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THE

Seer URAL HISTOR Y

Be aoiiektcoe cod? ©,

CONTAINING

A DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY, AND THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL
PRODUCTIONS IN ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD.

TOGETHER WITH

AN ACCOUNT OF THE. CLIMATE, INHABITANTS, AND DISEASES;
PARTICULARLY OF THE PLAGUE.

Bx ALEX...RUSSELL, M.D.

EHE SECOND “EDITION.

REVISED, ENLARGED, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH NOTES.

Peer nt. RUSSELL, M. D.:'& F.R. 5.

V OL, -&

LONDON:

Printep For G.G. anp J. Rosinson, PATER-NOSTER-ROW.

1794+

Complete set - S.B.N. = 0:5 mt
This volume oo - eal 03201,

Republished in 1969 by Greer International P lis
Westmead, pata Hants., England
reowesarTatl . exinoH res
Printed in offset by rece Wolf, Heppenheim/ Berg.
Western Germany

THE

Pea § O R’s. PRK F ACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

MID the fatigues of an extenfive Pra@ice in his Fro-
feflion, in a Country where much time mutt be facri-
ficed to the medical attendance expeéted by Perfons of the
higher Clafs, the Author of The Natural Hiftory of Aleppo,
with difficulty found leifure to fketch the introduétory part of
his Work. But he confidered it of importance to commit his
Remarks to paper, while impreflions were frefh, and he had
an opportunity, on the fpot, of rectifying errors, as well as
of profecuting fuch further inquiries as new objects fhould
fuggeft.

The arrangement of materials thus promifcuoufly accumu-
lated, was little attended to; being referved for future hours
of leifure, which he flattered himfelf with hopes of enjoying at
one time or other. In this expectation, however, it was his
lot to be difappointed; as he foon after his arrival in England
in 1754, found his fituation more diftant than ever from the
quiet of retirement; and after a flight revifal of his papers,
was too eafily perfuaded to haften their publication.

Though his work met with an indulgent reception, the
Author himfelf was fenfible of the advantages he had loft, by not
beftowing more pains on its preparation for the Prefs; and from

a2 that.

PR E FB Sac. 2.

that time he meditated a New Edition, which he conceived
might be introduced with confiderable improvement, in point
of arrangement, as well as by additions to fuch parts as ap-
peared to be defeétive.

In matters of Faé, little occurred for correétion; but he
difcovered in feveral inftances, that he was liable to the impu-
tation of being obfcure by endeavouring to be concife; or that
by fuppofing his Reader already informed of matters familiar
to himfelf, he had fometimes omitted circumftances in his de-
{criptions, which perfpicuity required to be inferted.

He found reafon alfo to regret the reftraint he had impofed
upon himfelf, in his account of the Oriental cuftoms, by con-
fidering it as chiefly fubfervient to the medical part of his
Work. He knew that the Polity and Manners of the Turks
had been amply defcribed by feveral refpeétable Writers; but
he had frequent occafion to remark in converfation, that many
domeftic minutiz, lying lefs in the way of Travellers, had
cither efcaped notice altogether, or been erroneoufly reprefent-
ed: while their utility, from their connexion with Scriptural
Hiftory, rendered them interefting to the Curious.

It being expedient in the profecution of his plan, to maintain
acorrefpondence for procuring additional information from
Syria, he communicated his intentions to the prefent Editor,
who had lived with him feveral years at Aleppo, and who in
17:53, fucceeded him as Phyfician to the Britifh Factory.

By the earlieft opportunity after the publication of his Book,
he tranfmitted a copy to Aleppo, accompanied with a requeft

to the following purpofe, ‘‘ That the whole fhould be critic-

“ally

Bol RO EAF WAS CAE:

‘© ally perufed; that inaccuracies of every kind fhould be
“noted, and inquiry made into all fuch matters as feemed
<¢ dubious; that corrections or additions fhould be fuggefted
‘¢ with unreferved freedom; and that by attention to objects of
*« Natural Hiftory, every afliftance fhould be given to render
‘¢ that part of his Work lefs defective.’—The requeft of a
Brother, not lefs endeared by efteem, than by the ties of na-
tural affection, met with ready compliance; and had ability
been equal to inclination, the communications from Syria, in the
courfe of a correfpondence of fourteen years, would have been
more important than in reality they proved to be.

The death of the Author, in 1768, caufed a temporary in-
terruption of ftudies, which his Brother found himfelf unable
to refume, without fuffering, by affociation, many painful re-
collections, which for a long while, too fenfibly perhaps,
affected his mind.

In the year 1771, the Editor having protracted his ftay on
the Continent, in his return from Aleppo, and various obfta-
cles intervening after his arrival in Britain, feveral years elapfed
before he had an opportunity of examining the papers, be-
queathed to him by his deceafed Brother; among which
were found the following Manufcripts. The Natural Hiftory,
with a few marginal alterations. A Diary of the progrefs of
the Plague in 1742, 1743, and 17443; Journals of Peftilcntial
Cafes; and The Meteorological Regifter for ten Years. He
found alfo feveral of his.own Letters from Syria, in anfwer to
Queries fent to him at different times from England.

The pleafure excited on the difcovery of thefe Materials,
was foon checked by the reflection, that he who could beft
have

PA RO EAPWAR CALE:

have reduced them into order, was in the Grave !—The profe-
cution of his Brother’s Plan, now forcibly {truck the Editor,
in the light of a debt due to friendfhip; but the difcharge of
it was often procraftinated, and entered upon at laft, with
fome hefitation. Cheerfully would he have continued to la-
bour as an afliftant; but his f{pirits were depreffed at the
thoughts of the Tafk devolving fingly on himfelf: while,
difident of his own powers, it was not eafy at all times, to
fupprefs an apprehenfion, that, by his defective execution of
the Work, he might injure the Memory of a Friend, whom
his Affection, as well as Gratitude, wifhed to honour.

The Editor has entered into the above explanation of his
connexion with the Author, as on that muft be founded his
apology (fhould one be wanting) for the unreferved liberty he
has taken in new modelling the Performance of another.—
It remains to give fome Account of the Alterations and Addi-
tions, contained in the prefent Edition.

The various Topics which were difperfed through the Firft
Book of the former Edition, have been collected and arranged
under feparate Chapters: a deviation from the mifcellaneous
mode formerly adopted, which rendered it neceflary to make
numerous additionsto the Text. But care has been taken in the
infertion of thefe, to affimilate them as nearly as poffible with
the ideas of the Author; keeping in view his primary intention
of rendering the Introduétioi fubfervient to the Medical part
of his Work. In a few inftances, where it was thought he
had been mif-informed, or where fome material correétion of
the Fext has be.n admitted, an Explanatory Note is either fub-

joined

Pak PAF GRE CAES

joined at the bottom of the page, or placed among the Notes
at the end of the Volume.

The prefent Work is divided into Six Books.

The Firft Book contains a Defcription of the City and its
Environs; of the Seafons, Agriculture, and Gardens.

The Second contains a general Account of the Inhabitants;
a more particular Defcription of the Manners and Cuftoms of
the Mohammedans; of the interior of the Turkifh Harem;
and a Sketch of the Government of the City.

The Third contains an Account of the European Inhabi-
tants; of the native Chriftians and Jews; and of the prefent
State of Arab Literature in Syria.

The Fourth Book is wholly employed on the remaining
branches of Natural Hiftory, and treats of indigenous Quadru-
peds, Birds, Fifhes, Infeéts, and Plants.

The Fifth contains Meteorological Obfervations; with an
Account of the Epidemical Difeafes at Aleppo, during the
Author’s Refidenee there.

The Sixth and laft Book, treats folely of the Plague; and
the Method purfued by the Europeans for their prefervation.

To each Volume are added Notes and Illuftrations, with
an Appendix.

The Defcription of the City may appear unnecefiarily prolix,
if it is not recolleéted that fome previous acquaintance with
Diftriés or local Situations, are requifite for underftanding the
progrefs of the Plague: a confideration which induced the
Editor toadd a Plan of the City, procured from his refpected
friend M. Niebuhr, who kindly communicated one which had

been

Vil

Vill

PU RVEAP YAR,

been engraved for his own Work, but was never publifhed:
an obligation I take this public method of acknowledging.

The only additions made to this Plan, are the Names of the
Hills, and of certain Streets and Diftri€ts, in the Town and
Suburbs, from the Editor’s Notes and recollection. The view
of the City prefixed to the Work, was taken from an original
Painting now in his pofleffion.

Names of Public Buildings, Public Offices, of Animals, Vege-
tables, and various domeftic articles, are occafionally fubjoined
in Arabic, as vulgarly written without the vowel points; but,
fhould the frequent admiflion of exotic chara¢ters, feem to de-
form the page, thofe will be difpofed to excufe it, who have
found themfelves embarraffed by the difcordance in the Ortho-
graphy of Oriental words: not only among Travellers of
different Nations, but among contemporary writers in the

fame language.

With refpeé& to the pronunciation as expreffed in Roman
characters, I have endeavoured, as far as my ear and memory
would enable me, to adhere to the vulgar ufage at Aleppo,
without regard to the ftrict analogy of correfpondent Letters
in the two Alphabets. The A, except fometimes in the ar-
ticle Al, is always pronounced broad, and the I final is gene-
rally to be read as double E (ce).

The Catalogue of Plants, growing in the vicinity of Aleppo,
will be found to have undergone material alteration, and to
be much improved. But it is my duty to acknowledge that
this is to be afcribed to the friendly affiftance of Sir Jofeph
Banks, (and the late Doctor Solander,) who, with their ufual
readinefs to countenance every attempt tending to the advance-

ment

Ree wf A © #.

ment of Natural Hiftory, beftowed many hours on the exa-
mination of a large Collection of Specimens from Syria; and,

after correcting numberlefs errors in the former arrangement,
compofed the claflical catalogue now fubftituted for the old
one.

Some of the other claffes in Natural Hiftory, particularly
thofe of Reptiles and Infe&s, remain nearly in the fame de-
fective {tate as in the former Edition; owing partly to the
difficulty for many years paft, of procuring fpecimens from
Syria: which is the more to be regretted, as the Britifh
fettlement at Aleppo having lately been relinquifhed, there
is no profpect of future information, but from tranfient
travellers.

Since the beginning of the 17th Century, the Curious in
Europe, owe moft of what they have learned relating to
modern Syria, either to the cafual remarks of mercantile Gen-
tlemen fettled abroad, or to the refearches of a few more in-
quifitive travellers. The former often poffeffed the advantage
of fpeaking the Arabic, but were little verfed in Natural
Hiftory and Antiquities ; the latter though better qualified for
inquiry by preparatory ftudies, may be fuppofed from ignorance
of the language, to have been fometimes led into error by
the menial fervants, on whofe fidelity, as Interpreters, they are
ufually obliged to rely: while from the mode of travelling,
and their fhort ftay in places, fuch matters were left uncx-
plored, as, requiring a greater length of time to inveftigate,
more naturally became fit objects for perfons refident in the

country.
Vou. I. b Du.-ing

PR Eck £7008

During a long refidence abroad, the Editor was often. led
to think that a {mall collection of Books on Aftronomy,
ancient Geography, and Natural Hiftory, together with a few
Inftruments, might advantageoufly have been placed in the
Libraries of the Levant Company, at their principal Settle-
ments ; to which might be added, heads of inquiry adapted
to the refpedtive ftations, under the form of Queries. At the
fame time, it feems advifeable that the progrefs already made in
the fubjeé& fhould be pointed out, with fuch Books as might
aftord auxiliary hints.

By affiftance of this kind, fome of the Gentlemen fettled
abroad, would be induced to dedicate a portion of their
leifure to purfuits, of which they otherwife would never have
thought: while that difcouragement would be leffened, which,
in fituations remote from literary communication, is produced
by the apprehenfion of felecting from the various local objeéts
of refearch, fuch as are already fuffciently known in Europe ;
and of wafting in fuperfluous labour, that time which, under
proper direétion, might have been ufefully employed.

In confequence of fuch an eftablifhment, the fubjeéts of
refearch, contracted within narrower bounds, would be pur-
fued with more vigour; and perfons abroad, being more con-
fident of their communications proving acceptable in Europe,
would more readily tranfmit their obfervations.

The negle& of inquiries, when in Syria, from a miftaken
notion of their being unneceflary, becaufe already made, is
now with regret remembered by the Editor; and conceiving
the like apprehenfion may have becn experienced at other
Britifh fettlements in remote parts of the Globe, he is per-

fuaded that a well concerted Plan of the nature fugzgefted
above,

rR B wa CS EK

above, might be widely extended, and conduce greatly to
the improvement of Natural Hiftory.

The account of the domeftic manners of the inhabitants of
Aleppo, has for reafons already mentioned, been much extend-
ed. But it is the wifh of the Editor, not to be underftood as
infinuating that the additional circumftances incorporated with
the text are altogether new. He is not ignorant that fome of
them have not only been mentioned by former travellers, but
have alfo been more circumftantially defcribed; nor is he in-
fenfible, that his reading is far from being fufficiently extenfive,
to warrant him in thinking that thofe facts have never been
publifhed, which he has not happened to meet with in Books.
What he has added, is either from his own experience, or from
verbal information collected on the {pot ; his remarks may there-
fore be confidered, as accidentally confirming the teftimony of
thofe travellers, with whofe obfervations they may happen to
coincide. Inthe mean while, the fault of blending the different
orders of Society, in the defcription of Eaftern Manners, which
has too often juftly been imputed to travellers, and from which
the contradictory defcriptions, refpeéting the economy of the
higher ranks, have chiefly proceeded, has feduloufly been

avoided.

By the additions regarding the religion of the Mohamme-
dans, it was intended to exhibit a concife account of their re-
ligious practices, without entering into a detail of their rites
and ceremonies. Their {peculative Theology and Metaphyfics
have been left untouched; but a few ftri€tures on what feemed

b2 to

Xil

PR 2 Fie Ge

to be prejudices, or inferences rafhly drawn from external
appearances, have been inferted among the Notes.

Whatever is faid refpeéting the Polity of the Turks, fhould
be underftood in a fenfe reftri@ed to a Provincial City, as well
as to the magiftrates placed at a diftance from the immediate
control of the Porte: whence -peculiarities, in their nature
merely local, may probably be remarked.

Should the charaéter drawn of the Turks, and the other
inhabitants of Aleppo, be found fomewhat different from that
in which they fometimes have been reprefented, it fhould be
recollected that in the lapfe of years, national manners undergo
a change, even in the Eaft; and that the fame objeéts make a
very different imprefiion, when viewed tranfiently, or at leifure.
The Editor, though he can fafely difclaim intentional mifre-
prefentation, aiferts his pretenfions to impartiality with more
diffidence: fenfible as he is, of the extreme difficulty of di-
vefting one’s felf of prejudices contraéted in familiar intercourfe
with the Natives, in a long feries of years; and convinced
that opinions formed of Men and Manners, from private ex-
perience, muft inevitably in the reprefentation to others, take
fome tincture from the obferver’s condition of life, as well as
from his conftitutional temper.

The Author, in conformity to his general Plan, was very
brief in his account of the Harem. The Editor therefore,
availing himfelf of a licence affumed on other occafions, has
entered more at large on a fubject of general curiofity, and but
imperfeétly known in Britain.

For

a pRD fa ed AAT eC

For many years before he engaged in the prefent Work,
he had little leifure for perufing the journals of Eaftern
travellers; and after his return to Britain, he refolved, with a
view to avoid blending matters collected from reading, with
what might be fuggefted by his experience in Turkey, not to
look into Books of Travels, till he fhould have fketched from
recollection, all he meant to infert as fupplementary to his
Brother’s Book. It was his intention after this, to perufe as
many as time would permit, and comparing them with his own
Manufcript as he proceeded, to note down fuch circumftances
as fhould appear to him new, doubtful, or erroneous.

In this courfe of reading, fome of the early travels were
perufed with much fatisfaction. The writers, though credu-
lous in fome things, were generally found correct in thofe
matters which fell under their own obfervation ; and however
miftaken zeal might fometimes betray them into mifreprefen-
tation of the religion and moral practice of the Mohammedans,
their prejudices did not perhaps influence their accounts of the
manners of the people, more than fubtile Theories of civil
Society have, in modern times, influenced the obfervations of
fome more philofophical travellers.

If the Editor had fometimes the mortification to find him-
felf under the neceflity of differing from writers whofe accu-
racy he refpeéted, he often on the other hand, had the fatif-
faction to find them, in the moft material circumftances, agree
with the Author, and himfelf, and occafionally prove more full
than either. In the firft cafe, a note was fufficient to explain,
or reconcile the difference; and in the fecond, references
to fuch Authors whofe defcriptions feemed to be moft exaét,
were all that was required.

Where

Xiil

XIV

PP!) RE ie Gar

Where he met with circumftances, which he did not before
know had been detailed in Books, it was not confidered
as a reafon for defacing his Manufcript: the analogous paffage
was permitted to remain in its place, and in fome inftan-
ces confirmed by citing the concordant teftimony in a note.
It was not meant to rejeét whatever had been faid before, for
that reafon only; but to give a concife account of the Inha-
bitants of an Afiatic City, holding many things in common
with a mighty people, whofe general cuftoms have often been
defcribed.

In colleéting materials for the intended notes, various matters
prefented themfelves for difcuffion, which required more room
than could well be afforded at the bottom of the page, with-
out rifk of diftra@ting the attention of the Reader. Hence
naturally arofe a diftinétion between fuch Notes as more im-
mediately tended to elucidate the Text, and fuch as, though
alfo illuftrative, were fo in a more remote degree. With re-
fpect to the firft, they are progreflively fubjoined to the Text,
or fimple references are made to Authors: as to the latter,
which are difpofed at the end of each Volume, a greater latitude
of citation was admitted ; hiftorical anecdotes, and allufions
were introduced more freely; and fome of them, being intend-
ed for thofe Readers who may be difpofed to purfue the fub-
ject farther than the Text intended to go, may be perufed, or
not, at the option of the reader.

The chapter on Literature might have been rendered much
more interefting, by one more converfant in Oriental Learning.
All the Editor has prefumed to attempt, is fuch an imperfe&
account, as a very moderate knowledge of the Arabic language,
enabled him to colleé& in converfation with the Ullama*. A

* Literati.

fketch

rR £ FOS eve.

fketch of Arabic learning; not as preferved in the neglected
volumes of ancient Authors, but as it exifts at prefent at
Aleppo. To this fketch are added copious Notes, compiled
from various Books; and in the Appendix to the Second Vo-
lume, a Lift is given of the principal Arab Medical Writers,
together with fome hiftorical remarks: and likewife a com-
prefled account of the introdudtion of the Greek Phyfic among
the Saracens in Spain.

It may here be proper to deprecate the feverity of the
Orientalift, for Typographical errors in the Arabic words,
which the Editor is afraid, notwithftanding the pains taken to
prevent them, will too frequently occur.

The Fifth Book, which commences with an account of the
weather, was found on revifal, to require little or no correc-
tion; a few remarks only, fuggefted by fubfequent obfervation,
have been added in the form of Notes.

The influence that may be afcribed to the weather, whether
in the production of Epidemical Difeafes, or in the fpreading
fuch as are contagious, can only be afcertained by a long
feries of impartial obfervations. To fill up, therefore, the
chafm in the former Edition, occafioned by the omiffion of
three years, an account of the weather in that interval, ex-
tracted from the original Meteorological Regifter, has been in-
ferted in its proper place.

The Author himfelf having beftowed more pains on the
Medical, than on the other parts of his work, little was left
for the Editor, befides the neceflary tranfpofition of paragraphs,
in confequence of the alteration made in the arrangement of
Chapters. The Author’s fenfe has been carefully preferved,

and variation from his expreflion admitted, only in matters of
little

XVI

P R E 8% ©.

little moment. Few additions have been made to the Text,
except in the general account of the annual difeafes, where
they feemed to be required.

The Sixth and laft Book, treats of the Plague; and the
method of fhutting up Houfes againft infection. It has been
fubdivided into Chapters; and faéts and circumftances which
before lay too widely feparated or difperfed, have been brought
together under their refpective heads) A few Explanatory
Notes are alfo fubjoined.

The Editor is fully fenfible, that the propriety of his nu-
merous Notes, and his felection of Authorities, as well as the
judgement exercifed in refpeét to the additions interwoven with
the Text, muft not expe& to meet from all with equal appro-
bation. In a complicated Work of this kind, the expeétation
of Readers is not lefs various than their different difpofitions
and purfuits: what to one may afford entertainment, or, per-
haps, information, to another may appear fuperfluous, tedious,
or fuperficial. It certainly was his wifh, and his beft endea-
vours have been exerted, to fatisfy in fome degree, the mode-
rate expectations of every one, who may happen to perufe the
following fheets: but his vanity feels no humiliation in ac-
knowledging a confcioufnefs, that it required other, and far
greater powers than he poffefles, to fucceed completely in fo
arduous an attempt,

London, Fune 18,
1794.

ADVER-

EUV OE OR POTS ME NT

PREFIXED TO THE FIRST EDITION.

HE Author’s intention, when he firft began to

digeft his materials, was only to exhibit an ac-
count of the epidemic difeafes at Aleppo, particularly
of the Plague, which raged three years in that city
during his refidence therein. A long and extenfive
practice among all ranks and degrees of people, had
furnifhed him with the means of being perfectly well
acquainted with the cuftoms and manners of the inha-
bitants. The neighbourhood of this place, its fite, and
natural productions, he found had not been fo fully de-
{cribed, but that there ftill was room left for improve-
ment. Inftead, therefore, of confining himfelf fingly to
fo much of the general hiftory of the place as might’ be
fufficient for the purpofe of his profeffion, he has en-
tered into the fubject more at large, and has endeavoured
to prefent the reader with a fuccinét, but at the fame
time an exa¢t account of fuch things relative thereto as
feemed moft to merit attention. It muft however be
remembered that his obfervations are confined to one
city, and its environs only. Other places, and thofe

too at no great diftance, may have other cuftoms; and
wou, I. | Cc to

XVlll

A.D ¥ Esk Tf WS Boe TT.

to this it may be afcribed, that different writers on the
head of the cuftoms cf Eaftern nations, prefent us with
very different accounts.

When it is confidered that the Author refided many
years abroad, and converfed daily in other languages
more than in his own, which he had but little leifure to
cultivate, the defects in his ftyle, it is hoped, will be

forgiven.

In the plates he has not only endeavoured to give an
idea of the various drefles of the people, but a view of
their furniture, habitations, and amufements.

The birds and fifhes here delineated are fuch as, to
the beft of the Author’s knowledge, have not before
been properly reprefented, and thofe of the plants are
chiefly of the fame kind. So many of the Arabic names
of thefe as were collected, would have been given, had
it been poffible to have expreffed them juftly in Englifh
characters, or eafy to have had them correétly printed
in Arabic; in which language, it muft be obferved, all
the names of places, &c. in this work are given, unlefs
mentioned to be otherwife.

The different fubjects in the firft part were intended
to have been pointed out, by varying the running-title
according to the fubject; but, by miftake, this was
omitted till too late.

The

mY -E R T Pash cee iN. UT.

The method ufed by the Europeans for their pre-
fervation during the rage of a Peftilence was chiefly in-
tended for the ufe of the Author’s friends in Aleppo, to
whom it was prefented on his leaving that country. To
thofe in Europe he fincerely wifhes that it may never
otherwife be ufeful than to fatisfy their curiofity.

How far the Author’s abilities have been equal to the
tafk he has undertaken, the Public will judge; and he
intreats their candour. ‘That he has had fair opportu-
nities of obferving, that he has given a faithful narrative
of facts, and that he has ufed no falfe colouring in his re-
prefentation, he prefumes to appeal to his contempora-
ries and acquaintance, who, in vifiting thofe places again
in his defcription, may perhaps call to mind many
agreeable hours they have fpent in fcenes far diftant
from their native country. *

» The Firft Edition was dedicated to Alexander Drummond, Efq. Confu},
the Gentlemen of the Britifh Fa€tory at Aleppo; and thofe now in England,
who have formerly refided there.

Cc 2 CONTENTS,

xix

hte EN od on Bet Net Loo nth

OF THE

Bel Resi TT). Ve O LoVe Mes,

BO, Q4K Th
DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY AND THE PARTS ADJACENT.

CHAP.* i

DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY.

LATITUD E—Situation—The River Kowick—Walls of the
City—Gates—Hilly Diftri¢ts— Streets —Mofques— Khanes—
Bazars—Coffee-Houfes—Seraglios, or Palaces—State Apart-
ments—Divans—Kiofk—Harem—Dwelling Houfes—Of the
Agas—Of the Merchants—Of the Chriftians, and the Jews
—Keifarias—The Caftle of Aleppo, &c. &c. &c. Pave 1

CirAP.. tb

OF THE AQUEDUCT, GARDENS, AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.

Tue Aqueduét—Private Refervoirs—Public Fountains—Wells—
Aleppo Gardens, on the Banks of the River and Aqueduét—
Defcription of the Gardens—Orchards, and Piftachio Planta-
tions—Quarries—Stone, Lime and Clay—Fuller’s Earth—
Valley of Salt—Sunk Village—Muneral Springs, on the Scan-
deroon Road, and at Khillis—General Sketch of the Maritime
Coaft, and of the Face of the Country - - 41

GH AP, Ht.

OF THE SEASONS AT ALEPPO, THE HUSBANDRY, AND VARIOUS PRODUC-
TIONS OF THE GARDENS, AND CULTIVATED FIELDS.

Description of the Seafons—Hot Winds—Rain—Snow and Ice
—Lightning—Hail—Meteors—Aurora Borealis not obferved at
Aleppo

Cc O NT 2a

Aleppo—Earthquakes—Soil and Hufbandry—Subterraneous
Granaries—Water Mills—Articles of Cultivation, Cotton,
Tobacco, Olives, Vines, &c.—Caftor and Sefamum Oil—
Piftachio Nuts—Mulberry—Pomegranate, Fig, &c.—Orange
and Lemon Trees houfed in the Winter—Efculent Roots,
Legumes, and other Vegetables. = ate. Page

BD O © Xe i.
OF THE INHABITANTS. OF THE Cia
Cia 2 Eee

OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

NuMBER of Inhabitants—Language—Stature and Complexion—

Drefs of the Men—Turban—Drels of the Women—Female
Jewels, and Ornaments—Eaftern Drefs has undergone fome
Alteration, in Cities—Staining the Nails, Eyelids, Eyebrows,
and Beard—Perfumes—Women always veiled, when they
walk abroad—Diet of the Inhabitants—Preparations of Milk,
named Kaimak, and Leban—Coffee—Tobacco—Perfian Man-
ner of Smoking—Ufe of Opium far from general—Intoxicating

Herb ufed with Tobacco. = = 2

CHAP.a

OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

Tue Bagnios, and mode of Bathing defcribed—Depilatory—The

Ziraleet, or Exclamation of the Women, expreflive of Joy—
People lead a fedentary Life—Games—Dances—Regular Hours
—Beds and Night-drefs—Coffee-Houfe Entertainments, Pup-
pet Show, Story Tellers, 8&c.—Turkith Mufic—Various In-
ftruments—Vocal Mufic—Feftive Entertainments—Buffoons,
&c. &c. - > =

131

CASE:

eomnpvperM Ds nee

CG FLAIR, Fim

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

Distinction of the Mohammedan Inhabitants—Ofmanli—Ullama
—Agas, &c.—Merchants—Different ‘Trades—Arabs—Turk-
mans, &c. &c.—Turkifh Mode of Living—Ceremonial Vifits
—Dinner, &c.—Dict of the ordinary Ranks—LEvening Con-
verfation—Religion and Women, Topics feldom introduced
there—Drunkennefs not a common Vice. i Page 158

CH APs iv.

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

ReLicious Ceremonies—Fafts—Byrams—Obfervances at the Feaft
after Ramadan—Ablutions and Prayers—Attendance at
Mofque — Minarets — Pilgrimage — Circumcifion — Alms—
Monks—Dancing Dervifes—lItinerant Sheihs—Idiots, and
Madmen—Tourks not zealous in making Converts—Toleration
in Turkey—Mohammedanshold all other Religions in Contempt
—Eunuchs—Exercifes—The Gired—Charaéter of the Turks
—Slavery in Turkey—Hofpitality—The Turks a domettic
People—Refignation under Misfortune—Natives of Aleppo
feldom travel. - - - ~ 186

CAAA nM

OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

Entrance of the Harem—Superintendent, or Harem Kehiafy—
Morning Vifits, of the Ladies—Grandees attended by Females,
in the Harem—Their Amufements—Female Pedlers—Auftere
Behaviour of the Men, in prefence of the Women—The Turks
when indifpofed, retire into the Harem—Reception of Phyfi-
cians, and mode of their vifit, defcribed—Ordinary Employ-
ment and amufements of the Jadies—Diverfions out of the
Harem—Female Intrigues—Female Education—Perfons and
Drefs of the Ladies—Female Slaves—Remarks on the Patfiion
of Love in Turkey. - - - - 236

CHAP.

XXIV

Nores and Illuftrations = BE s
APPENDIX.

CO 'N Ti Rit ays.

CH APA 1:
OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

PotycAmMy—Divorce—Interior GEconomy of the Harem—Mar-

riage Ceremonies—Comparative Eftimate of Connubial Hap-
pinefs in Turkey—Women feldom interfere in Politics—Re-
{peét paid them in Public—Poligamy as it refpeéts Population
—Child-bed Ceremonies—Funeral Ceremonies—The Wulwaly,
or Dirge—Vifitation of the Sepulchres. - - Page

CH APS AE

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.

ExTeEntT of the Bafhawlick—The Revenue of the Governors—The

Bafhaw perambulates the City, in difguife—The Cady, and
Courts of Juftice—The Mufti—The Nakeeb, or Chief of the
Greenheads—The Divan of the City—Soldiery—Bafhaw not
abfolutely defpotic—Intrigues in the Divan—lInfurreétions
occafioned by fcarcity of Grain—Punifhments—Decline of the
Ancient Political Principles of the Ottoman Government—
Prophecy of the Ruin of the Empire—The frequent Change of
Bafhaws produétive of numerous Evils, in the Provinces—
Mountainous Diftriéts lefs fubjeét to Oppreffion, and better
cultivated—The depreffed State of the Peafants—Hamlets de-
ferted on Account of the Depredations of difbanded Cavalry,

&c. = = a a 2 r

276

THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF ALEPPO.

B,OnQoKy evh

DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY AND THE
PARTS ADJACENT.

CEH A Py iol
DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY.

LATITUDE—SITUATION—THE RIVER KOWICK—WALLS OF THE CITY--
GATES—HILLY DISTRICTS—STREETS—MOSQUES--KHANES—BAZARS
—COFFEE-HOUSES—SERAGLIOS; OR PALACES—STATE APARTMENTS
—DIVANS~—KIOSK—HAREM—DWELLING HOUSES—OF THE AGAS—
OF THE MERCHANTS—OF THE CHRISTIANS, AND THE JEWS—KEI-
SARIAS—THE CASTLE OF ALEPPO, ETC. ETC. ETC.

ALEPPO ', the prefent metropolis of Syria, is
deemed, in importance, the third city in the Ottoman
dominions. In fituation, magnitude, population, and

*In Arabic Uta Haleb; to which is ufually added the epithet
Ligiw! Al Shahba. Note I.

It has by fome been fuppofed to be the Zobah of Scripture, 2 Sam.
vill. 12. But the authority for its being the Berrhcea of the Greeks is
better founded. Note II.

Vo. I. B opulence,

CH AP.

A’ DESCRIPTION

BOOK opulence, it is much inferior to Conftantinople and

‘~ Cairo; nor can it prefume to emulate the courtly fplen-

dor of either of thofe cities. But in falubrity of air, in
the folidity and elegance of its private buildings, as well
as the convenience and neatnefs of its ftreets, Aleppo
may be reckoned fuperior to both: and, though no
longer poffefled of the fame commercial advantages as
in former times, it ftill continues to maintain a fhare of
trade far from inconfiderable ”.

The latitude of Aleppo is thirty-fix degrees, eleven
minutes, twenty-five feconds North. The longitude from
Greenwich, thirty-feven degrees, nine minutes, Eaft. Its
height from the level of the fea, is confiderable, but has
not hitherto been afcertained. “The diftance from Scan-
deroon, (the neareft fea port) is between fixty and feventy
miles, in a ftraight line; but the ufual road for caravans,
through Antioch, is computed to be between ninety and
an hundred miles.

In clear weather, the top of mount Cafius +, bearing
Weft by South, and part of the mountain Amanus to the
Northward, may be feen diftinétly from feveral parts of
the town.

Somewhat nearer, to the Weft by North, at the diftance
of thirty miles, appears the remarkable conical hill named
Sheih Barakat ; and ten miles to the South South Eaft is

PocNNote> 197:
> Connoiffance du Temps. 1792.
* Jible al Akrah. The Bald Mountain,

feen

OF THE! CLITXA0OON ALEPPO.

feen part of a narrow chain of rocky hills, called by the © 4/4 ¥

Europeans the Black Mountains, which runs out towards
the Defert by the Valley of Salt. But none of thefe
mountains are fuppofed to have much influence on the
air of the city, except perhaps mount Amanus in the
winter, when crowned with fnow; and the neareft part
of that mountain is between thirty and forty miles
diftant.

Aleppo is encompaffed, at the diftance of a few miles,
by a circle of hills, which, though not high, are in moft
places higher than the rifing grounds nearer the town.
They are in general rocky, fcantily provided with fprings,
and totally deftitute of trees, but they afford good paf-
ture for fheep and goats, and many fpots among them
are cultivated. The fpace within this circle is compofed
of a few floping hills, and numerous hillocks, interfected
by plains and little valleys. The foil in fome of the
plains is of a reddifh, or black, colour, rich and fertile,
but in general it is whitifh, fhallow, and mixed with
many {mall ftones. The high grounds are, for the moft
part, thinly covered with this poor whitifh mould, and
in many places towards the fummit, they exhibit the bare
chalky rock.

The river Kowick 5 glides with a flow and filent cur-
rent Weftward of the city. This river, which is faid to
rife near Aintab, enters the boundary of Aleppo by a

ae 5

Be narrow

A DESCRIPTION

B00 narrow valley a little below the village Heylan, and, after
enya feveral windings through the gardens, arrives at the

king’s Meidan®, within three miles of the city to the North
Weft. Flowing thence, in a South- -eafterly direction, it
eradually approaches the town, and within a quarter of
a mile of one of the Weftern gates, making a fudden turn
Kaftward, it pafles near that gate, under a bridge leading
to the fuburb Mafhirka. It then, after a courfe of about
one third of a mile, to the Weft of South, turns off from
the city towards the hills, and leaving mount Zeilet’ on
the right, it purfues a Southerly courfe of three or four
miles, through a cultivated valley, before it regains the
open country. Where the Aleppo gardens terminate,
the banks of the river being remarkably verdant, the
Franks, or Europeans, often, in their excurfions, choofe
this as a pleafant fituation for the tent.

The Kowick is reduced to a fmall ftream by the time
it reaches Aleppo: having been let off into the adjacent
fields in its way from Aintab, as well as drained of large
quantities of water for the ufe of the Aleppo gardens,
commencing at Heylan. In the winter, when thofe tri-
butes are not exacted, this river flows in a bolder cur-
rent. I have known it, in fome winters, fwell to a
formidable river, lay the lower garden grounds under
water, and overflow the bridges. In fuch remarkable

feafons, vaft flocks of ftorks took poffeffion of the gardens,

7 Jible Nehafs. ;
a bird

OF THE) (CIfY3OF! ALEPPO.

a bird feldom feen in other years, except in ftraggling c HAP.

parties.

Thefe extraordinary floods of the river happen only in
very wet feafons, or when much {now has fallen to the
Northward. In moft fummers the channel of the Kowick
below the gardens is almoft quite dry, and continues fo
for feveral miles, till recruited from fprings in its own
bed, and from the fountain of Rigib Bafhaw, fix or feven
miles from the town. From the appearance of the
Kowick in the fummer, it cannot eafily be conceived how
a ftream fo inconfiderable fhould have proved fo fatal to
the Chriftian army encamped on its banks, when the
Franks, in the time of the holy wars, befieged the city *.

The ground rifes from the banks of the river to the
town by a gentle afcent, interrupted by a few hillocks.
On the oppofite fide of the town, the country, for the
moft part, is flat and open to the bottom of the fur-
rounding hills. On the South-fide, the ground is rocky
and uneven, and the hillocks in fome places, approaching
very near the ditch, overlook the ramparts. On the
North-fide, the hill in one place begins to {well gradually
from the fkirt of the fuburb, but in others, the hills rife
more abruptly, and fome of the fuburbs are built on the
declivity.

The city of Aleppo, including its extenfive fuburbs,
occupies eight fmall hills of unequal height, the inter-
mediate vailies, and a confiderable extent of flat ground:

* Note IV.
the

Qe eed

A DESCRIPTION

BOOK the whole comprehending a circuit of about feven

{eae coed

miles %.

The city itfelf is not above three miles and a half in
circumference; and is furrounded by an ancient wall,
which, like thofe of other fortified towns in that country,
is mouldering faft into ruin through neglect. M. d’Ar-
vieux '° reprefents them as in a ruinous condition in his
time. The walls are generally fuppofed to have been built,
or in moft places at leaft repaired, by the Mamaluke
princes, and this indeed feems probable, when it is con-
fidered how much the city fuffered from the Tartar con-
quefts in the year 1260, under Hulaku, and again under
Tamerlane in the year 1400. ‘They certainly bear no
marks of high antiquity, though it may reafonably be con-
jectured, from the narrow openings in the towers adapted
to the bow, and the fize of the ftones employed in many
parts of the works, that they are anterior to the ufe of
cannon, and belong to an zra when the warlike fpirit of
the times, as well as the unfettled condition of the coun-
try, maintained univerfally a maflive ftyle of architecture
which has long been obfolete in Syria.

Befides the wall, the city was formerly fortified with a
broad deep ditch; which at prefent is in moft places

° The circuit was performed on horfeback in two hours and four mi-
nutes, and [ am inclined to think that in riding out an airing (not encum-
bered with baggage) the ufual progrefs is nearer four miles an hour than
three and a half.

OF, TRE) CITYD OR), ALEPPO.

filled up with rubbifh, or converted into garden grounds. c HAP.

In fome parts, more efpecially on the North fide of the =

town, the gardens thus formed are of confiderable extent,
affording an agreeable profpect from the houfes, which
by gradual encroachments have been raifed on the ruins
of the old ramparts; but the putrid exhalations from the
{tagnant water, at certain feafons, prove offenfive and
unwholfome to thofe who dwell there.

The city at prefent has nine gates ; two to the South,
two to the Eaft, the fame number to the North, and
three to the Weft. The moft magnificent of thefe gates,
but the moft decayed, is Kinafreen Gate '', fo called from
a place of that name, formerly a principal city of Syria”
By the Europeans it is called the Prifon Gate. The
next Southern gate is called Bab al Makam "3, or Damaf-
cus Gate. Between thefe two the wall runs for fome
way along the ridge of a high fteep rock, inclofing two
fides of one of the principal hills of the town, called
Kullat al Shereef. On the Eaft fide, the firft gate is that
of Neereb ; the other is only a poftern, and is named the
Red Gate '*. On the North fide is Iron Gate '5, leading

* yay pot WL Bab Kinafreen. This gate is fuppofed to have been built
by Saif al Doula eben Hamdan, about the end of the tenth century, and
rebuilt about the year 1244, by Milek al Nafer, great grandfon ef Saladin.

* Note VI.

* So named from its leading to the Makam, ple. or {tation of Abraham.

It was begun by Milek al Daher, and finithed by his fon Milek al Azeez.
** Bab al Ahmer.

** Eab al Hadeed; formerly called Bab Bankufa.
to

A DESCRIPTION

BOOK to the fuburb Bankufa. On the fame fide, but more
“~~ Weftward, is Bab al Nafer, called by the Europeans, St.

Georges Gate. It formerly was called the Jews Gate ;
but that name was changed by the fon of Saladin, Milek
al Daher, who rebuilt the gate more fuperbly than it had
been before, and called it Bab al Nafer, or Gate of Vic- |
tory. Under this gate a lamp is conftantly burning, near
an iron grate ;. and the Turks may often be obferved to
{top there for a few minutes, and to mutter certain
prayers or ejaculations. According to the miflionaries,
it was once the refidence of the prophet Elifha, and the
lamps are kept burning in commemoration of that faint °°.
From Damafcus Gate to the Iron Gate, the wall ftands
on the plain, is of no great height, and in many places
low and ruinous: the moat is hardly vifible. But from
{ron Gate to St. George’s Gate the wall is of a very con-
fiderable height, and the moat very broad, inclofing a
fecond hilly diftri@, named Jibeely. From St. George’s
to the firft Weftern gate the wall has alfo been of great
height, but is now converted into high piles of private
houfes, inhabited by the Jews.

The wall on the Weft fide of the town is lofty and
well built, but in many places its ruin has been haftened
by the encroachments of the private buildings within.
The ditch is moftly filled up, though not planted as in
other parts; the high road paffing under the wall. The

"© Memoires des Miffions dans Le Levant. Paris, 1793. Tom. vi.

p. I 75:
firit

OF THEY Crim OU AREPPO. 9

firft gate on that fide is Bab al Furrage '’, known to the ¢ #4 P.
Franks by the name of Garden Gate. It is of mean ap- —~—~
pearance in refpect of all the others, except the Red
Gate. The next gate, which ftands about two hundred
paces to the South, is by the Franks called the Dark
Gate, but by the natives, Bab al Ginein* It leads to
the bridge which croffes the Kowick at this place in the
way to the fuburb Mafhirka. ‘The ninth and laft gate
opens to the great Weftern road, and is called Antioch
Gate '9.
Between St. George’s Gate and Garden Gate lies
Bahfeeta, one of the more elevated diftricts. Between
the Dark Gate and Antioch Gate, are two hills, or rifings,
of which the higheft is called the Akaby ; and towards
Prifon Gate is a fifth named Jilloom. But a more lofty
hill than any of thofe hitherto mentioned, is that on which
the caftle is built. This appears at firft fight to be in
the centre of the city, but is in fact not far from the

This gate, according to Eben Shiddad, was, at firft, called Bab Pha-
radeefe, or Gate of Gardens. Bab al Abara was another appellation be-
flowed on it.—It was originally built by Milek al Daher, but afterwards
fhut up, and not opened again till the reign of his grandfon Milek al Nafer.

iN peeved WL Bab al Ginein, fo pronounced at Aleppo, and written ;
but by Eben Shuhny always written Ginan, (.,, who fays it was fo
called from its leading tothe gardens; Ginan, like Pharadeefe, fignifying
gardens.

*» Bab Antakee ath WL In the year 962, this gate was deftroyed
by the Emperor Nicephorus, but foon after rebuilt by Saif al Dowla, eben
Hamdan. In Al Nafar’s time it was again deftroyed, and by that prince
rebuilt, about the year 1244.

moi, I. & North

to A DESCRIPTION

BOOK North Eaft corner, when the fuburbs are not included.
—-— It is encompaffed by a broad deep ditch about half a mile
in circumference ; which, except in a few places where
the water conftantly remains, is, like the foffe of the
town, planted with trees, reeds, or kitchen greens. ‘The
earth removed in making this ditch, may probably have
been employed in levelling the fides of the hill, which,
no doubt, owe in fome meafure their prefent form to
art ; and in fome places the declivity from top to bottom
is faced with hewn ftones: but for its height it appears
to be indebted to nature alone; the live rock being vifi-
ble on the fummit, a few feet under the furface ; and, in
digging the foundation of houfes within the caftle, the
~ fame ftrata are difcovered as in the other eminences in
the neighbourhood.

Several travellers fpeak of the Caftle Hill as an arti-
ficial mount, in which cafe it would indeed be a furpriz-
ing work. The learned Golius, who had feen it, fpeaks
of it in fuch a manner as to favour the opinion, and, on
the authority of an Arab writer, fays the number of co-
lumns employed in fupporting the mount, was eight
thoufand. It would have been ftrange to form at great —
expence an artificial mount on which to build a caftle,
when fo many convenient natural hills prefented them-
{elves on all hands: befides, the received tradition con-
cerning the patriarch Abraham’s refidence there, ex-
cludes the notion of the hill being artificial. But ocular
infpection of the ftrata at the top puts the matter beyond

doubt.

OF THE! CIP ALEPPO. II

doubt. On the other hand, much art has been employed ¢ HAP.
to fmooth the hill, and the declivity in many places is fo ~~
fteep, that it became neceflary to fupport the foil, which
might otherwife have been wafhed away by the heavy
rains. Subftructions intended for that purpofe are vifible
in fome parts of the declivity, where the falling away of
the earth has left them bare; thefe confift of howara or
chalk ftone. At the period when Golius was at Aleppo,
the Europeans did not enjoy the fame privileges in Turkey
they have done fince, and, the means of information be-
ing confequently more difficult, he has in fome circum-
{tances relative to Aleppo been mifled, while his account
in other refpecis, fo far as his own obfervation went, is
very exact.
The fuburbs without Damafcus Gate fpread irregularly
a confiderable way to the South Eaft, but that part only
has been reckoned in the circuit of the town which lies
almoft contiguous to the walls. That fuburb, as well as
the others which extend from Neereb Gate to Bankufa,
are inhabited chiefly by Turkmans, Kurdeens, Arabs,
and others employed in hufbandry. Immediately with-
out Iron Gate, commences the fuburb Bankufa, which
extends a confiderable way between the North and the
Eaft, ftanding partly in the plain, but moftly on the fteep
declivity of feveral hills, which are diftinguifhed by dif-
ferent names, as Sheih Yaprak, Sheih al Arab, &c.
This fuburb contains many handfome houfes, feveral
mofques, or chapels, bazars, khanes, and coffee houfes.
i 2 Among

a A DESCRIPTION

Boo©x Among other markets, that for corn is kept there; and

—~— the conftant concourfe of people, as well as of caravans,
is not lefs confiderable than in the moft crouded bazars
within the walls. Many wealthy Shereefs, or Green-
heads, dwell in Bankufa, as likewife the Delibafh, and
other foldiery. The people have little commerce with
{ftrangers, and are lefs civilized than in the interior parts
of the town. In all popular tumults they commonly
take the lead, and compofe a formidable body.

From Bankufa other extenfive fuburbs fpread to the
North Weft; and ftill further Weftward are the Hizazy
and Jideida ; in all which, efpecially the two laft, a large
proportion of the inhabitants are Chriftians. On the
Weft fide of the town lie the fuburbs Mafhirka and
Hizazy ; the former on the oppofite fide of the Kowick.
Both are inhabited by Turks of the lower clafs.

The annexed plan of the city, will convey a better
idea of the relative fituation of diftricts than any verbal
defcription, and, in tracing the progrefs or courfe of the
plague at Aleppo, it will be found of ufe to have fome
previous notion of the fite of thofe diftricts neceflarily
mentioned in the narrative. A few remarks on the
plan, by way of elucidation are fubjoined *°.

7° In this plan, which I received from my efteemed friend Mr.
Nieburh, with permiffion to make whatever ufe of it I thought fit, I have,
in the interior of the city and fuburbs, inftead of ftreets, marked the ele-
vated diftricts, and inferted a few of the principal buildings. I have like-
wife ventured, from recollection, to trace a flight alteration in the courfe of
the river from Kitab’s Bridge, (28 to 29) as alfo in the fituation of the
fuburb

YW
re |

> OF THE

] C Luftle of A

Lat irk: Na
cid oi, eth
vba AM) Pit do

Brees: \ es

oa rote

e of one Statute Mile

OFF THE CITEAcGH ALEPPO, 13

The Caftle of Aleppo may be diftinguifhed at a con- © #,4 P:
fiderable diftance ; but in his approach from the Weft, a ~~

fuburb Mafhirka, and have marked the bridge leading to that fuburb. But
in order to avoid deforming Mr. Nieburh’s valuable plan, thefe variations

are diftinguithed by dotted lines.
REFERENCES TO THE PLAN OF THE CITY.

Son So Og oho ob

CON An PW N =

Bab Kinafreen
Bab al Makam
Bab al Neereb
Bab al Ahmer
Bab al Hadeed
Bab al Nafer
Bab al Furrage
Bab al Ginein
Bab Antakee
Bab al Jideida
Bab al Urbain
Bab al Kurad

Seraglio

Great Mofque
Mahkamy
Great Khane
Jews Contrada
Sahet Bizzy
Khafeely

Haret Bab al Neereb
Beiada & Firafara

Abfey’s Khane
Khanes
Bankufa

Arian

Jideida

mS HAO an oD

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

The Caftle

Kullat al Shereef
Jibeely

Bahfeeta

Ohabeit al Yafamine
Al Akaby

Al Jilloom

Sheih Yaprak

Sheih Araby

Sheih Antar

Skak al Urbain
Market Place
Saleeby, Chriftian Churches
Caftle Haramy
Haret al Kurad
Makamat
Phardoofe
Killafy

Rope Village
Mathirka
Aquedu&

Burial Grounds
Sheih Abubecker
Kitab’s Bridge

Were the city to be divided by a line carried from St. George’s Gate to
about fifty paces Weft of Prifon Gate, four high diftriéts would be found

A DESCRIPTION

BOOX traveller can fee little more of the city till he gains the
“~~ brow of one of the adjacent hills, within two or three

miles of the gates, whence it becomes a ftriking object,
and, though part only can be obferved from. that point
of view, it appears of vaft extent. The mofques, the
minarets, and numerous cupolas, form a fplendid fpec-
tacle ; and the flat roofs of the houfes which are fituated
on the hills, rifing one behind another, prefent a fuccef-
fion of hanging terraces, interfperfed with cyprus and
poplar trees. “lowering above all, in a fituation to com-
mand the whole, ftands the caftle, which from that
diftance feems to have fome claim to refpect.

But the ideas of fplendor, fuggefted by a diftant
profpect of the city, ufually fubfide upon entering the
gates. ‘The ftreets, on account of the high ftone walls
on each hand, appear gloomy, and more narrow than

in the lower or Weftern divifion, namely Bahfeeta, Ohabeit al Yaffamine,
Akaby, Jilloom. The intermediate ground, though not abfolutely flat, may
in general be called a plain, particularly between the bottom of the two
laft mentioned hills and the Seraglio; and in that area are fituated fome of
the principal mofques and bazars; the cuftom houfe; and the khanes in-
habited by the Europeans. In the Eaftern divifion, would be found Kullat
al Shereef, Jibeely, the Caftle, and the Seraglio. ‘Towards Neereb Gate
the ground is nearly level, but in moft other places it flopes irregularly
Weftward. Moft of the houfes of the grandees and the principal mer-
chants are fituated in the upper divifion.

The Eaftern fuburbs are moftly built on the plain. A great part of
Bankufa (as remarked before) ftands upon the hills ; anda continuation of
the fame hill bending Northward is covered with buildings to the extremity
of Arian. From Arian to the Jideida the ground is uneven. The remain-
ing fuburbs in general ftand in the plain.

they

GF THE |CITYoOR! ALEPPO.

they really are: fome even containing the beft private ¢ A @ &.
houfes, feem little better than alleys winding among the -~—~

melancholy walls of nunneries; for a few high windows
guarded with lattices are only vifible, and filence and
folitude reign over all. The fhops make a mean ap-
pearance ; the baths and fountains are unadorned build-
ings; and the mofques, as well as the palaces, ftriking
the eye tranfiently through the court gates, contribute
little, on a curfory view, to the embellifhment of the
city.

Of all thefe difadvantages, Aleppo partakes in com-
mon with moft other Turkifh cities. But it is in ge-
neral well built, and the houfes within are grand and
handfome. The ftreets are better difpofed, and fome
of them much broader than ufual in the Eaft; they are
well paved, and remarkably clean, with a commodious
footway, on each fide, raifed half a foot above the reft.
The middle part is referved for thofe who ride, as well as
for camels and other beafts of burden: and anfwers
occafionally the purpofe of a kennel to carry off the rain
water. It is remarked by Perry, that ‘* fome of the
** ftreets are fpacious and handfome, and well paved
** with flag ftones. In fome of the ftreets you look at
‘*‘ once through feveral fucceffive arches, which form
‘* an agreeable vifta *’.”

The mofques * are numerous in Aleppo. Seven or

*» View of the Levant, p. 53.
** Giama, col
eight

ch A DESCRIPTION

BOO eight of them are reckoned magnificent, though none

~— have more than a fingle minaret, or fteeple, whence the
people are fummoned to prayers. Ali the mofques are
built nearly in the fame ftyle*. They are of an oblong
fquare form, and covered in the middle with a large
dome, on the top of which is fixed a gilt crefcent. In
front there is a handfome portico covered with feveral
fmall cupolas, and raifed one ftep above the pavement
of the court. The Turks fometimes, in the hot fea-
fon, perform their devotions there; and between the
columns, upon crofs iron bars, are fufpended a number
of lamps, for illuminations on the ‘Thurfday nights, and
on all feftivals. “The entrance into the mofque is by one
large door. All thefe edifices are folidly built of freeftone,
and, in feveral, the domes are covered with lead. The
minarets ftand on one fide adjoining to the body of the
mofque. They are fometimes fquare, but more com-
monly round and taper. ‘The gallery for the maazeen,
or cryers, projecting a little from the column near the
top, has fome refemblance to a rude capital; and from
this the {pire tapering more in proportion than before,
foon terminates in a point crowned with a crefcent.

*> The mofques at Conftantinople are much more magnificent. Grelot
has given a defcription of St. Sophia, and of feveral other mofques, with
drawings—Some have fcur or five minarets. At Adrianople alfo, the
mofques are very magnificent, on account of the fine marble columns ; but
the prints and defcription given lately by M. D’Ohfon exceed all that have
before appeared. Tableau General de l’Empire Othoman.

The

OF! THE, CIT YIN AVEPPO.

The minaret of Ifmael Bafhaw’s mofque makes a CH 4?.

handfome appearance; it was built partly upon a plan “77”

given by an European, and was originally intended to
have been a column with a regular capital: but the
bafhaw, upon reflection, did not chufe to rifk fo confpi-
cuous a deviation from common cuftom.

Al Waleed, who fucceeded to the Khalifat in the
eighty-fixth year of the Hegira, is faid to be the firft
who built, or joined minarets to the mofques.

In front of the mofque is a fpacious paved court,
round which, under a low portico, alms houfes are fome-
times built; and in the middle ftands a covered fountain,
with cocks on all fides, to fupply water for the ap-
pointed ablutions before prayer. Behind and at each
fide of the mofque, there is ufually a fmall enclofure
planted with cyprus, laurel, and other ever-greens: the
fepulchres of the founder’s family are fometimes placed
there; but the Turks never bury within the body of
the mofque.

None but Moflems are permitted to enter the
mofques; and, at Aleppo, it is only of one that Chrif-
tians and Jews are even fuffered to enter the court yard.
It is the more remarkable that the court of this mofque
fhould be left as a thoroughfare, hours of prayer not
excepted, confidering how fuperftitioufly ftrict they are
with regard to the others. ‘They are lefs particular at
Conftantinople, and other places near that capital. ‘I have

VoL. I. D “* sone

18 A. DESCRIFTIGN

BOOK ¢ gone into feveral mofques, fays Moutray*, (at Conftan-

—~— “ tinople) during prayer time, without being able to re-
‘¢ mark any one that fo much as caft his eyes upon me.”
The Rev. Mr. Chifhull, in his journey into Afia Minor,
had every where accefs to the mofques; and at Adri-
anople, not only vifited them, but was permitted to
afcend to the gallery of the minaret *.

The public edifices next in importance, are the
Khanes **, or as they are fometimes called, caravanfaries.
Of thofe there are about twenty which may be reckoned
confiderable, befides a number of lefs note difperfed in
the city. The khanes are fpacious folid ftone build-
ings, ufually conftructed in a quadrangular form, and
one ftory high; of which the ground floor on each fide
is divided into apartments, arched above, and lighted
only by a window in. front, and the door. ‘The ftory
above, inftead of windows, prefents an open gallery, or
piazza, from which is a range of rooms like the back
rooms below. The ftair cafes leading to the firft ftory
are on each fide of the gate-way; andthe roof, as in
moft other buildings, is flat and terraced. The ground
floor ferves for warehoufes, counting houfes, lodgings,
and fometimes for ftables ; the other floor is chiefly for
the reception of travellers, who find lodging there at a
very moderate expence. Moft of thefe apartments are

** De la Moutray. Travel. Vol. I. p. 86.
* Chifhull’s Travels in Turkey. p. 64.
ae
Y e
fill

OF THE) ‘CITY> OF 1 ALEPPO.

ftill worfe lighted than the ground rooms, there feldom ¢ 1.4 P.
being windows backward. Matts are all the furniture “~~~

provided by the khane; travellers bring the reft with
their baggage.

The khanes in the city are not, like thofe on the
road, intended folely for the accommodation of ftrangers ;
feveral of them are principally rented by the merchants of
Aleppo, who prefer them as places of fecurity for their
goods, and, as more conveniently fituated for bufinefs.
Adjoining to their warehoufe they have a fmall cham-
ber, plainly fitted up, where they’ may be found from
morning till the afternoon prayer time, when they
retire to their own houfes, fituated perhaps in remote
parts of the town.

Fach khane has one gate only, which is regularly fhut
at fun-fet; but there is a wicket by which perfons can
have accefs at night. Here alfo is a chamber for an
Aga, or fuperintendant, appointed by the proprietor to
collect the duties on goods that enter, and to regu-
late other matters relative to the khane. Under him is
an Oda bafhi, or porter, who conftantly refides within
the khane, and is a perfon of truft. The oda bafhis
are commonly Armenians. A fountain in the middle
of the court fupplies water, and there are always cooks-
fhops and a coffee-houfe near the khane, for the ac-
commodation of the merchants.

The Europeans, from their firft eftablifhment, have
been lodged in fome of the principal khanes. Their

D 2 houfes

A’ DESCRIPTION

BOOB houfes are fpacious, and commodious ; one houfe occu-
“—~— pying the half, fometimes the whole of one fide of the

{quare. ‘The piazza being walled up, large windows in
the European fafhion are made towards the court; the
floors are neatly paved with ftone, or marble; and the
apartments enlarged, and handfomely fitted up. ‘The
warehoufes are on the ground floor.

The Bazars ’7, or markets, are lofty ftone edifices, in
the form of a long gallery, for the moft part very nar-
row, arched above, or elfe roofed with wood. The
fhops, which are placed either in receffes of the wall, or
formed of wooden fheds projecting from it, are ranged
on each fide upon a ftone platform two or three feet
high, which runs the whole length of the gallery ; and
they are fecured at night by folding doors, and pad-
locks. In many of the old bazars thefe fhops are fo
confined as barely to leave room for the fhopkeeper to
difplay his wares, and for himfelf and one gueft to fit
conveniently. The buyers are obliged to remain ftand-
ing on the outfide ; and, when oppofite {hops happen to
be in full employment, it is not eafy for a paffenger to
make his way through the crowd. Some of the modern
bazars are indeed wider, and the fhops much more
commodious, but all are gloomy; the fun being ex-
cluded as much as poffible, in order to keep them cool:
for a like reafon, they are watered two or three times a

21 Sok FP gos Bazar bls is Perfian and Turkith.
day,

OEP TERE) ClTY) ORF ATJEPPO: 2I

day, in the fummer. In cold weather, the fhopkeepers ¢ 52%
are defended by their furs, or have recourfe to pans of -~—~
charcoal.

The principal bazars are fituated clofe together in that
part of the city contiguous to the great khane; and, diftinct
bazars being allotted to the refpective trades and fhops,
it is eafier for ftrangers to find what they may happen
to want. ‘There are many fingle bazars in other parts
of the town ; befides which, fome of the moft frequented
fireets, bch in the city and fuburbs, exhibit a mixture
of fhops, felling grocery, fruit, bread, greens, and other
neceflaries of life. Thefe ftreets are alfo called bazars,
and are defended from the fun by matts fpread on
wooden rafters projecting from each fide.

The Bazar Gates are regularly fhut at fun-fet, and
watchmen **, provided with a pole and a lamp, remain
all night in the infide; whofe bufinefs alfo it is to open
the gates to the patrol, or to others who may have oc-
cafion to pafs that way. It is matter of furprize to
ftrangers to find thefe gates, which are ftrongly cafed
with iron, fecured only by wooden locks and keys.
The locks have been well defcribed by Rauwolff.
“‘ Their doors and houfes are generally fhut with
*“ wooden bolts which are hollow within, and they un-
* lock them with wooden keys about a fpan long, and
“about the thicknefs of a thumb. Into this key they

** Harifs, Ore

‘¢ have

22
BOOK
If
ee ame

A DESCRIPTION

‘¢ have driven five, fix, feven, eight, or nine fhort nails,
‘¢ or ftrong wires, in fuch an order and diftance that
‘‘ they juft fit others that are within the lock, and fo
*¢ pull them forwards, or fhut them backwards as they
““epleatesy”

Thefe wooden locks are not now in ufe for the doors
of private houfes, which are univerfally provided with
European locks: but they are ftill found in the bazars,
khanes, and ftables.

Moft of the principal ftreets are likewife provided
with gates and watchmen, which renders it difficult for
any offender, when purfued, to make his efcape; and
perfons of fufpicious appearance, are not only liable to
be ftopped by the patrol, but to be queftioned at every
corner by the watchmen. Thefe precautions, and
its being criminal for any perfon to appear in the
ftreet without a lantern, greatly contribute to the pre-
vention of houfe-breaking, robbery, or other offences
ufually perpetrated in the night, and which confequently
are rare at Aleppo. As to nocturnal brawls in the
{treets they are hardly known. ‘The natives, habitually
fober and regular, retire early to their homes, and the
dread of being carried to the Seraglio by the patrol, is
fufficient to reftrain the moft riotous fpirits from drunken

frolicks.

2 Ray’s Collection, Vol. i. p. 18. On the fubject of ancient keys, fee
Bifhop Lowth’s Tranflation of Ifaiah, p. 127. and the Rev. Mr. Beloe’s
Tranflation of Herodotus. Vol. il. p. 145.

OF THE CITY OF ALEPPO. 23

It has been already remarked, that the public Baths 3° © #4 P.
do not contribute much to the embellifhment of the city; “~~
their fronts to the ftreet being perfectly fimple. A parti-
cular defcription of their infide will be given hereafter.

The coffee-houfes naturally attract the notice of a
ftranger, more than any of the objects he meets with in
rambling over the city. “They are found in all quarters
of the town, and fome of them are fpacious and hand-
fome. They are gaudily painted, and furnifhed with
matted platforms and benches: thofe of the better fort
have a fountain in the middle, with a gallery for mu-
ficians. A row of large windows difcovers to a paf-
fenger all that is going on within, and the company,
being fupplied with fmall, low, wicker ftools, often choofe
in the fummer to fit before the door, in the open air.
Thefe coffee-houfes are not frequented by perfons of
the firft rank, but occafionally by all others, fo that they
are feldom empty, and, at certain hours are full of com-
pany. To a fpectator not ufed to the Eaftern garb
and manners, fuch a motley aflembly, varioufly grouped,
and placed in picturefque attitudes, compofes a no lefs
amufing than interefting fcene.

The dwelling houfes may be ranged under three
clafles. The firft comprehending the feraglios, or pa-
laces **; the fecond the houfes of the opulent mer-

°° Hummam, elyn

3 Serai Cohn. The word is Perfic, but ufed commonly at Aleppo,
as

24,

A DESCRIPTION

BOOK chants; and the laft the houfes of the middling and or-
——-—— dinar y? people:

The Seraglio in which the Bafhaw of Aleppo ufually
refides, is fituated near the caftle on the Weft fide, and
is a very extenfive, ancient building. It is encompaffed
by a {trong wall, in fome parts as high as the ramparts
of the city. “he principal entrance is on the Eaft fide,
through two magnificent gates, between which there is
a court communicating on each fide with fmaller courts,
where there are barracks and other offices. The fe-
cond gate leads immediately into the great court, which
is very large, unpaved, and ferves as an hippodrome; with
{tables and offices on each fide. The principal build-
ing, in which are apartments for the bafhaw, his harem,
houfehold officers, and pages, confifts of three fmall
courts. The Divan, where the bafhaw gives public au-
dience is in the fecond of thefe; and in front of the
Divan is a large bafon, or fountain, whence the fakals,
or water carriers, are permitted to take water for the
ufe of the public. Within the walls of the Seraglio are
comprehended, befides the apartments already men-
tioned, barracks for the foot guard, and for two or
three troops of Delibafh, or cavalry, various offices, and
ftabling for three or four hundred horfes. “The whole
of this fpacious building, except a few apartments im-

as well as in other parts of Turkey, for a palace, or great houfe. The
proper Arab word for a palace is Kufr, yes though it is feldomer ufed in

that fenfe at prefent.
mediately

OF THED! CITY) OF] ALEPPO.

mediately occupied by the Bafhaw himfelf, is kept in ¢ HAP.
very ill repair, and, had it not been originally a very —~—~

folid edifice, muft long fince have been in ruins.

There are five or fix other feraglios of more modern
date, much fmaller, and well built, but it may be per-
ceived at firft fight, that ftrength and durability were
lefs confidered in their conftruction, than gaudy deco-
ration. Thefe have been built at different periods by
former bafhaws of Aleppo, who happened either to be
natives of the place, or who wifhed to eftablifh a family
there. They ftill remain in poffeffion of the heirs, but
are occafionally let to fuch governors as do not choofe
to refide in the old feraglio; or to other officers of the
Porte, who are fent to Aleppo on fpecial bufinefs. Be-
fides thefe, there are a great number of old as well as
modern houfes, which though not (ftrictly fpeaking)
called feraglios, are nearly on the fame plan, but on a
fmaller fcale: they are inhabited by the principal Agas,
and Effendees.

The modern feraglios, at Aleppo, are huge piles of
building, in the compofition of which, fymmetry is moft
perverfely violated, though fome parts, taken feparately,
have claim to elegance, and are well adapted to the
climate. In all of them the approach is through a large
unpaved court, where the bafhaw’s horfes are regularly
exercifed by the pages, and allowed afterwards, in the
fummer, a few hours excepted, to remain ail day in the
open air.

VoL. 8 E. The

26 A DESCRIPTION

Book The front of the main building is generally deformed

—~— by the irregular difpofition of the windows, and _pro-
jection of the Kiofks at unequal heights. The gate is
arched and decorated with marble of various colours.
Perfons of a certain rank pafs, on horfeback, through
this to the bottom of the great ftaircafe, in the fecond
court, which leads up to a grand colonade, expofed either
to the North or the Weft, and protected from the fun by
a frame of wood projecting above, richly painted and gilt *,
or by curtains fufpended between the columns: it is pro-
vided alfo with fmall fountains, and with divans for the
accommodation of perfons in waiting. The ftate apart-
ments are of an oblong form, with lofty flat cielings, and
are well lighted by a row of large windows. ‘The walls
and cielings are adorned with flowers, fruits, or other
fancy ornaments, painted in lively colours intermixed
with gilding, and richly varnifhed. In fome chambers,
views of towns, gardens, or houfes are painted over the
doors ; but no human figures are admitted, and little re-
gard is paid to the rules of perfpective. On the pannels,
over the windows and cupboards, are infcribed proverbs,
fentences from the Koran, ftanzas from their poets, and
fometimes complimentary verfes to the mafter of the
houfe. Thefe are all in the Arabic language, and
painted in an embellifhed character peculiar to infcrip-
tions.

3 Rifraf.

Between

OF THE (CITY ):O8? ALEPPO.

Between the door and the Divan is left a fpace pro- ¢ HAP.
portionate to the fize of the chamber, paved in Mofaic, —~—~

or with large marble flabs of different colours. ‘This is
called the Attaby, and is allotted for the pages in wait-
ing. The reft of the floor intended for the Divan is
raifed a foot and a half higher, and terraced. The
Divan 33 is formed.in the following manner. Acrofs the
upper end and along the fides of the room, is fixed a
wooden platform four feet broad, and fix inches high.
Upon this are laid cotton mattreffes exactly of the fame
breadth, and over thefe a cover of broad cloth, trimmed
with gold lace and fringes, hanging over to the ground.
A number of large oblong cufhions, ftuffed hard with
cotton, and faced with flowered velvet, are then arranged
on the platform clofe to the wall. ‘The two upper corners
of the Divan are furnifhed alfo with fofter cufhions, half
the fize of the others, which are laid upon a thin, fquare,
fine mattrafs fpread over thofe of cloth: both being
faced with brocade. Ihe corners, in this manner dif-
tinguifhed, are held to be the places of honour, and a
great man never offers to refign them to perfons of in-
ferior rank. ‘The terraced floor in the middle, being firft
matted, is covered with the fineft carpets of Perfia or
Turkey. The Divan thus completed is kept extremely
neat, and ferves for the reception of company ; the guetts,

** Diwan «ylgs0. This word is alfo ufed for a number of perfons af-
fembled in council.

ee accordin o"

28 A DESCRIPTION

BOOK according to their rank, being placed more or lefs dif-

“—~——~ tant from the corner; while fuch, as are not entitled to
fit in the prefence of the grandee, remain in the Atta-
by, or ftand at one end upon the carpet.

At the upper end of thefe rooms there is fometimes
a light wooden Kiofk 3+ projeting from the body of the
building, and fupported in the manner of a balcony. It
is raifed a foot and a half higher than the floor of the
Divan, of which it forms a continuation, and is deco-
rated in the fame fafhion. It is nearly of the fame breadth
with the room, but the cieling is lower, and having
windows on the three fides it is more airy.

The ftate apartments on the ground floor have feldom
more than a row of windows on one fide; correfpond-
ing to which, on the oppofite fide, are an equal number
of cupboards, with doors painted like the cieling. Some
of thofe apartments have a fountain in the attaby; and
there is ufually a large bafin, or fountain >, in the fecond
court.

The apartments of the principal officers are handfome
and fpacious, but not magnificently furnifhed. Such as
are allotted to the inferior officers of the Seraglio being
fmall, are encumbered with luggage: but, by the help
of an additional mattrefs and coverlet, the Divan, at
night, can be converted into a commodious bed. ‘The

4 Kiofk oe gS is the Perfian word, and conftantly ufed inftead of
the Arabian, Teiara Dib
* Burky.
pages

OF THE: Cin sor ALEPPO.

pages and menial fervants are for the moft part badly
lodged, feveral being cbliged to fleep in one chamber ;
which at the fame time is fo filled with baggage, that it
is impoflible to prevent litter, or preferve that airy clean-
linefs requifite in a hot climate.

The Harem *°, or quarter allotted to the women, con-
fifts of a large court, communicating with others much
fmaller, in which are the bath, the private kitchen,
laundry, and other offices. Part of the principal court
is planted with trees, and flowering fhrubs; the reft is
paved. At the South end is a fquare bafin of water
with jet d’eaus, and clofe to it, upon a ftone muftaby 37,
is built a fmall pavilion: or the muitaby being only railed
in, an open divan is occafionally formed on it. This
being fome fteps higher than the bafin, a fmall fountain
is ufually placed in the middle of the divan, the Mofaic
pavement round which, being conftantly wetted by the
jet deaus, difplays a variety of {plendid colours, and the
water, as it runs to the bafin, through marble channels
which are rough at bottom, produces a pleafing murmur.
Where the fize of the court admits of a larger fhrubbery,
temporary divans are placed in the grove; or arbours
are formed of flight latticed frames, covered by the vine,
the rofe, or the jafmine : the rofe fhooting to a moft luxu-
rient height, when in full flower, is elegantly picturefque.

35 ? =
,
7 Muftaby, a ftone platform, raifed about two or three feet above the
pavement of the court.

Facing

CiHitArrP.
I.
een sone

30
BOOK
{.
\aeeasentn omens

A DESCRIPTION

Facing the bafin, on the South fide of the court, is a
wide, lofty, arched Alcove, about eighteen inches higher
than the pavement, and entirely open to the court. It
is painted in the fame manner as the apartments, but the
roof is finifhed in plain or gilt ftucco, and the floor round
a {mall fountain, is paved with marble of fundry colours,
with a jet d’eau in the middle. A large Divan is here
prepared in the manner already defcribed, but, being in-
tended for the fummer, chints, and Cairo matts, are em-
ployed inftead of cloth, velvet, and carpets. It is called
by way of diftin¢étion the Divan **, and, by its North
afpect, and a floping painted fhed projecting over the arch,
being protected from the fun, it offers a delicious fituation
in the hot months. ‘The found, not lefs than the fight, of
the jet deaus, is extremely refrefhing; and if. there
be a breath of air ftirring, it arrives fcented by the Ara-
bian jafmine, the henna%, and other fragrant plants
growing in the fhrubbery, or ranged in pots round the
bafin. There is ufually on each fide of the alcove a fmall
room, or cabinet, neatly fitted up, and ferving for re-
tirement. Thefe rooms are called Kubbe, whence pro-
bably the Spaniards derived the word rendered by fome

other nations in Europe alcove *°.

* Diwan. This is always underftood when the word is ufed by itfelf:
when any of the other divans are meant, they are diftinguifhed by adding
the name of the chamber to which they belong.

39 Tawfonia inermis, of Linneus.

‘© There can be no doubt that the Alcoba of the Spaniards is the Al
Kobbe a! of the Arabs, and perhaps the term alcove has been impro-

perly

OF THE) CITY 7OF ALEPPO.

On another fide of the court is a hall named the cu ap.

Kaah*', fuited for thofe fultry hours, when the reflection eae

from the ftone walls and the pavement is too ftrong in
the divan. This hall, which is fpacious, is nearly of a
fquare form, and covered in the middle by a dome, fup-
ported on three wide arches. The pavement (or attaby)
under the dome is marble, and, in the centre, there is a
round fountain with jet d’eaus. ‘The reft of the floor
is raifed the ordinary height for divans, and the edge
and front of the ftep are, as ufual, faced with marble of
different colours; while the back corners of the hall,
being feparated by wooden partitions, form two fmall
{quare rooms **, leaving three large fpaces under the
arches for divans ; one facing the door, and one on each
hand. ‘The Kaah is always richly fitted up; and may
occafionally be rendered delightfully cool, by laying the
whole attaby under water. In this, as well as in all the
other apartments, except thofe of ftate, a fhelf* goes
quite round the rooms within three feet of the cieling, on
which are arranged large china bowls, intermixed with
veflels of filver and chryftal.

The Divan and the Kaah are confidered as common ;

perly applied above to the grand arch of the divan. It is not the {mall
rooms contiguous to the divan which only are named kubbe; the fame
appellation is given to the inner fmall rooms adjoining to other apartments.
** asl
* ‘Thefe rooms are called kubbe alfo; and as the others were kubbt al
diwan, thefe are diftinguifhed by the appellation of kubbt al kaah.
” Riff.
the

A DESCRIPTION

pies the private apartments of the ladies occupy the other build-
—— ings, with which part of the court is ufually furrounded.

The principal rooms all look into the court; they are
well lighted and airy, being refrefhed by ventilators in
the wall 4+; they are alfo richly ornamented: but unlefs
there happens to be a yard behind belonging to the
harem, the back rooms are fmall and dark. It is fel-
dom that the fides of the court are of equal heighth, but
they never exceed one ftory. The bed-chambers are
generally on the ground floor; thofe on the floor above
are called Marubba, and, being referved for ceremonial
occafions, are large, and handfomely furnifhed. Stone
ftairs on the outfide lead to the upper rooms, and are
fometimes fhaded by a vine; at the landing place alfo,
there is a feat fhaded in the fame manner. Some of the
Marubba have handfome Kiofks projecting over the
{hrubbery.

Under the divan, and fome of the other apartments,
are excellent vaults 45; and ftill lower is a large refer-
voir, for water, which will be mentioned hereafter *.

The houfes of the principal Agas and Effendees, as be-
fore remarked, are built much in the manner of the fe-
raglios here defcribed, though of courfe on a much
fmaller fcale, efpecially the outer apartments. As to
the harems, there is lefs difproportion; feveral of them

“* Bazhinge. See Profp. Alpin. Hift. Egvpt. Natur. p. 22.
“> Murrara.
*° Sahreege re gn

OF THE! CIPM<cOe ALEPPO.

are extremely handfome, and occupy a confiderable ex- ¢ HAP.

tent of ground.

The houfes of the merchants feldom have an unpaved
court, the entrance being immediately from the ftreet,
by a large door. ‘The outer apartments are f{mall, and
furnifhed in a plain, but neat manner. ‘They ferve only
for the reception of familiar vifitors in the morning, or
at fupper; for, on extraordinary occafions, the harems
are made ufe of, which, in point of elegance, often rival
thofe of the feraglios, and in the richnefs of ithe female
apartments, efpecially in china and carpets, fometimes
excel them.

The houfes of the Turks of middle rank, have feldom
more than one court, but many of them have a Kaah,
and all have a Divan, with a little garden, or a fountain,
before it. In this refpeCt their habitations, if not un-
commonly f{mall, are airy, and kept tolerably neat. From
thefe, a gradation may eafily be imagined, down to the
houfes of the loweft clafs. But it may be remarked
that the meaneft of them are feldom without a Divan,
and have at leaft a few bufhes planted in the court yard,
by way of garden; their beft room is rudely painted,
and the fhelf near the cieling is ornamented with copper
utenfils inftead of china.

The houfes of the Chriftians, of the upper clafs, con-
fift of a fingle court, refembling the harems of the
Turkifh merchants. Very few have an outer yard, or

Wow. I. ik feparate

en aed

34 A DESCRIPTION

BOOK feparate quarter for the women, except where the houfe

“——~ has been originally built for a Turk. ‘The entrance of
the modern Chriftian houfes is not to be diftinguifhed
from thofe of the Turks; but that of many of the old
houfes, is by a very fmall, low door, difproportionate to
the magnificence often found within; for many of them
are {pacious, and have good apartments richly fitted up.
The houfes of the inferior Chriftians refemble thofe of
the fame rank among the Turks, but are more excep-
tionable in point of neatnefs.

The European Jews have handfome houfes, in the
Eaftern fafhion, which are kept carefully clean. The
native Jews are lefs attentive to this laft point, though
many of them have large, handfome houfes. The lower
ranks of that nation are miferably lodged; many of their
houfes are in a ruinous condition; fome of them are
funk confiderably lower than the level of the ftreet;
others from their fituation are expofed to the exhalations
of the town ditch: and as all of them generally are
crowded with inhabitants, difguftfully negligent of clean-
linefs, they become dreadful receptacles for contagious
diftempers.

All houfes are provided with privies, but thefe,
from the manner of their conftruction, are apt, in the
{mall houfes, to be offenfive in the fummer ; and for the
moft part are prepofteroufly placed juft in the entrance

of the houfe. There are public conveniencies of the
fame

OF THE) CITMOOP ALEPPO.

fame kind near moft of the mofques. ‘The fewers are
generally covered, and proper care taken to keep them
in good order.

The roofs of all the houfes (except where there are
domes) are flat, and plaftered with a compofition of
mortar, tar, afhes, and fand, which in time becomes very
hard: but when not laid on at the proper feafon, the
terrace is apt to crack in the winter. Thefe flat roofs,
or terraces *’, are feparated by parapet walls, and moft
of the natives fleep on them in the fummer. The Franks
who live contiguous have doors of communication, and
by means of their own and the bazar terraces, can make
a large circuit without defcending into the ftreet; an
agreeable circumftance in times of the plague. The na-
tives have no intercourfe by the terrace, and if they
happen to be fo fituated as to be overlooked, they
heighten the wall by way of fkreen, leaving a number
of {mall holes to admit the air. So eafy a paffage from
one houfe to another, would, in fome countries, prove
an irrefiftible temptation to houfebreaking ; and, in fact,
robberies are fometimes, though very feldom, committed
in that way. As to illicit atchievements of another kind,
a prevalent notion that leaping over the parapet of a
neighbour's terrace, is not lefs ignominious than break-
ing open his houfe, joined to the chance of difcovery,
by perfons either on the fame, or fome adjacent terrace,

47, Stooh.

F 2 proves

CHAP.
Jig
\cemenmy etoamaced

36 A DESCRIPTION

BOOK proves a better defence againft gallantry, at leaft by this
~— channel, than the height of the wall.

To conclude the account of dwelling houfes, it fhould
be obferved that there is a kind of building, generally
appropriated to the lower clafs of ftrangers, as Arabs,
Kurds, other Turks of foreign extraction, and Arme-
nian Chriftians. It is called a Keifaria **, and is a large
area furrounded by a number of mean, low houfes, each
confifting of two or three rooms. The area is common
to all the inhabitants, and irregularly paved, except in
front of the houfe door, where fome bufhes are planted.
There is no fountain, but feveral draw-wells. Of thefe
keifarias a great number are fcattered both in the town
and fuburbs. The fame name is given to fmaller build-
ings in the form of a clofe, or court, which are allotted
to the weaving, or other manufactories; and of thofe,
there are fome within the city, which are employed as
khanes ; but the firft kind are moft common.

The fituation and diftant appearance of the caftle have
already been defcribed. The entrance is on the South
fide, by a bridge over the ditch, confifting of feven high
narrow arches, upon which are two gates fortified
with turrets: the bridge at the fecond gate drawing up.
Under this gate fits the Aga of the caftle, with two or
three guards, who do not ftand in the manner of cen-

tinels,

OF THE) (City ver ALEPPO.

tinels, but are employed in fome work, as embroidery ¢ ise.

or the like, their arms being fufpended behind them on “~—~

the wall. From this fecond gate, the afcent is gentle
and direct, till where the bridge terminates at a third
gate loftier than the others, over which are handfome
apartments for ftate prifoners of a certain rank. The
reft of the afcent is rather fteep, but winds through a
wide, high, covered paflage, which appears from without
like a ftrong redoubt, and within is encumbered on each
fide with gun-carriages, and large beams. As it re-
ceives light only from fome narrow apertures in the wall,
it may eafily be imagined how horribly dark it muft ap-
pear to the defponding prifoner on the way to his dun-
geon. Beyond this paflage there is a fourth but fmaller
gate; and from that a narrow, ill paved ftreet leads, by
a fteep afcent, to the top of the hill. In walking up,
after pafling the fourth gate, fome fhops appear on
the left, oppofite to which are feveral cells with iron
grates. Still higher, on the left, are a few ancient large
houfes, which occafionally ferve for perfons in confine-
ment; and, on the other hand, are feveral fhort crofs
ftreets, with neat houfes for the garrifon. At the fum-
mit of the hill flands a mofque; near to which there is
a well, or refervoir, of vaft depth, from which the water
is drawn up by a wheel worked by a horfe.

The Aga of the caftle is dependent immediately on
the Porte, and fubjeét only in certain cafes, to the Bafhaw.
He commands a numerous garrifon; of which the pri-

vate

A DESCRIP PION

BOOK vate men with their families lodge in the caftle. They
“——~_ have liberty to keep fhops, or purfue fome trade in the

city, but are obliged to return before the hour of fhutting
the gates.

European ftrangers, by an application to the Seraglio,
may obtain permiffion to fee the caftle; and phyficians
of every nation, as likewife Chriftian natives, who have
any pretence of bufinefs, eafily obtain accefs by afking
leave of the Aga at the gate. There is nothing how-
ever to be feen fufficient to compenfate the trouble of
walking up, unlefs it be the extenfive profpect from the.
battlements.

The caftle of Aleppo is, by the natives, deemed abfo-
lutely impregnable, if not attacked by furprize, or fur-
rendered by treachery; but its walls and turrets are in
fuch miferable repair, that they could not long fuftain the
fhock of a few cannon it has for its defence, and for
which indeed the fortrefs was not originally conftructed.
It is in the mean while of confiderable importance as a
magazine for military ftores, in times of war with Perfia ;
it keeps the city in awe, or affords an afylum for the
magiftrates, during the tumult of domeftic infurre¢tions ;
it ferves alfo as a prifon for ftate criminals, and a place
of execution for the Janizaries when condemned to die.

The city is more incommoded by duft than fmoke.
The fuel ufed univerfally is wood and charcoal. The
former, though brought on camels from the mountains

two

OF THE (CrEY OG ALEPPO.

two or three days journey diftant, is fold at a reafonable © 4,4 ?.
rate; the latter is confumed 1n vaft quantities, and is “~~

proportionably dearer. ‘The natives very rarely make
fires in their chambers ; indeed the principal apartments
having no chimnies, the great confumption of fuel is in
the kitchen. The bagnios are the greateit nuifance
within the city. The fuel employed for heating them

confifts chiefly of the dung of animals, the filth of ftables, —

and the parings of fruit, with other offals collected by
-perfons who go about the ftreets for the purpofe. Thefe
materials accumulated in a yard adjoining to the bagnio,
both in drying, and when burning, are extremely offen-
five to the neighbourhood. ‘The bakehoufes ufe brufh-
wood, but thefe are only troublefome an hour or two in
the day *. Cow dung is feldom ufed in the city; but,
by the Arabs and peafants, it is not only ufed as fuel,
but employed to make a kind of flat pan in which they
fry their eggs: camel and fheeps dung with brufh-
wood, or ftalks of fuch plants as grow in the defert, are
the common fuel. ‘The plants quickly dry in that coun-
try, when cut down or plucked up.

There is a glafshoufe in Mafhirka which is employed
during a few weeks in the winter. But moft of the
glafs ufed in the city is brought chiefly from Armenafs,
a village thirty-five miles to the Weft; whence alfo is

” On the fubject of fuel in ancient times, the reader may find fome cu-
rious remarks in Harmer, Vol. I. p. 254. and in the Rev. Mr. Beloe’s
Tranflation of Herodotus, Vol. II. p. 233.

brought

A DESCRIPTION

Bho Oso lat thie fand employed in the manufactory in Ma-
-—~— fhirka. The glafs is thin, of a whitifh colour, and courfe

in quality, but the veffels are well enough formed.

There is a Tannery to the South Weft of the town
near the river; the tanner’s khane is a little way
without Neereb Gate. The flaughter houfes are re-
moved to an open airy field in the fkirts of the fuburbs
towards Bankufa, whence the carcaffes are tranfported
on men’s fhoulders to the butchers’ fhops in different
parts of the town. ‘Lhe principal flefh market is in
the Jideida.

Clofe almoft to the walls, on the South Weft, feveral
lime kilns are conftantly employed; and at the Rope
Village, half a mile to the South, there is a manufactory
of catgut, which, at certain times of the year, produces
a moft offenfive ftench.

There is only one public burial ground within the
walls, but a number of fmall private cemeteries. With-
out the walls, the burial grounds are of a vaft extent
all round the town; and, ina clear, bright day, the mul-
titude of white tombs and grave ftones, when viewed
from a diftance, adds to the rocky fteril appearance of
the country.

CHAP.

oy & Pt Uh

OF THE AQUEDUCT, GARDENS, AND ENVIRONS OF
ALE PPO.

THE AQUEDUCT — PRIVATE RESERVOIRS — PUBLIC FOUNTAINS —
WELLS—ALEPPO GARDENS, ON THE BANKS OF THE RIVER AND
AQUEDUCT—DESCRIPTION OF THE GARDENS—ORCHARDS, AND
PISTACHIO PLANTATIONS—QUARRIES—STONE, LIME, AND CLAY—
FULLER’S EARTH—VALLEY OF SALT—SUNK VILLAGE—MINERAL
SPRINGS, ON THE SCANDEROON ROAD, AND AT KHILLIS—GENE-
RAL SKETCH OF THE MARITIME COAST, AND OF THE FACE OF
THE COUNTRY.

Tue city is fupplied with good water from two
fprings which rife near Heylan, a village about eight
miles diftant to the Northward. It is conveyed thence
by an aqueduct, partly on a level with the ground, in
fome places covered, but moftly open; and partly fub-
terraneous, refrefhed by air fhafts. After making feve-
ral turnings, the aqueduct enters the city on the North
[aft fide, and the water, by means of earthen or leaden
pipes, is diftributed to the public fountains, baths, fe-
raglios, and to as many of the private houfes as choofe
to be at the expence: the others, or fuch as are fituated in
the higher parts of the town, are fupplied by the fackals,
or watermen, who tranfport the water from the fountains

Vor. I. G in

CHA PF.

42
BOOK
sf
Sen aed

OF THE” GARDENS

in goat {kins prepared on purpofe, which they either load
upon horfes, or carry upon their own fhoulders.

This aqueduct is fuppofed, by fome of the Arabian
writers, to be coeval with the city, but is faid to have
been repaired by the Emprefs Helena, mother of Con-
ftantine the Great, who built alfo the church now con-
verted into the principal mofque. In the year 1218,
Milek al Daher, the fon of Saladin, found the aqueduct
in a ruinous condition, and at a great expence, as well
as by a vigorous exertion of power, he not only repair-
ed, but enlarged it. Eben Shuhny places this tranfac-
tion in the 615th year of the Hegira, and fays, al Daher
levied part of the expence of the work from the Emeers
under his dominion, obliging them to encamp in perfon
upon the ground, that they might at the fame time over-
fee, and encourage the workmen. From a previous
furvey it appeared that the body of water which, near
the fource, was reckoned 160 inches, was reduced un-
der 20, by the time it reached the city. Eben Shuhny
adds, from Eben al Hateeb, that al Daher eftablifhed a
Wakf, or fund, for keeping the aqueduct in repair, but
that in his time it no longer exifted *.

The Aleppo authors, efpecially the poets, talk highly
of the excellent quality of the water, preferring it
not only to the waters of Damafcus, and of the Eu-
phrates, but even to that of the Nile. When it is

MS. Hiftory of Aleppo.
firft

AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO. © 43

firft taken up, it is apt to be muddy, but becomes clear ¢ 4 AP.
after ftanding a few hours. It is preferved in the houfes —~—”
in large earthen jars, under which are placed veflels to
receive what is filtered through the bottom; and this

being perfectly clear is referved for more delicate pur-

pofes. The aqueduct being fo much expofed to the

duft, it becomes neceflary to cleanfe it annually ; a work
performed in the month of May, under the direction of

the Cadi, and which generally takes up eight or ten

days. During this interval, the fupply being cut off

from the city, the baths are fhut up; and though, in
confeqnence of previous notice to the public, provifion

be made in refervoirs, the people find themfelves re-
duced to a dearth which they fuffer with much im-
patience *.

Many of the Khanes, as well as private houfes, are
provided with large fubterraneous refervoirs for water,
named fahreege. Into fome of thefe the water is brought
directly by pipes from the aqueduct; but moft of them
are filled early in the fpring by the fackals. When
filled, the mouth of the refervoir is fhut, and the water
referved for the hot months, when, by means of a leaden
cup and a rope, it is drawn up perfectly clear, and moft
delicioufly cool. It is ufually drank in this ftate through-
out the fummer, although fufpected, by fome, to be
lefs wholefome, after remaining ftagnant two or three
months.

* Note VII.
G 2 The

14 OF THE GARDENS

poo ‘The public fountains of the city are neat, plain build-

—~— ings, with large arched windows, guarded by an iron
eraten “The water is preferved in leaden cifterns, to
the fide of which is chained a {mall copper cup, for the
convenience of paffengers who choofe to drink ; while
fuch as come to fill their pails, receive the water from
brafs cocks turned towards the ftreet. Thefe fountains
are common in the principal ftreets; there is always
one near each mofque and bazar. ‘They are moftly
works of private charity. The large bafons, that de-
corate the outer courts of the feraglios, are open alfo to
the neighbourhood, by which means little of the water
is permitted to run to wafte.

Moft houfes are provided with a draw-well. The
wells in general are deep, and apt to become fcanty or
dry, in the fummer: in the higher parts of the town it is
neceflary to dig to a very confiderable depth for water.
The well-water being hard and brackifh is employed in
wafhing the court yards, in fupplying the cifterns for
the jet deaus, and for other inferior ufes.

During the time of cleanfing the aqueduct, water is
fometimes brought in fkins from the Kowick; but un-
lefs for the inhabitants near the Dark Gate, or in Ma-
fhirka, that river contributes very little towards the fup-
ply of the city.

The aqueduét, in its courfe from Heylan, furnifhes a
confiderable quantity of water for the fervice of a range
of gardens, which have by degrees been formed on its

banks,

AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.

banks, and are commonly called the gardens of Ba- ¢™ 4?

bullah, from a village * of that name in the vicinity. “~~

The water is diftributed with much induftry through all
thofe grounds, by means of {mall interfecting channels
dug in the earth; and, as it paffes in fucccflion, from the
gardens lying near the aqueduct to the lower grounds,
regulations are eftablifhed to prevent its being unfairly
detained, longer than the time allotted to each, fo that
all may receive their juft proportion. Between Ba-
bullah gardens and Heylan, are the gardens of Baya-
deen, known to the Franks by the name of the Trian-
gular gardens, which are planted alfo on the banks of
the aqueduct.

‘Lhe Babullah gardens are bounded on one part by a
chain of low hills, on the extremity of which ftands a
Sheih’s houfe, called Sheih Fares; on the other part by
a beautiful pyramidal hill, whofe fides, floping by an
eafy afcent, are covered with vineyards and corn fields,
and at the fummit, in a moft picturefque fituation, ftands
the Dervife convent of Sheih Abu Becker, elegantly
built, and adorned with tall cyprus trees. On the South
of the gardens, the high road leading to the city mounts
over feveral rifings, leaving on the right a fine meadow,
already mentioned, which, being refrefhed partly by
{fprings, and partly by the waters that run off through
the gardens, preferves unfading verdure throughout the
year.

3 ee Babily.
Clofe

46
BOOK
Ie
ap

OF THE GARDENS

Clofe to this meadow *, and fituated in the middle of
a garden, is a royal villa, where the Turkifh Emperors
ufed occafionally to refide when they led their armies
into Syria ; but it has long been neglected, and is hardly
habitable in its prefent ftate. The Meidan garden is
watered by the Kowick, which at this place makes its
turn to the Southward. ‘The garden, though under the
care of a Boftangee from the Porte, who refides on the
{pot, is very ill kept, and the ftone divans, bridges, and
pavillions are running faft to ruin.

This is the place mentioned by Rauwolff. What he
terms a chapel built over the river, is a ftone Kiofk, or
pavillion, which ftill remains, though much decayed.
In this pavillion it is fuppofed the converfation pafled be-
tween the emperor Solyman and his counfellors, which
was related to Rauwolff by the gardener °.

Mention has already been made of a confiderable
tract of gardens, extending near twelve miles in length,
that is, from Heylan to about four miles on the other
fide of the city Southward. This tract lies along the
river, but is of unequal breadth, as the width of the
valley, or the fhelving banks happen to favour or obftruct
its extenfion: fometimes one fide only of the river, but
generally both, are planted.

Thefe gardens commonly make part of fome religious

+ Meidan al Ahder. Note VIII.
* Ray’s Collection.

eftate,

AND eENVIRONSI OE ADEPPO. 47

eftate, or belong to fome Effendee®, or Aga’, poffeft c HAP.
of influence fufficient to protect his tenants ; for they are —~—~
cultivated with care, but, from their fituation fo near to

the town, are liable, efpecially in the fruit feafon, to the
depredations of the foldiery, or other ftrollers. For

the fame reafon tenants are often Greenheads, or Jant-

zaries.

The gardens are feparated from. each other by low
ftone walls; and, though fome variety muft neceflarily
arife from difference of ground, they differ fo little in
the mode of plantation, that the defcription of one will
be fufficient to give an idea of all the Syrian gardens *.
As they are planted with a view more to profit than
pleafure, very little labour is beftowed in removing un-
fightly deformities, in levelling, or floping the ground,
or in any other improvements not ftrictly connected with
lucrative cultivation. They are a compound of the
kitchen and flower garden blended, without the inter-
vention of parterres or grafs plats.

The whole extent is fubdivided into fquare or oblong
fields, irregularly bordered with dwarf trees, flowering
fhrubs, and trees of taller growth, among which the
plane, the weeping willow, the afh, and the white pop-
lar, make a confpicuous figure. Within fome of thefe

* Man of the law.

7 Gentleman.

* Relative to the fubjeé&t of Eaftern gardens, the reader may perufe
with pleafure, the learned Bifhop Lowth’s entertaining note on Ifaiah i. 30.

enclofures

OF THE GARDENS

BOOK enclofures are cultivated mad-apples, melons, and cu-
“—+— cumbers, together with a variety of efculent roots,

greens, and legumes, for the kitchen: in others, cotton,
tobacco, fefamum, palma Chrifti, and lucern; and fome
are fown with barley, to be cut green for the ufe of the
horfes in the fpring.

Interfperfed among the kitchen enclofures are large
plantations of pomegranate, of plum, or of cherry trees ;
and fometimes groves, compofed of the various fruit
trees that the country produces. All thefe trees are
ftandards ; and, though fometimes planted in rows, they
are for the moft part crowded clofe together with little
regard to fymmetry, forming wild and almoft impervious
thickets. But a more complete fhade is met with in
other parts of the grounds, formed by tufts of lofty trees,
which, uniting their branches at top, give fhelter to
rofes of different forts, and to a profufion of wild aro-
matic herbs, which, thus protected from the fun, long
retain their fragrance. ‘The flowers cultivated for fale,
contribute little to the ornament of the gardens ; being
neither difplayed regularly in parterres, nor artfully fcat-
tered among the plantations.

The gardens, thofe of Babulla excepted, are fupplied
from the river, by the aid of Perfian wheels; and the
water, by means of pumps, and wooden pipes, or
troughs, is conveyed to refervoirs in the higher grounds,
whence it is occafionally let off into the watering chan-
nels, as defcribed before. Where the grounds happen

AND “ENVIRONSTOF ,ADEP PO.

to be well fhaded, and require lefs watering, feveral of © 2+ iin

the diverging rills, being made to unite, efcape in a ~~~

fwifter current through the fhade, and the fwollen brook
difcovers itfelf at intervals amid the foliage, or, when
concealed, is traced by its pleafing murmur.

Inelegant as the Aleppo gardens may appear to the
cultivated tafte of an European, they afford a voluptuous
noontide retreat to the languid traveller %. Even he,
whofe imagination can recal the enchanting fcenery of
Richmond or of Stow, may perhaps experience new
pleafure in vicwing the gliftning pomegranate-thickets,
in full bloffom. Revived by the frefhning breeze, the
purling of the brooks, and the verdure of the groves,
his ear will catch the melody of the nightingale, delightful
beyond what is heard in England "° ; with confcious gra-
titude to heaven, he will recline on the fimple mat,

blefs the hofpitable fhelter, and perhaps, while indulg-

* *Tis raging noon ; and, vertical, the fun
Darts on the head direct his forceful rays.
O’er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye
Can {weep, a dazzling deluge reigns ; and all
From pole to pole is undiftinguifh’d blaze.

In vain the fight, dejected to the ground,
Stoops for relief; thence hot afcending fteams
And keen reflection pain.

*° Cool thro’ the nerves, your pleafing comfort glides ;
The heart beats glad; the frefh expanded eye
And ear refume their watch ; the finews knit ;
And life fhoots {wift thro’ all the lightened limbs.

Pou. I. H ing

50
BOOK
I.
eee nd

OF THE GARDENS

ing the penfive mood, he will hardly regret the abfence
of Britifh refinement in gardening.

But though in laying out the grounds, profit be the
principal object, fome attention, at the fame time, is
paid to pleafure. In moft of the gardens near the town,
there are fummer houfes, for the reception of the pub-
lic, furnifhed with fountains, and with Kiofks projeét-
ing over the river. In others, at a greater diftance,
there are tolerably commodious villas, to which the
Franks refort in the fpring, as the natives do in the
fummer.

As walking is not a favorite exercife among the
Turks, little care is taken to keep the garden walks in
order, or to prune luxuriant branches. One broad
walk generally furrounds the whole, while another runs.
through the middle; but the reft of the grounds are
traverfed by narrow, intricate paths.

The river Kowick, to which moft of the gardens owe
their exiftence, contributes lefs than it might eafily be
made to do, to their embellifhment. Near the kiofks and
bridges, where it is banked with ftone, it has the ap-
pearance of an artificial canal; and in a few places,
where moles have been raifed for mills or water engines,
it forms cafcades: but the ftream is flow and turbid,
and its banks in many parts are either overfpread with
reeds and bufhes, or deformed by the roots of trees
fhooting out from the fide, which undermine the foil,
and choak up the channel. Still in this neglected flate,

AND ENVIONS OF ALEPPO. 51

in a country where the fight of water is always pleaf-cuar
ing, the river fomewhat varies and enlivens the pro- —~—~
{pect.

The floping hills to the Weft and South Weft of the
town, on both fides of the river, which are too diftant,
or too fteep to be from thence fupplied with water, are
laid out into vineyards, olive plantations, and fig gardens;
or into orchards, where all thofe trees are planted pro-
mifcuoufly, piftachio trees being interfperfed. But very
extenfive piftachio orchards cover the rough rifing
grounds to the Eaft and South Eaft of the town, which
are remarkably ftony and arid, their fole fupply of water,
in the fummer, being from draw-wells, or from cifterns
filled in the fpring. In all the orchards a fmall {quare
watch-houfe is built for the accommodation of the watch-
men in the fruit feafon; or, in their ftead, temporary
bowers are conftru¢cted of wood, and thatched with green
reeds, and branches.

The natives always talk with rapture of the Aleppo
Gardens. The city is fupplied from them with plenty
of greens and fruits; and they contribute both to the
health and amufement of the inhabitants, by alluring
them from alife too fedentary, to the enjoyment of gentle
exercife and a purer air: it may be added, that, in the
fummer months, when the open fields retain hardly a
veftige of verdure, they prefent an agreeable contraft,
more efpecially to ftrangers who come from crofling the

H 2 parched

OF THE GARDENS

B 00K parched and naked tracts, met with in feveral parts of the
“——— road from Scanderoon.

Clofe to the city are many extenfive quarries, which
afford a white gritty ftone, eafily cut at firft, but indurat-
ing after being expofed for fome time to the air. The
buildings are all of that ftone, except the flight partition-
walls, which are conftructed of a coarfe chalk ftone,
found in abundance to the North of the town. The more
ancient quarries are vaft excavations, forming large ca-
verns, fome of which communicate by fubterraneous
paflages of great length.” In their prefent ftate they
afford a winter habitation to certain Bedoween Arabs,
who are accuftomed at other times of the year to en-
camp under the city walls; they ferve alfo occafionally
as {tables for camels; and are often by the janizaries
converted into dens of debauchery. “The modern quar-
ries are worked in a different manner: a large furface
of ground is laid open, or the quarry is carried along the
face of a hill.

They have an inferior kind of yellowifh marble, which
takes a tolerable polifh, and is ufed for the ornamental
parts of building, and for paving the court-yard. But a

*“ Paul Lucas, who in 1714 vifited fome of thefe grottoes near Prifon-
gate, gives an exact account of them, fo far as I am able to judge from the
little I have feen myfelf. The vaft length of the fubterraneous paffages
fpoken of by the natives, I always regarded as fabulous.

See Paul Lucas Voyage dans la Turquie An: 1714, v.1. p.288.

variety

ADN “ENVIRONS! OF ‘ALEPPO. 53

variety of other marble is brought from parts more CHAP.
diftant. From Damafcus they receive a red marble ; ——~
thence alfo, and from Khillis, a coarfe black fort; a

fine white fort is imported from Italy; and from An-

tioch they procure various ancient fragments. The com-

mon Aleppo Marble is brought to refemble the Damaf-

cus red, by rubbing it with oil, and letting it ftand

fome hours in an oven moderately heated.

Though lime-ftone be found in abundance in the
neighbourhood, the expence of burning renders lime
rather a dear article. Befides the ordinary comfump-
tion in building, large quantities are required for the
compofition with which they lay the terraces. ‘Their
plafter of Paris is prepared froma gypfum found at fome
diftance from town, but is not abundant. It is em-
ployed in the finifhing of the principal rooms, and like-
wife by way of cement for the fmall earthen pipes of
the fountains ‘’.

The environs of the town afford hardly any clay, and
that of fo bad a quality as to be unfit for ordinary pur-
pofes: the jars, and even the bricks made of it, falling
to pieces of themfelves. In making the common pipe
bowls, they are obliged to mix a certain proportion of

clay brought from diftant parts; and their beft pipe

* The fountains, or bafins, not lined with marble, are plaftered with a
compofition of quick-lime and pounded chalk-ftone, (howara) cotton, and
oil. The plafter is durable, and effectually prevents the oozing of the
water.

bowls

OF ‘THE "GARDENS

800k bowls are made of clay from Damafcus, or Sidon. Their
-—— beft water jars, and other potter’s ware, are brought

from fome diftance.

From a village, diftant about twenty computed miles,
a kind of fuller’s earth, called Byloon, is brought to town
in great quantities, and carried about on affes to be fold
in the ftreets. It is much ufed in the bagnio by way of
foap, and for cleanfing the hair, being mixed with dried
tofe-leaves, and made up into balls. Breeding women
and fickly girls, by ftealth, confume a confiderable
quantity of this earth.

Some of the rocky hills have the appearance of con-
taining iron ore; but no metals are at prefent found
near Aleppo, nor, fo far as I know, any where elfe in
Syria 3. Lead, tin, and iron, are imported chiefly from
England and Holland. ‘There are mines of lead and of
copper in Armenia; and from Tocat, large quantities of
ready made copper utenfils are brought by mule cara-
vans, to Aleppo, where they are afterwards tinned and
burnifhed '*. Garnets of inferior quality are fometimes
found near Antioch.

3 A little to the Weftward of the hill called by the Franks Mount Ze-
let, there is what is called the Copper Mountain, Jible al Nihas, where it
is faid a copper mine exifted formerly, but on account of the dearnefs of
fuel, it did not turn to account to work it.

** Two forts of copper are brought from Armenia, one of which bears
a higher price than the other, becaufe the veffels made of it are, by the
natives, fuppofed to boil water in a much fhorter time than the ordinary
copper vefiels.

About

AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO. 55

About eighteen miles diftant from the city to the South cH ap.
Eaft, is an extenfive plain, generally known by the name —~—~
of the Valley of Salt, or Salt Lake, from which Aleppo,
as well as the country for many miles round, are fup-
plied with falt %. ‘The plain is partly fkirted by a chain
of low rocky hills, but ftretches out on the other fides
toward the Defert, as far as the eye can reach. In
what appears to be the middle of the plain, in approach-
ing it on the fide of the village Jibool, a fmall hill rifes
which is worth vifiting on account of the profpect from
the top; but the traveller will be vexatioufly difappointed
who expects to meet with any of thofe remains of an-
cient buildings, or monuments, which the peafants never
fail to affure him are ftill to be feen there.

The rains which fall during the wet months, together
with the little temporary torrents which defcend from
the bordering hills; the celebrated ftream named the
Golden River '®, which comes from a fountain fome
miles diftant, towards the village of Bab, join with the
fprings rifing in the valley itfelf, and form a fhallow but
very extenfive lake ; the water of which being exhaled
by flow evaporation in the fummer, the falt, feparated

" Subkhet al Jibool (4 _=! | sxsw. Golius renders axan Terra
faluginofa.

* Naher al Dahab is mentioned particularly by Eben Shuhny, who fays it
was reckoned one of the wonders of the world; the other two were the
caftle of Aleppo, and a Well famous for curing perfons bitten by a mad
dog. MS. cap. 7. and 18.

from

OF THE GARDENS

BOO©X from the foil beneath, is left cryftallized on the furface,
—-~— forming a cruft of various thicknefs, in different parts of

the valley.

When viewed about fun rife in the month of Auguft,
the lake has much the appearance of a vaft expanfe of
water frozen over, and flightly covered with fnow.
Numbers of men, women, and children, are employed
at that feafon in breaking up the cruft of falt, which is
found from half an inch to one or two inches thick, and
the upper furface being feparated from the parts beneath,
which are always mixed with earth, the two forts are
laid up in {mall diftinét heaps; they are then put into
facks and tranfported on affes to Jibool, where the falt
being thoroughly dried, is winnowed in the fame man-
ner as corn, and then more carefully feparated into
heaps of different finenefs. The beft fort is perfectly
white and of excellent quality.

The foil of the plain is a ftiff clay ftrongly impregnated
with falt; but the fprings in the neighbourhood feem all
to be frefh. At the bottom of the hill in the middle of
the lake, there is a fpring which the peafants faid was
falt, but I did not fee it. The falt on that fide was con-
creted into much larger maffes than in other parts : fome
of the cakes were above three inches thick, and of a
beautiful pale reddifh colour. The kali, and leaves of
other plants, at fome diftance from the border of the
lake, were found covered with falt, in the fame manner

as plants growing on the fea fhore.

That

AND “ENVIRONS OF “ADEPPO.

That the jake is chiefly fupplied with rain water is
probable, from the quantity of falt produced, being always
in proportion to the wetnefs of the winter. On the fide
towards Jibool the falt is found in greateft abundance ;
the water fettling there to a greater depth: in many
other parts of the plain it is mixed with fo large a pro-
portion of earth as not to be worth gathering.

To the Weftward of Aleppo, at the diftance of about
eleven miles, and three or four miles to the South of the
village Hanjar, there is a remarkable cavity in the earth,
known to the inhabitants, by the name of the Sunk
Village '’. It is fituated in a little plain, lefs ftony and
better cultivated than the country around, which is re-
markably rocky and uneven, though no very high hill is
in view, nearer than Sheih Barakat to the North Weft.

This vaft cavity is nearly circular, fomewhat of the
form of a punch bowl, being narrower towards the bot-
tom than at the brim, which is one thoufand five hun-
dred and eight-ynine feet in circumference. The fides all
round, confift of rock almoft perpendicular, to the depth
of one hundred and feventy feet, after which, the cavity
contracting, the rock is no longer vifible, on account of
the earth and {mall loofe ftones which feem to have fallen
from above. The defcent is continued a confiderable
way over the rubbifh to the bottom. ‘The rock lining

” Note IX.
Vot. I. I this

GH <A P.
Ve

(stn sete

OF THE GARDENS

BOOK this ftupendous cavity is compofed of feveral horizontal
-———’ ftrata, each about fourteen feet thick, in the interftices of

which are many holes, or fiffures, that afford fhelter to
birds, bats, and winged infects. The fubftance of the
rock itfelf is compofed of coral, and various fea fhells,
incrufted and confolidated by means of a calcarious
matter, almoft as white as {now, unlefs where it has been
difcoloured by the foil wafhed down by the rain ™.

It is rather an arduous enterprize to get fafe to the
bottom, and fcarcely to be attempted but on the Eaftern
fide, where the defcent is fometimes by winding footpaths,
and irregular fteps in the fide, at other times through
holes or arches in the folid rock. Half way down, on
the right hand, is the entrance into a low roofed grotto,
at the farther end of which are two apertures like win-
dows, from whence the profpect of the whole, is ftriking
and romantic; a variety of trees, fhrubs, and plants
fhooting out from the fides of the precipice, or growing
luxuriantly at the bottom ".

There are no fprings to be feen, nor any ftagnant
water ; but, befides many large pieces of rock that have
tumbled down from the fides, there are at the bottom

** The fpecimens brought to England were foffile fcollops, cone fhells,
and corals of the Madrepore kind.

? In the middle of October were found the following plants. Punica
granatum ; amygdalus communis ; piftacia lentifcus ; rhus corriaria ; cap-
paris fpinofa; falicornia Syriaca; peganum harmala; falfola altiffima ;
plumbago Europea ; onofma orientalis; gundelia; and two or three other

common plants.
feveral

AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.

feveral oblong-fquare hewn ftones, exactly like the ftones © #4 ®-

found among the ruins of a deferted village, which ftands
at a little diftance from the brink of the cavity. Be-
tween thefe ruins and the cavity, there is a very deep
well, or pit for corn; as likewife a grotto intended for
fheep and cattle”.

It does not appear whence a notion entertained by
the Franks fhould have arifen, that this chafm was pro-
duced by an Earthquake. The natives have no tradi-
tionary tale of fuch a kind, but regard it as a natural
production as old as the creation. Its form has fome-
what the refemblance of a Crater: but there are no
veftiges of Lava, nor other appearances of a Volcano,
either near it, or in the neighbouring country. Some
travellers have made mention of a Volcano about nine
hours diftant from Scanderoon”

Some hot fprings are found at the diftance of about
twelve hours on the Scanderoon road; between Ar-
menafs and Antioch; the neareft village to them being
Kaferdibbin. Teixeira mentions having refted, the
fecond night of his journey from Aleppo to Scanderoon,
near two ftreams of water, (probably thefe) the one ful-
phurous, the other frefh and perfectly good, though
within four paces of each other. On the fide of a

*° Tam obliged to a friend for feveral of the above circumftances; who,
at my requeft, kindly vifited the place in October 1775, and from his
account I have correéted my own memoranda.

=" Note’ X.

I 2 hill

ee ame

60
BOOK
if
(cect tmmemese)

OF THE GARDENS

hill at a little diftance from Khillis, there is a cold mi-
neral fpring. None of thefe waters are ufed medici-
nally at Aleppo; but the latter is fometimes drank by
the people of Khillis in large quantities, by way of me-
dicine, having a flight purgative quality *.

The rough hilly country (like that adjacent to Aleppo)
extends to the diftance of at leaft twenty miles between
the Weft-South-Weft, and North Weft by Weft, inter-
fected by a number of fmall fertile plains. A juft and
picturefque defcription of the beauty of the country
between Aleppo and Scanderoon, in the month of
April, has been given by Teixeira; and Moryfon has
drawn a pleafing picture of the mountains and plains,
on the road from Tripoly, in the month of June *.

To the North and South, the country, becoming level
at the diftance of fix or feven miles, is no longer {tony ;
and, about the fame diftance Eaftward, the defert com-
mences, the foil of which, for many miles on the Baf-
fora road, is fine, light, and fertile.

The coaft of Syria is every where bounded by high
mountains, except near Seleucia, where the Orontes, in
it’s way to the Mediterranean Sea, runs through a plain
between Mount Pieria and Mount Cafius. The moun-
tains are covered with a variety of trees, fhrubs, and
plants, and, being watered by abundance of frefh

°° Note XI.
*> Note XII.

{prings,

AND ENVIRONS OF ALEPPO.

fprings, they retain their verdure all the fummer. The
fide towards the fea is in fome places fteep; in others
the defcent is by 2 gentle flope, and in many places nar-
row plains intervene between the Lottom and the fhore.
Numberlefs fmall ftreams and winter torrents from the
mountains, after watering the low grounds, empty them-
felves by a rapid current into the Sea; but in wider
parts of the plains, where the level of the Beach does
not favour the efcape of the water, noxious marfhes are
formed, and by their putrid exhalations in the hot months,
infe& all the adjacent country: which is particularly
the cafe at Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, the Sea-Port
of Aleppo.

The Rivulets which defcend on the land fide, are foon
loft in the extenfive plains behind the mountains, but
diffufe a lively verdure as far as they run; and, winding
beautifully beneath fhades of Myrtle and Oleander, en-
rich the profpect from the hills. “The oppofite boundary
of thefe interjacent plains, confifts of low, rocky, barren
hills, beyond which are other plains like the firft exceed-
ingly fertile, although watered only by rain, and tem-
porary torrents. ‘This alternate fucceffion of hill and
dale extends about fixty or feventy miles within land,
after which the country, as I have been informed, is
level all the way to Baffora, and conftitutes what is pro-
perly termed Arabia Deferta *.

4 Note XIII.
** Note XIV. ie

61
CHAP.
II.
eed

BOOK

OF THE GARDENS

To this general {ketch of the face of the country it may

UL ~~ be added, that of the rivers which rife on the land

fide of the maritime mountains, the Orontes alone finds
its way to the Mediterranean. The others in this
part of Syria, (which are indeed but few in number,
and not large) are foon abforbed in their courfe through
the thirfty plains, or loft in lakes. And even the
Orontes, though it receives a fupply from the lake of
Antioch, and is often fwelled by the brooks and
mountain-ftreams which fall into it, does not appear
more confiderable where it empties itfelf into the Sea,
than it is at the diftance of many miles nearer its
fource.

CHAP.

Ft Ars, fle

OF THE SEASONS AT ALEPPO, THE HUSBANDRY,
AND VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS OF THE GARDENS
AND CULTIVATED FIELDS.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SEASONS—HOT WINDS—RAIN—SNOW AND ICE
—LIGHTNING —HAIL—METEORS—AURORA BOREALIS NOT OBSER-
VED AT ALEPPO—EARTHQUAKES—SOIL AND HUSBANDRY—SUBTER-
RANEOUS GRANARIFS—WAT ER MIT.LLS—ARTICLES OF CULTIVATION.
COTTON, TOBACCO, OLIVES, VINES &c.—CASTOR AND SESAMUM
OIL—PISTACHIO NUTS— MULBERRY —POMEGRANATE, FIG &c.—
ORANGE AND LEMON TREES HOUSED IN THE WINTER—ESCULENT
ROOTS, LEGUMES, AND OTHER VEGETABLES.—

ALEPPO, although encompaffed by hills, is well © #4
ventilated, and enjoys a pure penetrating air; but ~~~
is too fubtile for confumptive perfons, and difpofes
ftrangers to relapfe, who have lately before their arrival
been recovered from intermittent fevers. Some afcribe
to it the fingular property of exciting latent diforders '.
The Wefterly Winds predominating in the Summer,
ferve to moderate the exceflive heats, which, were it
not for this kind difpenfation of Providence, would
render the country in a great meafure uninhabitable ;

*"Note XV.
Ccon-

OF THE SEASONS

80 © confidering the cloudlefs fky, the intenfe power of the
eaene fun, with the reflection from the white chalky foil, and

the ftone walls of the houfes. The viciffitude of the
feafons is much lefs irregular than in regions more
Northern, and the air is fo falubrious, that from the
end of May to the middle of September, it is ufual for
the inhabitants to fleep expofed on their terraces under
the canopy of Heaven, without danger from damps, or
other noxious qualities of the atmofphere. As I fhall
have occafion hereafter to enter into a meteorological
detail, introductory to the account of Epidemical dif-
tempers, it will be fufficient at prefent to exhibit fuch a
general defcription of the feafons, as refpeéts Syrian
Agriculture, with fome fpeculative opinions on the in-
fluence of climate upon human life and manners.

The Spring may be faid to commence early in Feb-
ruary*. The fields which were partly green before,
by the fpringing up of the later grain, now, become
covered with an agreeable verdure. The Almond tree
puts forth its bloflom about the middle of the month,
being foon followed by the Apricot, the Peach and the
Plumb; and, though other trees remain in their leaflefs
{tate till the fecond week of March, thofe which are in
bloffom, together with the lively vegetation of the plants

* In the above defcription of the Seafons, the New Stile is under ftood :
in the former Edition it was the Old Stile
beneath,

AND HUSBANDR Y,)/ AT ALEPPO.

beneath, give a pleafing vernal appearance to the gar- CHAP
dens. The fame winds, which are peculiarly cold in the “~~~

Winter, though at ‘this time they often blow more
ftrongly, are much lefs bleak; and, though the Sky be
often loaded with black hovering clouds, accompanied
with a good deal of rain, the heavy fhowers are of
fhort duration, and in the variable weather, there is a
large proportion of fun-fhine.

In April the Spring haftens rapidly forward; the
Sky is more conftantly clear, and, the Sun fhining out
with increafing power, the intervening fhowers prove
not lefs grateful to the fenfes, than refrefhing to vegeta-
tion. The fields are in full beauty towards the end of
this month; the verdure being every where finely
variegated by an exuberance of plants, left to expand
their flowers, amidft the corn.

Early in May the corn begins to be yellow, from
which period the gay livery, that clad the fields in the
two preceeding months, fades rapidly. A few weeks
more bring on the harveft; and, the grain near Aleppo
being ufually plucked up by the roots, the whole
country aflumes fo bare, and parched an afpect, that
one would be apt to think it incapable of producing
any thing befides the few robuft plants fcattered here
and there, which have not been torn up by the Reapers,
and have vigour to refift the fcorching heat.

The tranfition to the Summer, though it may be
marked in its gradations, is ftill abrupt. Some fhowers

Vo. I. K com-

OF THE SEASONS

BOOK commonly fall in the firft fortnight in June ; but, from
—~—~ that time to the middle of September, it is extraordinary

to fee any rain. The fky of a fine pale blue, is conftantly
ferene, a few white fleecy clouds excepted, which
fometimes appear about noon, and tranfiently intercept
the Sun’s rays. The heat increafing gradually in June,
continues nearly at the fame degree throughout July
and part of Auguft, and would be much more haraf-
fing, were it not mitigated by the Wefterly breezes,
which, in the day time, may be almoft conftantly ex-
pected. When thefe breezes fail, the weather becomes
extremely hot; but by no means fo oppreflive as when
the wind blows from the North, the North Weft, the
Eaft, the North Eaft or South Eaft.

From the points now mentioned, light airs are not
uncommon in the Summer, rendering the weather more
difagreeably fultry, than when an abfolute calm prevails ;
but when, keeping in the fame quarters, they rife to
brifk gales, efpecially from the Eaft or South Eaft, they
are then felt dry, and ardent, like air iffuing from an
Oven; they parch the eyes, the lips and noftrils, and
produce a laffitude, joined with a certain ineffable op-
preffion at the breaft, to which the Natives are not lefs
fenfible than the Europeans. Within doors, the locks,
with the metal utenfils of all kinds, become nearly as
hot as if expofed to the direct rays of the Sun; and
fuch is the ftate of the Atmofphere, in refpect to eva-
poration, that water, preferved in the porous earthen

veffels,

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.

veffels which are brought from Bagdat, becomes confi- © #4?
derably cooler, than when expofed to a frefh Weftern —~—

Wind;. Thefe remarkable hot Winds are not obferved
every year; many Summers are altogether without
them, and I never obferved more than four or five fuch
days in the fame feafon. It is ufual, while they laft, to
fhut the doors and windows in order to exclude them;
for though they do not produce fuch fatal effects as the
Defert Wind named Simooly‘, they are extremely
oppreflive.

The true Simooly+ Wind never reaches Aleppo,
nor is it common in the Defert between that City and
Baffora: at leaft accidents from it very feldom happen
to the Baffora Caravans. “The Arabs report a variety
of fingular circumftances concerning it, fome of which
are probably exaggerated. They affert, that it’s pro-
greffion is in feparate, or diftin¢ét currents, fo that the
Caravan, which, on it’s march in the Defert fometimes
fpreads to a great breadth, fuffers only partially in cer-
tain places of the line, while the intermediate parts
remain untouched. ‘That fometimes thofe only who
happen to be mounted on Camels are affected, though
more commonly fuch as are on foot: but that both
never fuffer alike. That lying down flat on the ground
till the blaft paffes over, is the beft method of avoiding

7 (Cyano
* Note XVI.

K 2 the

OF THE SEASONS

BOOK the danger, but that the attack is fometimes fo fudden
—~— as to leave no time for precaution. It’s effects fome-

times prove inftantly fatal, the corpfe being livid or
black, like that of a perfon blafted by lightning; at
other times it produces putrid fevers, which prove
mortal in a few hours ; and that very few of thofe who
have been ftruck recover 5.

In Auguft the weather is calm and fultry, till towards
the end of the month, when the Nile Clouds, as they
are called, ufually make their appearance, and are often
attended with dew ; circumftances, which, joined to the
increafing length of the night, render the air cooler.

About the Autumnal Equinox, fome fhowers com-
monly fall either at Aleppo, or in the Neighbourhood,
which greatly refrefh the Air, ftill fultry in the day ;
and though thefe fhowers feldom laft more than a few
hours, yet, if they have been in any degree confiderable,
the fields foon affume fomewhat of a fpring-like verdure.
Thefe are termed the firft rains®, and are ufually pre-
ceded by irregular gufts of wind which raife the duft
remarkably in Vortices’. From that time for at leaft

* Note XVII.

* The Reader may find fome curious remarks on the former and latter
rains of Scripture, in Harmer’s obfervations Vol. 1. p. 34. To the term
firft is fometimes added Autumnal. Owel Mutter al Hareef. and fo of the
fecond. But Autumn is often omitted ; The terms firft and fecond being
always underftood of the Autumnal rains, and, in converfation, never ap-
plied to thofe of other Seafons,

7 Proverbs XXV. 14.

twenty

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.

twenty or thirty days, or till the fall of the fecond rains, c HAP.
the weather is ferene, temperate, and really delightful. ——~

The fecond rains are in quantity more plentiful than
the firft, and the weather after them becomes variable,
as well as much cooler. The tranfition however from
the Autumn to the Winter, is flower than that from
Spring to Summer. The cold does not increafe fud-
denly, the rain falls in fhowers lefs heavy, but of longer
continuance ; and the Sky, during the fair intervals, is
oftner cloudy.

The trees retain their leaves till the beginning of
December, and the moft delicate of the Europeans fel-
dom have fires before the middle of that month. The
Natives make an alteration in their clothing, imme-
diately after the fecond rains; but few of them ufe
fires, and then only in the depth of Winter, when the
feafon happens to be uncommonly fevere. The rigour
of the Winter, as they fuppofe, commences about the
twentieth of December, and lafts forty days, naming it
for that reafon the Murbania, in which feafon they do
not hold it advifeable to take medicines of any kind, in
chronic difeafes. Their computation of this term is
pretty near the truth; for though froft as well as fnow
has been obferved both earlier and later than the limits
of the Murbania, yet, in moft years, the true wintery
weather falls within them: and the Air at fuch times is
often fo fharp and piercing, that the cold appears excef-

five

OF THE SEASONS

BOOK five even to ftrangers lately arrived from much colder
Sana Climates:

But the Winters of different years vary confiderably,
both in the degree of cold, and the quantity of rain and
fnow which falls in the months of December, January,
and February. In the thirteen years of my refidence at
Aleppo, it happened not more than three times, that the
Ice was of fufficient ftrength to bear the weight of a
man, and then only in fhady fituations, where the Pool
was not much expofed to the Sun. It is very feldom
that there is not fome frofty weather in the Winter ;
but many years pafs entirely without fnow. The fnow
does not remain long unmelted in the ftreets; it was
obferved only in three out of thirteen Winters to lye
more than one day. When it is clear and calm, the
Sun has fo much power that the weather is always
warm, fometimes rather hot, in the open air. The
Narciffus is in flower moft part of the Winter; and
Hyacinths and Violets become plentiful in January: yet
neither Oranges nor Lemons are cultivated in the gar-
dens, and fome Winters are even too fevere for the
Pomegranates.

Violent ftorms of wind are rare at Aleppo. It fome-
times blows hard, but only in fudden gufts of fhort
duration. The Winter and Spring Winds blow chiefly
from between the North Weft and the South Eaft, being

proportionably colder as they verge towards the Eaft.
Plt

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.

It has been remarked before, that thofe winds, from May c HAP.

till September, are peculiarly hot.

The winds, in the winter, are in general moderate,
feldom rifing to a brifk gale. In the fummer, the weft
wind, of all others the moft conftant, fometimes
blows hard in the night; but its ufual courfe is to {pring
up foon after the fun, to rife gradually to a frefh breeze,
and to ceafe fuddenly in the evening. Squalls, accom-
panied with heavy fhowers, and fometimes with
thunder, are frequent in the fpring and autumn.

It is very feldom that mifchief is done by lightning,
within the city ; nor are accidents frequent in the fields :
The fhepherds and flocks fometimes fuffer, but the
inftances being rare, are much talked of when they
happen.

Hail falls moft commonly in the latter part of the
{pring, in very heavy ftorms; and the hail-ftones are
often of a moft enormous fize. I have feen fome that
meafured two inches in diameter; but fometimes irre-
gularly fhaped pieces are found among them, weighing
above twenty drams. Thefe ftorms make terrible ha-
vock among the windows ; as likewife among the glazed
frames, which are often employed in the winter, to
fhut up the great Divan facing the court-yard, by
which means it is converted into a chearful winter apart-
ment. In the fummer, thefe frames are removed.
Above twelve hundred panes of glafs, in one feraglio,
have been broken by a fhort hail-ftorm.

Through-

BOOK
I

OF THEYSEASONS

Throughout the fummer and autumnal months, co-

.+—’ rufcations near the horizon are frequently feen in the

evening; and, when the night is more advanced, the
the meteors called falling ftars, make a beautiful appear-
ance. [he Aurora Borealis was never obferved ; nor
does it feem to be known to the natives of Syria.

In the months of September and October, lightning,
unaccompanied by thunder, is frequently, in the night,
obferved darting out from the heavy black clouds, which
hover about for fome time before the autumnal rains.
The fame kind of lightning is fometimes feen alfo in
the fummer ; but the nocturnal fky, in the hot months,
is almoft perpetually ferene, exhibiting a mcft glorious
{cene to the aftronomer, who may, at the fame time,
indulge his ftudy, and enjoy the cool air on the terrace.

There are few years that earthquakes are not felt at
Aleppo; but being in general flight, and fo long a time
having elapfed fince the city has fuffered much from them,
the dread they occafion is only momentary: unlefs
where the public happen to be alarmed by exaggerated
accounts of what may have at the fame time befallen
other towns of Syria; and then indeed, the return of
fuch flight fhocks, as would have otherwife paffed unre-
garded, fpread univerfal terror *°.

When the fhocks happen in the day time, though
{mart, they often are not felt by people walking in the

{treets,

AND HUSBANDRY} ATIALEPPO. 73

ftreets, or in the crouded bazars; but in the filence of c HA P.
the night, they are very dreadful, and make an awful~~—~
impreffion on perfons roufed from fleep.

The. nature of the foil in the vicinity of Aleppo, has
been already mentioned. In the plains fomewhat
more diftant, it confifts of a reddifh, fometimes of a
blackifh, light mould, and produces the fruits of the
earth in great abundance.

The fields cultivated near the city, are made, by force
of manure, to yield annually two or three crops of
different kinds. Where manure is not employed, which
is the cafe in moft places remote from towns, the fields
are fown only once a year, with different forts of grain
alternately, but are feldom permitted to lye fallow.

They begin to plough, the latter end of September,
or as foon as fome rain has fallen to foften the parched
ground; and the froft is feldom fevere in a degree to
prevent their ploughing at all times, throughout the
Winter. The plough ufed near the town, is commonly
fo light that a man cf moderate ftrength might carry it
in one hand. It is drawn by one or two fmall Cows,
fometimes by a fingle Afs, and is managed with
much eafe by one man, who ufually fmokes his pipe
all the time he is at work. The furrows are extremely
fhallow, but fo remarkably ftraight, though of great
length, that one would imagine they muft have ufed a
line in tracing them.

Vou. I. L; They

74+
BOOK
I

OF THE SEASONS

They fow the following grains: wheat °, barley '°,

—.— lentils "", chiches ', beans "3, chichling '*, {mall vetch "5,

a {mall green kidney bean '°, and India millet '7. Oats
are not cultivated near Aleppo, but I have obferved
fome fields of them about Antioch, and on the Sea Coaft.
The horfes are fed univerfally with barley ; but Lucern
‘* is alfo cultivated for their ufe, in the fpring.

The earlieft wheat is fown about the middle of
October, other grains continue to be fown till the end
of January; and barley even fo late as the end of
February. The harrow is feldom ufed; the grain being:
covered by repafling the plough along the edge of the
furrow ; and, in places where the foil is fandy, they fow
firft, and then plough.

The barley harveft commences early in May, ten
days or a fortnight before that of the wheat; and, early
in June, moft of the corn of every kind is off the ground.
Wheat as well as barley, in general does not grow
half fo high as. in Britain, and is therefore, lke other

» Honta abin Triticum Linnei

0 Shaeir ans Hordeum.

™ Addes (wars Ervum Lens.

* Hummes (gos Cicer Arietinum.

* Fool S43 Vicia Faba..

4 Jilban Wye Lathyrus..

* Kifhna aunt Vicia.

* Maath (il Phafeolus Max.

7 Durra alo Holeus Sorghum.

an SE Medicago Sativa.
wv

erain,

AND HUSBANDRY)! AT) ALEPPO. 75

grain, not reaped with the fickle, but plucked up with c HA P.
the root by the hand. In other parts of the country —~—~
where the corn grows ranker, the fickle is ufed. The
reapers go to the field very early in the morning, and
return home foon in the afternoon. ‘They carry pro-
vifions along with them, and leathern bottles, or dried
bottle gourds, filled with water. They are followed
by their own children, or by others who glean with
much fuccefs: for a great quantity of corn is fcattered
in the reaping, and in their manner of carrying it.
There is a cuftom peculiar to the reapers, which ex-
tends all over Syria, and bears fome refemblance to
what, in fome counties of England, is called a Largefs.
When a traveller happens to pafs a field where the
reapers are at work, they defpatch one of their number
with a handful of corn, which he offers to the traveller,
laying hold at the fame time of the horfes bridle. The
meffenger runs as faft as he can, and, from the moment
he fets out, continues calling with a loud voice, Sha-
bafh, Sha-bafh', which words are repeated by the whole
band. A fmall prefent is expected in return to this
compliment, and when received, the meffenger holding
up his hand as a fignal, the women join in a general
Ziraleet *°, by way of thanks.

As foon as the corn is reaped, it is carried on Affes
to the fummit of the neareft rifing ground or hill, where

9 oO ebLS Obl,

2° Sound of joy or exultation made by the women, to be explained in an-
other place.

L 2 it

OF THE SSEASONG

Book it is laid in a heap, on a fpot of hard even ground, in-
ae ftead of a barn. Here it is feparated from the chaff,

not by thrafhing, but by means of a fledge fixed upon
two or three rollers, armed with feveral iron rings with
ferrated edges, fo fharp as to cut the ftraw. This
machine, which is drawn by oxen, mules, or affes, is
eafily driven by a man feated on the fledge, and as it
paffes round in a circle, over the corn fpread beneath,
the grain by repeated operation is trodden out while the
ftraw is chopped by the iron rings*. The chaff and
bruifed {pikes are now feparated from the grain, “by
throwing up the whole into the air with wooden fhovels,
when the wind blows moderately. The cleaner grain
being depofited, together with the chopped ftraw, in a
heap by itfelf, the fpikes imperfectly trodden, are again
fubmitted to the fledge. After fome days, the grain
being more perfectly winnowed and feparated from the
{ftraw, is thrown all together in a large heap called the
Bydre, where it remains to be divided between the land-
lord and the hufbandman, in the proportions eftablifhed
by agreement. The cattle employed in the harveft are
left unmuzzled at the heap, as mentioned in feripture.
The grain, when divided, is tranfported in facks to
the granaries, which are large fubterraneous grottoes with
one round opening at top; and this being clofe fhut,

» Tfaiah chap. xxviii. 27, 28. A curious note on this paflage may be
feen in Bifhop Lowth’s Commentary.
when

AND) HUSBANDRY, (AT ALEPPO. 77

when the magazine is full, is covered over with earth, CHAP
in fuch a manner as to remain completely concealed ~~
from an enemy. ‘Thefe magazines are fometimes found

in the middle of a ploughed field, fometimes on the verge,

nay even in the middle of the high-way ; and as they

are often, when empty, left carelefly uncovered, travel-

ling near the deferted villages, in the night, becomes
extremely dangerous. ‘The grain, which in general is

of excellent quality, and perfectly dried before it is laid

up, is well preferved in thefe granaries. It is not much
fubject to. vermin, except when kept too long, which
avarice is often led to do, in expectation of a future
dearth.

There are fome water mills upon the Kowick; but
the corn is chiefly ground in mills worked by mules,
and, among the lower people, by fimple hand mills ”*.
Wind mills are unknown. ‘The corn, as may eafily be
imagined, from their manner of managing it, is liable to
be mixed with various feeds, {mall ftones, and earth ;
for which reafon, in the better houfes, which always lay
in provifion for the family, it is carefully wafhed and
picked by the women, before it is fent to the mill”,

“ See Harmer, v. i. p. 250.—It is remarked by Bifhop Lowth that water
mills were not invented till a little before the time of Auguftus. Notes
on Ifaiah p. 217.

* They ufe the fame care in preparing the grain for the mill in Egypt.
Maillet, Lett. ix. p. 96.

Befides

BOOK
I.

OF THE SEASONS

Befides wheat, barley, and different kinds of pulfe
already mentioned, a variety of vegetables are cultivated
in the fields as well as in the gardens ; as mufk melon”,

26 fennel flower 7,

water melon*®, a {mall cucumber
fefamum **, palma Chrifti??, hemp 2°, foenugreek 3* and
baftard faffron 3”.

Cotton *# is chiefly fown in the gardens, though fome-
times alfo in the open fields ; but no great quantity is
raifed at Aleppo. It is not gathered till October, and
the {pots where it grows, prefent a pleafant verdure, in
the hot months.

Tobacco *+ is raifed only in the gardens. It is planted
regularly in rows, and the ftems, being ftripped of the
leaves when ripe, are left ftanding ; for a certain tax is
levied by tale on the number of ftems. The leaves are
ftrung on threads, and then fufpended in the open air to

dry. It is reckoned ftronger, and of inferior quality to

* Bateeh arhs Cucumis Melo. Linnei

** Jibbes (As Cucumis Citrullus.

a Ajoor_jy=* Cucumis.

” Hebtalbaraky a_s. ee lous Nigella Sativa.

* Simfim i Sefamum Orientale.

* Khurwa ¢ 3 Ricinus Communis.
Kunbis (A5 Cannabis Saliva.

* Hulby cule Trigonella Fenum Grecum.

* Curtim 3 Carthamus Tinctorius.

* Kutn (yaks Goflypium Herbaceum.

* Tutton wig Nicotiana Tabacum.

what

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 79

what is produced at the villages, and efpecially in the © #,4?
mountains between Shogle and Latachea, where it jg So
cultivated in fuch quantities, as to form a confiderable

article of trade with Egypt. It is remarked by M.
D’Arvieux in 1683, that they had only a few years be-

fore cultivated tobacco in the environs of Aleppo ;_ that

great quantities were confumed, and the price of

Brafil tobacco thereby lowered. Whence it would ap-

pear that moft of their tobacco had been imported from
Europe before that time *.

The olives *° produced at Aleppo refemble the Spanifh
olives, but are not quite fo large. ‘The annual produce
is little more than fufficient for pickling. ‘The city is
fupplied with oil from other parts, efpecially from Edlib
and the villages in that quarter, where there are olive
plantations of great extent. The oil *” is much efteemed
by the natives, and fometimes is very good, but from the
little care beftowed on it’s preparation, the quality is
generally indifferent; fo that the Europeans, commonly.
ufe French or Italian oil. Large quantities are employ-
ed in making foap, of which fome is manufactured at
Aleppo, but the greater part at Edlib. The afhes em-
ployed in this manufacture, are brought from the Defert,
by the Arabs.

+* Memoires, v. 6. p. 470.
%6 Zeitoon (., yy) Olea Europea.
7 Zeit. Sy) Oleum Oliyarum.

BOOK
I

OF THE SEASONS

An oil called Seerige** is prepared from the Sefamum

“+~— and much ufed in the Jewifh cookery ; but it is dif.

agreeably ftrong both to the tafte and fmell. Some eat
it mixed with the infpiffated juice of the grape, called
Dibs, but very few, except the Jews, ufe it inftead of
olive oil.

The oil of the Palma Chrifti is principally ufed by the
common people for their lamps; little or nothing is
known of it’s medicinal virtues. The plant is cultivated
chiefly in the fields near the river.

The gardens afford feveral varieties of grapes 39; par-
ticularly a fmall white grape reckoned {uperior to the
reft. The large grapes produced in the houfes, upon
the vines that cover the ftairs or arbours, are of beauti-
ful appearance, but have little flavour. The ripe grapes
begin to appear in the market in September, but the
height of the vintage is not till November. It is cuf-
tomary to draw off the new wine at Chriftmas, and
reckoned neceffary that the juice fhould remain in the
jar fix weeks, in order to be properly fermented. The
grapes produced in the environs of the city, though not
employed for making wine, are not fufficient for the
annual confumption. A part is ufed for making Huf-
rum *°, which is the juice expreffed from the grape while

unripe,

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 81

unripe, and by the Turks preferred to vinegar; the reft © 4,4”
are permitted to ripen, and are confumed at table. The “~~
grapes for making wine are brought from Khillis and
other places. The Chriftian and Jewith fubjects have
permiflion, on paying a certain duty, to bring into the
city a limited quantity of grapes, for making wine, or
brandy, for their own ufe: the Franks have a fimilar
privilege tax free; but, as few of them have proper con-
veniences at their own houfes, their wine is ufually
made in the Jideida. ‘The white wines are palatable,
but fo thin and poor, that it is with difficulty they can be
preferved found from one year to another. ‘The red
wine feldom appears at the European tables; it is deep
coloured, ftrong, heady, without flavour, and more apt
to produce droufy ftupidity, than to raife the fpirits.
One third part of white wine mixed with two parts of
red, make a liquor tolerably palatable, and much lighter
than the red wine by itfelf. In this way it is fometimes
drank by the Europeans, when Provence wine (which
is their ufual beverage) happens to be fcarce.

It might be worth while to attempt the improvement
of the flavour of the Aleppo wine, by fufpending in the
jar, a bunch of the dried flowers of the grape, while the
juice is fermenting, in the manner mentioned by M.
Peyffonel to Haffelquift. I believe the experiment has
not been made at Aleppo *".

“For the ufual manner of making the wine. See Memoires d’Arvieux,
Tom. VI. p. 462,

Vo. I. M Tie

BOOK
Ie

OF THE SEASONS

The dried fruit of the vine * makes part of the food

—~—— of the inhabitants. It is eaten with bread, and ufed in

Sherbets ; a very large quantity of raifins is confumed
alfo in the diftillery, which is carried on both by Turks
and Chriftians. Anifeed is added in the diftillation,
and the. fpirit, which is very ftrong, is called Araki *°.
The infpiffated juice of the ripe grape is much ufed by
the natives. It is named Dibs ‘++, and has much the ap-
pearance of coarfe honey, but is of a firmer confiftence.
It is brought to town in goat-fkins, and retailed in fmall
quantities in the Bazars, ferving for the common people,
inftead of honey. Thus the vine remains an important
article of Syrian hufbandry, though, in confequence of
a precept of the national religion, comparatively a
fmall proportion of the fruit, is employed in the vat.
M. d’Arvieux however, afferts that the annual confump-
tion of grapes is 28c00 Kintals, of which 14000 Kintals
are confumed in making wine *.

The piftachio tree *° is cultivated with great induftry,
and the nuts are reckoned fuperior to thofe produced in
any other part of the world. Pliny fays that piftachios
were firft brought from Syria into Italy, by Lucius

a Zbeeb. may
4 Araki Ca
» Dibs (wd
«* Memoires, Tom. VI. p. 456.
* Fiftuk U3 sins
Vitellius,

AND TMUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.

Vitellius, in the reign of Tiberius *7; and Galen men-
tions Berrhoea as being famous for that fruit in his
time *’. Befides a confiderable confumption of them at
home, large quantities are exported to Europe. The
fruit lofes much of it’s beauty by drying, but improves
perhaps in flavour. The tree, when laden with clufters
of the ripe fmooth nuts, of a beautiful pale blufh colour,
makes a fine appearance, but at other times is far from
handfome, it’s branches being remarkably fubdivided,
and crooked. It feldom exceeds thirty feet in height,
and is often not more than twenty; the trunk, which
is proportionally fhort, is about three, or three feet and
a half in circumference. The female tree, when not
ingrafted, bears a fmall nut of little value. It is very
liable to injury from blafts in the fpring. The nuts are
of various fizes, the kernel alike green in all, but the
outer hufk is of different colours, from almoft entirely
white, to a red; but thefe two colours are moft com-
monly blended, and the varieties are produced by in-
graftment.

The piftachio delights in a dry foil. As the male
and female flowers grow on feparate trees, it is found
neceffary for the fecundation of the nut, that a male
fhould be planted at intervals among the female
trees. In the back yard of a houfe belonging formerly

* Lib. 13. cap. 5. Lib. 15. cap. 24.
41 De aliment. Facult. Lib. 2. c. 30.

M 2 to

OF ‘THE SEASONS

80 °K to one of the Englifh Gentlemen, ftood a very flourifh-

—~— ing female piftachio tree, which was almoft every year

laden with nuts of the faireft appearance, but perpetu-
ally without kernels. It’s folitary fituation was confi-
dered, by the gardeners, as the only caufe of this.

The nuts of the wild piftachio # are brought to town
from the mountains, the tree not growing near Aleppo®.
They refemble the other in flavour, but are very {mall,
flatter, and ufually divefted of the outer hufk.

The white mulberry 5' is common in the gardens.
The trees are permitted to grow to a great height,
being cultivated chiefly on account of the fruit, which is
very large, reddifh on one fide, and of an infipid fweetifh
tafte. The lower people are neverthelefs very fond of
it; and, in the month of May, many perfons are em-
ployed in bringing the fruit to market, heaped upon
large flat round boards, which they carry adroitly on
their heads.

The fruit of the red mulberry ** is delicious, but 1s
not ripe till two months later. ‘The tree grows alfo to
a great height.

Very little filk is made at Aleppo, nor is the quantity
confiderable that is made at any of the adjacent villages;

” Butem :
*° The tree was found by Dr. Freer growing at the funk village.

* Toot i Morus alba Linnai.

* Toot Shamy acle Wy! M. nigra.
although,

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO.

although, wherever a ftream of water is found, they © 4,4.
ufually plant filk gardens. The filk exported from “~—~

Aleppo to Europe, by way of Scanderoon, is chiefly the
produce of Antioch, and the mountains in that neigh-
bourhood; or is brought to Aleppo from places ftill
more diftant. It is the leaves of the white mulberry on
which the filk worm feeds; and the trees intended for
that ufe are not permitted to grow tall.

The pomegranate 53 is common in all the gardens.
The ripe fruit is feldom abundant earlier than the end
of Auguft; and then moft families lay in a ftock for
their winter confumption. ‘There are three varieties of
this fruit, one fweet, another very acid, and a third that
partakes of both qualities agreeably blended. ‘The juice
of the four fort is ufed inftead of vinegar, or verjuice,
the others are cut open when ferved up to table, or the
grains, taken out and befprinkled with fugar and rofe
water, are brought to table in faucers. ‘The grains alfo
frefh as well as dried, make a confiderable ingredient in
cookery. The pomegranate trees are apt to fuffer
much in fevere winters; and, in the fpring, by extraor-
dinary colds.

The markets are plentifully fupplied with figs5+ of
feveral varieties, the middle fized yellowifh fig, being
moft efteemed. The ordinary mode of caprification is

5 . . e
> Roman Ube J) Punica Granatum Linnezi.
* Teen oi Ficus Carica.

OF THE SEASONS

BOOK to fufpend fome of the fruit of the wild fig, on feveral
“—~— branches of the fig tree ; and this is believed to be ne-

ceffary to the maturation of the fruit. In the fruit of
the wild fig is bred a kind of gnat, which, at a certain
time, wounds the growing figs of the tree on which the
fruit for that purpofe was fufpended. The wound is
inflicted at the end of the fig furtheft from the ftalk,
and, when a drop of gum is obferved to iffue from that
part, it is reckoned a fure fign of the fruit’s having been
pricked by the infect, and of its being now ripe. I
have heard that the Aleppo gardeners, in imitation of
this operation of the gnat, fometimes prick a few figs
with a needle dipped in oil, in order to have early figs
for prefents to great men. But the manner of conduét-
ing this procefs in the Archipelago, as defcribed by
M. Tournefort % is little known at Aleppo, and is fo
ill fuited to the natural indolence of the people, that,
were fuch labour abfolutely requifite, they probably
would fooner give up the fruit, than take fo much pains
to procure it.

The gardens produce abundance of other fruits which
may be confidered as articles of luxury. The common
red cherry °° the white heart 5’, and the vifna cherry **:
the latter of which is more common than the others,

** Tournefort Voyages V. I. p. 258. See Beloe’s tranflation of
Heroditus v. I. p. 194.
* Kirraz Stambooly aie Prunus Cerafus Linnzi.
37 Pe
* P.
and

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 87

and much ufed in confection. Two varieties of apricots, ©") *
one common, of an inferior quality, and efteemed lefs Laem
wholefome5?, the other a beautiful well flavoured fruit ®
with a fweet kernel. Peaches®, which though not of
the enormous fize of thofe of Tripoly, nor fo highly
flavoured as in fome other parts of the world, are a
delicious fruit when permitted to ripen; but the natives
are fond of them when unripe, and great quantities are
alfo gathered in that ftate to be preferved in fugar.
Sundry varieties of plumbs *, ® one of which “ is fup-
pofed to be the fruit on which the Beccaficos principally
feed. Iwo or three varieties of apples, °> of very indif-
ferent quality. Pears,°° tolerably good. Quinces,® lefs
juicy than in France. Cornelian cherry *, almonds ®,
walnuts 7°, and hazel nuts7', jujubes”*, and fumach”3 ;

* Dirrak Wl J Amygdalus Perfica.

=i Houh C= Pi.

* Kulb al Tair coy los P.

* Sfirjle U> ~ rho Pyrus Cydonia.

* Kirrafie eal 5 Cornus Mas.

~ Louz_},J Amygdalus Communis
*° Jouz jy Juglans Regia.

™ Binduck SE Iye) Corylus Avellana.

* Anab WUI Rhamnus Ziziphus.

* Summak Olan Rhus Coriaria.

the

OF THEMSEASONS

BOOK the former in great requeft as a medicine, the latter as
—~— an ingredient in cookery. ‘There is one tree only of

St. John’s bread, or locuft tree 74, to be found in the
gardens, but the fruit, which is brought from the coaft,
is plentiful in the Bazars. They are fupplied with
chefnuts 75 from Natolia, and with dates 7° from Baffora;
neither of thefe growing near Aleppo. The pigniole7’,
or kernels of the ftone pine, are very much ufed in the
kitchen, and are brought from the mountains. All
thofe fruit trees, as remarked before, are ftandards,
planted for the moft part as clofe as they can grow to-
gether. Little pains are beftowed on their culture,
and the tree, however overladen, is never thinned with
a view to improve the fruit. It is a common prat¢tice
among the gardeners to fell the produce of the trees,
as foon as the fruit is fet. The purchafer being obliged
to run all rifk of the future crop, takes care, when the
fruit approaches to maturity, to fend perfons to watch
it. Birds are the moft formidable enemy, and it is im-
poflible to prevent their depredation, though numbers
of people are conftantly employed, at that feafon, to
fcare them by cracking of flings, by loud hallooing and
clapping the hands.

* Hurnoob Wi Ceratonia Siliqua Linnei.
** Aboo Furwa Oo L333 > ga! Fagus Caftanea.

* Timmer yo Pheenix Dactylifera.

” Sinnoober py Pinus Cembra.

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 89

It may be remarked that oranges”, lemons’, and c HAP.
citrons *°, are mentioned by Rauwolff as common fruit ———-
in the orchards of Aleppo *'; and M. d’Arvieux, a cen-
tury later, exprefily mentions them among other fruit
common in his time **. This circumftance, confidering
the particular bent of Rauwolff’s ftudies, which renders
it unlikely he fhould have been liable to miftake, feems
in fome degree, to countenance a notion entertained by
the natives, that the winters in Syria are in reality more
rigorous than they were in ancient times. It is certain
that thofe fruits are not at prefent cultivated in the gar-
dens, and that in general they cannot refift the vigour of
the Murbania in the open air; for fuch as are kept in the
court yards in town, are either planted in chefts, and
houfed in the winter, or otherwife protected, if planted
in the ground. ‘The city however, is well fupplied
with thofe fruits from Byas, Latachia, and other mari-
time towns. Adam’s apples, or plaintains, goofeberries,
currants, and myrtles, are alfo mentioned by Rauwolff, none
of which now grow in the gardens; on the other hand,
cherries, unknown in his time, are now common.
Strawberries have been brought from Europe, and cul-
tivated in chefts on the terraces. I have known them

™ Naringe a JG Citrus Aurantium Linnzi.
77 Leimoon Cyr C. Medica Limon.
*° Kubbad Olas C. Medica.

= Ray's Colleétion of Voyages. v. i. p. 47.
Memoires v. vi. p. 412 and 458.

Vo. I. N alfo

90 OF THE SEASONS

p00 alfo planted by way of experiment in the gardens. But

user fruit had not the fame flavour as in England. ‘The
common {carlet ftrawberry only was tried; other forts
may perhaps fucceed better.

Among the vegetables which enter into the diet of
the inhabitants, the mad apple * claims a principal
place. There are three varieties of it. They make
their appearance in June, but are moft abundant during
the four fucceeding months, and univerfally in requeft
at the tables of every clafs: they are even dried, or
preferved in falt, fo as to furnifh an occafional difh
throughout the winter. ‘They are indeed reprobated
by the Faculty, as prejudicial on account of their hot
quality, and their tendency to produce atrabile, but the
decifion is little regarded by perfons in health *4.

The remaining efculent vegetables may be arranged
in the order of their refpective feafons. From the be-
ginning of November to the end of March, the markets
are fupplied with cabbage *, rapecole *, fpinach *,

” Badinjan (jl’ob Solanum Melongena Linnai.

* The love apple or tomato, which ufed only to be raifed in pots, like
other flowers, has of late been cultivated, and is brought to the Bazars.
The ufe of it was introduced among the Franks by an Englifh Gentleman
who had refided long in Portugal and Spain. This fruit by the natives is
called Frank Badinjan. It is the Solanum Lycoperficum.

*s Milfoof Fate Braffica Oleracea
* Kurunb iS Braffica Gongylodes.
*” T{banah eile! Spinacea Oleracea.

beet

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 91

beet **, endive *, raddifh%°, red beet 9', carrot %, and c HA P.
turnip %. Cauliflower %* comes in towards the end of —-—~
January and is plentiful till the middle of March. In
April and May come ix lettuce %, beans %, peafe %, ar-
tichoke, %, purflain 9, and two forts of cucumbers '*°, all
which continue in feafon till July. Young cucumbers
are again brought to market in September, for the pur-
pofe of pickling.

From June to September there is abundance of mufk
melon '', of tolerable flavour, though inferior to the
cantalupe melon cultivated in England. The Beer

melon'”, comes in late inthe autumn. It is a beautiful

* Silk Ct Beta Vulgaris. Linnzi.
* Hindby suo Cichoreum Endivia.

° Fidjle bx? Raphanus Sativus.

* Shawinder jl 4% Bete Vulgaris Radix.
3° cag Daucus Carota.

3 Lift CaJ Braffica Rapa.

* Karnabeet CUS Braffica Botrytis.

9° Khufs (ws Lactuca Sativa.

%° Fool ,| ) Vicia Faba.

os” Beezy oj
** Ardi Showky er: iy (2 2)!
»° Bukly ay
‘eo Hiar jlo

7: Bateeh eae:

102

Pifum Sativum.
Cynara Scolymus.
Portulaca Oleracea.
Cucumis Sativus.
Cucumis Melo
Cucumis.

N 2 as

OF THESE ASONS

BOOK as well as delicate fruit; and is cultivated on the banks
U~— of the Euphrates.

The water melons’*} do not appear till July; they are
of excellent quality, and, being preferved in grottoes, or
in cool cellars, vaft quantities are confumed in the fum-
mer and autumn: fome even keep them throughout the
winter, efteeming it a high luxury to eat them in the
bagnio. To the fame feafon with the mufk melon, belong
alfo adder cucumber '*, kidney bean '%
efculent mallow '’, orange fhaped pumpion’®, and

, Jews mallow '*

feveral varieties of Gourd °°. Squafh '° comes in towards
the end of September, and remains in feafon till January.

The following pot herbs are alfo cultivated in the
gardens: coriander", fennell', garlic ', onions ‘",

3 Jibbes (wae Cucurbita Citrullus. Linnzi.
** Kutty acs Cucumis flexuofus.

*° Lubie arg) Phafeolus Vulgaris.
6 Miluhia dA Ho Corchorus Olitarius.
«7 Bamia a_wly Hibifcus Efculentus.
8 Kufa fiffer suwly 33 Cucurbita.

»> Kurrah cP Cucurbita Pepo.

™ Kuzbura ou; Coriandrum Sativum.
12 Shumra | _.¢ Anethum Feeniculum.
3 Toom ¢ i Allium Sativum.

™ Bufle hos Allium Cepa.

leek,

AND) HUSBANDRY; AT? ALEPPO. 93

leek:'5, parfley "°, celery '”, caraway ''*, crefs '°, foenu- c HAP.
greek **°, mint '*' and fennel flower *.

Befides the vegetables produced by culture, the fields
afford capers‘, borrage’*+, common mallow, forrel '”°
dandelion *’, water crefs °, and truffles

(eee ned

Savory "3°,
wild as well as garden, is much ufed by the natives to
give a relifh to bread; they pound it when dry, then
mix a certain proportion of falt, and dip their bread in
it at breakfaft, or after meals. Muftard*?* is very little
ufed except by the Franks; it is found in abundance
growing wild, but is not cultivated. The Shikakool ",

Kurrat co!

"* Bukdunes (wi su
Kirrifs on

Kirrawy &_. lS

"9 Rifhad ki y

"° Hulby ada

™ Nana ¢ ss

= Hebt il baraky aS or
"3 Kibbar_jUs

m¢ AJ Sanal Towr sll
"5 Hubeify sj

6 Homaid ays

“ Los wos

“* Rithad il moy WJ! Okay
° Kimmaie oh

0 Zatre As)

'* Hurdle ae)

3? Shikkakool pees

Allium Porrum. Linnai.
Apium Petrofelinum.
Apium Graveolens.
Carum Carvi.
Lepidium Sativum.
Trigonella Fenum Grecum.
Mentha Sativa.

Nigella Sativa.

Capparis Spinofa
Borrago Officinalis.
Malva Rotundifolia.
Rumex Acetofa.
Leontodon Taraxacum.
Sifymbrium Nafturtium.
Lycoperdon Tuber.
Satureia Hortenfis.
Sinapis Orientalis.
Tordylium Syriacum.

which

OF THE SEASONS

BOOK which is a fpecies of hartwort, grows plentifully in the
U_— fields : it is fometimes confected in the manner of eringo

root, but is not much in ufe. Liquorice 3 grows in
great abundance towards the Defert, and vaft quantities
of it are confumed in making a deco¢tion, which is drank
cold in the manner of Sherbet, inthe fummer. Wild
afparagus "3+ is brought from Harem.

The Colocafia '35 is fometimes brought from the coaft,
but at prefent not in requeft at Aleppo; which is the
more remarkable from what Rauwolff fays of it in his
time "°°. It is plentiful on the coaft; and, at Tripoly,
the grocers employ the leaves inftead of paper, for
wrapping up their wares; a circumftance, by the
Author juft named, referred to Aleppo.

The trees and plants hitherto mentioned under the
Arabic names by which they are vulgarly known at
Aleppo, will again be inferted under their proper Claf-

133 Soofe ons Glycyrrhiza Glabra. Linnei.
"* Hillioon «glo Afparagus Officinalis.
"5 Kolea® (ale Arum Colocafia.

"6 «¢ But beyond all, (in the Aleppo gardens) they plant Colocafia in
“‘ fuch plenty as we do turnips.” p. 48. Colocafia is not now cultivated
at Aleppo, no more than the Mufa, or Adam’s apple, both which were com-
mon in Rauwolff’s time; neither is the Agnus Caftus nor Myrtle found
now there, except in the courts of the houfes. Ray’s Coll. v. ii.

Pp. 47 and 75.

fes

AND HUSBANDRY, AT ALEPPO. 95

fes in the botanical Catalogue of plants growing in CHAP.
the vicinity of that city, to be given in a future chapter "37, —~—~

*” A manufcript on the fubject of agriculture, the work of a Spanifh
Arabian Writer of the 13th century, is mentioned in the Efcurial Catalogue.
Note XVIII.

CHAP.

te zi ve
i a

“toMemeon ¢
oa Wo oft
7 aa

f a ze
< 7 4
(ek Se tenet
» » z

¥
ad
Rang
if ory '
algarly
J their
{ she
ficinall
. a i.
they ‘1a
Biles’ f mo
J 218
e, both
. «A cle i
a
pA Pa t

THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF ALEPPO.

B OOK IL.
OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE CITY.

con F. &.

OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS— LANGUAGE —STATURE AND COM-
PLEXION—DRESS OF THE MEN—TURBAN—DRESS OF THE WOMEN—
FEMALE JEWELS, AND ORNAMENTS—EASTERN DRESS HAS UNDER-
GONE SOME ALTERATION, IN CITIES—STAINING THE NAILS, EYE-
LIDS, EYEBROWS, AND BEARD—PERFUMES—WOMEN ALWAYS VEIL-
ED, WHEN THEY WALK ABROAD—DIET OF THE INHABITANTS—
PREPARATIONS OF MILK, NAMED KAIMAK, AND LEBAN—COFFEE—
TOBACCO—PERSIAN MANNER OF SMOKING—USE OF OPIUM FAR
FROM GENERAL—INTOXICATING HERB USED WITH TOBACCO.

Tue number of inhabitants at Aleppo, has been CHAP.
computed at three hundred thoufand. M. dArvieux, —~—~
in 1683, makes the number to amount to 285,000 or

Vor. I. O 290,000.

OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK 290,000. M. Tavernier, nearly thirty years before,
—~— fays they reckoned about 258,coo fouls, in the city and

fuburbs '. But it is now conjectured, with more pro-
bability, that they do not exceed two hundred and
thirty five thoufand: of which two hundred thoufand
are Turks, thirty thoufand Chriftians, and five thoufand
Jews ’.

The language univerfally fpoken by the natives, is
the vulgar Arabic. The people of condition are taught
alfo the Turkifh, which, on account of its being the
Court language, is always ufed at the Seraglio, as alfo
by perfons connected with the Porte. The people of
Cairo pretend to a fuperiority in correét pronunciation
of the Arabic, and, in common difcourfe, they certainly
appear to pronounce it nearer to the manner in which
thofe of Aleppo read the literary language: but, in
this refpect, fome local peculiarity may be remarked in
almoft every diftrict of Syria, and the Arabs of the
Defert, in their pronunciation, differ confiderably from
all. The Turkifh fpoken at Aleppo, is reckoned to be
corrupted by the concourfe of ftrangers from the Nor-
thern Provinces.

The people in general are of a middle ftature, rather
meagre than corpulent, indifferently well made, but
neither vigorous, nor active. It is rare to fee a hump-

* Memoires d’Arvieux, v. vi. p. 439. Tavernier’s Voyages. p. 56.
= Note XIX.

backed,

IN GENERAL.

backed, or deformed perfon; but it muft be remembered ¢ # a P.
that the oriental drefs conceals flight deformities, and a

efpecially ill formed limbs. ‘They are naturally of a
fair complexion, their hair black, or of a dark chefnut
colour, and their eyes for the moft part black. Both
fexes are handfome, while children (which has been re-
marked by P. Teixeira’) but they alter much as they
grow up; the men are foon disfigured by the beard, and
the women, as they arrive foon at puberty, and are
married at an early period, quickly lofe the bloom of
youth, and often wear the appearance of old age, by the
time they reach thirty. A {mall waiftbeing confidered
rather as a defect than a beauty, the women {ftrive to
appear full, and plump; they ufe no ftays, and wear
their girdle very loofe. “The men gird tightly with a
broad belt, and a long fhawl cin¢cture.

In proportion as the people are expofed to the fun,
they become fwarthy. ‘The lower clafs of thofe in
town, are of a dufky complexion; the peafants are very
dark; and fome of the Bidoweens, or Arabs of the
Defert, are almoft black. The women of condition,
with proper care, preferve their fair complexion to the
laft, but they are apt to grow negligent after a certain
age. The others are more or lefs tawny; for though
all are clofely veiled when they walk in the ftreet, they
are at home much expofed to the fun, in going from

* Voyage, p. 71.
}'2 one

I0o OF: THES TN ERSTE ANTS

BOOK one apartment to another acrofs their courts ; and the
“—~—~ ufe of umbrellas is unknown.

{t has been thought proper to enter into a more
minute defcription of the Turkifh drefs than what ftood
in the former Edition; but it will be expedient alfo to
have recourfe to the plates Il. and IIl.

The men drefs in the long Eaftern habit, and, during
fix months of the year, they wear furs. The piercing
cold which fucceeds the autumn, renders a defence of
that kind in fome degree neceffary ; but fafhion con-
tinues the ufe of furs when the neceffity ceafes, and
many of the people of rank retain them all the fummer.
Furs are the moft expenfive article of the Eaftern habit.
A perfon in full drefs, wears no lefs than three furred
garments, one over another. ‘The firft comes half way
down the thigh, is made of fine Kermazoot *, lined with
ermine, or other fhort hair fur, without fleeves, and
with a narrow trimming of fur round the collar. The
fecond reaches half way down the leg, and has fhort
fleeves which come as low as the bend of the arm.
This, like the other, is of Kermazoot, lined with fur,
but, from the collar down to the bottom, as likewife
round the fhort fleeve, is trimmed with a border of fur,

+ A ftuff made of filk and cotton. Some are plain, others flowered and
very coftly.

five

IN GENERAL. IOL

five inches broad. Thefe garments hang loofe on the ¢ HA P.
body, the larger, being of width fufficient to fold half —--—~
round: both are named Giubbe. ‘The third, by way of
eminence called the Fur, or Kurk, is a large, loofe gown,
of cloth, with long, wide fleeves, or fometimes narrow
at the wrift, with great cuffs turning up. It is furred
with fable, or other rich furs, and the collar, fides, and
fleeves, are trimmed with the moft coftly long haired
furs.

As the Grandees ufually fit in fpacious, airy apart-
ments, without fire, and ride on horfeback when they
go abroad, they can bear fuch exceflive clothing without
inconvenience , but perfons who walk on foot, wear
one fur only. or at moft two, and, inftead of the Kurk,
they have an upper garment of cloth, without lining,
called a Kurtak, or Binnifh. People of fafhion wear alfo
the Kurtak, in undrefs, with a long fur under it, dif
tinguifhed from the Giubbe by its reaching to the heels,
and having fleeves that come over the fingers. The
common people wear a fingle fur, ufually made of coarfe
fox fkins.

The garments, under the furs, confift of a filk, or
linen fhirt 5, and drawers®; wide trowfers of red cloth’,
to which are fewed focks of yellow leather *, ferving at

> Kamees,
* Libas |W
7 Chahkchir_jys-<*> or Shahkfhoor _) gis

2 Meft an ng

once

102 OF THESINAASIEANTS

80 °K once for breeches, ftockings, and, within doors, for fhoes;
——~—" but in walking, except on the Divan, they ufe flippers
without heels % A waiftcoat, called a Kunbaz, that
comes lower than the knee; and a long veft, reaching
down to the heels, which covers all, and is named a
Dulaman"’. Thefe two fit eafily on the body, they
fold over, and are faftened with tapes on the fide. The
fleeves are open, but have a number of fmall buttons
and loops, and (in full drefs), are always clofe buttoned.
The Dulaman is tucked up fo as to fhow part of the
waiftcoat. They are made of plain, or flowered ftuts,
chiefly of home manufacture. In the fummer are ufed
India Kermazoots, calico, or muflin. An explanation

of Plate II. is here fubjoined".
In

° Babooch: but properly Babooge cal

° Dulaman (be 40 or Dulmai alo

™ Plate II. The windows are reprefented as opening on the court yard
of a Seraglio, where the colonnade, the ftair cafe leading to it, and, on the
other fide, a Kiofk may be eafily diftinguifhed. In the front of the pi€ture
is exhibited the Turkifh mode of decorating rooms with infcriptions in
embellifhed charatters, painting in flowers, gilding, &c. The carpet, the
raifed wooden platform covered with a mattrefs, and a fringed cloth, the
large cufhions in front, and the additional {mall ones, with the fringed mat-
trefs in the corners, fhow a Divan completely furnifhed. See p. 26.

In the neareft corner fits a Cady {moking a Kalian, which ftandsat a dif-
tance on the carpet. He is drefled in the Kurk, or Furwy, which is lined
throughout with fur, and has large wide fleeves. It is the ceremonial drefs
of the Effendees, though fometimes alfo worn by other people of diftinc-
tion; but the Turban is peculiar to the Ullama or learned. In the center

fits a Sardar, or Aga of the Janizaries. His turban belongs exclufively to
the

hee)
Lag

TaD WY,
he ahy) H

IN GENERAL. 103

In the oriental drefs, ligatures of no kind are ufed, c HAP.
except round the middle, which is girt with a belt--~—~
under the waiftcoat, and, a long Perfian fhawl above
the Dulaman. This laft Cin@ture ’ ferves by way of
belt for a fmall dagger’, or knife 't, which is ftuck obli-
quely on the right fide, and faftened to the Cincture by

the Officers of that body; the fafhion of his robe, with the clofe furred
fleeve, is that of the outer veftment, (lined with fhort haired furs, as ermine,
{quirrel, &c.) worn by people of rank in the fpring and autumn. He has
received his coffee ; anda page ftands before him, in the humble fubmiffive
attitude in which the pages are accuftomed to wait. He ftands ready to
take the empty cup, but in ftrict propriety the Dulaman (which is tucked
up in order to fhow the flowered Kunbaz beneath) fhould have hung down
to the ground before, as it does behind. In the further cogner, fits a
Bafhaw {moking a pipe, the bow] refting on the Niffada, an utenfil con-
trived to fave the carpet. His turban is the fame with that of other people
of rank. His Kurk isa full drefs one for the winter. It is lined with long
haired furs, and the trimmings of the large cuffs, the neck, and down the
breaft, &c. are of the fineft parts of coftly furs, as of fable, lynx, black fox,
and the like. Both he and the Cady have one or two fhorter furs under the
large Kurk, but they do not appear ; becaufe good manners require, in fit-
ing, that the Kurk fhould be tucked in under the knees, fo as not, in a
flaunting manner, to expofe the rich clothes beneath.

It is for a like reafon that the Dulaman of the page is let down when he is
in waiting, and the fleeves are clofe buttoned, from the wrift: when he ap-
pears with a Kurtak over the reft of his clothes, he takes care to double it
before him as he ftands in the prefence. The fame cuftom of doubling,
or lapping the outer garment, is obferved by all who approach a fuperior.

» Zinar_ jG), On the fubject of the girdle, fee a curious note in Bifhop
Lowth’s Ifaiah, p. 52.

* Hanjar.

™ Sikkeen.

a filver

104 OF THE INHABITANTS

Bo ox a filver chain. Among people of bufinefs, the Cinéture
“——— ferves to fupport,a filver inkhorn.

The Turban" confifts of the Kaook, and the Shafh,
which is rolled round it. The Kaook "° is a ftiff, quilted,
round cap, flat at the top, and covered with cloth, of
whatever colour the wearer choofes. The Shafh ’’ is a
piece of muflin about twenty-four yards in length, and
one and a half broad, commonly white, but fometimes
dyed of a pale, or deep green colour. The Effendees,
or perfons of the law, as alfo certain officers, civil as well
as military, wear Turbans of a peculiar fhape ; thofe of
perfons of condition, are all nearly alike in fhape, being
only diftinguifhed by their finenefs, from the Turbans
of the lower people. ‘The Chriftians and Jews wear
Shafhes of a different colour from thofe of the Turks.

In the inferior ranks, both of Turks and Chriftians,
many, inftead of the Kaook, wear a {mall cloth cap, roll-
ing a coarfe Shafh loofely round it. The Kurdeens
wear a high, tapering, felt Kaook, with a {mall Shath ;
the Dervifes, one of another form, and without a Shafh.
The Oriental head drefs admits of great variety in its
fafhion"®.

1s Dilband WWI
8 U9 4b
els
'® The Turbans moft commonly worn at Aleppo are reprefented in Plate
II. and IV. But there are feveral other kinds which may be feen in
Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabie, &c. p. 129.
Few

IN GENERAL. 105

Few people in fummer, unlefs thofe of the upper clafs ¢ #4 P.

when in ceremony, retain their furs, and then rarely ufe —~—~
any other than ermine. Inftead of the Kurk they wear
a filk, or camelot gown, with large fleeves, laced down
the feams with a narrow gold lace. ‘This goes by the
name of Abai, the name given to the ordinary veftment
of the Arabs. The Kurtak, inftead of cloth, is made of
fhalloon, under which is worn a light, fhalloon Giubbe,
without fur; and the Shahkfhoors are made of camelot.
The ordinary people lay afide their Shahkfhoor, wearing
drawers only; and for the cloth Dulaman fubftitute one
of linen. By thefe alterations, the fummer drefs is
rendered eafy and cool.

Reference might have been made to Lady Mary
Wortley’s defcription of the female drefs '°, had it not
in fome refpects, efpecially the head drefs, been rather
Grecian than Turkifh, and different from the drefs at
Aleppo.

The drefs of the ladies, refembles in many refpects
that of the men. But their Dulaman, and Kunbaz, fit
clofer to the fhape, and, not folding over the breaft,
leave the neck uncovered. Both, as alfo the furred
Giubbe, are made of European filks, brocade, or flower-
ed ftuffs of Aleppo. Their Shahkfhoors, called Gin-
tian*°, are of filk, or India ftuff, and purfed at the ancle

» Letter xxix, &c.
i uli
Vou. I. P with

106 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK with a ribband. They wear no Meft, but only a thin

foot-fock of green, or any other coloured leather, and
not fewed to the Shahkfhoors. ‘Their fhift 7‘ is of fine
filk gauze, hanging down to the feet, under the Kunbaz
and over the Gintian. Their Cin¢ctures are three in-
ches broad, richly embroidered, and faftened before by
a large gilt clafp, fet with pearls, or precious ftones.

The fafhion of their furs is different from that of the
men. ‘They are better fitted to the fhape, have fleeves
open from the elbow, fall off at the fides, and do not
conceal the neck. ‘The coftly, long haired furs, are
feldom worn by the ladies, who prefer the fable, or the
ermine, ard rarely wear. more than one fur at a time.
The trimming round the collar of their furs is much
broader, but, on the breaft, narrower than in the men’s
furs, and it is peculiar to them to wear the ermine tails
pendent on the outfide trimmings.

It would be an arduous tafk to defcribe in words, the
female head drefs, but fome notion may be formed of
it from the print annexed. Many of the Turkifh ladies
imitate thofe of Conftantinople, and form a high round
Turban, of coloured muflin, decorated with pearls,
diamond pins, egrets, and natural or artificial flowers ;
but others wear the ordinary Aleppo head. ‘The
hair, by fome is braided into a vaft number of {mail
plaits ; others form it, in two or three plaits, letting
them, like the firft, hang loofely down: but: neither

”™ Kumfan cy bass
mode

SL (LL

VL Fage 107

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Yj,

YUL

(Ne

IN GENERAL. 107

mode is fo graceful as that of the Greek ladies at cuar.
Conftantinople **. ——
The ladies are extremely fond of long hair, and be-
ftow much pains in preferving it. They encourage it’s
growing as thick as poflible, and, as they ufe a warm
cloth cap, by way of bafis for the fuperftru€ture of cotton
and muflin, which compofe the reft of the attire, their
head-drefs is much warmer than that of the men. But,
though they feldom venture to comb out their hair, ex-
cept in the Bagnio, they are very fubject to rheums in
the head, or other complaints, ufually afcribed to having
caught cold.
They wear earings *, a necklace, or rather a collar,
of gold*t; large clumfy gold bracelets *, on the wrifts
and ankles”; a ftring of Zechins ” clofe to the hair, on
the forehead; and another, very long, crofs the body,

* Plate III. Exhibits a Turkith lady of condition in the proper drefs of
Aleppo. She is reprefented fitting carelefly on a Divan fmoking, while her
maid advances to prefent a difh of coffee, holding the bottom of the under
cup between her finger and thumb. The lady’s head drefs is that conftantly
worn by the Aleppeen Chriftians ; but many of the Turkith ladies drefs in
the high Turban after the Conftantinople fafhion. Her toke and other
ornaments are exprefled, except the ankle rings, which are hid by her trow-
fers. Her Pellice has fleeves, but is only thrown loofely over her fhoulders.
She has a thin leather fock on the foot ; the maid’s feet are bare.

*> Khuldi 4 or Hylk CUS

* Toke 4b

** Sowar ) Mavs

** Khalkhal JW

” Killade ss or Killani GT

P 2 in

108

OF THES INHABITANTS

BOOK in the manner of a fafh. Both fexes wear rings * on
.——~ the fingers, and fome of the women wear them alfo on

the great toes.

From the earlieft times, it has been the cuftom of the
Eaftern people to beftow great expence on the jewels,
and other ornaments of their women ; but it is only of
late that the men have fo generally adopted the ufe of
coftly furs, and flowered garments. The change is by
the Turks regarded as a fign of their degeneracy, and
they affect to lament the rapid progrefs towards extra-
vagance and effeminacy, fo vifible, within the laft forty
years, among the people of middle rank, in moft great
towns of the Empire. ‘This luxury is faid to have been
firft introduced. in the time of Bajazet II. who fucceeded
to the Empire about the year 1481 9. It would appear
from Belon, that the Eaftern drefs, in the middle of the
fixteenth century, was much the fame with what is worn
at prefent. Neverthelefs it has altered in fome circum-
{tances 3°.

The fafhion of the Eaftern habit among the Arabs of
the Defert, has perhaps, fince the moft early periods,
undergone little or no change ; but the cafe is different
among the inhabitants of cities. ‘The alterations of

* Khatem ,i|X Moft of thefe ornaments are mentioned in Scripture.
Ezekiel xvi. 11, &c. See al Ifaiah iii. 18, &c. with Bithop
Lowth’s learned commentary.

* Note XX.

* Note XXI.

fafhion

IN) sGENERAL,

109

fafhion however happen feldom, and are lefs confiderable ¢ # 4 P.
than in Europe. ‘The head drefs of the men remains -—~—~

invariably the fame ; that of the ladies, as well as the
reft of their drefs, admits of many fmall variations, and
affords an opportunity of difplaying their tafte, in the
difpofition of jewels, pearls, and flowers.

The ufe of Rouge is hitherto very little known. The
Jewifh brides fometimes paint their faces on their nuptial
day ; but among the Turks and Chriftians, it is only
women of ill fame who venture a practice, which is con-
fidered as a mark of their profeflion. The ladies how-
ever have no averfion to artificial decoration, and practife
a kind of painting more unnatural than the moft extra-
vagant abufe of Rouge. ‘This confifts in ftaining the
fingers, the palm and back of the hands, the feet, and
the toes, with the plant called Henna3", which gives
them a dufky yellow colour. As the practice is univer-
fal, the quantity of the leaves of the Henna, imported
from Egypt, is very confiderable.

The ordinary mode is fimply to tinge the points of
the fingers and toes with the Henna; but, on extraordi-
nary occafions, the figure of ftars, of rofes, or other
flowers, are impreffed on the hands and feet, in the
following manner. A pafte is formed of the powdered
leaves of the Henna and water; of which one portion is

*“ Hienna x The Lawfonia ramis inermibus, of Linnzus.

rolled

IIo

OF THE -INHASPTANTS

Bo OX rolled into {mall threads, and the other is referved for
“—~—~ the tips of the fingers and toes. A thin cake of leaven-

ed dough is then prepared, upon which the threads of
pafte are difpofed in fuch figures as are intended to be
imprefled on the parts. The tips of the fingers and
toes being covered with the Henna pafte, morfels of
the cake with the threads difpofed on them, are applied
to the palms, the back of the hands, feet, &c. and fecur-
ed by proper bandages. At the expiration of two or
three hours, the parts are found tinged of a dufky red,
or yellow colour.

The hands and feet are then covered with another
pafte compofed of wheat flower and water, with a fmall
proportion of crude Salt Armoniac and quick lime,
which is allowed to remain about half an hour, when
the dufky colour of the dye, is found converted into a
fort of black, or rather a very dark green.

Both operations, but efpecially the laft, are attended
with pain; for in order to imprefs the figures, a very
tight bandage is applied, and the pafte is permitted to
remain for feveral hours. The colour of the dye is at
firtt a dark green, but, in the courfe of eight or ten
days, gradually refumes a dufky yellow hue. This ap-
plication is an indifpenfable ceremony, at marriages, as
alfo on other feftive occafions. ‘The operation is ufually
performed by the women who attend the ladies at the
bath. ‘he Henna is likewife employed to give an
auburn tint to the hair; and fome of the old women,

IN GENERAL.

by the addition of other ingredients, give their hair a
brick colour.

Another univerfal cuftom among the women, is
blacking the infide of the eyelids, by means of a fhort
{mooth probe of ivory, wood, or filver, charged with a
powder named the black Kohol 3. The probe being
firft dipt in water, a little of the powder is fprinkled
on it; the middle part is then applied horizontally to
the eye, and the eyelids being fhut upon it, the probe
is drawn through between them, leaving the infide
tinged, and a black rim all round the edge *.

The Kohol is ufed likewife by the men, but not fo
generally by way of ornament merely, the practice be-
ing deemed rather effeminate. It is fuppofed to
ftrengthen the fight, and prevent various diforders of
the eye; with which view, ingredients of different kinds
are occafionally added. The Kohol is applied to child-
ren as foon as they are brought into the world, and is
renewed at the interval of a few days throughout their
adolefcence, by which means the women acquire great

s» Kohol —- or Kohol Ifphahany.
In Turkith and Perfic Surma Coops See note XXII.
» The Roman Satyrift alludes to this cuftom, as well as to that of black-
ing the eyebrows, in the following lines :
Ille fupercilium madida fuligine taétam
Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes
Attollens oculos. Juvena Sat. i. v. 67.

dexterity

IIt
C HesA P-

Le
(ey

112 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK dexterity in performing an operation, in appearance dif-
ae ficult and painful to a ftranger.

The women have another cuftom lefs in fathion now
than formerly. This confifts in applying a certain com-
pofition, named Khatat, to the eyebrows, which tinges
them of a fine black colour, and makes the hair fmooth
and glofly +.

The men fometimes ftain their nails, and the points
of their fingers with Henna, but the praétice is not
common. ‘They are decently neat in their drefs, while
a too particular attention to that article, conftitutes, in
their op:aion, a frivolous and contemptible charaéter.

It is the cuftom to let the beard grow, after a certain
age, or after performing the pilgrimage to Mecca, and
much pains are beftowed in dreffing it; but many of the
Turks wear whifkers only. Some tinge the beard with
a black dye, in order to conceal the approach of grey
hairs; others make it red with the Henna; in either
way the dye requires to be frequently renewed. It is
not however a reputable practice, and therefore not
common; though the Prophet himfelf ufed to tinge his
beard with Henna, and the example was followed by
many of the Khalifs 5. Trimming the beard, paring
the nails, and dreffing the Turban, are offices in the

%* Khatat bihx Note XXIII.
* Note XXIV.
province

IN GENERAL.

113

province of the ordinary barbers who fhave the head. ¢ #4 P.
Perfons of rank keep valets on purpofe. An excellent “~~

defcription of an Arab, or rather Turkifh, barber, may
be found in d’Arvieux’s Memoirs by Labat**, and an
account of the refpedt paid to the beard by the Arabs, is
given in his Journey into Paleftine?.

Both fexes ufe a variety of compound perfumes, of
which mufk, fandal-wood, and fpikenard, are always
ingredients. Thefe fewed up in fmall flattifh bags, are
carried in the breaft pockets. They have alfo the ottar, of
rofes, and other eflences, from India. The aloes-wood,
and fragrant waters will be mentioned in another place.

Women of every clafs, when they walk abroad, wear
thin, yellow boots, reaching half up the leg, and, over
thefe, yellow Babooge or {flippers ; but in wet weather,
inftead of the Babooge, they wear a kind of wooden
clogs, fix or eight inches high, called Kabkab **. With-
in doors, they conftantly ufe clogs in going from one
apartment to another, but much higher, being from a
foot to eighteen inches in height, and curioufly inlaid
with mother of pearl.

They never appear in the ftreets without their veils %9;
wearing them being particularly enjoined in the Koran*.

3 Tom. iii. p. 220.

TE 87 4:

8 LaGl5

* Zar 11 Or Rhutta lhe

” Note XXV.

Vou. I. Qv Thefe

114 OF THE INHABITANTS

poox Thefe are of two kinds, the Furragi, and the common

“~— Aleppo veil; the former being worn by fome of the
Turkifh women only, the other indifcriminately by all.
The firft is in the form of a large Kurtak, with long
{trait {leeves, and a fquare hood hanging flat on the back;
it is fometimes of white linen, fometimes made of fhawl,
or cloth. ‘This Furragi, reaching to the heels, conceals
the whole of the drefs, from the neck downwards,
while the head and face are covered by a large white
handkerchief over the head drefs and forehead, and a
fmaller one, tied tranfverfely over the lower part of the
face, hanging down on the neck. Muffled up in this
manner, the women fuffer fo much from the confine-
ment that they are glad to get rid of it as foon as they
enter the Harem. Many of the Turkifh women, in-
ftead of the fmaller handkerchief, ufe a long piece of
black crape, ftiffened, which, floping a little from the
forehead, leaves room to breathe more freely. In this
laft manner the ladies are completely difguifed; in
the former, the eyes and nofe remaining vifible, they
are eafily known by their acquaintance.

The ordinary Aleppo veil is a linen fheet, large
enough to cover the whole habit, from head to foot, and
is brought over the face in a manner to conceal all but
one eye. The veils of the Chriftian, and Jewifh wo-
men, are of plain white calico; thofe worn by the
Turkifh women, are of the fame form, checkered blue
or red: but the Jews wear their veils in a fafhion pecu-

liar

IN GENERAL. 115

liar to themfelves, leaving one arm free, fomething in © #/4?.
the manner of the plaids formerly worn by the Scotch“~—~
ladies.

The men feldom appear in the ftreets in Kabkabs ;
wearing them only in the Bagnio, or in the houfe when
the pavements happen to be wet. On other occafions,
they conftantly walk in Babooge or flippers, which, hav-
ing neither heels nor quarters, fuit very ill with dirty
ftreets. The common people who are obliged to go
much about in the winter, wear red boots fhod with
iron. The Janizaries wear red Babooge, with quarters.
Thofe of the other Turks are always yellow, as like-
wife, their boots, it is only fome of the common people,
as before remarked, who wear red boots.

Such of the inhabitants of Aleppo as can afford it,
ufe a confiderable proportion of animal food, in their
ordinary diet. ‘Their difhes confift chiefly of mutton, or
lamb, cut into {mall pieces, either roafted fimply on fkew-
ers *'; or ftewed, with rice, herbs, and pretty ftrong
fauces *. Mad apples, cucumbers, and gourds, ftuffed
with flefh and rice *3, are difhes in great requeft. Fowls
are ufed in making broth or fricafees ; they are never
roafted whole. A more particular account of the

** Kubab.
47 Yahne,

43 Mahthee.
Q2 Turkifh

116

BOO ik
Ee

Neen ene

OF THE -INERABITANTS

Turkifh table will be given in the following chapter ;
it wil, in this place, be fufficient to remark, that, at the
Leticr tables, a great number of difhes being ferved up
in quick fucceffion, it is in a manner unavoidable to
make the meal from a variety: but at ordinary tables,
the number feldom exceeds three or four. The lower
people live moftly on rice, butter, milk, new cheefe,
greens, and fummer fruits, with a very {mall proportion
of mutton.

The ordinary bread is in the form of a flat thin cake,
made of wheat flour, not well fermented, ill baked,
and generally eaten frefh from the oven. ‘There are in
the Bazars loaves of a better quality, mn the fhape of
rings, with the feeds of fefamum, or of fennel flower,
{trewed on the top: various kinds of rufk are alfo fold
in the Bazar. But moft families make their bread, at
home, -and fend it to be baked at the public oven: it
is formed into {mall loaves, fermented with more care,
and, in every refpect is better than what is fold in the
Bazars. The Europeans are fupplied with excellent
bread made in the French manner.

Rice enters as an ingredient into a number of difhes,
and, in the form of Pilaw ‘+, is conftantly ferved up
twice a-day. The Turkifh Pilaw is made fimply of

rice and butter, but occafionally is mixed with other

* Bilaw 4s fo written in Arabic, but the word is properly Perfic and
Turkiii, and written Pllaw oY

difhes.

IN GENERAL.

difhes. At the tables of the great it is the laft difh in-
troduced. ‘The confumption of rice is very confidera-
ble, there being no idea among the natives of it’s being
prejudicial to the eyes: a prevalent notion in fome parts
of England. It is imported chiefly from Egypt, very
little being cultivated in Syria.

Burgte *, which is wheat prepared in a certain man-
ner, is likewife an article of univerfal ufe in the Eaftern
cookery. . It is fometimes, like rice, made into a Pilaw,
but more commonly, being beat up with minced meat,
fuet, and fpiceries, is formed into large balls, and either
boiled, or fried *°.

Chiches, lentils, and mafh ‘’, find place in a variety
of difhes, and are material articles in the diet of the
poor. ‘The greens, roots, and other productions of the
garden, which make up fo large a fhare of the popular
diet, have been particularly enumerated in another
place. It is a remark of M. d’Arvieux, that a greater
quantity of fruit is confumed at Aleppo, than in any
three cities in Europe of equal fize +.

«* Burgle Us, It is prepared by firft foftening the grain in hot water,
and then breaking and unnu‘king it by nxans co} a hand mill; it is after-
wards dried in the fun, and thus preferved for ufe.

Kubby oi

Math xl, is a fmail kidacy beaa. Phafeolus max. Linnzi.

* Pook i. Chap. iii.

yee. V1 p. 157.

From

118 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK From the beginning of April to the month of Sep-

“-~-— tember, the city is fupplied with excellent milk 5° by
large herds of goats, which are fed on the hills and pafs
early every morning through the ftreets. During the
fame feafon, abundance of frefh cheefe, Kaimak 5", and
above all Leban %*, is brought to market from the vil-
lages, and from the camps of the wandering tribes of
Arabs and Turkmans. It being impoffible, to preferve
the milk fweet, in the fummer, longer than a few hours,
they are obliged to force the cream by a flow fire, and
the fmoke of the dried dung or brufh-wood employed
for fuel, is apt to give it a difagreeable tafte. The
cheefes are exceffively falt. The Leban arrives in
greateft perfection, and, while the feafon lafts, makes
up a great part of the food of the lower people. It is
ferved alfo univerfally at all tables, either in {mall bowls
by itfelf, or mixed with fallad herbs, and is fometimes
poured over the roaft meat, and ragouts. In winter,
the inhabitants are fupplied with cow milk, but, the cat-
tle being kept within doors at the gardens, and poorly
fed, the milk often taftes ftrongly of cabbage leaves, or
garlic.

°° Haleeb Uy: \a is always ufed, in the vulgar Arabic, for milk.

‘+ 243 refembles the Devonfhire cream. Note XXVI.

s Leban cpa In the literary language is often tranflated milk, but con-
ftantly, at Aleppo, meansa particular preparation of ‘our milk, much the
fame with what in India is called Tyre. Note XXVII.

Butter

IN GENERAL.

119

Butter is much more ufed in the kitchen than oil. cH aP.

The city is chiefly fupplied with it by the Turkmans, ——~

Rufhwans, and Arabs, who, rich in vaft herds and
flocks, journey over the wafte plains of Syria, and lead
the paftoral, or patriarchal life, almoft in it’s primitive
fimplicity. The butter is made indifcriminately of the
milk of goats, cows, fheep, and buffaloes. It is churned
in goatfkins, in which alfo it is tranfported to town; fo
that in order to free it from hairs, and other impurities,
it becomes neceffary to melt, and ftrain it, by which
procefs it acquires a certain rancid tafte, difagreeable for
the moft part to ftrangers, though not to the natives.
As it is intended to enter hereafter into a detail of
the Turkifh mode of receiving vifits, of their converfa-
tion, their manner of fitting at meals, and, other cere-
monies of the table, I fhall proceed at prefent to matters
which are common to all claffes of the Inhabitants.
Coffee 3, without fugar or milk, is in ufe, among all
ranks. It is ferved as hot as poflible, in a china cup,
placed in an under cup of filver fillagree, to protect the
fingers. Among people of fafhion, the cup is only
half filled, and the coffee made exceffively ftrong. The
common people ufe larger cups, which they fill to the
brim; but their coffee is thinner. It is drank conftantly
after meals ; and, at all familiar vifits, is prefented at
the fame time with the pipe. Few of the lower people

*> Kahwa 04g3
drink

120 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK drink lefs than three of four cups of coffee in the

“—~— twenty-four hours; their fuperiors drink more: and
perfons who frequent the great, drink perhaps twenty
cups daily. When taken thus to excefs, coffee injures
the appetite, by loading the ftomach, but the free ufe of
it has neither been obferved to heat the body, nor to
affect the nerves; and it is regarded, even in the mid-
dle of fummer, as one of their principal refrefhments.
The ufe of coffee was introduced into Syria, about the
middle of the fixteenth century, or perhaps fome years
earlier than at Conftantinople 5. M. d’Arvieux talks
of the cuftom of drinking fugar with coffee, as lately
introduced among the Turks, in his time %. It is cer-
tainly not at prefent the cuftom.

Tobacco is fmoked immoderately by all the men, the
very mechanics and common labourers are feldom feen
without a fhort pipe in their mouth; the practice has
alfo been adopted by numbers of the women, and feems
daily to increafe. The children acquire early a tafte
for tobacco, by being occafivnally employed to light
the p'pe for their parents ; but the boys, before the age
of fourteen, are not permitted to fmoke in prefence of
the father; and the girls, befure tuey are married, fel-
dom venture to {moke in company.

s Note XXVIII.
35 Tom. vl. p. 457.

The

IN GENERAL. 1%

The men begin to fmoke as foon as they awake in cu ap.
the morning, and, the time of meals excepted, hardly ——
ceafe the whole day. Each perfon carrics a tobacco
pouch, or bag, fome of which are made of fhawl em-
broidered. ‘They do not ufually fill the pipe themfelves,
that being the office of a fervant, who, taking the bag,
returns with the pipe filled and lighted, and, folding up the
bag, delivers it to his mafter. The natives feldom fpit
when they fmoke ; which is partly to be attributed to
the mildnefs of the tobacco, not exciting the faliva, and
partly to the power of habit. Europeans who have for
fome time continued to fpit in the fame manner as when
they ufed Virginia tobacco, have been known to adopt
at once the cuftom of the natives, without incon-
venience.

The tobacco pipes are made of the twigs of cherry-
tree, almond, rofe, or jafmine, which the pipe makers have
ihe art of ftraightning, and boring with great dexterity.
They are from three to fix feet in length, are decorated
with filver or gilt ornaments, at the top, and have mouth-
pieces of amber, or ivory. The bow] is made of a red-
difh clay, and requires to be often changed; the pipes laft
for feveral years, and are not efteemed till they have
been feafoned by ufe, but they are cleaned daily, by
means of a wire inftrument contrived for that purpofe.
In the fur:mer, the pipe is neatly covered with fhawl,
under whch is a thin layer of cotton, and, this cover
being thoroughly moiftened with water, when the pipe

Vou. I. R is

122 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK is to be ufed, the fmoke is rendered remarkably cool.

-—~— The pipes ufed by the ladies are commonly {maller,
more richly ornamented, and the cover of their fummer
pipes is often finely embroidered.

The Tobacco confumed at Aleppo, is brought from
different parts of Syria, chiefly from Latachia. It is
much milder than the American Tobacco, but at the
fame time fo oily, that the pipe bowls become very
foon unfit for ufe, and great care is requifite to keep the
ftem clean. A mixture of various forts of Tobacco, is rec-
koned preferable to the fimple production of one foil.
The Turks in this refpect are no lefs curious than the
Europeans are in their choice of Snuff. Nothing is ever
mixed with the Tobacco to fcent it, but it is common
to lay a bit of Aloes Wood, or of Ambergrife, upon
the lighted Tobacco, which perfumes the whole apart-
ment.

The Perfian manner of fmoking has of late years been
introduced among a few people of rank, though chiefly
confined to the merchants who have crofled the Defert,
or who have concerns in the Baffora trade. The inftrument
commonly ufed, is called a Kalian’®. Ti is a glafs vet-
fel of an oval fhape, with a long neck, and is ornamented
within, with coloured glafs flowers fixed at the bottom.
To this is fitted a filver head, confifting of a cup for the
reception of the Tobacco, communicating with the vel-
fel by a long ftraight tube, which reaches to within two

* las
wu
thirds

IN GENERAL. 123

thirds of the bottom; a fhorter tube opens into the BOOK
neck of the veffel near the top, and bends from the head+~—-~—~
in form of anarch. Thefe are finely worked, and fome-
times gilt or enamelled; but the form of the inftru-
ment will be better underftood from the figure’’. The
veffel, when to be ufed, is filled with water to fuch a
height that the ftraight tube remains immerfed about one
or two inches ; and, the head being fo adjufted as to pre-
vent any air from pafling but by the tubes, a flexible pipe,
four or five feet in length, is fixed to the mouth of the
fhort tube. The Tobacco properly prepared **, being
then put into the cup, is lighted by one or more fmall
balls of charcoal, which muft neceffarily remain on the
top all the while. The fuétion, by means of the flexible
pipe, produces at the fame time a bubbling of the water,
and a vacuum in the neck of the veffel, which is foon filled
with the fmoke impelled down the ftraight tube, and rif
ing again through the water. ‘There is another Inftru-
ment named a Nargeeli‘?, conftructed on the fame prin-
ciples, and, at Aleppo, more generally ufed than the
Kalian. Itis made of a Cocoa nut or a Gourd, but with a
head of a different fhape from that of the Kalian, and it
has a ftraight reed inftead of the fnake. As this Inftru-
ment muft be held in the hand, it is not fo convenient
as the other, which in confequence of the flexible tube,

‘7 Plate II.

** To the Tobacco, after being wafhed, isadded a litte rofe water and
coarfe brown fugar, and the whole is beat up into a pafte. Some dry To-~
bacco is {prinked on the top, before applying the balls.

59 MSG
Re is

124

OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK is managed with more eafe: fome have a ftand on pur-
—~—— pofe for the Nargeeli, and ufe a flexible pipe.

In both thefe inftruments, the {moke of the Tobacco, by
paffing through the water, is rendered much milder, and
leaves a lefs difagreeable fmell, or tafte in the mouth.
It may alfo be remarked that the mode of {moking, is
different from that of the common pipe, in which the fuc-
tion is wholly performed by the lips; whereas in thefe
inftruments, the fmoker, applying his lips lightly to the
pipe, draws in his breath fully, dilating the cheft at the
fame time, fo that a great part of the fmoke feems to
enter deeply into the breaft: or rather actually defcends
into the lungs. If a perfon accuftomed to the Katian,
attempts to draw a common pipe in the fame manner,
he is immediately thrown into a fit of coughing.
That the fmoke defcends into the lungs has been re-
marked by Kempfer°?.

The Perfian Tobacco, or Tunbak®, is the only
Tobacco fit to be fmoked through watcr. It appears
to be ftronger than the ordinary Tobacco, and fmokes
difagreeably in a common pipe; but, when wafhed and
properly prepared for the Kalian, it has a peculiarly plea-
fant flavour.

The Turks probably received the cuftom of f{moking
through water from Perfia; that of fmoking in the or-

°° Ameenit. Exot. p. 642.

- ae bce ss «yai_ Tooton Ajeemy.
r dinary

IN GENERAL. 125

dinary way they certainly had from Europe: and it is a © #4?
curious circumftance in the hiftory of human luxury, “~~~
that a practice fo difagreeable at firft, and accompanied
with fo little pofitive fenfual pleafure, afterwards fhould
have fpread with fuch rapidity, among a people not
much difpofed to adopt foreign cuftoms".

The common people ufe an inferior kind of Nargeeli;
but, Tunbak being too coftly, they fubftitute ordinary To-
bacco, moiftened either with Dibs and water, or with an
infufion of raifins, to which they fometimes add the Haf-
heefh®, or fheera®, which impregnates the fmoke with
an intoxicating quality. There are men who go about
the ftreets, and attend at coffee-houfes, with this Nar-
geeli ready lighted, which they prefent to fuch as choofe
it, and receive a fmall gratuity in return for one or
more whiffs. A few of the lower people only thus fmoke
the Nargeeli; and it is furprizing to fee with what ea-
gernefs they apply to the reed, the enormous draughts
they inhale, and, after a long interval, the volumes of
fmoke they emit by the noftrils, as well as the mouth.
The public ufe of the Nargeeli is fometimes prohibited
by the magiftrate on account of the Sheera; which ap-
pears to be the fame with what in India they call Bing.
It ismade of the leaves of the Female hemp, firft powder-

** Note XXIX.

62 ‘
Or
ie
wha
© dhe

ed,

126 OF THE INHABITANTS

* °° * ed, then put into wet paper, and covered with hot afhes,

== till at formisia pafte, which, being preffed into a thin cake,
is cut into fmall Lozenges and dried. About halfa dram
of this if fmoked in a pipe of Tobacco, or in the Nargeeli,
will make a perfon drunk, or rather mad; anda few
grains mixed with any thing {weet, particularly (as the
natives pretend) a fig, will, if fwallowed, have the fame
effect; but that acids will immediately put a ftop to its
operation. It may be remarked that the intoxicating
quality of hemp is mentioned by Galen®t. Since the year
1753, the practice of taking fnuff (which was fo little
known at that time) has fo much become the fafhion,
that the Porte, about the year 1760, thought it worth
while to lay a duty on Rappee {fnuff, and to grant a
monopoly for making and vending it at Aleppo. The
taking of fnuff, however is ftill confined within narrow
bounds, compared to {moking.

I never could find that the cuftom of taking Opium
was fo general in Turkey, as commonly believed in Eu-
rope. It prevails indeed more at Conftantinople than
at Aleppo, where happily it is hitherto held almoft
equally fcandalous as drinking wine, and practifed by
few openly, except by perfons regardlefs of their re-
putation. The natives of Aleppo the leaft {crupulous
in the ufe of opium, are people of the Law; owing probably

6 Note XXX.
to

IN GENERAL.

to the influence of example; for a new Cady coming annu-
ally from Conftantinople, it feldom happens that either
he himfeif, or fome of his officers, do not, by their own
practice, give a frefh fanétion to a cuftom they have
learnt at the capital, where the offence is regarded as
venial, and ftands little in the way of preferment in that
line. But though in this manner many of the Effendees
acquire a habit of taking opium, neither they, nor others
by whom the cuftom is adopted, go fo far as to attempt
a direct juftification of it: they frame fome pretence on
the fcore of health, and juftify the breach of the law, on
the fame principle of neceflity, that leads them fome-
times to drink wine.

Opium compounded with certain aromatics and
fpices, made into an electuary with honey, is named
Birs*s; and probably is prepared varioufly in different
fhops. It is hot and very naufeous to the tafte. They
take from ten to two hundred grains of it at a
time.

It is not commonly made at Aleppo, but great quan-
tities are prepared at Conftantinople, and fent into the
Provinces in tin boxes. Opium, though ufually taken
in this form, is often alfo taken pure, either in pills, or
broken in fmall bits. They do not chew it, but fwallow it
at once, drinking a difh of Coffee to help it down, the

uy
dofe

127
GH Ae.
I.
ee amend

128 OF THE INHABITANTS

Bo OX dofe of Birs being fometimes fo large that they are half
—~— fuffocated in fwallowing it.

The largeft quantity of pure opium I ever knew
taken, within the fpace of twenty four hours, was three
drams®; in general the quantity is much lefs. It is
fwallowed in feparate portions, at intervals of five or fix
hours. “The immediate effect I have obferved it to have
on fuch as were addicted to the ufe of it, was that of
exhilarating the fpirits. From a relaxed, dull, depref-
fed ftate, into which fuch perfons, if they happened to
pafs the ufual time of taking their opium, were apt to
fink, they were roufed at once by their dofe, and be-
came quite alert.

It is remarkable how foon a fudden noife, or any
other furprife difpels the power of the opium, even
when at its height, throwing the wretched victim into a
{tate of trepidation, from which nothing can recover him
but a frefh dofe.

The Grandees fometimes divert themfelves with per-
fons of inferior rank, who happen to be immoderately
addicted to opium. I have feen a noted opium eater at
the houfe of the Mohaffil®? of Aleppo, who, after a
full dofe of Birs, creating himfelf a Bafhaw, indulged

** The quantity mentioned above by the Author, is more by half a dram
than I ever knew taken of pure opium, where I had an opportunity of
accurately determining the quantity.

*7 Farmer of the cuftoms.

IN (GENERA.

129

in all the luxury of his fituation. He placed himfelf in c HAP.
the cerner of the Divan, talked familiarly with the ma- ——~

fter of the houfe, entered into a detail of ideal bufinefs,
ordered perfons brought before him to be drubbed, or
imprifoned, difriaaiaa fome of the officers in waiting,
and appointed others. In the midft of all thefe extra-
vagancies, a page, who had been inftructed beforehand,
getting unperceived behind him, made a loud and fud-
den clatter with the window fhutter. In a moment the
enchantment was diffolved. The unfortunate Bafhaw
was feized with univerfal tremulation, his pipe fell from
his hand, and, awaking at once to the horror of his con-
dition, he fled to his Birs as his only refource under
fuch a reverfe of fortune.

Perfons immoderately addicted to this pernicious
practice are called Teriaki, or Afiooni; and fooner or
later fuffer feverely for their indulgence. They are fub-
ject at firft to obftinate coftivenefs; but in time, the
opium feems to produce a contrary effect; they are
frequently attacked with an obftinate Diarrhoea, and
fuffcr conftantly from flatulencies in the bowels; the
appetite fails, and, in the courfe of a few years, tie? ac-
quire that fottifh, ftupid countenance, fo often obfervable
in drinkers of {pirituous liquors. They feldom arrive at
old age, though rarely are carried off by dropfies, or the
other difeafes which, in Europe, are the general confe-
quence of hard drinking; but lofing their memory, and
by degrees their other faculties, they grow old before

Pou. I. S the

130

OF THE’ INHABITANTS

soox the natural period, and fink miterably into an untimely

Il. 68

There are very few who, having once been intemperat-
ly habituated to opium, have refolution fufficient to fore-
go it. They fuffer fo much from low fpirits, and a
thoufand hypochondriac evils, that they ufually give up
the attempt. Some, in diminifhing their dofe, fubfti-
tute a glafs of wine or fpirits; but the fafeft method is
to fubftract gradually from the quantity of opium, and
give {mall dofes of the volatile fpirits, or of fome bitter
Elixir, which may amufe the patient without the rifk
of his becoming fond of the remedy: a confequence
not unufual, when fpirituous liquors, and efpecially
French Rofolis, are employed.

* 'Teriaki, though the appellation commonly given to a Perfon who ufes
opium to excefs, is applied alfo to a Debauchee who is often inebriated by
‘wine or fpirits.

C di Ae

Cl 'A oPyoidl.

OF THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

THE BAGNIOS, AND MODE OF BATHING DESCRIBED.—DEPILATORY—
THE ZIRALEET, OR EXCLAMATION OF THE WOMEN, EXPRESSIVE
OF JOY—PEOPLE LEAD A SEDENTARY LIFE—GAMES—DANCES—RE-
GULAR HOUR—BEDS AND NIGHT-DRESS—COFFEE-HOUSE ENTER-
TAINMENTS, PUPPET SHOW,STORY TELLERS, &.—TURKISH MUSIC—
VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS—VOCAL MUSIC—FESTIVE ENTERTAIN-
MENTS—BUFFOONS, &c.

A CUSTOM much more prevalent at Aleppo than
that of taking opium, and common to both fexes, is the
frequent ufe of the Bagnio, on Hummam'. The Mo-
hammedans are under religious obligation to go oftner to
the Bagnio than the other natives; and many perfons of
rank have private baths, in their own houfes: but as thefe
are too {mall for the reception of a large company,
their women, on occafions of ceremonial invitation, are
obliged to hire one of the public Bagnios.

1 oo

S 2 A de-

132

BOOK
Il.

OF THE INHABITANTS

A de{cription of the interior of the Hummam was re-

——~——~ ferved for this place. The firft, or outer room, called the

Burany, is large, lofty, covered with a dome, and paved
with marble. It has windows towards the ftreet, but is
lighted chiefly by the lanthern of the dome. A broad ftone
platform, or muftaby, four feet high, is built clofe to the
wall on each fide, which, being fpread with mats and
carpets, forms a Divan, on which the bathers may un-
drefs and repofe. A large marble fountain in the mid-
dle, ferves both as an ornament, and for rinfing the Bag-
nio linen, which is afterwards, hung to dry on lines ex-
tended above. The bathers, as well as the waiters, walk in
this outer chamber in Kabkabs, for the ftoves having but
{mall influence there, the pavement, which is always
wet, is cold to the naked feet. In the month of Fe-
bruary, when the mercury in Farenheit’s thermometer
{tood at 54, in the open air, it rofe in the Burany to 64.
From this chamber a door opens into a narrow paf-
fage, leading to the Wuftany, or middle chamber,
which has a Muftaby for the accommodation of fuch as
may choofe to fit there, and is furnifhed with feveral
round or oblong, ftone bafons, about a foot and a half in
diameter, into each of which two pipes open with brafs
cocks, the one conveying hot, the other cold water.
Thefe are called Jurn, and are fixed to the wall two feet
from the pavement. There are alfo brazen Bowls for
laving the water duly tempered upon the bathers. ‘The
‘Thermometer

IN GENERAL

133

Thermometer in the paflage rofe to 75, and in this CHAP

chamber to go.

From the middle chamber a door opens immediately
into the inner chamber, or Juany, which is much lar-
ger than the Wuftany, and confiderably hotter, the mer-
cury rifing here to 100. It has no Muftaby, fo that the
bathers fit, or recline on the pavement, which towards
the centre is exceflively hot. Both the middle and in-
ner rooms are lefs lofty then the outer one; and are
covered with fmall cupolas, from which they receive a
dull light, by means of a few round apertures, glazed
with a thick, coloured glafs. At each corner of the
Juany is a fmall open recefs, in one of which (in fome
Bagnios), there is a bafon about four feet deep, ferving
occafionally for a temperate bath. It is called the
Murtas *; but as the Turks.feldom ufe immerfion, it is
found only in fome Bagnios.

The Bagnios are heated by ftoves underneath. The
ordinary heat of the Juany is about 100 degrees, but
when particularly defired, it is confiderably increafed.
The men remain in the inner room about a quarter of
an hour; the women continue much longer. Some Bag-
nios are for the reception of women only, others are
appropriated to the men; but in general both fexes are
admitted: the men from morning till noon, the women
from noon till fun-fet.

2 (»Uare
The

ie |

134
BOOK
pispceciencemdy

OF THE INHABITANTS

The bather, when undreft, ties a towel round his head,
and a wrapper, named a Fouta, round his middle, reach-
ing like a petticoat to the ankles. ‘Thus attired he
paffes at once into the Juany, where he foon begins to
perfpire profufely, and remains dripping wet, all the
time he continues there, partly from fweat, and partly
from the moifture of the chamber. The firft operation
is that of applying the Dowa 3, or depilatory, to the
pubes and armpits, which, after it has remained about two
minutes, or till the hair becomes loofe, is carefully wafh-
ed off: but it is not unufual for accidents to happen
from negligence in this point. The depilatory is compof-
ed of quick lime, and orpiment, in the proportion of
one dram of the latter to an ounce of the former.
Thefe are intimately rubbed together in a mortar, to a
powder, which is moiftened a little with water, at the
time of application +.

When the Dowa has been wafhed off, the bather
fits down on the pavement, and one of the attendants
begins to prefs and handle the tops of the fhoulders,
the mufcles of the arm, and fucceflively the whole
body ; firft gently, then by degrees increafing the pref-
fure, till he comes to handle pretty roughly, but without
giving pain. ‘This is repeated at fhort intervals till the
{kin is perfectly foftened. The attendant then taking
hold of the bather’s fingers, with a dexterous jerk makes

> Dowa Hummam ely 140
* Note XXXI.
each

IN GENERAL, 135

each joint crack fucceflively ; after which, laying him flat cu a p.
on his back, and bringing the arms acrofs the breaft, ——~
the fhoulder joints are made to crack in like manner:
laft of all (and to ftrangers a part of the procefs the moft
alarming) the neck is made to crack, by raifing the head
and bringing the chin forward on the breaft. Thefe
operations finifhed, the attendant, having his hand armed
with a coarfe camelot bag, begins from the breaft, to
fcrub the body and limbs, pouring warm water from
time to time on the parts, and turning the bather in
order to reach his back. He then makes a ftrong foap
lather, and with a rubber, made of the fibrous part of
the palm leaf, which is brought for this purpofe from
Baffora and Egypt®, lathers the body univerfally, except
thofe parts concealed by the Fouta, which the bather
wafhes himfelf. Nothing now remains but to wafh off
the foap, which is done by repeated effufions of warm
water, the bather removing clofe to one of the jurn.
Some inftead of foap ufe the faponaceous earth Byloon.°
The bather is now reconducted to the middle chamber,
and a dry towel and wrapper are prefented to him, in
which he returns on Kabkabs to the Divan, where he
left his clothes, and, being covered with freth towels,
or if the feafon requires it, with a fur, he fmokes a
pipe, drinks coffee, or eats water melon, before dreffing.
Perfons of condition, particulaily women, fometimes

* See Rauwolff. Ray’s. Col’. v. ii. p. 21.
* See page 54.
fend

136 OF THE! INHABITANTS

BOOK fend their own Bagnio linen, confifting of towels and a

“—— wide gown; as alfo the Tafa or cup for laving water, the
camelot bag, &c.—but moft of the men content them-
felves with what is furnifhed by the Bagnio. M. Grelot
has in moft circumftances given an exact account of the
practice in the Bagnios at Conftantinople’.

The procefs, as now defcribed, takes up a confidera-
ble time, although the attendants are very expert;
but the Turks feldom go through the whole. In com-
mon they go into the inner, or perhaps only the middle
chamber, receive a few bowls of water on their body,
are flightly rubbed, and retire in a few minutes.

The women remain much longer in the Bagnio than
the men. The wafhing and plaiting the hair is a tedi-
ous operation, and they are obliged alfo to attend the
children. They do not however continue all the time
in the hot Room, but amufe themfelves in the Burany;
for the number of jurn not being fufficient to ferve fo
great a crowd at once, they are obliged in fucceffion to
take their turn: a circumftance which produces much
clamorous altercation.

On ordinary days, women of every rank are admit-
ted promifcuoufly, till the rooms are quite full. The
confufion that reigns in fuch an affembly, may eafily be
conceived; the noife is often heard in paffing the ftreet,
and, when there happens to be a number of young

” Relation, p. 232.—See alfo Rauwolff, Tournefort, Thevenot, &c.

children,

IN GENERAL. 137

children, the women themfelves acknowledge the din to cu ar.
be intolerable. They however are fond to excefs of ——~
going thither, amid inconveniences of which they per-
petually complain. But the Bagnio is almoft the only
public female affembly ; it affords an opportunity of dif-
playing their jewels and fine clothes, of meeting their
acquaintance, and of learning domeftic hiftory of vari-

ous kinds; for particular Bagnios being more in vogue

than others, the ladies are affembled from remote dif-

tricts, and if accidentally placed near each other on the

fame Divan, it is reckoned fufficient for joining in con-
fidential converfation, though they were not acquainted
before.

When ladies of different Harems make a party for the
public bath, they take all the females of the refpective
families along with them, and fometimes carry fruit,
fweetmeats and fherbets, with which they regale in the
outer room, on their return from the Juani. Befides
thefe refrefhments, the attendants are charged with car-
pets, fmall cufhions, pipes, copper utenfils, foap, by-
loon, henna, apparel, and the linen appropriated to the
Bagnio, confifting of a peculiar habit, with various orna-
mented wrappers, and towels; of all which, a particular
defcription has been inferted in the appendix: whence it
will appear, how much female delicacy is refpected by
national cuftom; and that the Eaftern ladies are not lefs
attentive in the Hummam, than on other occafions, where
an opportunity offers of difplaying their ornaments *.

* Note XXXII.
Vox. I. T Each

138

BOOK
i.

OF THE INHABITANTS

Each company isalfo provided with a Keiam, or

“—~— woman whofe province it is to fee that every thing be

properly prepared, and to attend the ladies in the hot
room. It is requifite for her to be acquainted with the
rules of the Bagnio, and well qualified to conteft all
difputable matters, with fluency of language. The
Turks and Jews often retain Bidoween women as Kei-
ams.

Befides the ordinary times of bathing, the women go
to the Bagnio after childbed, after recovery from ficknefs,
before and after the marriage feaft, and at a ftated period
after the death of relations. On thefe ceremonial occa-
fions it is ufual for perfons of condition, to hire a Bag-
nio on purpofe, and form fele& affemblies, where fuch
only are admitted as have been invited. ‘The ladies
with their fuit, come dreft in their richeft apparel; the
Divan, and the refrefhments have been previoufly pre-
pared ; a band of finging women Is retained, and, the
company being known to one another, gaiety, decent
freedom, and youthful frolic, are lefs under formal re-
ftraint than in the mixed afflemblies at the common
bath °.

As thefe private affemblies laft four or five hours, the wo-
men go feveral times into the inner rooms, but pafs a great
part of the time in the Burany, where they either fit in
the Bagnio habit, or covered with furs, for they do not

* Note XXXIII.
drefs

IN GENERAL 139

drefs till determined to enter no more into the hot rooms. ¢ #4 r.
The mufic and refrefhments are placed in the outer cham- —~—
ber.

The ladies, as before remarked, are provided with a
habit made exprefsly for the Bagnio; but their flaves
and fervants are equipped much in the fame manner
with the men, and the younger girls, efpecially the
flaves, claim a privilege of romping in the Hummam.
Dafhing water at one another is no uncommon frolic ;
the Fouta, or the wrapper, may eafily drop by accident,
or be drawn away in fport, and fhould the girl at the
time happen to be employed in carrying a cup of cof-
fee, or fherbet, fhe may poflibly advance to deliver it,
without ftooping to recover the Fouta. To this, or
fume fuch accident, it muft be owing, if the women in
the Bagnio are ever feen walking about, in a pure ftate
of nature, at leaft at Aleppo”.

The firft time a woman goes to the Bagnio after
childbed, fhe is attended by the midwife, who, placing
her near one of the Jurn, anoints her belly and limbs,
with a compofition named Shidood, confifting of ginger,
pepper, nutmegs, and other hot ingredients, beat up
with honey; which, after lying on a certain time, is wath-
ed off with warm water: while this operation is per-
forming, the numerous train of women, make the
domes of the Hummam reecho with that fhrill, warb-

* Note XXXIV.
T 2 ling

140 OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK ling fhout, which is the female mode of expreffing

setae exultation, and which at all feftivals, may be heard to a
great diftance. It is termed Ziraleet, and, by Shaw,
has been confounded with the difmal conclamation of
the women at funerals. Belon thought it refembled the
laft part of the cry of the village women, who fell milk
at Paris. But Pietro della Valle defcribes it more
accurately ; “a fharp and loud cry of joy, made in
** concert, by a quick and fomewhat tremulous ap-
‘¢ plication of the tongue to the palate, producing
‘ the found heli i li lili lili li’ ". The Shidood is
fuppofed to prevent many diforders confequent to
childbed; and is fometimes alfo applied to convalefcents
from chronic diftempers.

The people of Aleppo lead in general a fedentary
life. They do not confider exercife, as neceffary
to the prefervation of health, and have no great opinion
of its utility in the cure of any difeafe. Bufinefs in the
city is tranfaéted in a manner that does not require
much walking; and, in the way of pleafure, a mile’s
excurfion to the gardens, is the extent of their walk:
if the diftance happen to be greater, they fit down to
teft by the way fide. Their ordinary gait in the ftreet
is flow and grave; and, without the gate of the city,
they commonly fmoke their pipe as they faunter along.

» Let. xiii. p. §36.—Belon, Lib. ii. Ch. 35. Note XXXV.
The

IN GENERAL. 141

The women, as they live chiefly on the ground floor, cH 4 P.
have feldom occafion to go up and down ftairs, and, —~—~
moft of the requifites of life being brought to the door
of the Harem, they have not the exercife they might
otherwife have by going to market. Neverthelefs many
occafions call them abroad; and, were a ftranger to
judge from the number he daily meets in the ftreets,
he would hardly think himfelf in a country, where the
women generally are f{uppofed to be prifoners for life. At
certain times, when by order of the Governor they are
required to keep within doors, the city appears a
defert.

Dancing is not, as in Chriftendom, reckoned a genteel
accomplifhment for people of condition, and even
among the vulgar, is feldom practifed, unlefs by fuch
as make it their trade. The Turkifh dance confifts
lefs in high capers, in graceful fteps, or attitudes, than in
lafcivious poftures, and movements inelegant, or in-
decent’. It has no pretence to the feftive air of the
chafter Greek Dance; and is rejected as an unfit exer-
cife, for the youth of either fex.

* This lafcivious kind of dance is well defcribed by Juvenal, as perform-
ed by a girl of Cadiz, which city is faid to have been founded by the Syri-
ans, or Africans:

Forfitan expectes ut Gaditana canoro
Incipiat prurire choro, plaufuque probate
Ad terram tremulo defcendant clune puellz. Juv. Sat. xi. v. 162.
More on this fubje&, as it regards antiquity, may be found in Cafaubon’s
notes; and Note XXXVI.
There

142 OF THE INHABITANTS

BooKx There are male and female public dancers. The

‘“——— latter only are admitted into the Harems; both have
accefs to private parties among the men, but, in public,
the part of women is ufually performed by boys, dreffed
in female habits. When ladies are fpectators, the dancers
retain a certain degree of decency, which they con-
fider as unneceffary among the men. ‘The women
dance unveiled, and fome of them are handfome. The
dance is commonly performed by two perfons, who are
provided with caftanets, and, at intervals, fing certain
{tanzas, followed by a chorus in which the inftrumental
performers join their voices.

The Turkifh diverfions within doors are moftly of the
fedentary kind. Chefs", and a kind of Backgammon",
which they are faid to have learnt of the Perfians, are
played by both fexes. They play likewife Draughts ;
and two others games unknown in England: the
one called Mankala, and the other Tabwaduk. The
firft is a game played by two perfons, the fuccefs de-
pending chiefly on memory, and readinefs in counting.
A defcription of it has been given by M. d’Arvieux ¥.
The fecond is a mixed game, the movement of the pins
on the board, being determined by cafting four fmall
flat fticks, white on one fide and black on the other.

3 Sitringe oS piso
“ “Taool eo

= La Rocque Voyage dans la Paleftine, p. 296.
It

IN GENERAL. a
It has been exactly defcribled by Niebuhr © = In the cuap.

long winter evenings, they have recourfe, among other as
gambols, to the play of the ring, which is thus perform-
ed. A number of coffee cups reverfed, being placed
upon a large falver, the ring is hid under one of them.
The perfons engaged are divided into two parties, and
the game confifts in guefling where the ring is conceal-
ed. The winning party have a right to blacken the faces of
the lofers, to expofe them in fools caps to the derifion
of the company, and to infult them with fongs of tri-
umph. Servants only, or fuch as have talents for buf-
foonery, are made butts on fuch occafions.

The Turks play merely for amufement. They
fometimes rifk a difh of coffee, or the expence of a
Bagnio, but never play for money, and are wholly unac-
quainted with cards and hazard: all gaming being in the
moft exprefs terms forbidden by the Koran'?. They oc-
cafionly determine difputes by a {mall bet, but never lay
confiderable wagers; regarding it as a {fpecies of gaming.
Some of the Chriftians in the fervice of the Euro-
peans, have of late learned to game; a refinement in
manners upon which their mafters, fometime or other,
_may have little caufe to congratulate themfelves.

The natives of every denomination obferve very
regular hours. ‘They rife with the Sun, and ufually
*© Voyage en Arabie, v. i. p. 139.
” Note XXXVII.
are

144 OF THE INHABITANTS

80 OX are in bed between nine and ten at night. Moft of

— them lye down for an hour after dinner. Bufinefs is
tranfacted between breakfaft and five in the afternoon.
The Merchants commonly dine in their apartments in
the Khanes ; fome have victuals fent from their own
kitchen, but many content themfelves with bread, cheefe,
and fruit, or perhaps a Kabab from the Bazar. ‘Their
chief repaft is fupper, at their own houfes ; after which,
many of the ordinary people go to the coffee houfe,
where they pafs the time till evening prayer, and then
retire. People of rank fometimes vifit after fupper, but
feldom are feen abroad later than ten o’clock.

The women do not appear in the ftreet after it is
dark. When they pay formal family vifits, they fet out
early in the morning, and either return home about fun
fet, or ftay all night. On thefe occafions they take
entire poffeflion of the Harem, where a number of beds
can foon be made ready, with little trouble; and the
gentlemen of the family are ufually left to fhift for them-
felves, in the outer apartments.

The beds confift of feveral mattreffes laid one upon
another, acrofs the middle part of the Divan. Over
the upper mattrefs is {fpread a cotton fheet, and an-
other fheet is fewed to the coverlet, which is of filk,
quilted more or lefs thick, according to the feafon, One
of the Divan cufhions commonly ferves for a bolfter,
but fome ufe down pillows. ‘The general cuftom is to
fleep without curtains ; fome, who are more delicate,

fufpend

IN GENERAL.

fufpend a fly trap, or gauze curtains, by means of lines
hung crofs the room. The mattreffes, and coverlets
being removed in the morning, are folded up in a large
recefs at one end of the room, and concealed by a cur-
tain, fo that it is eafy to make eight or ten beds, in an
apartment, which, in the day time, ferves for the recep-
tion of company.

Their night drefs is compofed of an under waiftcoat
and drawers, with a Turban of a particular fafhion by
way of cap. When the hour of repofe approaches,
they fit down on the bed, and continue fmoking till
they grow drowfy; they then lay themfelves along,
leaving it to their women, or (if in an outer apartment)
to their pages, to take away the pipe, and to cover
them with the coverlet. Some of the voluptuous
Grandees are lulled to fleep by foft mufic, placed in an
adjoining chamber, or by Arabian Tales, which their
flaves are taught to read, or repeat. With the fame
view, it is not uncommon to have their feet and legs
gently ftroked, or rubbed by the hand of an attendant :
a cuftom much pra¢tifed in India, where it is termed
champooing. Ifthey happen to wake in the night, and
find no more difpofition to fleep, they fit up in bed,
drink coffee, or, in long nights, regale with dried fruits,
and paftry. After which they fmoke their pipe till they
once more drop afleep. Married perfons have feparate
beds placed near one another.

In fummer, the beds are made in the Alcove or

Vou. I. U Great

14.5

CHAR.
If.

(ese pa

146 OF THE INHABITANTS

BO°X Great Divan, or upon the wooden Divans placed in

—~— the court yard. Sometimes they are laid on a mat
fpread on the pavement; but, in the warmer feafon,
moft of the natives make their beds on the houfe top.
In the winter, fmall rooms with low ceilings, on the
ground floor, are preferred as bed chambers. They
have always a lamp burning in the night, and often, in
cold weather, are tempted to admit a pan of charcoal,
though repeated experience has fhown them the de-
fiructive effects of the fume, in fpight of all the care
that can previoufly be taken, by burning the charcoal
clear in the open air. Very few winters pafs without
affording many alarming and fome fatal accidents from
charcoal. It is commonly ufed in very large braziers in
the grand apartments, where the conftant circulation of
air prevents any other ill effects than flight head-achs.
But in bed chambers, and other {mall rooms, where the
air is excluded by window curtains, clofe doors, and
antiports, it is then moft dangerous when the greateft
pains have been taken to burn it clear; for the grofler
fmoke, giving an early alarm, leaves time to efcape the
danger, whereas the more fubtle vapour, (of which no
means has hitherto been difcovered to diveft it,) has a
fudden, and unexpected operation.

The coffee houfes are not frequented by perfons of
the firft rank, but by all others indifcriminately. Some
of them are large, and handfome rooms, and, for the

enter-

IN GENERAL. 147

entertainment of the cuftomers, a band of mufick, is re- c H A P.
tained, a puppet fhow, and a ftory-teller. “Uhefe exhibit ~~
at different hours of the day, the audience, by a volun-
tary contribution, raifing a trifle towards defraying the
expence.

The Concert, which confifts of vocal and inftrumental
mufick, continues more than an hour, without intermif-
fion. They make no paufe between the airs, but flide
from one into another, as if fo many movements of the
fame concert. At inferior coffee houfes, not provided
with a regular band, the company are occafionally en-
tertained by fome volunteer performer, who fings gratis.

The puppet fhow is performed by fhadows, in the
manner of Les Ombres Chinoife, but much inferior in
point of execution. The ftage is very fimple, and con-
ftructed in a few minutes. One perfon with great
dexterity conducts the whole, changing his tone of voice,
and imitating the provincial dialects, or other peculiarities
of the characters introduced in the piece. Some faint
attempts towards dramatic fable may be traced in thefe
fhows, which are moreover diverfified and decorated by
the march of caravans, bridal proceflions, and other
gaudy pageants. But the whole is too often interrupted
by the difgufting indecency of Kara-guze, the punch of
their theatre: except where women happen to be pre-
fent, as at private houfes, when the moft exceptionable
parts of the dialogue are fuppreft. At the coffee houfes,
the puppet fhow, in point of obfcenity, is under no re-

U 2 ftraint,

148
BOOK
1UE
Se)

OF THE INHABITANTS

ftraint, but the magiftrate fometimes interpofes to protect
individuals from being introduced on the ftage, and ex-
pofed to the derifion of the populace. In the beginning
of the Ruffian war in 1768, the Aleppo Janizaries, who
had returned from the field rather in difgrace, were
introduced on the ftage giving a ludicrous account of
their achievements ; and Kara-guze could not well mifs
the opportunity of throwing out fome fevere farcafms on
their prowefs. This, though received with great ap-
plaufe, was foon moft judicioufly put a ftop to; for
though little was then to be apprehended from the Jani-
zaries in their ftate of humiliation, it was probable that
they might, when in motion the next campaign, have
taken ample vengeance. In an affair of bankruptcy
which had occafioned much popular clamour, certain
perfons concerned applied to the Seraglio for proteétion
againft the petulance of Kara-guze, who had, on the ftage
affumed the character of a merchant, and, in allufion to
recent tranfactions, reprefented a number of fraudulent
intrigues, to the great entertainment of the populace.

Satyre muft be cautious of defcending to too pointed
reflection on perfons immediately in power ; but has full
fcope to lafh in general, the follies of private life, the
perverfion of public juftice, and the corruptions of go-
vernment. I have known a Bafhaw ridiculed on the
ftage, after his departure from the city ; and a Cady fel-
dom or never efcapes.

The recitation of Eaftern fables and tales, partakes
fome-

IN GENERAL. 149

fomewhat of a dramatic performance. It is not merely ¢¥ 4 P.
a fimple narrative ; the ftory is animated by the manner, —~—~
and aétion of the fpeaker. A variety of other ftory
books, befides the Arabian nights entertainment, (which,
under that title, are little known at Aleppo’’) furnifh
materials for the ftory teller, who, by combining the
incidents of different tales, and varying the cataftrophe
of fuch as he has related before, gives them an air of
novelty even to perfons who at firft imagine they are
liftening to tales with which they are acquainted. He
recites walking to and fro, in the middle of the coffee
room, ftopping only now and then when the expreffion
requires fome emphatical attitude. He is commonly
heard with great attention, and, not unfrequently, in the
midft of fome interefting adventure, when the expecta-
tion of his audience is raifed to the higheft pitch, he
breaks off abruptly, and makes his efcape from the room,
leaving both his heroine and his audience, in the utmoft
embarraflment. Thofe who happen to be near the door
endeavour to detain him, infifting on the ftory being fini-
fhed before he departs, but he always makes his retreat
good ; and the auditors, fufpending their curiofity, are
induced to return at the fame hour next day, to hear the
fequel. He no fooner has made his exit, than the com-
pany, in feparate parties, fall a difputing about the
characters of the drama, or the event of the unfinifhed

* Note XXXVIII.
adven-

150

OF ‘THE SNAASTEANTS

BOOK adventure. The controverfy by degrees becomes feri

“—— ous, and oppofite opinions are maintained with no lefs

warmth, than if the fate of the city depended on the
decifion.

Excepting the public entry of bafhaws, or of European
confuls, and the fports exhibited on certain occafions in
the Seraglio court yard, there are no public fpectacles,
at which the two fexes aflemble promifcuoufly. Fire
works, at the great feafts and other times of rejoicing,
are exhibited at the Seraglio, but the women, as obfery-
ed before, do not come abroad at night.

The Aleppeens, in general, have a correct ear, and
are fond of mufic. They have technical names for the
notes, as well as for the different meafures, but they
have no written mufic. They learn the airs and
fymphonies by ear, retain them by memory, and com-
municate them to others in the fame manner they them-
felves were taught. The Arab mufical fcale, in the
fubdivifion of intervals, differs confiderably from that
of Europe'’. They have no mufic in parts; the per-
formers in a concert, conftantly play in unifon; but
both voices and inftruments have fometimes refts of

feveral bars, which they obferve with great exactnefs,

being for the moft part excellent timeitfts.
The inftrumental mufic is of two kinds. The one
martial and loud, intended for the field ; the other lefs

» Note XXXIX.
fonorous,

IN GENERAL.

fonorous, adapted to the chamber. The martial band
is compofed of Hautboys *, fhorter and fhriller than the
European; trumpets; cymbals *; drums of a large
fize 3, the head of which is beat with a heavy drum-
ftick, and the bottom, at the fame time, ftruck gently
with a very {mall ftick ; laftly, drums of a much fmaller
fize which are beat in the manner of a kettle drum *.
There are nine great drums in the band of a Vizir
Bafhaw, and eight in that of a Bafhaw of two tails; the
number of other inftruments is not fo ftriétly limited.
A band of mufic, belonging to the caftle, fmaller than
that of the Bafhaw, performs regularly twice a day from
the battlements.

The Bafhaw’s band performs alfo twice a day in the
court of the Seraglio. The concert, which lafts above
half an hour, is divided into three parts, not diftinguifh-
ed by intervals of paufe, but by a clofe executed by the
firft hautboy, who in the length of his fwell, and his

fhake, out-trills all patience, as well as melody. The

meafure of the fymphony is commonly flow at firft, but
by degrees changes into a pretty quick allegro, and it
is ufual, in thefe movements, to introduce fome of the
cantabile airs which happen to be moft in vogue.

* Zummer ye)
“ Nafeer xi
* Snuge ~v

* Tuble (ube
* Nakara 31 lai

The

roi

C.H_A.P.
Dts

en anne

152

BOOK
II

OF THE INHABITANTS

The chamber mufic confifts of voices accompanied

—— with a dulcimer *, a guitar*, the Arab fiddle’, two

{mall drums **, the dervis’ flute ?°, and the diff, or tam-
bour de Bafque*. Thefe compofe no difagreeable
concert, when once the ear has been fome what ac-
cuftomed to the mufic; the inftruments generally are
well in tune, and the performers, as remarked before,
keep excellent time’. The print reprefenting a Turkith
concert, exhibits the feveral inftruments ufed in the

chamber mufic 32.

The

** Santeer pero called alfo Kanoon (il

** Tanboor_j4ib
” Kamangi asad
* Nakara o! La
= Naie (CU
° Diff _ 30 fometimes Daira 0 js!J
* Tt is-worth remarking that the Romans according to Juvenal, received
the Tympanum from Syria :
Jampridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes,
Et linguam, et mores, ct cum Tibicine chordas
Obliquas, nec non gentilia Tympana fecum
Vexit, Sat. ili.
3+ Plate IV. exhibits a Tuikith concert drawn from the life, and the
feveral performers are dreffed in the habits peculiar to their rank. The
firft isa Turk of the lower clafs, his white fhafh tied loofely round the
Kavok, which gives the Turban a clumfy appearance, compared with thofe
worn by perfons of fafhion. He beats the Diff, and fings at the fame time.
The perfon next him is an ordinary Chriftian, drefled in a flovenly manner,
he fings alfo, and plays the Tanboor. The middle figure is a dervife in his
ordinary Kaook, without a fhafh, he is playing the Naie, or Dervis’s flute.

The fourth is a Chriftian of middlerank. He fits in his Curtak, and has a
“ Doliman

V.I Fiage 142

| We \N
| " i MW
| MiMi

Cal

= =
Nem S
Ba :
Lf p - =
43, Fall
a Wy
= Tae = —

‘rc

IN GENERAL.

The vocal mufic, to an European ear, feems at firft ¢ HA P.
not lefs uncouth than the Arabic language, and it fel- —-~—~

dom happens that time, which by degrees reconciles
the language, goes further in mufic than to render it
merely tolerable. There is in particular, one f{pecies of
fong, between an air and recitative, named Mowal*,

Dulaman which, being tucked under his legs, hides his Kunbaz, or waift-
coat ; he has a knife in his girdle, the handle of which appears above the
cinéture. The fhafh of the Turban is blue and white ftriped, like that of
the other Chriftian, but a difference may be remarked in the drefs ; for the
firft is without a Kurtak, and has only a long outer garment made faft with
a Cinéture, and under it a Kunbaz. He plays the Kamangi, in the manner
it commonly is held refting on its foot. The laft man is dreffed much in
the manner of the other Turk, but the head drefs is after the fafhion of what
is fometimes worn by the Janizaries, and very often by the Arabgeers, or
Armenian grooms, in the fervice of the Europeans. He beats the Nakara
with his fingers, in order to foften the found for the voice, but the drum-
fticks, appear from under his veft. The flippers of the band, lye at the
end of the Muftaby on which the Muficians are placed, they are all of the
fame form, but the Turkifh flippers as mentioned before, are yellow, and
the Chriftian red. The only inftrument wanting to complete the band is
the Dulcimer, or Santeer.

The front of the ftone Muftaby is faced with marble of different colours,
and part of the court is paved in Mofaic, in the manner reprefented in the
print. Through one window, is feen part of a Mofque, with a Minaret,
and its gallery near the top, whence the criers fummons the people to
prayers. Through the other window is fhown, in miniature, the inner
court of a great houfe. The door of the Kaah, and part of the cupola
appears in front; on the fide, the high arched Alcove, or Divan, with the
fhed above ; the marble facing of the Muftaby, the Mofaic pavement be-
tween that and the bafon, and the fountain playing. The fhrubbery in the
court is not vifible. See page 29, 30, and 31.

33 lye
me ot., 1. X held

154

OF THE INHABITANTS

HO OK held univerfally in the higheft efteem. It is performed
“—~— by a fingle voice unaccompanied with inftruments, and

the finger, placing a hand behind each ear, as if to
fave the drum of that organ from deftruction, exerts
his voice to the utmoft ftretch. The fubject of the
poetry is generally of the plaintive kind. Some haplefs
wight laments the abfence of his miftrefs, recals the
memory of happier times, and invokes the full moon, or
the liftning night, to bear witnefs to his conftancy. The
performer frequently makes long paufes, not only be-
ween the ftanzas, which are very fhort, but in the mid-
dle of the line, and, taking that opportunity of recover-
ing breath, he begins anew to warble, {welling his notes
till his wind is quite exhaufted. Fond as the natives
are of this Mowal, there are few ftrangers who can hear
it with any patience, or without lamenting the perver-
fion of voices, which often are ftrong, clear, and won-
derfully melodious.

Although there are a great number of Arabian airs,
there is no great variety, a ftrong fimilitude being ob-
fervable in moft of them. ‘The verfes fet to mufic are
commonly amorous, fometimes jovial ; and the fong is
executed by one or more voices, accompanied with fe-
veral inftruments. The dulcimer ferves inftead of the
harpfichord, and the Diff, or Nakara, mark the time.
Some of thefe fongs are pleafing, but the voices in ge-
neral are too loud, efpecially in the chorufes: they are
perhaps more agreeable to an European ear, when exe-

cuted

IN GENERAL. 155

cuted by a fingle voice, accompanied folely by the CH AP.
guitar. ——

Notwithftanding mufic is fo much efteemed, and a
conftant attendant at all entertainments, none of the
people of condition are themfelves performers ; nor are
the youth of either fex taught it as an accomplifhment.
Few of the free women beftow pains on their voice ;
and, though fome of the younger ladies may now and
then join in the chorus, they do not think it confiftent
with decorum to lead. Many of the men of inferior
rank, fing readily in company, and it often happens, un-
fortunately for a delicate ear, that there are few who
do not think themfelves qualified to join occafionally in
the chorus.

Befides the mufical inftruments already mentioned,
there are others which are not admitted into concerts 3+.
A hautboy much inferior to the zummer, feveral varieties
of rude common flutes, and a bagpipe. The firft and
latter of thefe are played by fellows who find ‘employ-
ment at weddings, in the villages; and on holidays, they
may be heard playing wretchedly, in the fkirts of the
to wn.

The Syrinx, or Pan’s pipe, is ftill a paftoral inftru-

ment in Syria; it is known alfo in the city, but very

3+ Moft of the inftruments mentioned above, have been drawn by Kemp-
fer, and in general the names are the fame; but he has alfo given figures of
feveral inftruments not known in Syria. Amenit. Exot. p. 740. See Nie-

buhr Voyage en Arabie, Tom. i. p. 142. Note XXXIX.
X 2 few

156

OF THE INHABITANTS

BOOK few of the performers can found it tolerably well. The
‘——~ higher notes are clear, and pleafing, but the longer

reeds are apt, like the dervis’s flute, to make a hiffing
found, though blown by a good player. ‘The number of
reeds of which the Syrinx is compofed varies in differ-
ent inftruments, from five to twenty-three.

The natives, rather frugal in the general ceconomy of
their family, are on certain occafions, profufely liberal.
Their feafts have every appearance of plenty, and hof-
pitality. The mafter of the houfe deputes his fons, or
one or two of his kinfmen, to affift the fervants, in at-
tendance on the guefts. A band of mufic, placed in the
court yard, plays almoft inceffantly ; the fountains are all
fet a fpouting ; the attendants deck their Turbans with
flowers ; and the company, dreft in their beft apparel,
affume an air of feftivity and cheerfulnefs. This laft cir-
cumftance however refpects more efpecially the Chrif-
tians and Jews; for the Turks of condition, in mixed
company, very feldom lay afide their ufual folemnity.

A fet of Buffoons commonly attend at all great en-
tertainments. Thefe are compofed of fome of the
muficians, and of others who for hire, aflume the cha-
racter of profeffed jefters. Some of them are good
mimicks, taking off the ridiculous fingularities of perfons
who happen to be well known, and fometimes, in an
extempore interlude, making burlefque allufions to per-
fons prefent in the company: but their wit borders too

near

IN GENERAL 157

near on the obfcene, and, though the natives appear to ¢ H A P.
be highly entertained, the mummery foon becomes infi- —~~
pid to a ftranger.

There is hardly a man of rank who has not a jefter
among his dependants, with whom he may divert him-
feif at pleafure, and who, being invefted with the liberty
of faying whatever he choofes, often exercifes his privi-
lege with tolerable humour, both on his patron and the
company. The Bafhaw’s Chaufes * occafionally affume
the character of buffoons, and perform interludes for
the entertainment of their mafter.

The women at their feftivals are much more noify
than the men; their chorufes confift of more voices,
and are often interrupted by the Ziraleet, in which all
the young females join cheerfully. They have mufici-
ans and buffoons of their own fex, among: the latter of
which fome of the Keiams, who attend them at the Bag-
nio, ufually diftinguifh themfelves.

*s Inferior officers who carry a fhort ftick ornamented with filver, and are
employed in attendance at the gate of the Seraglio, in carrying fummonfes

to council, meflages, &c. Their Chief is a man of confequence, and atts as
matter of ceremonies.

CHAP-

BOOK
II.

C.F ALP... Wie

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

DISTINCTION OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS—OSMANLI—
ULLAMA—AGAS, &.—MERCHANTS—DIFFERENT TRADES—ARABS—
TURKMANS, &c. &.—TURKISH MODE OF LIVING—CEREMONIAL
VISITS—DINNER, &.—DIET OF THE ORDINARY RANKS—EVENING
CONVERSATION — RELIGION AND WOMEN, TOPICS SELDOM IN-
TRODUCED THERE—DRUNKENNESS NOT A COMMON VICE.

Tue Turks, a denomination comprehending all
Mohammedans whatever, are believed to compofe two
hundred thoufand of the computed inhabitants of Aleppo.
They are a mixed race, partly defcended from thofe
who inhabited the city before it was fubdued by the
Emperor Selim, in the year 1516, partly from fuch as
came to fettle in the new conqueft, and from others
drawn thither by commerce, from moft of the Ottoman
Provinces. ‘They are united by living under the fame
government, as well as by joining in the profeffion of
the fame fyftem of religious faith, being all of them

Sonnites '.

* «© Or Traditionifts, becaufe they acknowledge the authority of the
«¢ Sonna, or Collection of moral Traditions of the fayings and aétions of
“ their Prophet, which is a fort of fupplement to the Koran, anfwering to
“ the Mifhna of the Jews. Sale Prel. Difcourfe. p. 154.

The

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS &c. 159

The Bafhaw with his retinue, and all others immedi- c HAP.
ately in the fervice of the Porte, are called Ofmanli*, and--—~
either fpeak, or affect to fpeak the Turkifh language.
The Eftendees 3, compofe the body of the Ullama‘*, or
learned men. ‘Their common language is the Arabic,
for moft of them being natives of Aleppo, but few can
fpeak the Turkifh with tolerable purity. The Agas ‘5 or
(in a reftricted fenfe) thofe who rent thé lands, have ftill
fome influence in the Divan, or council of the city, but
their power and fplendor have been long on the decline,
and moft of the old families are now extinct. Among
the few ancient houfes which ftill remain is that of
Shahny. An Effendee defcended from a famous hif-
torian, (Eben al Shahny, who wrote a hiftory of the city
of Aleppo,) was living in the year 1752, and the houfe
made pretenfions of alliance to the celebrated lawyer and
hiftorian of thatname. ‘The Agas alfo fpeak the Arabic,
though fome of them, from intercourfe with the Seraglio,
or occafional refidence at Conftantinople, have acquired
the Turkith.

The Shereefs °, (or Greenheads, as they are called by

the Franks) compofe a numerous and very formidable

* Othmanli Jus

3 Efendeey as0us!

+ Ullama ike

* Agawat —! lel

The title of Aga, (él, is given indifcriminately to various perfons, mean-
ing no more than Dominus, or mafter. The fenfe in which it is ufed above,
diftinguifhes the Agas of Aleppo, who hold lands, and have a feat in the
council, from the Bafhaw’s officers, the Sardar Aga, Mohaffil Aga, &c.

® Shereef or Seid Ow C&iyis

y)
body,

160 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

8oox body, in which are comprehended perfons of all ranks.

~~ They are diftinguifhed by the green colour of the fhafh
of their Turban, and, under the Nakeeb’, who is a chief
nominated by the Porte, enjoy peculiar privileges. The
number of Turks who wear the white fhafh, of courfe
daily decreafes, on account of their intermarriage with
the daughters of Shereefs; the children of fuch marriages
becoming Greenheads, in right of the mother.

The merchants* at Aleppo are numerous, and a few
of them are efteemed opulent. Some have travelled, in
their youth, to Bagdat, Baffora, or even to India, and con-
tinue, though advanced in years, to make a journey now
and then to the capital, in the caravans which tranfport
their merchandize : when they do not go themfelves, it
is ufual to commit the care of their goods to fome trufty
flave.

To the body of merchants belongs a confiderable
number of ftrangers; there being a perpetual fucceffion
of them, from all the great trading towns of the Empire.
They remain till they can difpofe of the effects they
brought along with them, or finifh their inveftments,
and eafily find an opportunity of returning home, by the
caravans, which, though not deftined for Aleppo, ap-
proach near enough, in their way to other places, to take
up paflengers.

The trades are divided into different companies, un-

7 CnArs

: Tager pb 3 but in Turkifh (and more commonly ufed) Bazargan
ot

der

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

161

der their refpective mafters, or Sheihs’. They ufed in c HAT
former times, to make fplendid proceffions on certain ——

occafions, but for fome years thofe Pageants have been
prohibited, on account of tumults excited by difputes
about precedency *°.

The mechanicks, in general, are induftrious, and
frugal. ‘They work flowly, but work a great many
hours in the four and twenty; they have few holydays;
and drunkennefs, though not entirely unknown, is
reckoned extremely fcandalous, and is really uncom-
mon. ‘Their tools are coarfely made ; but natural in-
genuity often fupplies the want of fuch, as might eafily
be procured from Europe. Though they greatly admire
the finifhed hardware, and cabinet work, brought from
England, they labour under difcouraging circumftances,
which muft for a long while, perhaps for ever, obftruct
all attempts towards imitation. The Aleppeens poffefs
the art of tentmaking unrivalled; the tents, for the Sul-
tan, and great officers of the Porte, are ufually made at
Aleppo.

A vaft number of hands are employed in the filk and
cotton manufactures. Befides large factories, where a
great many looms are kept under the fame roof, a mul-

» Sheikh ~_.& Vulgarly pronounced Sheih, by the natives. It ftri@ly
means fenex, but is varioufly applied. The Arab princes, in fome places,
are Called Sheikhs; there are Sheikhs of villages, of the refpedtive trades,
of each diftrict within the city: in which inftances, it is equivalent to Chief-
tan, mafter of a company, or head of a ward. See D’Arvieux’s Memoirs
Tom. vi. Thevenot’s Voyages, p. 33.

® A defcription of thofe Pageants may be feen in Thevenot part ii. p. 35.

Vor. I. a. titude

162

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

a9 Oe titude of inferior artifans have one or two looms in their
—~— own houfes. A great part of the filk, as well as of the

cotton, is fpun and prepared for the loom by the wo-
men, who employ the time they can fpare from houfe-
hold avocations, .in this kind of labcur, and many of
them draw their chief fubfiftence from it. This laft cir-
cumftance, when the city happens to be vifited by con-
tagious diftempers, renders it doubly calamitous, for the
mafter artifans being afraid to leave their property dif-
perfed among a number of f{mall, obfcure houfes, expofed
in a peculiar degree to infection, a ceffation of the ma-
nufactures neceffarily enfues, and involves the middling
people in the utmoft diftrefs.

A confiderable number of Arabs dwell within the
city and fuburbs, in Keifarias"’, or in fmall, mean houfes.
The men are employed in various kinds of manual Ia-
bour, and the women are often attached to the Harems
of the Great, as fervants, or nurfes. ‘They feldom marry
out of their tribes, and retain the Arab drefs and man-
ners. ‘[hefe are called Bidoweens, as are the Arabs
of the Defert, and other tribes, which, in the fpring, en-
camp under the city walls: The latter, in the fummer,
removing their tents to the neighbouring villages, and,
in the winter, taking fhelter in grottoes, or caverns, in the
vicinity of the town "’.

The Arabs drefs in a fafhion more fimple, and in
feveral refpeCts different from the Turks, efpecially in

** See before page 36.
» Concerning the diftinction of the Arabs, Bidoweens and Moors, fee

Note XL.
the

INHABITANTS OOF) ALEPPO. 163

the article of the Turban. D’Arvieux fays that there © 4A?
is little difference between the drefs of the ArabS77
Emeers, and that of the Turks of diftinction ; but the
Emeer, who comes occafionally to Aleppo, as well as
his principal attendants, always wore the black fhath,
hanging down on the neck on one fide, and the Arab
Abai. He wore alfo a Kunbaz, but no Dulaman.
Their women, by means of a needle and a certain pow-
der, give a dark blue colour to the lips, and in the fame
manner make blue marks, or imitations of flowers, on
their cheeks, breafts, and arms. ‘They prick the parts
with a needle, and then rub the powder into the punc-
tures. The mark remains indelible, like what may be
feen among failors, and fome of the common people in
England". They wear a large ring of gold or filver,
pendant from the nofe, the cartilage on one fide being
pierced for that purpofe: it is ufually the external car-
tilage of the right noftril’t. I have feen fome of the
rings of at leaft an inch and a half diameter. La Roque de-
{cribes them as made, not only of gold and filver, but of
tin, lead, or copper, and of a fize fo large as to encom-
pafs the mouth; he adds that it is a piece of gallantry '
among the Arabs, to kifs their women through them.
Their arms and ankles are adorned with bracelets of
filver, or of coloured glafs ; they wear ear-rings ; neck-

'? See Lowth’s notes on Ifaiah, p. 204. and p. 225. La Roque, ch. 17.
* ‘This ancient ornament, the nofe jewel, is frequently mentioned in the

facred writings. Genefis, xxiv. 47. Ifaiah, iii. 21. Ezekiel, xvi. 12.

** La Roque, chap. 17.
1 2 laces

164 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

B00X laces of amber, or of Venetian beads; and their hair is
+’ braided with beads and cowries. But fome of thofe at-

tached to the Harems, adopt more the fafhion of their
miftreffes, and neither difcoiour their lips, nor ufe nofe-
rings ; they wear neat linen, yellow boots, or Babooges,
and appear abroad properly veiled. The others are
clothed nearly in the fame manner as the Bidoweens
who dwell in tents. ‘They wear a coarfe, blue garment,
made in the form of a fhirt, with wide fleeves, open a
little at the breaft, and reaching to the ankles. The
black fhafh they wear on the head, ferves to conceal the
face, one corner of it being brought acrofs the mouth,
and the chin. At other times they ufe a muffler, and a
fhort veil of linen, thrown loofely over the head. Their
legs are naked, but, though in the country they com-
monly walk barefoot, it is unufual to fee them in town
without Babooges, or boots. The Arab inhabitants of
the city retain enough of their national drefs, to diftin-
guifh them from others, but they are infenfibly led, in
that refpect, as well as in their manners, to borrow fome-
thing from the more polifhed people among whom they
dwell. Thofe who have been mentioned as encamping
under the city walls, are of the meaner fort, and anfwer
more the defcription given by D’Arvieux ”.

There are a good many Turkman'7 families fettled
in the fuburbs. ‘They fpeak a dialect of the Turkifh

** Note XLI.

17 Cres

much

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 165

much harfher in found, than that ufed by the Ofmanli. c H A P.
Being a ftout hardy people, they are chiefly employed in -~—~
agriculture, or as camel drivers in the caravans. By
living in the fkirts of the town, and mixing lefs with the
people in the interior parts, they retain their cuftoms
and language more pure than the Arabs. They differ
however, from the tribes that live conftantly in tents,
and of which fome account may be found in the notes"’.

There are alfo in the fuburbs a great number of
Kurdeens "9; one of the diftri¢éts, or Haras, is named the
Kurdeen ftreet. Their language approaches nearer to
the Turkifh than the Arabic, but differs confiderably
from both. ‘They live in the fame manner as the Turk-
mans, and are employed much in the fame way. Both
wear the high tapering felt Kaook, with a fhort white
fhafh wrapt round it. Befides the Kurdeens who inha-
bit the mountains of Bylan, and are well known to the
Franks, there is a wandering tribe which often vifits the
champaign of Aleppo, and are known by the name of
Rufhwans ”°.

The Arabs who encamp without the gates of the city,
have been already mentioned. ‘The Chinganas *', who
are a perfectly diftinct people, (though they live in the
fame manner,) ufually encamp near them. ‘Their Jan-

* Note XLII.

*® Akrad dts Kurd Jy

2 Note XLIII.

guage

166
BOOK
Il.
(een, eens

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

guage is Arabic, but mixed with a number of words
and phrafes hardly underftood in Syria. They migrate
in the fummer to the adjacent villages, and return early
in the fpring. Their drefs is like that of the Bidoweens,
and their women colour their lips, and adorn themfelves,
with rings, in the fame fafhion *.

It has already been remarked that the Turks are a
temperate people: a more particular account of their
mode of living, of their table, and of their manner of
paffing their time, was referved for this chapter.

As foon as the Turks get out of bed, they fmoke a
pipe, and drink a fmall difh of coffee. About an hour
afterwards, breakfaft, confifting of bread, fruit, honey,
leban, cheefe, eggs, or cakes made with butter, is ferved
on a fmall table, fometimes in the Harem, but more
commonly in the outer apartments.

The people of diftinction either fit at home after
breakfaft, to receive company, or go abroad themfelves
to make vifits. When they go abroad, not having the
conveniency of wheel-carriages, they ride on horfeback,
attended by two or four pages walking on each fide.
The horfe is gorgeoufly decked. The furniture, which
reaches almoft to the ground, is richly embroidered, or
ftudded with filver; the bridle is ornamented with
chains of plain, or gilt filver, and filk fringes, covering

* Note XLIV.
the

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 167

the head and part of the horfes neck, in the manner of ¢ HA P.
anet. A plain, or gilt poitrel of maffy filver, with a--~—~
bofs- and rich fringes hanging from the fide, cover the
breaft. All thefe ornaments are finely worked, and
fometimes enriched with precious ftones. ‘The faddle
is of crimfon velvet plated behind with filver, and the
ftirrups are of folid filver. A fcimitar*’, on the blade
of which fome verfe from the Koran is ufually infcribed,
is girt on the left fide of the faddle, and, on the right, a
fhort warlike weapon refembling a mace *t: the head of
this, and the hilt of the fcimitar are of worked filver,
fometimes gilt.

The horfes are excellently broken, and walk grace-
fully ; fo that the Turks, who are, in general, taught
early to ride, make a noble appearance on horfeback.
From the outer gate, where they difmount, they walk
in their boots (their train being borne) to the door of the
apartment, and there have them drawn off by a page,
who carries the Babooge wrapped up in a piece of fcarlet
cloth. The boots are made of fine yellow leather, fhort,
and fo wide that they eafily flip over the Shahkfhoor. Per-
fons of a certain rank, enter the chamber in their boots,
and have them drawn off after ftepping on the Divan.

A Bafhaw rifes from his feat, on the entrance or de-
parture, of the Mufti, Cady, Nakeeb, and fome of the

2 Seif Ce ww
* Dabufe So

prin-

168 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK principal Ullama; but receives all other vifitors, fitting.
t-——— Other perfons of diftinction ufually rife to welcome, or
bid farewel, to their guefts. As foon as the vifitor has
taken his place, a ftring of pages make their appearance
in the Attaby, preceded by an officer’, diftinguifhed by
a large filk apron, who carries a round falver, covered
with red cloth, in the middle of which falver is placed
a coffee pot, furrounded with half a dozen fmall cups
reverfed. The firft page, carrying a large filk, or em-
broidered, napkin, advances on the Divan, drops down
on his knees, and, refting on his hams, fpreads the nap-
kin over the ftrangers robe, fo as to prevent its being
accidentally foiled. A fecond, in the fame attitude, pre-
fents the fweetmeat *° in a chryftal cup, together with a
{mall fpoon, with which the gueft helps himfelf. A third
having received a cup from the Kahwagee, ftands ready
with the coffee; he does not kneel, but ftooping gently
forward, firft lowering, then quickly advancing the hand,
delivers the cup with a dexterity to be acquired only by
practice. A fourth brings the lighted pipe, and, firft
laying down an utenfil*”, (for preferving the carpet) up-

* Kahwagee Coming

** The fweetmeat confifts of rofe leaves in conferve, acidulated with
lemons; or Vifna cherry, orange flowers, orange peel, and other confections.

*” Niffada.

A round plate of tin, or of ftrong leather ftudded with filver, that
flides eafily on the carpet, ledged in the middle and lined with filver, for
receiving the pipe bowl. They fave the carpet from the burning tobacco
or afhes, which drop from the pipe.

on.

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 169

on which the bowl of the pipe is placed, he prefents the c 1 4 p.
other end of the pipe, by an eafy movement of one arm, —~—~
while the other hand is placed on the breaft. “The mo-
ment the coffee is finifhed, a page is ready to reccive
the empty cup, which he catches as it were between
both hands, the left palm turned up; another page,
kneeling alfo, removes the napkin, and, the coffee cup
being replaced on the falver, the Kahwagee retires,
while the pages, one hand laid on the girdle and crofled
by the other, in the attitude of humble attendance, re-
main in the attaby”’.

On ceremonial days, on which there is a conftant
fucceflion of vifitors, the pages themfelves know the
proper time to prefent the perfume, and bring it
without orders from the mafter; but, at other times,
they wait till the gueft lays down his pipe, or makes a
fignal to one of them to take it away. The pipe and
Niffada are then removed, and, after a little paufe, the
pages again enter in proceffion. One fpreads a napkin
of a different colour from the former ; another prefents
a fmall bafon of Sherbet, and holds, difplayed in the other
hand, an embroidered gauze handkerchief, for drying the
lips; a third fprinkles the hand, with rofe, or orange
flower water, from a filver veffel, with a long neck *.
The napkin being then removed, one of the pages brings

** See page 27.
~ Kumkumi 44243

Vou. I. Vb a filver

170

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK a filver cenfer to the mafter of the houfe, who, taking
“~~ from his pocket a fmall box containing aloes wood, cut

into little pieces, he either gives a bit to be laid on the
live coal, or puts it himfelf into the cenfer. This is the
laft part of the ceremonial, for the vifitor, as foon as he
has been perfumed, takes leave. At the door he is re-
ceived by his own pages, and, after putting on his boots,
he walks away between two rows of officers of the houfe-
hold, who bow to him as he paffes.

If the vifitor be a perfon of very high rank, the hoft
attends him to the top of the ftairs, otherwife they part
on the Divan. On particular occafions, the vifitor is
prefented with a horfe, fometimes in rich furniture, but,
for the moft part in a body cloth only. It is more ufual
to make a prefent of a Fur; and then the perfon is in-
vefted in the Bafhaw’s prefence, the Chaufes %°, at the
inftant of inveftment, pronouncing a fhort benediction
in a loud voice.

At vifits of mere ceremony, the converfation is made
up of empty profeffions, and compliments often repeat-
ed. ‘Thefe are generally compofed in a hyperbolical
ftrain, and expreffed with much folemnity. The quef-
tion “‘ haw do you do?” is repeated feveral times; and,
after a long paufe, they begin anew, ‘‘ and once more
‘‘ how do you do?” This is common among both Turks

s See page Igy
and

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 171

and Arabs, the former faying ‘‘ wa bir daha nidge Kaifi- © HA F-
niz?” the latter, ‘‘ wa kummana kaif kaifkom?” The next —~—’
queftion after this is ‘‘ what news? how goes the world?”
and the like". Converfation at ordinary vifits, is lefs fetter-
ed by forms. Befides the weather, and other common
topics, domeftic news is circulated, diverting ftories are
familiarly told, and, if the great man feems to give en-
couragement, fome of his guefts now and then exert
their talents for raillery. When he is difpofed to con-
verfe, the difcourfe is addreffed to him, but otherwife
the company entertain one another, and he either joins
them at intervals or continues mufing, as inclination
may lead him: fometimes, indeed, a deep filence reigns,
and, after the firft compliments, hardly a word is fpoken
during the whole vifit. As the Grandees fit fo many
hours in public, and receive all company, it is neceflary
they fhould be indulged in the privilege of leaving the
guefts to entertain themfelves ; but bufinefs in the mean
while is not neglected, the officers, and others who have
affairs to tranfact, come and go without interrupting
converfation, and either talk aloud, or, kneeling down
before the great man, fpeak fo low as not to be heard
by any one elfe. Private bufinefs of more importance,
is tranfacted at times when no vifitors are admitted;
the Bafhaw regularly gives audience of this kind to his

# See La Rocque Voyage en Paleftine, chap. vi.
2 Kehia,

172 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK Kehia, or firft minifter, at Affora**, and then all perfons
“—~—~ whatever are excluded
The Turks go to dinner, about eleven o'clock in
winter, but in fummer, fomewhat earlier. The table is
prepared in the following manner. In the middle of
the Divan, a round cloth is fpread, for the prefervation
of the carpet, and upon that is either placed a folding
ftand (refembling in form the croffes ufed at European
tables,) or a {mall {tool about fifteen inches high, which
ferves to fupport a large round plate, or table, fome-
times of filver, but commonly of copper tinned. Upon
this, a few faucers, are fymmetrically difpofed, containing
pickles, falad, leban and falt, and all round, nearer the
edge, are laid thin narrow cakes of very white bread,
and wooden, or tortoife-fhell fpoons. They do not ufe
table knives and forks, their fingers ferving inftead of
them ; and the roaft meat is ufually fo much done, that
it can eafily be torn afunder, or is carved by one of the
attendants with his knife, or Hanjer. Each gueft then
helps himfelf, and if the morfel happen to be too large,
the cakes of bread fupply the place of plates. A filk
and cotton towel, long enough to furround the table, is
laid on the ground, which the guefts, when feated, take
up over their knees.
After the table is thus prepared, a filver ewer %, and

** Between three and four, afternoon.

33 [breek Hyp
bafon,

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

ays

bafon ++, for wafhing the hands, is brought round to the ¢# P.
guefts; who, laying afide their outer garment, in the “~—~

fummer, or the large Fur, in the winter, take their
places, and fit all the while on their hams and heels: a
pofture infufferably irkfome to thofe who have not been
early accuftomed to it; and, to many elderly men, fo
uneafy, that they either fit on the edge of the mattrefs,
or are indulged with a cufhion reverfed. It is cuftom-
ary for each perfon to fay a fhort grace for himfelf, in
a low voice.

The difhes are brought up covered, and fet down
in the middle of the table, one at a time in fucceffion;
the whole amounting to twenty or thirty: and the fame
fervice is repeated, with little variation, every day.

The firft difh is almoft conftantly foup*, and the laft
a plain pilaw. The intermediate courfe confifts of a
variety of difhes. A lift of Turkifh difhes which I
brought from Aleppo, makes the number amount to one
hundred and forty-one, exclufive of Khufhafs, creams,
and confections. Mutton in fmall bits, roafted on iron
fkewers, with flices of either apples or artichoak bot-
toms, and onions, between each piece ; or mutton minc-

A ufht isl

The Ewer is made with a curved fpout. The bafon is of a round flat

form, with a cover pierced full of holes, through which the foiled water

efcapes out of fight. A page holds it in one hand, and with the other:

pours the water flowly from the ewer. Another page prefents.a towel.
* Shoorba ly pes

174. OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BLO OK ed {mall, and beat up with fpiceries into balls, and roatt-
“—~—~ ed alfo on fkewers: both which are called Kubab 2.
Mutton or lamb ftewed with gourds, roots, herbs, and
chiches*’; fowls, pigeons, and fometimes quails, or
other {mall birds, boiled or roafted, but more frequently
made into ragouts. Farce-meat, which is called Mah-
fhee *, compofed of mutton, rice, piftachios, currants,
pine nutts, almonds, fuet, fpice, and garlic, is ferved up
in a variety of fhapes, and takes an additional name
from the refpective fruit which is farced or ftuffed, as
Mahfhee*9 of mad apple, cucumber, or gourd. It is alfo
enveloped in the leaves of vine, endive, beet, or borage,
and is then called Yaprak. A lamb thus farced and
roafted entire, is a difh not uncommon at feafts*#°. “The
balls made of burgle, called kubby, have been mention-
ed in another place, as well as the different kinds of
cream; befides which they have feveral forts of pyes *';
minced meat with pomegranate grains, fpread upon thin
cakes, and baked on an iron plate‘; faufages made
without blood ; and a great variety of {weet difhes, and

arenas

*” ‘Yahny es

gota In Turkith Dulma aaJ 40

2° Badinjan Mahthy, or Dalmafy, Khiar Mahthee, &c.
*° Kharoof Mahfhee.

* Sanbufak Ton gions

* Lahem Ajeen.

paftry

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 175

paftry 8; the former made with honey or dibs, and¢ #4?
rather lufcious; the latter is very well made, but re-“~—~
tains the ftrong tafte of the Arab butter.

The Turks feldom eat fifh; and fea-fifh is rarely
brought to town, except for the Europeans. Neither
are they fond of geefe, or ducks; and wild-fowl, as
well as other kinds of game, though very plentiful, are
feldom feen at their tables.

A few plates of fweet flummery ‘+ are ferved by
way of defert, for they feldom ferve fruit at that time:
and laft of all, appears a large bowl of Khufhaf*, which
is a decoction of dried figs, currants, apricots, cherries,
apples, or other fruit, made into a thin firup, with pifta-
chio nutts, almonds, or fome flices of the fruit, left
fwimming in the liquor. This is ferved cold, fometimes
iced, and, with a few fpoonfuls of it, the repaft con-
cludes.

They drink nothing but water at meals, and very of-
ten do not drink till an hour after dinner. They do
not drink healths, but wifh health to the perfon after he
has drank, whether water or Sherbet, and the compli-
ment is returned by flightly touching the right temple,
with the fingers of the right hand extended, and wifhing
the continuance of health and long life**. They fit
only a fhort while at table, and when a perfon does not

* Baklawa x 5G Kunafy aslig Burak wy J4
“ Paluza oj¥l in Turkifh, and Faluza in Arabic ojs) 3

Ye Wag
““ Note XLV.
choofe

176

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK choofe cither to eat more, or to wait the Khufhaf, he
——— tid yen e without breach of good manners. But the

hoft often invites to tafte particular difhes, and the re-
moves are at any rate fo quick, that the guefts by necef-
fity, as well as complaifance, are induced to eat of a
greater variety than they probably would do from choice.

After getting up from table, every one refumes his
place on the Divan, and waits till water and foap be
brought for wafhing the mouth, and hands; after which
pipes and coffee are ferved round.

The defcription given above will be underftood of the
tables of the Grandees, thofe of the inferior ranks are
ferved much more frugally : among people of middling
condition, who have feldom more than three or four
difhes, the whole is fet down at once on the table, and
when the mafters have finifhed, the fervants in waiting,
after bringing the coffee and pipes, fit down to the
victuals that are left. The number of difhes decreafes
of courfe in the inferior ranks of life; but, except people
of the loweft clafs, who live almoft wholly on vegetables,
the quality of the difhes is nearly the fame, that is, they
are highly feafoned, greafy, and generally made very
acid with the j juice of lemons, pomegranates, or unripe
grapes. From the defcription of the Eaftern table
given by fome of the early travellers, one would be led
to think, either that the manners of the modern Mo-
hammedans- have been greatly polifhed, or that the de-
{criptions regarded the ordinary people, not the fuperior

ranks

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 177

ranks of life. This laft circumftance feems to be the CHAP.
moft probable ; for many of the later travellers have fallen--~—~
into the fame inaccuracy. ‘They prefent as a portrait of
general cuftoms, what has been drawn from the inferior
ranks, or elfe, confounding every diftinction together,
they exhibit an afflemblage of contradictory circum-
ftances. The few opportunities of affociating familiarly
with perfons of a certain rank in Turkey, renders it dif-
ficult for the moft fcrupulous traveller to avoid miftakes.

Between one and two in the afternoon, the great
men retire into the Harem to take their Siefte, and are
not vifible again till between three and four. It is con-
fidered as a fanctuary into which only the moft urgent
bufinefs dares intrude; and confequently thofe in high
office, often retire to it for refuge*’ from the fatigues of
folicitation. He is in the Harem! is an anfwer fuffici-
ent to filence the moft importunate fuitors.

They fup in the winter about five o’clock, and in the
fummer at fix, making little difference in the fervice be-
tween that meal and dinner. ‘They frequently have
company at fupper, or make familiar vifits after it, but
feldom fit later then ten o’clock: this is meant of peo-
ple of rank, for others fup at home, and are rarely feen
in the ftreet after evening prayer.

At thefe nocturnal aflemblies, they fmoke inceffantly,
drink coffee two or three times, and in the winter are

Peivote XLV.
Vou. I. Aa regaled

178

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

80 0x regaled with Kunafy, or other fweet paftry. Several cir-

“——W cum f{tances render thefe affemblies more entertaining

than thofe of the forenoon; they are not fo often intrud-
ed upon by bufinefs, the company is more fele¢t, the
Sherbet and perfume are omitted, and the air of the
whole is lefs formal.

The Ofmanli, who in general derive little of their
knowledge from hooks, rarely talk on fubjects of a
literary kind. The Ullama in order to difplay their
learning, fometimes furprize the company with fome
marvellous phenomenon in phyfiology, or fome ftriking
hiftorical incident, which they may have collected in the
courfe of their reading: or they will take occafion to
recite a ftanza from their poets, more or lefs appofite to
the fubjeét of difcourfe. This laft expedient is moft
admired ; for when the verfes are happily introduced,
the juftnefs of the allufion, being inftantly felt, is ex-
tremely pleafing : and even where the propriety is not
perceived, the Effendee’s reputation remains tolerably
fecure ; the hearer modeftly diftrufts his own penetra-
tion, applauds what he did not comprehend, and often
af{cribes to a retentive memory, the merit due only to
genius and judgment.

But among perfons whofe principal fchool has been
the world, it is natural for converfation to take a narra-
tive turn. The Ofmanli, who from the loweft rank in
life fometimes rife to the firft offices of the ftate, have

themfelves been actors in fo great a variety of fcenes,

that

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

179

that their own experience fupplies ample matter of en- c HAP.
tertainment. ‘They recal with pleafure the accidents of --~—~

times paft, the difficulties they have encountered, the
dangers they have efcaped, and the contefts in which
they have triumphed. With their own hiftory, they in-
terweave that of their patrons, companions, and compe-
titors: and, as they proceed, interfperfe the reflections of
more mature age, fuggefted by natural good fenfe, un-
tainted by the fophiftry of the fchools. It muft be con-
fefled that their narratives are fometimes tedioufly pro-
lix, but as for the moft part they comprehend matters of
which the relater is well informed, and fuch as an
European can have no opportunity of learning but on
fuch occafions, they often are highly amufing, interefting
and inftructive.

The Turks, though rather referved on political topics,
are by no means filent. They declaim plaufibly on the
decay of religion, the degeneracy of manners, the in-
creafe of luxury, and the corruptions of government :
and, while a cautious refpect is preferved for the actual
adminiftration, that of preceding times is criticifed with
ftrict feverity. But in thefe, as in all {peculative matters
of opinion, concerning which they may happen to differ,
the difpute is conducted on both fides with much tem-
per; and feldom continues longer than till the mafter of
the houfe (if a Grandee) declares his fentiments : a fer-
vile complaifance always leading a majority of the com-
pany over, to whatever opinion he happens to defend.

Aag2 ‘This

180

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Bo ox ‘This in matters of perfonal intereft is not the cafe;
——~— the difpute there grows warm, they talk loud, and con-

tend obftinately.

The change of a grand Vizir occafions no great ftir
among the bulk of the people, who, give themfelves lit-
tle concern about revolutions by which they can be but
remotely affected, though among the Ofmanli, it excites
confiderable commotion. The Governor, by means of
his refident agent *° at Conftantinople, receives the news
by exprefs, in feven or eight days; and the fucceeding
interval of feveral days, before the arrival of further
particulars, is employed, by the politicians, in forming
conjectures about future changes at the Porte, and the
confequent changes in the provinces. ‘The characters
of men in power are often, at fuch times, treated in
converfation, with a degree of freedom, that feems neither
to court favour, nor dread refentment ; which, confidering
that the great men talk thus openly before their attend-
ants, is the more remarkable ; for their inferior officers
frequently change place, as well as the pages, and both
are too often indulged in tattling, when their Aga has
no company. What might rationally be expected, hap-
pens often in fact; the fidelity of thefe domeftics is not
proof againft the temptation of ingratiating themfelves
with a new, at the expence of an old patron; and in-
ftances of implacable quarrels, kindled or fomented in
this manner, are far from being uncommon. It may

** Kapee Kehia. :
juftly

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 18r

juftly feem ftrange that a want of caution fo prejudicial © # A P.
in its confequence, fhould never be reformed. In tranf- -~-~
acting official bufinefs of privacy, a fignal is made for the
attendants to leave the room: the like precaution is
very rarely obferved at the evening affemblies.

It is feldom, among the Ofmanli, that religious fub-
jects are canvaffed in converfation; and though in gene-
ral, when introduced, they are treated with refpedct,
they are fometimes difcuffed with a freedom, bordering
on licentioufnefs. If an Effendee happen to be prefent,
he is either applied to, or of courfe interferes; he talks
learnedly and with much confidence, but his decifions
meet with lefs obfequious fubmiffion than in moft other
companies.

The Turks never talk of their own Harem, except
among intimate friends; but the fex in general is not
an uncommon topic of mixed converfation. The great
men will fometimes divert themfelves at the expence of
fome humble dependant, by affecting to enquire gravely
into domeftic fquabbles, and drawing him to confefs a
timid fubjection to his wives. ‘They rally one another
on going often or feldom to the Bagnio, and occafionally
repeat fome of thofe common-place farcafms on women,
which are found current in every country. But it may
be remarked to their honour, that, in talking of women,
they commonly preferve a decency of expreffion, too of-
ten violated, by nations who pride themfelves on their
more refined and voluptuous civilization. So far at leaft

182 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK is true of genteel company; but as neither the Arabic

+—— nor Turkifh languages are deficient in obfcene words,
individuals may be met with, in every rank of life, who
are lavifh in the ufe of them.

The cuftom of drinking wine, or fpirituous liquors,
is far from being fo common among the Turks at
Aleppo, as it is faid to be at Conftantinople: and, the
Janizaries excepted, is hitherto confined in a great mea-
fure to perfons either of very high, or very low rank;
the middling claffes remaining as yet untainted by a
practice, fo inconfiftent with an exprefs precept given by
Mohammed, in the fourth year of the Hegira. Under
the name of wine was comprehended all inebriating
liquors, and the prohibition is expreffed in more than
one place of the Koran *.

The Turks who are given to drink, do it profeffedly
with an intention of exciting a degree of intoxication, and
therefore commonly prefer brandy to wine, on account
of its producing the effect more f{peedily. For the fame
reafon the whole quantity intended to be drank, is pour-
ed at once into a bowl, and taken off at one or two
draughts: nothing to them appearing more abfurd, than
the European manner of drinking out of {mall glaffes,
and fitting fo long over one or two bottles of wine.

The people of rank who give into the pra¢tice,

™ Kor. cap. ii. p. 25. cap. v. p. 94. Pocock Spec. p. 175. Sale Prelim,
Difcourfe, p. 123.
ufually

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 183

ufually drink privately in the Harem, and attempt, but cu 4p.
in vain, to conceal it from their pages: when a debauch os
is committed in company, it is always at night, and con-
ducted with all poflible fecrecy. The lower people,
however regardlefs they may be of reputation, are ob-

liged alfo to proceed with caution, for they are liable to
punifhment when found drunk. The Janizaries in actual
fervice, drink the moft openly of all; their employment

leads them much among the Chriftians and Jews, and
brandy often proves a more effectual bribe with them

than money.

The cuftom of drinking, efpecially among the Of-
manli, is thought to be on the increafe. It is talked
of among them in general, with lefs abhorrence than
formerly; and, befides the large quantity of French
fpirituous liquors annually imported from Marfeilles, the
diftillery at Aleppo is faid to have confiderably increaf-
ed, of late years. It depends much on the Grandees to
reprefs or promote the progrefs of this vice, by the in-
fluence of their own example. When a Bafhaw, or
other great man, is ftrictly abftemious, his dependants,
or fuch as have bufinefs near his perfon, are afraid to
approach, left their breath fhould betray them; but
where that reftraint is once removed, it is not unufual
to find half his retinue talking as familiarly of Rofolis,
as they do of coffee.

A ftory is told of a certain Sardar of Aleppo, much
addicted to drinking, who ufed to retire to one of the

gardens

184 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

soo xk gardens near town, in order to indulge more luxurioufly
~~ in a Kiofk clofe to the river.

Returning, one fummer’s evening, from a debauch of
this kind, he obferved, as he paffed near the Chriftian
burial ground, a Maronite fitting on a grave ftone, and |
fmoking his pipe, who, as foon as he perceived the Sar-
dar at fome diftance, rofe up, laid down his pipe, and
at the fame time attempted haftily to conceal fomething
in his pocket. This the old Sardar fufpected, and juftly,
to be arrack; therefore, flopping his horfe, he defpatched
one of his attendants to bring the culprit before him.

The Chriftian was not only reproached for drinking
thus publickly, but threatned with inftant punifhment for
having -aggravated the crime, by drinking on a tomb
ftone. Upon his fwearing by the Gofpel that he had
tafted no {trong liquor for a week, orders were given to
fearch his pockets ; but he had taken care no teftimony
fhould appear againft him from that quarter, by dropping
the empty bottle before he was feized. ‘The Sardar
then commanded another of his attendants to try
whether the charge might not be proved from the cri-
minal’s breath. Breathe ye, Giaur, exclaims the Janiza-
ry, breathe full in my face. ‘The trembling culprit at
firft hefitated, but, knowing the confequence of refufal,
was at laft obliged tocomply. ‘I knew very well (faid the
Sardar) I fhould detect this Jew of a damned Chriftian—
¢¢ does he not fmell abominably Muftafa? bring him nearer
¢«* me—Don’t you perceive his breath” Why really, (re-

plies

INTIABIFANTS OF “ALEPPO. 185

plies the half drunk Janizary) “‘ that there is a ftrong c HA P.
«‘ fmell of arrack among us, cannot be doubted, but ~~~
** whether it proceeds from you yourfelf Sir, from me,

‘or from this damned Infidel, may I perifh if I can

“ juftly determine.”

There are fome who regard coffee and tobacco in the
fame light with wine, and, on a principle of confcience,
abftain from both; but, at Aleppo, the number of fuch
is very inconfiderable.

Bb GH Ac

Ghd, Ay P., 7) dW
OF THE MOHAMMEDAN INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES -—-FASTS—BYRAMS —OBSERVANCES AT THE
FEAST AFTER RAMADAN—ABLUTIONS AND PRAYERS—ATTEND-
ANCE AT MOSQUE — MINARETS — PILGRIMAGE — CIRCUMCISION —
ALMS—MONKS—DANCING DERVISES—ITINERANT SHEIHS—IDIOTS,
AND MADMEN—TURKS NOT ZEALOUS IN MAKING CONVERTS —
TOLERATION IN TURKEY—MOHAMMEDANS HOLD ALL OTHER RE-
LIGIONS IN CONTEMPT —EUNUCHS — EXERCISES — THE GIRED—
CHARACTER OF THE TURKS—SLAVERY IN TURKEY —HOSPITALI-
TY—THE TURKS A DOMESTIC PEOPLE—RESIGNATION UNDER MIS-
FORTUNE—NATIVES OF ALEPPO SELDOM TRAVEL.

BOOK In the following fketch of the religious practice of
the Turks, it is not intended to enter into a minute ac-
count of the Mohammedan religion. No more is pro-

ofed than to touch flightly on the feveral pofitive infti-

tutions of the Koran, fo far as they feem to operate on

the external manners of the people. ‘The reader, if de-

frous of a more extenfive knowledge of a religious

fyftem,

INEDABITANT SOF ALEPPO. 187

fyftem, which has overfpread fo large a portion of the CHAP.
globe, may perufe the authors mentioned below '. Leccevagend

The Turks have not any religious inftitution analo-
gous to the Chriftian Lent ; their fafts, like thofe of the
Jews, confifting in abftinence from all fuftenance what-
ever. ‘Their principal faft, is that which changes the
time of eating from day to night, and is of univerfal ob-
ligation; though it may be difpenfed with in cafe of
ficknefs, or other juft impediment, on condition of keep-
ing an equal number of days afterward, when circum-
ftances will permit. It is in general ftricily obferved by
both fexes.

From dawn of morn till fun fet, throughout the month
of Ramadan, they tafte no food, drink no water, and
abftain from tobacco: the more fcrupuloufly devout
will not even fmell a flower. As the time is fuppofed
to be dedicated to retirement and devotion, little bufi-
nefs is tranfacted before noon; and the fhops in the
Bazars are not open till late in the day. The people of
condition keep much within doors, and fuffer principally
from the want of coffee, and tobacco; but perfons who
are under the neceflity of walking about, and.the day
labourers who are expofed to the heats and cold, fuffer
greatly from drought, or hunger. In this laft refpect
the Ramadan, when it happens in winter, falls heavieft

‘ Pocock’s fpecimen.—Reland—Sale’s Preliminary difcourfe—and_ the.
Tableau General de L’Empire Othoman par. M. d’Ohfon. See Note

mV i.
Bb 2 on

188

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

eo © om the poor. ‘The faft of Ramadan happens fucceffively
—~—~ in every feafon of the year, the Turks reckoning by

lunar months, without making an allowance (as the Jews
do) to bring their account to correfpond with the fea-
fons. By this means they lofe near eleven days in every
folar year, and confequently the month of Ramadan an-
ticipates about the fame number of days annually. In
civil affairs, as the letting of farms, or cuftoms, they
reckon by the Greek months, which correfpond to the
Julian Calendar.

During the Ramadan they drink a difh of coffee, or
more commonly a draught of cold water, at fun fet;
and, after prayers, fit down regularly to breakfaft.
There is an interval of between two and three hours
from breakfaft to dinner, and another interval, re-
culated by the feafon of the year, between dinner and
fupper. Watchmen go round the ftreets, and with a
kind of fmall drum?’ give notice of the progrefs of the
night.

The Bazars are lighted up with innumerable lamps ;
the fhops are kept open great part of the night; the
coffee houfes and the Bagnios are not fhut till near day
break ; and, as both Chriftians and Jews conform rea-
dily to this nocturnal revelry, the ftreets are filled with
a mixed concourfe of people. In fhort, the night is
converted into day, and the Turks vifit more frequently

= Dub dub Woy
and

INHABITANTS \OF (ALEPPO. 189

and entertain with greater expence, during that month, © #4 P.
than at any other time of the year. ——

The women fuffer more from reftraint in the Rama-
dan, than the men, as they cannot, like them, walk
about in the night, and, in the day time, are feldomer
than ufual feen in the ftreets.

The faft which, when no lawful impediment inter-
venes, is religioufly obferved by the majority of the
people, is often violated by the debauched foldiery, and
fome of the more licentious Ofmanli: but even they ge-
nerally pay a certain degree of refpect to external de-
cency, and fin in private. Many authors have fhown
with refpect to the tafts, as well as fome other pofitive
Mohammedan precepts, how much has been borrowed
from the Jewifh inftitutions *.

To the Ramadan fucceeds a feaft, or Byram, of three
days continuance, which by many writers has errone-
oufly been called the great feaft. It is announced by
the caftle guns, as foon as a declaration, upon oath, has
been made at the Mahkamy, of the appearance of the
new moon. The perfon who bears this teftimony com-
monly comes from one of the villages, and receives a
prefent of a veft of cloth, in return for his trouble.

Moft of the fhops remain fhut during the three days
of the Byram, and there is a total fufpenfion of bufinefs.
At the gates of the city are erected tumbling wheels,

3 Pocock fpec. p. 308. Sale Prel. Dif. p. 112. and Reland Lib. I. c. xi.
and

190

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK and flying horfes ; ftalls furnifhed with toys and fruit,

L~— are arranged, (as at fairs, in Tneland) in the open
geq, ) 5 p

market places; where rope dancers, wreftlers, jugglers,
and dancing boys, alfo exhibit their refpective perfor-
mances. The wreftlers, after the manner of the ancient
Athletx, anoint their bodies and limbs with oil. They
wear only a pair of thin drawers, being from the waift
upward, perfectly naked. They ftrut valiantly about,
before the engagement, clapping their hands, with a
hundred other threatning geftures, but make a forry
figure when they come to wreftle.

The jugglers are more expert in tiieir way. They
are attended by a boy who performs the part of a merry
Andrew, and ferves, at intervals, to divert the fpeétators.
They have no table, but fit on the ground, without an
apron, and with their arms naked to the elbow. They
are dexterous in the management of cups and balls, and
perform feveral tricks with live fnakes. Mufic at the
fame time is heard on all hands; every perfon appears in
new clothes ; and the ftreets are tnufually crowded by
multitudes of both fexes, fauntering from place to place:

The great men fit m ftate, at home, to receive vifits,
moft part of the firft day ; and the Chriftians and Jews
make their court at fuch times, as well as the Turks.
Vifitors of a certam rank, after paying their compli-
ments, are defired to fit down, and are entertained: with
coffee and Sherbet: inferior dependants do not fit in
prefence of their patron, but, after kiffing his hand, or

the

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. IQ

the fleeve cf his robe, retire to the outer apartment, CH AP.
where they drink coffee. The ordinary compliment --~—~
confifts in wifhing a happy feaft, ‘‘ Aid embarak,” and

that the perfon may be found well at every annual re-

turn of it. “The Turks falute one another in the ftreet

in this manner, and, if more intimate, they embrace,

the one laying his chin on the neck of the other +.

On the fubfequent days, the Grandees vifit one an-
other, and appear abroad in all the fplendor their condi-
tion can afford: their retinue being new clothed, and
their horfes fumptuoufly dretfed. The court at the Se-
raglio remains all the time in Gala; and fireworks are
exhibited every night, for the entertainment of the po-
pulace.

The Agas of the town, during thefe three days, keep
in a manner open houfe. They make prefents to their
Vaflals, and diftribute victuals and money to the poor.
The Turks of all denominations are more particularly
bound to the exercife of liberality, at this feftive feafon.

The women on their part have alfo a great detail of
ceremonial bufinefs. “The Harems whofe females are
related, fend compliments of congratulation, vifit reci-
procally, and interchange prefents to the children.

Two months and ten days after the Ramadan, another

* On the fubje& of Eaftern falutations the reader may find fome enter-
taining remarks in Harmer, Vol. ii. p. 31—55. See alfo Lowth’s notes on
Tfaiah, p. 226.

feaft

192 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BO OK feaft, called the feaft of facrifice, is celebrated. This alfo

“—-— lafts three days, beginning the tenth of the month Dul-
hagi, it being the day on which the Mecca pilgrims flay
the victims, in the valley of Mina. On the firft day of
this feaft, early in the morning, feveral fheep are flain at
the Seraglio gate, as well as at the houfes of fome of the
other Grandees, and the flefh diftributed among the
populace. For a week preceding the feaft, the children
may be feen leading lambs about the ftreets, intended
for victims, at private houfes.

But the facrifice is not univerfally performed; it pro-
perly belongs to Mecca, and is confidered as one of the
moft folemn rites of the pilgrimage. In other places, it
makes lefs impreflion on the vulgar, and the feaft itfelf,
which in reality is the great Byram, requires lefs pre-
paration. ‘The people are already provided with holy-
day clothes, and the changes in the great offices, which
are annually made after the Ramadan, having already
taken place, this Byram is expected with lefs impatience,
and celebrated in a lefs {plendid manner than the little feaft-
The Turks, at Aleppo, never term the feaft fucceeding
Ramadan, the great feaft, but either Aid il izreer, the
little feaft; or Aid il fitre, the feaft of breaking the
faft: nor do they ever call the fecond feaft by any other
name than the great feaft, Aid il kebeer; or feaft of
facrifice, Aid il korban. At the fame time it fhould be
remarked, that when they talk of the feaft fimply, with-

out

INHBABIPAN TS) ORS AREPPO. 193

out any epithet, the feaft immediately fucceeding Rama- c HAP.

dan is commonly underftood °. —~—
Befides keeping the faft of Ramadan, the Turks, of

both fexes, impofe upon themfelves certain voluntary

fafts®. But that fpecies of devotion is far from being

common; extraordinary aufterity is inconfiftent with

the genius of their religion, and is indeed difcouraged

by the Koran ’.

The Turks, in general, may be reckoned a cleanly peo-
ple; which is in fome meafure owing to the pofitive ordi-
nance of ablution before prayer. “They are commanded
to pray five times in the twenty-four hours, at certain
fixed periods*; and, if prevented by intervening acci-

> Note XLVII.

6 Note XLVIII.

7 See Koran, c. 5. p. 94. and Sales note upon the paflage. « Certain of
«« Mohanimed’s companions having agreed to oblige themfelves to continual
« fafting, watching, &c. in imitation of fome felf denying Chriftians,” the
Prophet difapproved of it, declaring that he would have no Monks in his
religion.

* The times fpecified are as follow,

Day-break Sulwat al Subh Aa)! 3 gh

Noon al Dohre .25)|
Afternoon al Afre pau |

Sun fet al Mugreb W.s4J|
Evening al Afhee asl

Afre, according to the common opinion, is the middle time between noon
and evening prayer ; but the juft mode of calculation, as I have been told, is
to allow juft as much time after noon prayer, as half the time that elapfes
between morning prayer and noon.

Pot. 1. Ce dents,

194

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK dents, they are obliged to make up for. the omiffions
.—— afterwards, by repeating the prayers an equal number

of trmes. The ordinary preparation for prayer, confifts
in wafhing the face, hands, and feet, and is termed
Wodou; but, on certain occafions, it is requifite to
wath the whole body, and for that purpofe they muft go
to the Bagnio, where the ablution is performed, not al-
ways by immerfion, but in the manner formerly defcrib-
ed. In performing the Wodou, people of condition do
not conftantly take off their Shahkfhoor, but, inftead of
pouring water on the naked feet, content themfelves
with flightly touching their Meft two or three times,
with their wet fingers: the common people, who do not
wear Shahkfhoor, or wear them not fewed to the meft,
always wath their feet. “The Mohammedan purification
is, by their Doctors, expiained in fuch a manner as fhows
it far from being confidered as a mere external rite. It
is termed Tahara, and is fpoken of by them in terms of
high refpect ?.

It is not only the religious ablutions which oblige the
Turks to fuch frequent application of water; they wafh
before and after meals; carry an ewer always with them
to the privy, and go often to the Bagnio from choice, as
well as from neceffity. They pray with much apparent
devotion, partly ftanding, partly kneeling, and perform
alfo feveral proftrations, f{ometimes touching the ground

7 oce page 130.
* Pocock fpecimen, p. 302. Note XLIX.
with

INHABITANTS “OF -“ALEPPO. 1Q5

with the forehead '*. When they pray at home, they © 14 P.
ufually lay afide the large Fur, retaining only a Jubbe ; —~—~
and the Effendees fometimes change their large “Turban
for a lighter one. A fmall narrow carpet (referved for
that purpofe) is fpread on the Divan, and they conftantly
turn the face to the Kebla, that is, towards the temple
of Mecca".

Befides the prayers enjoined by the Koran, which are
confidered as of divine inftitution, the Sonna has dire¢ct-
ed occafional prayers for rain, deliverance from public
calamities, &c. and others are appropriated to the By-
rams, and funerals. By Sonna’? (as already mentioned),
is underftood the acts and fayings of the prophet, not
contained in the Koran, but preferved firft by tradition,
and afterwards committed to writing.

The Turks go twice or thrice a day to Mofque, at
noon, Afre, and fun fet; but noon is the principal
hour: at other times they pray wherever they happen to
be, when the criers call from the Minarets. It is com-
mon to fee them at prayers in their fhops, and if any
perfon has immediate occafion to afk a queftion, they
will anfwer by a fign, without appearing to be difcon-
certed, but they do not willingly fpeak.

On certain occafions, the Bafhaw goes to Mofque, in

Note L.
™ Note LI.
» See Pocock f{pecimen, p. 298. Sale p. 171. Herbelot p. 827. and
Note LIT.
(eg ftate.

196

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BO Ox ftate. The Bazars through which he rides are lighted
“—~— up, and he is attended by his officers on horfeback, but

all difmount at the court gate. Other perfons of con-
dition, for the moft part walk thither, and for that reafon
ufually prefer the neareft Mofque. When they do not
go themfelves, their domeftics do; or elfe an Imam
{ays prayers at home, at which the Aga, with his officers
and pages, aflifts. The Imam, in the fame manner as
in the Mofque, conducts the whole, pronouncing part
of the fervice aloud, and performing the feveral pro-
{trations, in which he is accompanied by the affembly,
in fuch exaét time that the whole move at once. When
a perfon prays fingly at home, his devotion does not in-
terrupt thofe who happen to be fitting with him at the
time, nor does converfation ceafe on his account; but
where the company is numerous, or affembled on par-
ticular bufinefs, in that cafe he, either retires to a differ-
ent chamber, or defers his prayers till another time.

A regard to the external forms of devotion, is, among
the Turks, a political as well as religious obligation ;
the neglect, or affected contempt of them, implies neither
wit nor fuperior underftanding. Hence public decorum
is generally preferved; and though religious, as well
as moral precepts may be too often violated in practice,
they are always fpoken of with refpect, while an at-
tempt to turn either into ridicule, would be deemed ill
breeding.

Friday

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

"OF

Friday "3 is the day of the week more efpecially dedi- ¢ HAP.
cated to religious worfhip, but is obferved lefs rigor- —-—~

oufly than the fabbath of the Chriftians, and Jews; for
moft of the fhops are kept open, except for one hour
about noon, and the people, after divine fervice, return
to their ordinary occupations. Some of the fcrupulous
merchants do not, on that day, tranfact bufinefs them-
felves, though they permit it to be done by their fervants.

It is fuficiently known, that the ufe of large bells is
abfolutely profcribed in Turkey. The people are fum-
moned to prayers by certain cryers, who at the ftated
times afcend the gallery of the Minaret, and thence,
ina very loud voice, chant certain verfes, as a fignal.
Thefe cryers are called Maazeen, and, though for that
purpofe attached to particular Mofques, they are not
always of the Ecclefiaftic order, but are often chofen on
account of their voice, and, having very trifling pay,
purfue their refpective trades. Each Mofque has ufually
one who officiates, and, who walking flowly round the
gallery, directs his voice to all quarters. The Great
Mofque has three or four who perform at the fame time.
Al Walid, who fucceded to the Khalifat the 86th year of
the Hegira, is faid to be the firft who built, or joined
Minarets to the Mofques '*.

*> Yom al Giumah aac | See Pocock {pecimen, p. 317. Reland p. 97.

* Herbelot, p. go7. On this fubje& fee Reland, p. 93. Note LIII.

The fummons to prayer is termed Adan or Azan WII, and the Mi-
naret itfelf Maazineh, dj jle, ufually pronounced Maadaneh ; but it is alfo
called Minareh o li,

The

198 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Book The fabbath, agreeably to the manner of reckoning

~—in the aft, commences on the Thurfday night, when
the Minarets of all the Mofques are illuminated, by fe-
veral rows of lamps bung round the gallery: the colon-
nade alfo of the Mofque is illuminated. On the Friday,
half an hour after eleven in the forenoon, the criers begin
to chant from the Minarets, and their number on that
day is ufually increafed. At noon every one repairs to
the Mofque, where a fervice peculiar to the day is per-
formed, and fometimes a fermon is preached by the
Imam.

It is not on the Thurfday nights only that the Mina-
rets are illuminated. They are lighted up every night
throughout the month of Ramadan, at both Byrams, at
other inferior feafts, and on occafional rejoicings on the
birth of princes.

Befides thefe general illuminations, it is cuftomary for
private perfons, on receiving good news from abfent re-
lations, or on their return from a long journey, to caufe
fome particular Minaret to be lighted up at their own
expence, and to engage a band of five or fix Maazeen, to
fing from the gallery. The neareft Mofque is chofen
for this purpofe, and the band, afcending as foon as it is
dark, continue to fing inceffantly two or three hours.
Intermixed with prayers and hymns, the fafhionable
coffee houfe airs and chorufes are performed, and from
that diftance are heard to advantage. At the fame time
the women affembled in the houfe, rejoice in their man-

rer?

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 199

ner; they have inftrumental mufic, and, at intervals, ° #4 ?-
refpond to the chorus, from the Minaret, by a loud-~—~
Zilareet. The Maazeen finifh at Afhee, (evening
prayer) but the women continue finging and feafting till
midnight. At the time when intelligence arrives from

the Mecca caravan, and when the pilgrims return home,

the whole city refounds with this noify merriment.

The number of pilgrims who go from Aleppo to
Mecca, is faid to be much lefs confiderable now, than
formerly. This probably is owing partly to the decay-
ing fpirit of Mohammedifm, but more to the decline of
the trade with Mecca; for it was ufual with the mer-
chants, formerly, to make the journey feveral times in
their life, and the caravans were wont to come back,
Jaden with Indian and Arabian, merchandife. It may
be remarked that permiffion to trade during the pil-
grimage, is granted by the Koran".

Befides ithe natives of Aleppo who go to Mecca,
numbers from Perfia and the Northern Provinces, affem-
ble at that city, in their way to Damafcus, which is the
grand rendezvous for the Afiatic pilgrims. The cara-
van fets out for Damafcus immediately after the leffer
Byram, from whence, after the junGtion of the caravans
from other towns, it proceeds under the conduét of the
Bafhaw of Damafcus, who has always (at leaft for many

» Cap. th ps 23.
years

RES OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK years paft) been appointed Emeer-Hadge, or conductor,
“———’ and commander of the pilgrims.

When the caravan fets out from Aleppo, it is con-
voyed for a few miles, by the Governor and Grandees,
in proceffion °; and, many of the pilgrims being ac-
companied {till further on their way, by their women
and kinfmen, all is incommotion on the Damafcus road,
for feveral days after the Byram. ‘The caravan, after it
leaves Damafcus, is generally proteéted from hoftile in-
terruption on its march, in confequence of treaties made
by the Bafhaw of Damafcus, with the Defert Arabs ;
but it is liable fometimes to fuffer from a fcarcity of
water, when inteftine broils among the Arabs them-
felves, oblige it, in order to avoid falling in with the
contending tribes, to fteer an unufual courfe in the De-
fert. That the fafety of the caravan depends more on
the friendly difpofition of the Arabs, than its own power
of refiftence, is fufficiently evident from a memorable
inftance of its being attacked and plundered, in the year
1757; which has been mentioned by Sir James Porter,
at that time Embaflador at the Porte. It occafioned
great alarm at Conftantinople, and proved the ruin of an
old Bafhaw, who had been ten or twelve years fuccef-
fively, Emeer-Hadge; and whofe perfon, on that ac-
count, was by the vulgar conceived to be facred’’.

‘* & defcription of this proceftion may be feen in the 6th. Volume p. 182.
of the Memoirs of the Miffions. But the defcription there rather regards
the departure of the caravan from Damafcus, than from Aleppo.

““Wote LIV.
Perfons

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 201

Perfons of either fex who have performed the pil- CH AP.
grimage have a right to the title of Hadgy"*, and in--—~
writings, or on other formal occafions, it is ufually pro-
fixed to their name; but, a few of the merchants ex-
cepted, it is feldom given in common difcourfe to per-
fons above the middle rank. It is a miftaken notion,
that the Hadgies, by peculiar grace, are exempt from
capital punifhment: they remain in all cafes equally
fubject to the laws with other Moflems; and, even in
the Mecca caravan when on its march, criminals, after
condemnation by the Cady, who accompanies the cara-
van, are capitally punifhed.

The Hadge'’, or pilgrimage, was inftituted in the
fixth year of the Hegira; but the vifitation of the Caba,
or holy houfe at Mecca, as well as feveral other rites
{till performed there, were ancient Arabian cuftoms, long
before Mohammed’s time, and only, with fome altera-
tion, adopted by him. A particular defcription of the
temple of Mecca, and the ceremonies performed by the
pilgrims, have been given by various authors *°.

18 sla

'? al Hadge Ax | |

Koran, c. il. p. 23. (Pocock fpecimen, p. 175. and 310.) Reland, p.
113. Sale Difcourfe, p. 114.

Galland—and M. D’Ohffon.

A print of the temple of Mecca given by M. Niebuhr (Defcrip. Arab.
p. 310.) differs in feveral refpeéts from the prints given by Reland and Sale;
and that of M. D’Ohffon differs from all.

VoL. I. Dd The

202 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

soox The pilgrimage is omitted by very few who can
“——~ afford the expence of the journey. Many of the in-
ferior clafs, find their way in the quality of menial fer-
vants, or by exercifing fuch trades as can be of fervice
in the caravan: for which reafon barbers are commonly
Hadgies, and the journey furnifhes an inexhauftible fund
of future hiftory, for the benefit of their cuftomers. A
great many of the women perform the pilgrimage, but

not in proportion to the men.

The boys are circumcifed between the age of fix
and ten, fometimes later, but very feldom earlier. From
that period, their heads are fhaved, and they affume the
Turban, inftead of the handkerchief which they wore dur-
ing infancy. The ceremony is performed at the father’s
houfe, where noify rejoicings are made for feveral days.
The boy receives prefents from his kindred, as well as
from others who have been invited to the feaft. He is
dreffed in new clothes, his Turban is decked with flow-
ers and tinfel, and, for five or fix days, he wears a kind
of large filk apron faftened upon one fhoulder, as a badge
of the operation he has undergone. In this drefs he is
led on horfeback, in proceflion through the ftreets, pre-
ceded by the caftle mufic, and feveral men armed with
{cimitars and fhields. A number of female relations, clofe
the proceffion, and, after every {top made for the mock
champions to combat, the women fhout in their ufual
manner, while the men huzza. It is cuftomary for peo-

ple

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 203

ple of condition, to have two or three of their depend- ¢ H A P.
ant’s children circumcifed at the fame time, which adds thy ade
to the pomp of the cavalcade. Circumcifion was a
practice of very ancient date in Arabia, and, though not
mentioned in the Koran, is univerfally practifed by the
Mohammedans. There is a tradition that the prophet
declared it to be a neceffary rite for men, and for wo-

men honorable ”'.

To beftow alms, is an effential obligation in the Mo-
hammedan inftitution ; and, though the precepts on that
head contained in the Koran, are not obeyed in their
full extent, (a change of circumftances having rendered
fome of them unneceffary) the Turks may with juftice
be reckoned a charitable people *. The Mofques, and
numerous fountains within the city ; the caravanfaries,
the bridges, the fountains by the road fide, are for the
moft part public inftances of a benevolent fpirit. ‘The
provifion of caravanfaries for the indifcriminate reception
of paffengers, was one of the inftances of Mohammedan
liberality, which often made an impreffion upon the early
travellers. Villamont (fpeaking of a certain caravanfary )
obferves that Chrifuans meet with the fame reception as
Mohammedans ; Turkifh charity, extending to all per-
fons, without regard to religious diftinGtions *.

“ Reland, p. 121. 71. and 268. Poc. Sp. 31g. Note LV.
frarecw Vi.

** Voyages, p. 572.
Dd2z But

204
BOOK
eee

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

But a teftimony lefs equivocal than thofe monuments,
which fometimes owe their exiftence to human vanity,
is the fmall number of beggars to be feen, though no
police interpofes to prevent their appearance in the
ftreets, and no tax is levied on the inhabitants for the
fupport of the poor. ‘There are alms houfes adjoining
to fome of the Mofques, intended for the reception of
holy men; but there are no work houfes provided for
ordinary beggars; fo that fuch as happen not to have
kindred, become folely dependent on the charity of
ftrangers, and are forced into the public ftreets. “Turks
of this clafs may be obferved, about fupper time, wait-
ing at the outer doors, and imploring food in certain
holy rhymes, which they chant in a doleful tone,
through the key hole. Some of more decent appearance,
who at other times are not diftinguifhable, may be feen
at the houfes of the Grandees, on the Fridays, waiting
in filence, with an expreflive air of humble patience.
On that day alfo, the avenues of the Seraglios and prin-
cipal Mofques, are befet by files of clamorous beggars,
who feem as if confcious of a right to demand alms ;
and few perfons pafs without beftowing fomething.

It is faid that if alms be regularly beftowed for fome-
time, the perfon receiving them acquires a right of claim-
ing the continuance of the charity, and that decifions of
this kind have been made at the Mahkamy. ‘The matter
is in all probability very feldom litigated, and the Cady
would moft likely recommend an accommodation. An

inftance

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 205

inftance to this purpofe was given me by the Mufti of c HAP.
Aleppo, in anfwer to my queftion, how far a perfon ——~
could be obliged to continue a penfion he had for fome-

time given voluntarily. .

The Mufti in his way to a certain Mofque, which he
ufed to frequent every Friday, obferved, among the
other beggars, a very old, infirm, blind man; and, com-
pelled by a fudden impulfe of compaffion, he beftowed
a Para, or fmall filver coin, inftead of the copper coin
he ufually gave to the others. ‘This penfion was con-
tinued weekly for above two years, during which time
the Mufti often wondered within himfelf, how the old
man came to hold out fo long, and ingenuoufly confeffed
that he had now and then been difpofed to repent hay-
ing exceeded the ordinary bounds of his charity, though
he had not refolution fufficient to conteft the power of
retrenching it. At length he perceived, one day, that
another beggar had taken poffeflion of the old man’s poft;
a perfon not only younger by feveral years, but who
retained the fight of one eye. ‘I could not (continued
“the Mufti) help feeling fome concern at firft, for the
‘< lofs of my old friend, whom I conceived to be dead,
*‘ but I feon confoled myfelf with the reflection of being
‘* now able, at equal expence, to gratify feveral fuppli-
‘* cants, inftead of one. Upon prefenting a copper coin,
*< or Filfs, to the new beggar, I was furprized to find him
‘“< feize the rein on one fide, and, in fpight of all that I

‘* and my pages could fay, to infift on {topping my horfe.
“« Pray

206

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK ‘¢ Pray friend what means all this violence ? Look ye
-——~ “ Sir (replied the beggar) God is juft! I have hired this

“¢ {tation of the blind Sheih, who is unable to come more
‘‘ abroad, we reckoned you fairly at one Para, and by
‘the Almighty! You fhall pay me. It was in vain
‘* (concluded the Mufti) that l urged the difadvantage on
‘« his fide of poffefling one eye, and being « younger man
‘¢ than the Sheih; the moft I could obtain was a kind of
‘‘ half promife, that, when he fhould come to be dif-
“¢ abled, he would not fell me to his fuccedffor.”

Money is diftributed at funerals, and fome of the
merchants, at certain times, diftribute bread at their
Khane gate: on all which occafions, the Chriftian beg-
gars, who make up a confiderable fhare of thofe who
infeft the ftreets, aflemble with the others.

But the number who make their appearance thus
publicly, is ftill {mall in proportion to the extent of the
city. ‘The only exception to this is in times of dearth,
when the ftreets become crowded with thofe real ob-
jets of charity, who, content with the plaineft fufte-
nance, fupport themfelves by manual labour, and never
have recourfe to the public, till compelled by necefiity.
For this reafon a dearth is particularly dreadful at
Aleppo; fuch numbers of the induftrious poor being
thrown out of employment, the refources of charity fali
far fhort, though the Turks, in proportion to. their cir-
cumftances, in general beftow liberally. To add to the
calamity, the bread fold in the Bazar at fuch times, is

often

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 207

often of bad quality; for the grain, which may perhaps ¢ HA P.
have been hoarded for many years, is then produced —~—~
from the pits where it lay buried, and when, in this

half putrid ftate, diftributed among the lower people,

it feldom fails to occafion fome epidemical diftemper.
Dearths are fometimes the confequence of wicked com-
binations, and occafion moft dangerous infurre¢tions ; of
which an inftance will be given hereafter.

It has been already remarked, that the fpirit of the
Mohammedan religion is not favourable to the monaftic
life. Inftitutions of that kind began to be introduced in
the third or fourth century of the Hegira, and, though
increafed, are not numerous”. A. convent, named
Sheih abu Becker ftands pleafantly fituated on an emi-
nence, within half a mile of the northern fuburbs. Eight
or ten Dervifes live very comfortably there, and their
fuperior is treated in town with great refpect. The
Bafhaws who die at Aleppo, are ufually buried within
the walls of this convent. On the weft fide of the
town, near the river, there is a fmaller convent belong-
ing to the Moulewi or dancing Dervifes **. “They exhi-
bit publicly one day of the week, and women are per-
mitted to be fpectators.

** Some place the origin of the Sophi much earlier. Note LVII.

*s Moulewi CC. e)gno

The dancing Dervifes have been defcribed by a number of travellers, and
very good drawings given of them. Note LVIII.

Thefe

208 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

nook Lhefe two are the only Mohammedan convents at
roa Aleppo; but a number of Sheihs, or holy men, are dif-
perfed within the city, who are not diftinguifhed by a
particular habit, but wear the ordinary drefs of the
Ullama**. They pafs much of their time in reading,
and are {trict obfervers of external rites. They are
well received at the houfes of rank, and reverenced by
the vulgar, who prefs forward to kifs their hand, as they

pafs through the ftreets.

The title of Sheih is given alfo to fchool mafters, to
copyifts or fcribes, and to the Maazeen, or others at-
tached to the fervice of the Mofques, all which together
compofe a numerous body +.

To the religious Sheihs, thofe itinerant Monks belong
who wander from town to town, dreft fantaftically in
rags, a rude Turban on their head, their hair hanging
down to the neck, a dried bottle-gourd flung acrofs their
fhoulder, and who carry in their hands a kind of halberd,
trimmed with fhreds of cloth of diverfe colours. They
profefs poverty, and impofe on the fuperftitious vulgar,
by a pretence to extraordinary fanctity, and fometimes
by boafting of fupernatural endowments. As it often
happens that the moft flagitious wretches conceal them-
felves under this difguife, the whole brotherhood lve
under general fufpicion: fome few, who are betes
known, find accefs to the great, and are well received

26 Tearned men.

+ Page roi.

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

2c9g

by the populace. By the former they are treated with c Har.
outward refpect, though not efteemed in reality, by the ——~

latter they are fometimes led in proceffion through the
ftreets, mounted upon a mule, or an afs, preceded by
mufic, and followed by a mixed multitude of both fexes,
of the lower clafs. ‘The found of the tympanum, to-
gether with the wild fhouts of the rabble, give thefe
pageants a refemblance to the orgies of Bacchus *’.
Another kind of holy Sheihs, known to the Franks
by the name of Barking Sheihs, are in fomewhat better
repute among the middle rank of people, and refide
conftantly at Aleppo. They are often heard in a ftill
evening, from different parts of the town, and may be
feen fometimes at the gardens, performing their rites in
the open air. They do not perform alone, like the
Dervifes, but may be joined by any Mo‘lem who has
previoufly prepared himfelf by ablution. The Sheih,
placed in the centre of a circle, confifting perhaps of
twenty perfons, begins the fervice by chanting a prayer,
while all the reft remain in an attitude of devout atten-
tion. He then repeats the words Ullah hu! Ullah hu!
accompanying them with a flow movement of the body
backward and forward, the whole circle at the fame time
following his example. After a fhort while, moving

the body more quickly, they drop the word Ullah! and

“ Wote LIX.
VoL. I. Ee con-

210

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

8o0ox continue inceffantly to repeat the word hu! This cere-
paced mony lafts near an hour, the Sheih all the while bark-

ing like the others, and from time to time turning
flowly, fo as to front the circle fucceffively. His
countenance appears ftrangely agitated, and he at length
fits down as if quite exhaufted by the exercife. It is
juftly remarked by Chifhul “that as they grow hoarfer
‘Cand weaker, both their found and action refemble the
‘¢ barking and fnarling of dogs.” M. du Loir compares
the found they utter, when nearly {pent by fatigue, to the
howling or bellowing of an expiring beaft which has been
knocked down”. This order of Sheihs is defcribed
under different names by different authors. They are
called Santons by Du Loir; but by Porter and others,
Kadrie 79. The dance of the dervifes affords a much
more amufing fpectacle than this ftrange mixture of
fanatacifm and indecency; for of thofe who compofe
the circle, there are always fome who appear, from their
demeanour, to have joined merely in fport.

Thefe fanaticks, as well as the itinerant Sheihs, are
equally reprobated by moft of the fenfible Turks, who
affert that the Koran does not countenance fuch extra-
vagancies. But while they give this fuffrage in favour
of common fenfe, they exhibit an inftance of fuperftition

* Chithul’s Travels, p. 2. Du Loir, p. 158.
* Note LX.

not

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. OT1

not lefs abfurd, in the veneration paid to idiots, and ¢ HAP.
harmlefs madmen °°. KH

The power of invifible fpirits over the human frame,
a notion of fuch ancient date in the Eaft, is {till uni-
verfally received ; and, in various difeafes, recourfe is
had to exorcifm, as often as to medicine. Infane perfons
are not however all treated alike. The furious madman
is kept in chains, and configned to the care of doors,
or exorcifts; mere drivellers are kept within doors, or,
become the fport of idle boys in the ftreet; whilft thofe
who are but flightly difordered in mind, and who are guilty
of no alarming excefles, are always ufed with the moft
compaffionate tendernefs; and if, happening to take a
religious turn, they are capable of prayer, or can occafi-
onally repeat fome fentences of the Koran, they are then
confidered as perfons divinely infpired, and fometimes
admitted, in tattered garments, with their limbs naked,
to fit down familiarly with people of the firft rank, and
even allowed to kifs their cheek.

The infpired Sheihs are fometimes alfo confulted as
phyficians, and return advice truely oracular. It is di-
verting to obferve men, in other refpects of ftrong plain
fenfe, make ferious exertions to unravel the incoherent
wanderings of a madman.

*° Maginoon (ysis, is the term applied to perfons infane, by which is
underftood a madman, or one poffefled whether by a good or evil fpirit. See
Herbelot, p. 432.

Ee2 Of

212 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK Of this, the following inftance may ferve as an ex-
“—~—~ ample. While I fat one morning with an eminent
merchant, who had long fuffered from a rheumatic com-
plaint of the fhoulder, and had unfuccefsfully applied a
variety of remedies, he was told by a friend who came
to vifit him, that meeting in the ftreet with a famous
holy madman, he took the opportunity of afking the
Sheih’s advice in this fingular cafe, which had baffled
the doctors; and received for anfwer that ‘ the beft re-
‘“medy was oil from the grocers.’ ‘The company pre-
fent immediately approved of applying the oil, but a
doubt arifing what particular oil was meant, amid the
variety to be found at the grocer’s fhop, a difcuflion moft
ridiculoufly ferious enfued, whether the experiment
might not fafely be made with feveral forts. A page,
in the mean while, was defpatched to obtain a clearer
revelation, and foon returned. ‘The Sheih at firft feem-
ed to liften to the meflenger with much attention, look-
ed him fteadfaftly in the face, but remained filent, and
then, turning away from him, began to mutter to the
wall with which he had been converfing when the page
came up with him. Upon the meffenger preffing for
an anfwer to carry back to his mafter, the Sheih fell into
a violent paflion, gave him abufive language, and continu-
ed to curfe the page as long as he remained in fight. An-
other fervant was then fent to the grocer’s fhop, to afk
fimply for oil, in the precife words of the Sheih, and to
take the firft that fhould be offered. The oil was im-
mediately

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 213

mediately applied, but the pain, as ufual, becoming CHAP.
worfe at night, the failure in the cure was afcribed to--~—~
not having properly underftood the oracle.

Whatever may be the fpeculative opinions entertained
by the Turks, they do not appear, at leaft in Syria, much
folicitous about making profelytes **; and fhow little re-
{pect for thofe who abandon the faith in which they were
brought up. Indeed the adult converts, are, for the
moft part, wretched Chriftians or Jews, whom crimes,
or the preffure of fome urgent diftrefs, have forced to
apoftacy for refuge. The wife of a convert, and fuch
of the children as have arrived at the years of difcretion,
remain in the houfe, and are permitted to profefs their
primitive religion, without moleftation: and when a
Turk marries a Chriftian, or jewifh woman, fhe is
under no obligation to adopt the faith of her hufband.
I have known feveral inftances where the Chriftian
wives of Turks, have not only continued regularly to
attend church, but their priefts alfo had liberty to vifit
them at home.

In converfation on religious fubje¢éts, the Mohamme-
dans are very apt to charge chriftianity with idolatry,
and a tendency towards polytheifm *; and, though they

* Tt is faid that the Mohammedans are enjoined to prefs, at leaft three
times, all thofe of any other perfuafion to embrace Mohammedanifm. See
Note LXI.

* This charge is frequently repeated in the Koran. Note LXII.

readily

214 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

300k readily grant many things to be poflible with God, far

“above the comprehenfion of finite intelligence, it would
be difficult for. the moft fubtile Miffionary on earth, to
give them fuch a notion of the hypoftatical union, as
would gain their affent to its being a facred myftery.
They, on feveral accounts, hold the Jews in great con-
tempt ; but at the fame time hold the Jewifh notion of
the fupreme Being, to be more pure than that enter-
tained by the Chriftians %.

Notwithftanding the contemptuous light in which the
Turks view all other religions, they permit liberty of
confcience in their dominions, and tolerate the public
exercife of the Chriftian and Jewifh religions, with their
refpective rites and ceremonies. The different Monks
drefs in their refpective habits, go freely about their
functions, and, at funeral proceffions, elevate the crofs,
the moment they get without the city gate. It is af
ferted by De la Motray, who had been fourteen years
in Turkey, and refided long at Conftantinople, that the
exercife of all religions is no where more free, or lefs
difturbed, than in Turkey *+. The fame remark has
been made by M. de la Croix %.

The haughty fuperiority, which Mohammedanifm
leads its profeffors to affume over all who are of another

*> Note LXIII.
* ‘Travels, Volt. pavoe,
* Memoires, Letter ili. p. 176.
religion,

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

215

religion, is obferved to increafe among the people, in c HAP.
proportion to the vicinity of their fituation to Mecca; —~~

thofe of Conftantinople and Smyrna, fhow it in a lefs
degree, than thofe of Aleppo: yet even there, it has of
late years fo much declined, that feveral Bafhaws and
other great men, have conferred publick honours on the
Franks, and treated them with fuch diftinguifhed regard
and familiarity, as would in former times have occafion-
ed much popular difcontent *°. But ftill a contempt for
Infidels, of every denomination, actually fubfifts, and is
not likely to ceafe among the vulgar; though many of
the Ullama, of the merchants who have travelled, and of
the inferior clafs of Ofmanli, have in fome degree got
the better of fuch narrow prejudices.

The recollection of times long paft, may probably
join with fuperftition and other caufes, in keeping up
that hereditary rancour, which the Turks are faid to
bear towards the Franks. ‘The barbarous cruelties ex-
ercifed by both fides during the Crufades, recorded in
hiftory, handed down by tradition, and preferved in the
mouldering monuments of ancient hoftilities which yet
remain, may be allowed to have fome influence. Pre-

*° The author himfelf was an inftance of what is afferted above. The
manne in which he was diftinguifhed by Ifmael Bafhaw, who refided feve-
ral years at Aleppo, raifed him to a degree of eminence in the city, that re-
quired no uncommon fhare of prudence to fupport with fuch dignity and
temperance, as to avoid the envy naturally excited among a bigotted people,
when they fee honours conferred on ftrangers fuppofed to be enemies of
their faith.

judices

216 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Bo 0X judices of a fimilar kind ftill fubfift in fome inland towns
“-~— of Europe, which have been long at peace with the
Turks, and have no caufe to complain of frefh provoca-
tion. But with refpect to Syria, the maritime depreda-
tions of the Maltefe, Sardinian, and other Chriftian cruif-
ers, have a greater fhare in fupporting the popular aver-
fion to the Franks, than the later wars with Germany
and Ruffia, which have little efteét on the £yrian Pro-
vinces, further than diftrefling them by the depredations
of their own diforderly troops, on their march to camp.
An averfion to the Franks, as enemies of the true
believers, is certainly not imaginary. I have remarked
it not only among perfons unconcerned in commerce,
but alfo among the women and children of fuch as de-
pend on it, who, in my prefence, would unwarily drop
expreflions, which fufhiciently indicated the notion they
entertained of the Franks. It is true they always on
recollection made an apology, and would check the
children, who knew not that they were talking before one
of thofe who had been painted to them in fuch terrible
colours. The commercial Turks, and others depend-
ent on, or connected with the Europeans, conceal this
difpofition, and many of them, in the courfe of familiar
acquaintance, and interchange of good offices, get the
better of it.
In the mean time the Franks at Aleppo, enjoy full
protection. They are treated with complaifance by the
Grandees, and the number of Turks, whether civilized

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 217

by commerce, or induced by motives of intereft to affect c HAP.
civility, is confiderable. —e

The condition of flaves3” in Turkey, is different from
what is commonly imagined in Europe. Moft of them
are purchafed when young, are brought up along with
the children of the family, and, if they difcover a natural
capacity, they receive nearly the fame education. Re-
fpect and obedience to parents, are among the principal
points aimed at in the inftitution of youth. A man’s
own fon, from a certain age till the time of puberty,
obferves almoft the fame diftance, and performs many
of the fame little offices about the father, that the flaves
do. Thus the young flaves are hardly fenfible of the
fervile ftate; no more is required of them than of a
page, or a valet, or, at worft, they are condemned to
the fame fervice with hired, menial domeftics. But if
they happen to diftinguifh themfelves by their talents
and application, they are almoft certain of being one
time or other emancipated. In the mean time they
find themfelves nearly in the condition of adopted child-
ren, and it often happens that they are married to a
daughter of the family. ‘The flaves of the Ofmanli are
fometimes promoted to the firft offices in the ftate.

The white flaves, who are moft efteemed, are

377 Memluk Salas is the term conftantly ufed at Aleppo for white flaves;
that of Abd Que is vulgarly applied to black flaves.

Vou. Ff chiefly

218 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Book chiefly brought from Georgia and Circaffia. They are

“—~—~'the children of Chriftians, but being early feparated
from their parents and country, they of courfe do as
they fee others do, and gradually adopt the religion of
their mafters. This change happens {pontaneoully, at
leaft, violence is not known to be ufed, at Aleppo;
and the adult flaves who are taken in war, are not com-
pelled to change their religion. ‘The Turks, fo far as I
had occafion to obferve, are rather negligent about the
religion of their flaves, at leaft I have known many of
them, who having pafled through the hands of feveral
matters, were altogether uninftructed, and were in fact
neither Chriftians nor Mohammedans. I never met with
an inftance of compulfion being employed.

The white flaves are purchafed on the frontiers of
Georgia, by certain merchants who make a trade of it,
and by whom they are tranfported to different parts of
the Empire, but chiefly to Conftantinople: fome are
brought every year to Aleppo, directly from Erzeroon.
The merchants, for their own fake take great care of
them as long as they remain on hand, and, from a like
motive of intereft, the perfons of both fexes are in gene-
ral protected from that violation, to which they other-
wife might be liable. The boys are in this refpeét the
moft to be pitied, when it is their lot to be fold to a
brutal mafter ; for they chiefly are the victims of that
unnatural luft imputed to the Turks, and of which
candour cannot acquit them. It fhould however be re-

marked,

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 219

marked, that the crime is profcribed by law, and, except © #4 ?-
by profefled Debauchees, held infamous. To what—~—~
extent it is practifed in private cannot be known®.

The number of flaves brought from Georgia, has
been much lefs confiderable within thefe thirty years than
formerly ; in confequence of which their price is in-
creafed, efpecially in the Provinces. But the Turks
not without reafon, are fond of purchafing them at any
rate. In the poffeflion of a good flave they often find a
trufty and ufeful fervant, they fecure a friend to their
old age, and, at their death, leave a faithful monitor to
their children.

Turkey had fo long enjoyed peace, that there were
few of the flaves remaining at Aleppo, who had been
taken during the preceding German, or Perfian wars.
The imperial conful has a general order to re-purchafe
fuch German flaves as may be found in Syria. The
female white flaves are brought from Georgia; but of
them we fhall have occafion to fpeak in the following
chapter.

The difficulty of procuring Georgians, lays the Turks
under the neceflity of having recourfe to black flaves.
Thefe are brought every year in great numbers from
fEthiopia, by way of Egypt. They are of a dull, indocile
difpofition, few turning out fit for any thing but inferior
offices. When they firft arrive, it is with difficulty they

* Note XLIV.
F fe are

220 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Bo ok are prevailed on to fpeak; their language feems to be a

‘“~— harfh jargon, and few ever attain a tolerable pronuncia-
tion of the Arabic. They are moftly females, and are
employed in the kitchens of the Harem. The males
alfo feldom rife above the rank of lower fervants; but
other blacks who come from different parts of the world
to Conftantinople, make a better figure, and appear in
the Provinces in high offices. The number of male black
flaves is much fmaller, at Aleppo, than that of the fe.
males.

All the Eunuchs, at Aleppo, are black, and are em-
ployed only in the fervice of the Harem; but the num-
ber is very inconfiderable. “The Bafhaws have generally
one or two, the others are found chiefly in the houfehold
of opulent merchants, who have purchafed them in their
travels: few being brought to the city for fale. Thofe
in the fervice of the ladies, have an apartment clofe to
the Harem, and enter freely, as occafion requires.
They are for the moft part remarkably ugly, but, in
their manner to ftrangers, have a certain effeminate
foftnefs.

The Eunuchs are often given to the vice of drinking,
and I have known inftances of their being immoderately
fond of women. The fuperintendant of the Harem of
Ragab Bafha, ufed to go out of the Seraglio in the
night, after his mafter retir2d to reft, and pafs his time
till morning, in company with two or three proftitutes,

at a houfe in the neighbourhood. A fire occafioned,
through

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 228

through his negligence, one night in the Harem, made c HAP.
the firft difcovery of his irregularities to the Bafhaw, ——~
who was fo enraged that he gave orders to put him im-
mediately to death; but after the firft alarm had fub-

fided, during which the Eunuch took care to remain
concealed, the Bafhaw was prevailed on to change the
fentence into perpetual banifhment.

It was remarked before, that the life of the Turks,
was fedentary. To this however there are fome ex-
ceptions in refpect to the Grandees of a certain age,
and their retinue: though their exercife would, in a
colder climate, be confidered as bearing no_propor-
tion to their indolent lounging on the Divan. The
Ofmanli are taught to ride, and practife the Girrid 39,
which is rather a violent exercife. The weapon ufed
in it is a round ftick, about two feet and a half in
length, fomewhat grofler than a walking cane, and
blunt at both ends. ‘Turning the palm of the right
hand upwards, they grafp the Girrid near the middle,
and with much force dart it horizontally to a great dif-
tance. ‘The exercife is performed on horfeback. One
perfon flying is purfued full fpeed by another, who at a
proper diftance throws the Girrid, while the firft horfe-
man, in order to avoid the blow, lays himfelf clofe to
the horfe’s neck. The purfuer, as foon as he has de-
livered his Girrid, turning fhort round, rides off at full

39 i
gallop,

222

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK gallop, and may be chaced by any one who choofes to

u~— attack. ‘They have a dexterous manner of recovering

their Girrid without difmounting, by means of a {witch,
or cane, crooked at one end. This mock engagement
is a very common diverfion, and it is furprizing to fee
with what adroitnefs they manage their horfes fo as to
avoid joftling, when numbers are galloping full fpeed,
in all directions, and feemingly in the greateft diforder*.

The Agas ufed formerly to ride out, with a grand
retinue, once a week, and exercife the Girrid under a
hill to the Weftward of the city ; but the cuftom is now
almoft laid afide. When a Grandee rides out an air-
ing, it is ufual for the pages to exercife the Girrid, for
his amufement, and he himfelf fometimes joins in the
diverfion.

The fports of the field, though not entirely relin-
quifhed by the Turks, are not purfued fo generally as
in former times; very few keep hawks and greyhounds;
and ftill fewer of the Grandees fhoot well; indeed few
Turks of whatever rank are remarkable for fhooting,
thofe excepted who get a livelihood by it: and fifhing,
as an amufement, is hardly known.

There was atime when the privilege of riding on
horfeback, within the city, was reftri¢ted to the Turks.
When Rauwolff arrived at Aleppo (Anno 1573) he dif-
mounted at the gate, ‘‘ becaufe in Turkey no outlandifh

*© See Voyage dans la Paleftine, p. 62.
** man

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 224

‘man hath liberty to ride through a city #.” At pre- CHAP.
fent the liberty of riding is enjoyed not only by the ~~
Franks, but by many alfo of the native Chriftians and

Jews. The indulgence however may be reckoned of
modern date, at leaft in the degree to which it now
prevails; and, in pafling fome of the lefs frequented
diftri¢ts, the Chriftians on horfeback, ftill meet with
abufive language from the vulgar, and are reproached

with infolence in daring to ride.

The Ofmanli, though rather folemn in their ordinary
deportment, may juftly be reckoned courteous and
polite. In converfation with inferiors, even with Chrif-
tians and Jews, they can affume an eafy, affable man-
ner; but when irritated by contradiction, they are im-
petuous in their gefture, they elevate their voice, and in-
decently defcend to the moft {currilous language. In the
prefence of fuperiors, they are attentive, filent, and fub-
miffive; no provocation almoft whatever, can make them
forget the refpect they owe, or difconcert the feeming
fteadinefs of their temper: they feel, but conceal their
emotion. It is an habitual power of controlling the
paffions, to be acquired only by pra¢tice, and confe-
quently is poffeffed in different degrees, proportionate
to the occafions which individuals, in the progrefs
of life, may have had for exercifing it. The Ofmanli

* Ray’s Collection, p. 64.
of

224 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

sooK of middle age, who have rifen flowly from obfcurity,
“—— to eminent ftations, poffefs this talent in a high degree.

The other Turks of condition, not reckoned Ofman-
li, efpecially fome of the zealous Shereefs, are haughty,
referved, cold, or rather rough in their addrefs ; though
all of them can occafionally aflume a certain ungracious
complaifance. The merchants are formal, but fome-
what more fociable; they affect a plainnefs in their
drefs and manners, and make littie outward fhow; at
the fame time they are magnificent in their Harems, and
in their houfes. A few, connected in bufinefs with per-
fons in power, imitate more the manners of the court,
and live in fplendour.

The common people, when unawed by the prefence
of fuperiors, are apt on the flighteft provocation to grow
obftreperous and abufive; fo that one can hardly walk
the ftreet without feeing fome noify broil. The con-
tending parties approach each other, they appear every
moment ready to come to blows, terms of bitter re-
proach and execration are reciprocally lavifhed, accom-
panied with the utmoft vehemence of voice and gef-
ture. But the fray refts there, they are lefs difpofed
to fight than to fcold; and the fpectators, who have
nothing to apprehend from verbal altercation, have an
intereft to prevent a combat, which feldom fails to pro-
duce an appeal to the Mahkamy, or the Seraglio, when
all who happened to be prefent, are in hazard of being
eventually involved, as well as the principals. But,

though

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 225

though thus prone to unfeemly fits of rage, the common ¢ HA P.
people ftill retain fome portion of felf command, and, —-—~
when their intereft requires it, can aflume the femblance
of moft perfect refignation. ‘Their ordinary character
is an affected gravity, with fome fhare of diffimulation.

The moral virtues of the Turks, have perhaps been
extolled with no lefs partiality by fome, than injurioufly
depreciated by others. It is more difficult, on many
accounts, to form an eftimate on this fubject in Turkey,
than in Europe. Sir James Porter, whofe fituation was
more favorable for procuring exact information, than
that of moft tranfient travellers, exprefles the difficulty
he met with, and afferts that the accounts of the Turk-
ifh government and manners, are hitherto very im-
perfect *.

The fimpler virtues are in no climate reckoned the na-
tural growth either of great cities, or of maritime towns.
Yet the Turks, who are fcarcely known to the Europeans
in any other fituation, have been branded with vices and
crimes, as if fuch were the genuine offspring of their re-
ligious conftitution, though, under fimilar circumftances,
thofe are uniformly found in every part of the globe.
Whether political character differs effentially in different
countries, is beft known to thofe who have been prac-
tifed in courts, and are verfed in negotiations; but the
commercial character of different nations, probably ad-

« Note LXIII.

Vou. I. G gS mits

226

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

Boox mits of lefs variety. Where ever the principal purfuit
.——~ in life is that of gain, under the mere reftraint of pru-

dential honefty, the human mind is apt to acquire nar-
row habits, and in,a perpetual attention to profit and
lofs, can feldom find leifure for the cultivation of its more
liberal and exalted faculties.

The Turks, in their commercial dealings, are féldom
charged with difhonefty ; but are often taxed, by the
Europeans, with conducting all their tranfaCtions on the
narrow principles of felf-intereft. In an intercourfe
merely commercial, the charge may poflibly, to a cer-
tain degree, be with juftice applicable to each party.
Did the eftablifhed cuftom of the country admit of fa-
miliar communication with the Turks, it 1s probable,
that both parties would come, in time, to think of
one another in a more liberal manner. Dziftruft would
infenfibly be banifhed, and the Turks would, in convi.
vial hours, lay afide that air of formality and referve,
which they commonly affume when in company with
the Franks. But the mutual diftance unfociably main-
tained by both, has hitherto prevented this, nor is it
ever likely to be otherwife.

The native Chriftians and Jews, are not lefs expert
in the management of Trade, than the Aleppeen Turks;
and are commonly thought to excel them, in the low
arts of cunning, and adulation. It is ufual for many of
thofe of the better clafs, fometimes with a view to pro-
tection, fometimes to increafe their perfonal confequence

with

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 229

with their own nation, to court the patronage of fome © 4A”.
powerful Turk; but as this is at firft obtained, fo it ~~
afterwards is preferved, by a courfe of fervile attendance,
which contributes effectually to heighten the arrogance

of the patron whom fecretly they affect to defpife.
Others of lefs ambition, and of lower rank, are taught

by prudence, not only to avoid offending, but to endea-

vour to ingratiate themfelves with their Turkifh neigh-
bours, who, inconfiderable as they may feem, have it
occafionally in their power to render ill offices. Abject
fawning, and humility on one part, encourages infolence

on the other; aud thus the people, without any impu-
tation on their refpective religious fyftems, may be faid

to co-operate reciprocally in preventing a melioration of
manners.

The Europeans in Turkey, chiefly depend for infor-
mation, on the Chriftians or Jews; few taking the trou-
ble of learning the Arabic language, which is not confi-
dered as neceffary in tranfacting bufinefs. Thefe inter-
preters therefore, find it more eafy to reprefent matters,
as may beft happen to fuit the purpofe of the moment.
They regard the ‘Turks as wretches deftined to perdi-
tion in the next world, they think it almoft impious to
{peak well of devoted Infidels, whom they have been
taught hereditarily to execrate; and, too often juftly pro-
voked by infult or oppreffion, they draw the Turkith
character from feelings of inveterate and invincible dif-
like. They do not however paint wholly from fancy;

G g 2 the

228 CF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK the features may be exaggerated, but the picture ftill

“~~ bears a refemblance. An eager thirft of gain, confum-
mate art, a readinefs to feize every legal advantage, to-
gether with a large fhare of diflimulation, are among the
qualities liberally afcribed to the Turks. ‘Thefe it muft
be allowed, when conjoined, prefent a confederacy fo
formidable, that much merit is by implication due to
the negotiator who encounters them with fuccefs: and
it is very feldom that either the interpreters, or the
brokers, confefs themfelves outwitted in their tranf
actions.

Some allowance therefore fhould be made for the
fecret influence of religious prejudices, as well as for
other exaggerations that fometimes proceed from lefs
juftifiable caufes; and with this reftriction, the imputa-
tions above mentioned may be admitted as juft. It may
be added, that, in politics, the Turks are affiduous, in-
triguing, venal, and vindictive ; in private life, indolent,
not averfe, but indifferent to literature ; temperate in
diet, but addicted to women; and habitually, if not
naturally, grave; or, at leaft, little given to intemperate
mirth.

Peculiar circumftances in the political ftate of Turkey
may be produced by way of explanation, if not apology,
of the cenfurable parts of the Turkifh character. The
erection of fo great a number of petty tyrannies in the
kingdom, (for fuch the Bafhawliks may be deemed)
and the irequent change of Governors, not only expofe

the

INHABITANTS (OF) ALEPPO.

229

the provinces to vexatious oppreflion, but {pread widely cu ar.
a {pirit of intrigue, together with the whole train of thofe —-~—~

courtly vices, which, in other countries, are ufually more
confined to the capital. The fervile fubmiffion exacied
by fuperiors, and which defcends in a feries from the
Monarch, to the meaneft officer of the Seraglio, propa-
gates diffimulation, and infpires, even the cringing flave
with pride. The Page, who with eyes fixed on the
ground, receives the commands of his mafter, in the
moft fubmiffive filence, the moment he retires to his own
chamber, fquats down in ftate, and is dignified with the
title of Aga, by fome pitiful wretch who ferves him, and
who is daily expofed to ufage more infolently imperious,
than what this contemptible Aga meets with himfelf.
The corrupt adminiftration of juftice, which has long been
matter of complaint, too often enables the rich, to evade
the laws, or to injure innocence, under the fanction of
legal forms. ‘The increafe of luxury, which (if their own
account may be trufted) has been very rapid in the pre-
fent century, neceffarily renders them more covetoully
rapacious. Money not only being indifpenfably necef-
fary for the fupport of expenfive pleafures, but alfo for
the purchafe of protection and quiet, when in poffeffion
of wealth. For, among the Ofmanli, thofe who are fuf-
pected of being rich, fooner or later attract the attention
of the Porte, and then have no other means left, than to
fhare their fpoil with the favorite minifters, in order to

preferve

230 OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK preferve the remnant of their fortunes for a few years
= longer
Thefe are fome, felected from many local circum-
ftances, which may be conceived to operate either im-
mediately, or remotely, on the national manners: yet
not with fuch irrefiftable influence, or fo univerfally, as
to preclude all exceptions. There are perhaps few of
the European merchants, who have refided long in
Syria, who may not, within the fmall circle of their ac-
quaintance, be able to recollect fome refpectable charac-
ters, among the natives; and as to ourfelves juftice, as well
as gratitude call upon us to declare, that we have, in the
courfe of a very extended intercourfe, known many of
all denominations, whom we had cogent reafon to regard
as perfons of the utmoft honour, and integrity #.

Hofpitality has always been enumerated among the
Eaftern virtues. It ftill fubfifts in Syria, but prevails
moft in villages and fmall towns; among the Bidoween
Arabs, and the inhabitants of the Caftravan mountains*.
The hofpitable reception that European travellers expe-
rience on the road, the officioufnefs of perfons who offer
their houfes, and fervices, becaufe ufually acknowledged
by a {mall prefent in return, have been unjuftly fufpe@-
ed of being always mercenary. The traveller would

* Note LXV.
«¢ On this head M. d’Arvieux may be confulted.
Voyage dans la Paleftin. Biddulph in Purch. p. 1335.
oftener

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. 231

oftener find himfelf at a lofs, was his fole dependence © #3 *
for lodging, placed in the covetoufnefs of his hoft, the “~~
value of the prefent, or Bakhfheefh “5, would hardly in-
duce a perfon at his eafe, to derange the ceconomy of
his family, and incur a certain expenfe, were not the
notion fuperadded of his doing an action in itfelf deem-
ed honorable, and which, if neglected, would fubject
him to the contempt of his fellow viilagers.

In the city, where Khanes are provided for the ac-
commodation of travellers, claims on hofpitality are lefs
frequent; but many of the Turkifh ftrangers are en-
tertained at private houfes, to which they have recom-
mendation ; and thefe accidental connections often give
rife to friendfhips, which defcend in fucceffion to the
children of the refpective families *,

Publick officers of rank, who come from Conftanti-
nople, or other places, on bufinefs, are quartered at the
houfes of the principal Agas, the town defraying a cer-
tain fhare of the expenfe of their entertainment; but the
Aga, to whom the charge is committed, acts as hoft,
and is confidered as refponfible for the proper treat-
ment of his gueft. An engagement with a ftranger, is
fometimes accepted as an excufe for not obeying the

“ On the fubject of ancient hofpitality, the reader may find an entertaining
note by the Rev. Mr. Beloe, in his tranflation of Herodotus. Vol. IIT.

page 18.
fummons

232

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

so ox fummons of a great man, when no other apology, hardly
Us even that of indifpofition, would be admitted.

The relation of hoft and gueft is held facred, and
always mentioned with reverence. A league of mutual
amity, founded on former acquaintance, living together
in the fame houfe, but efpecially on an interchange of
hofpitable offices, is exprefled by ‘‘ having eat bread and
‘« falt together” Akulna khubz wa milh. Where enmity
fubfifts, the fiercer Arabs will not eat at the fame table
with their adverfary: fitting down together betokens
reconcilation. The Turks are more polite, and lefs
fincere, in this refpect.

The laws of hofpitality, give a title not only to com-
mon civility, but to protection. “The Arabs and Kurds
will rifk their lives in defence of their gueft, or in re-
venging an injury offered him within their precincts.
In the city, the houfes of the Grandees are not confider-
ed as afylums, in cafes where law has been violated, but,
in flighter offences, a great man thinks himfelf under a
certain degree of obligation, to exert his intereft in be-
half of a perfon in diftrefs, who may have fled to his
porch, and claimed the rights of hofpitality. A common
mode of fupplication, whether for pity, or protection, is
‘¢ Tam in your ground!” Ana fi Ardak *.

The Turks are certainly a domeftic people. Their
chief pleafures are found within the precin¢ts of their own
family ; and there are few temptations in the way of

“ Note XLI.
public

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO.

233

public diverfions, or diffipation, to draw them from c HA P.
home. The parental and filial duties are highly rever- ~~~

ed. Kindnefs towards kindred, is manifefted by an at-
tention to them when fick, or in adverfity, and is ex-
tended to their widows, and orphans. Contefts refpect-
ing property, are very often terminated by arbitration:
other differences, are accommodated in the fame man-
ner, and it is feldom difficult to procure perfons willing
to undertake the office of arbiter. Gaming is abfolutely
unknown; drunkennefs is a rare vice ; and inftances of
infidelity to the marriage-bed are feldom heard of. Up-
on the whole, whether it be afcribed to the influence of
their political conftitution, or to the abfence of various
temptations, which in Europe often leads to the violation
of better laws; there are perhaps few great cities, where
many of the private and domeftic virtues are, in general,
more prevalent than at Aleppo.

Refignation under the calamities common to humanity,
as well as under the moft unexpected political reverfes
of fortune, is remarkable to a great degree in the Turks,
but is not to be imputed to natural infenfibility, nor is
it always, though it may be fometimes, merely affected.
Their notion of predeftination infpires them with forti-
tude in adverfity, and, fo far as it conduces to reconcile
mankind to the difpenfations of divine providence, it
may perhaps be regarded as ufeful. But, though the
{peculative principle be univerfally received, it appears,
in the ordinary conduct of life, to have little influence

Vo. I. Hh on

234

OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

BOOK on their determinations. While. matters yet remain in
“———~ doubt, no fteps are omitted which prudence may fuggeft

for attaining the end propofed, and no means of defence
againft impending dangers, are indolently neglected.
That every thing is predetermined by Almighty God,
though a fubject of endlefs controverfy among the learn-
ed, is an article of faith feldom contefted, in common
life: but it is praCtically called in as an auxiliary, ther
only when it can be of real fervice, that is, after the
event has irrevocably taken place **.

It is with refpect to the plague, that the Turks feem,
more particularly, to have carried predeftination, to a
dangerous length. ‘Their fupinenefs, in conformity with
their creed, in oppofition to common experience, is pro-
ductive of extenfive mifchief: though it may be doubted
whether their neglect of the means of defence againft
that dreadful calamity, be more influenced by an ortho-
dox tenet, than by an opinion that the diftemper is lefs
contagious than it is commonly reputed to be, by the
Europeans. It is at leaft evident from later experience,
that in proportion as the fenfe of apprehenfion was

alarmed, from a conviction of the phyfical properties of

infection, the fpeculative tenet actually loft ground.
Many

” Note LXVI.

** Many examples of thts occurred during the plague in the years 1760,
1761, and 1762. I knew fome inftances wherein the Turks very nearly
followed the Frank mode of fhutting up. The dread of the plague enter-

tained

INHABITANTS OF ALEPPO. oa.

Many ufe certain defenfive precautions againft the c ee
plague, on nearly the fame principle that all, when fick, i a
have recourfe to medicine. They admit every event to

be pre-ordained, but affert that the Almighty who creat-

ed difeafes, created likewife remedies for the cure of
them °°.

Of the Aleppeen Turks, the merchants are almoft
the only travellers who fet out with an intention of re-
turning ; and the number of thofe who go far from
home is inconfiderable. Such as travel with a view to
feek their fortune in the fervice of the Ofmanli, moft
commonly become citizens of the Empire at large, and
very often relinquifh their native place for ever. It may
be owing to this, that the Aleppo matrons always reluc-
tantly confent to let their fons go far from home. The
youth are commonly bred up to the trade or profeffion
of their father, and it is the favorite obje&t of the mo-
ther’s care to fecure their ftay, by getting them early
fettled in marriage.

tained by the Turks, and the cuftom of many of them flying from it, will
be mentioned hereafter.

The belief of difeafes being fpread by contagion was condemned by Mo-
hammed as impious. Note LXVII.

*° God created the malady and it’s remedy. Ullah hullak al daa wa al
Dowa, is a common faying among the Turks. ‘They allow that it is the
duty of a phyfician to exert his fkill, but add proverbially. <«‘ The phyfic
*« from the doctor, the cure from God,” il Dowa min al Hakeem, al thiffa
rain Ullah !

Hohe CHAP.

Cri a ss ie
OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

ENTRANCE OF THE HAREM.—SUPERINTENDANT, OR HAREM KEHIA-
SY.—MORNING VISITS, OF THE TADIES.—GRANDEES ATTENDED
BY FEMALES, IN THE HAREM.—THEIR AMUSEMENTS,—FEMALE
PEDLERS,—AUSTERE BEHAVIOUR OF THE MEN, IN PRESENCE OF
THE WOMEN.—THE TURKS WHEN INDISPOSED, RETIRE INTO THE
HAREM.—RECEPTION OF PHYSICIANS, AND MODE OF THEIR VISIT,
DESCRIBED.—ORDINARY EMPLOYMENT AND AMUSEMENTS, OF THE
LADIES.—DIVERSIONS OUT OF THE HAREM.—FEMALE INTRIGUES.—
FEMALE EDUCATION.—PERSONS AND DRESS OF THE LADIES.—
FEMALE SLAVES.—REMARKS ON THE PASSION OF LOVE IN TUR-
me Y.

ee nas However defirous a traveller in Turkey, may
“—-~— be to learn the charaéter and domeftic manners of the
Turkifh ladies, he muft expect to meet with various ob-
ftacles to his refearches. The regulations of the Harem
oppofe a ftrong barrier to curiofity ; inveterate cuftom
excludes females from min, ling in affemblies of the other
fex, and, even with their neareft male relations, they

appear to be under reftraint, from which perhaps they
are

OF THEY ZURKIGN HAREM, &c.

are never emancipated, except in familiar fociety among
themfelves.

In converfation, the Turks feldom talk of their wo-
men, and a ftranger has very few opportunities of in-
troducing a fubject which they feem ftudious to avoid.
Some information indeed may be obtained from the
Chriftian and Jewifh women who occafionally have ac-
cefs to the Harems; but their accounts muft be received
with caution, and due allowance made for religious pre-
judices, as well as for the Eaftern propenfity to fable.

Ali travellers who have vifited the Levant, have more
or lefs experienced thefe and other obftacles to inquiry ;
and hence it is the lefs remarkable, that the relations
concerning Mohammedan women, met with in fome of
the beft books of travels, fhould often be found contra-
dictory or defective, without impeachment either of the
writer’s diligence or veracity. Senfible, from experi-
ence, that neither a tolerable knowledge of the language,
nor familiar intercourfe with the natives, in the courfe
of a long refidence in the country, can wholly furmount
difficulties, which others have encountered with fewer
advantages, it may be proper to befpeak indulgence for
incidental errors, in the following reprefentation of
Mohammedan manners: in which are introduced.a few
domeftic circumftances, that profeffional privilege afford-
ed opportunities of obferving, in the interior of the
Harem.

A defcrip-

237
CSHeAre
Vv.
ee amma

238
BOOK
II.
ew)

OF |THE) TURKISH

A defcription of the quarter in the Turkifh palaces
appropriated to the women', has been given in the firft
chapter of the preceding book +. It may be added
here, that, clofe to the outer door, there is an aperture
in the wall about two feet from the ground, two feet
and a half in height, and nearly two feet in breadth; to

which is fitted a narrow wooden frame, and the middle

{pace filled up by a hollow wooden cylinder, placed
vertically on pivots, fo as to be eafily turned round.
This wheel, being divided by one or more horizontal
partitions, and open on one fide, from top to bottom,
ferves to deliver difhes from the kitchen, or to receive
{mall parcels, without opening the outer door, or the
perfons on either fide being feen. The partitions are
moveable, and may be taken out occafionally, for the
reception of larger parcels. Females who have bufinefs
at the Harem, fummon the attendants within, by rapping
gently on the wheel, but, if not anfwered readily, they
exercife the knocker of the outer door with great vio-
lence. It may be remarked, that the doors of the great
Harems, from morning to fun fet, are feldom locked, on
account of the conftant fucceflion of people coming and
going: but the cafe is different in inferior Harems, and

" It is often erroneoufly called the Seraglio, but is properly the Harem.
P25 4 wife is called Hurmy Cee and the women of the family, including
wives, daughters, and flaves, Hareem ao

+ Page 29.

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 239

in ordinary houfes, where there is no feparate quarter c HAP.
for the women, the mafter of the houfe, when he goes--~—~
abroad, not only fhuts the ftreet door, but carries the

key along with him.

To the Harems of the great belongs an officer named
Harem Kehiafy who fuperintends all affairs, without
doors, relating to the Harem, and commonly has one or
two boys under him, who have accefs to the apartments,
and are employed by the ladies in carrying meflages, or
in other petty fervices. Thefe boys generally are black
flaves, but not Eunuchs. ‘Their mafter, fometimes, is
an eunuch, but, except in the fervice of Bafhaws, the
office is more commonly beftowed on a trufty white
flave, or on a fervant of advanced age.

None of the ordinary menial male fervants ever ap-
proach the door of the Harem, unlefs the Harem
Kehiafy, or one of his attendants, is prefent; and all fe-
males who have bufinefs with the ladies, as well as phy-
ficians and other medical attendants, muft apply to him
for admittance. Even the Grandee himfelf, when there
are female vifitants in his Harem, does not prefume to
enter, till he has been announced, in order to give thofe
time to prepare for his reception, who, according to
cuftom, ought not to appear before him unveiled ; and
on certain occafions, as when the Harem entertains a
large company, he, being apprized before hand, does not
go near the Harem till the guefts have left it.

When

240 OF THE TURKISH

BOOK When the ladies vifit one another in a forenoon, they

‘“—-—~ do not immediately unveil on coming into the Harem,
left fome of the men fhould happen to be ftill at home,
and might fee them as they pafs; but, as foon as they
enter the apartment of the lady to whom the vifit is in-
tended, either one of the young ladies, or a flave, affifts
in taking off the veil, which, being carefully folded up,
is laid afide. It is a fign that the vifitant intends only a
fhort ftay, when inftead of refigning the veil, fhe only
uncovers her head, permitting the veil to hang carelefly
down on the fhoulders. ‘This generally produces a
friendly conteft between the parties ; one infifting upon
taking the veil away, the other refufing to furrender it.
A like conteft takes place at the clofe of the vifit.
When entreaty cannot prevail on the vifitant to ftay
longer, the veil is hidden, the flaves, inftructed before
hand, pretend to fearch for it every where in vain, and
when fhe urges the abfolute neceflity of her going, fhe
is affured that the Aga, or mafter of the houfe, is not
yet gone abroad, and is then jocofely dared to depart
without it.

In their manner of receiving one another, the ladies,
are lefs formal than the men; their complimental
{peeches, though in a high ftrain, are more rapidly and
familiarly expreffed.

The common falutation is performed by laying the
right hand on the left breaft, and gently inclining the

head.

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 241

head. ‘They fometimes falute by kiffing the cheek ; CHAP.
and the young ladies kifs the hands of their fenior rela-e —~—~
tions. ‘They entertain with coffee and tobacco, but the
Sherbet and perfume are only produced on particular
occafions.

The great men are attended in the Harem, by the
female flaves, in the fame manner as, in the outer apart-
ments, by the pages. They remain ftanding in the
humble attitude of attendance, their hands croffed before
them on their cin¢ture, and their eyes fixed on the
ground. The other ladies, as well as the daughters of
the family, occafionally bring the pipe and coffee, but
do not remain ftanding; they either are defired to fit
down, or they retire. ‘This however is to be under-
ftood of the Grandees ; for in ordinary life, both wives
and daughters minifter fervilely to the men: The two
fexes never fitting at table together.

It is feldom that all the ladies of a Harem are, by
the great man, feen affembled, unlefs they happen, in
the fummer, to be furprized fitting in the Divan*, where
they meet to enjoy the cool air. At his approach, they
all rife up, but, if defired, refume their places, (fome of
the flaves excepted) and return to their work. How-
ever loquacious they may have been before he entered
a refpectful filence enfues the moment he appears : i
reftraint which they feel the lefs, from their being ac-
cuftomed to it almoft from infancy. It is furprizing how
fuddenly the clamour of children is hufhed on the ap-

* Page 30.

VoL. I. hi proach

242 OF THE TURKISH

BOOK proach of the father; but the women often lament their
“——~ want of power, in his abfence, of quieting the children
elther by threats, or foothing.

Though the prefence of the great man may impofe
filence on the younger ladies, he always finds fome of
the elderly matrons, ready enough to entertain him,
fhould he be difpofed for converfation. In this manner
he learns the domeftic news of the town, which, though
rarely a topic of difcourfe among the men, being in
great requeft at the public baths, is circulated by the
female pedlers, and the Bidoween women attached to
the Harem. The former, who are chiefly Jewith or
Chriftian women of a certain age, fupply the ladies with
gauzes, muflin, embroidery, and trinkets, and moreover
have the art of collecting and embellifhing all kinds of
private hiftory ; the latter are not lefs talkative, nor
more fecret, but poffefs alfo a licenfed privilege of fpeak-
ing freely to the men, which they perfectly know how
to exercife. “Fheir licence is derived from being often
retained as nurfes, by which they gain a permanent efta-
blifhment in the family ; the fofter fifter remaining at-
tached to the Harem, and in time fucceeding her mother.
The Grandees, in thefe indolent hours converfe alfo on
their own domeftic affairs, and amufe themfelves with
their children. When they wifh to be more retired,
they withdraw to another apartment, into which no per-
fon, except the lady to whom it belongs, prefumes to
enter uncalled. |

The

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 243

The Turks, in prefence of their women, appear to ¢ 4 P.
affect a more haughty, referved air, than ufual, and ins-~—~
their manner of fpeaking to them, are lefs courteous,
and more abrupt, than they are to one another, or even
to men who are much their inferiors. As this was fre-
quently obferved in perfons remarkable for an affable
deportment to men, it may be confidered rather as their
ufual manner, than afcribed to the accidental prefence
of an European ; and is further confirmed by the ordi
nary behaviour of the boys, who talk to the women in
an imperious manner, which they could only have learn-
ed from example. The men perhaps judge it politic to
afflume this demeanour, in a fituation where dominion
may be fuppofed to be maintained with more difficulty,
than among their male dependants; and therefore venture
only in hours of retirement, to avow that gentlenefs,
which, as if derogatory from their dignity, they think
prudent, in their general conduct, to conceal, from per-
fons whofe obedience they believe can alone be fecured,
by an air of ftern authority.

The ladies, efpecially thofe of rank, appear referved
in regard to their hufbands, while they fhow an engag-
ing, affectionate fondnefs for their brothers, though it is
often returned with little more than frigid complaifance:
as if their tender endearments were a tribute due to
male fuperiority. There are times however when na.
tural affection gets the better of this cold indifference of
the young men. ‘The fight of a fifter in diftrefs, or lan-

lie guifhing

244

OF THE ' TURKISH

BOOK guifhing ina fit of fevere illnefs, often produces emo-
“—~— tion, of which, judging from general appearances, they

would feem to be unfufceptible. The affectation of
apathy, is a remarkable trait in the character of the
Turks. They are led by it, under misfortunes, to af-
fume an appearance of tranquillity, more than they pof-
fefs in reality ; and, on other occafions, they ftrive to hide
that fenfibility which other nations think it honorable to
indulge. ‘Their exterior manners are univerfally marked
by this affetation: their real feelings, influenced by the
common fprings of humanity, are more remote from the
eye of obfervation.

Perfons of diftinétton, who are in office, leave the
Harem early in the morning, and, two hours after noon
excepted, pafs moft of their time in the outer apart-
ments. But others, who have little bufinefs, and the
luxurious young men of all denominations, lounge many
hours in their Harem. Some allowance, in this refpect,
is made to youth, for fome weeks after marriage ; but
an effeminate chara¢ter, which is by no means refpe¢ta-

le among the men, is far from being acceptable to the
women. ‘The prefence of the men, at unufual hours in
the day time, lays the whole Harem under reftraint,
and however fome particular favorite may be gratified
by the particular attention of her Lord, the reft of the
women are apt to lament the liberty they are deprived
of, by his remaining too much at home.

The

HAREM.) AT! ALEPPO. 245

The Grandees, if flightly indifpofed, continue to fee c HAP.
company in the outer apartments; but when the dif-—-—~
order becomes ferious they retreat into the Harem, to
be nurfed by their women: and in this fituation, befides
their medical attendants, and very near relations, no
perfon whatever can have accefs, except on very urgent
bufinefs. “They make choice of the females they with
to have more immediately about their perfon, and one
in particular is appointed to give an account to the phy-
fician, of what happens in the intervals of his vifits, to
receive his directions, and to fee them duly obeyed.

Medical people, whether Europeans or natives, have
accefs to the Harem, at all times when their attendance
is requifite. The phyfician, after being announced, is
obliged to wait at the door till the way be cleared’; that
is, till his patient, when a female, her company, and at-
tendants, and others who might happen to be in the
courts through which he muft pafs, have either veiled, or
retired out of fight. He is then conducted to the cham-
ber of the fick lady by a flave, who continues, in a loud
voice, to give warning of his approach, by exclaiming
Dirb, Dirb, al Hakeem Gia-y. Way! Way! the door
is coming: a precaution which does not always prevent
the unveiled ladies, who have not been apprized, from ac-

2 When it is known that the phyfician is about to enter, the flave, who
undertakes to clear the way, gives notice by calling Amel Dirb! Amel
Dirb! make way, make way ; and, returning after fometime, fays fi Dirb,
the way is clear.

cidentally

246

OF THE! TURKGH

BOOK cidentally croffing the court, in which cafe, it becomes
“—— the well bred phyfician to turn his-eyes another way.

Upon entering the chamber, he finds his patient co-
vered with a loofe veil, and, it being a vulgar notion
that the malady may be difcovered from the pulfe3, he
is no fooner feated, than the naked wrift is prefented for
his examination*. She then defcribes her complaints
and, if it be neceffary to look at the tongue, the veil is
for that purpofe removed, while the affiftants keep the
reft of the face, and efpecially the crown of the head, care-
fully covered. The women do not hefitate to expofe
the neck, the bofom, or the ftomach, when the cafe re-
quires thofe parts to be infpected, but, never without
extreme reluctance confent to uncover the head. Ladies
whom I had known very young, and who, from long
acquaintance, were carelefs in concealing their faces from
me, never appeared without a handkerchief or fome
other flight covering thrown over the head. So far as I
could judge, from general practice, it feemed to be con-
fidered, in point of decorum, of more confequence to
veil the head, than the face.

> The native practitioners give a fandction to this foolifh notion. I fol-
lowed, in that refpeét, the example of my brother, who, except in fevers,
always infifted on the fick giving an account of their complaints, before he
would feel the pulfe.

* T have been offered fometimes, the wrift covered with thin muflin, but
the Aleppo ladies in general ridicule that punctilio, and I always refufed
compliance with a piece of prudery not fanctioned by cuftom.

Tournefort found the prattife different in the Harems he vifited. Voy-

age, Tom il. p. 17. pr
The

HAREM, AT ALEPPO, 247

The phyfician is ufually entertained with tobacco and c HAP.
coffee, which, being intended as a mark of refpect, can. —~—
not in civility be declined, though the compliance leads
to an intemperate ufe of both. After he has examined,
and given directions concerning his patient, he requefts
leave to retire, but is feldom allowed to efcape without
hearing the incurable complaints of as many valetudinary
vifitants, as happen to be prefent, who either fit ready
veiled, or talk from behind a curtain occafionally fuf-
pended in the chamber. ‘Thefe ladies always confider
themfelves entitled to verbal advice, or at leaft to an
opinion of fuch remedies, as have been recommended
by others; and a principal part of the medical art,
among the native practitioners, confifts in being able to
acquit themfelves dexteroufly in fuch incidental conful-
tations.

In families which the European phyfician has been
accuftomed to attend, and when his patient is on the
recovery, he is fometimes induced to protraét the vifit,
and to gratify the curiofity of the ladies, who afk num.
berlefs queftions concerning his country. ‘They are par-
ticularly inquifitive about the Frank women, their drefs,
employments, marriages, treatment of children, and
amufements. In return they are ingenuoufly communi-
cative, and difplay talents, which, being little indebted
to artificial cultivation, appear, as it were, to expand
naturally, under a clear fky, and the influence of a deli-
cious climate. ‘Their queftians, are generally pertinent,

and.

248 OF THE TURKISH

Bo oxk and the remarks they occafionally make on manners
-.— differing fo widely from their own, are often fprightly,
and judicious.

When the vifit is at length concluded, notice being
given to clear the way, the phyfician fets out, preceded
as before by the flave. But it rarely happens that he
is not more than once ftopped, to give advice to fome
of the domeftics, who wait his return; for however
flichtly they may be indifpofed, the temptation of telling
their complaints to a do¢tor is irrefiftible. Thefe dam-
fels feldom have any other veil, than a handkerchief
thrown over the head, one corner of which is held in
the mouth; but, in order to avoid even that trouble,
they frequently place themfelves behind a door, or a
window fhutter, half open, in which fituation, thrufting
out one arm, they infift on having the pulfe examined.
It fometimes happens, in the great Harems, that another
obftacle muft be encountered before regaining the gate,
This arifes from fome of the younger ladies, or flaves,
who are at work in the court, refufing peremptorily
either to veil, or retire; which is done merely in fport,
to vex the condudtrefs, who is obliged of courfe to make
a halt. In vain fhe bawls Dirb! and makes ufe by
turns of entreaty, threat, and reproach; till, finding all
in vain, fhe gives fair warning, and has recourfe to a
never failing ftratagem. She marches on, and bids the
doétor follow.—A complete rout enfues; the damfels
{camper different ways, catch hold of whatever offers

firft

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 249

firft by way of veil, or attempt to conceal themfelves be- ¢ HAP.
hind one another. It is only when none of the men are —~—~
in the Harem, that this f{cene of romping can take place.

When the phyfician is conducted by the Aga himfelf,

every thing paffes in orderly filence, and, in the chamber

of the fick, none befides the elderly or married relations

offer to join in the converfation : but it is feldom that the

Aga himfelf takes the trouble, after the few firft vifits,

except the doctor be a ftranger to the family.

Women of diftinétion pafs much of their time at
home. They have a bath for ordinary occafions, within
the Harem; the purchafe of houfehold neceffaries does
not lye within their Province; and mercery, drapery,
and trinkets, are either fent from the fhops to be chofen,
or are brought in by the female pedlers formerly men-
tioned. ‘They are not however idle within doors; the
fuperintendence of domeftic affairs, the care of their
children, with their needle and embroidery, furnifh ample
employment.

They are taught, when young, to read, and, fome-
times, to write, the Arabic, but are very apt when
taken from fchool to neglect both; fo that reading ought
not to be reckoned a common female amufement, and is
never a ftudy. I have known however fome exceptions
to this. A daughter of the late grand Vizir, Ragab
Bafhaw, had made (as he affured me) a furprifing pro-
grefs in Arabic literature, and he fhowed me a manu-

Wis 1. I. Kk {cript

250 OF THE TURKISH

BOOK fcript very beautifully written with her ownhand. De-

\“—’votion docs not appear to take up much of their time ;
they never goto Mofque; and, except the elderly ladies,
and thofe who have been at Mecca, they are not fo
punctual in their prayers at home, as the men,

This is aflerted only as it appeared to me. On the
public days, the women may often be feen praying in
the gardens, but it is only a {mall number out of a crowd.
In the Harem, there is not the fame opportunity of fee-
ing them at prayer, as there is in refpect to the men. My
opinion was formed from being fo feldom obliged, on vifit-
ing at noon, or fun fet, to wait till prayers were over; and
on going into the Harem immediately before the times of
prayer, from finding fo few prepared by ablution; for when
they have once performed the Wodou*,they cannot permit
a Chriftian to touch their pulfe, without being obliged to
wafh over again. Indeed allowance fhould be made for
a circumftance peculiar to the fex, which difqualifies
them periodically from a¢ts of devotion. Sun fet feem-
ed to be the time when the women chiefly prayed.

It does not feem neceffary to enter upon the argument
concerning the exclufion of the Mohammedan women
from paradife, with other innumerable errors and mif.
reprefentations relating to them, which are to be found
in the works of travellers, in other refpects, of good
credit 5.

* Page 194.
* Note LX VIF.
Their

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 251

Their ufual games are Mankala, Tabuduk, draughts, ¢ HAP.
and fometimes Chefs *; but, as before remarked of the -—~—~
men, they play merely for amufement. In the winter
évenings, while the men are engaged in the outer apart-
ment, the ladies often pafs the time in attending
to Arabian tales, which are recited, but more com-
monly read, by a perfon who has a clear diftinct
voice, and occafionally fings the ftanzas interwoven
with the ftory.—It has been already mentioned }, that
the Arabian Nights Entertainments known in England,
were hardly to be found at Aleppo. A manufcript con-
taining two hundred and eight nights, was the only one I
met with, and, as a particular favour, procured liberty
to have acopy taken from it. This copy was circulated
fucceffively to more than a {core of Harems, and I was
affured by fome of the Ullama, whom the women had
fometimes induced to be of the audience, that till then
they were ignorant that fuch a book exifted.

The Toilet confifts of a Divan cufhion reverfed, upon
which a fmall mirror is placed. ‘They do not employ
much time at it; for the attire of the head may be taken
off, and preferved entire, and the braiding of the hair,
which is rather a tedious operation, is always performed
in the Hummam. They drefs neatly for the day, early
in the morning, except on days when they go abroad in

* Page 142.
+ Page 149.
Kk 2 ceremony,

252

OF THE ‘TURKISH

BO OK ceremony, or to the public bath, and then the alteration
-—~——_ made in drefs does not require much time.

They are fond of flowers and odoriferous plants,
which are fometimes cultivated under their own care,
but for the moft part purchafed of thofe who raife them
for fale. They preferve them in china or glafs flower
pots, arranged on wooden pyramids placed in the mid-
dle of the Divan; and form them when required into
elegant nofegays. When the ladies fend a congratula-
tory meflage, or a ceremonious invitation, it is ufually
accompanied with a nofegay, wrapt up in an embroider-
ed handkerchief. ‘The meffage is verbal, and often
delivered in the firft perfon. ‘‘ Thus fays my miftrefs
‘< T will have no excufe—and do not tell me—did you
‘‘ not promife me, &c.” ‘This however is not the con-
ftant practice, but it is always delivered precifely in the
words in which it is given. ‘The perfon receiving the
meflage takes out the flower with her own hand, and,
carefully folding up the handkerchief, returns it by the
meflenger. ‘They preferve deciduous flowers in the
fummer, by wrapping them in a muflin handkerchief
fprinkled with water, which is laid ina metal bafon, and
placed in a cool cellar. ‘The flowers of the orange, the
Arabian jafmine, and the mufk rofe, are in this manner
kept frefh for many hours.

The young ladies amufe themfelves by tying their
nofegays with filk threads of certain colours, which, in

the

HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

253

the fame manner as the affortment of particular flowers, © "4 *
are fuppofed to convey fome emblematical allufion. But ~~

thefe are by the women fo generally underftood, that
the artifice feems to be unfit for the purpofe of fecret
correfpondence ; and a proof that the colours are for
the moft part regarded as indifferent, is the practice of
the men, who, receiving nofegays from their ladies, either
of their own making, or fuch as have been fent to them
from other Harems, give them away, or interchange
them with their vifiters. It may be remarked however
that, for the moft part, the men interchange fingle flow-
ers, or two or three ftalks untied, and that the ladies
fometimes make an alteration in the binding of a nofe-
gay, before prefenting it, as if the rejected threads were
improper.

Lady Mary Wortley Montague, in her 40th. Letter,
has given a fpecimen of this mode of gallantry. ‘“‘ There
‘¢ is no colour, no weed, no flower, no fruit, herb, peb-
* ble, or feather, that has not a verfe belonging to it;
‘‘and you may quarrel, reproach, or fend letters of
*¢ paflion, friendfhip, or civility, or even of news, with-
** out ever inking your fingers.”

The ladies at Aleppo are not fuch proficients, as her
Ladyfhip defcribes thofe at Conftantinople ; but the
verfes and allufions are much the fame, expreft only in
the Arabic inftead of the Turkifh language. The colour
of the filk thread denotes fear, doubt, jealoufy, impati-
ence, or defpair.

Amid

254 OF THE TURKISH

BooK Amid domeftic occupations, ferious or amufing, the
“——~ ladies find themfelves fully employed, and feldom com-
plain of time hanging heavy. But various occafions call
them abroad. They vifit near relations feveral times
in the year, as alfo when in childbed, or in ficknefs;
they affift at nuptial, and funeral ceremonies; and, at
eftablifhed hours, go to confult their phyfician at his
houfe, when the cafe does not require his attendance at
the Harem. ‘Thus, women above a certain rank, are,
in proportion to the extent of their conne¢tions, more
or lefs engaged, while thofe of the lower clafs are often
obliged to go out to market, and conftantly to the Bag-
nio: the laft indeed brings all the women abroad ; for
even thofe who have baths at home, are in cafes of ce-
remonial invitation, obliged to repair to the public bath*.

Mondays and Thurfdays are the women’s licenfed
days, for vifiting the tombs, and, with their children and
flaves, for taking the air in the fields or gardens. The
flaves carry carpets, pipes, coffee equipage, and pro-
vifions: the garden fupplies lettuces, cucumbers, or
fuch fruits as are in feafon. Some take poffeffion of the
garden fummer-houfes, others place themfelves under
the fhade of trees, and all pafs the day in high feftivity.
In the fpring feafon, the gardens in the vicinity of the
town, are crowded with women, and, towards evening,
the feveral avenues of the town are filled with them,
returning home. Some parties of the better clafs are

preceded
+ Page 133.

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 256

preceded by a band of finging women, the ladies them-¢ # Ages
felves walking behind with a flow and ftately ftep ; but ——~
the lower people are lefs formal, they advance in groups,
finging as they walk along, and with the tympanum and

the zilareet make the air refound on all hands. Ladies

of diftinction, on thefe occafions, drefs in the plaineft
manner, and wear the ordinary ftriped veil, inftead

of the white Furragi; but moft of the others drefs in

their gayeft apparel, and, when at a little diftance from
town, being more carelefs of their veil, they give accl-
dental opportunity of feeing more of their faces, than at

any other time.

As men on thefe public days, are not excluded from
the gardens, numbers are of courfe found {trolling in the
walks, which obliges the women to be more on their
guard, and to remain muffled up. But there are felect,
parties, on other days, exempt from that difagreeable
reftraint, and in all refpects more elegant. Thefe are
compofed of the ladies belonging to two or three
Harems, who hire the garden for the day. The Divans
in the fummer houfes of the gardens are furnifhed from
the city; cooks are fent to prepare the entertainment ;
the Harem-Kehiafi, with fome pages, attend at the gate
to prevent the intrufion of ftrangers, and, the gardeners
being obliged to keep out of the way, the ladies are at
liberty to, walk about more negligently veiled. The
company fet out from town by dawn of day, and return

at funfet. A numerous train of flaves or fervants avail
them-

256 OF THE TURKISH

Book themfelves of the opportunity to make merry, and the

\.—— day is confidered as one of licenfed frolic. Muficians,
dancers, and buffoons, are among the female attendants,
and their mufic and zilareet may be heard at the diftance
of a mile. The gardener, in the mean while, has little
reafon to wifh for parties of this kind, being by no
means adequately recompenfed for the mifchief done his
fruit trees, the branches in bloffom being broken without
mercy, and the fruit gathered before it is half ripe.

On thefe occafions, the ladies ufually walk to the
garden, unlefs when it happens to be too diftant,
in which cafe the principal ladies go in a covered
litter, carried by two mules; while fuch of their retinue
as do not choofe to walk, ride on affes, or mules.

The litter is called a Tahtruan, and is fometimes ufed
by old or infirm men. It is the moft fafhionable vehicle
for the ladies, but, in long journies it is carried by two
camels inftead of mules, efpecially on the pilgrimage to
Mecca. ‘There are always a certain number of Tahtru-
ans in the fuite of a Bafhaw.

There is another vehicle for women and children of
ordinary rank, two of which are fufpended on the oppo-
fite fides of a camel, fo as to be always in equilibrium.
They are wooden cradles half covered with thin hoops
of wood, over which an awning is occafionally fpread.
They are furnifhed with a mattrefs and cufhions, upon
which a perfon can fit eafily enough in the Eaftern

fafhion,

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 257

fafhion, but cannot ftretch out at full length. They are cH 4?
called Muhaffi ®. hence!

Befides the two public days in the week, feveral others
are folemnized by the women, in commemoration of
certain Sheihs, or holy men, whofe tombs they an-
nually vifit, from devotion: the convent of Sheih Abu
Bekre, is vifited by vaft crowds of women, two or three
times in the year.

It is a cruel difappointment when the women, by an
ordinance of the Governor or the Cady, are prohibited
from going abroad on their ordinary privileged days,
which is the cafe when troops are to march near the
city, or at other times of expected tumult. A Bafhaw
rarely acts capricioufly in this point, but the ordinance
is always regarded as tyrannical, and, though pun¢tually
obeyed, occafions great murmuring.

From what has been faid, it would appear that the
Turkifh ladies are not in fact fo rigoroufly confined as
is generally imagined: it may be added, that habit, and
the idea of decorum annexed to their reftraints, render
them lefs irkfome. ‘Their ignorance of the female pri-
vileges enjoyed in many parts of Europe, precludes any
mortifying comparifon, and, when told of thofe privi-
leges, they do not appear very defirous of a liberty
which, in many inftances, they regard as inconfiftent
with their notion of female honour and delicacy. When

* See Harmer, v. i. p. 445.
Vou. I L1 it

258

OF THE TURKISH

BOOK it was faid, in the former edition, ‘‘ that the Turks of
—~—~ ‘ Aleppo being very jealous, keep their wives as much

‘* at home as they can, fo that it 1s but feldom they are
“¢ allowed to vifit each other,” it was to be underftood
comparatively with the liberty enjoyed by the European
ladies. But the cuftom of keeping the women clofe
fhut up, is of high antiquity in the Eaft, and was by the
Turks rather adopted, than introduced into Syria.

‘¢ The barbarous nations, (fays Plutarch) and amongft
‘them the Perfians efpecially, are naturally jealous,
‘© clownifh, and morofe, toward their women; fo that
‘¢ not only their wives, but alfo their female flaves and
‘¢ concubines, are kept with fuch ftriCinefs, and fo con-
‘< ftantly confined at home, that they are never feen by
‘‘ any but their own family; and when they take a
‘‘ journey they are put into a carriage fhut clofe on all
“fides In fuch a travelling carriage they put Themif-
‘“‘ tocles, and told thofe whom they met or difcourfed
‘‘ with upon the road, that they were carrying a young
‘¢ Grecian lady out of Ionia to a nobleman at court’.”

This circumftance is dated in the firft year of Artax-
erxes, that is about 462 years before the birth of our
Saviour. It may further be remarked that it was a
capital offence in Perfia to crofs the way when a carriage
containing women was pafling*®. But the Greeks them-

7 Life of Themiftocles.
* Life of Artaxerxes—and Strabo, lib. xv.
felves

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 259

feves had their wards for the reception of the women, c HAP.
which feem to have been much the fame with the —~
women’s quarter in the Syrian Seraglios. ‘The women
lived immured there under great reftraint; they were
fometimes attended by Eunuchs; and never went abroad
without a veil, or without fome old female attendants.
The Roman manners in this refpect were very differ-
ent"°; but it is not probable that their conquefts in Syria
produced much change in the ceeconomy of the Greek

Harem.

Women of condition in Syria always walk abroad
attended by a numerous fuite; no modeft woman is
ever feen in the ftreet without a fervant or companion,
unlefs perhaps elderly women of an inferior clafs. Of
the attendants on the great, one is generally a Bidoween
woman belonging to the Harem, who is eafily diftin-
guifhed, notwithftanding her veil. Indeed the veil worn
in ordinary by the ladies themfelves, is not fufficient to
hide them from their acquaintance, and when they wear
the black crape over the face, which conceals them more
effectually, the flaves in their train, who are often em-
ployed to carry meflages, or to go to the Bazars, being
known to the fhop-keepers, difcover the Harem to which

they belong.

9 \ , ,
yrvainav, yuvarmwpyiticn OF YuvainwwTns.

v. 876.—Jphigen. v. 738.
Lis Thefe

260 OF THE TURKISH

Book ‘Thefe circumftances, together with the want of pre-

“—~— per places of rendezvous, may be confidered as material
obftacles to criminal intrigue; which various circum-
{tances render fo liable to detection. Befides, as in-
trigues are rarely heard of, it may reafonably be con-
cluded they do not often happen. I hardly remember
a public inftance of adultery, at Aleppo, in the courfe of
twenty years; and, in the private walks of fcandal, thofe
I heard of were among the lower clafs, and did not in
number exceed a dozen. As to the illicit admiffion of
{trangers into the great Harems, confidering the number
that muft be trufted with the fecret, it would, appear to
be impoffible. Nor does Aleppo, in this refpeét pro-
bably differ much from other Turkifh cities: though
there may perhaps, in the capital, be third places more
commodious for affignation, than are to be found in the
Provinces. In refpecét to the Franks, the undertaking
is attended not only with fuch rifk to the individual, but
may, in its confequences, fo ferioufly involve the whole
fettlement, that it is either never attempted, or is con-
cealed with a fecrecy unexampled in other matters. I
have reafon to believe that European travellers have
fometimes had a Greek courtezan impofed on them for
a Sultana, and, after being heartily frightened, have been.
induced to pay {martly, in order to preferve a fecret,
which, the day after, was known to half the fifterhood
in town".

The ftate of gallantry at Conftantinople, feems to be different from
what is reprefented above. Note LXIX.
But

HAREM,’ ‘ATILALEPPO. 261

But it would be rather harfh to afcribe the chaftity of c HAP.
the women folely to thefe exterior reftraints. Innate —~—~
modefty, cherifhed from its firft dawnings with maternal
care, and, in riper years, fheltered from the contagion
of infidious gallantry, ought in candour to be allowed
fome fhare in the protection of the fex from irregularities,
to which the climate, as well as the natural conftitution,
may be reckoned favourable: and fkill in the arts of
feduction, or a character for illicit amours, being
neither deemed requifite nor venial, in the compofition
of a Turkifh fine gentleman, tuition, finding fewer ob-
ftacles to encounter, may perhaps on that account be
lefs liable, than in fome other countries, to fail of
fuccefs 7”.

The wives and concubines, of relations who live
familiarly together, are reftrained by the ties of con-
fanguinity, from a criminal intercourfe, which would be
deemed fcandalous, if not inceftuous; and clandeftine
intrigues between the boys and maid fervants, to what
ever caufe it may be owing, are in fact lefs frequent
than might be expected. It is indeed hardly poffible
that an amour fhould remain long concealed in the
Harem; and the mothers ufually take care to haften the
marriage of their fons, before the paffions become too
fierce for the control of parental authority.

I have been told by Turkifh ladies, that a principal

* Note LXX.
view

262 OF THE TURKISH

B0oxK View in their preference of flaves to free women, as
—~ menial fervants, was to prevent domeftic intrigues.
When a free girl is feduced, her parents make ufe of
the accident to lay the family under contribution, by
threatening a public profecution, which is not only pro-
ductive of expenfe, but, what to the women is more
vexatious, expofes the honour of the Harem. The girls
fometimes flyly give encouragement, not only from the
hope of fome pecuniary indemnification, but alfo perhaps,
of obtaining a hufband. This laft is no uncommon mode
of compounding the matter, it not being difficult to find
fome one willing, for money, to take the girl, but who is
at the fame time, careful] to retain, as an additional dow-
ery, the power of harafling the family, as often as he be-
comes neceflitous. Families are fometimes plagued with
thefe vexations, at the diftance of feveral years, and that
even where the complaint is groundlefs. I have had
occafion accidentally to hear fuch caufes tried at the
Mahkamy, but believe they are not common; for the
miftrefs of the Harem, generally choofes to prevent public
{candal, by fubmitting to private extortion. The flaves
on the contrary, having no kindred to fupport them, can
derive few fimilar advantages, from criminal intrigue. .
The youth of diftinction, without the precincts of the
Harem, have little or no opportunity of indulging in
illicit pleafures, for they are not only never permitted
to go abroad unattended, but there are no private places

of refort where the fexes can meet. “The common pro-
{titute

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 263

ftitutes (who are chiefly attached to the foldiery) are ofc x AP.
the loweft order, and lodge in fuch obfcure places of the ——~
town, that no perfon of character can have any decent
pretence to approach them. Thhefe proftitutes are
licenfed by the Bafhaw’s Tufinkgi Bafhee, whom they

pay for his protection. Some are natives of Aleppo,

but many come from other places. They parade in the
ftreets, and the outfkirts of the town, dreffed in a flaunt-

ing manner, their veil flying loofely from the face, their
cheeks painted, bunches of flowers ftuck gaudily on the
temples, and their bofom expofed; their gait is mafcu-

line, and full of affeCiation, and they are in the higheft
degree impudent and profligate. There are perhaps a

few courtezans of a fome what higher clafs, who entertain
vifiters in more fuitable lodgings ; but the rifk which
people of property run, when detected, of being forced

to fubmit to arbitrary extortion, or to be expofed to
public ridicule, confines this mode of gallantry to the
inferior clafs of Ofmanli, and the Janizaries.

The ladies of the Harem are either free born natives
of Turkey, or flaves originally Chriftian, who have been
brought from Georgia: the number of the latter at
Aleppo is comparatively {mall.

The ‘Turkifh girls of condition are carefully educated :
and thofe of every denomination are taught filence, and
a modeft referved demeanour, in the prefence of men.
From infancy, they are feldom carried abroad without a

gauze

264 OF THE’ TURKEBE

Bo ox gauze handkerchief thrown over the head, and from the
-—-—~ age of fix or feven, they wear the veil. When about
feven years old, they are fent to fchool to learn to few
and embroider: but their work in embroidery is greatly
inferior to that of the Conftantinople ladies. “The hand-
kerchiefs of the men are embroidered with filk of various
colours, as well as with gold and filver; and are com-
mon prefents made by the women, in the fame manner
as worked watch cafes, purfes, and tobacco bags.
Some of the girls, as remarked before, are taught to
read and write the Arabic; but all are inftructed in
their prayers, their duty to parents, and in the exterior
forms of behaviour. Perfons of condition, feldom fend
their children to the public fchool, after the ninth year,
either engaging profefled teachers to come into the
Harem, or, making an interchange, become tutoreffes
to each others children. By this laft mode the petu-
lance, fo often the confequence of indulgence at home,
is in fome meafure corrected ; for the voluntary tutorefs
maintains ftrict authority, keeps the young pupil under
her eye, makes her fit in the apartment where fhe her-
felf and her flaves are at work, and, when fhe goes from
home, fhe leaves the girl under the care of fome one
who is to make a report of her conduct. A laudable
difcretion in converfation is preferved in the prefence of
thefe girls, and an indireét leffon is occafionally given,
by reprimanding the flaves in their hearing. Indeed
the whole of their education appears not to confift fo
much

HAREM, AT SAVEPPO.

much in a formal courfe of precepts, as in artfully
fupplying the pupil with examples in domeftic life,
from which fhe may draw rules for her own conduct:
and which, being as it were the refult of her own re-
flection, acquire perhaps more lafting influence.

The early feparation of the boys and girls, (for they
are fent to different reading fchools,) foon leads each
fex to the purfuit of its peculiar amufements, preparing
them gradually for the disjoined ftate of their future
lives. The boys grow impatient of confinement in the
Harem, and love to pafs their time among the pages
and the horfes; they affume a grave, fedate air, and
imitate the manners of thofe whom they obferve to be
refpected among the men. The girl forms different
ideas of her own dignity, grows attentive to the punc-
tilios of her fex, is proudly fond of her veil, and ftrives
to imitate the gait, the tone of voice, and the peculiar
phrafes of thofe ladies whom fhe has heard chiefly com-
mended.

‘« The boys (according to M. D’Arvieux) are not
*“* permitted to enter the apartments of the women, after
‘‘ their feventh year: fuch is the jealoufy of the men.”
Others have faid the fame: but if the circumftance was
true at the time he wrote, it is not at prefent the cafe
at Aleppo. The boys have free accefs to the Harem
till fixteen or feventeen. They are not indeed carried
to the Bagnio with the women, later than fix years old’,

* Note LXXI.
7 O21. I. M m The

265

(errs ped

266
BOOK
ee nee,

OF! THE TTURKisia

The women in their perfons are rather engaging than
handfome. It was remarked before, that they were
pretty in infancy, but changed for the worfe as they
grew up: yet they retain for ever the fine piercing eye,
and many to the laft poffefs their exquifite features,
though not their complexion. They do not wear ftays,
and are at little pains to preferve their fhape. In gene-
ral they are low in ftature, and fuch as are tall, for the
moft part ftoop. The women of condition affe@& a
ftately gait, but walk inelegantly, and the carriage of
their body is devoid of that eafe, and air, to which an
European eye has been accuftomed. The drefs in
which they appear abroad, is not calculated to fet off
the perfon; the veil fhows their fhape to difadvantage,
the legs are awkwardly concealed by the boots, and even
without them, their movement is not fo elegantly eafy
as that of their arms: which may be the reafon that they
appear to moft advantage when fitting on the Divan.

The tranfient manner in which the Turkifh wo-
men can only be feen by a ftranger, renders it difficult,
if not impoffible, to fpeak decidedly of their beauty,
in comparifon with that of the women of other countries,
who are feen with more familiarity. Their drefs and
veil, which are fo difadvantageous to their fhape, may
perhaps (the latter particularly) be of advantage to their
looks. Ihave had occafion to fee great numbers, and
thought them in general handfomer than the Chriftian,
and Jewith ladics; but I was fometimes inclined to

doubt

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 267

doubt whether that opinion might not in fome degree be c # AP
afcribed to feeing them partially, or when are nme
fuch a manner, as to give relief to their beauty: it is
certain that many whofe faces I had at firft thought
exquifitely fine, from under a loofe veil, loft confiderably

when more expofed.

When the female flaves are purchafed very young,
which feldom happens, they are brought up much in the
fame manner with the daughters of the family; but if
they have reached the age of fifteen, or more, being
then confidered as too far advanced for regular fchool-
ing, they owe their future improvement to accidental
opportunities, and for that reafon are feldom fo accom-
plifhed as the Turkifh girls of condition. This however
is only to be underftood of fuch as are brought for fale
to Aleppo; for many of thofe who are carried young to
Conftantinople, are carefully kept by the merchant, till
they have acquired fuch improvements, as ferve to en-
hance their price. They are inftructed in muiic, danc-
ing, drefs, and all the arts of allurement; and they gene-
rally poflefs the advantage of perfonal charms. Thefe
high bred ladies very feldom appear at Aleppo; the ex-
travagance of their price 1s one objection, and they are
confidered alfo as capable, by their example, of corrupting
the lefs refined manners of the Syrian Harem. I knew
an inftance of a Bafhaw, who procured, two of thofe
ladies, at a very confiderable expenfe, from Conftantino-

M m 2 ple;

268 OF THE TRURKISH

BOOK ple; but he difmiffed them in lefs than three months:

—~— declaring they had in that time turned the heads of half
the women in the Harem, and, befides ruining him in
fine clothes, he believed they would, in two months more,
have transformed his daughters into dancing girls.

The flaves of a certain age are either purchafed
merely as menial domeftics, or as future partners of the
bed. Of the former, there are many who turn out moft
excellent, and faithful fervants; they have no kindred
nor connections to allure them abroad, and they become
fincerely attached to the family, into which, accident has
introduced them. Though the menial flaves are in the
power of their mafter, they are protected in a great
meafure from violation, by eftablifhed cuftom, as well
as by other confiderations. Should they happen to
prove pregnant, they do not ceafe to be flaves, but their
mafter has no longer the right of felling them, and the
offspring enjoy nearly the fame rights of inheritance
with legitimate children. If the flave be the property
of one of the ladies of the Harem, whether purchafed,
or received as a prefent, her perfon is regarded, in de-
cency, as almoft equally facred with that of a daughter
of the family, and an injury done her, would be deemed
a high affront to her miftrefs.

The flaves deftined for the bed, are recommended
more by their beauty and perfonal attractions, than their
domeftic qualifications; and their future fortune depends
on various accidents. When brought into the Harem

HAREM, ATO VALEPPO. 269

a Nt

of a young voluptuary, the new favorite, after triumph- ¢ # a te
ing in a pleafing dream of envied pre-eminence, foon ee
finds herfelf reduced to the fame ftate with the neglected
females fhe had fupplanted ; and, if fhe brings no child,
muft fometimes fubmit to the humiliating employment
of attendance on happier rivals: or try her fortune, at
the option of her mafter, in fome other family. When
the young flave falls at firft to the lot of a bachelor, or
of a man of fuitable age, who, having never had children,
obtains his wife’s confent to take a concubine, fhe at
once is well received, and not unfrequently forms a
happy eftablifhment for life. But it too often is the fate
of thofe orphan beauties, to fall the helplefs victims of
wealthy age, caprice, and impotency ! They are doomed
to bloom unfeen, and to wafte their prime in taftelefs
luxury. The death of their jord releafes them at length
from bondage; but their fhare of his fortune being in-
adequate to the fupport of their accuftomed ftate, they
find themfelves reduced to the neceflity of pafling the
remainder of their days, in parfimonious folitude ; or, if
they feek a connection by marriage in fome inferior
rank, they become entangled in duties, for which their
former idle way of life has but ill qualified them.

The girls belonging to the women, who are purchafed
young, are brought up with care, and are fometimes
honorably eftablifhed in the Harem; or, with confent of
their miftrefs, perhaps are married to fome domeftic
without doors: they, receive their freedom, and con-

tinue

270 OF THE TURKISH

Be ON tinue ufeful adherents to the family. But a large propor-

rae’ toil of thefe flaves remain for ever fingle; they follow
the fortunes of their miftrefs, and though generally
emancipated at her death, they retain a grateful attach-
ment to her children.

When a perfon dies, his flaves (fuch as have born
children excepted) become the property of his heirs :
there are however certain degrees of confanguinity which
exclude them from the bed of the fucceffor. The
Grandees fometimes beftow flaves, who have had no
child, on their favorite dependants, as a mark of regard;
but it is ufually with confent of the woman, who, together
with her freedom, receives a marriage portion. On
the other hand, they are fometimes prefented with a
virgin flave, by the rich merchants, or others who have
occafion to cultivate court intereft; and when fuch ladies
luckily become favorites, they often give proof of their
gratitude, in the fervices rendered to the family of their
firft patron.

The great men alfo make prefents of flaves to each
other, but the cuftom is lefs common, and confidered as
more dangerous. It has been made fubfervient to in-
famous policy, by carrying murder into the moft facred
recefles of domeftic fecurity ; and the lovelieft forms of
female beauty, have fometimes, though perhaps often
unjuftly, been fufpected of being made the cruel inftru-
ments of the blackeft treachery.

A Bafhaw whom I had occafion to know at Aleppo,

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 271

in the year 1762, and who, within a few months after, c HAP.
died Bafhaw of Cairo, was ftrongly fufpected of having —~—~
been poifoned by a beautiful flave, of whom he was
extremely fond, and who had been prefented to him,

after he left Conftantinople, by the grand Vizir. I had

an opportunity afterwards of converfing with feveral of

his domeftic officers, and, from circumftances, was in-
clined to believe, (what they did not) that his death,
though fudden, was merely accidental. He had con-
fulted me, before going to Cairo, on account of Vertigoes

to which he had been fubject for feveral years. He

was a young man of a plethoric habit, a fhort neck, in-
temperate in his pleafures, and, having loft his mother

in an apoplexy, was ftrongly apprehenfive of dying of

that diftemper. A fit unfortunately feized him when

no other perfon but the flave was prefent.

Among people of rank, as well as the rich merchants,
there are many who marry a flave in preference toa free
woman; choofing to forego the pecuniary, and indeed all
advantages of alliance, rather than fubmit to the conditions
on which fuch females are obtained. A woman of birth,
confcious of family confequence, is apt to be haughty
and petulant, and her relations fometimes make it one
of the marriage articles, that the hufband fhall not take
another to his bed. At any rate, the apprehenfion of
family refentment, lays him under a reftraint, not ex-
perienced with a partner, whofe intereft it is anxioufly

272

OF (THE! TURKISH

BOOK to endeavour to cunciliate the affections of the man on
‘—+—~ whom is her fole dependence, and who poffeffes the

power of arbitrarily deferting her. ‘This fpirit of liberty,
or rather of licentioufnefs, is faid to be more general at
prefent than formerly, while the gratification of it is be-
come more difficult, from the decreafe in the number
of Georgian flaves brought into the Provinces. At the
fame time it may be remarked, that the reftri¢tion to
one woman, being only matter of private contract, not
a religious precept, the article is often infringed, and,
in confequence is productive of much domeftic uneafi-
nefs.

It may be fufpected, where courtfhip can have no
place till after poffeffion, or at leaft till after the obje&
is within the power of the lover, that there can be little
room for delicacy of fentiment ; and that, while the man
led only by the coarfer paflion, neglects the arts of
refined addrefs, the woman will regard with carelefs
indifference, the infidelities which cuftom has fanétified,
and which fhe can neither prevent, nor refent. The
fufpicion may perhaps, in general be juft, with refped
to the theory of love, in Turkey. The men pretend to
defpife gallantry as frivolous, nor is the imagination of
either fex perverted by the fictions of Romance.
Neverthelefs, in the courfe of a more intimate acquaint-
ance with individuals, I was juftified in the belief, that
nature herfelf dictates a namelefs refinement of paffion,

which

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 273

which often renders them reftlefs, or difcontented, and c H AP.
fhows that fomething more is wanting to the perfection —~—~
of luxury, than the mere power over paflive beauty.

On the other hand, though defertion on the man’s
part, does not reflect much difhonor on the woman, yet
a certain fenfibility makes her often feel feverely the
unprovoked injury; and fhe laments, in fecret, a neg-
leét which though fafhion may vindicate, it cannot fup-
prefs the feelings of the human heart. The unufual
attention beftowed on drefs, and the improved polith
in manners, obfervable foon after marriage, in many of
the Turkifh youth, is a tacit indication of a greater re-
fpeét to the fex, than the profeffed principle of the men
would feem to admit: while the faded cheek of forfaken
beauty, with a long train of chronic ailments, confequent
to indulged melancholy, are proofs, too frequently met
with, of that female fenfibility, which flowly confumes
the fpirits, and expofes the bloom of youth to the canker
of hidden grief.

The inftances now alluded to, though not uncommon,
are to be confidered as exceptions to the regular in-
fluence of cuftom, which renders the fex patiently re-
figned to the inconftancy of their hufband; or fubjects
them only to tranfient fits of refentment. The flaves
who have intruded on others, have little pretence to
murmur at the man’s divided affection, and appear con-
tented in fharing it in common with the reft. The
wives find it their intereft to be filent, and when not

WoL. I. Nn deprived

27 4

OF THE TYURKIS

BOOK deprived of their legal claim on the hufband, truft
“—~— rather to acquiefcence than remonftrance. It is fortu-

nate for both when they happen to have children to en-
gage the mother’s attention ; fhe to them, transfers her
love, and anxious tendernefs, and, for their fakes, con-
tinues officioufly to cultivate the good will of the father,
though without hope of his returning paflion.

For fome time after marriage, the young man of
family, is confined folely to his wife ; it is not till further
advanced in life, or till he comes into pofleffion of the
father’s eftate, that he avails himfelf of the right of
polygamy. A prevailing notion that pleafure can only
be found in variety, naturally prevents his beftowing
much pains on the cultivation of a paflion, which is likely
to attach him to a fingle object. It however, fometimes
happens, that he is entangled unawares ; and it is far
from uncommon, in the great Harems, to find the man’s
affections engrofled by one lady, while the vifits he is
under an obligation of paying to the others, ferve only
to convince him of the difference between mere defire
and fond affection. Ihave been told, by the men them-
felves, inftances of what they called extravagant paffion,
which they had experienced at different times of life,
and which they ingenuoufly confeffed, had rendered
them fo foolifhly fubmifhive to the woman, that they
were heartily afhamed of their weaknefs. It is curious
alfo to obferve, in a fituation where pecuniary or other

motives can have no influence, how little beauty feems
to

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. a715

to be regarded, in determining the man’s choice. It is cH».
often remarked that ladies who have pretenfions but to-—~—~
few perfonal charms, are preferred to the moft graceful

and engaging forms ; and the examples are numerous of
lafting connexions, formed with the plaineft women in

the Harem.

Nn 2 CITA P,

CoA. Po NE

OF THE TURKISH HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

POLYGAMY. — DIVORCE, —INTERIOR GECONOMY OF THE HAREM.—
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.--COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF CONNU-
BIAL HAPPINESS IN TURKEY.—WOMEN SELDOM INTERFERE IN
POLITICS.—RESPECT PAID THEM IN PUBLIC.—POLYGAMY, AS IT RE-
SPECTS POPULATION.—CHILDBED CEREMONIES.—FUNERAL CERE-
MONIES. — THE WULWALY, OR DIRGE.—VISITATION OF THE SE-
PULCHRES.

i ee ‘Tue Mohammedan limitation of Polygamy, has

“~— been ftrangely mifreprefented by many European
writers; and, though clearly expreffed in the Koran, is
mifunderftood even by many of the natives in Turkey:
it being a vulgar notion that the law grants permiffion to
marry four wives, and to keepas great a number of con-
cubines, or female flaves, as the individual can afford to
maintain. But however the practice of fome men may
feem to juftify this opinion, it is a fact well known to
the more informed Turks, that the number fhould not
exceed four women, whether wives or concubines’.

* Note LXXII.
Not-

OF THE TURKISH HAREM, an9

Notwithftanding the legal fanction of Polygamy, a° #4 ?.
great majority of the people have only one wife. A‘~~~
very fmall number of the lower clafs have more than
one, and though many may be found in the middle rank,
who have two, or perhaps one wife and a concubine,
ftill the number is comparatively fmall. It is in the
upper ranks of life, where luxury of every kind abounds,
that people chiefly indulge in thefe privileges; and there,
while few have more than two, or at moft three wives
at once, many retain five or fix flaves, befides their
wives: fome are even found, who, availing themfelves
of an affluent fortune, and a toleration hardly deemed
{candalous, have from ten to twenty ladies, in their
Harem, deftined to their pleafures ”.

The Harems confifting of fo great a number of wo-
men, are never, or at leaft feldom, the property of very
young men, but have been gradually increafed in the
courfe of many years, and confequently the ladies who
have been introduced at different periods, are of very
different ages. Some have paffed the time of further
pretenfions ; fome have long been deferted from dif-
guft, others neglected from caprice; and, in general,

2 «« T have known fome of great opulence who have kept forty women,
** exclufive of thofe employed in the menial offices of the family.”

This paffage in the former edition, I have transferred from the text, and in
its ftead inferted a number lefs extraordinary, at Aleppo. One of the
inftances alluded to by my brother was (I believe) a certain Bafhaw, named
Koor Vizir, but I never heard of another inftance after my brother left the
country.

there

278

OF THE! TURKISH

Bo ox there are few only who continue to be regularly vifited.
“——~ They are all properly maintained, though not in the

fame degree of fplendor as the temporary favorite, but
fuch as have borne children claim particular refpect. The
Grandees who once give into this luxury, ufually perfift
in it throughout life, and continue to the laft to purchafe
young victims, when, befides oftentation, no motives
can be fuppofed to remain, except fuch only as actuate
dotage.

The expenfe of thefe great Harems is confiderable-
The female apparel and jewels are material articles ; it
being requifite for the fake of domeftic peace, to pre-
ferve a certain equality in the prefents of that kind,
cuftomarily made at the Byram. ‘Their table is more
frugal than that of the men, but, including the articles
of coffee, tobacco, and the maintenance of a numerous
train of fervants, is certainly expenfive. This confider-
ation reftrains many of the people of condition from
keeping very large Harems; and, in the inferior ranks,
a great proportion are deterred from Polygamy, by the
inability of fupporting the expentfe.

It may in part alfo be afcribed to frugal confideratiuns,
that divorces, which are fo eafily obtained, are not more
common among the middling people. For, not to
mention other inconveniences, the woman when divorced
(particular cafes excepted) reclaims her dowery; and if

the hufband fhould choofe to marry another, it is at-
tended

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 279

tended with new expenfes. In the fuperior ranks of life, c HAP,
divorces are likewife rare; the mediation of relations, —-~—~
and the reciprocal intereft of the parties, unite to pre-

vent a feparation, from which the hufband is likely to
derive no advantage that he might not obtain on eafier
terms: he can take another wife, or purchafe a new

flave.

Though the man, on very flight pretences, can legally
get rid of his wife, fhe on her part, except in a few par-
ticular cafes, cannot obtain a divorce without rifk of
lofing her dowery.

The parties feparated in this manner, may legally
come together again, within a ftated period. Should
the man repent of what he has done, any time before the
expiration of three months, the power of taking the
woman back, refts with him; but fhould he permit that
period. to elapfe, without declaring his intention, the
woman may then refufe her confent, and is free to
marry whom and when fhe pleafes. The power however
of the man is limited to two divorces; for if he divorce
her a third time, he cannot again take her back till fhe
fhall have confummated a marriage with another man, by
whom, after the term prefcribed by the Koran, fhe muft
be legally divorced. This form of divorce, is termed
Tilak b’al tlata; and a man may at once, by one fentence,
fubject himfelf to the condition attached to it; that is,
render the woman unlawful to him, till fhe has been
married to another man. None of the Mohammedan

cuftoms

280 OF THE TURKISH

BOOK cuftoms have been more grofsly mifreprefented than this

‘———~ triplicate divorce. All divorces go through certain
forms at the Mahkamy, or at leaft muft be confirmed by
witnefles.

The hufband’s power of divorce, and of felling, or
arbitrarily quitting his flaves, may partly account for the
maintenance of authority, amid the jealoufies, and rival
interefts in a great Harem. Other circumftances con-
tribute alfo to the prefervation of domeftic quiet +.

The wives, and the principal flaves, have each their
ref{pective apartments and attendants; their kitchen is in
common, but they keep feparate tables ; they vifit each
other, and cultivate intimacy as fancy leads them. They
receive their relations in their own apartments, and
feparately return the vifits: it is on particular occafions
only that all the ladies of the fame Harem affemble, or
are invited abroad together.

If the Harem be the fole property of one perfon, the
firft wife is ufually called Sit il kebeery*, the great lady,

> Note LXXiIT.

* «Tt may appear {trange how fuch a number (of women) fhould agree
‘© tolerably well together ; and in fact the mafter of the family hath very
«« frequently enough to do to keep the peace among them.” Former
edition p. I10.

The difficulty here hinted was (fo far as I could obferve) found lefs in the
very large Harems, than in the fmaller, where the women lived more
together.

; ona ew

and

HAREM) ATS ALEPPO. 281

and claims a certain degree of refpect from all the reft. c HAP.
But it fometimes happens (efpecially among the riche~—~
merchants) that the Harem, being fpacious, is inhabited
at the fame time by a father, and feveral married fons 3
or by the brothers, with their families, after the father’s
death. In the firft cafe, the right of Sit is conceded to
the wife of the father; in the fecond, it continues with
the widow, or elfe is affumed by the wife of the elder
brother. By this regulation, though not invariably ob-
ferved, many contefts are obviated about precedency ;
and deference to her opinion being founded on national
cuftom, her power, on a variety of occafions, is ufefully
exerted. A Turkifh matron, viewed in this light, when
placed at the head of a numerous family, and fuccefsful
in her adminiftration, is in truth a moft refpectable per-
fonage: and there were many at Aleppo, juftly entitled
to this character. Her death is generally followed by a
migration of the younger branches of the family ; the
increafe of children renders it neceffary alfo to move
into feparate houfes: but, in either cafe, a fociable in-
tercourfe is maintained among the kindred.

The Turks in general induce their children to marry
at an early period. Alliances among the opulent, are
fometimes projected by the parents, in the infancy of the
parties, and concluded when they come of age. The
young people may, in that cafe, have had an opportunity

WoL. Oo of

282

OF THE! TURKISE

BOOK of feeing each other in childhood, but it more ufually

oman happens that they are mutually ftrangers.

It is one of the cuftomary compliments paid a lady
in childbed, to wifh fhe may live to rejoice at the wed-
ding of her infant. As foon as the boy approaches the
age of puberty, the mother becomes anxioully defirous
to fee him marry; and if no arrangement has already
been made, fhe engages the affiftance of her female ac-
quaintance to find a fuitable bride. The Bagnios, the
gardens, and other ceremonious occafions which affem-
ble the women, afford the girls opportunities of being
feen by their own fex. ‘The female pedlers are excel-
lent fpies, and the mother and her friends; are feldom at
a lofs for ftratagems to gain admittance to Harems, with
which they are not acquainted, if the young woman
they have heard of, is not to be feen at other places.
The men truft the whole of this matter to their female
relations, and rely on the fidelity of the report ; for it
rarely happens that they are deceived: at leaft it is
never attempted to conceal from the man any vifible
defect of the woman.

When a young lady, with the requifite qualifications,
is found, and there is a probability of effecting a match,
the propofal is intimated to the mcther, and, if not at
once rejected, the friends on both fides take fome time
to make more particular inquiries. Should the refult

of thefe prove fatisfactory, the lady is then formally
de-

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 283

demanded of her parents, by the father of the young cHar.
man. Matters being brought thus far, each of the —~—~
parties, in the prefence of witnefles, appoints a fubfti-

tute to give affent to conditions; for though the man
fometimes appears for himfelf, the woman’s confent is
ufually given by proxy.

The proxies, at a meeting with feveral of the male
relations, adjuft the fum to be paid to the bride’s father,
with other articles of the marriage contract; and an
Imam, or Sheih, who attends and draws up the con-
tract, demands of the one proxy if he be willing to take
the woman for wife, and to pay fuch a certain fum by
way of portion; of the other, whether he alfo be con-
tented. An anfwer in the affirmative being returned by
both, the Sheih takes a hand of each, joins them together,
and pronounces a fhort benediction, as cuftomary on the
confirmation of a bargain. A purfe containing, or fup-
pofed to contain, the ftipulated money, is then delivered
to the bride’s father ; the contract is regularly figned and
fealed, and the ceremony concludes with the Sheih’s
reading fome verfes from the Koran. Upon the contract
thus legally executed, the Cady grants his licence for
the marriage, which is written either on the back of the
contract, or on a feparaie paper, and fealed at the top

by the Cady. If either of the parties be Shereefs, the
Nakeeb alfo affixes his feal °.

* A copy of a marriage contra& with the Cady’s licence, may be feen in

Note LXXIY.
Oo 2 It

284 OF THE TURKISH

BOOXk It now remains with the bridegroom to fix a day for

——~— the reception of his bride ; and, in the mean while, pre-
parations are made for the approaching feftival. Invita-
tions are fent to the male relations and acquaintance,
from the bridegroom. Bafhaws, Cadys, and others in
high ftations, fend invitations to every perfon of diftinc-
tion, even to the European confuls; for all who are in-
vited, whether they go or not to the feaft, accompany
their congratulations with a prefent. Thofe made by
the Europeans confift of vefts of cloth, brocades, or other
rich ftuffs, for female apparel, and of fweetmeats. In-
vitations are fent from the Harem to the women, and the
nofegays employed on that occafion, are decorated with
tinfel.

The female relations of the bride begin ten days be-
fore the wedding to invite her to the Bagnio, and take
it in turn to entertain her there almoft every day’, till
the one immediately preceding the nuptials, when they
defift, in order to have time for applying the henna *.
It is a neceflary part of ornament that the ladies of both
families, the children and fervants, as well as all the
female guefts invited, fhould have the henna applied frefh

for the occafion. During this time, rejoicings are made

’ This, from the frequent ablution, is termed Hummam Ghumra ax
sé, and the Depilatory (page 132) is applied for the firft time on one of
thofe days.

* Page 108.

HAREM) lA TVALEPPO,

at the bridegroom’s houfe, from whence fweetmeats, or © #.

285

A P.

other delicacies are fent as prefents to the houfe of the “~~

bride. On the evening of the laft day, a fupper is fent,
which, in allufion to the application of the henna, is called
Afhy Nukfhy.

To the money paid by the bridegroom, it is cuftomary
for the bride’s father to add a fum proportionate to his
own circumftances, the whole of which is laid out in
apparel and jewels for the bride, and in furniture for her
apartment. Thefe conftitute the wife’s paraphernalia,
and, three days before that of the wedding, are fent,
oftentatioufly difplayed on feveral mules, to the houfe
of the bridegroom.

Though it is always cuftomary, at Aleppo, for the
father to make an addition to what is paid by the bride-
groom, and to lay it out for the benefit of his daughter,
the cafe is different among the Bidoween inhabitants,
and in the villages; for there, the father ufually retains
a part of what he received for his daughter. In this fenfe
they may with more propriety than in the other, be faid
to fell their daughters’.

On the nuptial day, the women go in proceffion
from the bridegroom’s houfe, to fetch the bride, who is
brought home amid the acclamation of the women, ac-
companied by her mother, and feveral other female

* Note LXXIV.
relations.

286

OF THE \TURKASH

spook relations. The proceflion is always in the day time
JOC C
u+—~ and ufually about three in the afternoon; but, at

Aleppo, they do not carry tapers, as defcribed by fome
travellers. Certain appropriate ftanzas, by way of ept-
thalamium, are chanted by women hired on purpofe, or
by flaves, and the ziraleet ferves as a general chorus.
On their arrival at the houfe, the women, in exultation,
take poffeflion of the Harem, and fpend the remainder
of the day in feafting. A hired band of mufick con-
tinues playing inceffantly, and fuch of the women as have
good voices frequently join in the concert. In a ftill
evening, in the beginning of fummer, which is a fafhion-
able feafon for marriage, rejoicings may be heard in
every quarter of the city.

A wedding is one of the principal opportunities the
women have of difplaying their wardrobe; for which
reafon they bring varieties of apparel along with them,
and change their drefs perhaps two or three times in
the courfe of four and twenty hours. ‘The matrons,
who are not familiarly acquainted, treat one another
with much formal ceremony ; but the younger part of
the affembly indulge in various innocent gambols. The
bride ° remains all the while placed at the upper end of

» The bride in Arabic is called Aroofe , 5S The bridegroom Areefe
On yo Thefe words, in common difcourfe at Aleppo, are never ufed in-
differently, though in the Lexicons made of the common gender. A wed-
ing is called Urfe rye

a large

HAREM UAT S ALEPPO.

287

a large apartment, veiled in red gauze, and, with her CHAP.
eyes modeftly fixed on the ground, preferves frit ——~

filence.

The men feaft in the outer apartments, and have alfo
bands of mufic; but their mirth is lefs clamorous than
that of the women, it being only among the ordinary
clafs that the men join their voices in chorus.

When bed time approaches, the bridegroom being
drefled in frefh apparel, goes in proceflion through the
court-yard, attended by all the company. He is pre-
ceded by mufic, and the attendants at intervals make
loud fhouts of exultation as they march'®. ‘They leave
him at the door of the Harem, where he is. received by
his female relations, who conduét him towards the ftair
leading to the bride’s chamber; which is ufually above
ftairs, and is termed Marubba al Aroofe, the women
now redouble the ziraleet, and fome of them dance and
fing before him.

The bride covered with her gauze veil, and fupported
by fome of her own relations, appears at the top of the
ftairs, by the time he arrives at the bottom. She is.
dreffed in her wedding garment, her hair braided with
flowers and tinfel, and, if very young, flips of leaf gold
are fome times ftuck on her face. The refpective at-

*° The fhout at a diftance refembles the Englifh Huzza though not the
fame. Note LXXIV,
tendants,.

288

OF (‘THE TTURKISH

BOOK tendants, for fome minutes, pretend to hinder either of
If: . . °
“—~— the parties advancing, thofe of the bridegroom infifting,

as it were, that the bride ought to come down to receive
her hufband, while the others, on her fide, contend that
he ought to come up to her: but, matters being at laft
compromifed, they meet half way on the ftairs, and the
bridegroom recondu¢ting her to the nuptial chamber,
the relations bid the young couple farewel, and leave
them together.

The mufic, which had ceafed during this time, re-
commences, and the women, refuming their places on
the Divan, remain finging and feafting till morning.
Some of the men retire to fleep at their own houfes,

others, of the family, make the beft fhift they can, in the

outer apartments; for the female guefts entirely poffefs
the Harem.

If the marriage is confummated the firft night, the
Urfe properly finifhes the next day, and the bride’s
relations, who had attended her, return to their homes ;
the reft of the guefts of courfe do the fame: but other-
wife the relations, and fome of the other ladies, re-
main".

The nuptial rejoicings laft feveral days; open houfe
is kept, and the men entertain a fucceflion of company.
The women alfo are bufily employed, and receive con-
gratulatory vifits from many who were not invited to

* Note LXXIV.
the

HAREM, AT ALEPPO.

io]
hk

the wedding. It is a fortnight or three weeks, about ©# A P.

which period the bride is ufually conducted in ceremo- “~~

ny to the bath, before the Harem refumes its ordinary
tranquillity.

There is no other occafion on which the people of
the Eaft difplay fo feftive a fpirit, and fuch prodigal ex-
penfe, as on the marriage of their children, efpecially of
the eldeft fon. The cuftom claims the fanétion of high
antiquity, and is obferved not only in cities, but alfo in
the villages, and in the camps of the wandering tribes
of Syria; but this is to be underftood of the firft mar-
riage of the man with a free woman; the fubfequent
marriages are celebrated in a manner lefs coftly, and
thofe with flaves, with little or no fplendor.

It may be doubted whether the opulent Turks, in
proportion to their wealth, are not lefs profufe in this
refpect than the Jews and Chriftians; but, in regard to
the middling people of every denomination, it is certain
that the expenfe lavifhed on their marriage feafts, is ex-
travagant, beyond all proportion to their condition. The
female apparel and jewels are likewife fumptuous, much
above the fortunes of the perfons who wear them. They
confift of ftrings of zechins, or other gold coins; gold
bracelets and necklaces, of plain workimanfhip, and
rings; and in the higher ranks, of diamonds, pearls, and
trinkets of confiderable value *.

* Page 107.
Vou. I. P P It

290

BiO10 K
II.

OF THE TURKISH

It fhould however be remarked, that as fafhions fel-

“~— dom change, the fine clothes laft for many years, and

the jewels retain almoft for ever their firft value. They
are the abfolute property of the wife, not legally aliena-
ble but with her formal confent, and often prove the fole
provifion for the widow and her children. ‘They are
aNo a refource in times of neceflity, which is frequently
productive of much domeftic unhappinefs: for if the
wife fhould prudently refufe to pledge her trinkets, the
hufband, when entreaty cannot prevail, has recourfe to
harfh ufage. Nor is this mode of tyranny confined. to.
the middle ranks, the Grandees are alfo guilty of it on
emergencies, but have lefs difficulty in obtaining the
woman’s confent. Their wives, being poffeffed of a
fuperfluity of jewels, feel lefs from parting for a time
with fuch as lie unufed in their cafket; whereas the
woman of inferior rank, who is accuftomed to drefs
every day in all her trinkets, cannot fhow herfelf, with-
out betraying the neceflity which obliged her to refign
them: a circumftance which obliges her either to re-
main at home, or, if under the obligation of going to the
Bagnio, to borrow the trinkets of a neighbour. By
this means, female vanity has been brought to co-operate
with difcretion, in the prefervation of what is fo neceffary
to the fupport of the woman, after the death of her huf-
band.

HARE, JA TAALEERBO.

It is difficult for a mere fpectator, even in countries © 11 4 P.
where ftrangers are admitted to familiar intercourfe, to ‘~~

form a juft eftimate of conjugal happinefs. The married
ftate, in Turkey, would, at firft, feem to be divefted of
fome of it’s moft elegant and endearing attributes. The
ftately hufband fits down to his folitary meal, furrounded
by females, condemned by cuftom to fervile attendance
at his board, though the chofen partners of his bed, and
entitled to his tendereft attentions. He is treated with
reverential ceremony, and maintains an aufterity in his
own demeanour, difcouraging to the lively fallies of eafy
cheerfulnefs. The moft intimate acquaintance carries
no privilege of admiflion to thofe focial, domeftic hours,
where the wife, graceing the feaft, adds dignity to her
hufband, by her attention to his friends; while thofe
female powers which confpire to polifh the manners,
and enliven fociety, languifh from want of exercife, and
are little cultivated. But thefe, and many other cir-
cumftances, which European imaginations will readily
fuggeft, make little impreffion on perfons, who, having
never been taught to confider them as requifites to hap-
pinefs, can hardly be fuppofed to repine at not pofleffing
them. More refined pleafures, enjoyed in freer coun-
tries, have their correfpondent pains, and the indolent
Turk is content in his ignorance of both.

If fome allowance of this kind be made, the conjugal
ftate may perhaps in general be deemed not lefs happy
in Turkey, than im other countries. The women,

P pe ftrangers

292 OF THE TURKISH

BOOK ftrangers to the courtefy of European manners, are ac-

‘“—~— cording to their own notions, treated with a civility,
from which tendernefs is not wholly abfent'*. Circum-
ftances infeparable from humanity, give them import®
ance in the Harem. As the family increafes, the
mother’s care becomes of more and more confequence;
and the Turks, who are by no means deficient in
parental affection, efteem and cherifh the domeftic vir-
tues, on which fo much of their own quiet, as well as
the welfare of their children, neceffarily depends. Where
affection fails on the man’s part, habit ftill retains its
power ; appearances are preferved, and the rifk, efpeci-
ally in fmall Harems, of difturbing domeftic peace, is a
bar to the introduction of a rival. In age, the women
are refpected by the hufband, or find confolation and
fupport in their children; and as the majority of the
people have but one wife, few, in proportion, fuffer the
mortification of total neglect.

That the parties before marriage are ftrangers to each
other, a circumftance of all others the moft irreconcilable
to European prejudices, unpropitious as it may feem in
fpeculation, is fhown by experience to be of lefs confe-
quence, than can well be conceived by an European.
The effentials requifite to connubial happinefs are every
where, though under different modifications, nearly the

* A paflage in the former edition which may appear not confonant, if
not contradictory, to what is afferted above, requires fome explanation.
Note LXXV.

fame ;

HAREM,) (AT! + ALEPPO. 293

fame ; and in number perhaps fewer than over weening c HAP.
delicacy would make them. It muft be granted, that a-~~
couple till then unacquainted, find eres at the

firft interview, in a fituation which fanctifies the moft
unbounded intimacy ; and no doubt the punctilio of the

fex fuffers more violence, than where a feries of name:

lefs attentions have long preceded: but it foon becomes

the endeavour of both, under the impulfe of nature, and

of national cuftom, to realize their refpective precon-
ceptions ; and, moderate in expectation, they do not in-
duftrioufly, render their condition unhappy, by ideal
refinements which lead to. inconftancy and difcontent.

The matrimonial conjunction of oppofite tempers, is not
eonfined to Turkey; nor does there feem to be in fa&

a greater proportion of domeftic unhappinefs, fairly im-
putable to that caufe, than what may be found in coun-

tries where both fexes enjoy the ineftimable privilege of

free choice, grounded on a previous intimacy.

The women do not appear to interfere much in mat-
ters belonging to the man’s province, whether of a private
or public nature. They have for the moft part little am-
bition to become confidants, and know very litile of their
hufband’s affairs. The Grandees are fometimes, but
not often, folicited through the Harem, and it is then
confined either to domeftic promotions, or to interceffion
for offenders: it does not extend to the ordinary courfe
of political intrigue. This however is to be underftood

204. OF THE TURKISH

BLOLOLK of Aleppo, where the exceptions are rare. In fome of
Somes diftant Provinces, where the Bafhaws remain fixed
for feveral years, the cafe is different. The daughter of
Ahmet Bafhaw of Bagdat, was married to his fucceffor
Solyman Bafhaw, and her power chiefly fupported him.
She tranfacted public bufinefs through a female Kehia,
and gave audiences. ‘The Franks at Bagdat, on certain
occafions, made application to the Harem, and I have
feen letters on bufinefs from her, addrefled to the conful
of Aleppo. The condition of the women, in Syria, is
at prefent very different from what it was under the
Mamaluke government, if what is related by fome of
the early travellers be true ¥
Without doors, they are now treated with diftant re-
fpect; a well bred Turk never gazes on them as they
pafs in the ftreet, but turns his head another way, or
cafts his eyes on the ground. No provocatiun juttifies
laying hands on them; and, being liable only to verbal
reproof, they walk about in times of popular infurre¢tion,
without apprehenfion of infult: fome indeed, of the
inferior clafs, occafionally exercife their tongue in lan-
guage fo intemperately abufive, that it is wonderful to
fee even the boifterous Janizaries fubmit to it.
It was a ftory recent at Aleppo in the year 1750,
that, during the war with Nader Shah, certain troops,
who in their way to the frontiers halted fome days in

"> Note LXXVI.
the

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 295

the city, refufing to quit their quarters at the appointed c HAP.
time, were fairly driven out by a mob of women, armed —~—~
with diftaffs and ftones.

Soon after the beginning of the Ruffian war, in
(1769) the Greenheads, taking advantage of the abfence
of the Bafhaw and the Janizaries, who were gone to the
camp, ufurped the government of the city, took poffef-
fion of the gates, and obliged their whole order to take
up arms. It was remarkable, at this time, with what
intrepidity the old women ventured to revile the rebels,
who were day and night parading in arms, through the
public ftreets. The women feemed to have nothing ta
fear, except when the infurgents were intoxicated with
liquor. Amid this anarchy and confufion, which con-
tinued many weeks, nothing raifed fuch univerfal horror,
as a few inftances of the rebels breaking forcibly into
the Harems, in order to fearch for the mafter of the
houfe, who had declined joining them.

Criminals implore mercy in the name of the Harem,
as the moft powerful mode of fupplication; and the
bittereft contumely to a man, is that thrown. out againft
his women. ‘The officers of juftice do not prefume to
enter the door of a Harem, but in the prefence of the
Sheih of the diftri€t, and even then they muft allow time
for the women to veil. ‘Thefe privileges, not reftricted
to the Turkifh women, are equally enjoyed by the Chrif-
tians and Jews.

Whether,

296

BOOK
It:

OF THE TURKISH

Whether, in Syria, polygamy is found by experience

“——’ favourable to population, is a queftion of intricate dif

cuffion. In a country where fo little attention is paid
to political arithmetic, it becomes next to impoflible to
ebtain the fats neceflary for forming a juft eftimate: al]
therefore that, in fuch circumftances, can be collected
from cafual obfervation, will do little more than juftify
mere conjecture.

In the great Harems, the number of children, com-
pared with that in families of inferior rank, appeared to
be fmall, in proportion to the number of women im-
mured. ‘The people of condition marry at an earlier
period than others, and, in circumftances to indulge
intemperatély, are often enervated by the time they are
thirty: an event perhaps precipitated by the ufe of hot,
ftimulating remedies, to which on the firft fymptoms of
debility, they imprudently have recourfe. The women,
when married extremely young, that is about twelve or
thirteen, are fubject to frequent abortions, in confequence
of which their conftitutions are fo much impaired, that
they either ceafe breeding altogether, about the age of
twenty one, or they remain barren for an interval of
feveral years. Even thofe who marry at the more ufual
age, between fourteen and feventeen, though lefs fubject
to abortion, are apt in like manner, where they happen
to have brought two or three children, before their
twenty third year, to ceafe child-bearing’ for a long
fucceeding interval.

With

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 297

With refpect therefore to the great Harems, it was c HAP.
in general remarked, that few of the women brought--~—~
more than two or three children; fome had frequent
abortions, others remained for ever barren, and none of
them (fpeaking in general) bore fo great a number as
the married women in the inferior ranks of life. It may
further be remarked, that after a flave has borne one or
two children, fhe often is deferted in the prime of life,
to make room for a new favorite; while the men, in
confequence of this licentious indulgence, become early
in life incapable of propagation: or at leaft one only,
out of feveral women, is found pregnant. The conjugal
duty prefcribed by the Koran, is evaded under various
elufive pretexts ; and rambling fenfuality is unpropitious
to the increafe of mankind.

The above obfervations, fo far as they go, may aflift
in forming an opinion of polygamy, as it regards the
higher ranks of life: with refpect to the others, its
effects are perhaps more doubtful. ‘The firft wife may
either be fuppofed abfolutely barren, or to ceafe child
bearing after two or three births. “he man, in that
cafe, may take a fecond, or, fhe failing, a third wife,
and thus increafe his family, beyond what could be ex-
pected from the firft: the fame may be faid of flaves,
where one or two prove barren. Here it may plaufibly
be fuppofed, that polygamy is favorable to propagation;
and, in fact, the families under the circumftances fup-
pofed, are found to have more children, than thofe where

Vou. I. Qgq there

298

OF THE TURKISH

BOOK there is no more than one fruitful woman. But families
—~— of fuch a defcription are proportionally rare ; for where

the man’s paffion leads to variety, and his circumftances
enable him to gratify it, the love of pleafure ufually pre-
vails over the defire of progeny, and he is reduced by
excefs to the fame condition with the voluptuaries in
high life.

The impotence of the men is often afcribed to forcery;
in which unfortunate fituation, beng deemed Murboot't,
or tyed, they have recourfe to various fuperftitious
modes of loofening the charm. ‘This notion, however
abfurd, is univerfally received, and ferves greatly to
ageravate the diftrefs of fuch as happen, from other
caufes, to be enervated: it has fometimes fo great influ-
ence on the imagination of even young men, when firft
married, as to render them effectually impotent for many
days °°.

That the number of children, in the great Harems,
is fmall in proportion to the number of women, is a
fact fo notorious, that the Chriftians and Jews pretend
it is owing to certain means, ufed either to prevent
conception, or to procure abortion’. The imputation
is certainly not altogether groundlefs; though moft of
the medicines employed for that purpofe are of little

efficacy. Nor is it probable that they fhould be applied,

44 Logins
*s Note LXXVIL.
** Note LAXVIII.

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 299

by married women, till after the birth of feveral children, HAP.
when the apprehenfion of too numerous a progeny, may —~—~
be fuppofed to infpire the abominable defire of defeat-

ing the purpofe of nature. It may alfo be remarked

that abortions are moft frequent in the beginning of
marriage, when, the means of preventing them are
anxioufly fought after; and that the practice, intimated
above, is chiefly imputed to thofe who cannot plead
poverty in alleviation of the crime.

It is the univerfal wifh of the women to have children.
Through them they are endeared to the hufband, and
in them find fupport in the decline of life. But this
wifh has certain bounds; repeated births fo much im-
pair their conftitution, and fo large a fhare, in the trou-
ble of rearing children, devolves on them, that after they
have brought two or three boys, they are naturally in-
duced to wifh for a refpite, and under fuch circum-
ftances, might perhaps be impelled to take any fafe
medicine to hinder conception. But it is fortunate that
none fuch are boafted; all, (as well as the violent means
of procuring abortion, practifed by the midwives), being
fufpected of producing perpetual fterility, and therefore
are feldom ufed.

The women have eafier labours than in the Northern
regions ; owing perhaps to the frequent ufe of the bath,
as well as to the mild climate ; for in the latter months
of pregnancy, they go very oiten to the Bagnio.

2 q 2 They

300

BOOK
II

OF THE TURKISH

They are ufually delivered in the prefence of their own

“~— mother, fome near relations, and feveral females of the

family. The bed is made in one of the large apart-
ments, and the Nifsa, (for fo the woman is called as
foon as delivered) being placed in it, is conftantly fur-
rounded by attendants and vifitants, who talk loud, drink
coffee, and fmoke tobacco, without the leaft confidera-
tion of her condition. “The window curtains are never
let down, except to prevent the fun darting directly on
the bed; for they have as little idea of the propriety of
darkening the room, as they have of preferving filence
and quiet.

The Nifsa fits up in bed fupported with cufhions.
Her head is dreffed, and a large printed muflin handker-
chief is fpread over her neck and bofom, two corners
being faftened behind the ears. In this ftate fhe receives
her vifitants, each making a fet compliment, and pre-
fenting a flower; and it being expected from her to re-
turn an anfwer to each feparately, fhe is often under the
neceflity of talking a great deal more than fhe would
choofe.

If the child be a male (efpecially the firft born) the
crowd of vifitants is intolerable ; mu‘icians alfo are in-
troduced, and the women indulge their noify merriment
as ufual. This abfurd practice is fometimes attended
by bad confequences ; but 10 rhetoric can prevail againtt
it, unlefs the Nifsa happens to be dangeroulfly ill; flight
child bed diforders not being regarded. When the

child

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 301

child is a female they are more moderate in their re-C HAP.
joicings, there is no. mufic, and fewer meflages of con--—~—~
gratulation.

The pagan Arabs had an inhuman cuftom of deftroy-
ing their female children; to which the following paf-
fage from the Koran makes allufion. ‘* And when any
*¢ of them is told the news of the birth of a female, his
*s face becometh black, (clouded with confufion and for-
‘“‘ row) and he is deeply afflicted: he hideth himfelf
‘“‘ from the people becaufe of the ill tidings that have
‘been told him; confidering within himfelf, whether
“he fhall keep it with difgrace, or whether he fhall
“ bury it in the duft*’.”. The cuftom was abolifhed by
Mohammed; but the birth of a female, ftill feems to
blacken the faces of the family.

It is a common notion among the natives, that more
girls are born than boys; and to judge from the number
of girls vifible in the ordinary houfes, a ftranger might
be led at once to think the notion juft. The fact how-
ever is doubtful, at leaft as far as I was able to learn. It
fhould be obferved that a number of the boys, from the
age of fix or feven years, are employed in the filk and
cotton manufactures, by which means they are lefs feen
than the girls of the fame age, except at the hours of
their going and returning from work. I was inclined to

*7 Koran, chap. xvi. p. 218. Sale Prel. Dif. p. 131.
think

302 OF THE TURKISH

80 think that the difference in the proportion of males and

“—-—~ females born in Syria, is not fo confiderable as to be of
material confequence in the queftion of the natural ex-
pedience of polygamy *’.

The women of condition keep their bed fix days;
but on the feventh it is cuftomary to remove it, and they
then receive company fitting on the Divan. Between
the fifteenth and twentieth day, they go in ceremony to
the Bagnio. ‘The women of inferior rank quit their bed
the fourth or fifth, thofe of the villages ftill fooner, and
it is afirmed of the hardy Bidoweens, that they do not
keep their bed at all. “The Arabs however, at Aleppo,
are not fo robuft as M. D’Arvieux defcribes thofe of
Paleftine to be, who are delivered on the road, or
wherever they happen to be taken in labour, and taking
up the child, after a fhort reft, they march on and wafh
the infant at the firft fountain '9,

The mother for the moft part fuckles her child, unlefs
prevented by ficknefs, want of milk, or fore nipples, to
which diforder the women are very fubject. Among
people of condition, an affiftant wet nurfe is fometimes
called in; for during the firft year, the child is allowed
little other nourifhment than milk; afterwards it has a
little fpoon meat, and is permitted to gnaw a cruilt of

* Note LXXIX.
"* Voyage dans la Paleft. p. 276. Note LXXX.

bread,

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. 303

bread, a bit of cucumber, or the like. When there is c HAP.
a neceility for configning the child entirely to a eer
nurfe, fhe is kept conftantly in the Harem, under the
mothez’s eye. ‘Che nurfes are either the wives of fome

of the domeftic fervants, or Bidoween women. ‘The
child ts feldom kept lefs than two years at the breaft,

and fometimes three or four.

Two years is the term for nurfing, appointed by the
Koran, in cafe of divorce. ‘‘ Mothers after they are
** divorced fhall give fuck unto their children two full
‘* years, to him who defireth the time of giving fuck
*‘ fhould be completed, and the father fhall be obliged
*¢ to maintain them and cloath them in the mean while.
*« And the heir of the father fhall be obliged to do in
“like manner. But if they chufe to wean the child
‘¢ before the end of two years, by common confent, and
‘6 on mutual confideration, it fhall be no crime in them.
«¢ And if ye have a mind to provide a nurfe for your
‘¢ children it fhall be no crime in you, in cafe you fully
‘‘ pay what you offer her, according to that which is
%jiath 7°.

One reafon given by the women for fuckling fo long,
is their being lefs liable when nurfes to become preg-
nant; but they are often difappointed in this expeéia-
tion. They do not wean the child immediately on
finding themfelves pregnant, but perfift to the fixth or

* Koran, chap. ii. p. 27.

feventh

304. OF THE TURKISH

BOOK feventh month before they refign it to a nurfe, and
“—.—~ fometimes keep the child at the breaft during the whole
time of pregnancy.

I have known inftances of women giving fuck not
enly moft of the time, but during the whole of preg-
nancy; and fometimes continuing to fuckle the former
child, along with the new born infant. It was in women
of the lower clafs, and where they had become pregnant
very foon after delivery. Such extraordinary exertions
however, foon deftroy the woman’s conftitution. The
children alfo fuffer who are fuckled by a woman far
gone in pregnancy; though, in the firft months, dif-
orders in children are often afcribed to the pregnancy of
the mother, which are rather owing to giving them crude
fruit, or to the wregularitics of the nurfe in her own
diet.

The child during the firft weeks is fwaddled, but
afterwards is drefled in clothes which fit eafy, and are
faftened at the fides with narrow tape. It is put into the
cradle after the firft fortnight, and rocked by means
of a ftring made faft at the upper part; but they have
another kind of cradle fufpended in a frame, which, once
put into motion, continues of itfelf to fwing for feme-
time, like a hammock. ‘The Lullaby of the women is,
of all things termed mufical, the moft unmelodious.

» Sireer is the word vulgarly ufed at Aleppo.
li

AREM,
HAREM, AT ALEPPO 305

It is not the cuftom to carry infants about, fo much as c HAP.
in Europe. They are laid down on the Divan, or placed ~~
leaning on a cufhion, and left at liberty to crawl on the
carpet, as foon as they are able. In this manner they
are rather tardy in learning to walk, becaufe they foon
acquire another mode of progreffion which an{wers all
their purpofes. It confifts in fliding on their rump by
the affiftance of their heels, which they do with aftonith-
ing dexterity, and, as if protected by an intuitive fpirit,
they feldom go fo near the edge of the Divan as to tumble
down. The children when more grown up, are not
carried abroad in the women’s arms, but placed aftride
on the fhoulder**.. They are carried at an early period
to the Bagnio, and in general are kept very clean. The
manner of keeping them dry when infants is fingular *.

I fhall conclude this chapter with an account of the
funeral ceremonies of the Turks, as pra¢tifed at Aleppo,
in which the women perform a confpicuous part.

It is ufual when a perfon is deemed dangeroulfly ill,
to have one or two Sheths to read portions of the Koran,
and to pray by the bed fide. At the approach of death,
the attendants turn the face of the fick perfon (who lies
extended on his back) towards the Keblah, that is, to-
wards Mecca*. ‘The inftant he expires, the women

* Note LXXXI.

7s Note LXXXII.

* Page 195.

mo. I. Rr who

306

OF THE TURKISH

BO 9K who are in the chamber, give the alarm, by fhrieking as

—Sq\y ee

if diftracted ; and are foon joined by all the other females
in the Harem. This conclamation is termed the Wul-.
waly *4; it is fo fhrill as to be heard, efpecially in the
night, at a prodigious diftance ; and in the time of the
plague is dreadfully alarming to the fick, as well as
to thofe in health whom it aroufes from fleep. The
men difapprove of and take no fhare in it; but know it
is vain to interpofe: they drop a few tears, affume a
refigned filence, and retire in private. Some of the
near female relations when apprized of what has happen-
ed, repair to the houfe, and the Wulwaly, which had
paufed for fome time, is renewed upon the entrance of
each vifitant, into the Harem.

The corpfe is kept no longer than is neceffary to
complete the preparations for its interment, which fel-
dom require more than a few hours. The firft cere-
mony is the ablution of the body, performed by perfons
whofe profeffion it is, and who repair to the houfe on
the firft notice; bringing along with them a long wooden
table, which is the public property of the diftrict. The
corpfe, being laid upon this table, 1s wafhed feveral times
with plain water, and afterwards with water in which
camphor has been mixed, in {maller or greater propor-

* Wulwal Sigg or Say
For fome remarks of the learned Schultens on this word, and a compari-
fon of it with the ’oavavfew and "«raaalew of the Greeks, fee Note LX XXIII.

tion

HAREM, AT’ ALEPPO.

Boy

tion according to the condition of the deceafed. The ©# A?
natural paffages are ftopped with cotton, to prevent the “~~

oozing of any moifture that might defile the body after
ablution, and fome parts are fprinkled with a powder
compofed of fpikenard and other Aromatic herbs. The
ablution of females is performed by women. ‘The body,
after purification, is wrapped up in a clean, white
cotton, winding fheet, and laid in a bier of the ordinary
fhape, the lid of which rifing a little on the fides forms
a ridge in the middie. At the head of the bier is fixed
a batoon, on which the man’s Turban, or the attire of
the female head, is placed; the former the one worn in
ordinary by the deceafed, the other a head drefs of
obfolete fafhion, or fometimes only, ufed by very old
women. It is round and flat like a trencher, and on
this occafion, is covered with a white gauze handker-
chief. Over the bier is thrown a black pall embroider-
ed in the middle, and, fometimes enriched with a f{mal]
remnant of the cover of the holy houfe of Mecca.
Some of the deceafed’s beft wearing apparel is laid over
all, and at the funerals of the youth of either fex, flow-
ers are ftrewed on the bier.

The acquaintance, as well as kindred, of the deceaf-
ed, attend the funeral proceflion, which proceeds in the
following order. A number of old Sheihs with tattered
banners, and repeating inceffantly Ullah, Ullah, in a
humming tone, walk firft; mext comes the bier fur-
rounded by other Sheihs, fome of whom, in a loud

Erez voice,

308

OF THE TURKISH

Boox Voice, chant certain verfes of the Koran: the bier is

II. .
W4— carried by porters employed on purpofe, who are oc-

cafionally relieved by fuch perfons as think it meritori-
ous to lend their affiftance. Immediately behind the
bier, the male relations and acquaintance, waik in ranks,
and after them, the women and female flaves, led by the
chief mourner, who is by far the moft interefting figure.
She advances fupported by two attendants, her hair
difhevelled, and her veil flying loofely. She is bathed
in tears, and by ftarts fends forth the moft difmal fhrieks,
or in an agony of unutterable grief, fobs bitterly: then,
as if frantic, fhe tears her hair, and beats her naked bo-
fom; or with arms ftretched to their full length, clafping
her hands together, and raifing them aloft, fhe feems
filently to tax heaven with unkindnefs. Thefe a¢ts of
extravagance are fometimes, but not always feigned.
The tranfports of a mother following her only child to
the grave, or of the widowed matron of a young family,
carry expreffion that plainly fhows them te be not merely
the feemings of forrow. Some of the other near rela-
tions, like the profefled mourners hired to increafe the
pomp, think it decent to exhibit tokens of exceffive
erief, but the reft of the women walk calmly along, only
joining at intervals in a general Wulwaly. In this order,
the proceffion advances in a quick pace to the court
yard of fome neighbouring Mofque, where, the bier
being fet down, a funeral fervice is performed by the

Imam ;

HAREM?! ATITALEP?O. 309

Imam; after which, it proceeds, in the fame order as ¢ HAP.
before, to the burial ground. +
The corpfe, when taken out of the bier, is depofited
in the grave in a reclining pofture, with the head to the
Weft, and the face turned towards Mecca: the body
being propped by fome earth laid behind. Flag ftones
are then laid acrofs, to prevent the earth’s falling directly
upon the body. ‘This done, the Imam, or Sheih, after
a funeral fervice, takes up a handful of earth, and
throws it into the grave; all who ftand near do the
fame, pronouncing at the fame time a fhort benediction:
after which the grave is filled up, and either covered
with a flat ftone, or left bare *5.
The graves are dug in an Eaft and Weft direction,
and the fides are lined with ftone to the height of about
two feet and a half, from the bottom. The flag ftones,
fupported by the fides, reach acrofs, and cover the

* The fervice recited by the Imam, at the grave, is as follows. “ O
«¢ man! from earth thou waft at firft created, and to the earth thou doft
“‘ now return: this tranfitory abode being the firft ftep of thy progrefs
“to the manfions of eternity. If in thy actions in life, thou haft been
“ beneficent, God will pardon thy tranfgreffions; and if thou haft not, {till
« the mercy of God has no bounds. But remember what thou didft profefs
‘< in this world, that God is thy Lord, and Mohammed thy Prophet—And
«« thy belief in all the Prophets and Apoftles, and that God’s forgivenefs is
«amply extended.”

The funeral fervice in ufe among the Kurdeen’s, is more laconic.

“* If thou haft taken away, thou fhalt reftore ; If thou haft given, it fhall
<¢ be reftored to thee; And if thou doubteft this, Thou fhalt now be con-
‘* vinced.”

corpfe

310

OF \THEr TURKISH

BOOK corpfe before the earth is thrown in. A ftone is erected
—~— at each end of the grave, on the top of one of which, a

Turban of rude fculpture is carved for the men, or the
ancient female attire, for the women: ‘The other ftone
terminates in a point. An Arabic infcription, contain-
ing the name of the deceafed, and fome verfes from the
Koran, is carved in relief, the letters being either gilt,
or painted white, on an azure ground. This is the
comnion form of the graves, which are fomewhat raifed,
in the ufual way, from the furface, but not, as in Europe,
covered with turf.

The fepulchres of founders of Mofques, of great men,
or of holy Sheihs, are fometimes covered with a ftone
Muftaby, over which is erected a cupola on four
columns. Several fuch fepulchres may be feen beyond
Damafcus gate, on the rifing grounds to the South Eaft
of the town; and, interfperfed among the orchards on
the fame fide, there are fome ancient Maufoleums of a
ftructure more venerable, erected to the memory of
eminent men. They are maffive buildings, enclofed on all
fides, and have long infcriptions over the door, or on the
front wall *°. Thefe make a tolerably handfome appear-
ance, but in general the graves are diftinguifhed only by
the vertical ftones, and, it being contrary to cuftom to
break the ground again, in lefs than feven or eight years,
the burial grounds occupy a large extent all round the

«¢ Note LX XXIV.
town.

HAREM, AT ALEPPO. git

town. ‘They are interfected by the great roads, and not ¢ HA Ps
walled round, fo that they ferve as fauntering places ——~
where people walk in the evenings.

The near relations (the men firft, and afterwards the
women) vifit the fepulchre on the third, the feventh,
and the fortieth day after the interment; they ccle-
brate alfo the anniverfary : folemn prayers are offered up
at the tomb for the repofe of the deceafed, and victuals
and money are diftributed to the poor. But the women
likewife vifit the graves on their ordinary garden
days. ‘They fet out, attended by a fmall train of females,
early in the morning, carrying flowers and aromatic
herbs to beftrew the tomb. ‘The moment they arrive
at the place, they give loofe afrefh to their forrows, in
loud fcreams, interrupted at intervals by the chief
mourner, who, in a lower tone of voice recalls the en-
dearing circumftances of paft times, or, in a tender
apoftrophe to the deceafed, appeals to the pains fhe in-
ceflantly employed to render his life happy: fhe de-
{cribes the forlorn condition of his family, now he is
gone, and mingles fond reproach with profeffions of
unalterable affection. The {ftillnefs of the morning is
favorable to the Wulwaly. The furrounding tombs, the
attitudes and action of the mourners, all confpire to
intereft a fpectator, who, at the time, does not confider
that the whole fcene is often little more, than a mere
external fhow.

The men (as already remarked) ftrongly exprefs their

dif-

312 OF THE TURKISH

Bo OX difapprobation of thefe wild demonftrations of forrow,
“—— regarding them, in fome degree, as impious; for on the
death of relations, as under all other misfortunes, they
themfelves affume the appearance of humble refignation
to the decrees of providence. ‘They rarely vifit the
tombs on extraordinary days, and then do no more than
fit penfively filent, or breathe a fhort ejaculation. Yet
fometimes, in crofling the burial grounds about fun fet,
a difconfolate father is feen fitting folitarily by the recent
grave of an only fon; where bending under years and
affliction, his eyes raifed in filent adoration, while tears
fall faft on his blanched and neglected beard, he gives
way to the forbidden emotions of grief, and fits an affea-
ing object to the eye of fympathy. |
The men make no alteration in their drefs as a mode
of mourning *”7.. ‘The women, laying afide their jewels,
drefs in their plaineft garments, and wear on the head
an embroidered handkerchief of a dufky brick duft
colour. They mourn twelve months for a hufband, and
fix for a father; but thefe terms are not conftantly ob-
ferved. Decency requires of a widow, before fhe
marries again, that fhe fhould perform a ftrict mourning
of forty days, during which fhe keeps at home, and fel-
dom or never {peaks, even to her neareft relations. But
this ceremony, 1s commonly deferred till fome months
after the funeral.

» Note LXXXV,
CTIA P-

CHUAN PV BWIl

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.

EXTENT OF THE BASHAWLICK.—THE REVENUE OF THE GOVERN.
ORS.—THE BASHAW PERAMBULATES THE CITY, IN DISGUISE.—THE
CADY, AND COURTS OF JUSTICE.—THE MUFTI.—THE NAKEEB, OR
CHIEF OF THE GREENHEADS.—THE DIVAN OF THE CIT Y.—SOLDIERY.
—BASHAW NOT ABSOLUTELY DESPOTIC.—INTRIGUESIN THE DIVAN
—INSURRECTIONS OCCASIONED BY SCARCITY OF GRAIN.—PUNISH-
MENTS.—DECLINE OF THE ANCIENT POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE
OTTOMAN GOVERNMENT.—PROPHECY OF THE RUIN OF THE EM-
PIRE.—THE FREQUENT CHANGE OF BASHAWS, PRODUCTIVE OF
NUMEROUS EVILS, IN THE PROVINCES.—MOUNTAINOUS DISTRICTS
LESS SUBJECT TO OPPRESSION, AND BETTER CULTIVATED.—THE
‘DEPRESSED STATE OF THE PEASANTS.—HAMLETS DESERTED ON
ACCOUNT OF THE DEPREDATIONS OF THE DISBANDED CAVALRY, &c.

Tue Governor of Aleppo is ufually a Vizir Bafhaw,
though it happens fometimes, that the Province is con-
ferred on an inferior Bafhaw of two tails'. He holds

* By Vizir Bafhaw is meant a Bafhaw of three tails. The Arabs pro-
nounce it Bafhaw, but the word is Turkith and properly Pafhaw Lil or

Wazeer Pafha Lely py
Vou. I. Ss his

314 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK his place during pleafure, and is feldom allowed to re-

main in the government more than twelve months at a
time; but the fame perfon may be repeatedly Bafhaw
of Aleppo, and there are inftances of his being continued
feveral fucceflive years.

The nominal Province, or Bafhawlick’, is of great
extent, reaching Eaftward from the bay of Scanderoon
to the banks of the Euphrates, and from forty miles
North of the city, extending about fifty miles to the
South Eaft. But it is not near fo extenfive as it was in
former times. Khillis, which formerly was dependent
on Aleppo, has been erected into a diftin@ Province,
on account of the frequent depredations of the Kurdeens
who inhabit the neighbouring mountains ; and fince the
year 1752, an alteration has taken place with refpect to
Bylan, which, together with Caramoot, Scanderoon,
Byas, and the adjacent mountains, has been put under
the government of a native of Bylan, who for that pur-
pofe was created a Bafhaw of two tails. At prefent,
the Bafhawlick on the North, is bounded by the village
Bailik, fituated in the road to Aintab; Eaftward, it is
bounded by the Defert: Bab, at the diftafice of ten
hours Eaft North Eaft, and Haglah, about the fame di-
ftance to the South South Eaft, being among the laft
inhabited villages. On the South, it is foon bounded by
the great Defert, between the f{kirts of which and the

” Pathawlick UeJLals
Weft,

OF ALEPPO. 315
Weft, or Weft North Weft, are fituated the moft fertile c HAP.

and populous parts of the Province. Sirmeen is the laft--—~
town Southward; and Antioch, with its dependencies,

may be reckoned the Weftern boundary, which till of

late years, reached to the fea: Scanderoon and Byafs

being then the two frontier maritime towns. Shogle is

under the government of an Aga whofe jurifdiction ex-

tends alfo to Edlib, and he is named by the Porte inde-
pendent of any Bafhaw. Above one half of the villages,

which ftood formerly on the books of the Province, are

faid to be totally deferted.

Many of the inhabitants of the mountainous parts of
this tract, fcarcely acknowledge any authority but that
of their own chieftains; and the champaign in many
places is either Defert, or only occupied tranfiently by
the wandering tribes of Turkmans, Begdelees, and
Rufhwans, from the North; or by the Bidoweens, and
Chingana: who, though they pay an annual tribute, can
hardly in other refpects, be reckoned fubjects of the
province.

It is commonly believed, that the regular revenue of
the Bafhaw is barely fufficient to defray two thirds of
his annual expenfe, including the fums he is obliged to
remit to Conftantinople, in order to fecure the intereft
of friends at the Porte 3. Hence the nefarious practice

* Note LXXXVI.
Ssa@ of

316

OF THE GOVERNMENT

c aky Muaniags + . F
eee of making Avanias * upon the people, or raifing money
“—— under falfe pretences, to make up the deficiency: a dif-

graceful mode of tyranny, which though unconftitu-
tional, pleads cuftom and neceflity in its defence. The
Tufinkgi-bafhee’, or captain of the Bafhaw’s foot guard,
is the perfon chiefly employed in the management of
{maller Avanias, and he and his emiilaries being perpe-
tually on the watch, they have good intelligence, and are
the conftant terror of the city, more efpecially of the
Chriftians and the Jews. Delinquency of fome kind or
other, is at leaft alleged as a ground of the Avania, but
though the fhow of juftice may be fometimes preferved,
the ufurped defpotifm of the judge is often too plainly
difcernable °.

It is a practice of fome Bafhaws to walk the ftreets
in difguife, attended only by the Tufinkgi-bafhee and a
few foldiers, who keep at a little diftance behind. On

“cd |4! The word is Italian, meaning literally an undeferved injury. It is

univerfally ufed in the Levant, and applied to all oppreffive, or unjuft ex-
actions under falfe pretences.

5 Coals a

« It was remarked in the former edition, “ the veil is too thin to conceal
“ that, fic volo fic jubeo, is the only plea for feizing a man’s whole fortune,
“‘ and fometimes depriving him of his life.””. Tyrannical exceffes of this kind
however, are not common. The Bafhaw’s power is reftrained by the dread.
of being called upon afterwards by ti.e Porte, to account for more than he has.
in reality extorted ; and the death warrants, for perfons of any confequence,,
always come from the Porte.

fuch

OF ALEPPO. 317

fuch occafions, offenders caught in the commiffion of CHAP.
crimes, are taken up, or inftantly baftinadoed on the —~—~
fpot: and there have been inftances of conveying a con-
vit fecretly from prifon, who pafling for a notorious
ruffian detected by accident in the ftreet, was beheaded
without further ceremony. ‘The effect produced by this
patrol is wonderful. The populace, contrary to their
cuftom at other times, avoid noify broils, or fquabbles,
and the moft turbulent fpirits are kept in awe. It is
feldom however that the Bafhaw himfelf goes upon this
fervice, the reputation of doing it being fufficient to
fpread terror: it is more ufual for fome officer of the
Seraglio to perfonate the Governor, and go the rounds

in his ftead.

A Cady’, or judge, appointed by the Porte for one
year, comes annually from Conftantinople; he brings
his principal officers along with him, and refides in an
old palace called the great Mahkamy*. A fubftitute of
his own nomination, called the Naib9%, fits in the outer
court, to hear inferior caufes, while affairs of higher
moment are decided by the Cady in perfon. There are,
befides the great Mahkamy, three or four fubordinate
tribunals, in different parts of the town, which are farmed

1 cee's In Terkith he is commonly called Mulla ce.
guilt ~

2 Cul

318

OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOR of the Cady by certain Effendees, who, acting under his

“—— authority, determine petty fuits, or tranfact other judi-

cial bufinefs, for the convenience of perfons living in
remote diftri¢ts: yet an appeal lies from them all to the
great Mahkamy.

The Cady has no eftablifhed falary; but he finds
means to raife a handfome revenue, though not merely
from the legal perquifites of office. Thefe however are
very confiderable. He claims a right, as executor
general to all fubjects of the grand Signor, who die in
the city in the time of his refidence, to afhx his feal
upon their houfes and effects, immediately after their
death; and the heirs are obliged to compound with
him, at a certain rate, on an eftimate of the eftate of the
deceafed. In all caufes brought before him, he claims
ten per cent on the fum contefted, which is paid by the
perfon who gains the fuit. This laft regulation is pro-
ductive of the moft wicked oppreflion; for the private
intereft of the judge being thus connected with the
number of caufes brought to the Mahkamy, encourage-
ment is of courfe given to vexatious litigation. There
are wretches who get a miferable livelihood by ftirring
up contention among the lower people, which they take
care fhall terminate in a law fuit, in hopes of a {mall
gratification from the Mahkamy, as jackals of the law. It
is alfo not uncommon for malicious men, with no other
view than revenge, to make groundlefs claims on per-

fons with whom they happen to be at enmity, which can
be

OF ALEPPO. 319

be done without rifking lofs or expenfe; for the defend- c HAP.
ant, though clearly acquitted, is obliged to pay cofts of-~—~
fuit, and that too in proportion to the injury intended

him. Some Cadies, in cafes where the injuftice is
flagrant, will accept of a {mailer fum, than they are en-

titled to by cuftom, but the plaintiff, in the mean while

is never punifhed.

The determination of contefted facts depending chiefly
upon viva voce evidence, is the caufe of great remiffnefs
in the execution of the laws againft perjury ; fo that
witneffes, ready to be hired, may generally be procured
at the Mahkamy. Bribes, though not openly, are ac-
cepted fecretly by the Cady and his officers'*, by which
means, either delays are obtained, when circumftances
are fuch as cannot admit of decifion abfolutely againft
juftice, or elfe the decifion is accelerated, where juftice
happens to be on the fide of the briber: but in this laft
cafe fome degree of confcience is fhown in the accept.
ance of a {maller bribe. In general, caufes are fum-
marily decided in one or two hearings.

Againft abufes which difgrace the Turkifh courts of
juftice, the law has denounced fevere punifhment; but
in order to obtain redrefs, it is in moft cafes not only
neceflary to make a journey to Conftantinople, but to
be fupported alfo by intereft at the Porte. For this rea-

* This was the cafe a century ago as well as at prefent. Memoires
dArvicux, v. Vi. p. 447.

fon

320 OF ‘THE (GOVERNMENT

BOOX fon it is more ufual to have recourfe to the mediation of

“—— fome Grandee of Aleppo, whofe influence may, at leaft,
procure fome mitigation of the injuftice it cannot pre-
vent.

The Cady takes care to leave the town, a few days
before the expiration of his authority, and the arrival of
his fucceffor, in order to avoid demands of reftitution
which might ctherwife be made upon him; but fome-
times he is obliged, on his return to Conftantinople, to
reftore part of the booty he had carried off. I have
known inftances where perfons who had refolution to
carry their complaints to the Sheih al aflaam '’ have ob-
tained ample fatisfaction.

The Mufti" is nominated annually by the Porte;
but the fame perfon is often continued in office for many
years together. He is ufually a native of the city, one
of the opulent Effendees, who affects ftate, and who has
perfonal influence in the Divan. When the office hap-
pens to be beftowed on a man of fmall fortune, and of
a more religious character, it then affumes a greater
appearance of its primitive fimplicity. Such a man leads
the life of a Dervis, proportioning his expenfes to his
flender revenue; he engages little in politics; and
derives refpect only from his fuppofed fan¢tity, and in-
corrupt exertion of his knowledge of the law.

a Cw Nani
12 a
The

OF ALEPPO.

q21

The Mufti gives a Fitwa'*, or law opinion, upon alj° #4.
cafes laid before him. The cafe being ftated briefly on ~~

a fmall flip of paper, the Fitwa, comprized in a few
words, is written under it. His fee amounts to little
more than a fhilling, and fcrupuloufly exact, he will accept
no higher prefent. The Cady fometimes fupports his own
decifion by the Mufti’s Fitwa; and a Fitwa is often ad-
duced in plea at the Mahkamy, which is received with
deference if agreeable to the Cady, but otherwife, it is
eafily eluded by fhowing that, in the detail, circum-
ftances, or facts had been unfairly ftated.

Counfel are not employed at the Mahkamy, every
perfon pleading his own caufe; but the parties may take
the private advice of Effendees verfed in the law, which
is ufually beftowed gratis, unlefs where extraordinary
trouble in fearching for precedents, entitles them to fome
prefent in return. For drawing legal deeds, contradts,
letters, and other writing bufinefs, there are profeffed
Katibs, or Scribes *, who are paid at a certain rate,

eftablifhed by cuftom.
The Nakeeb, or chief of the Greenheads, is nomi-

nated at Conftantinople, and either annually confirmed,
or changed. He fits as a judge in fome particular cafes,

i fr. Tt but

322 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK but appeals lie from him to the Mahkamy, before which.
“-~— tribunal, the Shereefs, as well as others, muft make
their appearance when cited.

The Mohaffil, formerly called Difter-dar "5, is reckon-
ed the fecond perfon of the city in the civil line, and
on the demife of the Bafhaw, is by the Divan ufually
appointed Mutfillem, or temporary Governor, till orders
come from the Porte. He is Farmer General of the land
tax '°, the cuftoms '’, and the capitation tax ** on which
account he is obliged to retain a number of fubordinate
officers difperfed in the Province, and to go through a
oreat detail of bufinefs. He exercifes a limited judicial
power in revenue matters, and has a prifon in his own
palace. ‘The Mohaffil’s influence is confiderable, he
lives fplendidly, and is much courted by the Agas or
land renters, as well as by the merchants '%.

The Bafhaw, Mohafil, Cady, Mufti, Nakeeb, and
Sardar, or Aga of the Janizaries *°, are members, from
their office, of the Divan, or council; which is compofed

befides, of the principal Effendees and Agas, together

'S Muhaffil Utes
6 Meery <4 > rhe

» Al Kumrak So Ss
# Kharage cl

» Note LXXXVII.

29 15
e) :
sg with

OF {. ABEP PO! 229

with the Shahbinder”!, or head of the merchants. ‘The c HAP.
merchants themfelves are not fummoned, except fuch as“~—~
happen to be particularly connected with the Bafhaw,

or with fome of the great officers at the Porte. The
Divan is affembled as often as emergencies require, a
fummons being carried to each member by the Bafhaw’s
Chaufes *; but it regularly meets every Friday fore-

noon, at the Seraglio. The Effendees rendezvous firft

at the Mahkamy, whence they ride in proceffion with

the Cady, the junior Effendee marching firft, and the

Cady laft. Bufinefs relating to the city and all parts of

the Province, is tranfacted in the Divan, the Bafhaw
always affecting to be defirous of exact information. He
inquires with much formality, concerning the city
markets, the difpofition of the people, the ftate of trade,

and the condition of the villages; to all which, anfwers

are of courfe returned, doubtlefs with ftrict regard to
political truth. After the Friday’s Divan breaks up, the
Bafhaw ufually goes in ftate to Mofque, attended by moft

of the members.

Befides the foot guard, already mentioned, the
Bafhaw, according to the exigency of the times, keeps
in pay a certain number of cavalry, confifting of Delis”

ue ie md
PA Ala
— -?

. faa .1 57.
* Deliler pad Their captain is Called Cel Jo Delibathee.

tts * and

324,

OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK and Levands ”3. They are cantoned chiefly in the vil-

Ka lages, a few troops only being quartered in the Seraglio,

and the Suburbs.

The Janizaries** of Aleppo, as in other provincial
cities, are moftly perfons who live in a domeftic man-
ner in the exercife of their refpective trades. They
receiveno pay, but, by being enrolled in one of the Odas,
or chambers, at Conftantinople, they enjoy in times of
peace, feveral privileges and exemptions. In war time
they are liable to be called out, and are obliged not only
to provide themfelves with arms, but to find their way
to the camp at their own expenfe: not entering into
regular pay before they arrive there. Out of thefe, is
formed a city guard, confifting of feveral hundred men,
under the command of the Sardar, who holds his ap-
pointment from the Janizary Aga of Conftantinople.
They drefs in a particular fafhion, though not in uniform,
and, on ceremonial occafions, wear the high felt cap;
but they are not trained to any regular exercife of arms.
The Sardar is always attended, when he appears abroad,
and both himfelf and his attendants are diftinguifhed by
particular Turbans. On certain occafions, he is pre-
ceded by an officer on horfeback who carries a bundle
of rods, fomewhat refembling, the Fafces carried before
the confuls in ancient Rome, but without the ax. The

*: Inkigiary Seis
** Lwaind O34)”

fuper-

OF - ALEPPO:

fuperintendence of the markets, and other branches of © #4 ?-
the police, belong to his department ; he patroles the —~—~

ftreets, and the keys of the city gates are brought to
him every night. It is only in certain cafes that he is
fubject to the command of the Bafhaw.

Notwithftanding the great power with which the
Bafhaw is invefted, he is not, ftri¢tly fpeaking, abfolutely
defpotic in the Province. In the ordinary courfe of
affairs, he poffeffes no right to infliG capital punifhment,
without a formal trial at the Mahkamy, or, at leaft,
without having previoufly procured the Mufti’s fanction
by a Fitwa: neither has he a right to feize any one’s
property. It istrue, legal forms are too often difregarded,
and the barriers of law perhaps wantonly tranferefled ;
but the power of doing this, is an unconftitutional
ufurpation, and in reality lefs frequently exercifed than
is commonly imagined. The Bafhaw is under fome
control, both from the Divan, and the dread of future
confequences ; it being in the power of the Cady to
give fuch legal authenticity to remonftrances fent to

Conftantinople, as may excite the refentment of govern-.

ment. And though the Porte, in its vengeance is not
always actuated by pure motives, it is always willing to
aflume an appearance of juftice: more efpecially
where the private intere{t of minifters (which is often
the cafe) happens to coincide with the chaftifement of
the fuppofed offender.

326 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK It is reckoned unfortunate for the country, when the

—~— Mahkamy and Seraglio are on too friendly terms ; fuch
an union ferving only to encourage bolder modes of
oppreflion. In this conjuncture, the only power which
dares to interpofe in favour of the people, is that of the
Effendees and Agas ; who being poffeffed of fome fhare
of landed property, are naturally led to oppofe a tyranny,
which, by immediately injuring their Vaflals, muft in
the confequence affet themfelves. This is ftill the
more neceflary, becaufe aéts of extortion are too often
produced as precedents, by fucceeding Governors, when
they happen to be at a lofs for other expedients to raife
money.

The power of the Agas is much declined of late
years; that of the Effendees, moft of whom are Shereefs,
is ftill confiderable : their coalition forms what may be
called the city party. It is generally conducted by one
principal leader, who, befides property, is poflefled of
talents for intrigue; who, by conftant refidence on the
fpot, has had an opportunity of becoming acquainted
with provincial affairs, and knows how to avail himfelf,
in the race of ambition, of family intereft, as well as
political art. When he happens, at the fame time, to
be Nakecb, his influence is of courfe increafed, although
that office of itfelf, without abilities, confers but a fmall
fhare of political importance. ‘The exiftence of fuch a
leader as now defcribed, is allowed to be of material
ufe to the city; but as he himfelf too often acts tyran-

nically,

OFfY AEBSEO:

327

nically, and, in the crowd which courts his patronage, c 1 4 P.
VII.

numbers muft be difappointed in their expectation of —~—~

favours, his popularity is feldom of any long duration.
His power is dreaded, flattered, and execrated; and his
confequence as a check upon the other members of the.
Divan, is forgotten amid the effe¢ts more immediately
felt of his neglect, or oppreffion. In the mean while,
his friendfhip is ufually fought both by the Bafhaw and
the Cady; it being the intereft of neither to provoke
unneceflary oppofition ; and, this giving him frequent
accefs as a mediator in their occafional difputes, a large
field prefents itfelf for the exertions of an artful nego

tiator, to turn the conteft either to his own, or to the.

public advantage.

Thus, the different imterefts operating in the Divan,
in fome meafure counterbalance one another, and, not-
withftanding the frequent violation of the people’s rights,
the ordinary courfe of affairs proceeds more equitably,
than. might be expected, in a government, where the
people are commonly fuppofed to be the mere flaves of
defpotic power. A coalition of the feveral parties in
favour of any meafure univerfally oppreflive, ts feldom
known, except perhaps in times of dearth, when the
Agas, who have hoarded corn, can prevail with the
Divan to connive at the moft wicked of all monopolies.
The devoted populace, for fome time, though not with-
out murmuring, fuffer the fevereft hardfhips ; till at
length, urged by defpair, they rife tumultuoufly in their

own

328 OF THE GOVERNMENT

B00 OWN defence, and are furious in their refentment. The

“——~ power of the Divan is too feeble to ftem the torrent ;
all is foon thrown into confufion, and fome of the moft
fufpected Grandees, perhaps the Governor himfelf, are
obliged to feek fafety in flight. But an event of this
kind is difcreetly avoided by the Divan, as it never
fails to make a noife at the capital; and the Grandees,
fufficiently know from experience, that the vengeance
of the Porte is ever ready to fall heavieft upon the
wealthy : for this reafon, matters are feldom permitted
to proceed fo far, as to excite an open infurreétion.

I remember an inftance of a dearth where a mob of
women took poffeffion of feveral of the minarets, and,
preventing the cryers from calling the people to prayers
at noon, afcended themfelves, and in a loud voice, from
the gallery, exhorted all true Mosflems to efpoufe the
caufe of their wives and children. Several granaries
were broken open; the Mutfillem (the Bafhaw was ab-
fent) found it prudent to fly, and it was feveral days
before the tumult fubfided. The Bafhaw fometimes
interpofes in favour of the people againft the hoarders
of corn; of which the following inftance is faid to
have happened at Aleppo.

A. Bafhaw, on his firft public entry into the city, was
aflailed on all hands by the clamour of the populace,
demanding juftice, and imploring bread. After his ar-
rival at the Seraglio, as foon as the firft compliments

were

OF ALEPPO. 329

were over, he inquired, of the Grandees affembled to cu apr.
congratulate him, the caufe of the popular difcontent. ~~~
An anfwer was unanimoufly returned. ‘“ A failure of
“‘ fucceffive crops in the diftrict of Aleppo, and the
‘“‘ neighbouring Provinces, had produced a general fcar-
‘““ city, and that it was neceffary to deal out the little
‘¢ which remained, in fuch a manner as to prevent abfo-
*« Jute famine, before the new crop could be got in. If
‘¢ fuch precaution was not ufed, it would be impoffible
““ to perfuade the populace, after all was exhaufted, that
‘‘ more was not ftill concealed in the granaries, and
“¢ infallibly expofe all thofe now pofleffed of grain, to the
«mad rage of a rabble.” ‘To the truth of a real fcarcity,
they folemnly fwore by the head of the Sultan. The
Bafhaw heard them with attention, and after exprefling
his readinefs to co-operate in any meafures for the pub-
lic good, he commanded an exatt ftate of the quantity
of grain remaining at the feveral villages, to be laid
before him. An account was accordingly delivered ;
but little more than half the real quantity reported.
The day following, he mounted in ftate from the
Seraglio, early in the morning, and while all wondered
whither he intended to go, he proceeded directly to one
of the fpecified villages ; where he foon difcovered, in
the pits, double the quantity of corn entered in the ac-
count. This he ordered to be carried to market; and that
whatever fhould exceed the quantity reported, might be
fold for his proper account. He met with equal fuccefs
VoL. I. Uu re

Boe

OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK in one ox two other villages, and then returned to town.
coi, The markets were next day full, and the price of grain

fell one half. The Agas juftly alarmed, were glad to
receive their quota according to their own ftatement ;
the Bafhaw feized the reft: and in the final adjuftment
of accounts, the heinous crime of {wearing falfely by the
Sultan’s head, was not forgotten.

The merchants are confidered as more immediately
under the prote¢tion of the Mohaflil, and therefore not
fo fubje&t to the Avanias made by the Bafhaw. Never-
thelefs, they have fometimes, when the city was afflicted
with famine, been obliged to contribute to a fund for
the {pecious purpofe of purchafing corn; the impofition
however was loudly complained of as unufual. But
mercantile ftrangers have too often reafon to complain
of the Mohaffil himfelf, who, by vexatious exactions,
turns away the trade to Damafcus, and, for the fake of
a temporary trifling advantage, does lafting injury to the

town.

On the demife of a Bafhaw, the Mohaffil, as princi-
pal officer of the revenue, takes poffeffion of his effects,
till a Capugi-bafhee ** from Conftantinople comes to
receive them, in the name of the Sultan. It fhould
however be remarked, that it is only the perfonal eftate
of the Grandees actually in the fervice of the Porte,

which

OFSALEP PO:

33%

which is fubject to fequeftration; their Mofques, Bazars, c HAP.
palaces, and other property, having for the moft part ea

been previoufly fettled in fuch a manner, that while a
portion is appropriated to charitable purpofes, the reft
is fecured for the ufe of the family.

The eftates of merchants, as well as of other private
ranks, defcends to the heirs, agreeably to eftablifhed
laws, which allow a certain portion only to be devifed
by will, and the Cady is fuppofed to fee ftrict juftice
done to the heirs. In regard to merchant ftrangers,
who happen to die in the public Khanes, the Mohaffil
has a right to interpofe, and taking the goods under his
own care, after accommodating matters with the Cady,
he detains them till reclaimed by the jegal heir.

Crimes of a capital kind are very rare at Aleppo. In
the courfe of twenty years there were not more than
half a dozen examples of public executions. It is true,
a commutation of punifhment, with confent of the neareft
of kin, is admitted, even in cafes of murder; but the
right of demanding the blood of the criminal is held
facred, and the confent to commutation is feldom or
never obtained. In cafes where powerful influence
interpofed to fave a murderer, I have known the Bafhaw
obliged to execute the criminal, by the female reiations
of the deceafed, who, expofing the bloody garments,
and clamoroufly calling for juftice in the name of God

Lituro2 and

332 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BooK and their prophet, daily befet the Seraglio, till their
ett demand was complied with.

The ufual capital punifhments are hanging, behead-
ing, ftrangling, and empaling. In this laft punifhment,
the wretched criminal, when led to execution, is fome-
times made to carry the ftake himfelf. It is chiefly
confined to the Kurds, or other atrocious offenders, and
is often practifed by the Bafhaws, in their progrefs
through the Provinces, who pretend a right as military
officers, to execute in a fummary manner, and, by way
of ftriking exemplary terror, they leave the body ftuck
up by the fide of the high road. It is feldom feen at
Aleppo; though a certain Huffein Bafhaw is well
remembered there, who fome years before, empaled
twenty Kurds at one time, clofe to the city. Several of
them remained many hours alive on the ftake; nor is it
known how long they might have furvived, liberty having
been obtained to put an end to their torture by fhoot-
ing them. The bodies however were not permitted to
be taken down, and remained a horrid and offenfive
fpectacle. It was the cuftom of that Bafhaw, when he
travelled, to carry malefactors, already condemned, along
with him, and to empale one at every ftage, leaving
them to be devoured by the birds of prey, as the ftake
was too high for wild beafts to reach the body. His
frequent exercife of this p .nifhment, procured him the
title of Hafookgee, or Empaler.

Hanging

OF ALEPPO. 333

Hanging is the ordinary punifhment for murder, as c HAP.
alfo for offenders of low rank, taken in rebellion. "Thereo——_~
is no ftanding gibbet, nor is one always erected for the
occafion ; the criminal being carried into the Bazar, and
hung on the firft convenient poft. The executioner is
generally an Armenian Chriftian, but it is not uncom.
mon for the foldiery, as they march to the place of exe-
cution, if a Jew or a Chriftian happens to fall in their
way, to extort money from him, under pretence of ob-
liging him to perform the office of hangman.

Beheading, though fo common a Turkifh mode of
execution, is at Aleppo, performed in a very bungling
manner, from the executioner’s want of practice. The
heads of certain criminals are carefully flayed, and the
{kins, after being ftuffed fo as to preferve fome likenefs
of the perfon, are carried to Conftantinople. The heads
of the Arab banditti, or of others, killed in arms near
the city, are fometimes brought in as trophies, ftuck
upon the fpears of the conquerors.

The Janizaries are ftrangled, not with a bow ftring,
but by a cord put round the neck, and then twifted with
a ftick in the manner of a tourniquet. The execution
of a Janizary is announced by firing a gun from the
caftle. The bodies of all who are executed, remain
for fome days expofed to public view.

Theft is rather an uncommon crime, at Aleppo. De
la Motray made a like remark at Conftantinople, where,
during a refidence of almoft fourteen years, he did not

hear

334

OF THE GOVERNMENT

Book hear of twenty perfons who fuffered for it: he adds,
—— “ And as for pickpockets, they are unknown there, it is

269?

“© not known what the crime means ”’.

Theft is fometimes punifhed by amputation of the
hand, but more commonly with the baftinado, which is
alfo the ufual punifhment for offences of an inferior kind.
The rods ufed in drubbing, are about the fize of a {mall
walking ftick. The criminal is laid upon his back, with
his ancles clofely confined by a wooden machine. The
legs are then raifed, while two men, one placed on each
fide, alternately beat the bare foles of the feet. In cer-
tain cafes, the Janizaries, as likewife women, are drub-
bed on the back, or on the buttocks.

The baftinado, fometimes, is only a flight chaftife-
ment; at other times, it is inflicted with horrid feverity.
The number of ftrokes are {pecified in the fentence, but
it is ufual for fome perfon prefent to intercede in favour
of the offender, before he has received the full number ;
for the punifhment, if not in the Judge’s prefence, is
commonly inflicted within his hearing.

Other corporal punifhments, known in Turkey, as
not being common at Aleppo, have been omitted here.
I have known inftances of Ganching, but they are rare.

Banifhment is chiefly employed to remove turbulent
members from the Divan, or from the city. The com-
mand from the Porte is generally procured privately,

-° Travels, v. i. p. 188.
and

OF) ALEPPO.

335

and put in execution when leaft expected. The perfon ¢ #4”
at once is torn from his family, is efcorted fome miles “~~

on his way by the Bafhaw’s officer, and then left to pur-
fue hisjourney. The Ifland of Cyprus, and the maritime
towns, of Syrra are the ufual places of banifhment.

Among other inftances wherein the Turkifh Govern-
ment is faid to have deviated from thofe conftitutional
principles, fuppofed effential to its duration, is that of
conniving at the growth of powerful families. ‘The
great officers of the empire were formerly chofen from
the tributary flaves, who had been educated in the Sera-
glio. ‘They came abroad into the world, ftrangers to
the benevolent bonds of confanguinity ; they knew no
parent but the Porte, which at their death, refuming
the wealth they were fuppofed to have acquired through
its favour, their progeny being excluded from hopes
of fucceflion, either to honours or eftate, foon fell back
into obfcurity. At prefent it is not uncommon to fee the
Children of Bafhaws fucceflively employed in high offi-
ces; and there are inftances of feveral Brothers in the
fame family being Bafhaws at the fame time. The late
Afad Bafhaw of Damafcus had two Brothers ; the one
a Vizir, the other a Bafhaw of two tails. Both were
encamped in the neighbourhood of Aleppo in the year
1757, at the time that Afad was actually Bafhaw of the
city.

The moft honourable offices, which ufed formerly to

336

OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOX be conferred on merit, or as marks of royal favour, are
“—— now fold to the higheft bidder; and the Minifters of a

venal court, fee, without proper jealoufy, the aggran-
difement of families, whofe opulence is made to admi-
nifter to their private avarice. But, what is ftill worfe,
the deftructive oppreffion of the Provinces, being the
principal fource of that opulence, is not only fuffered to
pafs with impunity, but a neceflity of tyrannifing comes
to be impofed on the governors, as an infeparable per-
quifite of office.

Nearly int his ftrain, the Turks themfelves lament the
decline of the Empire, which, according to them, tends
rapidly towards that period, deftined by Omnipotence
for its extinction’. ‘They remark that the rougher vir-
tues of their anceftors are loft in an exceffive refinement
of manners ; and that Religion, not reverenced as for-
merly, retains little more than its outward form: not
having influence fufficient to reftrain the numerous vices,
which modern luxury, and the frivolous fpirit of the age,
have univerfally introduced. ‘The Mufti, with whom I
happened to live on a footing of intimacy, told me once
in converfation, that he muft requeft the favour of me to
be aware, on my return to England, of doing injuftice
to the Mohammedan Religion, by forming my repre-

*7 The exiftence of a Prophecy, foretelling the deftruction of the Otto-
man Empire, by a neighbouring Potentate, is often mentioned by them, and

they appear to believe ferioufly in the preuiction. Note LXXXViII.

fentation

OF ALEPPO. 337

fentation of it on what I had obferved in the practice of c HAP.
the Moflemeen. ‘If you take, continued he, the reverfe a
‘ of what you have feen daily practifed by us, to be

¢ the actual law, you will be nearer the truth and in lefs

‘ danger of mifleading your countrymen.’

This venerable old-man, Trablos Effendee, had been
educated at the college of Grand Cairo, and was for
many years Mufti of Aleppo. He was reckoned pro-
foundly {killed in the law, and had a talent for poetry.
Ragab Bafhaw, when at Aleppo, told me that he con-
fidered the Mufti as the only perfon he had met with in
the city, who might juftly pretend to Arabic learning.
He was liberal in his way of thinking, affable in his man-
ners, and retained a cheerful, {portive fpirit, in a very ad-
vancedage. His friendfhip to my brother was continued
in his conftant attention to myfelf, which on feveral
accounts rendered my réfidence abroad more agreeable.
He introduced me to the acquaintance of the Grandees,
and through his means, I was enabled to procure manu-
fcripts for feveral friends in Europe.—In the year 1771,
he happened to be Nakeeb, at a time when the Shereefs
raifed an alarming infurrection. He then lay confined
by a dangerous ficknefs, which foon after brought him
to the grave. He was unable to ftem the torrent of
rebellion; but told me, a few hours before he expired,
that he forefaw his utmoft efforts againft meafures he
had all along condemned, would not fave his family from

VoL. X x ruin:

338 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK ruin: a prediction, which in the fequel I had the mor-
‘+’ tification to fee fulfilled.

The policy of the Porte in removing the Bafhaws
fo often from one government to another, however
wifely calculated for preventing the erection of danger-
ous independencies, proves highly detrimental to the
provinces. In the frequent journies of the Bafhaws,
the intermediate towns are fubjected to great expenfe,
and the fields and villages are expofed to the depreda-
tion of ill difciplined troops. The governors them-
felves are alfo induced to exa¢t every temporary advan-
tage which their fituation affords, without regard to
the future intereft of the Bafhawlick. Uncertain how
long they may remain in place, every lucrative project
is eagerly adopted; while the fuffering people look
forward to a change, which experience might have
taught them, very feldom betters their condition”.

To this may be afcribed the difregard to public
intereft, in the regulation of the police; as alfo the
deplorable ftate of many of the villages, which, though
populous and flourifhing fo late as the beginning
of the prefent century, are now on the decline, and
fome of them in ruins. Neereb and Tedif, are much
declined. The Olive Tree Village and others are totally
deferted. It is afferted, that of three hundred villages,
formerly comprehended in the Bafhawlick, lefs than

** Note LXXXIX.
one

OF ALEPPO.

339

one third are now ( 1772 ) inhabited; agriculture declines c HAP.

in proportion.

The Agas, who chiefly farm the lands, live in a
more expenfive manner though with lefs hofpitality than
formerly. They exert themfelves to make a figure
for fome years, till at length, unable to pay the land
tax, they become bankrupts. It is fometimes long
before a tenant is found for the lands they have been
difpoflefled of, and in that interval, the peafants
migrating to other parts, are loft irrecoverably to the
glebe. Hence vaft traéts of the beautiful plains in
the Aleppo Bafhawlick lie fhamefully overrun with
thiftles; forming a ftriking contraft in comparifon with
many parts of the mountainous country, which better
fecured by natural fituation, from tyrannical oppref_lion,
are finely cultivated, full of people, and prefent thriving
hamlets on all hands.

The Champaign lies not only expofed to the diforder-
ly retinue of the Grandees, in their march through the
Province, but alfo to the vagrant tribes of Turkmans,
Rufhwans, and Arabs: and worfe than all, to the
rufian troops of Levands out of pay”, who are per-
petually roving from place to place, and under pain of
military execution, raife contributions from the defence-
lefs villages. An alliance, or treaty, generally fubfifts

*® Cap-fiz.
X x 2 between

34.0 OF THE GOVERNMENT

3oox between the Bafhaw, and the Emeer of the defert Arabs
I.

in the vicinity, by which the Emeer obliges himfelf to
affift in the protection of the country, as well as of the
villages. But a mifunderftanding fometimes happens
between the Bafhaw and him, or civil wars arife among
the Arabs themfelves: in either cafe, they ufually fall]
upon the Caravans, and pillage the herds.

It is the duty, though not always in the power, of
the Bafhaw, to prevent thofe diforders; but he is for the
moft part more profitably employed in town. Heknows
that an expedition with his ‘Troops is neceflarily attend-
ed with expenfe as well as hazard, and uncertain how
foon he may be fent to another government, he is lefs
folicitous about the profperity of the Bafhawlick, of which
a fucceffor is likely to reap the advantage. It may at the
fame time be remarked, that when a Bafhaw, excited
by ambition, or provoked by repeated infult, determines
to exert himfelf, a part of the expenfe of a military
expedition falls at laft fo heavy on the villages, as to
render it doubtful whether it is not better for them to
fubmit to occafional pillage, than to purchafe prote¢tion
at fo high a rate.

The cafe is different where a Bafhaw finds means to
prolong his ftay, for a courfe of years, in the fame
Province. He by degrees find himfelf interefted in the
welfare of the people; he becomes a farmer of the
lands, a joint adventurer in their cultivation; he has lefs

inducement

AT ALEPPO. 341

mducement to adopt the ufual modes of oppreflion, ¢ #4 ?.
which he knows would endanger popular favour, his‘—~—
beft fecurity againft the machinations of the Porte:
and he will naturally exert all his power to repel
depredations, from which he muft himfelf be a principal
fufferer. A Bafhaw, in fuch a fituation, alarms the
jealoufy of the Porte, if he happens to be a man of
enterprize; and at any rate, tempts its avarice, by the
treafure he is fuppofed to accumulate: but, marked
by the Porte as a future victim, he fometimes is allowed
to purchafe quiet for a long while. Excluding all petty
tyrants, he reigns in a manner abfolute in his Province;
but fo artfully tempers defpotifm with occafional acts of
juftice and liberality, as to prevent the people wifhing
a ‘or change, which might poffibly bring them under
the yoke of a harder mafter. At length, the fatal
period approaching, he is flattered with deceitful pro-
fefions and promifes; he is removed under fome
plaufible pretence, to a diftant government, and falls a
facrifice before he has had time to form defenfive con-
nexions: of which Afad Bafhaw of Damafcus was a ftrong
example. He had amaffed vaft riches, but his country
was in a profperous ftate of cultivation®.

Examples of thefe powerful, and almoft independent
Bafhaws, are found only in the frontier or diftant Provin-

70 See Note LIV.

Ces;

342 OF THE GOVERNMENT

BOOK ces; the vigilance of the Porte being fufficiently a¢tive

“——~to render them rare. In the ordinary courfe of admi-
niftration, the Provinces are left to be pillaged, by thofe
whofe duty it is to protect them. The Bafhaw himfelf,
anxious and indigent in the midft of pomp and adulation,
fubjeét to the inceffant demands of the Porte, and
haraffed by long and expenfive journies, is continually
in purfuit of that wealth which he is feldom permitted
to enjoy: and which often muft be procured by means
as incompatible with juftice, as ruinous to the Province.
Under fuch circumftances, it cannot be wondered that
the country, though bleft with fo many natural advan-
tages of foil and climate, fhould be found thinly peopled,
and poorly cultivated.

The Peafants are intitled to one third of the pro-
duce of the land. From this portion (which however,
varies by particular agreement) is annually deduéted
a part of what may have been advanced by the Aga,
to ftock the farm; as alfo a certain proportion of the
Avanias, from time to time made on the villages. For
though the Aga, out of his two thirds, is bound to pay
the Meery or land tax, as well as a part of occafional
Avanias, he retains always the power, in ftating the
account, to charge more on that laft article than was
really paid; by which, together with accumulating in-
tereft on money advanced, the Peafants are kept for
ever in debt.

OF “ALREP? ©!

Of the villages, fome are built of ftone, but many are
compofed' of miferable mud huts with conical roofs,
which at a diftance appear like an aflemblage of {mall
Glafs-houfes. They are fupplied with water from deep
wells, or with rain water preferved in cifterns. If
fituated near a rivulet there is ufually a garden planted on
its banks, in which the Aga, when he has no houfe in
the village encamps in his fummer excurfions. But in
the larger villages, the Aga, as well as the Sheih, have
ftone houfes tolerably commodious, ferving occafionally
for the reception of travellers, and of the officers fent
to fuperintend the harveft. Each village has a Mofque
or chapel, and the more confiderable have a Bazar, a
Bagnio, a coffeehoufe, and a public Khane.

The Peafanis are fimply clothed, indifferently lodged,
and live chiefly on courfe bread, Lebban, pulfe, barley,
and melons. ‘They rarely tafte mutton, or lamb,
except at feftivals; and agreat part of their poultry and
eggs is fent alfo to the town market. ‘They, in reality,
enjoy but a fcanty pittance of the fruits of their labour,
yet on occafion they fhow a fpirit of hofpitality which
would grace better fortune. They freely offer a
portion of their homely fare to the ftranger, and the
women eagerly prefs forward to prefent him with
water, frefh drawn from their deepeft well. Habit and
ignorance mitigate the rigour of their condition. Such
hardfhips as would enrage to frenzy the ungrateful
fubjects of better governments, to them feem light,

com.

343
CHAP.
VII
Ve ee

344 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ALEPPO.

Boox compared with other wrongs to which they are expofed.
vn. 4 yn i
——.— When their Patron’s intereft at the Seraglio, fucceeds

in protecting their cottage from diforderly vifits of the
foldiery, they think themfelves happy; but his intereft
is not always duly exerted, while the indolence, or

inability of the Bafhaw, too often leaves them at the
mercy of the vagabond, perhaps incenfed, Cap-fiz.

It is then that the inhabitants of the hamlets fuffer
accumulated diftrefs. Trembling and defpondent, they
bury fuch effects as they cannot haftily tranfport, and
abandoning their cots, they either feek fafety in an
union with a ftronger village, or fly for refuge to fome
folitude, out of the traét which the banditti are likely to
traverfe. Collected together, with their infants and
cattle, wherefoever the fhade invites to halt, prepared
to fly further on the firft alarm, and ftarting at every
diftant tread of horfe, thefe innocent Fugitives offer a
picture of fevere diftrefs, which the European traveller
cannot look on, as he pafles, and fupprefs the rifing
emotions of wonder, compaffon, and indignation.

NOTES.

ye ESE —_

m= @ I° E. S

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Vor. I. Y y

‘upprefi the

und a
er ~

OS gel aS peed RAS

AND

Pe OUST RATT ON S.

Note I. page 1.

Tue Arabian writers, zealous to fupport the antiquity of Aleppo, reter
its origin to the early era of the Patriarch Abraham; who, as they
pretend, in his migration to the Land of Canaan, remained for fometime on
the hill, on which the caftle of Aleppo is now fituated. A manufcript in my
poffeffion, entitled Tareeh Haleb, (Hiftory of Aleppo) adopts this tradition ;
adding that the prefent Mofque in the caftle, is ftill devoutly vifited, on
account of the place having been fanétified by the refidence of the Patri-
arch ; and that a ftone trough is preferved there, in which his cattle ufed
to be milked. The Patriarch, it feems, ufed dayly to diftribute milk to
the poor of a neighbouring village, who at certain hours, in expectation
of his bounty, affembled at the bottom of the hill, and by frequently re-
peating “‘ Ibraheem haleb,” “‘ Ibraheem haleb’”” (Abraham has milked)
gave occafion to the name Haleb, being conferred on the town, which in
the fequel was built on the fpot. To an objection ‘ that the Arabic wags
‘not the vulgar language at that period, nor before the era of Ifmael and
¢ Kahtan ;’ it is anfwered that many Arabic words bear a ftrong affinity to
the Hebrew and Syriac. (M.S. Chap. i. 2.)

A {mall addition to this fabulous hiftory readily accounts for the epithet
Shahba given to the city ; and it would be an infult to the popular belief,
to queftion its authenticity. ‘In the herd of the Patriarch was a fingular
‘ cow, remarkable for its low, and its variegated colour. When fhe was

Y¥2 ‘ milked,

348

NOTES AND ILLUSTEATIONs.

* milked, her low being diftinguifhed by the populace waiting below, they
‘‘ remarked to one another, Ibraheem haleb al Shahba! Abraham has
* milked the pied cow !

It is obferved by the learned Reifk, that the word Shahba, which is not
to be found in Lexicons, denotes a variegated grey and white colour; and
he agrees in opinion with Golius and others, that the epithet muft have
been derived from the colour of the foil, and of the buildings ; which is
remarked alfo by an Arab writer cited in the M. S. Hiftory, (p. 25.) who
«eprefents the houfes as chiefly built of a kind of Howara, or chalk-ftone.
But on this laft circumftance, it is obferved by Eben Shahny, that if this
was the cafe in early times, it was different when he wrote: the public
edifices, and moft of the houfes, being compofed (as they are at prefent) of
free-ftone. See Reifk (Tabula Syriz p. 188.) Golius (Note in A]fergan.
page 270.)

In whatever way the city originally obtained the appellation Shahba,
it is ftill retained in formal writings, as well as in the addrefs of letters 5
and the gliftering, variegated, white and grey appearance of the town, from
a diftance, feems to give a fanétion to the propriety of its application.

The M. S. now referred to, is the work of Eben Shahny a Native of
Aleppo, but pofterior to Eben Shahny the celebrated lawyer and hif-
torian who died in the 883 of the Hegira, (A. C. 1476.) It 1s a well ar-
ranged abftract from the works of preceding writers, particularly Eben
Adim, Eben Shedad, and Eben Al Khatib. The account of the revolu-
tions of the city is fhort; but it enumerates minutely the diftriéts, Mofques,
Palaces, Khanes, &c.

Note II. p. 1.

That Aleppo was the Zobah of {cripture feems very doubtful. The
queftion has been much agitated, and the reader who is defirous of further
information may confult Golius (Note in Alfergan. p. 274.) Bochart
Geographia Sacra Col. 79.) Regni Davidici & Salomonzi Defcript. Geo-
graphica. Norimberg. 1739.

Of its being the Berroea of the Greeks, there can be little doubt.
* Beroea media Antiochiam inter & Hierapolin, erat bidui ab utraque

“ itinere, tefte Procopio (Bell. Perfic. Lib. ii. Chap. 7.) Ubi & re€te Bégosar

“ yocat ; eft enim Begosawy in Wildianis aliorumque nummis. Ceterum

*¢ Beroeam

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

“‘ Beroeam nunc Aleppo vocitant unde in Jure Graco-romana (p. 292.)
© EusabiG@: emoxomGs tg meyadns Béggolas qtos Te yadrer. Ex Cedreno,
** Zonara, & Niceta, paria conduxit Cl. Cellarius.” (Vetera Romanorum
Jtineraria, &c. cum notis J. Simeleri. curante J. Weffelingio. Amftelod-
1735. p- 193.) Golius (Note in Alfergan. pa76)

The Arabian writers concur in the opinion of the Greek name of the
city being Birruia (Lig ) Baru, or Beiru. (M.S. Chap. 3.) The name
igs i is found in two ettins over Damafcus Gate, (Bab al Makam)
one on each fide, and both exa@tly the fame. Under Birruia “ Abul Nafr
*¢ Al Moulianna, Al Sultan Al Millek Al Afhraf aaz Nafroo.” (praifed
be his victory ') On the wall adjoining to the gate, on the right hand, is
a longer infcription, importing that this holy place, (in allufion to the
Makam, or {tation of the Patriarch) was rebuilt in the time of the Millek
Al Afhraf, Abu’l Nafr. Another infcription on the oppofite fide of the
gate contains a prayer for the Sultan’s prefervation. There are infcriptions
on two other ftones, but fo defaced by time, as to be illegible.

The want of a date renders it difficult to determine to which of thé
Princes, who bore the title Al Afhraf, the above infcriptions refer; but he
probably was one of thofe of the Circaffian Line.

Note III. p. 2.

‘By former times, are not meant thofe prior to the Portuguefe eftablith-
ments in the Eaft Indies, when Aleppo enjoyed {fo large a fhare of the
Indian and Perfian commerce; nor even that period preceding the year
1681, during which the Levant Company exported confiderable quantitie
of woolen manufa¢tures, and other Englifh wares, to the value, in fome
years, of five hundred thoufand pounds ; importing in return filks, galls,
8c. great part of which merchandize paffed through Aleppo: but the times
alluded to are thofe fo far down as the beginning of the prefent century.

An abftraé& account of the eftablifhment of the Englifh in the Levant, is
inferted in the Appendix.

Note IV. p. 5.

The deftruétion of the Chriftian camp in the year 1123, by the fudden.
rife of the river Kowick, is recorded by Al Makin, and found in an un-
publithed.

3439

35°

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

publifhed tranfcript and tranflation of that Author’s Hiftory, by Gagnier,
at Oxford. (Hunt, M.S. No. 16).

‘ After the fiege had continued eight days, and the place was upon the
‘ point of furrendering, the river Kowick rofe unexpectedly, and overflow-
‘ ing its banks, carried away the tents, deftroyed a great number of men,
‘ together with baggage and effects to an immenfe value. This difafter
‘ happened about three in the afternoon.’

The Univerfal Hiftory, though it refers to this paflage in Al Makin,
places the inundation of the Kowick prior to the death of Balak Ebn
Bahram al Maubege, whereas Al Makin exprefsly fays it happened after ;
for the word Maleck is no doubt an error in the M. S. where EU, is
put for See and Al Makin adds that Ikfankar took poffeffion of Aleppo,
the day (or foon) after the inundation. Abu’l Furrage places the death
of Balak in the year of the Hegira 518. (A. C. 1125.) and fays that Ikfan-
kar then took poffeffion of the city.

The critici{m in the Univerfal Hiftory relating to Al Gazi Ebn Artak is
certainly juft. It may be remarked, moreover, that Pocock in his tranfla-
tion of Abu’l Furrage, conftantly writes Al Gazi, though the Arabic text:
has Al Bilgazi C¢ jlaw! or Bigazi C¢jlatJ! (Modern Univerfal Hiftory

vol, 11. p. 392.)

Note V. p. 6.

M. D’Arvieux was Conful of France at Aleppo, from November 1 679 ta
the beginning of the year 1686. In his former refidence of twelve years, in
different parts of the Levant, he had acquired fuch knowledge of the
Arabic, Perfian, Turkifh and Greek, as enabled him to {peak fluently in the
refpective languages, and to tranfa¢ct public bufinefs, without the aid of an
interpreter. With thefe advantages, he had an opportunity of becoming
more intimately acquainted with the manners and tempers of the Turks,
(with whom he lived familiarly) than moft Europeans have in thefe later
times. Before coming to Aleppo, he had been employed as an Envoy to
Tunis, and Conftantinople; and refided, for fome time, as Conful at
Algiers. (See Preface to Voyage dans la Paleftine.)

D’Arvieux’s journey to the camp of the Emeer in 1664, with his re-
marks on the cuftoms and manner of the Arabs ; was publifhed by M. de
la Roque, in. 1717, under the title (Voyage, &c.. &c. dans la Paleftine.).

NOTES: AND; ILLUSTRATIONS,

It afterwards was publifhed, together with the Chevalier’s other Travels,
by Le Pere Labat, in 1735, in fix volumes ; containing various obferva-
tions by the Editor.

Though D’ Arvieux often defcends to details not interefting at this time,
his Memoirs contain much curious information ; and fo far as regards the
{pirit of the Turks in their political conduét, as well as their general cha-
racter, his remarks are more acute, and his accounts more impartial, than
almoft any to be found in the works of travellers who have colleéted infor-
mation through the medium of interpreters.

The fixth volume of his Memoirs contains a defcription of the city of
Aleppo, in which, among many things exa¢tly juft, are found a few inac-
curacies that feem imputable only to the Editor. ‘The epithet Shahaba,
is written Schella, “‘ En effet, Haleb al Schella, fignifie en Arabe, le lait
“de la Vache Schella.’’ Bal is conftantly put inftead of Bab. “ Bal
“ Tamacarin, inftead of Bab Kinnafreen.”’ Bal al Makam, is tranflated
Porte des Dames. Kullart for Kullah. Sonakat for Sahat, &c. A perfon
fo converfant in the language, as M. D’Arvieux, could not have com-
mitted blunders of this kind: it muft therefore be fuppofed either that his
papers were carelefsly tranfcribed, or that the Editor filled up chafms he
might have met with in the manufcript, from other writers ignorant in the
Eaftern languages. I have thought proper to fay thus much, before pro-
ducing fuch extraéts from the Memoirs as feem unqueftionably to belong to
the Author, and whofe authority I confider as very refpeétable.

Soon after the publication of D’Arvieux’s Memoirs, a {mall book was
publifhed at Paris in 1735, entitled “‘ Lettres critiques de Hadgi Mehemed
“ Effendi, au fuject des Memoires, &c. &c. traduites de Turc par Ahmed
“‘ Frengiu, renegat Flamand.”

The writer treats both D’Arvieux and his Editor with great afperity ;
but enters fo warmly into the defence of the conduét of the Jefuits in
Turkey, (p. 36.) and fo keenlv refents the fuppofed preference given to the
Conful’s Secretary, that the work is evidently that of an offended party,
not of a Renegado.

It muft be owned that as an Editor, Labat has taken great liberty with
his Author ; but many of the circumftances juftly animadverted on in the
Lettres Critiques, are certainly not imputable to D’Arvieux, to whom it is
abfurd to afcribe ignorance of the Oriental language, (p. 48.) merely on

account

351

354

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

account of blunders in orthography committed in tranfcribing, or printing,
or perhaps by the Editor.

Upon the whole, the criticifms are far from leffening the credit of M.
D’ Arvieux, with refpect to fuch matters as I may have occafion to cite his
authority. I find no reafon in the Letters to alter my opinion of his vera~
city ; and in fome inftances, where the petulance of the fictitious Effendy
betrays the inveteracy of an offended Jefuit, I have fubftantial reafon for
thinking that D’Arvieux {poke ftri@ truth.

In his defcription of the city, he gives a lift of the ftreets and diftrits,
making thofe within the walls amount to twenty-two, and thofe without
to fifty, containing in all 13360 houfes; to which being joined 272 Mofques.
and Chapels, 35 Palaces, 68 Khanes, 187 Kaifarias, 64 Baths, &c. &c. the
whole number of houfes and public buildings amount to fourteen thoufand.
one hundred and odd. (Memoires du Chevalier D’Arvieux, Tom. vi. p..
434. Paris 1735).

Among my Brother’s papers I found a lift, written in Arabic, of the.
{treets and diftrnicts, with the number of houfes in each. It is dated in the
Turkifh year 1166 (1752), and from the hand writing I fhould fufpeét he
had it from the office of the Mohaffil, but there being no explanatory me-.
morandum joined to it, I cannot vouch for its authority... This obferves a.
different diftribution from the Chevalier D’Arvieux’s account, making the
ftreets, or diftricts, amount to 136; but though the fuburbs are, clearly
comprehended in the account, the number of houfes amount only to 10742-
The Khanes, Kaifarias, Mofques, &c. are not mentioned, and therefore
moft probably were not included ; but even on that fuppofition, if D’Ar-.
yieux’s account be exaét, there will be found a decreafe of 2628 houfes,.

fince the year 1683..

Note VI. p. 7.

Some account of the ancient Chalcis, or Kinnafreen, now called Old
Aleppo, may be found in the following Authors, Abu'lfeda (Tabulz.
Syriz, p. 277.) Golius (Note in Alfergan. pe 276.) Weflelingius (Itinera-.
ria Veter. Roman. p. 193).

It furrendered, on capitulation, to the Saracens, in the 17th year of

the Hegira, (A. C. 630.) foon after their invafion of Syria.
Its:

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Its prefent ftate is well defcribed by Mr. Drummond, who was at great
pains in examining the ancient ruins in that part of the world. “‘ We re-
“ turned by the way of Rhia, and thence through a charming plain to Old
“ Aleppo, as it is vulgarly called, or the ancient city of Chalcis, which
“« gave its name to the adjacent country. For the convenience of water
“ we pitched our tents near the river Singas, now Kowaig, at fome dif-
“‘ tance from the place where that city {tood, and in the morning furveyed
“‘ its veftiges, for I cannot call them ruins, as nothing like a houfe is feen
“‘ ftanding; though we found many great fquared {tones and foundations,
** particularly thofe of the walls, which are nine feet thick, and occupy a
“* great extent of ground. ‘The caftle, or citadel, has covered a very large
“* hill adjoining to the city, and was furrounded by a double wall. From
“¢ this caftle hill we enjoyed a delightful view of the champain country, ex-
** tending to a prodigious diftance all round; but not one fiftieth part of it
** is cultivated.”

Mr. Drummond has given a Greek in{cription which he took from a

{tone of the city wall. (Travels, p. 236. Lond. 1754.) Pocock (Defcri p
tion of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 148.)

Note VII. p. 43.

Rabbi Benjamin of Toledo, afferts that they had neither wells nor river
at Aleppo; and that the inhabitants drank nothing but rain water, pre-
ferved in cifterns, to which they gave the name of Algob. (Voyages de
Rabbi Benjamin, par Baratier, vol. i. p. 126. Amfterdam 1734).

The tranflator of Benjamin (Baratier) confiders this affertion as a proof
of the traveller having never been at Aleppo. But he himfelf is miftaken
when he affirms there are no le{fs than two rivers, the Singa and the Coic,
the one pafling the city, the other watering the gardens ; for thefe are only
different names for the fame river, which in faét, contributes little towards
the fupply of the city.

Benjamin was at Aleppo in the time of Nouraldeen, and it is probable
the aqueduct was then much out of repair; for Milek al Daher, fome years
after, found it in fo ruinous a condition, that vaft expenfe was required to put
itinto order. The Sahreege, or cifterns, are fometimes called Giub, but that
name at prefent is ufually given to draw wells. As it is impotlible every
houfe could have a Sahreege, {fo it is probable moft of them muft have

Vor. I. Lz had

tw)

354

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

had draw wells. It is {till a cuftom to preferve the rain-water for inferior
ufes, but it muft have required large refervoirs indeed to hold a fufficient
quantity, in a country where for fix months.of the year little or no rain
falls.

Baratier alfo confiders the account given of Nouraldeen’s palace, as an-
other proof of his Author’s {peaking merely from report. Suppofing the
Author to mean. the caftle, it was certainly giving a very inadequate de-
fcription ; but if the prefent Seraglio then exifted, (and it appears to be
ancient) the defcription would be juft. Whether the Princes of thofe
times conftantly refided in the caftle, is a matter belonging to. another
place.

In the meanwhile, Baratier’s differtation, in the fecond volume, renders
it very probable that Benjamin was rather a compiler than a real travel-
ler. The fuppofed travels of this Jew were between the year 1160 and.
£173)

Golius has fallen into an unaccountable error, in which he has been
followed by many fubfequent writers. ‘“ Tum et rigandis, qui longe
‘¢ lateque circumjacent, hortis, ipfe infervit Euphrates, cujus inde a bidui
«‘ intervallo per w 14S Subterraneos Canales, huc derivantur aque.”
Golius (Note in Alfergan, p. 273. Amftelod 1669).

The want of water in the fummer for the gardens, might, it is faid, be
eafily remedied by a junétion. of the river Sedjour with the Kowick. This
{cheme has been more than once in agitation ; devout individuals have left
money for the purpofe, and about twelve or fourteen years ago, perfong
were fent from Conftantinople to furvey the ground. Many years before,
the work was a¢tually begun, and fome progrefs.made in cutting the eanal;
but it is commonly fufpected. that the work, though of public utility, is dif-
couraged at Aleppo, by certain perfons-of influence, whofe intereft would
fuffer from the garden grounds near the town decreafing in value, were
the water in fuch plenty as to encourage new plantations.

Pocock in his tour to the Euphrates, obferves that ‘“ Zelchif is com-
“puted to be eight hours:from Aleppo, ten from Antab, and three from
«“ Killis; four: hours:more-entered the plain of Sejour through which there
«‘ runs a river of the fame name to the Eaft of the village ; Sejour is be-
*¢ yond this ftream at the foot ofa little hill. We paffed over three chan-
‘‘ nels cut from this ftream in order to carry the water into the river of
«© Aleppo, over which we paffed about a mile further. It is here a larger

“river

NOTES! AND J/TLLUSTRA TIONS.

*¢ river than it is at Aleppo, many ftreams being carried out of it bclow to
“‘ water the country. As I was informed it rifes about two hours South
“ Eaft of Antab: fome Englifh gentlemen went to the place which is
“‘ called Hajar Yadereen or Gadjeia, where they faw the rife of it from
“< about forty {prings near one another. Another rivulet runs about it which
“ they fuppofed was the Sejour. There was an opinion in Golius’s time
“« that thefe {prings came from the Euphrates.” (Defcription of the Eaft,
vol. i. page 154).

Refpecting the fource of the Kowick. See Drummond (Travels, p. 204,
and 243.) .

Note V HT. p. “4.6.

It was on this meadow, (then called Meidan al Ahder, or Green
Meidan) that Saladin encamped, while the treaty was carrying on which
put him in poffeffion of Aleppo, after the death of Milek al Saleh. (Ann.
Heg. 579. A. C. 1183) there alfo the great men of the city, and the army,
came to pay him homage; and thence he proceeded to the caftle, where
a fumptuous entertainment was prepared for him. (Vita Saladini Vers.
Schultens, Lugd. Bat. 1732).

Another paffage, from the fame Author, fhows the high eftimation in
which Aleppo was held by Saladin. Upon fending his fon Al Milek al
Daher to that city, with the title of Sultan, he gave him to underftand
that he confidered it 1s the bafe and foundation of his kingdom, and of
which having fecured the pofleffion, he fhould relinquifh all future con-
quefts of other Oriental Provinces, and confine his exertions folely to the
Holy War. Milek al Daher, was met by the Grandees of the city, at
Ain al embaraky, or Bleffed Fountain, and in the forenoon, made his public
entry into the caftle, amid the acclamations of the populace. (ut Supra,
page 65).

It may be remarked on both the above paflages, that the Princes at that
time, feem to have refided, or to have had a palace, in the caftle; and
from what D’Arvieux fays, it would appear that the Bafhaws occafionally
refided there in his time, (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 411. and 443). Yet it
is evident from Cotovicus, that in 1599, the Bafhaw’s refidence was in the
old Seraglio, where they ftill refide. (Itinerarium Hieroiol. et Syriacum,
Antwerp. 1619).

ye Note IX.

355.

356

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note’ TX. p. 57.

The funk village appears to have been rarely vifited by travellers. Po-
cock inferts in his book the following defcription, which he had from a
gentleman he met with, after his return to England. “It is a round oval
« pit about one hundred yards in diameter and forty deep, it being a falid
‘“‘ rock all round, which for the firft twenty feet is perpendicular, below
‘‘ which there is a fteep defcent to the bottom, where it terminates in a
“‘ point. There is only one way down to it, which is not paflable for beafts:
‘“‘ half way down there is a grotto worked into the rock about four feet
‘“‘ hich and thirty long.’ (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 169).

Note’ X." pe 5g:

M. Otter, when at Bylan in 1737, was told of a mountain called Arfiz
Dagui, about nine hours diftant from Scanderoon, from which, for fome
years paft, fire had iffued. Otter (Voyage en Turquie, Tom. i. page 79,
Paris 1748).

Pocock, in his way to Seleucia, mentions having heard of this Volcano
from an Englifh gentleman: but he did not fee it himfelf. (ut Supra,
page 182).

Note XI. p. 60.

In Auguft 1755, fome water put up at the fountain at Khillis in a bot-
tle, and well corked, was on the fourth day brought to Aleppo. It ap-
peared of a diluted milky colour, and had the fetid {mell of a gun newly
difcharged. It’s tafte was that of a tainted egg, to which was joined a bit-
terifh faltnefs refembling a weak folution of Epfom falt. The fulphure-
ous tafte and {mell went off entirely, on the water being expofed about
eight hours in an open veflel.

Two pound and a half of the water evaporated over a {low fire to four
ounces and then left to cool, depofited a thick whitith fediment which
weighed, when dried, fifty-five grains, and appeared to confift of calcarious
earth with a {mall proportion of falt.

The remaining four ounces evaporated to drynefs, yielded ninety-five
crains of falt, mixed with fome of the lefs grofs calcareous earth.

The

———e Le eT

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The fifty-five grains of refiduum with the ninety-five of falt being dif-
folved in {pring water and filtered, there remained in the filter forty-fix
grains of a whitifh infipid earth. The veffel, in which the filtered {olution
was fet to evaporate, being accidentally broken, the quantity of falt could
not be exactly determined.

Note XII. p. 60.

P. Teixeira gives a beautiful defcription of part of the Syrian moun-
tains, which, though highly coloured, is very juft. (Viage de Ped. Teix-
eira de la India, p. 190. en Amberes 1610). |

Moryfon, on the third day of his journey from Tripoly to Aleppo, de-
fcribes another part of the Syrian mountains and plains. “ We fet out
“ early in the morning and {pent eight hours in afcending the mountain
‘‘ which was very high, but the way eafy, with many turnings about the
“ mountain, which of itfelf without manuring yieldeth many wild but
‘‘ pleafant fruits, feeming to pafs in pleafantnefs the beft manured or-
“« chards.”” When we had paffed the mountain, “ we came into a very
“‘ Jarge and fruitful plain of corn, which was yet (June 22nd) uncut down.
** After dinner we went forward in this plain, and did fee fome villages
“ which in this vaft Empire are very rare. Next morning, we took our
* journey and for fix hours paffed in the fame plain having not fo much
“‘as the fhadow of one tree, and came to the city Aman (Hama).
«« Abounding with orchards of palms and fruitful trees, and near the fame
“¢ were fix villages in fight. On Wednefday (the fifth day from Tripoly)
*< we fet forward (from Hama) in the afternoon and journied all night in
* this plain, wherein there was not the fhadow of one tree. Thurfday at
«« three in the afternoon fet forward, and about midnight we came to the
“city Maara. Next morning before day we fet forward and pafling a
“ ftrong barren way, but full of walnut trees, upon which many birds did
“ fit and fing, we came in four hours {pace to a Khane.” Moryfon (Tra-
vels, p. 244, Lond. 1617).

Perry in his journey ta Aleppo, obferves. ‘ Our fourth day was from
“« Edlib to Aleppo. This day’s jourmey was truly charming, the whole
“ road or way being one continued plain, {welling in various parts in fucl:
‘a manner as if calculated to entertain the eye the more agreeably. The

“ town

358

NOTES AND /DLIDUSP RAAT ONG.

“ town of Edlib is pleafantly fituated and is encompafied with a fine grove
*< of olive trees to a good extent.” (View of the Levant, p. 141. Lond:

1743).

Note ATI." p. 61;

‘Teixeira gives the following account of Scanderoon in the year 1605.
*¢ We croffed over the plain which is for the moft part fenny, and there-
“ fore very unhealthy. At length we came to the fhore, where are fome
“‘ houfes belonging to Franks, living there for the convenience of trade,
‘* which formerly was conveyed to Aleppo, (80 miles diflant) from Tri-
‘* polyin Syria, whence upon fome differences with the Batfias, the Chriftians
‘* retired to this place, about fifteen years fince, yet like it not very well
** becaufe of the inconvenience of carrying their goods fo far by land.”
P. Teixeira (Travels p. 79).

Moryfon who traveiled about ten years earlier than Teixeira, that is
about the year 1595, reprefents Scanderoon as “a poor village built all of
‘* ftraw and durt, excepting the houtes of fome Chriftian faétors, built of
‘ timber and clay, in fome convenient fort, and it lies along the fea fhore.
“« For the famous city of Aleppo having no other Haven, the merchants
*¢ do here unload their goods, but themfelves make hafte to Aleppo, ftaying
“« as little here as poffibly they can, and commiting the care of carrying
“‘ their goods upon camels, to the factors of their nation continually abid-
“ing there. The peftilent air of this place is the caufe that they dare not
«« make any ftay there ; for this village, is compafled on three fides with
“a fenny plain, and the fourth fide lies upon the fea. On the Eaft fide
«‘ beyond the fen is a moft high mountain, which keeps the fight of the
‘¢ fun from Scanderoon, and being full of bogs infeéts the fenny plain with
‘ill vapours. On the other fide towards the North (as I remember) in
*¢ the way leading to Conftantinople the like fenny plain lies, and the
“ mountains though more remote, do bare the fight of the fun and the
“‘ boggie earth yielding ill vapours, makes Scanderoon infamous for the
*¢ death of Chriftians.”” Moryfon (Travels, p. 250).

Scanderoon, has all along uniformly maintained its reputation of un-
heaithinefs, to the prefent times.

Note XIY.

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note XIV. p. 61.

Pietro della Valle defcribes the Defert he paffed between Aleppo and
Baffora, as being moftly a plain with very few rifings interfperfed. The
foil dry ; in fome places impregnated with falt or other minerals; feldom
{tony ; and very rarely marfhy, or covered with reeds. In the months of
June, July, and Auguft, moft parts prefented herbage, but the plants were
cheifly of the {fpinous kind, and only fit food for camels. A conftant, {trong
wind was troublefome, by raifing the duft, but contributed to render the
heats very tolerable. The nights were conftantly ferene, and it was ne-
ceffary to guard again{ft cold, by warm clothing. (Viaggii di Pietro della.
Valle, Parte iii. p. 415):.

Buffon’s picture of the Arabian Deferts, is drawn with a mafterly hand
(Hitt. Nat. xi. 221.) “ Qu’on fe figure un pays fans verdure et fans eau,
un folert brulant, un ciel toujours-fec, des plaines fublaneufe, des Montagnes
encore plus arides, fur les quelles l’ceil s’etend & le regard fe perd fans
pouvoir s’arreter fur aucum objeét vivant, &c.”

Gibbon in his general defcription of the Defert, (decline of the. Roman.
Empire, V. 172.) has with great propriety introduced fome circumftances
which Buffon had omitted, while others, perhaps, rather belong to the
African Deferts than the Arabian. ‘ Even the wilds of Tartary are
« decked, by the hand of nature, with lofty. trees, and luxuriant herbage ;
“‘ and the lonefome traveller derives a fort of comfort and fociety from the
“ prefence of vegetable life.. But in the dreary wafte of Arabia, a bound-
“ lefs level of fand is interfected by fharp and naked mountains ; and the
“ face of the Defert, without fhade or thelter, is fcorched'by the direét and
“ intenfe rays of a tropical fun. Inftead of refreihing breezes, the winds,
“‘ particularly from the South Weft, diffufe a noxious and even deadly

vapour; the hillocks of fand which they alternately raife and {catter,.

“‘ are compared to. the billows of the ocean, and whole caravans, whole
‘armies, have been loft and buried in the whirlwind. The common
“benefits of water are an object of defire and conteft; and {uch is the
“ fearcity of wood, that fome art is requifite to preferve and propagate the

« element of fire. Arabia is deftitute of navigable rivers, which fertilize:
*‘ the foil, and convey its produce to the adjacent regions: the torrents.

‘¢ that fall from the hills are imbibed by the thirfty earth: the rare and
‘‘ haidy plants, the Tamarind or the Acacia, that ftrike their roots inta

6c“ the

359

360

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

“¢ the clifts of the rocks, are nourifhed by the dews of the night: a fcanty
“< fupply of rain is colleéted in cifterns and aqueduéts: the wells and {prings
“‘ are the fecret treafure of the Defert ; and the Pilgrim of Mecca,, after
‘‘ many a dry and fultry march, is difgufted by the tafte of the waters»
‘‘ which have rolled over a bed of fulphur or falt.”

Note XV. p. 63.

“Lair de la ville & des environs eft fain, mais fi fubtil, que les gens
“‘ qui y arrivent, & qui ne font pas entierement fains, doivent extréme-
“* ment craindre de voir leur maladies cachées fe produire au de hors & les
“‘ emporter bien-tét, s’ils ne gardent un regime exaét. Chofe difficile aux
“« Francois, & impoffible aux Anglois & aux Nations feptentrionales, que
“‘ les vins excellens qu’on y boit attirent a faire des débauches dont ils font
*‘ bien-tdt les dupes, & l’eté fur tout plus que ’hyver. D’Arvieux (Me-
“ moires Tom.vi. page 428).

Moryfon, in the year 1596, obferves that the air was fo hot (in the end
of June) “ as methought I {upped hot broth, when I drew it in; but it is
“< very fubtile, fo as the Chriftians coming hither from Scanderoon (a moft
“ unhealthful place, having the air choaked with fens) continually fall
“‘ fick and often die. And this is the caufe that the Englifh fa€tors em-
“‘ ployed here (there) feldom return into England, the twentieth man
“‘ {carcely living till his prentifhip being out, he may trade here for himéelf,
«¢ The Chriftians here, and the Turks at the Chriftians coft, drink excellent
“wines.” Moryfon (Travels, p. 246).

Perhaps the excefs in wine, hinted by D’Arvieux, was at that time, as
it appears to have been in the fucceeding century, more common among
the Franks than it has been in later times.

Note XVL. 1p. 67,

This phenomenon is produced by the evaporation, On the fame prin-
ciple wine is cooled by wrapping a wet cloth round the bottle and then
hanging it up at the tent door in the fummer. Providing the cloth be

* In the thirty days, or ftations, between Cairo and Mecca, there are fifteen defti-
tute of good water. See the route of the Hadjees, in Shaw’s Travels, p. 477.
kept

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

kept conftantly wet, the operation will be more fpeedily completed by fuf-
pending the bottle in the fun. The Natives by way of cooling their
water-melons, cut them open and expofe them on the houfe top an hour
before fun fet.

M. Michaelis obferves “ au Rapport du Ruffel, le Vent d’Eft, dans les
“mois d’Eté malgre fa chaleur extérieur, conferve un froide interne.’
(Recueil des Queftions par M. Michaelis, q. 24.) It may however be re-
marked that Rufflell fimply mentioned the faét as fingular, without at-
tempting to account for it. It is not the intention of the Editor to en-
gage in a difcuffion of the conjeétures formed by the learned M. Michaelis
on this fubjet, but it may not be impertinent to fubjoin a few circum-
ftances, founded on fubfequent obfervation, relative to what has been al-
ready faid concerning the hot winds.

1f{t. Their rarenefs at Aleppo was confirmed; for I did not obferve them
more than in four or five fummers out of nineteen.

2nd. There appears to be an effential difference between thofe winds
and the more common light breezes from the fame points of the compafs.

3rd. Eaft, or South Eaft winds when ftrong, though conftantly ardent
and haraffing in the f{ummer, do not conftantly produce that fenfe of fuf-
focation and inquietude, fo remarkable in the true hot winds; as if that
was a property peculiar to certain years. Strong Eafterly winds are much
more common than the true hot winds, but their oppreffive quality is not
in proportion to the force with which they blow, as their other effects,
fuch as cooling water, &c. ufually are.

4th. In this latent property, diftinét from their degree of heat and
ftrength, they would feem to refemble the Simooly winds. But there is
much room for future inquiry into the fubje¢t.

Note XVII. p. 68.

I have had feveral opportunities of converfing with perfons who. have
been witnefles of the mortal effeéts of this fingular wind, but in their ac-
counts, they fo often difagreed in material circumftances, that I never was
able to colleét any fatisfactory ftate of faéts. It may be remarked, that in
order to procure exaét information from the Arabs, caution is requifite in
the mode of ftating the queftion; for it is not difficult, on certain fubjects,
to induce them to fay whatever one pleafes.

¥ ox. I. Aaa The

362

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Simooly winds are much more dreaded on the Baffora fide of the
Defert than at Aleppo. Mr. Ives was particularly cautioned about them
at Bagdat; and has inferted in his book, a letter from an officer on the
fubjeét of the Simooly wind, extraéted from the Annual Regifter of the
year 1766. Ives (Journey, p. 276).

See on this fubjeét Thevenot (Travels into the Levant. Part. ii. p. 54.
116. 135. 157. Lond. 1687). Tavernier (Voyages through Turkey into
Perfia, &c. p. 256. Lond. 1678). Mr. Bruce, in his Abyffinian Travels,
has mentioned feveral curious circumftances relating to the Simooly winds,

never remarked before. (Vol. iv. p. 557. 583)-

Note XVIII. p. 5.

The M.S. in the Efcurial Library on the fubje& of agriculture, is entitled
Kitab al Felahah ax Me! WU the Author’s name Abu Zacharia Jahia
Ebn Mohammed Ebn Ahmad, vulgo Ebn Aluam, Hifpalenfi.

“‘ Hujus autem Codicis pars prior extat in Regia Bib. Paris. inter Codices
“« Arabicos M. S. Num. g12, ficut in Biblioth. Lugd. Bat.

Cafiri hints an intention of tranflating this M. S.; inthe meanwhile he
prefents a Catalogue of the writers mentioned by the Author, with a pro-
fpectus of the 34 Chapters into which the work is divided. The number
of Arab writers amounts to feventeen. (Biblioth. Arabico-hifpan. Efcur.

vol. } p. 323)-

Note XIX. p. 98.

In the year 1754, I tranfmitted to my Brother the copy of an Arabie
paper, containing an account of the number of inhabitants of Aleppo,
which makes that of the Turks amount to 300,000. The Author was an
old Maronite Prieft. His computation was principally formed on the an-
nual confumption of grain, and the mortality in the plague year 1742; but
he was alfo affifted (he fays) in his calculations, by an European friend, an
expert geometrician.

‘In the year 1742, according to this paper it was found that the pro-
“‘ portion of Chriftians who died of the plague, was about five in the
“ hundred; and, allowing the Turks to have {uffered in the fame propor-

‘‘ tion, their number fhould then have been 300,000.”
But

NOTES AND JUILLUSTRATIONS.

But it is probable that the Turks fuffered in a much greater proportion,
from not having it in their power to avoid the infection, like the Chriftians,
who cautioufly keep out of the way, or where circumftances admit, re-
main fhut up in their houfes. The inference, therefore, drawn from the
mortality of the Turks, feems to be fallacious. But allowing the Turks
to have loft between feven or eight in the hundred, their number would
then be only 200,000, holding a medium between the Chriftians, and
Jews; for the latter, according to the above account of the mortality, are
fuppofed to have loft about ten in the hundred.

In a city where no Regifter is kept of births and burials, it mutt be al-
moft impoffible to afcertain the number of inhabitants. There is a tax
upon houfes, from which the number of thefe might perhaps be determined;
but as the Turks, in the way of {peculation pay no attention to political
arithmetic, an European finds infurmountable difficulty in procuring fuch
reports as would warrant an. eftimate of the number of inhabitants in each
houfe. The cafe is different in refpeét to the Chriftians and Jews, who pay
a capitation tax; while better information of the interior of their families
may be obtained from their Priefts.

M. D’Arvieux feems to have adopted the Oriental ftyle, when he brings
it as a proof of the great population of the place, that in the plague of
1669, there died about 100,000 perfons, and that in a week after it had
ceafed, the ftreets and Bazars feemed no lefs crowded than before.

This reprefentation was in all probability highly exaggerated, even al-
lowing the city to have contained 300,000, inhabitants. But that the
mortality could not have been fo confiderable, will appear from the ac-
count given by a gentleman of the Englith factory, who, made the pilgrim-
age that very year to Jerufalem. “ May 3rd, 1669, (fays the Journal)
“‘ fourteen Englifhmen of the factory fet fail from Scanderoon, for the
“ Holy Land. They returned to Tripoly about the roth of June, but were
‘< detained there by the Conful, on account of the plague’s flill raging at
“« Aleppo. They returned to Scanderoon the 26th of June, when fome
“« were dead, and others dying, and one flying from another. We tarred
«upon the mount, and aboard the fhip, for fometime; and, July 2nd, we
‘< arrived at Aleppo, where there died daily at that time feventy or eighty,
“‘ of the plague.”” (A Journey to Jerufalem in 1669. p. 86. Lond.)

M. D’Arvieux’s account of the confumption of provifions is probably
founded on better information. “ The daily confumption of gra‘n in the

Ava a2 ery

364

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

‘‘ city and fuburbs is about one hundred Makooks of wheat, each weigh-
“‘ ing two Kentals and a half. The Kental confifts of one hundred Rota-
‘‘ loes, and the Rotalo of five pounds three quarters, Marfeille’s weight.
“‘ When a Bafhaw is refident in the city, about fifty Makooks of barley
** are confumed, and in his abfence thirty-five. Of Legumes, which are
“ much ufed by the poor, the daily confumption is about fixty Makooks,
“ including the {mall grains for the black cattle and camels.”

‘¢ Six hundred fheep are killed daily ; but it was impoffible to learn the
“ number of Lambs, Kids, Fowls, Pigeons, &c.’” (Memoires Tom. vi.
page 456).

The account I received at Aleppo made the number of fheep flaughtered
daily, only four hundred, which, if exaét, would feem to denote a confider-
able decreafe of population. Beeves are only killed two days in the week»
from feven to ten a week. In the winter a few Buffaloes are killed alfo;
and in the fame manner as part of the beef, is prepared by drying, or made
into hams, and faufages; little of the meat being eaten frefh. Of wheat,
according to my account, the confumption agrees nearly with D’Arvieux’s
calculation.

~ Note XX. p. 108.

« According to Cantacufcino, ‘ Luxury in drefs began to be introduced
‘among the Turks in the time of Bajazet, and increafed under Selim,
* whofe reign commenced in the year 1512. The latter imported great

-* quantities of gold and jewels, from Perfia and Egypt, and the women par-

‘ ticularly, from that period, dreffed in a much more expenfive manner than
‘before. The men however were in fome meafure reftrained by the ex-
‘ample of the Emperor, who, being a foldier himfelf, was inclined to dif-
‘ courage the increafing fpirit of effeminacy among his officers, and to re-
‘ {tore the rigid and fimple manners prevalent in the reign of Mahomet II;
‘in whofe time neither military nor other officers, could, without offence,
‘have appeared at court, in velvets, rich ftuffs, and coftly pellices, of
‘late years fo common. I have myfelf, (fays the Author, in 1545) feen
‘ the wife of a fimple attendant of the court, whofe drefs, including pearls
‘ and jewels, coft from one to four thoufand ducats. Whence it may eafily
“be conceived, how expenfive muft be the drefs of the ladies of the

* Grandees.’

See

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

‘Grandees.’ ‘Theod. Spanducino Cantacufcino. (Commentari, lib. ii.
p. 168. Fiorenza 1751).

It would appear, therefore, that this extravagance in drefs, is not of mo-
derndate. Neverthelefs it‘is a prevalent opinion in Turkey, that effemi-
nacy has greatly increafed in the prefent century. The Turks themfelves
complain of it; and I have heard it afferted by perfons of rank, that er-
mine and other coftly furs, are now worn by thofe who, in their remem-
brance, were never accuftomed to wear furs of any kind.

The Turks delight in garments of gaudy colours. Their Kaooks are
chiefly red, or green, and on all public occafions, the white fhafh is newly
wafhed ; fo that a Turkith crowd, makes a fplendid and fingular appear-
alice, viewed from an elevated place.

A celebrated Arabian writer of the 14th century giving an account of
the people of Granada, reprefents them as dreffed in the richeft, flowered
Perfian ftuffs, the fineft lawns, linen, and muflins; and compares their
appearance when affembled at Mofque, to the ‘ variegated flowers, which,
‘ in the {pring, expand in fome delicious meadow, under the genial influ-
* ence of a happy clime.’

He defcribes the rich jewels and other ornaments of the ladies, but re-
marks that they carried the rage for expenfive drefs, to an excefs bordering
on infanity. ‘ They are handfome in their perfons, (continues he) gene-
‘ rally of middle ftature, rarely tall; amorous; beftow care on their long
‘ flowing hair; their teeth are remarkably white, and they breathe the
‘ richeft perfumes. They move witha {fprightly ftep; are endued with an
‘ ingenious difpofition, and in converfation are lively and witty.’ Eben al
Khathib. (Bibliotheca Arabo-hifpan. Efcurialenfis, vol. ii. p. 257. 259.)

The above defcription might very well fuit the modern Aleppo ladies,
in all other refpeéts than the alertnefs, or vivacity of their gait.

The reader may find fome curious remarks on the ancient Oriental fe-
male drefs, in Harmer (Obfervations, vol. ii. p. 379) as alfo in the learned
Bifhop Lowth’s notes on the third chapter of Ifaiah, p. 32.

Note XXI. p. 108.

Peter Belon defcribes the Babooge, or flippers of the Turks, as always
fhod with iron. There is no diftinétion (he fays) in this refpect, between
thofe of the Sultan, as well as of other great men, and thofe of the pea-

fant :

355

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

fant: nay that the flippers of the women, and even of children, are fhod
in like manner. Belon (Obfervat. lib. i. chap. 43).

Rauwolff and Moryfon defcribe the flippers as being of a white or blue
colour. The former fays, ‘‘ Their fhoes are like unto thofe our lackies
“‘ufe to wear, and like {flippers eafy to be put on and off. They com-
‘* monly are of a white or blue colour, painted before, underneath defended
‘¢ with nails before, aud with horfe fhoes behind; thefe are worn by
“« young and old, men and women, rich and poor.” Ray (Colleétion of
curious Travels, &c. vol. i. p. 23. Lond. 1738).

At prefent, the boots and flippers of a few only of the common people
are fhod with iron; and are either of a yellow or red colour; but never
white. The flippers of the Jews, and the boots of the Effendees are of a
dark blue.

The mode of dreffing in different ages, ferving in fome degree to fhow
the progre(fs of arts and civilization, I judged it proper to give a more par-
ticular defcription of the prefent drefs of Aleppo, which differs but little
from that of Conftantinople. In a comparifon with the defcription given
by D’Arvieux (Tom. vi. p. 425). The drefs will be found to have un-
dergone fome change fince the year 1681, though not near fo much as
from the fafhion of the century immediately preceding.

For curious information on this head, fee the valuable work of M.
Niebuhr (Voyage en Arabie, Tom. i, p. 127. Amfterdam 1776).

Note XXII. p. 111.

Kohol, ks 5 is a general term for a medicine applied to the eye ball,
or the infide of the eyelids, in the form of a powder finely levigated. That
which is employed for ornament, 1s called fimply al Kohol, or If{phahany ;
when other ingredients, as flowers of Olibanum, Amber, or the like are
added, on account of particular diforders, the Kohol is diftinguifhed by
fome appropriate epithet.

The fubftance ufed at Aleppo for the ordinary Kohol, is a kind of lead
ore brought from Perfia, and is prepared by roafting it in a quince, an
apple, or a Trufle, then adding a few drops of oil of Almonds, it is ground
to a fubtile powder, on a marble. But of late years the lead ore brought
from England, under the name of Arcifoglio, has been ufed inftead of the

Hphahany.
The

NODES (AND VILLUS TRA TIONS.

The quantity of Kohol confumed in the Eaft is incredibly great. It
has been faid by one of their Poets, in allufion to the probe ufed for ap-
plying the powder, and the mountains where the mineral is found, ¢ That
‘ the mountains of I{phahan have been worn away by a bodkin.

The probe or bodkin for the Kohol is called Meel, and is of different
fizes, from that of an ordinary quill downwards. It is ftraight, but tapers
a little, and is blunt at the point. If I am not miftaken, I have feen fome
of ivory, found at Herculaneum, which very nearly refembled thofe now
ufed in Syria.

The mineral ufed for the Kohol is, by the Arabs, called Ithmed Kgl
or I{phahany, and is no doubt the ftibium of the Greeks: but it may be
doubted whether by Ersmus was always underftood what is now called
antimony.

Pure, or crude antimony, is not at prefent ufed at Aleppo for the Kohol,
and probably never was. The fub{ftance moft in requeft was formerly
the Ifphahany Calgrol evidently a lead, not an antimonial ore; and it
has already been remarked that large quantities of common Englifh lead
ore have been imported to Aleppo, as a fubftitute; I{phahany having be-
come fearce and dear. I have examined many fpecimens of the anti-
monial and lead ores in the Englifh colleétions, but never faw any thing
refembling the antimonial ore in Syria.

The Englith antimony, in its native ftate, on account of particles of
lead ore being fometimes mixed with it, is thought to be lefs fit for medi-
cinal ufe. But this, with refpeét to the Kohol, would be no objeétion ;
for both Diofcorides and Pliny affert that Stibium expofed in the prepa-
ration, to too {trong a heat, turns into lead. (Mathiolus in Difcorid. Com-
ment. p. 596). In the fubftance ufed at prefent for the Kohol there is no
mixture of antimony. ‘The ufe of the Kohol is of very ancient date.
Paflages relative to it, in Sacred Hiftory, may be feen in Shaw (Travels,
p- 229). Harmer (Obfervations, vol. ii. p. 405). and Bifhop Lowth’s notes
on Ifaiah.

The following paflage from Naumachius records the early practice
among the Greek ladies.

** Delight not, O Virgin! in empty ornament,

“« Nor view your form too ftudioufly in the mirror,

Shaw

368

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Shaw obferves that among other curiofities taken out of the Catacombs
at Sahara, relating to the Egyptian women, he faw a joint of the common
reed, or Donax, which contained one of the bodkins, and an ounce or
more of the powder of the Kohol, agreeably to the fafhion and praétices
of thofe times. On the paflage in Xenophon, referred to by Shaw, it
may be remarked that blackening the eyes, though a cuftom among the
Medes, was not at that time in ufe among the Perfians; for Cyrus, among
other things, feems to have been furprifed at the painted eyes of his grand-
father Aftyages. (Cyropeed. lib. 1. p. 8).

Galen mentions blackening the eyelids as a daily praétice among the
women. (Tom. iv. p. 285. Gr. Ed. Bafil 1539. De Sanit. tuend. Lib.
vi. chap. 12. Venet. 1625.) See alfo Caufaban’s note on the paflage cited
from Juvenal. (Caufabon. Juven. p. 40).

Note XXIII. p. 112.

The compofition employed for tinging the eye brows, is thus prepared.
Sixty drams of oil in an earthen vefflel, being placed over a gentle fire, an
equal quantity of galls in powder is added by degrees, as foon as the oil
begins to boil. The veffel, being covered with a {mooth ftone, is per-
mitted to ftand on the fire, till the galls become of a black burnt like
colour, when it is removed, and what is found {ticking on the cover, be-
ing carefully taken off, is mixed with the finer part of the contents in the
veffel. To this mixture are added the following ingredients, (previoufly
reduced to powder) crude fal armoniac, calcined copper, of each twenty
drams, leaves of Henna, one hundred and twenty drams. The whole
being knead into a pafte is formed into {mall tablets. It is applied with
a bit of ftick.

Another manner of preparing this dye may be feen in Belon (Obferv,
liv. iii, chap. 35. p- 354. Bruxelles 1555).

Note XXIV. p. 112.

They have feveral compofitions for tinging the beard; the following is
commonly ufed. Fifteen ounces of Sumach are boiled in two pints and a
half of water, to the confumption of two thirds of the liquor. The fol-
lowing ingredients, galls, alum, green vitriol, and frefh walnut twigs of

each

—— ee eee eee

NOFES! AND! TLLUSTRA TONS.

each five drams, are then added to the ftrained decoétion, and left to ftand
in infufion for five days. The beard is carefully wafhed and dried, to pre-
pare it for the dye, which takes effect in about an hours time; when the
hair, being wafhed with warm water, is found of a clear black colour.

The Prophet himfelf tinged his beard; and the cuftom was followed
not only by his immediate fucceflors, but by feveral of the early Khalifs,
Abu’! Feda (Vit. Mohammed. per Gagnier, chap. Ixv).

Al Makin, defcribing the perfon of Abubecker, the immediate fucceffor

of Mohammed, fays that he alfo died his beard. (Al Makin. Erpen. p. 18).

The fame hiftorian takes no further notice of this praétice till the time

of Moawiyah; but it had probably been continued by the Khalifs. It was
adopted by Omar; and the Univerfal Hiftory, {peaking of Moawiyah, fays
exprefsly “‘ that he tinged his beard, after the example of his predeceffors.”
(vol. ii. p. 84).
_ It would appear alfo that the Prophet wore his hair, and tinged it as
well as his beard. ‘‘ He was well furnifhed with hair which partly fell
<< in buckles or ringlets about his ears, and partly hung down {ftraight be-
<< tween his fhoulders. To this by the application of Al Henna, or Cyprus
“‘ Indigo, and the herb al Catam, he gave a reddith fhining colour, in
“‘ which he is imitated by the Scenite Arabs at this day. (Mod. Univ.
<¢ Hift. vol. i. p. 232.)

It may be remarked here that if the colour given to the hair was a fhin-
ing red, it was very different from the modern dye, which ftrikes a pure
black, and is employed with a view to conceal grey hairs.

I have feen feveral of the Bidoween women whofe hair has been ftained
red, but do not recollect to have feen the hair of the itinerant Sheihs
tinged. The men (fome itinerant Sheihs excepted) univerfally fhave the
head, leaving only a {mall tuft on the crown.

The Turkifh girls commonly ufe henna for their hair, not to give the
deep red colour, but a kind of auburn, in imitation of nature.

Woe AAV. BETZ.

The precepts contained in the Koran relative to‘veils are explicit, and
in general obeyed, ‘¢ O Prophet {peak unto thy wives and thy daughters,
*‘ and the wives of the true believers, that they caft their outer garments
“¢ over them when they walk abroad; this will be more proper, that they

VoL. I. Bbb “ may

369

370

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

*“‘ may be known to be matrons of reputation, and may not be affronted by
“¢ unfeemly words or aétions.” (Sale’s Koran, chap. 33. p. 350) (Marracct
page 556. 59). :

“And fpeak unto the believing women that they reftrain their eyes
and preferve their modefty, and difcover not their ornaments, except
‘“¢ what neceffarily appeareth thereof: and let them throw their veils over
“ their bofoms, and not fhow their ornaments unlefs to their hufbands, or
“ their fathers, or their hufbands fathers, or their fons, or their hufbands
‘ fons, or their brothers, or their brothers fons, or their fifters fons or their
“women, or the captives which their right hands fhall poffefs, or unto
“‘ fuch men as attend them and have no need of women (old men, &c.
‘¢ but it is a queftion whether Eunuchs are comprehended) or unto chil-
«‘ dren who diftinguifh not the nakednefs of women. And let them not
“« make a noife with their feet, that their ornaments which they hide may
*¢ thereby be difcovered.” (Koran chap. xxi. p. 291). Marracci, p. 482. 32).

(74

Note XXVI. p. 108.

Kaimak, in Turkifh is the name commonly ufed for this cream, but the
proper Arabic name is Zubdy 0OU J. The original Arabic receipt for
making it is as follows; agreeably to which it has been made with

fuccefs in England. “ Into a copper pan twenty-three inches in diameter,

“¢ and two inches and a half deep, put nineteen pints of frefh fheeps milk,
“ (in weight three Rotolos Turkith or fifteen pounds Englifh) and place it
“‘ over a moderate charcoal fire, made on a ftone hearth. The pan mutt
‘ be raifed above the hearth about fix inches, by means of three ftones, or
‘ a trivet, the fire is then to be blown gently for the {pace of two minutes,
“and for that time only. A thin {cum will foon appear on. the milk,
«‘ and in about half an hour cover the whole furface. You will then per-
‘6 ceive it fimmer, or a {mall motion in the middle of the pan will fhow
‘that it is juft beginning to boil.

“

«“ You muft now, having provided a pint mug, or the like veffel with.
‘6 a handle, ladle the milk till you bring it into an entire froth, which wil}
s¢ require about two minutes; and as the froth and blubbers fubfide, the
Kaimak will rife on the furface, covering it in the form of a honey
«« comb.

av.
e

66 it

NOTES /AND LLLUSTRA TIONS.

*« It is requifite at this time to be attentive to the fire. Should the
** Kaimak appear {welling in any part, immediately remove fome of the
“ fire, which if {till too fierce, damp it with afhes. The remaining fire is
“¢ then to be fpread equally under the pan, and if no fwellings appear on the
<¢ furface of the milk, it may be left to thicken, and cool.

“« The Kaimak, when cold, is to be carefully {tripped off with the fin-
“¢ gers, in the form of a rolled pancake, only thicker; but in this opera-
“ tion it is hardly poffible to prevent the cake breaking into pieces.

“ ‘The Kaimak produced will be found to weigh one pound two thirds
“ Englith ; (two hundred and forty drams or four ounces Turkifh) and
“ the remaining milk will meafure eleven pints. The milk is rich and
“ fweet, but will have acquired a burnt tatfte.

«« The remaining milk fubmitted again to the fame operation, will pro-
** duce a fecond cake of Kaimak, weighing one pound and a quarter Englith,
“< but inferior in quality and colour to the firft.

“Though goat’s milk be plenty at Aleppo, fheep’s milk is preferred
“‘ for making Kaimak. Some experience is required for regulating the
“< fire properly, and judging of the boiling, the honey comb fcurf, &c. If
“ the fire be made of rather large pieces of charcoal, and a little brifk at
“« firft, one or two minutes blowing will be fufficient ; but it muft not be
«< hurried fo as to make the milk boil within the half hour. The veffel
4¢ muft not be moved nor the milk ftirred, when left to cool.

“The whole of the operation from the time of making the fire till the
«< {tripping off the Kaimak, was finifhed in about three hours.”

Note XXVII. p. 118.

The Leban is a coagulated four milk, ufually prepared by boiling the
milk, and, while hot, adding to it a {mall proportion of Leban, which
coagulates the whole before next morning. I never could learn of the
Arabs how this was made originally, they do not think it poffible to make
it without Leban, and will not believe that there is any place on earth
where Leban may not be found.

I have been told that by letting milk ftand till it turn four, then with a
little of it, inftead of Leban, turning fome frefh milk, and repeating the
operation with a little of the laft coagulum, for feveral fucceflive days, the
true Leban was at length obtained.

Bbb2 A lady

371

372

NOTES! AND: 'I.LLUS®EA TIONS.

A lady from India, fhowed me lately fome excellent Leban (Tyre) which
fhe had prepared with four coagulated milk. But fhe firft boiled the {weet
milk over a flow fire, to the confumption of one half, and added the coa-
gulum when the milk was no more than luke warm.

Note XXVIII. p. 120.

M. Galland, towards the lattér end of the laft century, publifhed an hif-
torical account of coffee chiefly taken from an Arabian M. S. in the French
King’s Library, in which the Author difcuffes a queftion, formerly much
agitated among the Mohammedans, concerning the lawfulnefs of the ufe
of coffee.

According to Galland, it was introduced into Arabia about the middle
of the 15th century, from which period, the hiftory of it’s progrefs is re-
gularly continued. It did not reach Conftantinople till about the middle
of the following century, but was known fooner by feveral years, both at
Damafcus and Aleppo.

It is remarkable that Poftel, who travelled about the year 1540, and
particularly defcribes the Turkifh mode of entertaining ftrangers, fhould
make no mention of coffee ; neither is it mentioned by Belon, who tra-
velled from 1546 to 1549, and vifited both Cairo and Aleppo. Bufbequius
followed foon after, that is about 1553, and was very obfervant, but he
{ays nothing of coffee, though he defcribes the Sherbet. (Epiit.i. p. gr).

Rauwolff, in the year 1573, found it in common ufe at Aleppo, and fays
they called it Chaube ; an error he might eafily fall into, from hearing
the word which (in Arabic) means hot, frequently repeated, and which is
{till applied to coffee by way of recommendation. He gives a defcription
of the Berry, called Banru and fuppofes it to be the buncho of Avicenna
and Rhazis. In this laft circumftance however he was miftaken, for the
bunk of Avicenna is a root, and the Ban of that Author, is commonly
taken to be the Glans Unguentaria, or Baaavog Mugerlsx'n of Diofcorides.

It was about the year 1578 that Profper Alpinus went into Egypt,
where he had an opportunity of feeing a coffee plant, brought thither from
Arabia. If therefore he was the firft European who defcribed the plant,
Rauwolff appears to have been the firft who gave an account of the berry,
and its infufion. Alpinus imagined the coffee to be the Ban (.,L not the
Bunk Ue of Avicenna, as is evident from the fimilitude he found in the

virtues

—————'828— i. = |

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

virtues of the coffee, and thofe afcribed to the Ban. Rauwolff (Rays Col-
le€tion of Voyages, vol. i. p. 68. Lond. 1738.) Profper Alpinus (Plant.
fEgypt. cap. xvi. et Medecina AXgypt. p. 264.) Avicenna (Lib. ii. Ban,
et Bunk.) Mathiolus (in Diofcorid, p. 534.) Geoffroy (Traité de la Mati-
ere Medicale, Tom. i11. p. 248. Paris 1743.)

Prior to the introduction of coffee, the Arabians were accuftomed to
drink the decoétion of the leaves of a certain plant called Cat. This is
afferted by Galland, on the authority of the Arabian Author ; but Herbe-
lot, reckoning it a third {pecies of coffee, fays it was prepared from an
unknown berry, or feed, and called Cahaat al Catiat, or Caftah.

See more on this fubjeét, La Rocque (A Voyage to Arabia the Happy,
p- 232. Lond. 1726.) Ellis, (Account of Coffee, Lond. 1774.) J. Douglas
(Hitt. of coffee, Lond. 1727.)

Note XXIX. p. 125.

Tobacco was not known to the Europeans before the difcovery of
America. The Spaniards are faid to have found it firft in the Iacatan,
about the year 1520, where it was called Petun or Petum. Thence it
was tranfported to the Weft India Iflands ; to Maryland, Virginia, &c.
It was called alfo Tabac by the Spaniards, from the name of an inftru-
ment ufed by the Natives in the preparation of the herb. It was brought
into France about the year 1560, by Jean Nicot, Embaffador from Francis
II. to Sebaftian King of Portugal, from whom it got the name of Nico-
tiana ; it was named likewife Herbe de la Reine, on account of having
been prefented to Catherine of Medicis; and in France, received a third
name, Herbe du grand Prieure, from a dignified Ecclefiaftic of the Houfe
of Lorrain. Geoffroy (Suite de la Mat. Med. Tom. 1. p. 172. Paris 1750.)
(Johan. Neander Tabacalogia, 1622.)

Sir Francis Drake touching at New Albion, in the year 1579, received
among other prefents, fome bags of Tobacco. (Harris Voyages, vol. i.
p- 21.) But the introduction of Tobacco into England is commonly
placed later than this, that is in 1586, when Drake returned from his
fecond voyage (vide Rapin and Echard.) Cambden gives a more pointed
account. A colony which had been fent to Virginia, a fhort while before,
by Sir Walter Raleigh, were by Drake found in great diftrefs, for want
of provifions, and together with their Captain Ralph Lane, returned with

the

374

NO'TEST AND JTLLUSWRATTONS.

the Admiral to England. ‘ Thefe men, who were thus brought back,
‘“¢ were the firft, that I know of, who brought into England that Indian
‘ Plant which they call Tabacca and Nicotia, or Tobacco, which they
“‘ ufed again{t Crudities, being taught it by the Indians. Certainly from
“‘ that time forward it began to grow into great requeft, and to be fold at
“an high rate.” (Hift. of Q. Elizabeth, p. 324. Lond. 1675.)

At what period the ufe of Tobacco was introduced into Turkey, is not
certainly known; but there is no mention made of it by any of the travel-
lers whofe works I have met with, earlier than the beginning of the 17th
century. From the year.1540 to 1563 William Poftel, Peter Belon, and
Bubequius vifited in fucceffion moft parts of Turkey, yet, accurate as they
are in their remarks on national manners, none of them take notice of
tobacco.

John Newberrie (1580) made more than one voyage to Ormus by way
of Aleppo: he travelled alfo in Perfia and Armenia, pafling through Con-
{tantinople, in his return to England. He is particular in his account of
mercantile articles, and makes various remarks on the manners, drefs,
&c. of different countries, but he fays nothing of tobacco. Ralph Fitch,
a merchant, who accompanied Newberrie to Ormus, and defcribes the
voyage down the Euphrates, as well as the drefs and cuftoms of the Arabs,
is equally filent on the fubjed.

John Sanderfon travelled, or was refident, in the Eaft, from the year
1584 to the year 1602. He refided at Conftantinople from 1592 to 1598;
and had vifited Syria and Egypt. Sanderfon appears to have been an ob-
fervant and very intelligent traveller. He gives a circumftantial account

of Conftantinople, tranflated from the narrative of a Jew Doétor, and de-

{cribes particularly his own pilgrimage to Jerufalem: but no mention of
tobacco is to be among found his remarks.

It fhould in juftice, however, be obferved, that thefe three Englifh tra-
vellers, are equally filent refpeCting coffee, which was undoubtedly in ufe
in Syria, in their time; it ought therefore not to be concluded from their
filence, that tobacco was not then known.

The filence of Rauwolff and Profper Alpinus, both of whom mention
coffee, will be confidered of more weight in this matter, as from the nature
of their purfuits, it was lefs likely they fhould have omitted Tobacco, had
they met with it in the Levant.

But

NOTES) AND ILEUSTRATIONS

But that Tobacco was unknown at Aleppo, as late as the year 1603, is
put almoft beyond doubt by the Teftimony of William Biddulph, at that
time Chaplain to the Englifh Faétory, who gives a journal of his Pilgrim-
age to Jerufalem, in the year 1600. This writer, after defcribing the
diet of the Turks, makes the following remark. ‘ Their Coffee houfes
‘“‘ (at Aleppo) are more common than Ale houfes in England, but they
“ ufe not fo much to fit in the houfes, as on benches on both fides the
“¢ ftreet, near unto a Coffee houfe every man with his Finjon (cup) full;
‘“‘ which being fmoaking hot, they ufe to put it to their nofes and earss
‘“‘ and then fup it off by leifure, being full of idle and Ale houfe talk.”
This is an exaét defcription of what is done at Aleppo at this day; and
had {moking Tobacco been at that time a pra¢tife, it is hardly probable
that Biddulph would have omitted it on this occafion, or where he de-
{cribes their drinking Sherbets, eating Opium, &c.

Vide Purchas, (Pilgrims Part i. p. 1410. 1643. 1730. and 1340. Lond.
1625.) See alfo the Voyages of Newberrie’s Companions, and others.
Hakluyt (Part i. p. 217.)

The firft Englith traveller (fo far as I know) who fpeaks of fmoking
Tobacco, as a practice in Turkey, is Sandys. He was at Conftantinople
in 1610; and after remarking that the Turks take Opium to make them
giddy headed, &c. He adds “ perhaps for the felf fame caufe they alfo
« delight in Tobacco, which they take through reeds that have joined
“ unto them great heads of wood to contain it; I doubt not as lately.
“ taught them, as brought them by the Englifh: and were it not fome
“¢ times looked into (for Morat Baffa not long fince commanded a pipe to
“¢ be thruft through the nofe of a Turk, and fo to be led in-derifion through
“ the city) no queftion but it would prove a principal commodity. Never-
“ thelefs they will take it in corners and are {fo ignorant therein that that
«¢ which in. England is not faleable, doth pafs here amongft them as moft
“excellent.” (Travels, p. 52. fixth Edition, Lond. 1670.)

The foregoing pafflage leaves little room for doubt that {moking was
only a recent cuftom at Conftantinople; and that Tobacco was not at
that time cultivated in the country. The following circumftance renders
it probable, that the cuftom of {moking the pipe was tranfmitted from the
Capital to the Syrian Provinces, while the peculiar mode of {moking the
Nargeeli, or through water, was brought from Perfia. The name for
Tobacco in Syria and Egypt, is Tutton, cpg a word not of Arabic ori-

gin,

375

376

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

gin, but Turkifh, Cp gd OF Ey gi gd and fignifies fmoke. They have no
other word for Tobacco in Arabic; for Dukhan, ;.,(S0 which by the way
is feldom ufed, is no other than a tranflation of the Turkifh word; whereas
the particular kind of Tobacco ufed in the Nargeeli retains its Perfic name
Tunbak eik It may further be remarked that the Arabs tranflate the
Turkith expreffion for {moking Tobacco ett Cys 50 Dutun eechmek,
to drink Tobacco; for they invariably fay Shireb Tuton os igi Wy
which means the fame thing.

After faying fo much on this fubjeét, it would be digreffing too far to ex-
tend the inquiry to the introduction of {fo fingular a cuftom into Perfia,
and India: I fhall therefore only fubjoin a few curfory remarks on fome
of the early voyages, which were more particularly confulted with a view
to Turkey.

In the year 1561, Czefar Frederic went to India by way of Aleppo, and -
after travelling many years, he returnedin the year 1581. His account,
of the produétions of various countries, their cuftoms, manners, &c. is full
and diftiné&t: he takes notice of Betle, but fays nothing of fmoking To-
bacco; which, confidering the period when he left England, muft have
been as great a novelty to him as the chewing Betle. Newberrie, with
others already mentioned, though particularly exaét in many articles rela-
tive to India and Perfia, 1s filent on Tobacco; notwithftanding that in the
voyage down the Euphrates, as well as in the Caravans by land, they all
travelledin company of various people, from the different Eaftern countries.

This laft circumftance is in a peculiar manner applicable to J. Eldred,
one of Newberrie’s fellow travellers, not hitherto mentioned. He indeed
went no further than Baffora, but he croffed no lefs than three times from
Aleppo to that city and Bagdat, and is very exaét in his account of the
drefs of the Arabs, the march of the Caravans, and other matters. In his
firft journey from Bagdat to Aleppo, the Caravan confifted of forty thou-
fand Camels, laden with fpices and other rich merchandize. Hakluyt
(Part, i. p. 231.) Purchas (Pilgrims, p. 1707.) Harris (Voyages, vol. i.
page 274.)

In the year 1562. Anthony Jenkinfon, an Agent for the Ruffia Com-
pany, (which had been eftablifhed about the year 1554) was fent into
Perfia, by way of Mufcovy, and carried a letter from Elizabeth for the
Sophi. From 1562 to 1581 feveral other expeditions into the Eaft were
fet on foot by the Ruffia Company, and the reports made by their Agents,

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

more efpecially by Edwards and Burrough, contain much curious infor-.
mation, relative to the manners of the Perfians, and the ftate of their
commerce: but though their accounts are in fome places minute in the
defcription of feafts, and entertainments, nothing is faid concerning To-
bacco. Hakluyt (p. 359. 454.)

The firft voyages of the Eaft India Company (eftablifhed Anno 1600.)
often make mention of Betle, as well as of Opium, without taking notice
of Tobacco. In 1607, however, Keeling, Commander in Chief of the
Third Voyage, fays “ that the Arabs at Zocatara are mighty lovers of
“* Tobacco, and they love as well to fponge it where they may be per-
“ mitted,” he adds, that they drink Coffee, which they have from Mocha.
Harris (Voyages, vol. 1. p. 80.)

This obfervation of Keeling’s is the more remarkable, becaufe four or
five years after, (1612) Captain Saris, defcribing his ceremonial reception
at Mocha, with the dinner, and the perfume of Aloes Wood at the con-
clufion of the vifit, remarks that the “ drink was only pure element, or
“ elfe for variety a kind of decoétion of a certain bitter herb, which made
“ it an abfolute dofe, and was ten times worfe than the water.”’ He fays
nothing of the pipe. (ut fupra p. 118.)

In the abridged account of Linfchotten’s Obfervations on the Eaft Indies,
(Anno 1584.) as well as in that of Pirard de la Val. (Anno 1601.) no
mention is made of Tobacco; though from various other minute circum-
{tances contained in their defcriptions. of the manners of the people, it
might be excepted that Tobacco would not have been omitted, had the
ufe of it been: known in the Portuguefe fettlements in India, or in the
Maldive Iflands, of which De la Val’s account is very circumftantial.
Harris (p. 282. 256.) Purchas (p. 1750.)

Sir Anthony Shirley, with his Brother Robert,. refided fix weeks at
Aleppo, in their way to Perfia, (Anno 1599.) His remarks are chiefly
political, and he profeffedly leaves to others to recount ‘¢ wonders of things
“ ftrange to us that are born in thefe parts.” But John Cartwright who
was at Ifpahan nearly about that time, and travelled much through Perfia,
Armenia, and Mefopotamia, is alfo filent on Tobacco, notwithftanding
that he appears to have been a man of obfervation, and better inftruéted

in Hiftory than the commercial travellers of thofe times ufually were..

Purchas (Pilgr. p. 1383. 1422.)
Vor. I. Cec In

cr |

378

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

In 1614, Sir Thomas Roe went Embaflador to the great Mogul; and
it appears from extra¢ts of accounts given by fome of his fuite, that the
Indians fowed Tobacco in vaft abundance, and {moked it much, “ the
“¢ Tobacco is thought to be as good as any in the world, but not fo well
“« dreffed as in the Weft Indies.’”” The mode of fmoking through water
is defcribed, though not accurately, and it may be remarked that a ftraight
reed was ufed, like the figures contained in Neander’s Tabacalogia, which
was publifhed Anno 1622. Perhaps the long {nake pipe now adapted to
the Hooker, was not then invented. Harris (Voyages, vol. i. p. 169.)

In 1626, Sir Thomas Herbert fet out on his voyage to India, and tra-
velled over a great part of that country, as well as of Perfia. ‘Tobacco is
mentioned as then “ growing plentifully at Mahilia, and of good account,
** though weak and leafy: they take it in long pipes of Canes.” In treat-
ing of mifcellaneous cuftoms, it is remarked, that befides Wine, Arack,
Opium and Coffee, the Perfians take much Tobacco, which they fuck
through water. Harris (ut Supra, p. 408. 436. and 454.)

Note XXX. p. 126.

The paffage in Galen relating to hemp, alluded to in the text, mentions
the feeds being an ingredient in cakes which were ferved up after fupper
to encourage drinking, but that they were apt, when eaten too freely, to
affect the head. (De Aliment. Facult. lib. 1. chap. xxxiv. Tom. ii. p. 16.
Venet 1625. Ed. Gr. Tom. iv. p. 318. Bafil. 1538.) .

The appellation Teriaki (page 129) given to thofe who ufe Opium in-
temperately, or other intoxicating drugs, was borrowed by the Arabs from
the Greeks, and, in like manner, they ufe the word Teriak as a fynoni-
mous term for antidote: whence it comes that feveral Arab literary works
are fo entitled.

The medicinal compofition Theriac, is faid to have been invented by
Feridoun, one of the Perfian Kings of the firft Dynafty. Herbelot (Bib.
p. 200. 876.) See An. Univ. Hift. v. p. 105. 8vo. Lond. 1747.

Note XXXI. p. 134.

The Dowa Hummam is the fame that in other parts of the Levant is

called Rufma. But according to Villamont the Rufma is a diftinét mine-
ral

NOTES SAND -ALLUSFRA TIONS.

ral poffefling the peculiar property of not burning the fkin. He defcribes
it as differing from Orpiment, which he obferves is in Europe ufed as a
depilatory. (Voyages, liv. ii. p. 207.. Paris 1595.)

Thevenot (Travels, Part i. p. 32.) gives nearly the fame account of the

Rufma, obferving that at Malta, Orpiment is ufed in its ftead. See alfo.

Philof. Tranf. xx. p. 295.

Note XXXII. p. 137.

The Fouta, or wrapper round the waift, worn by the ladies, differs
only from that of the men in being of a finer quality, and more orna-
mented. It covers them entirely, from the breafts downwards; but the
head, neck, and arms, are quite expofed, while they remain in the Juani.
When they have finifhed wafhing, they quit this wet garment, and in it’s
ftead receive a large towel of flowered cotton, with a white ground and a
coloured border. This is named Mahzam = and they cover them-
felves with it, in the fame manner as before with the Fouta. They then
wrap their hair in a piece of fine muflin with a worked border, and, em-
broidered in the middle with gold flowers, which is called Maafar Shiar
Ph pare. The head is attired in the manner of a Turban, with a kind
of fine towel, made at Conftantinople named Minfhiafi Kholie, aascin
oJ J gas and a handkerchief richly embroidered with filk and gold, which
they call Yafir eee is tyed round the neck; laft of all, they are in-
vetted with the Caba LS, which is made of cotton ftuff, in the fhape of a
very large fhirt, with long wide fleeves, and round the border, where it
opens a little at the breaft, is richly embroidered. In this difhabille, be-
ing furnifhed with a carpet and a {mall cufhion, the ladies reft themfelves
for fome time before they drefs.

The Bagnio linen now defcribed is neatly wrapt up ina {quare piece
of filk, or embroidered ftuff, forming a parcel called a Bokdgi ax, which
one of the attendants carries under her arm, while another carries a brafs
cup for laving the water, (the ladies not choofing to make ufe of the com-
mon cups furnifhed by the Bagnio) called Tafi Gian la anwlb. It may
be remarked that the Kees Tifreek Sy 35 co), or bag ufed for rubbing
the body, is made of red Camelot, which is lefs harfh than that ufed by

the men.
Cor 7 The

379

380

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The men feldom ufe any other covering in the Bagnio than the Fouta,
and towels wrapt round the head, which, as well as the reft of the appa-
ratus, are furnifhed by the Bagnio; but they never appear abfolutely naked.

How cautious the Arabs are on all occafions of remaining decently co-
vered, may be feen in D’Arvieux, (Memoires, Tom. iil. p. 258. Voyage
dans La Paleftine, p. 216.)

Note XXXIII. p. 138.

Grelot, after remarking that boys are not admitted to the bath with the
women, after the age of feven or eight years, fays he was acquainted with
fome who remembered very well what ufed to pafs there. “‘ Mais comme
*¢ une partie de ce qu’ils m’en ont raconté ne tourne pas tout 4 fait a l’hon-
«¢ neur des Dames d’Orient, j’aimne meux le taire pour leur pudeur, & dire
“icy que ce font des contes des petits Enfans, &c.”
{tantinople, p. 235.)

This infinuation will appear to be flightly founded, when it is confidered
that in the ordinary bath, the company aflembled are moftly ftrangers to
each other, and that the young girls are not only under the eye of parents,
or miftreffes, but think themfelves more particularly obliged to preferve

decorum at the Bagnio, it being often from thence that they are felected
by the matrons, as brides for their fons.

(Voyage de Con-

Note XXXIV. p. 139.

What is afferted of the Bagnio at Aleppo, is equally applicable (fo far
as I have been able to learn) to thofe in other parts of Turkey, particularly
Conftantinople, and Smyrna.

A Turkith lady of diftin@tion from Conftantinople, in the Cady’s Harem
at Aleppo, who was long my patient, and to whom I took an opportunity
of mentioning certain paflages relative to the Bagnio, frem letters written
from Turkey which had been publifhed a few years before, affured me
‘¢ that as foon as the ladies undreffed in the outer room, they immediately
*« put on the Bagnio habit, and never quitted it till they dreffed again.
«6 She faid that fome of the girls might poffibly by accident have dropped
‘‘ the Fouta, but that fhe had never feen or even heard of a proceffion in
#6 which the women walked naked, through the rooms of the Bagnio.

She

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

«© She remarked further, that the letter muft have been written in {port,
“¢ for if the lady was fuchas I had defcribed her, it was impoffible fhe
«© fhould not have diftinguifhed the accidental frolic of fome giddy headed
*¢ cirls, from an eftablifhed cuftom, approved of by decency, and good
* breeding.”

It is not without reluctance I produce an authority fo contradictory to
what is found on this fubjeét, in the lively letters of Lady Mary Wortley
Montague, and which (as I have remarked fince my return to Europe)
has conduced not only to bring the veracity of that agreeable writer into
queftion in this point, but to caft fufpicion on fome other of her defcrip-
tions, which I am inclined to think areinthe main true. Letters 33 and
39, furnifh inftances of the kind now alluded to. There perhaps may
be found a few trifling inaccuracies, but allowance being made for a fine
imagination in the glow of youth, revelling amid fcenes pofleft of all the
advantages of novelty, I fee no reafon to fufpe& wilful mifreprefentation.
The remarks contained in moft of her other letters from Turkey, (fo far as
I am able to judge) are not only entertaining, but in general juft. Of
fome local peculiarities, I do not prefume to judge; they may not be the
lefs true, that they happen, in fome refpeéts, to differ from the cuftoms of
Syria.

Having in juftice faid thus much of a Book concerning which I have
often been interrogated in England, I muft own myfelf wholly at a lofs to
account for her defcription of the Bagnio, fo inconfiftent with the teftimony
of all the females I ever converfed with in the Eaft. The baths at
Sophia, being of a mineral nature, the gold or filver embroidery of the
Bagnio habit, might be liable to injury from the fteam, and render plain
linen more proper for the purpofe. But that two hundred females (of courfe
inhabitants of different Harems) fhould al] appear ftark naked, converfing,
walking, working, drinking Coffee, or Sherbet, or lying negligently on
their cufhions, (Letter 26) was fuch a deviation from Mohammedan
delicacy, that my furprife on reading the defcription, was full as great as
that of her Ladyfhip on finding the ladies not fubject to catch cold, by
coming out at once from the hot into the cold room, in a ftate of
nature.

But, however one might be difpofed to make allowance for peculiar
cuftoms at a mineral bath, the reception of a Turkifh bride in a Bagnio
at Conftantinople, (defcribed in Letter 42,) can neither be reconciled to

the

382

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

the prefent practice in Turkey, nor to the defcriptions given by writers in
the laft century, all which uniformly exclude a fuppofition of the cuftoms in
that refpeét, having undergone any material change. It is true, that the
ladies were not, as at Sophia, all naked; the married ladies, placed on
the marble Sophas, were clothed: ‘ but the bride, attended by a train of
‘ thirty virgins, all without other ornaments or covering than their own
‘ long hair, braided with pearl, or ribband, marched in proceffion round
‘ the three large rooms of the Bagnio.’---Had the bride prefented herfelf
thus in a ftate of nature, there was not (if credit may be given to the
Turkifh Lady already mentioned) a matron in the rooms, who would
have permitted the bride to falute her.

To what has been faid may be added the authority of M. D’Ohffon.
‘*¢ Au refte, tout s’y paffe dans la plus grande décence, chaque femme
“« carde foigneufement le tablier dont elle eft enveloppée, &c. (Tableau
“ General, de L’Empire Othoman,” Tom. I. p. 160, Paris 1787. Fol.)
There is a very good print of the interior of a public bath, 1n the fame
volume, page 162.

Note XXXV. p. 140.

The Ziraleet, or Zilroota abu}, (as written by a native of Aleppo) is
the common manner of a company of women expreffing joy, or any fud-
den exultation. The words expreffed are Lillé, Lille, Lille, repeated as
often as the perfon can do at one breath, and, being rapidly uttered in a
very fhrill tone, they are heard at a great diftance. It is preceded, on certain
occafions, by a ftanza of four lines, recited by a fingle voice, expreffive of
thanks to the Deity for benefits received, or of fupplications, and good
wifhes; at other times, they take a lighter turn, and’ being compofed ex-
tempore, make pleafant allufions to perfons prefent in the company. The
Ziraleet in this manner becomes as it were the chorus, but it is often alfo
heard without any previous ftanza, in the intervals of their mufical
performances, and at feftive proceffions, by way of exultation.

When a Mohammedan {ets out on a long journey, or returns home in
{afety, it is the cuftom among the women to employ the Maazeen (thofe
who call the people to prayers) to chant from the gallery of the neareft
Minaret, which on that occafion is illuminated, and the women aflembled
at the houfe, refpond at intervals with a Ziraleet.

A paflage

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

A paffage in Xenophon’s Retreat, (Anabas, iv. p. 276. Edit. Hutchinfon,
Oxon. 1745) firft fuggefted tome a refemblance between the fhout of the
Greek women and the Ziraleet of the women of Syria. The foldiers,
upon beholding in a moment of great danger, the favourable appearance
of the victims, after finging the ufual hymn, raifed a fhout of exultation
avyaaaratov. “The numerous band of women attending the army, fhouted
at the fame time in their manner cuvwaAo'AuCo'v.

In a note on the paffage here referred to, the following remark is made
by the Editor, “ deeft in plerifque Lexicis cworeavfs ; fimplex autem
“ oAorvgw eft facrorum in primis vox, & clamorem mulierum facrifican-
“‘ tium indicat. Reéte vero monuit, quod et exemplis adlatis probavit
«¢ Spanh ad Callim. Hymn, in Del. ’oroavZew, folenniter, in publica etiam
“‘ letitia, quz fauftas letafque flagitaret acclamationes adhiberi.”’

Of the facred or folemn fenfe of “odowfew, there can be no doubt; but
a number of authorities are produced for its being ufed in a fenfe nearer
to that of the Syrian Ziraleet.

I am obliged to a friend for the following remark, ‘ Callimachus in
‘ Lavacrum Palladis v. 139, et in Delum, v. 258, ufes odcdvyy. In the
‘ firit mentioned paflage it 1s joined with evayopen et evypacs, congratula-
‘ tions and vows. In the fecond it is qualified by an epithet which ftrongly
* exprefles the fhrill piercing voices of women

AUT bee O axsOno
arntos avtnyyore Svcereporiyv oAoAUYyy !

“« And fpeedily the brazen firmament re-echoed the far penetrating, or
“ fhrill. piercing odAcAvy7 !

See alfo Efchylus (Sept. Theb. v. 272), Euripides (Eleét. v. 691,)
Homer (Odys. 22. v. 408, 411). Another paffage in the Odyffey, to-
gether with Barne’s Note, (Od. iv. Barnes Ed.) may be confulted.

Penelope, after the firft tranfports of grief on the difcovery of her fon’s
departure, prepares a facrifice to Minerva, and having finifhed her fup-
plication,

She ceafed; fhrill extafies of Joy declare

The fav’ring Goddefs prefent to the prayer:

The Suitors heard, and deemed the mirthful voice
A fignal of her Hymeneal choice.

Pope Odyff. B. iv. vy. 1013.
The

384.

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Hallelujah of the Scripture is confidered as an acclamation fub-

joined to hymns addreffed to God. Hallelula, in the Lexicon is rendered

nuptial rejoicings. Schindler. (Lexic. p. 437.) See Bifhop Lowth (Ifaiah
page IgI.)

The Arabic verb, to exclaim for joy, is nearly the fame with the Hebrew,.
Te Hill, exultavit; pree letitia exclamavit. Laudavit feu veneratus eft
Deus, dicendo La Ulah-ila Ullah W/(MlJ1Y. From [e comes hillili ale
laus Dei & veneratio, and hilleleeny ss, exultantis ludentifque populi,
aut talium puerorum voces. Golius.

The La Ulah ila Ullah, (There is no God, but God) in the rapid, fhrill,
pronunciation of the women, might eafily enough be converted into Lille,
Lillé, Lillé of the Ziraleet, retaining fome fimilitude in found, while the
fenfe was forgotten. .

Pocock gives an inftance from Herodotus, where, it is ‘extremely pro-
bable that the fupreme God | Jlxs a!!! Ulla Taala of the Arabs, was, by
a mifcomprehenfion of the Greeks, converted into “ougor@a or ‘oparaA Oura-
tal, Oratal, or Olotal, and fuppofed to be the Arabian appellation of Bac-
chus. (Specimen. Hift. Arab. p. 107. Oxon. 1650.)

The learned Schultens, in his commentary upon Job (chap. 10. v. 15.)
confiders the Greek ‘odoavgew as correfponding to the Wulwaly (_) )4J J 4) of
the Arabs, which is the conclamation of the women when in affliction .
but he admits that the word is fometimes ufed to exprefs joy, and produces.
two inftances from AZfchylus. This, as well as what he fays concerning
the verb adwaage, will come more properly under confideration hereafter .

Note XXXVI. p. 141.

M. du Loir gives the following defcription of the Turkifh dance.
«¢ Deux de meux faites de la Compagnie fe levent pour danfer une forte de
“« Sarabande, qui reprefent fi bien les Affe¢tions & les Mouvemens
«« d’Amour, par les Oeillades, & par les actions qu’elles addreffent tantoft
«“} Pun & tantoft 4 l’autre des Affiftans, que certes il faut eftre bien
“ ferme, ou plutoft infenfible pour n’en eftre pas efmeu. (Voyage de

Levant, p. 174. Paris 1654.)
See

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

See alfo Kempfer (Amenit. Exotica, p. 739.) and Niebuhr (Voyage

en Arabie, Tom. 1. p. 147.)
Motus doceri gaudet Jonicos
Matura Virga. Hor.

The defcription given by Lady Mary Wortley, in her 33rd Letter, is
well known; but, on that occafion, it is not to be doubted that the flaves
preferved a certain decorum, difregarded by the profeffional dancers.

The Greek dance, fays her Ladyfhip, ‘ is certainly the fame that Diana
‘is faid to have danced on the banks.of Eurotas. The great J.ady ftill
<¢ leads the dance, and is followed by a troop of young girls, who imitate
“ her fteps, and, if fhe fings, make up the chorus.” (Letter xxx.)

A very good figure of the Greek dance is given by M. d’Ohffon. (Tab-
leau General de L’Empire Othoman, Tom. 11. p. 93.)

Note XXXVII. p. 143.

Games of hazard are prohibited by the Koran for the fame reafon as
Wine.

“< O true believers furely Wine and Lots (1. e. all kinds of inebriating
‘¢ liquors and games of chance) and images, ({fuppofed to be the carved
*¢ Chefs men) and divining arrows, are an abomination of the work of
« Satan; therefore avoid them that you may profper. Satan feeketh to
“ fow diffention and hatred among you by means of Wine and Lots, and
«to divert you from remembering God and prayer.” (Koran, chap. v.
p- 94. and chap. ii. p. 25.) Marracci(p. 235. 99. p. 82. 219.)

See on this fubjeét Sale, and Pocock. It is remarked by the latter, from
an Arab Commentator, that under the term Lots are comprehended, Dice,
Cards, Chefs, and all games fubjeét to hazard. Pocock (Specimen, p. 323.
and 327.) D’Ohfion (Tableau Gen. Tom. ii. p. 187. and p. 225.)

As to images, comprehending drawings of human figures, &c. there are
various opinions among the Ullama, and the prohibition is far from being
regarded with rigour equal to that of gaming. See D’Ohffon (Tom. ii.
page 235-)

Note XX XVIII. p. 149.
The Arabic title of our Arabian Nights is ‘ Hakaiat Elf Leily wa
* Leily’, Stories, a thoufand and One Nights. It is a fcarce book at

Aleppo. After much inguiry, I found only two Volumes, containing two
¥ ox. I. Ddd hundred

385

386

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS:

hundred and eighty nights, and with difficulty obtained liberty to have a
copy taken. i was fhown more than one complete ccpy in the Vatican
Library; and one at Paris in the King’s Library, faid alfo to be complete.
I have heard lately that Mr. ProfeTor White of Oxford has got a copy
which formerly belonged to the lat- Mr. Wortley Montague, but I do not
know what number of Nights it contains.

Betfides the two volumes mentioned above, I colle€ted a number of fe-
parate tales, fome of which may poiflibly belong to the Elf Leily ; at leaft,
of the continuation of the Arabian Nights, publifhed at Edinburgh in 1792,
almoft the whole of the Tales contained in the firft and third volumes,
are found in my colleétion. I own that before I made this difcovery, or
had read more than the Tranflator’s Preface, I was inclined to think the
continuation, from the fufpicious manner of its introduction, was {purious.

Note XXXIX. ‘p. 150.

«¢ Entendre la Mufique, c’eft pécher contre la loi: faire de la Mufique
“ c’eft pécher contre la religion; y prendre plaifir, c’eft pécher contre la
“ foy, et fe rendre coupable du crime d’infidelité.”” D’Ohffon (Tableau
Gener,,"Loms il.gpiy i 8B.)

Notwithftanding this declaration of the Prophet there are in reality few
of his precepts tefs obfequioufly obeyed. It is true that very few of the
Turks are themfelves performers; but there are few indeed who make
any fcruple of liftening to mufic. See D’Ohffon (ut Supra, p. 231.)

Several treatifes on mufic are mentioned by Cafiriin the Efcurial Arabic
Catalogue, among which are the three following.

The Elements of mufic, by Mohammed, &c. Aboo Nafer al Pharabi.
His work is divided into three parts: of which the firft treats of the origin
of the art; the fecond of compofition, refpecting vocal as well as inftru-
mental mufic; the third of the various forts of compofition. Above thirty
figures of inftruments are given, together with mufical notes, &c.

Great Colleétion of airs, vol. i. by Aboo’l Furrage Ali, Eben al Huffani
Eben Mohammed, a Spaniard. His bock was written in the 315th, year-
of the Hegira (A. C. 927.) in two volumes. The one now under confi-
deration, contains one hundred and fifty. Arabic Airs; with the lives of
four celebrated vocal performers, who had been in high favour at the court

ef the Khalifs.
The

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Cenfure of Mufic and its Apology, Ann. Hegir. 612. (A. C. 1215.)
By Mohammed al Schalany. A Spaniard.

The names of thirty one mufical inftruments, in ufe at that time among
the Weftern Arabs, are mentioned in this work; but it fhould be remarked,
that the names of the inftruments are moftly Perfian.

Note XL. p. 162.

The Arabs have been ranged under two principal divifions, namely
thofe who live in cities and villages, and thofe wiio ve conftantly in
tents. Both are diftinguifhed by feveral appellations. The firft are
called al Arab, Jl. Abl al hudar (pes ijl Or Abl al madar
rol jel. Which laft is fuppofed to be derived from Madar, Clay, the
material of which the houfes are built.

The Arabs of the fecond divifion are called Al Aarab Wl,c). Ahl al

are called alfo Ah] al Wibar, s4J!\#!, from their tents being made of

Camel’s hair. Abu’l Furrage. (De Origine &c. Arabum p. 2.) Pocock
(Specimen. p. 86. and p. 39.) See alfo Cafiri, (Biblioth. Arabico-hifpan.
Efcurialens. Tom. i.)

‘The Arabs who at prefent are found in Paleftine, Syria, the two
* Arabias, and Africa, are the defcendants of Ifmael. ‘They are divided
‘into many families, which particular interefts, or ancient quarrels have
‘rendered inveterate enemies. ‘There are other Arabs who are dif-
“tinguifhed by the name of Moors; not on account of being originally
‘from Mauritania, but becaufe the true Arabs hold them in contempt,
‘confidering them as a difhonorable people. who by dwelling in towns,
‘ exercifing trades, or applying to agriculture, (employments altogether
‘unworthy the nobility of the pure Arabs) have degenerated from the
‘ virtues of their anceftors.” D?Arvieux (ifemoires Tom. 3. p. 14.4.)

The appellation of Moors was frequently given to the Arabs, by
European travellers in the laft century. I never heard it in the Eaft;
and, at Aleppo, the Bidoweens, and Arabs living in the city, are indif-
criminately called Arabs.

Dddz Note

387

388

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note XLI. p. 164.

In the year 1664, D’Arvieux refided feveral months in an Arab camp,
and had at that time, acquired a knowledge of the Arabic and Turkifh
languages, fufficient to enable him to aét as an occafional Secretary to
the Emeer. His account of the domeftic manners of thofe people is mi-
nute, and exact.

He defcribes the Arab women of ordinary rank, as dreffed in a fhirt of
blue cloth, with a cinéture of rope or linen, and an Abai, or cloak. They
wear a veil over the head, which covers the neck, and the lower part of
the face to the nofe; but the girls veil in fuch a manner that the eyes
only are vifible. In the Summer, they go barefooted; in the Winter,
they wear Babooge nearly of the fame fafhion with thofe worn by the
men. Thofe who cannot afford long and complete veftments, wear under
waiftcoats quilted with cotton. La Roque (Voyage dans La Paleftine,
page 259.)

M. Volney refided fome days in an Arab camp near Gaza, and has.
given a fuccinét account of the Bidoweens, as. well as of the Turkmans,.
Kurds, and other inhabitants of Syria. Of the hofpitality of the Arabs, as
alfo of the Druzes, he gives two remarkable inftances. (Travels through
Syria and Egypt, vol. 1. p. 76. Lond. 1787.)

Note XLII. p. 165.

D’Arvieux, on his way to Aleppo in November 1679, met feveral:
Caravans of Turkmans, on their march Southward, to avoid the Winter..
* The men were well mounted, and armed with lances and other weapons..
‘ Their baggage, young women, girls, and children, were upon Camels,
‘ while the other women marched on foot, finging and {pinning as they
* walked along, or were employed in fuch other workas their march admitted.
‘of. The Oxen, Cows, Camels, Hortes, Foals, Sheep, and Goats, marched.
‘in little herds, conduéted by the women finging and fpinning. We
‘ faluted each other with much civility ; and indeed they are a good kind
« of people, who love good living, and are fond of liberty. The men,
« leaving houfehold affairs to the women, are conftantly on horfeback, but
s the women take care of the horfes, and are all day employed in one kind.
‘ of labour or other, which renders them vigorous and indefatigable. The

« Turkmans

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

* Turkmans are lefs jealous of their women, than the other Eaftern peo-
‘ple. The women converfed with us freely, and did not conceal their
‘faces. They were much tanned by the Sun, but their features were
‘ regular, their teeth fine, their eyes full of fire, and they difplayed {pright-
* linefs in their converfation.”. (Memoires, Tom. v. p. 503.)

The above defcription agrees exaétly with my own obfervations on a
large Troop of Turkmans which I met with on the plains of Antioch.
They were encamped at a. little diftance from our tents, and behaved with
the utmoft civility. As we fat at table in the open air, we were furrounded
after fupper, by a number of their women young and old, who highly en-
‘tertained us with their queftions and remarks.

Their tents are made of white linen, and according to D’Arvieux, they

are much neater in their camps, and more fober and frugal in their diet,.
than the Bidoweens. They live always in the field, acknowledge the.

Grand Signor, and trade largely in cattle. They do not plunder travel-
lers, but treat them with great hofpitality. It is a faying among the
Eaftern people, that you fhould eat with the Arabs, and fleep with the
Turkmans, whofe tents are better provided with beds and other accommo-
dations. (Voyage dans La Paleftine, p. 121.)

Peter Teixeira, in his journey from Bagdat to Aleppo (January 1605).

makes mention feveral times of the Turkmans. ‘ We entered upon
“¢ fpacious plains, and in the middle of them found about forty houfes of
“¢ Turkymans, with their families and cattle, Sheep, Camels, and Mules
“grazing about. The houfes are all round, the roofs convex, the frame
“ within of poles or canes, and the covering without of felts. They are

“curious, hung within, particularly the Xeque’s which was large and.

“handfome. Thefe Turkymans are true Turks of the firft that came out

“ of Turkiftan. They are brave either on foot or horfeback, well limbed,.

“ ftrong, patient of labour, and refolute in any undertaking, living on their
““ breed of cattel; but if they meet with any opportunity of robbing will
* not let it flip. Their women do not conceal themfelves, but are of a
“ very fturdy difpofition ; they generally look after the cattel. They are
*¢ clad almoft after the manner of the Galicians in Spain, all of them wear
“* Neat’s-{kin boots, fhort pettycoats, clofe doublets, and very long cloths

6 wrapped

all moveable, and fo contrived as to be rolled up together, and carried
on Camels from place to place. Some of them were very cleanly and

389

39°

NOTES AND ILLUSTRA TIOWS:

“ wrapped about their heads, in the fhapeeof a Pyramid.” Stevens (Coi-
leétion of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 58.)

Pocock remarks that the tents of the Turkman are commonly round,
and made of reeds, having only a flight covering in the Summer, and, in
Winter, a thick fort of felt fitced to them, fo as to keep out the rain,
They employ themfelves chiefly in making feveral forts of coarfe carpets.
(Detcription ef the Eaft, vol. 1. p. 207.)

The Rev. Mr. Chifhull, in 1699, defcribes the Turkmans in Afia
Minor. ‘In his return from Ephefus to Smyrna, they faw a large ex-
“* tended pafture overfpread with flocks, herds and huts of Turcmen who
‘‘ had here pitched their {tation to the number of fourteen hundred, rec-
“ koning about two hundred tents and feven perfons more or lefs apper-
‘* taining to each. As the whole race of the Turcs were nothing elfe but
“a numerous colony that {warmed from Scythia, fo thefe Turcmen feem
** to be the peculiar defcendants of the Nomades Scythe or the Shepherd
« Scythians, and like them make it their employment to breed and nur-
“ture cattle. To this end they never affemble in towns or betake them-
“‘ {elves to houfes, but fleet from place to place as the feafon of the year
‘* directs, and feize without controul the vaft neglected paftures of this
« Defert Empire.” (Chifhull’s Travels.)

There is a tribe of Turkmans, called Begdelies, very different in their
character from thote juft mentioned. Teixeira reprefents them as living
in tents remote from each other, and the only one of the wandering tribes,
‘“‘ that does not acknowledge the Emeer; becaufe it makes eight thoufand
“‘ horfe moft arcliers, with fome fire arms, fo that they are above any
“‘ vallalage.”” Stephens, (Collection of Voyages, vol. i. p. 60.)

‘* ‘The other fort of Turkmen (fays Vocock) are called egdeizes; they
<* mount on horfeback, live in the tents, and neither till the land or graze
‘ cattle, and tho’ they have fome fort of alliances, yet they are profciled
“‘ robbers. Sometimes they are above athoufand cf them together, and
“they raife contributions on villages under pretence of prote¢ting them,
‘ but where they receive their dues they do not rob openly.” (Deicription
of the Eaft. vol.i. p. 207.) See Niebuhr. (Voyage en Arabie, Tom. ii. p-
336-)

Note

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note XLIII. p. 165.

“The Rufhwans (fays Pocock) are another fort of people, who in the
“‘ winter begin to move with their cattle from Erzeroon towards the rife
“‘ of the Euphrates in the ancient Capedocia, and go fouthward as far as
“ Damatcus, and in the Summer return at their conveniency with the
“* Caravan to Aleppo. I travelled with fome of them, and they feemed to
“be a good fort of people.” (Defcription of the Eaft. Vol. i. p. 207.)

The Rufhwans are a tribe of wandering Kurdeens. The others known
at Aleppo are thofe who inhabit the mountains of Bylan and Khillis.
They make frequent predatory incurfions into the plain country, and
appear fometimes in confiderable bodies.

The Reader may confult Golius and Schultens concerning the origin
of the Kurds; and will find an entertaining account of their manner of
defending their mountains, in Xenophon ; from whoie defcription it would

appear, that the Kurdeens of thofe times were much the fame people:

with thefe of Syria. Golius, (in Alfergan p. 17. and 227.) Schultens (Ind.
Geograph. in Vita Saladin.) Xenophon (Anabas. lib. ui. p. 247. et lib. iy.
p- 252. Edit. Hutchinfon.)

Note XLIV. p. 166.

A race of Bidoweens is mentioned by D’ Arvieux who live at Alexandria,
much in the fame manner with the Gipfies in France, They encamp
between the fea beach and the walls of the city under tents, where men,
women, children, and cattle are all lodged promifcuoufly. The only

apparel of the women is a large blue fhift; the men, and young boys,.

cover themfelves with a long piece of white Bouracan; but the children
go ftark naked in all feafons. La Roque (Voyage dans La Paleftine p-

119.)

“¢ ‘The-Chingani, who are {pread almoft over all the world, are in great:

“ abundance in the north of Syria, and pafs for Mahometans. They live
“‘ under tents, and fometimes in grots under ground. They make a coarfe
“ fort of carpet work for houfings of faddles and. other ufes, and. when
“ they are not far from town, deal much in milch cattle, and have a

“ much better chara¢ter than their relations in Hungary, or the Gypfies
os tige,

Le)

Ne;

392

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

«in England, who are thought by fome to have been originally of the
“‘ fame tribe.” Pocock (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 207.)

Note XLV, p. 175.

M. du Loir reprefents the Turks drinking healths at table, and fays
that the perfon drank to, prefentsin return a bit of fruit or cheefe. (Voyages,
p- 168. Paris, 1654.)

Something of this kind is praéticed by the Chriftians, but the Turks,
at leaft at Aleppo, do not drink healths. When one drinks, whether at
table or after meals, the perfon next him, or the mafter of the houfe, if
he obferves it, laying the right hand on the heart, (the ordinary mode of
falutation) wifhes it may do him good’? Afiat ola! in Turkifh: “ Sahha !
or Sahha wa Afie!’ in Arabic. This compliment is paid immediately
after the perfon has drank, and is returned by touching the right temple
flightly, and faying ‘“* M’ammer O]! in Turkifh, or in Arabic Ullah yetowe]
Amrak! May God prolong your life,” or fome fuch expreffion of good
withes.

In his defcription of ceremonial vifits, he fays the perfume is firft
brought in, then the Sherbet, and laftly the coffee. Which I conceive to
be one among other flight inaccuracies, rather than a local difference of
cuftom. (Voyages p. 169.)

If the following account of the Mohammedan table by Symon Simion,
be juft, the Mohammedans mutt be allowed to have improved much in
civilization fince the year 1322. “‘ The Sultan of Egypt (according to
‘* him) fits down to his meals on the ground in a filthy manner like all the
“« followers of the diabolical law of Mohammed. In his palace no dining
** table is feen, nor chairs, nor table napkin; inftead of tables, round
‘¢ plates of gold or filver, are raifed a little from the ground, and upon
“‘ thefe the victuals are ferved up in large, wide, earthen difhes. The
* cuefts fit round, and, all courtefy being fet afide, or like a timid hare
‘“‘ chafed away, they feed from the difhes like dogs or vile {wine, licking
*« their fingers, daubing their own beards, and committing many other
*‘ namelefs indecencies, till they have filled their bellies. They then rife
“Cup, greafy and daubed as they are, and are fucceeded by others who
“« devour the victuals that were left, in the fame beaftly manner.” (Iti-
nerarium Symon Simeonis, p. 47. Cantab. 1778.)

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

It may be remarked here, that the zeal of the pious Pilgrim denies the
Infidels even a napkin to wipe their fingers. But the paffage has princi-
pally been produced as.an inftance of mifreprefentation from confounding
the modes of diferent ranks: ia one general defcription. It is more thaw
probable that the Pilgrim never had an opportunity of. feeing the Sultan
dine: for the manners he defcribes could never belong to tables of perfons

of condition; nor are the lower rank of Mohammedans ever accufed of

fuch a total neglect of cleanlinefs.

A different account. is given by Poftel, who thought that his defcription
ef the Turkifh table, and their manner of entertaining, would fhow the
politenefs of the people in the higher and middling ranks:. as to the lower
people, (continues he) ‘‘ they have their rice and mutton, with a round
“ piece of leather, called their Soffra, (table) and which ferves at once for
“« bafket, cheft, table, napkin, and bag, fhutting like a purfe witha leather

“ ftring, and commonly opening on an iron ring.” (Republique des.

Turcs,. &c. p..21, 25. Poitiers, 1560.)

This laft circumftance of the leathern table, in which all is carried away
as in # bag, is mentioned alfo by Rauwolff; but he adds “ that the rich
“ have fine cotton linen about their necks, hanging downwards, or elfe
“ hanging at their filk girdles, which they ufe inftead cf napkins.” Ray
(Collection. of curious Travels, &c.. p. 73.. Lond. 1738.)

It is to be regretted that Poftel’s precifion. in diftinguifhing the feveral:
ranks. whofe manners he defcribes, and his diffidence in matters where
he had not himfelf opportunities of obferving, was not oftener imitated by
modern travellers. I believe (fays he) ‘* that the tables of the ladies are
“ feryed in the fame manner with thofe of the men, but we cannot fee
“ them.—Whether they dance or not, I do not pretend. to know ; but I
“© have heard that. they do. (La. Republique des. Turcs, p. 16.),

More on the fubject of the Turkith table may be found in. Cantacufcino:

(Lib.. ii. p.. 166.)

Note XLVI. p. 187..

«Tt has.been the fortune of all religions now exifting or which ever did.
«“ exift in the world, to fuffer under unreafonable flander, either from the
“‘ mifcomprehenfion, or the malice of adverfaries.. But none of them has
Vot. I.. Eee © been.

393

394

NOTESS AND JLLLUSARATICN 5.

‘‘ beon more unfairly reprefented, treated with greater contempt, or held
‘* lefs worthy of refutation, than the Mohammedan religion has been, by
‘“‘ the zeal of many of its enemies.” This remark of Hadrian Reland, in
a preface written with much candor and liberality, has been illuftrated in
his work, by feveral {trong and pertinent examples. (De Religione Mo-
hammedica. Trajec. ad Rhenum. 1717.)

Some proofs of mitreprefentation, from intemperate zeal, particularly
in the articles of Purification and Prayer, will prefent themi{elves in the
fubfequent notes.

Note XLVII. p. 193.

It is remarked by Reland, that the feaft immediately following the Ra-
madan is called the Great Feaft, in diftinétion from the Little Feaft, cele-
brated in memory of Abraham offering up his Son. Sale (Koran Ch. 37.
p- 369.) But that according to Herbelot, the names fhould be reverted,
the feaft of Sacrifice being properly the Great Byram; the other, by the
vulgar only, being fo called, from the extraordinary rejoicings made at
the termination of the Ramadan. ‘The authority of Erpenius and others
are oppofed to Herbelot by Reland, who adds that many more authorities
might be produced from writers on Turkith affairs. Reland, (ut fupra,
lib. 1. chap. ii.)

It is lefs {urprifing that the names of the two Byrams fhould fo often be
confounded by writers, when Golius and Herbelot interpret them in a
manner dire¢tly oppofite to Hyde, Scaliger and Erpenius: and even Me-
ninfki calls Aid al Korban, the Little Featt.

Note XLVIII. p. 193.

The fafts enjoined in the Sonna, as well as voluntary fafts, are taken
notice of by Pocock (Specimen, p. 308.) and Reland, (p. 111.) They alfo
mention the peculiar merit, (according to Tradition) of fafting on particu-
lar days in certain months.

I do not know how far fuch particular feafons are actually obferved by
the Turks, but I have often remarked them faft on account of deliverance
from danger, or in confequence of vows they had made. They however
more frequently faft to make up for days they may have loft in the Rama-

dan,

MOTESA ZN D VLALUESTR ATION S.

dan, but whether for the obfervance of voluntary fafts they prefer the
months deemed facred, was a circumftance I did not attend to.

For an account of the Arab months, and thofe named facred, fee Golius
(Note in Alfergan. p. 3.): Pocock (Specimen, p. 175.) Sale (Prelimen.
Ditc. Seét. vii.)

They not only keep voluntary fafts, but likewife perform facrifices, in
confequence of vows made in times of. danger or diftrefs ;. and for this laft
purpofe, they repair to. the convent of Sheih Abubecker, or other holy
men’s tombs in the neighbourhood. But the diftribution of the different
parts of the victim, mentioned in Domenichi, is a fact I am not acquainted
with from my own obfervation..

“¢ They facrifice victims alfo, but generally in confequence of a vow,
“made in. ficknefs or when in. danger, to offer up, as-they can afford it,
‘“¢ a fheep or cow, at fuch a particular time or place. The victim when
*< flain, is not burnt, after the manner of the Jews, but the fkin, with the
“« head, feet, and fourth part of the careafe, are given to the Priefts, they
“ referve a fourth, and the remainder is divided between the neighbours
«‘ and the poor,’”’ Ludovico Domenichi (Cofe Turchefche.)

A more particular account of the manner of facrificing may be feen
in D’Ohffon (Tableau. General, Tom..i. p. 279.) but though the obliga-
tion to facrifice at the great feaft appears by the inftitutes, to extend uni-+
verfally, the practice is certainly far from being general at Aleppo. Vo-
luntary facrifices at other times are not uncommon.

Note XLIX. p. 194:

The Wodou, or-ordinary ablution before prayer. is. deicribed by Reland
(p. 67.) The other called Gafle ee! is explained in the fucceeding pages
of the 8th Chapter. With reipeét tothe Gafle. three points which render
it neceflary, belong to the fexes. in common. viz: “ Concubitus fine

** emiffione Seminis, Fluxus Seminis, Mors; and three are peculiar to the
women, viz, ‘¢ Fluxus Menftruorum, Fluxus Sanguinis in puerpera. poft
* partum, Partus ipfe.”” But the Sonnaadds feveral precepts to thofe con-
tained in the Koran, concerning both kinds of'luftration. Reland (p..77.)

The luftration of the Mohammedans is one of their religious rites
which has been {trangely mifreprefented by many Chriftian writers. A
proteftant Divine, who about a century ago refided fome time as chaplain

BE €.6.2 at

395

496

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

at Conitantinople, and has written on the manners of the Turks, giving

an account of their frequent ablutions, expreffes himfelf to the following
purpofe. “ Behold their folly and madnefs! This ablution by water,
“‘ which they term Taharit (purification) they ftupidly imagine fufficient

‘“ to cleanfe the filth from their fouls, and wafh away the horrible fins of

“¢ which they have been guilty: whence it is not to be wondered, that
yi guuty ’

“< they fhould rufh into the moft deteftable crimes and wickednefs, under

“an opinion that a few {prinklings of water will reftore their original

* purity.” Smith (de Moribus ac Inftit. Turcar, p. 32. Oxon; 1672.)

A catholic Prelate, within thefe forty years, {peaking on the fame fub-
jest, talks much in the fame ftrain: adding only that the Turks pay a
greater ref{pect to this external rite than to all the other precepts of their
Jaw. Affemani (Bibliothec. Medice Laurentiane et Palatine Codic, M.
5. 5. Orient. Catalog. p. 309. Florent. 1742.)

How different the doétrine of ablution is in reality from the above
reprefentation of it, will appear from the learned Pocock’s notes on Abu’l
Furrage ; (Specimen, p. 302.) a book which it may be fuppofed both the
writers juft cited might have feen. But of the two the Bithop of
Apamea feems the leaft excufable. The courfe of his ftudies muft have
led him often to perufe the Mohammedan writers, and he was well ac-
quainted with their language: circumftances fufficient to have prevented
a fpecies of polemical mifreprefentation, which, however the intemperate
zeal of earlier times might juftify, would hardly in a more liberal age
find quarter, except among fome of the Chriftians in Syria, or the ignorant
catholic Miffionaries who are fent to inftruét them. (See Reland p.
177+)

The Bifhop in another place, giving an account of a M.S. on the
Mohammedan precepts, fays. ‘* But fhould any one violate thofe precepts
‘“‘ of the law, the crime may be expiated by external ablution; by a faft
“‘ of three days; by giving alms; or liberating a prifoner. The remiffion
“ of fins being thus eafily obtained, they pay little regard to the other
“‘ precepts, and like animals not endued with reafon, abandon themfelves
“‘ to brutal luft and pleafures, and perpetrate every kind of wickednefs.”
Affemani (ut fupra, p. 308.)

A Mohammedan of common abilities would poffibly reply in his own
vindication, that in relieving the poor, or reftoring a prifoner confined for
debt, to liberty and his family; there might at leaft be as much real

expiatory

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

expiatory merit, as in offering a wax candle at the fhrine of a Saint, or
bequeathing money, for the benefit of the Souls in Purgatory: and if re-
quired to explain his notion of external rites, he might do it in a manner
not lefs fatisfattory, than many rites of the Romifh Church are juftified
from the afperfions of fuperficial obfervers.

In the mean while, however widely the Chriftian Divines may differ in
their notion of penance, and the different modes of expiation, they both
concur in afcribing the fuppofed wickednefs of the Turks, in a great mea-
fure, to the fpirit of the Mohammedan Religion. The Englifh Divine
“< {ubjoins, it is peculiar to the Turks, (and a vice which fuperftition has
‘“« converted into the nature of the people) to hold all who profefs a differs
“ent religion in the utmoft hatred and contempt: not Chriitians and
«< Jews only, but even the Perfians, who believe in the Prophet, and only
‘< differ from them in certain rites.” Smith (ut Supra, p. 3.)

The remark refpecting the Perfians is juft. But the reader who has
heard of controverfies between Chriftian Churches, or between feétaries
of the fame nominal Church, will hardly confider fuperftitious zeal as pe-
culiar to the Mahommedans, and will be cautious of afcribing-the vices of
a people to the fpirit of their religion.

The charaé¢ter of the Turks contained in the above extraéts, has been
partially and haftily drawn. The Bifhop feems to have written under the
bias of prejudices imbibed in his native country; the Englifh Divine feems
to have fet out ftrongly prepofleffed with a notion of Turkifh barbarity,
and then found a wecek’s refidence in the country fufficient to confirm the
opinion. ‘ Every man (fays he) who has lived a week at Conftantinople,
“« will acknowledge that the Turks are juftly faid to be a barbarous peo-
$¢ shes

In Europe, where cuftom has rendered accefs to the natives of a certain
rank, lefs difficult than it is in Turkey, a traveller, even poffeffed of the
language, mutt be affiduous to qualify himfelf in many months, to decide
jaftly on the national character: but were his opinion to be formed from
what he may have obferved in the public ftreets, or among the inhabitants
of an inferior clafs, it is probable that feveral European cities would get
credit for lefs politenefs than they in reality deferve.

An attempt to exculpate the Mohammedans entirely from the charges
of immorality fo often brought again{ft them, would be fond partiality in
the extreme. They no doubt have their fhare of vices as in other parts

397

NOTES: AND J/TLLUGER ATO S.

of the world, but thefe are produced by caufes not connected with the na-
tional creed. ‘The profligate Turk does not look up to religion for coun-
tenance to his debaucheries ; and it is not in. Turkey only, that perfons
ftriétly obfervant of outward rites, are fometimes found guilty of vicious:
excelfes, or deteftable crimes.

Note L.. p. rg5..

A fuccinét account of the Mohammedan manner of praying has been
given by Reland, and figures explanatory of the feveral attitudes and
proftrations, are found both in. him and Grelot. But the fubject has been
treated much more fully, and illuftrated by fuperior prints, by M. D’Ohifon
(Tableau general de L’Empire Othoman, Tom. 1. p. 165.)

From all thefe drawings it appears that the- Turks, when they pray, do
not lay afide their Turbans, even. thofe of the moft inconvenient fize:
and in general they do not, but I have fometimes obferved them, in their
own houfes, change a large Turban, for one of a more convenient fize.

It is afflerted by Dominichi and Affemani, that the Mohammedans when
about to pray, do not take off their Turban, making only a movement
with the hand as. if going to-do it... This.circumftance. muft have efcaped'
mv notice; though if I rmghtly remember, I have feen fome, in the
fummer, at prayer, with no. other covering on the head than the red.
Tunis fkull cap, commonly worn under the Turban..

It is remarked by- D’Ohffon.as a fingular inftance, inconfiftent with the
manners: of the: Turks, particularly thofe of rank, who never bare their
head in.adoration, that Selim I. after his:conqueft of Egypt, in.a tranfport
of piety took off his Turban, when he returned folemn thanks in the great
Motque at Cairvo.. (Tom. i. p..198.):

The Rofary in-the hand of Grelot’s fig. 8; is univerfally in Syria carried
by all fects. But the Turks do not ufe it in their cannonical prayers;
it being only employed’ when they repeat in devotion the names of the
fupreme being, and for that reafon it is compofed of one hundred Beads.
The Rofaries of the Chriftians are diftinguifhed from thofe of the Turks
and Jews by a {mall crofs. Reland (p. 87.) Grelot (p. 259.) D’Ohifon
(Torn. i. pl. 14, 15.)

The punctual performance of prayer by perfons who fhow little regard
to other precepts of the law, has fubjected the Turks to an imputation of

hypocrify.

NODE SA AN DUMLIE US WR A a OWN:S.

hypocrify. Dr. Smith obferves, ‘ that fome who boaft of their fanétity,
‘ confider the omiflion of prayer as the greateft crime, and will therefore,
‘when the hour of prayer arrives, {top in the ftreets, in the {quares, in
“the woods, fields, on the fea fhore, and even difmount from their hoz‘e
‘on a journey, to acquit themfelves of fo important a duty.’ As a proof
of the fhare hypocrify muft have in ‘fuch oftentation of piety, an inftance
is given of certain Turks at the Englith Embaflador’s palace, who, after
drinking freely, and ridiculing the prophet’s prohibition of wine, arote
from table, on hearing the fignal for prayer from the Minaret, and per-
formed their devotion, in prefence of the very affociates in the debauch.
‘ Nor is this oftentatiom (continues he) at all uncommon, more efpecially
‘in fuch places of refort, where they are moft likely to be obferved by
* the Turks or Chriftians, with a view, by this falfe hypocritical worthip,
‘ to gain the reputation of zeal and piety.’ Smith (ut fupra p. 41.) A very
different account is given by D’Ohffon (Tom. i. p. 194.)

That in general the Turks pray regularly at the appointed times, in
their fhops, at a Coffee houfe, and even on a journey, is true; though this
ftri€tnefs of obfervance does not extend to all places, and they are often,
by bufinefs, obliged to defer praying till a more convenient time. But
the inference that they pray thus publicly merely to give their neigh-
bours, or the Chriftians, a high opinion of their fanétity, is by no means
juit. The frequent exercife of prayer, which the law fo ftridtly enjoins,
becomes in time habitual. Convenience is confulted when the Turks pray
in the market place; and the praétice is fo common, that a man does not
in faét become fo remarkable by feeming devout in public, as he would be
in fome other countries. Were a dozen of fhop-keepers in Cheapfide, re-
gularly as St. Paul’s clock {truck twelve at noon, to kneel on their own
counters, and devoutly fay their prayers, the cuftomers who happened to
be prefent would no doubt ftare, the novelty of the fight would draw a
crowd about the door, and it is eafy to gueis what opinion would be formed
of them. Yet the fame perfons may walk to church every Sunday, without
incurring any imputation of hypocrify. The external fhow of devotion in
Turkey, is likely, ina peculiar manner, to ftrike a perfon coming dire@ly
from Britain ; and fome Englifh travellers who have early in life been in
Italy, may poflibly recolleét the firft impreffion, on obferving the conduét
of the young and diffolute Italians in refpeét to public worfhip: but en-
larged experience corrects the immature judgment, and fhows that infer-

ences

399

400

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

encés in one country perfe¢tly juft, may in another, from the difference of
national cuftoms, be rafh and illiberal.

The foregoing extra€ts from Dr. Smith and the learned Affemani, have
not been produced with a petulant intention of eriticifing writers whofe
authority in other points is. refpectable ; but were felected, in preference
to innumerable paflages of fimilar tendency in the works of the early tra-
vellers, to fhow the difficulty of obtaining information on religious fub-
jects in. the Eaft. Travellers. in. thofe countries,. unacquainted with the
language, muft chiefly depend on the Native Chriftians, the Jews, or the
Romifh miffionaries; and it may eafily be conceived in what light Mo-
hammedanifm is likely to be reprefented by them, when prejudice is: found
to operate fo powerfully on Perfons of learning, in fituations bleffed with
opportunities of cultivating a more liberal knowledge of mankind. From
M. D’Ohffon’s account, who: has entered minutely into the fubjeét of Mo-
hammedan luftration, it will indeed appear what {tri@t attention is required
toa variety of circumftances in themfelves frivolous, and concerning which
even the orthodox Imams.are themfelves at variance. But he juftly re-
marks “les luftrations cependant n’ont aucun rapport aux fouillures d’l’ame..
Les Péchés ne s’effacent que par le repentir, des Jarmes de compon¢tion,
des aétes de pénitence, &c. (Tom..1. p. 157.)

I fhall conclude this. note on. the fubje¢t of prayer, with remarking a
curious miftake arifing from ignorance of the Arabic language, and.
adopted in fucceflion by many writers of great name. The Arab verb:
Sully carsies.two fenfes, viz. to. blefs, and to pray.. Applied to God it
means the former, to forgive, to be merciful; applied to angels, it implies
to pray for men; and applied to ren it means fimply to.pray. Yefully
Ullah Allei ants al ( icy. May God be propitious to him! is a form.
commonly ufed after naming any of the Patriarchs, or holy men, It is
of courfe always applied after naming the Prophet, Ullah yefully ala al
Nibby ( JI (ts. May God be propitious to the Prophet! which by a
{trange perverfion. of tranflation, as well as. of common fenfe, has been.
rendered ‘* may God pray for Mohammed,” and has thus been produced
in triumph, as an inftance of grofs blafphemy imputable to the Moham-
medans.

The reader will find the matter fully explained by Pocock, Reland, and
Gagnier (Specim. p. 56. and 304.) (De Relig. p. 467. 171.) (in Vita
Saladin, p. 1. Note b.)

Note

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note Ick p. 195.

Refpecting the Keblah, aus, the following paffage from the Koran
fhows that Mohammed had at firft left it indeterminate, or rather indif-
ferent. ‘ To God belongeth the Eaft and the Weft, therefore whither
** fo ever ye turn yourfelves to pray, there is the face of God; for God is
“ omniprefent and omnifcient.”’ Sale (Ch. ii. p. 15.) Marracci (p. 46. 116.)
Sale, in a note (p. 17.) remarks that Mohammed and his followers, obferv-
ed at firft, no particular rite in turning their faces towards any certain
place, or quarter of the world, when they prayed. But afterwards, when
the Prophet fled to Medina he dire¢ted them “ to turn towards the temple
“of Jerufalem, (probably to ingratiate himfelf with the Jews) which
** continued to be their Keblah for fix or feven months; but either finding
** the Jews too intra¢table, or defpairing otherwife to gain the Pagan Arabs,
““ who could not forget their refpeét to the temple of Mecca, he ordered
“that prayers for the future fhould be towards the laft. This change
“< was made in the fecond year of the Hejra, and occafioned many to fall
“ from him, taking offence at his inconftancy.”’

Pocock feems to think that Jerufalem had been the Keblah before the
Prophet’s flight (Specimen, p.175.) But however that may be, the mat-
ter was clearly determined in the fecond year of the Hegira. “* We have
‘< feen thee turn about thy face towards heaven with uncertainty, but we
** will caufe thee to turn thyfelf towards a Keblah that will pleafe thee.
‘“‘’Turn therefore thy face towards the holy temple of Mecca; and
“< wherever ye be turn your faces towards that place.’ (Koran Ch. ui. p.
18.) Marracci, (p. 60. 146.)

The Koran affigns a reafon for the change of the Keblah. “ We ap-
“ pointed the Keblah towards which thou didft formerly pray, only that
“ we might know him who followed the Apoftle, from him who turneth
“‘ back, on his heels; (i. e. returneth to Judaifm) though this change
““feem a great matter unlefs unto thofe whom God hath direéted.”’ (Ch.
li. p. 17.) Marracci (p. 60. 145.) Concerning the Keblah See D’Ohffon,
{Tableau Gener. Tom. i. p. 164.)

It may be remarked further that the Prophet has guarded againft placing
too much confequence in mere external rites, in prejudiceto more important
duties. “It is not righteoufnefs that you turn your faces in prayer to-
“* wards the Eaft and the Weft, but righteoufnefs is of him who believeth

Vor. I Fit in

AOI

402

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

** in God, and the laft day, and the angels, and the fcriptures, and the Pro-
“¢ phets. Who giveth money for God’s fake unto his kindred, and unto
‘* Orphans, and the needy, and the ftranger, and thofe who afk, and for
“< redemption of captives; who is conftant at prayers, and giveth alms; and
«© of thofe who perform their covenant when they have covenanted, and
“who behave themfelves patiently in adverfity, and hardfhips, and in
““ times of violence: thefe are they who are true, and thefe are they who
“fear God.” Koran. (Chap. i. p. 20.) Marracci (p. 66. 178.)

To the above paflage, which contains a compend of Mohammedan
morality, I fhall adjoin another paffage of the Koran expreflive of their
notion of God. ‘* God! there is no God but he; the living, the felf fub-
‘« fifting: neither flumber nor fleep feizeth him: to him belongeth what-
‘“‘ ever is in heaven, or on the earth. Who is he that can intercede
“with him but through his good pleafure? He knoweth that which is
‘«* paft, and that which is to come unto them, and they {hall not com-
“« prehend any thing of his knowledge, but fo far as he pleafeth. His
“ throne is extended over Heaven and Earth, and the prefervation of both
‘is no burthen to him. He is the high, the mighty.” Koran (Ch. ii. p.
30.) Marracci. p. 95. 256.

The Mohammedans have by the later Greek writers been accufed of
idolatry. Cedrenus remarks that as the people were formerly led by fuper-
{tition to pay divine honours to Venus of the Grecks, (that is Pleafure) fo
the Mohammedans {till worfhip Venus, or the Morning Star, (Lucifer,)
under the name Kubar.

The miftake refpecting Kubar, (as Pocock has clearly fhown) arofe
from ignorance of the Arabic language. ‘The words produced by the
Grecks in proof of the fuppofed idolatry, are thofe fo often pronounced by
Mohammedans in hours of devotion. Ullah Ullah hu kubar Ullah
Sl 54d a! all. God! God! He the Great God! The Greeks in their
characters expreffed them “Adda “AdAw & xuBap “Adda, but, by a ftrange
miftake, they rendered the 2 4%, by Greater.

Cedrenus citing the above words, which he terms deteftable and pro-
fane, explains their myftical meaning thus, Ulla Ulla, God, God, hu (#)
Greater, Kubar, Great God. That is God! God! God! Greater and
great ; by which laft is underftood Venus. Cedrenus, (Tom. i. p. 425)
Pocock, (Specimen, p. 112.)

Note

NOTES AND. ILLUSTRATIONS,

Note LII. p. 195.

M. D’Ohffon, in his introduétion to the Tableau General, has given an
account of the Sonna and other canonical Mohammedan books. Prayers
which are not of divine inftitution are termed Sonna ain, in diftinGtion
to obligatory obfervances termed Firad.

Under the term Firad, is comprehended what, if performed, is entitled
to reward, but is liable to punifhment if negleéted.

What is entitled to reward, if done, but if not done, is not liable to
punifhment, comes under Sonna.

What it is meritorious to abftain from, but if committed not punifh-
able, is termed Mukrua.

Hilal comprehends things which if done, or omitted, do not deferve
punifhment.

Matters, which he who avoids is entitled to reward, but of which the
commiffion is fubject to punifhment, comes under Haram. Reland, (De
Relig. Mohamed. p. 69.)

Note LIII. p. 197.

Symon Simeon in his Itinerary, gives the following ftrange account of
the Maazeen calling from the Minarets, ‘* Velut {peculatores, ad pro-
“‘ pbhetam fuum certis horis videlicet Machometum porcum viliffimum
** Jaudandum; et ad populum in ejus laudibus excitandum ; ubi eum inter
“alia laudant clamorofis vocibus et magnificant, quod una nocte cum
“ mulieribus novem nonaginta vicibus turpiter operatus eft, quod fa@tum
“¢ inter alia ejus miracula excellentiflimum & gloriofum reputant. (p. 23.)

A number of abfurdities of this kind might be produced from the jour-
nals of pious travellers, in early times. They imagined that the intereft
of Chriftianity was promoted by reprefenting the Mohammedans in the
blackeft colours, and their zeal rendered them credulous to every idle tale.
The words pronounced by the Maazeen, are now univerfally. known; and
an account of that office, as well as that of the Imam, has been given by
D’Ohffon ; from which it appears that females are abfolutely excluded
officiating in either. (Tableau Gener. Tom. 1. p. 176. pl. 17. 18.)

Eof fi] Note

403

4.04

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
Note LIV. p. 200.

Afad Bafhaw, defcended from an opulent family, was a Native o
Hemfe, or of Hama. Of his two brothers one was.a Vizir Bafhaw, and.
the other a Bafhaw of two Tails: an unufual circumftance in one family..
Afad enjoyed the government of Damafcus for many years, and in chas.
racter of Emeer Hadge, he had conduéted the Mecca. Caravan ten or
twelve pilgrimages fucceflively. He had prudently. cultivated the friend-.
fhip of the Defert Arabs, and by a mild adminiftration, rendered himfelf
popular in his Bafhawlick.

In the year. 1757, being removed from Damafcus to Aleppo, he was
fucceeded as Emeer Hadge by a new created Bafhaw, unknown to the
Arabs, and by them confidered as the enemy of their favorite Afad..

It happened that year, that the Caravan on its return from Mecca, was
attacked and plundered in the: Defert: an event which caufed univerfal
confternation in the Empire, but efpecially in the capital. At Aleppo, it
was a prevalent opinion that the outrage of the Arabs was principally
owing to refentment ; they had not been duly prepared for the change of
the Emeer Hadge, and the young Bafhaw negle¢ted the proper means of.
conciliating their good will.

When intelligence of this difafter was firft brought to Afad Bafhaw, he
is faid to have received it with little apparent furprife, as if an event na-
turally to be expected. Bred ina remote Province, he was a man of plain,
underftanding, but unpra¢ticed in the arts and manners of a.Court; and
injudicioufly converfed on the fubjeét of the robbery, with fo little caution,
that he either gave real caufe for fufpicion of his being no ftranger to the
defigns of the Arabs, or furnifhed the Porte with a pretence for haftening
the ftroke it had for fome time meditated. .

Ragab Bafhaw (afterwards Grand Vizir) came from Egypt to Aleppo,
in the year 1756, In the following year, upon Afad Bafhaw’s nomination
to Aleppo, Ragab was.appointed to fucceed to Damafcus; and in expeéta-
tion of being alfo appointed Emeer Hadge, he propofed to purchafe of
Afad the fupernumerary camels, tents, and other camp utenfils requifite
for the pilgrimage, which Afad not having further occafion for, might
have conveniently fpared. This propofal was unfortunately rejected in

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

an ungracious manner; Afad either doubting his fucceffor's ability to make:
fo confiderable a purchafe, or not being politician enough to forefee the.
confequence of the refufal. When Ragab received the anfwer. from
Damafcus, he was-enraged at the difappointment, and difgufted with the
manner in which his-propofal had been rejeGted; but affecting to treat it
with contempt, he only exclaimed, Fillah eben Fillah! a clown, the fon
ef aclown! An expreffion I afterwards had occafion to hear him repeat,
when Afad was accidentally mentioned. Ragab had a motive for thinks
ing himfelf ufed with indignity, which Afad had not forefeen.

Within the filk cover of the letter, which brought the advice to Ragab.

Bafhaw of his. new appointment, was a flip of paper from the Kizler-Aga,
giving him 2 hint of foon receiving more important news. The contents
of this. paper were kept profoundly fecret from his fuite, and while all
were employed at the Seraglio in preparing for Damafcus, advices were.
received of: Ragab being appointed Grand Vizir. The Selihdar of the.
Grand Signor, with the Imperial command, arrived a few days after, and
the new Vizir, attended by a {mall retinue, immediately fet out with him:
for Conftantinople.

_ A fhort time after the Vizir’s denahiaene! Afad came to Aleppo; and by
lowering the price of grain, and fupplying the city from -his.own grana~
ries, he foon became.a favorite of the people. .

The whole of his adminiftration was indeed mild, in a degree to which
the Aleppeens had not been accuftomed. But within a few months, the
unwelcome news arrived of his being appointed to. another Bafhawlick ;
on which occafion the populace aflembling in-a tumultuous manner, threat-
ened to oppofe his departure, and prevailed on the Divan, as well as on
the European Confuls, to ufe their influence at Conftantinople that he.
might be permitted to remain. Advice of the requeft being complied
with by the Porte, was received at Aleppo with unufual demonftrations of
joy: even the Europeans found it prudent to make public illuminations
and feftivals.. The intention of the Porte, however, was only fufpended;
for before the expiration of the year, Afad was a fecond. time. appointed.
Bafhaw of Siwas.

Upon this, he immediately removed from the Seraglio:to the ‘King’s, or
Green Meidan, where he remained encamped {everal weeks; in which in-
terval his friends were not idle. They forefaw the infidious defign of
drawing him to fuch a diftance from his native Province, and reprefented

the.

405

406

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

the neceffity of his making provifion againft the impending ftorm. They
advifed him either to tran{mit large fums to Conftantinople, in order to
procure his old government, or to make a confiderable augmentation of
his Troops: or at leaft to purchafe permiffion, under pretence of infirmity
and age, to retire to his own eftates, where he would have little to fear
for his life. Avarice, and ill grounded confidence, rendered their advice
ineffcGtual. He was immoderately fond of money, and flattered himfelf
that after having fo many times conducted the Mecca Caravan, he ran no
hazard of being cut off. ;

After a long delay at the Green Meidan, he at length proceeded to his
new government; where he had been fettled only a fhort time, when he
was called up to Conftantinople, under pretence of his prefence being re-
quifite for explaining certain circumftances relating to the late difafter of
the Mecca Caravan: but he was affured at the fame time, that he had
nothing to fear, there being no accufation againft him. ‘The command
was brought to Siwas by two Boftangees, with whom, and a {mall fuite
of his domeftics, after a few days preparation, he fet out for Conftanti-
nople.

The Boftangees behaved with the utmoft refpeét to him, on the journey,
but artfully found means to get rid of moft of the Bafhaws own attendants
without caufing alarm.

On their arrival at a village near Brufa, the Boftangees propofed refting,
and that His Excellency fhould refrefh himfelf in a Bagnio. The old
man, not diftrufting his companions, readily confented to the propofal.
The Boftangees took care to be of the party, and, while the devoted
victim fat defencelefs in the inner room of the Bagnio, one of them, by
a {troke with a mace, laid him fenfelefs on the ground: the murder was
completed by fevering the head from the body.

At the fame time the Boftang ees left Conftantinople, a Capugee* was
defpatched to Damafcus, to confifcate the treafure of the unfortunate
Afad; but the alarm had reached that place, before his arrival, and though
he met with confiderable booty, it was lets than the avidity of the Porte
expected. Indeed part of the treafure had been buried; and a favorite
flave of Afad’s, who had by his mafter been left in truft at Damafcus,
found means to carry off another part to the mountains, where he put

* A meffenger of fuperior rank.

himfelf

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

himfelf under the protection of the Emeer of the Drufes. This flave made
his peace with the Porte, in the following year; was created a Bafhaw;
and in the fequel made a confpicuous figure, as Bafhaw of Damafcus,
during the late invafion of Syria by Aly Bey of Egypt.

Note LV. p. 203.

The proper term for circumcifion is Khitan, or Al Titheer b’Ikhitan
wis? Ly age. Mundatio que fit per circumcifionem. But the term
vulgarly ufed at Aleppo is Titheer fimply, from Tahr gb or d(b, which
though it means properly any kind of purification, is ufually under{tood
of circumcifion in particular. See Reland (p. 268.) Pocock (Specimen, p.
319.)

The tradition recorded concerning circumcifion, makes the Prophet
declare it to be Sonna aux, which Pocock renders a neceffary rite, though
Sonna, according to the explanation of Reland, does not comprehend
things abfolutely neceffary, but fuch as though the obfervance of them be
meritorious, the negleét is not liable to punifhment.

The Prophet himfelf is faid to have been born without a Prepuces,

with which circumftance Grelot feems to have been unacquainted, when
he afcribes the adoption of that rite tothe motive of private convenience
in the law-giver; betides as the practice was in ufe among the Arabs long
before that period, the Prophet muft have been circumcifed many years
prior to his pretended miffion. Grelot. (Relation nouvelle d’un Voyage
de Conftantinople p. 213. Paris 1680.) Pocock (Specim. p. 319.)
Affemani aiferts that the Turkifh children receive their name at the
inftant of circumcifion, as the children of Chriftians do in baptifm; and,
with refpeét to the circumcifion of Chriftian Profelytes, that they are
previoufly obliged to trample and {pit three times on a Crofs prefented to
them for that purpofe, and then, three arrows being fhot off into the air,
by three of the attendants, the name of the new convert is pronounced
before the arrows fall to the ground. (Biblioth. Med. Cod. MSS. Arab
168.) The two laft circumftances are unknown at Aleppo, and the firft
is certainly a miftake; for the child is named almoft as foon as it comes
into the world. Grelot fays.exprefsly, that at Conftantinople, naming the.
children is not deferred till the time of circumcifion; and he probably is in

the right alfo about the ceremony ufed with infants (p. 2195) but cuftoms.
of

407

408

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

of that kind may vary at different places. The Perfon’s carrying a dart
or arrow in his hand, if practifed at Aleppo, muft have efcaped my
notice.

The circumcifion of Females is not known at Aleppo. It is termed
Bitre fay “ Confiftit in incifione nymphz puellaris, Arabice ( C43.” Reland,
(p. 75-) On this head, as well as the phyfical.advantages of the opera-
tion, the following Authors may be confulted. Michaelis, (Queft. 52.)
Niebuhr. (Difcript. d’Arabie, p. 67.)

It did not appear to me, that the Natives of Syria had either the pre-
puce, or the eyelids remarkably longer than the Europeans; nor were in-
{tances more frequent of children born without a prepuce. Buffon, (Hitt.
Nat. Tom. ii. .p. 480.)

The matter fecreted from the neck of the glans, from behind the ears,
and fome other parts, is apt to become more acrimonious than in colder
climates; the urine alfo (which in the Summer is rendered in {mall quan-
tity) is fharp, high coloured, and very quickly grows putrid. Hence per-
haps it is that the Chriftians are more fubje¢t to prurient efflorefcencies on
the glans, than the circumcifed; but I never obferved ulcers of any cone
fequence on thofe parts, totally free from fufpicion of a Venereal taint.

‘The glans of the circumcifed is certainly more callous. The Chrif-
tians feemed more fubjeét to flight Venereal infection than the Turks,
who feldom had a Gonorrhcea unattended with more formidable fymptoms.

Upon the whole, that.circumcifion is not of abfolute neceffity in that
climate, on a-phyfical account, is evident from the Chriftian inhabitants
of Syria. It appears to prevent no inconveniences which might not be
obviated by means Jefs violent, and though I had occafion to fee feveral
inftances of a Natural Phymofis, fuch cafes, comparatively, were not more
common than they are found to be in Europe. Boerhaave. (de Lue
Venerea. p. 16. Lugd. Batav. 1762.)

Refpe¢cting the antiquity of the pra¢tice of circumcifion. See Beloe’s
Herodotus, vol. 1. p. 258. (Ancient Univerfal Hift. vol. ii. p. 367.)

Note LXVI. p. 203.

‘Obligatory alms are called Zacat, 345) and voluntary alms Sedkat,
XsOuo; the latter word is ufed in general for charity. The diftinétion of

obligatory and voluntary alms, is not, I believe ftri€tly obferved at Aleppo.
See

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

See on the fubjeét of alms. Reland, (p. 99.) Pocock, (Specimen, p. 306.)
and (Tableau General, Tom. i. p. 269, with D’Ohffon’s Obfervations,

page 274.)

Note LVII. p. 207.

In placing the origin of Mohammedan Monattic Inftitutions in the 4th
century, I have followed the authority of Herbelot, who afcribes it to the
piety of the third Prince of the Sammanian Dynafty, who died Anno Heg.
331. (Biblioth. p. 292. and 664.) But the Author of the Efcurial Ca-
talogue, on the authority of Macrizi, places it a century earlier.

Rycaut, who was at pains to inform himfelf, reckons eight different
Orders of Monks, under the general title of Dervife, including however
the Itinerant Monks. Of thofe four only are mentioned by Sir James
Porter, the Begtafhi, the Mevelevi, the Kadri, and the Seyah, or Itinerant
Monks. Cantacuzene mentions four principal Orders of Monks. I Calen-
dieri, Divani, Ifaachi, and Torlachi! Du Loir {peaking of the Barking
Sheihs, fays, “‘ that immediately after prayer, and before beginning the
exercife defcribed in the text, they turn for fome time round, after the
manner of the Dervifes. Du Loir (Voyages, p. 148.) Rycaut (State of
the Ottoman Empire255, Lond. 1675.) Porter, (Obfervations, p. 42.)

But by much the moft diftinét account of the Mohammedan Monattic
Orders, is found in the fecond Volume of the Tableau General, where
D’Ohffon alfo (p. 295.) gives a chronological lift of their Founders,
amounting in number to thirty-two. He mentions a remarkable Moflem
Anchorite, of the 37th year of the Hegira; (A. C. 659.) but Sheih CEul-
wann, who died in 149. (A.C. 766.) ftands the firft founder of an Order,
in the lift. ©

It may be remarked from this lift, that only one new Order was founded
in the gth century; and one in the roth; two in the 12th; five in the
13th; four in the 14th; five in the 15th; fix in the 16th; three in the
17th; and three in the prefent century.

By aM. S. treatife on the Monattic life, in the Efcurial Catalogue, the
term Suphi would appear to be a general name rather than that of a par-
ticular Order; and is fuppofed to be derived from the white woolen gar-
ment worn by the Monks. But Herbelot is of opinion that it rather

Vor. I. Geg comes

4.09

410

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

comes from Logos than __$4.0, remarking at the fame time that the title
having been aflumed by Shah I{mael, is the reafon why the Kings of Perfia
have, from that time, been called Sophi. Herbelot. (Biblioth. Orient,
p- 816.) Cafiri, (Bibliot. Arabo-hifp. Efcur. Tom. i. p. 220.)

The Monks of both Convents at Aleppo, wear the white garment with
wide fleeves, and the high white Kaook, fometimes with, at other times
without a Shafh. Thofe of the Convent of Abu Becker, are of the
Beckry Order, and their founder, who died in 1496, lies buried there. The
Convent of the Mowlewys is near to Kitab’s Bridge.

It is remarked by Poftel that all the Turks marry, or if the religious
Sheihs remain in celibacy, that it is their own choice, not matter of obli-
gation. (Republiq. des Turcs, p. 4.)

This is confonant to the prefent practice at Aleppo, where moft of the
Dervifes and Sheihs are married; fuch as are not, either abftain by
choice, or are ref{trained by poverty.

Agreeably to a ‘ precept of the Koran, (fays Affemani) all the Moham-
‘medans marry, even the Ecclefiaftics; Dervifes only being excepted,
‘who indulge with impunity in the moft deteftable vices.’ ‘ Quibus
“« (Dervifis) Connubia licet vetita fint, Adulteria tamen, & -{tupra, ac ne-
“‘ fanda contra naturam peccata, impune committant.” (Buiblioth. Palat.
Med. Cod. 171.)

Baumgarten (in 1505) defcribes a Saint, whom he faw fitting on the
fand in Egypt ftark naked. He was told that madmen and idiots were
refpected as Saints by the Mohammedans, and that tombs were ere¢ted its
honour of them when they died. “ Audivimus hec diéta & dicenda per
‘“‘ Interpretem a Mucrelo Noftro: infuper fanétum illum quem eo loci
‘‘ vidimus, publicitus apprime commendari: eum effe hominem fan@um,
*‘ divinum, ac integritate precipuum, eo quod nec feminarum unquam
‘“‘ effet, nec puerorum, fed tantummodo Afellarum Concubitor atque Mu-
“lorum.” (Peregrinat, in Aigypt. Arab. Paleftin. &c. p. 73.) Biddulph,
(in Purchas’s Pilgrims, p. 1339.)

Symon Simion, {peaking of the people of Egypt, fays “ Qui omnes
“ ficut Czeteri legis diabolicee Confeffores, a minore ufque ad maximum,
“ab Admiraldo ufque ad Soldanum inclufive, funt fodomitz peffimi et
‘‘ viliffimi, et eorum Multi cum Afinis et Beftiis operantur iniquitatem.”

(Itinerar. p. 44.)
Goeo2 Thefe

o 5

NOTESPANDULLELUSPR ATIONS.

Thefe are only fpecimens of numberlefs paflages to the fame purpofe,
to be found in the works not only of the earlier travellers, but in fome of
later times, when prejudice and credulity might be expeéted to have ope-
rated lefs powerfully. To the pious Simion allowance fhould be made
for the recent hoftilities which in his time exafperated the enmity of Chrif-
tians to the Saracens; and Baumgarten’s interpreter may be fuppofed as
ufual to have exaggerated: but the hafty aflertion of the learned Bifhop
of Apamea is the more to be regretted, as it ferves to propagate undue
prejudices among thofe, already difpofed to receive them on lefs refpecta-
ble authority. He might poffibly, while in Turkey, have feen no inftance
of public punifhment of the crimes alluded to, but what proof could he
have had of the aétual commiflion of fuch, fufficient to juftify fo genera]
a charge againft a numerous body of people, with whom he cannot be
fuppofed to have been familiarly acquainted! If he knew many of them,
he muft furely have known fome who led decent lives. Were a Turk
who travelled in Europe to bring a fimilar charge againft the Legions of
Monks he meets with in various habits, his prejudice and credulity, would
be objects of pity or contempt ; and fome Catholic Prelate might poffibly
lament the Mohammedan’s misfortune, in not having been born heir to
a religion, which breathing a more benevolent {pirit, enjoins its profeffors
to judge of their neighbours with caution and charity.

Poittel makes it a requeft to his reader, that divefted of prejudice and
affection, he would judge like a neutral perfon not acquainted with the
parties. ‘ Among Chriftians, notwithftanding the purity of their Law,
“ are found men who live diffolutely ; but what credit would be due to a
“‘ {tranger, who having met in a country with fome bad individuals, fhould
““ report the whole of the inhabitants to be wicked! Il me femble qu’il
“‘feroit fort inique Juge, qui ainfi condamneroit Je tout pour partic.”
(La Republique des Turcs, p. 3.)

The Dervifes ‘ are reprefented by fome as rude and infociable in their
“manner of living, which for any thing I know might be true formerly,
‘but at prefent, they are of all Turks the moft polite in converfation.
* They have alfo been charged with a deteftable vice, from which I fhall
* not pretend to acquit all; though they affe& to hold it in abhorrence ;
‘ nor, notwith{tanding fome appearances, do I believe all culpable.” Du
Loir, (Voyage du Levant, p. 149. 150. Paris 1654.)

The

412

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Monks of the two Convents at Aleppo, bear a good charaéter; as
do alfo many of the refident Sheihs; but the Itinerant Sheihs, who infeft
the country, have a bad reputation, and are often deteéted in crimes. It
fhould be remarked however that there are among them real, as well as
pretended madmen, and that indecencies are over-looked, on account of
fuppoftd infanity, which would be punifhed in the ordinary courfe of
juttice. By what I have heard, thefe fanatics and knaves meet with
more indulgence in Egypt, than in Syria..

Note LVIII. p. 207::

The dancing Dervifes have been defcribed by almoft every traveller
who has vifited Conftantinople. In the (Recueil de cent Eftampes,. qui
reprefentent differentes Nations du Levant, Paris 1715.) there is a defcrip-
tive drawing, with the mufic of the dance. Tournefort gives.a tolerable.
drawing (Voyage into the Levant, vol. i. p. 88. Lond. 1718.). But the
beft I had feen before that of D’Ohffon, was a print from a painting of.
Smith’s done for the late Lord Baltimore. The mufician, however, is.
erroneoufly reprefented there, blowing the flute in the manner of a Ger-
man flute. See the figure of the Dervife in the Turkith Concert, (p. 152..
Plate IV.)

Tavernier mentions two of thofe Dervifes who (when Sultan Amurat
made his entry into Aleppo, in his way to the fiege of Babylon) “ went
‘* juft before the Grand Signor’s horfe, for half an hour’s march: together,,
“¢ turning round continually with all their might, till they foamed again at

the mouth, and dazzled the eyes of thofe that beheld them.” (Voyages,

page 60.)

The dancing Dervifes are of the Mowlewy Order inftitutedin the year
1273; but though more generally known under that appellation, it is not
the only Order that admits dancing in their rites. Seven other Orders are
mentioned by D’Ohffon (Tom. ii. p. 301.)- who in their devotional ex-
ercifes have adopted dancing, or extravagant gefticulation ; and of thofe,
two are anterior to the Mowlewys, by more than a century: but the dance
of the Dervifes differs from that of all the others.

A praétice fo inconfiftent with the fpirit of Mohanimetiaiitias and- the
manners of the Moflems, feems however to have been introduced fometime

after

———_—

—_e ~~

NOTES AND ILILUSTRATIONS.

after the inftitution of the earlier Monaftic Orders, and met with muclx
oppofition from the more rational Mohammedans. In the reign of Mo-
hammed IV. fome rigid Moflems made an attempt to abolifh at once the
whole of the Monaftic Orders, but were overpowered by a majority of the
ignorant and fuperftitious. D’Ohffon, (Tom. i. p. 311.):

Note LIX. p. 209.

The Itinerant Monks are mentioned by travellers under various names.
Herbelot calls them Calenders, &c. Du Loir calls them Sheih or Abdal,.
which is the name they have at Aleppo. He fays they have no Convents,
but remain wherever they find moft encouragement. (p. 159.) This laft
circumftance is certainly true of many of them, but others belong to Mo-
nafteries; for the Monks of every order may occafionally become Der-
vifes, or undertake pilgrimages. Some, (among whom are the Becktafhys)
travel as mendicants by command of their fuperiors; but many of the
Itinerant Sheihs are rafcals who have, for ill behaviour, been expelled from
their Convent, and retaining the habit, impofe on the populace. The
Calenderys take their name from Calender Youfouph, a difciple of Hagy
Becktafh, who being expelled from that fociety, and refufed admittance.
among the Mowlewy, vowed perpetual enmity to both, and inftituted a

diftinét Order of his own. D’Ohffon (Tableau General, Tom. ii. p. 315.)

Among the Itinerant Sheihs in Syria, there were very probably fome of
the Becktafhys, of whom Rycaut (State of the Ottoman Empire, chap. xx.)

gives a very bad character. But D’Ohbffon {peaks more favorably of

them.

Their founder (A. C. 1363.) Hagy Becktath, firft advifed the inftitu-
tion of the Janizaries, giving the fleeve of his felt gown as a model for
their caps; whence the form of the ceremonial cap: worn at prefent by
the Janizaries, was originally taken. Herbelot (p. 176.) The Ottoman
armies are accompanied by Sheihs-or Dervifes of all Orders, but the Jani-.
zaries are more particularly attached to the Becktafhys,.

Note LX. p. 210..

Whether the Barking Sheihs.at Aleppo be of the order of Cadrys, I do
not know; there is a refemblance in the rites: but the exclamation Hu is
not

413

414

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

not peculiar to one Monaftic Order. They are compofed partly of Natives
of the city, and partly of ftrangers, who, if Monks, may belong to differ-
ent Orders: and no Moflem (duely prepared as if for prayer) is excluded
from joining. They are at Aleppo, called Sheih, or Abdal, not Cadrys ;
nor did I remark there any diftinétion of religious Orders, befides that of
Dervife and Sheih: under the firft being comprehended the Monks of the
two Convents mentioned in the text, and under the latter all the others,
whether refident or itinerant.

A remarkable Fanatic named Baba Bazarlu, is mentioned by Herbelot
(p. 195. 460.) “ He was one of thofe half mad Enthufiafts refpected by
«« the Mohammedans, and called Abdal. A Native Turk, who quitting
“all worldly concerns, fhut himfelf up in a fmall cell, and dedicated his
‘¢ whole time to contemplation. The wall of the cell was his only book,
“‘ having caufed to be infcribed on it, in chara¢ters fo large as to occupy
“‘ the whole furface, the fingle word Hu. He whois, viz. God. This
«¢ word, Hu, which is pronounced Hou, being fometimes the Subftantive
“‘ verb, exprefles, he is, and becomes one of the hundred names of the
“ Deity. It is put at the beginning of all Mohammedan works, and
“¢ fuperfcribed on Refcripts, Paffports, &c.

Note EXT Sp: 202.

«© They (Mohammedans) are enjoined by their religion to extend it by
«¢ making converts; and to prefs at leaft three times, all thofe of any
“ other perfuafion to embrace it. Some affect a forcible and unbecoming
‘¢ zeal, others more moderate content themfelves with a mere formal re-
‘ quifition; but either of them will change their tone according as they
“‘ conceive the perfon they addrefs may be ufeful tothem or not.’ Porter
(Obfervations p. 14.)

The injunction fuppofed above, I conceive to be a miftake. The re-
ligious code permits praying for the converfion of an unbeliever; though
it forbids praying for the foul of one deceafed. There are no public
prayers for converfion ; and though fome zealous individuals may confider
it as meritorious to make’an attempt to convert an acquaintance, it is by
no means regarded as a matter of univerfal obligation: nor is it in fact

practifed. D’Ohffon (Tableau General. Tom. ii. p. 186. 219.)
Note

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Note LXII. p. 213.

The Koran in feveral places reproaches the Chriftians with Polytheifm.
“They are certainly infidels who fay God is the third of three; for
« there is no God befides one God—or that God is Chrift the fon of
“© man—Chrift the fon of Mary is no more than an Apoftle.”” Koran (Ch.
v. p. 92. and 85.) Marracci (p. 194. 19. p. 228. 81.)

“ Say not there are three Gods; forbear this; it will be better for you
“ —far be it from God that he fhould have a fon.’’ (Chap. iv. p. 81.)
Marracci, (p. 177. 169.)

“© The Chriftians fay Chrift is the fon of God. This is the faying in
«their mouths: they imitate the faying of thofe who were unbelievers
“in former times. May God refift them. How are they infatuated?
“‘ they take their Priefts and Monks for their Lords, befides God and
“© Chrift the fon of Mary, although they are commanded to worfhip one
“God only—far be that from him, which they affociate with him.”
(Chap. ix. p. 153-) Marracci, (p. 301. 35.) (Chap. cxii. p. 507.) Marracci,
(p. 831.)

Note LXIII. p. 214.

It is remarked by Cafiri, (Bibliot. Arabo-hifp. Efcur. Tom. ii. p. 348.)
that the Mohammedan authors write their own Hiftory with care and ac-
curacy, but that in the hiftorical parts of the Old and the New Teftament,
they mingle a number of fables and falfities taken from the Koran, and
the Mohammedan Legends. It may be added that the errors into which
the Moflems are thus betrayed, are not likely to be correéted by the
Native Chriftians, who are apt to temporife abominably. Should a grave
Effendee condefcend in converfation to appeal to a Chriftian for the truth of
what may have been afferted refpeCting his Creed, the Chriftian thinks it
more prudent to affent equivocally, than to rifk a contradiétion which
would hurt the pride of his opponent: and indeed the Eaftern Chriftians
are themfelves but fuperficially inftructed.

The learned Turks feldom converfe with Europeans on religious topics;
but when the. fubjeét is accidentally introduced, they reafon with exem-
plary moderation. Among fome pertinent, they afk a multitude of
frivolous queftions; but they liften as if defirous of information; and

admit

415

416

NOTES ,\AND | TLLUS TRATIONS.

admit that matters may have been mifreprefented through ignorance of
languages, as well as from defign. This was true fo far as I had occafion
to obferve, among perfons from whom I had no right to expect deference,
nor any other refpect than what was dictated by common civility. It
fhould be remarked however, that the Turks confider the Englith
as different from all the Chriftians in their Dominions. The Englifh do
not attend the fame places of worfhip; they have no Monks; and they
obferve few of the feftivals kept by the other Chriftians. As this
opinion might be one reafon for their converfing before me with more
freedom, fo on the other hand, it left me at liberty to difclaim, as not be-
longing to the Englifh Church, feveral fuperftitious articles alleged to be
inconfiftent with the belief of one God. A paffage in the memoirs of the
Miffionaries fhows in what manner they reprefented the ftate of Englith
and Dutch Chriftianity in Syria ‘* vous me demanderez maintenant com-
«‘ ment font les Anglois & les Hollandois; ici, comme en Holland & en An-
«¢ oleterre, ils n’obfervent ni jeune ni Abftinence, mais on en eft f{candalifé:
‘les gens du pays difent qu’ils ne font pas Chrétiens, & les Turcs eux-
«« mémes les regardent comme des gens fans religion.’” (Memoires des
Miffions, Tom. viii. p. 298.)

In this laft circumftance the Reverend Father went rather too far.
The Turks do not believe us to be without religion; though they acquit
us of being affociates in feveral of the fuperftitious praCtices which they
afcribe (however impioufly) to the Chriftians of the country: we lofe no
credit among the Mohammedans by not paying adoration to the Mother
of God.

I have heard them in converfation, remark it as one of thofe my-
{teries of providence which puzzles the human underftanding to ac-
count for, how almighty wifdom fhould permit fo great a proportion of
his creatures to bewilder themfelves in the mazes of falfe religion. But
from the faé (confidered as incontrovertible) they would draw an in-
ference in favour of mutual charity and toleration. This is by no means
uncommon, and fhould perhaps be ranked among opinions imputed to
fome of the Ullama, which renders them fufpeéted as free-thinkers, who
admit the poffibility of falvation under every religion: but it may juftly
be doubted whether fuch moderation in fentiment, is juftified by the

Koran.
The

NOTES “AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The following paflages are explicitly againft it, “‘ whoever followeth any
* other religion than Iflam, it fhall not be accepted of him, and in the
“next life he fhall be of thofe who perifh.” (Ch. iii. p. 47.) Marracci,
(p. 121. 84.)

“‘ They are furely infidels who fay verily God is Chrift, &c. Whoever
* fhall give a companion unto God, God fhall exclude him from Paradife,
«* and his habitation fhall be hell fire; and the ungodly fhall have none to
** help them.” (Ch. v. p. 92.) Marracci, (p. 227. 78. p. 228. 81.)

Another paffage. has been the fource of various opinions among com-
mentators, “ furely thofe who believe, and thofe who judaize, and Chrif-
*¢ tians, and Sabians, whofoever believeth in God, and the laft day, and
“¢ doth that which is right, they fhall have their reward with their Lord,
“¢ there fhall come no fear on them, neither fhall they be grieved.” Koran»
(Ch. ii. p. 8.) Marracci (p. 32. 62.)

But Sale, Reland, and others, confider it as wrongfully produced in
favour of an opinion, that every man (agreeably to the doétrine of Mo-
hammed) may be faved in his own religion, provided he be fincere, and
lead a good life.

The reader defirous of further information on this point may confult
_Reland (De Relig. Moham. p. 128.) Sale (Note on Koran, Ch. 11. p. 8.)
Chardin, (Voyages en Perfe, &c. Tom. iv. p..23. Amfterd. 1735.)

Sir James Porter remarks “ that the Turks hold all who are not of
* their belief and embrace not the doétrines of their Prophet, to be objects
“< of divine vengeance, and confequently of their deteftation, and againft
«* whom they are to exercife violence, fraud, and rapine.

“The force and efficacy (continues he) of this principle operates fo
“ effetually, that Mahometans are ever ready to demonftrate their zeal
* by fpurning and ill treating the perfons, plundering the property, and
“‘ even deftroying the very exiftence of thofe who profefs a different re-
“ ligion. If they are candid they will frankly confefs, upon an inquiry,
* that fuch is their duty, fo they are commanded, and that they are con-
** vinced it is moft meritorious in the fight of God and his Prophet.”
(Obfervations, p. 11.)

Were the above reprefentation correét, what has been faid of Moham-
medan toleration in the text (p. 214.) muft be erroneous; for at Aleppo,
where fuperftition was fuppofed to have more power than at Conftanti-
nople, the Turks, upon inquiry, would not make the candid confeflion

Vor. I. Hhh | hinted

417

418

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

hinted at, nor in fact is their practice agreeable to fuch a tenet. What-
ever notion the Mohammedans may entertain concerning the future con-
dition of Chriftians and Jews, in another world, they do. not appear to be
of opinion that the certainty of their damnation there, is a reafon for mal-
treating them on earth. Both nations being in a wretched dependance
under the Ottoman government, are too often treated tyrannically; but
it is not, as commonly reprefented by themfelves, out of abhorrence to
their religion; for, to do their governors juttice, they deal oppreflion with
an equal hand to the Turks themfelves, when it can be done with equal.
fafety.

Sir James Porter juftly remarks the difficulty of coming at information
in Turkey (p. 2.) His fituation at the Porte, which put it in his power
to attain a practical knowledge in a diplomatic line, precluded that fami-
liar intercourfe with the Moflems, which is neceffary for learning the
domettic life and manners of a people, whom he reprefents as naturally
referved, efpecially on fubjeéts of religion. His remarks.therefore on fome
of thofe heads plainly fhow by what channel he received his information,
and are lefs correét than in matters within the reach of his own obferva-
tion. The account of a Secretary of State (p. 9.) found employed in dif-
puting “ to what exact height the hands or arms, feet or legs, of a Moflem
“‘ fhould be wafhed, to render him truly acceptable to God,” is. exaétly
in the {pirit of a Greek Chriftian, who confidered making the fign of the
crofs with a finger dipped in holy water; or the afperfion of houfes at the
Epiphany ; or the Bifhop’s blefiing the fountains and the Sea; as matters
of ferious confequence. Several of the circum{tances mentioned in page
12, 13 and r4, are of the fame kind, as is alfo the following affertion.

“a year; obferving the Ramadan; ablutions made with critical preci-

“ fion; the pilgrimage ; drinking a portion of water in which their Pro-
« phets old robe has been dipt; and repeating fome, or the whole ninety-
“ nine names of the Deity,’”—*“‘ are all devotional duties, io effentially
“ neceflary to a true believer, that without them the pureft heart and the
“ fincereft faith (he muft mean Mohaminedan faith) is infufficient to re-
“ commend him to divine favour; thefe practices he likewife holds to be
‘‘ the efficacious and the indifpenfable means, to atone for all his crimes
« and immoralities.” (Obfervations, p. 10.) Some of the mitreprefen-
tations in the laft quotation, have been animadyerted on in a former note.

The

NOTES «AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

The information clearly could neither have been derived from the Turks
themfelves, nor from their books; yet I have no doubt that the Auther
confidered it as exactly true. It is only to be regretted on this, as on fome
other occafions, that he did not recolleé his own jutt remark. ‘“¢ Strangers
“who do not, and cannot perfectly underftand the language, muft con-
“< verfe by interpreters; but thefe dare nct enter into inquiries they think
<< will give offence: on fuch fubjects, therefore, they never do nor will
“« enterpret; if they arc preffed, evafion is their refuge, and both the quef-
«tion they make, and the anfwer they return, will be entirely of their
«¢ own invention.” (Obfervations on the Religion, Law, &c. of the

Turks, p. 3. Lond. 1771.)

INUIS A VY. p. 290.

In this Note, I have tranfcribed the opinions of feveral travellers, on
the general chara¢ter of the Turks, fele¢ting fuch as had refided for fome-
time in the country. Should the reader, upon a comparifon, find that my
Brother and I have differed from them in fome circumftances, he will re-
mark at the fame time, that they fometimes differ from each other.

M. du Loir, who was at Conftantinople about the year 1640, and
poffeft the Turkith language, fays “‘ that the Turks are naturally a good
‘ people; which 1s not to be afcribed to the climate, for the Greeks born
‘in the fame climate, have very different difpofitions, and retain only the
‘ bad qualities of their anceftors, viz. roguery, treachery, and vanity. The
* Turks, on the contrary, priding themfelves on their integrity and modefty,
‘ are diftinguifhed univerfally by an open, ingenuous, fimplicity of man-
‘ners: courtiers excepted, who in Turkey, as every where elfe, are the
‘ flaves of ambition and avarice. The Turks are always decently dretled;
‘and their garments, however changed by fafhion in their cut or colour,
‘ are never inconvenient nor unbecoming.’ (Voyage de Jevant, p. 166.
Paris, 1654.)

I have already had occafion to mention the Rev. Mr. Smith, who was
at Conftantinople more than twenty years later than Du Loir. In 1678
he publifhed a tranflation of his Latin Letter with additions, and in his
Preface to the reader, hopes that it will be no prejudice to the Book fhould
the ‘ thread of a Church-man be perceived to run through the whole re-
** lation.”

Hhhz2 In

419

420

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

In the charaéter he draws of the Turks, though fome of his remarks
are very juft, the thread is fufficiently perceptible. “ The Turks are
“¢ juftly branded with the character of a barbarous nation ; which cenfure
“¢ does not relate either to the cruelty and feverity of their punifhments,
“‘ which their natural fiercenefs, not otherwife to be reftrained, renders
“ neceffary and effential to their government; or to want of difcipline,
“‘ for that in moft things is very exaét, and agreeable to the Laws and
“* Rules of Polity, which cuftom and experience hath eftablifhed as the
“‘ grand fupport of their Empire; or to want of civil behaviour among
“‘ themfelves, for none can outwardly be more refpeétful and fubmiffive,
“ efpecially to their fuperiors, in whofe power it is to do them a mifchief,
*« the fear of which makes them guilty of moft bafe compliances: but to
“‘ the intolerable pride and {corn wherewith they treat all the world be-
se fides.*

It may be remarked, that what was faid of the Turkifh barbarity in
the Latin Letter, is here modified *. He afterwards take§ notice of their
contempt of learning, their hatred of other religions, &c. (Remarks on the
Manners, &c. of the Turks, Lond. 1678.)

‘ The Native Turks and Moors, (according to D’Arvieux) are a good
‘fort of people of themfelves, and will not injure their neighbour, unlefs
‘ provoked; but their refentment is eafily excited. They love ftrangers
‘ efpecially the Franks. In commerce, they are fhrewd but honeft. In
‘outward appearance they are zealous obfervers of the Law; but in
‘ reality licentious and diffolute, efpecially as to women.

‘It is faid that the Chriftian Natives are lefs wicked than the Turks.
‘ Charity would oblige me to believe this, did not experience. convince me
‘of the contrary. In general they are vain and proud, roguifh, given to
‘lying and drinking.’

‘The Jews are the moft mifchievous race on earth. They bear a
‘ mortal hatred to Chriftians, and without reaping hardly other advantage
‘ than fatiating their malice, are the principal Authors of the Avaniasmade
‘on the Chriftians.’ D’Arvieux (Memoires, Tom. v. p. 441.)

The Rev. Mr. Maundrel, who refided for fome time at Aleppo, as
Chaplain to the Factory, and publifhed a journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem
in 1697, which is defervedly much efteemed ; has {ketched the character
of the Turks, in a letter to a friend fubjoined to his journal.

* See before p. 397.
“T think

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

T think they are far from agreeing with that character which is given
of thém in Chriftendom, efpecially for their exa¢t juftice, veracity, and
other moral virtues: upon account of which I have fometimes heard
them mentioned with very extravagant commendations, as though they
“‘ far exceed Chriftian nations. But I muft profefs myfelf of another
opinion: for the Chriftian religion, how much foever we live below
*¢ the true {pirit and excellency of it, muft ftill be allowed to difcover fo
““ much power upon the minds of its profeffors, as to raife them far above
“« the level of a Turkifh virtue. It is a maxim I have often heard from
“‘ our merchants, that a Turk will always cheat when he can find an op-
portunity. Friendfhip, generofity, and wit, (in the Englifh notion) and
delightful converfe, and all the qualities of a refined and ingenuous {pirit,
are perfect {trangers to their minds, though in traffic and worldly nego-
“‘ ciations they are acute enough.

“< Their religion is framed to keep up great outward gravity and folem-
“nity, without begetting the leaft good tinéture of wifdom or virtue in
“the mind. You fhall have them at their hours of prayer (which are
“four a day always) addrefling themfelves to their devotions, with the
“ moft folemn and critical wafhings, always in the moft public places,
“‘ where moft people are pafling, with moft lowly and moft regular pro-
“ ftrations, and a hollow tone, which are among{ft them the great excel-
‘€ lencies of prayer. I have feen them in an affected charity, give money
“ to bird catchers, (who make a trade of it) to reftore the poor captives to
‘‘ their natural liberty, and at the fame time hold their own flaves in the
“‘ heavieft bondage. At other times they will buy flefh to relieve indigent
‘“‘ dogs, and yet curfe you with famine and peftilence, and all the moft
“« hideous imprecations, in which way the Eaftern nations have certainly
“« the moft exquifite rhetoric of any people upon earth. They are incre-
“< dibly conceited of their own religion, and contemptuous of that of others,
“« which I take to be the great artifice of the Devil in order to keep them
““hisown. ‘They are a perfeé vifible comment upon our Bleffed Lord’s.
“« defcriptions of the Jewifh Pharafees. Ina word lutt, arrogance, co-
** vetoufnefs, and the moft exquifite hypocrify, compleat their character.
“« The only thing I could ever obferve to commend in them, is the out-
‘* ward decency of their carriage, the profound refpect they pay to religion,
*“‘ and to every thing relating to it, and their great temperance and fru-

“« ality.”

A421

NOTES /AN DU TVEUST BEIGEONS.

“* gality.”” Maundrel (Journey, 2nd Ed. from Aleppo, &c. Oxford,
1707.)

I fhall only add further the chara@ter drawn by Sir James Porter.
“ To trace the correét outline of any national charaéter, is I am fenfible,
“a difficult tafk ; of the Turks I have premifed it is particularly fo: I
“« fhall neverthelefs make the attempt.

“The Turks are in general a fagacious people; in the purfuit of theif
“‘ own intereft or fortune, their attention is fixt on one objeét, and they
<‘ perfevere with great fteadinefs until they attain their purpofe. They ap-
<* pear in the common intercourfe of life to be courteous and humane, and
‘‘ by no means void of fentiments of gratitude: perhaps fome, or all thefe
“‘ virtues, when extended towards Chriftians, are praétifed with a view to
“their own emolument. Intereft regulates their conduét throughout ;
«¢ where that becomes an object of competition, all attachment and friend-
“< fhip, all ties of confanguinity are dillolved ; they become defperate, no
‘* barrier can ftop their purfuit, or abate their rancour towards their com-
“‘ petitors. In their tempers they are rather hypochondriac, grave, fedate,
‘“‘ and paffive ; but when agitated by paffion, furious, raging, ungoverna-
“ble; deep difflemblers ; jealous, fufpicious, and vindictive beyond con-
“‘ ception; perpetuating revenge through fucceflive generations. In mat~-
“ ters of religion, they are tenacious, fupercilious, and morofe.” (Obfer-
vations on the Religion, Law, &c. of the Turks, p. 4. London 1771.
2ud Ed.)

Note LXVI. p. 234.

Al Kada Lag! and Al Kadar (es are words nearly of the fame im-
port, both meaning the decree of God: but by the firft is underftood the
decree exifting in the divine mind from all eternity; by the latter is un-
derftood the execution and declaration of the decree, at the appointed
time.

The doétrine of predeftination is univerfally reeeived in Turkey; but
as it early became a fubjeét of controverfy among {peculative men, {fo it
ever fince has proved a copious fource of fcholaftic difputation.

In order to reconcile it with man’s free agency, many of the Ullama
(according to D’Ohffon) reftriét predeftination to the {piritual ftate of a

certain number of mortals, doomed before their birth to falvation or per-
dition;

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

dition; but affert that it does not extend to the moral, civil, or political
ftate of man, who in his aétions is left to his free will. Denying man to be
a free agent, and afcribing human actions folely to the will of God, are
doftrines inconfiftent with the Mohammedan religion, and, if obftinately
pertifted in, are punifhable by death. But notwithftanding the decifions
of the learned to this purpofe, a popular prejudice in Turkey extends the
influence of predeftination to the civil as well as moral actions of man-
kind. (Tableau General, Tom. 1. p. 56.)

The reader defirous of forming an idea of the Arabian talent for {cho-
laftic divinity, may confult the writers here referred to, who will either
fatisfy his curiofity, or direét him to the original authors who have treated
the fubjeét at large. Pocock (Specim. Hitt. Arab, p. 207.) Reland (De
Relig. Mohammed. p. 61. 150.) Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 153.) D’Ohffon (ut

fupra.)

Note LXVIAE..p., 235.

Ain opinion that certain difeafes were propagated by contagion, was
held by the Arabs before the time of Mohammed, but was condemned
by the Prophet, who afcribed all to God. ‘This, joined to the belief of a.
predetermined feries of events, or an inevitable neceflity, renders the
Turks in refpeét to the Plague, more indolently negligent of precaution
than moft other nations.

““ No foul can die unlefs by the permiffion of God, according to what
“ is written in the book containing the determination of things.” ‘ Nor

“is any thing added to the age of him whofe life is prolonged, neither is.

“ any thing diminifhed from his age, but the fame is written in the book
“of God's decrees. Verily this is eafy with God.” (Koran Chap. iil. p..

52.)- Marracci (p. 133. 145.) (Koran. Chap. xxxv. p. 358.) Marracci (p..

573- 11.) Reland (De Relig. Mohammed. p. 64.) Pocock (Specim. p.
322.)

Neverthelefs, precaution againft the Plague is juftified by legal deci-
fions, as well by refpectable precedents.

D’Ohffon (Tom. ii. p. 265.) gives the Fitwa of a celebrated Mufti,
which declares “ that a Muflem commits no fin againft religion, who
“ leaves a country where the Plague rages, to feek fhelter in another
“ place; provided he implores the mercy of the Almighty.”

. Omar

423

424

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Omar in the 8th year of the Hegira, is faid to have deferred his expe-
dition into Syria, on account of the Plague then 1aging in that country;
and upon his return to Medina, in aniwer to a friend who exprefled fur-
prife at a retreat fo inconfiftent with the dogma of predeftination, is re-
ported to have cited a faying of the Prophet (as tranflated by D’Ohffon)
‘que celui qui fe trouvoit déja en feu devoit fe refigner 4 Dieu, mais
‘ que celui qui étoit hors du feu, ne devoit pas s’y expofer.’

The immediate fucceflors of Omar aéted on the fame principle, and
the example has been followed by feveral of the Ottoman Emperors. In
the year 1491, Bajazet II. being informed, on his way to Adrianople, that
the Plague raged in that city, abftained from entering it; and in 1493,
the Plague being at Conftantinople, he deferred his return to the capital.
The fame Emperor, in 1509, quitting his apartments on account of a
violent Earthquake, encamped in the middle of one of the courts of the
Seraglio, but the fhocks continuing, he removed to a villa in the country.
M. D’Ohffon, from whom I have borrowed the above inftances, is of
opinion that a fpirited adminiftration, aided by the true principles of Mo-
hamedanifm, might get the better of prejudices, which, though widely
diffufed, are founded in ignorance. (Tableau General. Tom. i. p. 58.)

Note LXVIII. p. 250.

Rycaut, (who was fecretary to Lord Winchelfea, Embaffador to the
Porte from Charles IJ., and afterwards Conful at Smyrna) affigns as one of
the caufes why the Turkifh women are ‘the moft lafcivious and im-
‘ modeft of their {ex, and excel in the moft refined and ingenious fubtilties
‘to fteal their pleafures, that they are educated with no principles of
‘virtue, of moral honefty or religion, as to a future ftate relating to the
‘ rewards or punifhments of their good or bad actions.’ (Prefent State of
the Ottoman Empire. p. 271. London, 1675.)

Belcn, after remarking that the Turkith women go only abroad to the ©
Bagnio and to vifit the Tombs, adds ‘ and as according to Mohammed,
‘ they do not enter Paradife, neither does he permit them to go to Mofque,
‘on account of their not being circumcifed. It has been an opinion that
‘ there is a particular place in the Mofque allotted to the women; but I
‘can venture to aflert the contrary, and upon enquiring particularly, have

‘ been

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

‘been affured they do not enter the Mofque.’ (Lib. iii. C. xvi.) fee alfo
Grelot (p. 275.) 7

M. D’Arvieux has juftly been reprehended for afferting that the Koran
has deftined a place for all animals, except women; who have nothing
good to expe¢t in a future ftate. (Lettres Critiques d’Hadgi. Mehemd. p.
6. Paris. 1735.)

A much later traveller, M. Volney, has adopted the vulgar error.
** Mahomet (fays he) paffionately fond as he was of women, has not
** however done them the honour of treating them in his Koran as ap-
** pertaining to the human {fpecies; he does not fo much as make mention
“‘ of them either with refpect to the ceremonies of religion, or the re-
“‘ wards of another life; and it is even a fort of problem with the Ma-
« hometans, whether women have fouls.” (Vol. ii. p. 482. Lond. Tom. i,
p- 442. Paris, 1787.) Thisaifertion of Volney is the more remarkable as
from the cavalier manner in which he fpeaks of the Koran “ as being
«‘ merely a Chaos of unmeaning phrafes, &c.”’ (Vol. ii. p. 394. Lond,
Tom. ii. p. 362. Paris, 1787.) it might have been fuppofed he fhould
have read the book.

The following paflages from the Koran, will prove the beft refutation
of a vulgar error refpecting the future ftate of Mohammedan women.

“ Who fo worketh righteoufnefs, whether he be male or female, and is
** a true believer, we will furely raife him to a happy life; and we will
“ give them their reward according to the utmoft merit of their ations,
“ (Ch. xvi. p. 222. Marracci p. 398. 97.) whoever worketh evil, fhall
“* only be rewarded in equal proportion to the fame: but whoever worketh
<‘ good, whether male or female, and is a true believer, they fhall enter
*¢ Paradife. (Ch. xl. Marracci. p. 386. p. 615. 41.) that he (God) may lead
“‘ the true believers of both fexes into gardens beneath which rivers flow
“< to dwell therein for ever; and may expiate their evil deeds from them:
“ (this will be great felicity with God) and that he may punifh the hypo-
‘¢ critical men and the hypocritical women, &c.(Ch. xlviil. p. 413. Marrac-
“ci p. 64. 5.) Ona certain day thou fhalt fee the true believers of both
*¢ fexes: their light fhall run before them, and on their right hands; and
* it fhall be faid unto them good tidings unto you this day: gardens though
*‘ which rivers flow; ye fhall remain therein for ever. Koran. (Ch. lvu.
“p. 438 ) (Marracci p. 703. 12.) (Koran Ch. xiii. p. 202.) (Marracci p,
“¢ 368. 25.) But whofoever doth good works, whether he be male or

Vor. I. Tii “ female,

425

426

NOTES’ AND ILLUSTRATIONS:

“« female, and is a true believer, they fhall be admitted into Paradife, (Ch.
“iv. 70. Marracei, ps 163, 123.7)

See on this fubjeét Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 102.) Reland, (De Relig. Mo-
ham. p. 205.)

Belon is in the right when he afferts that the women do not go to
Mofque. They certainly do not at Aleppo, though I have heard it faid
that they fometimes went to a particular Mofque in the fuburbs. Af-
femani fays that women of higher rank fometimes, though rarely, go to
Mofque, and that a place is allotted to them where they cannot be feen
by the men. (Biblioth. Palat. Medic. p. 318.) Though this is not the cafe
at Aleppo, there are places for the reception of women in feveral of the
Mofques at Conftantinople; but even there, they are little frequented.

Women only of a certain age, are allowed to attend public worfhip,
and muft then never mingle with the men. But the dire¢tions refpeCting
their preparation for prayer, variation from the men in the mode of
proftration, raifing the hands &c. are given with the utmoft precifion,
(D’Ohffon, Tom. i. p. 166. pl. 15.) and fhow that their fpiritual welfare
has not been lefs attended to than that of the men.

As to the other religious duties, the women appear to be under equal
obligation with the men. I have known many among the elderly ladies,
who had made the Pilgrimage, and were perfeét devotees; but the younger
women, though all keep’ the faft of Ramadan, and may ftriétly be under
the fame obligation to the obfervance of other pofitive precepts, are in
practice feemingly lefs punétual in prayer, and having no places of public
worfhip, they beftow lefs time on the performance of external rites of
religion, than the women in Chriftendom.

A fingular piece of fuperftition which I never hear of in Turkey, and
believe to be a fiction, is mentioned by Ludovico Domenichi. ‘ The
“women (he fays) never go to Mofque at the fame time with the men,
“and very feldom go at all, except at the Byram, and fometimes of a Friday,
‘ between nine o’clock at night and midnight. That they perform their
‘ prayers accompanied with fuch violent fhrieks, and diftortions of the
‘body, as exhaufts their ftrength, and makes them fink down on the
‘ground. If at fuch times they fhould find themfelves pregnant, they
‘ afcribe it to the influence of the Divinity, and the infant when born is
‘termed a child of the Holy Spirit.’ This, adds the author, I have been

told

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

told by their fervants; I never faw them myfelf, nor are men at thofe
times ever admitted, Lodovico Domenichi (Cofe Turchefche.)

Note LXIX. p. 260.

M. Du Loir treats fully of the fubject of Turkith gallantry at Conftanti-
nople. ‘ No public ftews (according to him) are permitted, except a few
in the fuburb of Galata, for certain ladies whom he compares to the
nymphs of the Pont Neuf at Paris. But the women are much difpofed
to intrigue, and, inftead of honor and confcience, having no other reftraint
than the danger and difficulty attending it, they lofe no opportunity of
indulging their paffion: not however that they abandon themifelves in-
difcriminately ; they are gallant, not brutal.’ (p. 177.)

‘He reprefents them as finely made, beautiful, and delicate. The
diftaf and the needle being their only employment, and from their mode
of education, having few refources of amufement, they naturally become
more fubjeét to the tender paffions to which idlenefs is peculiarly favor-
able. They are not deterred by the rifk of dreadful punifhments ; their
paffions are inflamed by difficulties, which at the fame time renders them
more ingenious in devifing means of gratification, fo that an inftance of
deteétion hardly occurs in five or fix years. The Jewefles who have ac-
cefs to the Harems, and fome confidential flaves are the ordinary agents
in thefe intrigues, which, though always hazardous, are fo practicable,
that a man, be his religion what it will, may always pafs his time agree-
ably, and at a {mall expence.’ (Voyage de Levant, p. 178 and 179.)

‘ The darknefs of the evening and morning hours of prayer are well
‘ fuited for intrigue. The woman has nothing to do but difguife herfelf
‘ with a Turban and fictitious beard, and if fhe can flip out of doors un-
‘ obferved, fhe may go fafely where the pleafes. There are certain by-
‘ {treets, called the {treet of Kifles, where the women refort to make af-
‘ fignations, addrefling paifengers under pretence of afking a bridal favour
‘for the bride. It often happens alfo that handfome young men are pri-
‘vately carried off, when they cannot be induced by other means.’
(p- 179. 180.)

In the above paflages from Du Loir, there are circumftances which his
own experience might have brought him acquainted with; of others he
might have been infermed: but fome appear merely conje¢tural, and im-

bat probable.

427

4.28

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

probable. Without however pretending to contradié pofitive affertion, it
may be remarked as wonderful, that crimes fo frequently committed
fhould fo feldom be deteéted. As to the obfcurity of night favoring in-
trigues, whatever may be the cafe at Conftantinople, the Turks of con-
dition at Aleppo do feldom, or never refort to Mofque at morning prayer,
nor in the Winter, to evening prayer; moft people of every clafs per-
forming their devotions at home, fo that there is no great concourfe at the
Mofques, at thofe hours.

D’Arvieux, {peaking of the Aleppo ladies, ‘ fays they are, by thofe
* who have accefs to fee them, reported to be ingenious, and extremely gay;
‘and, notwithftanding their confinement and the ftrit care of the huf-
‘band, that they contrive to have intrigues, ufually by the mediation of
‘ Jewefles : but woe to the parties if difcovered.’ (Memoires, Tom. vi.
page 422.)

It may be remarked that both Du Loir and D’Arvieux agree in afcrib-

ing the honorable office of bawds to the Jewefles. At Conftantinople, |

the fhops of the Jews are faid to be the ordinary places of rendezvous ;
which they certainly-are not at Aleppo, being all fituated in the public
Bazar, and in fize very incommodious.
The following is the {prightly account given by Lady Mary Wortley.
Montague.
“« As to their morality or good conduét I can fay, like Harlequin, that
** °tis juft as ’tis with you; and the Turkifh ladies don’t commit one fin,
“ the lefs for not being Chriftians.- Now that I am a little acquainted.
with their ways, I cannot forbear admiring, either the exemplary dif-
cretion, or extreme {tupidity of ail the writers that have given accounts
of them. The moft ufual method of intrigue is to fend an appointment
“* to the Lover to meet the Lady at a Jew’s fhop, which are as notorioufly:
“‘ convenient as our India houfes. The great ladies feldom let their gal-
“jants know who they are. You may eafily imagine the number of
« faithful wives very {mall where they have nothing to fear from a lov-
“ er’s indifcretion, fince we fee fo many have the courage to expofe them-
felves to. that in this world, and all the threatened punifhment of the
“ next, which is never preached to the Turkith damfels.” (Letter xxix.)
How far Lady Mary's information was exact in this matter, it were
difficult to determine. But fhe certainly was miftaken, or incorreét, in
her defcription of the women’s veil. The Ferigee does by no means-con-
ceal

nw
La

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

ceal the fhape, nor is the face fo hid by the two murlins, that one may not
recognize an acquaintance: far lefs, is it impoflible “* for the moft jealous
“‘ hufband to know his wife, or of any one elfe to diftinguifh the great
“ Jady from her flave.” This will appear evidently on looking into the
prints of Levant dreffes (Recueil. de Cent Eftampes, Paris, 1715.) Her
Ladyfhip’s inference therefore cannot be admitted, ‘“ that this perpetual
“* Mafquerade gives them entire liberty of following their inclinations
** without danger of difcovery.”

Du Loir’s defcription of the veil worn by the women at Conftanti-
nople is more correét: but he afferts (p. 185.) that when they meet any
young gallant, they take an opportunity, under pretence of adjufting their
veil, to fhow their face, and, fometimes, of making more indecent dif-

coveries.
The women are certainly often under the neceffity of adjufting their

veil, but, on fuch occafions, they always ftand with their faces to the
wall. The indecencies hinted by Du Loir, belong to the loweft order of
impures.

Note LXX. p. 261.

I have thought proper to tranfcribe fome paffages from the former
Edition (p. 114.) which would feem at firft to imply an opinion different
from what is given in the text, (p. 261.)

«© The women are ufually in large companies (when they go to the gar-
“‘ dens)and have always either an old woman, or a young lad for their guard.
“‘ The Harem is guarded by a black Eunuch, or young boy, and though
“ neceflity obliges many of the inferior people to truft their wives out of
“‘ doors, yet fome are locked up till the hufband’s return, fo that the utmoft
** care in that way is taken among them to prevent a breach of the mar-
“‘ riage vow. But where there are no ties of love or virtue, one may
“ eafily conceive that others prove ineffeétual.”

The want of affection is inferred from the parties being brought together
without previous knowledge of each other, and from the want of tender
refpect on the part of the men; circumftances which will recur for confi-
deration in another place: but while inftances of infidelity are not more
common, it is reafonable to conclude that their prevention, in fome degree
muft be ewing to a principle fuperior to external reftraint.

Note

429

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Note LXXE™p. 205-

M. D’Arvieux, having remarked that the jealoufy of the men prohibits
boys above fix years old, from accefs to the Harems, adds, that the neareft
kindred, and moft intimate friends are in like manner excluded, except
on rare occafions, and under various reftri¢tions ; the women (efpecially
thofe of rank or opulence) being ftri€tly confined and watched as in Con-
vents: whence it happens that women of the lower clafs only are to be
feen in the ftreets.

‘ That the occupation of the ladies in their prifon confifts in fewing and
embroidering ; their amufements in the bath; or in the application to
mufic and dancing, which they exercife for the entertainment of their
hufbands. ‘They do not go to Mofque.

‘ But if accefs to the Harem be rendered difficult to the Turks, it is
abfolutely denied to the Franks. It is however true ({ays the Author) that
when our merchants, on commercial! bufinefs, go to the -houfes of Turk
merchants, their women, who are exceffively curious to fee the Franks, find
means of gratifying their curiofity, and at the fame time, not only fhow
themfelves, but, when not in danger of being perceived by the hufband,
make a thoufand indecent geftures. (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 422.)

Things either muft have changed at Aleppo fince M. D’Arvieux’s time,
or he muft have been mifinformed in fome of the circumftances cited
above. It is not ufual for the free-women, in the Harems of the opulent,
to fing and dance for the entertainment of the hufband; nor are they fo
confined as not to be feen walking in the ftreet: neither are they fo re-
ftricted in receiving or making vifits. As to the ftory of the French mer-
chants, I am inclined to confider it as an invention of juvenile levity; it
being inconfiftent with every idea of decorum in that country, that the
wives or daughters of a merchant, (fuch as the French gentlemen were
likely to vifit,) fhould betray them{felves indecently, out of mere wanton-
nefs, within the precinéts of their own houfe.

Note LXXII. p. 276.

The precept of the Koran refpeéting marriage, is as follows, “ take in
“ marriage of {uch women as pleafe you, two, or three, or four. But if
‘< you fear that you cannot act equitably towards fo many, marry one only,

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

* or the flaves which you fhall have acquired.” Koran, (ch. iv. p. 60.)
Marracci, (p. 144. 3-)

Sale confiders the above paffage as clearly expreflive of the number of
women permitted by Law—which ought not to exceed four, whether
wives or concubines. And if a man cannot be contented with one wife,
he may then take up with his fhe flaves, not exceeding however the
limited number. <“ And this is certainly the utmoft Mohammed allowed
“‘ his followers: nor can we urge 4s an argument againft fo plain a pre-
“‘ cept, the corrupt manners of his followers, many of whom, efpecially
“‘men of quality and fortune, indulge themfelves in criminal exceffes.”’
Sale (Prel. Difc. p. 133. where a variety of Authors, in fupport of this
opinion, are referred to.)

Gagnier, in his Notes on Abulfeda, p. 150, has in a fatisfaétory manner
refuted the erroneous reprefentations of Marracci and others, on this fub-

je.

Note LXXIII. p. 280.

According to Rycaut “ there are among the Turks three degrees of
“Divorce. The firft only feparates the man and wife from the fame
“‘ houfe and bed, the maintenance of a wife being {till continued; the fe-
‘‘ cond not only divides them in that manner, but the hufband is com-
“ pelled to make good her Kabin, which is a jointure, or Dowry promifed
‘“‘ at her marriage, fo as to have no intereft either in him or his eftate,
“‘ and to remain in a free condition to marry another. The third fort of
“‘ divorce (which is called (Ouch Talac) is made in a folemn, and more
‘¢ ferious manner, with more rigorous terms of feparation, and in this cafes.
“the hufband repenting of his divorce, and defirous to retake his wife,
“‘ cannot by the law be admitted to her without firft confenting and con-
“ tenting himfelf to fee another man enjoy her before his face, which con-
“ dition the law requires as a punifhment of the hufband’s lightnefs and
** inconftancy.”” Rycaut, (State of the Ottoman Empire. ch. xxi. p. 277.)

The laft prepofterous circumftance is mentioned alfo by Cantacuzene
(p. 199.) ‘* ne manco fe puo con lei congiungere fe un altro Turco da-
*‘ vanti a lui non ufa con effo lei, fecondo 1 Commandimenti della lor leggi.”

M. D’Arvieux in the fixth volume of his Memoirs, fpeaking of Aleppo,
fays “a man may divorce his wife, the Cady being judge of the legality

43%

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

the caufe afligned. Should the hufband afterward repent of what he had
done, he may, with permiffion of the Cady, take the woman back, if not
already married to another man. He is permitted to do this twice, but
if he divorce her a third time, he is obliged, as a preliminary article before
taking her back, to make her pafs a night with one of his friends; fhould
the women prefer the friend, it is in her option to remain with him, if
not, fhe returns to her firft hufband, who can never again divorce her.
(Tom. vi. p. 447.)

The condition attached to a third divorce, is alfo, according to
D’Arvieux, incurred by a man who accufes his wife of adultery, but
failing in the proof, 1s obliged to divorce her and return her portion, as well
as to pay cofts of fuit. Though the hufband fhould repent his precipitancy,
and the woman confent to remarry him, juftice interpofes to prevent it:
the man has {worn falfly, a crime has been committed, and muft be pu-
nifhed. I fhall give the fequel in the author’s own words.

Le mari plaignant & la femme accufée etant devant le Cadi, il fait venir
quelque bon gros garcon, qu’on a eu la precaution d’inftruire de ce
qu'il aa faire. On lui demande s’il connoit cette femme quoiqu’elle foit
voilgée & qu'il ne lait peutetre jamais vie. I] ne manque pas de
repondre qu’il la connoit pour une femme d’honneur; le juge lui demand
s'il la veut époufer, & il répond qu’il le fouhaite & qu'il eft prét de la
prendre pour femme. Sur cette réponfe, & fans attendre le confentement
de la femme, on les conduit dans une chambre, & le pauvre mari eft obligé
d’étre prefent a une fcene qui le couvre de honte & deconfufion, & qui le fait
réellement ce qu'il imaginoit étre, & peutétre fans raifon. I] faut qu’il y foit
prefent dans la méme chambre, ou par grace dans une qui foit fi proche
qu’il ne puiffe pas douter de fa honte. Cette fatisfaction achevée, l’hon-
neur de la Femme eft réparé, & le faux ferment du mari eft retifiér par
ce qui vient d’arriver, le nouveau mari par honnétete cede fon droit a
ancien mari, & le femme fe trouve en droit de choifir celui qui lui plait.
Elle reprend I’ancien, elle enfait fa declaration au Cadi, & elle returne en
fa maifon, comme fi cette {cene honteufe ne fe fat pas paffée.

M. D’Arvieux owns that he was a long while in doubt whether he

fhould venture to relate fo improbable a ftory; nor would have done it |

merely on report af perfons, even of unfufpetted veracity; had he not himfelf
met with an inftance, when at Sidon, which removed all further hefitation.
One of his fervants after rafhly divorcing his wife, being defirous of re-
marrying her, prevailed on his mafter to intercede in his favour with the

Cady,

—— ee

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Cady, with whom M. D’Arvieux happened to be intimate. But he was
affured by the magiftrate that the law placed an invincible obftacle in the
way: and in confequence, the fervant was obliged to comply with the
{trange condition mentioned above (Memoires Tom. i. p. 451.)

Stories to the fame purpofe may be found in Rycaut (Book ii. Ch. 21.)
(Grelot. Voyage de Conftant. p. 297. or of the tranflation p. 236.) and in
other authors; to one of whom Marracci makes reference, as to an eye
witnefs of the fact related. (Koran, p. 89.) But from the following abftraét
account of divorce as praétifed by the Mohammedans, it will fufficiently
appear that all fuch inconfiftent ftories are either pure inventions, or that
ignorance of the Turkih inftitutes has expofed travellers to credulity and
impofition.

The Koran determines with precifion a variety of circumftances rela-
tive to divorce. ‘* Ye may divorce your wives twice, and then either
“* retain them with humanity, or difmifs them with kindnefs. But if the
‘< hufband divorce her a third time, fhe fhall not be lawful for him again,
** untill fhe marry another hufband; but if he alfo divorce her, it fhall
“ be no crime in them if they return to each other, and if they think
*¢ they can obferve the ordinances of God. ‘The women who are divorced
“ fhall wait concerning themfelves untill they have their courfes thrice,
“and it fhall not be lawful for them to conceal that which God hath
‘‘ created in their wombs, if they believe in God and the laft day;—Such
“< of your wives as fhall defpair having their courfes, by reafon of their
“‘ age; if ye be in doubt thereof, let their term be three months: and let
“the fame be the term of thofe who have not yet had their courfes.
<< But as to thofe who are pregnant, their term fhall be, untill they be de-
“ livered of their burthen and compute the term exaétly:—and when
“ they fhall have fulfilled their term, either retain them with kindnefs,
“ or part from them honourably; and take witneffes from among you,
“men of integrity,—when you marry women who are believers, and
“‘ afterwards put them away, before you have touched them, there is no
“‘ term prefcribed you to fulfil towards them after their divorce: but make
“them a prefent, and difmifs them freely with an honourable difmiffion.
“« Sale (Koran Ch. il. p. 27. 26. Ch. Ixv. p. 454. Ch. xxx. p. 348.’’)
Marracci (p. 82. 229. 230. 231. 232. &c. p. 729. p. 559.)

Divorce (regularly) fhould be pronounced in that interval of the
woman's courfes, during which the hufband has had no conne¢tion with

Von. I. Kkk her;

433

434

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

her: fhe is then left to fulfill the term of three months; at the expiratior
of which, if not pregnant, or if the hufband in the interim has not ap-
proached her, nor declared his intention of being reconciled, fhe becomes
wholly difengaged from the matrimonial tie, and it is by her own free
confent, if fhe return: fuppofing the hufband willing to take her back.

If the man at the expiration of the firft month, gives a fecond fentences
and a third, at the end of the fecond month. The Tilak b’al tlata takes
place, and the divorce is complete. The parties however willing, cannot
come together again till the woman has been married to another, and in
due form been divorced by him.

Buta man may divorce his wife at once by three, (b’al tlata) or repeat
the fentence thrice feparately in the firft month: in either cafe he is in-
volved in the condition of the Tilak b’al tlata. ‘There is great variety
in the mode of announcing divorce, and a multitude of fubtile diftinéhons
have been devifed by the lawyers, which the reader may find in the Hedaya
lately publifhed, vol. i.—Thefe diftintions often depend on grammatical
niceties of the Arabic language, and are incapable of tranflation; but
many of them are clear, and of much confequence in determining the
woman’s right of inheritance.

There are reverfible and irreverfibie divorces.

Where a man pronounces one or two reverfible divorces, he may take
back the woman, whether fhe be defirous or not, any time before the expi-
ration of the prefcribed term; but if he permit that term to elapfe, he relin-
quifhes his right, and cannot recover the woman, but by obtaining her
confent to marry him again. In the firft cafe it is proper (though not of
legal neceffity) that the return fhould be declared before witnefies: in the
other, a legal nuptial ceremony is requifite.

Where irreverfible divorces are pronounced, the hufhand obtaining the
woman’s confent, may marry her a fecond time, during her term of pro-
bation; but fhe cannot marry any other man till after its expiration.

The divorce of a woman before confummation, is held irreverfible,
no term is prefcribed to her, and the may marry whom, and when fhe
choofes.

But if a man pronounce three divorces, Tilak b’al tlata, the marriage
is diffolved completely; the woman (however defirous) is no longer a

legal fubje& to him, till fhe has confummated a marriage with another
man

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

man, and, after being divorced, or after the death of the fecond hufband,
has accomplifhed the legal term.

The neceffity of confummation (expreffed rather ambiguoufly in the
Koran) is confirmed by a traditional faying of the prophet. (Hedaya Vol.
ds 73:6302.)

A marriage contraéted merely with a view of legalizing the woman
for her firft hufband, is held in abomination. The Prophet, (by tradition)
is faid to have execrated fuch an expedient. (Hedaya. p. 303.) It is pro-
bably from this fource, that the abfurd ftories alluded to above, muft have
arifen. But though collufion of fuch a kind may be fuppofed fome-
times to take place, it is evident that the circumftances in the ftories of
Rycaut, D’Arvieux, and Grelot, cannot be ftriétly correct. The con-
fummation of the fecond Marriage in the prefence of the firft hufband,
and the immediate return of thé wife, before the completion of the legal
term of probation, are circumftances utterly inconfiftent with the
Turkith Inftitutes, and manners.

Note LXX]IV. p. 283.

Belon, in other matters generally exaét, was mifinformed in many cir-
cumftances relative to the Harem. ‘ The wives, as well as flaves, (fays
‘ he) are purchafed with money ; fo that a Turk who has a marriageable
‘ daughter, reckons -her as fo much money in his purfe. The girls bring
‘ no money as a portion, nor moveables from the paternal houfe. A man
‘ therefore who wifhes to marry, muft buy and clothe his bride: the father
‘fells his daughter to the beft bidder, and having delivered her, gives
* himfelf little concern whether he ever fees her more.’ (Obfervat. liv. iii.
chap. xvil. p. 328. Bruxelles, 1555.)

- In the above circum{ftances he was miftaken, as well as in feveral others
that follow, (p. 329.) refpecting the interior of the Harem; for that fo
material a difference in the prefent ftate of the Turkifh women cannot be
afcribed to the changes of time, is evident from writers nearly contempo-
rary with Belon.

The cuftom of purchafing wives is faid to be.not peculiar to the Turks»
but practifed likewife by all the Oriental Chriftians; and appears, from
the facred writings, to have been the ancient pra@tice. (De Urbib. et
Moribus Orient. p. 166.)

Kkk 2 The

435

436

NOTES AND. ILLUSTRATIONS.

The fathers, among the Arabs, are never (according to D’Arvieux) fo.
happy as when they have a good many daughters. They conftitute the
principal riches of the houfe. The propofal made to the father, by the
young men intending to marry, is ufually, Will you give me your daugh-
ter for fifty fheep? fix camels? or twelve cows, &c.?

The ceremony of marriage as pra¢tifed by the Arabs, is defcribed mi-
nutely; (Voyage dans Paleftine, p. 276.) and there, as among the peafants
near Aleppo, the wife is really purchafed; the father receiving a ftipulated
price. The cuftom mentioned (p. 276.) of the battle between the bride-
groom’s party and the women, is remembered at Aleppo, though not now
practifed.

The account given by Cantacuzene of the marriage contra¢t is in moft
refpects agreeable to the praétice at Aleppo. As foon as the relations have
‘ fettled the fum to be paid by the bridegroom as the bride’s dowery, the
‘money is paid down. ‘This dower is two, three, or four thoufand -du-
‘ cats, according to the circumftances of the hufband. People of the lower
orders pay fifty ducats, or what they can afford. The fum, whatever it
may be, when received by the father, by fome near relation, or the
guardian of an orphan, is laid out in bedding or other houfehold furniture,
and apparel for the bride: the father, if opulent, adding fomething for
the purchafe of ornamental furniture. This is always done by people of
condition ; for though there be no legal obligation on the father to give

Lal

“~

a“

Lal

‘a portion with the bride, he is led by affection, and fometimes by vanity,
‘to contribute to increafe the pomp of the wedding.’ (Lib. ii. p. 195.)
The bridegroom alfo makes a prefent to the bride, before the confum-
mation of the marriage, which is called (p. 198.) the Contra Dote. It
may be remarked here that the tokens of virginity are fhown by the bride’s
mother to any of the females who choofe to. fee them, but to none of the
men, the bridegroom excepted.

The Arabic word for the marriage portion, according to the fubjoined
copy of a contract, is Mehr eo but in common difcourfe Dgihaz ke
is alfo ufed for portion, though more commonly for the Paraphernalia

‘which the woman brings along with her at the marriage. Kabin Crawl,

fo often met with in books, is Perfic, and feldom ufed at Aleppo.

The marriage contract is executed in the prefence of the Sheih who
writes it; and the Cady’s licence for the completion of the marriage 1S
ufually written on the other fide of the fame paper.

core

i ae

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

COPY OF A MARRIAGE CONTRACT.

Seid Mohammed the fon of Seid Yabeia, conftituted Wakeel for the Bride,
in the prefence of Hadge Beckry the fon of Mohammed, and Taha the fon of
Ibrahim ; two men acquainted with her, by the teftimony of Setd Abdalkader
the fon of Seid Omar, and Saleh the fon of Hadge Araby. The bridegroom
frands Wakeel for himfelf. The whole of the Dower ( ee ) one hundred
dollars, of which fifty has been paid, and fifty remains in truft to be paid in

time.

Witneffes
Al Hadge Yafeen Eben Fathy
Seid Mohammed Eben Seid Muftafa
Hadge AbdalrachmanEben al Jmam.

Sheih Mohammed Eben Hadge Morad
Ye hia Eben Abdy Bafhaw.

THE CADY’S LICENCE.
(A) (B}

Our Lord, and legal judge Seid Huffeyn, grants permiffion to Aifhy, the
daughter of Hadge Abdalkadar, dwelling in the diftritt named al Sheib Araby,
at Aleppo, having been betrothed in the prefence of legal witneffes, to marry
Seid Abdalkadar the fon of Seid Yaheia. Suppofing always that there be no
lawful impediment to their union. This 10th day of une in the year
1178.

The Cady affixes his Seal at (A); and if either of the parties be a
Shereef (or Green-head) the Nakeeb fixes his Seal at (B).

Note LXXV. p. 292.

In the former edition (p. 144.) It was remarked that “it is a kind
“of reproach among them (the Turks) to be thought fond of their

“ women, or to fhow them much tendernefs or refpeét; the beft of them

“ being only treated as upper fervants, and often abufed and drove about
“‘ by the very Eunuchs or boys bought or hired to look after them.”
I have transferred the above paflage from the text, as, from being in-

corre¢tly expreffed, it conveys a meaning not intended, and I can have no.

doubt my brother upon revifal would have himfelf altered it. By abufe
no more is meant than pert language, which the boys or Eunuchs are

very

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

very apt toindulgein. But they feldom venture it to the fuperior ladies,
without rifk of fevere punifhment. When the women are faid to be
driven about, it is not to be underitood that the boys or Eunuchs prefume
to {trike them; they dare not lift a hand cveu to a menial flave: but
being employed in the Harem to clear the way, and to attend the ladies
when they go abroad to the gardens; in the exercife of their office, they
call out with an imperious tone or voice, c: remind the women of the
hour being late, and urge their return home, in cn abrupt manner, as if
‘“‘they had a right to command. It was tis only that was meant by
“* and drove about.”’

The wife’s not fitting dow:: to table with the hufband, and miniftering
to him in other refpeéts, plac~s her indeed in the light of an upper

fervant.

Note LXXVI. p. 294.

Lewes Vertomannus of Rome (Barthema of Bolognia according to
Ramufius) travelled about the year 1503, and found means in difguife to
vifit Medina and Mecca. At Damaicus, he g:ves the following remark-
able account of the indecent liberty taken with the women. ‘ The
« Mamalukes (he fays) feldom appeared abroad, but in company of at leaft
“two or three together, and if they chanced to fall in with an equal
‘number of women, they had a right, or, if not, they ufurped the right
‘of feizing them. For this purpofe they waylaid the women near.
*to fome great Inn, (Khane), and as they paffed the gate, each lay-
‘ing hold of one, they forced the women to enter the Inn along with
‘them. When the woman was urged to remove her veil, fhe replied
‘alas brother I am in your power, you may difpofe of me as you pleafe,
‘ but permit me to retain my veil; a requeft which was fometimes com-
‘ plied with. In this way, (continues the author) it happens that inftead
‘ of poffefling, as they conceive, an unknown girl of diftinétion, they are
‘ deceived into the arms of their own wives: an inftance of which hap-
‘ pened while I was at Damafcus.’ Ludoy. Barthema Bolognefi (Ramus.

v.i.p. 149-) Richard Willes (Hiftory of Travayle, p. 359. Lond. 1577.)
Note LXXVII. p- 298.

Inftances of impotency merely from the power of imagination are not
uncommon. One or two unfuccefsful attempts feldom fails to convince

the

NGEPES TAN DAILLIUSIFPRA TDONS:

the bridegroom that he is under the influence of fome fupernatural power,
and turns him defperate. ‘The ill timed reproaches of fome near female
Relation, helps very little to mend matters; till at length nature of herfelf
gets the better of fuperftition. I have fometimes advifed the parties to
deccive their Relations, in order to get rid of their importunity.—the {pell
was diffolved the fooner for it.

It fometimes happens in a Harem, that the man finds himfelf Murboot
with regard only to one or two objeéts; a circumftance which of all others
ferves to confirm the notion of incantation.

On this fubject, fee fome very fenfible remarks in Mr. John Hunter’s.
Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe. (Part, iii. chap. xi. p. 200. Lond.
1788.)

Note LXXVIII. p. 298.

I have had frequent applications for remedies to prevent conception, but
feldom or never from women of condition. The pretence made was
frequent pregnancy, and having more children than they could main-
tain. The anfwer ufually returned was that fuch remedies were unlaw-
ful, and always attended with rifk of life; or at leaft of difeafe, and perpe-
tual barrennefs. One of the moft beautiful women I ever faw in the
country, aged about twenty-one, and the mother of four or five children,
came under my care on account of a cruel diftemper produced originally
by the ufe of White-lead, which her brutal hufband had obliged her to
{wallow in fmall dofes, with a view to prevent conception. This expedi-
ent was however extraordinary; I never met with another inftance of
the kind, and the Colica Pi¢tonum, with which the woman was afflicted,
is a very rare difeafe at Aleppo.

They are acquainted with more effectual means of procuring abortion,
and are lefs {crupulous in the application of them to unmarried women,
in order to evade the confequences of a difcovery, in illicit amours. It is
the midwives who are employed on thefe occafions, and fome of them have
confefled to me that they thought themfelves juftified in the practices
when it was to fave a family from being perhaps ruined, or at leaft much
diftreffed by the magiftrate: they are more confcicntious with refpeé to
married women. Upon the whole, there can be no doubt that the in-
famous practice is in ufe, but, I do not think, to fuch an extent as materi-

ally

440

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

ally to affect the {tate of population; becaufe in the firft place, the drugs
commonly ufed are not of fufficient efficacy ; and in the fecond, the ope-
rations of the midwife are fo violent, that only the moft determined wo-
men would fubmit to them when urged by the fear of infamy, which is
not the cafe with women who have hufbands. Phyficians are much oft-
ener confulted in cafes of barrennefs.

Note LXXIX. p. 302.

My friend Mr. Bruce appears to have beftowed more pains, than I did,
on inveftigating the proportion of males and females born in Syria, and
carried his enquiries to a much wider extent, than I had an opportunity of
doing. ‘ From a diligent enquiry into the South and Scripture part of
‘¢ Mefopotamia, Armenia, and Syria, from Mouful (Nineveh) to Aleppo
“‘ and Antioch, I find the proportion to be fully two women born to one
“man. There is indeed a fraction over, but not a confiderable one.”

In his progrefs Southward he found the proportion of females increafe.
«¢ But ffom Suez to the Straits of Babelmandeb, which contains the three
«¢ Arabias, the portion is fully four women to one man, which I have rea-
“¢ fon to believe; holds as far as the line, and 30° beyond it.” (Travels to
difcover the Source of the Nile, vol. i. p. 284. Edinburgh, 1790.)

According to the report of a Maronite Prieft employed in 1740, to num-
ber that Nation in Aleppo, the number was found to be 3033 Souls of
which 1500 were males and 1533 females. Though I do not rely entirely
on the accuracy of this report, I am inclined to think the difproportion of
males to females, at Aleppo, is not fo confiderable as it appeared to be, to
Mr. Bruce.

Note LXXX. p. 302.

D'Arvieux talking of the Arab women, fays “ On prend quelque foin
« des Princeffes quand elles accouchent; les autres femmes n’y font pas

“<beau-coup de facon; je ne fcai fi elles fentent moins de mal que les

“‘ autres, ou fi elles le fupportent plus courageufement, mais elles accou-
«‘ chent en chemin & par tout ot elles fe trouvent come fous leurs tentes.
“ Quelques momens apres qu’elles font délivrees, elles prennent l’enfant,

“hu

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

“ Jui lient le nombril, & le vont laver 4 la prémiere fontaine.” La Ro-
que (Voyage dans La Paleitine, p. 276. Paris, 1717.)

Note LXXXI. p. 305.

Children able to fupport themfelves, are ufually carried aftride on the
fhoulder; but in infancy they are carried in the common way in the arms,
and fometimes tranfported from one place to another, when the diftance
is not great, fupported awkwardly upon one haunch.

Bifhop Lowth gives the following paffage from Sir John Chardin’s
M.S. Notes. ‘ It is the cuftom in the Eaft to carry the children on the
‘ fide, a-{traddle on the haunch: a general praétife in India. ‘The children
‘it is true hold faft, while the woman who carries them clafps them with
‘one arm round the body; they neither being fwathed, nor dreffed in
‘ fuch manner as to confine their limbs.

* Cotovicus remarks that the Eaftern children, inftead of being carried
‘in the arms, are mounted aftride on the fhoulder.’ (Notes on Haiah,
page 258.)

The former cuftom is general in India, but the latter is that of Syria,
and the expreffion in Ifaiah 473 Sy, upon which the learned Bifhop com-
ments, is precifely the words now ufed by the Arab women Cand cH
Ala al Kitph. .

Harmer upon the following paffage of Ifaiah, (xlix. 22.)

And they fhall bring thy Sons in their bofom,

And thy Daughters fhall be borne on their fhoulder.
cites a remark of Pitt’s in Barbary that “ if the child be a boy, it ‘rides
‘“¢ on the flaves fhoulder.”” In Syria however the children are carried in-
difcriminately in that manner, male and female; agreeably to Sandy’s
obfervation when talking of the Turkifh children. ‘ As we bear ours in
“‘ our arms, fo they do theirs aftride on their fhoulders.” (Travels, p. 54.)
The difference of carrying the child in the bofom, or’on the fhoulder, may
be owing to their different age, without regard to fex. The Eaftern wo-
men ride always aftride whether on Affes, Mules, or Horfes. See Har-
mer (Obfervations on divers Paflages of Scripture, vol. ii. p. 366. Lond.
1776.)

Vou. I. oe Note

44%

44.2

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

Note LXXXII. p. 305.

The Syrian nurfes do not ufe clouts for keeping the infant dry in the
cradle, but having a place formed on purpofe in the middle of the mat-
trefs, they fill it with parched earth, and taking up the child’s clothes be-
hind, lay him upon it.

Another method is mentioned by Villamont as pra¢tifed at Jerufalem.
“ T]s laiffent (’Enfant) luy le derriere tout difcouvert, a fin que l’enfant
** jette dehors plus commodement. Et quant aux berceaux des Enfans,
“ils font enfoncez de cuir bien tendu ot y a un pertuis rond, fur lequel
“‘ font mifes a nud les feffes de l'enfant. Deffous le pertuis du berceau y
“a un pot large par le haut, dans lequel les excremens tombent, & parce
“ qu'il y auroit auffi danger que les linges ne s’ufaffent 4 la longue par
“ Purine de l’enfant, les Turcs y ont donnent order, appofant au membres
“« des enfans de petites canelles de buys faictes expres, & qu’on trouve la
‘“‘ chez le merciers.”” (Voiages du Seig. de Villamont, liv. 11. chap. xxx.
Lyon, 1611.)

Thevenot fays nearly the fame. (Travels, p. 47.) but I never heard of
the practice in Turkey.

Note LXXXIII. p. 306.

Schultens in his commentary upon Job, confiders the Wulwal JI.J Jq or
Wulwl (J.J, as correfponding to the Hebrew 55° ejulare and the “ororvpu
of the Greeks; but he produces feveral authorities to fhow that “oacavfa
was alfo applied in a joyful fenfe. (Comment. Job x. v. 15.)

The word ‘ororvgw is ufually rendered Ululo Ejulo, Ploro; “Areaalu,
Tinnio, ejula: and in the derivation of the word Ululo from the Greek
and Hebrew, Schultens has the concurrence of feveral Lexicons. But
however the two words may in thefe languages have been converted to
oppofite fenfes, it is certain that the Wulwaly of the Arabs is applicable
only to diftrefs and affliction, and would appear to have a greater affinity
to the Greek "Aawaaew, than to the cdodvZew which, from the authorities
produced in a former note, (xxxv.) would feem to have been moft com-
monly ufed by the Greeks on facred, or on joyful occafions,

The

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

The paffages produced by Schultens fhow the dawrad%s, and ovecharel or,
ufed precifely on thofe occafions that the correfponding word Wulwal
would have been ufed in Arabic. In the paffage from the Evange-
lift, our Saviour upon entering the houfe of Jairus “faw the tumult
“and them that wept and wailed greatly” for they believed that the
girl had juft before expired Kal Sewper Jopuboy, uroctovices roel a hocdor *ovJorg
morrkad. Mark v. 38. which in the Arabic Teftament is rendered thus,
Wwizocyadalgrg ey legs 4 Ui bol Lai Mark xvii. 38.

The inftance brought from Plutarch is alfo clearly to the point. On the
day of Czefar’s death, while Portia anxioufly expected news from the Ca-
pitol, fuch was the agitation of her mind that fhe at length fell into a
fainting fit. Her maids aftonifhed, and from her palenefs conceiving fhe
was dead, behaved juft as the Arab women would have done, they raifed
the Wulwaly ai de bepcimeaves wpos trv Ol avnradaazay. Plutarch, (Brutus,
Tom. i. p. 991. Folio, Francofurt. 1520.)

The extravagant conclamation of the women at funerals, is mentioned
by Cicero as prohibited by the twelve tables. ‘“ Tollit etiam Lamenta-
“‘tionem. Mulieres genas ne radunto, neve Leflum funeris ergo ha-
“bento. Hoc veteres Interpretes Sex. Alius, J. Acillius non fatis fe in-
“« telligere dixerunt, fed fufpicari Veftimenti aliquod genus funebris: L.
« Alius Leffum quafi Lugubrem Ejulationem, ut Vox ipfa fignificat.
“ Quod eo magis judico verum effe quia Lex Solonis id ipfum vetat.”
Cicero (de Legibus, lib. ii. p. 23. Opera Omnia 4to. Amftelad. Verburg.
1724. Tom. iv. p. 1225.)

Again, “ Ingemifcere nonnunquam Viro conceffum eft idque raro:
“¢ Ejulatus ne mulieri quidem. Et hic nimirum eft fletus (Leffus M. S.)
“guem Duodecim Tabule in funeribus adhiberi vetuerunt.” (Tute.
Difput. lib. ii. p. 23. ut fupra, p. 174.) Vide Plutarch (Solon, Tom. i.
page 90.)

The Wulwaly of the Turkith and other women of the Eaft, (for it is
common to the Chriftians and Jews) is fometimes no more than an inarti-
culate {cream or howl, but the interje¢tion Weil Wy, or the words ya
Weily! Coy rg are commonly interfperfed. ‘The chief mourner, or elfe
the women employed on purpofe, the Nouaha, doa! 45 (Gonvav EZapyos or
Tievbr}pos of the Greeks, the Praeficee of the Romans) repeats fome plaintive
words, interrupted with fobs and tears, then, ftriking her breaft, fhe
{creams wildly, and the other women join in the Wulwaly, as if it were

Llig the

443

444

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

the chorus to the Nouaha, but they do not keep time fo exaétly as in the
Ziraleet.

The common acceptation of #AwAwéw in a military fenfe, the “Adrwaq or
"Ardara the CeUaTMT KOS GoouGG@e, xa ArAnrayuGu, belong not to this place. It
may be fufficient to remark that the Turks in the onfet in battle, run on

repeating the word Ullah, Ullah.

Note LXXXIV. p. 310.

Pocock obferves that ‘‘ On the South fide of the town are feveral mag-
nificent fepulchres of the Mamaluke times; they are indeed Mofques
which the great perfons while they were alive built to depofite their
bodies in: the buildings generally confift of a portico built on three fides
of a court with pillars in a very coftly and magnificent manner, with a
“‘ grand gateway in front. Oppofite to this is the Mofque which is gene-
‘* rally covered with a dome, and the Mirab or Nich that direéts them to
pray is very often made of the fineft marbles, {omething in the manner
* of the Mofaic work.’ Pocock (Defcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 152.)

The fepulchres {till remaining are magnificent, but I do not recollect any
with porticos on the three fides of the Court. The Turks do not bury
within the Mofques; and the prefent buildings I always confidered not as
Motques, but merely as Maufoleums.

‘The Emperors, Bafhaws, and great men,’ as Cantacuzene juftly re-
marks ¢ are buried in {mall Chapels near their Mofques. The Turban,
‘and the veftments laid on the tomb, being changed daily, and the tomb
‘ ftrewed with the flowers in feafon.” (p. 201.)

“~
wn

Note LXXXV. ps 312..

Cantacuzene, defcribing the Turkith funeral ceremonies, fays that their
mourning contifts only in changing the fhafh of their Turban to one black
{triped, refembling that worn by the Armenians. This they wear only
eight days, at the expiration of which, in.a meeting of the relations, after
mutual confolations, they refume their ufual Turban. The Ullama wear
their mourning three days only. (p. 201.)

Nothing of this kind is pra¢tifed by the men, at Aleppo.

Note

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Note LXXXVI. p. 315.

M. D’Arvieux, whofe ftation at Aleppo was favorable for procuring in-
formation, fays, “‘ The Bafhaw’s regular falary was eighty thoufand Dol-
“jars (above £8,300) of which thirty five thoufand is allotted for the
*‘ maintenance of his troops, confifting of four or five hundred men. Be-
“ fides this he muft get alfo fufficient to pay the coft of his commiftion,
‘“* and purchafe the prote¢tion of friends at the Porte, in order to fecure a
“new appointment, when removed from Aleppo. But by extortions,
“‘ prefents, and other accidental means, they raife their Revenue to two
“hundred thoufand Dollars (about £25,000.) (Memoires, Tom. vi.
page 444.)

The Bafhaw’s revenue at prefent (1769) falls far fhort of two hundred
thoufand Dollars, notwithftanding that Avanias are perhaps as common as
ever. Some inftances of this manner of raifing moncy, may be found in
the above Memoirs, where the Turkith addre(s in negotiating them is well
defcribed.

M. Volney, in 1783, gives nearly the fame account of the Bafhaw’s
revenue with M. D’Arvieux; but mentions an inftance of a certain Abd;
Bafhaw, who within theie twenty years, by extraordinary extortions,
raifed, in fifteen months, the enormous fum of £160,000. (Vol. il. p. 140
Lond. p. 130. Tom. il. Paris.)

ote EX KV IT p: 9227.

In D’Arvieux’s time, the Mohafiil paid four hundred thoufand Dollars
to the Grand Signor’s Treafury for his Farm. ‘ In cafe of a brifk trade,
‘ he wasa confiderable gainer; but ctherwife he was a great lofer, and had
© no abatement or mercy to expe¢t from the Porte. His Furniture, Horfes,
“and Slaves, were feized by the Treafury, and he himfelf thrown into
‘ Prifon, till the whole debt fhould be difcharged.’ (Memoires, Tom. vi.
page 450.)

The Mohaffilick is now farmed at a much lower rate, yet often proves
the ruin of the perfon, who engages in it: of which I have known more

than one inftance, fince the year 1760.
M.. Volney

A445

440

NOTES) AND ILLUSTRATIONS:

M. Volney ftates the Mohaffil’s annual farm at £40,000, befides £4 or
5000, which he is obliged to pay to the officers at the Porte. (Vol. ii.

page 140.)

Note LXXXVII. p. 336.

A Turkifh prophecy of the deftruétion of the Ottoman Empire by the
Chriftians, is given by Ludovico Domenichi, together with a tranflation
and commentary. He adds “E da fapere che quefta prophetia non fi
“‘ legge nel Alchorana, ma in altri libri, ai quali portano grand autorita ed
“ reverenza.” Ludov. Domenichi, (Prophet. de Maometani, &c. Fiorenza,
1548.)

It is mentioned by Rolamb, a Swedifh Envoy at Conftantinople, in
1657, that, “ The Turks have a particular fufpicion againft the Swedifh
*‘ Nation, it being written in their prophecies that their Empire fhall be
“‘ deftroyed by a Northern nation, (p. 684.) It is faid that the Turks
“* fhall take Rome; the Pope foon after be made Patriarch of Jerufalem,
“ andturn Mahometan. ‘That then Chrift fhall come down and confirm
“‘ the Alcoran; after which the Turks declining, fhall retire into Arabia,
‘“‘ and the world fhall end, &c. (Relation of a Voyage to Conftantinople
by Nicholas Rolamb, 1657.)

It is remarkable that the belief in a prophecy prediéting the conquett of
Conftantinople by the Ruilians, was 2 prevalent opinion among the vulgar
in that city, as early as the roth century. Gibbon, (Decline of the Roman
Empire vol. v. p. 570.)

Note LXXXIX. p. 338.

The Chevalier D’Arvieux’s obfervation, though trite, is very juft.
“¢ Ti eft ordinaire de fe laffer de l’état oG.l’on eft, & ill’eft encore plus
“ @étre trompé en defirant ce qu’on n’a pas. J'ai vu cela chez les Turcs,
“< & je Jai va parmi les Chretiens qui font aux Echelles du Levant; ils
“ne font jamais contents de leurs Confuls; ils voudroient en changer tous
“les jours, & quand le changement eft fait, ils ne manquent pas de re-
“ gretter celui qui eft forti de place.” (Memoires, Tom. vi. p. 281.)

APPENDIX.

Py onP iguP ean dita orf 10K,

SKETCH OF THE FIRST ESTABLISHMENTS OF THE
LEVANT COMPANY IN TURKEY.

Ewcianp carried on little or no commerce with the [evant in
fhips of her own, earlier than the beginning of the fixteenth century ;
ufually employing Genoefe, Venetian, Portuguefe, or other foreign veffels.
But between the years 1511 and 1534, an unufual trade, by fhips of
London, Southhampton and Briftol, was carried on to Candia, Scio,
Cyprus, and even to Tripoly in Syria, and Byroot: yet ftill in that inter-
val foreign veffels continued to be employed as carriers. Anderfon
(Hiftorical and Chronological Dedu¢tion of the Origin of Commerce:
Lond. 1764.)

In the years 1534 and 1535, three Englith fhips, one of which was of 300
Tons burden, with a compliment of one hundred men, went to Candia and
Scio, where the Englifh merchants fettled Factors, choofing for fuch, Na-
tives of the country; but fome years later (1550 and 1557) Englifh mer-
chants, as well as French and Genoefe, were found fettled at Scio.

While Candia remained fubjeé&t to Venice, and Scio to Genoa, a con-
ftant trade was carried on thither by Chriftian fhips; but after thofe
iflands fell into the hands of the Turks, that trade ceafed, till fuch time
as the refpective fovereigns had obtained commercial treaties at the Otto-
man Porte. ‘The trade of the Englifh to the Eaftern territories of thofe
Italian, States, gradually brought on a direé trade with Turkey.

In 1572, French, Venetian, Genoefe, and Florentine Confuls refided at
Conftantinople, but none from England: the trade into the Levant hav-
ing (as it fhould feem) been difcontinued from the year 1553, to the year
1575. (Anderfon, p. 329. 414.)

The

AP’? RAwD ies

The precife time when the Levant trade was revived does not appear;
though it is probable, that Harebrown, whofe negociations at Conftan-
tinople laid the foundation for the Turkey Company, was among the firft
merchants who repaired to the Levant after the year 1575.

It is remarked by Camden in 1579, “ that, through Elizabeth’s inter-
“ ceffion, Amurath Cham, or the Turkifh Sultan, upon treaty between
“ William Harebrown an Englifhman, and Muftapha Beg a Turkith
“ Baffa, granted that the Englifh merchants might freely traffic through-
“ out his whole Empire, in like manner as the French, Venetians, Po-
“< lonians,” &c. Camden (Hift. of Elizabeth, p. 235. Lond. 1675).

But this does not appear to have been exactly the cafe; for, by the
Grand Signor’s letter to Elizabeth dated the 15th March, 1759, the lm
berty then granted fhould feem to have been limited to Harebrown, and
his two partners, Sir Edward Ofbourn and Maifter Richard Staper.

“ We give you to underftand, that a certain man hath come unto us,
“ in the name of your moft excellent regal Majefty, commending unto
“us, from you, all kindnefs; and did humbly require, that our imperial
“ Highnefs would vouchfafe to give leave and liberty to him, and unto
<< two other merchants of your kingdom,” &c. &c. &c.

The liberty was accordingly granted for fuch aforefaid perfons, and
orders were iffued accordingly.

Elizabeth returned an anfwer to this letter, Oftober 25th of the fame
year; from which it appears, that fhe thought the privileges granted
were reftrained within too narrow bounds. She returns thanks for the
attention paid to.the “ humble petitions of one Wm. Harebrown, a fub-
és ject’ of ours, prefented ‘ for the obtaining accefs far him, and two
‘¢ other merchants more of his company, our fubjeéts alfo, to come with
‘¢ merchandizes, both by fea and land, &c. &c. &c.

‘© But whereas the grant which was given to a few of our fubje@s,
ss and at their only requeft, without any intercefion of ours, ftandeth in as
“ free a liberty of coming and going, as ever was granted to any of
«© your imperial Highnefs’s confederates, French, Polonians, &c., we
“ defire of your Highnefs, that the commendation of fuch fingular cour-
“ tefie may not be fo narrowly reftrained to two or three men only, but
““ may be enlarged to all our fubjects in general.” See the letters at
length (Hakluyte, p. 163.)

Aeeaen vp it xX

In confequence of this, in the following vear, that is the beginning of
June 1580, the firft charter of privileges, (or Capitulations as they are
now termed) was granted to the Englifh, by Sultan Morad “and whereas
“She (the Queen) requefted that we would grant to all her fubjeéts in
“ general this our favour, which before we had extended only to a few
“‘ of her people.... Therefore we give licenfe to all her people and mer-
“‘ chants, &c.’? The charter contains twenty-one articles (Hakluyt, p.
163.)

Fifteen months after the date of the capitulations, the firft Turkey
Company was incorporated; the Queen’s charter being dated the 11th of
September 1581. It was granted, for the term of feven years, to Edward
Ofbourn Alderman of London, Richard Staper Merchant, Thomas Smith
Efg. and William Garret of London Merchants, their heirs, &c. The
preamble of the charter declares, ‘ that the two former had, by great
‘ adventure and induftrie, with their great cofts and charges, by the {pace
‘of fundry late years, travailed, and caufed travail to be taken as well
‘ by fecret and good means, as by dangerous ways and paflages both by
‘land and fea, to find out and fet upon a trade, &c. not heretofore in the
‘ memory of any man living known to be commonly ufe.-—And alfo have
‘ by their like good means and induftrie, and great charges, procured of
* the Grand Signior (in our name) amitie, fafety, &c. And in confidera-
‘ tion that the faid Edward Ofbourn hath been the principal fetter forth
‘ and doer in opening the trade, he is appointed Governor, failing whom,
‘ Richard Staper was appointed. See the charter, (Hakluyt, p. 172.)

On the 20th of November 1582, Elizabeth by her commiifion under
the Great feal, appointed mafter William Harebrowne to be, her orator
meffenger (Nuntium) deputie, and agent, invefting him with power to
ratify the Capitulations, and to regulate all commercial matters, and ty
appoint Confuls or Governors wherever he fhould fec fit.

With this commiffion, and her Majefty’s letter to the Grand Signor,
Harebrowne fet out in the Sufan of London mounting 34 guns. He firft
fettled peace with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and having eftablithed all
the Englith factories in Turkey, (maugre the {pite and malice of the
French and Venetians) he returned over land to England in the yea,
1589; for the Grand Signor’s letter to the Qveen in September of that year,
contains a {trong recommendation of Harebrowne then about leaving Con-
ftantinople; and defiring that either he or fome other pr-ncipal Em)atlador

Vor. I. Mmm might

A PPE RV aA Ss

might without delay be {ent to the Porte. Knolles (Hift. of the Turks,
p. 1007. Lond. p. 1621.)

In confequence of this, Mr. Edward Barton, who had been left by
Harebrowne Chargé des Affaires, was appointed Embaffador; anditappears
that he accompanied Sultan Mahomet to the camp in Hungary in 1596;
an account of which expedition is given by the Embaflador’s fecretary
Sir Thomas Glover. Sanderfon was left agent at Conftantinople during
the [mbatfador’s abfence. Purchas, (Pilgrims part fecond, p. 1354.
Lond. 1625.)

Mr. Barton died at Conftantinople, and was fucceeded by Mr. Henry
Lillo, who according to Biddulph, after governing the Englifh nation in
Turkey for ten years, returned with great reputation to his country, and
was knighted by His Majefly.

If Lillo refided ten years at Conftantinople, Mr. Barton muft have died
in 1597; for Sir Thomas Glover, who continued fecretary to Lillo, was
appointed to fucceed him in the year 1606. Yet Sanderfon who left Con-
ftantinople in September 1597, fays nothing of the Embaflador’s death,
but on his return thither two years after, he mentions vifiting the late
Embaffador Barton’s Tomb, on the top of Calcas Ile. Purchas (p. 1338.
12.62%)

On the commencement of the Englith trade to Turkey, the Merchants
having occafion to attend the Queen and Privy Council, they had their
great thanks and commendations for the fhips they then built of fo great
burthen with many encouragements to go forward for the kingdom’s fake.
The ordinary returns of the trade, at the beginning, were three for one
(Anderfon p. 424.)

The perfons concerned in the eftablifhment of the Company, had pro-
ceeded with great fpirit and refolution. John Newberie, fo early as 1578,
made a commercial journey into Syria. He travelled from March 1578
till November 1579, and vifited Tripoly, Joppa, Jerufalem, &c. and
’fount Lebanon. He fet out again in September 1580, and after vifiting
Syria, Perfia, Armenia, Georgia, Caramania, Natolia, and Conftantinople,
he from thence went, by the Black fea, a great way up the Danube &c.
&c. In this Voyage, he confumed two years, and was very exact in his
commercial obfervations.

Newberie was accompanied from London by William Barret an
Englith Merchant, who fettled at Aleppo, and was afterwards made

Contul

AC Et it Ne Dy fe xX

Conful at that Scale. When they arrived at Aleppo, about the end of
January 1581, they were entertained at a great Banquet by the French
Conful; and it appears that Newberic, fome time after, fent his letters
from Bagdat, for Mr. Harebrown and Mr. Barret, to the care of the
French Conful at Aleppo, “ the Englifh having no fixed eftablifhment
“ there at that time.”

The Capitulations had been obtained (as before mentioned) in June
1580, but the Levant Company was not incorporated till September
1581, and Harebrown’s powers to appoint Confuls, were not given till
November 1582. It was therefore two years after Barret’s firft arrival
at Aieppo, before a Conful could be eftablifhed there.

Newberie undertook a third Voyage in 1583, and arrived at Tripoly
in May. He was now accompanied by Ralph Fitch, John Eldred, and
feveral other fa¢tors fent out by the Levant company, to trade to Perfia,
as well as to attempt a trade to the Eaft Indies over land. An account
of this journey, which contains many inftructive particulars, may be
collected from Newberie’s own letters—(Hakluyt, p. 208.) (Purchas, p.
1642.) As alfo from the Narratives of Fitch (Purchas p. 1730.) and of
Eldred, (Hakluyt, p. 231.)

They carried (fays Anderfon) the Queen’s letters recommendatory to
the Kings of Cambay, and China; that they met with great oppofition in
their attempt from the Venetian factories eftablifhed at Bagdat, Ormus,
Goa, &c. That they travelled to fundry places in India, to Agra, Lahor,
Bengal, Malacca &c. They returned by Ormus and Syria, and arrived at
London in 1591, having made very ufeful remarks and difcoveries,
“on the nature of the Eaft India Commerce, preparatory to their intend-
«ed Voyage by fea to India now aétually going out.” (p. 439.)

On the arival of Newberie with his companions at Tripoly, in May
1583, Eldred particularly remarks that: ‘In this city our Englith
“« Merchants have a Conful, and our nation abide together in one houfe
“with him, called Fondeghi Ingles, builded of ftone, fquare, in manner
“ like a cloifter, and every man his feveral chamber, as it is the ufe of all
* other Chriftians (he means Franks) of feveral nations.”

From there being a Conful at Tripoly, it may be concluded that Barret
was then Conful at Aleppo, although not mentioned by Eldred; who,
however, on his return from Baffora in June the year following, mentions
particularly “ being joyfully received twenty miles diftant from the town,
| Mmm 2 ** by

A.P FR PINGR @ ee

“ by Mr. William Barret our Conful, accompanied with his people and
‘** Janizaries.” Barret it feems was immediately taken fick, and died.
within eight days, having before his death elected Mr. Anthony Bate,
Conful of ovr Englifh nation at that place, who remained in office three
years. (Hakluyt, p. 231. and 234.)

Barret was undoubtedly the firft Englifh Conful at Aleppo, and muft
have been regularly eftabliit.ed after the Embaflador’s Harebrown’s arri-
val in Turkey, early in the year 1583.

Although the firft Charter of the Company expired in 1588, it does
not appear to have been renewed till 1593; when inftead of twelve,
fifty-three perfons (confifting of feveral Knights, Aldermen, and Mer-
chants) received the Queen’s Letters Patent, for twelve' years. This
fecond temporary Charter recites ‘¢ that Sir Edward Ofbourn (hereby ap-
“< pointed the firft Governor for one year) William Harborn Efquire, &c.
«« had not only eftablifhed this trade to Turkey, at their great coft and
«« hazard, but alfo that to Venice, Zant, Cephalonia, Candia, and other.
«¢ Venetian Dominions, to the great increafe of the commerce and manu-.
“ faétories of England ; wherefore the Queen now incorporates them by
«‘ the name of the Governor and Company of Merchants of the Levant,
“ &c. The limits of the Charter to be, 1{t, The faid Venetian Territories.
“© and, The Dominions of the Grand Signior by Land and Sea; and 3rd,
“ through his countries over Land to Eaft India, a way lately difcovered
«« by John Newbery, Fitch, &c.”” The Queen referved a power of revok-.
ing the Patent on eighteen months notice, if it fhould appear not to be
profitable to her or the realm. (Anderfon, p. 441.)

Under thofe two temporary Charters, the affairs of the Company were
conduéted with great zeal and vigour. Their fervants, were indefatiga-.
ble in procuring commercial information, in the countries they travelled
mto; particularly Saunderfon, who made fundry voyages between the years
1584, and 1602.

It appears that the Embaffadors ufually at that time fent to the Porte,.
were perfons who. had been before in the country, and in fome degree
verfed in its cuftoms. Barton, the fecond Embaflador, had been Secretary
to Harebrown; Glover who was appointed in 1606, had been Secretary
both to Barton and Lillo; and to Glover fucceeded Sir Paul Pinder, who
is mentioned by Saunderfon as being at Conftantinople in 1599, in a pri-

vate ftation.
Upon

Rue MN BP Ef. xX.

Upon the expiration of the fecond temporary charter in 1605, a perpe~
tual one was granted by James; the new Company being ftiled, The
Merchants of England trading to the Levant Seas. The exiftence of the
prefent Levant Company, is founded on this Charter, which was con-
firmed by Charles the Second in 1661.

In confequence of the Charter granted by king James, Sir Thomas
Glover iti 1606, was. appointed his Majefty’s Envoy and Agent in Turkey,
with liberty to refide in what part of the Turkifh Dominions he fhall
think beft, and to appoint Confuls for the good Government of the Englith
in the other proper Ports.

Anderfon (p. 470.) obferves that Glover’s Letters Patent is the firft in-
{tance to be found in the Foedera, of an Englifh Minifter appointed to re-
fide in Turkey. He makes no mention of Pinder, who fucceeded Sir
Thomas Glover, nor does it appear how long Sir Thomas remained in
office, but it appears from the Foedera, that Sir John Ayre was appointed
Embaffador to the Porte in 1619. Sir John was fucceeded by Sir Thomas
Roe, who was Embatfador in 1625, when Purchas wrote. In 1627, ac-
cording to the Foedera, Sir Peter Wyche was appointed Embaffador to
the Grand Signior.

From this period the Hiftory of the Levant Company becomes lefs per-
plexed; but it being beyond my province to trace it further, I {hall only
add a few extracts from Anderfon, relative to the early {tate of the trade.

In Sir William Monfon’s Naval Tra¢ts written in 1635, the reatons

affigned for England not fooner entering directly on the Turkey Trade,.

but fuffering the Venetians to engrofs it, are, that former times did not
afford fhipping fufficient for it; the great danger of falling into the hands
of the Barbary Moors; and that the Venetians in thofe times fent their
Argofies, or Argofers, yearly to Southampton, laden with Turkey, Perfian;
and India merchandize. The laft Argofcr that came thus from Venice
was in the year 1587, and was unfortunately loft near the Ifle of. Wight,
with a rich cargo and many paffengers. (Anderfon, p. 423.)

A Tra& publifhed in 1615, (The Trade’s Increafe) againft the Eatt
India Company, obferves that the Turkey Company complained of their
trade being leffened in confzquence of that carried on direétly to India,
«That they now fent thirty thips fewer than formerly to the Levant.”
Whereas the Dutch now employed above a hundred. Sir Dudiey Diggs

defended

Vill

A PPE M Bae

defended the Eaft India Company, in a mafterly manner. (Anderfon,
P- 493+)

One of the Eaft India fhips of 800 Ton had been purchafed of the
Levant Company, and the reafon for fuch large fhips being employed in
the ‘Turkey trade was, that the Royal Navy was not yet confiderable
enough to prote¢t our trading fhips from the Barbary Rovers.

About the year 1620, the voyages by Sea to the Eaft Indies had fo
greatly lowered the prices of Indian merchandize, that the trade between
India and Turkey, by the Perfian Gulph and the Red Sea, having much
decayed, the Grand Signior’s cuftoms were greatly leffened. Ina treatite
written the following year, in favour of the Eaft India Company, Mr.
Mun endeavours, on a comparative view, to {how that the wares by the
Cape of Good Hope will coft but about half the price which they will
coft from Turkey. (Anderfon, vol. ii. p. 3.)

Mun remarks further that of all the nations of Europe, England drove
the moft profitable trade to Turkey, by reafon of the vaft quantities of
broad cloth, tin, &c. which it exports thither, enough to purchafe all the
wares we wanted in Turkey; and in particular three hundred great bales
of Perfian raw filk yearly. Whereas there is a balance in money paid by
the other nations trading thither. Marfeilles fent yearly to Aleppo and
Alexandria, at leaft £500,000, and little or no wares (France had then no
Woollen Trade.) Venice fent about £400,000, and a great value in
wares befides. Holland about £50,000 but little wares, and Meffina
£25,000.

In 1675 a commercial treaty was concluded at Adrianople between
king Charles the II. (by his Embaffador Sir John Finch) and Sultan Ma-
homet the IV. whereby all former treaties from Queen Elizabeth’s time
downwards were confirmed, and certain new articles were inferted in the
Capitulations. Among others, that the Dutch merchants of Holland,
Zeeland, &c. &c., trading to Turkey, were always to come under the
colours of England, paying the dues to the Englifh Embaflador and Con-
fuls, in the {ame manner as the Englifh merchants. Thofe of Spain, Por-
tugal, Ancona, Florence, and all forts of Dutch, were alfo to come under

the Englith flag. Anderfon, (vol. 11. p. 7. 158.)

METEOROLO-

METEOROLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF THE WEATHER IN 1752 AND 1753,
WITH A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE THERMOMETER, &c. FOR
TWELVE YEARS *.

Tue Thermometer employed, and referred to in the following ab-
ftraét, was the large one of Bird’s which had ftood formerly at the Con-
fular houfe, (fee vol. i1. p. 274 and 297.) but in the beginning of 1752, it
was removed to the Wooden Kiofk, before mentioned, where it remained

conftantly afterwards, together with the Barometer. The quantity of

rain is denoted thus’. One or two fhowers, or what is termed a rainy
day, are expreft by one’; “denotes violent rains; and ” an intermediate
quantity.

My. 7 52.
J #NUDAR Y.

The firft week of this month, cloudy and rainy ; but all the reft (the
three laft days excepted) continually fair, clear weather: a few light
clouds now and then intervening.

Rarny Days.

ift and 4th”, at night; sth’”, 6th”, at night with fqualls of wind: ath”

29th”, in the night; 3oth’”’, and 3rft ””.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 56 On the 28th and 2oth at 3 P. M.
Leaft - - 40 §On the rothand 11thatg9 A.M.

Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 1 bed the oth
Leaft 2 - 28, 5§Onthe 4th

The morning height of the Mercury, the firft ten Days, and from the 18th to
the end, was 46, or 48: in the intermediate {pace 42, or 43. The variation in
the fame day, was commonly 3, or 4; when perfeétly ferene 6, or 7; in rainy
weather, 2, 1 and fometimes o.

* Sce Vol. ii. page 297.
FEBRU-

A “P 'P 2 ON 8 ff Ae

FED Kh Us new

In the beginning of the fecond, and about the end of the third week, a
good deal of rain fell in violent fhowers in the night. ‘Through the reft
of the month the weather was fair, but the Sky was often variegated by
light clouds, and fometimes overca(t in the afternoon.

RAINY DAYS.

jth” begun in the evening and continued till the 8th” A. M.; gth” in
the night; roth” A. M.; 22nd’, 23rd” in the night; and 24th in the
forenoon.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 53 i the 19th at 3 P. M.

Leatt - - 45 JSSeveral days
Greateft height of the Barometer 28,9 aie the greateft part of the laft
Leatft - - - 28,3$OntherithP.M. [fortnight.

The morning height of the Mercury, in the firft fortnight was 48; in the
fubfequent part of the month 45 or 46. The variation in the fame day, ex-
cept when it rained, 5, or 6; and, when perfeétly ferene, 7 or 8.

MPA RoCre.

The ferene weather with which the laft month ended, continued to the
gth; thence to the 18th, light flying clouds, with fome intervening fhow-
ers of rain, which were fometimes accompanied with thunder. The re-
mainder of the month ferene, except the 24th, 25th, and 26th, which
were cloudy and fhowery.

RAINY DAYS.

8th” In the night; gth’ P. M.; 13th’ in the night; 14th”, 16th’ in
the night with thunder; 26’, and 27th’ A. M.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 67 7On the 24th at 3 P. M.

Leatt - - - 44 J$On the 2d and 11th ato A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28,9 beashonil between thefe two
Leaft - - 28, 5 §throughout the month.

The morning height of the Mercury, till the 6th, was 45; about the 14th it
had got to 52, and by the end of the month, reached 59. The variation in the
fame day, was 5 or 6, and before the rains in the laft week 8 or 9.

A. Pyle Ty Te

The Sky in the firft week, was for the moft part clear, with light fly-
ing clouds in the afternoon. From the 7th to the 12th, variable weather,
with

A PP FE We Di &,

with frequent hard fhowers which fell chiefly in the night and mornings,
and were fometimes accompanied with lightning and thunder. From*the
12th to the end, except one day, the weather conftantly fair and clear,

light clouds more feldom making their appearance than in the firft part.

of the month.
RAINY DAYS.
7’ A. M. and in the night; 8th’ in the night; gth’ A. M. and a ftorm
in the night; roth’” 11th’, 22nd’ P. M. and in the night’.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 81 ee the 30th at 3 P.M.

Leaft - - - 58 On the 8th at 9 A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8 7 On the 8th, and from the 14th to
Leaft - - 28, 4$On the 22d. [the 18th.

The morning height of the Mercury in the firft fortnight, 60 or 61, through
the latter fortnight, 64,65. The variation in the fame day when it rained, 3 or 43
at other times 6 er 7; and towards the end of the month 9 or 10.

M A Y.

A confiderable quantity of rain fell about the beginning of this month *.
From the 18th the weather was clear and pleafant, the Wefterly wind
blowing frefh, particularly after the 2oth. Some thunder on the morn-
ing of the 22nd, but no rain.

RAINY DAYS.
3d A. M.” in the night ;” 4th’ morning.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 26 ]20On the 3oth at 4 P. M.

Leaft - - 67 J§On the 4th and 3 P. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 From the 26th to the 29th P. M,
Leatft . - 28, 6§On the 4th.

The height of the Mercury, at 10 in the forenoon, from the 18th to the 26th,

70, afterwards, 74 and 78. The variation in the fame day was 6 or 8 and
fometimes 9 or 10.

JUNE,

Fine, ferene weather through the whole month, a few light clouds only

pafling on the 17th and 27th. ‘The wind frefh at Weft, after the firft
week.

* The Regifter defective from the 16th to the 18th.

Vor. I, Non RAINY

A Pw? @ we ee.

RAINY DAYS.

None.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 2 nal the 12th at 4 P. M.
Leatt - -

Greateft height of the Barometer a 9 7 From the 26th to the zoth.
Leaft - - 28, 6 § On the 4th.

The morning height of the Mercury, to the zoth, flu€tuated between 76 and
79; from that to the 28th, 80, about which time, the wind blowing remarkably
frefh, it funk to 77 ('). The variation in the fame day was 10, 11, or 12.

Heer le

Though the Sky was conftantly ferene, the weather continued cool till
the laft week, when the Weft wind, which from the beginning of the
month had blown frefh, giving way to calms and light ee it became
exceedingly hot.

RAINY DAYS.

None.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 9s 2On the 3oth, and 31ft, at 4 P. M.
Leaft - aa ate 3d, 20th, and 21ft,at 7 P.M.

Greatetft height of the Barometer 28, 7) On the rft.
| From the sth at 4 P.M. to the

Leaft ~ - Dios 7th at the fame hour; as alfo the
J 20th and arft.

To the 26th, the morning height of the Mercury, was only 80; afterwards
82 and 85. The variation in the fame day 10, but when the wind was very

frefh, 8 org.
HL) Gad S. Ti

The weather to the a1ft, ferene and frefh, light flying clouds only ap-
pearing now and then about mid day, or in the afternoon. On the 21ft,
black flying clouds threatened rain, and from that time to the end of the
month, clouds of this kind pafled almoft every day. In the nights of the
6th, zoth, and 23rd, many dark gloomy clouds, with flafhes of lightning.
The Weft wind blew frefh all the month.

RAINY DAYS.

None.

(3) The fall of the Mercury three or four degrees, upon a frefh wind, was a remarkable

circumftance.

Greateft

Avnm Ee WN-p T &.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 93 ee the 12th and 17th at 4 P. M.

Leaft - - 74 J§Onthe24tha7thand 28thatyP.si,
Greateft height of the Barometer 28,8 From the 28th to the end.
Leaft - - - 28, 5§On the 7th and 8th.

The morning height of the Mercury, after the few firft days, was 80, or Sr-
In the fecond fortnight it fell to 75. The variation in the fame day 9 or 10;
but when cloudy, 7 or 8.

5, feaB 2-EoM B EeR«.

To the 18th of this month the weather continued much the fame as in
Augutt, but a {mall fhower on the forenoon of that day, fomewhat refrefhed
the air, and the weather afterwards gradually grew cooler, efpecially in
the nights. Flying clouds were frequent and noéturnal dews. The
winds were Wefterly but lefs {trong than in the preceding month.

RAINY DAYS.

wth’ A. M.*

Greateft height of the Thermometer 86 20On the 14th at 4 P. M.
Leaft - - - 68 J§Onthe z9that 7 A. M.

Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 From the 27th to the end.
Leatt - - - 28, 7§ From the 15th to the 27th.

The morning height, and daily variation of the Thermometer, were for fome
days the fame as in the latter part of Auguft; but after the 17th, the Mercury
from 75 in the morning, fell gradually to 70, and the variation, from 6 came to
be 4 or 3 degrees.

GO CAITO BE RR.

The weather was rendered cool at the beginning, by a frefh Wefterly
wind, and the frequent interpofition of light white clouds. From the 4th
to the 15th, a ferene Sky, light variable breezes, and warm. Some large
clouds had paffed on the 14th, but others more black and heavy made
their appearance two days after and were accompanied with tempcftuous
blafts of wind, which raifing volumes of duft from the parched ground

* The reader will pleafe to recollect that in confequence of the new or Gregorian Stile taking
place at this time, the 3rd of September came to be reckoned the 14th day of the month.

§ This rain was {mall and drizzly, not like the ufual firft Autumnal fhowers. ‘Ihe change
induced on the weather was probably in fome meafure owing to more contiderable rains falling
at fome diftance

Nnp2 drove

xiv

AP EN Gt =

drove them about in a furprifing manner. On the four fucceeding days:
the wind blew frefh from the Weft or South Weft. In the afternoon of
the 22nd, the Sky overcaft, and at length in the night, the rain, which
had fo often threatened before, poured down. as ufual in violent fhowers.
The day following was gloomy with drizzling rain; in the night it again:
rained hard. ‘The forenoon of the 24th was drizzly like the day before,
after which it cleared up for a few hours; but in the afternoon there was
a violent thunder ftorm, anda good deal of rain. fell in the evening. The
remainder of the month ferene, except the 26th and 27th which were
cloudy.
RAINY DAYS.
22nd” Evening and night; 23rd’”; 24th”.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 80 2On the 4th at 3 P. M..

Leaft : - - 58 J§Onthe z9thand 30th at 8 A.M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 9 7 Fluctuated between thatand 28.8:
Leaft - . 28, 6§ On the 23d and 24th.

The morning height of the Mercury to the 18th, 72; after the rain, 65, and
towards the end of the month, 58. The variation in the fame day 50r6. On
the 23d and 24th o, 1, and after the rain, 3, or 4.

NOVEMBE R:

Fine weather m the firft week: light clouds fometimes appeared but
except one day, no black clouds. It became cloudy on the afternoon of
the 8th, and the two following days were dark and gloomy with fome
rain. From the 11th to the 16th, the mornings ferene, the Sky in the
afternoons varicgated with light clouds. ‘Three or four days of cloudy,
rainy weather intervened, after which it was fair and frofty to the 26th.
The laft days of the month rainy.

RAINY DAYS.

8th”, at night; gth’, roth’, and 16 A.M.; 26th’, in the night; 27th”,
28th”, and 29”, in the night.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 65 toe the 1ft, 2d, and 3d, at 3 P. M.

Leaft - - 46 J§Onthe 25th at 8 A.M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29, $ 7Onthe 24th, 25th, and 26th.
Leaft - : 28, 8 § Greateft part of the month.

The morning height of the Mercury, to the 10th, was 60, from that to the 23d
it fell gradually to 49; in the frofty weather it funk to 46, but afterwards rofe to

5Q-

mh BoP ie WiDr xX

so. The variation in the fame day was at the beginning of the month 5, after
wards 3, and in rainy weather, fometimes o.

For the firft ten days of this month the weather was frequently gloomy,
but there were only two rainy days. Fogs were common in the morn-
ings. It begun to {now the evening of the 11th and continued fnowing
all the following day. From the 12th to the 22nd, the weather frofty °,
the Sky fometimes being ferene, but oftener foggy or overcaft. ‘To the
froft fucceedcd five days of gloomy, wintry weather, after which it became
clear and mild. Moft of the rain in this month, that of the 23rd excepted,
fell in the night, or after fun fet. The winds moderate at Eaft or North
Eaft, as in laft month.

RAINY DAYS.

sth” With thunder ; oth”, 23rd”, 26th”; 27th”, ftorm in the night
from the Weft.

Greateft height of the thermometer 55 Fon the rft at 3 P. M.

Leaft - - - . 42 §On the 13th and r4th at 8 A. M,
Greateft height of the barometer 29 (On the r4th.
Leaft ~ - - - 28 §On the 27th.

The morning height of the mercury, which at the beginning of the month was
54, had, by the 1oth, fallen to 49, and from that to the 24th it continued fluctuating
between 42 and 44; it then rofe to 46, 48. The variation in the fame day 3, in
general only 1, and fometimes o.

A, 1)..3 753,
e4,DbU A RV

The preceding year had ended with mild pleafant weather, which cotz--
tinued to the 11th of this month, interrupted only by one gloomy day.
This was followed by four dark, wet days, after which to the 22nd, the
weather was clear and fine, the mornings being froity. The weather
from the 22nd was for the moft part gloomy and wet; but the rain fell
more frequently in the day time than ufual. It {nowed iu the night of

© The Thermoracter which ftood at 49 before the fall of the Snow, funk on the rath to 42, yet
notwithftanding the continuance of the trofty weather for eight days, it appronched not nearer
to the freezing point, and even rofe to 44 after the 17th, whence it fhould-appear that the froft
was far from being intenfe.

the

xvi

A PP POUEAHe Wii h

the 3oth, and the air felt exceedingly cold. The winds generally Eaft or
North Eaft and moderate.
RAINY DAYS.
3rd’, r1th’, A. M. in the night”; 12th in the night”; 14th, in the
night”; 22nd’ A. M. in the evening”; 23rd’ and 24th’ A. M.; 27th”;
aSth \i29'7, andgoth” in théiday tume:

Greateft height of the Thermometer 53 JOnthe 7th and 8that 3 P.M.
Leatt = 4 40 me the 31ftat 4 P.M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29 On the 6th.
Leaft = - = - 28 ot ton the 3oth and 31ft.
The morning height of the Mercury, in the firft fortnight, was commonly 42;
the latter fortnight 45. The variation in the day 3, 2, and o.

FES RK UjAt

It begun to fnow again on the evening of the 1{t and continued fnow-
ing inceflantly for twenty four hours. The 3rd was overcaft, but clear-
ing up next day, the weather to the 12th was conftantly clear and frofty.
The 12th was cloudy, and it rained for feveral hours. After which the
fro{ty weather returning, continued to the 20th. The remainder of the
month was variably clear and cloudy, with many intervening fhort fhow-
ers. The winds in general very moderate. In the firft ten days North
Eaft, or South Weft; from the 15th to the 20th Eaft, the lait eight days
Weitt, and fomewhat frefher.

Notwithftanding the continuance of frofty weather in this month, the
Almond trees were in bloffom about the zoth.

RAINY DAYS.

12th”, from noon; 21ft’ P. M.; 22nd’ P. M.; 24th’) Py Wi ae

thunder; 25th, 26th, and 28th fhowery.
SNOWY DAYS.
ft. and 2nd.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 54 From the 2othtothe end at 3 P. M.
Leaft - - - - 36 On the 3d at § A. M.

Greateft height of the Barometer 29,4 JVOnthe sth, 6th, and 7th.
Leatt - - - = /:28; ies the 24th, 25th, and 26ch.
The morning height of the mercury to the 12th was 38, once only 36; after the
rain, to the 20th, 42; in the laft week 50, 52. The variation in the fame day
was commonly 4; but about the 17th it increafed to 6 or 7; in rainy weather
I OF 2.

MARCH.

evr EN DP xX

MARCH.

Excepting one day (the 9th) which was cloudy, rainy, and tempeftu-
ous, the Sky, during the three firft weeks, remained conftantly {ferene
till afternoon, when a few light clouds now and then made their appear-
ance. The reft of the month was either cloudy, or variable and fhowery,
the rain for the moft part defcending in fhort interrupted fhowers. ‘The
winds to the roth, variable, South Eait, or Eaft; during the reft of the
month, at Weft or South Weft. They were in general moderate, only
frefhning fometimes after noon.

RAINY DAYS.

Gum Avdvi.;.2r1ft' evening; 23rd’ P, M.; 24th”; 29th’, 31ft” in the
night.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 61 ie s ange pith, and goth at

Leaft 3 2 - - 48 7Onthe rathat 8 A. M.

i I
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, ot isand 387. between
Leaft - - - - 28,47 On the 22d. P.M.

The morning height of the mercury to the 12th was 52; from that to the 1 8th,
49; and through the reft ofthe month 56. The variation in the fame day gor 5;
but in cloudy weather 2: it was always lefs confiderable than in March of the pre~
ceding year.

oP RPL:

Began with cloudy rainy weather; from the 3rd to the rgth ferene,
with intervening light clouds. In the fecond week, it was trequently
hazy. The 16th and 17th ferene, after which ten days of unufually cold,
cloudy weather. On the 2nd and 19th it rained almoft inceffantly the
whole day, at other times the rain fell in heavy, fhort fhowers. The
predominant winds, efpecially towards the end of the month, were the
Weft or South Weft; but they never blew ftrong, and calms were fre -
quent.

RAINY DAYS.

rft P. M.; 2nd’”, 13’ night; r4th’ A. M.; 15th’, roth”, 22nd P.M.

with thunder,

Greateft

XVII

xVill

was always ferene, but upon the wind ceafin

wWwRREN Pm HS

Greateft height of the Thermometer 69 2On the 13th at 4 P. M,
Leaft - - - - (oe On the 2ndat 7 A. M.

Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8) From the 8th to the r1th.
Leaft - “ = - 28,4 50On the 2nd.

The morning height of the mercury was 51 at the beginning, and it was not
till the end of the week that it regained its ftation of the former month. On the
8th it ftood at 59, and through the reft of the month rofe only 3 or 4 degrees
higher. The variation in the fame day was 6 or 7 in clear weather, but when

cloudy no more than 2 or 3.

Mae Yi

‘The firft day gloomy, and it rained inceflantly till four in the afternoon;
the three following days fhowery, with thunder; the next three days fair,

with a frefh wind, and flying clouds. In the evening of the 8th, a ftorm

of rain and thunder; the reft of that week, the weather was often hazy,
and at other times the Sun was obfcured by large white clouds, From
the 16th to the 28th the wind blowing frefh through the day, the Sky
g, clouds fometimes arofe in
the evenings. The 28th calm and overcaft. The two laft days, feveral
dark clouds paffed, the Weft wind blowing frefh. Calms were frequent,
or light variable breezes at South Eaft, or Eaft. When it blew frefh, it
was generally at Weft.
RAINY DAYS.

1ft’”, 2nd’ at noon; 3rd” thunder fhowers; 4th’ P. M.; 7th” P. M.

with thunder; 15th’ evening; 28th’ P. M.

pets EIR - che heimometss pe bas far as the 16th of the month *.

Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 8
Leaft - - - - 28,7
The morning height of the mercury was 61 at the beginning of the month, and
70 about the middle. The variation in the fame day, 6, 9; when cloudy 3.

JUNE.

The weather throughout the whole of this month was in general cool
for the feafon. Dark clouds were frequent in the firft week ; and from
the 8th to the 14th, light flying clouds often paffed in the forenoon. The

* The Thermometer was unfortunately broke, and it was the month of September before a
new one was received from England. aon

Sky

2 f & EW sD a XK.

Sky in the laft fortnight was always ferene, except fometimes about noon
that a few fleecy clouds made their appearance, which became more rare
as the month advanced. The Weft wind was conftant, and for the moft
part pretty frefh.

In the afternoon of the 2nd, at a quarter paft five o’clock, there was a
flicht fhock of an earthquake ; the wind at the time blowing frefh, as it
had done all day.

RAINY DAYS.

1ft A {mall fhower.

Greateft height of the Barometer 28 a the rft.
Leaft - - - 28, 64 $A few days towards the end.

The common height of the Barometer was 28, 7; the mercury, as ufual in the

fummer months, varying very confiderably.

JH key,

The weather in the firft fortnight cool and pleafant, the Weft wind
blowing frefh, and fleecy clouds often pafling before noon. From the
15th to the 22nd, calm, ferene, and hot; the three fucceeding days re-
frefhed by cool breezes, but thefe again failing, or veering towards the
South or North, the latter part of the month became hot.

RAINY DAYS.

None.
Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 6
Leaft - ~ - - 28,5

To the 20th the mercury was ftationary at 28,6; and during the reft of the
month at 28, 6.

mots wood.

The weather on the firft day, was refrefhed by a ftrong Weft wind, but
from that to the 14th, a ferene Sky, with calms or light breezes rendered
it extremely hot, efpecially in the nights after the 4th. Between the 14th
and 19th, the heats were mitigated by a morning and evening breeze.
On the 23rd and 25th, large white clouds paffed, the Weft wind blowing
frefh. The few remaining days of Auguft weve caim and hot. The winds
for the moft part Wefterly, but the lighter breezes were variable, veering
to the South, or North of Weft, or to the Fatt.

RAINY DAYS.

None.
Vor. I. Ooo Greateft

X1X

A PPE AD Ft A

Greateft height of the Barometer 28, 6, £

Leaft - - - = 28, 550
From the beginning of the month to the gth, the mercury ftood at 28, 5; and
from that time remained invariably at 28, 6; the three latter days excepted, when

it rofe half a degree.

SEPTEMBER.

The firft week ferene and hot, but the mornings and evenings eool,
Between the 8th and 16th frequent hard gufts of wind accompanied with
clouds of duft, and to this fign of approaching rain were joined flying
clouds, noéturnal dews, and flafhes of lightning in the Weft, or North
Weft. On the 12th and 13th, efpecially in the night, ftrong Wefterly
winds. From the 15th to the 21{t, a number of heavy clouds paffed daily
and the Sky was fometimes overcaft, but except a {mall fhower on the
16th, no rain fell. From the 2oth to the 24th, fine clear weather; after
which, the Weft wind frefhening, blew fometimes in ftrong fqualls, and
brought clouds of duft along with it. Many dark clouds paffed on the
28th, and on the following day, a heavy fhower of rain fell accompanied
with thunder*, after which the dark clouds difperfed, and the Sky became
ferene. The wind, except in light breezes, was always Wefterly.

RAINY DAYS.
16th’; 29th”, At noon.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 92 [On the 3d at 4 P.M. fF

Leatt - - - = 7it On the 18th at 7 A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 4 On the art.
Leaft - - ~ - 28,7 §On the 16th.

‘The morning height of the mercury in the firft fortnight was 82; in the fecond
>a. The variation in the fame day 9, or 10, or 8; but in cloudy weather 5.

* This may be reckoned the firft rain: and, making allowance for the late alteration of
flyle, will be found to have fallen nearly about the ufual period.

+ The thermometer now employed, was a fmall portable one, inclofed in a glafs tube, and
made by Bewes; the fame kind mentioned in a former note. But it may be proper to remark
here, that in this, arid the fubfequent months, a very confiderable difference from the corref-
pondent months in the preceding year, will be found in the morning height. of the thenmeme-
ter, as well as in the variation in the fame day. The inftrument now ufed was more fenfibly
affected by changes in the air’s temperature than the thermometer ufed before. In cool wea-
ther it funk feveral degrees lower, and rofe, in hot weather, feveral higher than the others
were ever known to do. Hence, in regard to the variation in the fame day, in O€tober,;
1752, it was § or 6; in the prefent year g or 7. In November, 1752, the variation at firft
5, was afterwards 3. In the prefent year it was at firft g or 10, afterwards 5 or 6. A like
djfference may be remarked in December,

OCTOBER,

Bee Nh sy XXi

OnCe lh OaB-E Rs

The weather in the firft week, was fine and agreeable, the Sky being
ferene in the morning, and variegated afterwards with white flying clouds.
From the gth to the 18th, much cloudy weather, and it rained on the
roth and 15th. The latter fortnight was variably clear and cloudy ; for
except four ferene days, white clouds conftantly made their appedrance
fometime or other in the twenty-four hours.

It fometimes, at night, blew frefh at Weft; but calms, and light
Southerly or Eafterly breezes were more common.

RAINY DAYS.
roth”, Evening and night; 15’ A. M.” P. M. and evening.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 81 JOn the 1ft at 4 P.M.

Leaft - - - - g0 J$Onthe 25that7 A. M.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 37 On the 2sth.
Leaft - - - - 28,7 f On the 16th.

The morning height of the mercury till the 18th, 70, or 68; after the rain it
funk to §9. The variation in the fame day, during the former part of the months
9, 73 afterwards 6, or 5.

NOVEMBER.

The two firft days cloudy, and the evening of the 2nd threatened rain;
but from that to the zoth, ferene, mild, pleafant weather. From the 23d
to the 27th, gloomy and wet; the latter days of the month frofty: the
Sky through the day being ferene, but in the mornings and evenings cloudy.
Light variable beezes, South, North, South Eaft, North Eaft.

RAINY DAYS.
23rd”, A. M. and in the night; 25th” in the night; 26th’ morning.
Greateft height of the Thermometer 71 2On the 4th at 3 P. M.

Leaft - - : - - 43 4Onthe 26th and 27th.
Greateft height of the Barometer 29,4 20On the roth.
Leaft - - - - 28,7 §$Onthe 26th and 27th.

The morning height of the mercury decreafed in the firft fortnight from 58 to
g1; inthe fecond, it funk to 44. The variation in the fame day till the 18th, was
almoft conftantly 10; after the 18th,°6 or 7.

Ooo2 DECEMBER.

XXil

X& FReEN DR Mw

DEM VE M,BME YK...

The weather, in the firft fortnight, two or three ferene days excepted,
was generally overcaft or cloudy, and a very confiderable quantity of rain
fell. . The 17th was perfe@tly ferene; but from that to the 23rd, the at-
mofphere moft remarkably foggy. From the 23rd to the 29th much
gloomy wet weather ; the air neverthelefs continuing, as it had been all
along, unufually mild. The three laft days of the year ferene and plea-
fant.

The winds were ufually at Eaft or North Eaft, in light breezes ; but
calms were ftill more frequent than in November. On the sth, during a
hail ftorm, it blew frefh at Weft.

RAINY DAYS.

2nd’, P. M.; ard, in the day; 4th’, im the day; §thi’,. Paya
hail; 8th’ A. M.; 21! in the night; 12” A. M.; 13th” m4¢thpeegnee
night; 25th’ A. M. 28” P. M. and evening.

Greateft height of the Thermometer 51 * 2On the 17th and 2oth at 3 P. M.

Leatt ~ - - - 43 JOn the 23d and 24th at 8 A. M,
Greateft height of the Barometer 29, 47 On the 2oth.
Leatt - - = - 28,5 §On the 4th.

The morning height of the mercury throughout the month was 44 or 45. The
variation in the fame day, when the weather was ferene, 4, 5; at other times 2,
and when rainy o +.

* ‘The remarkable difference in the height and variation of the thermometer, from the time
that Bewes’s fmall thermometer was employed for obferving, was taken notice of inthe preced-
ing note. December 1752 was much colder than the December of the prefent year, yet the
thermometer never funk fo low, not even in froft, as its ftationary morning height in the pre-
fent December.

+ Though fo much has been already faid on the fubje&t of the thermometer, it may not
perhaps be improper to fubjoin a comparative view of the feveral years comprehended in the
foregoing hiftory of the weather: that is, a table containing the loweft {tation of the thermo-
meter, with the number of rainy and of fnowy days in the three winter months of the refpec-
tive years.

The winter is here fuppofed to include the three months December, January, and F ebruary,
eommencing with the former ; and it bears the name of that year to which December belongs :
thus the Winter of 1742 comprehends December, 1742, with January and February 1743;
and in like manner the winter of 1743 comprehends its own December, with January and
February 1744.

In the following table the thermometrical obfervations have been all reduced to the feale of

the finall thermometer, as if they had been always made by that initrument, fuipended in the
Kio:k ;

AY Pf oN Dt x. XXili

Kiofk; and it may be remarked, that though the reduction was made after a careful compa-
tifon, and adjuftment of feveral thermometers with the {mall one, yet the mercury only in
three out of ten winters funk fo low as the freezing point.

The number of fnowy, und of rainy days were extracted from the original regifter, but 1
ain inclined to think the latter were lefs accurately noted than the former, that is, in regard
to the quantity that fell of either; for which reafon I have attempted no computation of that
Kind, mentioning merely the number of days.

Poca ede wie Dll 1745 | 1746 | 1747 1748 | 1749|1750|1751 ie hs

ee ee

49: 39|38- 35/39- Bix sa * 137 38 30 36

/3: "| * |36 35]38 36

N. B, * denotes regifter defective.

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ERRATA To tHE FIRST VOLUME.

Page 6. line 18. for AZra, read Era —P. 12. 1. 15. f. Hizazy, r. Killafy—P. 12, 13. f.
Nieburh, r. Niebuhr—P. 14. 17. 45. f. Cyprus, r. Cyprefs.—P. 19. 21. 30. f. Matts; r..
Mats.—P. 30. 1. 27. for Linneus, r. Linnzus.—P. 71. 1. 28. f. Chearful r. Cheerful—P. 69.
1. 10. f. Oftner, r. Oftener.—P. 69. 1. 21. f. Advifeable, r. Advifable-—P. 78. 1. 24. f. Saliva,
1. Sativa. —P. 110.1. 16. f. Dye & paffim, r. Die. —P. 111. f. Satyrift, r! Satirift—P. 120,
]. 1. f. of, r. or.—P. 125.1. 4. f. pleafure, afterwards, r. pleafure afterwards.—P. 146.1. 22. f.
Subtle, r. Subtile—P. 163. 1. 16. f. pendant, r. pendent—P. 189. f. they r. thefe.—P. 208. 1.
11. f. Copyith, r. Copyers.—P. 219. Note f. XLIV. r. LXIV.—P. 299. 1. 22. f. and, r.
are.—P. 299.1. 23. dele are.—P. 303. |. 13. f. Cloath, r. Clothe —P. 341. 1. 15. a or,
r. for a.—P. 348. f. Reifk, r. Reifke,—P. 374. 1. 11. f. Bubequius, r. Bufbequius.—P. 374,
1. 28. f. among found, r. found among.—P. 375. 1. 24. f. excepted, r. expected.nP, 385.
1, 3. f. Jonicos, r. Ionicos——P. 430. 1. 9. f. by, r. by abufed.

Page 1. for UngiuS| read lygisd| — 32S Arg Te Arrgu — 36+ fi ay jlanas 1.
sere 55-F Faw Pe Fw — 67.f- ee TF yet
Tr dS — 80 fs Cs th is — 87S Oeste — Ibid.
ry Gd — 90-f ole’ WL Ube — 106 fi jeece 8

= — 107. ¥. iss aS — 8 les 7 wan — 5 Tf
rer 152+ fo pgile 7 pgrile — Ibid f. maicagh re 0S — 174. f,

— 185. fo Wa rm Klin — 201. f. Us ala F.

2 5%
co — 324. fr Per ak — 366. fs fasn 7

AMULOV TPaTT nar of ATAAAZ,

6 Mon peed a sa 3 ci ‘iva hewn aii aa 83g
iid op ae SS tieeg's sea ap 48 ee coe

oy Le fetrtan rien &e Jay S—arepeit «2 aod ‘aire

oh ee J Be esldelivhiea prego rh 1g Pb ack = |

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(.ds1 .T hee etic oulieshy + alaeweta SS plasiq 3 stone

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t 31 co hw heh ‘~1 { 408» ce.
er 1 179 tefl a @uiupe! ut Y 10 ee N— 2 Ried 7a whoa
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isde ys 1 dd @ d ORb

Lands 4 et = "eS tg | aligad tae
A stems \- , “hy olay As (o— tain ll \
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DS Russell, Alexander

99 The natural history of
A5R87 Aleppo

1794a

Vel

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

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