Natural and artificial incubation and brooding

UC-NRLF

575

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(LIVE-STOCK BRANCH)

PEOVI^CE OF BBITISH COLUMBIA

NATUEAL AND AETIFIOIAL

INCUBATION AND

BEOODING

BULLETIN No. 39

(SECOND EDITION)

THE GOVERNMENT Of
THE PROWNCE OF BRITISH COUWM.

PRINTED BY
AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY.

VICTORIA, B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majestj.

1014.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

VICTORIA, B.C., JANUARY, 1914.

The Honourable Price Ellison,

Minister of Agriculture.

SIR, — I have the honour to submit herewith Bulletin No. 39, compiled
by J. R. Terry, Chief Poultry Instructor, entitled " Natural and Artificial
Incubation and Brooding."

I have the honour to be,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

WM. E. SCOTT,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

Acknowledgments are due to the following for loan of cuts used in
the following pages: Prof. J. Dryden, Corvallis, Ore., and Prof. J. Rice,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

V

PEOYINCE OF BEITISH COLUMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(LIVE-STOCK BRANCH)

HON. PRICE ELLISON,
Minister of Agriculture.

WM. E. SCOTT,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

w. T. MCDONALD, B.S.A., M.S.A.,

Live-stock Commissioner.

H. RIVE, B.S.A.,

Chief Dairy Instructor.

J. R. TERRY,
Chief Poultry Instructor.

H. E. UPTON,

Poultry Instructor.

H. E. WALKER, B.S.A.,

Agriculturist.

J. C. READEY, B.S.A.,
Soil and Crop Instructor.

A. KNIGHT, V.S.,
Chief Veterinary Inspector.

T. A. F. WIANCKO,
Dairy Instructor.

S. A. K. WHITE, V.S.,

Veterinary Inspector.

B. R. ILSLEY, V.S.,
Veterinary Inspector.

W. W. ALTON, V.S.,

Veterinary Inspector.

WM. J. BONAVIA,

Secretory to the Department.

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL

INCUBATION AND BROODING

INTRODUCTION.

bulletin has been prepared with the idea of helping, if possible, those already
•*• in the poultry business, both large and small breeders, who have, perhaps,
experienced some difficulty in the hatching or brooding branch of their work, and
those without experience who intend starting in this branch of agriculture.

THE ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESSFUL INCUBATION.

The most common cause of poor results or failure in incubation is the use of eggs
of low vitality. Successful incubation begins long before the eggs are laid. The
eggs must be from stock of high vitality that have never been forced ; that are fed
all the green food they will eat, and some form of animal food as well as grain.
While fowls will sometimes lay a goodly number of eggs upon a grain diet, yet the
eggs are oftentimes lacking in those food elements that the embryo requires, and they
often hatch poorly, and those chicks that do hatch will be of impaired vitality, very
difficult to raise. The vitality of the breeding stock, food or housing, and the range
should be carefully looked after, as the neglect of any one of these factors will
impair the vitality of the stock; consequently the eggs will not give good results
with either incubator or hen.

VIGOROUS BREEDING STOCK NECESSARY FOR SUCCESSFUL INCUBATION.

THE MALE.

Care should be exercised in the selection of the male, since his influence in the
flock is so great. He should be fully matured and well developed, though not too
heavy. Medium-sized male birds give good results when mated to hens of good
proportions. That he be a sound bird constitutionally is of vital import. His
head should give every evidence of masculinity, and should be of good size and
of symmetrical proportions. A bright eye and a rather short, stout beak are other
requisites. The body should present a symmetrical appearance, being filled out and
carried well on stout legs of medium length, set well apart. In general, he should
be active, a bird of quality, and one possessed of abundance of vitality and vigour.

THE FEMALE.

The above general characteristics may also be applied to the female. A two-
year-old, a yearling hen, or a well-grown, well-developed, and fully-matured pullet
may be used, but only when absolutely necessary. Many times the vigour of the
flock has been greatly reduced by breeding from pullets. In some places where the
raising of poultry is the main industry, the size of the fowls as well as the eggs
has been reduced in just this way. Breeders are beginning to realize the necessity
of breeding from fully matured, well-developed fowls if vitality, vigour, and prc>-
liflcacy are to be maintained year after year. Indications as noted in the male will
suffice to differentiate the desirable from the undesirable type. Generally speaking,
about ten or fifteen females is considered a sufficient number for one male of the
general-purpose breeds, such as Rocks, Wyandottes, Orpingtons, and Reds, and from
fifteen to twenty for the Mediterranean breeds, as Leghorns and Anconas. The exact
number of birds per male in either class depends greatly upon the vigour and con-
stitution of the particular male bird used.

Among the contributory causes to the loss of physical vigour are the following :
The greatest and most potent cause is soil-contamination, congestion and crowding
of breeding stock upon limited areas, bringing with it lack of exercise, improper
housing and feeding ; in-and-in-breeding, without selecting the most vigorous birds ;
the too-common use of pullets, instead of matured fowls, for breeding stock ; forced
egg yield by heavy feeding during the fall and winter; carelessness in keeping
eggs for incubation ; hatching from eggs selected indiscriminately ; faulty methods
of incubation ; the use of poor incubators and brooders ; too rapid forcing on rich,
easily assimilated food, with lack of exercise; general violation of the principles
of sanitation and brooding, "housing and range ; failure to select breeding stock of
recognized superior physical vigour ; the use of birds that have been hatched too
early — that were stunted in growth or hatched too late, and were not grown under
proper conditions, and do not reach full size when breeding season commences.

It is impossible to pass judgment on the merits of any particular variety or
individuals of the breed without knowing how they have been bred and handled, but
there are some physical characteristics that will aid any one in selecting breeders
that are very apt to turn out to be of strong vitality and vigour, and only such
should be placed in the breeding-yards.

HOUSING OF BREEDING STOCK.

The necessity of fresh air is being realized to a greater extent than ever before.
Poultrymen are finding that to have the best success with their breeders they must
be kept under as natural conditions as possible. Fresh air is of great value, especi-
ally at night. Besides keeping the birds in fresh-air houses, they should, if possible,
be given free range, or at least 75 square feet per bird of yard-room.

EGGS USED FOR INCUBATION.

Together with the selection of the breeders, a careful selection should be made
of the eggs laid by the breeding stock. A poor egg, even from one of the best
breeders, should not be used. A poorly shelled, an unevenly shaped egg, or one
otherwise lacking in qualities which make up a good egg, should be discarded. The
normal egg is one of average size, weighing about 2 oz., with a smooth surface and

Eggs unsuitable for hatching purposes. Rough-shelled, deformed, undersized,
double-yolked, mottled shelled, elongated, or globular eggs will give very poor
results, being mostly infertile.

an even shape, being slightly larger at one end than the other. An extra large »>Lru'
or a small one should be rejected; the large ones are seldom fertile, and the small
ones, If fertile, produce very small chicks. There is nearly always a percentage of
eggs from any flock which have never been fertilized. There may be also broken
yolks, " green " eggs, " blood yolks," mottled and cracked shells. None of these, of
course, are satisfactory for incubation.

8

NATURAL INCUBATION.

On many farms the number of fowls kept is too small to warrant the use of an
incubator. On such places the chicks are hatched by the hen, and for such as use this
method the remarks in this chapter are intended. When setting hens, it is important
that the proper surroundings be provided. Where good eggs are used and poor hatch-
ing results are secured, this can often be attributed to poor accommodation.

To get the best results from sitting hens, the nest
should be large and roomy, and not too far from the
floor. A box, about 18 inches square and about a foot
deep, should be half filled with moist earth or an
upturned sod, and care taken to hollow out the earth
somewhat in the centre. Experiments have proved the
superiority of nests composed of moist earth over nests
which are of dry earth, sand, or ashes. The moist earth
approaches nearest to nature, and helps to retard evap-
oration of the egg-content during incubation. See that
the earth in the corners of the box slopes towards the
centre, so that the eggs cannot roll out of the nest and
get chilled. Then place a small quantity of fine-cut
straw, hay, or excelsior in the nest. Care should be
taken that sufficient straw or hay be placed in the nest,

An egg-tester. When using so that the moist earth does not chi11 the eggs,
this type of tester, it is dan- The room where the nests are placed should, contrary
gerous to hold the egg against
the tester too long, as some- to general instructions on this matter, be well lighted,

STth|beg|-|Se hcat Wi" but cooh Tnis can be «*ured by having the nests
placed in a room where the windows face the north, if possible, and lots of room
should be provided for exercise when the hen comes off. Many cases can be recorded
of hens forsaking the nest, and even dying, through lack of room to exercise.

A useful grit, charcoal, or shell hopper.

A drinking fountain of useful design.
A disused salmon-can with small hole
pierced in the top and a saucer answers
very well for individual hen and chicks.

Yearling or older hens are more reliable than pullets as sitters, and are prefer-
able whenever possible. Hens or pullets that are of an excitable disposition should
never be used as sitters. In the Rhode Island districts, where millions of chicks
are hatched yearly by the natural method, it is the custom to specially mark and
keep hens that show good hatching power and ability.

Medium-sized hens are best for incubation purposes, because they are less liable
to crush eggs than if large heavy hens are used. Even with hens the hatching period

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varies. A hen that frequently leaves the nest will not hatch out chicks as quickly
as a hen that broods closely, and only leaves the nest probably once every two or
three days.

A dust-box should be provided, and should be at least 8 inches deep, and filled
to within 2 or 3 inches of the top with earth or road-dust mixed. A handful or two
of powdered sulphur sprinkled in the dust-box is also helpful.

The proper time to set a hen is after dark. Place two or three infertile eggs in
the nest beforehand. It is advisable to have these warm, if possible, especially early
in the season, as a hen will often take a dislike to stone-cold eggs. Sometimes it is
advisable to place a basket over the hen when sitting, and remove this after the first
day. When sitting hens are attended to at regular intervals, it is not necessary to
coop a hen up in this fashion. Allow them to come off when they feel inclined, and
if they do not come off daily, then they may be lifted from the nest. This should be
done carefully, and as follows : Lift out both wings first, and then gently lift with
both hands pressed to the sides of the hen. If the wings are not opened out, an egg
or two is often cracked by being lifted up with the hen, and then falling on the eggs
in the nest.

The eggs should be tested the seventh day in the same way as those in incubators,
removing the infertile and those in which dead germs appear. An egg-tester can be
procured at any poultry-supply house for a small sum. They are generally given
free to purchasers of incubators. An acetylene cycle lamp makes a first-class tester.
If a number of hens are set at the same time, the fertile eggs, after testing, can be
rearranged under the hens necessary to cover them, and the remainder of the hens
reset or placed back in the laying or breeding house, as desired.

From the seventh to the ninth day the fertile eggs with live germs will have a
dark spot, the germ, in the larger end with the veins radiating from it, making a
spider-like appearance. Eggs showing a red ring, or eggs showing a dark spot with-
out blood-vessels, clouded or infertile eggs, should also be removed.

The eggs should again be tested on the fourteenth or fifteenth day, removing any
in which the chicks have died.

If testing takes place on the sixteenth or seventeenth day, at this stage of
incubation a live chick will have darkened all the egg with the exception of the air-
cell. If the egg is closely watched, a movement of the chick can often be detected.

The eggs should be examined every other day to see if they have been soiled.
Should this happen, wash them in water of 90 degrees temperature, and dry before
putting in nest. Dust the hen, when first setting, and on about the seventeenth day,
with a good dusting-powder.

Place a pan of whole corn or corn and wheat near the nest, some clam or oyster
shell, and about every other day provide a sod of young tender grass-shoots. Change
the drinking-water frequently.

Immediately after the chicks are removed, the litter should be taken out of the
box and burnt, the box washed or disinfected, and placed in the sun to dry before
using again. Setting a hen on a nest that has been previously used is an unprofit-
able proceeding, for red mites will generally put in an appearance, and they are
easier to rear than chickens.

By having the nest box a foot deep, the chicks are not liable to get out, and
probably get chilled ; or, as sometimes happens, a hen will leave ten chicks in the
nest, to mother one that has fallen out.

BROODING CHICKS WITH HENS.

The hen with her brood should not be disturbed too frequently during the first
few days after hatching. As the chicks develop they require less restricted quarters,
but it is wise to keep the mother hen confined. Chicks should not be allowed to run
through long wet grass or grass heavy-laden with dew. Where the grass is long it
is advisable to cut short a small space around the chicken-coop.

Upon removal, which should take place twenty-four hours after the last chick
has hatched, the first feed may consist of dried bread-crumbs, crushed egg-shell, or

11

oatmeal, with milk, if possible, to drink. Various other kinds of feeds may be used,
such as commercial chick-feed, hard-boiled egg, bread and milk (the bread being
squeezed dry), etc. When buying chick-feed, if possible purchase it without the
grit added. The latter is very heavy, and some samples contain more grit than
necessary.

A mash which the author has found to give splendid satisfaction is composed
as follows: Two large slices of dry breAd, two hard-boiled eggs (shells included),
one medium-sized onion, and a piece of charred bone, about walnut size.

The eggs and onions will generally provide all moisture needed to mix the mash.
These ingredients are ground up very fine in a meat-mincer. Feed this about twice
daily; the other feeds to consist of rolled oats, commercial chick-feed, or bread and
milk. It is not advisable to feed beef-scraps to little chicks under fourteen days old.
The chicks need feeding at least four times daily the first month, the amount to be
given to be judged by the attendant. By experience and observation, coupled with
intelligence, a poultryman or woman will soon be able to give the right quantity
desired at each meal. After a month's hand-feeding the chicks can be hopper-fed,
as explained in the chapter on feeding.

A good coop for hen and chicks is shown in Fig. A. This coop is easily con-
structed and may be moved about readily. It is 2 feet high in front, 15 inches high
at the back, and is 2 feet wide by 3 feet in length. The wire portion is 1 foot in
width. The board is used to cover the front at night, and utilized in the daytime to
place the food on. The board should be scrubbed at regular intervals if used for
a feed-board.

As soon as the chickens are large enough to do without the mother, say at from
five to eight weeks, the hen should be placed back in the laying-house with the adult
fowls. When the chicks get too large for the Coop A, which will be in about ten
weeks, they are put into B coop. Overcrowding of young stock is to be guarded
against, as once they get a set-back in this way it is likely to be noticed all winter.
Roup, stunted growth, bronchitis, etc., can be directly attributed to overcrowding
during growth.

The B coop in illustration will accommodate twenty chicks until full grown.

B or secondary coop. Dimensions : Length, 6 feet ; width, 2 feet 6 inches ;
height, front 2 feet 4 inches, back 18 inches. A hen's brood of chicks, at about
eight weeks of age, should be placed in here from smaller quarters, or the B
coop itself makes a splendid coop for hen and chicks from the start. When using
the coop for this purpose, the roosts can be removed, and roost-holes in ends
covered temporarily with a shingle tacked over to keep out draughts and vermin.

The coop should be moved its own length or width about twice weekly, and lime
sprinkled on land so used. When moving see that it is placed forwards or sidewards,
never backwards, as this brings the droppings to the front of the coop. In the case
of colony houses, the -manure should be collected, and taken away to compost heap,
rather than scattered around near the colony houses. The latter procedure has often
been the means of spreading epidemics amongst the flocks.

12

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.

While the law of incubation seems comparatively simple, yet the proper applica-
tion of these principles in an incubator is extremely difficult. It means a well-built
case, to withstand both moisture and changes of outside temperature; a reliable
and constant source of heat ; a uniform distribution of the heat,, so each egg gets
a uniform amount ; a sensitive and reliable regulation ; constant ventilation, and the
constant supply of humidity, to prevent the excessive evaporation of the eggs, and
withal so arranged as not to introduce undesirable factors which work injury to the
developing embryo or germ.

Briefly stated, all that is required to hatch eggs artificially is a temperature of
100^ degrees at the centre of the eggs (101 to 103 degrees by contact). At the same
time the eggs should be immersed in still air (quiescent atmosphere) containing
moisture of a relative humidity of 45 to 70 per cent. If we can believe the incubator
manufacturers, their respective machines are built so that the exact humidity neces-
sary is supplied.

This atmosphere should be changed sufficiently often to carry off the waste gases
eliminated by the eggs. Any excess of ventilation beyond this may be deleterious.

There is a great difference in the various types of incubators manufactured.
The use of the standard makes will prove more satisfactory. Many machines have
been placed on the market which will hatch successfully for one or two seasons, and

Mammoth Incubator of 10,000 eggs capacity. These machines are coming into use on
some of the larger ranches, where they are used principally for custom hatching.

then practically become worthless. They have been constructed of cheap materials,
have not been put together very well, and cannot be relied on to give satisfactory
hatches season after season. Then, again, there are some machines placed on the
market which, as regards manufacture, are all that can be desired, but fail to glv
good results simply, because the temperature-regulating device is cheap, flimsy, and
unreliable. Therefore it is wise to take no risk with inferior makes, but secure
durable and efficient machines with which to do this important work.

There are many different kinds of machines, but a description of all of them is
quite impossible in a publication of this kind. They are nearly all constructed on

13

similar principles and along tbe same lines. The majority of them receive their heat
from lamps that burn kerosene. In some places gas is being used for heating pur-
poses. Recently a few makes have been constructed with electrical attachments.
However, the employment of gas or electricity in incubators depends largely upon
local conditions, and these methods of hatching chicks will not be discussed here.
The hot-air and hot-water incubators usually hatch with equal success, each
involving the same general principles, with slight variations of minor importance.

THE LOCATION OF THE INCUBATOR.

Much depends upon the location of the incubator, for the reason that influences
external to the incubator may influence the hatch. The incubator-cellar should be
well ventilated, thus providing for an abundant supply of oxygen for the developing
chicks. Although fresh air is essential, direct draughts through the cellar should be
avoided. The cellar should be clean and sweet smelling.

The most successful incubator-rooms are built half in the ground and half above
ground, because of the more equable temperature obtained. A house 4 feet in the
ground and 3 or 4 feet above makes an ideal place for the incubator. Where this
is not possible, the incubator-house should be built on the north side of a house, barn,
or building, and the windows placed on the north side.

A house-cellar, providing it is sweet and clean, may be utilized. However, where
so done, it is advisable to apply to the fire insurance company for permission, as some
companies will not allow incubators to be operated in a house-cellar or room.

A-shape colony bouse, suitable for growing stoc k. Tbe writer has found that this type of house
affords too much surface to the sun's rays durln g the day. However, when placed under trees It
is satisfactory.

THE OPERATION OF THE INCUBATOR.

The degree of success in incubation depends to a great extent upon the operation
of the incubator for the first week. It may be well to point out that it is very
desirable, especially for amateurs, to follow the directions of the manufacturer more

14

or less closely. It is very important that the thermometer used is absolutely correct,
and should be tested before setting the machine. Most druggists or opticians will
test thermometers free, or for a nominal sum.

The incubator should be started a few days before the eggs are to be placed in
the egg-chamber, so that a temperature of 103 degrees may be readily maintained.
The temperature which the thermometer should register, however, depends somewhat
upon its position in the iucubating-chamber. The eggs should not be placed in the
incubator until a fairly uniform temperature has been maintained. An important
factor which has to do with the maintaining of a uniform temperature is the flame.
The wick of the incubator-lamp should be trimmed in such a manner as to give a
broad, even flame, the corners of which are slightly rounded. When the wick is In
use it should be trimmed in the following manner: With the fingers rub off the
charred portion carefully, and light. If an even flame does not show as the wick is
turned up, remedy the defect, and then round off the corners of the wick so that no
smoking will result.

Small colony houses in use at the Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis. Ore. The writer
would substitute cloth or glass for the hinged board shutters, preferably one of each kind.

Most of the large hatching establishments do not commence to turn eggs till
the evening of the third day. The eggs require to be turned often. The purpose
of turning them is to prevent the embryo in the egg from sticking to the shell, for
should this occur growth would be stopped. It is still an open question whether
turning eggs twice daily during incubation is sufficient. It is known that the hen
turns the eggs more than this number of times, some having been observed to con-
tinually turn the eggs. However, most authorities on the subject advise twice daily.
Where good results are obtained from this procedure, it would be unwise to depart
therefrom.

Regarding the use of moisture, experiments have proved that where moisture
has been supplied the chicks are generally larger and more vigorous. As to the
exact or proper amount of moisture to use, this is a very difficult question to answer
satisfactorily. However, it is generally conceded that to be of use the moisture needs

15

to be used right from the beginning of the hatch. Several large operators state it as
their opinion that along the Coast and on Vancouver Island moisture is not needed
owing to the heavy rainfall, and others yet again declare that they use moisture and
get better results in these same districts than they did when operating their machine
without moisture.

It has been proved by exhaustive experiments that the evaporation of eggs
during artificial incubation is greater than by natural methods, and to even up this
evaporation the supplying of moisture is the only solution thus far advanced.

Some machines are equipped with moisture-pans, and others classed as non-
moisture incubators are not provided with this apparatus. Where it is decided to
apply moisture, this can be done by procuring a shallow pan, about 1 inch in depth,
or several small pans. Where one pan is used, it is important that the pan should
be at least an inch less in length and width than the bottom of the incubator to
allow proper ventilation. The pan should always be supplied with water, for should
it run dry it is liable to affect the temperature adversely.

Regarding the practice of cooling the eggs, no set rules can be laid down as to
the exact time to be allowed for cooling. Some operators get good results without
cooling, others with slight cooling, and yet, again, others cool very freely and get
satisfactory results. A lot depends on the time of year, whether the machine has
been overheated or the reverse, temperature of the room, and also age of eggs, as
to how long it is advisable to cool. Should cooling be practised, it is the general
rule to cool very little the first week, and gradually increase the period up to the
night of the seventeenth day, after which the eggs should not be disturbed.

A flock of birds the picture of health and vigour, a combination exemplified wherever
proper attention, right feeding, and sufficient free range is provided.

It has been found that where an incubator-room temperature is above 70 degrees,
the ventilators of an incubator are not of much avail for furnishing additional venti-
lation ; but where the room temperature is low — from, say, 55 degrees to as low as
45 degrees — the ventilators will be found much more effective.

Whilst cooling the eggs it is advisable, especially in a cool room, to cover the
eggs with a blanket, and also to see that the tray does not overlap the incubator-top.
Eggs thus exposed get chilled much quicker than the rest of the tray, and may be
injuriously affected thereby.

The chicks should not be removed from the incubator till at least twelve hours
after the last chick has hatched, but the tray and shells may be removed as soon
as the chicks are dry. This will give the chicks more room. Great care should be

16

taken not to overheat the chicks whilst they are in the incubator. In hot weather
it may be necessary to open the door an inch or so to provide additional ventilation.
Chicks should on uo account be allowed to pant. This is the primary cause of much,
mortality by lung-affections.

TESTING.

The germ will show signs of development within a few hours of its first exposure
to heat. It is not until about the fourth or fifth day that any marked difference
between fertile and unfertile eggs may be detected with the naked eye. The unfertile
eggs and those with dead germs are usually tested out twice during the hatch, on the
seventh and sixteenth days generally. The process of testing is simple, and after a
little experience is easily acquired. The appearance of the egg can be clearly seen
when placed between the light of the tester and the eye.

When testing, care should be taken to see that the eggs are not held too close to
the tester. If this precaution is not taken, the heat generated by the testing-lamp
will kill the germ. Temperatures of 150 to ISO degrees have been obtained by
holding thermometers for a few seconds against the mouth of the tester.

When testing, the egg should be lifted straight from the tray to the lamp with-
out turning or twisting, because by so doing the yolk is frequently ruptured.

ARTIFICIAL BROODING.

There are many different methods employed in the brooding of chicks. The
advantages and disadvantages of these methods will be pointed out. The main
things in artificial brooding is sufficient even temperature and cleanliness. Little

Colony houses and hen-coops on free range. A cornfield makes Ideal range for
poultry, giving plenty of shade, and owing to continual cultivation needed during
the major portion of growth, provides chicks with an Incalculable quantity of animal
food. The corn acts as a splendid protection from hawks and crows.

chicks three or four days old are fairly hardy creatures, but when placed under
extreme conditions weakness or death is sure to follow. The chick's lungs are
situated along the spinal column, and are protected only by a thin membraneous
lining over which a light covering of feathers grow. Provided with such meagre
protection, the lungs may become readily chilled or overheated. An even tempera-
ture, with as few variations as possible, is most desirable. The brooder should be
started up a day or two before the chicks are ready to be placed in it, so that an
even temperature of about 95 degrees may be maintained. This temperature should

17

be gradually lowered, and it depends upon the season of the year just how much it
should be lowered. The poultryman must use his judgment and operate the brooder
according to the condition of the chicks.- Many poultrymen use no thermometer in
their brooders. They study the chicks, and can tell by looking at them if the tem-
perature is right. This emphasizes the fact that for best success the poultryman
must understand his business.

If a brooder has contained chicks before, it should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected before putting in a new brood, both to discourage lice and to kill any
disease germs that might be lurking in the cracks and corners. Scrub thoroughly
with hot water, in which has been placed good commercial disinfectant or cresol
soap. The brooder should be thoroughly dried before the chicks are placed inside.

In the round hover, instead of gradually reducing the temperature by changing
the regulator, it is preferable to tuck up the curtain a little at a time as the chicks
increase in age, and give them more air, which has the advantage of reducing the
temperature, and the fresh air aids to quick development and hardiness.

THE COLONY SYSTEM.

The majority of poultry-breeders employ the colony system in brooding their
chicks. The individual hover is used probably more than any other. This hover
may be placed in almost any kind of a house, and is sometimes used in long con-
tinuous brooder-houses. It gives very good satisfaction, and is easily operated.
About fifty or sixty, and with some hovers seventy-five, chicks may be brooded under
one hover until they are five or six weeks old. In the case of colony houses, the
hover can then be removed and roosts placed in position.

Combination colony brooder-house, breeding or laying pen. The
house In Illustration Is 8 feet deep and 16 feet long, and will accom-
modate up to 300 chicks ; Is built upon two 4 x 4-inch runners, and
has two sliding windows in front. Can be used as a primary brooder
till chicks are past the danger-point, i.e., the first fourteen days ; and
they can then be removed to colony houses on free range. When used
for this purpose, the house can be stationed close to farm buildings
and enable rancher to pay more attention to chicks with less labour
and time than when they are out on free range.

To save the expense of a brooder-house for comparatively early spring work,
when the weather is bad, and before green food is available on the range, colony
houses can be brought up near the farm buildings. The limit of time for caring for
the chicks can be much reduced by this method. As soon as the weather moderates,
however, it is very desirable that the chicks be placed out upon the open range.

The house in the illustration is 8 x 16 feet, and will hold four hovers, with a
capacity of fifty chicks in each. This can be utilized as a breeding-pen, laying-pen,
or cockerel-pen later on. Twenty or twenty-five birds can be easily accommodated.
This house can be readily moved by a team of horses. The advantages of the colony-
house brooding system over the permanent continuous brooder-house are that no
permanent wire fencing is needed, except a small portable fence of 2-foot %-inch

18

mesh wire, to be used for a day or two when the chicks are first put in the brooder ;
they can be moved to any part of the ranch, thus giving the chicks the benefit of
clean virgin soil and free range. On the other hand, a hot-water pipe brooder-house
can only be used during the hatching period. It is generally not suitable to place
half-grown or mature fowls in, because of the danger from lice, red mites, or disease,
and lack of sufficient ventilation for large fowls.

An illustration is given of a combination colony house that can be used with an
individual hover in rearing young chicks or for growing stock upon the open range.
In the winter-time it may be used for a laying-house. This house can be closed
during early spring work for rearing young chicks, and ventilation secured through
a cloth screen, which can take the place of the tight-board shutter as seen in the
illustration. When used for growing stock or laying hens, the windows and screens
are opened, so as to make it practically any open-front colony house. The colony
houses may be put upon runners, so as to be drawn readily from place to place.
The colony house should not be less than 6x6 feet, 6x8 feet, or 8 x 10 feet in
size. Permanent colony houses are usually 8 x 16 feet in size.

A good type of colony house. Measurements, 6 feet long, 8 feet deep,
6 feet 6 inches in front, 4 feet 6 inches rear. Colony houses can be hauled
to any part of the ranch, thus giving young or old stock opportunity to rai
on clean soil. Can be used as cockerel, pullet, or breeding bouses after chickens
are matured. The top shutter or board window makes a splendid hood or rain-
shield and can be changed to a muslin-curtain screen if desired.

After the chicks are a month old, the house can be raised up about a foot from
the ground, providing splendid shade for the chickens, and also preventing rats or
vermin from sheltering underneath.

Where chicks are raised on free range in this fashion, the labour of daily feec
ing can be dispensed with by means of hopper-feeding. A large barrel or cask can
also be utilized to hold a sufficient quantity of water to last for several days. A
sprinkling of permanganate potash crystals now and again will keep the water
good condition.

Sunflowers or corn can be grown, and even potatoes or cabbages, on ram
same time as the chickens. Sunflowers or corn make splendid shade, and are a great
protection against hawks, owls, blue-jays, etc. The constant cultivation needed 1
crops of this kind afford the chickens every facility to secure the abundan(

19

worms and insects turned up by the cultivator. An orchard is also an ideal location,
especially if clover or alfalfa is available.

Where vermin abound it is advisable to shut chickens up at nights, and set
traps to catch the marauders. For skunks, minks, and weasels, a portion of chicken
carcass, sprinkled with strychnine crystals, is recommended. This should be placed
near coop at night, and remains carefully removed before letting out the chicks.
Dogs and cats should be kept shut up when this remedy is used.

For hawks, owls, and crows, an ordinary mink-trap, securely fastened to the top
of a pole some 20 feet high, is recommended. The trap need not be baited. A rusty
trap is more effective than a bright new one.

White strings festooned across the front of houses on sticks is successful in
warding off hawks. It has been stated that the presence of guinea fowl will scare
hawks from the poultry-yards. In the writer's experience this has proved a complete
failure. Hawks were seen to repeatedly seize chicks within a few feet of a flock of
guinea fowl.

Fireless brooders have not given universal satisfaction. One poultry-breeder in
California used the fireless brooders with excellent success for two years, though the
chicks were hatched later in the season than usual. It was tried again last year,
early in the season, and was a total failure. The great difficulty is to keep the
brooder perfectly dry. It is doubtful if the " fireless " system would prove satis-
factory in this Province, with its moist climate ; certainly not with the early hatches.

These chicks are all of one age, and affords an illustration of what sometimes happens
when pullets' eggs are used for hatching; eggs from forced stock; inbred fowls; lice-infested
chicks ; improperly fed or improperly boused breeding stock.

Another system of brooding chicks involves the use of gasolene. The chief
feature of this system is that the cost of brooding is materially lessened. Also there
is less labour, since 150 or 200 chicks may be brooded together. The gasolene is
placed in a tank considerably above the burner, and is connected with the burner
by the use of %-inch pipes. The burner is placed under the brooder-house, directly
under the middle of the circular drum. The drum is fastened to the hover, which
may be round or otherwise, and which is hinged to the side of the house. Gas which
is generated from the gasolene is ignited at the burner, and this heats the drum,

20

a flue passing through the floor into the centre of the drum. An outlet at the back
of the drum connects with a flue running up the back of the house which allows
fumes to pass off. The temperature may be controlled by the use of thermostats.
This system involves the same principles as in the round-hover brooding.

Instead of using gasolene with the galvanized-iron drum, the same kind of a
brooder may be heated by means of hot-water pipes. One-inch pipes run lengthwise
of the hover, being slightly lower at one end than the other. At the low end, heat
is supplied either by kerosene or coal.

Many poultrynien of California have discarded this method, and have adopted
the comparatively new method of " room " brooding. This brooder-house is generally
20 feet long by 12 wide, and is divided into two equal parts. In each room is a
distillate burner, which heats the room for about 1,000 to 1,400 chickens. In the
upper right-hand corner is placed a galvanized-iron tank. This is the supply-tank
for the burner. Three grades of oil — engine, No. 28, and No. 34 — may be used, but
the engine-oil is more satisfactory than either of the other grades. All of these
grades are extracts of the crude oil. From the supply-tank the oil passes through
pipes under the floor to the burner. The burner is in the centre of the stove, and
from the base of the stove a pipe reaches up to and through the ceiling. About
3 feet from the floor a large umbrella-shaped hover is attached to the pipe. When
the burner has become sufficiently hot to convert the oil into gas, the burner-valve
is turned on and the gas is ignited. The adoption of this method would only be
justified on large poultry plants. There are quite a number of the room brooders in
use in the Province at the present time. In some cases the owners have reverted
back to the small individual hover, and in others the owners swear by the room-
brooder method.

An expensive way of raising chicks. Chicks kept in such small
quarters cost more to rear, inasmuch as everything they consume
has to be provided for them, and in addition the ground becomes
" chicken-tainted," causing disease and mortality. In such quarters
chicks need to be supplied with green food. There is no comparison
as regards constitution, vigour, and size, between chicks reared in
such quarters and those raised on free range, such as orchard, corn,
or pasture land.

THE CONTINUOUS OR PIPE BROODER SYSTEM.

This system is quite often practised on extensive poultry-farms, while, on the
other hand, the round hovers and other brooders originally adapted for the colony
system are often installed in a continuous house. The larger the number of chicks
that can be brooded together without doing any injury to one another, the less will
be the cost. It is very doubtful if 1,000 to 1,500 chicks can be brooded together witl
entire satisfaction to the majority of breeders.

21

On large plants, where chicks are to be raised on a large scale, the brooder-house
heated by hot-water pipes is one of the most economical. In this case, only one
building is required, and all the work to be done in caring for the chicks can be
done in the one place. There is only one fire to tend, and the work of feeding and
watering the chicks can be done much easier than wlien the chicks are scattered
about in individual brooders. However, there is no doubt but that the chicks have
a little better chance in the colony brooders, for they are kept in small numbers,
have less restricted range, and have a better chance to pick up more of their living.
The furnace for heating purposes is usually situated in the basement, at one end of
the brooder-house. The pipes run from the furnace to the other end of the house
and return. The pipes may be of any size, the 1-inch and 2-inch sizes being most
frequently used. These pipes, two " outflows " and two " inflows " or more, if neces-
sary, run parallel to one another the length of the house, and are about 6 inches
above the floor. In some brooder-houses the pipes are higher at the extreme end
of the building than where they enter the furnace. This allows for graduted heat
for chicks of different ages.

The runs attached to permanent brooder-houses should be of generous size.
Many poultry men in the past have not provided sufficient yard-room for brooder-
chicks. Whatever size the yards may be, they should be frequently disinfected by
air-slaked lime, dug up, and some quick-growing grain or vegetable planted, such as
wheat, oats, rye, kale, millet, or rape. The latter is mostly used.

Fig. G. — A good serviceable grain-hopper. Can be made to any size, with parti-
tion running longitudinally down centre — one side being utilized for cracked or
whole grain, the other for dry mash.

ADDITIONAL METHODS OF FEEDING.

No. 1. Whole-wheat bread is fed for the first day or two, and is gradually
substituted by johnny-cake. After a few days, cracked corn and cracked wheat are
fed. The johnny-cake is made of five parts cornmeal, one part wheat middlings, and
one part beef-scrap, with a little soda mixed with sour milk and steamed until
thoroughly cooked. Another johnny-cake is made of 2^ quarts of bran, 2^ quarts
of cornmeal, 2 quarts of ground oats sifted, 1 quart of clover-meal. These are mixed
with milk or water, with a pinch of soda added. Mix the whole thoroughly into a
stiff dough and bake three to six hours in a slow oven.

No. 2. Feed cracker-crumbs or dried bread-crumbs, thoroughly mixed with finely
chopped, hard-boiled eggs. There should be four or five times as much crumbs as
there is egg. Pinhead oatmeal or rolled oats are also used. The chicks are fed this
several times a day, and after a time cracked grains are fed.

22

No. 3. This method has been advocated by the Maine Experimental Station.
Bread is made of a mixture of three parts cornmeal, one part wheat-bran, and one
part wheat middlings or flour. This is mixed with milk or water and salt is added.
It is well baked in a slow oven. The infertile eggs are boiled until hard, and are
finely ground, shell and all. One part ground egg and four parts bread-crumbs are
then mixed together, and run through a sausage-mill. The chicks are fed in the
morning and at night on the bread-and-egg mixture. From after the morning feed
until night they scratch in the litter for the dry cracked grain or chick-food which is
provided for them. The egg mixture is used for about two weeks, after which time
grains and mashes are used.

No. 4. From the first, the chicks are fed cracked wheat and finely cracked corn.
This is scattered in the litter, and rolled oats are fed once or twice a day. In about
two weeks a dry mash consisting of two parts cornmeal, three parts bran, two parts
finely crushed oats, sifted, one part middlings, and one part beef-scraps is placed
before the chicks.

No. 5. While the foregoing methods have commendable features, the following,
though simple and involving less labour, gives good results and is much more satis-
factory in feeding large flocks. During the first two or three days after feeding
commences, the chicks are fed some good commercial " chick-feed " or a mixture of
finely cracked corn and cracked wheat. In California they add to this cracked rice.
The chicks are given this mixture several times a day. It is scattered in the litter
and they scratch vigorously for it. After two or three days, they are given a dry
mash. There is no one best mash, though some are superior to others. A very good
mash is composed of two parts of bran, one part cornmeal, one part crushed oats,
and one part beef-scraps. This mash should be fed in a hopper similar to that shown
in Fig. G. When feeding this mash for the first time, it is best to give it immediately
after they have had a good feed of their regular cracked-grain ration. This will
tend to keep the chicks from overeating the dry mash, and they will become accus-
tomed to feeding from the hopper regularly. It is sometimes advisable to run the
dry-mash mixture through a sieve for the first few feedings. The chicks thrive
well on this combination ration. Some poultrymen in California and other places
add rolled oats to the cracked-grain mixture. Rolled oats forms one of the best
chick-feeds, and is comparatively inexpensive. Along with the cracked grains and
dry niash, green food in the form of kale or lettuce should be given. Grit, fine
particles of oyster-shell, and clean water should be kept before the chicks at all
times.

BULLETINS ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 7. — Flax.

„ 8. — Feeding Farm Animals.
„ 22. — New British Columbia.
„ 25. — Orchard Cleansing.
„ 26. — Practical Poultry Raising.
„ 30. — Guide to Bee-keeping in British Columbia.
,. 32. — Control of Tuberculosis.

„ 33. — Fruit-growing Possibilities of the Skeena River.
„ 34. — Black-spot Canker.
„ 35. — Place and Purpose of Family Life.
„ 36.— Preparation of Food.
„ 37. — Preservation of Food.
„ 38. — Construction of Silos.

.. 39. — Natural and Artificial Incubation and Brooding.
„ 40.— Alfalfa.
., 41. — Labour-saving Devices.
,, 42. — Agriculture in British Columbia.
„ 43. — Women's Institute Work in British Columbia.
„ 44. — Irrigation in British Columbia.
„ 45.— Agricultural Statistics, 1911.

Tobacco-culture.

Cultivation of Fruit-trees in Cold Climates.

List of Poultry-breeders.
,. 46.— Food and Diet. Part I.
., 47.— Food and Diet. Part II.
„ 48. — Exhibiting Fruit and Vegetables.

Market Poultry.

Care and Marketing of Eggs.

CIRCULARS.

No. 1. — Tuberculosis in Poultry.
„ 2. — Fresh-air Brooders.

„ 3. — Clearing Logged-off Lands and Charpitting Up-to-date.
„ 4.— Field-crop Competitions. 1912.
„ 5. — Management of Turkeys.

Applications for bulletins published by the Department of Agriculture should
be addressed to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.

VICTORIA. B.C.:

Printed by WILLIAM H. CULLIN, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

1914.

24

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