Salt, Salt Fields, Solinen, Russia 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


Moscow Workmen in one of the Street Markets 


ate - 
RS 
ye 


sate 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


A Characteristic Russian Troika (three-horse carriage) before the Old Petrofski 
Palace in the Northwest Suburb of Moscow 


The Palace is not now occupied as a royal residence 


R210 Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic Macazine 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
Siberian Hides and Village of the Tartars, Nijni-Novgorod, Russia 


EvoLuTion OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT 2 


CS 


& 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


Wheat for Export at Russia’s Great Southern Seaport, Odessa 


2238 Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 


Country Women Tramping into Krief, Russia, with the Morning Supply of Milk 


An enormous weight is carried uncomplainingly with the help of the pall over the shoulders 
to which the milk-jars are attached. These women do the heaviest part of the farm work, milking 
at daybreak or earlier, and often walking five or six miles to deliver their wares. Very few of them 
can read or write, and they are helpless under the domination of the priests and village head-men. 


EvoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT 


be a permanent body, self-perpetuating, 
and should be consulted by the Tsarina 
in all state affairs. (2) Without the 
consent of the council the Tsarina should 
make neither peace nor war, should 
levy no taxes, should alienate no public 
territory, and should appoint no public 
official of higher rank than colonel. 
(3) No member of the nobility should 
be executed or condemned, and no prop- 
erty of a noble should be confiscated 
except after a fair trial by his peers. 
(4) The Tsarina should neither marry 
nor appoint a successor without the 
consent of the council. (5) Violation 
by the Tsarina of any of the aforesaid 
stipulations should constitute forfeiture 
of the crown. Anna accepted all these 
conditions, solemnly signed the docu- 
ment, and was then proclaimed Tsarina 
or Empress of Russia. 

Magna Charta, with all its sublime 
provisions, seemed thus naturalized 
upon Russian soil. The homo liber of 
the Norman Latin in the English charter 
meant practically the same as the word 
tchin, or noble, in the paper of the High 
Secret Council. So from the banks of 
the Thames Runnymead had been trans- 
planted to the banks of the Neva. The 
24 Norman barons who forced the sub- 
mission of King John lived again, 515 
years after, in the eight Russian lords 
who had secured the acquiescence of 
Anna. Inviolability of person and prop- 
erty, habeas corpus, trial by jury, hith- 
erto the monopoly of distant English 
islanders, were now the guaranteed 
right of the Slav. The Slavic Empire, 
no longer autocratic, possessed a con- 
stitution. . 

THE PEOPLE REJECT THE PROFERRED 
CONSTITUTION AND REFUSE 
TO LIMIT THE POWERS 
OF THE TSAR 

The announcement of this constitution 
was received with general indignant pro- 
test. Under severe penalties the High 
Council forbade the people anywhere to 
assemble ; but they could not disperse 
and silence the crowds which got to- 


Oey) 


gether all over Russia and denounced 
the new system. The Tsarina was put 
under guard and only partisans of the 
new order allowed to approach her. 
Thus the council hoped she might be 
kept ignorant of the mounting tide of 
popularfeeling. Yet the council found 
itself powerless, despite its being en- 
trenched in possession of the govern- 
ment and despite the rank and wealth 
and personal influence of its members. 
On February 25, 1731, a zemski sobor, 
a national assembly, dared to convene 
in Moscow. The eight hundred elected 
deputies belonged to the nobility, the 
clergy, the professions and trades, and 
the peasant class. They drew up a 
formal and unanimous protest against 
the constitution. The Tsarina entered 
the hall and was greeted with frenzied 
shouts, ‘‘ We will not let laws limit our 
isaninay Let our’ Vsarina, bevan 
autocrat just like her predecessors !’’ 
The Tsarina calmed the tumult and 
adjourned the meeting. At the next 
session a formal petition was voted by 
the eight hundred for the reeéstablish- 
ment of autocracy. The council melted 
away. Autocracy reigned again as in 
all the days since the time of Rurik. 
Thus ended the first, if not the only, 
genuine attempt at a liberal government 
in the Muscovite Empire. This is the 
most important, the most significant, 
event in the history of Russia. 
Through another century successive 
sovereigns sat upon the autocratic 
throne. In 1822 the childless Alex- 
ander I was Tsar. His brother, the 
Grand Duke Constantine, had been ac- 
knowledged as heir. Constantine de- 
sired to marry the Polish girl Jane 
Grodzinska. Because she was of hum- 
ble origin, a Catholic, and a Pole, Alex- 
ander could not tolerate his brother’s 
choice as the future Tsarina. Between 
the maiden and the throne Constantine 
was compelled to choose. ‘To him her 
love was dearer than the Imperial crown. 
He solemnly renounced his rights as- 
heir apparent in favor of his younger 


33 


brother, Nicolas. This renunciation 
was known only to Alexander and their 
mother, the Dowager Empress Maria, 
and kept secret even from Nicolas him- 
self. ‘Two years later Alexander died. 
Then ensued between the two surviving 
brothers a contest almost without par- 
allel. Constantine, then governor of 
Poland, ordered the troops at Warsaw 
to swear allegiance to Nicolas. Nicolas 
at St Petersburg ordered the troops 
throughout Russia to swear allegiance to 
Constantine. The fraternal rivalry con- 
tinued for three weeks. It was ended 
only by the solemn declaration of Con- 
stantine that he had once renounced the 
succession, and that nothing could in- 
duce him to go back upon his word. 

Constantine was the older. More- 
over, he was a soldier and the idol of 
the army, which had been determined 
to enthrone him against hiswill. Nich- 
olas was a younger brother and almost 
unknown. There then existed in the 
country two secret organizations—the 
Society of the North and the Society of 
the South—both imbued with the ideas 
of the French Revolution and hostile to 
the autocracy. By them the devotion 
of the masses to the principle of legit1- 
macy was cunningly made to serve an 
attempt at revolution. Some of the 
colonels at the capital, though favorable 
to Constantine, were inclined to this lib- 
eral party. Those officers ordered their 
men to shout, ‘‘ Long live Constantine ’”’ 
and ‘‘Long live the Constitution ”’ 
(Constitutza)! ‘‘Who is this Con- 
stitutza?’’ asked the puzzled soldiers. 
‘‘ Long live Constitutza! She must be 
Constantine’s wife.’’ Onecolonel cried, 
‘‘Long live the Republic!’’ The sol- 
diers said, ‘‘ Who is Republic? ‘That 
is not the name of the Tsar.’’ ‘The col- 
onel replied that it was the sort of gov- 
ernment they were going to set up and 
that there would not be any Tsar in it. 
‘*QOh,’’ said the soldiers, ‘‘ then it isn’t 
the right thing for Russia. We have 
got to have a Tsar.’’ And they them- 
selves arrested the colonel. 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Nicolas I, his son Alexander II, his 
son Alexander III, his son Nicolas II, 
the present Tsar, such is the succession 
since that time to the present hour. 

It is not unusual to speak of these 
men as irresponsible autocrats and to 
regard the Russian system as an irre- 
sponsible autocracy. But an irrespon- | 
sible autocrat never has held the scepter, ' 
and irresponsible autocracy never has 
existed, even in phlegmatic Russia. | 

An irresponsible autocrat among peo- 
ple of Indo-European stock is an utter 
impossibility. Each autocrat is weighed 
in the balances and judged—if need be 
punished—by those over whom he 
reigns. This judgment no Russian 
autocrat from the accession of Michael 
Romanoff has escaped. The kindly, 
well-intentioned, feeble, self-contra- 
dictory, ill-starred Nicolas II is being 
weighed in that balance now. Your 
judgment and mine, the judgment of 
foreigners or of posterity, will concern 
or affect him little. But long-suffering, 
patient, little exacting as the Russian 
people are, they are inexorable as fate, 
merciless as doom once their judgment 
made. 

The dumb popular heart makes no 
harsh or hard demand upon its sover- 
eigns. It asks that the autocrat shall 
be profoundly Russian, Russian in feel- 
ing and sympathy, in orthodoxy and 
faith, in fidelity to old tradition, in 
heart-whole devotion to her whom the 
peasant reverently calls ‘‘ Holy Russia.’’ 
It asks that he shall develop the na- 
tional resources and augment the na- 
tional strength; that he shall increase 
the national territory and maintain the — 
prestige of the national arms; that he 
shall keep Russia’s name glorious. This 
is not too much to require of him to 
whom the nation has intrusted its all. 


THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE 
TSARS 


When Peter III, unnatural and de- 
bauched, drank in his orgies to the suc- 
cess of foreign troops and gloated over 


EVvoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT 


disasters to his own; when Paul, cynic 
and half mad, flouted the church and 
betrayed the national cause, the cup of 
wrath was full. It matters little that 
the executioners who struck them down 
were self-appointed, and, no better than 
hired assassins, held no mandate for 
regicide. In the line of Russian auto- 
crats those two stand out with a shame- 
ful preeminence. 

Not all the sovereigns since Michael 
Romanoff have been great. More than 
one has been deficient in private virtue. 
In some there flowed not a drop of 
Slavic blood. But they all bore the test 
of being supremely Russian, only Rus- 
sian, at the core. Save the execrated 
two, each down to the accession of Nic- 
olas II, in 1894, contributed his full 
share to Russian power and prestige, 
both at home and abroad. Like the 
concentric rings of an oak tree were the 
territorial accretions of the Russian Km- 
pire. Each larger ring indicated a later 
reign. 

In other lands there have been other 
autocrats, but always alike in this: each 
has fallen or stood according to his ul- 
timate military failure or success. 

Had the mass of the people on whom 
his power rested really desired equal 
rights and personal liberty and self-gov- 
ernment, the autocrat would not have 
been tolerated for an hour. The fore- 
most autocrat of all time is the great Na- 
poleon, child of the French Revolution. 


‘* He was a despot—granted ! 
But the avtos of his autocratic mouth 
Said yea i’ the people’s French ; he magnified 
The image of the freedom he denied : 


And if they asked for rights, he made reply, 

“Ye have my glory!’ and so, drawing round 
them 

His ample purple, glorified and bound them 

In an embrace that seemed identity. 

He ruled them like a tyrant—true! but none 

Were ruled like slaves: each felt Napoleon.”’ 


Thus was it while Marengo, and Aus- 
terlitz, and Jena, and Friedland, and 
Wagram studded like stars his victo- 


Shel 


rious name. ‘The march to Moscow, 
the retreat from Leipsic, the catastro- 
phe at Waterloo, could have no other 
meaning than St Helena. 

Since February 6, 1904, the on-look- 
ing world has beheld an unexampled 
spectacle. It has seen Russia stagger- 
ing under such humiliation from a foe, 
once despised, as no other European 
nation ever endured at the hand of an 
Asiatic. In the monotonous story of a 
dozen months there is not a single alle- 
viating feature to salve Russian pride 
except the admirable working of the 
trans-Siberian railway and the stolid, 
unbroken valor with which the Russian 
soldier has faced continuous defeat. 

The diplomacy of Russia, before and 
during the war, has been as deplorable 
as her generalship. Her state papers, 
whether in the form of protests orof com- 
munication with other powers, have been 
querulous and almost puerile. Her wily 
and unscrupulous enemy, equipped with 
all the appliances of the West and all 
the subtlety of the East, has so excelled 
at every point asto render haughty Rus- 
sia an object of pity and derision. 

All this detail the common Russian 
does not know. He does know that, 
despite hundreds of millions lavished 
and thousands of men sacrificed, the 
blackness has not been relieved by a 
single victory, and that the total has 
been defeat, retreat, and surrender. 
The dull ache of unspeakable humilia- 
tion isin hissoul. Marvelous is it that 
in fury, blind as Samson’s, the whole 
nation has not already risen as one man 
to pull down the pillars of the state. 
Strikes and riots there have been, and 
massacres by infuriated men, but neither 
revolution nor rebellion, no universal 
outburst commensurate with the hid- 
eous tragedy in the Kast. 

There are many voices, but, as in the 
crowd before the temple, some cry one 
thing and some another. The only 
audible sounds breathe indignation and 
rage. 


334 


Nowthere has come atemporary hush. 
For a time the gaze is diverted to that 
forlorn squadron plowing its uncertain 
way through unknown and treacherous 
waters. One signal victory of Rodjest- 
vensky’s fleet may reverse all that has 
gone before, retrieve all the battles lost, 
redeem autocracy and the Tsar. Inthe 
anguish of suspense the autocrat and 
the nation listen and wait. 


THE PRESENT TSAR 


Upon a train some days ago I sat near 
two gentlemen engaged in earnest con- 
versation. They were talking about a 
third, apparently a friend of their youth. 
They seemed to be summing up his life 
and character. Said one, ‘‘ He was al- 
ways hampered by his inheritance.’’ 
Said the other, ‘‘ Well, I think he blun- 
dered along just as well as he knew 
how.’’ Then I caught another sentence, 
‘He never knew whom he was able to 
trust.’’ ‘Their conversation ended with, 
‘« He would have been a great deal hap- 
pier if he had been a clerk in New 
York.’’ Despite the distance in race 
and rank, those random remarks epito- 
mize the life story of Nicolas II. 

Far happier for him a simple house 
in Yonkers or Harlem than the sumptu- 
ous halls of the Winter Palace. Better 
fitted is he for the routine of an office 
and a desk than for the perils and re- 
sponsibilities of acrown. ‘Then, when 
the day’s work is done, what joy to reach 
his home and toss his children in his 
arms, and picnic on a holiday or a Sun- 
day in the suburbs with his family. 
Such, they tell us, isthe gentle, homely, 


Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


wife-loving nature of the present Tsar. 
Whatever the destiny of the autocrat 
and of the autocracy, the Russian peo- 
pleremain. Rudyard Kipling, in ‘‘ The 
Man Who Was’’—perhaps the most 
powerful story Kipling ever wrote— 
puts upon the lips of Dirkovitch the 
prophecy of that for which the centuries 
have been waiting: ‘‘ The Czar! Posh! 
I snap my fingers—I snap my fingers at 
him. Dol believeinhim? No! But 
the Slav who has done nothing, 427 I be- 
lieve. Seventy—how much ?—millions 
that have done nothing—not one thing. 
Napoleon was an episode ! 

Hear you, old peoples, we have done 
nothing in the world—out here. All 
our work is todo: and it shall be done, 
old peoples. Getaway! Seventy mil- 
lions—get away, you old people!’’ * 


* Some good books on Russia are : 

‘‘Greater Russia.’? Wirt Gerrare. Mac- 
millan Co. I904. Several chapters deal with 
Russia, but the larger portion of the work re- 
lates to Siberia and the Amur territory. $3.00. 

**Allthe Russias.’’ Henry Norman. Charles 
Scribner’s Sons. 1902. A very satisfactory 
account of the resources and general adminis- 
tration of Russia. $4.00. 

‘“The Great Siberian Railway.”’ 
Shoemaker. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1903. 

‘‘Russia.’?’ Sir D. M. Wallace. Henry 
Holt. $2.00. The best general account of 
Russia in'the English language. 

‘*Russiain Asia, 1558-1899.’’ A. S. Krausse. 
Henry Holt. 1899. $4.00. A history of Rus- 
sian advance across Asia. 

‘Story of Russia.’’ W.R. Morfill. G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons. 1890. (Story of Nations’ 
series.) $1.50. 

‘The Russian Advance.’’ A. J. Beveridge. - 
Harper Bros. 1903. $2.50. A graphic por- 
trayal of the causes of the sweep of Russia 
across Asia. 


M. M. 


THE PURPOSE OF THE ANGLO-JAPANESE 
ALLIANCE”* 


By Hon. Ex1 Hioxk1 


FIRST SECRETARY OF THE JAPANESE LEGATION 


dresses a British or American 
audience, excepting for the language 
that he has to use, and in talking to a 
gathering of Englishmen living in 
America he doubly feels among friends. 
We of Japan realize how much we owe 
to the great Anglo-Saxon nations, how 
much they have taught us, and how 
much we have still to learn from them. 
Some of your English writers have 
called us ‘‘the English of the Orient,’’ 
and it was an American who termed 
Japanese ““the Yankees of the Far 
East.’’ We have not as yet progressed 
so far on the road to Yankeedom as to 
be able to sell you gentlemen of Boston 
wooden nutmegs, but we are still young 
in the ways of modern civilization. 
Give us time and there is hope we may 
even teach Connecticut a thing or two. 
Having the honor to be with you to- 
night—inadequately taking the place of 
His Majesty’s minister plenipotentiary, 
whose health unfortunately makes it 
impossible for him to be present, greatly 
to his regret—it is proper for me to ex- 
press felicitations for this great day, 
echoing the sentiment deeply imbedded 
in the bosoms of the fifty millions of 
His Japanese Majesty’s loyal subjects. 
Nothing would be more out of place, 
however, than an attempt on my part 
to dwell upon the significance of the 
Empire Day before the British audience. 
Let it suffice to say that the memory of 
Queen Victoria, that high personage, 
whose reign distinguishes itself in his- 
tory not only in point of length, but in 


O Japanese need feel himself 
among strangers when he ad- 


the fact that it is so peculiarly coinci- 
dent with the wonderful tide of general 
advancement of civilization and material 
prosperity which has blessed Great 
Britain and the world in general, may 
perpetually be preserved in so fitting a 
manner as is done here tonight by the 
United British Societies in America. 

This is not an occasion for making a 
long address, but being present here as 
the representative of Japan and as a 
guest of Britishers, I feel I cannot let 
the opportunity pass without saying a 
few words about that remarkable com- 
pact that binds our two countries to 
the satisfaction of ourselves and to the 
benefit of the world. 

The object of the alliance, as is well 
known to you, cannot be better ex- 
plained than by the language of Lord 
Lansdowne. In his covering and ex- 
planatory dispatch to Sir Claude Mc- 
Donald, British minister at Tokio, Lord 
Lansdowne wrote: ‘‘ We have each of 
us desired that the integrity and inde- 
pendence of the Chinese Empire should 
be preserved ; that there should be no 
disturbance of the territorial status quo 
either in China or in the adjoining re- 
gions; that all nations should within 
those regions, as well as within the 
limits of the Chinese Empire, be afforded 
equal opportunities for the development 
of their commerce and industry, and 
that peace should not only be restored, 
but should for the future be maintained. 

‘His Majesty’s government trusts that 
the agreement may be found of mutual 
advantage to the two countries ; that it 
will make for the preservation of peace, 


* An address delivered at the Empire Day Banquet given by the United British Societies of 


Boston, May 24, 1905. 


Seine 


and that should peace unfortunately be 
broken it will have the effect of restrict- 
ing the area.of hostilities.’’ 

Here you have in the fewest possible 
words the spirit that animated Japan no 
less than Great Britain. Various com- 
ments have been made by different 
writers and statesmen as to the effect 
of the alliance upon the world. It has 
been asserted by some newspapers that 
this alliance is directly responsible for 
the present war. 

Let them say whatever they choose, 
but a conscientious study of the docu- 
ment itself cannot fail to convince any 
fair-minded man that these allegations 
are entirely groundless. The alliance 
is purely peaceful and defensive. In 
one of the passages of the dispatch 
above referred to, Lord Lansdowne said 
that ‘‘we join in entirely disclaiming 
any aggressive tendencies.’’ But you 
must observe that the fact which made 
Great Britain abandon her long cher- 
ished traditional pride and policy of 
‘“splendid isolation’’ is initself a suff- 
cient proof that the situation in the Far 
Fast was one of grave danger and de- 
manded unusual precaution. It was 
evident that Russian aggressions were 
no mere phantoms, but were terribly 
real and threatening. 

These aggressions mainly called this 
alliance into existence for the mutual 
protection of the interests of the signa- 
tories, and later forced Japan to take 
up arms against her colossal neighbor 
for the defense of her rights and her 
very existence. 

The primary objects of the alliance 
are the maintenance of the integrity of 
the Chinese Empire and the mainte- 
nance of the open-door policy in China, 
the policy which was conceived and so 
ardently advocated by the British states- 
men, and which was so skillfully and 
happily inaugurated asa matter of in- 
ternational concern by one of the fore- 
most statesmen and diplomats of our 
day—Hon. John Hay—three years be- 


THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


fore the conclusion of the Anglo-Japa- 
nese alliance. Inspite of all the adverse 
criticisms emanating from unfriendly 
sources, I confidently declare that all 
the objects of the alliance have been 
so far nobly and successfully accom- 
plished. a 

By the recent course of events in the 
Far East these conditions which immi- 
nently menaced the integrity of the 
Chinese Empire have largely been re- 
moved and the ground for the open- 
door policy has been made firmer. Were 
it not for the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 
the war might have occurred in 1902, 
when China demanded the evacuation 
of Manchuria by Russia. It was in 
fact delayed at least for some time, and 
the area of hostilities has been quite 
effectively restricted, since its outbreak, 
by reason of this alliance, which has in 
this respect received indirectly a very 
strong support from the enlightened 
policy pursued by the United States in 
reference to China. 

To me it appears that the effect of 
the alliance has given so much satisfac- 
tion that, if the language used by the 
President of the Victorian Club in his 
invitation to this banquet extended to 
the Japanese representative expressed 
the sentiment of the British public— 
which I believe and hope to be the 
case—the renewal of that compact after 
the expiration of the prescribed terms 
is inevitable. 

We are anxious, with Great Britain 
and the United States, to see China be- 
come rich, strong, and self-repecting. 
We have our own salvation to work out 
in our own way. We wanted simply 
to be let alone and to settle the problems 
that demanded solution. We were not 
animated by territorial greed or lust of 
conquest. We preferred the conquest 
of peace to the victories of war. We 
know that the Far East has a great 
future, and the greater the future the 
better for all the world. Japan could 
hope to gain nothing by war and had 


(HE ANGLO-] APAN ESE ALLIANCE 


evervthing to gain by peace. The 
Anglo-Japanese alliance sought to give 
no advantage either to Great Britain 
or to Japan that was not comnion to all 
other nations. England, too, always 
stood for ‘‘equal opportunity,’’ for a 
fair field and no favor, and that is our 
policy, and it has long been the avowed 
policy of the United States. The say- 
ing, ‘‘ May the best man win,’’ applies 
to nations as well as to individuals. 

Certainly, neither England nor Japan 
made this alliance with the hope that it 
will provoke war. In laying the treaty 
before the House of Lords, Lord Lands- 
downe said that it was a guarantee of 
peace, and so it was regarded by the 
Japanese statesmen. 

I think no further evidence is needed 
to prove that the alliance was not con- 
cluded with the hope that it would lead 
to war; I think, on the contrary, every 
fair-minded man must be convinced that 
both Great Britain and Japan were ani- 
mated solely and sincerely by the single 
purpose to preserve peace and give com- 
mercial development full sway. And I 
repeat it to you, gentlemen, with full 
appreciation of my statement, that the 
alliance has fulfilled its purpose. It had 
made for peace as much as it could. 
There comes atime in the life of every 
nation, as in the life of every individual, 
when the nation must choose between 
duty and its stern responsibilities, or 
weakly yield to escape obligations and 
pay the penalty for weakness tenfold. 
The war now unhappily waging in Man- 
churia wasinevitable. Itis a war not of 
our seeking. It was forced upon us, as 
I said before, by aggression and arro- 
gance. 

I assume you are familiar with the 
history of the negotiations preceding the 
outbreak of hostilities, and I feel confi- 
dent that you can have only reached one 
conclusion from a study of the facts. 
You cannot fail to have been impressed 
by the spirit of forbearance, patience, 
and absolute fairness displayed by His 


BS) 


Majesty's government, and the desire, 
pushed almost to the extreme limit of 
generosity, to do everything possible to 
avoid war. But we should have been 
unworthy the respect of our friends in 
England as well as in America, we 
should have forfeited our own self-re- 
spect, if we had permitted our desire for 
peace to make us play the part of weak- 
lings and surrender our rights and inter- 
ests because we were not men enough 
to defend them. We have done what 
Englishmen would havedone. Wehave 
done what Americans, Frenchmen, Ger- 
mans, and even Zulus would have done. 
Our national existence was at stake. To 
die in its defense was more honorable 
than to live and lose all that we hold 
most precious. It is most fitting to 
quote as an expression of my own desire 
what was said by President Roosevelt : 
‘“ We wish peace; but we wish the peace 
of justice; the peace of righteousness. 
We wish it because we think it right, 
and not because we are afraid.’’ 


JAPAN DOES NOT MENACE THE UNITED 
STATES POLITICALLY OR 
COMMERCIALLY 


The sympathy of America having 
been so freely expressed in our favor— 
a sympathy, I beg to assure you, very 
precious to us and which we shall ever 
most sacredly cherish—it may appear 
ungracious for me to take exception to 
any expressions of American opinion, 
but I avail myself of this opportunity, 
knowing that what I say will not be 
misinterpreted, to correct an erroneous 
impression. It is quite evident a belief 
exists that the strength and power of 
Japan is both a political and commercial 
menace to the United States. It has 
been said that Japan dwells with covet- 
ous eye on the Philippines and longs for 
the Pacific Island possessions of the 
United States. I assure you no serious- 
minded person in Japan entertains any 
such thought. Japan has enough to do 
for many a year to come to develop her 


336 


own resources, to assist in the regenera- 
tion of Korea, to improve the condition 
of Formosa, to profit by the commercial 
growthof Manchuria. The Philippines 
are outside of the sphere of our interest 
and form no part in our industrial and 
commercialexpansion. Instead of Japan 
coveting the possessions of the United 
States in the Pacific, Japan welcomes 
the United States as a neighbor as tend- 
ing still further to increase the bonds of 
friendship that exist between the two 
countries. - 

For the same reason that Japan does 
not menace the United States politically 
Japan does not threaten the United 
States commercially. I have seen it 
stated that Japan will control the mar- 
kets of China to the injury of American 
trade; but that is an imaginary fear. 
There never has been, is not now, or 
ever will be a strong commercial rivalry 
between Japan and the United States. 
Japan sells to China principally sea- 
weeds, salt fish, beche-de-mer and other 
marine products, mushrooms, ginseng, 
copper, coal, matches, cotton yarns and 
fabrics. The United States sells to 
China flour, kerosene oil, timber, ma- 
chinery, railway materials, and cotton 
goods. Where do Japan and the United 
States come into conflict ? Hach is sup- 
plying China with articles which admit 
of no competition. Japan is buying a 
large quantity of flour from the United 
States. She does not produce kerosene, 
timber, machinery, and railway mate- 
rials. ‘The only article in which there 
can be a possible competition isin cotton 
goods. In this, however, the competi- 
tion is in theory rather than in fact. 
In the first place, Japan does not pro- 


duce cotton, and therefore all raw ma- » 


terial used in the cotton industry is 
imported from the United States, India, 
and China. Now, there are five com- 
petitors in this line of goods in the 
Chinese market—Great Britain, the 
United States, India, Japan, and China. 
The British and American interests lie 
principally in cotton fabrics and yarns 


THE NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


of the finer quality, and between these 
two countries there exists competition. 
The interests of Japan and India lie 
principally in cotton yarns and fabrics 
of a coarser kind, while the Chinese in- 
terests are similar to those of Japan and 
India, and there exists competition be- 
tween these three countries. But be- 
tween the former two and the latter 
three there is almost no competition. 

Further, a careful study of the result 
of competition in China shows that in- 
stead of one article driving its compet- 
itor out of the market, both competitors 
simultaneously increased their respect- 
ive sales. The reason for this is that 
in a vast country like China, where 
there exists practically an unknown and 
an inexhaustible market and as yet such 
a small portion is open to the influence 
of foreign commerce, the result of com- 
petition is always to widen the extent 
of the market. 

Nay, instead of ugly commercial ri- 
valry between Japan and the United 
States, we shall, I hope, have a peace- 
ful and harmonious trade relation be- 
tween the two countries. We shall sell 
to America in increasing quantities pro- 
ducts that America needs and does not 
produce—such as tea and silk—and take 
from her such articles as are more prof- 
itable to buy than to raise or produce 
in our own country. Instead of being 
rivals we shall be in the broadest sense 
partners—the one country will be a 
complement of the other. The United 
States will not be swamped by the 
products of the loom and the forge of 
Japan ; Japan will not be stifled under 
an avalanche of factory-made goods of 
New England and the Pacific coast ; 
but those great ships that move so ma- 
jestically across the broad bosom of the 
Pacific will be freighted deep with the 
wares of the Orient and the Occident, 
adding to the wealth of the world and 
making both countries richer because 
of the enlightened policy that leads na- 
tions to buy and sell to each other and 
profit by both operations. 


Tue Puree VEIL 


In China, Japan seeks no unfair ad- 
vantage. Sheasks no favor from China 
that is not granted to England or the 
United States or to the entire-world. 
With England and the United States she 
stands for the open door and, in the 
words of your great President, ‘‘square 
deal.”’ 

Under these conditions Japan is will- 
ing to take her chances in the rivalry 
of trade. We believe in the survival 


SRE, 


of the fittest in trade as well as in social 
development. If, in a fair field, we 
cannot hold our own position we shall 
be crowded out of the race, and it is 
right we should be. But we know that 
the trade of China is large enough for 
us all; that we can all share in it to our 
profit as well as to that of China, and 
instead of building on the ruins of a 
rival, we can build side by side for 
mutual advantage. 


THE PUR PEE V-B IL 


A ROMANCE OF THE SEA 


FF the New England coast a 
() curious object is often found 
floating on the water, some- 
what resembling a lady’s veil of gigantic 
size and of a violet or purple color. 
The fishermen allude to it generally as 
the ‘‘ purple veil,’’ and many have been 
the speculations concerning its nature 
and origin. In 1871 the late Prof. 
Spencer F, Baird had the opportunity 
of examining one of these objects at 
sea, and he found it to present the ap- 
pearance ‘‘of a continuous sheet of a 
purplish-brown color, 20 or 30 feet in 
length and 4 or 5 feet 1n width, com- 
posed of a mucous substance, which was 
perfectly transparent, to which, as a 
whole, a purple color was imparted by 
the presence of specks distributed un1- 
formly throughout the mass to the num- 
ber of about thirty or more to the square 
inch,” 

On examining the substance with a 
magnifying glass it was found that each 
little speck consisted of an embryonic 
fish, moving vigorously within the nar- 
row limits of a little cell in the jelly- 
like mass, so that it was obvious that 
the purple veil, as a whole, was the 
egg-mass of a fish. 

It is somewhat startling to be told, by 
so good an authority as Dr Theodore 


Gill, that the purple veil is the product 
of a single fish, and not so very large a 
fish either, as it rarely exceeds 3 feet in 
length, and that as many as 1,000,000: 
eggs may be contained in a single egg- 
mass. By allowing the eggs to develop 
under observation, Alexander Agassiz 
succeeded in identifying the parent fish 
as the Lophius piscatorius—variously 
known as the ‘‘ Goose-fish,’’ the ‘‘A]]- 
mouth,’’ or the ‘‘Angler,’’ one of the 
most remarkable fishes in existence. 

It derived its name of ‘‘ Goose-fish ’’ 
from its ‘‘ having been known to swal- 
low live geese,’’ a statement almost 
incredible ; but a reputable fisherman 
told the late G. Brown Goode that 
‘“he once saw a struggle in the water, 
and found that a Goose-fish had swal- 
lowed the head and neck of a large 
loon, which had pulled it to the surface 


_ Fic. 1.—Three eggs embedded in the gelat- 
Inous membrane in which they are laid; mag- 
nified. (After A. Agassiz.) 


“Fic. 2,—Young Angler taken out of theegg 
just previous to hatching. (After A. Agassiz. ) 


and was trying to escape.’’ ‘There is 
authentic record of seven wild ducks 
having been taken from the stomach of 
one of them. Slyly approaching from 
below, they seize birds as they float 
upon the surface. Reliable Cape Cod 
fishermen, Captains Nathaniel E. At- 
wood and Nathaniel Blanchard, assured 
Dr D. H. Storer that ‘‘ when opened 
entire sea-fowl, such as large gulls, are 
frequently found in their stomachs, 
which they supposed them to catch 
in the night, when they are floating 
uipon. the surface of, the water.’’ . Dr 
Storer was also informed by Captain 
Leonard West, of Chilmark, Mass., 
that he had known a Goose-fish to be 
taken having in its stomach six coots 
in a fresh condition. These he consid- 
ered to have been swallowed when they 
had been diving tothe bottom in search 
of food. 

Any one who has looked into the vast 
cavity behind the jaws of this fish will 
concede the aptness of the name ‘‘AIl- 
mouth.’’ ‘The fish is a most voracious, 
carnivorous animal—indeed omnivor- 
ous—and quite indiscriminate in its diet. 
In Massachusetts it is said to annoy the 
fishermen ‘‘ by swallowing the wooden 
buoys attached to the lobster pots,’’ and 
a man is stated to have caught one ‘‘ by 


FIG. 3.— Young Angler not long after hatch- 
ing; the yolkbag has entirely disappeared. 
(After A. Agassiz. ) 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


using his boat anchor for a hook.’’ 
Another feature of the fish is the slow- 
ness of its digestive powers, which is 
aptly illustrated by Couch, who says 
that on one occasion there were found 
in the stomach of this fish ‘‘ nearly 
three-quarters of a hundred herring ; 
and so little had they suffered change 
that they were sold by the fishermen in 
the market without any suspicion in the 
buyer of the manner in which they had 
been obtained.’’ 

The name ‘‘Angler’’ is not one in 
general use among shoremen and fisher- 
men. It isa book name, and was spe- 
cially coined for the Lophizus piscatorius 
by Thomas Pennant in 1776. In his 
British Zoology he says he ‘‘ changed 
the old name of /ishing-frog for the 
more simple one of Angiler’’ simply be- 
cause he did not like the former, which 
was one of the popular names. ‘There 
was no lack, however, of other popular 
names from which tochoose. In Eng- 


LEE 
ata 


Fig. 4.—Young Angler with 2 elongated 
dorsal rays and rudiment of third and 2 large 


ventral rays. (After A. Agassiz.) 


land the fish was known as the Fishing- 
frog, Frog-fish, Toad-fish, Pocket-fish, 
Monk- fish, Nass-fish, Sea-devil, Devil- 
fish, Wide-gut, Wide-gap, and Kettle- 
maw, and in America still other names 
were employed. Onthe Massachusetts 
coast it was known as the Goose-fish, 
in Rhode Island as the Bellows-fish, 
in Connecticut as the Molly-gut, and in 
North Carolina as the All-mouth. 
Although the Angler in its adult 
form is familiar to the fishermen of 
most countries under some of its va- 
rious names, little or nothing was 


Pur PureLe. VEIL 


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f 


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ime mS 
an 


Fic. 5.—Young Angler showing still greater 
increase in length and number of anterior 
dorsal and ventral rays. (After A. Agassiz.) 


known about its young until the dis- 
covery of the embryonic fish within their 
floating cradle in the ‘‘purple veil,’’ 
and their subsequent identification as 
Anglers by development under observa- 
tion. Dr Theodore Gill has now brought 
together the scattered fragments of 
knowledge relating to the development 
of this fish in an illustrated article pub- 
lished among the Smithsonian Miscella- 
neous Collections (vol. 47, part 4, May 
6, 1905), entitled ‘‘ The Life History of 
the Angler.’’ All thestatements given 
here are taken from this article. 
Higures:1, 2, 3,.4/°5, 6,.7, and 8 illus- 
trate various stages in the development 
of the Angler from the egg within the 
purple veil up to almost the adult form. 
In the stage of development shown by 
figure 6 the little fish when viewed from 
above, as in figure 7, reminds us some- 
what of along-tailed butterfly. In fig- 
ure 8 the characteristic seaweed-looking 
appendages have been developed, and 
the fish isalmostadult. In figure 9 the 


adult form is shown, and the peculiar 
nasal appendage with its frond-like ex- 


Fic. 6.—Young Angler in oldest pelagicstage, 
measuring 30 millimeters in length, seen in 
profile. (After A. Agassiz.) 


a0 


tremity, which is supposed to serve asa 
bait for other fish, is well seen. The 
book name ‘‘Angler’’ is peculiarly ap- 
propriate to this fish in view of the fact 
that its chief occupation in life seems to 
consist in lying quietly at the bottom of 
the sea angling for other fish. Accord- 
ing to Day, it often les as if dead, 
‘‘while its floating filaments, kept in 
motion by the tide, decoy other fish, and 
the Angler’s tendril is no sooner touched 
than the game is caught.”’ 

Dr Theodore Gill quotes an interesting 
account of this fish written by Saville 
Kent, who had excellent opportunities 
of observing a large individual in the 
Manchester Aquarium in 1874. 


Fic. 7.—Young Angler of oldest pelagic stage, 
seen from above. (After A. Agassiz. ) 


The attention of Saville Kent was 
struck by the marvelous way in which 
this specimen would disappear in the 
aquarium without any apparent hiding 
place. ‘‘ He is ever slinking off to the 
rock-work, and establishing himself so 
closely in some snug corner that it re- 
quires, notwithstanding his large size, a 
considerable amount of diligent search 
to detect him.’’ 

While the creature lay perfectly still, 


340 


it was difficult to distinguish the head 
of the fish from a piece of rock covered 
with sea-weed, calcareous sponges 
(Grantia compressa), ascidians, zo- 
ophytes, and the other low invertebrate 
forms which are usually to be seen ona 
rocky shore at low tide. The nasal ap- 


pendage appeared to be the facsimile of 
a young frond of oar-weed (Laminaria 
digitata) ; but the most extraordinary 
mimicry of all appeared—where we 
would least expect it—in the creature’s 
Saville Kent says: 


eyes ! 


Tue NaTIonAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


‘“ We have here in this fish, then, the 
most perfect possible embodiment of a 
rocky boulder, with its associated animal 
and vegetable growths. 

‘‘Lying prone at the bottom of the 
ocean among ordinary rocks and débris, 
it might well pass muster as an inani- 
mate object, and the other fish on which 
it preys would approach it with im- 
punity, and never discover their mistake 
until too late to escape from its merci- 
less jaws. 

‘‘Ensconce the animal snugly, how- 


Fic. 8.—Young Angler with most of the characteristics of adults, but larger pectorals and 


ventrals and less flattened head. 


‘“These organs are very large and 
prominent, the iris being conical in 
shape, of a yellow ground color, with 
longitudinal stripes of a darker shade, 
while the pupil, commencing abruptly 
at the summit, is of so jetty a hue that 
the aspect of the whole is that of a hol- 
low truncated cone, resembling, with 
its longitudinal stripes, the deserted 
shell of an acorn barnacle, and with an 
amount of exactness that is apparent 
to the most ordinary observer. 


(After Ruppell.) 


ever, in the crevice of some precipitous 
submarine cliff, and the illusion is more 
perfectly complete. No strategy need 
now be exerted by the voracious fish to. 
attract his prey ; he has only to lie close 
and quiet, letting his tendrils sway to- 
and fro in the passing current like the 
weeds around him, and the shoals will 
approach browsing the vegetation or 
pursuing their crustaceous diet—vight 
into his very mouth.’’ 


BHO ASE: 


THe Puree VEIL RAN 


Fic. 9.—The Common Angler (Lophius piscatorius). (After W. von Wright 
in Omitt: ) 


For this and the preceding eight illustrations the Magazine is indebted to Dr Theodore Gill, 
of the Smithsonian Institution 


342 


OUR MINES AND QUARRIES 


HE United States Bureau of the 
Census has published a handsome 
report on the mines and quarries of the 
United States for 1902. It is a volume 
of 1,100 quarto pages, giving a very 
complete and detailed account of our 
diverse mineral resources, the annual 
products of which are worth more than 
$1,000,000,000. Aninteresting feature 
of the report is the chapter on electricity 
in mining, by Thomas C. Martin. The 
remarkable progress made in recent 
years in transmission of power through 
the utilization of water-courses has en- 
abled mining men to use electricity in 
every branch of their work. Electric 
locomotives have been substituted for 
cars pulled by horsesormen. Electric 
motors are used for all kinds of work—— 
drilling, coal cutting, hoisting, pump- 
ing, ventilating, etc. Asa resulta great 
many mining regions which formerly 
were too costly to operate from lack of 
fuel are now worked with much profit. 
The report also contains interesting 
chapters on copper, iron ore, gold, and 
silver, petroleum, quarries, and every 
important mineral. It also discusses 
the resources of the different states. 
The census statistics were gathered 
in collaboration with the division of the 
mineral resources of the Geological Sur- 
vey, among those who contributed to 
its success being Messrs Wm. M. Steu- 
art, Joseph D. Lewis, David T. Day, 
F. H. Olyphant, Joseph Struthers, Story 
B. Ladd, Joseph Hyde Pratt, George 
F. Kunz, Joseph Middletown, George 
P. Merrill, William F. Willoughby, and 
Isaac A. Hourwich. 


THE HOME OF THE NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE deed of trust conveying Hub- 
bard Memorial Hall to the Na- 

tional Geographic Society was accepted 
by the Board of Managers on behalf of 
the Society at a meeting held in Wash- 
ington, June 14, 1905. By the terms 


THe NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


of the deed the building is to be held by 
Charles J. Bell, President of the Amer- 
ican Security and Trust Company of 
Washington, D. C., ‘‘in trust for the 
sole use and benefit of the said National 
Geographic Society so long, and for and 
during such period of time, as said So- 
ciety shall continue its corporate exist- 
ence under its present charter, and shall 
continue to use and occupy the said 
land and premises and the improvements 
thereon for the objects and purposes set 
forth in its certificate of incorporation.’’ 

In accepting the gift the Board of 
Managers unanimously adopted the fol- 
lowing resolution : 

‘* Resolved, ‘That the National Geo- 
graphic Society, through its Board of 
Managers, express to the donors of 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, Gertrude M. 
Hubbard (Mrs. Gardiner Greene Hub- 
bard), Alexander Graham Bell, Mabel 
G. Bell (Mrs. Alexander Graham Bell), 
Charles J. Bell, Grace Hubbard Bell 
(Mrs. Charles J. Bell), Helen A. Bell, 
Grace Hubbard Bell, Gertrude H. 
Grossmann (Mrs. Peter Stuyvesant Pil- 
lot), Elsie Graham Bell Grosvenor (Mrs. 
Gilbert H. Grosvenor), Marian Graham 
Bell( Mrs. David G. Fairchild), Gardiner 
H. Bell, Robert W. Bell, Melville Bell 
Grosvenor, Gertrude Hubbard Grosve- 
nor, and Rosalie Pillot, its sincere 
thanks for their handsome gift to the 
Society. The members of the National 
Geographic Society appreciate the great 
interest of the donors in the welfare and 
work of the Society, and accept this 
new and generous evidence of their in- 
terest with profound gratitude.’’ 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL BALANCE 


HE withdrawal of Norway from 

her ninety years’ union with 
Sweden emphasizes in a rather striking 
manner the momentous shifting in the 
geographical balance of Europe which 
has resulted from the Russo-Japanese 
war. The geographical pivot of the 
European continent has passed from 


343 


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344 


THe Nationa, GeocRAPHiIc MAGAZINE 


From Isaac A, Hourwich, Bureau of the Census 


, Park City, Utah 


ine 


-foot Level, Daly-Judge M 


1M 1n a I200 


A Ve 


345 


Notes 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Ss 


Nstlod 


2) 


OU} Jo neoing 


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ry 


ICN 


2) 


NI 


4 


ULOt 


1ayND [eoD oupapyy uy 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


346 


oly ‘jsleywy ‘AllenG suo0jspueg uoAUD }e2145) JO 


snsuag ay} jo neaing ‘[[IIeIW ‘d 95109H Wolly 


a 


puxy U1s}Ssa\ 1v9U MTA 


GeEocrRAPHIC Norges 


snsuay a4} JO 


neoing 


‘ 


ITO 


d 381095 wo1y4 


SUIAIIVN() BU0}S Ul pasy [Iq weajs 


Tur NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


348 


dL] UI pousn} Sulaq uuInjoo ys1y JO MATA *S19}9N9 g YUM ‘YASUI UI 3907 Og Aq STOUT g JOd} 9 SSUIMS ! sO} SEI ‘JYSIOA\ 


SUIVIT ‘USAVYTCUIA ye sYVe’] BSuIWWNO-uUINO|D s}yUeIH) as1e’T] 


snsudd ay} JO nvaing ‘[[MIoW ‘d 9610395 WO1y 


GEOGRAPHIC Notes 


Sao, 


From William F. Willoughby, Bureau of the Census 


Porto Rico—Molding Bricks by Hand 


Russia to Germany. Russia does not 
have in European waters a single bat- 
tleship, and she is almost as helpless as 
Turkey to prevent Norway and Sweden 
from doing as they wish. Norway has 
a population of 2,000,000 and Sweden 
Over 5,000,000. 

Meanwhile Germany has been quietly 
growing. Her population is now 60,- 
000,000 ; her wealth has increased enor- 
mously ; while in 1870 her resources 
were comparatively limited, they are 
today very large. France has a popu- 
lation today of about 40,000,000, which 
is a comparatively small advance in 35 
years. France is wealthier than in 1870, 
but her supply of men is about the same, 
whereas Germany has doubled her sup- 
ply of men and increased her financial 
strength many times. Germany needs 
more ports, almost as much as Russia 
does. Her 60,000,000 people do not find 
Hamburg and Bremen and her minor 


harbors sufficient for her expanding 
commerce. Little Denmark and little 
Holland may help her out. 

Morocco, according to recent explora- 
tions, has an area of useful land equal 
to the state of California. Many parts 
of the country are admirably adapted for 
colonization. The climate in large sec- 
tions is healthful; there is mineral 
wealth besides, so that the country offers 
a promising field fordevelopment. Nat- 
urally Germany wants a share in its 
development, particularly as she has 
good prospects of reaching the Adriatic 
before many generations. 


THE VICTORIA FALLS 


UR honored Speaker of the House 

of Representatives, Joseph Can- 

non, was Ig years of age when the Vic- 
toria Falls were discovered by Living- 
stone, 1,000 miles from the British out- 
posts in South Africa. So rapidly has the 


O 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Teo. 


BOOS 


, Bulawayo (copyright) 


i 


Photo by Pedrott 


The Grand Falls 


f the rock. Note 


1ces O 


the crev 


in 


to numerous cascades i 


in 


ter, but now separated 


ing wa 


e of fall 


is is one expans 


At high river th 


the continuance of the river level to the very edge of the falls 


GEoGRAPHIC Noress 


Photo by Pedrotti, Bulawayo (copyright) 


I 


View of Falls seen through the Jaws of the Gorge 


Danger Point on the left, the promontory of the ‘‘ knife edge’’ on the right 


Ree Ture Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGAaZINE 


Photo by Pedrotti, Bulawayo (copyright). 


View looking into Chasm from its Eastern End 


Vertical wall of “knife edge” on the left. Columnar structure of the basalt 
clearly shown in the rocks on the right. Debris of broken-down blocks at bottom of 
chasm. 


3 


1 


3 


+ 


Nortés 


GEOGRAPHIC 


5 


JO aseAva[D IeUUIN[OD 9}0N 


UsIMJoq 19}}VUI SNOIIPIIONS UI SUIMOIS $991} YIM ‘Spoq }eseq 


Bi) rele) 


(Wy 311A4dod) oAeME[NG ‘13301pagq Aq OJON 


‘6 


[PA] JOJVM DAOGE FYSIOAY “ASI yoy oF Yew pooy Surmoys 


WOAUBD Ul puseg JO MoIA 


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Jaye 


M MOT JO dN) ye UDR] 


Ture NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Photo by Pedrotti, Bulawayo (copyright) 


The Rich and Evergreen Rain Forest Fed by the Mist from the Falls 


GeEoGRAPHIC Nores 


man of commerce followed in the track of 
the explorer, however, that the highest 
steel bridge in the world is today being 
built across the falls. The Royal Geo- 
graphical Society of London, under 
whose auspices Livingstone was working 
when he found the falls, has recently 
published in its journal a description of 
the falls, and to it this Magazine is in- 
debted for the accompanying illustra- 
tions. ‘The Victoria Falls are so distant 
from great centers of industry that they 
are not likely to be called upon to furnish 
power for many centuries. Some years 
hence, when the waters of Niagara are 
employed for commerce, and _ travel 
across the oceans becomes easier, thou- 
sands may journey annually to see the 
magnificence of the Victoria Falls. The 
Victoria Falls are not so wide as Niagara, 
but they are nearly twice as high, their 
dimensions being 3,o00 feet in width 
and 360 feet in height, as against 4,750 
feet in width and 164 feet in height for 
Niagara. The Century Magazine for 
June, 1905, contains a good account of 
the falls. 


MR WILLIAM ZIEGLER 


R William Ziegler, who has so 
generously supported Arctic ex- 
plorations during the past five years, 
died at his summer home, in Connecti- 
cut, Mry 24, 1905. He had been inthe 
best of health until November, 1904, 
when he was thrown from his carriage 
and seriously injured. 

Mr Ziegler was born in Beaver county, 
Pennsylvania, in 1843. -He began to 
earn ats ving: at the age of 13 ina 
printer’s office. Later he became a 
druggist’s clerk and much interested in 
Chemical, experiments. : Ihe story of 
how he gradually made a fortune in 
baking powder and real estate is typical 
of many of our prominent and progress- 
ive Americans. 

Several years after he had retired 
from business Mr Ziegler became inter- 
ested in the search for the North Pole. 
He had no desire to advertise his name, 


355 


but was ambitious that the American 
flag should be the first to be planted at 
the North Pole. His wealth enabled 
him to equip expeditions unaided. The 
first expedition, the Baldwin-Ziegler of 
IQOI—1902, proved very unsuccessful. 
They brought back some of the finest 
pictures of Arctic scenes ever taken, 
and they also secured the first series of 
moving pictures that were ever taken in 
the Arctic regions, but Mr Ziegler felt 
so badly about the failure of the expedt- 
tion that he refused to give the pictures 
to the public until he should have some- 
thing more to announce. 

In 1903 he began to make arrange- 
ments for a second expedition, known 
as the Ziegler Polar Expedition, and 
asked the National Geographic Society 
to undertake the direction of the scien- 
tific work of the expedition. The So- 
ciety accepted his invitation and ap- 
pointed Mr W. J. Peters, a member of 
the Society and one of the best-known 
explorers of the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey, as its representative. Mr 
Peters is second incommand to Mr Fiala, 
the leader of the expedition, and has 
entire charge of the scientific work. It 
was expected that the party would re- 
turn in 1904, but the ice was so thick 
that they were unable to get through. 


“They were abundantly equipped, how- 


ever, for a prolonged stay in the North 
Polar regions. 

At the time of his death Mr Ziegler 
had just completed arrangements for the 
auxiliary expedition which leaves Nor- 
way about July 1, under command of 
Mr W.S. Champ. The Russian gov- 
ernment granted the request of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society, forwarded 
through our State Department, that the 
expedition be allowed to visit Nova 
Zembla and there obtain some Siberian 
dogs. This generous permission of the 
Russian government will considerably 
lighten the work of the auxiliary party 
and give them more time to work 
through the ice. It is believed that last 
winter was exceedingly harsh, and that 


Tue NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


aa 
aah 


Gi 


fairs ee 


if 
past 

soltaligirs 
fet 


Pita 
ih ee f 


fl 


ihe 


of 
a 
fatale 


ae 


Mr William Ziegler 


GEoGRAPHIC Noregs 


the Ziegler parties will need every effort 
to get through. 

Mr Ziegler was a member of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society and was much 
interested in its work. He was a mod- 
est, unassuming gentleman and his un- 
timely death is much to be deplored. 

Mr Ziegler left instructions to his 
executors to take care of his polar ex- 
peditions. 


THE FOREIGN COMMERCE OF JAPAN 


N spite of the heavy burdens of war, 

Japan sold to the world and also 

bought in return more merchandise in 
1904 than in any year of her history. 

Her imports in 1904 were $184,938,- 
ooo in value, as against $157,933,000 
in 1903, $143,056,000 in Igoo, and $66,- 
311,000 in 1895. Her exports in 1904 
also established a new high record, be- 
ing $158,992,000 in value, as against 
$44,172,000 last year, $101,806,000 in 
1900, and $69,825,000 in 1895. ‘Thus 
the imports into Japan have increased 
by $118,627,000 and the exports from 
Japan by $89,167,000 since 1895. 

During the past ten years Japan has 
imported about $200,000,000 more than 
she has exported, the excess of the 
imports over the exports averaging 
about $20,000,000 annually. 

Japan imports most largely from Great 
Britain, British India, the United 
States, China, and Germany, these five 
countries supplying about 77 per cent 
of her total imports. Of the total im- 
ports into Japan in 1904, amounting to 
$184,938,000, the United Kingdom sup- 
plied $37,346,000, OF -20.2 per. cent; 
British India (including Straits Settle- 
ments), $35,228,000, or 19 per cent; 
the United States, $28,942,000, or 15.7 
per cent ; China, $27,295,000, or. 14:8 
per cent, and Germany, $14,291,000, 
OF 7.7 per cent. 

Of the exports from Japan, amounting 
to $158,992,000 in 1904, the principal 
countries of destination are the United 
States, $50,423,000; China, $33,857,000; 
France, $18,087,000; Hongkong, $14,- 


357) 


024,000; Korea, $10,154,000; Great 
Britain, $8,787,000, and Italy, $6,or1,- 
ooo, these seven countries taking about 
nine-tenths of the exports from Japan. 
The United States is by far Japan’s best 
customer, exports to the United States 
from Japan representing about one-third 
of her total sales to foreign countries. 
Among the nations exporting goods to 
Japan, however, the United States occu- 
pies a lower rank, being exceeded by 
both Great Britain and British India. 

The relative progress made by the 
United States and the United Kingdom 
in the import trade of Japan is shown by 
the following table: 


Deen aise Imports | Imports 
Total 1m- 

: from the | from the 

pate acne United | United 
: States. | Kingdom. 
TSSAs Mhicciecccnsdeassatuusecers $25,786,000 | $2,163,000 | $11,087,000 
OSG ics sestecsssastoecesceaerecs 48,520,000 | 4,509,600 | 19,134,000 
TOOAME a patetesmacsctaseecse: 58,271,000 | 5,448,000 | 20,926,000 
TSOQis. cavsscsrsetenceteeeteosee 109,760,000 | 19,031,000 | 22,329,000 
IC 1918). saguon Sagisnduadocsnceacenge 143,056,000 | 31,255,000 | 35,676,000 
LOOTgst ee sceses cesetec ste caesec! 127,397,000 | 21,299,000 | 25,187,000 
TQO2s: Migrants sciecs net tecees 135,322,000 | 24,229,000 | 25,081 000 
LOOS> ceiesscencaedeer ste tosce 157,933,000 | 23,044,c00 | 24,271,000 
BO f0). [Shed docsoqdeaodsdaeacdadoun 184,938,000 | 28,952,000 | 37,346,000 


NoTE.—Value of yen: 1884, 86.9 cents; 1889, 73.4 cents; 
1894, 49 6 cents; 1899 to 1904, 49.8 cents. 

The principal articles imported into 
Japan from the United States in the 
calendar year 1904 were: Kerosene oil, 
5.5 million dollars ; flour, 4.6 millions ; 
raw cotton, 4.5 millions; machinery 
and parts thereof, about 2 millions ; 
iron and steel manufactures, 1.9 mil- 
lions; leather, 1.7 millions; cotton 
manufactures, 1.1 millions; wheat and 
other grains, canned provisions, cars 
and carriages, leaf tobacco, and coal, 
the last five items showing figures less 
than 1 million dollars. 

Japan’s principal exports to the 
United States were: Raw silk, 30.4 mil- 
lion dollars ; silk manufactures; 6.1 mil- 
lions ; tea, 5.6 millions ; mats and mat- 
ting, 2.3 millions; porcelain and earthen 
ware, about 1 million dollars, and cam- 
phor, straw braids, wood-chip braids, 
sulphur, tooth brushes, and rice, from 
$620,000 to about $300,000 each. 


358 


The August number of this Magazine 
will contain an address by the Secretary 
of War, Hon. William H. Taft, on the 
Philippines, illustrated with a four-col- 
ored map of the Philippine Islands. 


A Tribute to American Topographers. 
In an account of a lecture given by Mr 
Bailey Willis before the geographers of 
Venice, Professor Penck, than whom 
there is no higher authority on topo- 
graphic maps, pays a high compliment 
to American topographers : 

aah Above allan opportunity 
was afforded of obtaining an insight 
into the really astounding cartographic 
results achieved by Willis’ party in 
China. The maps which were exhib- 
ited gave proof of the very decided 
superiority of American topographic 
methods over those employed by most 
European expeditions. The Willis 
party carried on plane-table surveys, 
on a scale of 1:yo,o00, with 20 to 30 
meter contours, from Paitingfu to 
Taijaufu. This mapping was the work 
of Sargent, the topographer of the ex- 
pedition, one of that group of expert 
cartographers of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. In 58% days Sargent 
mapped no less than 8,500 square kilo- 
meters, occupying 103 stations, locating 
2,600 points by intersection, and meas- 
uring the altitudes of 2,150 points.”’ 

eb: 


“The Negritos of Zambales” is the 
subject of a recent publication of the 
Ethnological Survey of the Philippines. 
The pamphlet is very fully illustrated 
with maps and pictures showing the cus- 
toms and life of the little brown people. 

Although living in the mountainous 
and wooded portions of the islands, the 
Negrito grows tobacco, maize, and vege- 
tables. He usually plants in cleared 
spots in the forest, because the soil is 

* Penck, Prof. Dr Albrecht : The Investiga- 


tions in China by the Carnegie Institution. 
Die Zeit, Wien, April 15, 1905. 


Tue NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


loose and needs no plowing, as in the 
case of the lowland. All work of dig- 
ging up the soil, planting, and cultivat- 
ing is done with sharpened sticks of 
hard wood, sometimes, but not always, 
pointed with iron, for iron is scarce. 
The piece of ground for planting is 
regarded as the personal property of the 
head of the family which clearedit. No 
one else would think of planting on it, 
even though the owner had abandoned 
it, unless he declared that he had no 
more use for it. 

Many of the vices of the Negrito, 
says the report, are due to contact with 
the Malayan, to whom he is, at least in 
point of truthfulness, honesty, and tem- 
perance, far superior. 

While living in the wild state, they 
have a very simple form of government. 
They simply gather around the most 
powerful man, whom they are quick to 
recognize in this way for superior abil- 
ity or greater wealth; but when living 
peaceably scattered through the moun- 
tains each head of a family is a small 
autocrat, and rules his family and those 
of his sons who elect to remain with 
him. When he dies the oldest son be- 
comes the head of the family. 


DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON 
GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 


April 5, 1905 
CHINESK PROVINCES 


Anhui (not Nganhwei, Ngan-hwei, Ngan-hoei, 
Ngan-hui, Ngan-hwuy, nor Ngan-Hwuy). 

Chehkiang (not Cheh-kiang, Chekiang, nor 
Che-kiang). 

Chihli* (not, Pechili, 
Chih-li, nor Chi-li). 

Fuhkien * (not Fukien, Fu-kien, Fuh-kien, 
nor Foo-kien). 

Honan (not Ho-nan). 

Hsin chiang (not Eastern Turkestan nor 
Kashgaria). 

Hunan (not Hu-nan nor Hoo-nan). 

Hupeh (not Hu-peh nor Hoo-pe). 

Kansu (not Kan-su, Kansuh, nor Kan-soo). 

Kiangsi (not Kiang-si nor Kiang-se). 

Kiangsu (not Kiang-su). 


Pe-chili, Pe-chi-li, 


* Revision of previous decision. 


GeoGRAPHIC Nores 


Kuangsi (not Kwangsi, Kwang-si, nor Quang- 
se). 

Kuangtung (not Kwangtung, Kwang-tung, 
Kwantung, Kang-tung, nor Quang-tung). 

Kueichou (not Kui-chou, Kweichou, Kwei- 
chow, nor Quei-chow). 

Shangtung (not Shantung nor Shan-tung). 

Shansi (not Shan-si nor Shan-se). 

Shensi (not Shen-si nor Shen-se). 

Ssuch’uan (not Szechuen, Sze-chuen, nor Sze- 
ehuan). 

Yiinnan (not Yunnan, Yun nan, nor Yun-nan), 

Mukden; city, China (not Mookden nor 
Moukden). 


Banka; island, lying between Sumatra and 
Borneo (not Banca nor Bangka). 

Captains; bay, Alaska, between Iliuliuk Bay 
an Nateekin Bay. 

Carquinez ;* bay, point, and strait, connecting 
Suisun and San Pablo Bays, California 
(not Carquines, Karquines, nor Karque- 
nas). 

Chouteau ;* county, Montana (not Choteau). 

Dona Ana;* county, post-office, railroad sta- 
tion, and precinct, New Mexico (not Donna 
Ana nor Dofia Ana). 

Grass; river, tributary to the St Lawrence 
River, St Lawrence County, New York 
(not De Grasse, Grasse, nor La Grasse). 

Iliulink ;* harbor, Alaska, an arm of Unalaska 
Bay, east of Dutch Harbor (not Unalaska, 
Captains Harbor, nor Levashef). 

Le Conte; bay and glacier, east of Mitkof 
Island, Frederick Sound, southeastern 
Alaska (not Hutli, Hnlti, nor Thunder). 

Lewis and Clark;* county, Montana (not 
Lewis and Clarke). 

Little Salmon ; stream, tributary to Lake On- 
tario, near Texas and about 4 miles west 
of Salmon River, Oswego County, New 
York (not Salmon). 

Port Levashef ; port, Alaska, at head of Cap- 
tains Bay (not Captains Harbor nor St 
Paul). 

Sycamore; creek, tributary to Verde River 
from the northeast, Yavapai County, Ari- 
zona (not Dragoon nor Dragoon Fork). 


May 3, 1905 


Chefoo; city, China (not Chifu, Chi-fu, Che- 
foo, Chee-foo, nor Tschi-fu). 

Liaoyang; city, China (not Liau-yang, Liao- 
yang, nor Liaoyan),. 

Tieling ; city, China (not Thieling, Tie-ling, 
nor Tielin). 

American Corners; village, post-office, and 
district, Caroline County, Maryland (not 
American Corner). 

Hinchinbrook ; principal entrance to Prince 
William Sound, southern Alaska (not 
Meiklejohn). 


* Revision of previous decision. © 


359 


Choga; creek, Macon County, North Carolina 
(not Chogee). - 

Hughes; post-office and railroad station, Butler 
County, Ohio (not Hughs). 

Indian ; creek, Chowan County, North Carolina 
(not Dillard nor Dillard Mill). 

Marshyhope ; branch of the Nanticoke River, 
Dorchester and Caroline counties, Mary- 
land, and Kent and Sussex counties, Dela- 
ware (not Marshy Hope, Marsh Hope, 
West Branch of Nanticoke River, West or 
Northwest Fork of Nanticoke, nor North- 
west Prong of Nanticoke). 

Norris ; glacier on the west side of Taku Inlet, 
southeastern Alaska (not Kadischle, Ka- 
dishle, nor Windom). 

Salt Lake City ; city, capital of Utah (not Salt 
Lake). 

Santeetlah; creek and _ post-office, Graham 
County, North Carolina (not Santeetla nor 
Santutlah). 

Shewbird ; post-office and mountain, Clay 
County, North Carolina (not Shoo Bird nor 
Shoobird). 

Shoshone ; established for all place names, but 
not for tribal name or reservation. 

Taku ; glacier at the head of Taku Inlet, south- 
eastern Alaska(not Klumu Gutta, Klumma 
Gutta, nor Foster). 


June 7, 1905 


Donaldson; creek, Caldwell County, Ken- 
tucky (not Dollison, Dollarson, nor Don- 
alson). 

Hayden ; island in Columbia River, Multno- 
mah County, Oregon (not Shaw’s, Shaws, 
nor Vancouver). 

* Horniblow ; point, Chowan County, North 
Carolina (not Hornblower, Horniblow’s, 
nor Skinners). 

Kivalina ; river, debouchiug in Corwin Lagoon, 
on the Arctic coast of Alaska, 60 miles 
southeast of Point Hope (not Kevulik, 
Kevuleek, Kuveleek, Kivalena, Kivalinag- 
miut, Kiveleena, Kivilenya, Kivelow, nor 
Kiv-a-linyah). 

Kobuk; river in northwestern Alaska tributary 
to Hotham Inlet (not Kowak, Putnam, 
Kooak, Kubuk, nor Kuvuk). 

Poverty ; point, Dorchester County, Maryland 
(not Brockman, Brokman, nor Brohawn). 

Roasting Ear; point, Dorchester County, 
Maryland (not Roasting Gar nor Rose 
Neck). 

Tigari; Eskimo village on Point Hope, Arctic 
coast of Alaska(not Tikira, Tik-i-rah, Tik-i- 
rah-mun, Tikirak, Tik-é-ra, Tikera, Tieka- 
gagmiut, Tiekaga, Tigera, Tig-a-ra, Tig-a- 
rah, nor Figarok). 

Whale; island, between Afognak and Kodiak, 
Alaska (not Tobopymeriu, Tobopymek, 
Ketoy, nor Kittiwake). 


*Reversal of previous decision 


206 


Earthquakes. By Clarence Edward 
Dutton, Major, U.S.A. Pp. xxiii+ 
New York: 


314. 8% x 534 inches. 
G. P. Putman’s Sons. 1904. 


This volume, by a specialist, gathers 
up in a technical way the most impor- 
tant results of the new seismology which 
has developed within the last third of a 
century chiefly under the leadership of 
Prof. John Milne, an Englishman who 
taught science for several years in the 
Imperial University of Japan. These 


investigators confine themselves largely ~ 


to the study of the wave motions in the 
earth, looking on earthquakes as an 
effect of geologic forces. Our author 
treats of the nature and causes of earth- 
quakes, describes the instruments used 
for recording vibrations, and discusses 
the views and theories of observers based 
on this mechanical data. Healso points 
out the chief areas of these disturbances 
and gives a final chapter on seaquakes. 
He draws illustrations from the various 
quarters afforded by these phenomena 
and makes copious use of pictures and 
diagrams. There is a short index. 
The volume is indispensable in its field, 
as it practically has no rival, but it is 
not intended for the general reader, 
though a man of ordinary education 
can readily get considerable information 
from it. C. VE. 


Thomas Hutchins. A Topographical 
Description of Virginia,Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, and North Carolina. Re- 
print of original edition of 1778. Ed- 


ited by Frederick C. Hicks. Pp. 143, 
with maps. Cleveland: Burrows 
.Bros.-Co... 1904. 


This reprint of a rare and valuable 
book will be welcomed by all students 
of the formative period of the United 
States, and the work of the only man 
who filled the office of civil ‘‘ geogra- 
pher of the United States’’ should be of 
interest to every student of geography. 
Mr Hicks supplements the reprint by 
valuable notes, and contributes an ex- 
cellent biographical sketch of Hutch- 
ins, with a list of his works. He was 


Tue Nationa, GeocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


not merely an American by birth, but 
in his sympathies and activities, resign- 
ing his commission in the British army 
to serve his country during the Revolu- 
tionary War. To Hutchins is probably 
due the system of land platting used by 
our General Land Office. He also ex- 
ercised a potent influence on colonization 
through his extensive travels, road sur- 
veys, and land tracts. During his serv- 
ices as geographer, as one of the com- 
missioners to run the boundary line 
between Pennsylvania and Virginia, 
and also between New York and Massa- 
chusetts, and in establishing the sys- 
tem of surveying public lands, Hutchins 
displayed conspicuous scientific ability. 
Prof. Hicks says that ‘‘ his geograph- 
ical works formed the basis for the 
famous American geography of Jedi- 
dah Morse,’’ and adds that ‘‘as a pio- 
neer, soldier, patriot, surveyor, litera- 
teur, and scientist, we find him to have 
been a man who justly is en- 
titled to a place among the great Amer- 
ican civilizers.’’ Ae WeG: 


Geographen Kalendar, 1905-1906. By 
Hermann Haack. With 16 maps. 
Pp. 530. 4% x 6% inches. Gotha 
Justus Perthes. 1905. $2.50. 

The volume for 1905-1906 of this 
useful geographical annual contains a 
summary of geographical progress in 
1904 by Professor Paul Langhaus, a 
review of geographic publications in 
1904, a directory of the working geog- 
raphers of the world, and a series of 
admirable small maps, including maps 
showing the route of the English Tib- 
etan expedition, the Baikal railway, 
Siam, the Signal Corps telegraph lines 
in Alaska, French explorations in Sa- 
hara, and maps picturing the territorial 
expansion of the United States and 
Japan. ‘The map of the United States 
is in error, as it represents Arizona, 
New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Indian 
Territory as states. [he directory does 
not contain the names of a considerable 
number of American geographers, who 
ought to be included. 


— Vol. XVI AUGUST, 1905 : No. 8 


CONTENTS 


Map of the Philippine Islands. [In four 
colors, 23 x 36 inches ule Supplement 


The Philippines. By Secretary of War, 
Hon. William H. Taft. Illustrated . 361 


Forestry at Home and Abroad. By 
Gifford Pinchot, Forester. Illustrated 375 


The Central Great Plains. Illustrated . 389 


Published by the National Geographic Society — 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
! Washington, D. C. 


$2.50 a Year | 25 Ceats a Number 


' Entered at the Pest-Offiee in Wachington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


THE 
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N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the 


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GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
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W J McGHE 


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and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition 


C. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture 


oO. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


O. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
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Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 


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Washington, D. C. 


DAVID Tf. DAY 


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Resources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
delphia 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University of Chicago 


G. K. GILBERT 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE 


Professor of Meteorology, U. S. 
Weather Bureau, San Francisco 


ALMON GUNNISON 1 
President St Lawrence University - 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D.C. _ 


Vor. XVI, No. 8 


WASHINGTON 


AvuGuST, 1905 


rT 


1 2 PA PPINES* 


By THE SECRETARY OF War, Hon. Wittiam H. Tarr 


| HEN your veracious commit- 
tee came to see me to invite 
me to address the National 


Geographic Society I gathered from 
what they said—possibly they did not 
say it directly—that I was to have the 
pleasure of sitting and talking in a par- 
lor with a few ladies and gentlemen 
much interested. in geography and the 
far countries of the world ; who would 
not require a speech or lecture, but 
merely an informal talk. I said to 
them that my engagements at present 
were such as to make it altogether im- 
possible for me to prepare anything 
which would be worthy of an august 
audience. They said, ‘‘ That is en- 
tirely unnecessary. ‘Talk about the 
Philippines, you know all about that, 
and you can talk that in a parlor with- 
out difficulty.’’ Andso Idid not know 
until this morning, when I was advised 
where I would find the Rifles’ Armory, 
that I was to speak to so intelligent, 
and, I may be permitted to say, ‘‘ terri- 
fying’’ an audience as this. I make 
this explanation both because of the des- 
ultory character of the remarks which 
you shall hear, and also to avoid the 
charge which I am constantly receiving 


at home from my wife and my mother, 
whose instructions I hope to follow, 
that I should not harp on one string so 
much. 

Those who are responsible for the 
Philippine administration under this 
government have had the disadvantage, 
or advantage, of being subject to criti- 
cism ever since they began, on all sides. 
For a long time—if I may designate 
what they said by so opprobrious a 
term—the ‘‘ noise’’ came from the anti- 
imperialists, and we were attacked for 
oppressing a people struggling for in- 
dependence. We were attacked, after 
we had taken control, for not giving at 
once to that people all the liberties they 
were entitled to. We were attacked for 
proposing to stay any number of years 
there in order to enable that struggling 
people to get upon their feet. When 
it was suggested that we should stay 
and educate them, it was said to be al- 
together too long. 

Well, we have fought out that fight, 
if I understand it, with the American 
people, and that people, being a sensible 
people, have decided that, so far as the 
issue raised by the taking of the Philip- 
pines and our establishing a government 


*An address before the National Geographic Society, May 5, 1905 


362 


there are concerned, those issues are set- 
tled; and therefore we may properly 
turn to the critics whom, with deference 
for the anti-imperialists of Boston and 
elsewhere, I regard as much more for- 
midable,the critics who found what they 
have to say in derogation of our govern- 
ment upon the experience of the great- 
est colonial government of the world— 
the British Empire ; and we find, curi- 
ously enough, or perhaps not so curi- 
ously, though, when you come to con- 
sider the facts, that the very things for 
which we are attacked by the anti- 
imperialists in the Philippine govern- 
ment are made the only basis for ap- 
proval on the part of the British critics. 
And in what I have to say tonight I 
should like to take up, not in very 
great detail, but subject by subject, the 
grounds for the criticisms of the Philip- 
pine government which have appeared 
in publications of the British critics. 

The first one of these, who is hardly 
worthy of notice, vet I do notice him 
for the purpose of saying one or two 
severe things about him—he deserves 
it—is Mr John Foreman. Mr John 
Foreman published a book upon the 
Philippine Islands before they came 
under the American regime that, on the 
whole, furnished the most material and 
possibly the best information, the most 
accurate information, although there 
were a great many inaccuracies in it, 
concerning the Philippine Islands. He 
left the islands, it was said, because of 
some strictures which he made upon the 
Spanish friars, and did not return there 
until long after the Americans had es- 
tablished a government. Then he made 
a very summary visit, and returned last 
summer in time to publish an article in 
the fortnightly Review on what the 
Americans had done in the Philippines. 

I suppose that the editors of that very 
reputable review permitted the publica- 
tion of the article because Mr Foreman 
had established a good reputation by 
the book which he had published ; but 


Tur Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


no one can read it, and read hetween the 
lines, without perceiving the bitterness 
and utter irresponsibility of the criti- 
cisms which he made upon the present 
condition of affairs in the island. He 
must first, although professing to hold 
in the greatest contempt those who were 
struggling for independence in the isl- 
ands, have made his home with irrecon- 
cilables, for he gave credence to the very 
wildest statements concerning the gov- 
ernment which I am in a position, hav- 
ing formed a part of that government, 
to be able to deny without hesitation. 
He had an insinuating way of saying, 
for instance, ‘‘ The government is now 
taking up the work of the Spanish gov- 
ernment, proceeding with the harbor 
works, which will bring into use 160 
acres of valuable lands just below the 
Malecon drive, for warehouses and other 
purposes. This will doubtless be ap- 
propriated by the Americans in the gov- 
ernment service.’’ He had no founda- 
tion, so far as I know, for saying that 
the lands would be disposed of except 
at public auction, and it is a gratuitous 
insult to any one connected with the 
government to suggest that those of us 
who are connected with the government 
would divide these lands between us. 
Now, I pass Mr Foreman by with the 
statement that the character of his arti- 
cle entitles him to be classed in the cate- 
gory of those ‘‘ European waifs’’ who 
are found upon the shores of the Orient. 
We had in Manilaa collection of per- 
sons from America and Europe, and all 
along the shore between, attracted there 
by the disturbed condition of the coun- 
try, whom it took us two full years to 
eliminate, and when they found the 
police force of Manila growing more 
and more strict in its regard for the 
presence of good individuals and the 
absence of bad individuals, they took 
up their march, or their swim, or their 
sail up the coast, and they put in at 
Shanghai, which seems to be the final 
home of all the ocean waifs of the 


Tue PHILIPPINES 


Orient and of most of the Oriental liars ; 
and they, becoming established there, 
became very well known in Manila in 
my time as ‘‘ Shanghai roosters.’’ They 
occupied most of their time in libelling 
the American government. I am bound 
to say that Mr Foreman has established 
his claim to take a position on that roost. 

The next of these British critics is Mr 
A. R. Colquhoun, a gentleman of avery 
different order from Mr Foreman, if we 
may judge by the writings of the two. 
Mr Colquhoun has been the correspond- 
ent of the London 7zmes, was at one time 
in the colonial service of Great Britain, 
was the district governor, or commander, 
of a district in Burma, is a gentleman 
in every way, and has written two very 
interesting books—one ‘‘’The Mastery 
of the Pacific,’’ and the other ‘‘A Greater 
America.’’ Mr Colquhoun traveled with 
the commission when we were establish- 
ing civil governments in the islands. He 
was about three weeks in the islands at 
one time, and about ten days at another. 
I have a great respect for him, and read 
what he had to say with keen interest. 
I shall not take up what he had to say, 
because what he has had to say has been 
amplified and treated with more elabora- 
tion, and possibly with more authority, 
by another Englishman or Scotchman, 
Mr Alleyne Ireland, nowconnected with 
the Chicago University, and whose ex- 
perience in the investigation of tropical 
colonies makes what he says worthy of 
consideration, and makes it, also, most 
interesting. 


THEY SAY WE ARE SPENDING TOO 
MUCH FOR EDUCATION 


Now, his first criticism of the Philip- 
pine government is that it has devoted 
three million dollars a year, or at least 25 
per cent, and perhaps more, of its total 
revenue, for education, and he says that 
that money would be much better ex- 
pended in the construction of roads and 
in the material development of the coun- 
try. Hesays this because experience in 


363 


English colonies makes him think that 
the Filipino needs material development 
much more than he does mental develop- 
ment, by no means admitting, however, 
that he has mental development sufficient 
to dispense with any of it. Upon this 
subject those of us who are responsible 
for the course pursued in the Philippines 
must take issue. The question as to 
which is right of the two policies de- 
pends upon and goes back to the pur- 
pose of the colonization. Weblundered 
into colonization; we did not go into it 
with malice aforethought. We found 
ourselves in possession of the islands 
because we could not help it, and then 
we determined that we would do the 
best we could with them, working outa 
policy as nearly consistent with the prin- 
ciples of our own government as was 
possible. Now, then, that means in the 
end a government of the people, by the 
people, and for the people; but a gov- 
ernment of the people, by the people, 
and for the people is absolutely impos- 
sible unless you have the great body of | 
that people with intelligence enough to 
exercise the strong public opinion that 
is necessary to sustain and restrain any 
popular government. If it be true, as 
Mr Ireland says, that tropical peoples 
are incapable of self-government and 
incapable of education up to self-govern- 
ment, then I agree that the argument is 
with him And heassumes as the basis 
of his argument the experience that the 
English have had in their colonies. 


OUR COLONIAL PROBLEM IS EN- 
TIRELY DIFFERENT FROM ENGLISH 
COLONIAL PROBLEMS 


Well, you judge of how experience 
ought to lead you in your conclusions 
by how far that experience has gone. 
Iam not aware as yet of any attempt 
on the part of England to try the peo- 
ples of tropical colonies in self-govern- 
ment or to educate them up to the point 
where they may be capable of self-gov- 
ernment. Again, experience is useful 


364 


as the experience is in accord with the 
conditions which you expect to meet and 
to which you expect to apply that expe- 
rience. The peoples that the English 
have had to handle in the tropics have 
been the Mohammedans and the Hin- 
doos. ‘They are a people whose religion 
is so deepseated that it is impossible to 
hope that they may ever in any great 
numbers be made Christians. The Mo- 
hammedans look with disdain on Chris- 
tianity as an older religion. They have 
a new patent, and therefore they look 
with contempt on European ideas and 
on American ideas. Now, in the Phil- 
ippines we have a very different condi- 
tion of affairs. We have 6 millions of 
people, nearly 7 millions, who are sin- 
cere Christians, and who have been so 
for 250 years. ‘Theyare Christian chil- 
dren because they have been brought up 
by the friars, who thought that it was 
unwise to expose them to the tempta- 
tions and demoralizations of the Spanish 
or any other world. But they did in- 
still in them the principles of Christian- 
ity, and they did turn their faces, their 
minds, and their ambitions toward Eu- 
rope and toward America. It is from 
these two countries that these people 
derived their ideas. ‘Therefore I think 
that we are right in saying that experi- 
ence founded on dealing with Moham- 
medans and Hindoos in respect of pop- 
ular self-government may be doubted as 
an absolute guide as to what we may 
expect to do with people who are the 
only Christian Malays and the only far- 
Oriental Christians. 

Another objection which may be made 
to the education of these people is that 
if you educate them you will educate 
some of them so that they will become 
unruly; they will become constant revo- 
lutionists, and you will always have 
trouble. Well, I agree that it is possi- 
ble to educate a man much beyond his 
capacity, so that he uses his education 
for purposes for which a man of much 
less education would not waste it. But 


Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


the advantage and absolute necessity 
in a popular government of having pub- 
lic opinion that comes from a wide- 
spread intelligence, not profound, not 
university, but based on primary edu- 
cation, furnishes an antidote for the 
poison of the revolutionary tendency of 
light-headed, irresponsible characters. 

You can tell often whether a people 
are fitted for education by whether — 
they take to it or not. We have in the 
Philippines a much severer struggle to 
teach the Filipinos than they would 
have in the Malay states, or in Java, or 
in India, because we have a people who 
have no common language that is fit to 
be used by a civilized people, and there- 
fore we have not only to teach them, 
but we have to teach them a different 
language from their mother tongue. 
There are some twelve different dialects 
or languages in the Philippines among 
the civilized tribes, and until they shall 
have a common language, it is hope- 
less to expect solidarity as a nation 
or intelligence asa people. ‘Therefore 
we determined that we ought to teach 
them English. It is true that they had 
learned, some of them—about 7 per 
cent of them—Spanish, but they did not 
look to Spanish as a language which 
they cherished. Spanish is not the lan- 
guage of the Orient. Spanish is not 
the language of free institutions, and 
we concluded that as the question was 
only between teaching 93 per cent and 
100 per cent we might as well do the 
job thoroughly and teach them English. 


ARE WE FORCING ENGLISH DOWN 
THEIR THROATS AS Withos 
FORCE PUMP? 


Now, our anti-imperialist friends say, 
and I think that even the president of 
Cornell University has intimated, that 
we are forcing English down the throats 
of an unwilling people as with a force 
pump. Asa matter of fact, the teach- 
ing of English began before civil gov- 
ernment reached the islands; the instinct 


Tue PHILIPPINES 


of the Americans whether they wear a 
military uniform or the garb of peace, 
to teach the youth how they should 
grow and to spread intelligence, led the 
army into the establishment of an edu- 
cational system in the Philippines, and 
in every company of that army two or 
three men were detailed right in the 
villages where insurrection was rife to 
open schools and teach the little Fili- 
pinos English. Of course, it was a de- 
fective school system, but nevertheless 
we found it there, and on what they 
had done we builded. We sent to 
America for a thousand school teachers, 
and we organized, and as the army paci- 
fied the islands we followed closely with 
civil government and with schools. 
Now, we had at the end of the first year 
after we reached there organized schools 
enough so that there were reciting in 
English 10 per cent of the youth of 
school age of the islands. The next 
year this was increased to 13 per cent, 
and last year it increased to 19 per cent, 
and there were in July and August of 
last year reciting in English in the 
schools 263,000 Filipino youth. 

We do not have any compulsory school 
laws, because a compulsory school law 
is predicated on your having schools 
and teachers enough to teach all the 
youth in the community, and we have, 
as you see, only about one-fifth of the 
teachers needed and only one fifth of 
the school-houses needed. That is what 
we are doing now. Next year I have 
no doubt the increase will be 100,000. 
And all this indicates to you—at least 
it does to me—the earnest desire of those 
people, those children, and the fathers 
and mothers of those children that they 
should learn English, and that they 
should become educated. Now, there 
are 263,000 of them, and the average 
attendance is 70 per cent. That coun- 
try is a country where between doing a 
thing and not doing it you usually choose 
not to do it, and therefore if 70 per 
cent of the pupils attend you may count 


365 


on a very strong feeling in favor of 
education everywhere. The trouble is 
that we have not money enough to make 
their education what it should be. We 
do not want to make them university 
professors. We shall have a university 
there. We ought to have one simply 
as a keystone for the arch of education 
for a comparatively small number of 
Filipinos who can afford to take that 
education ; but what we wish to do isto 
spread the primary schools, the manual- 
training, industrial, and normal schools. 
We are now using 800 American teach- 
ers, in the first place, to teach the Fili- 
pino teachers how to teach their Fili- 
pino children. In other words, we are 
hoping to build up a body of from ten 
to fifteen thousand Filipino teachers 
who can teach English, and thus teach 
the whole islands a new language—a 
common language and a language, as I 
have said, of free institutions. Now, 
it seems to me that this statement of 
mine, this statement of fact, itself 
answers my friend Mr Alleyne Ireland 
as to the wisdom of our expending 25 per 
cent of our income in teaching. It is 
what the people want, and we can be 
certain that if they learn the English 
language and read English books they 
will learn. | 
OUR SYSTEM OF GOVERNING THE 
PHILIPPINES IS DESIGNED TO 
TRAIN THE PEOPLE TO 
SELF-GOVERNMENT 

Now, the next subject of criticism is 
as to the form of government. Mr Ire- 
land says that we have made a mistake, 
because we have established municipal 
and provincial governments under the 
commission. We have had elective 
officers in the municipal governments ; 
we have had an elective governor, who 
is one-third of the provincial council, 
the other two members being appointed 
under the civil-service rules and being, 
generally, Americans, the ‘‘fiscal’’ or 
prosecuting attorney being a native 
and the secretary of province being a 


3606 


native. He says that that makes too 
many officers; that we would get along 
a good deal better if we followed the 
English custom of having one English 
commissioner, who acts as judge, as 
executive, as legislature, as everything 
else, and has under him natives who are 
intelligent enough to understand his 
commands and carry them out. Now, 
it is perfectly true that that government 
there could be much more efficient if we 
put an American in charge of every 
province and made him absolute ruler 
there. It would not be any trouble to 
doit at all. Wewould have less taxes, 
the work would be attended to with more 
care, and, on the whole, for the next 
ten or fifteen years it is probable that 
the people would be in better condition, 
but:they would not have any responsi- 
bility about the government. They 
would not be subject to scolding at every 
mouth by the officers above them, they 
would not find out what it is to be re- 
sponsible for the government of others, 
and they would not be enjoying the edu- 
cation or partial education—or, rather, 
an educationin partial self-government— 
which our system gives them. It adds 
to the expense and it does not give them 
so good a government, and therefore, if 
our policy were only the best for the 
time, I should yield to the criticism of 
Mr Ireland. But what we are trying 
to do is to teach these people by object 
lessons, as well as by direct education 
in the primary schools, what it 1s to be 
a free people. 

The idea that freedom can be en- 
joyed by a people without learning how 
to enjoy it issomething that belongs to 
theory, not to’ practice. It. may be 
found in Boston, but nowhere else. 

I ought to add that this system of 
government was most useful in bring- 
ing about peace, in satisfying the natives 
that we were there with the idea of giv- 
ing them as much self-government as 
we could. Mr Ireland and the others 
who criticise ought in fairness, it seems 


Tue Nationat GeocraPuic MAGAZINE — 


to me, when they consider what is done 
there, to put themselves more or less in 
the position of those who had to do the 
job and to take into consideration those 
difficulties that present themselves on 
every side. We said that we were there 
for the benefit of the Filipino people ; 
we said that we were there to give them 
as much of self-government as they could 
stand, and we did it. We may have 
given them a little more, but it is a good 
deal better to extend it a little beyond 
what they can stand and teach them the 
lesson and then say to them, ‘‘ When 
you do educate yourselves up to this we 
will extend it a little more,’’ as we have 
had occasion to do in a number of prov- 
inces, than it is to give them the im- 
pression that we were deceiving them in 
what we said we wished to do for them. 
One of the chief characteristics of the 
Orientals—indeed, one of the chief char- 
acteristics of all nations that are igno- 
rant—is suspicion and distrust, and the 
primary rule of policy in dealing with 
them is absolute honesty and straight- 
forwardness. 


BUILDING ROADS 


Now, Mr Ireland says that there is 
a woeful lack of improvements in the 
Philippines, especially in the matter of 
roads, and then he refers to the roads of 
the Roman Empire. Those roads have 
been made the basis for many an ora- 
torical period, without knowledge as to 
how many years, how many decades, 
and how many centuries it took to con- 
struct them. But it is true that roads 
are a most important feature of civil- 
ization. Intercommunication is what 
helps, as much as education itself. We 
began our career as legislators in the 
Philippines by voting a million dollars 
to be expended by General McArthur 
in the construction of roads in the Phil- 
ippines, and we have been trying to 
build them ever since. Well, there are 
3,000 islands there. ‘There are 140,000 
square miles. A great many of the 


3607 


Tue PHILIPPINES 


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Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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From stereograph, copyright by Underwood and Underwood, New York 


Primary Pupils in a Municipal School, Manila 


Tue PuHIbipPinges 6 


From stereograph, copyright by Underwood and Underwood, New York 


The Right Road to Filipino Freedom 


[Boys in the Normal High School, Manila 


Se 


provinces lie in the low land, where 
there is no rock which can be used to 
be broken up and made good metal. 
They have to go into the bottom of the 
streams and get the gravel that comes 
down from the mountains and use that. 
And then we have, sometimes, six or 
eight months of torrential rains. You 
do not know what rains are, living here 
in the temperate zone. Think of 52 
inches of rain in one month! That is 
what they have in the province of Ben- 
guet in the month of August. 

And then take another feature of the 
civilization which we found there. It 
would seem as though Providence or 
nature were playing a joke. The roads 
are very hard to construct; but the 
natives, in order to make it still harder 
to preserve them, use wooden wheels 
for their carts and shave them down on 
the edge. They are solid wheels, and 
they shave them down to a knife edge, 
and then load the wagons and take them 
in this rainy weather over the roads. 
Well, the wheels cut as a razor would 
cut your finger, and this plays havoc 
with the roads. We attempted to cure 
that by imposing a fine of five dollars 
on every wagon that had a tire less than 
2% inches broad. But they concluded 
that this was only for taxation, and 
they paid the tax and continued to use 
the wagons. And then we had to im- 
port wagon wheels to show them what 
we meant, and we imposed a fine-and- 
imprisonment penalty for the use of the 
wagons with narrow-tired wheels. 

Of the three millions of dollars which 
was voted by Congress part of it was 
expended in order to break up a corner 
in rice, which promised to be a rice 
famine, and two millions of it were 
spent in the construction of roads. 
Those roads are not all completed yet. 
You know that when you go through 
a tropical jungle with engineering in- 
struments it is not so easy a matter as 
in this country, where you can seea 
long distance ahead, and the very work 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


of laying out a road is along one, taken 
with the difficulty of getting the mate- 
rial for making a permanent road. All 
road building must go slowly. ‘There- 
fore when a gentleman goes along 
on an inspection tour in the Princess 
lrene, or one of those beautiful vessels 
of the Hamburg Steamship Company, 
and lands in India at Bombay, and 
drives out and sees those beautiful roads 
all through India, that have for 250 
years been building, and then comes to 
Ceylon, where they have for so many 
years been building roads under the 
Dutch and English, and then comes to 
Singapore and into the Confederated 
Malay States, where they do not have 
any taxes, because they raise so much 
money out of the three-quarters of the 
tin product of the world that they get 
out of the mines there—they have been 
50 years building roads—and then 
comes here to the poor Filipinos and 
finds that roads have not been con- 
structed on every one of the roo islands, 
and that the roads that have been con- 
structed show signs of the previous 
year’s torrential rains—it is a little 
difficult for a critic, however impartial, 
not to think that the government is 
very much to blame for not having con- 
structed all those roads through all the 
islands as they ought to be, and as I 
hope some day they will be constructed, 
both for the peace of the islands and for 
the uplifting of the population. But 
meantime we are doing what we can. 


NEW HARBORS, A PURE WATER 
SUPPLY, AND RAILWAYS 


Well, to begin with, we have united 
Manila with every one of the 44 prov- 
inces by telegraph lines, and this is an 
opportunity for the spread of informa- 
tion and intercommunication. We have 
very good postal facilities. We have 
just opened 33 miles of street railway in 
Manila, and that a modern street rail- 
way. Manila, for its population, had 
more teams and more horses and vehi- 


Tue PHILIPPINES 


cles, I suppose, than any other city in 
the world. They were not very large 
horses and they were not very commodi- 
ous vehicles, but such as they were they 
traversed the streets, and they were an 
absolute necessity, because everybody 
rides in Manila except the very poorest 
and humblest. In no other city in the 
world was a street-railway system more 
needed than in Manila, and I have no 
doubt that its presence there today—and 
it has begun both with great enthusiasm 
on the part of the people and on the part 
of the gentlemen who look forward to 
dividends from the franchise, given 
about a month ago—I have no doubt 
that the presence of that street railway 
will reduce the cost of living of the peo- 
ple of moderate incomes 25 per cent 
because of the absolute necessity of get- 
ting about and the opportunity of dis- 
posing of the horses and earriages and 
the necessity of feed and all the other 
expenses attendant upon the keeping of 
horses and carriages. 

Weare engaged in the expenditure of 
6 millions of dollars in the harbors of 
Cebu, Manila, and Iloilo, and we shall 
probably have the best harbor in the 
Orient at Manila. People who are not 
familiar with the islands suppose that 
the Bay of Manila affords a harbor; 
but the Bay of Manila is 30 miles long 
and about 25 miles wide, with a 6-mile 
entrance at Corregidor which offers a 
fullsweep tothe southwestern monsoon, 
which comes in for six months in the 
year, which makes it impossible, espe- 
cially in the afternoon, to land from 
boats that do not get behind a break- 
water. This harbor is to be shut off 
from the wind by large breakwaters. 
It is very nearly completed. Weare to 
have wharves, alongside of which the 
largest vessels can come, and, as I have 
said, 160 acres are to be reclaimed for 
the construction of warehouses and for 
business purposes of the city. 

We are just putting in—just adver- 
tising the bonds for, have the plans for, 


as 


and are just about to put in—a sewer 
systemin Manila. Manila is about seven 
feet above the ocean—it does go up to 
about 10 feet—and you cannot sink a 
hole anywhere without striking water 
within 3 or 4 feet. That makes the 
problem of sewerage very difficult, and 
we have a plan now which involves the 
pumping of the sewerage away out to 
sea, so as to rid the city of any danger 
from it. Mr Desmond Fitzgerald, of 
Boston, whom we sent for as an expert 
engineer, has pronounced the plans to 
be correct. 

We have had to go back into the 
mountains about fifteen milesin order to 
increase the water supply of Manila and 
to be sure that we shall get above the 
region where the water would be im- 
pregnated with cholera germs or other 
undesirable inhabitants. This will cost 
about two millions of dollars, but we are 
just now ready to construct it. 

We are engaged, under an act of Con- 
gress recently passed, in preparing in- 
vitations to bid for the construction of a 
thousand miles of railway in the islands. 
When we have the thousand miles of 
railway constructed, so as to open each 
island to the sea, we shall proceed much 
more rapidly in the construction of 
wagon roads, because then we shall 
have some means by which we can haul 
road material from one point to another. 
I would like to dwell on the subject of 
the railways, but I have not time. 


PHILIPPINE CIVIL, SERVICE 


Mr Ireland criticises, in some detail, 
the civil service of the islands. Well, 
I was a civil-service reformer when I 
went to the islands, and I was deter- 
mined that we should put in force there 
as strict civil-service rules on the basis 
of civil-service reform here as we could, 
and we did; and nobody can get into 
the service there now without first pass- 
ing an examination. But Mr Ireland 
says that the examination is only up to 
the standard of the ordinary high-school 


She 


examination, and he compares it with 
the examination that a man has to pass 
to enter the colonial service of Hong- 
kong, China, or Calcutta, India. That 
is an examination, I should judge from 
what he says, equal to that a man must 
pass when he gets the degree of ‘‘A. B.”’ 
at Harvard or Yale. Well, I said to 
Mr Ireland that if that were the kind 
of examination we had to put a man 
through we would not have anybody in 
the government service of the islands. 
That is all right for a country that has 
been 250 years in colonial government, 
with such a lot of sons anxious to go 
out somewhere and fit themselves for the 
service; that has been in the business 
long enough to establish schools and 
universities in England, where they 
directly fit people for the service, and 
that has been sufficiently long in the 
colonial service to establish a service 
where you have a pension, and where 
a man may look to that service as the 
service of his life, and as a place from 
which,at the very reasonable age of sixty 
or sixty-two years, he may retire on his 
pension knowing that he and his family 
will be taken care of. Now, it is pos- 
sible to get men under such circum- 
stances; and no one has a more pro- 
found admiration for the colonial service 
of England than I have. I know that 
itis an admirable service, and I wish 
that we, too, could have such a service ; 
but the idea of talking about our hav- 
ing such a service when we have been 
in the islands three years, and that we 
could have a university education as a 
basis for a complete civil service seems to 
me to indicate that our brother Jreland 
shot too far. He did not know how 
‘‘to restrain himself,’’ as Lord Coke 
said, ‘‘ to the fitness of the thing.”’ 


IF WE INTRODUCE CHINESE WE WILL 
HAVE A REVOLUTION 


Now, the next issue that Mr Ireland 
makes is a very serious one—one, I 
agree, upon which strong arguments can 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


be made upon both sides—and that is 
the question as to whether we should 
admit Chinese laborers to the islands to 
build them up. Mr Ireland says that 
we have no laborers in the islands wor- 
thy of the name, and that if we expect 
to do anything there we might as well 
at once admit the Chinese ; that they 
would build up the islands, and that it 
would be for the benefit of the Filipinos. 
But I do not think that Mr Ireland 
looked at the result of that policy as he 
saw it exhibited at Singapore and in the 
Straits Settlements, with a full consid- 
eration of what it meant tothe Malays, 
who were there before they admitted the 
Chinese, for he found that all the busi- 
ness and allthe work and all the money 
and all the influence and everything that 
was worth having was Chinese. There 
is a superficial appearance of English in 
the government, but the money and the 
work and the business are largely Chi- 
nese, and our friends the Malays sit 
around in the park and enjoy the sight. 
They are relegated to the back bench. 
Now, then, that is certain to be the case 
if we admit the Chinese to the Philip- 
pines, and the question is whether under 
our promise to them to govern the Phil- 
ippines for the benefit of the Filipinos 
we can afford to bring about a condition 
in which the Filipinos shall be relegated 
to the back seat and the Chinamen shall 
be invited forward to share all the ben- 
efit that may come from the development 
of the rich country. 

Another reason why we cannot do it 
is because if we do we will have a rev- 
olution. There is the deepest feeling 
possible against the admission of Chi- 
nese into those islands. There are to- 
day about 50,000 of them in the islands, 
if not more. ‘The reason why the Fili- 
pinos do not like the Chinese is this : 
A Chinaman will come into the islands 
and he will work for twelve or fifteen 
dollars (silver) a month—that is, six 
dollars or six dollars and a half a month. 
He will save out of that about ten dol- 


Tue PHILipPiINnEes 


lars (gold) a month. He does that in 
some way. I donot know how he does 
it. He will live there a year, and at the 
end of that year he will go out of the 
laboring business and he will set upa 
store next to a Filipino woman, who is 
the man of the concern ordinarily and 
who is the business person of the com- 
munity among the Filipinos. He will 
drive that woman out of business within 
six months. That is the reason why 
the Filipinos do not like the Chinese 
there, and that is the reason why, in 
the history of the islands, if you will 
go back, there has been massacre after 
massacre of Chinamen. It would seem, 
therefore, an unwise political move. 
But if the development of the country 
without the admission of Chinamen is 
impossible, possibly we ought to run the 
risk of both. Well, now, is it? Mr 
Ireland says that itis. We have let this 
very large public work, which will cost 
from four to five millions of dollars—the 
construction of the Manila harbor works. 
We let it, after advertising, to the At- 
lantic and Pacific Gulf Company of the 
United States. Mr Mullen was at the 
head of it, and he came out and looked 
around. He said that he did not think 
that the Filipinos were good for any- 
thing, and that he would employ Amer- 
icans and Chinamen and any one else he 
could get. There are only 50,000 China- 
men in the islands, and they know that 
no more can come there and they know 
that that increases their value, and that 
that makes them more desirable, and 
then they become less useful, so that 
they do not make as good laborers in 
the Philippines as they do at home, 
where they have to scramble for a living. 


MR KRUSI’S METHOD OF GETTING 
GOOD LABORERS 


A gentleman by the name of Mr Krusi 
came out as vice-president of the com- 
pany, and he concluded that he would 
make a different experiment. The com- 
pany had a big quarry from which they 


373 


had to take the stone to construct the 
breakwater. Mr Krusi built a house. 
You know they can build a house 
there—such a house as they live in 
there—constructed of bamboo and nipa 
palm. The floors are made of split 
bamboo, and so the floor serves the pur- 
pose of both the bed and the floor, and 
you can see through to the ground 4 or 
5 feet belowit. Everything is airy and 
comfortable. Now, that is the kind of 
house he built for each family. He 
had a theater, he had a church, he had 
a school-house, he had actresses, he had 
a priest, he had a teacher, he had a cock- 
pit, he had a band. The band played 
every evening, the cockpit was open on 
fiesta days, the theater was open three 
times a week, the church was open all the 
time. Before three months had passed 
he had 1,500 laborers there, and he had 
to call the police to keep others away 
who were trying to get work there. 
He says that he has never had better 
labor than he has had in his quarry. 
He had to employ from 5 to 8 per cent 
of American foremen—that is, men who 
would go in—not gentlemen foremen, 
but men he sent in to help to do the 
work—to show the men how the work 
was to be done. He said that he had 
no trouble whatever, and that the work 
was much better than it was before. 
Well, now, another example: The 
street railway has just been con- 
structed—33 miles of it—and they have 
had from 1,000 to 1,200 men at work, 
and they have constructed the street 
railway in Manila ata less cost per mile 
than they could have built it in Wash- 
ington or New York. ‘That shows that 
the cost per unit of product of labor is 
less with the Filipino laborer. So it 
has been the case with the government 
works; but it was supposed that be- 
cause the government paid a little more 
than the rest that it could get better 
labor. Now, it is quite possible in this 
instance, being in and about the city, 
that they got the benefit of the best 


SPs 


labor, and it is quite possible that when 
you go into the country you will find 
more trouble in congregating labor ; 
but those instances are enough to dem- 
onstrate that Filipino labor is possible 
of training ; that what is wanted is wages 
enough to attract them and training 
enough to make them effective ; and so, 
with due respect to Mr Ireland, with 
considerable personal experience in the 
matter, I am confident that Filipino 
labor is capable of development, and 
that while the islands may develop 
more slowly with Filipino labor, they 
will develop much more to the advan- 
tage of the Philippine people than if we 
should admit the Chinamen. 


IS OUR GOVERNMENT TOO EXPEN- 
SIVE? 


And now a serious charge that is 
made against the government is that it 
is expensive ; and Mr Ireland figures 
out that whereas Ceylon, Trinidad, the 
Straits Settlements, and Burma cost 
only about 27 per cent of the total 
exports, the cost in the Philippines is 
AO per cent, «1 agree that’ the yecost 
of the government, under the circum- 
stances, is very heavy. It must be 
taken into consideration, first, that this 
proportion is made larger by the ex- 
ports because of the deficiency of rail- 
ways in the islands. In those other 
colonies to which reference is made the 
proportion of railways to the area is 
very much greater than in the Philip- 
pine Islands. In the Philippines there 
is only one line of railway, 120 miles 
in length; so that when we introduce 
railways 1,000 miles in length we may 
suppose that the exports will become 
greater, and that the proportion of the 
exports will be very much reduced. 

But I wish also to call attention to the 
fact that we have been going only three 
years; that we have been until three 
years in a stateof war; that our educa- 
tion is 10 per cent of the exports; that 
our constabulary necessary to restrain 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


disturbed conditions is 6 percent. Now, 
the education of these other countries 
was considerably less than 1 per cent. 
That we have had because we have so 
many to control, to build up an island 
navy which cost us nearly three millions 
of dollars and costs us upward of six or 
seven hundred thousand dollars a year 
to run; that since we have been there 
we have had a terrible scourge of chol- 
era, which necessitated the expenditure 
in the health department of a million dol- 
lars; that we had the rinderpest, that 
carried away go per cent of our draft 
animals and reduced the business of pro- 
ducing for the purposes of export. 

Now, all these things Brother Ireland 
does not consider at all in his comparison 
between these countries of Ceylon, Trin- 
idad, the Straits Settlements, and Bur- 
ma, all of which have been prosperous, 
and the Straits Settlements, as I have 
said, receiving all its income from tin 
and opium. 

I agree that we have too many Ameri- 
cans in the government. You cannot 
get an American to go 10,000 miles away 
from home without paying him some- 
thing and paying him much more than 
you would pay a Filipino for doing the 
same work, and we must expect to re- 
duce the number of Americans as the 
government goes on, and by reducing 
the number of Americans reducing the 
total expenditure, because in getting a 
Filipino who will do the same work as 
an American you ought to be able to get 
him for half the price. 

Then Mr Ireland criticises severely the 
treatment of the islands by this country 
with respect to the tariff, and in that 
respect I fully concur with him. I sin- 
cerely hope that next year Congress will 
reduce the tariff to nothing on all goods 
produced in the Philippine Islands, ex- 
cept tobacco and sugar, and reduce that 
to 25 per cent, merely to justify our 
putting a duty in the Philippines against 
you until 1909, in order that the gov- 
ernment may be supported and not lose 


Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoME 


that revenue until thattime. And then 
when 1909 comes, and we are released 
from the necessity under the treaty of 
Paris from giving the same privileges 
to Spain as to the United States, then 
we can have complete free trade be- 
tween the islands and America. It is 
true, as Mr Ireland says, that the Phil- 
ippines are less developed than any of 
the colonies to which he refers. It is 
true that, in a certain sense, the people 
are less educated. It is true that they 
are more like children. But it is not 
true that they are not the best material 
for self-government. It is true that 
those islands, the gems of the Orient, 
have been undeveloped in a way that it 
is hard to understand unless you read 


573 


the history of the islands, and then you 
see that these people were brought up 
to be children constantly, in order that 
they might not know the wickedness of 
the world, and that all development was 
restrained. Now, may we not hope 
that under American influence, which 
shall tend to uplift the islands and at 
the same time to invest good American 
and other capital there for the purpose 
of introducing railways and developing 
the wealth of these islands that there is 
in the soil, in the mines, in the forests— 
may we not hope that in 4o years hence, 
when Brother Ireland goes around the 
world again to compare the various civ- 
ilizations, that a new light will break in 
on him when he looks at the islands ? 


FORESTRY ABROAD AND AT HOME“ 


By GIFFoRD PINCHOT 


CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY 


XCEHPT China, all civilized na- 
K tions care for the forest. Un- 
til recently the United States 

ranked nearly with China in this re- 
spect, and our country still remains far 
behind the progressive modern nations 
in nearly all that relates to the protec- 
tion, preservation, and conservative use 
of the forest. Japan has a well devel- 
oped forest service and a national forest 
school. In Austria, Italy, and Norway 
and Sweden government forestry is a 
well-established portion of the national 
life. Turkey, Greece, Spain, and Por- 
tugal give attention to the forests. 
Russia, dealing like ourselves with vast 
areas of forests in thinly peopled re- 
gions, but by methods wholly different 
from our own, is drawing enormous rev- 
enues from the systematic care and use 
of the forests. In Germany the scien- 


tific treatment of forests has reached 
perhaps its highest development. The 
foresters of France have perfected a 
most practical and effective general sys- 
tem of forestry, and have created the 
difficult art of controlling the floods of 
mountain torrents by planting trees. 
The Republic of Switzerland, by the 
use of methods most instructive to citi- 
zens of the United States, has developed 
a type of government forest policy more 
worthy of our attention and imitation 
than any other in Europe. In Austra- 
lia and New Zealand forestry has al- 
ready made important advances. In 
Canada the English have made real 
progress in forestry. The government 
sells the timber from its forests, but re- 
tains possession of the landsand employs 
fire guards. Atthe Cape of Good Hope 
they have an excellent forest service ; 


*A chapter from a ‘‘ Primer of Forestry,’ part II, by Mr Pinchot, recently published by 


the Department of Agriculture. 


376 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


From Gifford Pinchot, Forester 


An Exceedingly Productive Spruce Forest in Bavaria 


in British India they have met and an- 
swered many questions which still con- 
front the American forester, and in a 
little more than thirty years have cre- 
ated a forest service of great merit and 
high achievement. The United States 
has scarcely yet begun. 


THE FOREST IN EARLY TIMES 


In very early times the forest was 
preserved for the game it contained. 
Forestry then meant the art of hunting, 
and had very little to do with the care 
of trees. Even the word forest, which 
really comes from the Latin fov7s, mean- 
ing out of doors, was thought in Eng- 
land to be derived from the fact that it 
was a place given up to wild animals 


for rest. But gradually the forest came 
to be considered more than the game, 
and the serious study of forestry began. 


MODERN FORESTRY 


Forestry as a science is of compara- 
tively recent origin, although a work 
in which all the European trees are de- 
scribed was one of the earliest printed 
books. Until the end of the eighteenth 
century forestry was discussed chiefly 
by men who were either scholars or 
practical woodsmen, but who were not 
both. Then appeared Hartig and Cotta, 
two men who united these points of 
view, and their writings are at the base 
of the whole modern growth of the sub- 
ject. Both were German. Each cov- 


Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoMeE 


ered the whole field as it was then un- 
derstood, and together they exerted an 
influence which has not been approached 
by any other authors since. From Ger- 
many their teaching spread to France, 
and early in the nineteenth century 
their doctrines were introduced into the 
French Forest School at Nancy by Lo- 
rentz, who, with his successor, Parade, 
was the founder of modern forestry in 
France. 

Under the feudal system, which was 
finally destroyed in France by the revo- 
lution of 1789, the forest was the prop- 
erty of the feudal lord. In order to 
make the life of their serfs, who were 
useful both as taxpayers and as fighting 
men, easier, and so increase their num- 
ber, he gave them the privilege of taking 
from his forest the wood which they re- 
quired. For similar reasons the wealthy 
religious houses, like that of the Grande 
Chartreuse, made grants of land and of 
rights in the forest. But after a time 
the number of peasants increased so 
much that their wants absorbed nearly 
the whole produce of the woodlands. 
Then it was found necessary to limit 
the prescriptive rights to forest product 
by restricting them to certain parts of 
the forest, or to make an end of them 
by exchanging them for the absolute 
ownership of smaller areas. Thus many 
of the communities, to which, and not 
to individual peasants, these rights be- 
longed, came to possess forests of their 
own. But the communes, as they were 
called, managed their forests badly, and 
about three hundred years ago the gov- 
ernment was forced tointervene. Under 
the management of officers of the gov- 
ernment forest service the results from 
the communal forests have been excel- 
lent. At present these forests not only 
supply fuel to the villages which own 
them, but in some cases they produce 
enough to pay all the village taxes as 
well. 

GERMANY 


Germany still holds the high position 


S97), 


in forest science, which began with 
Hartig and Cotta. The German forest 
schools, of which there are seven of the 
higher grades, are still among the very 
best, and the study of forestry, both in 
the schools and in the forest experiment 
stations, is eagerly pursued. The for- 
ests in Prussia, Saxony, and other Ger- 
man states are admirably managed and 
yield important returns. The total 
value of the German forests, public and 
private, is said to be about $4, 500,000, - 


OOO. 
FRANCE 


Forestry in France has long been 
associated with the names of famous 
men. Henry of Navarre and his friend 
and minister, Sully ; Palissy, the great 
potter, who called the neglect of the 
forest prevalent in his time ‘‘ not a mis- 
take, but a calamity and a curse for 
France ;’’ Colbert, the minister of 
Louis XIV ; the botanist Duhamel du 
Monceau ; Buffon, the celebrated natu- 
ralist, are among the men to whom 
France owes the rise and progress of 
her present excellent forest policy. 
Their peculiar service was to lay the 
foundation, both in law and in public 
opinion, upon which modern forestry in 
France now rests. 

The forests of the French govern- 
ment are admirably managed. ‘They 
cover only about 2,750,000 acres, but 
they yield a net return each year of 
more than $2 per acre. Besides hand- 
ling their natural forests with great in- 
telligence and success, the French for- 
esters have done much for the general 
progress of forestry. They developed 
the art of reforesting denuded moun- 
tains, and were the first to plant trees 
on moving sand dunes along the sea- 
shore. More than 150,000 acres of 
these dunes, which once were blown 
about by the wind until they over- 
whelmed great stretches of fertile 
ground, and even threatened to bury 
whole towns, are now covered with 
forests of pine, which produce great 


378 


quantities of turpentine, lumber, and 
charcoal. 


SWITZERLAND 


In Switzerland forestry received at- 
tention from very early times. Nearly 
two hundred years before the discovery 
of America the city of Zurich began to 
make rules for the protection and man- 
agement of the Sihlwald, a forest which 
it still owns, and which now yields an 
annual return of about $8 per acre. 
In the canton of Bern a decree of the 
year 1592 warned the people against the 
wasteful use of timber and provided for 
the protection of the forest. It also 
directed that for every tree cut down a 
young one should be planted in its 
place. It is curious to find this mis- 
taken prescription for the ills of the 
forest already in fashion more than 
three centuries ago. ‘To save the forest 
every old tree must be replaced by many 
young ones. 

The first general forest law of Bern 
was passed as early as 1725. It em- 
bodied the most important principles of 
wise forest legislation as we know them 
today. But this was only one of a long 
series of forest laws in which, from the 
beginning, the idea of the importance of 
the forest to others besides its owner 
became steadily stronger. The citizens 
of Bern have grown ever more willing to 
place restrictions on themselves for the 
benefit of the commonwealth. 

There were great floodsin Switzerland 
in 1834, and they were the cause of a 
general awakening of interest in for- 
estry. Somewhat later a federal forest 
commission was appointed. Since the 
appearance of its final report,in 1861,the 
progress of forestry in Switzerland has 
been steady. In 1875 a federal forest 
inspector was appointed, and a year 
later the first Swiss forest law was 
passed. This law does not extend to the 
whole of Switzerland, but only to the 
Alps and the steeper foothills. In a 
country of steep mountains it is of first 


THe NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


importance to guard the forests on the 
higher slopes. Consequently all the for- 
ests on these higher lands which serve to 
protect the lowlands against floods, ava- 
lanches, and other similar dangers of 
wind and weather are put in charge of 
the Swiss federal forest service. 

‘Our forest laws,’’ said Elias Landolt, 
a great and simple man, whose name 
stands first among Swiss foresters, ‘‘ are 
intended to work more thorough instruc- 
tion, good example, and encouragement 
than by severe regulations. This method 
is somewhat slower than one which 
should involve harsher measures, but the 
results achieved are more useful and 
lasting. When forest owners do some- 
thing because they are convinced of its 
usefulness it is done well and with an 
eye to the future, but what they do 
under compulsion is done carelessly and 
neglected at the first opportunity. What 
they have come to learn in this way and 
have recognized as good will be carried 
out, and that better and better from year 
to year. 


BRITISH INDIA 


For many years after the British con- 
quest forestry in India made very little 
progress. Much time was wasted in 
half measures, until in 1856 Dr (now Sir 
Dietrich) Brandis was put in charge of 
the teak forests of Pegu. He acted at 
once upon the idea of preserving them by 
making them pay. At first the output 
of teak had to be somewhat restricted, 
much against the will of the timber mer- 
chants of Rangoon, who protested that 
the business of their city would be 
ruined. But afterthis momentary check 
the teak trade of Rangoon grew until it 
was far greater than ever before, and it 
is now a chief and increasing source of 
the prosperity of that city. 

The appointment of Dr Brandis was 
the beginning of the Indian forest serv- 
ice. In 1866 he was made inspector 
general of forests, and from that time 
progress was rapid. The Indian forest 


ORESTRY ABROAD AND AT Home 


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382 


Tue NatTIonNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From Gifford Pinchot, Forester 


A Mixed Forest in Need of an Improvement Cutting 


The crooked old chestnut in particular should be removed 


service now has nearly 300 superior offi- 
cers and over 10,000 rangers and forest 
guards. It has charge of about 200,000 
square miles of forest, and produces a 
net revenue, afterall expenses have been 
paid, of about $3,000,000 a year. In 
addition, the forests furnish to peasant 
holders of forest rights products whose 


value is estimated to be considerably 
greater than the whole cost of the forest 
service. About 30,000 square miles are 
effectively protected against fire, at an 
average yearly cost of less than half a 
cent per acre. These admirable results. 
are especially interesting because India. 
is like the United States in the great. 


Forestry ABROAD 


383 


AND AT HOME 


ia 
Bi 
2 
Pe 
Hi 
3 


From Gifford Pinchot, Forester 


A Mixed Forest After an Improvement Cutting 


extent and variety of her forests and in 
the number and fierceness of forest fires. 


FORESTRY AT HOME 


The forests of the United States cover 
an area of about 699,500,000 acres, or 
more than 35 per cent of the surface of 
the country. Before so large a part of 
them was destroyed they were perhaps 


the richest on the earth, and with proper 
care they are capable of being so again. 
Their power of reproduction is exceed- 
ingly good. 

In the northeastern states and as far 
west as Minnesota once stretched the 
great white-pine forest from which, 
since settlement began, the greater part 
of our lumber has come. South of it, 


354 


ES 
Es 
a 
ae 
f *. 
eg 


43 


Tue NatTionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From Gifford Pinchot, Forester 


Conservative Lumbering in the Adirondack Mountains, New York 


Note the height of the stump 


in a broad belt along the Atlantic and 
the Gulf coasts, lies the southern pine 
forests, whose most important tree, both 
for lumber and naval stores, is the south- 
ern yellow pine. In the Mississippi 
Valley lies the interior hardwood forest 
of oaks, hickories, ashes, gums, and 


other hardwood trees. It is bordered 
on the west by the plains, which cover 
the eastern slope of the continental 
divide until they meet the evergreen 
Rocky Mountain forest, which clothes 
the slopes of this great range from the 
Canadian line to Mexico. Separated 


Forestry ABROAD AND AT Home 


385 


From Gifford Pinchot, Forester 


Wasteful Lumbering on the Pacific Slope 


Note the height of the stump 


from the Rocky Mountain forest by the 
interior deserts, the Pacific Coast forest 
covers the flanks of the Sierras, the 
Cascades, and the coast ranges. Its 
largest trees are the giant sequoia and 
the great coast redwood, and its most 
important timber is the fir. 


The forests of the Philippine Islands 
cover an area of more than 40,000,000 
acres. Their timbers, almost wholly 
different from those of the United States, 
are exceedingly valuable, both as cabi- 
net woods and as construction timber. 
An efficient forest service was organ- 


336 


ized in 1898, and following its reorgant- 
zation in 1902 a new and excellent forest 
law was passed in 1904. ‘The Philip- 
pine forest service costs but half as 
much as the revenue received from the 
forests of the islands. 

The island of Porto Rico contains a 
national forest reserve, the site of which 
was once covered with valuable hard- 
woods ; but this forest has been much 
abused. Porto Rico, like the Philip- 
pines, has many kinds of wood valuable 
for cabinet-making. 


THE SETTLER AND THE FOREST 


When the early settlers from the Old 
World landed on the Atlantic coast of 
North America they brought with them 
traditions of respect for the forest cre- 
ated by generations of forest protection 
at home. ‘The country to which they 
came was covered, for the most part, 
with dense forests. There was so little 
open land that ground had to be cleared 
for the plow. It is true that the forest 
gave the pioneers shelter and fuel and 
game for food, but it was often filled 
with hostile Indians ; it hemmed them 
in on every side, and immense labor was 
required to win from it the soil in which 
to raise their necessary crops. WNatu- 
rally, it seemed to them an enemy 
rather than afriend. ‘Their respect for 
it dwindled and disappeared, and its 
place was taken by hate and fear. 

The feeling of hostility to the forest 
which grew up among the early settlers 
continued and increased among their 
descendants long after all reason for it 
had disappeared. But even in the early 
days far-sighted men began to consider 
the safety of the forest. In 1653 the 
authorities of Charlestown, in Massa- 
chusetts, forbade the cutting of timber 
on the town lands without permission 
from the selectmen, and in 1689 the 
neighboring town of Malden fixed a pen- 
alty of 5 shillings for cutting trees less 
than 1 foot in diameter for fuel. An 
ordinance of William Penn, made in 


THe NaTIonNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


1681, required that 1 acre of land be 
left covered with trees for every 5 acres 
cleared. But these measures were not 
well followc up, and the needless de- 
struction of the forest went steadily on. 


FIRST STEPS IN FORESTRY 


More than a hundred years later, in 
1795, acommittee of the Society for the 
Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and 
Manufactures in New York made a re- 
port on the best way to preserve and 
increase the growth of timber. Four 
years afterward Congress appropriated 
$200,000 for the purchase and preserva- 
tion of timberlands to supply ship tim- 
bers for the Navy, and in 1822, with the 
same object in view, it authorized the 
President to employ the Army and Navy 
to protect and preserve the live-oak and 
red-cedar timber of the government in 
Florida. Since that time more and more 
attention has been given to the forests. 
In 1828 Governor De Witt Clinton, of 
New York, spoke of the reproduction of 
our woods as an object of primary im- 
portance, and in the same year the gov- 
ernment began an attempt to cultivate 
live oak in the South for the use of the 
Navy. ‘Three years later an act was 
passed which is still almost the only pro- 
tection for the much-abused forests of 
the public domain. 

In 1872 the Yellowstone National 
Park was established, and in 1873 Con- 
gress passed the timber-culture act, 
which gave government land in the tree- 
less regions to whoever would plant one- 
fourth of his claim with trees. In1875 
the American Forestry Association was 
formed in Chicago through the efforts of 
Dr John A. Warder, who was one of the 
first men to agitate forest questions in 
the United States. In the centennial 
year (1876) Dr Franklin B. Hough, 
perhaps the foremost pioneer of forestry 
in America, was appointed special agent 
in the Department of Agriculture. This 
was the beginning of educational work 
in forestry at Washington. Soon after- 


Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoME 


ward Congress began to make appropria- 
tions to protect the public timber, but 
nothing was done to introduce conserva- 
tive forest management. ‘The present 
Bureau of Forestry in the Department of 
Agriculture was established as a division 
im, ESOT. 

About this time forest associations 
began to be established in the different 
states, the most influential and effective 
of which has been that in Pennsylvania. 
The states also began to form forest 
boards or commissions of their own. 

In 1888 the first forest bill was intro- 
duced in Congress. It failed to pass, 
but in 1891 an act was passed which was 
the first step toward a true policy for the 
forests of the nation. The first step 
toward national forestry is control of the 
national forests. This act, whose chief 
purpose was to repeal the timber-culture 
act, contained a clause which authorized 
the President to reserve timberlands on 
the public domain, and so prevent them 
from passing out of the possession of the 
government. 


THE PUBLIC DOMAIN 


In all the states and territories west 
of the Mississippi except Texas, and in 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- 
consin, Florida, Alabama, and Missis- 
sippi, all the land originally belonged 
to the government. This was the pub- 
lic domain. It has gradually been sold 
or given away until in many of the 
states it has all or nearly all passed to 
otherowners. But it stillincludes more 
than 470,000,000 acres, or nearly one- 
third of the United States, not including 
the territory of Alaska, which has an 
area of about 350,000,000 acres. A 
large part of the public domain has been 
surveyed by the government and divided 
first into squares 6 miles on each side, 
called townships, then into squares of 
1 mile, called sections, and these again 
into quarter sections and smaller divis- 
ions. The lines which mark these 
divisions are straight and at right angles 


oy 


to each other. When any part of the 
public domain is reserved or disposed of 
itis usually located by reference to these 
lines. 


FEDERAL FOREST RESERVES 


When the President was given the 
power to make forest reserves the pub- 
lic domain still contained much of the 
best timber in the West, but it was pass- 
ing rapidly into private hands. Acting 
upon the wise principle that forests 
whose preservation is necessary for the 
general welfare should remain in gov- 
ernment control, President Harrison 
created the first forest reserves. Presi- 
dent Cleveland followed his example. 
But there was yet no systematic plan 
for the making or management of the 
reserves, which at that time were alto- 
gether without protection by the gov- 
ernment. Toward the end of Presi- 
dent Cleveland’s second administration, 
therefore, the National Academy of 
Sciences was asked to appoint a com- 
mission to examine the national forest 
lands and report a plan for their control. 
The academy did so, and upon the rec- 
ommendation of the National Forest 
Commission, so appointed, President 
Cleveland doubled the reserved area by 
setting aside 13 additional forest reserves 
on Washington’s birthday, 1897. 


EARLY OPPOSITION TO FOREST 
RESERVES DISAPPEARING 


The Cleveland forest reserves awak- 
ened at once great opposition in Con- 
gress and throughout the West, and led 
to a general discussion of the forest 
policy. But after several years of con- 
troversy widespread approval took the 
place of opposition, and at present the 
value of the forest reserves is rarely dis- 
puted except by private interests im- 
patient of restraint. 

The recommendations of the National 
Forest Commission for the management 
of the forest reserves were not acted 
upon by Congress, but the law of June 


338 


4, 1897, gave the Secretary of the In- 
terior authority to protect the reserves 
and make them useful. The passage of 
this law was the first step toward a na- 
tional forest service. The second step 
was the act of Congress, approved Feb- 
ruary I, 1905, which transferred the 
control of the national forest reserves 
from the Department of the Interior to 
the Department of Agriculture. This 
act consolidated the governiment’s forest 
work, which had been divided between 
the General Land Office and the Bureau 
of Forestry, and secured for the reserves 
the supervision of trained foresters. 

President McKinley, and after him 
President Roosevelt, continued to make 
forest reserves. The latter introduced a 
system of examining the proposed forest 
reserves, so that now their boundaries 
are better located than ever before. 
Under him great progress has been made 
by the government in bringing about the 
practice of forestry by forest owners and 
in awakening the great lumber interests, 
as well as the people in general, to the 
dangers of forest destruction. 


USE OF FOREST RESERVES 


The forest reserves lie chiefly in high 
mountain regions. ‘They are 62 in num- 
ber, and cover an area (January I, 1905) 
of 63,308,319 acres. ‘They are useful, 
first of all, to protect the drainage basins 
of streams used for irrigation, and espe- 
cially the watersheds of the great irriga- 
tion works which the government is con- 
structing under the reclamation law, 
which was passed in 1902. ‘Thisis their 
most important use. Secondly, they 
supply grass and other forage for. many 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


thousands of grazing animals during the 
summer, when the lower ranges on the 
plains and deserts are barren and dry. 
Lastly, they furnish a permanent supply 
of wood for the use of settlers, miners, 
lumbermen, and other citizens. ‘Thisis 
at present the least important use of the 
reserves, but it will be of greater conse- 
quence hereafter. The best way for the 
government to promote each of these 
three great uses is to protect the forest 
reserves from fire. The forest service 
plans to add a trained forester to the 
executive force of each forest reserve to 
introduce practical forestry on all re- 
serves. 


STATE FORESTRY 


Many of the states have taken great 
and effective interest inforestry. Among 
those which have made most progress 
are New York and Pennsylvania. New 
York has a state forest preserve of 
1,436,686 acres, and Pennsylvania one 
of 700,000. Michigan, Minnesota, and 
other states are following their example. 

In 1892 the first example of system- 
atic forestry in the United States was 
begun at Biltmore, in North Carolina. 
It is still in successful operation. 

The first professional foresters in the 
United States were obliged to go abroad 
for their training, but in 1898 profes- 
sional forest schools were established at 
Cornell University, in New York,and at 
Biltmore, in North Carolina, and they 
were followed by the Yale Forest School 
in 1900. Others have sprung up since. 
At present thorough and efficient train- 
ing in professional forestry can be had 
in the United States. 


THE CENTRAL 


HE United States Geological 
Survey has for a number of 
years been studying the under- 

ground waters which are flowing hun- 
dreds of feet beneath the surface in 
many sections of the Central Great 
Plains, including the greater portions 
of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kan- 
sas and the eastern portion of Colo- 
rado and of Wyoming, an area of about 
one-half millionsquare miles. In order 


GREAT PLAINS 


that we may make the best possible use 
of the underground ‘‘ rivers’’ which it 
it is believed flow perhaps continuously 
for some hundreds of miles, it is neces- 
sary to understand the structure and 
stratigraphy of the water-bearing for- 
mations. 

The question of water supply, both 
overground and underground, is one of 
great interest to the people in this dis- 
trict, and although considerable progress 


From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey 


Artesian Well at Woonsocket, South Dakota 


This well throws a 3-inch stream to a height of 97 feet 


3 


has been made in some sections in de- 
veloping well waters, there are vast 
areas in which the present supplies are 
inadequate, even for local domestic use. 

The investigation has been in charge 


From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey 


Artesian Well at Lynch, Nebraska 


This well has a flow of 3,100 gallons a minute from an 8-inch 
casing, with a pressure of 85 pounds to the square inch. A 
first flow was found at 740 feet and a second at 875 feet 


of Mr N. H. Darton, who has recently 
brought together the results of the work 
in a handsome quarto volume of 400 
pages published by the Survey, and en- 
titled ‘‘ Geology and Underground 


THe NatTionaL GrocGrRaPHic MAGAZINE 


Water Resources of the Central Great 
Plains.’’ Mr Darton gives an excellent 
geologic history of the region, describ- 
ing not only those sections which con- 
ceal water far down in the earth, but 
also those places which 
are dry below as well as 
above. 

Smooth surfaces and 
eastward - sloping rolling 
plains are the character- 
istic features of the region, 
but in portions of the 
province there are buttes, 
extended escarpments,and 
local areas of badlands. 

The report reproduces 
more than one hundred 
beautiful photographs by 
Mr Darton of different 
scenes in the Great Plains. 
Several of these are given 
here. The thick succes- 
sion of sedimentary for- 
mations underlying the 
Great Plains includes por- 
ous strata containing large 
volumes of water. These 
water - bearing deposits 
comprise widespread 
sheets of sandstones or 
sand, from Cambrian to 
‘Tertiary in $age; al re 
sandstones of the older 
formations are in sheets’ 
often several hundred feet 
thick, alternating with 
bodies of relatively im- 
permeable shales or lime- 
stones, so that they pre- 
sent favorable conditions 
as water-bearers. To the 
west they are upturned by 
the great uplifts and out- 
crop along the high moun- 
tain slopes; to the east most of them 
rise gradually to the surface, while in 
the central and northern regions they 
lie at great depth under the heavy man- 
tle of younger deposits. 


THe CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS 


Part of the surface water passes into 
the sandstones in their elevated outcrop 
zones along the foot of the western 
mountains and flows east through the 
permeable rocks, in most cases finally 
escaping in springs in the low-level areas 
of outcrop eastward and southward. In 
such water-bearing strata as the 
Dakota and underlying beds, 
which are overlain by a thick 
mass of impermeable deposits, 
the waters are under great pres- 
sure, for the intake zone has an 
altitude of from 4,000 to 6,000 
feet and the region of outflow is 
only from 1,000 to 1,200 feet 
above sea-level. The existence 
of this pressure, as found in 
many wells in eastern South Da- 
kota, is the strongest evidence 
we possess that the waters flow 
underground for many hundreds 
of miles. Several wells show sur- 
face pressures over 175 pounds to 
the square inch and two are 
slightly over 200 pounds, the 
latter indicating a pressure of 
780 pounds at the bottom of the 
well. In South Dakota the Da- 
kota sandstone carries a large 
volume of water, which has been 
extensively utilized by artesian 
wells. This water is under 
pressure so great that in the 
eastern portion of the state flows 
are obtainable in all but the very 
highest lands, except in the 
southeast corner, near the zone, 
where the head is lost by the 
sandstone reaching the surface. 
Over a thousand deep wells have 
been sunk east of the Missouri 
River, most of which are from 500 to 
1,000 feet in depth and generally yield 
a large supply of flowing water, much 
of which is used for irrigation. The 
aggregate flow from these wells is esti- 
mated to be about 7,000,000 gallons a 
day. 

The illustration on page 389 shows a 


Ske 


remarkable well. Another phenomenal 
well in the same state is a well at Spring- 
field, which has a flow of 3,292 gallons 
per minute, although its closed pressure 
is not so great as that of many other 
wells in the state. It furnishes power 


for a 60-barrel flour mill by day and for 


From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey 
Pulpit Rock, Kansas 


An outcrop of Dakota sandstone 


an electric-light plant by night. Fora 
while it threw sand, and when this 
finally ceased the flow was thought to 
have slightly decreased. 

It is believed by some persons that 
owing to this great draft upon the re- 
sources the available supply is dimin- 
ishing, but there is as yet no valid evi- 


Tur NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


308 


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THe CentTRAL Great PLAINS 


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Wut CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS 395 


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From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey 


Archway Eroded in Monument Creek Sandstone, at ‘‘Elephant Rock,”’ 
Near Monument, Colorado 


Showing massive character of sandstone 


6 


THe NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey 


Cathedral Spires, Garden of the Gods, Colorado ie 


Vertical strata of lower Wyoming red grits. Looking north 


eo ee 


THE CENTRAL 


dence that this is the case, excepting 
locally where there are numerous wells. 
Individual wells often diminish in effi- 
ciency owing to leakage, clogging, and 
other causes, but ordinarily new wells 
in the same vicinity show the same 
pressure and flow as were found in the 
older ones ; but it is probable that if 
this large flow is permitted to continue 
the available volume of artesian supply 
will eventally be greatly diminished. 

The source of water is believed to be 
in the Black Hills and in the Rocky 
Mountains, for the sandstone appears 
to be a continuous stratum or a series 
of strata, permeable throughout, and 
containing water which to the east has 
much of the initial head or pressure due 
to the high altitude of the zone of in- 
take on the mountain slopes. ‘There 
are extensive areas in central South Da- 
kota in which the underground waters 
have not yet been developed. Appar- 
ently in these areas the Dakota sand- 
stone lies deep, but not at an impracti- 
cable depth for well-boring. Probably 
further drilling will show that flowing 
waters may be obtained all the way up 
Cheyenne Valley and its two branches 
to the Black Hills, and up the valleys 
of White, Bad, and Owl rivers nearly 
to longitude 102°. 

The Central Great Plains region pre- 
sents considerable variety of climate. 
To the east, on the plains, the precipi- 
tation varies from moderately humid to 
nearly arid, the change taking place 
gradually from east to west. To the 
east there are 4o inches of rainfall per 
year, while to the west, in the region 
adjoining the Rocky Mountains and the 
other ranges, there are less than 12 
inches over an area of considerable ex- 
tent. To the east the precipitation is 
ample for crops, and that portion of the 
region is one of the greatest producers 
of corn, wheat, and other agricultural 
products in the world, while to the west 
there are broad tracts in which no crops 
can be produced without irrigation. 
On the mountains in the western por- 


GREAT PLAINS 


397 


tion of the area there is locally increased 
precipitation, which in many areas is 
sufficient for agriculture. The amount 
of water that falls in the arid area is 
enormous when the number of cubic 
feet per square mile is calculated, but 
much of it comes in very heavy showers, 
after long intervals of drought, often 
with severe hot winds. If a portion of 
the rainfall could be stored, much of it 
could be used for irrigation. 


DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE 
\ \ 7 HETHER forests exercise a per- 


ceptible influence upon the cli- 
mate is a very old question, and even 
today it is not definitely settled. At a 
recent session of the German Meteoro- 
logical Society at Berlin a lecture on 
‘“Deforestation and Climate’’ was de- 
livered by Doctor Hennig, from which 
the following extracts are taken : 

In many countries a drying up of the 
climate has occurred, which is shown 
perhaps most strikingly in almost the 
whole of Africa. That deforesting has 
assumed constantly growing proportions 
in almost every part of the world is still 
moreapparent. The climate of Greece, 
where today only 16 per cent of the 
area 1S covered with forests, has de- 
teriorated. Anincrease of temperature 
and decrease of rain are noted, com- 
pared with ancient times, especially in 
Attica, which was thickly covered with 
forests about 3,000 years ago, and where 
hardly any rain now falls, while the 
heat in the open air attains a degree 
which would make the ‘‘ Olympian 
games’’ almost an impossibility. <A 
similar condition exists in the Penin- 
sula of Sinai, where thousands of years 
ago the people of Israel lived in a lux- 
uriant and fertile country and where 
today only forestless deserts abound. 
Palmyra, also once a flourishing oasis 
in the Syrian desert, presents today only 
a desolate waste of stones and ruins. 
In Mexico, where the Spaniards cut 
down the forests in the mountains, 


398 THe NationaL GeocraPHic MaGazINneE 


droughts changing to devastating floods 
are now noticeable, especially in the 
vicinity of the City of Mexico. In up- 
per Egypt, where only 100 years ago 
rain was abundant, drought now usually 
prevails. In Algeria, where, since the 
middle of the last century, the forests 
have been cut down on a large scale, dry 
weather has increased, and in Venezuela 
the level of Lake Tacarigua, to which 
Alexander von Humboldt drew atten- 
tion, has been lowered in consequence 
of deforestation. 

If these and other facts are kept in 
mind, the sentence ‘‘ Man traverses the 
earth and a desert results’’ is under- 
stood. It must not be forgotten, how- 
ever, that this applies mainly to the in- 
fluence of civilization upon appear- 
ances and is not always due to climatic 
changes produced by deforesting. Some 
authorities even deny the influence of 
forests on the weather and climate. It 
cannot be denied, however, that dense 
forests favor moisture and prevent the 
drying out of the soil to a considerable 
degree. Atany rate, deforesting, which 
in modern times assumes constantly 
growing proportions for industrial and 
agricultural purposes, is of universal 
importance. 

Germany, with a forest area of about 
26 per cent, realizes annually nearly 
$60,000,000 worth of timber therefrom, 
while the wood importations are about 
of the same value. The consumption 
of wood increases from year to year, 
and systematic forestry has not suc- 
ceeded in keeping up the forest area of 
Germany. If it is furthermore borne 
in mind that Canada, which formerly 
possessed more than 300,000,000 acres 
of forests, has today only a forest area 
of about 225,000,000 acres, it becomes 


evident that the question of deforesta- | 


tion assumes great importance. If 
civilization continues to change the face 
of the earth, the problem of its wood 
supply will present itself like that of 
coal and force the finding of a suitable 
substitute. 


THE PROSPERITY OF MEXICO 


66 /-NOMMERCIAL Mexico in 1905’’ 

is the title of a monograph just 
issued by the Departmeut of Commerce 
and Labor through its Bureau of Sta- 
tistics. 


Commerce between Mexico and the 
United States has grown in recent years 
with great rapidity, and large sums of 
American capital have been invested in 
various business enterprises in Mexico, 
including agriculture, mining, transpor- 
tation, and manufactures, while on the 
other hand Mexico is contributing each 
year more largely to the commercial re- 
quirements of the United States, espe- 
cially in those articles and classes of 
articles not produced in this country, 
or at least not produced in sufficient 
quantities to supply the demands of 
manufacturers or others in whose in- 
dustries or business enterprises they 
are required. Imports of merchan- 
dise into the United States from Mex- 
ico have grown from $4,346,364 in 
1874 to $43,633,275 in 1904, the value 
of merchandise imported from Mexico 
in 1904 being, therefore, ten times as 
great asin 1874. On the other hand, 
exports from the United States to Mex- 
ico have grown from $5,946,839 in 1874 
to $45,844,720 in 1904, the exports to 
Mexico in 1904 being thus about eight 
times as great as in 1874. Sixty-four 
per cent of the exports of merchandise 
from that country were sent to theUnited 
States, while 53 per cent of the imports 
of merchandise were from the United 
States. Inthe last 20 years its revenue 
has increased from $10,000,000 to $30,- 
000,000, its imports from $20,000,000 
to $75,000,000, and its exports from 
$7,000,000 to $43,000,000, exclusive of 
40% millions of gold and silver. The 
investment of American capital in Mex- 
ico was estimated by United States 
Consul-General Barlow in 1902 at $500, - 
000,000, nearly all invested within the 
last twenty-five years, and about one- 
half of it within the last five years. 


Re Bast of Greenwich 


JOGRAPHIC MAG 


MaPHERS, WASHINGTON, D.C. 


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SEPTEMBER, 1905 


CONTENTS 


Commercial Prize of the Orient. By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief 
of the Bureau of Statistics. IIlustrated : 2 
Maps Recently Published by the U. S. Geological Ser 
Some Notes on the Fox Island Passes, Alaska. no i i; mark 
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey } 
A Comparison of Norway and ir 
European Populations . 
Japan and the United States . 
Our Immigration in 1905 . 
Exports of Manufactures 
_ Statistics of Cities | 
The Commercial Valuation ue Railway Operating Property i in 
the United States. . Hany un 
The Ziegler Polar Expedition 


Published by the National Geeeid nse Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


$2.50 a Year i | 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Seeond-Class Mail Matter 


Geocraruic MAGAZINE. 


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N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the 
NationaL GerocrapHic Society. All 
editorial communications should be ad- 
dressed to the Editor of the Nationa 

Business communications 


PAGS Misi: oie) Als aan Ay SUS Pie OS ore a ee REY 
MOEN Wie) Ai SU ii Tear Ceaha eagiee 
ii EAD ary x SM de ai WeMP esiathe 
PR Reais CUT aka ehh ne hn 
i Pe ‘ Mn : 
' VENT ASDC Hit SN ARN a aR eri A! 
i x 
. : _ =e 
* 
x 4 
; y 
h 
' 


rot 


should be addressed to the National Geographic 


Society. 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army 


W I McGHE 


Chief Department of Anthropology. 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 


ehase Exposition 


C. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture 


Oo. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


0. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
Department of Commerce and 
Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
' ment of Agriculture 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 


Chief of the Division of Mineral 
Resources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Phile- 
delphia 


R. D. SALISBURY i 
University of Chicago 


G. KE. GILBERT 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE Ma 


Professor of Meteorology, U. S. 
Weather Bureau, San Francisco 


ALMON GUNNISON 
President St Lawrence University 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. Cy oo 


VoL. XVI, No. 9 


L 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGIRAIPBUIC 
MAGAZIINIE 


SEPTEMBER, I905 


ee 


COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT* 
By rion. .©. 2. Ausrin, 


CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS AND SECRETARY OF THE 
NATIONAL ‘GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Y general purpose in this dis- 
M cussion of the commerce of 
the Orient is to call attention 

to the extraordinary physical difficul- 
ties which have attended efforts of the 
Occident to cultivate commerce between 
these two great sections of the world 
and the difficulties which still exist in tne 
Orient itself, but which are likely to be 
overcome in the near future. Trans- 
portation is to commerce what the breath 
of life is to the body. Without trans- 
portation there can be no commerce. 
The obstacles to land transportation, 
which nature had interposed between 
the Occident and the Orient, in the form 
of mountain and desert, rendered that 
commerce extremely small until the ap- 
plication of the compass to ocean navi- 
gation enabled man to find an all-water 
route from the Occident to the Orient. 
This was again improved when man 
learned to apply steam power to trans- 
portation upon the ocean, and again 
when he shortened the route between 
Europe and Asia by the construction 
of the Suez Canal ; but steamships upon 
the ocean are of little value without 


facilities for transporting the products 
of the interior to the water’s edge. 
These facilities are now supplied in 
certain parts of the world, especially 
Europe and the United States, by rail- 
ways, but they have only recently be- 
gun to make their appearance in the 
Orient. As a consequence, the devel- 
opment of commercial possibilities and 
commercial power in that section has 
been delayed, and it is my purpose, in 
this discussion, to show the progress 
now being made in developing in the 
Orient these transportation facilities 
which have already made commerce 
great and successful in other parts of 
the world, and which promise to make it 
equally important in that great section 
of the world whose industrious people 
number more than half the population 
of the globe. 


THE STRUGGLE FOR THE COMMERCE 
OF THE ORIENT BEGAN THOU- 
SANDS OF YEARS AGO 


The commercial prize of the Orient 
has commanded the attention of the 
Occident for more than 4,000 years. 


*An address to the National Geographic Society, March 30, 1905 


Tue Nationa, GeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


4.00 


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CoMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


From the earliest dawn of history down 
to the present hour the over-expanding 
West has struggled for the control of the 
commerce of the East. Whether that 
struggle was against the fierce blasts of 
the desert, the attacks of the half-civil- 
ized tribes through whose territory it 
must becarried, or thedeath-dealingcan- 
non, whose thunders are heard around 
the world today, it has been vigorous, 
unyielding, continuous ; and as civiliza- 
tion has advanced, commerce developed, 
transportation cheapened, and the wants 
of man expanded, the importance of this 
commercial prize has increased until its 
value has today reached the enormous 
sum of nearly 3,000 millions of dollars 
per annum. 

In all that time commerce has been 
the faithful handmaiden of geography. 
It has explored unknown lands, has 
learned the value of their products, has 
formed the acquaintance of the people, 
has made the ocean its highways and 
the desert and the mountains its byways, 
and has been the chief contributor to 
geographic knowledge of the Orient 
and the Occident, the temperate zones 
and the tropics, and even the frozen 
fastnesses of the Arctics. Whetherthe 
search for a route to the Orient was 
across the deserts of Asia, around the 
stormy capes at the Far South, or bat- 
tling with the ice at the North, geogra- 
phy has been the gainer, and the com- 
mercial struggles and sacrifices of each 
generation have contributed to the geo- 
graphic knowledge of that which fol- 
lowed it. 

The earliest record of transactions 
between men and groups of men shows 
commerce passing between the Nile Val- 
ley, then the Occident of the civilized 
world, and the Orient, the Euphrates 
Valley, India, and China. As early as 
2,500 years before the Christian eracara- 
vans of camels laden with merchandise 
were passing back and forth across the 
sandy deserts of Arabia between the 
Nile Valley at the west and the great 


401 


commercial cities of Nineveh and Baby- 
lon at the east, and these cities in turn 
had like relations with India and per- 
haps China. Whether the commerce 
with China at that early day was by 
the way of a direct land route from the 
Euphrates Valley is not clear, but there 
is at least reason to believe that there 
were trade routes between India and 
China, and that the silks and other mer- 
chandise of China at the extreme east 
found their way through India and the 
cities of the Euphrates to the Nile Val- 
ley at the west. 

This commerce was, of course, small 
in quantity as compared with that of 
today, and consisted only of the easily 
transported articles. But it was com- 
merce, nevertheless, and one for which 
men risked their lives, and which then 
as now contributed to the geographic 
as well as the commercial knowledge of 
the world. How the commerce of that 
period, carried on first by the Arabs 
across the desert with camel caravans 
and later by the Phcenicians with their 
coasting vessels and thence by caravan, 
compares with that of today, when rail- 
roads traverse the land and great steam- 
ships plow the ocean, may be worth a 
moment in passing. The land com- 
merce of that period was carried by 
camels, of which it would require 5,000 
to carry as much as one modern train of 
cars, while the water-borne commerce 
was in oar-propelled vessels, of which 
it would require 300 to carry as much 
as a single modern steamer of today. 

Even a thousand years later the cara- 
vans, which made their way from the 
shores of the Mediterranean to China, 
occupied more than one year in the 
round trip, while the vessels, which had 
then begun to utilize sails in conjunc- 
tion with oars, still hugged the coast 
and traveled only by day, and in their 
long voyages were sometimes compelled 
to halt for months at a time while the 
occupants replenished their supplies of 
food by sowing, cultivating, and reap- 


402 


Sm ORIENT 
CJ REMAINDER OF THE WORLD. 


$19 ,000, 000, 000 


33,000, 000 
850 ,000, 000 


50,000,000 


18,000,000 


$2, 750,000,000 


LAND AREA COMMERCE 


(square miles) 


POPULATION 


THe NatTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


aa 


$27 1,000,000 
' 450,000 
i 
j 
: f 
| 
t 
| 
150,000 
33 60,000 
COMMERCE RAILROADS TELEGRAPAS 
PER CAPITA 


AREA, POPULATION, RAILROADS, TELEGRAPHS, AND COMMERCE OF THE ORIENT, COMPARED WITH REMAINDER OF THE WORLD. 


The Growth of the World During the Nineteenth Century 


ing a crop on some favorable shore, 
after which they passed on and com- 
pleted their round of commercial trans- 
actions. But even these adverse condi- 
tions did not deter the Occident from 
continuing its trade with the Orient, 
and as the Occident expanded still far- 
ther to the west trade grew and the area 
of commerce expanded until the tin of 
the British Isles, the amber of the Bal- 
tic, the silver of Spain, and the purple 


cloths, the glass, and other manufact- 
ures of Tyre and Sidon became a part 
of the commerce which the Phoenicians 
and Carthagenians carried to the Ori- 
ent. 

The establishment of governments 
over the great area east of the Mediter- 
ranean encouraged the development of 
commerce. The Persian Empire, with 
its satrap system of government, its 
post-roads, and the metallic currency 


ComMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


1840 1860 1880 1900 
POPULATION 
,(in millions) 


1800 1820 


67 


oa 


PIEAMSHIPS RAILROADS 
(in millions of (in thousands of 
tons) miles 


| il I, {LT 
1800'20 '40'60'80 1900 1800'20 '40'60'80 1900 safer Bisdre "80. 1900 1850! 148 sdb 1900 in '40'60 ' 


(in SESE of 
miles) 


4.03 


1,200 


(in aS of 
dollars) 


CABLES 
(in thousands of 
miles 


A Comparison of the Orient and the Remainder of the World in Area, Population, 


Railroads, Telegraphs, and Commerce. 


which it introduced, aided conimerce 
and extended geographic knowledge. 
With the conquests of Alexander, by 
which his empire was extended to In- 
dia,,came a more intimate knowledge of 
the Orient and its wonderful commer- 
cial possibilities, and. the ivory, the fine 
woods, the spices, the jewelry and pre- 
cious stones of that section, and the 
silks and other products of China which 


See page 412 


then reached the markets of India were . 
freely exchanged for the cloths and furs 
and tin and silver and amber of the Oc- 
cident. Yet theslow rate of travel, and 
therefore of commercial and geographic 
research, even at that time, is shown by 
the fact that the return of that portion 
of Alexander’s forces which traveled by 
sea from the mouth of the Indus to the 
head of the Persian Gulf and thence to 


404 


1580 1603 


Se 


The Successive Advances of Russia to the Pacific. 


Susa occupied nearly a half year of 
time. 

The next great extension of the com- 
merce of the West with the East was 
that developed by the Romans. While 
they were not a commercial people in 
the generally accepted sense of the word, 
the fact that they were compelled to 
supply the wants of the luxurious ele- 
ment of a city having more than one 
million people led them to cultivate a 
much greater trade with the Orient than 
had been ever before known. ‘Their 
area at the west and north extended to 
the Atlantic and the British Isles, and 
at the south included the coasts of 
Africa, and on the east touched the Red 
Sea and the Persian Gulf, through 
which they had ready access to India. 
Their vessels were a considerable ad- 
vance upon those of the Pheenicians, 
though still propelled in part by oars, 
and a large trade was carried on with 
India, extending to Ceylon, where ex- 
changes of merchandise were made with 
coasting vesselsfrom China. This trade 
was chiefly in the luxuries which India 
could supply to the wealthy Romans, 
and it is stated that the silk brought 
from China was considered worth its 
weight in gold, and that as much as 
$240,000 was paid for a single pearl 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


1630 


See page 410 


from India. The chief articles drawn 
from the Orient by the Romans were 
cotton goods, silks, ivory, carvings, 
spices, incense, perfumes, ointments, 
jewelry, pearls, sapphires, and dia- 
monds, and the articles sent in exchange 
included woolen and linen cloths, glass, 
tin, wines, and gold and silver. 

Even the darkness of the middle ages 
did not terminate the commercial rela- 
tions of the Occident with the Orient. 
The great commercial city of Venice, 
which sprang into existence with the 
decadence of the Roman Empire, de- 
veloped a trade with the Far East which 
surpassed that of any of its predecessors. 
Its ships sailed at regular intervals for 
Alexandria and the eastern ports of the 
Mediterranean and Black Seas, accom- 
panied by fleets of war vessels for their 
protection. The merchandise passing 
to and from the Orient was in part sent 
overland from the Mediterranean to the 
Red Sea or the Persian Gulf, and thence 
eastward by water and in part by the 
land routes east of the Mediterranean 
and Black Seas. A consular system 
established by the Venetian government 
helped in developing trade abroad and 
in the distribution of geographic infor- 
mation, and commerce extended not 
only eastward, but also to the north and 


Transportation in China. 


CoMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE 


From 


west, part of the trade for northern 
Europe going by the way of the Medi- 
terranean and Atlantic and a part by 
land by the way of Nuremburg, Leip- 
zig, Cologne, and other cities of the 
interior. 

While all this was happening there 
came out of the Orient itself a move- 
ment which resulted in a great enlarge- 
ment of the trade with that section. It 
was the one occasion, prior to the sec- 
ond half of the century just ended, in 
which the Orient has shown a disposi- 
tion to extend its trade relations with 
the Occident. ‘The Mohammedan Em- 
pire, originating in the western part of 
that section which we still designate as 
the Orient, expanded rapidly in all direc- 
tions until its boundaries reached the 
Atlantic Ocean on the west and India 


‘‘China’s Open Door,”’ by Rounsevelle Wildman. 
Camel Train Outside the Pekin Wall 


A modern train of cars carries as much as 5,000 camels 


ORIENT 405 


Military Gate 


and China on the east, while its influ- 
ence extended even farther eastward. 
This of itself might not have been of 
such material importance, but when it 
is considered that the Mohammedans 
were naturally a commercial people, and 
that Mohammed himself commended 
commerce and agriculture as ‘‘ both 
meritorious and pleasing to God,’’ it is 
not surprising that their area of control 
and influence stimulated commerce be- 
tween Europe and the most distant parts 
of the earth. The products of Spain, 
Barbary, Egypt, Abyssinia, and south- 
ern Russia were carried from the West 
to Mecca, Damascus, Aden, and other 
cities of the East, and were there ex- 
changed for the products of Persia, In- 
dia, China, and the islands of the Indian 
archipelago. Slaves, tiger skins, cotton 


Copyright, 1901, Lothrop Publishing Company 


Tur Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


406 


giv aded 939 


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COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE 


ORIENT 407 


254,155,000 


798461,000 


Commerce| 1904 


Foreign ae TE TN TETAS 


The Network of Railroads Covering India Today and the Resultant Vast Increase 


in Her Commerce. 


goods, ivory, and gold dust came from 
Africa; leather, tapestry, cloths, cop- 
per; and iron from Spain and the ad- 
joining territory, and these were ex- 
changed at the points already mentioned 
for the silks, and spices, and woods, 
and carvings, and pearls, and precious 
stones from India and China. 

But the most important result to com- 
merce and geography of this temporary 
extension of Oriental influence into the 
Occident was the acquaintance which 
it gave to the west with that important 
device of the Far East, the mariner’s 


See page 416 


compass. While doubts have been ex- 
pressed as to the origin of the compass, 
it is believed that it was developed by 
the Chinese many centuries before it 
was known to the West, and used in 
the desert by the Arabs, and that it was 
certainly introduced to the Europeans 
by the Mohammedans during their con- 
trol of the countries fronting on the 
Mediterranean. Whatever its origin, 
its introduction in the West revolution- 
ized conditions of commerce, navigation, 
and geographic knowledge. The ocean, 
formerly considered a barrier to com- 


408 


ee 


THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


\ mi PORTICO Tra 

| an an tCANTON 
“ »: fh caeae Roe a y 2 RAILROADS —— 
7 SS hs =¢ a UNLT AND PROPOSED: 


i Sita me | 


Wah es eer = IN=CHINA-—= 


Commerce {1904 


Foreign oe 


$223,084,000 
356,159,000 


Railways Constructed and Proposed in China 


merce and exploration, became at once 
its highway. It gave a new stimulus 
to the efforts to find an all-water route 
by which to reach the commercial prize 
of the Orient, and the result was, first, 
the discovery of the American continent, 
and a little later two all-water routes to 
the very doors of the Orient, one of 
these by the Portuguese, around Africa 
and across the Indian Ocean, and the 
other by the Spanish, around South 
America and across the Pacific. 

But the knowledge that the Orient 
could be reached by sailing around the 
continents at the south did not satisfy 
the people of northern Europe. The 
Portuguese, as the first explorers of the 
Indian Ocean, claimed the exclusive 


right of navigation in those waters, and 
the Spanish claimed a similar monopoly 
of the waters south of the American: 
continents. As a result, the English 
and Dutch devoted their attention to. 
efforts to find other water routes to the 
Orient, along the northern coasts of 
the continents of America and Eurasia. 
The Dutch sent expeditions to fight 
their way through the ice along the 
northern coasts of Europe and Asia ; 
and England sent vessel after vessel to. 
explore the northern coast of North 
America, each in the vain hope of find- 
ing a passage to China. For years the 
merchants of northern Europe waited 
in vain for the opening of a northwest. 
passage to the Orient, until it finally 


COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


vey 


TELEGRAPH 
=LINES=0F=CHINA 


te 
| FRENCH 


IIN=1904 


Telegraph Lines of China in 1904 


became apparent that the water route 
to the Far East lay at the south only. 
Finally, the theory of Grotius, that 
the high seas should be open to the ves- 
sels of all countries, prevailed, and then 
the struggle among modern nations for 
the commercial prize of the Orient was 
renewed with a vigor, greater, if possi- 
ble, than ever before. Ships came and 
went at will over all seas and in all 
directions Great commercial compa- 
nies were formed and chartered by their 
Tespective governments, their purpose 
being to trade with the Orient, and they 
gradually established trading stations 
on the coasts of India, China, and the 
islands of the East Indian archipelago. 
The commerce by way of the Mediter- 
tanean and the caravan routes rapidly 
declined, and sailing vessels from the 
countriesof western Europe landed their 


merchandise and silver and gold at the 
doors of the Orient, and returned laden 
with silks, and ivory, and woods, and 
spices, and with many other articles of 
the Orient formerly considered too bulky 
for transportation by the caravans of 
earlier centuries. 

It may be interesting to pause for a 
moment here to study the cause of the 
anxiety of western men to find and main- 
tain an all-water route to the Orient. 
Of course, the mere contrast of the cost 
of transportation by water with the cost 
on land was of itself of great importance, 
and especially at that time, when there 
were no railways, but there were other 
reasons. The land routes between west- 
ern Europe and the Orient were ex- 
tremely difficult. At the north the Ural 
Mountains interposed an almost impass- 
able barrier; in the central region a 


410 


great desert stretched almost continu- 
ously from the Mediterranean to India 
and China, and threatened the lives of 
men and animals which invaded it. At 
the south of that desert was that im- 
passable mass of mountains known as 
‘<’The Roof of the World ’’—the Hima- 
layas. 


300 
245 254 
v4) 
58 


1880 1890 1900 1903 1860 1880 1890 1905 
JAPAN INDIA 


1880 1890 1900 1905 
CHINA 


FOREIGN COMMERCE OF JAPAN, INDIA AND CHINA 
(In millions of Dollars.) 


A Comparison of Japan, India, and China 


Today. See page 416 


RUSSIA AN EARLY ARRIVER IN THE 
ORIENT 


Only by working through the passes 
in the Ural range and thence cross- 
ing the trackless wilds of Siberia was 
it possible for Europeans to reach the 
Orient by the land route; and it was 
by this route that one nation did find 
its way by land to the Far East, while 
the others were relying upon the water 
route. That nation was Russia. We 
are accustomed to think of Russia 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


as a newcomer in the Orient, but in 
fact it was earlier in that field—much 
earlier than is realized by many who 
have but casually read the history of 
that persistent people. Even before 
the discovery of America the Russians 
were looking over the Urals toward the 
east and making short incursions into 
the territory which they were des- 
tined to occupy. By the year 1580 
they had established permanent set- 
tlements in the eastern part of what 
is now known as Siberia. By 1620 
they were half way to the Pacific ; by 
1638, only eighteen years after the 
Pilgrim Fathers landed at Plymouth 
Rock, they had actually established 
themselves on the Pacific coast; by 
1741 they had crossed Bering Sea into 
northwestern America, and before the 
adoption of our Constitution they had 
established a permanent settlement in 
Alaska, where they remained until 
the purchase of that territory by the 
United States, in 1867. 

But beginning with the middle of 
the last century there came a new 
and marked development of the com- 
merce of the Occident with the Orient. 
Prior to 1842 all trade in China was 
carried on through the ‘‘ Hong mer- 
chants,’’ designated by the Chinese 
government as intermediaries for trade 
with foreigners. 

In 1842 the British government, 
through what is known in history as 
the ‘‘ opium war,’’ forced the Chinese 
government to open five ports to the 

trade of its vessels, and two years later 
similar privileges were given to the 
United States, and shortly thereafter to 
other countries, and these ‘‘ treaty 
ports’’ have been increased from time 
to time until they now number about 
forty. In 1854 Japan, upon the insist- 
ence of the United States, opened its 
doors to our commerce, and a little later 
to other countries of the world. In 
1858 the British government took the 
entire control of India and began the 


COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


work of developing its commerce by 
constructing canals, roads, and rail- 
roads.. In 1869 the Suez Canal was 
opened, shortening by several thousand 
miles the water route between the Occi- 
dent and the Orient. : 

But there are other great changes 
during the century just ended which 
had an equally important effect upon 
the commerce of the whole world and 
upon the exchanges between the Orient 
and the stillexpanding Occident. Prior 
to 1800 most of the manufacturing of 
the world was still performed by hand, 
and largely in the household. Now 
machinery, driven by steam or the 
power of the waterfall, performs, under 
the guidance of a single individual, 
tasks which would have required hun- 
dreds of persons to perform a century 
ago. ‘Then the products of the interior 
could only be carried to the seaboard by 
man or animal power, or at the best by 
floating them in oar-propelled boats 
upon the streams which made their way 
to the ocean. Now railways penetrate 


all parts of the great interior and carry. 


the natural products to the water’s edge 
for exchange with other countries and 
continents. At the beginning of the 
century all exchanges between the con- 
tinents were carried by slow sailing ves- 
sels, whose carrying capacity was small 
and danger of loss great. ‘Today the 
bulk of the international commerce is 
carried by great vessels propelled by 
steam, and the cost of transportation is 
reduced to a small fraction of that of a 
century ago. In 1800 there were no 
methods of communication on land save 
by the post-rider, and none on the ocean 
other than that furnished by the slow 
sailing vessel, whose speed was subject 
to the caprices of nature as expressed in 
winds or storms or calms. 


THE POSSIBILITIES OF COMMERCE 


HAVE BEEN MULTIPLIED 
BY INVENTIONS 


Today the producer at the most in- 


411 


terior point of the Occident may speak 
with the consumer in the distant Orient, 
the message flashing across the land 
and under the ocean in less time than is 
required to describe the process. The 
merchant of New York who a century 
ago sent his order to China by sailing 


vessel might consider himself fortunate 


if he received the merchandise within a 
full year, while now the dealer in the 
most distant city of our great interior 
may wire his order in the morning with 
the knowledge that the goods may be- 
fore night be placed on board a fast 
steamer and reach him within less than 
a month. 

In 1805 the world had not a single 
steamer upon the ocean, a single mile 
of railway on land, a single span of tele- 
graph upon the continents, or a foot of 
cable beneath the ocean. In 1905 it has 
over 18,000 steam vessels, 500,000 miles 
of railway, and more than 1,000,000 
miles of land telegraph, while the very 
continents are bound together and given 
instantaneous communication by more 
than 200,000 miles of ocean cables, and 
the number of telephone messages sent 
aggregates 6,000 millions annually, and 
one-half of them in the United States 
alone. 

The effect of this enormous increase 
in the power of production, transporta- 
tion, and communication has been to 
multiply commerce in all parts of the 
world. The world’s international com- 
merce, which a single century ago was 
less than two billions of dollars, is now 
22 billions, and the commerce of the 
Orient, which was less than 200 million 
dollars, 1s now nearly 3,000 millions. 


THE COMMERCE OF THE ORIENT IS 
INSIGNIFICANT WHEN COMPARED 
WITH THAT OF THE REST OF 
THE WORLD 


But this commerce of the Orient, 
amounting to nearly 3,000 millions of 
dollars annually, is yet small when com- 
pared with its area and population, and 


412 


thus its possible producing and consum- 
ing power. The population of Asia and 
Oceania is 850 millions, while that of 
all other parts of the world combined is 
but about 750 millions. Its land area 
is 18 million square miles, and that of 
all other parts of the world 34 millions ; 
yet its commerce is slightly less than 
three billions of dollars, and that of other 
parts of the world 1g billions. This 


Tue NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE ORIENT HAS BEEN HANDICAPPED 
BY LACK OF MEANS OF TRANSPOR- 
TATION AND COMMUNICATION 


Now, what is thecause of this lack of 
commercial development in the Orient ? 
With half the world’s population and 
all the attention which the world has 
given it during the past four thousand 
years thecommerce is yet but one-eighth 
of the total world’s commerce and one- 


From ‘‘ Kingdom of Siam.”’ 


Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnam ’s Sons 


Elephants with Howdahs (Bangkok), which Have Been Eclipsed in Popularity by the 
American Trolley Car on Opposite Page 


gives an average commerce in the entire 
Orient of about three dollars fer capita 
per annum, while the average in all the 
rest of the world combined is 27 dollars 
per capita per annum. Thus the Orient, 
which has more than one-half of the 
world’s population and more than one- 
third of its land area, has now but one- 
ninth as great as the average per capita 
in all other parts of the world combined. 


ninth as large per capita as that of the 
remainder of the world. While its 
growth, considered bv percentage of in- 
crease, has of late been as rapid as other 
parts of the world, its total, when con- 
sidered from the standpoint of area, 
population, and producing and consum- 
ing possibilities, is ridiculously small. 
What is the cause of the slow com- 
mercial development of the Orient ? 


ComMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


Can that condition be overcome by the 
application of those agencies which have 
caused the greater and more rapid de- 
velopment in other parts of the world ? 
The answer to these questions is not 
difficult. The world’s commerce has 
developed in conjunction with and asa 
result of the development of facilities 
of transportation and communication. 
Without steam power for transporta- 
tion and electricity for communication 


413 


world, showing the facilities for trans- 
portation and intercommunication in its 
various great sections, will, in some de- 
gree at least, answer this question. 
Where it is, of course, practicable for 
the progressive, commercial people of 
the Occident to send their steamships to 
the doors of the Orient in pursuit of the 
commercial prize of that part of the 
world, the Orient itself cannot send its 
products from the great interior to the 


From ‘Kingdom of Siam.”’ 


Bangkok Tramway 


the world had buta single century ago 
less than two billions of international 
commerce. Now, with the steamship 
and railways and telegraphs, it has 
over 22 billions. Of this growth of 
over 20 billions in the last century but 
little more than two billions occurred 
in the Orient and about 18 billions 
in other parts of the world. What is 
the cause of this great disparity of 
erowth? A glance at a map of the 


ocean ports without railroads ; and here 
is at least a partial answer to the ques- 
tion. That section of the world which 
we are considering as the Orient, while 
it has more than one-half of the popu- 
lation and one-third of the land area of 
the world, has but about one-tenth of 
the world’s railways and less than one- 
tenth of its telegraph lines. Can there 
be any doubt that this is at least one of 
the great causes of the fact that it has 


Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnaim’s Sons 


‘ 


From 


The Awakening of the East. 


but one-eighth of the world’s commerce? 
The people of the Orient are, as a rule, 
industrious, painstaking, and now dis- 
posed to commercial intercourse with 
the Occident, but without facilities for 
transporting their products from the 
interior to the seaboard, where they may 
sell or exchange them for products of 
the other parts of the world, they are 
powerless to develop a great commerce. 


THE RECENT DEVELOPMENT OFINDIA 
AND JAPAN COMPARED TO 
THAT OF CHINA 


It is apparent, from this comparison 
of the railways and telegraphs of the 
Orient with those of the Occident, that 
the small fer capita of commerce in the 
Orient is due, in part at least, to the 
lack of facilities for transportation and 
communication on land; and there is 
a means by which this theory can be 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 


‘Kingdom of Siam.’’ 


MAGAZINE 


Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnam ’s Sons 


A School for Girls, Bangkok 


tested. There are, in the Orient, two 
countries which have been sufficiently 
supplied with railways in recent years 
to enable us to determine, with some 
degree of accuracy, their effect upon 
Oriental commerce. While their rail- 
way mileage is yet small in comparison 
with that of the great commercial coun- 
tries of the Occident, it is sufficient to 
justify a momentary study as to the 
growth of commerce which has followed 
that development. These two Oriental 
countries in which railroads have de- 
veloped, or at least began to develop, 
are India and Japan. India has about 
28,000 miles of railway and Japan 
about 4,500 miles. ‘True, these coun- 
tries in each case have but about one 
mile of railway for each 10,000 inhab- 
itants, while in the United States we 
have one mile for each 4oo inhabitants, 
vet the contrast in the commerce of 


COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


4.15 


From ‘‘An American Engineer in China,’’ by William Barclay Parsons 
Copyright, 1900, McClure, Phillips & Co. 


A Group of Chinese Watching an American Railway Engineer 


Japan and India, when compared with 
that of other Oriental countries having 
practically no railways, is at least sug- 
gestive as to the effect of railways upon 
commercial development. 

The three great countries of the Orient 
are China, India, and Japan. They 
have about nine-tenths of the popula- 
tion of what is generally known as the 
Orient, and the relative development 
of commerce among these three great 
groups of Oriental people which are or 
are not supplied with railways should 
be at least suggestive as to the effect 
of railways upon commerce and com- 
mercial growth. Railway construction 
in India began about 1853, but did not 
make rapid development until more re- 
cent years. In Japan railway-building 
began about 1872, but most of the de- 
velopment has occurred during the past 
decade. In China nearly all of the rail- 
way now existing has been constructed 


since 1900, and under circumstances 
which have not permitted its develop- 
ment as a system which would have 
material effect upon commerce. We 
may, then, fairly compare the growth of 
commerce in these three great Oriental 
countries, two of them with young but 
rapidly developing railway systems, the 
other with practically none. 

The foreign commerce of China, with 
its 400 million industrious people, but 
no railways, has grown but 160 million 
dollars since 1870; that of India, with 
300 millions of people and a system of 
railways, has grown 258 millions, and 
that of Japan, with only 45 millions and 
a system of railways, has grown 215 
millions. The Chinaman is known by 
those familiar with the conditions in the 
Orient as a natural trader and business 
man. A large share of the trade in the 
Orient is in the hands of the Chinese, 
and the positions of trust in the great 


416 


banking establishments are largely held 
by Chinamen, yet, despite these com- 
mercial characteristics of the Chinamen, 
the foreign commerce of China, with no 
railway system, is but 85 cents per capita; 
that of India, with 28,000 miles of rail- 
ways, is about $2.25 fer capita, and that 
of Japan, with 4,500 miles of railways, 
is $5.86 per capita. In other words, 
the commerce of China, without a sys- 
tem of railways, is about one-third as 


From ‘‘An American Engineer in China,’? by William Barclay Parsons 
Copyright, 1900, McClure, Phillips & Co. 


Transportation in China 


Junks on the Han River with Hankow in the Distance 


much fer capita as that of India and 
one-sixth as much fer capita as that of 
Japan, each of which has one mule of 
railway for each 10,000 inhabitants. 


PROJECTED RAILWAYS IN THE ORIENT 


But there is another feature of this 
recent railway development in the East 
which must be considered as likely to 
prove of great importance in the future 
relations of the Orient with the Occident. 
China has 2,000 miles of railway, most 
of it connected with the great Trans- 
Siberian line, and several thousand miles 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


more have been authorized or definitely 
proposed. French Indo-China, lying 
‘ust at the south of China, has over 
1,000 miles constructed and many new 
lines projected, while the Malayan Pen- 
insula, still farther at the south, has 
some 300 miles, Siam about 350 miles, 
and Burmah 1,500 miles. The French 
Indo-China system is to be connected 
with the railways of China by a line 230 
miles long, now under construction, at 
a prospective cost of some 
20 million dollars. The 
railway lines under con- 
struction or projected in 
China promise to extend 
to her southwest border, 
where a few hundred miles 
of railway would connect 
them with the systems of 
Burmah, which in turn 
will connect with that of 
India, about 28,000 miles 
in length. From India 
the railway system again 
stretches westward into 
Persia, and the construc- 
tion of but a few hundred 
miles would put this great 
system into communica- 
tion with the 2,000 miles 
of road in Asiatic Turkey, 
which in turn connects 
withthe railways of south- 
ern Europe, while a com- 
paratively short stretch of 
road at the north of India would 
also connect the Indian railway sys- 
tem with that of Russia. While it is 
a fact that serious political obstacles 
to some of these unions of railway 
systems now exist, it is not unlikely 
that the demand of commerce will in 
time be sufficiently strong to overcome 
or sufficiently modify these political 
conditions to render possible a union 
of these numerous systems, great and 
small, so far as relates to an interchange 
of passengers, freights, mails, and the 
establishment of other transportation 


COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


systems between the railroads of Europe 
and those of Asia. Already the great 
Siberian Railway connects the system 
of Europe with that of China at the 
north, and, now that the construction of 
a few short links would furnish another 
continuous line from China to Europe 
at the south, we may confidently expect 
that the traveler may, within a com- 
paratively few years, make the entire 
circuit of Eurasia by rail, traveling com- 
fortably from Paris through the coun- 
tries of northwestern Europe, Russia, 
and Siberia, into China, and thence 
southward through Indo-China, Bur- 
mah, India, Persia, Turkey, and the 
countries of southern Europe to the place 
of starting. The development which 
would come to the commerce of Europe 
with the Orient through the operation 
of this great railway circuit of the Eura- 
sian continent could but be of great im- 
portance. 

While it isa fact that the Orient, with 
more than half of the world’s population 
and one-third of its land area, has now 
but one-tenth of its railways and tele- 


417 


graphs, and one-eighth of its commerce, 
we are not justified in considering its 
commercial prize as of little value, pres- 
ent or prospective. The total commerce 
of Asia and Oceania, which we may 
broadly consider under this title,is nearly 
three billions of dollars, about equally 
divided between imports and exports, 
and its percentage of growth, even with 
the limited railway facilities offered, has 
been quite as rapid in recent years as 
that of the more favored Occident. The 
commerce of India is four times as great 
as when its railway system was begun, 
and that of Japan is six times as great 
as at the beginning of the construction 
of its railroads, and we may therefore 
expect that the development of the great 
railway systems now projected in China, 
Korea, Indo-China, Siam, Burmah, Ma- 
layan Peninsula, the Dutch East Indies, 
and the Philippines, with the additions 
planned for India, Japan, Siberia, and 
Australia, will enormously increase the 
commerce of that part of the world. j«4 

The imports of all the countries and 
islands of Asia and Oceania now amount 


From C. L. Marlatt, Department of Agriculture 


On One of the Interior Canals of China 


418 


THE NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From C. I.. Marlatt, Department of Agriculture 


Transportation in China. A Country Cart 


to nearly as much as the total exports 
of the United States. At present we 
supply but about 8 per cent of that great 
importation, and it needs but a moment 
of reflection to realize what an addition 
it would give to our foreign trade if we 
could treble or quadruple our shares in 
the growing imports of that great sec- 
tion. 


OUR PROSPECTS OF INCREASING OUR 
SHARE IN THE COMMERCE OF 
THE ORIENT VERY 
BRIGHT 


What are our prospects of increasing 
our share in that commerce? Europe 
is, of course, our chief rival in the at- 
tempt to supply the imports of the 
Orient. The European countries, in- 
cluding the British Isles in this term, 
send to Asia and Oceania about 600 


million dollars’ worth of merchandise 
annually, and the United States sends 
about 1oo millions; and we are gain- 
ing ground in the Orient even more 
rapidly than are the European countries. 
The imports of China, Japan, and Aus- 
tralia from all the European countries 
combined show an increase in 1903 of 
but 45 millions as compared with 1890, 
while their increase in importations 
from. the United States alome;iny the 
same period was 49 millions thus show- 
ing that our gains in their import 
trade are actually greater than those of 
all Europe combined. Comparing the 
total imports of all Asia and Oceania 
in 1903 with those of 18go0, we find an 
increase of about 22 per cent in the 
imports from all Europe and of 160 per 
cent in the imports from the United 
States 


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THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


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The Air and Water Currents of the Pacific. See page 422 


But there are special reasons why we 
may expect to increase our share in the 
trade of the Orient, and especially our 
share in supplying its imports. The 
Orient produces large quantities of the 
class of merchandise which we must im- 
port, and imports equally large quanti- 
ties of the class of merchandise which 
we produce and desire tosell. Ourim- 
ports of raw silk, and tea, and hemp, 
and jute, and tin, and goat skins, and 
other articles of the class produced in 
the Orient amount to hundreds of mill- 
ions of dollars annually, and our im- 
ports from Asia and Oceania have grown 
from less than 32 millions of dollars in 
1870 to 190 millions in 1904. The 
Orient is a large importer of cotton and 
cotton goods, mineral oils, manufactures 


of iron and steel, flour, and meats, in all 
of which the United States is the world’s 
largest producer. fj; 

The imports of cotton goods alone 
into the Orient amount to 250 million 
dollars per annum, and in this trade we 
should havea large share. We produce 
three-fourths of the world’s cotton, and 
our factories are turning more and more 
of it into the manufactured form each 
year, and there seems no good reason 
why we should not supply at least one- 
half of the cotton goods imported into 
the Orient instead of less than one- 
tenth, as at present. Our production 
of mineral oil, fit for use in lighting, of 
which the imports into the Orient are 
about .$35,000,000 annually, is larger 
than that of any other country, and we 


CoMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 


should not only retain but increase our 
trade in this article. Iniron and steel, 
in which the Orient is rapidly increasing 
its imports, we are the largest producers 
in the world, and should therefore en- 
large our share in supplying that trade. 
The natural advantages which we have 
in supplying that section of the world 
were shown by the large orders for flour 
and meat and many other articles which 
were poured in upon the dealers of the 
United States at the opening of the 
Russo-Japanese war, and these hurry 
orders came from both governments, 
which thus agreed at least upon one 
point—that the United States is a nat- 
ural source of supply for that great sec- 
tion, at least in these important require- 
ments. 


THE ADVANTAGES WHICH WE HAVE 


But there is another condition which 
should and will give us marked per- 
manent advantages in the commerce of 
the Orient. We are about beginning 
the construction of the great Isthmian 
Canal, for which the world has waited 
so long, and which, when completed, 
will place our great producing and man- 
- ufacturing sections of the East and South 
in direct water connection with all parts 
of the Orient. Our Mississippi Valley 
is the world’s greatest producer of 
breadstuffs and meats; the South, the 
world’s greatest producer of cotton ; 
our great iron fields are the world’s 
largest producer of that important metal, 
and our manufacturing system is the 
greatest in the world. When all of these 
great fields of supply are given direct 
water communication with the Orient, 
they should be able to largely increase 
our contributions to her requirements, 
and the roomillionsof merchandise which 
we now send each year to the Orient 
should grow to at least 500 millions. 

Not only have we marked advantages 
in the fact that we are the. world’s chief 
producer of the articles which the Orient 
requires, but we have other natural ad- 


421 


vantages in our relations to the Pacific 
Ocean, which is to prove the chief high- 
way for the commerce between these 
two sections and peoples. We have a 
much greater frontage on the Pacific 
Ocean than any other nation, and better 
harbors, not only upon the mainland, 
but also the principal island harbors of 
the entire ocean. Our national frontage 
on the Pacific, considering only the 
number of nautical miles to be protected, 
patrolled, or lighted, is 12,500, while 
that of the United Kingdom is 10,000, 
Russia a little over 6,000, Japan a little 
less than 5,000, and China little more 
than 3,000 miles, so that our frontage 
upon the Pacific exceeds that of any 
other nation. 

Not only have we marked advantage 
in frontage harbors, but in facilities for 
direct communication the developments 
of recent years have been of great im- 
portance. The experience of cable build- 
ers and operators shows that ocean 
cables cannot be operated more than 
3,000 miles without relay stations, and 
the fact that the islands scattered 
through the Pacific were formerly under 
the control of foreign nations with va-- 
ried interests delayed greatly the con- 
struction of atrans-Pacificcable. Now, 
however, that the United States flag 
floats over Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, 
and the Philippines, it has been practi- 
cable for American capital to string 
upon these great natural telegraph poles 
a line of wire which now connects all 
parts of the United States with the 
great business centers of all Asia and 
Oceania. 

I cannot close this discussion of our 
natural advantages of our trade with 
the Orient without again calling your 
attention to another condition presented 
in an address before the Society in 1902, 
an address which the Japanese govern- 
ment has done me the honor to reprint 
in its own language for distribution 
throughout Japan. In that address I 
said : 


A22 


“In certain great natural conditions, 
which are as unchangeable as the oceans 
and the continents and the revolution 
of the earth itself, nature has given to 
the United States marked. advantages 
regarding the movement of vessels be- 
tween her western shores and the east- 
ern coast of Asia, where the trade of 
the Orient must always enter, and in 
this belief I find inyself fully supported 
by the practical opinion and experience 
of distinguished officers of the American 
and British navies and by men who have 
had long experience in the commerce of 
that great ocean. These advantages to 
which I allude are found in the great 
and permanent currents of air and water 
which flow westwardly across the Pacific 
in the vicinity of the equator, turning 
northwardly along the coast of Asia,and, 
following the Japan coast, again move 
toward the east across the north Pacific 
and down the western coast of North 
America tothe point of beginning. In 
the map herewith presented are shown 
the ocean currents and the currents of 
air, the direction of the movement in 
each case being shown by arrows. It 
will be seen that the equatorial current 
begins its westward movement at the 
very point in which vessels from an 
isthmian canal would enter the Pacific, 
and moves steadily westward to the 
vicinity of the Philippines, then, turn- 
ing northward along the coast of China 
and Japan, is deflected to the east, flows 
eastwardly across the north Pacific to 
the American coast, and then moves 
down the western coast of the United 
States to the point of beginning. The 
air currents, while their exact location 
is somewhat affected by the changes 
of the seasons, follow practically the 
same lines and are equally certain and 
reliable. 

The rate of speed at which this ocean 
current flows in its great circular move- 
ment across the Pacific and return is 
probably on an average of about one 
mile per hour, or 24 miles per day, while 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MaGaZzINnE 


the rate of the movement of the air cur- 
rents is, of course, much more rapid. 
While there is a general belief that ves- 
sels propelled by steam are little affected 
by favorable or adverse winds, a series 
of experiments recently made by Ger- 
man navigatorsand scientists shows that 
even with high-power steam vessels of 
modern type a difference of from 50 to 
1oo miles per day is realized in traveling 
with or against winds of any consider- 
able power. ‘These facts, it seems to 
me, justify me in the assertion which 
I made, and now repeat, that this steady, 
permanent flow of air and water—a flow 
which will never cease so long as the 
earth revolves toward the east and the 
great bodies of land and water retain 
their present relative positions—must 
always give to the North American con- 
tinent a marked advantage in the com- 
merce of the Pacific. Its vessels trom 
the eastern coast, entering the Pacifie at 
the Isthmus, will move westward, aided 
by air and water currents, past our Ha- 
walian Islands, Wake Island, and Guam 
to the Philippines ; thence northward to 
those two great trade centers, Shanghai 
and Yokohama, and thence, still follow- 
ing these currents, will move to the 
east along that shortest route known as 
the ‘ great circle,’ in the nor eae 
touch at our western ports for trans- 
shipment of freights for the East, and 
then, still following the ocean current 
down our Pacific coast, will reach the 
entrance to the Isthmian Canal, having 
been aided by favorable currents of air 
and water ia the entire circular tour of 
18,000 miles. The feasibility of this 
plan is found in the fact that, while the 
actual sailing distance from the western 
end of the proposed Isthmian Canal to 
Manila via Hawaii and Guam is 9,500 
miles, the return trip from Manila via 
Shanghai, Yokohama, and San Fran- 
cisco to the canal is but 10,000 miles, 
with the advantages of favorable wind 
and current in practically every mile of 
the entire distance: ’: 


Mapes Issuep By U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


_ Aryan man, the great explorer and 
trader and civilizer of the world, is about 
to complete his circuit of the globe. 
Beginning his career of activity in the 
western section of the Orient, he sent 
one branch of his family eastward into 
India and Burmah, while the more pro- 
gressive and vigorous branch turned its 
face resolutely toward the setting sun. 
Westward, through the mountains and 
valleys and plains of Europe, he marched 
until he reached the Atlantic, sending 
thence a thin line eastward by way of 
the northern and southern routes, to 
begin the flanking movement upon the 
commerce of the Orient, while the main 
body of his forces still moved resolutely 
to the west, across the Atlantic. In 
America he halted for a time, until he 


4.23 


had peopled and developed that mag- 
nificent section of the world, and then 
he began his final movement upon that 
great commercial prize, to which his 
eyes had been turned for thousands of 
years. Building his railways across the 
American continent and laying his ca- 
bles beneath the waters of the Pacific, 
he moved steadily across that great 
ocean, step by step and island by. island, 
and today Aryan man, American man, 
stands in the Philippine Islands knock- 
ing at the doors of Asia, inviting the 
nations of that great continent to admit 
him to a peaceful interchange of com- 
modities, and with that a development 
of friendship which shall be strong 
and lasting and beneficial to the whole 
world. 


Mears RECRNILY PUBLISHED BY THE U. S$. 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY* 


‘THE OURAY QUADRANGLE, COLORADO 


HE only important town or set- 
tlement in the quadrangle is 
Ouray, a city of 2,500 inhab- 
itants, which is the southern terminus 
of the Ouray branch of the Denver and 
Rio Grande Railroad. Ouray, which is 
widely known as a gold and silver min- 
ing camp, produces a daily output of 
gold alone approximating $10,000 dur- 
ing a large part of the year. Among 
the mines tributary to this town is the 
well-known Camp Bird mine. 


The town of Ouray is most pictur- 
esquely situated. This beautiful region 
of massive and vari-colored mountains, 
tinted in autumn with all the blends of 
quaking aspen and mountain spruce, 
well deserves its local appellation, ‘‘ The 
Switzerland of America.’’ East of 
Ouray lies a vast arena, 1% miles in 
diameter and 1 mile in vertical depth, 


*The price of these maps is 5 cents each. 


called ‘‘ The Amphitheater,’’ which is 
surrounded by superb volcanic walls 
that make it well nigh inaccessible. 
Farther southwest Canyon Creek enters 
Ouray through a box canyon so deep 
and narrow that it is said sunlight never 
enters there. Trails have been blasted 
in the quartzite walls and a portion of 
the canyon has been tunneled, so that 
the visitor may better inspect the dark 
recesses. ‘Iwo miles south of town be- 
gins the Bear Creek trail, which is said 
to offer more magnificent scenery than 
any other bridle route in the West. 
One of the very few old overland 
stage coaches now left in the West runs 
daily between Ouray and Red Moun- 
tain. Its route makes the closing link 
of ro miles, through a country inacces- 
sible to the railroad, in the famous 
‘‘Around the Circle Route’’ of 1,000 
miles, whichis made wholly in the state 
of Colorado. Much of the stage road 


They may be obtained on application to the 


Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 


424 


is cut from nearly vertical rock midway 
on the flank of a huge mountain at a 
cost, in places, of nearly $50,000a mile. 
To travel along this road on the top of 
a stage drawn by six horses at a trot— 
‘‘two in the tongue, two in the swing, 
and two in the lead’’—gazing alter- 
nately into dizzy depths below and lofty 
heights above, is to have an experience 
that is never forgotten. 


THE NEEDLE MOUNTAINS QUAD- 
RANGLE 


The Needle Mountains are well wor- 
thy of special mention. They are ex- 
tremely ragged in appearance, with 
snowbound summits, sharp as needles. 
Mostly inaccessible, they are seldom 
visited, and, save a landmark here and 
there, are yet unnamed. More thana 
hundred peaks rear their splintered pin- 
nacles to heights exceeding 13,000 feet 
above sealevel. Mount Windom, which 
attains a height of 14,084 feet, is the 
culminating summit. 

The Animas Canyon, in the Needle 
Mountains, is one of the deepest fur- 
rows ina state famed for rugged topog- 
raphy. ‘The tourist rail route creeps 
through 20 miles of this canyon valley, 
the granite sides of which tower from 
3,000 to 6,000 feet above the track. 

The triangulation for these maps was 
done by Mr W. M. Beaman. In the 
execution of the fieldwork Mr Beaman 
was assisted by Messrs J. F. McBeth 
and Arthur Stiles, assistant topogra- 
phers, and a corps of field assistants. 
Field work at altitudes of 12,000 to 
14,000 feet presents unusual difficulties. 
With only two-thirds of a sea-level at- 
mosphere to breathe, and that so exhil- 
arating as to make one’s energy seem 
inexhaustible, care has to be exercised 
lest heart and lungs be over-stimulated. 
As the Needles form the crown of a 
mountain mass which is first in the path 
of the moisture-laden winds blowing 
overland from the Gulf of California, 
local thunder storms, accompanied by 


THe NatTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


vivid lightning, are very frequent. On 
several occasions it happened that Sur- 
vey topographers were caught on iso- 
lated peaks during such storms, where 
they were (to state the case mildly) 
strongly impressed by a sense of inse- 
curity on account of their own snapping 
hair and the sparks emitted from noses 
and fingers, as well as from the metal 
parts of their instruments. The quak- 
ing of their knees under these condi- 
tions they subsequently attributed to 
powerful electric shocks. 

The working season is short in these 
high altitudes. Snow drifts block the 
high passes often until July 1, while two 
feet of snow around the tents in Sep- 
tember is not unusual. Nevertheless, 
besides determining by means of trian- 
gulation the heights of the numerous 
lofty peaks, several circuits of primary 
spirit-leveling of great accuracy were 
tun. For total rise and fall per mile 
above 10,000 feet and for elevations of 
passes crossed, these circuits surpassed 
any similar level work ever done in the 
world. 


THE CRIPPLE CREEK DISTRICT, 
COLORADO 


The revised map of the Cripple Creek 
mining district shows the wonderful de- 
velopment of that great camp since 1894, 
when the first map was made. Gold had 
been discovered there only a short time 
before, and Cripple Creek was then 
merely a temporary camp, hastily thrown 
together toshelter a moving population 
of eager prospectors and excited specu- 
lators. 

Since then the mining camps of Crip- 
ple Creek and Victor have become cities, 
and the little outposts of the earlier day 
are now known as the towns of Gold- 
field, Independence, Elkton, Anaconda, 
Altman, and Arequa. Numerous fires. 
removed a large number of the first cab- 
ins and shacks, and in their places have 
arisen handsome substantial structures. 
of brick and stone that would be a credit. 


Maps Issugp By U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


to anycity. Complete electric lighting 
plants,extensive waterworks, interurban 
electric and steam railways, and many 
other appurtenances of civilization are 
now conspicuous features of the land- 
scape. 

These changes are shown on the new 
map by acareful and accurate represen- 
tation of every detail that is of sufficient 
size to receive recognition on a map 
drawn to a scale of 2% inches to the 
mile, as thisone is. So numerous have 
been the changes in this area during the 
last ten years that the two maps are 
hardly recognized as representative of 
the same area. Almost every cultural 
feature has been replaced by an improve- 
ment, and in places the shapes of the 
hills themselves have been altered. This 
is very apparent to any one who stands 
on one of the higher streets in Cripple 
Creek and observes the slopes of Gold 
Hill. Immense numbers of mine dumps 
and surface workings have destroyed the 
original contour of the mountain and 
given it an altogether different outline. 


THE LONG LAKE QUADRANGLE, NEW 
YORK 


Forest and lake are the most charac- 
teristic features of this area. The merest 
glance at the map shows that here the 
sportsman may realize his ideals and the 
lover of nature may rest content. 


THE ST REGIS QUADRANGLE, NEW 
YORK 


This is the most interesting and varied 
part of the country so far mapped in the 
Adirondack Mountains. The most char- 
acteristic feature of this quadrangle is 
the large number of ponds and lakes 
which it contains. ‘There are nearly 200 
of them. Many have no visible inlets 
or outlets and are separated by small 
terminal moraines from other ponds, 
which are only two or three feet higher 
or lower. Some of them are so con- 
nected as to furnish an unrivaled water- 
way through the woods. 


425 


The control on this quadrangle was 
furnished by Messrs E. L. McNair and 
George H. Guerdrum, and the topog- 
raphy was done in cooperation with the 
state of New York under the supervis- 
ion of Mr Glenn S. Smith. 


THE ROGERSVILLE QUADRANGLE, 
PENNSYLVANIA 


About two-thirds of the area embraced 
in this map is used as farming or grazing 
land. The soil washed down by rain 
from the hilltops makes the farms in the 
valleys very rich. The hilltops them- 
selves are used mostly as pasture land. 
Large numbers of sheep and cattle are 
exported every year from this region. 

Considerable tracts in this area are 
covered with timber, but it is all a sec- 
ond growth of chestnut and oak and has 
no commercial value. 

The whole area is underlain by the 
Pittsburg vein of coal. A low grade of 
coal outcrops around Durbin and Crab- 
tree and is used only for local consump- 
tion. 

Natural-gas wells are found all over 
the area and natural gas is the favorite 
fuel of the people in this region. 

The triangulation for this map is the 
work of Mr Sledge Tatum. The topo- 
graphic work was done by Messrs R. D. 
Cummin and E. G. Hamilton, under the 
direction of Mr Frank Sutton. 


THE DENTON QUADRANGLE, MARY- 
AND 


It embraces parts of Talbot, Queen 
Anne, and Caroline counties. If not 
literally a land of milk and honey, it is 
certainly one of peaches and tomatoes. 
It is one of the finest farming sections 
in the United States for small fruits and 
vegetables. 

The farms in this part of Maryland 
are unusually large and well cared for. 
The climate is delightful, the soil fer- 
tile. Even where there is sand it is 
usually a sandy loam rather than just 
unqualified sand. 


4.26 


Nearly every village has its canning 
factory, and during the preserving sea- 
son the hum of industry is loud. Fa- 
cilities for marketing garden produce 
are, fortunately, excellent. This area 
was surveyed in 1904 in cooperation with 
the state of Maryland. The topographic 
work was done by Messrs Robert Coe, 
T. G. Basinger, and L. S. Leopold. 
The control was established by Messrs 
G. T. Hawkins, W. Carvel Hall, E. S. 
Ela, Carroll Caldwell, and R. L. Har- 
rison. 


THE OKANOGAN QUADRANGLE, 
WASHINGTON 


The town of Bruster, on the Columbia, 
is the chief settlement in the quadrangle. 
In times of high water a boat plies from 
Bruster up the Okanogan to Riverside. 

The topography for this map was done 
by Mr lL. C. Fletcher, who was assisted 
by Mr W. C. Guerin. The triangula- 
tion was the work of MrC. F. Urquhart. 


THE SKYKOMISH QUADRANGLE, 
WASHINGTON 


In this lofty region some of the grand- 
est mountain scenery on the continent 
may be enjoyed by passengers on the 
Great Northern Railroad, which runs 
east and west through the center of the 
quadrangle. By means of the Great 
Cascade tunnel, which is only a few feet 
short of 2 miles in length, the railroad 
pierces the summit of the mountain 
range and descends by tortuous windings 
about 2,600 feet within the quadrangle. 
One of the most striking scenic features 
along the road is Index Mountain, a 
great granite pinnacle nearly a mile 
high, which looks like a huge copy of 
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. 

Many beautiful glacial lakes lie along 
the slopes of the mountains. Oppor- 
tunities for the development of water 
power are numerous. A short distance 
west of this quadrangle are Snoqualmie 
Falls, whence comes the power which 
generates electricity for Seattle. 


Tue NationaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE — 


Very good grazing lands are found 
in the northeast corner of the quadran- 
gle, where many sheep browse during 
the summer. 

The principal town of the region is 
Skykomish. Situated on the line of the 
Great Northern Railroad and on the 
Skykomish River also, it is the chief 
source of supplies forthe miners through- 
out the quadrangle. Large lumber 
mills are located there. 

The topographic work within the 
Washington Forest Reserve was done 
by Mr T. G. Gerdine in 1897. The 
rest of the quadrangle was surveyed in 
1902, under the general supervision of 
Mr A. EK. Murlin, by Messrs Murlin, 
C. W. Sutton, and W. C. Guerin. 


THE WAYNE QUADRANGLE 


This is a part of the richest and most 
populous county in the state of Michi- 
gan. ‘The chief topographic feature of 
the quadrangle is the ancient bed of 
Lake Erie, which extends from the 600 
to the 720-foot contour, to the old shore 
line, or Belmore beach, running through 
Plymouth and Farmington to the north- 
east. Northwest of the Belmore beach 
the surface is a broken terminal moraine. 

The principal occupations of the peo- 
ple of this area are farming, dairying, 
and the raising of fruits and vegetables. 
In the larger villages there are some 
small manufacturing establishments. 
At Northville there is a federal fish 
hatchery. The Wayne County Home, 
a model institution of its kind, is located 
at Eloise. 

The topography of the map was done 
by Messrs Robert Muldrow and J. T. 
McCoy, the control by Messrs George 
T. Hawkins and J. R. Ellis. 


THE LARAMIE QUADRANGLE, 
WYOMING 


It embraces about goo square miles in 
Albany county. Laramie,which enjoys 
the distinction of being the county seat, 
is a thriving town, with a population of 


‘Tue Fox Istanp Passes, ALASKA 


8,200, situated on Laramie River and 
the main line of the Union Pacific Rail- 
road. With an altitude of over 7,150 
feet above sea level, it ranks as one of 
the highest towns in the United States. 
It is the seat of the University of Wyo- 
ming. The state fish hatchery and the 
agricultural experiment station are lo- 
cated there. Itis also the shipping and 
trade center for a large area of country 
in which mining and stock raising are 
the chief industries. It has also rolling 
mills, plaster mills, limestone quarries, 
and railroad and machine shops. 

Large numbers of cattle and sheep 
are pastured on the plains about Lar- 
amie and great quantities of hay are har- 
vested along the Laramie and Little 
Laramie rivers. A number of gold and 


427 


coal mines have been opened in the 
mountains just west of Laramie. 

The topography is the work of Mr 
William Stranahan. ‘The triangulation 
was done by Messrs Frank Tweedy and 
R; H; Chapman. 


THE WOODSFIELD QUADRANGLE, 
OHIO 


This is a rich agricultural section, but 
important as are crops of wheat, corn, 
oats, and potatoes, orchards of apples, 
peaches, and pears, herds of cattle, and 
forests of timber, they are not the chief 
treasures of this area. A 6-foot vein of 
Pittsburg coal underlies most of the 
quadrangle. Its development has only 
begun. Some of the richest oil and gas 
wells in the state are also near this area. 


SOME NOTES ON THE FOX ISLAND PASSES, 
ADASKA: | 


byl. |. Grrperr, U.5.-Coast AND GEODETIC SURVEY 


UR knowledge of the geography 
() of the Aleutian Islands was 
very inexact until, in 1901, the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey sent two 
vessels to survey the Fox Island passes 
and eastward to the Sanak Islands. 
Westward of these passes and Unalaska 
Bay no surveys have yet been made, if 
we except one small harbor at Kiska 
Island. 

The population of the Aleutian Islands, 
which spread over many degrees of lon- 
gitude, is very meager, and is decreasing 
every year. A large number, estimated 
at about 30 per cent, died of measles in 
I900, and tuberculosis of throat and 
lungs is very common: 

_ The Aleuts, who strongly resemble 
the Japanese, live in a few small villages, 
widely separated. Some, and perhaps 
the greater number, of these villages are 
abandoned trading posts, established 


by the Russians previous to 1867, and 
the buildings originally constructed as 
warehouses and quarters for the agents 
and employés of the Fur Company are 
now occupied as homes by the few re- 
maining natives. The only village of 
any size is Iliuliuk, on Unalaska Island, 
where the Alaska Commercial Company 
has maintained a post ever since the 
purchase. In the territory covered by 
the party surveying the passes there are 
but two other villages—one on Biorka 
Island and the otherin Akutan Harbor ; 
the population of both will hardly reach 
two score. 

There are here and there evidences 
of old villages, indicating a consider- 
able population in the past. These are 
cellar-like excavations from 10 to 15 
feet square and 4 to 6 feet deep. As 
there is no timber growing on the isl- 
ands, the lining and roofing of these 


428 


dug-out huts must have been a serious 
undertaking, necessitating the gather- 
ing of driftwood from far and near. 
These old excavations are now covered 
with a rank growth of grass, and the 
unwary surveyor was liable to drop out 
of sight without warning. 

The islands are mountainous, with a 
few narrow valleys, devoid of trees, 
mostly too rocky for any vegetation, but 
the smoother slopes are covered with 
long coarse grass. Hach year the grass 
is matted down by the winter snows, the 
new grass grows up through the old 
straw, and the result is a springy mat- 
tress very tiresome to travel over. 

When our party reached the passes on 
May 16 the mountains and hills were 
covered with snow, which in many 
places came down to the water’s edge. 
It is the rare exception when the hills 
are not obscured by clouds, which often 
hang so low that only the beach line is 
visible. It is not probable that 1 per 
cent of those who go through the passes 
on their way to Nome, St Michael, or 
the Yukon have ever enjoyed an unob- 
structed view of the higher mountains 
and volcanoes, and often they have only 
seen the bases of the hills bordering the 
water. 

During the early part of the season the 
clouds hung persistently low on the 
hills, greatly impeding the work of the 
survey, but as the season advanced and 
the snow melted the clouds were less 
persistent and hung higher and higher 
until during the last weeks of September, 
when the snow had disappeared from all 
but the very highest mountains, the 
clouds lifted, and the grand scenery of 
the passes was displayed unobscured 
during several successive days. While 
steaming into Beaver Inlet one of these 
clear days we enjoyed a rare sight—four 
active volcanoes, each emitting smoke. 
These were Shishaldin, 9,387 feet, from 
whose lofty funnel the smoke, black as 
if from recent stoking, streamed away 
many miles to leeward ; Pogromnoi, also 
on Unimak Island, 6,500 feet; Akutan 


Tue Nationa, GeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Peak, Akutan Island, 4,100 feet, and 
Makushin, Unalaska Island, 5,691 feet. 
One night earlier in the season, while 
anchored in Akun Bay, we sawthe flames 
issuing from Shishaldin, 45 miles away, 
having the appearance of a burning 
smokestack. 

On entering Akutan Pass from the 
south the first headland on Akutan Isl-_ 
and is a conspicuous landmark, 1,600 
feet high, which has some interesting 
features. To the members of the party 
this headland was known as “‘ Liberty 
Cap,’’ a name suggested by the crest, 
which resembles in outline the cap on the 
statue of liberty surmounting the dome 
of the Capitol. The suggestion of the 
Capitol is further strengthened by the 
formation at the base of the promontory, 
which presents a rounded face to the 
sea with several openings to the interior, 
one of them large enough to admit the 
steam launch; this isan arched gateway 
20 feet across and about 12 feet high. 
Running through this passageway, some 
30 feet long, with the launch we came 
into a large circular room which re- 
minded us of the rotunda at the Capitol. 
This amphitheater is at least 100 feet in 
diameter, with an arched dome 100 feet 
high, having a large opening to the sky 
near the top, as though a part of the 
dome had been shaken down by an 
earthquake. There is good water, two 
fathoms or more, over the floor of this 
remarkable cavern. Besides the passage 
by which we entered, there are several 
others of varying widths, some leading 
by winding ways through to the open, 
others piercing deep into the base of the 
headland. It is the noise of the waves 
lashing into these narrow passages prob- 
ably that gave origin to the name ‘‘ Bat- 
tery Point,’’ by which this point is des- 
ignated on the recent charts. 

The tidal currents in the passes are 
very swift, sometimes as much as eight 
or ten knots, often causing ‘“‘rips’’ of 
terrific violence. ‘These tide rips are 
discernible a long distance by the white 
gleam of tumultuous waters, and it is 


A ComPARISON OF Norway AND SWEDEN 


sometimes possible to avoid them by run- 
ning to one side, as they are usually, at 
least during the summer season, of lim- 
ited extent, though following a some- 
what erratic track. 

Although alarming and even danger- 
ous to a vessel in the midst of one of 
these rips, it is a grand sight when the 
water comes tumbling over the bows and 
sides, throwing the spray over bridge 
and tossing the ship about like a cockle- 
shell. 

It is hardly conceivable that a small 
launch or a whaleboat could live through 
one of these tide rips—even a small 
steamer would have a strenuous time 
of it. 

The tide rips in Akutan and Unalga 
passes occur most frequently during 
spring tides, after the current has begun 
to run strong and when the wind is op- 
posed to the current, but the opposing 
wind is not an essential element, as they 
sometimes occur during calm weather, 
when the sea is elsewhere perfectly 
smooth. It is safe to go through these 
passes at slack tide. 

Aquatic birds, chiefly of one species, 


429 


are abundant. Sometimes, more par- 
ticularly in thick weather, we steamed 
through miles of them, and the noise as 
they rose from the sea, beating the water 
with their wings, was deafening. We 
had some of these birds prepared for the 
mess, but did not find them palatable. 

Food fish of good quality are plenti- 
ful, but only in particular localities. 
We never failed of a good catch in En- 
glish or Codfish bays. 

Whales are frequently seen, sometimes 
in large schools. It was an interesting 
sight, one day, watching a dozen large 
whales feeding in a small bight at Egg 
Island, rolling over and over, evidently 
chasing a school of fish, which were 
frantically leaping from the shallow 
water along shore. 

The impression upon the visitor to this 
region is one of grandeur, barrenness, 
and loneliness. ‘There are no trees or 
bushes and rarely is there a glimpse of 
animal life other than aquatic. Once or 
twice we saw a ptarmigan ora fox ; more 
often an eagle perched on a lofty crag 
added emphasis to the sense of loneliness 
and isolation. 


A COMPARISON OF NORWAY AND 
SWEDEN 


ECENT events in the Scandina- 

R vian Peninsula lend interest to 
Statistics just compiled in the 

Bureau of Statistics of the Department 
of Commerce and Labor regarding the 
population, comparative resources, and 
industries of Sweden and Norway, as 
well as their commerce with the United 
States and other countries. Sweden and 
Norway have a combined area of 297,006 
square miles, about equal to that of 
Texas and the Indian Territory. Their 
population is 7,484,301, practically the 
same as that of the state of New York. 
The area of Sweden is about 4o per cent 


more than that of Norway, the territo- 
rial extent of the two countries being 
172,876 square miles and 124,130 square 
miles respectively. 

Notwithstanding less favorable natu- 
ral conditions, such as the poverty of the 
soil, about 75 per cent of which is un- 
productive, and a rigorous climate in the 
larger part of the country, also a rela- 
tively larger emigration, the population 
in Norway increases faster than in Swe- 
den. Thus, the population of Sweden 
increased, between 1893 and 1903, from 
4,824,150 to 5,221,291, or 8.2 per cent, 
while that of Norway grew from 2,032,- 


430 


100 to 2,288,535, or 12.6 per cent, dur- 
ing the same period. The total emigra- 
tion from the two countries and the 
number of emigrants whose destination 
was the United States are shown in the 
following table: : 


| From Sweden. | From Norway. 
Year. To To 

Total. | United | Total. | United 
States. States. 
TBO 3 seco ctescensesetueccenase 40,869 37,321 18,778 | *18,766 
ESQAM Ge wctee ate cecmeece cen 13,358 9,529 5,642 5.591 
TSOHicccesccnechseereewscceses 18,955 14,982 6,207 6,153 
TSOG eke weccteccec seen oa 19,551 14,874 6,679 6,584 
TSO Zeer ccswawecosenecssterce es 14,559 10,109 4,669 | 4,580 
USOSehee sescewew sere eee neses 13,663 8,534 4,859 4,805 
TSO Foie cochaie teste etasteceers: 16,876 11,842 6,699 6,466 
TOOOSs oavieve ceveeceee eae 20,661 16,209 10,931 10,625 
MOO oc teces jase eee eee 24,616 20,306 12,745 12,488 
LOC2 Mee wit ceccsvees cee 37,107 33,151 20,343 19,225 
TQOQMeeestensceeccreaeresnee BVA) llegqsacsonscods 26,784 24,998 
otal anes 259,711 | 176,857 | 124,336 | 120,311 


* To America. 


If the average population for the pe- 
riod 1893-1903—5,043,700 for Sweden 
and 2,165,600 for Norway—be compared 
with the corresponding average emigra- 
tion figures—23,610 for Sweden and 
11,303 for Norway—the rate of emigra- 
tion appears higher for Norway than for 
Sweden, 5.2 per thousand as against 4.7 
perthousand. During the decade 1893-— 
1902 of the emigrants from Sweden who 
left their country over 80 per cent stated 
as their destination the United States, 
while of 124,336 Norwegians who left 
their native country, about 97 per cent, 
at the port of embarkation, indicated 
this country as their future home. 

Of the total estimated population of 
Sweden in 1903, only 22.3 per cent ap- 
pear under the head of urban dwellers, 
while of the total population of Norway, 
according to the 1900 census, 28.8 per 
cent are returned as living in urban 
settlements. 

The difference in the industrial char- 
acter of the population is shown, fur- 
thermore, by the fact that in Sweden the 
mainstay of the population is still agri- 
culture, with its cognate branches, while 


‘Tue Nationa’ Geocrapuic MAGAZINE 


in Norway the importance of agriculttte 
is about the same as that of the fisheries, 
each of which industries, according’ to 
official estimates, furnishes an annual 
product of about 15 million dollars, or 
about 1o percent of the annual national 
income. ‘The average value of the prin- 
cipal cereal productions in Sweden for 
the years 1898-1902 is stated at $65,- 
338,000, while the average value of Nor- 
wegian cereal crops for 1896-1900 was. 
estimated at $9,640,000 only. This as 
well as the relative absence of minerals of 
industrial importance, involves a much 
greater dependence on the part of Nor- 
way upon imported breadstuffs and raw 
materials, and results, as a further con- 
sequence, in a tariff policy distinct from 
that of the sister nation. ‘The imports 
of breadstuffs, including flour, during 
the calendar year 1903 into Sweden 
amounted in value to $16,331,000, and 
to $15,229,000 in Norway. 

The only common industry of impor- 
tance, especially for the foreign trade, is 
lumbering, inasmuch as both countries 
abound in forests, particularly spruce 
and pine, both of which varieties find 
ready sales in British and continental 
markets. Of the total domestic exports 
from the two countries, the exports of 
lumber and timber and manufactures 
thereof, such as wood pulp and matches, 
constituted 51.7 per cent in the case of 
Sweden and 40.4 per cent in the case of 
Norway. 

The mining and the metal industry, 
which is an important source of national 
wealth in Sweden, giving employment 
to 30,731 persons in 1903, has but little 
importance in the national economy of 
Norway. 

On the other hand, the earnings of 
the Norwegian merchant marine, espe- 
cially of vessels engaged in the carry- 
ing trade between foreign ports, con- 
stitute a large portion of the national 
revenue and serve to offset in part the 
unfavorable trade balance. Norway’s 
merchant marine is fourth in size among 
the merchant marines of the world, be- 


A ComPARISON OF Norway AND SWEDEN 


ing exceeded only by those of the 
United Kingdom, the United States, 
and Germany. Its total tonnage is 
nearly one anda half million tons, as 
against 625,000 tons for Sweden. Its 
total earnings in 1902 were 29.7 million 
dollars, as against 13.4 millions earned 
by Swedish merchantmen, while the 
amounts earned by Norwegian vessels 
in carrying freight between foreign ports 
only was $22,375,000, as against $3,- 
644,000 earned by Swedish vessels for 
similar services. 

Sweden imports about 142 million 
dollars’ worth of merchandise annually, 
about 6% millions being from the 
United States, and Norway imports 
about 78% million dollars’ worth of 
merchandise, alittle less than 5 millions 
being supplied by the United States. 
The exports from Sweden in the latest 
available year were 118% million dol- 
lars in value, about 314 millions having 
been taken by the United States, while 
from Norway the exports were 46% 
million dollars in value, of which less 
than two millions were imported by the 
United States. 

Our exports of domestic products to 
Sweden and Norway amounted to $11,- 
325,383 in value during the fiscal year 
1904, as against $10,071,565 during the 
preceding year. Less than twenty arti- 
cles or groups of articles supply the 
bulk of the merchandise exported to 
Sweden and Norway from the United 
States. Arranged in the order of mag- 
nitude in 1904, the more important arti- 
cles exported include the following : 
Refined mineral oil, $2,068,324 ; oleo- 
margarine, $1,201,266 : “4 Law eCOtton), 
$1,155,708; iron and steel manufact- 
ures, $796,671 ; lard, $688,754; wheat 
flour, $565,755 ; copper and manufact- 
ures, $393,791. 

Our imports from Sweden and Nor- 
way were valued at $5,258,114 in 1904, 
as against $4,975,234 in the preceding 
year. Weare thus exporting to Sweden 
and Norway a little over twice as much 
as we import from those countries. 


431 


Wood pulp forms a large portion of our 
imports from Sweden and Norway, the 
figures for 1904 being $1,202,455. Bar 
iron is next in order, $1,014,378; wire 
rods amounted to $559,914 ; machinery 
to $413,500, and hides and skins, ex- 
cept fur skins, to $309,518. Nearly 
all of the remaining imports were 
fishery products, amounting to about 
$1,000,000. 

The following table presents statistics 
of the principal elements of national 
progress in Sweden and Norway re- 
spectively, the figures being those for 
1903, or the latest available date: 


Comparative statistics of Sweden and Norway 
for year 1903, or latest available year. 


Sweden. | Norway. 
ATA ie. ee.ssncon sees square miles... 172,876 124,130 
Popwlationt sc sce... scccess: number:..| 5,221,291 |. 2.263.010 
Stavemevientlerer.-csseecces dollars...| 47,496,000 | 23,247 000 
RALIWAY Sige ccrece-cuceseccossecees miles... 7,636 1,481 
Merchant marine: 
Seat esscre: registered tons... 356.510 603,625 
Sallie ececaseasssneeecseeses (6 (0) enor rear 279,223 840,279 
Vessels entered in foreign 
(SEE ogo dnoeaeBacoga soonod HOGdcOEA: tons...) 8,857,826 | 3,250,724 
Vessels cleared in foreign 
EGAGCThevcssccetessesetasesscsecesces dos...) 8: 861.372)|- .3,240,002 
TIM POsSts... oii ccs .cssecescecoees dollars...) 141,979,000 | 78,472,000 
SSP OLUS "ceten ce escisin sss clseneciel iene: doves 118,291,000 46,531,000 
Exports of domestic merchandise 
from United States to..dollars...| 6,446,804 | 4,878,579 
Imports into United States 
LOM erescst eercsncesteossecesses Onive: 3,265,843 | 1,992,272 
Average ad valorem duty on 
total imports............ per cent... 10.60 11.46 
Publicidebtr esc secer dollars...| 92,518,000 | 71,032,000 
Annual interest charge.....do...... 3,248,000 | 2,301,000 
Commercial and savings banks 
GEepasitS: en o.cuceetees cote dollars...| 379,163,000 |160,678,000 
Manufacturing establishments: 
INUMMD EI IONS. cscvscc.ssestondccseescs 11,588 3,488 
Number of employees............ 271,157 81,813 
FOFSC=POW.Elieesc- se cect osecaserers: 454.386 244,237 
Value of output....... dollars...| 299,154,000 | No data. 
Gross freights earned by vessels 
engaged in foreign trade in 
LOO 2 een cesseaseneecee tase sree dollars...| 13,455,000 | 20,738,000 


While no gold or silver bullion ap- 
pears to have been sent to or received 
from Sweden and Norway, United States 


Consul Bergh, at Gottenborg, reports 
incoming money orders to the value of 
$2,500,000 sent from the United States 
to Sweden during 1904, and outgoing 
money orders to the value of $500,000 
sent from Sweden to this country, a net 
movement of $2,000,000 to Sweden from 
the United States during a single year. 


4.32 


EUROPEAN POPULATIONS 


N the fifty years, 1850 to 1900, Rus- 
sia shows the largest increase and 
France the smallest in the principal 
populations of Europe. The figures, in 
round millions, are: 


1850. 1900. Increase. 
RUSSiay eet esd 67,000,000 | 129,000,000 | 62,000,000 
GeTMANY........eeeeeeeee 26,000,000 | 56,000,000 | 30,000,000 
Great Britain........... 27,000,000 | 41,000,000 | 14,000,000 
Austria-Hungary..... 30,000,000 | 45,000,000 | 15,000,000 
RG Alliye ser ccs ctetensscuesees 23,000,000 | 32,000,000 9,000,000 
FOraATIC@ is cscs ies ecesecoce 35,090,000 | 39,000,000 4,000,000 


Two reasons account for the small 
French increase, namely, the loss of 
Alsace-Lorraine and the decreasing birth 
rate. The last isthe most serious. In 
1899 the excess of births over deaths in 
five of the countries named was: 


Germaty 2cyos techs ccc: ote 7Q5 0 OF, 
AUIStrI aU Say see ee ess. che: cates 530, 806 
Great Britains (fds y erage eee 422,156 
Mitac OS ah a EDS As Ons an ine ae 385,165 
GAM CC. yh ah SA te: eck ty eee ee B31 .32i 


The following year, 1goo, the French 
excess of births was only 20,330. It is 
a fact that 1,808,839 French families are 
without children. That is 16.68 per 
cent of all the families in France. It 
is also a fact that 2,638,752 French fam- 
ilies, or 24.33 per cent, have only two 
children each. 

In 1800 the population of Europe was 
98,000,000, of which 26,000,000 were 
French ; in 1900 the figures were 343,- 
000,000 and 39,000,000. Inotherwords, 
total Europe increased 245,000,000 in 
the century, but France can only be 
credited with 13,000,oo0o0f thatincrease. 
Thus France fell from 26 per cent to 11 
per cent of Europe’s population in the 
one hundred years. 

‘‘At one time,’’ says American Con- 
sul Haynes, of Rouen, France, ‘‘ French 
was spoken all over the world ; now 
(1905) it is the language of 45,000,000 
people (including the French colonies), 
while German is spoken by 100,000,000 
and English by 150,000.000.’’ 


Tue NaTIonaL GEocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


In the fifty years, 1850 to 1900, the 
increase in the population of the United 
States was 53,000,000, Or 14,000,000 
more than the present population of 
France proper. It can be put another 
way: The population of the leading 
republic of the new world, which was 
Iz,000,000 less in 1850 than that of the 
leading republic of the old world, is 
now more than double that of its chief 
republican competitor. Of course, the 
heavy American immigration largely 
accounts for this; but the American 
excess of births over deaths is, year 
after year, much larger proportionately 
than that of France. : 

Until 1850 France was in point of 
population the first of the great Euro- 
pean nations ; today she stands sixth, 
with Italy pressing hard to set her back 
to seventh and last place. 

In Germany there are 600,000 more 
births each year than in France; that 
is why Count von Moltkesaid : ‘‘ Every 
year by our birth rate we gain a battle 
over France.”’ | 

Russia doubles her population each 
50 years; Norway and Sweden, each 
52; Great Britain and Germany, each 
55; Belgium, each 79; Italy, each 84; 
Spain, each 104; Austria-Hungary, 
each 110, but France only each 183 
years. 

WALTER J. BALLARD. 


Schenectady, New York. ; 


JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES 


HE remarkable growth of Japa- 

nese foreign commerce during 

the first six months of this vear, espe- 

cially of imports from foreign countries, 

is shown in the June Monthly Return 

of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of 
Japan. 

As compared with the six months’ 
figures for the previous year, the im- 
ports show the remarkable increase of 
56.9 per cent, from $90,952,000 to 
$142,659,000, while exports for the 
same period show a relatively insignifi- 


JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES 43 


From stereograph, copyright, 1905, by Underwood and Underwood, New York 


Japanese Peasants Watching a Wrestling Contest 


434 


cant growth of less than 4 per cent, 
from $68,458,000 to $71,048,000. 

It is of interest to note that while the 
largest increases in imports are credited 
to the United States, the United King- 
dom, and British India, the largest in- 
creases in exports occur under the head 
of China, United States, and Korea. 
Thus imports from the United States 
for the first six months of the year 1905 
were $31,921,000, as against $13,328,- 
ooo during the same period of 1904; 
imports from the United Kingdom were 
$32,623,000, aS against $16,982,000 ; 
imports from British India were $34,- 
034,000, aS against $21,092,000, while 
imports from Germany are stated as 
$10,794,000 for the first six months of 
this year, as against $6,985,000 for the 
same period of the year 1904, As re- 
gards imports from other countries, 
they have increased at a much lower 
rate, or else show decreases. 

The exports during the same periods 
were largest for China, which 1s credited 
with $21,932,000, as compared with 
$14,953,000 during the first six months 
of 1904. ‘The United States ranks next 
among the countries to which Japanese 
products are destined, the figures for 
the first six months of 1905 being 
$20,304,000, as against $19,910,000 for 
the previous year. Inthe third place 
now stands Korea, with $5,852,000, as 
against $3,840,000 for the same period 
of ‘1904.’ The exports to the (other 
countries are relatively small and, more- 
over, showdecreases. ‘Thus exports to 
France, one of Japan’s large customers 
of silk, have fallen from $7,117,000 
during the first six months of 1904 to 
$5,401,000 during the first six months 
of 1905. ‘The exports to the United 
Kingdom have likewise decreased from 
$4,343,000 to $3,335,000, while exports 
to Germany have fallen from $1,098,000 
in 1904 to $1,045,000 in 1905. 

The leading position of the United 
States in Japanese foreign commerce is 
seen from the fact that this country fur- 


THe National GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


nished 22.4 per cent of the total imports 
during the first six months of 1905, as 
compared with 14.7 per cent of the total 
imports during the same period of 1904, 
and is credited with 28.6 per cent of the 
total domestic exports during the first 
half year in 1905, aS compared with 
29.1 per cent of the total domestic ex- 
ports of Japan for the first six months 
in 1904. 


OUR IMMIGRATION IN 1905 


OR the first time in the history of 
our country the number of for- 
eigners whom in twelve months we 
adopted as permanent citizens has ex- 
ceeded one million. The official fig- 
ures have just been published by the 
Bureau of Immigration and are given 
on the opposite page. 


MAP OF THE PHILIPPINES 


OR the map of the Philippine Isl- 
ands which was published as a 
supplement to the August number of 
this magazine we are indebted to the 
Bureau of the Census. ‘The map was 
compiled under the special direction of 
Mr Henry Gannett, assistant director 
of the Philippine census, to illustrate 
the report on the Philippine census. 
Through the courtesy of Gen. A. W. 
Greely, U. S. A., chief signal officer, 
the government and civil telegraph lines 
were added to our edition of the map. 


EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES 


XPORTS of manufactures from the 
United States in the fiscal year 
1905 were not only the largest on record, 
but are in excess of the combined ex-_ 
ports of all articles in the centennial 
year, 1876, and nearly 140 million dol- 
lars more than the total imports and 
exports of the country at the close of 
the civil war. 
Statistics just compiled by the Bureau 
of Statistics of the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor show that the exports 


> 


>. Qur IMMIGRATION IN 1905 


435 


Comparative statement showing the number of aliens (exclusive of aliens in transit) admitted 
to the United States, by countries, during the fiscal years ended June 30, 1904 and 1905, 
respectively, showing increase or decrease for each country. 


Countries. 


igeelievt were). 6" @nut  § | ‘eo -« |_| @le te #10) @) (6 6),.*0) 10. 0: 6, (e 


a 


ore = 0456 16) 'e: 10 0 Ke) 16! (elle. 2) 2] le 


peace mincluding, COrsica.. 2. wc. cece ee et ee: 
SHSIMETENT, Tay Ob eh ae ee ae earn aren 
reECee si... . ... OE Bhi aC pee ee ERs AU ee 
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia........... 
1 SERCO eee es ae ern er 
DSTA. Soa Se a 
Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azore 
Islands... 


cy 
ome ele: -e (oe @ so -< 1°) 0) 0) 6's) 6-0) @\ ‘eo sje © 


Ie gUlaSE.GL: Os, oe eae, re ner aoe 
Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro............ 
Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands. 
2 EV SGIGNSL 4 9 bak 8 Sie Cir ee tec eA 
Sayiuzerland =! )...5...... 
Turkey in Europe. 


oe oe eee eee ee oe 
ee er 
®/[BIN@) 0) 0)ce)/0\ (6 (0) 6 wi © .@ © ce) @ o 16 0, 0 0 © © 6 6 0 @ 0 © 8 6 #6 
CO -5/0°O OSC OG OO Cety Oem ed cc ku) cep cikrarsecher Cure) Omen) 
emer elre@lis\ eee | e- (0 (e@ @.01@s:'6 6 110 6 © 6 «ev « « 0 0 0 0 6 
Sil#| ste chee © 0 


ese ee ee oe oe we ww ero oO wee we woe 
‘ov e) a) @; | 4,0) (0, © | elie 16) (6 e@) «| pejc.e\Je. « 6) 6. © 


2 | 
oY 


Turkey ee eG 
Other Asia. .... 


Oi," Foe Ve) se: 306 cise fees rh = im ete: eels! ¢ 


Total Asia. 


oie ei lei tee se  eccere: 16" e) e:le) 0) 3) 0, 6, eens ie 


PRUs PPMMPMMe ies SEP Loe /S 8. Sin) ted oe eed aseytes Sa a 
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand 
iadippine Islands............. 
Pacific Islands, not specified 
British North America. | 


CC ee ey 


aioe {ieee ic 0 ie 0 '@ '« 
se ee eo oe 
Cr 


1) 6 (ee: 0a, (e'Se ©) 10! ieiie: ej56 <8, ¥i \e 18. 


MACKICO 2. .... Le ee ee 
South America .. 
West Indies 


Cc 


ee) @] ie) e) @, eye: 6, + (0's!) ke’ :e; @, © i = 0.18 6 610) -@) © © 6 « (b) 6) 0 6 


er ed 


1905. 1904. Increase. | Decrease. 
tee een \ 177,156. cote Neo Curr kee aamet IAS Oo 
5,302 3,976 Te ia te 
8,970 8,525 AAR ON ect oak 3 
10,168 9,406 762 ae 
40,574 AMOR SON sees ae serait 5,806 
LOV5 5 PA eet os. 5 828 
221,479 193,296 ZO GOQ Maha © a tica! 
4,954 4,916 Ou eed Soe fa 
25,0604 23,808 1,256 
5,028 OTA a hea ehe oe Be teat 1,687 
v437 TOO ER rows tees ie gel 2,650 
eee \ 145,141 BOAO ale cae eee 
2,043 Tah PTT eh eet ad 
2,600 3,996 tae 1,396 
26,591 DRT OGM cinemas. sess i172 
4,269 BROZS arate. Bard 754 
4,542 4,344 TOS. igs cmecton 
64,709 38,626 2O;OOB Naan ee 
52,945 36,142 TO,003 atene. 
16,977 EL;O92 OOS aN oy seals te 
2503 1730 TOE aes Rye 
1, BAG elses ¢ 130 
974,273 POTGOBS 1200; 340) Ween cer 
2,166 4,309 2,143 
10, 331 FAR2O Aah lGa Melon Senne 2hQ83 
190 P16) leona ae Pe yi 
Ons 7, 5 2215 G22 ope Ranke 
5,081 207 DIQOAP ike: aeons 
22,025 2OAMOO) |e cases 2,201 
HS 686 7H Fe Sarat i ee 
2,091 1,461 O2Os he a aaa 
39 Sn kas meen 13 
26 AQ hasthrae eee sid.2 6 
2,168 DRONA kta stots 669 
123 109 A gen tated Fe. o.tee, 
1,072 605 AGH. NN Sa faba 
2,637 1,009 TNO2S0 (ares. 
2,576 1,667 GOO me oh: 
16,641 10,193 (oy 71 Vilte Well Res ap a een 
161 go nial 
1,026,499 812,870 PAOCOQ OV IN Ron hte Mee: 


436 


of manufactures in the year just ended 
amounted to $543,620,297, as against 
$452,415,921 in the preceding year, 
$433,851,756 in 1900, and $183,595,743 
in 1895. The growth in exports of 
manufactures far exceeds the growth 
of population or the growth in com- 
merce as a whole. This is apparent 
from an examination of the following 
table, showing the population, com- 
merce, and exports of manufactures of 
the United States in 1800, 1875, and 
1905, and the percentage of increase in 
each since 1800 and 1875, the beginning 
of the greatest era in American devel- 
opment : 


Commerce E 
(imports and 


a omestic 
Year. Population. a doldash manufact- 
dise). pate 
Dollars. Dollars. 
T8OO is. so sccsenscc. 5 308,483 162,224,548 2,493,755 
TS7Oteceresecacceens 45,137,000 | I,001,125,861 100,492,055 
TQOSpesecseeeseecees 83,145,000 2,636,074,349 543,620, 297 
Per cent of 
increase : 
1800-1876... 750 517 3,930 
1876-1905.. 84 63 441 


Iron and steel manufactures supply 
about one-fourth of the manufactured 
articles exported from the United States, 
the total in 1905 having been $134,727,- 
921, as against $111,948,586 in the pre- 
ceding year, an increase of nearly 23 
million dollars. Steel rails showed an 
increase of 6 million dollars, chiefly in 
shipments to Canada, South America, 
Mexico, the West Indies, Japan, and 
other oriental countries, 1n several of 
which railway development is proceed- 
ing at a rapid rate. Machinery also 
showed an increase in 1905 of more than 
6 million dollars over 1904. A con- 
spicuous feature, however, is the large 
increase in exports of locomotives to 
Japan, 151 engines having been sent 
thither in 1905, as against 74 in the pre- 
vious year. Mexico and Argentina in- 
creased their purchases of American 
sewing machines, while Japan increased 


THe NatTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


her purchases of electrical machinery and 
builders’ hardware, each in a substantial 
déeree. 

Copper manufactures, consisting large- 
ly of pigs and bars, form the item of 
second importance in our exports of 
manufactures, the total being $86,225, - 
291 in 1905, as compared with $57, 142,- 
o81 in the preceding year. This growth 
of practically 30 million dollars in a 
single year is accounted for by an in- 
crease of nearly 10 millions in exports to 
China, 3 millions to the United King- 
dom, 1% millions to France, 3 millions 
to Germany, 4% millions to Nether- 
lands, 114 millions to Russia, and nearly 
2 millions to other countries. 

Refined mineral oil ranks third in the 
exports of manufactures, the total being 
$71,888,317, as against $71,753,552 in 
the preceding year. Owing to the fall 
in price, the value remained practically 
stationary, despite the fact that the 
quantity increased from 847 million gal- 
lons in 1904 to 951 millions in 1905. 
The countries to which the largest ex- 
portations were made were United King- 
dom, 221 million gallons; Germany, 142 
millions; Netherlands, 117 millions ; 
China, 90 millions; Belgium, 46 mil- 
lions; British East Indies and Japan, 
each about 30 millions; Italy, nearly 
29 millions, and France, 272 millions. 
South America, as a whole, took about 
55 million gallons. 

Cotton manufactures present one of 
the striking features of the year’s ex- 
port record, having advanced from 
$22,403,713 in 1904 to $49,666,080 in 
the year just ended. The growth oc- 
curred chiefly in cotton-cloth exports, 
$14,696,199 being the total in 1904 and 
$41,320,542 the figure for 1905. To 
China there was an increase of about 
400 million yards over last year’s ex- 
portation of 76.9 millions, and the value 
of our cotton-cloth exports to that 
country increased from 4 million dol- 
lars in 1904 to 2734 millions in 1905. 
Japan was the only other country to 
show a considerable increase in takings 


STATISTICS OF CITIES 


from ts, the total being 16 million 
yards, valued at 114 million dollars, as 
against less than 440,000 yards in 1904, 
valued at 55 thousand dollars. 

Leather and manufactures of leather, 
fourth in importance in the list of manu- 
factured articles exported, showed an 
increase of 4 million dollars, the total 
in 1905 having been 38 million dollars, 
as compared with 34 millions in the 
preceding year. In this class, also, 
Japan should be credited with the chief 
increase. To Japan we exported 16 
million pounds of sole leather, valued at 
$4,146,428, as against 2 million pounds, 
with avaluation of about a half million 
dollars, in the preceding year. The 
increase in boots and shoes is princi- 
pally in exports to the West Indies and 
Mexico, each of those countries being 
credited with about $400,000 in excess 
of the 1904 figures, while the total in- 
crease in boot and shoe exports to all 
countries was but little over $818,000. 

Other important articles exported 
were: Agricultural implements, 2034 
million dollars ; chemicals, drugs, dyes, 
etc., nearly 16 millions; wood manu- 
factures, 12% millions; cars, carriages, 
and vehicles, 1024 millions; scientific 
instruments, 8 millions; paper. and 
manufactures of paper, 8% millions; 
paraffin and paraffin wax, 734 millions ; 
fiber manufactures, 634 millions; to- 
bacco manufactures, 524 millions; 
books, maps, etc., nearly 5 millions, and 
india-rubber manufactures, 434 mil- 
lions. 


STATISTICS OF CITIES 


HE Bureau of the Census has just 
issued a very useful report, Bul- 

letin 20, presenting statistics of cities 
having a population of over 25,000. 
This bulletin contains comparatively 
few statistics relating to the population 
living in these cities, but is for the most 
part a compilation of data relative to the 
resources, transactions, plant, and ma- 
chinery of the municipal corporations. 
One finds in these tables such facts 


437 


as the length (in miles) and the area 
(in square yards) of the paved streets 
classified with reference to kind of pav- 
ing ; miles of sewer; number of street 
lamps; miles of street railway track ; 
number of school buildings and number 
of teachers and pupils; the number of 
public libraries with the number of vol- 
umes they contain ; the number of alms- 
houses and. orphan asylums with the 
number of inmates ; the number of po- 
licemen and the number of arrests they 
have made ; the number of firemen and 
fire engines, the number of fires occur- 
ring during the year, and property loss 
from such fires; thenumber of marriages 
recorded in the office of the city or 
county clerk and likewise the number 
of divorces. ‘There are also tables show- 
ing the total population of each city, and 
the deaths and death rates from each of 
the principal causes of death. 

But by far the greater part of the 
tabular matter consists of financial sta- 
tistics presenting the expenditures and 
receipts of each city classified by de- 
partments and offices, the public debt, 
sinking funds, etc. By reference to 
these tables one may readily compare 
the cost of government and of the sev- 
eraldepartments of government in differ- 
ent cities. 

In the aggregate the financial trans- 
actions of the 175 cities included in this 
report equal in magnitude those of the 
national government. The total corpo- 
rate receipts for these cities amounted 
to $541,624,203, while the revenues of 
the United States government in the 
fiscal year 1904, exclusive of postal rev- 
enues, were $540,631,749. The total 
corporate expenditures of the cities were 
$535,804,200 ; the expenditures of the 
United States government were $582,- 
402,321. The national debt in 1904 
amounted to $895,157,410; the aggre- 
gate debt of the 175 cities, exclusive of 
sinking fund assets, was $1,134,578,783. 
The receipts, expenditures, and debt for 
the city of New York represent about 
one-third of the city totals. 


4.38 


THE COMMERCIAL VALUATION OF 
RAILWAY OPERATING PROPERTY 


IN THE UNITED STATES 


HE United States Bureau of the 
Census has just published Bul- 
letin 21, presenting the results of an 


Tue Nartonat Grocrapuic Macazine 


extended inquiry in regard to the cott- 
mercial value of railway operating prop- 


erty in the United States. 


has in 


quiry was conducted by the Bureau of 
the Census, with the cooperation of 
the Interstate Commerce Commission, 


Ratio of 
Commercial | Per cent : ee ee eeneean an ee assessed 
value of railway | of total | Rank pane e: RASS ACP to com- 
STATE, TERRITORY, OR DISTRICT. operating prop- for of : mercial 
erty asof June | United | state poe 
0, 1904. States. 2 per 
Se) Date. Amount. cent) 
WiattteGeStatese. vmcc.sses-rezeeenee ccesereriasl| * $11,244,852,000 TOO.L000: | lic oes 255cil| ccietiscavses cnnisns 4s omenelllselarie ciate efector Il REtaetsts aan 
FUME MOB a0VasednencrdepocdeG) padandabecsno acospondaccdarcanc 150,211,000 1.336 24 1905 | $53,926,026 35.9 
NII sanorarib udeanadenodusooed, sannouaen covecsecooulsot 100,000 0.001 BI |. seesesee caadsebwansieegtl seeucsemeee saueserg | Mae eet atemenas sie 
ESET UZ OTA ete tec hciecis: dan tnessites cae dteeete tas dee teee 68,356,000 0.608 44 1904 6,667,349 9.7 
ATIGAMISAS yc gseectcnsermebcscaes Wares cma deuiceeaase 124,626,000 1.109 27 104 | 34,709,023 27.8 
(QRUIUION RON nacberbdecaduntdacede.) | Sogsonacedeaenss aso 350,694,000 3.119 8 1904 | 92,378,550 26.3 
COLOTAG OLE wc ccacka tease on ne oe de casoteetenae: 198 261,000 1.764 19 Dec; 31, 1903 49,492,135 25.0 
Connecticut........ 105,369,000 0.937 32 || Sept. 30, 1904 | 120,493,648 114.4 
VOVENB AEN eS a nad aadddouaooRoBasdeds caddogsouneusouand mobo 17,285,000 0.154 AG || voeoasede vanccdaes soelliocen stem emetee sol eerdeeae manent 
Distnict of Colwimibia\2....:.. cect eecnseec = 5,578,000 0.049 50 || June 30, 1904 2,486,024 A4.6 
Rel mA Ca Mas ictecers voc, wenestease Wisse outer cenem ee 80,467,000 On lon By 1904 | 21,817,478 Digit 
(EYSvoy teal: sjuarnqueodooedeecboancvosnds HaadonDoenueost 9G at 156,603,000 1.392 22 1903 | 63,105,8:0 40.3 
TG oVC suo comandacacorcocmosatidaucuosdkocendéduhpcancandet 91,877,000 0.817 34. 1904 | 10,115,378 11.0 
DIU TTTVoy iaedbneciaaae acts yrinecnctansasaed erp esdae abuse 805,057,000 7.159 Bi 1904 | 425,709,055 63.8 
Nendwvana Merit oryeerstere sess sect ance ecient 79,405,000 0.706 AO ||. cacesssedessincse snes de cl easioee ence eeeeeen|l Gemeente 
HavGi amas vce ven casacat con eauiisen mecnene see eneee 375,541,000 3.340 6 1904 | 165,863,367 44.2 
TOWiAlshebeechions Memence taeeb aa en ceteeccist hones tancite 344,847,000 3.067 9 || Jan I, 1904 | 57,535,160 16.7 
NEANISAS aca: eccemerneisncics 6 ceiaten ricielseeneerte scission 356, 350,000 3.159 7 1904 | 60,093,534 16.9 
KentuGk yn....2.- Mav rcoduie cash ele entiaslenameeenuloes ame 155,772,000 1.335 23 1904 | 77,658,040 49.9 
TOUISTANIA, clecteatinnbenes tee dseteosasserccines le ecsecme 123,401,000 1.097 28 1904 | 29,044,195 28.9 
DUET Sie aca omar cede cies asean scone bac qarcta ede scan 80,146,000 0.713 G23 | (eee eee en esate seccolllsacsoruaced ane 
Mialty laid eecercancts caisson seme sepacesctensnetena: = 132,342,000 1.177 71a) | BRERA PPP A Eeeenbert lee agance! Acitiscas: \iesesoncon scion: 
MiasSaiGlHUSGttsite-susms:-ceseescaetaee deers antes ae 250,052,000 2 224 D5, ede wn ereeleteje ne sivewrll ates oearamgemn tite cml ll Cae tren ee bte ters 
Michipatiyie..ccesse Loe ceasnayremaenee as scoorinaebtige 277,597,000 2.469 13 || Jume 30, 1904 | 196,795,000 -70.9 
Minnesota ...... oni Rne a ten abnsoHesamteitos dear bee 466,734,000 4.151 Bal eater pesied's “isiesee| a dvedencee oben Sena | Mae Meeunmee at 
MASSISSID Pils. occ-tonceeeclscccnectotew sete icmecc sere 107,884,000 0.959 31 1902 | 29,847,640 Z| 
IMSS OUT Ge.cds osc. cogennesteicce cet aiesarccameceon anes 309,768,000 2.755 II |} June 1, 1903 | 97,916,869 31.6 
ING Rove eyo Velenraa cee acai cauaHunann EnBAAbcactuaboreeendadon 196, 209,000 1.745 20 1904 | 36,759,827 18.7 
INE bras a ie sel eretd Mens atact scatters ese meet ammeeoe 263,170,000 2.340 14 1904 | 46,082,853 18.5 
INievaldiar neces. sete ce sdedtcdneasmeustbnns ennccesegeny 43,745,000 0.389 46 | 1904 | 13,778,049" 31.5 
New HamipSlinens 2.25 2 ncenecwecesre ioe ectrn 79,786,000 0.709 39 1904 | 22,625,000 28.3 
ING WAIICLSE Vin feoracee - sacoesctees coseecee Paes, * 332,565,000 2.966 10 1904 } 231,655,525 69 5 
INGiw? Me@xX1COR iE gitencse secon dueteaueensne aeteesee 86,400,000 0.768 36 1904 8,511,538 9.9 
Ni@ we W OG tro es sch sces eee pea coe een eememae * 898,222,000 7.988 2 1903 | 229,582,064 25.6 
INorehy Carolia c.....s-aseeeaeecederss Lgcissteter 113,146,000 1.006 30 1904 | 69,480,974 O1.4 
NorthiDakotaty i. jas.cedsesacseses sre ostncen tess: 123,390,000 1.097 29 1904 | 22,160,304 18.0 
OMIO i shee gies Leases a hee oe ee ee eee 689,797,000 6.134 4 1901 | 133,858,945 19.4 
ORM aM Onlaek weiss se essence ecco ue eeee meee 78,668,000 0.700 41 1905 | 11,936,317 15.2 
(@) rete0) 0 Perec mann Se ndoces Heer ooacepnaragnwonéadnobacoac 75,661,000 0.673 (APG aepcsoconedrenonnnincence| (sonbornedeoocaots|||lsagcesodotosas0 
Peninsy | vata itn sccdset at seetes anette I,420,608,000 12.633 Li llc sdubetieiweiawenellenctcay|e abioune ease nee eee Genera Me 
Rhode) Islands 0.22 scce Sees anette auaeee 25,719,000 0.229 48 1904 | 15,832,003 61.6 
South Carohivasntssecthac eee naee es. eacceene ae 75,500,000 0.671 43 1903 | 29,467,716 39.0 
SOUChMD aAkOtata cas cese ieneespeceneeanenaeeeren: 49,646,000 0.441 45 1904 | 14,254,930 28.9 
SU GIMME SSC OL. se cckun ea vuwats sateen mnehpelesaisate meee ad 131,166,000 1.167 26 1903 | 58,539,566 46.6 
| BS fe ee paseo go conadboncaHeasth dphaopouaddéon odsienobaona 237,718,000 2.114 16 1904 | 95,209,785 40.0 
LOR olanOM eer HeRRr nr Hiner PacMpnEnOnAGansadcst ceasHne tedods 90,325,000 0.803 35 1904 | 20,682,461 22.9 
WASH OKO) bY OMS hemrn eer en snc edconsdcnncabeocdncacor oeeonbe 37,311,000 O 332 47. Dec, I1g02 | 27,344,020 73-3 
DYBb tea bob ie bys teriee secre Me Enric a HEGAS once bobocnne 211,315,000 1.879 17 || June 30, 1904 | 63,269,623 Bie 
Washimotominc.c..25 sw ioeet cones see eee 182,837,000 1.626 21 1904 | 26,066,949 14.3 
West Virginiatiie seo ec tee aessereaeeee 201,799,000 1.795 18 1904 | 28,771,358 14.2 
WAS CONSE iS. ien. ses neeel stoskeanene docucenneeties 284,510,000 2.530 12 1904 | 218,024,900 76.6 
Wiy ONG So iam irdne ancteveeueaearecmndees scmsmeraes 100,307,000 0.892 Be 1904 7,498, 232 Tes 


* Exclusive of Jersey City ferries of the Pemmsylvania Railroad system. 


5,698,000, 


The value of this ferry property is 


4 
a 


VALUATION OF RAILWAY OPERATING PROPERTY 


under the supervision of Prof. Henry C. 
Adams, statistician to that Commission. 
The first part of the bulletin, discussing 
the main results of the investigation, was 
written by Professor Adams. ‘The sec- 
ond part, or ‘‘Supplement,’’ consists of 
a series of papers by experts considering 
‘‘Various Aspects of the Question of 
Railway Valuation.’’ 

The commercial value of railway oper- 
ating property in the United States, com- 
puted for the year 1904, was $11,244,- 
852,000. ‘The apportionment of this 
value among the various states and ter- 
ritories of the Union (foreign posses- 
sions excluded) may be seen from the 
table on the preceding page. 

The above valuation does not include 
the value of. Pullman cars or private 
cars. ‘The physical value of this equip- 
ment, that is tosay, its value independ- 
ent of the commercial use to which it is 
put, is estimated as follows: 


LE UEIDCOC Oa Ce) Cain a $51,000,000 
UV AECH CANS ch helayrle cise sie 's o'ele a's 72,000,000 


The total number of Pullman cars 
‘‘ available for the business of the com- 
pany’’ on July 31, 1904, was as follows: 


Standard cars with sleeping accommo- 


GAMIOMS Wein ley ee. yk ek fe ae 2,903 

Ordinary, or tourist, cars with sleeping 
MOCOMMMOCAMONG 0. 560i seis peed wee 547 
atdOL CALS: oe sc. 2. +. Ee ete r,s oct eee 464 
Composite, dining, and other cars..... 85 
MNO clae meters sikh e.g kis, daa estoldeats 3,999 


By commercial value is meant the 

market value. The two chief factors 
determining the market value of railway 
property are the expectation of income 
arising from the use of the property 
and the strategic significance of the 
property. 
_ The value submitted was determined 
not with a view to discovering a proper 
purchase price for the railways of the 
United States, nor as a basis for taxing 
these railway properties, but as one step 
in ascertaining for the Census Bureau 
the total wealth of the United States. 


Po 


Whether or not the value ($11,244,- 
852,000) above submitted represents the 
value upon which the railways of the 
United States might properly be taxed 
depends upon whether the state under- 
takes to tax the roads at their full com- 
mercial value, including the values of 
both tangible and intangible property, 
or whether it seeks to confine its taxa- 
tion to the value of the tangible property 
alone. In the former case the value 
submitted is believed to be substantially 
correct so far as it concerns the operat- 
ing properties of the railways; in the 
latter case it is too high. | 

The results of the investigation re- 
ported in this bulletin have been care- 
fully tested, and it is believed that the 
methods employed conform closely to 
those followed in the business world. 


THE ZIEGLER POLAR EXPEDITION 


HE loss of their ship, with most of 
their stores and equipment, al- 

most at the beginning of their Arctic 
campaign, was mainly responsible for 
the modest achievements of the Ziegler 
Polar Expedition of 1903-1905. ‘The 
party did not get farther north than 
82° 13’, which is some degrees south of 
Abruzzi’s record, but they did consider- 
able surveying and conducted scientific 
observations of value. On the arrival 


_of the expedition in Norway, Command- 


er Fiala issued the following statement : 

‘‘ Our rescue was most timely. By my 
order the America wintered in Teplitz 
Bay, where early in the winter of 1903-4 
the ship was crushed in the ice and be- 
came a total loss, together with big 
quantities of coal and provisions. 

‘* Supplies of stores left at Franz Josef 
Land by various relief parties saved us 
very serious privations. Three attempts 
to reach a high latitude failed. The 
scientific work, however, as planned, 
was successfully carried out by Mr Wm. 
J. Peters, of the United States Geologi- 


. cal Survey. 


‘‘ Our rescue was due to the splendid 


44.0 


efforts of Mr William S. Champ, secre- 
tary of the late William Ziegler, com- 
manding the relief expedition, who, 
owing to the terrible weather, failed to 
reach us last year, and to the untiring 
zeal of Captain Kjeldsen and his Nor- 
wegian officers and crew, who for six 
weeks persistently forced their way 
through solid floes of ice and finally 
reached us. 


‘‘An abundance of stores had been 
left in the Franz Josef Archipelago by 
the expedition commanded by the Duke 
of Abruzziand the André relief expedi- 
tion, so that we did not suffer serious 
difficulties on that score.’’ 


In the spring of 1904 repeated at- 
tempts were made eastward and west- 
ward to force a passage to the Pole. 
The conditions, however, were insur- 
mountable. The expedition found much 
open water, and day after day encoun- 
tered fresh dangers and difficulties. 
Ultimately the supply of provisions ran 
short and a painful journey southward 
was begun, the members of the expe- 
dition finally reaching the depots at Cape 
Flora, Cape Dillon, and Camp Ziegler, 
among which they were distributed and 
where they managed to eke out the 
limited supplies by catches of walrus 
and bear. 

The relations between the members 
of the expedition were most cordial and 
all took turns at duty, doing the hard 
work willingly. 

Mr W. J. Peters, second in command, 
and who had charge of the scientific 
work, under the direction of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society, has cabled 
the following report to Dr Willis L. 
Moore, Chief of U. S. Weather Bureau 
and President of National Geographic 


Society: ‘‘ No record. Conditions 
unfavorable. Considerable scientific 
work.’ 


Mr Champ, leader of the relief ex- 
pedition which sailed from ‘Tromso 


June 14 on the Zerra Nova, deserves | 


much credit for bringing back the party. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


The ice was unusually thick the past 
summer, and a less courageous man 
would have failed to get through. 

On July 29 the 7erra Nova reached 
Cape Dillon, and found six members of 
the Ziegler expedition safe and well. 
From this outpost sleds were dispatched 
to notify Mr Fiala at the headquarters 
camp of the arrival of the rescue ship. 

The Zerra Nova reached Cape Flora 
July 30, and found more members of 
the expedition. These had become 
weakened by the hardships they had 
endured, and some of them were so ill 
that they could not have held out for 
another winter. | 

Returning to Cape Dillon, Mr Champ 
organized a sled party and started for 
the headquarters camp, from which he 
brought back Mr Fiala and his com- 
rades. 

The Zerra Nova sailed for home Au- 
gust 1. It got out of the ice pack Au- 
gust 6, and returned in excellent condi- 
tion, arriving in Tromso August Ir. 


THE HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD 


HE U.S. Geological Survey an- 
nounces that the town of Roose- 

velt, Arizona, humming as it is with 
the activities of its 3,000 inhabitants, is 
doomed. Its lease on life is only three 
years long. In 1908, when the engi- 
neers of the Reclamation Service shall 
have completed the highest dam in the 
world, Roosevelt will lie 172 feet below 
the surface of the water in the recla- 
mation reservoir. Work has been in 
progress there for about a year, but 
men are laboring now, night and day, 
in three shifts of eight hours each, in 
order that no more than three addi- 
tional years may be consumed in the 
task Then the town of Roosevelt will 
disappear, and in its stead 250,000 acres 
of now barren land near Phoenix will 
be reclaimed and give rich support to 
many more people than Roosevelt now 
contains. Lest the sweeping away of 
the 3,000 people should appear too se- 


K 


Tuer Hicuest Dam IN THE WorLpD 


vere, it should be explained that Roose- 
velt isin reality acamp; that practically 
all of its inhabitants are gathered to 
help along the gigantic Salt River Rec- 
lamation project, which will cost over 
$3,000,000. ‘The engineering problems 
connected with the work are great. 
Before the dam could be commenced 80 
miles of road had to be constructed. 
Most of the material has to be brought 
from Globe, the railway station, which 
is 40 miles away. The power canal, 
which i$ to be 19 miles long, is well 
under way. Its construction has in- 
volved the excavation of about 600,000 
cubic yards of material and the driving 
of nearly 9,000 feet of tunnel. The 
canal will furnish power to generate 
electricity to operate all the works. 

The government will make on the 
spot all the cement required, instead 
of purchasing it. It is expected that 
about 200,000 barrels of cement will 
be required in the construction of the 
Roosevelt dam, the power canal, and 
the various Tonto improvements. The 
cement used in the preliminary work 
cost $5.35 a barrel, delivered at the point 
where it was used. Bids were later re- 
ceived for furnishing cement at $4.81 a 
barrel. It will cost the government 
$1.60 a barrel to make the cement on 
the ground. If the cost of the plant, 
$120,000, be added to the cost of the 
200,000 barrels of cement required, the 
total cost of the government cement will 
still be only $2.20 a barrel. ‘This means 
a saving of $2.61 a barrel, or a saving 
of $522,000 on the entire work. After 
the dam and canals have been completed 
the cement plant will still he capable of 
further use, and considerable salvage 
may doubtless be realized. The ce- 
ment mill is now in operation. The 
fuel used in burning cement in the kilns 
is crude petroleum from the California 
oil fields. 


Map of Panama Canal.— In the October 
number THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 


441 


MAGAZINE will publish as a supplement 
a map of the Panama Canal region, 24 
by 33 inches and in five colors. The 
map was prepared by the Isthmian Canal 
Commission and is republished through 
the courtesy of Hon. Theodore P.Shonts, 
chairman of the commission. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN THE REPUBLIC 
OF PANAMA 


TNITED STATES Consul General 
Joseph W. J. Lee, Panama City, 
Panama, reports that the natural re- 
sources of the Republic of Panama are 
but little known to the world at large, 
the interest in the monumental project 
of a transisthmian canal overshadowing 
them. The work of the Panama gov- 
ernment in opening the country and 
facilitating the exploitation of its re- 
sources by extended improvements in 
transportation and communication has 
not been advertised as fully as war- 
ranted by present accomplishment and 
expected results. Harbors, highways, 
and railways and a new city are among 


the projects to which President Amador 


has given his approval and upon which 
work is in progress. At present the 
central provinces of Los Santos, Cocle, 
and Veraguas are the fields for the 
greater part of these improvenients, for 
which $1,050,000 (silver) have been 
appropriated. 

The harbors of Pescaderias and Puerto 
Posada are to be improved, so that it 
will be possible for passengers and 
cargo to be received and landed at 
wharves. With the exception of Pan- 
ama City, the port of Agua Dulce is at 
this time the only harbor on the Pacific 
where it is possible for vessels to dis- 
charge and load from piers. 

The project is to construct first good 
roads and later railways, stretching 
across the plains and foothills, through 
the mountain passes, to the Atlantic, 
and thus develop rich natural resources 
which today lie dormant. 

Gold mines long ago abandoned have 


44.2 


recently been relocated and are now 
worked with profit. The crude meth- 
ods of the Spaniards were only success- 
ful where the mineral veins were most 
accessible. The results obtained by the 
use of modern facilities will surpass 
those of the original discoverers. Be- 
cause of the lack of transportation facil- 
ities, coal and iron have lain undisturbed 
in the flanks of the hills. A large area of 
fine woods will become accessible when 
. better communication is established. 
Cocoanuts, coffee, and rubber grow wild 
in luxuriance. 

At the base of the hills rolling plains 
suitable for grazing large herds of cat- 
tle stretch for miles. Flourishing plan- 
tations and ranches covered this country 
until abandoned because of a series of 
disastrous revolutions. Now, secure of 
protection and peace and bettered by 
means of communication, the introduc- 
tion of capital is certain to be followed 
by most satisfactory results. 

The Panama government has ap- 
pointed Vincent Peterson, an American 
engineer, to take charge of the develop- 
ment of the interior provinces. Mr 
Peterson has had much experience in 
mining, railway, and municipal engi- 
neering in the United States and Mexico. 
Last November he came to Panama as 
assistant engineer to the minister of 
public works. He has organized the 
engineering corps of the Republic and 
surveyed the boundary line between the 
Canal Zone and the country in the 
vicinity of Panama. No government 
undertaking has ever meant so much to 
the interior of this Republic, whose 
isolated dwellers are now about to profit 
by the rich advantages at their com- 
mand. act 

The improvements to the harbor of 
Puerto Posada and the highway between 
that place and Penonomé are under way. 
Basket and rope making and the manu- 
facture of genuine Panama hats are car- 
ried on in this vicinity. The port of 


Tue NaTrionaAL GeoGrAaPpHic MAGAZINE 


Posada will serve as an outlet for the 
products of these industries. On the 
far side of Penonomé the highway will 
be continued through mountain passes 


‘and over the hills to the Atlantic. 


From the port of Agua Dulce to the 


city of the same name the highway, 


with its necessary grades and bridges, 
is practically completed.. This route 
will be further continued beyond Agua 
Dulce to the Santa Maria River. The 
river is to be spanned by an extensive 
steel bridge, the contract for which has 
been allotted to an American bridge 
company. Beyond the far side of the 
Santa Maria River the route divides, 
one branch leading to Chitré, capital of 
the province of Los Santos, and the 
other leading toward Santiago, capital 
of the province of Veraguas. Prelimi- 
nary surveys of these routes are prac- 
tically completed. Still another high- 
way will connect Antom (or Pescaderias) 
with Agua Dulce, passing through Nata 
and Pocri and crossing the route which 
joins Puerto Posada and Penonomé, 
thereby opening the surrounding coun- 
try to the influence of commerce and in- 
dustry. 

All these national roads are to be 50 
feet wide, and the highways, as well as 
all bridges upon them, are to be built 
with a view to the practicability of par- 
alleling them with narrow-gauge rail- 
ways. 

Midway between Agua Dulce and 
Penonomé a site for a model town has 
been planned. A public plaza, 460 
feet square, is to be the center of the 
town, and around it will.be grouped a 
church, school, government and mu- 
nicipal buildings, and a market. This 
town will be provided with a complete 
system of waterworks, electric lights, 
sewerage,and drainage. Plans for these 
works are open for competition. All 
the necessary preliminaries have been 
approved by the President of the Re- 
public. ome 


GROGRAPHIC 


The Philippine Islands. Edited by 
Emma Helen Blair and James Alex- 
ander Robertson. Vol. XXIV, pp. 
Bao; Vol. XXV, pp. 322. Cleveland, 
Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Co. 1905. 


In these two volumes we have the 
conclusion of Medina’s early Augus- 
tinian history and a survey of affairs 
generally in the Philippines for 1630- 
1636. It is, of course, all original ma- 
terial translated into English, the Span- 
ish text not being given. There are 
enough notes to explain the most im- 
portant points. With the present rise 
of Japan into world politics it is very 
significant to note the friction at that 
eatly period between the governments 
of these two archipelagoes. A con- 
siderable part of these pages deals with 
church quarrels, and Medina gives 
numerous biographies of ecclesiastics. 
Religious zeal is very apparent, just as 
in other Asiatic lands today, as there 
are constant calls for more missionaries. 
The volumes are up to the high level 
of the previous ones as to paper, print, 
and binding. 


Antarctica. By Otto Nordenskjold and 
' J. G.. Anderson. With many illus- 
trations and maps. Pp. 608. 6% x9 
. inches. New York: The Macmillan 
zoe. 1905. 
This is a perfunctory and uninterest- 
ing description of life in Antarctic re- 
gions. The expedition of which the 
book is a narrative followed beaten 
‘tracks and accomplished little that is 
new. Beyond the fact that some brave 
men incurred danger and passed a winter 
in a hut about g by 6 feet, there is really 
--no reason for the existence of the book. 
The illustrations are lifeless and poorly 
printed. 


SOME RECENT GOVERNMENT 
REPORTS. 


Loug Range Weather Forecasts. FE. B. 
Garriott, U. S. Weather Bureau, Bull. 35. 

Soil Inoculation for Legumes. George T. 
Moore, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 71. 


LiTgRATURE 4.4.3 


Periodic Variation of Rainfall in the Arid 
Region. Wm. B. Stockman, U. S. Weather 
Bureau, Bull. N. 

Seeds and Plants Imported, 1900-1903. Da-: 
vid G. Fairchild, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Bull. 66. 

Development of Single-germ Beet Seed. 
C. O. Townsend and E. C. Rittue, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Bull. 73. 

Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in 
Water Supplies. George T.Moore and Karl F. 
Kellerman, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 76. 

Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. 
George T. Moore and T. R. Robinson, U. $ 
Departmentof Agriculture, Farmers’ Bull. 214. 


What Forestry Means to Representative 
Men. President Roosevelt, the Ambassador of 
France, Secretary Wilson, Senator Warren, 
Congressmen Lamb, Lacy, Reeder ; Mr Charles 
D. Walcott, Dr David T. Day, F. H. Newell, 
Guy E. Mitchell, J. B. Lippincott, A. P. Davis, 
Rev Edward Everett Hale, Overton W. Price. 
Giffort Pinchot, etc., Bureau of Forestry Cir- 
cular 32% 

Imports of Farm and Forest Products, rgo!- 
1903. Compiled by the Division of Foreign 
Markets, Bureau of Statistics, Bull 31. 

Exports of Farm and Forest Products, tgor- 
1903. Compiled by the Division of Foreign 
Markets Bureau of Statistics, Bull 32. 

Report of the Condition of "Treated Timbers 
Laid in Texas, February, 1902. Hermann 
Von Schrenk, Bureau of Foresty, Bull. 51. 

Forest Conditions of Northern New Ham- 
shire. Alfred K. Chittenden, M. F., Bureau 
of Forestry, Bull. 55. 

Chestnut in Southern Maryland. Raphael 
Zon, Bureau of Foresty, Bull. 53. 

Forest Planting in Western Kansas. 
S. Kellogg, Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 52. 

The Basket Willow ; also Insects Injurious 
to the Basket Willow. William F. Hubbard 
and F. H. Chittenden, Bureau of Forestry, 
Bull. 46. 

Coyotes in Their Economic Relations. 
vid E. Lantz, Biological Survey, Bull. 20. 

Raspberries lL. C. Corbett, Farmers’ Bull. 
23 

The External Parasites of Hogs. Earle C. 
Stevenson, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bull. 


Royal 


Da- 


Information Concerning the Milch Goats. 
George Fayette Thompson, M. S., Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Bull. 68. 

The School Garden. L. C. Corbett, Farmers’ 
Bull, 218. 

Investigations for the Promotion of the 
Oyster Industry of North Carolina. Caswell 
Grave, Ph. D., U. S. Commission of Fish and 
Fisheries. Report, 1903. Pp. 247-341. 

Report of the Special Commission for the 
Investigation of the Lobster and Soft-shell 


444 


Clam. Messrs Hugh M. Smith, George H. 
Sherwood, Frederic P. Gorham, Jamies L, 
Kellogg, U. S. Commission of Fish and Fish- 
eries, Report, 1903. Pp. 139-224. 

Report of the Commis-ioner of Fisheries to 
the Secretary of Commerce and Labor for the 
Year Ending June 30, 1904. 

Commercial Fisheries of the Interior Lakes 
and Rivers of New York and Vermont. John 
N. Cobb, U. S. Commission of Fish and Fish- 
eries, Report, 1903. Pp. 225-246. 

A Revision of Malaclemmys, a Genus of 
Turtles. Wm. Perry Hay, Bureau of Fisher- 
ies, Bull. 19048)" Ep wa 20% 

The Seaweed Industries, of Japan. The 
Utilization of Seaweeds in the United States. 
Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. of 
1904. Pp. 133-181. 

State Ichthyology of Massachusetts. Theo- 
dore Gill, Bureau of Fisheries, Report, June, 
1904. Pp. 163-188. 

The Salt-marsh Anphipod: Orchestia Pa- 
lustris. Mabel E. Smallwood, Cold Spring 
Harbor Monographs. 

Mammals from Beaver County, Utah, Col- 
lected by the Museum Expedition of Ig04. 
J. A. Allen, the Museum of the Brooklyn 
Institute of Arts and Sciences, Science Bull., 
Vol, 1, No35- 

Additions to the Coleoptera of the United 
States, with Notes on Some Known Species. 
Chas. Schaeffer, the Museum of the Brooklyn 
Institute of Arts and Sciences, Science Bull., 
Vol. 1, No. 6. 

Minnesota's Eastern, Southern and Western 
Boundaries. Alexander N. Winchell, Minne- 
sota Historical Collections, Vol. X, 1905. 

The Origin of Certain Place Names in the 
United States. Henry Gannett, U.S. Geolog- 
ical Survey, Bull. 258. 

A Geological Reconnaissance Across the 
Cascade Range. George Otis Smith and Frank 
C. Calkins, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 235. 

Results of Primary Triangulation and Pri- 


mary Traverse, 1903-04. Samuel S. Gannett, . 


U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 245. 

Lessons from the Grain-rust Epidemic of 
1904. Mark Alfred Carleton, Farmers’ Bull. 
Bull. 219. 

A Gazetteer of Indian Territory. By Henry 
Gannett, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 248. 

Limestones of Southwestern Pennsylvania. 
Frederick G. Clapp, U. S. Geological Survey, 
Bull. 249. 

Rock Cleavage. Charles Kenneth Leith, 
U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 239. 


to Irrigation. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPuic MAGAZINE 


Economic Geology of the Iola Quadrangle, 
Kansas. George I. Adams, Erasmus Haworth, 
and W. R. Crane, U. S. ‘Geological Survey, 
Bull. 238. 

The Lignite of North Dakota and its Relation 
F. A. Wilder, U. S. Geological 
Survey, Water Supply and. Irrigation Paper 
No 117. 

Contributions to Devonian Paleontology, 
1903. Henry Shaler Williams and Edward 
M. Kindle, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 244. 

Bibliography and the Index of North Ameri- 
can Geology, Paleontology, Petrology, and 
Mineralogy, for the Year 1903. 
ton Weeks, U. 5. Geological Survey, Bull. 240. 

THe Porcupine Placer 1] District, Alaska. Chas. 
Wa Wright, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 
23 

Underground Waters of Eastern United 
States. Myron L. Fuller, U. S. Geological 
Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper 
No. I14. 

Water Powers of Alabama, with an appendix 
on Stream Measurements in Mississippi. Ben- 
jamin M. Hall, U. S. Geological Survey, Water 
Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 107. 

Preliminary Report on the Underground 
Waters of Washington. Henry Landes, U. S. 
Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irriga- 
tion Paper No. III. 

Water Resourcesof the Philadelphia District. 
Florence Bascom, U. S. Geological Survey, 
Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 106. 

Hydrography of the Susquehanna River 
Drainage Basin. John C. Hoyt and Robert H. 
Anderson, U. S. Geological Survey, Water 
Supply and Irrigation Paper No. Iog. 

Preliminary Report on the Pollution of Lake 
Champlain. Marshall Ora Leighton, U. S. 
Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irriga- 
tion Paper No. 121. 

The Disposal of Strawboard and_-Oil-well 
Wastes. Robert Lemuel Sackett and Isaiah 
Bowman, U. S. Geological Survey, Water 
Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 113. 

The Stone Industry in 1903. David T. Day, 
U. S. Geological Survey. 

The Production of Gold and Silver in 1903. 
Dr David T. Day, U. S. Geological Survey. 

Report of Progress in the Geological Resur- 
vey of the Cripple Creek District, Colorado. 
Waldemar Lindgren and Frederick Leslie 
Ransome, U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. 254. 

Mineral Resources of the United States, 
Calendar Year 1903. David T. Day, U. S. 
Geological Survey. 


Fred Bough- 


4 
is 
ei 
tr 


odin 


I/ cieNATIONAL 
EOGRAPHIC 
GAZINE 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 


Map of the Region of the Panama Canal, 
in 5colors, 24x38 inches . Supplement 


The Panama Canal. By Rear Admiral — 
Colby M. Chester. Illustrated . . . 445 


Progress on the Panama Canal . . . 467 


The Great Canals of the World a eae: oe ds 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


$2.50 a Year O5 Cent a Nambes 


Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Seeond-Ciass Mail Matter 
fis 


TEE 


NATIONAL 
GEO GRAPHIC 
MAGAZIN Ie 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publigee by th 
Nationa Gerocrapnic Society. All 
editorial communications should he ee) 
dressed to the Editor of the Nationa. 
Grocraruic Macazine. Business communications | 
should be addressed to the National Geographic 
Society.” : oe , ee 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR © ee 
‘Editor: GILBERT H.GROSVENOR ie ey ; Ne : 


Associate ‘Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army _ Washington, D. ic ae oe 
WwW J McGEE | ‘DAVID T. DAY oe | 
Chief Department of Anthropology Chief of the Division of ‘stineratl 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- __ Resources, U.S. Coe SH 


ehase Exposition La 


ALFRED H. BROOKS 


C. HART MERRIAM 
U.S: Geological Survey 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture 
| ANGELO HEILPRIN 


WILLIS L. MOORE | Academy of Natural Sciences, Phil 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. s. delphia 
Department of Sens 


R. D. SALISBURY 


O. H. TITTMANN : University of Chicago 
‘Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Helin We enhy : a Ez. GILBERT aie 
O. P. AUSTIN Ue WOR ba a S. Seer Survey. 
Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, | 
Department of Commerce and (ALEXANDER McADIE- 


, Labor fey | | AM ‘Professor ‘Ore ‘Metec 
ue | | i Pi clashinnad le a e 
DAVID G. FAIRCHILD | 8 | ne “a i 
Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ALMON GUN NISON ae 

ment of sal eEe | eae 


Vo. XVI, No. 10 


WASHINGTON 


OCTOBER, I905 


GEOGRAPIRIIC 
MIAVGAZIINIE, 


THE PANAMA CANAL* 


By Rear ADMIRAL CoLBy M. CHESTER, 


SUPERINTENDENT U. S. 


go into the history of canal explo- 

ration or exploitation. Thereare 
a number of routes available for uniting 
the two oceans which wash the American 
Continent, and there is still a divergence 
of opinion as to which is the best locality 
for building the canal. Several routes 
have good points, and it has been only 
by a discussion of the pros and cons, 
weighted for their relative values, that a 
final conclusion has been reached as to 
which is the best. Many years ago this 
process eliminated all but two of the 
routes—Panama and Nicaragua—from 
serious consideration. 


| T is not the purpose of this address to 


THE PROMINENT PART TAKEN BY THE 
Weise NAW AY 


The work of solving the canal problem 
has fallen largely on the Navy of the 
United States. Company after company 
has been formed for the exploration of 
the different sections which it seemed 
desirable to examine, but in each and 
every case they came to the government 
for assistance, and their requests were 
referred to the Navy Department.  F1- 


We oee NE 


NAVAL OBSERVATORY 


nally the government itself took up the 
matter and put it under naval control. 
The selection of the navy to perform 
this work was a wise and economic pol- 
icy. Its officers are educated at ascien- 
tific school and drilled in surveying the 
coasts of the United States as well as in 
making surveys in all parts of the world 
covered by the voyages of naval vessels, 
as required by the following extract from 
the U.S. Naval Regulations,viz: ‘‘ He’’ 
(the captain) ‘‘shall, when his duties 
aud other circumstances permit, makea 
careful survey and construct a chart of 
any shoals, harbors, or dangers to navi- 
gation that he may discover or find inac- 
curately located.’’ Such duties make 
the naval officer well fitted for the work 
of exploration. Not only was this an 
enforced duty on the navy, however, 
but willing hands were found whosought 
to carry the American flag into and 
across the inhospitable and almost im- 
penetrable forests which abound in the 
tropical regions, where Nature herself 
has almost built a canal. 

While many spasmodic efforts were 
made to cut the Gordian knot, about the 


*An address to the National Geographic Society, March 10, 1905. 


4.40 


middle of the 19th century it was seen 
that nothing but a systematic and scien- 
tific treatment of theproblemwouldavail, 
and one of the first to realize this was 
the late Rear Admiral Daniel Ammen, 
U.S.N. He had sought permission from 
the Navy Department to take charge ofa 
party to explore the Isthmus of Panama 
early in the fifties, but was refused. 
Soon after this, civil war broke out in 
the country, and the navy had its hands 
too full to consider other than military 
matters. Hardly had the war ceased, 
however, before Ammen took up the 
problem and, enlisting the influence of 
his great friend, General Grant, he ham- 
mered away at it until the day of his 
death. Fortunately, Ammen was suc- 
ceeded in that office of the Navy Depart- 
ment having charge of such matters by 
Rear Admiral John G. Walker, U.S.N. 
His earnest interest in the subject is 
demonstrated by the fact that he is now 
the Presidentof the Isthmian Canal Com- 
mission.* But today the canal project 
owes no man more for its promising fu- 
ture than it owes General Grant. 

Well-equipped expeditions were fitted 
out for surveying the different routes se- 
lected for examination by such men as 
Shufeldt, Lull, Selfridge, Crossman, Col- 
lins, Hatfield, all officers of the navy, 
and when the mass of evidence seemed 
to be pointing toward Panama as the 
most favorable site for a canal, a French 
naval officer came in suddenly and un- 
expectedly took the stake. 

I say this with some fear of contra- 
diction, yet I believe this contention can 
be maintained. To be sure, a number 
of the leading men in ourcountry favored 
the Nicaraguaroute, and many navalofh- 
cers were strong in their conviction that 
its location was the most favorable for a 
canal, but Iclaim this view waslargely in- 
fluenced by political considerations and 
the imperfect knowledge then extant re- 
garding the work necessary to construct 
a canal on so large a scale. 


* Since this address Admiral Walker has 
been succeeded by Hon. Theodore M. Shonts. 


Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MaGAaZINE 


One of the first official'acts of the gov- 
ernment of the United States in connec- 
tion with canal investigation was a reso- 
lution passed by the United States Senate 
March 9g, 1866, reading ‘as follows: 

‘‘ Resolved, That the Secretary of the 
Navy furnish, through a report of the 
Superintendent of the Naval Observa- 
tory, the summit levels and distances by 
survey of the various proposed lines for 
interoceanic canalsand railroads between 
the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific 
oceans, as, also, their relative merits as 
practicable lines for the construction of 
a ship canal, and especially as relates 
to Honduras, Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, 
Panama, and Atrato lines; and also 
whether, in the opinion of the Superin- 
tendent, the Isthmus of Darien has been 
satisfactorily explored ; and, if so, fur- 
nish in detail charts, plans, lines of lev- 
els, and all information connected there- 
with, and upon what authority they are 
based.’’ 

The result of the resolution was a com- 
prehensive report of the whole canal 
question as far as then known by the 
late Rear Admiral Charles H. Davis, U.S. 
Navy, Superintendent Naval Observa- 
tory, of which 8,000 copies were printed 
by order of Congress. 

Another able and voluminous report 
on the ‘‘ Problem of Interoceanic Com- 
munication by way of the American 
Isthmus ’’ was prepared in pursuance of 
an order of the Navy Department by 
Lieut. John T. Sullivan, U.S. Navy, in 


1883,which was published in accordance 


with authority of Congress, and which 
became a standard reference book on the 
subject. 


THE PANAMA ROUTE 


Capt. E. P. Lull, U.S. N., surveyed 
this route in 1875, and he estimated, as 
the most practical plan, for a lock-canal 
of alength of 41.7 miles from sea to sea; 
but the real origin of the Panama Canal 
as an accepted project may be found in 
the brief surveys of Lieutenants Wyse 
and Réclus of the French navy. Onthe 


THe PanaMa CANAL 


6th of October, 1876, Wyse had been au- 
thorized by asociety called the ‘‘ Societe 
Internationaledu Canal Interoceanique’’ 
to proceed to Central America forthe pur- 
pose of exploration. His examinations 
were begun on the Pacific coast about 
the middle of December, 1876, and ter- 
minated in the first part of April, 1877, 
a period of not more than four months, 
during which time no part of the expe- 
dition penetrated as far as the Atlantic 
coast. The party, under the charge of 
Lieutenant Réclus, spent from April 3 
to April 20, 1878, making a survey of 
the valleys of the Obispo, Chagres, and 
Rio;}Grande, along the lineof the Panama 
railroad,thelevel-lines and cross-sections 
being run up only to the extremities of 
the then proposed tunnel, and not con- 
tinuing over the divide. 

Armed with this incomplete record 
concerning the Panama route, but with 
a concession for building a canal which 
embracedthe wholecountry of the United 
Statesof Colombia, thusincluding all the 
proposed routes except Nicaragua and 
Tehuantepec, Wyse reported to his com- 
pany in Paris. 

On the 15th of May, 1879, an inter- 
national conference was held at Paris 
under the auspices of the Paris Geo- 
graphical Society. The conference was 
composed of 136 members, of whom 74 
were of other nationalities. The con- 
ference, which was controlled by the 
great engineer Count Ferdinand de Les- 
seps, who had just built the Suez Canal, 
after mature consideration, but consider- 
ation wherein political elements largely 
predominated, finally concluded as fol- 
lows: ‘‘The conference deem the con- 
struction of an interoceanic canal so de- 
sirable, in the interest of commerce and 
navigation, as possible; and in order to 
have the indispensable facilities of ease 
of access and use, which a work of this 
kind should offer before all others, it 
shouldbe built from the Gulf of Limon to 
the Bay of Panama.’’ Thusthe Panama 
railroad was a prime factor in inducing 


447 


the Paris conference toselect the Panama 
Isthmus as the location foracanal. The 
company which built the railroad held 
a concession from the Colombian govern- 
ment dated June 28, 1848. The con- 
cession, in a slightly different form, had 
lapsed from a French company which 
had been unable to control the capi- 
tal stock, and the grant was revived in 
favor of Henry Aspinwall, John Lloyd 
Stevens, Henry Chauncey, and their 
associates under the name of the Pan- 
ama Railroad Company, an organization 
which later, in 1849, was incorporated 
by the legislature of the state of New 
York. Under this grant the company 
constructed the road, and on the 27th 
of January, 1855, it was completed and 
the first passenger train passed over the 
track. 


DE LESSEPS’ COMPANY 


A company, of which de Lesseps be- 
came president, was soon formed for the 
construction a tide-level canal, and be- 
cause of the prestige of its chief it was an 
easy matter to obtain subscriptions to its 
stock. Unfortunately, among the stock- 


holders there was a large element of the 


poorer classes in France, who believed 
that de Lesseps would make a fortune 
for them out of their small holdings, and 
many of them sacrificed their little all in 
the scheme. The capital stock of the 
company of 300,000,000 francs($60,000- 
000) was soon half taken up and work 
began on the construction of the canal. 
Wyse expected to be named as director 
general of the canal, but failing to se- 
cure what he considered his rights, a 
coolness sprang up between him and the 
president of the company which was 
anything but favorable to the work. 
Finally, in 1881, M. Réclus initiated the 
enterprise and began clearing theground, 
assembling the plant, and constructing 
buildings, hospitals, etc. But troubles 
grew more rapidly than did the canal. 
No well-developed plans had been pre- 
pared, and in fact hardly any one knew 


44.8 


what was required. Directors and en- 
gineers of the construction company 
changed so rapidly that it became a com- 
mon saying on the Isthmus that ‘‘ it was 
worth a man’s yearly salary to simply 
come there, and he wasa very poor engi- 
neer who could not make a fortune in 
six months and go away.”’ 

In October, 1885, four and one-half 
years after ground was broken, the state 
of affairs on the Isthmus was given by 
one good authority as follows: ‘‘ There 
have been moved a total of from 16,000,- 
000 to 17,00,000 cubic meters of earth, 
12,000,000 only being from the canal 
proper, and 88,000,000 are still to be 
excavated ; besides there have been pre- 
pared buildings and stables on an ex- 
travagant scale, farms and gardens at 
great expense around headquarters, rail- 
road branches, field hospitals, and roads, 
three of which are of but little use except 
for pleasure riding of employés.”’ 

It was about this time (1885) that, 
after several years’ absence, it was again 
my privilege, as commander of the U.S. 
ship Galena, to return to the Isthmus 
of Panama and become an enforced but 
interested spectator of the construction 
work on the canal, and my recollection 
of the state of affairs accords with that 
above given. In fact, an eye-witness 
could foresee even at this early date 
that the extravagance which prevailed 
must lead to the failure of the company. 
For the next three years, while the 
progress of the first Panama Canal 
Company’s work was at its height, I 
spent portions of each winter at Colon 
and watched with increasing interest 
the operations of the great undertaking. 
From that time to the present I have 
never lost faith in the final success of 
the Panama Canal. 

In the meantime a rival company was 
organized to construct the Nicaragua 
Canal, and having for a number of 
years been interested in surveying and 
having had an extensive association 
with the officers who had been making 


THe NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE 


explorations in Central America, I was 
asked to associate myself with others in 
support of the Nicaragua Company. 
To all such suggestions I made answer 
that I was a Panama Canal man first, 
last, and all the time, and that I believed 
when the financial elements of the op- 
posing canals were finally settled by 
bringing up the then estimated cost 
for constructing the Nicaragua Canal, 
which was placed at about $45,000,000, 
to a reasonable basis of not less than 
$100,000,000, and the French company 
should failand sell outitsassetsforasong, 
as then seemed to me more than likely, 
that some new Panama Canal Company 
could and would build a better canal 
for an amount, including the purchase 
price of the defunct company’s holdings, 
less than the cost of a poorer canal at 
Nicaragua. I have been so strong in 
this conviction that two years before 
the Isthmian Canal Commission made 
its report in favor of purchasing the 
interests of the reconstructed Panama 
Canal Company for $40,000,000,I offered 
to wager that such a finding would be 
the result of their deliberations. 

I must say that my feelings in this 
matter were not altogether freed from 
a little bias, owing tothe fact that while 
our own officers had done the principal 
work of exploration of the canal zones, 
and when, as it seemed to me, the sen- 
timent of the country was crystallizing 
in favor of building a canal across the 
Panama Isthmus, a French naval officer 
with but little actual exploration to his 
credit should, by the use of the great 
name of de Lesseps, come in and steal 
a march on us. . : 

While on the Isthmus during the lat- 
ter part of 1887, I ventured to ask Mr 
Charles de Lesseps, who was then the 
company’s manager, if he really ex- 
pected, as was then widely published, 
that the canal would be completed the 
following year. Hereplied that, while 
he would not like to have it known, he 
did not mind telling me that, in order 


THe Panama Cana 


to complete it at that time, as well as to 
procure revenue for continuing the dig: 
ging down to the sea level, the company 
might be forced to the lock system of 
construction. This would surely be ac- 
complishedin theend. Before the time 
limit was up the entire plans of the canal 
had been changed to the lock system, 
but as the money was then practically all 
gone and no more could be obtained, the 
company was forced into bankruptcy. 
This took place in February, 1889, but 
a short time after I left the Isthmus. 


tHe HARLEY PLANS 


The plan that was first adopted by the 
old Panama Canal Company, was for a 
sea-level canal having a depth of 29.5 
feet, and bottom width of 72 feet, with a 
total length of about 47 miles. Natu- 
rally, the estimates for constructional 
work on the canal at this time were very 
crude, being based on insufficient data 
regarding the physical conditions of the 
country as well as on insufficient sur- 
veys. As at first planned, the canal 
passes through low ground from Colon 
on the north, by a direct line for a dis- 
tance of 6 miles to Gatun, where it inter- 
sects the valley of the Chagres River, 
passes up that valley a distance of 21 
miles to Obispo, where it follows the val- 
ley of a small tributary, cuts through 
the continental divide at Culebra, and 
thence descends by the valley of the Rio 
Grande to the Bay of Panama. 

As it was necessary to provide easy 
curves everywhere in the canal, a point 
was selected for crossing the divide 
somewhat higher than that of the low- 
est pass. The maximum height on the 
center line in the Culebra Cut was 333 
feet above the sea. The greatest prob- 
lem the company had to solve was the 
controlef the floodsof the Chagres, which 
at times rose to enormous proportions. 
Various schemes were proposed to meet 
this difficulty, the most prominent being 
the construction of a dam at Gamboa to 
impound the waters of the upper river, 


449 


and the excavation of two independent 
channels, one on either side of the main 
canal, to carry off the surplus waters to 
the sea. 

The cost of the canal as estimated by 
de Lesseps in 1880 was $127,600,000, 
and the time required for its completion 
was 8 years. 

As has been stated, in 1887 his com- 
pany was forced to admit that it was im- 
practical to build a sea-level canal inthe 
time and with the money available, and 
a tentative scheme for opening the canal 
in order to precure revenue was adopted 
which contemplated the use of locks. 
This being a temporary expedient, the 
summit level was to be supplied with 
water from the Chagres River by pumps; 
but, with the funds exhausted, even this 
became a hopeless task, the company was 
forced into bankruptcy, and in May, 
1889, work on the canal ceased alto- 
Serer: 


DISAPPEARANCE, OF THE SHCURTEIES 


After much difficulty in arranging the 
concessions, a new company was organ- 
ized on the 20th of October, 1894, with 
a capital stock of 650,000 shares of 100 
francseach. Thus, after deducting 50,- 
ooo shares given as full-paid stock to the 
Colombian government, in compliance 
with the terms of the extension of the 
concession, the cash capital of the com- 
pany was only 60,000,000 francs, or 
$11,640,000, a sum which allowed only 
for some provisional operations then con- 
templated. It is hardly necessary to go 
into the scandals connected with the 
failure of the old company, as they do 
not affect the problem. The old com- 
pany and the liquidator had raised by 
the sale of stock and bonds the sum of 
$246,706,431.68, while the securities 
issued to raise this sum had a face value 
of $435,559,332.80. The number of 
persons holding them is estimated at 
over 200,000. There had been pur- 
chased and transported to the Isthmus 
an enormous quantity of machinery and 


4.50 


other plant at an estimated cost of 
$29,000,000. It is said that the terre- 
plein of Christobal Colon, on which the 
superintendent’s residence was built, 
was constructed almost entirely of dis- 
carded material from this purchase. In 
fact, I saw a great amount of material 
so disposed of myself. 

It should be noted that the Panama 
Railroad, which ran over practically the 
same route as did the canal, was of great 
importance to the canal company in con- 
structing the canal, not only on account 
of its facilities for handling supplies, but 
because the railroad company’s conces- 
sion covered any system of transporta- 
tion which might be adopted along its 
line. This made it necessary, in order to 
control the road, for the canal company 
to purchase most of its stock, which 
alone took out nearly $19,000,000 worth 
of assets. 


FEARFUL LOSS OF LIFE 


It should also be noted that the sani- 
tary question was not only an impor- 
tant, but a very expensive, item to the 
company. ‘There was ample provision 
for caring for the sick, with large and 
expensive hospitals under control of the 
company, but little or no attention was 
paid to precautionary measures, which 
now are considered such important fac- 
tors in sanitary science. Those of us 
who visited Colon in the height of the 
boom may recall the ghastly scenes 
which met our eyes. One might wit- 
ness on almost any morning a scaven- 
ger’s wagon going about the town gath- 
ering up the bodies of those who had 
succumbed during the night in the hov- 
els of the place or in the streets to the 
prevailing disease which fed on the filth 
of the land. The celebrated suburb of 
Colon, ‘‘ Monkey Hill,’’ was the recep- 
tacle for these corpses, which received 
in transportation and burial less consid- 
eration than would usually be given to 
a dead dog. 

The plan adopted by the new Panama 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Canal Company, as stated in theIsthmian 
Commission’s report, involved two levels. 
above the sea level; one of them, an arti- - 
ficial lake to be created by a dam at. 
Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic 
side by a flight of two locks, and the 
other, the summit level, to be reached by 
a flight of two locks from the preceding, 
the summit level to have its bottom 68: 
feet above the sea and to be supplied with. 
water from a feeder leading from an arti- 
ficial reservoir to be constructed at Alha- 
juela in the upper Chagres Valley ; the 
ascent on the Pacific side to be likewise 
of four locks, of which the two middle- 
ones are combined in flight ; the canak 
to have a depth of 29.5 feet, and a bot- 
tom width of about 98 feet, with an in- 
creased width in certain specified parts.. 
Its general location was that adopted 
by the old company. The cost was. 
éstimated at $101,850,000 for the work, 
which did not include administration. 
or financing ; this matter of financing 
was estimated at nearly $100,000,000. 
While this was the plan recommended: 
by the French engineers, they worked! 
out in detail a second plan, which is an. 
extension or modification of the fore-- 
going, which they seemed to prefer im 
itself, but which they feared would re- 
quire more time to execute. Under the: 
second plan the upper level was omitted, 
the cut through the continental divide- 
being deepened until its bottom was 32- 
feet above the sea; Lake Bohio was. 
made the summit level and was fed di- 
rectly by the Chagres; one flight of 
locks on the Atlantic side and one om 
the Pacific was omitted; the feeder- 
from Alhajuela was omitted, but the- 
dam at that place was retained. The- 
estimated cost of completing this plan: 
was not much greater than that for the- 
other, being about $105,500,000. In 
both plans the dam at Bohio converted 
the river between that point and Obispo. 
into a lake of such dimensions as not to. 
be seriously affected by the partial floods. 
admitted to it, while diversion channels. 


451 


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THe PanaMA CANAL 


were to be constructed on both sides of 
the canal from this lake to the sea. 
With a carefully designed system of 
sluices and controlling works, the vio- 
lence of the floods was to be checked 
by impounding the water both above 
the Alhajuela dam and Lake Bohio, so 
as to keep the flow below the Bohio 
dam within the capacity of the two di- 
version channels. It will be seen that 
in brief this second plan of the new 
company simply does away with the 
upper level at Culebra and leaves but 
one continuous stretch on the level of 
about 32 feet above the sea from Bohio 
to Miraflores, a distance of 22 miles. 


THE PLAN RECOMMENDED BY THE 
FIRST. ISTHMIAN : CANAL 
COMMISSION 


The plan prepared by the first Isthmian 
Canal Commission,* which was made be- 
fore the transfer of the property to the 
United States government took place, 
seems to follow this general plan very 
closely, except that it raises this section 
to an elevation of about go feet above 
the mean sea level. This plan was only 
tentative and depended upon further 
investigation, which is now being car- 
riedon. ‘There can be no question but 
that for such a stupendous scheme this 
investigation cannot be too exhaustive, 
and time used in it will save many 
months in the final completion of the 
canal. The Commission is, however, 
going ahead with such work as must 
be done in any scheme that may be 
adopted. 

The canal as thus projected may be 
described as follows: Beginning at the 
6-fathom curve in Limon Bay, a channel 
500 feet wide at bottom is excavated, 
curving to the left until it reaches a 
point just inside the jetty constructed by 
the old Panama Canal Company. Here 
it changes direction to the right and is 
then conducted ina straight line toa 


* See map of the Panama Canal region pub- 
lished as a supplement to this number. 


455 


point about 2% miles from deep water in 
the bay. For about a mile this wide 
channel is inside the low shore line, form- 
ing anarrow but well-protected harbor. 
Near the apex of this second curve the 
bottom width is increased to 800 feet for 
a length of 800 feet to provide a turning 
basin. From the inner end of the har- 
bor the bottom width of the canal is 150 
feet and the level of the water is main- 
tained at sea level for a distance of about 
14% miles to the Bohio locks. This sea- 
level section is cut through low land or 
swamps until it reaches Gatun, 6 miles 
from the initial point, where the first 
highlandismet. In facta cross-section 
of the canal prism here is so high as to 
make it possible to construct the first 
locks—a contingency which is still an 
open question. 

At Bohio is located a double flight of 
locks, having a total lift varying from 82 
feet at the minimum level of the lake to 
go feet at the maximum, 41 to 45 toeach 
lock, the normal lift being 85 feet. 


ARTIFICIALLY CONSTRUCTED LAKE 
BOHIO 


While there is some question about 
the feasibility of locating locks at Gatun, 
the Commission was of the opinion that 
no location suitable for a dam existed in 
the Chagres River below Bohio, and, 
while this location is not without diff- 
culties, it has the great advantage that 
about 3 miles southwest of the dam, near 
the head of the Rio Gigante, the tribu- 
tary of the Chagres, there exists an ex- 
cellent site for a spillway, by which the 
discharge from the lake can be keptaway 
from the dam and accessory works, even 
when extremely large, without incon- 
venience to the canal itself or to the 
country below the lake. The height of 
this spillway would regulate the height 
and area of the lake. After careful con- 
sideration of the requirements for flood 
control and for storage against deficiency 
in the dry season, and also of the effect 
upon the amount of excavation required 


456 


for the canal through the continental 
divide, the Commission decided to fix 
this height at 85 feet above mean tide, 
and to make the spillway a fixed weir 
2,000 feet long. The area of the lake at 
this height is 38.5 square miles. 

Above the Bohio locks the canal en- 
ters the artificial lake formed by the dam 
and known as Lake Bohio. For the 
first 7 miles it will become a broad, deep 
body of water, affording room for an- 
chorage as well as navigation. The 
length of the channel in Lake Bohio is 
about 12% miles from the locks to the 
point where the canal] leaves the Chagres 
River or 13% miles to the point where 
it enters the cut through the mountain 
divide which separates the Atlantic and 
the Pacific slopes. 

Near the entrance to the summit cut 
at Obispo will be placed a pair of gates 
100 feet wide, so that if it should be 
necessary to draw off the water from 
the summit cut the level of Lake Bohio 
would not be affected by it. 

It should be noted that the Commis- 
sion’s plan to increase the height of Lake 
Bohio from 32 to gc feet gives it the 
increased area by distributing the im- 
pounded waters over a large section 
which would not be covered by the lower 
level. The higher level also allows a 
great saving in the excavation of the 
canal prism in this section, and should 
it be used will probably reduce the total 
amount of cost for excavation. At all 
events, as it will not take much longer 
to raise the vessels the additional height 
in the locks, but will allow for a greater 
speed in the lake, the time of their pas- 
sage through the canal must be short- 
ened. | 

The summit of ‘‘ Culebra Cut,’’ as it 
is called, is nearly 8 miles long from the 
Obispo gates to the Pedro Miguel locks. 
The highest point of the divide is about 
5 miles from the Obispo gates, where 
the canal axis is 286 feet below the 
natural surface of the ground. 

The Pedro Miguel locks, the begin- 
ning of the next section of the canal, 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


will be similar to the Bohio locks, the 
aggregate lift varying from 54 to 62 feet. 
The level of this section is therefore 
about 28 feet above the sea, and it ex- 
tends for a distance of 1.33 miles to the 
last lock, which is at Miraflores. 

The Miraflores lock has a lift varying 
from 18 feet at high tide to 38 feet at 
mean low tide. 

Fora little over 4 miles beyond the Mi- 
raflores lock the canal extends through 
a low, swampy country through which 
the Rio Grande flows. This brings the 
canal to a point known as La Boca, 
where the Panama Railroad Company 
has constructed a large and substantial 
wharf. A dredged channel 200 feet 
wide will extend from this point for 
about 4% miles to the 6-fathom line in 
Panama Bay. 


COLON HARBOR 


One of the most important questions 
in the canal problem, which heretofore 
has received practically no attention 
from any of the companies which have 
had to deal with the canal, is the con- 
struction of a harbor at its northern en- 
trance. A committee has recently re- 
ported to the Commission a solution for 
this problem which contemplates the 
construction of a breakwater at Colon at 
a cost of $6,500,000. Indeed, this de- 
cision has come none too soon, for already 
material for the construction of the canal 
is arriving at Colon, which must be the 
main depot for the reception of canal 
supplies, and the difficulties for trans- 
shipment are great. There is a small 
harbor which has been made by widen- 
ing the canal prism at Christobal Colon, 
but it is too small and too dangerous 
of approach for vessels of any size in 
stormy weather, and as Limon Bay is 
at the present time an open roadstead, 
almost any weather may be considered 
stormy there. 


THE TERRIBLE NORTHERS AT COLON 


Naval officers who have had for the 
past half century to police the Isthmus of 


THe PAanaMa CANAL 


Panama and protect its transit have had 
many disagreeable experiences while an- 
chored in the harbor of Colon or Aspin- 
wall, as it used to be known. One event 
in my own service there I can hardly re- 
call even at the present day without a 
shudder. It was in the winter of 1886 
when we reached this port with some 
of the Galena’s machinery needing re- 
pairs. After coaling from a Norwegian 
barque, which was lashed alongside the 
ship with much difficulty, owing to the 
heavy sea, we began to take the ma- 
chinery apart. Realizing, however, that 
if caught by a ‘‘norther,’’ which might 
come up at any time—without power to 
movethe shipoutof the harbor—disaster 
was likely to follow, I decided to pro- 
ceed to the little closed harbor of Porto 
Bello, which lay about 30 miles to the 
eastward of Colon, and there make the 
necessary repairs. At the end of two 
days, when about to return to Colon, 
word was received through the com- 
manding officer of a French corvette that 
during our absence a heavy norther had 
occurred at Colon, and that the French 
ship had escaped from the harbor almost 
by amiracle. Asthat vessel was a much 
higher powered steamer than the Ga/ena, 
I cannot bear to think of what might 
have occurred had we remained in this 
treacherous harbor. Returning to Colon 
as soon as possible, the sight that met 
our gaze I shall never forget. Nineteen 
vessels had been totally destroyed by 
the terrific storm, and wreckage and 
dead bodies strewed the beach for miles 
around. The barque from which we 
had taken coal was driven ashore at 
Christobal Colon, near which we had 
been anchored, and there was not a ves- 
tige of her in sight. A similar fate 
would surely have been the Ga/ena’s had 
she remained in the harbor with her 
motive power inoperative. Over 50 lives 
were lost in this storm and the destruc- 
tion of property was enormous. No 
doubt this loss of property took a large 
share of the money which was unac- 


55) J 


counted for belonging to the canal 
company.* 


THE PROBLEM OF SANITATION 


Few persons who have not visited the 
Isthmus can have any conception of the 
magnitude of this problem, and only 
those who witnessed the great waste of 
life and money from the want of proper 
sanitary measures during the closing 
months of the old Panama Canal Com- 
pany’s existence can form a proper 
estimate of the value of good sanitary 
conditions in this trying country. 

It should be remembered that practi- 
cally all of the labor used in the canal 
section must be imported. At first, 
under the influence of de Lesseps’ great 
name, large numbers flocked to the Isth- 
mus from Jamaica, which island is said 
to furnish a class of labor second to 
none for tropical work. Impetus was 
given tothis emigration of the islanders 
by the fact that the trade in sugar, which 
was then the staple article of production 
in Jamaica, was ruined by the bounty 
paid for the cultivation of this important 
commodity in our own southern states, 
and the great fruit business which now 
gives theislandconsiderable revenue was 
then initsinfancy. It was therefore not 
a difficult matter for the company to 
make contracts with the idlers to go the 
short distance to the Isthmus, where 
good prices for labor prevailed. But 
when, after a comparatively short time, 
a few decrepit negroes returned to their 
homes in an endeavor to eradicate from 
their systems the effects of diseases, with 
reports that the thousands who did not 
return had gone to their last resting 
places, a reaction set in and the Jamaica 
market became less available. Further, 
the Britishgovernment, seeing their beau- 
tiful island overrun by paupers who had 
returned from the Isthmus without the 
power of earning the food for their de- 
pleted bodies, finally put a stop to this 
emigration altogether. 

* See page 472. 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


458 


ISPSEL “d “M MOM 


{Nd BIGIIND 94} UI FIOM 3e [PAYS wieI}9 VW 


THe PanaMa CANAL 


SCOURING THE WORLD FOR 
LABORERS 


Then the coasts of Africa were scoured 
for able-bodied men, but even there after 
a short time the promises of remunera- 
tive prices for their services ceased to 
draw men to the canal zone. I have 
seen a ship come into the port of Colon 
from the coast of Africa, where it had 
been sent under a most liberal contract 
on which it was expected to bring 1,500 
or 2,000 men for the canal working 
parties, with only one or two hundred 
on board. It was estimated that their 
passage money cost the canal company 
in the neighborhood of $1,000 apiece, 
and yet one-half of them were invalided 
to the hospitals almost as soon as they 
landed. ‘Thus the enormous cost of the 
voyage was the principal result of such 
expeditions. 


PREVENTIVE SANITATION 


The climate was not so much the 
cause of this awful havoc among the 
laborers as the want of preventive sani- 
tary measures. My experience, which 
has covered portions of five or six years 
in Isthmian waters, leads me to ap- 
prove what has been reported by the 
U. S$. minister to Panana as given in 
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA- 
ZINE of October, 1904. It will bear re- 
peating here. He says: 

‘‘ When the able sanitary corps, which 
has charge of bettering the health con- 
ditions in the Isthmus has carried out 
its plans for the improvement of the 
canal strip and the cities of Panama and 
Colon,’ there is no reason why the 
Isthmus should not be one of the health- 
iest places in the world. There 
has been hardly a single instance of 
serious illness among the considerable 
number of young men employed here 
in work connected with the canal, while 
the percentage of sickness among the 
larger group of laborers employed at 
Culebra is not greater than among those 
engaged in similar excavating work in 


are) 


the United States. Among the 400 ma- 
rines located half way across the Isth- 
Hius, at ‘Hmpire, there has not. beenca 
single death from local diseases, while 
the percentage of those in the hospital 
is not larger than would be found at the 
average post in the United States.”’ 


THE SANIFARY PRECAUTIONS TAKEN 
BY. DHE Uses: (NAV Y 


As the sanitary condition of the Isth- 
mus is in the hands of army and navy 
officers, I want to make a statement 
concerning what I consider a reflection 
on these services made by a lecturer 
before this representative body only a 
few weeks ago. Lest we forget ! 

A distinguished medical gentleman 
who recently lectured here stated that 
neither in the curriculum of the U. S. 
Naval Academy nor at West Point was 
any attention paid to the subject of 
physiology or hygiene, which accounted 
in part for the great sacrifice of human 
life which took place among our forces 
during the Spanish-American war in 
1898. While the statistics he gave are 
based mainly on army records, he by 
inference made them apply to the navy 
as well. 

As far as the U.S. Navy is concerned, 
his premises are wrong and his conclu- 
sionsare wrong. Inthe first place, there 
is a chair of physiology and hygiene at 
the Naval Academy (and one was later 
established at West Point), which is 
and has been occupied by distinguished 
medical officers of the navy, and the 
young men there undergoing instruction 
are givena very good general knowledge 
of physiology and hygiene—sufficient 
at all events to enable them as execu- 
tive officers of ships to understand at 
least the questions which arise in the 
practical parts of the profession. Each 
ship in our navy carries one or two and 
sometimes three medical officers, so the 
sanitation of our ships is well provided 
for. In fact, the success that has fol- 
lowed the navy’s efforts to stamp out 


460 


disease has been a source of pride. No 
brighter page in the history of sanitary 
science can be found than that which 
pertains to the medical records of the 
navy during the summer of 1898. To 
prove this let me quote from the report 
of the Surgeon General of the Navy 
dated October 1, 1899: 

‘‘In the returns from the squadron 
operating in Cuban waters are repre- 
sented 48 vessels, with an average com- 
plement of 11,599. As showing the 
effects of war service upon the crews of 
the various types of ships, the monitors 
gave an average rate per 1,000 of force 
sick daily during the war of 17.48 ; for 
1897, 10.87; battleships, 12.34, against 
12.381n 1897; cruisers, 16.01, as against 
17.21 for 1897. gunboats, 15.74, (as 
against 20.14 for 1897.”’ 


THE HEALTH OF OUR SQUADRONS IN 
TIME OF PEACE AND WAR 


So that for this squadron, in spite of 
diseases especially incident to the tropics 
in midsummer, the daily average sick- 
ness for the whole force of nearly 12,000 
men was but 1.56 per cent. 

Thus it will be seen that, leaving out 
the monitors, the average sickness dur- 
ing the war of 1898 was less in reality 
than in the peace year 1897, when our 
squadrons summered at some of the 
health resorts along our Atlantic coast; 
but, even including the monitors, the 
general average of sickness is less for 
the war period than that for the ‘‘try- 
ing times of peace.’’ Sailors have a 
trite saying that ‘‘those who go down 
to the sea in ships see the wonders of 
the deep, but those who go in monitors 
see the infernal regions.’’ This record 
of comparative sickness for the monitors 
would seem to lend credence to this 
statement. 

A slightly better result than this was 
obtained from Admiral Dewey’s squad- 
ron in the Philippines during the same 
period. 

It may be remembered also that the 
Navy Department sent a battalion of 


Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


marines to Cuba during the war period, 
the average strength of which was 588. 
On June 10 a landing was made at 
Guantanamo, where the battalion was in 
camp for the remainder of the war and 
until some time after the main force 
of the army had left for home. The 
daily average of this force sick was but 
2.23 per cent. Remember (this sas 
shore service, the same as in the army. 
The Surgeon General’s report continues: 
‘‘’There were six deaths, all of which 
occurred in the engagements with the 
Spanish troops, ot a single fatal case oc- 
curring from disease.’’ If there is any 
town in the United States with an equal 
number of inhabitants that had less. 
sickness for the same period, I would 
like tosee the statistics. Let this state- 
ment be compared with Japanese records. 
and the disparagement will not appear 
so great as that given by the learned 
doctor. 

With the sanitary corps on the Isth- 
mus in charge of such men as Col. Wil- 
liam C. Gorgas, U.S. A., chief sanitary 
officer, whose record as a destroyer of 
yellow-fever germs in Cuba recently 
has given him fame, assisted until re- 
cently by Medical Director John W. 
Ross, U.S. N., director of hospitals, and 
other officers of the army and navy, we 
need not fear the result of any com- 
parisons made under like conditions 
with any people on the globe. Dr Ross 
has been connected with various im- 
portant sanitary enterprises during his 
long and useful career in thenavy. As 
long ago as 1878-1879 he made an en- 
viable record as a volunteer in the yel- 
low-fever epidemic of east Florida, for 
which he was promoted by special act 
of Congress in 1888. 


THE PANAMA PURCHASE A GREAT 


BARGAIN 


That the government of the United 
States hassecured a great bargain in the 
purchase of the assets of the Panama 
Canal Company is beyond question. 
When de Lesseps undertook the man- 


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PANAMA CANAL 


am 


462 


agement of the great enterprise which 
should cut the western continent in two 
he laid great stress on the fact that prob- 
lems that seemed insolvable at the time 
would become simplified by the growth 
of engineering knowledge developed in 
the course of the construction work. 
No engineering scheme has ever been so 
exhaustively studied as that for building 
the canal. Immense sums of money 
have been spent to study the don’ ¢s of the 
problem and still larger amounts have 
gone to eliminate the mzzsfi¢s of the per- 
sonnel who should control its destiny. 
No value can be set on this accumulation 
of knowledge which the Commission can 
use as a powerful weapon in weaving 
together the new plans which are to 
bring our work to a successful issue. 
But aside from these ‘‘ consequential 
damages,’’ as they might be called, and 
which would have cut a large figure in 
the beginning of operations in any new 
field, the visible assets turned over to the 
United States are well worth the price 
paid for them. ‘The popular mind is 
rather apt to estimate the property de- 
livered to us by the French company as 
consisting of but little more than the 
partially dug canal and the Panama 
Railroad, but astudy of the schedule of 
equipment will show scores of machine 
shops, some 2,500 houses built of wood, 
stone, and metal, for all conceivable 
purposes, and which will accommodate 
from 15,000 to 20,000 people; hospitals, 
extensive in numbers and in size, which 
represent an investment of a vast sum of 
money. ‘These buildings not only ac- 
count for a good slice of the purchase 
price, but as they would all have to be 
built before work can be systematically 
carried on, the government is saved the 
expense of these preliminaries. The 
labor question, always a serious one, 
here becomes vital. The loss by sick- 
ness alone, before the people who are 
required to work on the canal could be 
comfortably housed, would greatly aug- 
._ ment the total cost of construction. 
.. This expense account would be a large 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


factor in any original operations, say at 
Nicaragua. 

One of the greatest benefits that has 
accrued to us and on which no money 
value can be placed is our power to abso- 
lutely control the 10-mile strip bounding 
the limits of the canal zone. No one 
who has not had to deal with the deli- 
cate questions which constantly arise on 
the Isthmus with reference to our gov- 
ernment’s guarantee to keep open the 
transit and to safeguard the sovereignty 
of the country through which it passes 
can realize the difficulties and expense 
which this sacred obligation has en- 
tailed. 


A SEA-LEVEL CANAL 


The first definite engineering plans 
for the construction of the Panama 
Canal have just been submitted to the 
Isthmian Canal Commission under date 
of February 14 last by the engineer- 
ing committee of that body, consist- 
ing of Commissioners Burr, Parsons, 
and Davis. ‘The principal recommenda- 
tions are summed up in this resolution: 

‘‘Resolved, That this committee ap- 
prove and recommend, for adoption by 
the Commission, a plan for a sea-level 
canal, with a bottom width of 150 feet 
and a minimum depth of water of 35 
feet, and with twin tidal locks at Mira- 
flores, whose usable dimensions shall 
be 1,000 feet long and too feet wide, at 
a total estimated cost of $230,500,000. 
Such estimate includes an allowance for 
administration, engineering, sanitation, 
and contingencies amounting to $38,- 
450,000, but without allowance for in- 
terest during construction, expense of 
zone government and collateral costs, 
and water supply, sewers, or paving of 
Panama or Colon, which last items are 
to be repaid by the inhabitants of those 
Citless 

The committee estimates that a sea- 
level canal can be completed within 
from ten to twelve years from the pres- 
ent time. 

The committee decided that under no 


THe PANAMA CANAL 


circumstances should the surface of the 
canal be more than 60 feet above the 
sea, and estimates that at this level the 
cost would be $178,013,406. A 30-foot 
level is estimated to cost $194,213,406. 

It is recommended that the Chagres 
River be controlled by adam at Gamboa, 
built to a crest height of 200 feet, and 
the waters of the lake thus created dis- 
posed of through tunnels. The work 
on the foundation of the dam will re- 
quire from one to one and a half years, 
and the committee reports should begin 
at once. The dam at this place, it is 
stated, involves no formidable obstacles, 
which is not the case at the Bohio loca- 
tion. 

The construction of adam at Gamboa 
in this connection would also control the 
Chagres River, except that it would be 
necessary to provide a safety spillway 
by the construction of a tunnel some 
eight miles in length through the divide, 
discharging the surplus waters of the 
Chagres into the headwaters of the Juan 
Diaz, or the alternative plan of construct- 
ing a tunnel four miles long through 
the divide separating the Chagres Basin 
from the headwaters of the Gatuncillo, 
a stream which enters into the Chagres 
Valley at Gatun. Should this latter 
course be adopted, it would be necessary 
to construct an auxiliary channel for 
the Chagres from Gatun to the sea in 
order to divert its flood waters into the 
bay eastward of Colon. 

The dam would also provide the water 
supply for the entire line of the canal, 
including the cities of Panama and 
Colon. It would also provide a plant 
for the generation of electric power 
sufficient to furnish ample power for 
the operation of the Panama Railroad 
and for the operation of any machinery 
that might be used in the construction 
of the canal. It would require two 
years to construct thisdam, and, roughly 
estimated, its cost, including spillways, 
would be between $15,000,000 and $16,- 
000,000, not including the power plant. 

Actual work in the Culebra Cut has 


463 


demonstrated that the entire excava- 
tion can be done at a saving of $15,- 
000,000 over former estimates, and is 
given as a justification for the recom- 
mendation for a sea-level canal. 

Immediate work is recommended at 
Colon in constructing a safe harbor. To 
this end, an outer breakwater is sug- 
gested, as well as the construction of 
an inner harbor at the entrance to the 
canal. It is recommended that bids be 
invited for this work. 

Other minor features of canal con- 
struction recommended include com- 
pleting the Gatuncillo diversion chan- 
nel, begun by the old canal company to 
divert from the canal the Gatuncillo 
and Mindi rivers and other smaller 
streams. Inconnection with this, three 
small dams must be built—two across 
the Chagres River near Mindi and one 
across the Boca Mindi. AIlof this work 
is independent of the decision as to a 
level for the canal, and its immediate 
execution is recommended. Other sub- 
sidiary features depend on the level 
determined on and are not discussed. 

The committee makes these observa- 
tions in summing up: 

‘‘ The practicability of certainly and 
satisfactorily controlJing the floods of 
the Chagres by so simple and econom- 
ical a method as the Gamboa Lake and 
its outflow channels, and the reduced 
cost of excavation as actually demon- 
strated by the work of the Commission 
in the Culebra Cut, makes the construc- 
tion of a sea-level canal at a reasonable 
cost far more available than has hereto- 
fore appeared possible. These recent 
developments in the conditions attend- 
ing the construction of the canal are so 
important as to be almost controlling in 
character. The remaining element is 
that of the time required to make the 
great summit excavation. 

‘It is to be carefully observed that 
the results thus far obtained in the 
Culebra Cut have been reached under 
disadvantageous conditions of both or- 
ganization of plant and force. ‘The 


464 


railroad tracks serving the excavators 
are yet fragmentary and tentatively 
placed to serve the purposes of investi- 
gation. In both respects the disposi- 
tion of plant is far more unfavorable, 
both to economy and celerity of oper- 
ations, than will be the case when a 
complete track system has been ar- 
ranged and laid down to serve a large 
number of steam shovels operated by an 
experienced force. 

‘‘In the face of these disadvanta- 
geous conditions the cost of excavation 
has been reduced far lower than was 
anticipated, and it has been demon- 
strated that each steam shovel may be 
counted upon to yield an average record 
of at least 1,000 cubic yards per work- 
ing day. The chief engineer estimates 
that with roo steam shovels installed, 
with a complete system of tracks serv- 
ing them, a yearly record of 30,000,000 
cubic yards of excavation may be 
reached without requiring a greater 
output per shovel or greater speed in 
working than has already been attained. 
The rate of working could probably be 
reached within two years from the pres- 
ent time. 

‘‘With the rate of progress which 
now appears reasonable to anticipate, 
this committee believes that a sea-level 
canal, with a tidal lock 1,000 feet long 
and 100 feet usable width at Miraflores, 
can be completed within ten to twelve 
years from this time, the bottom width 
of the canal being 150 feet and the mini- 
mum depth of water 35 feet. 

‘“These considerations have induced 
this committee to express to the Com- 
mission its unanimous judgment that 
with the contemplated system of work- 
ing and with the rate of development 
which appears to be justified by the 
work now being performed at Culebra, 
a sea-level canal, free from the restric- 
tion of locks, should be adopted. This 
committee believes that such a canal, 
with terminal harbors, can be con- 
structed for a sum mot exceeding 
$230, 500,000. 


THe Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE ADVANTAGES OF A SKA-LEVEL 
CANAL 

‘‘'The advantages of a sea-level canal 
across the Isthmus are most obvious. 
It would be a waterway with no re- 
strictiou to navigation, and which could 
easily be enlarged by widening or deep- 
ening at any time in the future to ac- 
commodate an increased traffic without 
any inconvenience to the shipping using 
it, whereas a lock canal is in reality a 
permanent restriction to the volume of 
trafic and size of ships that useit. Al- 


though it is possible to design and con- 


struct locks adapted to the future trans- 
formation to a sea-level canal, that 
transformation cannot be made without 
serious inconvenience to navigation and 
at a cost so great as to be excessive. 

‘“The additional cost of a sea-level 
canal over that of a canal with locks, 
with a summit level of 60 feet above 
mean tide, is $52,462,000, or $79,742,000 
more than the estimated cost of the 
lock canal, with a summit level 85 feet 
above mean tide, proposed by the former 
Isthmian Canal Commission, after al- 
lowing $6,500,000 for the Colon break- 
water and direct entrance not previously 
estimated. This committee considered 
this additional expenditure fully justi- 
fied by the advantages secured.”’ 

From this latest report from the canal 
zone it would seem that there is a pos- 
sibility of the Commission going back to 
the first plan of the old Panama Canal 
Company, and this seems to me, and 
indeed it has always seemed to me, to 
be a most desirable outcome of the vast 
amount of work, thought, and intelli- 
gence that has been given the matter. 
The sea-level canal will surely cost 
more than if it be constructed on the 
lock system, but it is more than prob- 
able that enough will be saved for main- 
tenance during, say, a fifty-years’ serv- 
ice of the canal to pay for the increased 
cost, and the saving to the 10,000,000 
tons of shipping which it is expected 
will use this great highway of commerce 
in demurrage will more than compen- 


46 5 


PANAMA CANAL 


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THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


466 


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ProGRESs OF THE PANAMA CANAL 


sate the people of the United States for 
the outlay. 

As was expected when de Lesseps 
began his work, wonderful strides have 
been made in the science of engineering 
during the last quarter of a century. 
We can never say that the ideal has 
been accomplished, but we may state 


467 


that the science of engineering has 
reached such a state within the past 
few years that with the intelligent man- 
agement which is now being given to 
the canal problem a new standard in 
engineering will be set for the peoples 
of the whole world by American pluck, 
perseverance, and skill. 


PROGRESS ON THE PANAMA CANAL 


HE map of the region of the 
Panama Canal, which is pub- 
lished as a supplement to this 
number,* shows the plan submitted to 
Congress by the Isthmian Canal Com- 
mission of 1899-1901. It is the only 
plan on which the Canal Commission 
has as yet any authority to spend 
money, and is described by Admiral 
Chester in his address to the National 


* Through the courtesy of Hon. Theodore P. 
Shonts, President Isthmian Canal Commis- 
sion. 


Geographic Society, published in this 
number, pages 455-456. The plan will 
undoubtedly be very largely modified in 
the near future, but the map will, we 
hope, serve asa guide to the members 
of the National Geographic Society in 
the discussion and changes of the com- 
ing months. ‘The most striking feature 
of the plan here presented is the great 
lake (shown in light green on the map). 
The lake covers an area of nearly 40 
square miles, and would be artificially 
formed by the construction of the giant 


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Diagram showing Yearly Amount of Rainfall in Inches on the Panama Isthmus 


468 


dam at Bohio; but the trouble with this 
project is that it entrusts too much to 
the Bohio dam. If the dam gave way, 
10 miles of the waterway would disap- 
pear and the canal would be put out of 
business for years. 

The investigations of the American 
engineers during the past two years have 
brought to light a number of new and 
important facts which promise to sim- 
plify the two principal engineering prob- 
lems connected withthe canal: (1) The 
control of the torrential floods from the 
River Chagres and (2) the Culebra Cut. 
These results are described by Admiral 
Chester on pages 462-463. The discov- 
ery that it will be necessary to go down 
170 feet below sea level instead of 128 
feet in order to reach bed rock at Bohio 
makes the plan of the dam at Bohio al- 
most impracticable. Our American en- 
gineers have, however, found a better 
site for a dam at Gamboa, and it is now 
proposed to construct the dam to control 
the Chagres floods at this point. The 
lake thus created would cover about 10 
square miles and would be entirely out 
of the canal. 

The building of the dam at Gamboa 
will not only furnish complete and ef- 
fective means of control for the Chagres 
floods, but it has the further advantage 
of being entirely accessible by the Pan- 
ama Railroad for the transportation of 
men and materials. The plan of the 
dam will probably require a masonry 
core, with a great mass of earth and 
rock fill on either side of it, from the 
waste excavation of the summit cut. 

The conditions attending the con- 
struction of this dam are in no way un- 
precedented. The depth of bed rock 
below water surface is only about one- 
third that at Bohio and no greater than 
has already been reached by the use of 
heavy timber sheet piling for founding 
masonry structures in the United States. 

The proposed height of thisdam from 
its foundation to its top is far less than 
found in a number of masonry dams al- 


THe NaTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ready built, and the making of the earth 
embankments on the two sides of the 
masonry core is simply wasting the ma- 
terial from the summit cut.. The con- 
struction of the Gamboa dam, therefore, 
involves no formidable obstacles not 
heretofore successfully encountered in 
engineering practice. 

Experiments made with American 
steam shovels show that the Culebra 
Cut can be made in about one-half the 
time and at about two-thirds the ex- 
pense formerly estimated. The length 
of time originally believed necessary to 
cut Culebra Hill down to sea-level was 
the reason that the First Isthmian Canal 
Company recommended a canal with 
locks. In view of the diminished ex- 
pense and the great reduction in the 
estimate of time required for Culebra 
Cut, general sentiment seems to be that 
we should construct a sea-level canal and 
nothing else. But no plan has as yet 
been definitely adopted. 


WHAT PLAN WILL BE ULTIMATELY 
ADOPTED IS UNDECIDED 


‘“T haven’t as yet the slightest idea 
what plan the advisory board will recom- 
mend for the Panama Canal, and I am 
certain that not a member of the board 
has.’’ These were the parting words 
of a prominent member of the Inter- 
national Consulting Board of Engineers 
on the Panama Canal as he stepped on 
board the steamer which carried the con- 
sulting engineers to Panama in Septem- 
ber, 1905. The board had been in ses- 
sion for several weeks in Washington. 
It had listened to the various plans sub- 
mitted by Messrs Bunau-Varilla, Bates, 
and others, and had digested the results 
of the past two years’ surveys and inves- 
tigations on the Isthmus by the Walker 
and Shonts Commissions. But no vote 
had been taken, nor is any definite de- 
cision to be sought until the board has 
been carefully over the ground together. 
Not a single member of the board is new 
at the Panama problem ; every engineer 


ProGREss OF THE PANAMA CANAL 


has, in some capacity, been associated 
with it from 5 to 25 years and knows 
the tremendous difficulties to be over- 
come. ‘Their decision will be submitted 
to the Isthmian Canal Commission which 
may accept it or not as they deem best. 
The Isthmian Canal Commission recom- 
mend to Congress, which alone has the 
power to determine the plan. 


MR BUNAU-VARILLA’S SCHEME 


Next to the sea-level canal, the most 
interesting project is that proposed by 
Mr Bunau-Varilla. Mr Varilla asserts 
that it will take the United States many 
years to construct a sea-level canal, 
owing to the great difficulty we shall 
have in securing sufficient laborers. He 
advocates a plan of his own invention, 
which he says can becompleted in four 
and one-half years. 
be large enough to handle double the 
amount of traffic which statisticians 
have calculated will use the canal dur- 
ing the next generation, and can grad- 
ually be converted into a sea-level canal 
without interruption of traffic. Mr 
Bunau-Varilla’s preliminary canal is not 
unlike that recommended by the first 
Isthmian Commission, and shown on 
our supplement. ‘The most interesting 
feature of the scheme is a dam at Bohio, 
built entirely of mud and without any 
artificial core, and of nearly twenty-five 
times the width of the dam proposed by 
the Isthmian Commission. The dam 
would be formed of sandy clay, which 
is to be sucked up by dredges from the 
Chagres Valley,and then forced through 
pipes and deposited in the required po- 
sition and allowed gradually to harden. 
The mud, Mr Varillasays, would harden 
in the manner of cement, and in this 
way the dam could be constructed at 
very small expense. 

The amount of water that would filter 
through the ground below the dam 
would be insignificant. The dam would 
form a lake, similar in position to the 
lake shown on the map and extending 


The canal would, 


469 


to the vicinity of Gamboa. At Gamboa 
another dam built of concrete and steel 
and strengthened by embankments of 
earth would form a second lake outside 
the canal line. Mr Bunau-Varilla pro- 
poses two locks at Bohio, ascending to 
Lake Bohio, and two more locks near 
Obispo for the ascent to the summit level, 
which extends from Obispo through 
Culebra Cut. As the summit level 
is 130 feet above the sea, the amount 
of excavation in the Culebra Hill is 
comparatively small. There are four 
locks on the Pacific end, making eight 
in all for the canal. 


A CONVERTIBLE CANAL 


This serviceable lock canal, which is 
to be put into commission four and one- 
half years from the day of commence- 
ment, Mr Bunau-Varilla proposes to 
lower to sea level entirely by dredging. 
Lake Gamboa is to furnish the electric 
power to drive the dredges, while into 
it is to be dumped all the excavated 
rock and mud. ‘The flow of excavated 
rock and ground into Lake Gamboa will 
go on, says the designer, at the rate of 
4,000 cubic yards an hour, or 90,000 
cubic yards a day, with a very ample 
margin of safety for accidents. Lake 
Gamboa, owing to its enormous dimen- 
sions, may absorb many times the total 
cube to be excavated from the canal. 


A LYABOR-SAVING DEVICE 


The following paragraphs are quoted 
from Mr Bunau-Varilla : 

‘In all countries of the world dredg- 
ing is incomparably superior to dry 
excavation when the ground necessi- 
tates no mining. On the Isthmus of 
Panama this advantage is transformed 
into an enormous superiority. If there 
is an instrument of work which coun- 
terbalances as much as it is physically 
possible all the evil influences of the 
Isthmus, it is the dredge. It counter- 
balances them because, first, it is the 
only excavating instrument where the 


470 


white man can work without expense 
of physical energy, where he can work 
seated, so to speak, protected from the 
sun, protected from the rain; second, 
because it is the only instrument where 
the colored man remains under imme- 
diate supervision, where he is attached 
to tasks always the same and under the 
eye of the overseer ; third, because it is 
the instrument least liable to suffer from 
an error or an accident. If alittle slide 
comes it withdraws and is not buried, 
as an excavator or asteam shovel. If 
the attack of the ground is too hard, it 
simply stops instead of risking to lose 
its equilibrium ; it does.not derail,’’ &c. 


DREDGING WAS PREFERRED TO OPEN 
AIR ROCK EXCAVATION DURING THE 
OLD PANAMA COMPANY WORK, WITH 
MUCH LESS POWERFUL DREDGES 
THAN ARE NOW USED 

‘“‘Anybody who has worked on the 

Isthmus with the two systems cannot 

but be struck with the enormous supe- 

riority of thedredge. Itisso apparent, 
so obvious, that I did not hesitate at 

Culebra, as soon as the conditions be- 

came compatible with a dredging plant, 

to endeavor to substitute the work of 
the dredge to that of dry digging, and 
this in a hard clay that necessitated the 
employment of explosives for the work 
of excavating machines. 
‘‘Unfortunately, the plant was just 
in action when the collapse of the old 
company came; but however small has 
been its period of activity, perhaps a 
couple of months, the result completely 
confirmed my expectations and filled my 
hopes. Unfortunately for the canal, 
the inevitable and blind reaction which 
followed such a disaster as that of the 

Panama enterprise put into suspicion 

the clearest results obtained. I con- 

sider that it has been, among others, one 
of the most fatal mistakes of the New 

Panama Canal Company not to continue 

in the same line of effort. 

‘‘ What they have done in the Culebra 

Cut would have been infinitely cheaper 


THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


and quicker done if they had followed 
my last plans and not simply continued 
dry excavations, which I had put in 
action for a much longer period than 
the wet process. 

‘“Since that time no more dredging 
has been done on the Isthmus, and there- 
fore the truth has not been able to be 
again found and recognized. 

‘‘Tt can be stated with certainty from 
practical experience, such as the records. 
of the Suez Canal may show, that under 
the very propitious conditions in which 
the excavation will be made on the 
Isthmus, without currents or without. 
variation of water level, it can be made 
at a cost less than $1 per cubic yard, 
including repairs and depreciation of 
machinery. It can be equally stated 
from the same Suez Canal records that 


_their rock may beextracted anddumped, 


including repairs and amortization of 
machinery, at a cost not reaching 75. 
cents a cubic yard. - As for the hard 
clay, even with the light blasting it re- 
quires, the price ought to be kept be- 
low 30 cents a cubic yard with ordi-_ 
nary dredging and much reduced with 
electrical appliances, even including 12 
cents for the amortization of the locks. 
ascending to Lake Gamboa, ‘The ex- 
cavation of hard clay may be brought 
still lower with the new dredging ap- 
paratus resulting from the combination. 
of cutters and suction pumps, but this. 
is an eventuality of the future, and, 
though already resting on large experi- 
ments in Canada, it is not sufficiently 
proved adaptable to the isthmian ground 
to base reasonable and conservative esti- 
mates on, such as I give today. 

“T have prepared the way for the em- 


ployment of electricity in the working: 


of the dredges, and I had built in Hol- 
land by Smulders an _ electric-driven. 
dredge in 1895, according to special. 
plans which I drew, and which was, so: 
far as I know, the first electric dredge 
ever employed in public works. The 
results I obtained on the River Elsa, in. 


PROGRESS OF THE PANAMA GANAL 


Spain, have been eminently satisfactory, 
and convinced me that thereby the 
dredge could acquire new qualities, 
reducing the expenses and the risk of 
accidents by unforeseen obstacles met 
under water.’’ 


ASTONISHING DECREASE OF THE 
PRICE OF EXCAVATION AND OF 
TRANSPORTATION 


‘‘Such a distribution of power under 
electrical form will practically leave on 
board the dredge but an insignificant 
number of men, and one may readily 
understand the extraordinary economy 
of such a system of excavation, produc- 
ing 6,500 cubic yards in twenty-four 
hours with three shifts of 15 men, say 


with 45 men a day, even admitting the | 


average abnormal price of $3 per man. 
The price of excavation proper will be 
reduced to $135 for 6,500 cubic yards, 
or about two cents acubic yard, for the 
labor. ‘This will be associated with a 
very reduced amount of expense for the 
repair of machinery, owing to the em- 
ployment of electricity, and with no ex- 
pense to speak of for the generation of 
power, which will be given by the fall 
of Gamboa Lake. 

‘The transportation would also be 
realized at a cost of perhaps one cent a 
cubic yard. 

‘“The scows would have electric- 
driven screws and would take their 
power from a trolley line along the 
summit level and on the lake. One 
line would be for scows going to the 
dump and the other for scows return- 
ing. Assistance of tugs would only be 
required near the dredges, near the 
locks, and near the dumping places. 

‘‘T firmly believe that such a plant 
would reduce the price of excavation to 
a level difficult to believe. 

‘‘FRrom every point of view, one must 
consider that the substitution of wet for 
dry excavation, if so understood, will 
create a veritable revolution in the prices 
and in the output of the work, owing 


471 


to the great economy, efficiency, sim- 
plicity, and limitation of labor thus 
realized.’’ 

Mr Bunau-Varilla proposes that the 
sea-level canal when completed shall be 
600 feet wide at the surface and 500 feet 
wide at the bottom and have a minimum 
depth of 45 feet at- low tide. This 
would mean a canal three times wider 
and 10 feet deeper than the sea-level 
canal described on pages 462-464. He 
makes the further astounding claim that 


_ this immense sea-level canal by the pro- 


cess of dredging can be built in the same 
time required for the small sea-level 
canal (twenty-five years) if the latter is 
excavated by the dry process, and that 
the former will cost $300,000,000 as 
against $230,000,000 for the latter. 


THE LABOR PROBLEM 


The Isthmian Commission have now 
from 11,000 to 12,000 men at work, and 
of these 1,500 are Americans; 2,000 
of the men are employed by the sani- 
tary department, while the others are 
engaged in constructing sewerage and 
water systems, in building and repair- 
ing houses, in constructing tracks fo 
cars, and in getting everything ready 
for active digging of the canal. From 
500 to 1,000 men are landing at the 
Isthmus each month seeking employ- 
ment. They come fromthe West Indies 
principally, and a good number from 
Colombia. 

Of the labor problem, Secretary of 
War Taft says in a recent report: 

‘“The French Panama Company did 
much of its work with Jamaica negroes, 
and a large part of the 3,000 employés 
now engaged by the Commission is com- 
posed of Jamaicans; but it will not be 
easy to secure all the Jamaican laborers 
that will be needed. The governor of 
Jamaica, Sir Alexander Swettenham, 
whom I visited at Kingston, was un- 
willing to consent to our taking 10,000 
laborers from the island unless we de- 
posited five pounds sterling ($25) per 


472 


laborer with the island government to 
meet the burden which his leaving the 
island would probably throw on his par- 
ish under the poor law of the island for 
the support of those dependent on him. 
He also insisted that we should agree 
to pay the expenses of the return of each 
laborer, whether he was satisfactory or 
not and whether he abandoned the work 
in violation of his contract or not. It 
is probable, however, that Jamaica la- 
borers will come voluntarily in consid- 
erable numbers to the Isthmus, because 
there are two direct lines between King- 
ston and Colon, the fare is only $5 a 
person, and the wages paid in the canal 
zone are double those paid in Jamaica. 
Indeed, the governor informed me that 
about 6,000 Jamaicans were leaving the 
island annually to work in Panama and 
Central America. It is hoped that satis- 
factory labor may be obtained in Porto 
Rico.”’ 

The labor problem will probably be 
harder to solve than any of the engi- 
neering difficulties. 


THE STORMS AT COLON 


In view of Admiral Chester’s account 
of the destruction in Colon harbor 
caused by the terrible northers (p. 457), 
the following experience of the Isthmian 
Commission in January, 1905, is inter- 
esting: 

The norther began blowing soon after 
noon of January 26 with such force that 
three steamships in the harbor of Colon 
at that time were compelled to seek 
safety by putting to sea and remaining 
away for three days. The U.S. Ship 
Dixie was preparing to leave at about 
that time and was obliged to hasten her 
departure to escape the danger of the 
storm. Not a vessel of any description 
remained in the harbor except two 
schooners in the slips adjacent to the 
Panama Railroad station, which were 
tied by a number of cables at a sufficient 
distance from their piers to prevent dam- 
age from excessive pitching and rolling. 


Tue Nationa, GroGraPpHic MAGAZINE 


They could not get away, and were com- 
pelled to ride out in the gale in grave 
danger to themselves and to the neigh- 
boring piers. 

At the time of the committee’s visit 
storm waves of great magnitude and 
force were rolling directly into the har- 
bor, breaking over the entire water front 
of that part of Colon known as Aspin- 
wall and blocking the marginal streets 
with deluges of water and great quanti- 
ties of coral rock and other débris. The 
same effects were produced on Christobal 
Point, seriously injuring a number of 
houses and rendering them uninhabita- 
ble, as well as putting out of use the 
marginal street. The magnitude and 
violence of the wave action along the 
entire water front of Colon not only 
drove to sea every vessel that could get 
away, but it also endangered the piers 
or wharves, some of which have been 
heretofore seriously damaged in similar 
storms. Further than this, great incon- 
venience and some loss was caused, not 
only to the shipping interests affected, 
but also to the canal work in interrupt- 
ing the discharge of cargo urgently 
needed and in other ways injuring 
isthmian transportation. 

These storms ocur on the average but 
once or twice a year, and during some 
years they do not occur at all. For proba- 
bly not less than three hundred and 
sixty days in the year the harbor of 
Colon is free from any objection of this 
kind. If the construction of the canal 
were a purely commercial enterprise, 
the protection of an outer terminal 
harbor open to storms at rare intervals, 
as in this instance, would not be justi- 
fied. This project, however, is a great 
public work by the United States Gov- 
ernment, in which no feature contribut- 
ing effectively to either safety or eff- 
ciency should be omitted. 

Plans and specifications are being pre- 
pared for a breakwater extending across 
the mouth of Limon Bay approximately 
on the line drawn from the light on 


PROGRESS OF THE PANAMA CANAL 


Toro Point to the Colon light. This 
breakwater will probably be designed 
in two parts, each about 4,000 feet long, 
with an opening between them 700 
to 800 feet wide for the entrance of 
ships. 


REMOVING SOURCES OF INIECTION 


One of the most interesting features 
of the work has been the blood exam- 
inations to determine the malarial index 
of infection of the native population. 

About 80 per cent of the natives, says 
Colonel Gorgas, at the present time 
have the malarial parasite in their blood. 
Four times out of five when a female 
Anopheles bites one of the natives she 
becomes infected, and when she, in 
turn, bites one of our nearby laborers 
he becomes infected. It is thus evident 
that our force will rapidly be used up, 
just as was the French, unless our sani- 
tary measures prevent it. There are 
two means of protection—quinine, which 
is harmless to man and fatal to the ma- 
larial parasite, and the destruction of 
the mosquito. 

The following description of the clean- 
ing of the town of Culebra is an in- 
stance of what is being done by our 
American sanitary corps throughout the 
canal zone: 

The brush in the vicinity of the town 
_ has been removed and the streets, which 
are badly paved, are being kept clean. 
All manner of water containers were 
found buried under the brush, removed, 
and by removing the same the breeding 
places of the s/egomyza were destroyed. 
The mosquito-proof water barrels have 
been regularly inspected and are in good 
condition. As a relatively large non- 
immune population live at Culebra, 
every effort is being made to stop the 
breeding of stegomyia in the vicinity. 
The garbage from each house is regu- 
larly removed, as well as the nightsoil 
from the pail closets that now exist. 
The surface drains are being kept in 
shape, and no mosquito larvee are visi- 
_ble therein. All hogs have been re- 


nel ee 


moved from the town and all horses 
and cows are kept tied to stakes to pre- 
vent the ruination of the existing sys- 
tem of drainage. 


THE MOSQUITO CAMPAIGN IN PANAMA 
CEE, 


Colonel W. C. Gorgas, Chiet Sanitary 
Officer of the Isthmus, in his official re- 
port for July, 1905, describes the cease- 
less fight waged by his corps against 
mosquitoes : 

‘““The Administration Building in 
the city of Panama has been kept 
‘stegomyia proof’ during July. No 
eggs of sfegomyia or other mosquitoes 
were found during the month, although 
all containers in this building, which is 
quite large, have been carefully and con- 
tinuously scrutinized daily. . This build- 
ing is being fumigated every two weeks. 
After the two fumigations in July the 
floors were carefully swept and no mos- 
quitoes were found, although the fumi- 
gations were strong enough to kill the 
flies which had entered the building. 
It takes a longer and strongerfumigation 
to kill flies than to destroy mosquitoes. 
There are about 400 employés, mostly 
non-immune Americans, in this build- 
ing, who are specially anxious not to 
contract yellow fever, and it is reported 
by them that no mosquitoes are present. 
The building is undoubtedly a safe place 
at present for non-immunes. 

‘“'There is quite a noticeable decrease 
in the number of stegomyia present in 
Santa Ana Park since the same was 
trimmed out by this department in June. 
No cases of yellow fever or suspects 
were found in this vicinity during July, 
although it seemed to be a focus in pre- 
vious months. 

‘* The house-to-house inspection force 
has been increased, and some sections 
of the town are inspected every four 
days, and all houses and yards are in- 
spected at least every six days. 

‘Whenever the inspector finds a 
water deposit containing mosquito 
larvee the same isemptied out. Every 


47 4 


room of each house is carefully in- 
spected for mosquito larve in water- 
containers placed therein. The work 
of the inspectors is also sufficiently 
checked, so that we know that the work 
is being properly and thoroughly done. 

‘‘ During July, 1905, 5,189 house and 
yard inspections were made, and the 
mosquito larve (mostly in the early 
stages of development) were found in 
579 of the houses inspected. By means 
of this continuous inspection at short 
intervals the mosquito larve are de- 
stroyed before they reach the pupal 
stage. 

‘<’The streets all over the city are 
being constantly torn up for the installa- 
tion of the water and sewer systems. 
The rainy season is at hand, and so we 
have a collection of pools and water 
holes all over the city. A brigade of 
oilers is at work and these water sur- 
faces are being kept covered with oil. 
The house-to-house inspection, com- 
bined with the work of the oil brigade, 
is giving good results.’’ 


SPLENDID RESULTS OF VIGILANCE 


A comparison between the conditions 
that obtained during the first year of 
canal work under French administration 
and present conditions shows how suc- 
cessfully the United States is solving the 
question of sanitation. In 1881 the 
French reported an average force of 1928 
men on the Isthmus, with a death rate 
of 66.8 per thousand, while in the Ancon 
hospital alone the deaths from yellow 
fever reached the proportion of 23.7 per 
thousand. In reassuring contrast to that 
record, the death rate on the canal zone 
among the 10,000 employés May, June, 
July (1905), was but 2.6 per thousand. 
This would make an annual mortality 
of about 10 per thousand. Of 12,000 
men at work during August, 301 were 
constantly sick, or less than 25 per thou- 
sand. 

The number of cases of fever, most of 
which recovered, decreased from 72 in 


THe NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. 


June to 28 in July, due to the scientific 
efforts of the sanitary officers in screen- 
ing, cleaning, draining, and taking all 
the other precautions that our Cuban 
victory over the fever has taught us to 
employ. It should be kept in mind that 
since De Lesseps’ time science has solved 
the problem of checking yellow fever. 
The United States, therefore, has over- ~ 
come what seemed to be to the French 
an unsurmountable obstacle. © 


PURE-WATER SYSTEM INAUGURATED 


The marked decrease in the number 
of cases in what may be considered one 
of the worst months of the year is also 
due, in part, to the new water supply 
for the city of Panama that was first 
turned into the mainson July 4. With 
half pressure on a 6-inch main, 12 
streams of water were thrown higher 
than the Administration Building, and 
this pure water is now turned in on 
several mains through the center of the 
city. Faucets have been attached to the 
hydrants and the people are now pro- 
vided with free water. The advantages 
of this improvement can only be ap- 
preciated by those who are acquainted 
with the conditions that formerly ob- 
tained and can scarcely be overestimated. 
There was a celebration on the Fourth, 
and of course a game of baseball. The 
water supply for Colon and the sewer- ° 
age systems of Panama City and Colon 
are rapidly nearing completion. 


ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE COMFORT 
OF THE EMPLOYES 


Another important change that will 
add to the health of the Isthmus is now 
well under way, and that is the establish- 
ment of comfortable quarters along the 
entire line of the canal, and by the end 
of the present month every non-immune 
employé can be comfortably lodged out- 
side of Panama and Colon, which appear 
to be the only two foci of the diminish- 
ing fever on the Isthmus. 

Plans are also under consideration 


Tue Great Canats oF THE WorLp 


looking into the establishment of a re- 
frigerating system, so that meat, vege- 
tables, eggs, butter, poultry, and other 
foodstuffs can be brought from cold 
storage in the United States, transported 
in cold storage by vessels to the Isth- 


mus, and then distributed by refrigerat- 


ing cars to the ice-boxes of the hotels 
and boarding-houses along the line of 
the canal, With the installation of this 
service the personnel of the canal will 
be properly housed, will have pure 
water, will be well fed, and the question 
of proper sanitation will be solved. 

_. The most efficient scientists and engi- 
neers are thoroughly convinced that 
eventually the Isthmus will be a pleasant 
and agreeable place of abode. They 
affirm that the fever is not indigenous to 
the Isthmus. The nights are cool and, 
with the exception of a short period in 
the middle of the day, the heat is not 
oppressive. Both Panama and Colon 


ar fs 


can be rendered as agreeable places of 
residence as Mobile or Pensacola. 

The Commission have about twelve 
American steam shovels at work ; others 
are arriving at the rate of about two a 
month. 

The Isthmian Commission found that 
their employés were not being properly 
fed ; local merchants lacked capacity or 
enterprise to provide for so many new- 
comers; prices for food had nearly 
doubled in the past two years, with the 
result that the employés had great dif- 
ficulty in securing sufficient food of the 
right quality. In view of this fact, the 
Commission have made arrangements 
with an American firm to supply the 
employés of the company with whole- 
some food at rates varying from about 
¢10 to $30 a month. ‘The rations must 
reach a standard set by the Commission, 
which will inspect the food. 

Gest, (ee 


THE GREAT CANALS OF THE WORLD* 


HE Suez Canal is usually consid- 

ered the most important exam- 
ple of ship canals, though the 

number of vessels passing through it 
annually does not equal that passing 
through the canals connecting Lake 
Superior with the chain of Great Lakes 
at thesouth. In length, however, it ex- 
ceeds any of the other great ship canals, 
its total length being 90 miles, of which 
about two-thirds is through shallow 
lakes. The material excavated was usu- 
ally sand, though in some cases strata of 
solid rock from 2 to 3 feet in thickness 
were encountered. The total excavation 
was about 80,000,000 cubic yards under 
the original plan, which gave a depth of 
25 feet. In 1895 the canal was so en- 
larged as to give a depth of 31 feet, a 
width at the bottom of 108 feet and at 


the surface of 420 feet. The orginal 
cost was $95,000,000, and for the canal 
in its present form slightly in excess of 
¢100,000,000. The number of vessels 
passing through the canal in 1870 was 
486, with a gross tonnage of 654,915 
tons; in 1875, 1,494 vessels, gross ton- 
mage, 2,940,703 tons ~. in 1380, 2,026 
vessels, gross tonnage, 4,344,519 tons; 
in 1890, 3,389 vessels, gross tonnage, 
9,749,129 tons; in 1895, 3,434 vessels, 
gross tonnage, 11,833,637 tons; and in 
1900, 3,441 vessels, with a gross tonnage 
of 13,699,237 tons. ‘The net profits of 
the canal for 1903 were 65,579,347 frances 
($12,500,000) and the stockholders re- 
ceived dividends of 12 per cent. 

The canal is without locks, being at 
the sea level the entire distance. The 
length of time occupied in passing 


* The facts in this article are derived from an exceedingly instructive monograph published 
(1905) by the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor, entitled ‘‘ The 


Great Canals of the World,’’ by O. P. Austin. 


476 


through the canal averages about eight- 
een hours. By theuse of electric lights 
throughout the entire length of the 
canal, passages are made at night with 
nearly equal facility to that of the day. 
The tolls charged are g francs per ton 
net register, ‘‘ Danube measurement,’’ 
which amounts to slightly more than $2 
per ton, United States net measurement. 
Steam vessels passing through the canal 
are propelled by their own power. 


THE CRONSTADT AND ST PETERS- 
BURG CANAL 


The canal connecting the Bay of Cron- 
stadt with St Petersburg is described as 
a work of great strategic and commercial 
importance to Russia. The canal and 
sailing course in the Bay of Cronstadt 
are about 16 miles long, the canal proper 
being about 6 miles and the bay channel 
about 10 miles, and they together extend 
from Cronstadt, onthe Gulf of Finland, 
toSt Petersburg. ‘The canal was opened 
in 1890 with a navigable depth of 20% 
feet, the original depth having been 
about 9 feet; the width ranges from 220 
to 350 feet. The total cost is estimated 
at about $10,000,000. 


THE CORINTH CANAL 


The next of the great ship canals con- 
necting bodies of salt water in the order 
of date of construction is the Corinth 
Canal, which connects the Gulf of Cor- 
inth with the Gulf of Atgina. The 
canal reduces the distance from Adriatic 
ports about 175 miles and from Mediter- 
ranean ports about roo miles. Its length 
is about 4 miles, a part of which was 
cut through granitic soft rock and the 
remainder through soil. There are no 
locks, as is also the case in both the Suez 
and Cronstadt Canals, already described. 
The width of the canal is 72 feet at bot- 
tom and the depth 26% feet. The work 
was begun in 1884 and completed in 
1893, at a cost of about $5,000,000. 
The average tolls are 18 cents per ton 
and 20 cents per passenger. 


THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL 


The Manchester Ship Canal, which 
connects Manchester, England, with the 
Mersey River, Liverpool, and the At- 
lantic Ocean, was opened for traffic Jan- 
uary I, 1894. The length of the canal 
is 35% miles, the total rise from the 
water level to Manchester being 60 feet, 
which is divided between four sets of 
locks, giving an average to each of 15 
feet. The minimum width is 120 feet 
at the bottom and averages 175 feet at 
the water level, though in places the 
width is extended to 230 feet. ‘The 
minimum depth is 26 feet, and the time 
required for navigating the canal from 
five to eight hours. The total amount 
of excavation in the canal and docks 
was about 45,000,000 cubic yards, of 
which about one-fourth was sandstone 
rock. ‘The lock gates are-operated by 
hydraulic power ; railways and bridges 
crossing the route of the canal have 
been raised to give a height of 75 feet 
to vessels traversing the canal, and an 
ordinary canal whose route it crosses is 
carried across by a springing aqueduct 
composed of an iron caisson resting 
upon a pivot pier. The total cost of 
the canal is given at $75,000,000. The 
revenue in 1901, according to the States- 
man’s Yearbook, was £621,128, and 
the working expenses, £483,267. For 
the year ending June 30, 1903, the canal 
yielded £55,105 ($275,525) toward pay- 
ing the £225,000($1,125,000 )of interest 
which the city of Manchester has to 
pay on the capital invested in the enter- 
prise. ‘The freight-paying tolls on the 
canal are increasing each year. 


THE KAISER WILHELM CANAL 


Two canals connect the Baltic and 
North seas through Germany—the first, 
known as the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, 
having been completed in 1895 and con- 
structed largely for military and naval 
purposes, but proving also of great value 
to general mercantile traffic. Work 
upon the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was 


Tue Great Canals oF THE WorLp 


begun in 1887 and completed, as above 
indicated, in 1895. The length of the 
canal is 61 miles, the terminus in the 
Baltic Sea being at the harbor of Kiel. 
The depth is 29% feet, the width at the 
bottom 72 feet, and the minimum width 
at the surface 190 feet. The route lies 
chiefly through marshes and_ shallow 
lakes and along river valleys. The total 
excavation amounted to about 100,000,- 
000 cubic yards, and the cost to about 
$40,000,000. The number of vessels 
passing through the canal in 1904 was 
32,038, with a tonnage of 4,990,287, 
and the dues collected amounted to 
about $580,000. 


SHIP CANALS CONNECTING THE GREAT 
LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA 


Three ship canals intended to give 
continuous passage to vessels from the 
head of Lake Superior to Lake Ontario 
and the St Lawrence River are the Wel- 
land Canal, originally constructed in 
1833 and enlarged in 1871 and 1900; the 
St Marys Falls Canal at Sault Ste. 
Marie, Mich., opened in 1855 and en- 
larged in 1881 and 1896, and the Cana- 
dian Canal at St Marys River, opened in 
1895. In point of importance, measured 
at least by their present use, the canals at 
the St Marys River by far surpass that of 
the Welland Canal, the number of ves- 
sels passing through the canals at the St 
Marys River being eight times as great 
as the number passing through the Wel- 
land, and the tonnage of the former 
nearly forty times as great as that of the 
latter. One of the important products 
of the Lake Superior region, iron ore, 1s 
chiefly used in the section contiguous to 
Lake Erie, and a large proportion of the 
grain coming from Lake Superior passes 
from Buffalo to the Atlantic coast by way 
of the Erie Canal and railroads centering 
at Buffalo. The most important article 
in the westward shipments through the 
Sault Ste. Marie canals, coal, originates 
in the territory contiguous to Lake Erie. 
These conditions largely account for the 


aPler 


fact that the number and tonnage of 
vessels passing the St Marys River ca- 
nals so greatly exceed those of the Wel- 
land Canal. 

The Welland Canal.—The Welland 
Canal connects Lake Ontario and Lake 
Erie on the Canadian side of the river. 
It was constructed in 1833 and enlarged 
in 1871 and again in tgoo. ‘The length 
of the canal is 27 miles, the number of 
locks 25, the total rise of lockage 327 
feet,and the total cost about $25,000,000. 
The annual collection of tolls on freight, 
passengers, and vessels averages about 
$225,000 and the canal is open on an 
average about two hundred and forty 
days in a year. 

The Sault Ste. Marie Canals.—The 
canals of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., and 
Ontario are located adjacent to the falls 
of the St Marys River, which connect 
Lake Superior with Lake Huron and 
lower or raise vessels from one level to 
the other a height of 17 to 20 feet. The 
canal belonging tothe United States was 
begun in 1853 by the state of Michigan 
and opened in 1855, the length of the 
canal being 5,674 feet, and provided 
with two tandem locks, each being 350 
feet in length and 70 feet wide and al- 
lowing passage of vessels drawing 12 
feet, the original cost being $1,000,000. 
The United States government, by con- 
sent of the state, began in 1870 to en- 
large the canal, and by 1881 had in- 
creased its length to 1.6 miles, its width 
to an average of 160 feet, and its depth 
to 16 feet; also had built a single lock 
515 feet long and 80 feet wide, with a 
depth of 17 feet on the sills, which was 
located 100 feet south of the state locks. 
The state relinquished all control of the 
canal in March, 1882. In 1887 the state 
locks were torn down and replaced by a 
single lock 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, 
and a depth of 22 feet of water on the 
sills. This lock was put in commission 
in 1896. Thecanal was also deepened to 
25 feet. The Canadian Canal, 1% miles 
long, 150 feet wide, and 22 feet deep, 


478 


with lock goo feet long, 60 feet wide, 
with 22 feet on the miter sills, was built 
on the north side of the river during the 
years 1888 to 1895. 

The number of vessels passing through 
the United States canal in 1902 was 
17,588, and through the Canadian canal 
4,204. In 1900 the number of vessels 
passing through the United States canal 
was 16,144, and through the Canadian 
canal 3,003, showing an increase of 
1,200 in the number of vessels passing 
through the Canadian canal, and a 
sight decrease in the number through 
the United States canal, the increase in 
the number passing through the Cana- 
dian canal having been due to the devel- 
opment of the Michipicoten district. 
The tonnage passing through the United 
States canal in 1902 was: Registered 
tonnage, 27,408,021 tons; in IgOI, 22,- 
222,334 tons, against 20,136,782 in the 
year 1900; the freight tonnage in 1901 
was 25,026,522 tons, against 23,251,539 
tons in 1900. The Canadian Canal 
shows: Registered tonnage in 1902, 
A547, 501% “1 *19@1, » 2-4045042 satons, 
against 2,160,490 in 1900. A marked 
contrast between the business of the St 
Marys Falls and Welland canals is found 
in a comparison of their figures for a 
term of years. The number of vessels 
passing through the Welland Canal in 
1873 was 6,425, and in 1899, 2,202, a 
reduction of more than one-half in the 
number of vessels. The number of ves- 
sels passing through the St Marys Falls 
Canal in 1873 was 2,517, and in 1902, 
through the American and Canadian 
canals, 22,659. 


THE CHICAGO SANITARY SAND? SHIP 
ko te ‘CANAL 


The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal 
connects Lake Michigan at Chicago with 
the Illinois River at Lockport, a distance 
of 34 miles. The canal was cut for the 
purpose of giving to the city of Chicago 
proper drainage facilities by reversing 
the movement of water, which formerly 


THe NatrionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


flowed into Lake Michigan through the 
Chicago River, and turning a current 
from Lake Michigan through the Chi- 
cago River to the Illinois River at Lock- 
port, and thence down the Illinois River 
to the Mississippi. The minimum depth 
of the canal is.22 feet, its width at the 
bottom 160 feet, and the width at the 
top from 162 to 290 feet, according to 
the class of material through which it 
iscut. The work was begun September 
3, 1892, and completed and the water 
turned into the channel January 2, 1900. 
The flow of water from Lake Michigan 
toward the Gulf is now at the rate of 
360,000 cubic feet per minute, and the 
channel is estimated to be capable of 
carrying nearly twice that amount. The 
total excavation in its construction in- 
cluded 28,500,000 cubic yards of glacial 
drift and 12,910,000 cubic yards of solid 
rock, an aggregate of 41,410,000 cubic 
yards. Inaddition to this, the construc- 
tion of a new channel for the Desplaines 
River became necessary in order to per- 
mit the canal to follow the bed of that 
river, and the material excavated in that 
work amounted to 2,068,659 cubic yards, 
making a grand total displacement in the 
work of 43,478,659 cubic yards of ma- 
terial, which, according to a statement 


issued by the trustees of the sanitary 


district of Chicago, would, if deposited 
in Lake Michigan in 4o feet of water, 
form an island one mile square with its 
surface 12 feet above the water line. | 
All bridges along the canal are mova- 
ble structures. The total cost of con- 
struction, including interest account, 
aggregated $34,000,000, of which $21,- 
379,675 was for excavation and about 
$3,000,000 for rights of way and 
$4,000,000 for building railroad and 
highway bridges over the canal. The 
city and state authorities, by whom the 
canal was constructed, are now propos- 
ing to Congress to make this canal 'a 
commercial highway in case Congress 
will increase the depth of the Illinois 
and Mississippi rivers to a depth of 14 


ne ae 


THe «PEACE OF 


feet, with locks for fleets of barges from 


Lockport, the terminus of the drainage 


canal, to St Louis. This, it is argued, 
would give through water transportation 
from Lake Michigan to the Gulf by way 
of the drainage canal, the Illinois River, 
and the Mississippi River, and would 
enable the United States, in case of war, 
to quickly transport light-draft war ves- 
sels from the Gulf to the Lakes. This 
work of deepening the Illinois River 
would also give through water connec- 
tion from Rock Island, on the upper 
Mississippi River, to Lake Michigan via 
the Illinois and Mississippi Canal, else- 
where described, which extends from 
Rock Island, on the Mississippi River, 
to Hennepin, onthe Illinois River. The 
estimate of the Chicago sanitary district 
trustees of the cost of deepening the 
Illinois and Mississippi rivers from the 
terminus of the ship canal to St Louis 
to a-depth of 14 feet is $25,000,000, 
including five locks and dams. 


THE PEACE OF LATIN AMERICA * 


EARLY three-fifths of the 15,- 
000,000 square miles of the 
Western Hemisphere is covered by the 
twenty different nations which are 
broadly included in the term Latin 
America. All these nations are re- 
publics; in name at least. :. It may 
be a mere coincidence or it may be a 
fact of profound importance, that dur- 
ing the current year the entire area has 
been practically free from revolution. 
It is doubtful if the experience of the 
last eighty years can duplicate the pres- 
ent situation. 
We are inclined to regard this as 
something more than a coincidence. 


We believe it to be significant, a sign of 


political development and a proof of 
increasing stability. We do not at- 
tribute the condition to a fear of the 
‘“big stick’’ or to an apprehension of 
any broadening of the ‘‘ corollary of the 


* From the New York Sun. 


~ Monroe Doctrine.’’ 


LATIN AMERICA 


479 


It is more prob- 
able that it is due to two well-defined 
though little recognized influences. 
One of these is the force of example, 
notably that of Mexico. ‘The other is 
the extension of industry and commerce. 
There is in all these lands a growing 
recognition of the fact that revolutions 
are unprofitable. With the great mass 
of the people the idea is probably sub- 
conscious, but we believe it is there, 
and that it is busily working out a des- 
tiny of peace for our Latin American 
neighbors. 

A Colombian writer, Sefior Enrique 
Perez, recently made an admirable state- 
ment of the case for the Latin Ameri- 
cans. He says: 

‘‘Tt should be borne in mind by those 
who are always ready to pass criticisms 
on South American affairs that not all 
nations have had at their disposal the 
means of improving their conditions 
which, by a chain of exceptionable cir- 
cumstances, it has been given to the 
United States to profit by. Civilization 
was not carried from Spain to South 
America, as to a certain extent it may 
be said that it was transferred from all 
European countries to the United States. 

‘The South American countries did 
not have the same happy chances. The 
greed for gold and the race for El Do- 
rado were the main inducements of the 
Spaniards who, at the peril of their 
lives, crossed the ocean in unfit vessels 
in a mad pursuit after the gold and all 
other precious property of the Indians. 
The Spanish conquerors did not teach 
the natives, outside of religion, any of 
the practical methods of life, or rather 
those considered practical in those days. 

‘““After the conquest was accomplished 
there came a period, covering three cen- 
turies, during which nothing was done 
by Spain to better the condition of those 
countries.’’ 

This is an interesting and a precise 
statement of the case. From California 
to the Southern Andes and from Carta- 


@ 


480 


gena to the Rio de la Plata, the country 
now known as Latin America was seized 
by men whose purpose was to find gold, 
or in other ways to acquire wealth 
quickly and easily. Simon Bolivar, 
about 1820, was perhaps the first man 
who really saw the matter in its broader 
light. The history of the federation 
which he established has been in gen- 
eral the history of theentire region. It 
was an effort to plant a new civilization 
among a people imperfectly prepared 
for it. 

To those who settled on the coast of 
what is now the United States the terms 
freedom and self-government had a defi- 
nite meaning. ‘The motives which led 
them to seek homes in the new world 
were widely different from those which 
impelled the gold-seekers and the con- 
quistadores who landed further south. 
Any similarity in the later political 
structures was impossible. 

Signs of development in the southern 
countries can be traced for somewhat 
more than fifty years. During the last 
twenty years the signs have become ever 
increasingly marked. Mexico, Chile, 
Peru, Brazil, and Argentina are no 
longer to be classed among the turbu- 
lent. 

An ambition for progress and polit- 
ical stability is noticeable in nearly all, 
if not in all, of the remaining peoples. 
The people of Cuba, of Guatemala, 
Costa Rica, and Nicaragua resent the 
charge or the insinuation that they 
are hotbeds of revolution. They pride 
themselves on every added year of do- 
mestic peace. Colombia aspires to re- 
peat the experience of Mexico. Cipriano 
Castro, today almost unique, is a sur- 
vival of the despot who ruled the peon a 
century ago, and even in his case the 
type is essentially modified. 

It is perhaps too much to expect that 
this peace of months will expand itself 
into a peace of years; but the situation 
is noteworthy, and we believe it to be 
deeply significant. 


Ture NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


FORESTRY IN CALIFORNIA 


ALIFORNIA has over 28,000,000 
acres, or over one-fifth of its 
total area, under forest cover. Much 
of this land is finely timbered, and, 
with forest management, will be increas- 
ingly valuable for the wood which it 
can supply. But in California the for- 
ests have another use, which, as is well 
understood in that state, is even more 
important than the production of tim- 
ber—to conserve the water supply. 
The wonderful agricultural develop- 
ment which irrigation has made possi- 
ble is perhaps the largest fact in Cali- 
fornia’s recent economical history. Be- 
cause of the need of water and the fear 
of floods, public sentiment in favor of 
forest protection in California has al- 
ways been well in advance of that in 
other states, as was conspicuously illus- 
trated after President Cleveland, in 
1897, proclaimed the 13 Federal re- 
serves, created at the close of his ad- 
ministration. Everywhere else in the 
West the opposition aroused was so 
strong that the proclamation was soon 
afterward temporarily suspended ; but 
a special exception was made in the case 
of California, where public opinion was 
from the first strongly in favor of the 
reserves. 

Something less than one-third of the 
entire wooded area of the state is now 
embraced in the Federal forest reserves. 
That the remaining 20,000,000 acres of 
its forests may be made to serve the 
public interest in the fullest possible 
measure, the state has solicited and se- 
cured the cooperation of the Forest 
Service in working out a proper forest 
policy for it. 

But the subject of paramount impor- 
tance is the prevention and control of 
fires. A good opportunity for experi- 
ment along this line was afforded the 
service by codperation with the private 
owner of an 80,000-acre tract, who had 
previously introduced a crude fire-pro- 
tection system. A comprehensive plan 


CHINESE LaBor IN Mexico 


was outlined and its execution begun. 
There has not been time for a thorough 
trial, but its installation has had an ex- 
cellent effect. The patrolling of the 
‘tract has been greatly improved, and 
the neighbors now voluntarily report 
all fires, whether on or off the tract. 
There has not been a serious fire on that 
tract this season. This splendid show- 
ing is an impressive object lesson. It 
proves the efficiency of intelligent care 
and of fighting fires at the start. The 
present fire laws of the state are incom- 
plete andinadequate. One result of the 
work of the Service will be the recom- 
mendation of a fire law which, if adopt- 
ed, will be the best ever passed by any 
state. 

The most encouraging fact in forest 
management is the growing determina- 
tion of large timberland owners to em- 
ploy private foresters to handle their 
holdings. This will ensure a method of 
lumbering less wasteful than that at 
present practiced, and, more important 
by far, it will be the means of better 
protecting the forests and making them 
yield a continuous crop. Such expert 
control will be especially valuable in 
solving the problem of the best way to 
get rid of the slash, which, until burned, 
is aconstant menace to the forests. Ex- 
tensive experiments in slash burning 
have already been carried on by the 
Service with satisfactory results. 

The study of chaparral has led to 
fruitful practical conclusions. It shows 
in California the same remarkable ability 
to encroach upon and spread over open 
country that it exhibits in Texas and 
elsewhere in the semi-arid portions of 
the southwest. It makes a satisfactory 
watershed cover and almost constantly 
replaces a forest destroyed by fire. Its 
composition varies with aspect and ele- 
vation and with damage by fire. 


~ > 3{CHINESE LABOR FOR MEXICO 


NITED States Consul Anderson, 
of Amoy, China, reports that the 
owners of certain plantations in Mexico, 


481 


especially in Yucatan, seem to be making 
an effort to secure Chinese labor for their 
establishments. According to an adver- 
tisement in a native paper, the Japanese 
now have charge of the work of enlisting 
men in this proposed agricultural army. 
The advertisement, as translated, says, 
among other things : 

‘‘About a year ago a certain agricul- 
tural concern in Mexico sent a special 
agent to Fuchau for the purpose of se- 
curing Chinese laborers, such laborers 
to take their families with them if nec- 
essary. They were to be shipped to 
Mexico to work on hemp plantations, 
but to do no other work. This enter- 
prise had the consent of the governor of 
Yucatan, Mexico, but owing to the igno- 
rance of Chinese law on the part of the 
agent, he undertook to issue an official 
proclamation himself, and consequently 
his mission was brought to a sudden end 
by the order of the Mexican consul. 
The agriculturists of Mexico need labor 
just as badly now as a year ago, and 
have applied to the Cho Kiu Kan, emi- 
gration agents of Japan, for assist- 
ance. Everything set forth in 
this notice is entitled toconfidence. In- 
cidentally, it may be added that the 
treaty concluded between China and 
Mexico provides for the free emigration 
of citizens of either country and for the 
mutual protection of such emigrants. 
Emigrants take no risk whatever. It 
is understood that the foreign office in 
Fuchau has issued a proclamation on 
the subject, publishing all treaties and 
regulations relating thereto.’’ 

The response to this proposition does 
not seem to have been as general from 
any part of this province as was hoped, 
but it is probable that it will be general 
enough to make up a fair-sized shipment 
of coolies to Mexican territory. Not 
less than 2,500,000 people from the 
Amoy district are abroad in such enter- 
prises. 

The number of Chinese emigrants 
leaving Amoy this year seems to be 
about the same as usual. Something 


FT 


482 Tur Nationa GeocrapHic Macazint 


like 75,000 will go to Singapore and the 
Straits Settlements and between 5,000 
and 6,000 to the Philippines. Ten thou- 
sand will probably go to Hongkong, 
Saigon, and other ports. The money 
sent home by these emigrants is by far 
the largest financial resource of the peo- 
ple of this district. 


POLAR EXPLORATION 


HE year 1905-1906 will be. the 
quietest, as far as polar work is 
concerned, known for some time. Only 
two expeditions, those of Commander 
Peary and the Amundsen Magnetic Ex- 
pedition, are now in the Arctics, none 
are in the Antarctics, and no others are 
planned against either Pole. 

The latest word from Commander 
Peary comes by Dr Frederick Sohon of 
Washington, D. C., who left Etah, 
Greenland, the last week in August. 
He reports that the Roosevelt, Peary’s 
ship, left Etah steaming north on Au- 
gust 20. Nothing but open water could 
then be seen toward the north, or when 
Dr Sohon left several days later. Ap- 
parently conditions were very favorable 
for Commander Peary and it is generally 
believed that he succeeded in taking his 
ship at least as far as the entrance of 
Kennedy Channel. ‘This point is con- 
siderably farther north than he has suc- 
ceeded in getting his supply ship before, 
which means that his base will be so 
much nearerthe Pole. The Roosevelt car- 
ried from Etah 68 Eskimo men, women, 
and children and 250 dogs. Commander 
Peary will distribute them in stations 
along the coast. 


THE POPULATION OF JAPAN 


CCORDING to the last official Jap- 
anese census, the population of 

Japan had grown from 41,388,313 in 
1893 to 46,732,841 in 1903, an increase 
of 5,344,528 in ten years. ‘This is ex- 
clusive of Taiwan (Formosa), which in 
1902 had a population of 3,000,111. In 
round figures the population of the Em- 
pireof Japan may be stated at 50,000,000. 


Except in the acquirement of Formosa 
in 1895, there has not been any sudden 
increase in Japan’s population, but a 
steady increase year after year, begin- 
ning with 423,902 in 1894 and closing 
(for this computation) with 710,332 in 


1903, an average increase of 534,000 for 


each of the ten years. 

The 1903 population of Japan proper, 
namely, 46,732,841,consisted of 23,605,- 
571 males and 23,131, 270females. This 
equality of the sexes is noticeable, espe- 
cially as it has continued through all of 
the ten years. 

The population of Taiwan(Formosa), 
3,000,111, has grown at the rate of from 
68,000 to 84,000 a year since 1898. In 
1902 it consisted of 2,953,034 natives and 
47,077 Japanese. 
in the island numbered 25,585. 

The number of deaths in Japan proper 
was 937,644 1n 1893 and 952,252 in 
1903, the figures for each of the ten 
years being nearly the same. It was not 
so with the yearly births. They were 
1,178,428 in 1893 and steadily increased 
each year, reaching 1,493,599 in 1903. 
Here we see the necessity for Japan’s. 
expansion into Korea: Japan’s area is. 
limited and only 12 per cent of it is ara- 
ble land; consequently providing for 
534,000 increase in population each year 
was a most serious question. That point 
is settled now, and the Japanese are 
flocking into Korea. 

In the ten years the average marriages. 
per 1,000 of the population of Japan 
have been 8.71. Divorces averaged 
9,400 a year, or 2.13 per I,000 mar- 
riages. ‘That is certainly a low divorce 
rate for an oriental country. 

In 1903 the ratio of urban population 
was 20 per cent, an increase of 7.5 per 
cent since 1896, and of suburban 80 per 
cent, a decrease of 7.5 per cent. 

In the seventeen years, 1886-1903, the: 
urban population increased by 4,448,656,. 
and the suburban by 3,215,494. Thus. 
Japan has the American problem to deal 
with—the overcrowding of people into 
the cities. WALTER J. BALLARD: 


In 1898 the Japanese | 


" 


2 
Wg 
See 


: : : oe 9.40 a. ; 9°20 79°30: fi | 9°10. . | 
NOTE. e S| 


Nig 
co} 


= 
i 5 @ 
GuRInibeEM eno sen cere Borie Onte OC ALS emetes 3 og § ¢ | 
Tha elevations of the origiual aurface are taken from the litho ge: Vertical Scale iss s § a fs | 
Geological profile, scale sekn,furnished by te New Panamd Canal Co. and pro: 2 = I a | 
pared from data of the Old Company. = g 8 al | x | 
‘The elevalione of the present wurfice on the Atlantic Orran Level andin 3 @ & 3 8 | 
the Culebra Cut are fran Crone Sections anade by the Camminnion In < = g a 4 | 
Februavy, 1900, The additional excavation in the Culebra Cut, nut on cl & 3 a i) 1 
the axia of tho Canal,ia shown by the broken line, qd ° 4 2 Zz 5 & s a} & 
The elevations of the proment surface of other parts of the Cann! Zz 5 5 Z = 5 & & & ° BS 
line are from a Profile, ucale vatws published by the New Panama Canal S 2 = & S 3) ns) 3 8 8 4 24 4 
; £ fal z S 5 LO 
Cain 1808 ae cue 3 B 3 og). A 2 |€ 8 & 8 28 z £2 g 
He mee Z E x a Sg on | iS g 2 § < 33 fa 
z eo OR er : a e cs ) oP a ae @ 
= Ef Ss cas mine 5 5 
ol 5 & rs Ss g me & 2 2 ny RY 8 g £2 ¢ re! 8 a. DO < 
: Ey ES) Oe 2 ¢ ¢ ey ye e232 é é Ye 38 a & 
Fs 5 5 5 cs Ss £ § a § § § & S SoS RES Bb R 5 3 Ri ee ge q 8 
g Ey & o ° o 5 € q Se Ses eS 3 3 a RP RP RP Re eS ees S B55 iy 8 2 
3 gy F < oD 3 Be 16 S  @ Boe s Sans. §6s§ § SS Sins: 3 Lee bet £ ma y 
is) 2 = 3 a gs g 2s g Se aes 3 ane yes 8 AS > |s @ 24 as 8 
2 Areaed a os = Re & & e S PRES ET oa ; 2A is) a8 
| % g a : High Hi a : $ : S 
) ATLANTIC OCEAN 3 S 5 > Ss eam 2 he 2 Pe acd ae 
e = es g 5 S £ PACIFIC OCEAN 
= 8 Rk) fal S 5 cy © 
4 ae s s 8 S & 
8 é ge € < co = 


Mean Oceon bevel } Present 


. Original 
Heighte from | *urface 
nurface 


Miles 


a4 3 20 27 an 20 ao a a2 


MAP 
SHOWING LOCATION OF PANAMA CANAL 


AS RECOMMENDED BY THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION OF 1899-1902. 


Ager, PEAS OmPAa St 
‘ Regie Aasas lags Rogae 

2.127 M._10208 0760 1.0234 0713 DOISG_DOsel ASE} 0.038 Nose 

NO0735, VYoaTs\ /0507 RB2020 500979 iray ABO AD: 

D.1 O88 hoes? Rosa nowsz A ous. 

Do. Dads? Hoeds ions 

0163 


10.732 (Aaa as was Note 
Haase? —\w..oad_7 


A146) 
2860 MILES. Riles 1.300 M. 
D.1,.087 : 


L 
Scale 106,006 


Statute Miles ; 
1% we vs 0 E = 4 ee eee 16 Leg 


Nautigal Miles 
fe oily — at 
Kilometers 


af ee —— 90.1 eet 


Rio we Ane 


ty — 

lary, 

CPrivta 
EID 


Sane 


Hirt 

i 
FS Fe 
IN RE 


Pal) 


Cho 
a 
jos 
pe 
peo 


cp ua pee 


“Ail 


Mit 


Monte Lirio SS is 


S 
4 
ren 
ohte Locks aiid Dain 


NOTES 


49 
Line of Canal 


Panama Railroad 


j Rancho C amachd 


Proposed diversion of Railroad 


\river diversion 


Altitudes and Soundings are referred to Mean Ocean Level 


Topography is taken from amap published by the New Panama Canal 


Co.in 1899; except the Chagres River above Santa Barbara,which 


was surveyed by the Commission. 


Soundings in Limon Bay were taken from Hydrographic Chart N? 
1008 corrected to 1895. 
Soundings inPanama Bay were taken from a Ms. map furnished 


by the New Panama Canal Co. dated March 26,1900. 


if 
\ 
\ 


80 00 West of Greenwich 9’00' ; 79°50 


Puonewielcnavanicon Limocniencaniocentonnile ere 5 Fe a A - - : . ; : = 5 “ahr j Oliver B. Harden del. 


SUPPLEMENT TO THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C., OCTOBER, 1905. 


ay ng PER 


/ Gie NATIONAL 
| GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGA ZINE 


NOVEMBER, 1905 No. 11 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 


Geography. By the late Sir William Wharton, formerly 
Hydrographer of the British Admiralty : ? : . 483 
The Birthplace of Civilization. Illustrated : ; . 499 
The Proportion of Children in the United States. Illustrated ° 504 
The Returns from Alaska. Illustrated . : : : a oo 
We Occupy the Best Position on the Map . : : : . 534 
Forests Vital to Our Welfare . ; : Bare) 
Cotton and the Chinese Boycott : : t , ; . 516 
Immigration to the Southern States f : ? ait) 7 
Gannett’s “Commercial Geography.” Ilusteated : ‘ i 520 
Alleyne Ireland’s “The Far Eastern Tropics” . ; : i B25 
National Geographic Society . : : y E : BS RUES 4 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


$2.50 a Year t 25 Cents a Number 


_ Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Ciass Mail Matter 


_ NATIONAL 


| GEOGRAIPIENC 


wee. : | 


_ MAGAZINE - 


GrocrapHic MAGAZINE. 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the 
Nationa, GeroGrapHic Society. 
editorial communications should be ad- 
dressed to the Editor of the Nationa — 

Business communications 


All 


should be addressed to the National Cooney 


Society. 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR 


| Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 
Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army 


W J McGEHE 


Chief Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 
ehase Exposition 


€ HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. &. 
Department of Agriculture 


O. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 


and Geodetic Survey 


O. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
Department of Commerce and 
Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD | 


Agricultural Explorer of the Rea: 
. ment of Agriculture | 


’ ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 


Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 


Chief of the Division of Mineral . 
Resources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALPRED H. BROOKS ~ 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, eae 
delphia 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University of Chieago 


G. K. GILBERT 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE 


Professor of Meteorology, U. S. 
Weather Bureau, San Francisco 


ALMON GUNNISON - 
President St Lawrence University 


Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C 


Vor, XVI, No. 11 


a 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAPHIC 
MA\GAZIINIE, 


NovEMBER, I905 


af 


GEOGRAPHY“ 


By Rear-ApMIRAL Sir W. J. 


that she has any right to consider 

herself as a science, the objection 
being apparently founded on the view 
that it is a subject that can be learned by 
heart, but not studied on any systematic 
line or reduced to principles which enable 
advance to be made, as in the more ex- 
act sciences, by continual investigation 
by means of laws discovered in the course 
of such investigation. This, it appears 
to me, is a misapprehension due to an 
incomplete recognition of what science 
is and of what geography is. 

Science is, in the simplest interpreta- 
tion, ‘‘knowledge,’’ such knowledge as 
comes from an intimate acquaintance 
with and study of any subject duly coor- 
dinated and arranged. The subjects 
which the advancing education and civ- 
ilization of the world have caused to be 
minutely studied are very many, and as 
knowledge has increased specialization 
has become a necessity, until the list of 
Sciences is very long. 

Science may be broadly divided into 
several categories : pure or exact science, 


| T is sometimes denied to geography 
? 


IL. Warton, 6-3. FIRS. 


such as mathematics; natural or phys- 
ical science, which rests on observations 
of nature; moral science, which treats 
of all mental phenomena. 

Some sciences are of ancient founda- 
tion, some have arisen from new inquiries 
and needs of man or from fissure in sub- 
jects too wide for convenient treatment 
as one. Many of them are capable of 
exact definition, and their boundaries 
and limits can be well marked. ‘To 
others no very distinct limitations can 
be assigned. From their nature they 
overlap and are overlapped by other sub- 
jects, and it is impracticable to confine 
them by a strict line. Geography is one 
of the latter. 

Geography is one of the most ancient 
subjects studied with the view of coor- 
dinating facts. Adesire for exact knowl- 
edge of, first, the bearings and distances 
of one place from another for the pur- 
poses of intercommunication must have 
arisen aS soon as men became collected 
into groups whose growing civilization 
and needs required travel to obtain what 
could not be obtained in the community. 


* An address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Johannesburg, South 


Africa, August 30, 1905. 


Sir William Wharton was unfortunately taken sick only a few days 


after the address was delivered and died at Capetown, September 29, from enteric fever and 


pneumonia. 
Admiralty. 


He was 62 years of age, and for a number of years had been Hydrographer of the 


4.84 


This was the earliest form of geography, 
and it is an aspect which still remains, 
and to some is, in the modern shape of 
maps, the principal, if not the sole, end 
of geography. 

From the earliest times, however, 
geographical information included other 
than topographical data. It was soon 
found that for the traveler and states- 
man, whether in peace or war, more was 
wanted to enable geography to supply 
requirements. The nature of acountry, 
the supply of food and water, the char- 
acter of the rivers, the manners and 
customs of the inhabitants, their lan- 
guage and affinities, the climate, and 
other matters, were all of much moment, 
and geography dealt with them all, 
being, as its name denotes, in the broad- 
est sense a ‘‘ description of the earth.’’ 

After the first crude guesses of rela- 
tive positions, founded on times occu- 
pied on journeys, other knowledge was 
enlisted in the cause. 

Astronomy was soon recognized as the 
only means by which to ascertain the dis- 
tances of places far apart and separated 
byseas, but for many centuries this could 
only be applied to latitude. Still the sci- 
entific geographer had to study and use 
the astronomical and geodetic methods 
known. 


GEOGRAPHY IS THE PARENT OF 
MANY SCIXYNCES 


As knowledge increased, the subjects 
became too wide to be strictly considered 
as one study, and many have become the 
objects of special research under differ- 
ent titles. 

Geodesy deals with the precise form of 
the earth and its dimensions. 

Geology studies the nature of the ma- 
terials forming the earth’s crust. and 
the changes in it in past ages. 

Ethnology and Anthropology treat of 
the different races of mankind. 

The study of Economics takes note of 
the conditions of communities and na- 
tions, their laws and systems of govern- 
ment. 


Tue NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Lotany and Zoology nowconcern them- 
selves with the details of vegetable and 
animal life. 

Archeology investigates the remains 
of past civilizations which cover the 
earth. 

Meteorology strives to unravel and re- 
duce to law the complicated conditions 
of the atmosphere, its continual move- 
ments, and the results which have such 
varying effect on our daily life. 

Oceanography, the study of the phe- 
nomena of the sea as distinct from the 
dry land, is still regarded as an integral 
part of geography, but is rapidly becom- 
ing a subject by itself. 

Of all these subjects geography may 
be considered to be the parent; and 
though the family be large and has gone 
off on many separate lines, it is neces- 
sary when taking a large and compre- 
hensive view of the united results of 
knowledge thus gained, especially from 
the point of view of distribution, to re- 
turn to that parent and consider them 
on a general or geographical basis. 

I cannot pretend to define geograph- 
ical science in a clearer or shorter form 
than that in which it has been already . 
put by General Sir Richard Strachey, 
and I will quote his words: 

‘“To investigate and delineate the 
various features of the earth, to study 
the distribution of land and sea, and 
their effects upon climate, the configu- 
ration and relief of the surface, positions 
on the globe, and so forth, facts which 
determine the existent conditions of 
various parts of the earth, or which in- 
dicate former conditions, and to ascer- 
tain the relations that exist between 
those features and all that is observed 
on the earth.”’ 

Strabo, in the opening words of his 
introduction to his great geography, 
puts it thus: 

‘“Tf the scientific investigation of any 
subject be the proper avocation of the 
philosopher, geography, the science of 
which we propose to treat, is certainly 
entitled to a high place. In addition 


GEOGRAPHY 


to its vast importance in regard to social 
life and the art of government, geog- 
raphy unfolds to us the celestial phe- 
nomena, acquaints us with the occupants 
of the land and ocean, and the vegeta- 
tion, fruits, and peculiarities of the 
various quarters of the earth.’’ 

This was written when geography in- 
cluded all natural science, and before it 
gave birth to so many separate subjects ; 
but it sets forth so admirably the aims 
which the geographer still pursues that 
it is worthy of remembrance. 


GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE ESSEN- 
TIAL TO THE MAN OF AFFAIRS 


It is not advocated, nor is it in any 
way necessary, that all should study 
geography in the extended sense thus 
indicated ; but it cannot be too strongly 
pointed out that an educated man—and 
education is now essential to the suc- 
cessful conduct of affairs—must have a 
considerable knowledge of the element- 
ary facts of geography. 

These elementary facts are, it is true, 
of the nature of a lesson, and must be 
learned, so to speak, by heart by the aid 
of maps and books ; but this is nothing 
more than making use of the labors of 
others, without which no advance is pos- 
sible in any subject, and is common to 
all studies. 

We must, in fact, distinguish between 
the science of geography, which con- 
sists in ascertaining and coordinating 
new facts and putting them into a shape 
for the use of others, which is the work 
of comparatively few; and the practical 
geography which consists of making use 
of that work, and, as in many other 
branches of science, is within the reach 
of all who choose to devote time to it. 

It is impossible to have a clear com- 
prehension of history, whether past or 
current, without calling in the aid of 
geography; but unfortunately much his- 
tory has been written and taught with- 
out such aid. 

To read the daily papers requires 


485 


either geographical knowledge or con- 
stant reference to maps, and if readers 
would only make a practice of such ref- 
erence on every occasion when they are 
at fault, they would soon find themselves 
acquiring knowledge of the greatest use 
to them in the easiest and most interest- 
ing manner and with the smallest ex- 
penditure of time. 

The mistakes made even by those re- 
sponsible for the conduct of public af- 
fairs, by reason of the want of this 
essential but elementary knowledge, are 
innumerable, and to this day there are 
many who consider themselves highly 
educated and capable men who cannot 
even rightly understand a map. 


GOOD MAPS THE FOUNDATION OF 
GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 


As I have before indicated, good maps 
are the foundation of all sound geo- 
graphical knowledge, and these maps 
must be founded on good surveys. 

Now a good survey is a comparatively 
modern operation, and the parts of the 
world that have been subjected to it are 
small indeed. 

It is true that we now have general 
maps of the larger parts of the world, 
which more or less convey a fair repre- 
sentation of the configuration of land 
and sea when large areas are considered, 
but details are sadly lacking almost 
everywhere. 

To many people one map is as good 
as another. They do not pause to con- 
sider on what it is based or what degree 
of accuracy it probably possesses, but so 
long as there is a map they are satisfied. 

A vast number of existing maps are 
compiled from the roughest materials ; 
in partly occupied countries, from draw- 
ings of small areas placed together as 
can best be done, by means of places 
here and there, the relative positions of 
which are fairly known by distances 
along roads, with perhaps in some cases 
angles and astronomical positions ; in 
less civilized parts by routes of travelers 


486 
laid down by estimation of the dis- 
tance traversed and direction of march, 
checked perhaps by a few astronomical 
observations of more or less value as the 
traveler possesses or does not possess the 
necessary skill. 

The compilers of such a map havea 
difficult task. Discrepancies are, of 
course,multitudinous. Nothing agrees, 
and one has to accept, reject, and ad- 
just as best he can on his own responsi- 
bility and with what knowledge he can 
procure of the respective trustworthi- 
ness of each author. 

Happy is he if he has even a few po- 
sitions on kis map which have been 
properly determined, as between them 
he is saved from the constantly increas- 
ing errors of adding one little area to 
another, which if carried on indefinitely 
culminates in great errors. 

Of course such maps are of no prac- 
tical use, save as giving a very general 
idea of a country, and when required 
by the administrator or traveler lead to 
endless mistakes and annoyances. 


THE COAST LINE OF THE WORLD 
PRACTICALLY DETERMINED 


The feature of our globe which is 
now, broadly speaking, most accurately 
laid down is the coast line. The safety 
of navigation has caused general ma- 
rine surveys to be carried on all over 
the world during the nineteenth cen- 
tury, which have finally determined the 
position and shape of the boundaries of 
the sea. 

These surveys, executed for the most 
part by skilled naval officers with proper 
instrumental outfit, and supplied espe- 
cially with trustworthy chronometers, 
and based upon frequent carefully de- 
termined astronomical positions, have 
resulted in this boundary line being de- 
lineated with an accuracy, so far as its 
absolute position is concerned, far in 
advance of any other main feature in 
maps. Here I may perhaps explain to 
those unversed in these matters why 
this is so. 


THe NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


The position of any spot on the earth’s 
surface can be ascertained in two ways: 
either by careful measurement by means 
of an accurate system of triangles from 
another spot already fixed, or by inde- 
pendent observations of the heavenly 
bodies and calculations from them, 
which give the precise latitude and lon- 
gitude of the place. The former is 
suitable for positions inland, but en- 
tails much time and labor, and is only 
adopted when a perfect map is to be 
made, for which it is the indispensable 
foundation. The latter can be carried 
on from a ship, and in most circum- 
stances only from a ship, because of the 
limitations of the methods of determin- 
ing longitudes. 

Longitude can now be satisfactorily 
and rapidly ascertained in two ways— 
by the electric telegraph or by use of 
chronometers. 

The places served by the electric tele- 
graph are still few, and its use is there- 
fore restricted; but the chronometer 
has been in working use for more than 
a hundred years. 

This instrument, which is merely a 
watch of especial construction, will only 
keep a steady rate when it is undis- 
turbed by irregular shocks or motions. 

No means have yet been found for 
transporting a chronometer on land 
without upsetting its regularity, and 
therefore rendering it useless; but on 
board a ship it can be so suspended and 
stowed as to prevent its being disturbed 
by any ordinary movements of or in 
the ship. The accurate time of any 
place departed from, ascertained by as- 
tronomical observations, can therefore 
be carried about on board ship for con- 
siderable periods, and by comparison 
with the local time, also determined by 
sextant observations of the heavenly 
bodies, at any required spot on the coast, 
the difference of longitude is at once 
obtained with very small limits of error 
when a number of chronometers are 
employed. ‘These two simple yet mar- 
velous instruments—the sextant and 


GEOGRAPHY | 


the chronometer—have thus placed in 
the hands of sailors ready means of fix- 
ing with great exactitude and celerity 
the position of selected points on coasts 
all over the world; and it will be seen 
that, while the detail of the line of coast 
between such fixed positions will de- 
pend upon the degree of accuracy of 
the survey or sketch, the general line 
cannot get far out, as it is constantly 
checked at the selected points. 

It is not claiming too much to say 
that at the present time very few salient 
points on the coast lines of the world 
are as much as two miles in doubt. 

It should be a source of great satis- 
faction tothe Briton to know that both of 
these instruments were devised by Eng- 
lishmen, John Hadley producing the 
sextant in 1730, in the form still used, 
on the basis of ideas formulated by New- 
ton fifty years before, and John Harri- 
sion the chronometer in 1736. ‘The 
latter instrument has undergone modi- 
fications in detuil, but the principle re- 
mains the same. It required seventy 
years before its value was fully recog- 
nized and it came into general use. 


MARINE SURVEYS BY BRITISH NAVAL 
OFFICERS 


It is astill further satisfaction tothink 
that it is British naval officers who have 
made by far the greatest use of them in 
mapping the coasts of the whole world. 
Since the time of the great Captain Cook, 
British surveying vessels have been con- 
stantly employed in this work, not only 
in British colonies, but in all parts, aid- 
ing and often paving the way for British 
commerce and for the men-of-war that 
protect it. 

It is difficult to find coasts of any ex- 
tent that have not been laid down by 
British marine surveyors. ‘The whole of 
Africa has been their work. By far the 
greater part of America, all the south 
and east coasts of Asia, Australia, and 
most of the innumerable islands in all 
oceans have been fixed and laid down 


487 


by them. Even in the Mediterranean, 
until very lately, the charts were mostly 
founded on British surveys, and the im- 
provements now being carried out by 
other nations on their own coasts in de- 
tails required for modern navigation do 
not materially modify the main shapes 
and positions formerly determined by 
the British. 

It has been, and is, a great work, and 
I hope I may be pardoned for dwelling 
on it with pride as the result of the 
wise administration of the admiralty 
for many years, and of the immediate 
labors of my predecessors as hydrog- 
rapher, and as a very great contribu- 
tion to geographical knowledge, more 
especially as I do not think that it is gen- 
erally realized that this great advance in 
geographic accuracy is due to marine 
surveyors. 

To give an idea of the comparative 
accuracy of the chronometer method, I 
may mention that on taking at hazard 
eleven places distributed all over the 
world at great distances from England, 
the longitudes of which have been re- 
cently determined by means of the elec- 
tric telegraph and elaborate series of 
observations, I find that the average dif- 
ference between the chronometer and the 
telegraph positions is 700 yards. ‘The 
shapes of the different continents and 
the positions of islands as at present 
on our maps and charts will never be 
altered except in insignificant degree, 
and the framework is ready for many 
years’ work of land mapping. 


THE PERILS OF THE DEEP 


It is not to be inferred from what I 
say that marine surveys are approach- 
ing theirclose. Itisfarotherwise. The 
time given to these enormous extents of 
coasts and seas and the necessarily small 
scales on which the surveys have been 
carried on have caused them to be very 
imperfect in all details. Hundreds of 
rocks and shoals, both stretching from 
the land and isolated in the sea, have 


488 


been missed in the course of them, and 
loss of ships and life on these unknown 
dangers still continues. With the in- 
crease of shipping, increased number of 
ships of heavy draft, the closeness of 
navigation due to steam, and the desire 
to make quick passages, smaller inac- 
curacies of the charts become yearly of 
greater importance. 

As an illustration of the condition of 
affairs, I may mention that in Hamoaze, 
the inner harbor of Plymouth, one of 
the headquarters of the British fleet 
for more than 300 years, a small but 
dangerous pinnacle of rock was only dis- 
covered five years ago, while numerous 
other dangers of asimilar character have 
been yearly revealed in close surveys of 
other harbors in the United Kingdom 
supposed to be well examined and 
charted in the last century. 

There never was a greater need for 
close marine surveys of places frequented 
by ships than now. 


THE EARLIEST MAPS 


It is interesting to look back and see 
the gradual progress of the delineation 
of the world and to mark how very 
recent any approach to accuracy is. 


The very earliest maps of any extent 


of country are unfortunately lost to us. 
The first man who madea map of which 
any historical record exists is Anaxi- 
mander of Miletus, about 600 B. C., but 
we know nothing of it. A map is men- 
tioned by Herodotus as having been 
taken in 500 B. C. by Aristagoras of 
Miletus in the shape of an engraved 
bronze plate whereon the whole circuit 
of the earth was engraved, with all its 
seas and rivers, to influence Cleomenes, 
King of Sparta, to aid the Jonians 
against Persia. This was probably the 
work of Hecatzeus, to whom early geog- 
raphy owed much. His worksare also 
only known to us by quotation; but 
they are especially interesting as con- 
taining an early idea of the limits of 
Africa, which he represents as entirely 


Tue Nationat GreoGRaPHiIc. MAGAZINE 


surrounded by the sea—a circumstance 
apparently either forgotten or disbe- 
lieved in later years. 

Erotosthenes, 250 B. C., and Hip- 
parchus, 150 B. C., made great advances, 
and the former made the first attempt to 
measure the size of the earth by the dif- 
ference of latitudes between Assouan 
and Alexandria in Egypt, an attempt 
which, considering the great imperfec- 
tion of his means, was remarkably suc- 
cessful, as, assuming that we are right 
in the length of the stadium he used, 
he made the circumference of the globe 
25,000 geographical miles, whereas it 
should be 21,600. 

He also devised the system of merid- 
ians and parallels as we now have them ; 
but the terms ‘‘ latitude’’ and ‘‘ longi- 
tude,’’ to denote positions on those cir- 
cles, were introduced by Ptolemy. 

The maps of Ptolemy, the great Alex- 
andrian astronomer and geographer of 
A. D. 150, are the earliest we possess. 
He drew, besides a general map of the 
whole known world from the southern | 
part of the Baltic to the Gulf of Guinea, 
north and south, and from the Canary 
Islands to the China Sea, east and west, 
a series of twenty-six maps of the dif- 
ferent parts. 

Ptolemy’s maps and his method of rep- 
resenting the spherical globe on a flat 
surface had a great influence on geog- 
raphy for many years. After his time 
the Greek civilization waned, and the 
general decline of the Roman Empire, 
followed by its disruption by the inva- 
sion of barbarians, closed the course of 
discovery inall branches of research for 
centuries. It is not too much to say 
that for 1300 years no advance was made, 
and until the commencement of explo- 
ration by sea, which accompanied the 
general revival of learning in the fif- 
teenth century, Ptolemy’s maps repre- 
sented the knowledge of the world. 

As might be expected, the further he 
got from the Mediterranean, the greater 
were hiserrors ; and his representations 


GEOGRAPHY 


of eastern Asia and northwestern Eu- 
rope are somewhat grotesque, though 
quite recognizable in the main. 

Of Africa south of the equator he 
knows nothing, and his map of it termi- 
mates with the border. 


AFRICA PROBABLY CIRCUMNAVI- 
GATED 600 B. C. 


This is somewhat remarkable, as I 
am one of those who firmly believe in 
the circumnavigation of Africa by the 
Phoenicians sent by Necho, King of 
Egypt, in 600 B. C. from the head of 
the Red Sea. As described by Herod- 
otus, the voyage has all the impress of 
veracity. My personal faith in Herod- 
otus was much strengthened by find- 
ing when I surveyed the Dardanelles in 
1872 that his dimensions of that strait 
were nearer the truth than those of other 
and later authorities, even down to the 
time at which I was at work, as well as 
by other geographical tests I was able 
to apply. When, therefore, he records 
that the Phcenicians declared that in 
their voyage they had the sun on their 
right hand, and says he does not believe 
it, he registers an item of information 
which goes far to prove the story cor- 
rect. Influenced by Hecatzus, who 
though surrounding Africa by the sea 
cut it far short of the equator, Herod- 
otus could not conceive that the trav- 
elers had passed to thesouth of the sun 
when it was in the southern tropic. 

No historical incident has been more 
discussed than this voyage, commen- 
tators varying much in their opinions 
of its truth. But we have today some 
new facts. No one who has followed 
the exploration of the ancient buildings 
in Rhodesia, and considered the infor- 
mation we possess on the early inhabit- 
ants of southern Arabia, whether we 
call them Sabzeans or Himyarites, can 
doubt that the former were mainly the 
work of men coming from Arabia ata 
very early date, whilethe period of time 
mecessary to carry out gold-mining op- 


489 


erations over the large areas now found 
to have been exploited must have been 
very great. 

It seems strange that no record of the 
constant voyages to this El Dorado 
should remain,. but the very natural 
desire to keep lucrative information to 
themselves is not an unknown thing 
among traders of the present day, 
while the conditions of society and the 
absence of written records of south 
Arabia would make concealment easy. 

The Pheenicians, an allied race and 
the great seafaring trading nation of the 
Mediterranean, succeeded in keeping the 
majority of their marts secret, and we 
have incidents recorded showing their 
determination not to allow others to fol- 
low their steps, while to this day we 
are very doubtful of the limits of their 
voyages. 

It may be considered certain that 
while we naturally quote Greek histo- 
rians and geographers as the early au- 
thorities for the growth of geographical 
knowledge, and that the scientific basis 
for proper maps of large areas was really 
provided by them, the seafaring na- 
tions—Arabians, Phoenicians, and Chi- 
nese—knew avery great deal practically 
of the coasts of various parts of the Old 
World that were absolutely unknown 
to the Greeks. 


THE PERIODIC WINDS ALONG THE 
COAST FAVORABLE 


The favorable conditions afforded by 
those remarkable periodic winds, the 
monsoons, would in the China Sea, Bay 
of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea natu- 
rally facilitate any attempts at extensive 
sea voyages, and would lead to such 
attempts under conditions that in the 
regions of variable winds would be con- 
sidered too dangerous and uncertain. 
The fact that the monsoons in nearly 
every case blow practically parallel to 
the coasts in opposite directions is a 
most important factor in considering 
early navigation. ‘The direction of the 


490 


wind itself in such cases roughly guides 
a vessel without a compass, and the pe- 
riods of cyclones and unsettled weather 
between the monsoons would soon be 
noted and avoided, as they are to this 
day by the Arabs and Chinese, whose 
vessels, I have very little doubt, have 
remained practically the same for thou- 
sands of years. 

The unknown Greek author of that 
unique and most interesting document, 
the ‘‘ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,’’ 
probably of the first century A. D., de- 
scribes vessels built without nails, the 
planks of which were bound together 
by cords, in precisely the same way as 
many Arab dhows now navigating the 
Indian Ocean. His personal knowl- 
edge of Africa evidently ceased at Cape 
Guardafui, though he gives informa- 
tion gained from others on the east 
coast as far as Zanzibar, which—or 
rather a part on the mainland near— 
he describes as the limit of trade to the 
south. We know that Arabs had pene- 
trated further, but no doubt they kept 
their knowledge to themselves. 


EARLY NAVIGATORS HAD CHARTS 
WHICH HAVE BEEN LOST 


These early navigators very proba- 
bly had charts. When Vasco da Gama 
first passed along the eastern coast of 
Africa he found that the Arab dhows 
had charts. Unfortunately none of 
them has come down to us, or it would 
have been interesting to compare them 
with those of the west coast used by 
the Portuguese at the time, and which 
were of the crudest description. 

I claim for sailors of all ages that 
they would be the first to make practi- 
cal maps of the shape of the coasts. 
Their safety and convenience demanded 
it, while it is a far easier task to com- 
pile such a picture of the earth from 
successive voyages along coasts over the 
sea, where average distances from known 
rates of sailing and courses from the sun 
and stars can be more accurately ascer- 


THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


tained, than from long and generally 
tortuous land journeys in directions 
governed by natural features, towns, 
and so forth. A navigator must be a 
bit of an astronomer. A landsman to 
this day seldom knows one star from 
another. 

It was the sea oe or portolant, of 
the Middle Ages that on the revival of 
learning first gave respectable repre- 
sentations of the shape of the coasts, at 
a time when the learned monks and 
others were drawing the most fantastic 
and absurd pictures, which they called 
maps. 

At the same time, it must be remem- 
bered that in all ages and down to the 
present day pilots who, within a hun- 
dred years were usually carried by all 
ships, even for sea voyages, jealously 
keep their knowledge largely in their 
heads, and look upon good charts as 
contrivances to destroy their profession, 
and that such charts or notes as they 
had they would keep religiously to poh 
fraternity. 

The Egyptians were no sailors, pat 
we know that they habitually employed 
Phoenicians for sea expeditions, while 
we have the historical record of the Old 
Testament for their employment by 
David and Solomon for a like purpose 
in the Red Sea, and probably far to the 
south. It is therefore almost impossi- 
ble to doubt that the Phoenicians were 
also acquainted with the navigation of 
the Red Sea and east coast of Africa. 
Such a voyage as that recorded by He- 
rodotus would in these circumstances 
be far from improbable. 

The varying monsoons which had led 
the Arabians centuries before to get so 
intimate a knowledge of the east coast 
as to enable them to find and work the 
gold fields would be well known to the 
Pheenicians and the hardy seamen who 
braved the tempestuous regions lying 
between Cadiz and Great Britain would 
make little of the difficulties of the 
African seas. 


i = 


GEOGRAPHY 


The limit of easy navigation from and 
to the Red Sea is Sofala. Ido not think 
that it is too great a use of imagination 
to suppose that it would be from infor- 
mation received in what is now north 
Rhodesia that it was learnt that to the 
westward lay the sea again, and that this 
fed-to the attempt to reach it by the 
south. 

Once started from the neighborhood 
of Sofala, they would find themselves in 
that great oceanic stream, the Agulhas 
Current, which would carry them rap- 
idly to the southern extremity of Africa. 

I, as a sailor, can also even conceive 
that finding themselves in that strong 
current they would be alarmed and at- 
tempt to turn back, and that after 
struggling in vain against it they would 
have accepted the inevitable and gone 
with it, and that without the Agulhas 
Current no such complete voyage of cir- 
cumnavigation would have been made. 

As Major Rennell in the last century 
pointed out, once past the Cape of Good 
Hope, the periodic winds and, over a 
great part of their journey, the currents 
would help them up the West African 
coast, and the general conditions of 
navigation are favorable the whole way 
to the Straits of Gibraltar, the ships 
keeping, as they would do, near the 
land ; but we can well understand that, 
as recorded, the voyage occupied nearly 
three years, and that they halted from 
time to time to sow and reap crops. I 
should say that it is highly probable 
that either Simon’s Bay or Table Bay 
was selected as one of these stopping 
places. 


THE WELL-KNOWN SECRECY OF THE 
PHGNICIAN VOYAGERS 


No reference to this voyage has been 
found among the hieroglyphic records, 
and, indeed, so far few such records of 
Necho, whose reign was not for long, 
are known, but that it was regarded at 
the time as historical is evident, for 
Xerxes, a hundred years later, sent an 


49h 


expedition to repeat it in the contrary 
direction. 

This, however, failed, and the unfor- 
tunate leader, Sataspes, was impaled on 
his unsuccessful return. 

This attempt shows that the greater 
difficulty of the circumnavigation from 
west to east, as compared with that 
from east to west, was not realized, and 
points to the concealment of any details 
of the successful voyage. 

Of Hanno’s voyage from the Straits 
of Gibraltar to about Sierra Leone, the 
date of which is uncertain, but from 500 
to 600 B. c., we should know little had 
not good fortune preserved the record 
deposited in a Carthaginian temple. 

But the well-known secrecy of the 
Phoenicians in all matters connected with 
their foreign trade and voyages would 
explain why so little was known of 
Necho’s voyage, and our present knowl- 
edge of the extensive ancient gold work- 
ings of Rhodesia shows how much went 
on in those times of which we are wholly 
ignorant. 

I have dwelt perhaps too long on this 
subject, but it has to me a great inter- 
est, and as it has not, so far as I know, 
been dealt with by a seaman who is per- 
sonally well acquainted with the ways 
of seamen in sailing ships and with the 
navigation of the coasts in question, I 
hope I may be excused for putting my 
views on record. 

There are several references in Greek 
and Latin historians to other circum- 
navigations, but none of them can be 
trusted, and apart from Necho’s voyage 
we hear nothing of the east and south 
coasts of Africa until the arrival of the 
Portuguese at the end of the fifteenth 
century. But they found a thriving 
civilization along the coast from Sofala 
northward—Shirazi, Arab, and Indian. 

Ruins exist in many places which 
have not yet been properly investigated, 
and we are quite unable to say from 
what date we are to place the earliest 
foreign settlements, nor how many 


492 


breaks existed in the continuity of the 
gold mining, which apparently was pro- 
ceeding at or very shortly before the 
Portuguese visit. 

After the recommencement of explo- 
ration by sea in the fifteenth century, 
seamen slowly gathered enough infor- 
mation to draw the lines of the coasts 
they passed along, and in time—that is, 
by the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
tury—most lands were shown with ap- 
proximately their right shapes. But of 
true accuracy there was none, for the 
reason I have before mentioned, that 
there was noexact method of obtaining 
longitude. 

If we look at a general world chart of 
A. D. 1755—and to get the best of that 
period we must consult a French chart— 
we shall find on this small scale that the 
shape of the continents is fairly repre- 
sentative of the truth. But when we 
examine details we soon see how crude 
it all is. 


THE BEST CHARTS OF 1755, ON AN 
AVERAGE, FORTY-EIGHT MILES 
IN ERROR 


I have compared with their true posi- 
tions the positions of thirty-one of what 
may be taken as the fundamental points 
in the world as given in the larger scaled 
French charts of 1755, from which the 
general one is drawn, and I find that on 
an average they are forty-eight miles in 
error. ‘The errors vary from 160 miles 
to 2 miles. If the delineation of the 
coast lines between be considered, the 
inaccuracies are very much greater. 

Very shortly after this date more ac- 
curate determinations began to be made. 
The method of lunar distances was per- 
fected and facilitated by tables published 
in the various astronomical ‘‘ ephemer- 
ides,’’ and seamen and explorers com- 
menced to make useof it. Still the ob- 
servation required constant practice, and 
the calculation, unless constantly made, 
was laborious, and it was used with 
complete success by thefew. The great 


‘LHe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Captain Cook, who may be looked upon 
as the fatherof modern methods of sur- 
veying, did much to show the value of 
this method ; but the chronometer came 
into use shortly after, and the principal 
advance in exact mapping was made by 
its aid, as I have already stated. 

There is a vast amount yet to be done 
for geography. Until we possess pub- 
lications to which we can turn for full 
information on all geographical aspects 
of things on this globe of ours, there is 
work to bedone. Seeing that our pres- 
ent publications are only now beginning 
to be worthy of being considered trust- 
worthy for the very small amount of 
knowledge that we already possess, geo- 
graphical work in all its branckesis prac- 
tically never-ending. 


VERY LITTLE OF EXPLORATION 
REMAINS TO BE DONE 


But of exploration pure and simple 
very little remains to be done. ‘The 
charm of traveling through and describ- 
ing an entirely new country which may 
be practically serviceable to civilized 
man has been taken from us by our pre- 
decessors, though limited regions still 
remain in Central Asia and South Amer- 
ica of which we know little in detail. 

I must except the Polar regions, which 
are in a somewhat special category, as 
their opening up affords few attractions 
to many people. But a knowledge of 
the past history of our globe—fit study 
for human thought—can only be gained 
by study of the portions still under 
glacial conditions. 

What is there round the South Pole— 
a continent or a group of large islands? 
What is going on there? What thick- 
ness doesice attain? Have these regions 
always been glaciated, and if not, why 
not? Can we get any nearer the mys- 
tery of magnetism and its constant 
changes by study at or near the mag- 
netic poles? All these and many other 
scientific questions can only be solved 
by general geographical research in 


~ GEOGRAPHY 


these regions, and all interested in such 
questions have been delighted at the re- 
cent attempts to gain more knowledge. 

The object of these «xpeditions was 
frankly and purely scientific. All hope 
of remunerative whale or seal fisheries 
had been dispelled by the visit of the 
Norwegian whalers in 18¢2 to the region 
south of Cape Horn, and the known gen- 
eral condition of the land forbade any 
expectation of other profitable indus- 
tries, unless, indeed, gold and other val- 
uable minerals should be found, which 
isalways possible. Beyond the fact that 
exploring expeditions of this character 
keep alive the spirit of enterprise and 
bring out the finest characteristics of a 
race—which is a point by no means to 
be despised—no immediate practical 
benefit was to be expected. 

Progress under the conditions must be 
slow, but I think that Great Britain may 
well be satisfied with the information 
collected in the Antarctic by Capt. R. F. 
Scott and his gallant companions The 
unfortunate detention of the Duscovery 
by an unfavorable summer prevented 
the further coastal exploration which 
was part of the programme, but gave op- 
portunity for further detailed examina- 
tion of the inland conditions, which was 
carried out in defiance of the severest 
atmospheric and topographical difficul- 
ties, and with the greatest zeal and in- 
telligence; and it may be doubted 
whether science in the end has not gained 
more than she lost by the unexpected 
diversion of energy. The healthy con- 
ditions which prevailed throughout area 
standing proof both of Captain Scott’s 
eminent capacity asa leader and of the 
cheery spirit which animated the whole 
expedition. The full results of the sci- 
entific observations are not yet worked 
out, and in many cases for a complete 
appreciation of their bearing they must 
be compared and correlated with those 
of the other Antarctic expeditions, but 
many highly suggestive points have al- 
ready been revealed. 


goo) 


For the firsttime Antarctic continental 
land has been traveled over for long dis- 
tances, and though the actual area of 
new discovery looks small on a map of 
the world, the distances covered can only 
be described as extraordinary, and far 
exceeding the most sanguine anticipa- 
tions. Hew who considered the moun- 
tainous coast line of Victoria Land and 
its complete glaciation, as reported by 
Sir James Ross from his distant view, 
thought that it would prove practicable 
not only to ascend those mountains, but 
to reach to heights much surpassing 
them behind. 

The reason that it proved feasible is 
that, while there are occasional heavy 
snowstorms, theannual snowfallissmall, 
and the surface, therefore, is generally 
unencumbered with soft deep snow. 

And what did Captain Scott find after 
his memorable struggle up the glacier 
through the mountains? 

An enormous plateau at an elevation 
of about 9,000 feet, nearly level, smooth, 
and featureless, over which he traveled 
directly inland for more than 200 miles, 
seeing no sign at his farthest point of 
any termination or alteration in charac- 
ter. So far as could be seen from other 
journeys, glacial discharge from this. 
great ice-sheet is very small, and prac- 
tically it appears tobedead. Its accre- 
tion by fresh snowfall is insignificant, 
while on all sides along the flanks of the 
coastal mountains there are signs of 
diminution in the mass of ice. 


THE GREAT ICE MASS IN THE ANT- 
ARCPICSMS APPARENTLY 
DISAPPEARING 


The great ice-barrier east of Ross 
Island tells the same tale. This mag- 
nificent feature presents to the sea a face 
of perpendicular ice cliffs varying from 
60 to 240 feet in height and 450 sea miles 
long. Sir J. Ross mapped its position 
in 1841, and Captain Scott finds that it 
has retreated on an average 15 miles, 
varying much in different parts. 


4.94 


Should this rate of retreat continue, 
the whole of thisice mass, so far as Cap- 
tain Scott saw it, will have vanished in 
1,000 years. 

As the motion of the ice mass is also 
about 15 miles to the north in the same 
time, icebergs covering collectively an 
area of 450 miles by 30 have been dis- 
charged from it in 60 years. 

Captain Scott traveled over it nearly 
due south to a point 300 miles from its 
face, and then saw no sign of its end. 

It is bordered on its western side by 
a mountainous coast line, rising in places 
to 15,000 feet. He found the ice prac- 
tically flat and wholly unfissured, ex- 
cept at the side, where its northerly 
motion, found to be about 130 feet in the 
month, caused shearing and vast cre- 
vasses. All that is known of its eastern 
edge is that it is bordered, where it 
meets the sea, by land from 2,000 to 
3,000 feet high, suspected by Ross and 
verified by Captain Scott. This may be 
an island, or more probably the eastern 
side of the great fiord or bay now filled 
by the barrier. 

Captain Scott is of opinion that this 
great ice-sheet is afloat throughout, and 
I entirely agree with this conclusion. 
It is unexpected, but everything points 
to it. From soundings obtained along 
the face, it undoubtedly has about 600 
feet of water under it. 

It is difficult to believe that this enor- 
mous weight of ice, 450 miles by at least 
360, and perhaps very much more, with 
no fall to help it along by gravity, can 
have behind it a sufficient force in true 
land glacier to overcome the stupendous 
friction and put it in motion if it be rest- 
ing on the bottom. It is sufficiently 
astonishing that there is force enough 
even to overcome the cohesion at the 
side, which must be very great. 

The flat nature of the bottom of the 
Ross Sea and the analogies of many geo- 
graphical details in other parts of the 
world make it most probable that the 
water under the whole barrier is deep. 


Tue NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


A point on which I have seen no com- 
ment is the difference in the appearance 
of the slopes of Mount Terror. Captain 
Scott found the bare land showing over 
large areas, but during the two summers 
of Ross’s visit it was wholly snow-clad. 
Sir Joseph Hooker, the sole survivor 
of Ross’s expedition, when questioned 
had no doubt on the subject and pro- 
duced many sketches in support. 

This may be due to temporary causes, 
but all the information collected by the 
expedition points without doubt to 
steadily diminishing glaciation in recent 
times. We have, therefore, this inter- 
esting fact, that both’ im JArectic and 
Antarctic regions, as indeed all over the 
world, ice conditions are simultaneously 
ameliorating, and theories of alternate 
northern and southern maximum glaci- 
ations seem so far disproved. 

But this does not mean that climatic 
conditions in the Antarctic are now less 
severe—probably the contrary. It has 
been pointed out by many that land 
glaciation may arise from varied primary 
causes, but one obvious necessity is that 
the snowfall should exceed - melting 
and evaporation. It need not be heavy, 
but if it is it may produce glaciation 
under somewhat unexpected conditions. 
This would entail a vapor-laden air more 
or less continuously impinging upon the 
land at a temperature which will enable 
it when cooled, either by passing over 
chilled land or when raised to higher 
regions by the interposition of moun- 
tains, to give up its moisture freely. 
This condition is not fulfilled when the 
air as it arrives from the sea is already 
at a very low temperature. 

It was my fortune to spend two long 
seasons in the Straits of Magellan, and 
I was daily more impressed by what I 
saw. 

There you have a mountainous ridge 
of no great height—very few peaks 
rising more than 4,000 feet—opposed 
to the almost continuous westerly winds 
pouring in from the Pacific at a very 


GEOGRAPHY 


moderate temperature and charged with 
much moisture. 

The result is that in the latitude of 
Yorkshire every mountain mass over 
3,000 feet high is covered with eternal 
snow and sends glaciers down to the sea. 

I was convinced by what was going 
on under my eyes that it only required 
an upheaval of the land of 2,000 feet or 
so to cover the whole of Patagonia with 
ice. But then the climate would still 
not be very severe. The temperature 
of the wind from the sea would be the 
same, and such part of it as blew along 
the channels and on the lower land 
would moderate the cold caused by the 
ice-covered slopes. 

The shores of the whole of western 
southern Patagonia, deeply indented 
with long and deep fiords, indicate, ac- 
cording to all received views of the 
origin of such formations, that the land 
was formerly higher, while signs of 
glaciation are everywhere present. 


CHANGES OF CLIMATE 


The results of geographical research 
show us that in many parts of the world 
climate must have greatly changed in 
comparatively recent times. 

In the now arid regions of northern 
Africa, central North America, and in 
parts of Asia, there is ample evidence 
that the climate was in times past more 
humid. Ina remarkable paper on the 
causes of changes of climate, contributed 
by Mr F. W. Harmer to the Geological 
- Society in 1901, and which has not ob- 
tained the notice it deserves, it is pointed 
out how changes in the distribution of 
the prevalent winds would vastly alter 
climatic conditions. Like everything 
else in nature, and especially in the de- 
partment of meteorology, these ques- 
tions are exceedingly complex, and 
similar results may be brought about in 
different ways; but therecan be nodoubt 
that the climate of South Africa would 
be greatly modified, and more rainfall 
would occur, if only the cyclonic storms 


4e)5) 


which now chase each other to the east- 
ward in the ocean south of the Cape of 
Good Hope could be prevailed upon to 
pursue a slightly more northerly line, 
and many obstacles to the agricultural 
prospects of South Africa now existing 
would be removed. This is, howevc 
beyond the powers of man to effect; 
but, as I have just said, there are other 
ways of attaining the object, and it is 
earnestly to be hoped that the attention 
now being paid to afforestation may re- 
sult in vigorous efforts to bring about 
by this means the improvement in hu- 
midity so much required in many parts 
of the country. 


NEW KNOWLEDGE OF TIBET 


The other recent event in geograph- 
ical exploration is the result of the 
expedition to Lhasa. It was an un- 
expected solution of this long-desired 
knowledge that it should come from 
political necessities and by means of a 
government mission. The many ardent 
travelers who have dreamed of one day 
making their way in by stealth have 
thus been disappointed, but our knowl- 
edge is now fuller than could otherwise 
have been gathered. 

The most important fact is the reve- 
lation of the fertility of a large part of 
southern Tibet. Much has been added 
to topographical knowledge, but the 
route maps of the secret Indian native 
surveyors already had given us a rough 
knowledge of the country on the road 
to Lhasa. It was not, however, real- 
ized how great was the difference be- 
tween the aridity of the vast regions of 
the north, known to us from the travels 
of men of various nationalities, and the 
better-watered area in the south, though 
from the great height of the plateau— 
some 12,000 feet—the climate is very 
severe. ‘The upper course of the Brah- 
maputra has been traced by Captain 
Ryder, but unfortunately a political veto 
was placed on the project to solve the 
interesting problem of how this great 


496 


river finds its way to the Indian plains, 
and this still remains for the future to 
unravel. 


RECENT STUDY OF THE OCEANS HAS 
BROUGHT MUCH 410 TIGHT 


It is of the ocean, more than of any 
other physical feature of our globe, 
that our knowledge has increased of late 
years. Forty years ago we were pro- 
foundly ignorant even of its depth, with 
the exception of a few lines of sound- 
ings then recently taken for the first 
submarine telegraph cables, and conse- 
quently we knew nothing of its real vast 
bulk. As to the life in it and the laws 
which govern the distribution of such 
life, we were similarly ignorant, as of 
many other details. 

The Challenger expedition changed 
all this, and gave an impetus to oceano- 
graphic research which has in the hands 
of all nations borne much fruit. 

Soundings have been obtained over 
all parts of the seas, even in the two 
Polar seas; and, though much remains 
to be done, we can now form a very 
close approximation to the amount of 
water on our earth, while the term ‘‘ un- 
fathomable ocean’’ has been shown to 
have been based on an entire miscon- 
ception. Biological research has also 
revealed a whole world of living forms 
at all depths, of the existence of which 
nothing was known before. 

In my former address, eleven years 
ago, I gave many details about the sea, 
of which I will only repeat one—which 
is a fact that every one should know— 
and that is that the bulk of the ocean 
is about fourteen times as great as that 
of the dry land above water, and that if 
the whole of that land were thrown into 
the Atlantic Ocean it would only fill 
one-third of it. 

Eleven years ago the greatest depth 
known was 4,700 fathoms, or 28,000 
feet. We have since found several places 
in the Pacific where the depth is nearly 
5,170 fathoms, or 31,000 feet, or some- 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


what higher than Mount Everest, which 
has been lately definitely shown to be 
the culminating point of the Himalayas. 
These very deep parts of the ocean are 
invariably near land, are apparently in 
the shape of troughs, and are probably 
due to the original crumpling of the 
earth’s surface under slow contraction. 


THE EFFECT OF THE SEA UPON 
CLIMATE 


The enormous area of the sea has a 
great effect upon climate, but not so 
much in the direct way formerly be- 
lieved. While a mass of warm or cold 
water off a coast must to some extent 
modify temperature, a greater direct 
cause is the winds, which, however, are 
in many parts the effect of the distribu- 
tion of warm and cold water in the 
ocean perhaps thousands of miles away. 


Take the United Kingdom, notoriously 


warm and damp for its position in lati- 
tude. This is due mainly to the preva- 
lence of westerly winds. ‘These winds, 
again, are part of cyclonic systems prin- 
cipally engendered off the coasts of — 
eastern North America and Newfound- 
land, where hot and cold sea currents, 
impinging on one another, give rise to 
great variations of temperature and 
movements of the atmosphere which 
start cyclonic systems traveling east- 
ward. RS 

The center of the majority of these 
systems passes north of Great Britain. 
Hence the warm and damp parts of 
them strike the country with westerly 
winds which have also pushed the warm 
water left by the dying-out current of the 
Gulf Stream off Newfoundland across 
the Atlantic, and raises the temperature 
of the sea off Britain. 

When the cyclonic systems pass south 
of England, as they occasiona?ly do, 
cold northeast and north winds are the 
result, chilling the country despite the 
warm water surrounding the islands. 

It only requires a rearrangement of 
the direction of the main Atlantic cur+ 


GEOGRAPHY 


rents wholly to change the climate of 
western Europe. Such an arrange- 
ment would be effected by the submer- 
gence of the Isthmus of Panama and 
adjacent country, allowing the equa- 
torial current to pass into the Pacific. 
The gale factory of the western Atlantic 
would then be greatly reduced. 

The area south of the Cape of Good 
Hope is another birthplace of great 
cyclonic systems, the warm Agulhas 
Current meeting colder water moving 
up from the Polar regions; but in the 
Southern Ocean the conditions of the 
distribution of land are different, and 
these systems sweep round and round 
the world, only catching and affecting 
the south part of Tasmania, New Zea- 
land, and Patagonia. 


MOVEMENTS OF THE LOWER STRATA 
OF WATER 


In 1894 I spoke of the movements of 
the lower strata of water in the sea asa 
subject on which we were only begin- 
ning to get a little light. Since that 
year we have learnt a little more. It 
is a common idea that at the bottom of 
the sea all is still ; but this isa mistake, 
even for the deepest parts, for the tidal 
influence reaches to the bottom and 
keeps every particle in motion, though 
such motion is quiet and slow. 

Near the shore, however, though still 
in deep water, the movement may be 
considerably increased. Cases have oc- 
curred in late years where submarine 
cables have broken several hundred 
fathoms deep, and when picked up for 
repair it has been found that the iron 
wire covering has been literally rubbed 
away as byafile. Thiscan only be the 
result of an undercurrent along the bot- 


tom moving the cable to and fro. Such a: 


current might be caused by asubmarine 
spring, for there is no doubt that much 
fresh water finds its way into the ocean 
in this fashion, but it is more probably 
generally an effect of acceleration‘of the 
tidal movement due to the rising slope 


oH 


of the continent. In connection with 
this, further facts have come to light in 
the course of recent marine surveys. 

Many isolated shoal spots in the great 
oceans have figured in our charts, the 
results of reports by passing sailors who 
have said they have seen breakers in fine 
weather. 

Such places are the terror of seamen, 
and it is part of the duty of surveying 
ships to verify or disprove them. Very 
much has been done in the last eighteen 
years, with the result that the majority 
of them have, as dangers, disappeared. 
In many cases, however, a bank has 
been found, deep in the ordinary ac- 
ceptation of the word, but much less 
deep than the surrounding sea—solitary 
ridges, in fact, rising from the ocean 
floor. Frequently, in examining these 
banks in search of shoaler spots, breakers 
have been reported and recognized as 
such on board the surveying ship from a . 
distance, but on approach they have 
proved to be small overcurls caused by 
tide ripplings, and the depth of water has 
proved to be several hundred fathoms. 
These ripplings are clearly caused by 
the small tidal motion in the deep water, 
generally in these cases of more than 
2,000 fathoms, meeting the slope of the 
submerged mountain range, being con- 
centrated and accelerated until the water 
finally flows up the top of the slope asa 
definite current, and taking the line of 
least resistance, that to the surface, 
makes itself visible in the shape which 
we are accustomed to associate with com- 
paratively shallow water. 

These cases form remarkable instances 
of the manner in which extensive motion 
of water may arise from very small be- 
ginnings. 

An observation I was anxious to make 
in 1894 has been successfully carried out 
since. This was to ascertain whether 
there was any permanent undercurrent 
in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb due to 
more water being forced through the 
straits on the surface by the persistent 


498 


southeast wind of winter than could be 
evaporated in the closed Red Sea. 

Such return undercurrents have in 
somewhat similar circumstances been 
shown to exist in the Dardanelles, Strait 
of Gibraltar, and in the Suez Canal. 

The observation at Bab-el-Mandeb 
was difficult. The wind is strong and 
the disturbance of the sea is consider- 
able, while the water is 120 fathoms, or 
700 feet, deep. But a surveying vessel 
maintained herself at anchor there dur- 
ing four days, and, by the aid of an in- 
genious apparatus sent from England 
for the purpose, clearly proved the exist- 
ence of a current of 1% knots flowing 
steadily at depths below 70 fathoms out 
of the Red Sea, while in the upper strata 
there was a similar current flowing in. 
In such ways is interchange of water 
provided for by nature in places where 
tidal action does not suffice. 


MARVELOUS PROGRESS OF AFRICA 


In what I fear is a very discursive 
address I have not mentioned the in- 
terior of Africa. In the first place, it 
is a subject of itself; and as we shall 
have, I hope, many papers on African 
subjects, I have thought it better to deal 
mainly with generalities. 

Still I cannot refrain from a few words 
to express the astonishment I always 
feel when I hear people complain that 
Africa goes slow. When I look at what 
has been effected in my own lifetime, it 
appears to me that, on the contrary, it 
has been rushed. ‘The maps I learned 
from asa boy showed the whole interior 
as a blank. ‘There are now no parts 
that are not more or less known. ‘The 
great lakes have all been revealed ; the 
great rivers have all been traced ; Euro- 
peans are now firmly fixed with decent 
governments in parts formerly a prey 
to tribal wars and the atrocities of 
the inland slave traffic. Railways are 
running over regions unknown forty 


Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


years ago, and one of the most astonish- 
ing things to me is that I should be able 
to hope now to visit in comfort and 
luxury the great Victoria Falls, which 
my old friend Sir John Kirk—whom I 
left the other day hale and hearty—was, 
with the exception of Livingstone, the 
first white man to see, after a long and 
laborious journey in his company in 
1860. 

I could not help being amused as well 
as interested at seeing a short time agoa 
proclamation by the government of 
Northern Rhodesia, dated not far from 
Lake Bangweolo, calling on all con- 
cerned to observe neutrality during the 
present war between Russia and Japan. 
I think that if any one had prophesied 
to Livingstone, as he lay in 1873 lonely 
and dying by the shores of that newly 
discovered lake, that such an edict would 
be issued in thirty years he would have 
expressed a doubt as to its fulfillment. 

To southern Africa nature has denied 
two of the features that facilitate rapid 
progress—good harbors and _ sufficient 
rainfall—but the energy of man has done 
wonders to provide the former where 
possible, and will doubtless do more, 
while I believe that the lack of the 
latter will also be overcome in the same 
way. The coordinated—or, in other 
words, thescientific—observations made 
in many other countries have pointed 
out a possible solution. On the other 
hand, the height of the inland plateaux 
makes it possible for the white man to 
live and work in latitudes which would 
under other conditions be tropical. 

South Africa must have a great future 
before it ; and, while some present cir- 
cumstances may delay development of 
its natural advantages, I am inclined to 
think that in the long run prosperity 
may be more solid and material for being 
reached in the face of difficulties, as has 
so often occurred in the history of the 


‘world. 
€ 


—— 


THE SUPPOSED BIRTHPLACE OF 
CIVILIZATIONS: 


T can bestated without exaggeration 
that in central Asia, particularly in 
Russian Turkestan, there are hun- 

dreds, perhapsthousands, of square miles 
of buried towns and cities. What pro- 
cesses of nature converted the region 
from a Garden of Eden, filled with mil- 
lions of prosperous and wealthy people, 
into waterless wastes, inhabited only by 
nomads, are mysteries, to solve which 
little attempt has been made until re- 
cently. 

Mr Raphael Pumpelly, known so 
widely for his work in China, suggested 
to the Carnegie Institution in 1902 that 
an examination of the Turkestan ruins 
might (1) reveal the birthplace of civil- 
ization, (2) show how changes in man’s 
environment alter man himself, and (3) 
give a clue to recent geological time, 
which is now more or less told by guess- 
ing. Inasmuch as geological changes 
have occurred in central Asia since man 
has lived there, evidence may be discov- 
ered among the traces left by the earlier 
inhabitants which will tell how long 
these changes were in the making. 

The Carnegie Institution gave Mr 


Pumpelly a grant sufficient to enable 
him to make an extended reconnaissance 
of Turkestan. Mr Pumpelly was accom- 
panied by Prof. William M. Davis, of 
Harvard University, and Mr Ellsworth 
Huntington. The results have just 
been published in a special volume by the 
Carnegie Institution.* In view of the 
exceeding importance of the investiga- 
tion, we make the following liberal 
quotations from Mr Pumpelly’s report: 

The investigation was proposed be- 
cause (1) there is a school that still 
holds the belief that central Asia is the 
region in which the great civilizations 
of the Far Hast and of the West had 
their origin; and (2) because of the 
supposed occurrence in that region, in 
prehistoric times, of great changes of 
climate, resulting in the formation and 
recession of an extensive Asian Medi- 
terranean, of which the Aral, Caspian, 
and Black seas are the principal rem- 
nants. 


* Explorations in Turkestan, by Raphael 
Pumpelly, William M. Davis, and Ellsworth 
Huntington, with 174 illustrations and maps. 
Pp. 325,9 x I2inches. Washington, Carnegia 
Institution, 1905. 


Paikent, a Sand-buried City 


The ruins of Paikent represent the type of cities abandoned for lack of water and then buried 


by the progressive desert sands. Paikent was a great center of wealth and of commerce between 
‘China and the west and south till in the early centuries of ourera. The recessions of the lower 
ends of the Zerafshan River brought its doom. Now only the citadel mound and the top of parts 
of its walls rise above the waves of the invading sands. 


500 


Tur NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


From Wm. M. Davis, Carnegie Institution 


A Sand Dune Advancing Across the Desert 


It had long seemed to me that a study 
of central Asian archeology would prob- 
ably yield important evidence in the 
genealogy of the great civilizations and 
of several at least of the dominant races, 
and that a parallel study of the traces 
of physical changes during Quaternary 
time might show some coincidence be- 
tween the phases of social evolution and 
the changes in environment; further, 
that it might be possible to correlate the 
physical and human records and thus 
furnish a contribution to the scale of 
recent geology. 

While we have been surprised at the 
abundance of the data in natural and 
artificial records offered by the region 
toward these solutions, we are impressed 
with a realization of the intimate rela- 


tion in which this region stands to the 
Quaternary and prehistoric history of the 
whole continent. Physically it forms 
part of the great interior region extend- 
ing from the Mediterranean to Manchu- 
ria, whose history has been one of por- 
gressive desiccation, but in Russian 
Turkestan the effects of this have been 
mitigated by the snows of the lofty 
ranges and the lower altitude of the 
plains. 

Archeologically this region has, 


through a long period, been a center — 


of production and commerce, connect- 
ing the eastern, western, and southern 
nations, and its accumulating wealth 
has made it repeatedly the prey of in- 
vading armies. It has been from re- 
mote time the field of contact and con- 


Tue SupposeD BirTHPLACE OF CIVILIZATION 501 


From Wm. M. Davis, Carnegie Lnstitution 


Ae ssequle of Medizeval Samarkand 


The ruins of Samarkand are very extensive. Its position must have made it an important 
center for commerce and wealth probably throughout the whole period of prehistoric occupa- 
tion, as it has been during historic times. Situated in the heart of the very fertile oasis of the 
Zerafshan River, it lies also on the most open and easiest carayan routes connecting China and 
eastern Turkestan with Afghanistan, India, and Persia. Samarkand has, even within the past 
two thousand years, been sacked, destroyed, and rebuilt many times. Like Mery, its rebuild- 
ings have often been on adjoining sites, and the determining of the whole area covered by these 
various sites remains to be made. There is evidence that it is very extensive. 

As in all Turkestan, so at Samarkand, the older structures still standing are those of the 
Mohammedan period. The many immense and wonderfully decorated mosques built by 
Tamerlane, though now falling into ruin, belong among the wonders of the world; and this 
not only on account of their great size, but also because of the beauty of their decoration. 
Seen from Afrosiab, these ruins tower high above the rich foliage of the oasis city—evidence 
of the wealth of treasure that Tamerlane had accumulated in Turkestan within two centuries 
after Genghis Khan had sacked the country and massacred much of the population. 


test between the Turanian and Aryan 
stocks; but its problems, both physical 
and archeological, are partsof the greater 
problem underlying the study of the de- 
velopment of man and his civilization on 
the great continent and of the environ- 
ment conditioning that development. 
The many fragmentary peoples sur- 
viving in the remote corners and in the 
protected mountain fastnesses of Asia, 
preserving different languages, arts, and 
customs, indicate a very remote period 


of differentiation, with subsequent long 
periods for separate development. They 
point also to the long periods of unrest 
and battling in which the survivors of 
the vanquished were forced into their 
present refuges. And this unrest was 
probably the remote prototype of that 
which in the later prehistoric and his- 
toric time sent out its waves from the 
Aralo-Caspian basin. It was probably 
from the beginning a condition in which 
the slowly progressive change toward 


502 


aridity in the interior Asia was ever 
forcing emigration outward, displacing 
other peoples, and thus working against 
the establishment of a stable equilibrium 
of population. Asia is thus the field for 
applying all the comparative sciences 
that relate to the history of man—the 
materials that lie in cave deposits, in 
rock pictographs, in tumuli, dolmens, 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRaPHic ,MAGAZINE . 


records buried in ashes and earth; but 
the fertility of the soil produced wealth, 
and the position kept it ever a commer- 
cial center. , 

So far as our problems of archeology 
and physical geography are concerned, 
Turkestan is practically a virgin field. 
In geology and cartography the Russians 
have done a surprising amount of ex- 


From Ellsworth Huntington, Carnegie Institution 


Folds in the Limestone in the Sugun Valley west of Shor Kul, looking west 


and ruined towns, in languages, cus- 
toms, religions, design patterns, and 
anthropological measurements. 
Turkestan, from its geographical po- 
sition, must have been the stage on 
which the drama of Asiatic life was 
epitomized through all these ages of 
ferment. Peoples and civilizations ap- 
peared and disappeared, leaving their 


cellent work ; but the modern methods 
of physico-geographic study have been 
only begun to be applied, and the little 
archeological work done there has been 
mostly in the nature of hunting curios 
and treasure, chiefly by foreigners, and 
in so destructive a manner that the 
Russian government has till now wisely 
prohibited excavations. 


ee ae ee 


oe e -. 
ge 
Ai 


THE Suppos—ED BIRTHPLACE OF CIVILIZATION 


The thickness of made earth in the 
abandoned sites of Turkestan is suffi- 
cient to give reason for expecting evi- 
dences of very long-continued occupa- 


Sy ee) 


met with—the earth itself, the charac- 
ter, the position, and association of frag- 
ments—is part of history cannot fail to 
be most fruitful in results. 


From Ellsworth Huntington, Carnegie Institution 


Limestone Gorge of the Western Kichik Alai 


Where it enters the Ispairan River on the north side of the Alai Mountains. 


Probably 


the upper portion of the gorge was widened by a glacier, and the narrow slit at the bottom 
represents post-Glacial cutting. The main valley, from the side of which the photograph was 
taken, is clearly of glacial origin, and the side valley must have borne a hanging relation to 


that of the master stream. 


pation. 
makes possible the preservation of any 
traces of written or incised documents 
that may have existed. Excavation con- 
ducted with the idea that everything 


The dryness of the climate 


We have shown that the recent phys- 
ical history of the region is legibly re- 
corded in glacial sculpture and moraines, 
in orogenic movements, in valley-cutting 
and terracing, in lake expansions, and 


504 


Tue NatTIioNnaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


The Kirghiz in the Alai Valley 


in the building up of the plains, and we 
have made some progress in correlating 
these events. 

We have also found full confirmation 
of the statements as to a progressive 
desiccation of the region of long stand- 
ing which has froma remote period con- 


tinually converted cultivable lands into’ 


deserts and buried cities in sand. 
We have found widely distributed 


PROPORTION OF CHILDREN 
UNITED 


ANY interesting suggestions as 
to the probable tendency of the 
birth rate in the United States 

are offered in a bulletin by Walter F. 
Willcox entitled ‘‘Proportionof Children 
in the United States,’’ recently pub- 
lished by the Bureau of the Census. 


great and small abandoned sites of 
human occupation with evidences of 
great antiquity. 

We have reason to think that a cor- 
relation of these physical and human 
events may be obtained through con- 
tinuance of the investigation, and that 
archeological excavations will throw 
light on the origin of Western and East- 
ern civilizations. 


IN Peas 
STATES 


At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century the children under Io years of 
age constituted one-third and at the end 
less than one-fourth of the total popu- 
lation. ‘The decrease in this proportion 
began as early as the decade 1810 to 
1820, and continued wuninterruptedly, 


CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES 


though at varying rates, in each suc- 
cessive decade. This of itself, however, 
is not enough to prove a declining birth 
tate, as the decrease in the proportion 
of children in the total population may 
indicate merely an increase in the aver- 
age duration of life and the consequent 
survival of a larger number of adults. 

But by taking the proportion of chil- 
dren to women of child-bearing age we 
are able to get a more satisfactory index 
of the movement of the birth rate. Be- 
tween 1850 and 1860, the earliest decade 
for which figures can be obtained, this 
proportion increased. But since 1860 
it has decreased without interruption. 
The decrease has been very unequal 
from decade to decade, but if twenty- 
year periods are considered, it has been 
very regular. In 1860 the number of 
children under 5 years of age to 1,000 
women 15 to 49 years of age was 634 ; in 
1900 it was only 474. In other words, 
the proportion of children to potential 
mothers in 1900 was only three-fourths 
as large as in 1860. One is thus led to 
the conclusion that there has been a per- 
sistent decline in the birth rate since 1860. 

No attempt is made by the author of 
the bulletin to determine the probable 
causes of this decline. An extended 
argument by Gen. Francis A. Walker 
is given, suggesting that it is largely 
due to the influx of foreigners and the 
resultant shock to the population in- 
stinct of the natives. Professor Willcox 
does not express a definite opinion, 
claiming that the vital statistics of the 
United States are not sufficiently devel- 
oped to afford a sound basis of judgment. 
He notes, however, that there has been 
a similar marked decline in the birth 
rate of Australia, where there has been 
no such torrent of immigration. 


DECLINE GREATEST IN NORTH AND 
WEST 
If this decline were due in large part 


to the influx of immigrants, we should 
expect it to be greatest in those sections 


BNO S 


of the country to which most of the im- 
migrants have gone—greater in the 
North and West than in the South. It 
is found, in fact, that in the North and 
West there has been a more or less 
regular decline, while in the South the 
change has been less regular and the 
decline less marked. In 1850 the pro- 
portion of children to 1,000 women in 
the North and West was five-sixths of 
what it was in the South; in 1900 it 
was less than three-fourths. 

In 1900 the smallest proportion of 
children was in the District of Colum- 
bia, where the number of children under 
5 was hardly more than one-fourth the 
number of women of child-bearing age. 
But from the sociological standpoint the 
District of Columbia should be classed 
with cities rather than with states and 
territories. The next smallest propor- 
tion was that for Massachusetts, where 
it was slightly more than one-third. 
The largest proportion was in North 
Dakota and Indian Territory, in each 
of which it was two-thirds. 

There was an unusual decrease in the 
proportion of children between 1860 
and 1870, which must be attributed to 
the direct and indirect results of the 
civil war. 


PROPORTION OF CHILDREN AMONG 
WHITES 


The decrease in the proportion of 
white children under ro to the total 
white population began as early as the 
decade 1810 to 1820, and has continued 
without interruption, but with varying 
rapidity, to the end of the century. 
The greatest decreases were found in 
the decades of greatest immigration, 
and may have been due in part to the 
disproportionate number of adults in 
the new immigrant population. The 
decreases in the decades 1850 to 1860 
and 1890 to 1900 were very slight. The 
fact that these were the decades imme- 
diately following the great waves of im- 
migration suggests that the check in 


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the decrease was due to the large num- 
ber of children born to the immigrants 
after they found homes and became 
settled. 


PROPORTION OF CHILDREN AMONG 


NEGROES 


The figures for negroes are not given 
separately, but are included with those 
for Indians and Mongolians. The ne- 
groes, however, constitute so large a 
proportion of the total that we are justi- 
fied, in most cases at least, in accepting 
these figures as representing conditions 
among negroes. In the last twenty 
years the decline in the proportion of 
negro children has been especially rapid. 
The proportion of children among ne- 
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whites at every census except that of 
L370. 


PROPORTION OF CHILDREN GREATER 
IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS THAN 
IN CITIES 


In 1900, for the. United States as a 
whole, the proportion of children was 
only two-thirds as great in cities as in 
the country districts. In the North 
Atlantic division, however, it was almost 
as great in the cities as in the country. 
In the Southern divisions it is hardly 


KETCHIKAN 


HE thriving town of Ketchikan is 

the first call port of all the Ameri- 

can steamers which followthe inland pas- 
sages between Puget Sound and Alaska. 
Owing to this fact and its growing im- 
portance as a mining center, it will doubt- 
less soon be included among the towns 
which are connected with the govern- 
ment cable system, but at present it is 
dependent on its postal facilities for com- 
munication with the rest of the world. 
The photograph which we publish 


Tue Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


more than half as large in the cities as 
in the country, while in the Far West 
the difference is intermediate in amount. 
‘This is probably due in large measure 
to the fact that the immigrant popula- 
tion who have been swarming into the 
northern cities of recent years, especially 
into the cities of the North Atlantic 
states, have been multiplying by nu- 
merous births with much rapidity, while 
the corresponding laboring class which 
has immigrated to southern cities from 
the surrounding country districts has 
not been thus increasing.’’ 


GREATER FECUNDITY OF FOREIGN- 
BORN WOMEN 


A comparison is made between the 
proportion of children born of native 
mothers to 1,000 native women of child- 
bearing age and the proportion of chil- 
dren born of foreign-born mothers to 
1,000 foreign-born women of child-bear- 
ing age. In 1900 the former proportion 
was 462, the latter 710, the difference 
indicating the greater fecundity of for- 
eign-born women. ‘The comparison also 
indicates that the total decrease in fecun- 
dity of white women between 1890 and 
1900 was the result of a decrease for 
native white women partly offset by an 
increase for foreign-born white women. 


was taken last summer, and shows in 
the center of the picture its pride, the 
public school-house on the hill. The 
town is about fifty miles north of the 
boundary and is situated on Revillagi- 
gedo Island, on the north side of Ton- 
gass Narrows. 

What effect the establishment of the 
trans-Pacific terminal of the Grand 
Trunk Railroad near Port Simpson will 
have on Ketchikan cannot be foretold, 
but in all probability it will serve to in- 
crease its importance. 


OFS: 


KETCHIKAN 


Photo by O. M. Leland, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 


The Town of Ketchikan, Alaska, in the Spring of 1905 


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PROGRESS OF THE PHILIPPINES 


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PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES 


THE RETURNS FROM ALASKA 


E are getting more gold out of 
Alaska each year than the ter- 
ritory cost usin 1867. In 1904 $9,000,- 
ooo of the yellow metal were shipped to 
the United States from Alaska. Of this 
sum $6,000,000 were from placer de- 
posits and the balance from lode de- 
posits. Big as is the present output 
from the gold placers, Mr Alfred H. 
Brooks, of the Geological Survey, esti- 
mates that the amount will be doubled 
in a few years. The Cape Nome fields 
are still in the lead, but the Fairbanks 
district is being developed very rapidly. 
The great need of the territory at the 
present time is some roads. ‘There are 
not more than 50 miles of road in 
Alaska, and these were built by private 
enterprise. The expenditure of $1,000,- 
ooo in constructing a few trunk lines 
would be many times repaid in increased 
gold production. Many of the fields 
cannot now be worked profitably be- 
cause of the cost of transporting ma- 
chinery and provisions. 

A hundred feet of 8-inch 16- gage hy- 
draulic riveted steel pipe costs in Fair- 
banks $175. On Fairbanks Creek, 20 
miles away, the same roo feet of pipe, 
with freight at 20 cents per pound, costs, 
if transported in summer, $301, repre- 
senting a freight charge of $126. In 
the Klondike, where the topography is 
nearly the same, the same pipe would 
be landed ona claim 20 miles from Daw- 
son for a freight charge of $9.45. 

Already over 300 miles of wagon road 
have been built by the Canadian gov- 
ernment in the Yukon territory and the 
Atlin district of British Columbia, while 
over 600 miles of sled roads have been 
made inthe Yukon territory. The fact 
that in the summer wagons and vehicles 
of all descriptions, and even bicycles, 
may be seen daily about Dawson, the 
Klondike creeks, and Atlin, in British 


* Gravel and Placer Mining in Alaska,’’C. W. 
Purington, Bull. 263, U. S. Geological Survey, 
Washington, 1905, p. 227. 


5S 


Columbia, while the winter roads in 
Canadian territory afford continuous 
easy routes for horse sleds down the 
Yukon’ to Dawson, is evidence of the 
success of the Canadian road-building 
enterprise. 

Four important reports on the mineral 
resources of Alaska have been recently 
published by the U. S. Geological Sur- 
vey: ‘‘ Mineral Resources in Alaska in 
1904”’ (Bulletin 259), by Alfred H. 
Brooks, C. W. Purington, F. E. and 
C. W. Wright, Arthur C. Spencer, 
Arthur J. Collier, George C. Martin, 
L. M. Prindle, and Ralph W. Stone. 
The bulletin describes progress in de- 
veloping the gold, coal, petroleum, 
and tin resources. ‘‘ Fairhaven Gold 
Placers, Seward Peninsula’’ (Bulletin 
247), by Fred H. Moffitt, with two large 
new maps (one geologic and one topo- 
graphic) of northeastern portion of 
Seward Peninsula. ‘‘Gold Placers of 
Forty-Mile, Birch Creek, and Fairbanks 
Regions’’ (Bulletin 251), by Louis M. 
Prindle, with a reconnaissance map of 
the Yukon Tanana region. ‘‘ Methods 
and Costs of Gravel and Placer Mining 
in Alaska’’ (Bulletin 263), by C. W. 
Purington. 


PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES 


HE Report of the Philippine Com- 
mission for 1904, which has just 

been published by the War Department 
in. three volumes, gives an interesting 
account of the operations of a steam 
rice-thrasher which the insular govern- 
ment installed on the experimental farm 
in 1904. During the rice season the 
thrasher covered 125 miles and proved 
so popular that, in spite of the moder- 
ate toll charged, nearly $500 were 
cleared after paying all operating ex- 
penses. ‘The natives obtained so much 
more grain by steam-thrashing that 
some of the ignorant thought that there 
was adevil in the machine, or that there 
must be some trickery in its operation. 
The people in tramping out rice with 


514 


their feet or driving carabaos (see illus- 
trations, pages 510-511) over it asa 
means of thrashing it, generally occupy 
the best part of three months in the 
work and suffer losses of rice in waste, 
stealage, leakage, etc., of 25 per cent 
of the entire crop. They thrash the 
crop so slowly in fact that in many 
cases they eat it up as fast as they 
thrash it. Their methods of hulling 
and cleaning are equally crude, and the 
valuable by-products, as well as much 
of the rice, are wasted. By thrashing 
the crop by steam-power the rice be- 
comes a marketable commodity at once, 
and the farmer and his laborers have 
time to put in other crops. Several 
steam-thrashing outfits have been or- 
dered by Filipinos. 

‘‘One curious trait of the Filipino,’’ 
says Mr W. C. Welborn, chief of the 
Bureau of Agriculture, ‘‘seems to be 
that he is willing to buy what he has 
actually seen to be good ; but one need 
not talk about any improvement or ad- 
dition to what he has not seen. He 
will believe none of it, and wants what 
he has seen demonstrated—no more and 
no less. It is often charged that the 
Filipino will not work, and hence will 
never develop the country. I believe 
he nowexpends enough energy (largely 
unprofitably spent, carrying heavy bur- 
dens long distances, tramping out rice, 
cleaning it in mortars, and doing all 
manner of hard work in the crudest 
way) to make the country a garden if 
properly directed.’’ | 

Some of the developments of the year 
were (1) improvements in the parks, 
buildings, and sanitation of Manila; 
(2) continued work on the harbor sys- 
tem, which when completed will enable 
Manila to ‘‘ offer to the shipping of the 
world a safe and commodious harbor, 
with a minimum depth of 33 feet, which 
will undoubtedly be the best in the 
Orient ;’’ (3) the completion of the 
Benguet road to the Bagino sanitary 
resort; (4) useful experiments in the 


Tue NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


introduction of American cattle, and im- 
proved and new varieties of agricultural 
products. 


WE OCCUPY THE BEST POSITION ON 
THE MAP : 


A few paragraphs from the address of the Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, Hon. Leslie M. Shaw, 
to the American Bankers’ Convention, Wash- 
ington, October 17, 1905. 


\ \ 7¥E point with pride to our export 
trade of a billionand a half, and 


with our thumbs in the armholes of our 
waistcoats we contemplate our skill and 
foresight and our ability as international 
merchants. 

Of our aggregate exports about $1,- 
000,000,000 consists of raw cotton, food 
products, petroleum products, crude cop- 
per, lumber, and other raw materials and 
crude articles, of which we produce a 
surplus which the world not only needs, 
but must have. 

The time is coming, gentlemen—with 
our increasing population more largely 
urban than ever, with factories multiply- 
ing more rapidly than farms, with limit- 
less manufacturing resources and match- 
less aptitude for production—when the 
United States will need new.and impor- 
tant markets. The world may come to 
us in its own ships for the products of 
our farms and the raw products of our 
mines, but it will not come in its own 
ships for the finished products of our 
factories. The time iscoming when we 
will need international bankers and in- 
ternational merchants and an interna- 
tional merchant marine. 

We occupy the best position on the 
map. We have the safest and most con- 
venient form of money in the world. We 
speak the language of commerce. Our 
farms produce more than the farms of 
any other country. Our mines yield 
more gold literally by the carload, silver 
by the train load, and there is unloaded 
on the shores of a single commonwealth 
more iron ore than any other country 
produces. Our forests yield 100,000,000 


Forests VITAL TO Our WELFARE 


feet of lumber for every day of the cal- 
endar year. Our factories turn out more 
finished products than all the factories of 
Great Britain and Germany combined 
by more than three thousand millions 
every twelve months. Wetransport this 
matchless product of farm and factory, 
forest and mine, from the interior to the 
sea at one-third what similar services 
cost anywhere else beneath the skies. 
We carry it from point to point along 
the coast in better vessels, on quicker 
time, and at cheaper rates than others. 

But at our coast line we are brought to 
an abrupt halt. Here we are no longer 
independent. Our foreign commerce is 
four times as large as forty years ago, 
but we carry in our own ships only one- 
third as many gross tons as forty years 
ago. We have protected and encouraged 
every interest but our merchant marine, 
and every protected interest has flour- 
ished. Wehave every facility for inter- 
national commerce except international 
merchants, international bankers,and an 
international merchant marine. Shall 
we not have these? I am not urging 
ship subsidies. I am speaking of re- 
sults, not of methods. If we will but 
take advantage of our opportunities, we 
will send these products of farm and fac- 
tory under every sky and into every 
port, and make our financial centers the 
clearing houses of at least a fraction of 
the world’s trade. 


FORESTS VITAL TO OUR WELFARE 


From an Address by President Roosevelt at 
Raleigh, N. C., October 19, 1905 


ND now I want to say a word to you 

on a special subject in which all 

the country is concerned, but in which 
North Carolina has a special concern. 
The preservation of the forests is vital 
to the welfare of every country. China 
and the Mediterranean countries offer 
examples of the terrible effect of de- 
forestation upon the physical geography, 
and therefore ultimately upon the na- 
tional well-being of the nations. One of 


545 


the most obvious duties which our gen- 
eration owes to the generations that are 
to come after us is to preserve the ex- 
isting forests. The prime difference be- 
tween civilized and uncivilized peoples 
is that in civilized peoples each genera- 
tion works not only for its own well-be- 
ing, but for the well-being of the gener- 
ations yet unborn, and if we permit the 
natural resources of this land to be de- 
stroyed so that we hand over to our chil- 
dren a heritage diminished in value, we 
thereby prove our unfitness to stand in 
the forefront of civilized peoples. One 
of the greatest of these heritages is our 
forest wealth. It is the upper altitudes 
of the forested mountains that are most 
valuable to the nation as a whole, es- 
pecially because of their effects upon the 
water-supply. Neither state nor nation 
can afford to turn these mountains over 
to the unrestrained greed of those who 
would exploit them at the expense of 
the future. 

We cannot afford to wait longer be- 
fore assuming control, in the interest of 
the public, of these forests; for if we 
do wait the vested interests of private 
parties in them may become so strongly 
intrenched that it may be a most serious 
as well as a most expensive task to oust 
them. 

If the Eastern states are wise, then 
from the Bay of Fundy to the Gulf we 
will see within the next few years a pol- 
icy set on foot similar to that so fortu- 
nately carried out in the high Sierras of 
the West by the national government. 
All the higher Appalachians should be 
reserved, either by the states or by the 
nation. I much prefer that they should 
be put under national control, but itis a 
mere truism to say that they will not be 
reserved either by the states or by the 
nation unless you people of the South 
show a strong interest therein. 

Such reserves would be a paying in- 
vestment, not only in protection to many 
interests, but in dollars and cents to the 
government. The importance to the 


a1 


Southern people of protecting the South- 
ern mountain forestsisobvious. These 
forests are the best defense against the 


floods which in the recent past have, 


during a single twelve-month, destroved 
property officially valued at nearly twice 
what it would cost to buy the Southern 
Appalachian reserve. The maintenance 
of your Southern water powers is not 
less important than the prevention of 
floods, because if they are injured your 
manufacturing interests will suffer with 
them. The perpetuation of your for- 
ests, which have done so much for the 
South, should be one of the first objects 
of your public men. ‘The two Senators 
from North Carolina have taken an hon- 
orable part in this movement. But Ido 
not think that the people of North Car- 
olina or of any other Southern state 
have quite grasped the importance of this 
movement to the commercial develop- 
ment and prosperity of the South. 


COTTON AND THE CHINESE BOYCOTT 


From an address by President Roosevelt to the 
citizens of Atlanta, October 20, 1905 

AM glad to see diversifications of 
industry in the South, the growth 

of manufactures as well as the growth 
of agriculture, and the growing growth 
of diversification of crops in agriculture. 
Nevertheless it will always be true that 
in certain of the Southern States cotton 
will be the basis of the wealth, the main- 
stay of prosperity, in the future as in 
the past. The cotton crop is of enor- 
mous consequence to the entire country. 
It was the cotton crop of the South that 
brought $400,000,000 of foreign gold 
into the United States last year, turning 
the balance of trade in ourfavor. The 
soil and climate of the South are such 
that she enjoys a practical monopoly in 
the production of raw cotton. Under 
proper methods of distribution, it may 
well be doubted whether there can be 
such a thing as overproduction of cot- 
ton. Last year’s crop was nearly four- 
teen million bales, and yet the price was 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


sufficiently high to give a handsome 
profit to the planter. The consumption 
of cotton increases each year, and new 
uses are found for it. 

At present our market for cotton is 
largely in China. The boycott of our 
goods in China during the past year was 
especially injurious to the cotton manu- 
facturers. This government is doing, 
and will continue to do, all it can to put 
a stop to the boycott. But there is one 
measure to be taken toward this end in 
which I shall need the assistance of the 
Congress. We must insist firmly on our 
rights, and China must beware of per- 
sisting in a course of conduct to which 
we cannot honorably submit; but we 
in our turn must recognize our duties. 
exactly as we insist upon our rights. 
We cannot go into the international 
court of equity unless we go in with 
clean hands. We cannot expect China. 
to do us justice unless we do China jus- 
tice. The chief cause in bringing about 
the boycott of our goods in China was. 
undoubtedly our attitude toward the 
Chinese who come tothis country. This. 
attitude of ours does not justify the ac- 
tion of the Chinese in the boycott, and: 
especially some of the forms which that 
action hastaken. But the fact remains 
that in the past we have come short of 
our duty toward the people of China. 

It is our clear duty, in the interest of 
our own wage-workers, to forbid all Chi- 
nese of the coolie class—that is, laborers, 
skilled or unskilled—from coming here. 
The greatest of all duties is national 
self-preservation, and the most impor- 
tant step in national self-preservation is. 
to preserve in every way the well-being’ 
of the wage-worker. I am convinced . 
that the well-being of our wage-workers. 
demands the exclusion of the Chinese 
coolies, and it is therefore our duty to. 
exclude them, just as it would be the 
duty of China to exclude American la- 
boring men if they became in any way 
a menace to China by entering her coun- 
try. The right is reciprocal, and in our 


IMMIGRATION TO THE SOUTHERN STATES 


last treaty with China it was explicitly 
recognized as inhering in both nations. 

But we should not only operate the 
law with as little harshness as possible, 
but we should show every courtesy and 
consideration and every encouragement 
to all Chinese who are not of the laboring 
class to come to this country. Every 
Chinese traveler or student, business 
man or professional man should be given 
the same right of entry to, and the same 
courteous treatment in, this country as 
are accorded to the student or traveler, 
the business man or professional man of 
any other nation. Our lawsand treaties 
should be so framed as to guarantee to 
all Chinamen, save of the excepted coolie 
class, the same right of entry to this 
country and the same treatment while 
here as is guaranteed to citizens of any 
other nation. It is needed in our own 
interest, and especially in the interest of 
the Pacific slope and of the South At- 
lantic and Gulf states; for it is short- 


sighted indeed for us to permit foreign . 


competitors to drive us from the great 
markets of China. 


IMMIGRATION TO THE SOUTHERN 
STATES * 


N recent years, especially within the 
last ten, there has been a gradual but 
marked change of sentiment in the South 
in regard to the desirability of imm1- 
gration. The South now wants it and 
is working hard to getit. The resources 
of the South have scarcely been touched, 
and under the most favorable circum- 
stances it will require many generations 
to develop them. There are millions of 
acres of cotton, cane, rice, and tobacco 
lands that have never been cultivated. 
Louisiana alone has 19,000,000 acres of 
vacant land out of a total of 26,000,000 ; 
and it is estimated that not more than 
one-eighth of the cotton lands of the 
South are in cultivation. The mineral 


*A summary of an extremely interesting 
study by Prof. Walter L. Fleming, of the Uni- 
versity of West Virginia, published by Ginn 
& Co. 


Dy 


resources of the South are almost un- 
limited ; it has more timber than any 
other section of the United States; in 
every Southern state thereis water power 
never yet used, and there are ideal sit- 
uations for market-gardening on the 
largest scale. 

The negro cannot furnish either in 
quality or in quantity the labor neces- 
sary to develop the South. The pro- 
gress of the South since the war has 
been almost wholly in the white dis- 
tricts. 

Florida sends out lists of state lands, 
maps of the attractive portions of the 
state, and beautifully illustrated pamph- 
lets relating to cattle-raising, lumbering, 
fruit and truck growing, fish and game, 
and winter resorts. Louisiana pub- 
lishes free information concerning the 
climate, soil, resources, industries, 
schools, and churches, and sends out 
lists with descriptions and prices of 
6,000,000 acres of land for sale. ‘The 
other Southern states follow much the 
same methods. Mostof the states have 
representatives in New York and in the 
West, whose business it is to disseminate 
information and secure immigration. 
The state immigration bureaus have had 
fair success. | 

Louisiana has probably secured the 
best results. The authorities confine 
their work principally in the middle 
West, aiming to attract substantial 
farmers rather than laborers. Since 
1900 many Northern farmers have set- 
tled in Louisiana. In New Orleans, 
however, the work of the negro roust- 
abouts, who loaded and unloaded the 
steamers at the wharves, became so un- 
satisfactory that whites from the West 
were brought in to supplant them. 
South Carolina has secured several set- 
tlements of Scotch, Canadians, and Ger- 
mans, and is now trying to secure Scan- 
dinavians. Maryland secured 4,000 
very desirable immigrants in one year 
at an expense of only $15,000. 

The state authorities have been greatly 
aided by hundreds of immigration and 


518 


development societies, Every commer- 
cial and industrial body acts also as an 
immigration society. In Louisiana alone 
there are more than one hundred ; one 
of them has 7,000 acres of land for sale. 
The ‘‘colony’’ plan has also brought 
desirable immigrants to the South. 

But the most potent factors in the 
immigration movement are the rail- 
roads. Each important railroad com- 
pany has hundreds of thousands of acres 
of land for sale and wishes to see in- 
dustries developed along its lines. Until 
witnin the last few years the North and 
South lines have not offered special rates 
to homeseekers except in colonies. 
Now, on the first and third Tuesdays 
in each month special homeseekers’ 
rates are offered on every road east of 
the Rockies that runs into the South or 
the Southwest. These excursions have 
proved a great success. ‘The Union sta- 
tion at St Louis is crowded every other 
‘Tuesday with men from the Northwest 
bound to the South and Southwest. On 
the night of September 15, 1903, the 
Iron Mountain road carried out of St 
Louis within two hours six special trains 
with three thousand homeseekers. 

The South does not want the lower 
class foreigners who have swarmed into 
the Northern states ; it wants the same 
sort of people who settled so much of 
the West. The newcomers from the 
Western states and from western Europe 
are not mere laborers. They work for 
themselves on their own holdings. In 
those parts of the South, however where 
unskilled labor is wanted to supplement 
the work of the blacks, such immigra- 
tion will not solve the problem. One 
planter complained that he had land 
sufficient to produce 1,000 bales of cot- 
ton, but labor enough for only 300. 
He thought that the exclusion laws 
could be repealed if the Southern states 
should advocate the policy. It is cer- 
tain, however, that the South will not 
tolerate the introduction of large num- 
bers of Chinese, for fear of possible race 
complications. | 


Tur NaTIonaL GeocraPHic MaGaAZziIni 


The solution seems to be to induce 
the Italians to come in as farm laborers, 
with the prospect of becoming land- 
owners on a small scale. ‘They have 
come in larger numbers than other for- 
eigners, and, much to the surprise of 
all, they have proved successful farmers 
on the cotton and sugar plantations. 
The great lumbering companies also are 
employing them. The north Italian is 
preferred, but the principal immigration 
is from southern Italy, Sicily, and the 
old Papalstates. The numbers are con- 
stantly increasing. In Louisianain 1900 
there were 17,000 Italians; in 1904 
there were 30,000. In 1904 it was es- 
timated that more than 100,000 Italian 
farm laborers were working in the 
Southern states of the Mississippi Val- 
ley. Numbers come from Sicily or from 
the North to work during the cane- 
cutting season, and then return to the 
North or to Sicily. Between New Or- 
leans and Baton Rouge the Italian 
laborer has largely displaced the negro, 
and the same is true of many other lo- 
calities. 

At Independence, Louisiana, in 1904, 
275 car-loads of strawberries, valued at 
$500,000, were produced by Italian la- 
borers. These colonists have begun to 
purchase little farms, have good homes, 
and money in the bank. The younger 
ones do not expect to return to Italy. 
A tract of 1,600 acres of land in this 
community sold, in 1879, for $1,600; 
in 1904, 200 acres of the same tract sold 
for $10,400. In the same community 
other pieces of the land have risen in 
value from $1 to $50 per acre within 
two years. Many planters have sub- 
stituted Italians for negroes as tenants. 
The former are not criminal, are prompt 
to pay debts, and have improved mor- 
ally as well as materially since they 
arrived in America. 

In conclusion, it may be said that im- 
migration to the South seldom reaches 
the black belt. There seems to bea 
dislike of contact with the negro. 


ImMPpoRTANT GEOGRAPHIC PUBLICATION 


Where newcomers enter the black belt 
they go in colonies, settle near the rail- 
road, and dispense with the negro. 
Much of the immigration does not in- 
crease the population of a community ; 
it simply displaces the negro. Com- 
pared with the great volume of immi- 
gration to the West and North, the 
numbers that go South are insignifi- 
cant ; but compared with the numbers 
that went South ten years and more 
ago, the recent movement is very im- 
portant. There is plenty of vacant land, 
and the Southerners say that if a mil- 
lion settlers have come and are satisfied, 
there is no reason why other millions 
may not come. 


AN IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHIC 
PUBLICATION 


HE report of the Kighth Inter- 
national Geographic Congress, 
which met in the United States in Sep- 
tember, 1904, has just appeared from 
the Government Printing Office, and 
copies are now being distributed to the 
members of the Congress. The volume 
makes a book of 1065 pages, illustrated 
by maps, diagrams, and photographs, 
and contains 148 papers and abstracts 
contributed by geographers from all 
parts of the world. It is one of the 
most valuable additions to geographic 
knowledge published during recent 
years. ‘The expense of publication has 
been paid by the United States govern- 
ment in accordance with an act of Con- 
gress passed March 3,1905. A useful 
feature of the report is the arrangement 
of the proceedings by means of which 
any act of the Congress may be readily 
found. The arrangement is: History 
of the Congress, organization, with offi- 
cers, committees, lists of members, of 
associate members, and of delegates and 
institutions represented, and a summary 
of membership and attendance, diary of 
the Congress, minutes of the general 
meetings, minutes of the meetings of 
the presidency, addresses, reports of 


Eo 


committees and resolutions adopted, and 
papers. ‘Ten of the papers included in 
the volume have been published in this 
magazine. ‘The following titles show 
the wide range of subjects discussed in 
tHeirenort. 


Scientific Exploration of Caves. 
Martel. 

The Valleys and Lakes of the Alps. 
brecht Penck. 

The Geography of Alaska. Mr A. H. Brooks. 

A Climatological Dictionary for the United 
States. Prof. A. J. Henry. 

The Canadian Climate. Prof. R. F. Stupart. 

Evidences of Land Near the North Pole. 
Prof. R. A. Harris. 

Glacial Exploration in the MontanajRockies. 
Prof. L. W. Chaney. 

Geographic Work of the U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey. Messrs W. C. Hodgkins and 
G. R. Putnam. 

Evidence in Favor of the Former Connection 
of Brazil and Africa. Prof. Charles C. Adams. 


Prof. E. A. 


Dr Al- 


The Conditions of Man’s Origin. Dr Leoni- 
das Chalikiopoulos. 
The Peoples of the Philippizxes. Mr Henry 


Gannett. 

Africa Between the River Juba and the Nile. 
Dr A. Donaldson Smith. 

A Comparative View of the Arctic and Ant- 
arctic. Dr Frederick A. Cook. 

The Everglades of Florida. Rev. J. N. Mac- 
Gonigle. 

Geography of the Pan-American Railway. 
Charles M. Pepper. 

Future Explorations in Australia. 
David Lindsay. 

Maps: Handling, Classifying, Cataloguing. 
Thomas Letts. 

Some Recent Governmental Influences upon 
the Geographic Conditionsof Commerce. Prof. 
Emory Rk. Johnson. 

Rise and Development of the German Colo- 
nial Possessions. Graf von Pfeil. 

The Economic Importance of the Plateaus in 
Tropic America. Prof. J. R. Smith. 

The Atlantic Ferry. Capt. D. J. Kennelly. 

The Caribbean Sea Regions and Their Re- 
sources. Francis C. Nichols. 

A Plea for the Establishment of a Commer- 
cial Game and Fur Preserve in the Northwest. 
Dr Townsend W. Thorndike. 

Geography and History in the United States. 
Prof. Albert P. Brigham. 


IRRIGATION REPORTS 


HE following Water-Supply and 
Irrigation Papers have been issued 
recently by the U. S. Geological Sur- 


Prof. 


520 


vey. Of these 4,000 copies have been 
delivered to Senators and Representa- 
tives in Congress and 1,500 copies to 
the Survey for general distribution. 
Applications can be made for them 
either to members of Congress or to the 
Survey. Requests specifying certain 
papers and stating reasons for asking 
for them are granted whenever practi- 
cable, but it is impossible to comply 
with a general demand for all of the 
series, as no mailing list is maintained. 


1og. Hydrography of Susquehanna River 
Basin. J. C. Hoyt and R. H. Anderson. 

110. Contributions to Hydrology of Eastern 
United States, 1904. M. L. Fuller, Geologist 
in Charge. 

111. Preliminary Report on Underground 
Waters of the State of Washington. Henry 
Landes. 

112. Underflow Tests in Basin of Los Angeles 
River. Homer Hamlin. 

113. The Disposal of Strawboard aud Oil 
Wastes. R. L. Sackett and Isaiah Bowman. 

114. Underground Waters of Eastern United 
States. M. Ll. Fuller, Geologist in Charge. 

115. River Surveys and Profiles Made Dur- 
ing 1903. W. C. Halland J. C. Hoyt. 

116. Water Problems of Santa Barbara, Cal. 
J. B. Lippincott. 

117. The Lignite of North Dakota and Its 
Relation to Irrigation. F. A. Wilder. 

118. Geology and Water Resources of a Por- 
tion of East-Central Washington. F. C. 
Calkins. 

119. Index of Hydrographic Progress Re- 
ports of the U. S. Geological Survey. J.C. 
Hoyt and B. D. Wood. 

120. Bibliographic Review and Index of 
Papers Relating to Underground Waters Pub- 
lished by the U. S. Geological Survey. M.L,. 
Fuller. 

121. Preliminary Report on the Pollution 
of Lake Champlain. M. O. Leighton. 

122. Relation of the Law to Underground 
Waters. D. W. Johnson. 

123. Geology and Underground Water Con- 
ditions of the Jornadodel Muerto, New Mexico. 
C. R. Keyes. 

124. Atlantic Coast of New England ,Drain- 
age. | 

oe. Hudson, Passaic, Raritan, and Dela- 
ware River Drainages. 

126. Susquehanna, Patapsco, Potomac, James, 
Roanoke, Cape Fear, and Yadkin River Drain- 
ages. 


127. Santee, Savannah, Ogeechee, and‘ Alta- 


maha Rivers, and EKastern Gulf of Mexico 
Drainages. 


Tur NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


128. Eastern Mississippi River Drainage. 

129. Great Lakes and St Lawrence River 
Drainage. 

130. Hudson Bay, Minnesota, Wapsipinicon, 
Iowa, Des Moines, and Missouri River Drain- 
ages. 

131. Platte, Kansas, Meramec, Arkansas, 
and Red River Drainages. 

132. Western Gulf of Mexico Drainage. 

133. Colorado River and the Great Basin 
Drainage. 

134. The Great Basin and Pacific Ocean 
Drainages in California. 

135. Columbia River and Puget Sound Drain- 
age. 

136. Underground Waters of Salt River Val- 
ley.. W. T. Lee. 

137. Developmeut of Underground Waters 
in the Eastern Coastal Plain Region of Southern 
California W. C. Mendenhall. 

138. Development of Underground Waters 
in the Central Coastal Plain Region of Southern 
California. W.C. Mendenhall. 

139. Development of Underground Waters 
in the Western Coastal Plain Region of South- 
ern California. W.C. Mendenhall. 

140. Field Measurements of the Rate of 
Movement of Underground Water. C. S. 
Slichter. 

141. Observations on the Ground Waters of 
Rio Grande Valley. C. S. Slichter. 

142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, 
California. W. C. Mendenhall. 

143. Experiments on‘ Steel-concrete Pipes. 
J. H. Quinton. 

144. The Normal Distribution of Chlorine in 
the Natural Waters of New York and New 
England. D. D. Jackson. 

145. Contributions to the Hydrology of 
Eastern United States, M. L. Fuller, geologist 
in charge. 

146. Proceedings of Second Reclamation 
Conference. Compiled by F. H. Newell. 

147. Destructive Floods in the United States 
in 1904. KE. C. Murphy and others. - 


Commercial Geography. By Henry 
Gannett, Carl Louise Garrison, and 
Edwin J. Houston. With maps and 


illustrations. Pp. 420. 534 x 8 
inches. New York: American Book 
Company. 1905. $1.00. 


Now that the exploration of the world 
is practically completed, and the acqui- 
sition of land by conquest is becoming 
more difficult each year, the struggle for 
commercial supremacy becomes princi- 
pally a matter of education and training. 
Germany, realizing this fact some years 


Nis vy Sten oat 


ComMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY oki 


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ES 
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From Gannett, Garrison, and Houston’s “ Commercial Geography”? 
Copyright, 1905, by American Book Company 


Relative Density of Railroads in United States and Europe. 


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« AYdeis0a5 [BOIIM MOD ,, S, UOJsNHOH pure ‘MosTIIey ‘yjouUey Woly 


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a8u0d> vVT7 Peyo---- ca li SN 
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re! Qe. 
| Ysan@] sse+s 429K) 0000 YQ 
| , vo ’ van Y Lo: 
J8ISGOT ++++ YSHEUNY ra) x ‘ a 9 7 ‘ aa 


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Ss 16 


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COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 


reno 


Share of the United States in the World’s Industries and Products. 


Area 
Population 
Cultivated land 
Wheat 

Corn 

Oats 


10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 


60% 70 
aaa] 
St 
eae 
Sars 


% 


Potatoes 
Wine 

Beer 

Spirits 

Sugar 
Tobacco 
Cotton 

Wool 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Meat 

Fish 

Butter & Cheese 
Leather 
Paper 

Glass 

Cotton Cloth 
Woolen Cloth 
Gold 

Silver 

Coal 
Petroleum 
Iron Ore 

Pig Iron 
Steel 

Copper 

Lead 

Zinc 
Mercury 

Salt 

R.R. Mileage 
Tonnage Ships 
Imports 


ae 


Exports 
Total Commerce 


10% 


From Gannett, Garrison, and Houston’s ‘‘Commercial Geography” 


20% 


ago, has established many industrial and 
commercial schools of great efficiency 
and usefulness, and has emphasized the 
study of commercial geography in all 
her schools.* In the United States, on 


* See Nat. Geog. Mag. March, 1905, pp. I1I- 
117. 


a aes : 
Wifes Be nite ad = 
a 5 ae ees 7 Ee 


30% 


the other hand, we have not paid much 
attention to the subject until recently. 
Protected by a high tariff, and assisted 
by a general inventive faculty greater 
and more practical than any people 
have ever shown, we have gone on de- 
veloping our own resources until we are 


524 


now able to manufacture not only nearly 
everything we want for ourselves, but 
also an unlimited surplus which we are 
desirous of selling at best profit to other 
countries. The subject of commercial 
geography, the wants of other people 
and how they are supplied, now be- 
comes to us very important, and as the 
authors of this book state in their pre- 
face: 

‘‘As applied to our own country, this 
study is especially stimulating ; for we 
have advanced to the front rank in the 
leading industries of agriculture, min- 
ing, manufacturing, and transportation. 
If this prosperity were due entirely to 
the generosity with which nature has 
showered her gifts upon us, no lesson 
could be drawn from it ; but the history 
of the past, and a comparative study of 
the different countries in the present, 
teach us that without man’s earnest 
and thoughtful cooperation the greatest 
wealth of natural resources may co-exist 
with the greatest stagnation in develop- 
ment. If, therefore, in the face of the 
competition that grows keener as the 
years advance, we would maintain our 
superior position, we must not grope 
blindly, but must know the causes of 
success and failure and act with the 
clearest understanding.’’ 

‘‘Commercial Geography’’ is de- 
signed as a text-book in the high school 
and academy, but it will doubtless prove 
no less useful and just as interesting to 
many of the grown-up generation, who 
were offered no such course in their 
school-days, and who have had to obtain 
their knowledge of commercial geog- 
raphy as best they could. It begins 
with a study of the influence on indus- 
trial progress of climate and topog- 
raphy, of social conditions, of manu- 
facturing and transportation facilities, 
and of financial conditions, giving due 
weight to each as a factor in economic 
development. When this foundation is 
laid the student is ready to consider with 
a broader interest the chief commercial 
products of the world, their relative im- 


THe NatTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


portance in different regions, and the 
modern processes of manufacture of the 
staple articlesconsumed. Then, begin- 
ning with the United States, he studies 
in greater detail the actual conditions 
existing in the principal countries of 
the world and the forces that are oper- 
ating to the continuance or change of — 
such conditions. ‘The relations of the 
various industries to one another and 
their location in different parts of the 
world are shown graphically by maps 
and by percentage diagrams or tables, 
while definite quantities are given in 
tables at the end of the book. 

For world diagrams the authors have 
generally used a map of the world on 
Mollweide’s elliptic projection. On this 
map every part of the globe appears in 
equal proportion, with the result that 
the geographical distribution of prod- 
ucts is shown without being distorted 


as we get away from the equator. An 
excellent index is given. 
Theltalianin America. By Eliot Lord, 


John J. D. Trenor, and Samuel J. 


Barrows. Illustrated. Pp. 268. 8 
x 5% inches. ~ New York= 7b... 
Buck &7Co- 


What becomes of the hundreds of 
thousands of immigrants into the United 
States each year? What work do they 
take up to support themselves in their 
new country, and where do they goto? 
In 1904 we accepted 191,000 Italians, 
and in 1905 221,000. How are they 
prospering now? is a question which 
many are constantly asking, but to 
which we have had much difficulty in 
finding the answer. ‘‘ The Italian in 
America’’ attempts successfully to give 
us this information, and we are glad to 
learn that it is one of a series of volumes 
to be published by Benj. F. Buck & Co. 
treating of the principal nationalities 
comprising our recent immigration. 
The authors of the present work think 
very highly of our Italians. They are 
frugal, ambitious, and loyal citizens and 
are important contributors to the ma- 


GEOGRAPHIC 


terial development of the United States. 
It is unfortunate that so many have been 
compelled to remain in our big cities, 
but there are many thousands who are 
spreading over the land, buying and 
settling down on cotton plantations in 
Texas and Louisiana and on the citrus 
and fruit farms of southern California. 
The average Italian, says Mr Eliot 
Lord, prefers the country and goes 
there as soon as he gets enough money 
to take him. Mr Lord quotes Adolfo 
Rossi, supervisor of the Italian emigra- 
tion department, as saying that 84 per 
cent of the Italians coming here are be- 
tween 18 and 45 years of age; 84 per 
cent are, in other words, producers. 
Every Italian costs his country $1,000 
to bring up; but by leaving Italy the 
$1,000 invested in him by his country 
is lost. ‘‘ We spend a thousand dollars 
to bring up and develop a young man, 
and then you reap the profits of the 
investment.’’ 


The Far Eastern Tropics. By Alleyne 
imeland, F.R.G.S. 8vo, pp. 7-339. 
Boston and New York: Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co., 1905. 

This is a critical account of the gov- 
ernment, administration, and to some 
_ extent the industrial condition of certain 
eastern peoples—Hongkong, Borneo, 
Sarawak, Burma, Malay States, Straits 
Settlements, French Indo-China, Java, 
and the Philippines. . 

Mr Ireland is English by birth, and 
while it may not be quite fair to quote, 
with reférence to him, the old saying, 
‘‘What’s English is good, what isn’t, 
ain’t,’’ the book unquestionably sug- 
gests it. Heis also everywhere cock- 
sure of himself. 

Hongkong, he says, is a marvel of 
growth, a city of 300 000 people, built 
up in sixty years. But to us that is 
not so strange, for San Francisco, with 
an equal population, is younger, while 
Chicago, with its 2,000,000 inhabitants, 
is but little older. He tells us that the 
foreign commerce of Hongkong exceeds 


LITERATURE 


as 


that of any other city on earth, for- 
getting that everything that comes and 
goes is foreign, even the nightly boat 
to Canton. If we should add to the 
foreign commerce of New York its do- 
mestic commerce, including the fleet 
that every night goes up the Sound, 
Hongkong would not be in the same 
class. 

It is, however, with what he says 
about the Philippines and our conduct 
of their affairs that we are most inter- 
ested, and to this subject he devotes 
nearly half thebook. Incompany with 
many Hnglishmen, who are watching 
with critical eyes our course in the 
Philippines, he entirely misunderstands 
our purpose. We are not governing 
the Philippine Islands, as they suppose, 
but are helping the Filipinos to govern 
themselves, and between these there is 
a great difference. Mr Ireland is sur- 
prised and disturbed that we have not 
molded the Philippine government on 
the pattern of English colonies, and, 
with sublime assurance, assumes that 
our failure to do so is due simply to 
our ignorance of British colonial meth- 
ods. It has not occurred to him that 
the statesmen who framed the Philip- 
pine government, being entirely familiar 
with foreign colonial history, made use 
of the experience of other nations only 
as farasitcouldhelpthem. Mr Ireland 
can rest assured that wherever the Phil- 
ippine government departs from British 
colonial methods there exists a good 
reason therefor, even though he may 
be unable to explain it. He also ob- 
jects to our plan of developing a good 
government before developing the in- 
dustries, forgetting that the latter can- 
not and will not take precedence of the 
former. Did the world ever see indus- 
trial development under unstable gov- 
ernment? 

Mr Ireland has a very low estimate 
of the industrial efficiency of the Fili- 
pino, obtaining his measure of it by the 
curious method of dividing the exports 
of the Archipelago by the number of 


BAG 


inhabitants. What relation the result- 
ing figure has to anything it would be 
difficult to discover, but by means of it 
he places the Filipino at the foot of all 
tropical peoples, with $5 each, as com- 
pared with $12 for Porto Ricans and $44 
for the people of the Federated States. 
Let us extend the comparison on the 
same basis; the Chinese would stand at 
the bottom with only 50 cents—~. e., 
they are only one-tenth as efficient as 
the Filipinos. The people of the United 
States, who may fairly be regarded as 
efficient, rate at $18, far less than the 
people of the Federated States, less 
even than the negroes of Sierra Leone. 

The fact is, as is shown in the Census 
Report, the Filipinos are at least as efh- 
cient as any other tropical people. 

Mr Ireland criticises the expense of 
the Philippine government, and, as a 
basis for comparison with other colonial 
governments of the Far Hast, he com- 
pares the cost of government with the 
amount of exports. Here again there 
does not appear to be any relation be- 
tween the two factors. The statement 
that the cost of government is a certain 
proportion of the export trade is utterly 
meaningless. One would suppose that 
he would have compared the cost of 
government per capita of the people 
governed, the ordinary method of com- 
parison, but this would not yield the 
results which he wishes, since the cost 
of government in the English colonies in 
the East is much greater per capita than 
in the Philippines. 

He ridicules the Philippine Civil Serv- 
ice examinations and contrasts them 
with those held for the East Indian 
service. Ifthe examination for the Kast 
Indian service, which he instances is for 
the same grade of clerk as is the Philip- 
pine examination—-7.é. ,the lower grade-— 
he merely succeeds in holding up to 
ridicule the Indian examinations. Why 
should a clerk be expected to be versed 
in the higher mathematics, in Sanskrit, 
and in the old English poets in order to 


Tue NatTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


audit accounts or keep books? Yet that 
is apparently required. The book bris- 
tles with errors and misstatements, but 
enough have been adduced to put the 
reader on his guard. H. G. 


A Century of Expansion. By Willis 
Fletcher Johnson, lL. H. D. With 
maps. Pp. 316. 5x7%inches. New 
York: The Macmillan Co. 

The author gives a very thoughtful 
analysis of our expansion as a nation. 
He shows that our growth has been reg- 
ular, not spasmodic, and that if we 
would continue strong we must continue 
developing intellectually and physically. 
The saying, ‘‘ When growth ceases the 
man begins todie,’’ isas true of nations 
as of the individual man. 

‘‘Territorial expansion increases 
power, enlarges the sphere of activity, 
adds to responsibilities and duties, cre- 
ates new problems for solution, leads to 
new relationships, and thus induces con- 
stitutional—that is, intellectual and 
moral—development of the nation. 
The physical growth of a man is steady, 
persistent progress, not an irregular se- 
ries of disconnected spasms. We may 
say the same of our territorial expan- 
sion. However widely and irregularly 
separated by time, the individual acts of 
territorial acquisition are all intimately 
and essentially related. Order and de- 
sign characterize them. The law of 
cause and effect is dominant among 
them. Inthe first step of expansion, 
in colonial times, every subsequent step 
was forecast and made inevitable. From 
Washington at Great Meadows to Dewey 
in Manila Bay, the span in both time and 
space is enormous, but it is a span of 
unbroken links of cause and effect—co- 
herent, logical, and inevitable.’’ 

Mr Johnson’s style is clear, concise, 
and rich in classic allusions and inci- 
dents. He furthermore handles his sub- 
ject in aclever, suggestive way that tells 
just enough and stimulates the reader to 
do some thinking for himself. 


| bao . s4 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


SOME RECENT GOVERNMENT 
REPORTS 


The Avocado. G. N. Collins, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Bull. 77. 

The Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resist- 
ance to Toxic Salts. L. Ll. Harter, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Bull. 79. 

Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. 
Thomas H. Means, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Bull. 80. 

Evolution of Cellular Structures. O. F, 
Cook and Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, Bull. 81. 

Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 
C. V. Piper, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 82. 

Tie Witality of Buried Seeds. J. W.-T. 
Duvel, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 83. 

The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. W. D. 
Hunter and W. E. Hinds, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, Bull. 51. 

Experiments in the Culture of Suger Cane 
and its Manufactureinto Table Syrup. H.W. 
Wiley, Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 93. 


57 


Tobacco Investigations in Ohio. George T. 
McNess and George B. Massey, Bureau of 
Soils, Bull. 29. 

The Commercial Cotton Crop. James L. 
Watkins, Bureau of Statistics, Bull. 34. 

Statistics of the Fisheries of the New Eng- 
land States. A. B. Alexander, Bureau of 
Fisheries, Bull. 575. 

A Revision of the Cave Fishes of North 
America. Ulysses O. Cox, Bureau of Fisheries, 
Bullies 79: 

The Gas Disease in Fishes. M. C. Marsh 
and F. P. Gorham, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 
578. 
Critical Notes on Mylocheilus Lateralis and 
Leuciscus Caurinus. John Otterbien Snyder, 
Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 574 

Notes on the Fishes of the Streams Flowing 
into San Francisco Bay, Cal. 

The Life History of the Blue Crab. W. P. 
Hay, M.S, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 580. 

Geology of the Tonopah Mining District, 
Nevada. J. E. Spurr. Geological Survey, 
Prof, Paper 42. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE completed program of the pop- 
ular and technical meetings of the 
National Geographic Society for 1905- 
1906. 
THE POPULAR COURSE 


The addresses in this Course will be 
delivered in the National Rifles Armory, 
920 G street, at 8 p. m. on Friday even- 
ings of the following dates: 


November 10—‘'‘A Review of the 
Russo-Japanese War—from the Sinking 
of the Variag to the Signing of the 
Treaty of Portsmouth.’’ By Mr Robert 
Ll. Dunn, special correspondent of Col- 
lier’s Weekly in the Far East. 

The address is a pictorial summary of 
the war, being illustrated by nearly 200 
views. 


November 24—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ 
By Hon. James R. Mann, Member of 
Congress from Illinois. 

December 8—‘‘ What Shall be Done 
with the Yosemite Valley.’’ By Mr 
William E. Curtis. Illustrated. 

The Yosemite Valley has been receded 
to the federal government by act of the 


California legislature, but has not yet 
been formally accepted by Congress. 


December 9 (Saturday )—‘‘A Military 
Observer in Manchuria.’’ By Major 
Joseph Kuhn, U.S. A. Illustrated. 


December 22—‘‘An Attempt at an 
Interpretation of Japanse Character.”’ 
By Hon. Eki Hioki, First Secretary of 
the Japanese Legation. 


January 5—‘‘ Russia and the Russian 
People.’’ Mr Melville EK. Stone, Gen- 
eral Manager of the Associated Press, 
has accepted the invitation of the So- 
ciety to deliver the address on this sub- 
ject, provided the demands of the public 
service do not interfere. 


January 9 (Tuesday)—‘‘ The Ziegler 
Polar Expedition of 1903-1905.’’ By 
Messrs W. S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, 
and W. J. Peters. 

A novel feature of this meeting will 
be the exhibition of moving pictures of 
Arctic scenes. 


January 19—“‘ Railway Rates.’’ By 
Hon. Martin A. Knapp, President of 
the Interstate Commerce Commission. 


£20 


February 2—‘‘Austria Hungary.”’ 
By Edwin A. Grosvenor, LL. D., Pro- 
fessor of International Law in Amherst 
College, author of ‘‘ Constantinople,’’ 
‘‘ Contemporary History,’’ etc. 


February 16—‘‘ Africa from Sea to 
Center.”” By Mr Herbert, L»Bridg- 
man. Illustrated. 

Africa in transition today challenges 
the attention of the world. Few intel- 
ligent Americans know to what extent 
its possibilities have been developed 
since Livingston’s day, a development 
that in rapidity promises to exceed that 
of North America. 


February 23—‘‘ The Personal Wash- 
ington.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, of 
the Century Company. Illustrated. 

This is not a lecture in the ordinary 
sense of the word, but-it is an exhibi- 
tion, through the medium of the stere- 
opticon, of the greatest collection of 
prints, manuscripts, and letters refer- 
ring to the personal side of Washington, 
ever brought together. 


March 2—‘‘ Our Immigrants: Where 
They Come from, What They Are, and 
What They Do After They Get Here.”’ 
By Hon. F. P. Sargent, U. S. Commis- 
sioner General of Immigration.  Illus- 
trated. 


March 1{6—‘‘ Oriental Markets and 
Market Places.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, 
Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Il- 
lustrated. 


March 30—It is hoped that official 
business will permit the Secretary of 
the Navy, Honorable Charles J. Bona- 
parte, to address the Society on ‘‘ The 
American Navy.”’ 


April 13—‘‘ The Regeneration of Ko- 
rea by Japan.’’ By Mr George Kennan. 
Illustrated. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 


The meetings of this course will be 
held at the new home of the Society, 
Hubbard Memorial Hall, Sixteenth and 
M streets, on Friday evenings, of the 
following dates. 


Tur NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


INovember 17—‘‘ Morocco.”’’ 
Ion Perdicaris. 


November 25 (Saturday)—‘‘ The Pan- 
ama Canal.’’ By Mr Bunau-Varilla. 


December 1—‘‘ The Development of 
the Mineral Resources of Alaska, with 
particular reference to the Fairbanks 
and Nome Regions.’’ By Mr Alfred H. 
Brooks, Chief of the Alaskan Division, 
U. S. Geological Survey. 


December 15— ‘‘ Surveying our Coasts. 
and Harbors.” By Hon. WO.¥a. Tite 
mann, Superintendant U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey. 


December 29—‘‘ Problems for Geo- 
graphical Research.’’ By Gen. A. W. 
Greely, U. S. A. 

‘“The Binding Power of Road Mate- 
rial.’’ By Mr,A. S. Cushman. 


January {2—Annual meeting. Re- 
ports and elections. ‘‘ Progress in the 
Reclamation of the West.’’ By Mr F. 
H. Newell, Chief Engineer Reclamation 
Service. 


January 26—‘‘ The Carnegie Institu- 
tion.’’ By President R.S. Woodward. 

February 9—‘‘ The Introduction of 
Foreign Plants.’’ By Mr David G. Fair- 
child, Agricultural Explorer, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. 


February 24 (Saturday)—‘‘ Hunting 
with the Camera.’’ By Hon; George 
Shiras, Member of Congress from 3rd 
District, Pennsylvania. : 

March 9—‘‘ The United States Bu- 
reau of the Census.’’ By HonS.N.D. 
North, Director. | 

March 23—‘‘ The Death Valley.’ By 
Mr Robert H. Chapman, U. S. Geolog- 
ical Survey. 

April 6—‘‘ The Total Eclipse of the 
Sun, July, 1905, as Observed in Spain.’’ 
By Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, 
U. S. N., Superintendent U. S. Naval 
Observatory. 

April 20—‘‘ The Protection of the 
United States Against Invasion by 
Disease.’’ By Dr Walter Wyman, Sur- 


By Mr 


. geon-General Marine Hospital Service. 


CEO GRAPH 


\GAZINE 


DECEMBER, 1905 


CONTENTS 


The Parsees and the Towers of Silence at Bombay, India. By 
- William Thomas Fee, U.S. Consul General, Bombay . 
China and the United States. By Sir Chentung Liang-Cheng, 

K. C, M. G., Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo- 
tentiary from China to the United States . ; 
What Has Been Accomplished by the United States Toward 
Building the Panama Canal. By Theodore P. Shonts, 
Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission 
Russia in Recent Literature. By General A. W. Greely, Chiet 
sromenal Offices U. SiA. . . we 


Published by the National Geographic Society 
Hubbard Memorial Hall 
Washington, D. C. 


554 


558 


$2.50 a Year | | 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-Ofiee in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter 


ae 


(Caer MAGAZINE. 


Society. 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; 


Editor; GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


Associate Editors 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 
Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Aenry 


W J McGEE 


Chief Department of Anthropology 
and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- 
ehase Exposition 


€. HART MERRIAM 


Chief of the Biological Survey, U. & 
Department of Agriculture 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


Chief of the Weather Burean, U. &. 
Department of Agriculture 


Oo. H. TITTMANN 


Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey 


0. P. AUSTIN 


Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, | 


Department of Commerce and 
Labor 


DAVID G. FAIRCHILD 


Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 


Hiabheard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. ot 


NATIONAL | 
GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 


IN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published. by the 
NationaL GerocrapHic Society. 
editorial communications should be ad- 
dressed to the Editor of the NatIonaL | 
Business communications — 


should be addressed to the National Geographic 


Al 


$2.50 A YEAR 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
Washington, D. C. 


DAVID T. DAY 


Chief of the Division of Mineral — 
Resources, U.S. Geological Survey 


ALPRED H. BROOKS 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ANGELO HEILPRIN 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- im 
delphia : 


R. D. SALISBURY 
University of Chieago 


G. K. GILBERT 
U. S. Geological Survey 


ALEXANDER McADIE 


Professor of Meteorology, U. s. 
Weather Bureau, San Francisco 


ALMON GUNNISON i 
President St Lawrence Univer 


Vor. XVI, No. 12 WASHINGTON DECEMBER, I905 


na 


@iak PARSEES AND THE TOWERS OF 
SILENCE AT BOMBAY, INDIA 


GEOGRAPIRIC 
MAGAZIINIE 


a 


By Wititiam Tuomas Fees, U.S. Consut GENERAL, BOMBAY 


The following story of the Parsee people and the description of the Towers of Silence 
at Bombay were written at the United States Consulate largely during hours in the 
night-time, at seasons when the excessive heat of India prevented Dame Nature from 
performing her part of the ‘‘ sweet restorer.’’ 

Lt is not claimed that anything new has been told, though it 1s hoped that some of 
the old may have been stated in a new light. It is mainly descriptive and written 
solely for the pleasure and profit of my fellow-countrymen, who of late years have found 
much of interest in the traditions and customs of the people of India. 

Lam under great obligations to many Parsees for considerable data and help given 


me, but especially to my friend, the late Dossabhai Framjee Karaka, the historian. 
Lhe drawing and photographic feature ts made use of to illustrate the development 
and individual attainments of members of this remarkable race. 


HOUGH comparatively small in 

point of numbers, the Parsees 
occupy one of the foremost 

places among Indian nationalities. 
Their social position, peculiar customs, 
manners, and foreign designation are 
impressively striking to a stranger on 
his first visit to Bombay. ‘Their story 
is a romantic tale of a people whose 
ancestry appeared at the very dawn of 
history, and who occupied Persia when 
Abraham was a nomadic wanderer, tend- 
ing his flocks on the sandy plains beyond 
the Euphrates. They claim that their 


WM THOS: FEE. 


ancestral race was the foremost Asiatic 
nation of their time, whose grandeur, 
magnificence, and glory were unsur- 
passed; that their kings were the most 
powerful and wisest of monarchs, whose 
armies were renowned for courage and 
military prowess ; that they were valor- 
ous and energetic, bringing up their 
youth to ‘‘ride, draw the bow, and speak 
the truth;’’ that their heroes were as 
humane as they were courageous; that 
their women were as braveas they were 
fair, and as celebrated for the freedom 
allowed them as for their modesty. 


a3 


“RELIGION OF ZOROASTER ”’ 


The Parsees are of Persian origin, of 
the Iranic race, and are supposed to have 
had a common ancestry, somewhere in 
West-Central Asia, where man, as we 
now know him, is said to have had his 
birth. More than 3,000 years ago their 
forefathers left the uplands of that mys- 
terious Aryan home from which our 
own ancestors had already gone forth, 
and were in all probability the first of 
the Indo-European family to embrace a 
purely monotheistic faith. 

In religion they are followers of Zo- 
roaster, who was a religious reformer 
and founder of this ancient Persian re- 
ligion at a period probably prior to the 
Assyrian conquest of Bactria, his native 
country, which is said to have taken 
place 1,200 years before the Christian 
era. At all events, the religion of Zo- 
roaster can certainly claim a hoary 
antiquity which unquestionably chal- 
lenges our deep respect. 

The scripture of this faith, the Parsee 
Bible, is called the ‘‘ Zend-Avesta’’ or, 
more properly, simply ‘‘Avesta,’’ or 
“Avesta and its Zend.’’ While Zend is 
understood to mean the translation of 
the original text and commentary, inthe 
Zend language, the oldest form of Iranic 
speech known, and to which Dr March 
gives the name of ‘‘ Old Bactrian,’’ the 
Zend-Avesta embraces the whole Parsee 
religious literature, ancient and modern. 

The Avesta proper is one of the most 
interesting documents coming to us from 
the early history and religion of the 
Indo-European family. 
of several distinct parts, many of which 
are fragmentary and of different ages, 
some of which must be many centuries 
older than ourera. This religious sys- 
temisamonotheism. It recognizes the 
dual principle of good or light, and evil 
or darkness. Fire is its principal em- 
blem, as being the purest of allelements ; 
hence the misconception that its ad- 
herents are fire-worshipers. The com- 


It is made up. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


mon charge of worshiping fire, the sun, 
water, and air, brought against the Par- 
sees, is not well founded. ‘The Parsees 
emphatically deny the charge, and his- 
tory gives several accounts of acts of 
hatred shown by the Parsees toward 
idolatry. ; 

God, according to the Parsee faith, i 
the creator, preserver, and ruler of the 
universe. Heisthe emblem of glory and 
light. In view of this a Parsee while 
engaged in prayer is directed to stand 
before fire or turn his face toward the 
sun, because they appear to be the most 
proper symbols of the Almighty. Such 
is still the present practice among their 
descendants in India. 


Zoroaster, the Parsee Moses, appears 
as a being of supernaturai endowments 
and as receiving from the supreme di- 
vinity, by personal interviews, by ques- 
tions and answers, the truths which he 
is to communicate to men. The idea 
of a future life and the immortality of 
the soul pervades the whole of Avesta 
literature. The doctrine of the resur- 
rection of the body at the time of the 
last judgment is claimed as a genuine 
Zoroastrian dogma, without the slight- 
est trace of its being borrowed from a 
foreign source. 


With religion Zoroaster has com- 
bined both moral and speculative phi- 
losophy in a remarkable degree. In 
regard to man, he takes cognizance of 
two intellects—the ‘‘Asno-Krato,’’ the 
innate or born wisdom, and the ‘‘ Go- 
ashosruto-Kratu,’’ or acquired wisdom. 
The Zend-Avesta insists in emphatic 
terms that ‘‘ virtue alone is happiness 
in this world,’’ and its path is the path 
of peace. 

The moral foundation of the Parsee 
religious works is built upon three basic 
injunctions, which are pithily expressed 
in the Avesta, viz., ‘‘ Humata,’’ ‘‘ Hu- 
khta,’’ and ‘‘ Hvarshta,’’ which mean 
‘‘ good thoughts,’’ ‘‘ good words,’’ and 
‘“ good deeds.’’ 


THe Parsres oF INDIA 


EMIGRATION TO INDIA 


When the Persian Empire of Sassa- 
mides was destroyed by the Saracens 
imeosr A-D., the great mass of the 
nation was forced to adopt the faith of 
Islamism, the religion of their Moham- 
medan conquerors ; but a small num- 
ber clung to the old Zoroastrian faith 
and took refuge in the wilderness of 
the Persian province of Khorasan. 
After much wandering and enduring 
great persecution and hardship, they, 
in the eighth century, emigrated to 
India and made a settlement at Sanjan, 
in the neighborhood of Surat. Here 
they lived in the Sanjan country for 
some seven hundred years in tranquillity 
and in full enjoyment of their religious 
rites, under the government of the 
Hindoo rajahs of Sanjan, Guzerat. 

They chiefly occupied themselves in 
agriculture and industrial pursuits. It 
is said that they not only turned the 
face of the territory they occupied from 
a dreary jungle into a fruitful garden 
and made it blossom as the rose, but 
they also enjoyed considerable pros- 
perity. 

About the time of the discovery of 
America the Hindoo rajah’s govern- 
ment, under which they lived, was over- 
thrown bya Mohammedan-Afghan con- 
queror. The Parsees, with a high char- 
acter for fidelity, were loyal to the Indian 
kings, who had given them and their 
ancestors a welcome when they had been 
driven from their own Persian homes 
by the same foe. They gathered their 
forces to the standard of the rajahs, 
and proved themselves of great valor. 
The result of the campaign was, how- 
ever, one of disaster. They were finally 
dispersed from the Sanjan country and 
compelled to seek new homes in other 
parts of Guzerat. 

It was probably some time after this 
event, though there does not seem to ex- 
ist any authoritative record of the exact 
date when the Parsees arrived in Bom- 
bay. It may, however, be safely said 


opt 


that their settlement in that island was 
some time before Bombay was ceded to 
the British, in 1669, by the King of 
Portugal, asa dowry of Catherine, Prin- 
cess of Braganza, who became the wife 
of Charles the Second of England. 

As a sect in Persia they have disap- 
peared under religious persecutions, and 
have sunk into ignorance and poverty, 
though still preserving a reputation for 
honesty, industry, and obedience to law 
superior to that of other Persians. 


THEY HAVE RETAINED THEIR INDI- 
VIDUALITY FOR 1,200 YEARS 


There seems to be no authoritative in- 
formation as to the number composing 
the first exodus to India, or if the Parsee 
colony was ever materially increased by 
early additions from Persia. Some tra- 
ditions have it that there was a paucity 
of females among them, and that they 
intermarried with Hindoo women on 
their first coming to India. This tra- 
ditional intimation of racial mixture is 
not well received by the Parsee people 
of today. However it may have been, 
there is one thing certain, that if ever the 
practice did occur it surely was short- 
lived, as no custom of today is more re- 
ligiously observed than that of inter- 
marriage among their own people. 

For some 1,200 years they have lived 
among theall-absorbent Hindoos, yet this 
mere handful of people have not been ab- 
sorbed. During the last 300 years the 
transmissiveinfluenceofan Anglo-Saxon 
civilization has been reflected upon them, 
yet they remain Parsees still. India has 
in turn been conquered and reconquered 
by all the great nations of history, from 
Greek to Britain. Her conquerors have 
each shaped the affairs of half of the 
earth. The possession of the Indian 
Peninsula seems an indispensable re- 
quirement for sovereignty in the East. 
Internecine wars, racial strifes,and caste 
prejudices have robbed her of her own; 
pestilence and famine have blighted her 
fairest flower; yet during all these cen- 
turies,amid all the vicissitudes of oriental 


Soo 


life, have lived the worthy descendants 
of the ancient Persian people, true to 
their faith, and have substantially pre- 
served and transmitted the main char- 
acteristics of their ancestral race. The 
Parsee stands unique in the history of 
mankind. 

The Parsees of India have been ex- 
ceedingly prosperous and have steadily 
increased in number, now being vari- 
ously estimated at about 100,000 souls. 
They are most numerousin Bombay. A 
few have settled in China and remote 
places in India for the purpose of trade, 
but these outlying settlements do not 
contain more than perhaps 4,000 people. 
It is calculated that about 85 per cent of 
the Parsees in India reside in the Bom- 
bay presidency, which was found by the 
census taken by the government of India 
in I901I to be 78,552. Of these 46,231 
reside in city of Bombay. 

On the spread of Mohammedanism to 
India they became again the subject of 
persecution. Since the occupation of 
India by the British they have fared 
better, and now form a peaceful, intelli- 
gent, wealthy, and influential commu- 
nity. 


PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS 


Physically they are tall and erect, hav- 
ing remarkably small hands and feet, 
with facial features resembling the Eu- 
ropeans. ‘They have a quickness of ac- 
tion bordering on nervousness. ‘Their 
hair is jet black and their eyes are dark. 
In their manners they are exceedingly 
polite, kind, and hospitable, often put- 
ting themselves to great inconvenience 
to accommodate a stranger. In the 
habit of diet they are religiously ab- 
stemious, and are exceedingly temperate 
in the use of tobacco and intoxicating 
liquors. 

Excepting, perhaps, fisa, fowl, and 
mutton, they are not a ‘“‘ meat-eating 
people.’’ Like most oriental nations, 
a principal food among them is rice, 
served in curries and in a hundred dif- 
erent ways. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Fully three-fifths of the population of 
the globe live on rice; the founders of 
the five great religions of the world 
were nourished by it. It might be worth 
while for scientists to look a little more 
closely into the brain-making qualities 
of this worthy food. 

They were never known to have prac- 
ticed the barbarous custom of ‘‘suttee,”’ 
the burning of the widow on the funeral 
pyre with the corpse of her husband, or 
of following their Hindoo neighbors in 
the cruel practice of prohibiting their 
widows, often mere infants, from re- 
marrying. ‘They are also free from the 
caste system so rigidly practiced by the 
Hindoos.. Since they have freed them- 
selves from Hindoo influences and be- 
come amenable to Western civilization, 
the practice of infant marriage has sub- 
stantially ceased among them. ‘Their 
women are treated with respectful con- 


' sideration and have long since been lib- 


erated from the seclusion of the zenana 
and the use of the purdah. 

The long, flowing ‘‘ saree’’ of many 
silken tints, wrapped about the body 
in graceful folds, gives to the female 
Parsee a garment of exquisite beauty 
and rarecomfort. It would bea matter 
of great regret if this graceful dress 
should give place to modern European 
fashion, with the tight corset and the 
high-heeled shoe, that destroy the grace- 
ful carriage and health of the wearer. 

The Parsee women are generally of 
good figure and of pleasing and intelli- 
gent countenance. Many of them have 
a light olive complexion and are consid- 
ered very handsome. ‘They appear to 
great disadvantage by being obliged to 
conceal their hair, of which nature has. 
graced them in a most luxuriant manner, 
under the ‘‘mathabana,’’ a custom re- 
garded as a token of feminine modesty. 
A Parsee historian states that there is 
no injunction against keeping the head 
uncovered ; yet the Parsees haveimbibed 
the notion, supported by long usage and 
originally imported from Persia, that it 
is sinful and contrary to religion to leave 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


the head uncovered, either by day or 
night ; hence a Parsee is never without 
his skull cap or a woman without her 
‘“‘mathabana.’’ The latter is a thin 
white linen of the size of a small hand- 
kerchief. 


CUSTOMS AND MANNERS 


As a separate community the Parsees 
have not only their peculiar religion, but 
also their own moral code, and as acivil 
body they are not only permitted, but 
also aided by the state, in inforcing 
their own laws of marriage and divorce. 
Their ancient custom governing inherit- 
ance and succession has been enacted for 
them, on their petition, into the form of 
a legal statute by the empire. They 
enjoy full religious freedom, and their 
peculiar customs and manners are fully 
protected by the liberality of the British 
rule in India. 

For a number of years after they 
came to India they adhered to the use 
of their native Persian language; but 
as time rolled on they gave it up for 
Gujerati, the language of the Hindoos, 
among whom they dwelt. Gujerati 
now forms their vernacular. They are 
taught English from earliest childhood, 
and they study in the schools Persian 
and Sanskrit as classics. They all 
speak Hindustani, and many of them 
are fluent in the Persian tongue, in 
which they keep up communication 
with their brethren in Persia. 

Their worship in the course of time 
became tainted by many Hindoo prac- 
tices, and the reverence for the fire and 
sun, as emblems of the glory of ‘‘ Or- 
muzd,’’ naturally degenerated into idol- 
atrous practices. However, the wor- 
ship in recent years has been restored to 
its pristine purity, and the sacred fire 
which Zoroaster is said to have brought 
down from heaven is kept burning in 
consecrated spots and temples are built 
over subterranean fires. 

They have a priesthood which, 
strange to say, are not educators or 


533 


teachers of the people, as is usually the 
case in other religious systems, nor are 
they themselves necessarily educated, 
but are simply a class of men who per- 
form the ceremonial rites of the religion 
at marriages and funerals, tend the fires 
on the temple altars, burn incense, chant 
hyms, and say prayers. 

The Parsee is imbued with a spirit of 
toleration and is most respectful toward 
the religions of others. Besides their 
own sacred days, they observe many of 
those of the Hindoos. In Bombay they 
celebrate the holidays of the English 
and close their shops and places of 
business on the Christian Sabbath. 

There is now a marked desire on the 
part of the Parsees to adapt themselves 
to the manners and customs of the Euro- 
peans. The Parsee mode of life may 
be described as an eclectic ensemble, 
half Huropean and half Hindoo. As 
they advance every year in civilization 
and enlightenment, they copy more 
closely European manners and modes 
of living, adopting the bad with the 
good—regretfully too much of the for- 
mer. A Greek historian has remarked 
that of all nations the ancient Persians 
were most distinguished by their readi- 
ness in imitating foreign manners and 
customs. This peculiarity their de- 
scendants have retained to the present 
day. 

During their sojourn in Guzerat they 
willingly adopted the language, dress, 
and other social customs of that country, 
and they now have taken as completely 
to English manners and customs, so 
much so that when they speak of “‘ going 
home’’ they mean to England. The 
educated and influential classes have al- 
ready adopted in their domestic life the 
comforts, conveniences, elegancies, and, 
we may also add, the costliness of the 
European style. 

The domestic arrangements of their 
houses have also undergone, of late, vast 
changes. Their houses are generally 
built in good taste, upon well-conceived 


54 


plans, and they are well ventilated. 
Their villas or garden houses are some 
of the best in Bombay. ‘The drawing- 
rooms are richly furnished and deco- 
rated and the walls adorned with land- 
scapes and historical pictures, while the 
particular boast of a Parsee is to have 
his house brilliantly lighted with many 
lamps and chandeliers of every descrip- 
tion. 

A great improvement has taken place 
among the Parsees in their mode of 
taking meals. Years ago they used, 
like the Hindoos, to eat them squatting 
on the ground, and the viands were 
served to them in a brass dish, on which 
they were all spread out at the same time, 
a practice still in vogue among the poorer 
classes. The better classes have for a 
long time past adopted the table and 
chair, with all the usual accompaniments 
of a Europeandinner. At large parties 
the tableis spread outin English fashion, 
instead of as formerly, when hundreds 
sat in a line in rows upon an oblong 
sheet of cotton cloth laid upon the floor, 
each eating his food off a plantain leaf 
upon which it was laid out. 

The public and private schools of 
Bombay are largely attended by their 
children, and every effort is made to pro- 
cure translations of standard English 
books. Asa matter of fact it may be 
said that the Parsees are very progress- 
ive, and that it is only necessary for 
them to understand the value and ad- 
vantage of whatever may be offered them 
to induce them to accept it with eager- 
ness. 


PUBLIC-SPIRITED GENEROSITY 


At present they seem to have lost all 
their military spirit. Many follow com- 
mercial and mercantile pursuits, some 
of them being the wealthiest merchants 
in India, while others have obtained 
high favor in government offices or have 
won distinction by reason of their char- 
itable gifts. Four Parsees have been 
especially honored by the late Queen 


Tur NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Victoria. The heads of two families. 
have been made baronets—Jamsetjee 
Jeejeebhai and Dinshaw Maneckjee 
Petit—and knighthood has been con- 
ferred upon the late Kavasjee Jehangir 
Readymoney and M. M. Bhownagree, 
at present representing the district of 
Bethnal Green in the British House of 
Commons. 

They provide for their own poor and 
infirm. Strikingly strange, one never 
sees in Bombay a Parsee soldier, servant, 
or beggar. 

But their faultless generosity is. 
broader than their race, and many of 
the fine public buildings, colleges, and 
hospitals, of which Bombay is justly 
proud, owe their origin and maintenance 
to the liberality, wealth, public spirit, 
and genius of the Parsees. Indeed, it is 
a most significant fact that the one hun- 
dred thousand followers of Zoroaster 
who still tend the sacred flame, in spite 
of their numerical insignificance, play 
so large a part in the development of 
India. 

A comparison of the political stand- 
ing and social surroundings of the Parsee 
community in Bombay with that of their 
sister community in Persia furnishes 
one of the most remarkable examples in 
the whole range of English history of 
the beneficence of British rule. ° 

It is interesting to relate that the 
Parsees of Persia have been helped by 
their wealthy kinsmen in Bombay, espe- 
cially as regards their education and the 
lightening of their political burdens. 
The rupees which the Parsee commu- 
nity has spent till now for the allevia- 
tion of the sufferings of their followmen, 
irrespective of caste or creed, are to be 
counted in crores, and one of the hap- 
piest and most remarkable features of it 
is that this spirit of catholic charity 
burns not only at home—that is, in the 
country which they have adopted as 
their own—but wherever they take 
themselves, either for the pursuit of 
business or pleasure. 


535 


Tur Parsges oF INDIA 


‘EOLISUTY PoIIAOOSIP snqminjod o1049q siead ool ys¥oo 1ye19lny 9qq} UO pez qst] sem ‘uelueg-1-yassty ayy 0} Surps0s.e 
‘yey eIY potoes sures oy} ,,epeAPN,, }e Surging ydoy st osoy} Aepoy, ,,"Yeyg uesy,, Jo omeu oy} 4q umouy SI pue ‘erpuy 
UL Ssasieg ey} Aq pepunoy o[dute} ory ys1y oq} sem sin, ‘uelueg ze “q “y 06/ tea aq} ynoge ur ajdmaq ory ye013 & pepunoj 
Avy} ‘WIO}s B1aANs B AG UdAL}IIAO o19M Ady} Udy “eIpUT 0} a8vAOA Iq} UO saasteg 94} q apeU MOA B jo JUSTIN uy 


epeapy je s[dmay, ay 


536 


oe 


oe 


aS sae ee 
fee ae 


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: 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Interior of Fire Temple 


There are some thirty fire temples in Bombay. The picture shows the sacred fire and 
attending priests in the Anjuman, or Community, fire temple at Dhobie Talao, Girguam 


Road, Bombay. 


HIGHLY EDUCATED AND PROGRESS- 
IVE PEOPLE 


It will be of interest to note the per 
cent of literacy of this people in com- 
parison with the principal races of the 
Bombay presidency, as obtained by the 
last government census. The popula- 
tion of the presidency of Bombay, in- 
cluding the native states, is given at 
25,435,000 of. people. ‘The literacy 
of the inhabitants of the entire presi- 
dency is given at 6.4 per cent. The 
literacy of the Hindoos is given as 60 ; 
the Mohammedans as 41 ; the Jains as 
270; the Brahmins at 320; the Parsees 


at 650 per 1,000 of their respective 
people. In point of intelligence, edu- 
cation, wealth, refinement, and public 
charity, the Parsee stands preeminently 
at the head of all the races of Western 
India. 

There are perhaps few, if any, large 
cities where the death rate approaches 
that of Bombay, yet it speaks well for 
the sanitation and vitality of the Parsee 
community, on observing the compara- 
tive death rate of the different races in 
Bombay, that the Parsees are next low- 
est tothe Europeans. It might be fur- 
ther stated that the European in India 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


A Parsee Lady in Regulation Dress 


538 Tue National GreocraPHic MAGAZINE 


Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata, the Business Prince and Philanthropist of Bombay 


By commerce, trade with China, and cotton manufacture Mr Tata has accumulated vast 
wealth. His firm has branch houses and representatives in the principal cities of the world, 
and he has become one of the foremost business men of his race, and of India. His city resi- 
dence in Bombay is palatial and his hospitality unbounded. He isthe most loyal subject of the 
King Emperor, yet one of his present great aims is to develop some of the vast resources of India. 

He has recently visited America to learn something of her manufacturing skill and methods, 
that he might be enabled thereby to reduce the iron ores of which India is so rich. 

He has set aside thirty-two lakhs of rupees (one million dollars, gold) of his wealth for the 
founding of an ‘‘Indian University of Research,’’ for the purpose of affording facilities for 
original scientific research and investigation in the broadest sense possible. 

Mr. Tata is a leader in the building improvement of Bombay. The vast hotel which he is 
constructing is a monument to his public-spiritedness and will reflect great credit upon the city. 
It is built of basalt rock, is seven stories high, covers two squares of ground, and fronts on the 
Bay of Bombay, over which it has a magnificent outlook. It has been building for the past five 
years, and is now nearing completion, at an estimated cost of more than twenty-one lakhs of 
rupees (about seven hundred thousand dollars, gold). 

He intends to make it ‘‘not only the finest hotel in India, but in all the East.’’ 


Tue Parsgegs oF INDIA 


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1 


Yee 


& 
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4 
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From Stereograph, copyright, by Underwood & Underwood 
A Parsee Schoolmaster and His Class of Boys 


540 ‘Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Navrozjee Maneckjee Wadia, C. I. E. 


A Parsee merchant and a companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. 

He is reputed to be the richest man in Bombay. His mother, the late Bai Motlibhia Maneckjee 
Wadia, has endeared her memory for many generations to come by her munificent charitable 
ifts. Mr Wadia will leave by deed of trust his entire vast fortune to universal charity and 
relief of the distressed, without distinction of nationality, race, cast, color, sex, or condition. 
He is also the Bearer of the Cross of the Legion of Honor, conferred upon him by Napoleon III. 


Tue Parszges oF INDIA 


A Parsee Bride and Groom 


A promising barrister-at-law of Bombay, with his handsome bride 


541 


542 


invariably sends his children home. 
The fact is there are but very few 
European children in Bombay, and the 
European population consists mainly of 
the adult class; hence the death rate 
among them would naturally be the 
minimum. The Parsee has many chil- 


A Parsee School Girl in Regulation 
Dress 


dren ; therefore it can be well stated that 
the mortality rate is decidedly in favor 
of the Parsee. 

The reason that brought a custom 
into life in the Hast may have long since 
ceased to exist and is perhaps forgotten, 
yet the custom may be continued. On 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


seeking to learn why, one is met with 
the answer, ‘‘ It is an immemorial cus- 
tom’’ or ‘‘It is part of religion,’’ when 
in fact religion has little to do with it. 
But religion has a broad back. 

After some devastating famine in 
times gone by cattle became scarce, and 
to encourage their increase became a 
necessity. The cow with the high 
hump was selected by the Brahmin 
caste or some powerful rajah and pro- 
nounced sacred; hence she was per- 
mitted to propagate and roam at will; 
yet today it would seem difficult to give 
a reason why one kind of a cow more 
than another, or even why any, should 
be considered sacred. 


SOME PECULIAR CUSTOMS 


In the early days the use of soaps 
and disinfectants were unknown. ‘The 
urine of cows was found to contain an 
element of ammonia. The Parsees were 
taught to use it for cleansing and puri- 
fying purposes and as a disinfectant. 
Surely the reason for the practice of 
this disgusting and filthy habit has long 
ceased ; yet, strange to say, it is still 
continued in use today, and it is even 
said to have a religious sanction. A 
corpse, though it may have died of 
plague or other contagious disease, is 
first washed and disinfected (?) with the 
product of the cow before being borne 
on an open bier through the public 
streets of Bombay to the Towers of 
Silence. 

In connection with the ceremony of 
the dead, the face of a deceased Parsee 
is exposed three or four times to the 
gaze of a dog during the funeral oration 
and the dog is finally led, following the 
corpse, to the Towers of Silence. One 
is told that the dog is supposed to guide 
the soul of the dead toward heaven and 
to ward off the bad influences of evil 
spirits to which it may be exposed. 
The exact object and meaning of this 
strange ceremony cannot be satisfacto- 
rily given. ‘The better-educated Par- 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


sees claim that there is no reason for it, 
and none seems to be found. It is a 
striking example of a custom being con- 
tinued after the reason has ceased to 
exist or at least has been forgotten. 

Another odd custom in vogue among 
the Parsees is that the name of the father 
is given to the son asa surname. For 
instance, if a Parsee of the name of 
‘* Framjee Dossabhoy '’ had ason whose 
mame was Maneckjee, his full name 
would be ‘‘ManeckjeeFramjee.’’ When 
again his son had a son whose name was 
Jebanjir, his full name would be “‘ Je- 
hanjir Maneckjee.’’ ‘The grandfather’s 
name is dropped entirely within three 
generations. 

Sometimes the name of a distinguished 
ancestor is added after the father’s name, 
but this is not even continued for more 
than a few generations. This practice 
has a tendency to destroy the family 
unit and lessen its influence and mag- 
nify the caste or tribe. 

While the general voice of the Parsee 
community seems to be unfavorable to 
the admission of aliens to the Zoroas- 
trian faith, and the trustees of the prin- 
cipal Fire Temple in Bombay have pro- 
hibited such persons from entering its 
sacred precincts, nevertheless prose- 
lytism to the religion does occasionally 
occur. Parsee priests are to be found 
whose objections can be overcome and 
who will permit the sacred precincts of 
the Fire Temple, over which they pre- 
side, to be invaded by alien converts to 
the Parsee faith. 


MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 


The Parsees, owing to their coming 
in contact with the Hindoos, adopted a 
number of their customs, among which 
was unfortunately included the practice 
of infant marriage. Hindoos are most 
strictly enjoined by their ‘‘ Shastras’’ 
to have their girls married before they 
have reached the age of nine years. 
Great disgrace is attached to the parents 
on their failure to do so. The Parsees 


ers 


seemed to have participated in this idea, 
and consequently practiced, until within 
recent years, infant marriage of their 
daughters. This custom is now no 


longer followed by the Parsees in Bom- 
bay, but instances of the kind, we are 
informed, may still occur in some out- 
of-the-way place in Guzerat, where the 


A Parsee School Girl in Regulation 
Dress 


light of a higher civilization has not yet 
dawned. The most sensible persons 
among them have always disapproved 
of the absurd custom, and it may be 
stated that the practice of infant mar- 
riage among the Parsees is nowa custom 
of the past. 

Marriages are generally arranged by 
the parents of the contracting parties. 


544 


Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


The Framjee Dinshaw Petit Parsee Sanitorium 


A handsome structure for a noble purpose, built out of a fund set apart by the late 
Mr Framjee Dinshaw Petit for the benefit of his Parsee community. 


The length of the building is 293 feet and the depth is 75 feet. 
thirty-six families in all—twelve on each floor. 


It can accommodate 
To each of such families two rooms are 


assigned, with a bath-room, kitchen, and other necessary arrangements. 
A noticeable feature in connection with the sanitary arrangenients of the building 
is the introduction of the ‘‘ Macerating Bacteriological Tanks’’ for the disposal of sewage 


and sullage. 


The cost of the building, including grounds, is nearly five lakhs of rupees. 


Sometimes they may commission a 
match-making priest to find a suitable 
party for their child. The horoscope of 
the boy, as well as that of the girl, may 
be examined by the professor of astrol- 
ogy to determine whether the respective 
stars of the proposed pair are in har- 
mony. ‘The wealth, position, and social 
standing of the parents are thoroughly 
investigated and considered. When the 
heads of both families have been satis- 
fied and approval given as to the suit- 


ability of the match, the betrothal takes 
place, usually at a day fixed by the 
astrologer. There is little ceremony 
attending this occasion, and it is con- 
sidered to be made binding by the ex- 
change of presents. 

For several days preceding the date of 
marriage, which is usually fixed on cer- 
tain days of the year supposed to be 
propitious for such ceremony, a succes- 
sion of dinners and ‘‘natches’’ are given 
to friends of thefamily. Itiscustomary 


Sir Jamsetjee Jijibhai, Third Baronet 


He represented the city of Bombay at the Coronation of King Edward VII, and is by com- 
mon consent the recognized head of the Parsee community of Bombay 

The vast wealth of his family has built bridges and reservoirs, founded and maintained uni- 
versities, colleges, hospitals, schools, and charitable funds for the benefit of all races, without 
regard to cast, color, or creed. 


546 


on these occasions to make exchange of 
presents between the kinsmen of the 
bride and groom. ‘The bride is also pre- 
sented with valuable ornaments by the 
proposed father-in-law. Many thou- 
sands of rupees are spent upon these 
antenuptial festivities. 

On the wedding day a large number of 
friends are invited by the contracting 
parties to witness the nuptial ceremony. 
Following the custom of the Hindoos, 
the wedding always takes place after 
the sun has set, in accordance with the 
promise given to the Rajah of Sanjan by 
the Parsees on their first landing in In- 
dia. The wedding guests, when assem- 
bled, to the number frequently of one 
thousand and more—the men in full 
Parsee costume of snow white, the ladies 
arrayed in rich jewelry and dresses of 
variegated colors,splendidly ornamented 
with gold and embroidery, the evening 
enlivened by the music of a band— 
form a beautiful scene, rarely witnessed 
in any other part of the globe. 

Bouquets of flowers, upon which rose- 
water is sprayed from a golden jar, in 
order to give them a perfume, are passed 
among the guests. Packets of ‘‘ pan- 
supari,’’ made of the nut of the arica 
palm, upon which a portion of chunam 
or lime is smeared, wrapped in the leaf 
of the beetle vine and pinned together 
with a clove, are distributed to the 
guests. 

The procession of the bridegroom was 
formerly attended with great splendor 
and state, as is still the practice of the 
Hindoos. Gaily comparisoned horses, 
chariots, and sometimes elephants are 
used to convey the bridegroom to the 
home of the bride. On reaching the 
home of the bride, the bride and groom 
are seated opposite each other in chairs, 
placed on a carpet or large rug, and the 
guests and relatives are seated in circles 
about them. 

For the following details the writer has 
abbreviated from a description of a mar- 
riage ceremony furnished him by his 


Tue NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


good friend, the late Dossabhai Framjee 
Karaka : 

A piece of cloth is held between the 
bride and groom, as a curtain, so as to 
screen them from each other’s sight. 
Under this curtain they are made to hold 
each other’s right hand in their grasp. 
Then another piece of cloth is placed 
around so as to encircle them, and the 
ends of the cloth are tied together in a 
double knot. In the same way raw 
twist is taken and wound round the pair 
seven times by the officiating priests, 
who during the performance repeat the 
short prayers of Yatha Ahu Vairyo. 

On completing the seventh round the 
twist is tied seven times over the joined 
hands of the couple, as well as round 
the double knot of the ends of the cloth 
previously put aboutthem. When this 
is over incense is burnt on a fire placed 
in a flat metallic vase, after which the 
curtain is suddenly dropped down and 
the bride and bridegroom, who have 
each beeu provided with a few grains 
of rice, hasten to throw them at one 
another. Thisis followed by a clapping 
of hands from the ladies seated around 
the bridal pair, and the applause is taken 
up by the gentlemen outside. 

After throwing the rice the couple sit 
side by side, when the recital of ‘‘ ashir- 
wad,’’ or blessings, by two ‘‘ dasturs,’”’ 
or chief priests, follows ; one of these 
stands before the bride and the other 
before the bridegroom. 

The holding of the curtain between 
the bride and the bridegroom and its 
subsequent removal are meant to show 
that up to the time of the ceremony they 
were separated from each other, but 
that they areso no longer. Their being 
made to sit opposite to one another at 
first and side by side a little later on 
also expresses the same notion. ‘The 
grasping of their right hands by each 
other and their being tied by a string 
signify that they are thenceforth united. 
The putting round of the string and the 
cloth,so as to encircle them with a double 


VRAIS A 


rb 


A Parsee Wedding 


548 


Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MaGazIne 


The Tower of Silence and Fire Temple at Uran 


The photograph was taken froma rock in the cliffs of the overhanging mountains by an 
artist especially sent out by Messrs Underwood & Underwood, of New York. The Tower has 
been but recently dedicated, and hence the grounds are yet unimproved. The wall, capped 
with broken glass, that surrounds the grounds is noticeably in the foreground. The Tower is 


not a large one. 
very distinctly shown. 


The inclined pathway to the door that admits the corpse and pall-bearers is 
The oblong white arched-roofed building to the right, near a targola 


palm, is a small Fire ‘femple, where the sacred fire is ever burning, and is used by the mourners 


for prayers. 


knot at the ends, means that they are 
now joined and made one. ‘The object 
of using raw twist, and of its being put 
round them seven times, is to show that 
while raw twist itself can be very easily 
broken, when it is strung round seven 
times and twined into one it forms so 
strong a band that it cannot be broken 
by ordinary strength, thusimplying that 


the love and affection of the husband and 
wife for each other should be so strong 
that nothing can undo it. 

The reason for the twist being strung 
round seven times is because this num- 
ber is held to be very auspicious among 
the Parsees, there having been seven 
archangels, seven heavens, and seven 
continents known to the ancient Per- 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


sya ey, 


A Model of a ‘‘ Tower of Silence’’ 


This model gives a fair idea of a Tower of Silence ; the circular wall, steps, drainage wells, the 
door, and also the inside construction are exactly represented in miniature. 


sians. Lastly, the throwing of a few 
grains of rice upon each other is watched 
with much interest by the friends and re- 
lations of the bride and bridegroom. - 

The eyes of all, particularly of the 
ladies, are upon the pair to see which 
succeeds in throwing first the rice as 
soon as the curtain is withdrawn. The 
one who succeeds is supposed to evince 
the more love and affection of the two. 

Then the senior ‘‘ dastur’’ begins the 
more solemn part of the marriage cere- 
mony, and pronounces the following 
blessing: ‘‘ May the omniscient Lord 
bless you with many sons and grand- 
sons, with good livelihood, heart-rav- 
ishing friendship, and an existence of 
one hundred and fifty years.’’ 


Portions of the brief address which 
follows the blessing are given below. 


By the helping name of Ahura Mazda may 
your happiness increase. 

May you be brilliant. 

Try to do good deeds. 

Be increasing. 

Be victorious. 

Learn to do good deeds of piety. 

Be worthy to do good deeds. 

Think of nothing but the truth. 

Speak nothing but the truth. 

Do nothing but what is proper. 

Shun all bad thoughts. 

Shun all bad words. 

Shun all bad actions. 

Praise deeds of piety. 

Commit no acts opposed to piety. 

Praise the Mazdayasnan religion. 

Do nothing without mature consideration. 

Acquire wealth by good means. 


oS 


Say what is true before your superiors, and act 
according to their orders. 

Be courteous, sweet-tongued, and kind toward 
your friends. 

Do not indulge in scandals. 

Avoid being angry. 

Do not commit sins for the sake of avoiding 
shame. 

Do not be ambitious. 

Do not torment others. 

Do not entertain wicked jealousy. 

Do not be naughty. 


Ture NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Treat your friends in a way agreeable to them. 

Do not enter into any discussion with persons 
of illfame. 

Speak in an assembly after great consideration. 

Speak with moderation in the presence of 
kings. 

Preserve the good name of your father. 

In no way annoy your mother. 

Keep yourselves pure by means of truth. 

Be immortal like Kaikhosru. 

Be well-informed like Kaus. 

Be as brilliant as the sun. 


From Stereograph, copyright, by Underwood & Underwood 


Tower of Silence 


Where vultures devour the Parsi dead, Malabar Hill, Bombay, India. 


Avoid evil thoughts. 

Avoid evil passions (revenge). 

Deprive not others of their property. 

Keep away from the wives of others. 

Be industrious in following good professions. 

Do good to the pious and to the virtuous. 

Do not quarrel with the revengeful. 

Never be a partner with an ambitious man. 

Do not become a companion of a backbiter or 
a scandal-monger. 

Do not join in company of persons of illfame. 

Do not cooperate with the ill-informed. 

Fight with your enemies only by fair means. 


Be as pure as the moon. 

Be as illustrious as Zarthosthra. 

Be as strong as Rustam. 

Be as fertile as the earth. 

As soul is united with the body, so be you 
united, friendly with your friends, broth- 
ers, wife, and children. 

Always keep good faith, and preserve a good 
character. 

Recognize only Ahura Mazda, the omniscient 
Lord, as your God. 

Praise Zoroaster as your spiritual leader. 

Treat Ahreman, the evil spirit, with contempt. 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


When the ceremony has been con- 
cluded the bridegroom, accompanied 
by his friends, retires to his own house, 
where they all sit down to a banquet. 
The bride’s party are entertained by her 
father. The ladies are first served, and 
when they have left the table it is pre- 
pared for the gentlemen. 

The Parsees, from their earliest so- 
journ in India, have refrained from eat- 
ing meat on the day of marriage, toavoid 
giving offense to the feelings of the 
Hindoos. ‘The viands, therefore, con- 
sist of fish, vegetables, sweetmeats, 
fruits, preserves, and similar articles. 
Wines are drunk freely, and several 
toasts are proposed by the company, in- 
cluding the health of the wedded pair, 
their parents, and the chief men of the 
assembly. After dinner the ladies retire 
to their own houses, but the gentlemen 
sit till alate hour enjoying the pleasures 
of a ‘‘natch,’’ or of a band that follows. 
A repetition of the nuptial benediction 
is also performed by the priests after 
midnight before a few select friends and 
relatives. 

As the couple are invariably young, 
separate accommodation is seldom al- 
lotted them after their marriage, nor 
even when they have attained adult age 
do they leave the parental roof. They 
live in the same house with the other 
members of the family. 

Though a father has six or seven sons 
they all reside, with their wives and 
children, in the house of their sire, and 
the gray-headed old man is often able 
to look with pride and pleasure upon 
the group of children and grandchildren 
around him. 


THE TOWERS OF SILENCE 


Mr John Fryer, who arrived in Bom- 
bay in the year 1671, says in his book 
of travels: ‘‘On the other side of the 
great inlet to the sea is a great point 
abutting Old Women’s Island, and is 
called Malabar Hill; a rocky, woody 
mountain, yet sends forth long grass. 


G5) 


At the top of all is a Parsy tomb, lately 
reared. On its declivity, towards the 
sea, the remains of a stupendous pagod, 
near a tank of fresh water, which the 
Malabars visit it mainly for.’’ This 
““Parsy tomb,?’ or ‘“dokma,’’ .as‘it is 
called in the vernacular, still exists on 
Malabar Hill. 

In accordance with religious injunc- 
tions, the Parsees build their Towers of 
Silence on the tops of hills, if available. 
No expense is spared in constructing - 
them of the hardest and best materials, 
with a view that they may last for cen- 
turies, without the possibility of pol- 
luting the earth or contaminating any 
living beings dwelling thereon. 

On Malabar Hill, a long, prominent, 
rocky ridge, paralleling and overlook- 
ing the Arabian Sea, are built the 
‘* Towers of Silence.’’ ‘They are five in 
number, the one mentioned by Dr Fryer 
now more than 230 years old; another 
for the use of suicides only, and three 
others. 

They are surrounded by about six- 
teen acres of ground, artistically laid 
out and planted with beautiful flowers 
and tropical plants. Just inside the 
entrance gate is a peculiarly constructed 
building, set apart for a fire temple and 
a house of prayer. ‘These ‘‘ Dokmas,’’ 
or ‘‘ Towers of Silence,’’ are built upon 
one plan, but their size may and does 
vary. The largest of them measures 
276 feet in circumference, or about 90 
feet in diameter, surrounded by a cir- 
cular wall, 20 to 30 feet in height, built 
of the hardest stone, and faced with 
chunam or white plaster. There is an 
opening or door just above the ground 
level, through which the dead bodies are 
carried by professional corpse-bearers, 
who have gone through certain religious 
ceremonies and who are alone privileged 
to carry the corpses into the tower. No 
one else can enter or touch them. 

That an intelligent idea may be given 
I have annexed hereto a ground plan 
of a tower of silence. Inside the tower 


eye 


Tue NarionaL GreocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


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Ground Plan, Towers of Silence, Malabar Hill, Bombay 


ae 


a. Row of Favi for children. é. Outer wall. 

6. Row of Pavi for females. J. Underground drain. 
c. Row of Pavi for males 

ad. Foot paths. 


g. Charcoal filter. 
hk. Undergronnd well 


Tue Parsges oF INDIA 


is a circular platform, about 270 feet in 
circumference, and entirely paved with 
large stone slabs, and divided into three 
rows, called ‘‘ pavis,’’ for the bodies of 
the dead. As there are the same num- 
ber of pavis in each concentric row, 
they diminish in size from the outer to 
the inner ring. 


THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 


The outside row is used for the bodies 
of males, the next for those of females, 
and the third or inner row for those of 
children. These receptacles or ‘‘pavis”’ 
are separated from each other by ridges 
called ‘‘dandas,’’ which are about an 
inch in height above the level of the 
pavis, and channels are cut into the 
pavis for the purpose of conveying all 
the liquid matter flowing from the 
corpses and rainwater into a ‘‘bhandar’”’ 
or a deep hollow, in the form of a pit, 
the bottom of which is paved with stone 
slabs. This pit formsthe center of the 
tower. 

When the corpse has been completely 
stripped of its flesh by the vultures, 
which is generally accomplished within 
an hour at the outside, and when the 
bones of the denuded skeleton are per- 
fectly dried by the powerful heat of a 
tropical sun and other atmospheric in- 
fluences, they are thrown into this pit, 
where they crumble into dust, the rich 
and poor thus meeting together after 
death in one common level of equality. 

Four drains are constructed leading 
from the bottom of the pit. They com- 
mence from the surroundiug wall of the 
bhandar and pass beyond the outside of 
the tower into four wells sunk in the 
ground at equal distances. At the 
mouth of each drain charcoal and sand- 
stones are placed for purifying the fluid 
before it enters the ground, thus ob- 
serving one of the tenets of the Zoroas- 
trian religion, that ‘‘ The mother earth 
shall not be defiled.’’ The wells have 
a permeable bottom, which is covered 
with sand to a height of 5 to 7 feet. 


+53 


However distant may be the house of 
a deceased person, whether rich or poor, 
high or low in rank, he has always a 
walking funeral. His body is carried 
to the Towers of Silence on an iron bier 
by official corpse-bearers, and is followed 
in procession by the mourners, male 
relatives, and friends, dressed in white 
flowing full-dress robes, walking behind 
in pairs, and each couple joined hand in 
hand by holding a white handkerchief 
between them in sympathetic grief. 

This mode of disposing of the dead, 
which the Parsees have practiced for 
countless generations, is repulsive to 
the sentiment of nations accustomed to 
bury their dead in the ground ; but it is 
thoroughly sanitary, and clears away 
most effectually one of the greatest dif- 
ficulties encumbering. the path of san- 
itary reformers in great cities. 

According totheir religion, earth, fire, 
and water are sacred and very useful to 
man, and to avoid their pollution by 
contact with putrefying flesh, the faith 
strictly enjoins that the dead bodies 
shall not be buried in the ground, burnt, 
or thrown into the rivers or sea. They 
further claim that it really carries out 
the doctrine of the equality of man more 
satisfactorily than burying or burning, 
since the bones of the whole community, 
rich and poor, rest together at last in the 
well within the Tower of Silence. | 

A dismal impression is made at first 
thought upon the foreigner by these 
towers, where absolute silence has 
reigned for centuries, and where, within 
the last half century, more than fifty- 
thousand Parsees have been exposed. 


THE VULTURES 


It is estimated that some five hundred 
vultures make their homes in the lofty 
tropical palms in the gardens that sur- 
round the towers, and when a corpse is 
exposed in one of them they swoop down 
and do not rise again until all the flesh 
has been devoured. Within its silent 
precinct they are secluded and free from 


Sy GG: 


all outside interference, and I have been 
told by those who have watched for the 
purpose that they never rise to the top 
of the tower with any substance what- 
ever. ‘They are disqualified by the form 
of their weak, little curved, unretractile 
talons from seizing or carrying away 
living prey. 

These birds lay two eggs at a time, and 
are said to produce but once a year. 
Like the American eagle, they build 
their nests in inaccessible rocks and 
places remote from the hands of man. 

These jackals of the air are large in 
size and have remarkably keen sight. 
They have naked heads and necks, a 
broad, powerful, hooked bill, and strong, 
thick legs. They are gregarious, slow 
in flight, gluttonous of habit, and prefer 
carrion to living prey. 

In view of the fact that the corpses of 
all Parsees, regardless of the cause of 
death, even of the most contagious fever, 
smallpox, Bombay plague, or cholera, 
are thus exposed in the towers, it is re- 
markable that these vultures have never 
been known, so far as investigation can 
determine, to spread the contagion or 
suffer from it themselves. When all is 
over they come to the top of the towers, 
where they sit for hours without moving. 


Toe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


There is nothing of a sacred character 
ascribed to the birds which admirably 
perform this disgusting though useful 
work in the economy of nature. ‘The 
fact is that there is no unpleasant taint 
of this charnel-house in the grounds 
about the towers, there being not the 
faintest odor of death to mingle with the 
perfume of the flowers blooming in this 
beautiful garden. 

Europeans may regard the Parsee sys- 
tem as barbarous and repugnant to civ- 
ilized ideas. The Parsees are quite as 
much justified in so regarding our sys- 
tem of sepulture. The undoubted fact 
remains that from the sanitary aspect 
the Parsee system is infinitely the better 
of the two. ‘True, we do not like to 
think of the vultures hovering around 
the funeral procession for the last few 
miles, or of others awaiting it, perched 
on, and greedily gazing down into, the 
tower. Their system is at all events 
the more perfect solution of the sanitary 
side of the question, especially in this 
hot and moist tropical climate. Death 
is a solemn reminder of the equality of 
all men before the law of nature, and 
their mode is an efficient preventive to 
post-human distinction, vanities and 
funeral pomp. 


CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES* 


By Sir CHentune Liane-Cuene, K. CC. Mage 


ENVOY EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY FROM CHINA TO 
THE UNITED STATES 


ROM the earliest intercourse of 
i the United States with China, the 
relations between our two coun- 

tries have been of the friendliest charac- 
ter. When the governments of Europe 
in the past century, singly or in combi- 


nation, took aggressive action against 
China,the United States always refrained 


from acting with them or following their 
example. But especially since the days 
when your distinguished citizen, Anson 
Burlingame, after having represented the 
government of the United States at the 
court of Peking,served so ably as theam- 
bassador of the Imperial Chinese govern- 
ment in making a series of treaties with 


* An address to the Commercial Club of Chicago, November II, 1905. 


CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES 


foreign powers, and particularly the 
treaty of 1863 with your government, we 
have been drawn more closely together. 

The constant policy of your govern- 
ment in regard to the affairs of the Far 
East has been one of conspicuous mag- 
nanimity and justice. This was amply 
manifested in the settlement of the dif- 
ficulties of 1900 and throughout the ne- 
gotiations with the powers in the follow- 
ing year. I recall with unspeakable 
pleasure the conduct of President Mc- 
Kinley at that time, through whose wis- 
dom and forbearance my country was 
saved much humiliation. The policy 
which he marked out was followed by 
his successor, President Roosevelt, whose 
fairness and high sense of justice have 
been always evinced toward us. Norcan 
I fail to mention the friendship and pro- 
tecting careof that eminent and lamented 
statesman, John Hay,Secretary of State. 
_ For these reasons the Chinese, as a gov- 
ernment, are under a deep sense of grati- 
tude, and, asa people, are naturally most 
friendly inclined toward the govern- 
ment and people of the United States. 
Hence it was that I experienced a feel- 
ing of no little satisfaction when I was 
honored with the mission to represent 
the country of my birth in the country 
of my education. 

The subject about which doubtless 
you would be glad to hear from me— 
the commercial possibilities between the 
two countries—is one respecting which 
the members of the Commercial Club, 
with their long experience and keen 
judgment, are better judges than my- 
self. But I cannot fail to see that, as 
China is brought more and more closely 
in contact with foreign countries, as the 
people come to learn the necessities, the 
conveniences, and the comforts enjoyed 
by the people of other lands, as by 
travel, by education, by long residence 
abroad, her demand for foreign com- 
modities will be largely increased. 
China is not, to a great extent, a manu- 


facturing country; nor is she likely to 


Ce): 


be in the near future. Her people are 
too easily satisfied with what they can 
readily purchase in the world’s markets. 
Nor are her people, who have enjoyed 
art, culture, refinement for centuries, 
disinclined to modern luxuries and con- 
veniences. The present foreign trade in 
that ancient empire is chiefly confined 
to the coast provinces. It is anticipated 
that the abolition of the likin tax, as 
provided in the recent comniercial 
treaties, when fully carried out, will 
forever destroy that formidable barrier 
to internal commerce so long deplored 
by merchants, both foreign and native 
alike. When her immense natural re- 
sources shall have been developed, her 
purchasing power will indeed be greatly 
increased. 

It is this commercial growth I long 
to see established between the two coun- 
tries, and it has been my pleasure, as 
well as my duty, to smooth all differ- 
ences which might threaten its complete 
realization. But there is one difference 
now engaging the serious attention of 
the two governments which I may be 
pardoned for bringing to your atten- 
tion. ‘The exclusion question and the 
administration of the exclusion laws are 
matters which seem to have engaged 
very little the consideration of the 
American people; but they are matters 
of vital importance to the Chinese di- 
rectly concerned. WhileI wishit to be 
understood that it is not my intention 
to unduly criticise the laws or the ad- 
ministration of the laws, the mention of 
some facts may aid you in a proper con- 
sideration of this question, which has a 
direct connection with the improvement 
of our commercial relations. 

When the American Commissioners 
went to Peking to negotiate the immi- 
gration treaty of 1880, in the first memo- 
randum which they submitted to the 
Chinese plenipotentiaries in setting forth 
the object of their visit, they stated that 
the restriction they desired was “‘ en- 
tirely of laborers.’’ An examination of 


556 


their detailed negotiations, which were 
fully reported to their government, will 
show that they made no other demands. 
After receiving most sacred assurances 
that the restriction shall be ‘‘ reason- 
able, and not absolute prohibition,’’ the 
Chinese government gave consent to the 
American government’sdemands. This 
was considered at the time by the Amer- 
ican Commissioners, as their official 
reports show, as a concession from the 
Chinese government without any guid 
pro quo. The Chinese government had 
good reason to believe that the question 
would be handled with dueleniency, and 
that the American p2ople would not take 
advantage of their good nature. 

Fourteen years elapsed, and the Amer- 
ican government by resolution of the 
Senate again sought to negotiate a modi- 
fication of the treaty with the Chinese 
government. Thetreaty of 1894, which 
expired December last by limitation, 
containing a provision that no Chinese 
laborer shall enter the United States, 
wastheresult. It should be stated that 
there is no indication in this resolution 
that the Senate desired the exclusion of 
_ any other class of Chinese than laborers. 
It is evident that the object of the Amer- 
ican government was to secure, and the 
consent of the Chinese government was 
given to, the prohibition of Chinese la- 
borersonly, and nootherclass. During 
more thana score of years of restriction 
and prohibition, abuses have sprung up 
on both sides. Time will not permit me 
to enumerate the numerous cases of 
hardship and unjust treatment of which 
the exempt classes of Chinese have been 
made the victims because of the over- 
zealousness of some United States gov- 
ernment officials in discharging their 
duty in keeping out the prohibited class 
of Chinese. Suffice it to say that prior 
to the President’s order of last June it 
had so stirred up the feeling of the 
Chinese people that the boycott against 
American goods was the regrettable con- 
sequence. 


THe NatTionaL GgroGraPHic MAGAZINE 


In compliance with the wishes of the 
American government, the Chinese gov- 
ernment has issued an imperial decree, 
warning the people to respect every 
treaty stipulation under penalty of se- 
vere punishment, and urging them to 
suppress the boycott pending action of 
Congress to relieve the situation, and 
the provincial authorities have issued 
similar proclamations. The Chinese 
government, while viewing with con- 
cern the exclusion of Chinese laborers 
under undue discrimination is, never- 
theless, not unwilling to take into con- 
sideration the condition of things al- 
leged toexist in thiscountry. But aside 
from the laboring class, all other classes 
should be admitted, and should receive 
the same treatment as is accorded to 
similar classes of Europeans entering 
this ‘‘land of freedom.’’ As the laws 
and the immigration regulations stand 
today, aside from the five classes named 
in the expired treaty of 1894, namely, 
students, merchants, teachers, travelers, 
and officials, the following classes of 
Chinese cannot enter the United States, 
to wit, bankers, lawyers, journalists, 
priests and the clergy, physicians, den- 
tists, insurance agents, brokers, and 
traveling commercial agents. Nothing 
was farther than this from the thought 
of the original negotiators. 

In fact, the laws on the subject seem 
to be in such a state of hopeless con- 
fusion that different attorneys-general 
have rendered conflicting opinions as to 
the meaning of certain vital require- 
ments, with the result that the regula- 
tions, which should be intended merely 
to carry into effect the provisions of the 
laws, impose conditions additional to 
the laws and unwarranted requirements, 


which have the force of legal enact- 


ments. In consequence Chinese sub- 
jects have been made to suffer great 
hardship in their attempt to land in the 
United States, and after being admitted 
they have been incessantly harassed by 
immigration agents of the government 


CHINA AND THE 


with domiciliary visits and unreasonable 
interruptions while pursuing quietly and 
peaceably their lawful vocations in this 
country. True, every nation has the 
supreme right to make its own laws, but 
it is liable to be held accountable in some 
future day for any wrong done thereby 
to the subjects of foreign governments. 
Any new settlement of the exclusion 
question, therefore, in order to satisfy 
the Chinese government and to be in 
accord with the dignity and sense of 
justice of this great American republic, 
must have regard to the unsatisfactory 
manner in which the laws and regula- 
tions relating to Chinese immigration, 
made in pursuance of treaty stipula- 
tions, have been administered, and 
should correct the abuses that have 
gradually sprung up, which render the 
present state of affairs intolerable. 

What China asks is only fair play and 
due consideration, and she can well rely 
on the justice of the American people 
-and on the wisdom of their law-makers, 
headed by their illustrious President, 
who is the champion of peace, of hu- 
manity, of just dealing, to bring this 
important question to a successful set- 
tlement and remove the only serious 
obstacle to the freer development of 
our commercial relations. 

A lamentable event has recently taken 
place in the murder of several American 
missionaries in one of the remote locali- 
ties of China, to which I think it proper 
to refer. Repeated imperial edicts have 
recognized that foreign missionaries are 
lawfully in China; their beneficent work 
in instruction, hospitals, and charity has 
been recognized by my government, and 
the authorities have been enjoined to 
afford them all possible protection. The 
cause of the recent mob violence has not 
yet been definitely ascertained, but the 
Foreign Office at Peking has hastened 
to inform the American minister that 


UnNITFD STATES 


557 


prompt punishment will beinflicted upon 
the murderers and full indemnity made 
for the injuries and losses sustained by 
the missionaries. 

Unfortunately the Chinese govern- 
ment, though influenced by a sincere de- 
sire to repress lawlessness, is not always 
able to anticipate and prevent mob vio- 
lence ; but China is not the only country 
which is sometimes put to shame by the 
acts of excited and bad people. It does 
not excuse the bloody deeds of which the 
missionaries are the sufferers to say that 
more Chinese subjects have been cruelly 
murdered by mobs in the United States 
during the last twenty-five years than all 
the Americans who have been murdered 
in China by similar riots, but it may in 
some degree palliate the shocking crimes. 
in China. I cannot, however, refrain 
from saying that in every instance where 
Americans have suffered from mobs the 
authorities have made reparation for the 
losses, and rarely has the punishment of 
death failed to be inflicted upon some of 
the guilty offenders. On the other hand, 
I am sorry to say that I have not been 
able to recall a single instance where the 
penalty of death has been visited on any 
member of the mobs in the United States. 
guilty of the death of Chinese; and in 
only two instances of mob violence out 
of many has indemnity been paid by the 
authorities for the losses sustained by the 
Chinese. 

I am free to say that the United States. 
government has on many occasions ex- 
erted its power and authority to secure 
punishment of the criminals through the. 
courts, but public opinion in the locali- 
ties has been so strongly against the Chi- 
nese that all the murderers have escaped 
punishment. Let us hope that a better: 
day is coming for our respective peoples, 
and that the civilization and humanity 
ot both nations will prevail over barba- 
rism and savagery. 


WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED BY THE 


UNITED STATES 


TOWARD BUILDING 


THE PANAMA CANAL”® 


By TuHeopore P. SHonrTs 


CHAIRMAN OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION 


HEN I received Vice-Presi- 
dent Lupton’s invitation to 
come before your association 

and talk on the Panama Canal, I ac- 
cepted it with pleasure because of the 
opportunity it afforded of talking to busi- 
ness men in a business way of whatisa 
great business project. As Iviewit, the 
building of the Panama Canal is a busi- 
ness, not a political, proposition. I pro- 
pose, in what I have to say to you, to 
talk as a practical man to practical men 
who are themselves engaged in large 
commercial enterprises and who know 
from experience the difficulties to be met 
and the enormous amount of thought 
and labor involved in the inauguration 
of great undertakings in the United 
States. You will be able to appreciate, 
therefore, how every difficulty was ag- 
gravated in an enterprise of the magni- 
tude of the Isthmian Canal, in which 
the preparatory work had to be carried 
on 2,000 miles from the base of supplies. 
But this is not all. The work had to be 
done ina hostileclimateand under health 
conditions which, through centuries of 
neglect of allsanitary principles, had be- 
come a menace to the lives of all persons 
save natives of the tropics. 

In order, therefore, to make the Isth- 
mus a place fit to live in and to work 
in, there were three fundamental tasks 
which had to be performed in advance 
of all others: 

First. Thorough sanitation of the 
Isthmus. 

Second. Providing suitable habita- 
tions for all classes of employés. 


Third. Providing a system of food 
supply which would afford to all em- 
ployés opportunity of obtaining whole- 
some food at reasonable cost. 

First. In regard to sanitation: When 
the United States began this work there 
were no systems of water works, of sew- 
erage, or of drainage on the Isthmus. 
The peopie depended largely on unpro- 
tected cisterns for their water supply, 
filled during the rainy season, and on 
barrels filled from neighboring streams, 
all breeding places for mosquitoes. The 
filth of ages had accumulated around 
the dwellings and in the streets, undis- 
turbed except when washed away by 
torrential rains. Pools of stagnant water 
had existed for years in proximity to 
dwellings, and insect-breeding swamps 
lay undrained adjacent to the cities and 
many of the towns. Seventy per cent 
of Panama is now supplied with pure 
mountain water, fed from a storage 
large enough to furnish sixty gallons 
per day to each inhabitant after its 
present population shall have increased 
one-half. Fifty per cent of a complete 
modern sewerage system has been in- 
stalled, and work on the remainder is 
being carried rapidly forward. The first 
million of brick for paving its streets 
are on the ground. ‘The city has been 
fumigated time and again, first house 
by house, to stop the spread of disease, 
and again as a unit—that is, the entire 
city at one time. A large force is just 
finishing a thorough cleaning of the 
city—the first scrubbing it has had dur- 


_ ing its centuries of existence ; and Gov- 


* Am address to the American Hardware Manufacturers’ Association, Washington, D. C., 


November 9, 1905. 


THe PANAMA CANAL 


_ ernor Magoon, under whose jurisdiction 
all this work has been so successfully 
accomplished, is arranging to raze many 
of the worst shacks and replace them 
with modern sanitary buildings. Within 
a year, it may confidently be predicted, 
Panama will bea city well watered, well 
sewered, well paved, and clean and 
healthful. 

What has been done for Panama is 
being done for Colon and every impor- 
tant labor camp across the Isthmus. 
Work on Colon’s water reservoir is well 
under way, and temporary measures are 
being employed to safeguard the city’s 
health pending the report of a board 
appointed to recommend plans for per- 
manent improvements. An abundant 
supply of pure water from mountain 
springs has been provided at Culebra 
and at other important labor centers 
along the line of the canal, and ade- 
quate drainage is being installed in them 
also. 

Four thousand one hundred men are 
now employed in these sanitary under- 
takings. So effective has been the work 
that yellow fever has been virtually ex- 
tirpated from the Isthmus. In June 
last there were 62 cases of yellow fever 
there; in July, 42; in August, 27.; in 
September, 6, and in October, the worst 
month of the year for yellow fever, 3— 


no one of the latter among the em- 


ployés and all originating many miles 
from the line of the canal. In regard 
to general health conditions, I was told, 
when on the Isthmus in October, that 
there were over a hundred less patients 
in Ancon Hospital than there had been 
for many months, although we had 
brought in 4,000 additional laborers 
during the previous two months, and it 


was from the new arrivals that the hos-. 


pitals were usually recruited. 

- To fully understand what has been 
accomplished by our sanitary work, it is 
only necessary to compare the present 
rate of sickness with that which pre- 
vailed on the Isthmus when the French 


death rate was I12 per 1,000. 


559 


were in possession. In August, 1882, 
the second year of the French occu- 
pancy, with a force of 1,900 men, the 
In Au- 
gust, 1905, with a force of 12,000 men, 
there were only eight deaths, or two- 
thirds of a man per 1,000. | 

If we have not, as our critics com- 
plain, made ‘‘the dirt fly,’’ we have 
made the filth fly, and we have made 
yellow fever, that supreme terror of the 
tropics, fly so far from the Isthmus that 
it will never, let us hope, find its way 
back again. 

We have established a hospital sys- 
tem which includes a large hospital at 
Colon and another at Ancon, and a num- 
ber of smaller hospitals at convenient 
points along theline. The one at Colon 
is built on piers over the Atlantic 
Ocean, and patients there have at all 
times the benefit of cool and invigorat- 
ing seaair. That at Ancon is one of the 
largest and best equipped in the world, 
situated on the hill above Panama and 
commanding a superb view of moun- 
tains and sea. 

The management and service of the 
hospitals are on a par with the natural 
advantages and beauty of location. 
Colonel Gorgas, who is in direct charge 
of hospitals, has organized a staff of 
doctors and nurses for which it would 
be difficult.to find a superior anywhere. 
Mr Isham Randolph, one of the mem- 
bers of the consulting board of engi- 
neers, who recently visited the Isthmus, 
said, in a letter published on his return: 
““The hospitals are a source of just 
pride to our people. If sickness could 
ever be regarded as a boon, it may be 
so thought of in Ancon and Colon.’’ 
No less emphatic testimony comes from 
Mr D. M. Hazlett, who speaks from 
personal experience as a patient in 
Ancon Hospital. Writing in the Pan- 
ama Mail, he says: ‘‘ The medical staff 
and corps of trained nurses are beyond 
criticism. No expense has been spared 
in providing the various wards with all 


560 


the conveniences which science and ex- 
perience cancommand. ‘There is prob- 
ably no institution in the world where 
patients receive better treatment or more 
faithful service than in Ancon Hospital.’’ 

Second. In regard to providing quar- 
ters for the employés: The commis- 
sion inherited fromthe French company 
‘more than 2,100 buildings, all in bad 
condition. During the past year 649 of 
them have been repaired, 58 new build- 
ings have been erected, and 67 more are 
in course of construction; two new 
hotels, three stories high and containing 
from 55 to 60 rooms each, have been 
completed, and authority has been 
granted for eight others, a portion of 
which are under construction at the 
present time. Work is in progress also 
‘on cottages for married employés and 
on bachelor quarters. In this work of 
construction 2,400 men are employed, 
and additional carpenters are being sent 
out with every steamer. This work is 
being pressed forward with the utmost 
vigor. 

Third. In regard to food supplies: 

This was the most serious problem that 
confronted us. If wecouldn’t feed the 
men, we couldn’t build the canal. 
Owing to the fact that the natives never 
look beyond their present necessities, 
no surplus food supply ever accumu- 
lates. ‘This normal condition of no 
surplus was greatly intensified by the 
almost total failure of the crops for the 
two preceding years, by the abandon- 
ment by agricultural laborers of their 
farms back in the hills for work on the 
canal, where they received higher pay 
for shorter hours, and by quarantine 
against the port of Panama on account 
of bubonic plague, which prevented the 
arrival of foodstuff from neighboring 
provinces. 
_ We were thus brought face to face 
with the problem of feeding twelve 
thousand (12,000) men, with base of 
supplies 2,000 miles away. 

We immediately arranged to open 


THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


local commissary stores at every im- 
portant labor camp, to provide mess- 
houses, and to furnish food, both cooked 
and uncooked, to all employés at cost. 
We cabled orders to have our steamers 
equipped with refrigerating plants ; we 
arranged for the erection of a temporary 
cold-storage plant at Colon, and we pur- 
chased refrigerator cars for immediate 
shipment to the Isthmus, thus establish- 
ing a line of refrigeration from the mar- 
kets of the United States to the com- 
missary stations of the Isthmus. We 
also purchased from individual lessees 
the equipment in existing hotels and 
assumed their management ourselves. 
The net result of these efforts is that 
today we are affording to all employés 
opportunity to obtain an abundant sup- 
ply of wholesome food, cooked and un- 
cooked, at reasonable prices. Thesilver 
men—by which I mean the common 
laborers—are being fed for 30 cents per 
day, and the gold employés—by which I 
mean those of the higher class—at go 
cents per day, and it is good food in 
place of bad. ‘There may be dispute 
about the blessing of tainted money, but 
there can be none about the curse of 
tainted food. 

But in addition to these fundamental 
tasks of improving the health conditions 
on the Isthmus and providing for the 
physical comfort and well being of all 
classes of employés, another essential 
preliminary to actual canal building has 
been receiving our earnest attention. I 
refer to the enlargement and improve- 
ment of our facilities for receiving and 
distributing the immense quantities of 
materials and supplies which will enter 
into the construction of the canal, as 
well as into the work referred to. The 
only really valuable instrument essential 
to canal building acquired by our gov- 
ernment in its purchase from the French 
was the Panama Railroad. But this 
instrument, like all the others whose 
wrecks cover the Isthmus, had been neg- 
lected and its equipment allowed to be- 


— tae er 


Se 


THe PanaMa CANAL 


come obsolete. If the docks, wharves, 
warehouses, terminal yards, locomo- 
tives, and cars of the Panama Railroad 
had been in good repair, which they 
were not, they still would have been 
entirely inadequate to properly care for 
and handle the small commercial busi- 
ness the road was transacting. The 
existing facilities, poor as they were, 
were rendered less efficient by the entire 
absence of any mechanical appliances on 
the docks to assist in receiving or dis- 
charging the steamers’ cargoes. The 
negro laborer was the only power em- 
ployed ; he was at once the only hoist- 
ing machine and the only traveling crane 
in use. Imagine, then, the congestion 
which necessarily ensued when the ac- 
cumulated orders in the states began to 
arrive in large quantities on both sides 
of theIsthmus. To aggravate the situ- 
ation, while the deluge of arriving ma- 
terial Was at its height, the commercial 
business of the road increased nearly 50 
per cent over the year before; and at 
the moment when we thought affairs 
could get no worse, two cases of bubonic 
plague at La Boca resulted in two con- 
secutive quarantines at that place, com- 
pletely tying up that outlet for 60 days. 
Furthermore, the personnel of the Pan- 
ama Railroad as acquired had not been 
educated on modern lines, and therefore 
was completely paralyzed when con- 
fronted with the onerous conditions 
caused by thiscongestion. It was neces- 
sary, consequently, to begin at once the 
construction of new wharves equipped 
with modern mechanical appliances, and 
of large terminal yards at both ends of 
the road; of extensive warehouses ; of 
suitable machine shops, aud of a modern 
coal hoisting plant, which will reduce 
the cost of handling coal from ship to 
engines from $1.30 to about 12 cents 
per ton. 

We have also purchased new and 
more powerful locomotives, larger cars 
for both passenger and freight services, 
and heavy steel rails for relaying the 


561 


road, and have strengthened the bridges 
to enable them to carry the heavier 
equipment. We have reorganized the 
personnel of the road, putting into the 
higher positions experienced, aggres- 
Sive, up-to-date men, with the result 
that with the old equipment and facili- 
ties they have cleared up during the last 
thirty days an accumulation of over 
12,000 tons of commercial freight. With 
the advent of our increased dock facili- 
ties, terminal yards now nearly com- 
plete, and new power and equipment 
now arriving, the road will be in a posi- 
tion to handle efficiently and economic- 
ally a vastly larger volume of business 
than heretofore. 

While all this necessary work was in 
progress the task of purchasing, for- 
warding, and distributing the enormous 
quantity of materials and supplies of all 
kinds was receiving our constant and 
most careful attention. The purchases 
included not only the items entering 
into the permanent plant, but also those 
required for the preliminary work. To 
give you an idea of the magnitude of 
these purchases I will read for you the 
principal items : 

61 steam shovels. 

1,300 flat cars. 

12 rapid unloaders. 

22 unloading plows. 

13 earth-spreaders. 

324 dump-cars. 

12 hoisting engines. 

120 locomotives. 

5,000 tons of steel rails. 

125,000 cross-ties. 

12,000 pieces of piling. 

I4. air compressing machines. 

3 cranes. 

152 rock-drills. 

30,000,000 feet of lumber (approxi- 
mately ). 

2 dipper dredges. 

646,000 pounds blasting powder. 

617,500 pounds dynamite. 

7,000,000 paving brick. 

3,500,000 building brick. - 


562 


500,000 square feet roofing tile. 

36,000 barrels cement (approximate- 
ly). : 

3 steel water tanks and towers. 

12 stand pipes. 

2 ocean steamships. 

The approximate total cost of our pur- 
chases was about $9,000,000. It should 
be borne in mind that at the time when or- 
ders for most of these items were placed 
the industries of the United States were 
crowded with domestic business and were 
unable, consequently, to make prompt 
deliveries. It should be borne in mind, 
also, that after machinery had been man- 
ufactured here and set up, it had to be 
taken apart, shipped two thousand miles 
over steamship lines already taxed to 
their full capacity, and on arrival on the 
Isthmus had to be again set up before 
ready for use. ‘Then, too, on account of 
many reports as to the prevalence of yel- 
low fever on the Isthmus, it wasvery diff- 
cult at a critical time for concerns fur- 
nishing material to get steamers to take 
it there, because of fear that their crews 
might become infected and their vessels 
might be quarantined when they wished 
to return tothe United States. Finally, 
the steamers of the United Fruit Line 
from NewOrleans, which had been carry- 
ing a considerable amount of the freight 
going tothe Isthmus, were put out of ser- 
vice on account of yellow fever in that 
city. 

To the various causes of delay men- 
tioned is to be added the requirements 
of law, that all bids for materials used in 
government work shall be advertised for. 
This compels a delay in all cases of from 
ten to thirty days. 

Furthermore, in addition to the pur- 
chases for the canal, the following have 
been ordered for the Panama Railroad : 

500 box cars—4o-ton. 

I2 caboose cars. 

10 refrigerator cars. 

6 passenger coaches. 

24 locomotives. 

2 wrecking cranes. 


THE NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


1 locomotive crane. 

1 pile-driver. 

3 track scales—r1oo-ton. 

I modern coal-hoisting plant. 

1 cantilever crane for coal-hoisting 
plant. 

In regard to all equipment purchases, 
both for the canal and the railroad, it 
should be stated that the gauge of the 
Panama Railroad, being wider than the 
standard gauge in the United States, 
made it impossible to use second-hand 
rolling stock of any kind; all locomo- 
tives and cars had, therefore, to be built 
toorder. After the supplies reached the 
Isthmus we had to contend not only with 
the lack of terminal facilities and me- 
chanical appliances already mentioned, 
but also with an inadequate equipment 
with which to distribute it to its destina- 
tion or the force to handle it. These ob- 
stacles have been largely surmounted. 
The elimination of yellow fever and the 
establishment of better systems of hous- 
ing and feeding the employés have ena- 
bled us to recruit our working forces till » 
those assigned to the material and sup- 
ply division now number over 2,100 men. 

I have so far, gentlemen, endeavored 
to give you an idea of the difficulties 
which we have had toencounter and over- 
come in order to make the Isthmus a 
place fit to work in and to collect the 
tools with which to work. So far as. 
actual excavation and dredging are con- 
cerned, we have not endeavored to ac- 
complish much. Asa general principle, 
in which J think you will all concur, it 
is inadvisable to attempt to run a rail- 
road before the tracks are laid. Weare 
now working, however,six steam shovels 
in Culebra Cut, which is the largestsingle 
factor in the construction of the canal, 
and have removed approximately 1,000,- 
ooo cubic yards of material. By this 
work we are accomplishing two things : 
First, we are putting the levels of the 
cut in proper condition for the installa- 
tion of the largest number of machines 
which can be effectively operated, and, 


THe Panama CANAL 


second, we are gathering data which will 
be useful in future estimates of the cost 
of canal construction. In the Culebra 
work 2,600 men are nowemployed. We 
are also building railway tracks and 
yards, and are dredging at both ends of 
the canal, so far as advisable, until the 
question of typeof canalisdecided. This 
should be determined within the next 
ninety days. It should be understood 
that all the work we have done is appli- 
cable to any type of canal. 

The question of labor is a grave and 
perplexing one. We have advanced far 
enough to knowthat wecan secure a suf- 
ficient supply of labor from the tropics, 
so far as numbers are concerned. The 
question of quality is a very different 
matter. Unlessa much greater efficiency 
can be developed than is secured at pres- 
ent, we shall have to look elsewhere. 
Probably I can best convey to you a just 
estimate of the quality of this labor by 
relating an incident which came under 
the observation of Senator Millard dur- 
ing his visit ontheIsthmus. Sitting on 
the deck of the steamer Havana, he was 
watching the unloading of a heavy piece 
of machinery from the hold of the ves- 
sel. The tackle got caught in the rig- 
ging on the deck above; the foreman in 
_ charge of the gang of laborers sent one 
of them above to free the tackle. The 
laborer went to the place to which he was 
sent and did what he wastold todo. The 
foreman, paying noattention to him after 
he started on his errand, missed him a 
few minutes later, and looking around 
for him, discovered him sitting peace- 
fully at the spot to which he had been 
sent. ‘‘ What are you doing there?’’ 
yelled the foreman. ‘‘ You told me to 
come here, sah.’’ ‘‘ Well, why didn’t 
you come back?’’ ‘‘You didn’t tell 
me to, sah.’’ 

It is to this class of labor that we are 
paying from 80 cents to $1.04 per day 
in gold, and out of which it is estimated 
we do not get more than 25 per cent of 
the efficiency of labor in the United 


563 


States. This is the kind of labor to 
which we are compelled to apply the 
eight-hour law—that is, to aliens, who 
know nothing of the law’s existence 
until they arrive onthe Isthmus. Such 
application will increase the labor cost 
of canal construction at least 25 per 
cent and will adj many millions un- 
necessarily to the total expenditure. 
[n my opinion, tt ts a mistake to handicap 
the construction of the Panama Canal by 
any laws save those of police and sanitation. 
I want to go on record here that the ap- 
plication of the eight-hour law, of the 
contract-labor law, of the Chinese ex- 
clusion act, or of any other law passed 
or to be passed by Congress for the 
benefit’of American labor at home, to 
labor on the Isthmus, is a serious error. 
Over 8o per cent of the employés of the 
canal will be aliens. A majority of the 
other 20 per cent employed will be in a 
clerical or supervisory capacity. The 
application of these lawson the Isthmus 
will benefit a very small number of. 
American laborers, but will enormously 
add to the cost of construction, and 
American labor at home will have to 
pay its share of the consequent increase 
in taxation. As business men, you will 
understand the force of this statement. 

That is the story, gentlemen, of what 
we have been doing on the Isthmus. 
In line with this, let me add that Chief 
Engineer Stevens, a man well equipped 
for the great task he has undertaken, 
is preparing three complete sets of plans 
applicable to as many types of canal, so 
that when a decision shall have been 
reached as to what type will be used, 
no delay in beginning work will ensue. 
It is our confident belief that by the rst 
of July next the plant as purchased will 
be installed and working to its fullest 
practical capacity. In other words, by 
that time the dirt will begin to fly in 
earnest. 

The canal will be built—rest assured 
of that—and it will be built at Panama. 
Those two phases of the problem have 


564 


passed irrevocably from the field of de- 
bate. There isan industrious and vol- 
uble band of hired Ananiases moving to 
and froin the land whose mission it is 
to deny this. The burden of their song 
is: ‘‘The canal will never be built at 
Panama, and everybody connected with 
the enterprise, including the President 
and commissioners and engineers, is 
convinced of it.”’ You can hear the 
members of this band chanting their 
song, to the accompaniment of their 
lyres, singly and in chorus, wherever 
men congregate and wherever a few 
reporters are gathered together. They 
are rehearsing for their grand burst of 
noise when Congress shall have assem- 
bled. When they are not rehearsing 
they are putting the words of their song 
into bogus interviews and other written 
forms of newspaper publication, which 
they are sending forth by thousands 
from their bureaus of publicity in this 
and other cities. As one contemplates 
the output of this singular industry, 
this factory of fiction, he is moved to 
say of its guiding spirit as Shakespeare 
says of Captain Dumain: ‘‘ He will lie 
with such volubility, sir, that you would 
think truth were a fool.”’ 


Who is capitalizing this industry ? 


What is the bountiful source of this 


Tue NaTIonNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


spouting spring of mendacity? Isit to 
be found among the friends of an Isth- 
mian canal? Are these supplying funds 
for the sustenance of such a campaign 
of misinformation ? What interests, ex- 
cept those foolishly dreading the com- 
petition of an Isthmian Canal, would 
put up money to delay and possibly de- 
feat its construction? ‘That there are 
interests of that kind is not a matter 
of suspicion or speculation, but of his- 
tory. 

They have been fighting a canal for 
more than half a century, and they 
fought it successfully till Theodore 
Roosevelt, armed with his ‘‘ big stick,’’ 
appeared as its champion. From that 
moment their efforts have been power- 
less, but they have not yet discovered 
the fact. They are wasting their ener- 
gies and their cash, for behind Theo- 
dore Roosevelt stand the American 
people in solid mass and with deter- 
mined front, shouting as one man: 
‘‘Give us a canal that will be adequate 
to meet the demands of the commerce 
of the world, and give it to us at the 
earliest possible moment.’’ That, gen- 
tlemen, is the command which the Com- 
mission, under the inspiring lead of the 
President, is obeying to the letter. We 
are building the ‘‘ Roosevelt Canal.” — 


RUSSIA IN RECENT LITERATURE* 
By GENERAL A. W. GREELY 


CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER U.S. A. 


T no time in the history of the 
world have the present condi- 
tions and future fortunes of 


Russia excited more interest and been 
of greater importance thantoday. Itis 


* Russia. 
New and much enlarged edition. 


net. 


By Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace. 
Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1905. 
Russia under the Great Shadow. By Luigi Villari. I1].,330 pp. James Pott & Co. 


therefore thought that the members of 
the National Geographic Society will 
deem timely the presentation of the va- 
rious phases and aspects of Russian life 
as depicted in two very interesting vol- 


9% x 6¥ inches. 
$5.00 net. 
$3-50 


Ill., maps, pp. xx + 672. 


Russia IN Recent LITERATURE 


umes of Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace 
and of Luigi Villari, the latter being an 
original work. 

Wallace’s ‘‘ Russia’’ is an enlarged 
edition of a work which, though it orig- 
inally appeared thirty years since, is 
yet recognized as a standard authority 
upon the land of the Czars. Sir Don- 
ald’s observations of Russia now cover 
a period of thirty-five years. 

The changes in Wallace’s book are 
very few, indicating slight modifications 
as to discomforts: of travel, scarcity of 
good roads, absence of domestic com- 
forts, and, above all, the continued low 
state of the clergy. 

While stating that the younger priests 
have aspirations for the future improve- 
ment of the people, he speaks of the sys- 
tem as ‘‘ presenting continual simony, 
carelessness in religious rites, and disor- 
ders in administering the sacrament, 
thus transforming the service of God 
into a profitable trade.”’ 

Of the original volume the only mate- 
rial changes have been in the treatment 
of local self-government, but the value 
of the volume is largely increased by ad- 
ditional chapters on industrial progress, 
nihilism, socialism, and other revolu- 
tionary movements. 

With regard to the zemstvo, now of 
forty years standing, he expresses the 
opinion that it is destined ‘‘to play a 
great political part in the future.’’ 
This system of local government has 
suffered from restrictions on the devel- 
opment of education, through gov- 
ernors’ suspending its action, by in- 
creasing the representation of the bu- 
reaucracy at the expense of the peas- 
antry, from preventive censure as to 
its publications, and by opposition to 
its efforts to establish equitable taxa- 
tion. ‘The zemstvos in late years have 
improved local conditions materially as 
to hospitals and asylums, and less so 
as to primary education, agriculture, 
roads, and bridges. With its defects, 
the zemstvo is ‘‘infinitely better than 
the institutions it displaced.’’ 


565 


The growth of nihilism and its reac- 
tion are carefully treated. Repressive 
measures failed to check it, the decline 
being due to the foundation of a liberal 
party. Nihilism found its warmest par- 
tisans among students, whose beautiful 
theories lacked the power of even sug- 
gesting concrete forms. The trans- 
formation of nihilism into socialism is 
attributed to Tolstoi’s educational re- 
form, which brought the revolutionists 
into closer contact with western social- 
ism. The various phases of propaganda, 
agitation, energetic repression, and of 
terrorism, with its associated crimes, 
culminated in the assassination of Alex- 
ander II, which discredited terrorism. 

The development of manufactures 
and the creation of a proletariat mate- 
rially affected the revolutionary move- 
ment, which assumed the form of social 
democracy. Politicalagitationsand trade 
unions resulted in labor troubles, but 
the efforts of the government, through 
legislation and its support of working- 
men in labor disputes, failed to control 
the situation. Father Gapon’s connec- 
tion with labor unions and his subse- 
quent career are discussed, together 
with his failure asa self-appointed repre- 
sentative of the oppressed people and the 
leader of a political revolution. 

Sir Donald admits his inability to 
state whether the outcome will be reform 
or revolution. He outlines Plehve’s 
repressive policy, the demands of the 
constitutionalists, the aims of the social 
democrats and agrarians. The liberals 
counsel peaceful methods, while the rev- 
olutionists resort to popular disorders. 

Considering a strong man necessary, 
he says of Witte: ‘‘As an administrator 
he has displayed immense ability and 
energy, but it does not follow that he is 
a statesinan capable of piloting the ship 
into calm waters.’’ 

The most interesting, if not most im- 
portant, chapter is on industrial progress 
and the proletariat. A protective tariff 
and government support have wonder- 
fully developed manufacturing indus- 


566 


tries, which, in order of importance, are 
textile fabrics, articles of nutrition, and 
ores or metals. In total production 
Russia ranked fifth among the nations. 
This tremendous growth has been 
through M. Witte, who declares agri- 
cultural countries economically and in- 
tellectually inferior to nations manu- 
facturing commodities. Competition 
and overproduction led to failures and 
a commercial crisis, from which Russia 
was slowly recovering at the commence- 
ment of its war with Japan. 

With manufacturing industries the 
urban populations increased, notably of 
Lodz and Moscow, the latter reaching 
a million. Big factories with cheaper 
methods of manufacture are killing 
rapidly homeindustries. Whole groups 
of ‘‘industrial villages have fallen under 
the power of middlemen, who advance 
money to the working households and 
fix the price of the products.’’ 

There are brief allusions to the in- 
dustrial workers, especially in connec- 
tion with their unfortunate material 
conditions. While the workmen com- 
plain of long hours, low wages, arbitrary 
fines, and brutal severity, yet there are 
other important evils emphasized— 
those associated with the barrack sys- 
tem, the company store, and unsanitary 
surroundings. 

As a contrast and supplement to the 
English view of Russia represented in 
MacKenzie’s volume, is that of ‘‘ Russia 
under the Great Shadow,’’ by an Italian, 
Luigi Villari. His services as corre- 
spondent of the London 7imes afforded 
unusual opportunities for acquiring .an 
excellent knowledge of European Rus- 
sia. This exceedingly well-illustrated 
volume, with interesting and often bril- 
liant descriptions, covers the salient 
points of modern Russia and supple- 
ments them by broad generalizations of 
evident value. Of Russia he says: 

‘‘Animmense country, richin natural 
resources, inhabited by a people who, if 
primitive and ignorant, have many very 


Tue NationaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


fine qualities, strong, capable of the 
hardest toil, inured to the struggle with 
nature, brave, intelligent, and religious, 
has been kept out of the march of pro- 


' gress in a condition of semi-Asiatic bar- 


barism for thesake of impossibleschemes 
of universal dominion.’’ 

Of especial interest for the light reader 
are the chapters on St Petersburg, Mos- 
cow, Nijni Novgorod, and the Crimea. 
To the student or more serious reader 
may be commended provincial Russia, 
the industrial development, the work- 
ing classes, Poland, and the economic 
situation. 

He characterizes St Petersburg as 
representing ‘‘the foreign element of 
Russian civilization.’’ Its picturesque 
Alexander’s market, or Thieves’ bazar, 
is happily described. 

Moscow, he says, sums up the essence 
of many distinct civilizations. It still 
remains a living force, while presenting 
every aspect of Russian life, every phase 
of Russian history. Asa holy city sec- 
ond only to Kiev, it has innumerable 
miracle-working images, which are re- 
garded with the deepest veneration. 
The Iberian Virgin, where the Czar in- 
variably pays his devotions, is noted for 
its great popularity, which is uttlized as 
a valued source of income to the church. 
Per contra is the Moscow University a 
plague spot of liberalism, vexatious to 
the government and not favorable to 
advanced instruction, owing to censor- 
ship and frequent closing by the gov- 
ernment. On this point Villari says 
Russia is especially cursed with an 
intellectual proletariat, with indigent 
students, insufficiently clothed and de- 
pending on benevolent societies and 
scholarships. He adds: 

‘*’These students and graduates over- 
flow the offices and liberal professions 
and become the most active agents of 
revolutionary propaganda. One finds, 
indeed, glaring contrasts among the 
Russian educated classes between ad- 
vanced and daring ideas and complete 


2 
ty 


Russia IN Recent LITERATURE 


ignorance of matters which are common 
knowledge to the rest of Europe. Side 
by side with the most revolutionary 
doctrines that would shock the most 
advanced of English or French radicals, 
there are students, like one whom I met 
last autumn, who simply refuse to be- 
lieve that such a thing as religious free- 
dom exists in any country in the world. 
These incongruities are but the result 
of the system of repression of ideas 
_ which, while it succeeds admirably in 
‘destroying all independent thought 


among the stupid masses, drives others. 


to the wildest extremes of revolutionary 
ideas in politics, literature, and philoso- 
pay” 

Nijni, the site of the renowned fair, 
is in its decadence, although still most 
picturesque. Its description is worthy 
of perusal. It istersely described ‘‘asa 
piece of medizeval Hurope and unchang- 
ing Asia, with an infusion of modernity, 
it is unequaled even in this land of glar- 
ing contrasts.’’ 

Provincial Russia, from Moscowsouth- 
ward to the Crimea, is briefly treated. 
The great cities are lamentable specta- 
cles, through their absence of local 
patriotism, local information (many 
large towns have no local newspaper), 
and owing to the corruption and bru- 
tality of local officials. The situation 
is perhaps best conveyed by the state- 
ment that censorship forbids the papers 
of a large provincial town to publish 
‘“descriptions of love scenes, criticisms 
on reactionary journals, the mention of 
trade unions, criticisms of the acts of 
police officials, the mention of the name 
of Gorky, accounts of the religion of 
the Japanese, praises of Tolstoi, the 
word ‘bureaucracy,’ the names of cer- 
tain diseases, the enumeration of ele- 
mentary schools, facts concerning the 
bad organization of the local hospital 
and the barracks, criticisms of the arti- 
cles by Krushevan (the instigator of the 
Kishinieff massacres).’’ 

In the Black Sea country, one of the 


567 


most fertile regions of the world, with 
its grain, wine, iron, coal and oil, Odessa 
is perhaps the most remarkable port, 
with a population of nearly half a mil- 
lion. The Jewish question is treated 
in the description of Odessa, where the 
streets, promenades, and buildings are 
Superior, owing to the large Hebrew 


- element, about one-third of the popu- 


lation, which controls chiefly the busi- 
ness. Of the Jews, Villari says: 

‘The great majority are extremely 
poor, and engaged in various handi- 
crafts and small trades. One of their 
chief grievances lies in the obstacles 
placed in the way of the education of 
their children’’ (limited to one-tenth the 
whole number of pupils). 

This rule means selection and com- 
petition, which bring forward the ablest 
Jewish students, who ‘‘are not infre- 
quently elected by their fellow-students 
as presidents of the literary and scien- 
tific societies. . They generally 
come out with the highest honors, and 
those who do not go into business be- 
come lawyers or doctors, the only liberal 
professions open to them, and rapidly ac- 
quire the best practice. The result . 
accentuates the bitterness against them 
on the part of the Christians.’’ 

Their unpopularity is due to many 
causes, principally economic. Specula- 
tion in grain, most widespread, brings 
them in bad standing with the peasants, 
who hate the Jews, but trade with them, 
as they often mistrust more the Chris- 
tian merchants. 

He adds: ‘‘In spite of their many 
undesirable qualities, the Russian Jews 
are absolutely indispensable to the wel- 
fare of thecountry. Without them there 
would be no trade, in many districts 
money would not circulate, and eco- 
nomic activity would be paralyzed.’’ 

The industrial development of Russia, 
stimulated by the government, has been 
astonishing in the past twenty years, 
especially in textiles and metallurgy. 
These industries are divided by Villari 


568 


into zones: Moscow covers particularly 
textiles, sugar, and beer ; in the Baltic 
iron, textiles, and ship building flour- 
ish; Poland produces textiles and tanned 
goods ; in southern Russia the coal and 
iron industries are predominant; the 
Ural zone is given over to minerals, 
without coal; Baku is well known the 
world over for its oil productions. 

These industries had a tremendous 
development, but overproduction and 
wild speculation induced equally start- 
ling collapses and bankruptcies. 

Foreign employers ‘‘all have a high 
opinion of the skill and working powers 
of the muzik (peasant ), althoughinother 
respects—sobriety, morality, education, 
and honesty—they regard him as far 
inferior to the artisan of western Eu- 
rope.”’ 

Of the workmen Villari says: 

‘‘They are underpaid, ill-fed, worse 
housed, and are not cheap. The peas- 
ant has great industrial possibilities, is 
docile, quick to learn, but is without 
initiative, careless, and needs constant 
supervision.”’ 

The artisan, however, ‘‘has a new 
feeling of human personality and dig- 


THE NEW ERIE CANAL 


HE new Erie Canal, to which New 
York is committed and which 

will cost more than $100,c00,000, is by 
far the greatest work ever undertaken 
by any state. The canal is overshad- 
owed in the public mind by the Panama 
Canal on account of the international 
character and the interesting complica- 
tions that have attended the inaugura- 
tion of that work by the United States, 
but in commercial importance the Erie 
isin many ways the equal of the Panama 
Canal. The canal is described in the 
report of the Smithsonian Institution 
for 1904, just published, by Col. Thomas 
W. Symons, U.S. A.,who was so largely 
instrumental in preparing the plans. 
On the Panama it is hoped some time to 


THe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


9) 


nity,’’ is inspired with new ideas,and 
driven to new movements. 

Confirming Wallace’s opinion, Villari 
states that the Eastern Church is an 
inert body, almost devoid of vitality. It 
contributes little to the moral and in- 
tellectual progress of the people, but 
merely keeps them enslaved and igno- 
rant. The average priest, his one 
thought money exaction, is grasping, 
avaricious, and callous to the moral con- 
dition of his flock. While the average 
Russian is devoted to his faith and most 
carefully observes its practices, yet ‘‘ the 
liberal movement will render the abso- 
lute domination of the church a thing of 
the past.’ 

The elevation of the people is declared 
essential, as ‘‘ until the conditions of the 
mujik are radically altered and improved, 
Russia can never hope to be really peace- 
ful or prosperous.’’ 

Altogether, the volumes of Wallace 
and Villari are not only of current in- 
terest and value, but will continue so 
until the methods of Russian adminis- 
tration are materially improved and the 
rights of man are more generally recog- 
nized and respected. . 


reach a tonnage of 10,000,000; on the 
Erie all works, structures, water sup- 
ply, etc., are predicted on a tonnage of 
10,000,000, and provisions are made 
for accommodating at slight additional 
expense a tonnage greatly in excess of 
this. On the upper Great Lakes there 
is a water-borne commerce of very 
nearly 90,000,000 tons per year. The 
Erie Canal will furnish the cheapest 
route for connecting this vast lake com- 
merce with the seaboard, and its wide- 
reaching influence can hardly be con- 
ceived or appreciated except by those 
who have given years of study to the 
problem. 

In magnitude the work that New 
York has undertaken exceeds the work 
at Panama. More earth and rock must 
be excavated, more masonry used, and 


ROUTH OF THE ems Gs SES GE Canal following Capalzed Bivers 
qemerceeess Canal followlng new Route 


BARGE CANAL : 
ese Canal following old Robte 
TO 'BE BUILT ACROSS THE HPerePPPR Part of Erie Canal abandoned 


STATE OF NEW YORK 


Based un the Map of 
Edward A, Bond, State Faginecr and Surveyor. 
WATUAAL BCALE 1: 1,970,660 
CALE OF MILES 


‘ as Y 


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4h ZzgeE [| Kuck Me Souk brena 
Cis _ Z ates Céntre hi 

g TOR 

Middtep et | 


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yes lomo ae Savann ee AT ; eT ry a Sa h ea leis ee FP a, Selonn OWI 
rk —: gOPO RW cctis Amity ; ‘ Mule Si SS 
Rte a in| Set i \ Roe Gearon 
eavugth hun Al ennenn oS FLPlain QS” 2 
z I < ~~. a \ajobaric > a oe 
3 ! Y —_MONTGOMER v ® 


; A a < ae a “sd ch 
) ; tuchticidd Ae rel G7 a 
: Spr J. _.-.e{ SCHENECTADY, 


1 dese series 


P-L 
i 


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ie a sfecronag J AL ANY} ensteler 
y) ty ; : 
© TIS|E/G 0 Ay pel ae Sal Ws 

SS ipscuonnxria . 


> 
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{cua ait rt 


Map showing Route of New Erie Canal 


7.2 


more dams built. The cost per unit is 
not nearly so high as at Panama, be- 
cause the work will be done in the tem- 
perate zone, where labor, tools, and 
materials are abundant and reasonably 
cheap. 

The canal will be located, wherever 
possible, in streams and lakes, and it 
will have notowpath. This will reduce 
the cost of maintenance enormously, for 
the cost of keeping the towpath in order 
is the heaviest item of expense of the 
present canal. 

The existing canals may be called 
‘*hillside’’ canals, as they go through 
the open country and along the upper 
portions of the valleys above the rivers, 
from which they religiously keep away 
to the greatest extent possible. The 
new and greater canal is put in the val- 
ley bottoms and in the water courses 
and lakes wherever practicable. It is 
interesting to note that the new canal is 
to follow the water route across the 
state of New York used by the pioneer 
settlers of the western portion of the 
state a century ago. 


ANNUAL DINNER OF THE NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


A Bee annual dinner of the National 

Geographic Society will be held 
at the New Willard Hotel in Washing- 
ton, D. C., on December 20. ‘The Sec- 
retary of War, Hon. William H. Taft, 
and Mrs. Taft will be the guests of honor 
of the Society, and there will be a num- 
ber of other invited guests, including 
Messrs W. S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, 
and W. J. Peters, of the Ziegler North 
Polar Expedition. ‘The dinner will be- 
gin at 7 p. m., and at its close several 
brief toasts will be given. The presi- 
dent of the National Geographic So- 
ciety, Dr Willis L. Moore, will preside. 

It is hoped that many of the members 
of the National Geographic Society who 
live not far from the national capital may 
be able to attend the dinner. The So- 
ciety, with 1905,completes its eighteenth 


Tur NaTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


year. It hasnowa handsome home and 
a substantial membership of 10,000 per- 
sons, and is in fact the largest geographi- 
cal organization in the world. 

On another page is pasted a blank 
form which members who can attend the 
dinner are requested to fill out and mail 
to the Society. Members may invite 
their friends to attend as their personal 
guests. The price per plate is $5 for 
members or their guests. 


AUSTRALIA’S FUTURE 


N his budget speech in the Federal 
House of Representatives the other 
day, Sir John Forrest, Minister of 
Finance, took a very hopeful view of 
the future of the Australian common- 
wealth, in spite of the fact that the total 
government revenue of $57,300,000 was 
$545,000 below the estimate. 

Sir John pointed out that though the 
population was only 5,000,000, Aus- 
tralia had since 1852 raised gold and 
other minerals to the value of $3,055,- 
000,000, an average of nearly $59,000, - 
ooo yearly. Inthe single year 1904 the 
gold yield was $80,000,000, and that of 
other minerals was $40,000,000. Acres 
under cultivation numbered 12,000,000, 
with exports of wheat $26,250,000, of 
butter $12,500,000, and of wool $85,- 
000,000. The foreign commerce for the 
year was $472,500,000, of which 74 per 
cent was with Great Britain and British 
possessions. ‘The ordinary banks held 
¢480,000,000 deposits, $107,500,000 of 
coin and bullion, with $175,000,000 also 
on deposit in the savings banks. The 
shipping tonnage which entered Aus- 
tralian harbors during the year totaled 
29,000,000 tons (Sir John did not men- 
tion American ships). Most of these 
figures are record-breakers. ‘The ex- 
ternal trade exceeds that of Denmark, 
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, 
Portugal, or Japan individually. 

The production from primary indus- 
tries, including manufactures, exceeds 
$600,000,000 a year. 


< eis 


AUSTRALIA S FUTURE 


The $545,000 loss in revenue was 
more than covered by the $900,000 
shrinkage in customs andexcises. Evi- 
dently Australia, like Canada, is losing 
by her tariff preferential in favor of 
Great Britain. 

The total expense to Australia of fed- 
eration for the year was $1,485,000, or 
34 cents per capita of the population. 
That is just for running the federation 
machine. 

The minister advises the taking over 
by the federal government of all the 
state debts, aggregating the enormous 
(for so few people) sum of $1,170,000, - 
000, or $275,000,000 more than the 
United States interest-bearing debt. At 
first sight that looks like a big burden 
for the federal government to assume, 
but with the taking over of the debts 
the federal government would not have 
to continue the present unwieldy plan 
of returning the revenues over and above 
expenses to the various states. The 
sum of $35,705,000 was so returned last 
year. Further, any federal govern- 
ment, to be able to do its best for its 
constituents, should have entire control 
of the national finances. Moreover, a 
strong centralized government can bor- 
row money at cheaper rates than can 
individual states. Recent chronicles in 
the English papers show how much 
easier it was for Japan and other cen- 
tralized governments.to borrow money 
in London and Europe than those Aus- 
tralian states which were seeking loans. 
Neither of those states has enough 
people, nor is the sparse population suf- 
ficiently evenly divided, to enable them 
tostand alone. That is the main reason 
why the total debts of the various states, 
$1,485,000,000, is $297 per capita of the 
total population. 

It would seem as if what the com- 
monwealth of Australia needs is less 
states’ rights, less labor and other class 
government, less politics for men and 
more for country, more centralization 
in and wider powers to the federal gov- 


5am 


ernment, before she can draw what is 
her greatest need—more people. Just 
as in the United States, get the people 
there, and all else follows—money for 
developing dormant resources, money 
for building up manufactures, money 
for railways, steam and electric, and 
money for building operations. When 
the people are there they must be fed, 
clothed, and housed. That means work, 
and it is by work, and work alone, that 
nations are built up into prosperity. 
WALTER J. BALLARD. 


THE WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF GOLD* 


T is not alone to the raisers of grain 
that nature has been bountiful of 
late. The mines of the world have been 
yielding treasure as lavishly as have 
our fields. In every day of this year, 
1905, work days and feast days, holli- 
days and Sundays, there will be drawn 
from the ground a million dollars of 
new gold. And then, when the total 
is finally cast up, there will be a num- 
ber of odd millions to spare above that 
average. ‘The mines of the world will 
produce this year $375,000,000 of gold. 
The final figures for the production of 
gold in 1904 have recently been made, 
and they footed $347,000,000. We 
may reasonably look forward in the near 
future to an annual average output of 
¢400,000,000 of new gold for at least a 
considerable number of years. 

When we remember that in 1885 the 
production of gold was but $115,000,000 
we begin to get acomprehensive view of 
the significance of thisincrease. When 
we remember further that the entire 
monetary stock of gold in the world is. 
about $5,700,000,000, we can calculate 
that the output from the mines in the 
next fourteen years promises to equal 
a total as great as the present monetary 
stock of gold. ‘These figures are start- 


* From an address to the Neaeean Bankers’ 
Convention, by F. A. Vanderlip, October I1,. 
1905. 


Sy 


ling. They perhaps suggest the possi- 
bility of a disturbance of values. It 
does not follow, of course, that with 
the production of $400,000,000 of gold 
per annum the monetary stocks will be 
increased by that amount. The uses of 
gold in the domestic arts draw off at 
least $75,000,000 a year, but that will 
leave over $300,000,000 a year to add 
to the gold reserves. . 

While there will undoubtedly be a 
tendency to advance prices as a result 
of this influx of gold into the bank re- 
serves of the world, Ido not believe the 
gold production is likely to become a 
serious menace. I do not believe that 
it will so disturb those business relations 
that are based upon the terms of money 
as to cause any vital derangement of 
affairs. 

What I do believe is that there is 
likely to follow just what followed in 
the two former periods of the world’s 
history when there was an extraordi- 
nary production of gold added to the 
monetary stocks. Oneof these periods 
followed the discovery of America, when 
the treasures of Mexico and Peru were 
exploited. The other was in the years 
following the discovery of gold in Cali- 
fornia and Australia. In each case a 
mighty impulse was given to the ex- 
ploitation of virgin fields of develop- 
ment. 

It seems to me not improbable that 
the next few years will witness the 
expansion of the field of commercial 
enterprise into new places. Countries 
that are commercially and industriously 
backward will yield to this new influ- 
ence. It seems to me that one of the 
direct and important effects of this great 
production of gold will be to give an 
impulse to the development and indus- 
trial exploitation of South America, 
Africa, Asia, and eastern Europe. 
our own hand is South America on 
one side and China and Japan onthe 
other. We are rapidly awakening to 
the commercial possibilities within these 
countries. 


Jake 


THE Nationa, GroGraPpHic MAGAZINE 


CHINA IS NOT OVERPOPULATED 


UR minister to Peking, Mr W. W. 
Rockhill, shares the view of Ad- 

miral C. EK. Clark, published in this 
Magazine in June, 1905 (page 306), that 
the population of China is greatly ex- 
aggerated. The last official estimate, 
that of 1885, which was made by the 
Chinese board of revenue, gave 377,- 
636,198 as the population of the Empire. 
Mr Rockhill believes that the popula- 
tion does not exceed 275,000,000 at the 
present time, and that probably it falls 
considerably below this figure.* He 
vouches for the fact that none of the 


northern provinces are overpopulated, 


and he is inclined to think that China 
could support a much larger population 
than it now has, which would be im- 
possible if the number had reached the 
enormous figure given by some imagi- 
native writers. 


An Observer in the Philippines, or Life 
in Our New Possessions. By John 
Bancroft Devins. Illustrated. Pp. 
416. Boston, New York, Chicago: 
American Tract Society, 1905. 


The Philippine Islands. By Fred. W. 
Atkinson. Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 426. 
Boston: Ginn & Co., 1905. 

Our Philippine Problem. By Henry 
Parker Willis. 8vo, pp. 478. New 
York: Henry Holt & Co., 1905. 


There has been a vast deal written 
about the Philippine Islands in the past 
five years, much of which is wrong and 
some of which is false. Contradictory 
statements abound, and the plain reader 
is at his wits end to know what to ac- 
cept and what to reject. Dr Devins, 
the editor of the New York Odserver, 
spent two months in the Archipelago. 
It was long enough to learn the situa- 
tion, but by no means long enough to 
understand it. The book is largely nar- 
rative, describing with interesting detail 


life on an army transport, on which the - 


*Report of Secretary of Smithsonian Insti- 
tution for 1904, page 675. 


Books ON THE PHILIPPINES 


author crossed the Pacific, and several 
trips made about the Archipelago. The 
characteristics of the people, their in- 
dustries, institutions, health, etc., are 
touched upon. Naturally, much space 
is devoted to matters of religion, and 
the Protestant missionary work receives 
great attention. The author is opti- 
mistic, and has written a very readable 
book. 

Quite different is the character of Dr 
Atkinson’s book from that of Dr Devins. 
Dr Atkinson was the first superintendent 
of schools of the Archipelago under the 
American civil government, and the 
present admirable school system is 
mainly his work. He was inthe Archi- 
pelago nearly two anda half years; his 
work took him everywhere and among 
all classes of people, so that he has writ- 
ten from a full knowledge of his sub- 
ject, with authority and generally with 
accuracy. 

His introduction is a most admirable 
summary of the character of the people 
and the necessities of the situation—the 
several chapters treat of topography, 
history, climate, health, industries, and 
commerce, thecityof Manila, the people, 
their superstitions and religion, govern- 
ment and education. He is not clear 
or definite in his account of temperature 
at Manila (pp. 125 and 126), so that 
the reader may easily be confused. On 
pages 174 and 175 he contrasts the yield 
of sugar in the Philippines with that in 
Hawaii as follows: ‘‘A (Hawaiian) 
planter usually obtains 75 tons of sugar 
to the acre, whereas in the Philippines 
he (the Filipino) considers half a ton 
a fair amount.’’ If he would substi- 
tute 4 for 75, and 1 for %, the contrast 
would becorrect and would still be suff- 
ciently startling. There are numerous 
other slight errors scattered through 
the book which leads one to regret that 
the author had not awaited the appear- 
ance of the Census report and thus hive 
avoidel the slight blemishes on what is 
otherwise a most valuable work. 


573 


Mr Willis’ book is of a still different 
class. The author, a professor in Wash- 
ington and Lee University, devoted sev- 
eral months of 1904 toa study of the 
conditionsof the Philippines. The book, 
like many others, is a discussion of the 
government and the political, social, and 
economic conditions of the islands. 

It is not easy to take the writer seri- 
ously. He says we are in the Philip- 
pines to exploit them ; that the people 
are antagonistic to us; that the exist- 
ence of ladronism shows that the insur- 
rection is still going on; that the press 
is muzzled and that speakers are not 
allowed to speak ; that the natives pre- 
fer church schools to public schools; 
that the teaching of Englishis a mistake 
and that the teaching should be in the 
Malay tongues; that the Philippine civil 
service is a farce; that the native con- 
stabulary is rotten, and that the Philip- 
pine Commission favors the regular 
Catholics rather than the Aglipayans. 
Not one of these statements, it is un- 
necessary to say, is correct. Mr Willis 
was probably filled with tales of woe by 
some American trader who had been dis- 
appointed in his hopes of great profits 
by the withdrawalof thearmy. There 
are many such in the Philippines. 


Michigan. By Thomas McIntyre Coo- 
ley Wath map.) Pp 410s, 5x74 


inches. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin 
& Co. 1905. $1.10 net. 


This is one of the best of the ‘‘ Amer- 
ican Commonwealth ’’ series, published 
by Messrs Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
The author realizes, what some histo- 
rians are apt to forget, the important in- 
fluence of the natural resources of a 
state. In his history he gives not merely 
a record of Michigan’s governors and 
legislatures and their acts, but he de- 
scribes the development of the material 
wealth and prosperity of the state. The 
census of 1900 shows Michigan ninth 
among the states in population, in 


Dist 


amount of capital employed in manu- 
factures, and in the production of flour ; 
second in lumber, copper, and iron ore ; 
sixth in the manufacture of agricul- 
tural implements and chemicals, and 
seventh in railway cars; eighth in the 
production of cheese and of wood-pulp 
and paper; tenth in manufactures gen- 
erally, and thirteenth in agriculture. 


Two Bird Lovers in Mexico. By C. 
William Beebe. With roo pictures 
from photographs by the author. Pp. 


408. 6 by 8% inches. Boston: 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1905. 


An entertaining description of nature 
life in Mexico. ‘The author writes well 
and his account of things Mexican is 
novel and well worth the reading. 

‘“As we rambled through the trenches 
we sometimes brushed against a mass 
of large golden globes, strung close to- 
gether along the leafless twigs of the 
_plant—brittle and five-sided and as light 
as air. They reminded one in shape 
somewhat of the sea-jellies (evoé) 
which drift in the currents of the ocean. 
And the simile is not confined to the ex- 
terior, for within hangs a small round 
sac containing the tiny flat brown seeds, 
just as, in certain of the animal jelly- 
fishes, the pendulous stomach is swung. 
Out of curiosity I counted the seeds in 
one of these seed-vessels and found 253. 
A single branch which I brought home 
with 79 globes would therefore scatter 
some 18,000 fruit. The least touch or 
breath of air sets each of these many 
seeds vibrating within their hollow 
spheres, producing a sweet, sifting 
tinkle, comparable to nothing I have 
ever heard in nature.’’ 


Arizona Sketches. By Joseph A. Munk. 


With too illustrations. Pp. 230. 6 
x9% inches. New York: The Graf- 
ton Press. 1905. 


Dr Munk has given a very readable 
account of the territory of Arizona, 
which has been aptly dubbed ‘‘the 


Tue NaTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


scientist’s paradise,’’ for it possesses 
grand scenery, a salubrious climate, pro- — 
ductive soil, rich mineral deposits, rare 
archeological remains, and a diversified 
fauna and flora. Some of the chapter 
headings are A Romantic Land, The 
Open Range, Ranch Life, The Round- 
up, A Model Ranch, Some Desert 
Plants, Hooker’s Hot Springs, Cafion 
Echoes, The Meteorite Mountain, The 
Cliff Dwellers, The Moqui Indians, A 
Fine Climate. The illustrations are 
particularly good. 


Cram’s Atlas of the Dominion of Can- 
ada and of the World. Edited by 
Dr Eugene Murray - Aaron, 14x 
18% inches. Chicago: George F. 
Cram; Toronto: The Arnt-Gill Co. 
1905. 

This new atlas of Canada should 
prove useful to the many who are in- 
terested in the recent rapid material 
progress of Canada and in the new trans- 
Canadian railway. The maps are ona 
large scale and clearly printed, the sta- 
tistics are the latest available, and the 
text contains a good summary of the 
history and resources of each province 
of the Dominion. 


The Bontoc Igorot. By A. E. Jenks. 


Pp. 266. 7% x 10% inches. With 
160 full-page plates. Manila: Eth- 
nological Survey Publications. Vol. 


I. 1905. 

The author of this volume and his 
wife lived for five months in the pueblo 
of the Bontoc Igorots, who are a primi- 
tive mountain tribe of Luzon. His de- 
scription of the people is made especially 
valuable by the large number of excel- 
lent photographs accompanying the 
report. The Bontoc Igorots are an ex- 
ceedingly dirty people, not 5 per cent 
of them being free of skin sores, but 
otherwise Mr Jenks has nothing but 
good to say of them. He found them 
honest, of kindly and likable disposi- 
tion, courageous, industrious, and will- 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


ing to learn. The Ethnological Survey 
is doing good work in studying the 
primitive inhabitants of the Philippine 
Islands. A previous report on ‘‘ The 
Negritos’’ was noticed in this maga- 
zine several months ago. 


Report of the Smithsonian Institution 
‘for 1904. Pp. 800. 6 x g inches. 
Illustrated. Washington: Govern- 
ment Printing Office. 1905. 


The Report of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution for 1904 contains papers of geo- 
graphic value, as follows: 


On Mountains and Mankind. Douglas W. 
Freshfield. 


Morocco. Theobald Fischer. 


SWE: 


The Work of the Reclamation Service. F. H. 
Newell. 


The Yuma Reclamation Project. J. B. Lip- 
pincott. 

The Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon. Prof. W. A. 
Herdman. 


Flying Fish and Their Habits, Dr Theodore 
Gill. 

An Inquiry Into the Population of China. 
W. W. Rockhill. 

The Economic Conquest of Africa by the 
Railroads. A. Fock. 

The Present Aspects of the Panama Canal. 
William H. Burr. 

The Sanitation of the Isthmian Canal Zone. 
W. C. Gorgas. 

The Projected New Barge Canal of the State 
of New York. Col. Thomas W. Symons. 

Archzeology of the Pueblo Region. Edgar L. 
Hewett. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


HE annual dinner will be on De- 
cember 20. For special announce- 
ment see page 569. 


THE POPULAR COURSE 


The addresses in this course are de- 
livered in the National Rifles Armory, 
920 G street, at 8 p. m. 


December 8—‘‘ What Shall be Done 
with the Yosemite Valley.”’ By Mr 
William FE. Curtis. Illustrated. 

The Yosemite Valley has been receded 
to the federal government by act of the 
California legislature, but has not yet 
been formally accepted by Congress. 


December 22—‘‘An Attempt at an 
Interpretation of Japanese Character.’’ 
By Hon. Eki Hioki, First Secretary of 
the Japanese Legation. 


December 23 (Saturday)—‘‘A Mili- 
tary Observer in Manchuria.’’ By Major 
Joseph Kuhn, U.S. A. Illustrated. 


January 5—‘‘Russia and the Russian 
People.’’ By Mr Melville KE. Stone, Gen- 
eral Manager of the Associated Press. 


January 19—‘‘ Railway Rates.’’ By 
Hon. Martin A. Knapp, President of 
the Interstate Commerce Commission. 


January 25 (Thursday)—‘‘ The Zieg- 
ler Polar Expedition of 1903-1905.’’ By 
Messrs W.S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, 
and! WJ Peters: 

A novel feature of this meeting will 
be the exhibition of moving pictures of 
Arctic scenes. 


February 2—‘‘Austria Hungary.’” 
By Edwin A. Grosvenor, Ll. D., Pro- 
fessor of International Law in Amherst 
College, author of ‘‘ Constantinople,’’ 
‘‘ Contemporary History,’’ etc. 


February 10 (Saturday)—‘‘A Fla- 
mingo City.’’ By Dr Frank M. Chap- 
man, American Museum of Natural His- 
tory. 

February 16—‘‘ Africa from Sea to 

Center.’’ By Mr Herbert L. Bridg- 
man. Illustrated. 
Africa in transition today challenges 
the attention of the world. Few intel- 
ligent Americans know to what extent 
its possibilities have been developed 
since Livingstone’s day, a development 
that in rapidity promises to exceed that 
of North America. : 


February 20 (Tuesday )—‘‘ China.’’ 
By Hon. Charles Denby, of the State 
Department. 


576 


February 23—‘‘ The Personal Wash- 
ington.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, of 
the Century Company. Illustrated. 

This is not a lecture in the ordinary 
sense of the word, but it is an exhibi- 
tion, through the medium of the stere- 
opticon, of the greatest collection of 
prints, manuscripts, and letters refer- 
ring to the personal side of Washington 
ever brought together. 


March 2—‘‘ Our Immigrants: Where 
They Come from, What They Are, and 
What They Do After They Get Here.”’ 
By Hon. F. P. Sargent, U. S. Commis- 
sioner General of Immigration. Illus- 
trated. 


March 1{6—‘‘ Oriental Markets and 
Market Places.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, 
Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Il- 
lustrated. 


March 30—It is hoped that official 
business will permit the Secretary of 
the Navy, Honorable Charles J. Bona- 
parte, to address the Society on ‘‘ The 
American Navy.”’ 


April 13—‘‘ The Regeneration of Ko- 
rea by Japan.’’ By Mr George Kennan. 
Illustrated. 


SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS 


The meetings of this course are held 
at the home of the Society, Hubbard 
Memorial Hall, Sixteenth and M streets, 
at 38 p. m. 


December {2 (Tuesday )—‘‘ Norway 
as itis.’ By a Norwegian, Rev. B. E. 
Bergesen. | 


Tue NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


December 15—‘‘ Surveying our Coasts 
and Harbors.’’ By Hon. O. H. Titt- 
mann, Superintendent U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey. 

December 29—‘‘ Problems for Geo- 
graphical Research.’’ By Gen. A. W. 
Greely, U. S. A. 

‘“The Binding Power of Road Mate- 
rial.’ By Mr A. S. Cushman. 

January 12—Annual meeting. Re- 
ports and elections. ‘‘ Progress in the 
Reclamation of the West.’’ By Mr F. 
H. Newell, Chief Engineer Reclamation 
Service. 

January 26—‘‘ The Carnegie Institu- 
tion.’’ By President R.S. Woodward. 

February 9—‘‘ The Introduction of 
Foreign Plants.’’ By Mr David G. Fair- 
child, Agricultural Explorer, U.S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

February 24 (Saturday)—‘‘ Hunting 
with the Camera.’’ By Hon. George 
Shiras, Member of Congress from 3d 
District, Pennsylvania. 

March 9—‘‘ The United States Bu- 
reau of the Census.’’ By Hon. S. N.D. 
North, Director. 

March 23—‘‘ The Death Valley.’’ By 
Mr Robert H. Chapman, U. S. Geolog- 
ical Survey. 

April 6—‘‘ The Total Eclipse of the 
Sun, July, 1905, as Observed in Spain.”’ 
By Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, 
U. S. N., Superintendent U. S. Naval 
Observatory. 

April 20—‘‘ The Protection of the 
United States Against Invasion by 
Disease.’?’ By Dr Walter Wyman, Sur- 
geon-General Marine Hospital Service. 


INDEX 


Abruzzi, Duke, referred to..............cccccscsccscseeseccecees 440 
Adams, George I., Erasmus Haworth, and W. R. 
Crane, Report on economic geology ot the Iola 


WD AIG ARI C GY one 020005) aoe cccode ocoesesineiencsecaceses evesdl eovece 444 
Africa probably circumnavigated 600° Bi Garenee: 459 
MEE MEIONS DEOSTESS Of.....;:.....000ccecececesscssreeseccees 498 


African dates, American tea and.. 
Alaska, A growing camp iu the Tanana gold fields 
f 


Me erence nee te dee cesoseiecisces tc ssince'eccdceiedeccaeet sesacwelicseucnurces 104 
= , Experimental NOTIN oh Sees iicteace ree Usih ehinarvelen Goatees 85 
See SD LOMA OMI O Ries eos calsssichecs cas cietadesssvacccocecscsssecsees 251 
EU IICAMONS NELALITIO; LO. sdec.0ccs0csccssceccsu ets saccceoas 513 
meee POC CULEAIG RON are cnet ssc arrscsieeSascdecewsoeccceccessecscceaseses 513 
—, Russian settlements in, referred l0................. PALO 
—, Some notes on the Fox Island Passes................ 427 
Aleshire, J.B. cited om bilipino,laborers..........5.4 190 
Alexander, A 'B., Report on fisheries by................ 527 
Alge in water supplies, Means of destroying........ 44 
Algué, José, cited on climate of the Philippinesi... 192 
Alkali lands PReelanmation) Off)... ic..cc-.cecteccee cesesseocees 82 
Pee PONS OM PN site Saikis censor nvsctfaenstesss eaves soecscvesece 43 
Along the Nile with General Grant, Keview of...... 307 
Aller, J. A., Report on collections of mammals from 
Beaver county, IVI GIRHSIAIN eee acc SiocoesaSeebacccssssledaccdee 444 
America. Huture of road- making in, Book on......... 253 
PINON CI OOK ONY. sie ccnc cat clcccseccecsieasesceccsscoscseceaccesds 135 
=— , Ship canals connecting the Great Lakes of... 477 
=, United States OfPPRIEV TS WOR yeti less tssceseceee’s 308 
American Cauals, The Great, Review of.. ....... ...... 254 
— Forestry Congress... Rabaceesteses eotcae ase cn SIL 
— — —, Book containing proceedings Sao acon 136 
— immigration, EATS a eee ce eee ct stata = ve censs ccscilsetes'slesaaeeSs 
_ aor Our ignorance of the peoples blending into 
ENE. cccacs BER ee eee cae bef casee odecshniewes saccuatectece iat cease se) 
SRCARA ING pAMIs Ga TG ALES: esses cecestvecccoceccecessecsce esccs 42 
— tropics, Economic importance of the plateaux in. 250 
ee OOM ia DMRS, MrIDULe TOs. 06..6.02-.-02...eseceseeeeseectes 358 
— water service, Beginning of the........... 60... ccceeeeee 257 
Anderson, George H.; The wonderful canals of 
Aer eee ool sscceeseedesacdecveacsveste 68 
Anderson, J. G., and Otto Nordenskjold, Book on 
SOMA GC TENG IS ID VM Mers Lee cclcde voy ecescadeacadesosesosccuse'els cave 443 
Anderson,R H.,and J.C. Hoyt, Report on hydrog- 
Taphy of the Susguehanna River basin by....... 444, 520 
André, Eugene, Book on A Naturalist in the 
Guianas PON jetesceeeectet ee non ate euethe Nee cans ctdeucelaseestaee susie d 89 
Anemia in Forto Rico, Review Of............c000. ceeeeeees 252 
SMe m iS Le BUT ple Vell) .o......ccsccceseecd. sccewedsese 337 
Anglo-Japanese alliance, The purpose of the......... 333 
Animals and meat, The inspection Ofec Aes 4t 
—, Producing new PEC US Ole sins oe stccassccuideasedons AI 
Antarctica, EVA C VA Olean eMuer sce dae ccAbL ck sccullsnins Leese 443 
Antarctics, The great ice mass of, disappearing.... 493 
Arbitration in The Hague court, Review of............ 133 
Atrelano, C. S., cited on judiciary of Philippines.. 191 
Arizona, ieiieched Ghats nen kn eine 88 
Ashford, Bailey K., Book on Anemia in Porto Rico.. 252 
Aspinwall, Henry, TELETTEGNtOs esc eesek ee 447 
Atwood, Nathaniel K., cited on gig lee fishing...... 338 
Atwood, W. W., POLCE EA 05... ccascioac5koiA.Hoskien shes 250 


Atkinson, Edward ; Some lessons in geography... 192 

Austin, O. P.; ; Commercial prize ofthe Orient, The.. 399 

—, Address by, reprinted in Japanese..................... 421 
Elected to Board of Managers, Najional Geo- 


~ graphic SOLS)? see he Re a terest sate ona ee 87 

—, quoted on the great canals of the world... wee 475 
eR CRETGT EC GONCO!, cradars sine | onoescaeSe ave beseatoaSeaceeebes tlacbdcaees 57 
PATA sae EUNUE TIE GOL co cecckscctovencecaascs sveceeuee Ueretacstoceeses 570 
Austria-Hungary, Immigrants from....................... 5 
Batista ISlands, BOOK ON. ...........csa0s)sivbestacniseseveeoes! 136 
Baird, Nathaniel, cited on angler fishing............... 338 
Baker, Emelie Kip, Book on ‘‘ Out of the North- 

land” WIN amidase ert ccccsnecuacarensttas tes eet eee Rane cet ete gl 
Baldwin-Ziegler ‘expedition FETEHTEM tO. actus te ceite.: 355 
Balkan desire for emigration to the United States.. 9 
Ballard, Walter J.; The population of Japan ........ 482 


ae European populatio TDS ee seal eee de haere Re ead 432 


Barrels Si relerred tO sactareceavesscoe adders sracseusescoconeses 250 
Barrow, David P., cited on tribes of the Filipinos. 192 
Barrows, Samuel ae Book on Italiansin America... 524 
Bascom, Florence, ‘Report on water resources of 
the Philadc Iphia district.................. Reese 
Basinger DGs referneahto:s-n-c-.:scscnsetce) ccscceseceseccees 426 
Batavia Quadrangle, Geological Survey map of..... 125 
Bell, Alexander Graham, elected to Board of Man- 


agers, National Geographic SOGCIEEY ir sccscsecstocs sees 89 
—, thanked by Natioual Geographic Society......... 342 
Bell, Mrs Alexander Graham, thanked by National 

Geographic SOGGY A Aer sc reteie nee eten senor enetaes renee 342 
Bell, Charles J., thanked by National Geographic 

Society Ce p DS COOBO FE ERU Cd) CoE TOSR OE onan cE EACCnC ctr Hodaacbached BECK HaG 342 
Bell, Mrs Charles J., thanked by National Geo- 

graphic SOCIE Ya. tis. et ettareceCeten se eat oe ee coeeiereeates aes? 342 
Bell, Gardiner H.,thanked by National Geographic 

Society 0006 actidcnodig deco ese DoauebuAS badude soacgHOnSsedooasoaaconaccd 342 
Bell, Grace H., thanked by National Geographic 

SOGCTE HY save rieeek- capes caretacucoecsentretsoeeh ane aunevesds UU ema teds 342 


Bell, Helen A., thanked by National Geographic 
Society : 
Bell, Robert W., thanked by National Geographic 


SOGCIEE Vor ee oace eae vy re eae eecnca neuen conas seek condo useneneeds 342 
Beverage, A. J., cited on ‘Russian Advance”’........ 332 
Biological Survey, IWOOT O fe eer see ee cc aR ta oy 84 
Blanchard, Nathaniel, cited on angler fishing........ 338 
Blair, Emma Helen, and James Alexander Robert- 

son, Book on Philippine Islands by............... 207, 443 
Bohio Pake'an Gidaimgesee sca ria ce see eet cy eons erate 453 
Bowie, Edward L,., cited on determining storm 

IMOVENIENES T ccuias.soureleececceseccasrcome sesttscicssettessecciec 289 
Bownian, Isaiah, and R. L. Sackett, Report on dis- 

posal of strawboard and oil wastes Byline hoe: 520 
Bratmer,, JiG@y, HelerkeG COcccccreessesedacteocth neeteteoereae 250: 
Brandis, Sir Dietrich, FETE HRCA LOR Heise co seas e eae 378- 
Breaking the Wilderness. EWIC WiOLe eect tases 200: 
Brignam, Albert Perry, Students’ laboratory man- 

ual of physical geosraplly! Dyis.v...dcete.ccsoetees «does 136) 
British Empire, Cotton cultivation in the............... 249) 
Brooks, Alfred H.; The exploration of Alaska...... 251 
—- , cited on goid da BGS ave 6 ca Met My ee aa) 513; 
—— TELE LENE Gs ton iscasmhrsaies re cra as lataeec eleee se) es een gs 87 

; Tribute to American topographers..............0000 358 
Brown, Marcus, cited on immigration......... cccceceee 19 
Bunau-Varilla’s scheme for Panama Canal............ 469 
Califordiax Foresthy 10 i.yc testers vdeo ei eoek stv ces cae 444 
Calkins, F. C., and George Otis Smith, Report ou 

a geological FECOMNMAISSANCEsb yi! ns. .2256 ede s ee 
—, Report on geology and water resources of Wash- 

ington 19.6 BESO EE EAC CH DoRE EE Bnet eecincer meres oleae es are 520 
Gana siok Chitmal..2s.sssses ines obscene cose seach ee a tie em neon 68 
Canals of the Great Lakes. s.-<....csccenseecn: onthe lesahcdessees 478 
Canalsiof, the) worlds.ta. 58 cect sieecdccet eee steskscicctieke coe 478 
Cannon; Josephyneferreds tome ee cess ee 254 
Carleton, Mark Alfred, Report on lessons from the 

grain rust epidemic of LOOANS Cee toed coe ies eee Palen ue - 444 
Census-Bureaul referred tO. 1. 521:s...:0ccst ods cineceees ae. 504. 
Century of expansion, Review Of........ ......ccc00e eeeeee 526 
Chamberling ih. Sc erelerredutO a.c.ccsssscestscrcusctteccdene 250 
Champ, W. ish Leader of the Ziegler relief expe- 

GICION SG: cc. eevee se oeioee kee k caaatel seat Seat ee eae 355, 440 
Chapmawtie Ryo. srelerred | fOrscs- cos saseccses scenes ck eee 427 
Charts of early navigators......... 0. ...ceceeees eeseweecncestee 491 
Sa Ss Sion 2) tp 0) ip hs ei Pe ea Ae i a Se Re 492 
Chauncey, Henry, Tefernedtomis is Ne wt eae AE 447 
Chester, Colby M.; The Panama Canal.................5 445 
Chicago sanitary and SUI p (Cama veccvsa.rsss--tusce te 478 
Children, Proporticn of in country districts........... 508 
eer ees miteduStaeee nme ey hs a aN 505 
China and the United States; Sir Chentung Liang 

CHEM Oe oyrretersee tes ceomes sedate rae casinos abkeecccsaheninacans 554 
— , Immigration pO feb at ne Am bey Mere  AltAR a Ue RSD ar AE 
eat PLO OLESS SUM vet tereree esc seer eR Leek eee tae taaent 
— ’ Recent development of, compared to that of 

Japan eAueliplitiichiallomrads noe ees coats soceset sneha. favacsen st cae, 414 
—, What is the population Of.............c.ccc08 socees 306, 572 


Bye 


: Page 
China pwWornderfiullcainalsiofi-sscccssceccerceecesnossteeke eee 68 
ChineseiboycottvCotton and the.::325:5./.7.2¢eans ee 516 
== Labor tOr MEd COM. 2. ssecsacs:scscentsschnecotseseeoterneneteeat 481 
Chittenden, Alfred K., Report on forest conditions 

of northern New Hampshire Dynveaate teeta 443, 
Chittenden, F. H., and William af Hubbard, Re- 
port on the basket willow DY se ace ee, 443 
CitlesStabistiesro fits able cht wat cs Munsee nents, ueeiaes 437 
Citrous LEWES PNG wie eee caac lesen ene eceh esseeLeEUeG 42 
Civilizations, The supposed birthplace of............... 4 
Clapp. Frederick G.. Report on limestones of south- 
western Pennsylvania. iu cletisla ddcidow shine sac antewssivatienaeiees - 444 
Clark, C. E.; The population of China..............2c008 
Clark Wine eB Winelerred!tone.-.s-saetsedeesesse a asute ae oseee 250 
Cleveland, President, referred tO..........ccccecceeceesceees 387 
Climate, Deforestation and...........ccccccese coececcsceceeees 307 
Cliniatey hifect.of theiseaiipOi...1.s..tcer.cc.scee dabdistrdss 496 
Clinton, De Witt, cited Om fOrests........ ..eceececeeceeeee 386 
Coast and Geodetic Survey referred to...... 144, 427, 509 
Cobb, Collier referred to. ssc) .iiccatescee neste eet 250 
Coe, Robert, referred to.. paar 
Collier, Arthur i fae Report on work in Alaska by... - 513 
Collins, C. M., Report on the Avocado by.............4. 527 
ColouPhar born. cench. ec pese ts cciessec ons seteacdedece aca suva neeeess 456 
NE OLOUIMNSIAE ta cscsctenoueced toe cetice cacte eee nae srceaa cate ete see 456, 472 
Colquhoun, A. R, cited on Philippines.................. 363 
Conimerce, ‘Ihe possibilities of, multiplied by in- 
VERILTOINS sass tans vaciee conconasneten sem sct eset ome eet e nace amare AIL 
Commercial geography, Gannett’s book on............ 520 
Comtractdaborlaiw iii Re ee ee 12 
Cook, O. F.,and Walter Il. Swingle, Report on evo- 
lution of cellular structures by 2.-Aeei sh Bie: 527 
Copernican theory, mefienned tonis::.-c.ssecsccs edoeaces oe 256 
Corbett, L. C.. Report on raspberries by................5 443 

, school gardens 101 Aon ee PR aren eR a ee Bp Sania 443 
Corinth canal sh electntenk cuter eiadacecscresadecdsceecosae cone Eee 476 
Cormorants, Fishing with... ee cece cece rec eeeees 213 
Cotton aud the Chinese boycott Of................cceeeceeee 516 
—, Boll weevil, Experimental work in combating 4 

CIR iice Soskeckcotees save stkeccbe vended cen we Sbhossarenecetecteee: ames 3 
—, Cultivation of in the British pass Meadddastaeeehet 249 
—, Cultural work on.. i seh chacevouccnacevtastcetmeeAS 
Coville, Frederick v., ‘Teferred to. She RS PEO a restr 229 
Cox, Ulysses G. Report on revision of cave fishes 

inthe Winrited: States! Dyssicec.c--csseitaccecsceota haeceaeestons 527 


Crane, W. R., George I, Adams and Erasmus 
Haworth, Report on economic geology of the 


Tola Quadrangle DY......0...--.2-200 sees seceeenseececece senses 444 
Cripple Creek District, Colorado. .i:2 i.cscscrcsaeeeees ones 424 
Ctoatians, Imig ration Of. (1120.2). ceswines estes seatadent 8 
Cronstadtiand Sti Petersbu rei. ....cscccsoss noes omcesr sceaes 476 
Crop investigation and forag GOR ALe cicalere ence een ate 43 
Crops requiring little WATET hasendlss hee erates - 44 
Cuban seed tobacco, Growth Of...........cecetececeecce cee ees 82 
Culebra Cut, The, referred: tOs stoi sceatess ek tens 456 
Cummin, K. D., referred: tows. i522 $OMi0, nee 425 
Cushine HHeomy wefierreds tolsc-n..0uescse-tyecos meee senate 250 
Gy. ClomiICiStOriMS. -. ese 2cc. .catesc warats a teteatnve rene eatscaawaee stare 260 
Daibutsu; The ereat,OriginiOts.\eccccestecsecteece edece 95 
Dai-Nippon (Japan), Review Oficncscsceessteces fc EES 134. 
Dall, William H., referred to...2..2.06..c.ssres on -tieccentece 251 
— Chapter ou paleontology i in Bahama Islands by.. 136 
Dalton, Jack, referred t0......csccsessesessessereeeeseene cee 251 
Dalmatian,settlemets::siiscusseesshecwsss sastecsbenese Malou 9 
Dam, The highest in the world ..............cccesecececeseee 240 
Darton, N. H.; The Central Great Plains.......0...... 390 
Darwin, Charles, GEER TGEC Ones. waste cuen sndrencatte act aaeentos 194 
Davis. A. P.; Views on what forestry means to 

representative WIVES tosogncy seneodubtcescannoadsadddoesdbacodaonaee 443 
Davis, Che Hi referred Mot iar. .u vies eaeenese 446 
Davis, W. - Tides i in the Bay of Fundy..... ......... 71 
—,re pues ‘ Ses aaeaen ete tene Tete Sa Ol Ace CRR es, Gatch iat Bie a 499 


Day, David ’., Geographic excursionists’ gift to... 199 
—, Report on mineral resources of United states... 444 


— — — gold and silver production in 1903 by.......... 444 
== Stollen G@uStinvaltlLQO3.-.-.csccereacnucestecsseseesc 444 
Decisions of U.S. Board on Geographic Names.. 131, 358 
Deforestation aid) climate... 0c. .csssecceccccosteserenseneer ac 397 
Dellenbaugh, F. S., Book on breaking the wilder- 
NESS DY...ere0e Aus ouncGuca ance wes on cceeede csc ten enn ecouneee se aeeeee 200 


THe NaTIonAL GeoGraPHic MaGazINE 


Page 
Densmore, Frank, referred tOscc.i:scyescsssenesseeeeeee 251 
Denton Quadrangle. Maryland, Map of, issued...... 425 
Desert, Utilizing the....25-.0..-csanasehee een eee ee 242 
Detweiler, Frederick May, Obituary Of eee 52 
Dewey, Admiral, referred to:. 2) Li52 ORs 60 
Dewey, Melvil, Book on A. L.A. catalogue of 3,000 
volumes by ii. eR ie, SR nee meee 136 
Dodge, Richard Elwood, Advanced geography by.. 2% 
== lementary Geography byciascins-sn eee ees 
Dunstan, W., cited on cotton cultivation in British 
Emp Eres tesas ssstdesecsss tities Ake A OL ae ea 249 
Dutton, ¢ Clarence Edward, Book on earthquakes 
soseneeee c.cjusceans Ueicicwweeselcisciecnsieceacresn seeeeeeee ee eee ee teeaeeene 136 
Duvel, 7. W.T.; ; Report on the vitality of buried 
seeds sede lone posecssnvicclinae odes seoeesceeseeieeesnieeehh epee ee eaaeaeeeme 
Dyer, Henry, Book Oll Japan Dy is iie-ee.ceceeaceeereeeee 134 
Early Western Travels, Review Of.........00-0csseeeesseeee 253 
Earthquakes, Review of... AP adeoen yes +. 360 
Earth’s heat, The cause of ‘the... sheshivel<uistosever se ceeemaesee 124 
Kekert, Max, Book on Grundriss der Handelsgeog- 
raphie: BycrAt ee eee FAL ad eeeeaens 308 
Edwards, Clarence R., referred t0..........0000 hat cere 87 
Bilis, J..R.. referred Os... 2. ecaccccrescs sees ee eee 426 
England, Transportation in........ Ber pen ersr ee ihe 4d nal . 88 
Erosion, Water theory Of.............. cceceeeeeeees Baa 249 
European populations........... - 432 
Excursions and lessons in home ‘geography, Re- 
VI@W OF. cc cccie ccc nccescincaie sisi ein eteis s cBeceenen o MEne Senne Ren imam a ene 307 
Exploration of world nearly completed..........,....0 492 
Explorations in Turkestan, Book on, referred to.. : 499 
Exports and MANUACtUTES nseeesceseceseseseseeses eeeeveeeres 434 
Fairchild, David G., Book review DY...........ssseee.se008 89 
—, cited on the wattle tree.......... Reacesso LOT 
—, Report on seeds and plants imported by... iegeacedes 443 
Fairchild, Mrs David G., thanked by the National 
Geographic SOCIECY c52.25, ATE eae epee ee es 342 
Fairchild, H. 1., referred! tosciste-cs- eee 249 
Far Kast, Select list of books relating to................. QI 
Far Eastern Phas Uae Review. Of. 23). eee 525 
Farman, Elbert E., Book on Along the Nile with 
GeneéraliGrant byntis-t s5s-0...c0e seme cone ene eee eee QI. 309 
Farmers, Helipitig,the:...-\.ccsceccedccte a meee eae eee tee 39, 82 
Fay, W. T.; Parsees and Towers of Silence, Bom- 
DAY GE Joes sca velclscses telcleido stinsiacie esta dottclseeee ee ete eeamamseione Regesoace 529 
Fetichism in West Africa, Review of................ elas 
Feudal system in JAPAN ........5.22eceees oeeeee BaddcHeenacoscec 222 
Filipino, Average size of family ofis nto ae ae 188 
—, Census of the......... 20.0 5000.. cco iadecse anne ce eee oe 
—'industries awaiting development................5 ccceee 140 
Filipinos, Educating the. ...............ccceccececeteessceecees 46 
—+, Revelation of the...-.....2/2.00. oe eessie seein 139 
Finland, Immigration from. .............cscccccee) ceecesencees 9 
Fish, Catching, with intoxicants ..).5.0::is eset 233 
Fisheries of Ja pain s.1t. 02 ci2csstecosonceee state eee eee 201 
—, Report of the Commission Of...............cecceececeeeees 444 
Fitzgerald, Desmond, referred to ...........cccceeseeeeeees 371 
Flamingo, The story of thes: 0) eed ieee 51 
Fleming, Walter L., Summary of address by......... 517 
FlOOGssc.dies cede oendeb ies seeadscs Soc bacoeneccte eSoe ene see aE 302 
Forage crops; NOW... ciccc..0.c0ts. sane seen eacdeenine enna eeeeeane 44 
Foreman, John, criticised by Se er WOR Ds ee 362 
Forest reserves, Federal.. oS BERGE ST. 
Forestry at home (the United States). ae BE els A es 383 
— — —/andabroad \.2..iitikeccrcsheas eee 375 
— Congress, AMETLican........... ccccccceeecese wa Tata 51 
—, First stepS:itne. 2c kai Ae ee 386 
— in British India, Germany, France, and Switzer- 
UT 6 oo eioclos cise siecinies cieisicine) iwinle'sic'eelislvnietelehicietaisiol eae sen ee Teee eee ae 377 
==. WMO MEP Ny. .cnecoasaden eseche the peddoeweneaaae oneness Pe RAO NES is 376 
—, Present situation: Of.ci.....0-0h.s.0t-s5 pees eee eee 45 
Forests, Study of insects damaging the........ ....... | 88 
— vital to our welfare................. ESO buatek Aenea 515 
Fortnightly Review referred t0............ccccecee ceeeeeee 362 
Foster, John W., book on arbitration in The Hague 
COMME aero e salctia sian cise ol cies owtslelvsisiveinelcc ate eae eee eee ieee 133 
Foureau expedition referred to............. cecsessecee ceeees oy 
Fox Island Passes, Alaska, Some notes on............. 427 


Franklin, Benjamin, Researches Of.............c.ceeeeeeee 256 


INDEX 


Page 

French conquest of the Sahara.................cssescceeseeees 76 
Fruit, Cold storage and marketing of..................... 
Fuller, Myron L., Report on underground waters 

of Eastern United SUALCS*DY sd .cse..secesesupestiouases 444, 520 

—, Index of hydrographic reports..............csccceecneees 520 

Fundy, SAGES UMPC BAY Of-... 0. cecccscccacccoosscarecgseceecees 71 

Game laws, Enforcement Of,..............c0- se ececeececeeceees 84 


Gannett, Henry, Book reviews by.. 199, 200, 524, 526, 572 
—, Assistant director of Philippine census, Report 
b 


LARP GR Sra Pee seca creccaies coi cs sacueacaSeceeeuasecasesdecucs 139 
—, ‘Commercial Geography ” Dy..........ccccsseceoseeeres 520 
— ; Editor, Report of Eighth Taeeraational Geo- 

graphic COMB R ES reese sos. secccccscsosececsces csecasees) cos 199 
—, elected to Board of Managers, National Geo- 

SEG AVMNE SOCICUM sce ncons ia. cbsere cs cs2ceusecrsnsreceeeccnsecoenses 87 
—, Gazetteer of Indian Territory DY Ct Sicssseneseecucecsee 444 
—, Origin of certain place names................... ce eeeeee 444 
=, Report on results of primary triangulation and 

_ primary ELAVETSE..... 0.00. case eeeseeeeee terre cesses ceeeeeeneees 444 

Water erosion theory a fallacy...................eeee 249 
Ganz, Hugo, Book on Russia DY................050se00 gI, 135 
Garriott, E. B., Report on Long weather forecast- 

ADSI ss ctcet sae eacote sncetsereeeeesceecensvcnereeseeeree es Laneseeeeeers 443 
Garrison, Carl Louise, Book on commercial geog- 

raphy by eR eae ae ae ng ela aka Moles s seo uaarnbieg ceca 52 
@easiaohen Kalender, 1905-1906, Review of... -- 360 
Geographic Congress, Highth International, Pro- 

CSCC Serr eee cen ese tcaccerccdcs select oscesssedesecae 198, 519 
—, Some titles of subjects discussed by the............. 519 
Geographic literature............... 82, 8&9, 133, 199, 253, 520 


Geographic names, Decisions of U. 'S. Board on. 131, 358 
— — in the United States and the stories they tell.. 100 


Geographic Society, National, Home of.................. 342 
Sa MECC CUMS OW, cccceccernsucaddc'secsaes vecceat) costes stases 53, 54, 
87, 92, 137, 241, 250, 257, 527, 575 
— — —, Annual dinner Of................ cc sccssceseeseesseceeees 570 
—, By- iE OTSA oy gp SS 137 
Geographic textbooks: 
Dodge's *‘Advanced Geography ”’ Re SenCa mana ETAT 307 
Dodge’s ‘* Klementary Geography””................4 52 
Gannett’s ‘‘ Commercial Geography’”........ ..... 520 
McMurry’s ‘* Excursious and Lessons in Home 
(GEO CIAON S peanenies cece see oes es ences case caiccsedveress, avecas 307 
Tarr’s ‘‘ New Physical Geography ””................. 52 
Geographical ea eee essential tomen of affairs. 85 
Geography ; Sir W. J. L. Wharton............... ee eeeee 483 
= 3720) Gwllin a an re 70 
Gry ene AR MeO) WEN nace cyt te ences seennenecnsnnns cesee’ areece 143 
GeEoOlOSIS FOLIOS’ 110 SCHOO!NS. .c..0)).5c00s0ccescceeeeeaseses vencessas 244 
Geological Survey, United States, referred to........ 389 
—, Maps BEGET ISSICUG DV rere sis dessenedacsces carcass ae AS BIOS, 
ON CAM Al LOGUISOAMCILEG.;.....-..-.cecaace scocoe-oevenenaess 71 
GeolosyAHIerd COULSE LID ss locce. ocessscccosssseccceseseeseres 250 
Gerdine, T. G., referred to.. Oe. a en AG) 
German people, Industrial training ‘Of eres Iil 
Gerrare, Wirt, Book on Greater Russia cited......... 342 
Gilbert, b le Some noteson the Fox Island Passes, 
PAS Sele stneee cle tas sent sccsGicse.csisiee Lacesoctcesicav'clenoteeacoese 427 
Gill, Theodore, cited on-angler fish......:..........0cccee 
ree on State ichthyology of Massachusetts 
PER een ee ec csictrenas santa cde wes on tenateesieees deltaic nase oe se etgesistis 444 
Goldfish HUM S UA DAM scccheedsns sos oossoe \ideresee ses teoteaesen 217 
Gorham, Frederic P., and M. C. Marsh, Report on 
the gas disease in fishes Dayar, eee ee ede ae, 527 
— — — special commission for investigation of 
lobster, etc., by... saladeueut chusnapee uamesecendAag 
Gorgas, William om referred to. aUhuccedstmetedecbossveguens 460 
=, cited on mosquito CAD PATO o sc. vec tmoccmeeusersseceens 473 
Government reports, Some recent...........:.seee 443, 527 
Grasses, Investigation of standard...............ce:eeeeeee 43 
Grave, Caswell, Report on oyster industry promo- 
tion by Beene aMeee caticioe siobisticiie sabes cate be embuinas set soenwans sats 443 
Great Lakes, Canals of thek. wae iN Ati prae Ge. 475 
GrearPlains lhe, Central s. jes p-cslaiecsdtesesesssedestsedess 389 
Greater Russia, Book on, referred to .........0... cesses 332 
Greely, A. W., Elected to Board of Managers, 
National Geographic SleVerGUi/ore socnocsscogadnoncadesosbsug 87 
—, Book reviews Dyas - 133, 134, 135, 254, 307, 308, 360 
; Russia in recent literature BBG bonGod rine sisccesbaneeeodeansne 564 


Greece. Anatator atom! TOM... css-ceecccssrcetcadesonvcesieveess 9 


iy, 


Page 
Gregory, R. A., and T. H. SEBRT Oy Book on Phys- 
iography Dy........008. 136 
Griffin, Albert Prentiss Clark, Select list of books 
relating torthe, Bay Hast byasncsecescectes oncncelesentsccetes gI 
Griffiths, David, Note on alicia DY jee ccseeiecess Peek sacs $8 
ET OLEL TEGO cel cmesesne nace euetscions osme isa sis stenlee soeprelneient 244 
Grosvenor, Edwin A.; The evolution of Russian 
government Mocelcre sista sles ceiselels etinalelelelstectvasecceise cremisleisisissimasmclen feet 309 
Grosvenor, Gertrude Hubbard,thanked by National 
Geographic SOCLE By soeeeedecsanes sonnsues tern omdtstedes os ee es Se 342 
Grosvenor, Gilbert H.; A revelation of the Fili- 
PUOS see se re seens Se Sees cosa sc emcee evaeuaiuanstess Arclssoenseseweeecss 139 
= Rifth place Of CiWiliZACiON!....s.0.2.<nass ress aeree-uaeeer ere 499 
—— BOOK TEVICWS DY seccaterescdesesercsers 89, 136, 524, 526, 575 
aa Causeohtbe rants) Meat aac ccccdsocmeres seassae 124 
“Centrally Great biainisurn.cowntasctirs caeeesastiecincrhes 388 
— elected to Board of Managers, National Geo- 
_ graphic SOCIELY,cccecesce sececepeceiestessiessctaeesisatelsceneeelssesensls 87 
; Gannett’s Commercial GEOPTAPNY 6.2.0.1 enone enone 520 
: Gardens OMEN WieS ts eos ere es ienwene se Hescees 118 
a Geographic notes......... 27, 39, 46, 50, 82, 87, 125, 198, 
241, 342, 397. 423, 432, 480, 504, 513 
; Industrial Training of German People............ III 
—, "member Board of Publication of Highth Geo- 
_ graphic CONQTESS........eeeeeseseseeeeseeeeeeaee: eeeseeneneanees 199 
; Our Immigration in Igo4.. es ssecasensoeters seoneenl S| 
- Progress on the Panama Canal. SRE Bice era eee 467 
; Progress in the Sup pies Bsbigh cocdobesdaganebécd coadce 116 
Grosvenor, Mrs Gilbert H., thanked by National 
Geographic SOCLC Uys ents code et nesel Coe sseee sole noeeae 342 
Grosvenor, Melville Bell, thanked by National 
Geographic SOCTEHY eo ec eateak sae tenet cenetasesesess 342 
Grundriss der Handelsgeographie, Review Oli... 308 
Guilho-ohanineferred toni ict ccccsessseeccct sccasescsses 79 
Guam, Our smallest POSSESSION se cesestecc ater ston serena 229. 
Guianas, A naturalist in the, Book on................00608 89 
—, The present PCOPLSIOL. Lec eccnssee eecee s asassaceenientasy 236 
Guatemalan ant, Colonies of the...... LNah Loree ae a etasens 83 
Guerdrum, George Mescrefenced ston. ccsedsccerc toes nesses: 425 
Guertin, W. Ce Peterted: tomt ee ah eae sf 426 
Haack, Hermann, Geographic calendar by............ 360 
Hague conference referred tO.........scsscscsccsces ereceeece 58: 
Hague, James D., referred to..... ... II5. 
Hale, Edward Everett, Philip Nolan and the 
SLY GNAMLiL ares crescents se eesee ae tacts ciiclasnis rese'si/aciccieseesacecisicasseaes II4 


Hall, Benjamin M. , Report on water power of Ala- 
bama, withan appendix on stream: measurement 


LDN ABondeesboo doo ubocdddadasadsdadocboubbadbscoanacny Hobadddasncegaseddacadd 444 
ENaC eaWaerg hevetue GucOrnteetanasscecas see stacl sndenessacanessels 250: 
Hall, W. C., and J.C. Hoyt, Report on River sur- 

veys and profiles made during 1903 Dy.............20+ 520: 
Eaamiiltonmukys Ga re kernedutOlssccenesctcsstcd-tercsceecss ses 425. 
Hamlin, Homer, Reporton underflow tests in basin 

of Los Angeles AUT V ST evens eecctensene cert Sue tee he wate 520 
Harmer, F. W.. cited on changes of climate........... 493 
Harper, Arthur, HERE TUCAUTO Mc ecated seach tecasteracdees cos 251 
Harris, Townsend, referred to............5.. cecceecoesee eee e ee 222 
Harrison, President, referred t0.............cc0eceeees cee ees 387 
Harter, L. L., Report on the viel aaa of wheat 

varieties in resistance to toxic salts... Seseacesccitced Sy 2i7, 
lay) JOM Melee One n..si-casatevenccscntcessecsertusseeessess 334 
Hay, Wm. Perry. Report on a revision of Melac- 

MEIN SHEGLCs MD Yaccetecscetceeceneiccncws cisco san ceicerenniedcee’s 444 
— — — the life history of the blue crab by....... ...... 527 
Haynes, American consul, referred to................66-. 432 
Hawkins; George). i Peterreditoi cc. sossctes caneriessets 426 
Hayward, Roland, Photographs by... 71 
Haworth, Erasmus, Report on economic “geology 

of the Iola Quetianeie py EM pate ileeeavaelscaeweey sneak’ econ 444 
—, referred to. .. 250 
Heidenstrom, 0. G, , Book on Swedish life in town 

ATAU COUNENY A coche cose nabs cacenclenae sees eyeline reason careeeeeteeateds 136 
Heilprin, Angelo, Elected to Board of Managers, 

National Georraphic SOCKebYy ii sc....ssc-c-se es ssesteeceos 87 
—, Book on Tower of Pelé€ DY.........sesceceeerees seeeeees 89 


Highways. ete and pioneer roads, Review of.. 254 
Hinds, W. E., and W. D. Hunter, Report on the 
Mexican cotton boll weevil Dy..............ssecesssss cesses 527 
oe Eki; A chapter from Japanese history........ 220 
“cbhe purpose of the Anglo-Japanese alliance..... 333 


580 


Page 
Hobbs, W. H., referred to. .............cccccesseesecesseseeeens 250 
Hodges. Ke M., Meferned toes cicsccsessdove, tone tortss 87 
Hooker, Sir Joseph, cited on slopes of Mt Terror... 494 
Hopkins, MCV rererned tO ese deccercosen cesar AB HNaRS 250 


Houston, Edwin J., Book on commercial geogra- 
DIR VAD Ys scsa Seer one ter pe anceats va casavetneesdecoacanonaeeres 520 
Hoyt, John C.,and Robert M. Anderson, Report on 
hydrography of the Susquehanna River by... 444, 520 
—and W.C. Hall, Report on river surveys and pro- 
files made during NOOB Maa wece se tcescncuenescetonssctcueen srors _520 
—and B. D. Wood, Index of hydrographic progress.’ 520 
Hubbard. Mrs Gardiner Greene, thanked by Na- 


tional Geographic SoCs BEECHES CCOER ODES QDOEEHDUS DE HBIBOBUEL 342 
Hubbard, Wm F., and F. H. Chittenden, ar uses 

on the basket willow 10). fee EAPO LO NOALE ACRE HHaiss aa meCeCnnS 
Hulbert, Archer Butler, Book on “The future BP 

road-making i Li A METICAT A Dyccccessccrteecioceten te neeees 253 
—, Book on historic highways of America by......... 136 


—, The great American canals Dy............ ccc seeeeeeeeee 254 
Humboldt, Alexander von, cited on deforestation. 398 
Hunter, Ww. D., and W. E. Hinds, Report on the 


Mexican cotton boll weevil byere:: eco inaescscecesesniet 527 
Hutchins, Thomas, A topographical description of 

Wire inia,y ckCh (REwiew Ol ccc. ucn ees ees ahacteoeueeeene 360 
Huxley, T. H. and R. A. Gregory, Kook on phys- 

iography by. HE CHER OSEE EERE SCO AEA cO Banas dochebda ouaeocdetin Baneos 136 
Immigration and the Southern States................008. 517 
-~ — naturalization................ Mececeg bhclrse des scare saneees es oN Gn 
—, Character of our........... sabuseaslesentecease ene Be L 
— during the nineteenth century. fet daelncialoaes sine se oareeaene 4 
—, Early American.................6. aeccasens Biecaesessh Coser cccies 3 
—~ HM ffect of OUT UNCHECKE ©... i oi.ccescon-canee~sessseteacctns II 
—in TODA PH OMNES eS aoccs conc sotto sesncek cca eerneue ceteseroaiaeen 15 
— — 1905, OUL........ceereecereresseceeceeeneeces aGodedtCbed naabeb dead se 431 
Immigrants, Ambitions of certain............0........00 nS 
— from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia............ 5 
-, Occupations Olea ia see ea a= ek aaa e hase wdc aoeseun Keene 27 
SR acial distri Dution (Ole. .c.s1--:.usccesr es dense rae so aoese se 26 
India and Japan, recent development of................ 414 
— — —, Railway construction in, referred to......... 415 
Industries, New Plants c020.. scsi usanssettecmccdese es, cements 42 


Investigationsof standard grassesand foragecrops. 43 
Ireland, Alleyne, Views of, regarding Pitt PRES 
criticised.. |... 363, 525 

Irrigation projects “commenced ‘by. ‘the ‘United 


States Eseesion Measles retestnon, itelswdleis ves ailea Musltne aces seecati tenes cedone 120 
Isthmian Canal: Sze Panama Canal. 
Isthmian Canal Commission, referred to............... 448 
— — —, Plan recommended by Peeae te ceacon tsa csetecceerstes 450 
Italians in America......cccccsece sattencweweecs sshevsitvesR Opt 524 


Jackson, D. D., Report on the normal distribution 


of waters, etc., by......... metus eeub de teeshttine Seen Leen etree 520 
_jJaggar, T. Ad referved dOnisco. sacl Rca ceeseh eet: 250 
Japan, An early visit from RuSsia tO................sceeee 225 
— py. the Japanese, Review.0ls cast nee---ceence- eee 133 
—and India, recent development Of....... ........0---00 414 
—and. the United Stateso/5 raat ae eee 432 
i DVET’S DOOKZOM. -s.secsenagasedereeetexsstmesaebedsepe aeeathsext= 134 
—, Feudal system of, im) 1868 i.2025 dosh ueeect<scorh-oentinqenai 222 
Japan more democratic than European countries... 223 
oad MO ASNERLES ORs. (ov. 2eahincacca ssa eee es tase neat ts 201 
— he population, Of ..p.s.mcdecseceeeepeeaseeete aoasaceases 482 
=f MONTEISN \COMMUENCE Ole. ,cacep scenes screen caeacacaecortenanas 357 
Japanese appreciation of what Perry did .............. 221 
Japanese people, Characteristics of the................ Od! 
— history, A chapter firOmlissscc.cstasenteetsdechesade caspases 220 
— jury of twelve judges founded 670 years ago....... 97 
— life in town and country, Review Of............:..0+ 135 
— literature, Part taken Dy women i0...............0006 95 
Jefferson, Thomas, PETEFTEA COs: sce 5. ee eins sevk emotes 2 
Johnson, W. D., report on the relation of the law 
to underground Watenrsic: oc cc..scccnissnecessececcestenneeees 520 
Johnson, Willis Fletcher, Book ona century of ex- 
PANSION Woy esi kea. ake als deceeeac docu nabisieee Saredtos aamodeae 526 


Kaneko, Kentaro; The characteristics of the Japa- 
NESE! PEOPLO Maa tae dewssens dasa ek donee aa eee: Seen 

Kaweah Quadrangle, Map of, issued by Geological 
SULVGNs caruccesansaurrsetr scars NS TCD Sacer eee EH ODODoE 126 


Tue NatTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 


_ Kellogg, James L., Report on the special commis- 


sion for the investigation of the lobster, etc., by.. 443 
Kellogg, Royal S., Reno on borpatne planting in 

Western Kansas. DY. ev ccsnsevinta cacrtarces epepwey iateean se eee eeeamsee(es 
Kelvin, Lord, referred to. 0... te . 124 
Kellerman, Karl F. , and George T. Moore, Report 

on copper as an algicide and disnytectoee by ..... 443 
Kennico, Robert, referred to... Dairies 
Kent, Saville, cited on angler fishing. nilewabhgbeenatestae ee 
Keyes, C. R., Report on geology and underground 

water conditions of the Jornado del Muerto, 

NMS DY Seiscssncie Recetas odtdal se voneneaeseeaewenes sseeeee 520 
Ketohikan cic cccssceseicsaseccnscsssue ice oat ea 508 
Kindle, Edward M., Vand ‘Henry Shaler Williams, 

Report on contributions to Devonian paleontol- 


ORY. DY i cbicccde csccecssceeso tonnes adase are puitecsntmtesentts testis ena 444 
Knox, @eotie William, Book on Japanese life in 

town and country by..............s.cecesseesecee see “sonpanttinde 135 
Kongo Free State, The story of, Review of... .-. 200 
Krainers, Immigration Of..............00 dob siseueaeaie Buea aed 


Lake City Quadrangle, Map of, issued by U. S. 


Geological Survey vv.ctecc erence stcosceeeeeaieeened eee 125 
Lamb, Jobe eo ic cel ceo eedereeoeee anes ean eee eee 443 
Landes, Henry, Preliminary report on che under- 

ground waters of Washington by...............-+. 520, 444 
Lansdowne, I.ord, referred "Ls. sisson 2.333 
Land of Riddles, Russia of today, Review Gia - 135 
Lantz, David E., Report on coyotes in their eco- 

nomic relations 18) PEEP ERR Re es FES inet er bon oobocedesebgoce sdb 443 
Lathrop, Barbour, referred to...............ss0ceses-seeeeee 89 
Laramie Quadrangle, Map of, issued by con S. 

Geological Survey......cicoscccons ccnaealetetapneoerenaneeemnnens 426 
Latin- America, The peace Oferccesccoe eee cree Seounincdanne 479 
Legazpi, cited on early natives of Guam................. 236 
Lee, W. ‘I., Report on underground waters cf Salt 


River Valley. .is...2.. .scteedeat cooneee neem eeeeernas seveseee 520 
Leighton, Marshall Ora, Preliminary report on 

the pollution of Lake Champlain by... 444, 520 
Leith, Charles Kenneth, Report on rock ‘cleavage 


DY ci eoeh se soseee nines doen tecet sens sueneeeets eShopeacsosscntod Roncneaneranne 444 
Levant, Philip Nolan and the..............0..046 coccssesere 114 
Lhasa, Views of 2:8 2 eee Sooke eei7i 
Lincoln, President, referred t0.....0.0.2...ceeece-oenee snvace 


Lindgren, Waldemar and Frederic Leslie Ran- 
some, Report on progress in the resurvey of 


Cripple Creek Dy 2.220 1.50. oo ceseceecancncenentaeeaacece eases 444 
Lippincott, J. B., Report on water problems of 
Satita BAGWAal sa. scecodadecscsmose see ssnctencemeestemsereneeaen eae 520 
Littlehales, George W. ; Modern hydrographic sur- 
veys of the coasts of the world. ........ HERE Heathosnebaa a 63 
—, Teferre dito eek sees eet eee sone ween tener Poe hele 
Livingstone, David; referred to. so .srscrere eaten 349 
Long Lake Quadrangle, Map of, issued by U. S. 
GeologicaliSurvey i sccsc-ssue- bes creses sie seeteeeee se ee ween 423 
Wall, Py referred tors .ecsrenes cue ee mtoea emer 446 
Lord, Eliot, John J. D. ‘'renor and Samuel i Bar- 
tows, Book on the Italians in America DY. so.2teece 524 
McKinley, President, referred to.......secccecceseereceeeree 388 
McMurry, Book on excursions and lessons in “home 
Peographiy byvsss-.-sekaecsetee ees aec cee ee leeeen ae eee gI 
McNess George T., and George B. Massey, Report 
on tobacco investigation in Ohio Dy...............s0008 527 
McecQuestin,;: Jack; referred! toss evr sceecnnenesssecectanes » 257 
McSweeny, Z. F.; ‘The character of our immigra- 
tion, past and present .. oda cigtose seeds caper onaneaee 
Magellan, The coming of, "to Guat: ee eee . 229 
Magyars, Immigration Of CEs Cie Sacecasossaseece Shgiaote, 
Manila, Docks and ae eae Atl Ac aaa 142 
Maps, The earliest . soadcbeabumacecseee este ake de aaeeahe name 
Manufactures, Exports ‘of BE PENCE Er rier Bitte tistecncin Sac 434. 


Marsh, M.C., and F. P. Gorham, Bee on the 
existing diseases Of fishes DY.........c0.:.ceceesseeceeercees 527 
Martin, George C., Report of work in Alaska by... 573 
Masa, Sadero, cited on claims of the Philippines... 192 
Massey. George B., and George T. McNess, Report 


on tobacco investigations in Ohio by.. ...... ...2s00 527 
Mendenhall, W.C. , Reports on underground waters 
of coastal plain regions in California..............0 +. 520 


INDEX 5381 
Page Page 
Merrill, George F., Book on the non-metallic mine- Panama Canal, Progress OD1.............csseceesrrerrerresesees 467 
tals by TENA value sOasen et hase cae cetuastiscceseleeseneeeanieobioy vonsiesecas 52° — 7 Problensof Samitatiommyat ......c...c:s.cooccscessecssnsee 457 
Meriwether, Colyer, Cotton cultivation in the worry INOUE OW) MAP OF EME). eotcersscracs nurivae-snseacsessaeue 441 
British Empire Sep eee OCOLECOE seeeig 249 —, Republic of, Movements in the..................c20eceee 441 
—, Book reviews by.. 37, 52, 53, 253, 254, 307, 308, "360, 443 ——, What has been accomplished on; Theodore 
Meteorology, PV @eil Gwyecccissccenccccectasssetssicasicccessdsncces 306 IMrVSH OMG Bache ceassccesestuisceestorsasssctretesessssassccenecedeesss 558 
Leta Chimese Ta bOr Uit.d sveccset--s sce ccscoacesccsecasccese 481 Rei, ROUGE Ga ecaacs-cecccccstiebcsccbesseitissscussscsevestcckeerse 446 
. The ‘prosperity OL: Miiianecetglesetesttessesesene cue vessest ZOO Panama City, The mosquito campaign at............... 473 
Migrations, IMFO MET TIRE tacts scscrsreasecceeeysavset ctsaciscataseerees 2 PATSEES OF MINGIA i cos es sileattsacsuseaccsidecscsosadsessesvbensaaes 529 
—, World. CAAA eaEe cated tase ek we sbescaunandeaeereen\ LT Pearls, Artificial Gultivatton Ofc scuen sa tlacek. 218 
Milch goat, TIRES ORIEN VOR EN og gE Se eo SAR ea 237 Peary’ s MUG WW ESGEMS esnscccnnacocetnenemoner ee soplecchevsecstuveesas 192 
Miller, Benjamin I.eroy, Chapter on Geology on — start in I905.. Besecgteetoteccaess « 482 
Phe: Bakara Tstands DyY.....c..< acevecses .pacece) eoeetsonevers 136 Pedro Miguel Lakes, elected togishardssie eens 456 
Mines and Quarries, OUT...<cs.cec-cccccceccons 6 ccceseeraseccese 342 Penck, Albrecht, cite: on a tribute to American 
Minerals, The non-metallic, Review of....... soeesdesce eS 2 topographers... . 358 
Mir, The (Russian) village...........s00, sasccosee cscsssscassees ve Perez, Enrique, cited on “South "American ‘affairs... 479 
Mitchell, Guy H., referred t0..........0..ccesccecseceesenceeees Perry, Commodore, Diplomacy Of..........:s20sese:sseeees 220 
Moffitt, Fred H.; Fairhaven gold placers, Seerandt, Peters, W. J., Report on Ziegler relief expedition 
Pen ace ie yest a a sells su. asieshncs: 513 IDSs aecseseteos cerscen Naas cseaceaitcer estos nai eccancstesscnce denen aoatdeess 
MOTION SEAL TS ins: .csccnta seen ches sieesovedseGececctsncescecacesdeuesess 313 ——PefE Ghd COM: seers ose) ceetnae isa seeenees casseacb teste - 198, 355, £36 
Moon, The, Review of Pickering’s book on .......... 253 Philippine CIVILISET, VICES aces svce's adaaede can scccgedst ssuatecaNs 371 
Moore, George IT’. ; Report on soil inoculation by.. 443 — Islands, Book on, 1493-1898 iGadesddests cdaices acevesceeree gI 
—and T. R. Robinson, Report on beneficial bac- ym RO VIOWe Olcoacectsetscccetscidectosuensnaseess Proton tcn 307, 443 
teria for lemurminous Crops: Dy......<<...c0sescoseaeseescees 443 Philippines, The; William H. Taft ieauscsaciessesctecmetees 361 
— and Karl F. Kellerman, Report on copper as an ms COUSUS OF 5c cevseeeosuksaceesnadsaeeescaeviasasderecslasnessscusees 139 
algicide and disinfectant DV ASU A foo site oce nies disses Dae =, Commercial products Of the... ccc. ..stceecs-.eese-s-e TAS 
Moore, Willis L., Announcements by................ 008 ao NEUGIUICALLOU GIT CLIC: sc .c2.s00c5ucinesacecoantseircersyaasasiee otanes 149 
— - Blected President National Geographic Society. "by —, Geography of... : ssuadeiaaceeevedcusestes (LAA 
; Forecasting the weather and storms................. 255 —, Expense of our government Tee ele te ate oes 374 
—, —'referred BGM cesses nedoosestcares dencecc tc ecru 87, 306, 440, 570 Sea Ot, PLO DREN AM 2. os2.ccsccec deve coveesceecas doen eanaseess 142 
Mount Weather Observatory BAPE ANS EOE Phy SC RNer EERE Se WIV) OLS ya eatck seen boc n secasecsaee a sion tive neeee eee nena tae eee 361 
Murphy, R. C., Report on destructive floods in the —, Mr Krusi’s method of getting laborers in.......... 373 
United States in ROOMY sane cededssqccseesakracceteustcanaee OI tl aw NOLES OTe aes oto o0) ee il cvdvencs ove coiyoatcot nec siteascncuane dont ee 87 
—, Number of SNS uma eh see OR en ad een 145 
=~ PROAE MSHETLES A Messe cccsescces se nest savaneacsssandasetasiat ers I9I 
Nassau, Robert Hamill, Book on fetichism in West = * Summary OR KEPOLt Om thes, coet.ey:ceyse-e-sewet ss, wear’ 139 
Africa b LDAY codec, sno SOS Oc CBD ROCCE AGA CN ee SerE eee EOC ae oacr arrears HIG 4 aoe VOlCAMMCION ISI Of. ci725c10: 2, steccees, recut ces eecets contexaees 144 
Naturalization and immigration........0......cccccceceneece 5I Philips, Philip Lee; Check lists of large school 
Niimontion. Hartly, CHArL Of. ............ccs.cusconcacessssseoese 491 maps published by foreign governments............ 136 
Needle Mountains Quadrangle, Map of, is-ued by Phoenician voyagers, The well-known secrecy of... 491 
ROMO NCATE OV ah. - csteessbassicweaeccdany soecdecdas-ssee verses 424 Pickering, William H., Book on the moon by........ 252 
Negritos of Zambales, BOOK OM........ssssssssessssessessenves 358  Pigafetta, Antonio cited on Guam... ee) 220 
Negroes Proportion of children AMONG. Wee escces cases 508  _Pillot. Mrs Peter Stuyvesant, thanked ‘by ‘National 
Newell, KF. H., Report on mroceee ties of second Geographic Societys ..2..0.-.-...1. 2. 20-soneseneccateesssscneee 342 
reclamation conference PO as cee eetenincue cach ueecvaener Sn 5 20 Pillot. Rosalie, thanked by National Geographic 
pam SCR GOO Orne irri ona sae ciptaase tas ccSeassesseesesaceere 123, 443 SOCIELY 2. ---censnnseesee ssesesennesesessnacecssersrenesenseresnoeees 342 
Nile. Along the, with General Grant, Book on...... gI Pinchot, Gifford ; Forestry at home and abroad...... 375 
Nitrogen- -fixing IDACUE Aa ics ccccks frac cescscesctsceeeessetesseas 46 Piper, C. V.. Report on grass lands of the South 
Niwot Quadrangle, Ma ON SISSUCU ......56/csesellonsecde seas 126 fasleate Ga steee eres tau te) ote me nek ea 52 
Nobel prizes, Why no Americans have received the. 5I Plains, The GenErALGTCAte ce eee es 389 
Nolan, Philip, and the ‘‘ Levant”... anal, PlaweginaGustnies NG Wasisetsccssecccsssaesseseeseoseveuves cheneces 42 
Norman, Henry, Book on “All the Russias ” cited. 332 ~ ~+©Poland, Immimaipratioumiromla. ie s.cetseeaeter aes eleticcds 8 
Nordenskjold, Otto, and J. G. Anderson, Book on POlAWEXPeGION, DMS ZICIIEL..csccs.cteyenonstaccersctscccste 439 
ATUAT CHICA DY. 222-0302. ss00ece Roceseser sessssserrerereee 443. — Exploration.......... tavesscceterecscesencccosess AO2 
North America, Review of... soeccarsisccreschcesesscsss las Porto Rico, Anemia in. “Book on. MecHacscictaccteelecsisceuciace sree 253 
Northland, Out of the, Book on.. ide cegsserasseneesceamOL Population of China; What is'the.. 0.1.00. ice. .asece-nce 306 
WMGbeS Ot GUS CONSULS, 6. ......... asec. ssssencacssseecsosvonsee 126 Price. Overton W. , referred UO bqnocaner ced astaou edunodedaqodscn 443 
Norway and Sweden, A comparison Of................... 429  Prindle, L. M. . Report on gold placer mining in 
Alaska . 513 
: Pumpelly, ‘Raphael, Report. on Turkestan “explora- 
Observatory, Mount Weather..............cscceccssesscecesee 41 CLO IMS DY ssesreweceeragce rece cian beat Selcicnsesestinee as hon ho tao ets 499 
Oceans, Recent study of........ si gab cedcoccusceuceat a teusee ace 496 Purrington, C.W., Work on report of Alaska in 1904 
Olmstead, Victor H:, cited on the United States LON Ab ebaneadies Gace gonooCLOSSSEOCEEED GO Roc EON HORE CEHUBRA B Aeou eco inoas 513 
and the Philippines Sie are suadh eesbentecse beeeens A eae 139 Public school, Study of plants in........... cece eee cee e ee 42 
Opium war. referred to... Aibedeccecctustents sess teasers AGO Putnam, G. R., cited on Philippines.................ccc000 145 
Orgeries, Renoust, referred. tom peacacRoogoaceuacaoca WF 
PLIEMC, COMMENPClal PriZe OF CINE. .....cccecccccosscccecccoce 
ea commer pe of he ee ak sree oe ale Ba Ol asec yaa ool ereal Suey ey 125 
—) Russia an early arrival in the .. : 410 Quinton, J. H., Report on experiments with steel- 
Osoyoos Quadrangle, Map of, RS TEGl d by | vT. Ss (ere concrete pipes. Bale sessehWlusiscnscloneiccesscictpercecstscceessiscces sce + 520 
logical Survey... ees eaciccess sel 2O) 
Ouray Quadrangle. KebloradG. aoe eee 423 Rahot, Charles; French conq:iest of the Sahara... 76 
Ovando Quadrangle, Map of, issued.......... eusteenutecee 126 Railway operating DEO PEEL in the United States, 


Page, James, member of publication committee of 


Kighth International Geographic Congress... 199 
Paige. Sydney ; A growing camp in the Tanana 
gold fields........ sousaees saa cee cosas Sarawhacecssatestecesicesasin azine TO4 


Panama Canal, Ihe. wecavers coe 445 
—_—— Company. Early plans of ‘the... sthecsutoreosses 
ae CATIIUl LOSSION Vifetatidec sss. rodess ecteaseesitso stones 450 


Valle Of... cisce- - 438 
Ransome, Frederick Leslie ; “Report. on ‘progress 

in the Geological resurvey of the Cripple Creek 

district ...... Recticicc Guaascoseotton: lccrseneiecneces seilicescsbeseecensces 444 
Reeder, Congressman, referred COP ate. osceaaevereices 44 
Ritter, Homer F.; Note on the activity ot Shishal- 


din volcano........ sicees coves 249 
Rittue, E. C. and C. O. “Townsend, Report. on de- 
velopments of single-germ beet seed DYte.csaiteesee 443 


582 


Page 
Road-making in America,"Book O11 ...........c0ccce+ eeeees 253 
Robertson, James Alexander and Emma Helen 
Blair, Book on the Pilip pines Dy se-cscscestese oss 307 
Robinson, T. R., and George T. Moore, Report on 
beneficial bacteria for leguminous crops by........ 443 
Rodjestvensky, Admiral, referred t0.............:ccceeees 332 
Rogersville Quadrangle, ‘Map Of ISSWeECEs cere sccectes 425 
Romanolis, “Whe first ka eee eteecse eee 322 
Roosevelt, President, cited on cotton and the 
Chinese ‘boycott SECC CCOR OE SB ec sna acee ea SUS an ccar oer corn sE er Cscr 516 
a HOLESUTY aut scrcsstseustenees setkcrns st aesee tees snecmanne estas 515 
— — —imnuiigration and naturalization........ Mewes ee SL 
Ross, Dr J W.; referred toOrs..ceecss-usccetetessccect shee shee cess 460 
Rossiteriw.S.\ rererred! tOcsss-c.necocececetccse renee aessensecs 192 
Ruriks, ASHE eccictas, de a kiceas ate en, eae ate rk IRE) Bie) 
Russell, Israel Cook, Book on North ‘America by... 135 
Russia ; Charles Emory Samet eects Soorbonioodsobe code 55 
— in recent NUS EES co peacoat see see omiance ee ease oo 504 
——whanrlyiattival ithe Orient (Dys.c:.0.:t2 see esas eer: 410 
a t= VASIt tO fa pats | ROM tress ecws ssc toccasseresesesmence 225 
— of today, the land of riadles, Book on................. 92 
Mhevearly ruliersiofescsees-coctecsieceeet cee eees sc oddeta 313 
Russian constitution rejected by the people............ 329 
— government, Evolution of ; Edwin A.Grosvenor.. 309 
Russians, The peculiar attitude of, tothe Tsar...... 311 
Russo-Japanese war in Japan and Manchuria, Ob- 
Setvations On: thew. iin cetiscesecees ae teeta eemie 80 


Rutherford, Ernest, cited on cause of earth’s heat... 124 


Sackett, Robert Lemuel, and Isaiah Bowman, Ro- 
ass on the disposal of straw board and oil waste 


sLuatebatautebaeh s babentabh be seths actgebebeeceh cco camadcvets debenees 444, 520 
gatecd, William E.; Our smallest possession, 
Guam Saaearee Lic atawccteshendeiace oes ccesaa cen enee eee ce ceeoa nacho eumers 229 
Sahara, French conquest of the.. 76 
Salineville Quadrangle, Map of, issued by Geolog- 
ieabSurweye iN, Uo. Al BUA, Leanne eee 126 
Salisbury, RD i trefert ed, tosen....0ib bs weasto ones 250 
Salt from the sea, Gathering......... Page ce eauacuconewene! . 219 
Salt River reclamation Project..2e Ae ek eR 441 
Sanger, J. P., Report of as Director Philippine 
CON SUSI ee a one sae dosle neem renee Mae aoee saeae Tone eee eee 139 


Sargent, Frank, Report of,on immigration cited... 215 
Sault:Stedvarie (Ca nals 2s...cs5 622 nee eee Soe rear 
Schaeffer, Charles, Report on additions to the cole- 


optera, 'etc SORT DES CQ BUCICE CECA ME DIB HO HO UEGeLBocanocBuaGUsadoa OsodaaoBooas 444 
Schrenk, Hermann von, Report on the condition 

of treated timbers WDY 05 aos siksocssceosseeecentcemem epee sae ee 443 
Scott, Captain, cited on Antarctics J Rene Roaster een ma se UCee 494 
Sea level canal, Advantages Of a.............sccssseecceesenns 464 
Seaman, Dr Louis Livingston ; Observations on the 

Russo-Japanese Widilicewacacsasesesereslineancsceacmanseccinererse: 80 
Seward, Secretary of State, cited on Russia and 

Gin Wark ss ied ssnenscain, een e doe unten. t) eM en Sea hal Me 56 
HEAWEEAIS. Flee uey.t cele ees che ce rece ee eee ee RO Tat 219 
Seaweeds of EHenOnmitedsStatesy ce nthe teen 244 
Shaler, (N.S relierred torn eset onae sear aee ae 250 
Shattuck, George B., Report on geology of the 

Bahama Islands by Jodc oe noableg eaeeeseute ete oe Hane ae eae oe 136 
Shaw, Leslie M., address by, cited...........2.c00cescoeseees 514 


Sherwood, George H., Report of the special com- 
mission for the investigation of the lobster and 


solt-shell clam ‘bys 8 4 ee eee 443 
Shidy, L. B., Ghapice on tides in book on Bahama 
islands: by, s..ctvacicceccen-wuviaake cae eS. eee ee 136 
Shima, Parone WOMEN GIVELSIOL secesessense cee eepeenete 217 
Shishaldin volcano, Note on the activity of............ . 249 
Shonts, Theodore P., referred t0..........ccccceceeeee eeeees 467 
—, The Panama Camall) Ata, Veins Son mmeiis 558 
Siberian Cailways,«elerredi tO... stet.cc..-ceseepeeeeee ae 417 
Skykomish Quadrangle, Map of, issued by Geolog- 
ICaT Gurveyge so ac okie 7.0 techs, ch eentaen ak ae Ue - 426 
Slichter, C. S., Report on field measurements of 
the rate of underground WALEED. tot ssscchussusccratncescs 520 
Slovaks, Iminieration Of-4.0-0..0-.ssc te, 
Slovanians, Immigration of! A 8 
Smallwood, Mabel E.., Report on salt-marsh am- 
Pphipod by Aeatacasscsincuses nest cuentistiecocesssestsicetecseterattenee 444 
Smith, Ghanies Emory : Russias ais bu: | eae 55 


Smith, George Otis, and Frank C. Calkins, Report 
ona geological resurvey across Cascade range by.. 444 
Smith, "Glenn Ssireferted to.:.......28e ee 425 


Tue NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Page 
Smith, Hugh M., Report on the special commission A 
for the investigation of the lobster, etc., by......... 443 
— —-—— seaweed industry of Japan and the utili- 
zation of the seaweed in the United States by..... 444 


; The fisheries.of Japan. 5 .--:2.-.e. eee ett 201 
Smith, J. Russell ; The economic importance ofthe 
plateaux i in tropic Americal) 22287 2a: 250 
Smith, W. P., Consular report of.......... , es 88 
Soil survey, THE vccsasesiesssiaudesl ee ee 46 
Solar eclipse, Expedition to observe the................. 88 
Southern States, Immigration to the............. ...secees 517 
Snyder, John Otterbien, Reporton the mylocheilus 
laterales, etc:, Dy.i.iccc..0% .tossceeeeneee ee eect ee ae area 52 
Sparks, Edwin Ee * Rook on the United States of 
America, byw io. eec ele solosane tesa nanan 136, 308 
Spencer, Arthur C., Report on Alaska by............... 513 
Spillman, W. P. , cited on utilizing the desert......... 242 
Spurr, J. E., Report on the geology of Tonepah, 
OtC., DY sescis es ceccete snesicnseensodeetncelecee hee Recenter 527 
Stead, Alfred, Book on Japan for the Japanese by.. 133 
Stevens, John Lloyd, referred toss: 2c nee 447 
Stevenson, Earl C., Report on the external para- 
sites of hogs 10) SUPREME REE AS Dean R en Ts 443 
Stockman, Wm. B., Report on periodic variation 
of rainfall in the arid TE PION Lee eee 443, 
Stone, Ralph W., Report on Alaska by..............0000 513 
Storage of fruits, (Coldy 2 eee seek: cece een eee ae NAA 
Storms;Che translation of tien veces eee eee ese 257 
Storer, D. H., cited on angler fish..............0.02 ceaseeee 338 
Storms, Amti-cyclomic:..22.isic-cecesecseeeccsese seen eee 262 
—, Cy Clonies iccccsecscetes (oce culeteesee Oe e OR eee ee 262 
—, New method for determining the-direction and 
velocity OF, seeceateeeeepoundoncipecinn sede ieaea ste eeeaneee aan a eereem 289 
Strabo, the great geographer, referred to............... 484 
Strachay, Sir Richard) referred toes). scseeeeee eee ners 484 
Stranahan, William, referred to0........c00...eeceeeceeeaeeees 427 
Students’ laboratory of oe geography, Book 
OD visas cased cscdenescdine csncsdddecetwnd et bee aesee ene ae aa ee 92 
SuleZ Canal... ..cssccccesceco see cawoen sce cedleeuas te Seagee a nae tee ment gee 475: 
Sugar beet seed, Improvement iN............0......ceeeceees 42 
Sullivan, John T., referred tows. tee 446: 
Sundbirg Gustav; Book on Sweden, its people and 
itS industry...26c Rea a ee 252 
Surveys by British navy officers..........0.....2. cesseeseeeee 287 
Sutton, C. W., referred to... 25.0 tistics . 426 
Sutton; Frank, referred’ to..i:.-ccscitsscns coos ceresee eters 425 
Sweden, its people and its industty fase weeee re eneees 252 
— and Norway, A comparison Of...............ceeeeeeeeeeee 29 
Swingle, Walter T., and O. F. Cook, Report on 
evolution of cellular structures DY eee 527 
Syria, Immigration from. 7.cic...scccasucssmeen saree acnee 9 
Taft, William H. ; The Philippines....... swe wotcotesee ete: 361 
=) ‘Teferred TOv fei wos tiene eee eee 150, 241, 358, 471 
Tanana gold fields, A growing camp in the............ 104 
Tarr, Ralph S., New physical geography by........... 52 
Tatum, Mr Sledgesreferred! toyce ay seeeseseteereeenese 425 
Tavero, T. H. Pardo de, History of Philippines by. 191 
Vea, AMETICA I. 1... cdedecessscscsencecestie eoreeteeee eee eee 4I 
Terrapin PAT INS Hie.) eddelocccutseeecewsomoescsee screen access 214 
Thompson, George Fayette, Information concern- 
inS milChvgoats Dyes. seers se eeestoseeneteee ees Nolen acae 443 
Through Town Sanit jungle: Review: Of se. eeetaa 199 
Thwaites, Reuben G., Book on early western 
travels by EASES S03 | Ug a Sal ne a are Ne as asant i uaeeeone 253 
Tibet, New knowledge of................ vecsbestede cares ecedemecs 495. 
Tides in the ee Of FUndy............sccce ceceecenee seesseres 71 
Tittmann, O. , cited on work of Coast and Geo- 
detic sien istic Aue teaecaeins coteseo cies seetenmtoamceneieteee eee M27, 
—eKieteh tamiit ims. acts cocsce stesso ene ae een eeeeees Sean sees SOS: 
Tobacco, Growth of Cuban Seed.............. cseceeees Rocce 82 
Topographers, A tribute to American............c0ecee 358 
TOTMAAC CS... 00 yosaesscceseas sce Sepistsieebleleticiasseeseeeaenenaneenest i aaeee 300 
Torres, cited on judiciary in the Philippines......... I9I 
Tower of Pelée, Book OM:..:.-..ssec eee - 89 
Towers of Silence, DIVA Tan eres selec soeseselosebelscelesemeneie eee 529 
Townsend, C. O., and E. C. Rittue, Report onthe 
development of the single-germ beet seed by...... 443 
Tsars, General character Of the.........-.ssccoerscersneeees 330 
Trenor, John J. D., Book on Italians in America 
DY ies ccewosecnemecotcecece se seness SoupaOoo Sadtseenees Psoenecnodadchacs 52)! 


by 
Tweedy, Frank, referred t0............:.sscsseseee sideaatenss 427 


INDEX 


Page 
United States, ers EIN eon tere sedeece nse cstescetseceaaus 39 
—, Fisheries Ole ss Secctates ccssiscaessessssssGecemesieves: S22 
—, Foreign colonies Hette ee, heveecucuestianenese eS 
— ’ Immigration of: See Immigration. 

—, Japan and the........eeeceeeeesseseeeneeeeceeese eeeaee teseees 432 
Se IVET INES A MUG CIIATIVGS. c2ccb can ascncee.ceccctesscceeassusecosecsoss 342 
ES ePLO POLIO. Of ClHilGTENM 110 CHE..../.......2.3-0.0sseusecene 505 
PEE HOGIICES Of.) co .crenncencccccascsinrecct-sseresorsseseccseserers 523 
_, ’ The commercial valuation of railway operating 

property MEM eke cae stereos sme Sata clewsesssceeceewscs essence 438 
Urquhart, C. F., referred to......... “doudasdepadachendansqoooLte 426 


Vadis Quadrangle, vee of, issued Le the U. S. Geo- 


logical Survey.......... cebaoe Wate catsvee toes 2O 
Veil, The Purple, a ‘romance ‘of the sea.. Beewse sabes t sce eae 234, 
Victoria Falls, THE...........::::ssseeseeeceeeessereeenseeecesseeens 349 
WillarwLuiels BOOK Ol RUSSIA. /..i5...---2..000sccc0s ooo. 564 
Vina Quadrangle, Map of, issued by the U. S. Geo- 

logical Survey........0....06 Ge smcstemnemces cctensses Reltesececsece 126 


Wack, Henry Wellington, Book on thestory of the 


KOMP OPNTES SUAS) DYscewcccceececssccacastecsesscacccrcnsieee ce 200 
Walker, J. G., referred to...............0 Rie cs ccna cease 446 
Walcott, Charles D., referred to... BH: « 443 
Wallace, Sir Donald Mackenzie; Book on ‘Russia. 564 
Warren, Senator, referred tO............0..60 ceeccree seeeees » 443 
Water, Amount of the lower strata Of..........000 aiecees 497 
Watkins, James L.; Report on the commercial 

GCOLEOMICHOP sevens. sscee sins coseeeen cass dccssasscsseciwecssiesecescessre 527 
Wayne Quadrangle, Map of, issued by the U. S. 

(GEOIOSUCAIE SUV EVs .cceaseccesicenttorsevcesedcieesacciecse.ieavess 426 
Wiavies.) Hota’ Golds ..s..-2..csesicestetsiseecsaeceectcsdscoesne 263 
Weather and storms, Forecasting the; Willis L. 

ING ONG bececesnc ta ncsneaerasion Sceccelsedscsccdonccscet ooccscscccscitecsssess 255 
Weather Bureau, U. S., referred to............. 40, 131, 255 
Weather chart, HOw made................c:0eseececcenseceeeeee 253 
Week, Henry Wellington, Book on the story of the 

IROMMOURTEC’SEALE DY... .s.cce2c00ccce vesccocsssccensernsersceees 200 


Weeks, Fred Boughton, Bibliograph and index of 
South American geology, paleontology, etc., by.. 444 


Welborn, W. C., cited on Filipino trades............... 514 
Welland Camnal................006 ee iiitislaceeisaeeves Geeta asndees cess 477 
Weller, Stuart, referred to.....................++ ieeteercaseet 250 


, 


583 


Page 
Weston Quadrangle, Map of, issued by the U. S. g 
Geological Sunvey nis--sscatscscetessesssssc cess soesbees sereereee 126 
West, The gardens of the. PEG eee ees Wat Bred oka daudes tected 118 
West, Leonard, cited on the angler fish.................. 338 
Wharton, Simawe Je lea; Geography Ws eeE set seteaie eas 483 
Whitbeck, R. H.; Geographic names and the 
Stomesithey, tele aes. 6 tec cccccecencccesecssissssoscsisseseses 100 
Whites, Proportion of children among ................... 505 
Wilder, F. A., Report on the lignite of North Da- 
kota and its relation to irrigation by............ 444, 520 
Wilderness, Breaking Clie wBOOKSOMEsaesscseie-eieiisneveees 200 
Wiley, H. W.; Report on experiments in the cult- 
urcloh sucarjeate, eens th slciscs chides 527 
Wilcox, Walter F.; Reporton proportion of chil- 
GQrenuingtie Wiited: Statesr nc scomsccsscesnccertoeesee sacs 504 


Williams, Henry Shaler,and Edward M. Kindle, 
Report on contributions to Devonian paleon- 


OOP Ya Nanscrsieccopetsa as sachevecvnedasscash vecca'<senedastes Nocenee 444 
Wilson, James, report Ghee MeL OR a see tt, lla 39, 82 
Winchell, Alexander N., Report on boundaries of 

Minnesota Dy ones tater enedncaers chececasercociinetdesuntssenporan: 444 
Windom secretary, referred to)... <2. .s.-cesencscesensssenes 1 E3 
Women divers, Famons, of Shima.. .... 217. 


Wood, B.D. and jac: Hoyt, Index of hydrographic 
- progress, Reports of the U. S. Geological Survey 


by 
Woodsheld Quadrangle, Map of, issued by the U. Ss. : 


Geolos1caleSurveyaicccsccsccocssscistieencdseccueheseeaeuete ss 427 
Woodworth, ews, BELET VER. CO. oes sacesssscesesesens stetees 250 
Workman, Henry and Fannie Bullock, Book on 

through. towns and jungles) Dy....0...2:sc2edesceccccseces 199 
Wea’ Cia ntno ls tHe Sie ccccc-c-seseacestees oss seate-ceceu aries 50, 87 

Mle MS MESEs Cari iil tING:c sc-Seveseess.lccsineessceeeaseeecces 440 
= ’ Great canals of the.. Saad a + 475 
_— ’ Marine hydrographic: surveys ‘of coasts of 'the.. 63 
=- ‘migrations Snap Od EREAE DO OAOOSBOnEDAbaEu UD aoCTuIEaoBonG -souddogddae:.06 I 
Wright, Charles W., Report on the Porcupine 

placer district, Alaska, DY reece cee eeee Ors saseees cece 444 
Wright, F. E and C. W., Repost on Alaska by...... 513 
Zambales, Negritos of, Book. outec bcuseae 358 
Zemstvos, when Steated es ian Cuyeae ns i “HOT 
Ziegler polar EXPEC UIOM ears cccwaceanetcwecstentevercs 198, 439 
ZACCTEE: WAM A TRO MICU AT Ye cacccteeca casteensaseeses et aociess 355 


Zon. Raphael, eS eothg on the chestnut in southern 
Maryland by... mededeecsvenvedccssesecsatrdcocteeseoeeee AAS 


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SPECIAL MAPS PUBLISHED BY THE > 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


“Tap cf the Region of the Panama Canal (24 x33 inches), in 5 colors 
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