THE NATIVE FLORA
OF CHURCHILL, MANITOBA
with notes on the history , geology
and climate of the area.
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H. SCOGGAN
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68754-1
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sure that 9 5 Feet ivmUd do very welt, T was order'd therefore to toy
the Foundation OgFeetthick as HI K. If her the Cannon was try'd
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11
CANADA
Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources
NATIONAL MUSEUM OF CANADA
GUIDE BOOK
THE NATIVE FLORA OF
CHURCHILL, MANITOBA
with notes on the history,
geology, and climate of the area
By
H. J. Scoggan
Issued under the authority of
The Honourable Alvin Hamilton, P.C., M.P.
Minister of Northern Affairs and National Resources
Ottawa, 1959
68754-2
The Queen’s Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa, 1959
Cat. No. R92-1259
iv
CONTENTS
Page
Historical notes on Churchill and the
Hudson Bay region 1
Physical features of Manitoba, with special
reference to the Hudson Bay area 7
Climate of Churchill 13
Flora and vegetation of the Churchill area 22
Bibliography 48
v
Map of Churchill area.
VI
THE NATIVE FLORA OF CHURCHILL, MANITOBA
Historical Notes on Churchill and
The Hudson Bay Region
(See Alcock, 1916; 1920; Department of Railways, Labour
and Industries, Regina, Saskatchewan, 1933; Department of
Transport, Canada, 1939; Harrington, 1951; Innis, 1930; Morton,
undated; Pinkerton, 1932; Tremaudan, 1915; Williams, 1949.)
1610 — Henry Hudson, in search of a North-West Passage
to the Orient, discovered the strait and bay that bear his name.
After wintering near the mouth of Rupert River at the southeast
end of James Bay with his sick and demoralized crew, he was
cast adrift in an open boat, never to be heard of again.
1612 — Thomas Button, continuing the quest, and hoping to
find traces of Hudson, wintered at the mouth of Nelson River,
taking possession of the land for England.
1619 — Jens Munck, son of a Danish nobleman, discovered
the mouth of Churchill River and wintered there rather than
attempt the hazardous return voyage during the stormy autumn
season. Scurvy and exposure killed all but Munck and two others,
who managed to bore holes in the larger vessel, the Unicom, to
sink her, and returned to Denmark in the Lamprey. Indians,
coming across the profusion of dead, strangely garbed bodies a
few months after Munck had left, named the river the River -of-the-
Strangers.
1631 — By this date, three years before the death of Samuel
de Champlain, seventeen expeditions (sixteen English and one
Danish) had approached the northern forest belt by sea, while in
the south the French had come within easy reach of it from the
St. Lawrence River.
1650 — Defeat of the Huron Indians by the Five Nations,
shattering the machinery of the French fur trade.
1661 — Medard Chouart des Groseilliers and Pierre Esprit
de Radisson penetrated the beaver country of the northern forest
belt, tapping, the stream of furs at its source. The subsequent
rejection by the French Court of Groseilliers* plans for new
ventures to Hudson Bay gave the English an entry to the great
fur belt, and proved decisive for the history of the Canadian
Northwest.
68754-3
1
2
1668 — Groseilliers (the “Mr. Gooseberry” of old Hudson's
Bay Company documents), with an English expedition under the
command of Captain Zachary Gillam, reached Rupert River,
James Bay. The building there of Fort Charles effected the first
direct and vital contact of the Northwest with Europe.
1670 — King Charles II of England granted a charter to the
“Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into
Hudson's Bay” and their successors, constituting them “the
true and absolute lords and proprietors” of that vast, practically
unknown territory draining into Hudson Bay, with the sole trade
and commerce rights in a region more than half as large as
Europe. The title was later changed to the “Hudson's Bay Com-
pany” after amalgamation with The Northwest Company. In rapid
succession, trading posts were established at the mouths of the
Albany, Moose, Rupert, Nelson, Severn, and Churchill rivers, the
whole territory receiving the name Rupert's Land, after the chief
promoter and first governor, Prince Rupert.
1684 — Establishment of York Factory near the mouth of
Hayes River, following the destruction of Fort Nelson by the
French the preceding year. This post was the oldest permanent
settlement in Manitoba until its abandonment in 1957. It long
served as the main supply centre of the company, goods from
England for the interior being routed through it, and furs being
collected there for the return voyages.
1686 — John Abraham explored Churchill River, naming it
after Lord Churchill, later first Duke of Marlborough, the newly
appointed governor of the Company.
1689 — A party including the explorer, Henry Kelsy, built
the first Fort Churchill on the west bank of the river estuary. It
was destroyed by fire the same year.
1690 — Henry Kelsy travelled from York Factory up the
Hayes, Nelson, and Minago rivers, reaching Saskatchewan River
near the present The Pas the following year. He was the first
European to see the Indians and buffalo of the plains.
1717 - James Knight, the first Governor-in-Chief on the
Bay, rebuilt the timber Fort Churchill on its original location.
It was later named “Prince Wales fort” in honour of George,
Prince of Wales, later George II.
3
1731 — The threat of French domination of the Bay induced
the Hudson's Bay Company to commission the Governor of
Churchill to build a new stone Fort Prince of Wales on Eskimo
Point at the river mouth commanding the harbour entrance, which
is only about a quarter of a mile wide at this point. A battery of
guns on Cape Merry, on the opposite shore, was set up to face
the fort. The fort, designed by British military engineers, was
completed in 1771, during the governorship of Samuel Hearne. Its
dimensions were 310 feet east and west by 317 feet north and
south. Masonry walls were nearly 17 feet high, and angular
bastions guarded each corner. The ramparts, originally 25 feet
thick, were later brought up to 42 feet in thickness.
1743—51 — Publication of the earliest important work
referring to the natural history of the Hudson Bay region, A
Natural History of Uncommon Birds and of some other Rare and
Undescribed Animals, by George Edwards.
1770 — Samuel Hearne set out from Fort Prince of Wales on
the famous overland journey during which he discovered Copper-
mine River and Great Slave Lake. In 1768, "Northern Indians"
(Chipewyans) had brought pieces of copper to the Churchill post
and said they got it on the banks of a "Far Away Metal River"
to the northwest flowing into a northern ocean. After almost un-
believable hardship and misfortune, Hearne reached the mouth
of the Coppermine in 1771 and returned to Churchill the follow-
ing year after an absence of almost eighteen months. Unaware
that England and France were at war, Hearne, in 1782, with a
garrison of but thirty-nine men, was obliged to surrender Fort
Prince of Wales to Admiral de la Perouse and a force of four
hundred French soldiers. When peace was signed the following
year, Hearne was reinstated as governor at Churchill.
1774 — Establishment of Cumberland House in present-day
Saskatchewan by Hearne, marking the beginning of the policy of
penetration into the interior by the Hudson's Bay Company in
answer to the opposition of rival fur traders.
1794 — David Thompson surveyed a new route between
Cumberland House and York Factory via Goose, Reed, and
Burntwood lakes to the Nelson.
68754— 3*/j
4
1811 — Conveyance to Lord Selkirk, for the settlement of a
group of Irish colonists, of an area of about 116,000 square miles
in present-day Manitoba, Saskatchewan, North Dakota, and
Minnesota. Miles Macdonell was chosen Governor of Assiniboia.
He then set out with an advance party to prepare for the arrival
of the settlers the following year. Forced to winter at the mouth
of the Nelson, the group travelled up the Hayes the following
spring, then down Lake Winnipeg and up the Red River to estab-
lish the Red River Colony near what is now Winnipeg, the begin-
ning of the present vast agricultural settlements of the western
prairies.
1819—22 — Sir John Franklin's first overland expedition
from York Factory to the mouth of Coppermine River via the
Hayes and Saskatchewan rivers and Great Slave Lake. He was
accompanied by John Richardson, navy surgeon and naturalist,
whose plant collections are listed in an appendix to Franklin's
Narrative, published in 1823, and are also treated in Sir William
Hooker's Flora Boreali- Americana.
1821 - Union of the rival Hudson's Bay and North-West
Companies. The disappearance of the old-time competition
between the two companies for the trade of the interior meant
that the Indians could now be depended upon to travel much
longer distances to the main trading posts than formerly, and the
lower part of the Churchill River, with its treacherous currents,
was completely abandoned as a trading route.
1846 — Dr. John Rae, who later discovered relics of
Franklin's ill-fated third expedition, sailed from Churchill to
Repulse Bay. A list of plants collected by Rae between York
Factory and Churchill is given in his narrative of 1850. The
collection was named by Hooker and included in his Flora
Boreali- Americana.
1870 — The Red River Settlement was organized as the
Province of Manitoba.
1879 — Robert Bell, pioneer Canadian geologist, made a
plant collection at Churchill. This and other collections made by
Bell along the Churchill, Nelson, and Hayes rivers and the
coast of Hudson Bay were determined by John Macoun, founder
of the National Herbarium of Canada, who, in 1882, was ap-
pointed first botanist to the Geological Survey of Canada. The
latter had been organized in 1842, with Sir William Logan, father
of Canadian geology, as Director.
5
1885 — Canadian Pacific Railway spans the continent.
1893-94 - J. B. Tyrrell, famous Canadian geologist,
studied the geology of the Churchill area following his return
from Lake Athabasca via Chesterfield Inlet.
1900 — E. A. Preble made a biological investigation of the
west coast of Hudson Bay. His report (1902) includes general
notes on the vegetation.
1911 — Letting of the contract for the first 185 miles of
grading on the Hudson Bay Railway between The Pas and
Churchill.
1912 — Extension of the boundaries of Manitoba to the
sixtieth parallel and to the shores of Hudson Bay to include
about half the former area of the District of Keewatin.
1931 — Completion of the Hudson Bay Railway. It had been
planned originally that the terminus should be Port Nelson, at
the mouth of Nelson River, and by 1918 the right-of-way had been
cleared and graded to this point, when construction work at Port
Nelson was stopped because of a shortage of ships and material
following the war. In 1927, work was resumed, and the track was
completed to Mile 356, at which point the swing was made north
to Churchill, the harbour of which provides a natural haven in the
roughest of seas. Nelson River, unlike the Churchill, is subject
to heavy silting. It had been feared that the foundation of the
seventy-five-mile stretch over frozen muskeg south of Churchill
would soften under the summer sun and absorb the roadbed, but
trials showed that a substantial gravel fill on top of the muskeg
acted as an efficient heat insulator, preventing the foundation
from giving way. The grain elevator and port at Churchill were
also completed in 1931. They are operated by the National
Harbour Board, a branch of the Department of Transport. The
harbour i£ open to shipping approximately four months of the
year, exports consisting of grain, flour, lumber, and cattle, and
imports ranging from automobiles to chinaware and glass. The
grain elevator is one of the most modern and has a storage
capacity of two and one-half million bushels.
6
MAP OF MANITOBA
7
Physical Features of Manitoba, with Special Reference to the
Hudson Bay Area
The province of Manitoba extends for a distance of 750
miles between the forty-ninth and sixtieth parallels of latitude.
Its greatest width is approximately 480 miles, at about the fifty-
seventh parallel. Its total area is approximately a quarter of a
million square miles, of which, however, only the section south
and west of Lake Winnipeg is suitable for agriculture. Mining,
trapping, fishing, and lumbering are important industries in the
central and low-northern regions.
An excellent account of the geological formations of
Manitoba is given by Wallace (1925), who notes the occurrence
of five main groups, namely: Precambrian granites, gneisses,
lavas, and sediments; Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian lime-
stones, dolomites, sandstones, and shales; and Cretaceous
shales. The approximate extent of the five major formations is
shown by Wallace in his Plate VIII, p. 36.
The southwestern boundary of the Precambrian extends from
the southeastern corner of the province up the long axis of Lake
Winnipeg (an erosion lake between the Precambrian and the
overlying limestones), and turns westward to the Saskatchewan
boundary at about the fifty-fifth parallel. The northeastern bound-
ary follows the coast of Hudson Bay from the sixtieth parallel to
the neighbourhood of Churchill, from where the Precambrian-
Ordovician contact extends in a generally southward direction to
the Nelson River near Gillam, thence southeastward to the Hayes
River, and east to the Ontario boundary at about latitude 55°
40 ' N.
Relatively narrow bands of Ordovician and Silurian forma-
tions parallel the two Precambrian boundaries, those to the
northeast forming the Hudson Bay Lowlands, those to the south-
west, together with an adjacent band of Devonian rocks, forming
the Manitoba Lowlands (sometimes referred to as the “first
prairie steppe”). To quote Wallace, “The southwestern part of
Manitoba, north to the latitude of Dawson Bay, Lake Winnipeg-
osis, which comprises about one-tenth of the area of the province,
8
*
Fort Prince of Wales in the early days.
is a region of elevations in general between 1,300 and 1,400 feet,
underlain by Cretaceous shales, and is known as the ‘second
prairie steppe'. It is separated from the lower first prairie steppe
to the east by the Manitoba Escarpment, a chain of hills and low
mountains trending in a north-northwesterly direction. These are
Pembina Mountain, Tiger Hills, Riding Mountain, Duck Mountain,
and Porcupine Mountain, with a continuation into central eastern
Saskatchewan known as the Pasquia Hills.”
Because of intense erosion, rocks of Tertiary age occur in
Manitoba only, so far as known, on Turtle Mountain, an outlier of
the extensive Tertiary deposits of southern Saskatchewan. The
Missouri Coteau, Wood Mountain, and Cypress Hills are prominent
features of this third or western prairie steppe.
The topography of the province, of which the highest eleva-
tion is the 2,727-foot peak Baldy of Duck Mountain, has been
influenced not only by the character of the bedrock but also by
glacial and postglacial phenomena. Upon the gradual recession
of the Wisconsin ice-sheet following the Pleistocene glaciation,
a large body of fresh water was left covering the entire Manitoba
9
Lowlands, extending at its maximum to approximately the fifty-
fifth parallel and covering the upper part of the present Nelson
River system. This forerunner of the present-day lakes Winnipeg,
Manitoba, and Winnipegosis is known as Glacial Lake Agassiz.
It was preceded by the much smaller Glacial Lake Souris on the
Cretaceous plateau to the southwest, this lake originally drain-
ing southward by way of the lower levels of the present Souris
Basin west of Turtle Mountain, but later draining eastward into
youthful Lake Agassiz by way of the present-day Pembina River
channel. The flat, smooth topography of the Manitoba Lowlands
is the result of the deposition of silts and clays in Lake Agassiz,
which, during its various phases of drainage, established the
many beaches now traceable along the Manitoba Escarpment as
gravel ridges or wave-cut terraces. According to Upham (1890),
the waters of Lake Agassiz at the time of the formation of its
highest beach covered the present site of Winnipeg to a depth of
about 600 feet.
Until recently it has been generally assumed that the time
elapsed since the last glacial maximum of the Wisconsin ice-
sheet is in the neighbourhood of 25,000 years, and that the north-
eastward drainage system of Lake Agassiz into Hudson Bay,
upon the melting of the northern ice barrier, was established
approximately 9,000 years ago. Flint and Deevey (1951), how-
ever, report that radiocarbon measurements of wood from the Two
Creeks peat formation immediately underlying the Mankato drift
in Wisconsin give the age of the wood as only about 11,000 years,
a result that “seems to have been anticipated by the opinions of
some geologists and soil scientists, who had come to believe
that the degree of soil development and erosion on the Mankato
drift are inconsistent with an age as great as 25,000 years... The
whole process of deglaciation seems to have been more rapid
than had been supposed.” In Manitoba, then, the period available
since Pleistocene times for colonization of extensive parts of
the land by plants may eventually prove to be of the order of only
four or five thousand years. The presence of a former great lake
in the Red River basin of Manitoba was first noted by Palliser
(1863, p. 41), in the following words: “This plain, no doubt,
had formed at one time the bed of a sheet of water, and Pembina
68754-4
10
Hill, consisting of previously-deposited materials, was its west-
ern shore.” For further accounts of Lake Agassiz, the following
may be consulted: Upham (1895); Wallace (1925); Antevs (1931);
Leverett (1932); and Johnston (1946). An excellent account of
the Pleistocene geology of southwestern Manitoba is given by
Elson (1954).
Coombs (1954) describes the continental part of the Hudson
Bay Lowlands as “a flat, swampy plain with a slight downward
slope toward its coastal regions along James and Hudson Bays”,
located on the west side of the latter bays between Nottaway
River in Quebec and Churchill River in Manitoba. Churchill is
situated at the northwestern extremity of the “Coastal Zone”
bordering the bays. A narrow “Dry Zone” occurs to the west and
S. Hearne’s name on the smooth glaciated rock at Sloop's Cove,
near Churchill,
south of the James Bay Coastal Zone, and still farther west is a
“Muskeg and Small Lake Zone”, extending northward to Severn
River. That part of the Lowlands between the Severn and Chur-
chill rivers, exclusive of the narrow Coastal Zone, is termed the
11
"Marine Clay Zone”. The one hundred and seventy-five mile
north-south stretch of the Hudson Bay Railway between Amery
and Churchill is located in this last zone.
The Marine Clay Zone "is so named because of the wide-
spread mantle of marine clay deposited during the postglacial
submergence of the lowland.... Much of the zone is covered with
a complex network of sluggish dendritic streams, which, however,
eventually link up with some main drainage channel leading to
the sea. There are areas, however, that are almost completely
undrained, the water merely overflowing in periods of thaw or
rain from one water-hole to the next until some stream is reached.
Such areas are covered by extensive peat bogs, for the most part
barren of tree growth of any kind.”
An outstanding feature of the Coastal Zone is the occur-
rence of broad tidal flats extending seaward for miles from high-
water mark. "Low ridges are another feature of the lowland’s
shoreline.... The ridges appear to develop from offshore bars. By
repeated wave action, aided by apparent continued crustal uplift
in the region and a gentle slope of the sea floor — 1 foot in
200 or 300 yards — these bars are slowly pushed toward the
shore. ”
The aerial photographs of Coombs (1954, Fig. 12, Cape
Tatnam area) and Scoggan (1951, PI. 28 and 1957, PI. 1) illus-
trate by their patterns of raised shore lines the well known fact
that there has been considerable uplift along the west coast of
Hudson Bay following removal of the ice load, estimated by
Williams (1948) as over 9,000 feet in thickness. Marine shells
have been found in these beaches between elevations of 200 to
500 feet. Regular lines of driftwood are found at levels well
above the highest tides, and Williams reports the finding of a
walrus skeleton a considerable distance inland, about 43 miles
south of Churchill. Furthermore, the lower stretches of the
major rivers are characterized by swift currents and steep banks
cut through marine clays, limestones, and dolomites.
Whether or not the land is at present rising at an appreci-
able rate is another question. Gutenberg (1942), Flint (1952),
and Lougee (1953) support the view of Bell (1898) that uplift is
68754 — 4 %
12
still progressing at the rate of 5 to 10 feet per century. Among
other points. Bell cited the following; (1) old navigation records,
and the increasing difficulty of reaching trading posts along the
Bay by boat; (2) the well-preserved nature of shells of moder-
ately deep-water species of molluscs in the clay shores of James
Bay; (3) the drying up of salt-marsh feeding grounds of ducks
and geese within memory of living man; (4) the appearance of
trees on river islands during the same period; (5) the presence
northward of remains of Eskimo beach dwellings up to elevations
of 70 feet; (6) the present inappropriateness of many of the ab-
original place-names of James Bay. On the other hand, Tyrrell
(1896; 1913), Johnston (1939), Cooke (1942), and Williams (1948)
are of the opinion that there has been relatively little uplift within
historic time.
It has already been noted that the Hudson Bay Lowlands of
Manitoba is an area of Silurian and Ordovician formations. Of
particular interest is the occurrence along the coast at Churchill
of rocky ridges of “Churchill quartzite.'' In the words of Williams
(1949), the geology of Churchill “was predetermined in Precam-
brian time when the sand of the Churchill quartzite was deposited
in a geosyncline or unstable basin. This is estimated as more
than six hundred million years ago. After the sand was compacted
into rock, great compressive forces in the earth's crust thrust it
into folds, anticlines and synclines. Subsequent erosion removed
higher and softer beds from the geosyncline to form the valley
of the ancestral Churchill river. Shallow seas of later Ordovician
time flooded the area, laying down their white dolomitic muds
and in early Silurian seas reef corals fastened themselves to
quartzite ridges. No legible records remain of later Paleozoic,
Mesozoic or early Tertiary time." As the Wisconsin ice-sheet
of Pleistocene time melted, “it was replaced by water in the
great Hudson Bay Basin, which was then much larger than now.
The plastic crust of the earth gradually adjusted itself to the
lessening load and rose some 350 feet or more, leaving raised
beaches and remains of sea shells far inland. The great cold
of the ice age and the long post-glacial winters drove the frost
line deep into the gravels and sands resulting in the 'perma-
frost' of today. The interior continental climate, the arctic
13
currents which sweep anti-clockwise around Hudson Bay, and
its frozen condition for seven months of the year, explain the
southerly dip of the tree line and the summer isotherms. ”
According to Ritchie (1956), most of the Churchill area
“is covered by till of Pleistocene age, consisting of silt, calcar-
eous clay and pebbles, boulders, and rock flour. The land which
is covered by this till is flat or gently sloping, forming the vast
plains of much of Northern Manitoba and Keewatin, broken only
by outcrop ridges, eskers, moraines, raised beaches, and shore
lines.”
Climate of Churchill
Tables I and II have been compiled from Volume 1 of * ‘Cli-
matic Summaries for Selected Meteorological Stations in the
Dominion of Canada,” issued by the Meteorological Division of
the Department of Transport, Canada. The localities chosen are
indicated by the following numbers: (1) Winnipeg; (2) Brandon;
(3) Swan River, north of Duck Mountain; (4) Berens River, about
the middle of the east coast of Lake Winnipeg; (5) The Pas; (6)
Norway House; (7) Port Nelson, and (8) Churchill.
Table I
Monthly and Annual Averages of Daily Mean Temperature
(degrees Fahrenheit)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Years obs
66
29
11
19
27
40
11
30
J an u ary
-3
-3
-6
-8
-9
-11
-17
-19
F ebruary
2
1
-6
-3
-2
-4
-14
-17
March
16
16
9
10
11
9
2
-6
April
38
38
39
31
33
29
17
14
May
52
51
49
56
48
45
33
30
June
62
60
59
58
59
57
45
43
July
67
65
64
63
65
63
55
54
August
64
62
61
60
61
60
53
52
September
54
53
51
50
49
48
44
42
October
41
40
38
36
35
36
30
27
November
22
21
18
19
17
16
10
6
December
6
6
2
0
1
-2
-9
-11
Annual Average
35
34
31
30
31
1
29
i
21
18
14
Table II
Average Monthly and Annual Precipitation
(inches)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Years obs
66
29
11
20
27
40
11
30
J arm ary
0.92
0.73
0.63
0.79
0.61
0.69
0.60
0.48
F ebruary
0.86
0.58
0.65
0.75
0.50
0.78
0.46
0.61
March
1.19
0.76
1.14
1.00
0.72
1.01
0.58
0.87
April
1.37
0.99
0.79
0.92
0.81
0.74
0.88
0.89
May
2.26
1.62
1.52
1.41
1.38
1.08
0.85
0.93
June
3.15
2.77
3.41
2.49
2.20
1.93
2.07
1.85
July
3.08
2.37
2.80
2.25
2.22
2.29
1.64
2.19
August
2.45
2.18
2.27
1.99
2.11
2.38
2.08
2.69
September
2.35
1.52
1.78
2.94
1.96
1.85
1.79
2.33
October
1.49
0.83
0.82
1.62
1.16
0.93
0.96
1.43
November
1.12
0.79
1.13
1.31
0.98
1.07
1.04
1.03
December
0.95
0.59
0.98
1.02
0.79
0.83
0.81
0.66
Annual Average
21.19
15.73
17.92
18.49
15.44
15.58
13.76
15.96
Of the annual average precipitation of 15.96 inches at
Churchill, 10.27 inches was in the form of rain, the remainder
resulting in an annual average of 56.9 inches of snow.
According to Cheney and Beckel (1955), the possible
hours of sunshine for Fort Churchill during the winter months
range from slightly over six hours in December to over twelve
hours by the end of March. Cloud cover and haze normally reduce
these lengths considerably.
During a fifteen-year period of observation at Churchill,
the average monthly maximum temperature for July, the warmest
month, was 82 degrees Fahrenheit, and the average of the fifteen
maximum temperatures (irrespective of the month in which they
occurred) was 84 degrees. The highest temperature recorded was
one for July of 96 degrees. The average monthly minimum temper-
ature for January, the coldest month, was —40 degrees, and the
average of the annual minimum temperatures (irrespective of
month) was —42 degrees. The lowest temperature recorded was
one for January of —57 degrees.
L
15
The average daily mean temperature (based on twenty-
four hourly observations daily) of 54 degrees for July shown
in Table I places Churchill significantly south of the 50°F.
(10°C.) July isotherm, believed by some biologists and geogra-
phers to be a suitable indicator of the southern limit of the
true Arctic. This isotherm, shown in Chart 1-5 of Thomas (1953),
lies in most places considerably north of the polar limit of tree-
like conifers shown in Figure 7 of Hustich (1953). A much closer
correspondence with the northern tree line is attained by the
“Nordenskjold line” shown in Figure 1 of Polunin (1951) and
Figure 1 of Hare (1951). The formula upon which this iso-
therm is based employs not only the factor of mean temper-
ature of the warmest month but also that of mean temperature
of the coldest month for the localities through which it is
drawn. Hare notes that Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of
South America, is forested in spite of the fact that the average
temperature of the warmest month is only between 46— 50°F.,
presumably because mean daily temperatures throughout the
winter remain above freezing. Apparently a truer reflection of
the influence of temperature upon growth is given by the com-
bined use of summer and winter temperatures than by the use
of the former only.
Sanderson (1948) has outlined the climates of Canada
according to Thornthwaite's revised classification (1948),
placing Churchill in the humid, cool microthermal zone, with
an evapotranspiration value of 12.6 inches (32 cm.). Potential
evapotranspiration is the combined evaporating power of the
vegetation and a soil surface in which the supply of moisture
is unlimited. It is expressed as a function of day length as
well as of temperature and is used as a measure of the thermal
efficiency of a region. It was Thornthwaite's belief that, in the
cold climates, restriction of growth by cold far outweighs the
effect of scanty precipitation, moisture normally not being a limit-
ing factor for plant growth in arctic and subarctic regions. This
belief is supported by tree-ring studies of Hustich (1949) in
Scandinavia, Giddings (1941; 1947) in Alaska and District of
Mackenzie, and Marr (1948) in the Richmond Gulf area on the
east coast of Hudson Bay. A remarkable uniformity of ring width
16
and freedom from incomplete or stunted rings, such as often
occur in areas subject to drought, was noted in all cases. This
uniformity of ring width is presumably correlated with the fairly
uniform mean monthly temperatures, precipitation or ground water
being sufficient to meet the very limited demands of plant growth.
Wind velocity at Churchill exerts a pronounced effect upon
tree growth and, in combination with low temperatures, may be
sufficient to explain the stunted growth of trees there and at
other localities such as the coast of Labrador. The most frequent
direction of wind, according to Chart 3—10 of Thomas (1953),
is from the northwest, and the next most frequent direction is
about equally from the north, west, and south. A transverse sec-
tion of a black spruce from Churchill was found by Williams
(1950) to have growth rings dating back to the year 1650. It had
an average diameter of 10 inches, taken 56 inches above the
ground from a tree 22 feet tall with a basal diameter of about
14 inches. The roots rested on permafrost, and surface seepage
provided abundant moisture during the growing season. The one
variable was obviously temperature, but few rings were incom-
plete and no double rings were recognized, indicating that
thermal efficiency was adequate. On the other hand, the sweep
of the branches and top reflected the direction of the prevailing
westerlies, as did also the fact that the central pith was located
off-centre at a position almost exactly one-third of the diameter
from the side of the tree that had faced west, the growth rings
being consistently wider on the east side. Wind velocity is un-
doubtedly a factor to be taken account of in regions where **it
takes two trees to make a Christmas tree.” The explanation may
be that, although supplied with sufficient moisture for the pur-
poses of normal transpiration, the increased transpiration on the
exposed side as opposed to the sheltered side results in enough
desiccation, combined with low temperature, to kill exposed
branches, reducing the food supply to that part of the tree.
According to Cheney and Beckel (1955), windchill, or the loss
in kilogram calories as influenced by wind velocity, is fre-
quently well above 2000 and as high as 2500 at Churchill when
the temperature is below — 30°F., compared with average wind-
chills in January of 780, 1200, and 1450 on airfields at Vancou-
ver, Ottawa, and Winnipeg, respectively.
17
The presence or absence of permafrost may have an im-
portant bearing on plant growth. Permafrost is of general occur-
rence throughout the cool microthermal zone, as indicated by
Jenness (1949, Map 1). According to Johnston (1930), the depth
of permanently frozen ground at Port Nelson averages about 30
feet, and at Churchill ice has been found in cracks of the bedrock
at a bore depth of 146 feet. According to Jenness, permafrost
seems to affect vegetation mainly in two ways. First, where the
non-frozen “active” layer of soil is thin, shallow-rooted tree
species such as black spruce, white spruce, larch, and b&lsam
poplar may grow, but deep-rooted species are excluded. Black
spruce and larch also seem to be able to form auxiliary roots if
their bottom roots are killed. Secondly, by providing an im-
pervious base to subsurface water, permafrost confines drainage
to the shallow active layer, producing extensive areas of low-
lying muskeg dominated by the water-tolerant black spruce, with
larch as a common associate. White spruce and balsam poplar are
confined to the higher, better-drained sites. As aptly expressed
by Ritchie (1956), “It is possible that, within the wider limits
directly imposed by climatic factors, such edaphic factors as the
presence of permafrost might determine the precise configuration
of the tree line”. Ritchie (1957) has illustrated diagrammatically
the relationship between permafrost and topography at Churchill.
Wet depressions in a forested area east of the Churchill River
estuary alternate with peat hummocks or small mounds overlying
vertical extensions of permafrost. It is suggested by Ritchie that
the formation of an insulating peat layer following colonization of
the original calcareous glacio-fluvial mineral deposits by meadow
and shrub phases of the vegetation raised the level of the perenni-
ally frozen layer and that the resulting poor drainage produced the
hummock-hollow topography.
Ideally, in a region where moisture supply is not a limiting
factor for plant growth, the tree line should extend northward to a
boundary beyond which thermal efficiency is too low to support
tree growth. However, it is generally recognized that climates are
not yet static after the great disturbances of the Ice Age and that
vegetation boundaries, too, are on the move, following in the wake
of migrating climatic belts. Griggs (1937) notes that in southwest-
ern Alaska the 50°F. (10°C.) isotherm for the warmest month stands
68754-5
18
250 miles beyond the edge of the forest. Marr (1948), as a result
of field observations in the Richmond Gulf area on the east coast
of Hudson Bay , concluded that “Areas unsuitable for trees because
of absence of soil are occupied by tundra. Trees are invading
tundra areas as soil develops.” Hustich (1953) notes that there
has been a fairly well-marked amelioration of the climate of the
forest-tundra region of northern Eurasia during the last few
decades but is doubtful that the same can be said for Eastern
Canada. However, since the mean annual temperature of the
Richmond Gulf area is only two or three degrees higher than that
at Churchill (Jenness, 1949, Map 2; Thomas, 1953, Chart 1-9)
and the mean July daily temperature at Churchill is indicated as
somewhat higher than at Richmond Gulf (Thomas, 1953, Chart
1-5), it is probable that essentially the same factors are in oper-
ation at both localities. Ritchie (1957) is of the opinion that there
is clear evidence in an area east of the Churchill River estuary
that “the white spruce forest is invading the younger, shrub-
dominated flats, and that it is ultimately replaced by a black
spruce community on large peat mounds.”
Variations in soil temperature may help to explain local
tree distribution. Beckel (1954) found that greater extremes in
temperature occur at or near the surface of soil in higher, drier
areas than in lower, wetter areas. The accumulation of snow by
drifting from higher to lower areas also serves to insulate the
lower areas against extreme lowering of soil temperatures. Beckel
(1957) found that in areas where there was a great accumulation
of snow during the early part of the winter or where the upper
limit of permafrost occurred at great depths, as in wet, sandy
soils, the lower levels of the active soil layer rarely reached
freezing temperatures.
Another way in which low temperature affects vegetation
is the disturbing action of frost on the active ground layer.
“Drunken forest” phenomena are particularly noticeable along
the banks of the Hayes, Nelson, and Churchill rivers where
thawing of the marine clays has resulted in mass movement of
the substratum. Their occurrence on level areas is believed to
result from the expansion of frost mounds under them in much
19
the same way as has been noted above for peat hummocks and
mounds. The powerful effect of frost-heaving can be seen at
Churchill, where angular blocks of quartzite have been raised
a considerable distance from their original position in the bed-
rock. Soil polygons have been found in the treeless region a
few miles south and north of Churchill. It is probable that the
ridges commonly marking the margins of lakes and ponds are
caused by expansion of surface ice in winter.
Temperature is, of course, of foremost importance in
determining the length of the shipping season at Churchill. The
average date at which ice goes out of Churchill harbour is about
June 15th, and the average of open water is about five months.
The climate of Churchill is partly determined by winter ice
conditions in the Bay. As late as 1941, Bajkov (1941) stated
that “Many people think that Hudson Bay and Strait are solidly
frozen over during the winter months. This is not true, however,
for the main body of water in this vast inland Canadian sea is
constantly open.” According to Montgomery (1951), however,
“If Hudson Bay remained open all winter, the warming effect
which such a huge body of water would have on the cold polar
air flowing across it would be clearly evident in the temper-
atures and the amount of cloudiness of the surrounding areas.
If, on the other hand, the Bay were frozen over, it would act as
an extension of the cold snow-covered land and, in the long
hours of winter darkness, would add its chilling effect to the
Arctic winds which sweep predominantly south and southeast-
wards over the region. Certainly all existing reports from the
whalers and explorers who have wintered there claimed that it
was an area of open water, but the climatic research carried out
at McGill showed little in the weather records to support such an
opinion and much to contradict it.”
Following establishment of a large air base on Southampton
Island at the northern limits of the Bay in 1942, reports of those
who had flown over the area gradually strengthened the belief
that the entire Bay, except for shore leads kept open by tidal
action, was completely ice-covered. Observations and photo-
graphs made by Montgomery (1951) during the not exceptionally
cold winters of 1948 and 1949 showed beyond a doubt that the
687 54 — 5Va
20
Bay was completely frozen over. As pointed out by Montgomery,
early whalers and travellers who wintered around the Bay usually
did so in frozen inlets along the western and northwestern coasts,
in the vicinity of the widest and most persistent section of the
Hudson Bay shore lead. The “sea-smoke” formed by vapour con-
densing in the cold air above the lead would blot out the eastern
horizon, giving the impression that the open water extended in-
definitely across the Bay. On one flight, Montgomery encountered
sea-smoke 50 miles east of a shore lead only 5 to 10 miles wide.
Because all coastal anchorages were ice-bound, there is no
record of any ship having attempted to make a winter crossing of
the Bay, thereby disclosing the actual facts.
The preceding discussion raises the question of whether
Churchill is better placed in the low arctic or the high subarctic
zone. The Nordenskjold line passes through Churchill, but it is
also indicated as passing through Port Nelson and York Factory,
neither of which localities can be claimed to have an arctic
climate or vegetation. The 50°F. isotherm for the warmest month
passes north of Churchill at a point about midway to Chester-
field Inlet. The fact that some success can be had with the
growth of cultivated vegetables points to a subarctic rather than
an arctic climate. Bell (1880) reports very good potatoes and
turnips growing in a garden, and Beckel (1954) reports near to
normal growth and development with such short season vegetables
as chives, onions, garlic, lettuce, peas, broccoli, parsley, swiss
chard, and cress.
In Table III are shown the latitudinal subdivisions into
which the 354 native species of vascular plants of the Churchill
area have been grouped (see below). For purposes of comparison,
the 322 native species cited by Porsild (1957) from the Canadian
Arctic Archipelago are also subdivided on this basis. The writer's
work during the past few years on the flora of the Canadian
Atlantic seaboard reveals the presence in the southern half of
coastal Labrador (exclusive of the Strait of Belle Isle area) of
approximately 506 species. Comparison of the figures for Chur-
chill and southern coastal Labrador indicates a close conformity
to what would be expected on a climatological basis, and the
native floras of these two areas give convincing evidence of a
subarctic rather than an arctic climate.
21
Table III
Latitudinal Extensions of Native Species
Latitudinal
subdivi sion
Can. Arct. Arch.
Churchill
Coastal S. Lab.
N ative
species
(322)
Per cent
of native
species
Native
species
(354)
Per cent
of native
species
Native
specieB
(506)
Per cent
of native
species
High- arctic
132
41.0
58
16.4
54
10.7
Low- arctic
124
38.5
71
20.0
63
12.5
High- subarctic
66
20.5
134
37.9
177
35.0
Lo w- sub arc tic
-
-
91
25.7
203
40.1
Temperate
-
-
-
-
9
1.7
22
Flora and Vegetation of the Churchill Area
The 354 native species of vascular plants of the Churchill
area are listed below, together with symbols denoting their geo-
graphical ranges. The checklist is based upon collections made
in the area by persons named by Scoggan (1957, p. 4). Specimens
are filed in the herbarium of the National Museum of Canada,
Ottawa; the Plant Research Institute of the Department of
Agriculture, Ottawa; and the Department of Botany, University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg. In assigning species to their respective
subdivisions, much help has been derived from a set of distri-
bution maps compiled by A. E. Porsild, Chief Botanist at the
National Museum.
The northern limits of the latitudinal subdivisions in
Canada and Greenland are approximately as follows, due allow-
ance being made in individual cases for local areas of warmer
microclimates such as the upper Hamilton River basin of south-
central Labrador (see Fig. 11 of Hare (1950)), hot spring areas
in Alaska, and the generally less extreme fluctuations of temper-
ature in strictly aquatic habitats:
Low-subarctic: the northern boundary follows approximately
the 55°F. (12.8°C.) July isotherm of mean daily temperature from
northern Newfoundland and southern Labrador to central James
Bay, north-central Manitoba, Great Slave Lake, Great Bear Lake,
and southern Alaska; southernmost Greenland.
High-subarctic: the northern boundary is taken to include
the ranges of species more northern in distribution than the pre-
ceding but not found in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, except
perhaps in southern Victoria and Banks islands and warmer micro-
thermal areas of Baffin Island south of the Arctic Circle. In some
areas it follows closely (in others extending considerably farther
north of) the polar limit of tree-like conifers shown in Figure 7 of
Hustich (1953), the Nordenskjold line shown in Hare (1951) and
Polunin (1951), and the July isotherm of 45°F. (7.2°C.) shown in
Chart 1—5 of Thomas (1953); West Greenland to about latitude
70°N. and East Greenland to about latitude 65°N. (see Bocher,
1938, Fig. 2).
23
Low-arctic: this subdivision includes the islands of the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago (with the above exceptions) north
to the southern parts of Devon, Cornwallis, Bathurst, and Melville
islands, and warmer microthermal areas along the east and west
coasts of Ellesmereland. It is taken to include those areas north
of the high-subarctic subdivision that lie south of or are in north-
ern outliers of the 40°F. (4.4°C.) July isotherm shown in Figure
11 of Rae (1951) and Figure 3 of Porsild (1955); Greenland for
varying distances north of latitude 70°N., but rarely north of
latitude 76°N.
High-arctic: areas north of the low-arctic subdivision or
not isolated by outlying 4Q°F. isotherms.
In some doubtful cases, the northern limit in Eurasia has
served as a basis for assigning certain circumpolar species to the
subdivision considered most suitable, but it must be emphasized
that this classification cannot be resolved into a purely mechan-
ical sorting out of plant ranges according to the above bound-
aries. The general pattern of distribution of each species must
be borne in mind, as well as the distribution of local micro-
climates.
The distribution in North America and Greenland of all
the high-arctic and low-arctic plants listed has been mapped by
Porsild (1957), who has also done the same for many of the
hi gh-suba retie species. Many of the species have also been
mapped for North America and Greenland by Raup (1947). The
world distribution of the amphi-Atlantic species (plants with
their main areas on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean) has been
mapped by Hulten (1958), with the exception of the doubtfully
amphi-Atlantic Polygonum boreale (Lange) Small. References
to maps of many of the low-subarctic species, as well as to
those of the other subdivisions, are given by Scoggan (1957).
Previous publications referring to the flora and vegetation of
Churchill are as follows: Beckett (1945); Bell (1880); Gardner
(1937); Gillet (1948); Grontved (1936); Giissow (1933); Johansen
(1933); Macoun (1911); Rae (1850); Ritchie (1956; 1957); Scoggan
(1957); Stumer (1933); Tyrrell (1897). Thomson (1953) has listed
the lichen flora of the area. (The following publications refer to
the animal life of the area: Taverner and Sutton (1934); Beckett
24
(1951); Williams (1950); Preble (1902); McClure (1943); Shelford
and Twomey (1941).)
Names preceded by an asterisk (*) indicate species not
listed for Churchill by Ritchie, who (1956) cited 272 species
from the area, later (1957) adding Festuca rubra, Puccinellia
paupercula, Carex canescens, C. stans, and Aster puniceus.
The increase to the present number of 354 has resulted from a
listing of Churchill specimens in the National Herbarium of
Canada, particularly those collected during the summer of 1956
by W, B. Schofield and H. A. Crum, and several noteworthy addi-
tions by Mrs. Eva Beckett.
Of the 277 species cited by Ritchie from Churchill, three
(Salix anglorum, S. desertorum, and S. adenophylla) have been
dropped from the following lists as being of too uncertain occur-
rence in the area to warrant inclusion. Urtica gracilis has also
been dropped, it being undoubtedly introduced. Poa pratensis has
been excluded, its native representative at Churchill being P.
alpigena. Other changes are as follows (the names used by
Ritchie appearing in brackets): Puccinellia pumila (P. pauper-
cula); Salix planifolia ( S . pellita); Draba luteola (D. minganert-
sis); Braya novae-angliae var. interior (B, humilis); Potentilla
pensylvanica var. pectinata (P. pensylvanica); Oxytropis terrae-
novae (0, johannensis); Kalmia polifolia (K. latifolia); Castilleja
raupii (C. pallida ssp. elegans); Achillea borealis (A. millefolium
var. nigrescens). Three of the above (Salix planifolia, Castilleja
raupii, and Achillea borealis) are listed by Ritchie in addition to
the species here replaced. Cystopteris dickieana is here treated
as a variety of C. fragilis, and Salix callicarpaea as a variety of
S, cordifolia, excluding C. dickieana and S. cordifolia var. tonsa
from the species list because of the presence at Churchill of the
typical form or an additional variety. These sixteen deletions,
together with the addition of the 93 new species denoted by as-
terisks in the following lists, yield the final figure of 354.
25
The numbers of species in the various latitudinal subdivi-
sions are as follows:
HAC High-arctic circumpolar 44
HAX High-arctic amphi-Atlantic 5
HAA High-arctic American 9
LAC Low-arctic circumpolar 48
LAX Low-arctic amphi-Atlantic 11
LAA Low-arctic American 9
LAEA Low-arctic eastern American 1
LAW A Low-arctic western American 2
HSC High-subarctic circumpolar 66
HSX High-subarctic amphi-Atlantic 6
HSA High-subarctic American 54
HSEA High-subarctic eastern American 1
HSWA High-subarctic western American 7
L5C Low-subarctic circumpolar 27
LSX Low-subarctic amphi-Atlantic 3
LSA Low-subarctic American 56
LSEA Low-subarctic eastern American 3
LSWA Low-subarctic western American 2
26
Equisetum arvense L. var. boreale (Bong.) Ledeb. HAC
*E. palustre L. HSC
E. fluviatile L. HSC
E. variegatum Schleich. HAC
E. scirpoides Michx. HSC
Lycopodium selago L. (repr, by var. appressum) HAC
L. annotinum L. var. pungens (La Pylaie) Desv. LAC
L. complanatum L. HSC
Selaginella selaginoides (L.) Link HSC
Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw. HSC
(var. mwganense (Viet.) Dole also present)
Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bemh. HAC
(var. dickieana (Sim) Moore also present)
Dryopterts disjuncta (Ledeb.) C.V. Mort. HSC
*Polypodium virginianum L. LSA
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss HSA
P. mariana (Mill.) BSP. HSA
Larix laricina (DuRoi) K. Koch HSA
Juniperua communis L. var. saxatilia Pallas HSC
(var. depressa Pursh also present)
Sparganium angustifolium Michx. HSC
S. hyperboreum Laestad. HSC
Potamogeton Hliformis Pers. LAC
(var. borealis (Raf.) St. John also present)
*F. vaginatus Turcz. LSC
P. alpinus Balbis var. tenuifolius (Raf.) Ogden HSA
P. gramineus L. HSC
*P. friesii Rupr. HSC
*Zostera marina L. var. stenophylla Aschers. & Graebn. LSC
Triglochin maritima L. HSC
T. palustris L. HSC
*Bromus pumpellianus Scribn. HSWA
Festuca rubra L. HSC
F. brachyphylla Schultes HAC
*F. vivipara (L.) Sm. HSX
Puccinellia lucida Fern. & Weath. LSA
P. langeana (Berl.) Th. Sfzfr. LAA
*P. vaginata (Lge.) Fern. & Weath. LAA
(var. paradoxa Th. S^r. also present)
*P. pumila (Vasey) Hitchc. HSA
♦P. nuttalliana (Schultes) Hitchc. LSWA
P. phryganodes (Trin.) Scribn. & Merr. HAC
*Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc. var. stricta (Scribn.) Fern. LSA
Poa arctica R. Br. HAC
(ssp. caespitans (Simm.) Nannf. also present)
27
*P. alpigena (Fr.) Lindm. f. LAC
P. glauca M. Vahl HAC
P. alpina L. LAC
*P. palustris L. LSC
*Catabrosa aquatica (L.) Beauv. HSC
*Dupontia fisheri R. Br. ssp. psilosantha (Rupr.) Hult. LAC
*Arctophila fulva (Trin.) Rupr. LAC
Agropyron latiglume (Scribn. & Sm.) Rydb. HAA
Elymus innovatus Beal HSWA
E. arenarius L. ssp. mollis (Trin.) Hult. LAC
Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richter HAC
(var. maidenii (Gand.) Fern, and var. molle (Michx.)
Beal also present)
Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv. var. littoralis (Reut.)
Richter HSC
*Alopecurus alpinus L. HAC
Arctagrostis lati folia (R. Br.) Griseb. HAC
*Agrostis borealis Hartm. LAC
Calamagrostis neglect a (Ehrh.) Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb. LAC
C. inexpansa Gray (s. lat.) HSA
C. canadensis (Michx.) Nutt. (s. lat.) HSC
C. deschampsioides Trin. HSC
Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fern. LSA
Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv. HSC
*H. pauciflora R. Br. LAC
*Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. & S. HSC
E. palustris (L.) R. & S. LSC
*E. smallii Britt. LSEA
E. pauciflora (Lightf.) Link var. femaldii Svenson LSEA
*E. uniglumis (Link) Schultes LSC
Scirpus hudsonianus (Michx.) Fern. LSC
*S. rufus (Huds.) Schrad. var. neogaeus Fern. LSA
S. caespitosus L. ssp. austriacus (Palla) Aschers. & Graebn.
HSC*
Eriophorum scheuchzeri Hoppe HAC
E. chamissonis C. A. Meyer LSA
E. russeolum Fries var. albidum Nyl. LAC
E. vaginatum L. ssp. spissum (Fern.) Hult. LA A
E. brachyantherum Trautv. LAC
E. callitrix Cham. LA A
(var. moravium Raymond also present)
28
E. angustifolium Honck. LAC
*E. gracile W, D. J. Koch LSC
*Kobresia simpliciuscula (Wahlenb,) Mack. HAC
*K. myosuroides (Vill.) Fiori & Paol. HAC
Carex capitata L. HSC
*C. arctogena H, Smith HSX
*C. ursina Dewey LAC
C. gynocrates Wormsk. HSC
C. maritima Gunn. HAC
*C. dutillyi O'Neill & Duman LSA
(Churchill endemic closely related to C. maritima Gunn.)
*C. chordorrhiza Ehrh. HSC
C. diandra Schrank LSC
*C. disperma Dewey LSC
C. bipartita Bellardi var. amphigena (Fern.) Polunin HAC
C. amblyorhyncha Krecz. LAC
C. mackenziei Krecz. LSC
C. canescens L. HSC
C. leptalea Wahlenb. LSA
*C. rupestris All. HAC
C. scirpoidea Michx. LAX
*C. supina Wahlenb. ssp. spaniocarpa (Steud.) Hult. LAA
*C. deflexa Hornem. HSA
C. concinna R. Br. LSA
C. glacialis Mack. LAC
C. bicolor All. LAC
C. aurea Nutt. LSA
*C. garberi Fern. var. bifaria Fern. LSA
*C. subspathacea Wormsk. LAC
C. aquatilis Wahlenb. HSC
C. stans Drej. HAC
*C. bigelowii Torr. HAC
C. norvegica Retz. (s. lat.) LAX
C. media R. Br. LSA
C. adelostoma Krecz. HSA
C. atrofusca Schk. HAC
C. rariflora (Wahlenb.) Sm. LAC
C. limosa L. HSC
C. capillaris L, LAC
(var. major Tire'), and var. elongata Olney also present)
C. williamsii Britt. HSA
*C. livida (Wahlenb.) Willd. var. grayana (Dew.) Fern. LSA
C. vaginata Tausch LAC
29
C. microglochin Wahlenb. LAC
*C. rostrata Stokes LSC
C. oligosperma Michx. (repr. by var. churchilliana Raymond) LSA
C. saxatilis L. var. rhomalea Fern. LAA
C. rotundata Wahlenb. HSWA
C. membranacea Hook. HAA
*Lemna minor L. LSC
L. trisulca L. LSC
*Juncus bufonius L. (repr. by var. halophilus Buch. & Fern.) LSC
/. arctictis Willd. LAC
/. balticus Willd. var. littoralis Engelm. LSA
/. albescens (Lange) Fern. HAA
/. alpinus Vill. var. rariflorus Hartm. LSC
J. castaneus Sm. LAC
(var. pallidus Hook, also present)
Luzula parviflora (Ehrh.) Desv. HSC
L. multiflora (Retz.) Lejeune ssp. frigida (Buch.) Krecz. HSC
L. confusa Lindeberg HAC
*L. groenlandica Bocher HSA
Tofieldia pusilla (Michx.) Pers. LAC
Smilacina trifolia (L.) Desf. LSA
Cypripedium passerinum Richards. LSA
Orchis rotundifolia Banks HSA
Habenaria hyperborea (L.) R. Br. HSA
H . obtusata (Pursh) Richards. HSA
Spiranthes romanzoffiana Cham. LSX
Lister a borealis Moron g LSA
*L. cordata (L.) R. Br. HSC
Corallorhiza trifida Chat. HSC
Populus balsamifera L. HSA
Salix reticulata L. LAC
S. vestita Pursh HSA
S. arctophila Cockerell HAA
S. glauca L. var. acutifolia (Hook.) Schneid. HSWA
S. cordifolia Pursh var. callicarpaea (Trautv.) Fern. LAX
(var. tonsa Fern, also present)
S.brachycarpa Nutt. var. antimima (Schneid.) Raup HSA
(var. mexiae Ball also present)
S. myrtillifolia Anderss. HSA
S. calcicola Fern. LAE A
S. alaxensis (Anderss.) Cov. LAW A
S. Candida Fliigge LSA
S. bebbiana Sarg. LSA
S. pedicetlaris Pursh var. hypoglauca Fern. LSA
S. planifolia Pursh HSA
30
S. arbusculoides Anderss. LSWA
Myrica gale L. HSC
Betula glandulosa Michx. HSA
(var. glandulifera (Regel) Gl. also present)
*B. minor (Tuckerm.) Fern. LSEA
*Alnus crispa (Ait.) Pursh (repr. by var. mollis Fern.) HSA
Geocaulon lividum (Richards.) Fern. LSA
*j Koenigia islandica L. LAC
Rumex occidentalis Wats. LSA
*R. triangulivalvis (Danser) Rech. f. LSA
*jR. maritimus L. var. fueginus (Philippi) Dusen LSA
Polygonum viviparum L. HAC
*P. boreale (Lange) Small LSX
*P. amphibium L. var. stipulaceum (Coleman) Fern. LSA
*Salicomia europaea L. LSC
*Suaeda ?maritima (L.) Dumort. HSC
Atriplex patula L. var. hastata (L.) Gray LSC
*A. glabriuscula Edmonston LSX
*Montia lamprosperma Cham. LAC
Melandrium apetalum (L.) Fenzl HAC
M. affine (J. Vahl) Hartm, (incl. M. gi/7effn(Boivin)Ritchie)HAC
Stellaria longipes Goldie HSC
S. monantha Hult. HAA
S. ciliatosepala Trautv. HAC
S. calycantha (Ledeb.) Bongard HSC
S. longifolia Muhl. LSC
S. crassi folia Ehrh, LAC
S. humifusa Rottb. HAC
Arenaria rubella (Wahlenb.) Sm. HAC
*A. rossii R. Br. HAX
M. uliginosa Schleich. LAC
*A. dawsonensis Britt. LSA
*A. humifusa Wahlenb. LAX
A. lateriflora L. LSC
A. peploides L. var. diffusa Hornem. LAC
Cerastium alpinum L. (s. lat.) HAX
*Sagina nodosa (L.) Fenzl HSX
*Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb. LSC
Caltha palustris L. LSC
Ranunculus aquatilis L. var. capillaceus (Thuill.) DC. HSC
(var. eradicatus Laestad. also present)
R. circinatus Sibth. var. subrigidus (Drew) Benson HSA
R. gmelini DC. var. hookeri (D. Don) Benson HSA
R. sceleratus L. (incl. var. multifidus Nutt.) LSC
*R. hyperboreus Rottb. HAC
R . pedatifidus Sm. var. leiocarpus (Trautv.) Fern. HAC
31
*R. pallasii Schlecht. HSC
R. lapponicus L. LAC
R. cymbalaria Pursh (incl. var. alpinus Hook.) HSA
Anemone parviflora Michx. HSA
A. richardsonii Hook. HSA
A. multi fida Poir. LSA
(var. richardsiana Fern, also present)
Draba alpina L. HAC
D. lactea Adams HAC
D. nivalis Liljebl. HAC
D. cinerea Adams HAC
D. glabella Pursh LAC
D. lanceolata Royle HSC
*D. luteola Greene HSA
D. incana L. (re'pr. by var. confusa (Ehrh.) Liljebl.) HSX
D. nemorosa L. var. lejocarpa Lindbl. LSC
*Eutrema edwardsii R. Br. HAC
Cochlearia officinalis L. (repr. by ssp. groenlandica (L.)
Porsild) HAC
Lesquerella arctica (Wormsk.) Wats. HAC
*Braya novae-angliae Th. S^r. var. interior Bocher HSWA
*Hutchinsia procumbens (L.) Desv. LSC
Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas var. femaldiana Butt. & Abbe HSA
Barbarea orthoceras Ledeb. HSA
*Descurainia sophioides (Fisch.) O, E. Schulz HSWA
Cardamine pratensis L. var. palustris Wimm. & Grab. HAA
(var. angustifolia Hook, also present)
*Arabis alpina L. LAX
A. divaricarpa Nels. LSA
A. arenicola (Richards.) Gel. var. pubescens (Wats.) Gel. HAA
Saxifraga oppositifolia L. HAC
S. hirculus L. HAC
S. rivularis L. HAC
S. aizoides L. HAX
S. tricuspidata Rottb. HAA
S. caespitosa L. ssp. eucaespitosa Engl. & Irmsch. LAX
(ssp. exaratoides (Simm.) Engl. & Irmsch. also present)
*Mitella nuda L. LSA
Chrysosplenium tetrandrum (Lund) Fries LAC
Pamassia kotzebuei Cham. HSA
P. multiseta (Ledeb.) Fern. HSC
Ribes hudsonianum Richards. HSA
R. triste Pallas HSA
R. lacustre (Pers.) Poir. LSA
R. oxyacanthoides L. LSA
32
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne var. terrae-novae (Rydb.)
Fern. & Wieg. LSA
*Rosa acicularis Lindl. var. bourgeauiana Crepin LSA
*Geum aleppicum Jacq. var. strictum (Ait.) Fern. LSA
G. macrophyllttm Willd. var. perincisum (Rydb.) Raup LSA
Dry as integrifolia M. Vahl HA A
*Potentilla fruticosa L. HSC
P. palustris (L.) Scop, var, parviiolia (Raf.) Fern. & Long HSC
P. pulchella Pursh HAX
P. multi fida L. LSC
*P. pensylvanica L. var. pectinata (Raf.) Lepage LSA
P. egedei Wormsk. var. groenlandica (Tratt.) Polunin HSA
P. nivea L. LAC
(ssp. chamissonis (Hult.) Hiitonen also present)
P. norvegica L. HSA
Rubus chamaemorus L. HSC
R . acaulis Michx. HSA
*R . paracaulis Bailey LSA
Astragalus eucosmus Robins. HSA
A. alpinus L. LAC
Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. var. varians (Rydb.) Barneby HSWA
*0. terrae-novae Fern. HSEA
Hedysarum mackenzii Richards. LAA
*Lathyrus japonicus Willd. var. aleuticus (Greene) Fern. HSC
Linum lewisii Pursh (repr. by f. lepagei (Boivin) Lepage) HSA
Callitriche hermaphroditica L. HSC
Empetrum nigrumL. (incl. var. hermaphroditum(Lge.) Sorensen) HAC
Viola palustris L. HSX
*V. pallens (Banks) Brainerd HSA
*V. renifolia Gray var. brainerdii (Greene) Fern. LSA
Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt. LSA
Epilobium latifolium L. HAC
E. angustifolium L. var. intermedium (Wormsk.) Fern. HSA
E. davuricum Fisch. HSC
E. palustre L. HSC
E. glandulosum Lehm. var. adenocaulon (Haussk.) Fern. LSA
Myriophyllum spicatum L. ssp. exalbescens (Fern.) Hult. HSA
Hippuris vulgaris L. LAC
H. tetraphylla L. f. HSC
*Cicuta bulbifera L. LSA
C. mackenzieana Raup LSA
*Heracleum lanatum Michx. LSA
Moneses uniflora (L.) Gray HSC
33
Pyrola minor L. HSC
P. secunda L. (incl. var, obtusata Turcz.) HSC
P. grandiflora Rad. LAC
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder HSA
L. decumbens (Ait.) Lodd. LAA
Rhododendron lapponicum (L.) Wahlenb. LAC
Loiseleuria procumbens (L.) Desv. LAC
*Kalmia polifolia Wang. HSA
Andromeda polifolia L. HSC
Arctostaphylos alpina (L.) Spreng. LAC
A. rubra (Rehd, & Wils.) Fern. HSA
A. uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. var. coactilis Fern. & Macbr. LSA
Oxycoccus microcarpus Turcz. HSC
Vaccinium uliginosum L. (incl. var. alpinum Bigel.) HAC
V. vitis-idaea L. var. minus Lodd. LAC
Primula stricta Hornem. LAX
P. egaliksensis Wormsk. HSA
Androsace septentrionalis L. HAC
(var. robusta St. John also present)
*Naumburgia thyrsi flora (L.) Duby LSC
Gentianella propinqua (Richards.) J.M. Gillett HSA
*G. amarella (L.) Borner ssp. acuta (Michx.) J.M. Gillett LSA
Lomatogonium rotatum (L.) Fries HSC
Menyanthes trifoliata L. HSC
Mertensiamaritima (L.) F. J. Gray (repr. by var. tenella Fr.) LAC
*Mentha arvensis L. var. villosa (Benth.) Stewart LSA
*Scutellaria galericulataL .var. epilobiifolia (Hamilt.) JordalLSA
Limosella aquatica L. HSC
Euphrasia arctica Lange LAX
Bartsia alpina L. LAX
Castilleja raupii Pennell HSA
Rhinanthus borealis (Sterneck) Chabert HSC
Pedicularis flammea L. LAX
P. labradorica Wirsing HSC
P. lapponica L. LAC
P. groenlandica Retz. HSA
P. sudetica Willd. HAC
Pinguicula vulgaris L. LAC
P. villosa L. HSC
Utricularia minor L. HSC
U. intermedia Hayne HSC
U. vulgaris L. HSC
Plantago maritima L. ssp. juncoides (Lam.) Hult. HSA
Galium brandegei Gray HSA
G. trifidum L. LSC
(var. halophilum Fern. & Wieg. also present)
34
Linnaea borealis L. ssp. americana (Forbes) Hult. HSA
*Valeriana dioica L. ssp. sylvatica (Sol.) Mey. LSA
Campanula uni flora L. HAX
C. uliginosa Rydb. LSA
Solidago multiradiata Ait. HSA
Aster puniceus L. LSA
*A, junciformis Rydb. LSA
Erigeron elatus Greene HSA
*E. lonchophyllus Hook. LSA
E. angulosus Gaud. var. kamtschaticus (DC.) Hara HSC
E. humilis Graham LAC
*Antennaria rosea (D.C. Eat.) Greene LSA
M. pulcherrima (Hook.) Greene HSA
Achillea borealis Bongard HSC
Matricaria arrbigua (Ledeb.) Kryl. LAC
Chrysanthemum arcticum L. HSC
Petasites palmatus (Ait.) Gray HSA
P. sagittatus (Pursh) Gray HSA
* Artemisia tilesii Ledeb. var. elatior T. & G. LAWA
Arnica alpina (L.) Olin ssp. attenuata (Greene) Maguire HSA
Senecio pauperculus Michx. LSA
S. indecorus Greene LSA
S. congestus (R. Br.) DC. LAC
(var. palustris (L.) Fern, and var. tonsus Fern, also present)
Taraxacum lacerum Greene LAA
*T. croceum Dahlst. (incl. T. lapponicum Kihlm.) LAX
*T. ceratophorum (Ledeb.) DC. HSC
35
Beckel, Law, and Irvine (1954) have outlined the major
terrain types of the Churchill area, and Ritchie (1956) has given
examples of the vegetation associated with the various terrains.
The following amplified lists have been made up for the conven-
ience of visitors to the area, often with a very limited time at
their disposal, who wish to gain as complete a picture as possi-
ble under such circumstances of the vegetation of the various
types of habitat.
Sandy Foreshore (“Strand")
Elymus arenarius ssp. mollis
Carex maritima
Arenaria peploides var. diffusa
Lathyms japonicus var. aleuticus
Matricaria ambigua
Artemisia tilesii var. elatior
Salt Marshes and Coastal Flats
Triglochin maritima
Puccinellia langeana
P. vagirtata
P. pumila
P. lucida
P. nuttalliana
P. phryganodes
Dupontia fisheri ssp. psilosantha
Hordeum jubatum (introd.)
Catabrosa aquatica
Calamagrostis deschampsioides
Carex mackenziei
C. subspathacea
C. ursina
Scirpus rufus var. neogaeus
Eleocharis pauciflora var. fernaldii
Juncus balticus var. littoralis
36
/. bufonius var. halophilus
Koenigia islandica
Polygonum boreal e
Rumex occidentalis
Suaeda Prnaritima
Salicomia europaea
Atriplex patula var. hastata
A, glabriuscula
Montia lamprosperma
Stellaria humifusa
S. crassifolia
Spergularia marina
Ranunculus cymbalaria
Hutchinsia procumbens
Cochlearia officinalis ssp. groenlandica
Potentilla egedei var. groenlandica
Hippuris tetraphylla
Lomatogonium rotatum
Plantago maritima ssp. juncoides
Galium trifidum var. halophilum
Chrysanthemum arcticum
Matricaria ambigua
Aster puniceus
A. junciformis
Sandy Upper Beach
Elymus arenarius ssp. mollis
Festuca brachyphylla
Poa alpigena
Trisetum spicatum
Calamagrostis neglecta
C. deschampsioides
Hierochloe odor at a
Carex scirpoidea
C. maritima
J uncus arcticus
J. balticus var. littoralis
37
Stellaria longipes
Arenaria peploides var. diffusa
A. humifusa
Arabis arenicola var. pubeseens
Braya novae-angliae var. interior
Eutrema edwardsii
Descurainia sophioides
Lesquerella arcfica
Potentilla multifida
P. pensylvanica var. pectinata
P. pulchella
Linum lewisii f. lepagei
Arctostaphylos rubra
Androsace septentrionalis
Gentianella propinqua
Castilleja raupii
Solidago muitiradiata
Achillea borealis
Matricaria ambigua
Stable Dunes Above Upper Beach
Equisetum variegatum
E. arvense var. boreale
E. scirpoides
Triglochin maritima
Festuca brachyphylla
Poa alpina
Arctophila fulva
Trisetum spicatum
Calamagrostis inexpansa
C. canadensis var. scabra
Deschampsia caespitosa var. littoralis
Carex scirpoidea
C. concinna
C. deflexa
C. glacial is
38
C. aurea
C. vaginata
C. capillaris
C. norvegica
C. microglochin
Scirpus caespitosus ssp. austriactis
Juncus albescens
Luzula parvi flora
L. groenlandica
Tofieldia pusilla
Habenaria hyperborea
Salix reticulata
S. vestita
S. arctophila
S. cordifolia var. callicarpaea
S. planifolia
S. Candida
Betula glandulosa
Rumex occidentalis
Polygonum viviparum
Stellaria humifusa
Arenaria rossii
Anemone multifida
Dr aba glabella
D. incana
D. luteola
Arabis arenicola var. pubescens
Eutrema edwardsii
Barbarea orthoceras
Lesquerella arctica
Parnassia multiset a
Saxifraga aizoides
S. oppositifolia
Ribes oxyacanthoides
Dryas integrifolia
Potentilla nivea
P. pensylvanica var. pectinata
Rosa acicularis var. bourgeauiana
39
Rubus acaulis
Astragalus eucosmus
A. alpinus
Oxytropis campestris var. varians
O. terrae-novae
Hedysarum mackenzii
Linum lewisii f. lepagei
Empetrum nigrum
Shepherdia canadensis
Epilobium latifolium
E. angustifolium var. intermedium
E. palustre
Pyrola grandiflora
Arctostaphylos rubra
Rhododendron lapponicum
Andromeda poli folia
Vaccinium uliginosum
Primula stricta
P. egaliksensis
Androsace septentrionalis
Gentianella propinqua
Euphrasia arctica
Rhinanthus borealis
Pedicularis flammea
Castilleja raupii
Erigeron humilis
E. elatus
Solidago multiradiata
Achillea borealis
Taraxacum lacerum
Quartzite Ridge Above Stable Dune Area
Dryopteris disjuncta
Cystopteris fragilis
Botrychium 1 unaria
Juniperus communis var. depressa
40
Festuca brachyphylla
Poa alpina
P. glauca
P. alpigena
P. arctica
Alopecurus alpinus
Agrostis borealis
Trisetum spicatum
Carex concirtna
C. rupestris
C. glacial is
C. media
Kobresia myosuroides
K. simpliciuscula
Juncus albescens
J. castaneus
Luzula confuse
L. multi flora ssp. frigida
Tofieldia pusilla
Habenaria obtusata
Cypripedium passerinum
Salix reticulata
S. glauca var. acutifolia
S. cordifolia var. callicarpaea
S. arctophila
S. planifolia
S. calcicola
S. alaxensis
Betula glandulosa
Polygonum viviparum
Arenaria rubella
Cerastium alpinum
Stellaria longipes
S. monantha
S. crassifolia
Melandrium affine
M. apetalum
Ranunculus pedatifidus var. leiocarpus
41
Anemone parviflora
A. richardsonii
Draba nivalis
D. lac tea
D. c inerea
D. alpina
D. glabella
Saxifraga tricuspidata
S. oppositifolia
S. rivularis
S. aizoides
S. caespitosa ssp. eucaespitosa
Ribes hudsonianum
Dryas integrifolia
Potentilla nivea
P. norvegica
P. pulchella
P. pensylvanica vat. pectinata
Geum macrophyllum vat. perincisum
Astragalus alpinus
A. eucosmus
Oxytropis campestris var. varians
O. terrae-novae
Empetrum nigrum
Epilobium davuricum
E. latifolium
Pyrola grandillora
P. secunda vat. obtusata
Arctostaphylos alpina
A. rubra
Rhododendron lapponicum
Loiseleuria procumbens
Ledum decumbens
Bartsia alpina
Euphrasia arctica
Pedicularis flammea
P. labradorica
42
P. lapponica
Campanula uniflora
Arnica alpina ssp. attenuata
Antennaria rosea
Chrysanthemum arcticum
Marshy Ground, Wet Peaty Meadows, and Margins of Ponds
Equisetum palustre
E. fluviatile
E. var iega turn
Triglochin maritima
T. palustris
Festuca rubra
Poa palustris
Arctagrostis latifolia
Arctophila fulva
Glyceria striata var, stricta
Hierochloe pauci flora
Carex diandra
C. canescens
C. amblyorhyncha
C. gynocrates
C. mackenziei
C. scirpoidea
C. vaginata
C. ca pi Haris
C. atrofusca
C. adelostoma
C. limosa
C. rari flora
C. livida var. grayana
C. garberi var. bifaria
C. oligosperma var. churchilliana
C. microglochin
C. aquatilis
43
C. stans
C. saxatilis var. rhomalea
C. rot undata
C, membranacea
C. rostrata
Eleocharis palustris
E. smallii
E. uniglumis
E. acicularis
Scirpus hudsonianus
S. caespitosus ssp. austriacus
Eriophorum brachyantherum
E. callitrix
E. chamissonis
E. scheuchzeri
E. russeolum var. albidum
E. vaginatum ssp. spissum
E. angustifolium
E. gracile
J uncus castaneus
J. alpinus var. ratiflorus
Tofieldia pusilla
Habenaria hyperborea
H. obtusata
Spiranthes r omanzoffiana
Salix Candida
S. myrtillifolia
S. pedicellaris var. hypoglauca
Myrica gale
Be tula glandulosa
Rumex triangulivalvis
R. occidentalis
R. maritimus var. fueginus
Arenaria uliginosa
Stellaria calycantha
S. ciliatosepala
44
Sagina nodosa
Caltha palustris
Ranunculus sceleratus
R. lapponicus
R. pallasii
R. hyperboreus
Rorippa islandica var. microcarpa
Cardamine pratensis var. palustris
Saxifraga hirculus
Chrysosplenium tetrandrum
Ribes lacustre
Potentilla palustris var. parvifolia
Viola pal lens
V. palustris
Epilobium palustre
E. glandulosum var. adenocaulon
Hippuris vulgaris
Cicuta bulbiiera
C. mackenzieana
Heracleum lanatum
Ledum groenlandicum
Naumburgia thyrsillora
Lomatogonium rotatum
M enyanthes trifol ia ta
Mentha arvensis var. villosa
Scutellaria galericulata var. epilobiifolia
Pedicularis labradorica
P. sudetica
P. flammea
Pinguicula vulgaris
P. villosa
Galium trifidum
G. brandegei
Valeriana doica ssp. sylvatica
Campanula uliginosa
Petasites palmatus
P. sagittatus
45
Senecio congestus
Erigeron lonchophyllus
E. angulosus var. kamtschaticus
Antennaria pulcherrima
Senecio pauperculus
S. indecorus
Open White Spruce Stands
Equisetum scirpoides
Lycopodium complanatum
L. annotinum var. pungens
Polypodium vitginianum
Picea glauca
Larix laricina
Juniperus communis var. depressa
Carex disperma
C. leptalea
C. deflexa
C. concinna
Smilacina tri folia
Tofieldia pus ilia
Habenaria obtusata
Cypripedium passerinum
Orchis rotundifolia
Corallorhiza trifida
Listera cordata
Populus balsamifera
Salix bebbiana
S. myrtillifolia
S. arbusculoides
S. planifolia
S. reticulata
S. brachycarpa var. antimima
Betula glandulosa
Alnus crispa var. mollis
Geocaulon lividum
Polygonum viviparum
46
Mitella nuda
Parnassia kotzebuei
P. multiseta
Ribes triste
Rubus acaulis
R. paracaulis
R, chamaemorus
Fragaria virginiana var. terrae-novae
Empetrum nigrum
Viola renifolia var. brainerdii
Shepherdia canadensis
Pyrola minor
P. secunda var. obtusata
Moneses uniflora
Ledum groenlandicum
Arctostaphylos rubra
A. uva-ursi var. coactilis
Vaccinium uliginosum
V. vitis-idaea var. minus
Bartsia alpina
Pedicularis lapponica
P. labradorica
P. groenlandica
Linnaea borealis ssp. americana
Petasites sagittatus
Erigeron lonchophyllus
Hummocky Peat Bog
Picea mariana
Larix laricina
Carex vaginata
C. limosa
Tofieldia pusilla
Habenaria hyperborea
Rubus chamaemorus
Empetrum nigrum
47
Ledum decumbens
L. groenlandicum
Kalmia polifolia
Andromeda polifolia
Oxycoccus microcarpus
Vaccinium uliginosum
Pedicularis labradorica
Shallow Ponds
Sparganium angustifolium
S. hyperboreum
Potamogeton gramineus
P. friesii
P. alpinus var. tenuifolius
P. filiformis var. borealis
Lemna minor
L. trisulca
Polygonum amphibium var. stipulaceum
Ranunculus gmelini var. hookeri
R. aquatilis var. capillaceus
R, circinatus var. subrigidus
R. sceleratus
Callitriche hermaphroditica
Myriophyllum spicatum ssp. exalbescens
Hippuris vulgaris
H. tetraphylla
Limosella aquatica
Utricularia minor
U. intermedia
U. vulgaris
48
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alcock, P. J. (1916). The Churchill River, Geog. Rev. 2: 433-448.
Antevs, E. (1931). Late-glacial correlations and ice recession in Mani-
toba. Geol, Surv., Canada, Mem. 168: 1-76.
Bajkov, A. D. (1941). The ice conditions of Hudson Bay, The Beaver,
March. 1941: 15-19.
Beckel, Dorothy K. (1954). Growth of cultivated plants at Fort Churchill,
Manitoba. Defence Research Board, Canada, Defence Research
Northern Laboratory, Res. Note No. 12: 1-6.
— (1957), Studies on seasonal changes in the temperature gradient of
the active layer of soil at Fort Churchill, Manitoba, Arctic 10:
151-183.
Beckel, Dorothy K., C. E. Law, and B. R. Irvine (1954). Major terrain
types of North American tundra and boreal forest areas with examples
from the Churchill, Manitoba, area. Defence Research Board, Canada,
Defence Research Northern Laboratory, Tech. Note No. 37.
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