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THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW:

^uartdg Journal of liolo0ial ^ima,

EDITED BY

G. BUSK, F.R.S., Sec. L.S. W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

E. CURREY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. REAY GREENE, A.B.

T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. LUBBOCK, F.R.S., F.L.S.

R. M'DONNELL, M.D., M.R.I.A. D. OLIVER, F.L.S.

P. L. SCLATER, A.M., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S. WYVTLLE THOMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.E.

E. P. WRIGHT, A.M., M.D., F.L.S.

1862.

WILLIAMS AND NOEGATE,

14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON ; AND
20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

1862.

'.<._.. J^ '^ /

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

No. v.— JANUAEY, 1862.
REVIEWS.

PAGE.

St. Hilaire on the Systematic Position of Man. Histoire Natnrelle Gene-
rale des Regnes Organiques, par M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire. Tome
II. lepartie. 1856. ....... 1

The Collections of the Novara Expedition. Die Ausbeute der Ocster-
reichischen Naturforscher an Saugethieren und Rei)tilien wahrend der
Weltumsegelung Sr Majestat Fregatte Novara, Von Dr. L. J. Fitzinger 9

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

3. On the Cedars of Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria, and India. By J. D.

Hooker, M.D., F.R.S. (With three Plates) . . . .11

4. On the Morphology of the Female Flower of the Abietineje. By Pro-

fessor Robert Caspary . . . . . . .19

5. On the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. By John Lubbock,

Esq., F.R.S 26

6. New Researches respecting the Co-Existence of Man with the Great

Fossil Mammals, regarded as Characteristic of the hitest Geological
Period. By M. Edward Lartet . . . . .53

7. The Sumatran Elephant. By Prof H. Schlegel . . .72

8. Observations on some Australian and Feegeean Heterocyathi and their

Parasitical Sipunculus. By John Denis Macdouald, R.N., F.R.S.,
Surgeon of H.M.S. " Icarus" . . . . . .78

9. On the Myology of the Orang-Utang. By William Selby Church, B.A.,

Lee's Reader in Anatomy, Christ Church, Oxford, (conti/nted) . 82

10. Anatomical Notes. By Professor Hyrtl of the University of Vienna,

(contmned) . . . . . . . .95

11. Upon a non-Striped Muscle connected with the Orbital Pei-iosteum of

Man and Mammals, and on the Musculus Keratocricoideus. By Wm.
Turner, M.B. (Lond.) F.R.S. E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy,
Umversity of Edinburgh . . . , . .106

12. Note sur I'Encephale de I'Orang-outang, par J. L. C. Schroeder van der

Kolk et W. Vrolik, (With Plate IV.) . . . .111

IV CONTENTS.

MISCELLANEA.

PAGE

On Dimorphism in Pi-imula . . . . , .lis

Botanical Information . . . . . . .118

Note on the Habits of Vipers . . . . . . .lis

No. VI.— APEIL, 1862.
REVIEWS.

13. The Writings of M. Fabre: — Observations sur les mcenrs des Cerceris.

Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome IV. Ser. 4. — Etude sur I'instinct et les Meta-
morphoses des Sphegiens. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome VI. Ser. 4. —
Memoire sur I'Hypermetamorphose et les mceurs des M^loides. Ann.
des Sci. Nat. Tome VII. Ser. 4. — Eecherches sur I'Anatomie des
Oranges Reproducteurs et sm- le Developpement des Myriapodes. Ann.
des Sci. Nat. Tome III. Ser. 4. . . . . .121

14. A Histoiy of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea. By C. Spence Bate, Esq.,

F.E.S., E.L.S., and J. O. Westwood, Esq. M.A., E.L.S., Hope Pro-
fessor of Zoology at Oxford. (J. Van Voorst.) — Recherches sur la
Faune Littorale de Belgique. Crustaces. Par P. J. Van Beneden, Pro-
fesseur a I'Universite Catholique de Louvain .... 130

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

15. On the Desirability of an English Translation of Aristotle's History of

Animals. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. . . .136

16. The Atlantis Hypothesis in its botanical aspect. By Professor OHver . 149

17. On the Anatomy of the Short Sun-fish (Orthragoriscus mola). By John

Cleland, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Glasgow . 170 ^

18. On the Structure and Composition of the Integument of the Orthrago-

riscus mola. By William Turner, M.B. (Lond.) F.R.S.E., Senior
Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Edinburgh (with Plates V, VI.) 185 )s

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

19. Periodicals (Additions to former Lists) . . . . , jgg

20. Zoological Bibliography : — General and Mixed Works on Zoology, Geo-

graphical Distribution, &c. . . . • . .190

21. Vcrtebrata ••...... 194

22. Annulosa ........ 212

MISCELLANEA.

24. Note on the Habits of the Viper ...... 231

25, On Collecting and Preserving Specimens of Fishes and Reptiles . .233

CONTENTS.

No. VII.— JULY, 1862.
REVIEWS.

PAGE.

25. On the two Forms, or Dimorphic Conditions, in the Species oi Primula, and

on their remarkable Sexual Relations. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. 235

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

26. On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man, afforded by the Physical Stmctm-e

of the Somme Valley. By John Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. (with Plate VII.) 244

27. On the Mammals, Birds, &c. of the Mackenzie River District. By Ber-

nard Ross, Esq. ........ 269

28. Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the Crania of the

Ancient Britons. Bv Joseph Barnard Davis, M.R.C.S. Engl. F.S.A.
&c. . . ' 290

29. The Structure of the Stem in Dicotyledons; being References to the

Literature of the Subject. By Professor Oliver, F.L.S. . . 298

30. Remarks on the Translation of the first chapter of Aristotle's History of

Animals.. By John Scouler, M.D., F.L.S. . . . .329

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

31. Zoological. — Mollusca — Ccelenterata — Protozoa . . . 333

MISCELLANEA.

32. Note on the Co-existence of Man with the Dinomis in New Zealand . 343
Paithenogenesis in the Silk-worm Moth ..... 345

Botanical InfoiTaation ....... 346

Common Ling in Massachusetts ..... 346

No. VIII. -OCTOBER, 1862.

REVIEWS.

33. 1. Bericht iiber die Zusammenkunft einiger Anthropologen, in September
1861, in Gottingen. Leipzig, 1861. — 2. Ziir Morphologic der Rassen-
Schiidel. Von Dr. J. C. G. Luc^. Frankftu-t, 1861.— 3. The Mensu-
ration of the Human Skull. By J. Aitkin Meigs, M.D. Philadelphia,
1861. — 4. Le Kephalographe. Nouvel Instrument destine a determiner
la Figure et les Dimensions du Crane ou de la Tete Humaine. Par P.
Harting. Utrecht, 1861.— 5. Essai sur les Defonnations Artificielles
du Crane. Par. L. A. Gosse. Paris, 1855. — 6. Craniometrie of onder-
zoek van den Menschelijken Schedel bij verschillende Volken, in Ver-
gelijking met dien van den Orang Oetan. Door J. A. Kool. Amster-
dam, 1852. — 7. Untersuchimgen iiber Schadelfonnen. Von Dr. Joseph
Engel. Prague, 1851. — 8. Observations on the Human Crania con-
tained in the Museum of the Army Medical Department, Fort Pitt,
Chatham. Crania Britannica. By J. Thurnam and J. B, Davis, 1858-
62, (with Plate VIII.) . . . . . .347

VI COJCtENTS.

PAGK.

34. Selecta Fungorum Carpologia, ea docuniema et iconcs ]iuiissiiuujn exlii-,_,

bens qu£e vaiia fnictiium et seminuin genera in eodeni fiuigo simul aut
vicissim adesse denionsti'ent. — Junctis stndiis edidcrunt Lnduviciis-Ke-
natns Tulasne et Carolus Tulasne. Tomus primus. Eiysijihei. Vrx-
mittuntur prolegomena de fungorum conditione naturali crescendi modo
et propagatione. Parisiis, 1861. 4to. .... 361

35. On the various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are

fertilized by Insects, and on the good eft'ects of Intercrossing. By
Charles Darwin, M. A., F.R.S. With Illusti-ations . . .371

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

36. A Report on recent Researches into the Minute Anatomy of the SjDinal

Cord. By W. B. Kesteven, F.R.C.S., (with Plates IX., X., XI.) . 377

37. On Distorted Human Skulls. By Professor Wyville Thomson . ,397

38. On the Germination of Reticulaiia umbrina, Fr. By Frederick Currey,

M.A., F.R.S. Sec. L.S. . . . . . .406

39. Reply to the Remarks on the Translation of the First Chapter of Aris-

totle's History of Animals. By the Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. 408

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

40. Botanical. — Phancrogamia ...... 416

41. Ciyptogamia ...... 470

MISCELLANEA.

The Pile Dwellings on Lake Prasias . ..... 486

On the Genus Cynips ........ 486

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW:

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

I. — St. Hilaiee on the Systematic Position of Man.

HiSTOIRE NaTURELLE GrENERALE DES EeONES OrGANIQTJES, par

M. Isidore GreofFroy St. Hilaire. Tome II. le partie. 1856.

The author of tliia elaborate work, wTiose comparatively early
deatli lias so recently been deplored by the scientific world, devotes
a long and carefully vsritten chapter to the consideration of the place
and dignity of man in the universe — and more especially to the dis-
cussion of the proposition, that mankind should be regarded as a
distinct kingdom of nature, the " Regne humain," equal in rank to
the mineral, the vegetable, or the animal kingdom — a proposal
which, singularly enough, appears to have originated with the great
scoffer, Voltaire.

One might be disposed to distrust the sincerity of a vindication
of the dignity of man from the author of "La Pucelle" — but no
such suspicion can attach to the similar conclusion of a pains-taking
zoologist, and as the chapter which M. St. Hilaire wrote upon this
subject appeared in 1856 — in the pre-Darwiuian epoch in short —
it may be instructive to consider both the data and the deductions of
an author whose studies had been especially directed to the apes, and
who pubHshed his conclusions before the din of recent battles arose.
We therefore propose to give a brief summary of M. St. Hilaire's
views, interpolating here and there, perhaps, a commentary of our own,
but, for the most part, leaving the distinguished French Zoologist to
speak for himself.

After enumerating the opinions of the various authors who up
to 1855 had ventured to assign to man his place in the Systema
Naturae, M. St. Hilaire says : —

" We have seen successive naturalists regarding Man as one of the kingdoms
of nature ; as one of tlie principal divisions or sub-kingdoms (Embraucliemens) of
N. H. R.--1862. B

22 EETIEWS.

the animal kingdom; as one of its classes; as an order of the class Mammalia;
as a sub-order; a family; a subfamily; a mere genus of Primates; nay, if we go
back to Linnteus, as a species of a genus in which man does not stand alone ! The
same group therefore has received all imaginable positions in our system of classifi-
cation— a world apai't, according to some ; a unit imiong the myriads of animals,
aceoriling to othei-s ! The measure of human contradictions is full and no room is
Jeft for another."

Oiir author is here, lio-werer, more epigi-ammatic than accurate;
for the '' tableau des contradictious" was not really completed until
an accomplished osteologist — proposing, in 1857, the system whose
basis has been discussed and refitted in earlier niunbers of this Eenew
— seized upon the one vacant niche and proposed to make of " Homo"
a sub-class.

But M. St. Hilaire's remarks upon the estabhshment of the
order Bimana by Blumenbach, and its adoption by Cuvier, apply
"with redoubled force to this last of all possible innovations : —

" And how could this di-\-ision stand, repudiated as it was by the anthropoloo-ists
in the name of the moral and intellectual supremacy of man ? and by the zoolo<nsts
on the gromid of its incompatibility with natimil affinities and with the true prin-
ciples of classification? Separated as a group of ordinal value, placed at the same
distance fi-om the ape as the latter from the carnivore, man is at once too near and
too distant from tbe higher mammalia— too near if we take into account those
elevated faculties, which, raising man above all other organised beings, accord to
him not only the first, but a separate, place, in the creation — too far, If we merely
consider the organic affinities which unite hini with the quadrumana ; with the
apes especially, which, in a purely physical point of view, approach man more nearly
than they do the Lemurs, and a fortiori than they do the lowest Quadnmiana.

" "What then is this order of Buuana of Bhmienbach and Cuvier ? An imprac-
ticable compromise between two opposite and irreconcilable systems, between two
orders of ideas M-hich are clearly expressed in the language of' Natural Historv by
these two words: the hiunan kingdom and the human Jamilij. It is one of those
would-be via media propositions which, once seen through, satisfy no one, precisely
because they ai-e intended to please evenbody; half tmths, perhaps, but 'also half
falsehoods ; for what, in science, is a hall" tnifh but an error ?

" Let us leave aside then, this order of Bimana — which in spite of the authoritj-
of two great masters — has in its tm-n become obsolete ; so that, reposmg on the iiiins
of all the rest there remain but two opposed conclusions, one purely zoological, the
other anthropological and philosophical : the Jmman Jamil//, that is to say nam
considered in respect of the facts of his organization and the phenomena of his life ■
the physical man. first term in the animal progression but almost in contact with
the second: the hit mari kingdom, that is to say, man considered in respect of his
double natm-e; man as a whole, cro\ra but not integral pai't of the animal world,
above which he is elevated by his intelligence, as the latter is raised by its sensi-
bility above the vegetable world."

Having thus clearly defined his position, M. St. Hilaire proceeds
to support it, in the first place, by discussing the distinctive charac-
ters of " I'homme physique," and proving that they are sucli as to
justify the separation of man as a distinct family only of the Pri-
mates ; and, in the second place, by enimierating the characters of
" Fhomme tout entier," and endeavom-iug to deduce from them the
necessity of the establishment of a " Eegnum humanum."

The first argumentation occupies some sixty pages, and is so com-
plete and satLifactory as to be worthy of detailed analysis.

ST. niLAIEE OX THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MA^T. 3

Commencing with the well-known aphoristic summation of the
characters of man — situs erectus, manus duce, pedes hini, M. St. Hilaire
proceeds to inquire whether these characters ai-e truly distinctive
of Man — being found in him only among animals.

With regard to the erect position, the rej)ly is, that though some
other animals, like the Penguins, have a true and habitual situs erectus,
they differ widely in their organisation from man, while the creatures
which approach him most nearly, never constantly and habitually
maintain themselves in the erect posture : the natural attitude of
the autln-opoid ape being neither the vertical position of man, nor
the horizontal posture of the lower quadrupeds, but an intermediate or
oblique, attitude. Tlie situs erectus then, and its correlative character,
the natural ' heavenward,' or rather ' horizon-ward,' glance, stand
good as distinctive pecuHarities of man; the oblique pose of the anthro-
poid ape furnishing the half-way step from man to the quadruped.

The other- two characters manus duce, pedes hini, do not stand
criticism so well. Before we can accept the diagnosis, that man has
two hands and two feet, while apes have four hands, we must ask to
have the difference between hands and feet clearly defined, and, as
M. St. Hilaire remarks, this is by no means so easy a matter as it
seems.

Cuvier defines the essence of a hand to be " la faculte d'opposer
le ponce aux autres doigts pour saisir les plus petites choses ;" but
if we accept this defuiitiou, then, as M. St. Hilaire and Mr. Ogilby
long ago showed, one-half of the so-called Quadi-umana are Bimana —
for none of the American apes have anterior members with opposable
thumbs, and the Marmosets hare the digit which represents the
thumb in the fore limbs, as like the others, as it is in a cat ; while
Galeopithecus has no opposable digit either on the anterior, or on the
posterior, limbs.

M. St. Hilaire perceivmg the difficulty in the way of the Cuverian
definition, and giving up the opposable thumb, proposes the fol-
lowing new one (p. 199), "La main est une extremite pourvue de
doigts allonges, profondement di^dses, tres mobiles, tres flexibles, et
par suite susceptibles de saisir, an moins par I'opposition des doigts
a la pamne," and premising this conception of a hand, maintains, that
all the apes are quadriunanous. But it appears to us that this
definition is as little capable of ^^'ithstanding criticism as that which
it is meant to supplant.

When uncramped by the use of shoes, the toes of a man's foot
are separated from one another for a distance, equal to fully one-
fifth of the total length of the foot, and they are, as M. St, Hilaire
admits, and as everybody who has lived on board ship, or has seen
savages, is aware, very moveable, very fiexible, and capable of pre-
hension by opposition, not only of the toes to the sole, but of the great
toe to the second. In proof of the latter qualities of the human foot,
our author cites the boatmen of Ka-ching in China ; the weavers of
Senegal ; the Brazilian horsemen, who put their feet to the same

4 EEVIEW8.

uses as those for which we employ hands ; the Carajas who contrive
to steal and hide away even fish-hooks, with theii' feet, from their
unsuspecting visitors; and he might have added, the treacherous
Australian savages, who commonly pretend to approach unarmed,
hut aU the while drag their spears through the grass vdth their
toes.

Leaving aside the famous Miss BiiEn, and the painter Ducornet,
who may, or might, be seen in Paris, executuig historical pictures on
the great scale with his feet, there is ample evidence, that, of the
elements of the definition of a hand given by M. St. Hilaire, only the
elongation and deep division of the digits can be retained, even for Man.
In Man in fact, while the longest interdigital cleft of the hand is rather
less than half as long as the whole hand, the longest interdigital cleft of
the foot is, as we have said, but little more than a fifth as long as the
whole foot. Here, therefore, the distinction is clear. But in the Mar-
moset {Hapale) the longest interdigital cleft between the toes of the
terminal division of the hind member is not more than 2-7ths as long
as the whole division. So that if the whole length of the terminal
division of a limb be taken as 35, the length of the longest interdigital
space of the human hand may be taken as about 16, that of the
human foot as aboiit 7, and that of the hind limb of Kapale as 10.
So that, judged even by this test, the latter is much more of a foot
than a hand.

M. St. Hilaire's definition then seems as complete a failure as all
■the other attempts which have been made to justify the application
of the title " fom--handed" to the apes — a failure which becomes still
more conspicuous, if, leaving the external features of the hand and
foot, we turn to their anatomical structure; by which it may be
readily demonstrated, that the arrangement of the bones and muscles
of the terminal segment of the hind limb of every ape whatsoever is,
in aU essential respects, similar to that which obtains in the foot of
man and other mammals, and is totally different from that found in
the hand of man and in the terminal segment of the fore _limb_ of
other mammals.* In fact, there is no four-handed mammal in exist-
ence : no mammal, that is, the terminal segments of whose hind
limbs are not far more like the foot of man than they are like his
hand. The terminal segments of the fore and hind limbs of mammals
have their several and distinct plans of construction, and in no case
does a hind terminal segment take on the plan of a fore segment or
the reverse. Either may become prehensile, but a prehensile foot,
such as the apes and opossums possess, is a totally different thing
from a hand.

* Professor Andreas AVagner, the highest living authonty on the Mammalia,
says, very judiciously, (Schrcbers Siingethierc Suppt. Band, Erste Abtheilung, 1840,
p. 13.) " Wcnn Mann demnach der vordernExtremitat des Affen mit Recht cine Hand
zuschreibt, zo kann man der hintern nur uneigentlich eine solche beilcgcn, da
ihr weseutliche StUcke ziir Berichtigung auf diescn Nameu abgehen."

ST, HILAIEE ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MAN. 5

* Manus dua, pedes bini,' therefore, is no distinctive character of
man ; but, nevertheless, we may quite agree with all but the two last
paragraphs of the following statement by M. St. Hilaire, if for ' hands'
we read " prehensile terminal limb segments" : —

" Whence it follows that the existence of posterior ' hands,' when there is only-
one pair, or of more perfect ' hands' on the posterior limbs when there are two paii",
is a character common to a great number of Mammals, of very different families.
A single being presents us with the inverse an-angement ; and the creature which
is distinguished by forming so rare and remarkable an exception, the creature which
in this respect stands alone, is Man.

" And by this circumstance the views of those authors who have attributed to
the himian group the value of a family, and not merely of a genus, are justified
still more definitely than by the character derived from the vertical attitude. In almost
every other respect, man is far nearer the apes than the apes are to the lemurs, and
than these are to the lowest Quadrumana. We shall even see that, under many
aspects, he becomes confounded, organically, with the first mentioned. By the
very characteristic conformation of his extremities, he is, on the other hand, far
more distant from the apes than the latter are, not only from tlie lemurs and lowest
Piimates, but even fi-om a great number of Marsupials,

" So that here we find, on the one hand, man by himself— on the other, and
separated from hun by a vast intenal, all the animals with hands." — (P. 208.)

In the last- paragraphs here cited, M. St. Hilaire appears to us
to have very greatly exaggerated the value of the deviation of
the foot of man from that of the apes ; for the diiferences between
the foot of man and that of the chimpanzee, or that of the gorilla, are
assuredly less than those between the foot of any Simian or Prosimian
and that of Oaleointhecus ; and the term " vast interval" is hardly
applicable to a separation which, as M. St. Hilaire expressly states, is
only sufficient to justify the separation of Man as a distinct family.

M. St. Hilaire next considers the characters of the teeth of man,
adverting to the well-known fact that the principal difference from
the dentition of the apes lies in the shortness of the canines, and the
consequent absence of that diastema, or interval between the incisors
and canine in the upper jaw, and the premolars and canine in the
lower jaw, which is present in the apes ; and repeating the statement
of Cuvier, that a similar equality and serial continuity of the teeth are
only to be met wdth iu the Anoplotherium. However, an approxima-
tion to these characters is found also in some of the Insectivora,
animals far more closely allied to the Primates than is the fossil
ungulate.

The singular peciJiarities of the distribution of the hair on the
human body — a distribution which is unique in the animal kingdom
— are next discussed; and it is sho\\Ti that, in this respect even, the
higher apes are more similar to man than to the lower apes. The
argument which follows (sect. xi. p. 218) bears so definitely upon a
question which has been largely discussed in the pages of this Review,
that we must give it in full : —

" The characters derived from the equality and the contiguity of the teeth and
the partial nudity of the skin are far from being as important as those which pre-
ceded them, but they are very marked: they place man, in two additional respects,
in very clear opposition with the animals whose organization most closely approaches

(§ BE VIEWS.

his. For this reason they may veiy usefully be added to the definition of the huvuui
J'amily.

" On the contrary, the other distinctive characters of man mentioned or indicated
by authors are no longer distinctive and absolute, but are merely relative ; are dif-
ferences of degree and not of kind.

*' It is no longer a question of anatomical or physical features, possessed by man
and not by the apes, or by the apes and not by man, but of features comnion to man
and to a part of, or even to all, apes; merely more or less marked in him than in
them. So that these fcatm-es would tend, if they existed alone, to make of Man,
considered in a classificatory aspect, not & family apart from all animals, but the
first genus of the family of apes. By the most of them he would be to the Chim-
panzees and to the Orangs, what these are to the Cercopitheoi and Macaci, and these
to the lower apes; an additional term at the head of a common series.

" The facts of this second order, important as many of them may be in a phy-
siological point of view, are far less so than the foregoing in their taxonomic asiiect,
and we may be permitted to pass more rapidly over them ; indeed to restrict our-
selves to the enumeration of those which authors have considered as particulai-ly
characteiistic."

Those of our readers who have followed the controversy respect-
ing the brain of Apes and Man, if that can be dignified by the name
of controversy where all the facts are on one side and mere empty
assertion on the other, will be amused on discovering the nature of
the first of these " secondary facts" which M. St. Hilaire treats so
cavalierly.

" The first, the most important of all, so important that one would be inclined,
at first sight, to consider them as the characteristics pnr excellence of man, are those
presented by the encephalon, particularly the cerebral hemispheres. If there is an
abyss between the intelligence of man and that of the brute, ought not a large in-
terval to exist between his cerebral characters and those of animals ? Such a con-
clusion would certainly follow very logically from the doctrines held by many
physiologists, regarding the functions of the brain, and particularly of the convolu-
tions, but it is a conclusion, most distinctly refuted by the comparative examination
of man and animals. Here, indeed, the facts of our cerebral structure exhibit, not
a specially and exclusively luunan structure, but a higher degree of an organization
which is found in the apes ; merely relative, instead ol' absolute differences.

" The great development of the anterior cerebral lobes and of the coi-jmis callo-
sum, the multitude of the convolutions and sulci, the depth of the latter and conse-
quently the considerable extent of the surface of the cerebrum, are, according to
authors, the five jnincipal characteis by which the human brain is particularly dis-
tinguished. These are, in fact, so many indubitable marks of the superiority of
man over animals; those species which, in the totality of their organization, resemble
him most, are inferior to him in these respects. But are they very inferior?
Assiu-edly I shall not go so far as to say, with Bory de St. Vincent, that between
the brain of the Orang and that of Man there exist " no more essential differences
than those which obtain bct\vccn the same parts in different individuals of our own
species;" a conclusion which this naturalist, too ready to interpret facts according
to his own views, professes to draw from the beautiful researches of Tiedemann on
the encephalon of the Orang, as compared with that of Man. But that which is
certain, Mhich results not merely from Tiedemann's oliseiwations, btit from those of
M. Serres and of all the masters of science ; from all those also which have been
made of late, and to which I have had the advantage of being able to add my own
upon many points ; is this proposition, which no one will confomid with tlie assertion
of Bory St. Vincent: by so much as, in the development of the anterior cerebral
lobes, of the corjnis callosum, of the convolutions and the extent of his cerebral
surface, Man surpasses even the highest apes; by so much are these, and chielly the
Orang, su) erior in the same respects to the first apes of the second tribe (Cynopithe •

ST. HILAIRE ON THB SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MAN. 7

ciens) which, in their turn, are similarly superior to the rest. There is an almost
continuous series of modifications, of degradations, which are the more diverse, as they
are far from always affecting to a similar degree the development of the anterior lobe,
and that of the corpus callosum, or the condition of the convolutions. It may and
does happen, that these remain very numerous in a cerebram with its anterior lobes
and corpus callosmii more or less reduced; or, on the other hand, they may be more
or less obsolete in a brain which is still remarkable for its general development, for
the extent of its corpus callosum, and the volume of its anterior lobes. This last
combination is that presented by many apes of the third tribe (Cebiens), especially,
and more than by any other genus of the same group, by the Saimiris, which are
so remarkable for the richness of their cerebral development. The same combina-
tion is found, but carried to a still greater excess, in all the apes of the fourth tribe
(Hapaliens). In the Marmosets the brain is, at the same time, greatly developed as
a whole (less however than ui the Saimiris) and is devoid of convolutions ; it is
one of the richest brains in one direction, one of the poorest in the other.

" These tacts have not yet been reduced to a law, either for the whole brain, or for
the corpus callosum, or for the anterior lobes ; but their connexion is easily appre-
hended, so far as the convolutions are concerned. If for the too complex comparison
of generic diiFerences, we substitute that of the general differences between one
tribe and another, the following is the immediate result : — In Man, the convolutions
are very numerous and are separated by deep sulci; in the first tribe (Suniens)
they are less numerous than in Man, more numerous than in the second; in the
second tribe (Cyn'opitheciens) they are more mmierous than in the third (Cebiens) ;
in which the cerebral gyri become more and more scanty, from the Ateles and the Cehi
to the Saimiris and the"Callitriches; exhibiting a gradual progress towards the fom-th
tribe (Hapaliens) which is distinctly characterized by the smoothness of the brain.

" There is, then, a decrease in the convolutions in a serial order, from Man to the
first, second, third, and fourth tribes ; which in this point of view constitute five terms
of one and the same very regular series, from tlie maximum of the development of the
convolutions observed in Man, to their complete disappearance in the Marmosets —
and this series ends at the exact point, where the family of the Lemurida; succeeds to
that of the Apes ; a distinct series in which we see (in a brain in other respects
veiy differently constructed), the convolutions re-appear at the upper end of the
scale, in the ludri and the Lemurs, to disappear anew, at the lower end, in
Microcebus,

" Whence flows this consequence, that may and will be better defined, but will
not be rendered more certain by future investigations: In any classification based
on the constitution of the brain and particularly on the condition of the convo-
lutions, two general divisions must be established among the Primates, one for man
and all the apes, the other for the Lemuridse ; and in the former two sub-divisions:
man and the apes with convolntions ; then the apes with smooth brains.

" In other words, man is, in this respect, much nearer the higher Apes, than these
are, not merely to the Lemurs, but even to the lower types of their own family."

After tliis clear and, upon the whole, just statement of the
cerebral relations of man to the apes, M. St. Hilaire takes up the
question of the facial angle. This angle, measured by the method of
Greoftroy and Cuvier, he affirms to become as small as 64° in a
South African people, the Makoias ; which is 6° less than the limit
ordinarily assigned to it in the human species. But in the adult
Saimiri the facial angle measured in the same way amounts, he affirms,
to 65°, and is but a few degrees less in the Gribbons and the Sem-
i2o/ji^Aeci, among the old world apes; in Cebus, Ateles, Eriodes, Lago-
thrix, Callithrix and Nyctipithecus among the apes ofthe new world.
After which, says M. St. Hilaire : —

" It descends to about 50" in the Cercopitheci (a few degrees more or less according

S EEVIEWS.

to the species) to 40" in the Chimpanzee, to less than 40" in the Gorilla, to about 35" in
the Orang. So that this last ape, this ' man of the woods,' whose pretended facial angle
of 63" or 64" (which it really possesses when young) led to its being regarded as the
highest of the apes, (such as it really is in virtue of its cerebral characters), here
occui)ies one of the lowest places. It is almost on the same level as the Theropiihecus,
and has below it only the Cytiopithecus and the Cijnoceplialus ; those dogheadt d apes,
as the ancients called them ; a name justified by "their facial angle of 30", that of a
true Carnivore and almost that of a Rodent. Whence it follows that, in this respect,
there is a passage, by almost insensible gradations, from the most civilized and orthog-
nathous European, not only to the most prognathous negro, but to those very apes,
which have the most prominent muzzles. A contmuous series of variations, where
one is astounded to see Man come in contact with the brute, considering how great is
the distance from the highest apes to the lowest, and how great the interval between
ourselves and the other races of mankind. From Saimiri to Cijnoceplialus there is
35" difference, from the European to the Makoia 16" to 18", and almost 21" if we select
one of those beautiful Caucasian skulls of 85" measured by Camper and by Cuvicr,"

In the same manner M. St. Hilaire shows that, in the develop-
ment of the forehead and that of the chin, in the position of the
occipital foramen, and in the obliteration of the intermaxillary-
suture, the skull of man is connected with that of the apes, which
differ most widely from him, by intermediate gradations, while, on
the other hand, he fully details the important characters in which
Man and the higher apes agree. Our space, however, allows us to
follow oiu' author no further in this argument, especially as it still
remains our duty to explain why, when he has taken these pains to
demonstrate that Man, regarded structurally, forms only a ftimily of
the Primates, M. St. Hilaire nevertheless conceives himself bound to
regard Man as a Idngdom, equal in distinctness to Plantse or Animaha.
And here we confess ourselves somewhat at a loss ; for while the
reasonings we have detailed above are fuU (occupying as we have
said sixty pages) clear in thought, and precise in expression, the
argument leading to the latter conclusion is of the briefest, taking
up not more than six pages of writing, whose style is as diffuse as
its intellectual texture is loose.

Looked at structurally, M. St. Hilaire repeats, in this section,
Man can constitute mei'ely a family of the Primates, of that order of
mammals in which the apes and lemurs form the other families.
But then, he adds, the kingdoms of nature are distinguished from one
one another by their faculties and not by their structure.

" It is by its peculiar faculties, which cease only when animality ends, and only
by them, that the annual differs essentially from the plant and rises so high above
it as to constitute a distinct kingdom: similarly it is by his faculties, so incom-
parably higher, by the addition oi intiilectnal and moral faculties to the J'acnlf// of
seiimtion and the J'acidt// of motion, that Man in his turn separates himself from the
animal kingdom and constitutes above it, the supreme division of natm-e, the Human
Kingdom." p. 260.

It seems almost incredible that a man of science should base
SI ch a conclusion upon such an argument as this, which must obviously
be at once invalidated by the admission, that animals possess even a
trace of intellect, or a rudiment of moral ikculty. But the comparison

THE COLLECTIONS OF THE FOYAEA EXPEDITION. 9

of a moderately intelligent and affectionate dog with a human infant
before it has acquired speech, must abimdantly convince any unpre-
judiced person, that the same moral and intellectual facvdties are
working in both ; that in whatever sense the child can be said to
possess reason, or to be capable of right and wrong, his four-footed
playmate has a claim to a humbler share of the same distinctions.
However, on this point, the words of a writer, with whom we have
not always the good fortune to find oiu-selves iii such entire agree-
ment, so amply express our convictions, and, if true, are so entirely
subversive of the proposition to establish a " Eegne humaia," that
we may fitly conclude this article with them : —

" Not being able to appreciate, or conceive of, the distinction between the
psychical phenomena of a Chimpanzee and of a Boschisman, or of an Aztec, with
arrested brain growth, as being of a natitre so essential as to preclude a comparison
between them, or as being other than a differerice of degree, I cannot shut my eyes
to tlie significance of that all-pervading similitude of sti-ucture — every tooth, every
bone strictly homologous — which makes the determination of the dilference between
Homo and Pithecus the anatomist's difficulty." *

II. — The Collections of the Noyaba Expedition.

Die Aitsbeute deb OESTEEEEicniscnEN Nattjbfobscheb an
Saugetiiieben und Eeptilien wahbend DEB Weltumsegelung
Sb Majestat Feegatte Noyaea. Von Dr. L. J. Fitziiiger.

This paper, which has been recently read by Dr. Pitzinger, before
the Academy of Sciences at Vienna, and is printed in their " Sitz-
ungsberichte," (Vol. XLII.) gives a resume of the collections made
by the two Zoologists (Messrs. Zelebor and v. Prauenfield) attached
to the Novara expedition, in the classes of Mammals and Eeptiles.
The determuiation of the species in these sections of the Vertebrates,
has been assigned to Dr. Pitzinger and Herr Zelebor ; the iuvestiga-
tion of the Tishes is stated to have been entrusted to Professor KJner ;
and Herr von Pelzehi, we believe, has been for some time past en-
gaged in working out the series of Birds.

Of Mammals 440 individual specimens were collected during the
expedition, belonging to 176 different species, of which a Hst, con-
taining the names mthout descriptions and localities, is appended.
Among these are 11 considered to be hitherto undescribed, namely,
seven Bats, three Eodents and one Armadillo, Of these 11 species,
no less than sixf are from the Nicobar Islands — one of the most
novel and interesting localities visited by the expedition. Oiu' previous

* Professor Owen " On the Characters, &c. of the class Mammalia," Journal of
the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, vol. ii. No. 5, 1857, p. 20, Note.

I Pferopus nicobartcus ; Pachi/soma giganteum; Pachysoma scherzeri ; YespC'
rugo nicobarictis ; Mus novarcs ; Mus palmarum.

10 EEVIEWS.

information upon the Pauna of the Kicobars, is derived mainly from
Mr. Blyth's papers, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,*
and we eainiot but congratulate the Austrians on their good luck in
having found so many species that had escaped the notice of so
diligent a pioneer.

In the class of Eeptiles 1420 individuals were obtained, referable
to 290 species. Of them, 25, namely, seven Saui'ians, eight Snakes,
and 10 Batrachians, are believed to be new to science. In this
class the most interesting discovery is perhaps that of a Frog
in New Zealand, as it has hitherto been a matter of doubtj whe-
ther there were Batrachians in those islands. For, although
Polack has stated that, " Toads and Frogs are not uncommon,
especially near the moimtain districts," Dr. Dieffenbach, to whom
we are iudebted for the above quotation, cautiously adds, " they
have never been seen by me."§ At any rate, whether " com-
mon" or not. Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter — the worthy and well-
known Greologist of the Novara Expedition — was the fii'st person
who captured and brought to Europe specimens of the Frog of New
Zealand, having obtained them from the mountain-torrents of Cape
Colville, near Auckland. The little animal has been accordingly
most appropriately named after its discoverer, Leiopelma Hochstet-
teri.\\ It is also a remarkable fact, that the nearest known ally of
this new genus and species of Frog is the Telmatohius peruviamis, of
Western S. America. This is an additional proof, if more were wanted,
of a remote relationship between the Faunas of the southern extremi-
ties of the New World and the Old, of which other instances are well
known. As we have akeady mentioned is the case also with the Mam-
mals, no descriptions are given of the new species of Reptiles, contained
in the appended list. It is no doubt intended to reserve these for
the general account of the Zoology of the Voyage, but at the same
time, we cannot but think it a grievous mistake, to publish a quantity
of new names of species without characters attached. The offence is
certainly a common one, but not the less objectionable on that
account. But it is to be hoped, that the great work, contain-
ing the residts of the expedition in full, towards the expense of
which, we believe, the Austrian Grovernment has made a liberal
grant, will soon appear, and render further complaints on this score
unnecessary.

* Vol. XV. p. 367, " Notes on the Fauna of the Nicobar Islands."

J See Danvin " On the origin of species," p. 424.

§ DicflFcnbach's New Zealand, Vol. II. p. 200.

II See Verband. d. K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesellschaft; Wicn, 1861.

Driiginat ^\[{kU^.

Ill — 0:s THE Cedaes op Lebanon, TAUErs, Algeria, and India,
By J. D. Hooker, M.D., E.E.S. (With Plates I. II. and III.)

In the Autumn of 1860, Captain Washington, Hydrogi-apher of
the Navy, asked me to accompany him to Syria, where he proposed,
amongst many other important scientific agenda, that we should
examine the Cedar Grrove on Lebanon, of whose history, position and
age, nothing was accurately known. It had occurred to him, that
although our visit must be far too brief to investigate any part
thoroughly, or even to review ail the points worth noting, yet that
an examination of the trees on the spot might suggest to us the
kinds of observations best worth making by future travellers, and
would enable him to judge whether an accurate topographical plan
of the valley in which the trees grow, were desirable. He fui-ther
oifered to have this executed, if necessary, by the officers of H. M. S.
" Eirefly," then surveying the Syrian coast, under the command of
Captain Mansell, an officer who unites to the highest professional
attainments, a thorough appreciation of the interests of science.

We arrived at Beyrout on the 25th September, and, thanks to
Captain Mansell's arrangements, we were equipped and off on the
folloAnng day, accompanied by himself, on a fortnight's journey,
taking the Cedars in our way to the summit of Lebanon* (whose
height had never been ascertained). On the 29th we reached the
Kedisha vaUey, and camped in the evening at its head, tmder the
Cedars, at an elevation of 6,172 feet.f We remained two nights
there, and from it we twice xiscended the Lebanon, which gave us
excellent opportunities of studying the relative position of the
grove to the surrounding country, from various heights and positions
on the flanks of the enclosing valley, rurthermore, two of our
party, the Eev. Gr. Washington and Mr. Hanbury, devoted a day to
counting and measuring the trees, and to making a rough ground
plan of their positions, which has proved of great use. Captain
Mansell also procured a capital section of the lower limb of one of
the oldest trees (which lay dead on the ground), and which is very

* By our obseiTations, calculated from an assumed height of the barometer of 30
inches at the level of the sea, it is about 10,200 feet ; according to those quoted by-
Van de Velde, it has been supposed to be as low as 9621, and as high as 10,051.

f By four sets of morning and evening observations, with foui* barometers, and
two boiling-point thermometers. Assmning the height of the barometer at the
level of the Mediterranean to have been 30 inches, the height of the chapel in the
grove is, by Captain Washington's barometer, 6,210 feet; by my own, 6,165 ; by
two siphons, 6,176 ; and by boihng-points, 6,138. According to Van de Velde, it
is 6,315. The elevation of the summit and of the Cedars will be re-calcuiated when
the necessary data for the lower level have been received.

12 OEIOINAL AETICLES.

important, Buice it gives a totally different idea of the hardness of
cedar- wood from wliat English-grown specimens do.

It is not my purjiose to offer anything beyond an outline of the
chief results we obtained; these will be given in detail elsewhere,
when the materials necessary for substantiating them have arrived
in England : they were certainly more novel and interesting than we
had ventured to hope for, and determined Captain Washington to
direct a detailed survey to be made of the whole head of the valley,
or basin, in which the Cedars grow ; this was executed by Captain
Mansell last summer, and is now on its way to England, accompanied
by sections of two of the youngest trees, which, as I shall have
occasion hereafter to show, are much more interesting scientifically,
than sections of the oldest would be. Tlie history of the Cedars of
Lebanon cannot, however, be isolated from that of their blood-
relations, the Cedars of Taurus, Algeria and India, which I shall
therefore also bring under notice in this sketch; regarding the
Lebanon plant as the tj^e of all, because it is in many respects
intermediate botanically, as it is geographically, betweeen the others.

So far as is at present generally known, the Cedars are confined on
Lebanon to one spot, at the head of the Kedisha valley ; they have,
however, been found by Ehrenberg* in valleys to the northward of
this. The Kedisha valley, at 6000 feet elevation, terminates in broad,
shallow, flat-floored basins, and is 2 to 3 miles across, and as much long;
it is here in a straight line 15 miles from the sea, and about three or
four from the summit of Lebanon, which is to the northward of it.
These open basins have shelving sides, which rise 2 to 4000 feet above
then' bases ; they exactly resemble what are called Corrys in many high-
land mountains; the floor of that in which the Cedars grow presents
almost a dead level to the eye, crossed abruptly and transversely by a
confused range of ancient moraines, which have been deposited by
glaciers that, under very different conditions of climate, once filled
the basin above them, and commimicated with the perpetual snow wdth
Avhieh the whole summit of Lebanon was, at that time, deeply covered.
The moraines are perhaps 80 to 100 feet high ; their boundaries are
perfectly defined, and they divide the floor of the basin into an iipper
and lower flat area. The rills from the surrounding heights collect
on the upper flat, and form one stream, which winds amongst the
moraines on its way to the lower flat, whence it is precipitated
into the gorge of the Kedisha. The Cedars grow on that portion
of the moraine which immediately borders this stream, and nowhere
else; they form one group, about 400 yards in diameter, with anout-

• When in S}Tia I was unable to obtain any information relative to the state-
ment contained in Murray's Handbook of Syria (i. 585), that Cedars grew in other
localities besides the Kedisha valley. Recently, however, I have inquired of my
friend Professor Ehrenberg (tlie autliority given for the statement), who informs me,
in a letter full of interesting matter relating to the Cedars, that he found many
trees in forests of Oak, &c., on the route from Bsherrc to Bshinnate.

J. D. HOOKER ON THE GEDAES OF LEBAJ^ON.

standing tree, or two, not far from the rest, and appear as a black
speck in tlie gi-eat area of the corry and its moraines, which contain
no other arboreous vegetation, nor any shrubs, but a few small
berberry and rose bushes, that form no feature in the landscape.
A section from east to west, along the axis of the basin, presents
something of the following character :

«, Gorge of the Kedisha ; b, lower flat ; c, moraines with f cedai'S ; d, npper flat ;

J) axis of the Lebanon, 3000 feet above the floor of the basin ; e, summit of

the Lebanon seen to the northward.

Tlie number of trees is about 400, and they are disposed in nine
groups, corresponding with as many hummocks of the range of
moraines ; they are of various sizes, from about 18 inches to up-
wards of 40 feet in girth; but the most remarkable and signifi-
cant fact connected with their size, and consequently with the age of
the grove, is that there is no tree of less than 18 iuches girth,
and that we found no young trees, bushes, nor even seedlings of a
second year's growth. We had no means of estimatuig accurately
the ages of the youngest or oldest tree ; nor shall we have, till the
specimens of the former arrive. It may be remarked, however, that
the wood of the branch of the old tree, cut at the time, is eight inches
in diameter (exclusive of bark), presents an extremely firm, com-
pact, and close-grained texture, and has no less than 140 rings, which
are so close in some parts that they cannot be counted without a
lens. This specimen ftirther, is both harder and browner than any
English-grown Cedar or native Deodar, and is as odoriferous as the
latter. These, however, are the characters of an old lower branch
of a very old tree, and are no guide to the general character of
the wood on the Lebanon, and still less to that of English-grown
specimens, which are always very inferior in colour, odour, grain,
and texture. Calculating only from the rings in this branch, the
youngest trees in Lebanon would average 100 years old, the oldest
2500, both estimates no doubt widely far from the mark. Calcu-
lating from trunks of English rapidly-grown specimens, their ages
might be calculated as low respectively as 5* and 200 years ; while

* Three Cedar trees grown in Bedfordshire, at the age of 30 years attained
the girths respectively of 6 feet ; 6 feet 6 inches ; and 5 feet 8 inches. Gard. Chron.
1853, p. 310,

14 ORIGINAL AETICLES,

from the rate of growth of the Chelsea Cedars, the youngest trees
may be 22, and the oldest 6 to 800 years old.

The positions of the oldest trees (of the 400) afforded some
interesting data, relative to the ages of the dilierent parts of the
grove, and the direction in which it had lately spread. Tlaere
were only 15 trees above 15 feet in girth, and these all oc-
curred in two of the nine clumps, which t^vo contained 180
trees. _ Only two others exceeded 12 feet in girth, and these were
found in immediately adjoining clumps, one on one side and one on
the other of the above mentioned. There were five clumps containing
156 trees, none of which was above 12 feet in girth, and these were
all to the westward, (or dowm- valley) side of the others. On this
side, therefore, the latest addition to the grove has taken place.

"Whether the grove has much diminished within the historic
period, is a question which can only be decided by a careful collection
and scrutiny of the records of old travellers. It would not surprise me,
if proofs existed of its not having materially decreased since the days
of Solomon ; for it is very doubtful whether the wood was ever largely
used in Jerusalem for building purposes. The word Cedar, as used
in the Bible, applies to other trees, and only certainly to the Cedrus
Libani, when coupled with some distinctive epithet. Tlie foreign
timber trade was, in Solomon's time, in the hands of the Phoenicians,
and the quantity of first-rate oak and pine, on all the coast ranges
from Carmel northwards, was so gi-eat, that it is improbable that the
almost inaccessible valleys of the Lebanon should have been ransacked
for a wood, that has no particidar quality to recommend it for building
pvu'poses. The lower slopes of the Lebanon, also, bordering on the
sea, were and are, covered with magnificent forests. So that there
was little inducement to ascend 6000 feet, through 20 miles of
a rocky moimtain valley, to obtain a material, which covdd not be
transported to the coast without the utmost difBcidty and expense.
It is further to be remarked, that it is difficult to reconcile the
hypothesis of the former great extent of the Cedar forests, Avith the
fact of almost the only existing habitat being the moraines of one of
the most populous valleys on the mountain. Of movmtain corrys,
with the same elevation as that of the Cedars, there are hundi-eds on
the Lebanon, some said to be almost inaccessible, and others quite
uninhabited ;• had the Cedar ever formed continuous forests on the
mountain, from which it had been removed by man, we should certainly
expect to find extensive groves in such localities. I desire not to
be misunderstood in this matter, for the question is of some scien-
tific importance ; I do not doubt that the Cedrus Libani is repeatedly
alluded to in the Old Testament, by the Prophets especially, who
aptly and uumistakeably designate that tree ; but if, as I believe is
allowed by the best Biblical critics and Hebraists, the word Cedar
applies in Chronicles, &c., to more than one kind of tree, it is, in my
opinion, an open question whether the C. Libani is one of those
which supplied most of the timber employed in building Solomon's

J, D. nOOKEB ON THE CEDAES OF LEBANON. 15

temple. The Cypress (also called Cedar by the ancients,) the Finns
Salepensis, and the tall fragrant Juniperus of the Lebanon, with its
fine red heart-wood, would have been far more prized on every account.
On the other hand, that the grove has, within the historic period,
increased and diminished in extent, owing to secular changes in
the climate, cannot be doubted, when it is remembered, that no seedling
has come to matmnty (though thousands annually germinate), since
the birth of trees the youngest of which is 18 inches in girth ; and
that the whole grove presents such a disparity in the ages of its
trees, that only about 15 exceed as many feet in girth, and 385 fall
below 12 feet girth. Upon this point I have collected some curious
corroborative evidence, from the works of old travellers.

The nearest point to the Lebanon at which Cedars have been found,
is the Bulgar-dagh chain of the Taurus in Asia Miuor, and from that
point forests extend eastward to Pisidia, in long. E. 32°, westward to
long. E. 36", and northward to the Anti-Taurus, in lat. 40° N. ; gi'owing
at elevations of 4000 to 6400 feet above the sea. The Lebanon may
be regarded as a branch of the Taurus, and is 250 miles distant from
the Cedar forests upon that chain. Between individuals from the
Lebanon, and the common Asia Minor form, there is said to be no
appreciable difference, by those who have examined both : but there
are two distinct forms or varieties in the latter coimtry ; one having
shorter, more stiff and glaucous or silvery foliage than the other ;
this is the Silver-cedar, G. argentea, of our gardens. Northern Syria
and Asia Minor form one botanical province ; so that the Lebanon
grove, though so widely disconnected from the Taurus forests, can be
regarded in no other light than as an outlying member of the latter.

O. Atlantica. At a distance of 1400 miles from the Cedar forests
of Asia Minor, and separated by the whole breadth of the Medi-
terranean sea, are those of Algeria. Tliese form the prevalent arbo-
reous vegetation throughout the eastern province of Constantine,
which borders on Tunis, and they also abound on the eastern Atlas
ranges ; though whether they extend to the greater Atlas and into
the kingdom of Morocco is not known. They characterize the upper
mountain zone (5200 — 7200 feet), and approach within twenty miles
of the sea. The African Cedar differs from that of Lebanon in having
a perfectly erect, rigid leader, and straight stiff ends to the branches,
all which, in the Lebanon plant, ch-oop more or less. In the African,
the cone is generally smaller, the leaves shorter and more glaucous,
and the scales and seeds triangular in form (instead of quadrangular.)
There are two forms of Cedar in Algeria, as in Taurus, and charac-
terized by the same differences in each country, viz. : a greener longer-
leaved, and a more silvery shorter-leaved variety. Nevertheless it is
generally easy to distinguish the Atlas Cedar from the Lebanon one,
and in beds of young plants the differences are very marked, though
it is always possible to pick out deceptive specimens.

16 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

C. Deodara. Proceeding eastward from the Lebanon, we come,
after another 1100 miles, to the Cedar forests of Affghauistan, wliich
extend thence continuously eastward along the Himalaya, almost to
the confines of Nepal. The Cedrus Deodara is in India exclusively
a western tree ; it begins where the influence of the monsoons is
much diminished, that is, where the climate begins to approximate
to that of the Levant. It inhabits various elevations between 4,000
and 12,000 feet, and in Aifghanistan outnumbers all other Pines
in abvmdance of individuals. Tlie C. Deodara has a much more pen-
dulous leader and ends to its branches, and longer leaves, of a more
glaucous hue, than C. Libani, though not such sdvery leaves as the
C Atlantica. The cones are as large as those of G. Lihani, but the
sca,les and seeds are of the same form as those of C. Atlantica, and
hence markedly different from those of G. Libani.

Prom what has been said respecting each of these Cedars, it is
evident, that the distinctions between them are so trilling, and so far
within the proved limits of variation of Coniferous plants, that it
may reasonably be assumed that all originally sprang from one. It
should be added, that there are no othei* distinctions whatever between
them — of bark, wood, leaves, male-cones, anthers, or the structuj*e of
these — nor in their mode of germination or duration, the girth they
attain, or their hardiness.* Also, that all are very variable in habit ;
so much so, indeed, is this the case with the Deodar, which is the
most distinct of all in habit, that though it was not introduced much
more than thirty years ago, there are already five distinct varieties
sold by nurserymen, some as stiff, others as dark-coloured, and others
as short-leaved as the Lebanon Cedar. Also, that though the diffe-
rence in the shape of the scales and seeds of Deodara and Libani are
very marked, they vary much ; many forms of each overlap ;
and further transitions between the most dissimilar, may be estab-
lished by intercalation of seeds and scales from C. Atlantica.

To render these distinctions more clear, I have had drawuigs of the
three Cedars made from native and cultivated specimens, selected
by Professor Oliver and myself from the Herbarium and Museum at
Kew, and which represent what we believe to be the most decided
characters that they severally present ; and that these are both faithful
and characteristic portraits, Mr. Fitch's name is sufficient guarantee.
They represent, in each case, the fully formed cone, and the same on
the eve of bursting ; the average and extreme forms of scales and
seeds, the anthers, the foliage, and the extreme and mean lengths of
the leaves.

Hitherto, O. Atlantica has been almost universally considered a

* The assumed distinctive characters between the Deodar and Lebanon Cedar
that were founded on the form of tlie cones, the falling away of their scales, the shape
of the leaf in section, the wood, its odour and durability, have all been satisfactorily
disproved long ago.

3. D. HOOKER ON THE CEDARS OF LEBANON. 17

variety of Libcrni, aud C. Deodara a different species ; habit having
been relied upon exclusively, and botanical characters neglected ; for
a glance at the drawings shows that there is an obvious and marked
difference, in the latter respect, between the common states of At? antica
and Libani, and non-e between Atlantica and Deodara. This is perplex-
ing, for, as I have said above, G. Libani holds an intermediate position,
both geographieaEy and in characters of foliage, between the two that
agree in the most important characters : and fiu-ther, we can account, in
a great measure, for the differences of habit, by the climate of the three
localities ; the most sparse, weeping, long- leaved Cedar is from the
most humid region, the Himalaya ; whilst the plant of most rigid and
otherwise opposite habit, corresponds wdth the climate of the country
mider the intiuence of the great Sahara desert. No course remains,
then, but to regard all as species, or all as varieties, or the Deodara
and Atlantica as varieties of one species, and Libani as another.
The hitherto adopted and only alternative, of regarding Libani and
Atlantica as varieties, and Deodara as a species, must be given up.

I have dwelt thus at lengtli upon the value of the characters
separating the three Cedars, because the question, whether these are
one species or three, stands at the threshold of all inquiry into the early
history of the plant. My ovru impression is, that tliey should be
regarded as three well-marked forms, which are usually very distinct,
but which often graduate into one another, not as colours do by blend-
ing ; but as members of a fomily do^ by the presence in each of some
characters common to most of the others, and wliich do not interfere
with or obliterate all the individual features of their possessor.
Moreover, I regard them as in so far permanently distinct plants,
tliat though all sprang from one parent, none of them will ever
assume all the characters either of that extinct parent or of the other
two forms. There will, in short, be no absolute reversion amongst
these. Each ^oll yield varieties after its own kind, retaining some of the
characters of their progenitors, and assuming others foreign to them
all ; and it will depend on their relative success in the struggle for
life in a wild state, and upon the wants of man in a cultivated one,
which of these shall be preserved, and for how long. Grrautiiig, then,
that all are sprmig from one, how does it happen that they ai'e now
so sundered geographically ?

The discovery of the moraines of the Lebanon requires us to ex-
tend the influence of the glacial period into a lower western latitude
than it has been heretofore proved to have reached. When perpe-
tual snows covered the great axis of the Lebanon, and fed glaciers
which rolled 4000 feet dovm its valleys, de])ositiug the moraines
to which the Cedars in the Kedisha valley are now confined, the climate
of Syria must have been many degrees colder than now ; the position
of the Cedars fully 4000 feet lower, and the atmosphere greatly more
humid. Arguing from analogy, it is reasonable to infer fchat, at such
a time, the Cedars formed as broad a belt on the Lebanon, as they now
do on the Himalaya and in Algeria, and were continuous with those

N. II. 11.— 1862. C

18 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

of tlie Taurus ; and that tlie?e also descended proportionally lower
and spread much further to the eastward. Again, in the Sikkim and
Nepal Himalaya, I have found abundant evidence of glaciers having
descended to fully 4000 feet below their present level ; and this has
been corroborated by numerous observers in the western parts of the
same range ; so that there, too, the Cedar forests may be supposed
to have once descended several thousand feet, and to have extended
westwards along the Persian mountains, till they united with the
Taurus forests.

It is more difficult at first sight to connect the Algerian vnth the
Asiatic forests ; but here the recent discoveries of extensive modern
changes in the form and extent of the Mediterranean basin come in
aid. It is not now doubted that the remains of the African Hippo-
potamus and Rhinoceros in Sicily prove a former continental extension
from the Tunis coast to that island, and the soundings between Cape
Bon and Sicily appear to corroborate this \\ew. It would be foUy
to assume it as certain, that the extension of these most recent disco-
veries will clear up the early history of the diffusion of the Cedars ; but
it is conceivable ; and if proved, it is reasonable to suppose that their
subsequent segregation in the four areas they now inhabit, was
effected by the warmth of the period which succeeded the glacial epoch.
During such a warm period the vegetation of the low levels would
be driven to seek colder localities, and to migrate both northward
and up the mountains, where it has left traces in the grove on
Lebanon, and in a few arctic plants which I obtained on the very
isolated summit of that mountain. Lastly, it is an established fact,
that aU plants of wide diffusion vary much, and that the extreme
forms occiu" towards the limits of the area they occupy ; whence, in
the case of the Cedars, what may once have been three prevalent
varieties in different parts of a continuous forest, became, by isola-
tion and extinction of intermediate forms in intermediate localities,
three permanently distinct races or sub-species, which we now recog-
nize as Lebanon, Algerian, and Deodar Cedars.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate 1. — Cones and leaves of C. Libani, from the Lebanon. Figs. 1—4, Scales
of vaiious fonns from one cone, ripened at Kew; 5, Seeds fi'om the same; 6 — 7,
Anthers (magnified) ; 8, longest, shortest, and mean sizes of leaves, from native
specimens.

Plate 2. — Cones and leaves of C. Atlatifica, from native specimens. Figs. 1 — 4,
Scales; and 5, 5, Seeds from the same; 6, Anthers (magnified); 7, longest,
shortest, and mean sizes of leaves, from native specimens; 8, Leaf, from yomig
cultivated specimen at Kew.

Plate 3. — Cones and leaves of C. Beodara, from native specimens. Figs. 1 — 3,
Scales ; 4 — 5, Seeds ; 6, Anthers (magnified) ; 7, longest, shortest, and mean sizes
of leaves.

CASPAIIT ON THE MORPnOLOOT OF THE AEIETINEiE. 19

lY. — On the Moephologt of the Eemale Flower of the
Abietine^. (De Abietinearum Carr. floris feminei .striietura
morphologiea. 4to. pp. 12. Eegiomouti Pr.) By Professor
Eobert Caspary.*

The structure of the female flower, or iuflorescence, of Gymno-
sperms, has been the cause of more discussion than most questions of
morphological botany. In earlier times, the views of botanists on
this difficult subject were necessarily uncertain and ai-bitrary, because
no accurate observations had then been made either of the perfect
flower or of its evolution. As the study of morphology depends upon
the correct knowledge of the taxis of the leaves and branches, the
structure of the flowers of Grymnosperms could not possibly be under-
stood at an earlier period. It is not my intention here to enter into
details (which may be readily found elsewhere) regarding the various
explanations which have been proposed ; but I think it desirable to
state the plain truth as respects the group of Abietinese, so as to cor-
rect previous errors, and to obtain a basis of comparison to which
the flowers of other Gymnosperms may be referred.

The true structure of the flowers of Abietineae was described by A,
Braun, as early as 1853, in the following terms, in a note of great
importance, though short and modest,t which has been entirely ne-
glected by subsequent writers. " The seed-bearing fruit-scales of the
cones of Abietinese, which lie in the axils of the bract-scales, have all the
appearance of one-leaved shoots, but the progressi-se modifications of
form exhibited by these scales in abnormally developed cones of Fimt.s
Larix, prove that each scale consists of two leaves imited together."
In 1860J he expresses himself in a similar manner, only in more
general terms, as to the structure of other Conifers and Cycads. The
woody scales of the strobili of Abietineae consist, according to A.
Braun, of two carpels, which originate together, and are the first
leaves of an undeveloped bud in the axil of the floral leaf

Before these views of Braun were known to me I was led to the
same conclusions, at Bonn, in the autumn of 1858, by the examination
of larch cones, which Imd grown out into leafy branches in the axils of
the scale. My observations on these were to the following eflfect:' —
Along the axis of these cones or strobili are inserted linear, elon-
gated bracts, with the woody scales in their axils. The axis does not
end with the uppermost scales, but is abnormally prolonged for
several inches beyond the apex of the cone. Such strobili have been
figured by Kichard.|| The slender prolongation of the axis differs in

* Communicated hy Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. An abstract of Dr. Baillon's
views, referred to in this imper, is given in tJie Nat. Hist. Eeview, Vol. I. Biblio-
graphy, p. 92.

•f Individunm der Pflanze, p. <55.

X Ueber polyembryonie und Keimung von Coclebogyne, p. 24.3.

II Memoires sur les Couiferes et les Cycadees, 1826, 1. 13, f. 9, fig. repetita la

C 2

20 OEIOINAL AEtlCLES.

no respect from a vigorous annual leaf-branch. It bears linear leaves,
of the usual form, each of which has a leaf-bud in its axil. These
leaf-buds are subglobose or ovate, and are covered by brown scales
(nieder blatter). The two lowest of these scales, which are the most
important as respects the true moi'phological structure of the cone-
scale, stand right and left, as in most plants. These are the leaves
commonly called the cotyledons of the branches. In these elongated
cones there is generally no passage from the woody (seed-bearing)
scales of the cone to the leaf-buds. Although I have examined more
than 100 such scales, I have met with but few intermediate states
explanatory of the true nature of the woody scales. In such inter-
mediate states the cone is not, as usual, shortly ovate, but oblong,
and attenuated at the tip, and the woody scales are a little emargiuate
at the apex. In the scales which ajipear to pass into the leaf-buds
this emargination becomes by degrees more and more deep, till at
last, near the summit of the cone, where they are more laxly imbri-
cated, the woody scales are divided, almost to the base, into two
obovate or o^ate lobes, which are rounded at the apex, or a little
mucronate, and are made inaeqiiilateral, by an indentation on the
outer side, below the apex. Each of these lobes bears on its inner
and upper side, towards the lower margin, the ovate-globose rudi-
ment of an abortive bud. Between the main axis and the bipartite
scale I could see no bud. Further up on the axis the intermediate
forms are further advanced. The scale is completely bipartite, and
the segments are smaller, oblong, subtrapezoidal, obliquely truncate
above, with rounded angles, and often wider upwards. As these
scales j)resent not e\en a trace of an ovule, they can no longer, with
propriety, be called carpels ; but it is most important to observe, that,
between their segments and the axis, a leaf-bearing bud, covered with
scale-like leaves, is developed. Still higher up on the axis the seg-
ments of the woody scale are smaller and more distant from one
another, occupying, by degrees, a more and more lateral position
with respect to the leafy bud developed between them and the axis,
and approach gradually more and more in size, position, and shape
to the two lateral scales of an ordinary leaf-bud, so as at last to pass
completely into it.

It is thus clearly proved that the woody scale of the larch cone
consists of the first two lateral scales (squamiform leaves) of an un-
developed leaf-bud placed in the axil of the bract which supports the
woody scale, theFc two lateral scales springing in a united state from
the outer side of the axis and ascending obliquely. This structure of
the woody scale of the larch cone, and consequently of all Abietineae,
is so dearly and irrefutably shown by these monsters, that all other
opinions on the morphology of the scales of Conifers are thereby de-
monstrated to be erroneous.

Seringe. EUments de botaniquc, 1841, t. xiii. 1'. 12 ; ct Decandollc, Organographie
veg^tale, 1828, tab. 36, f. 3.

CASPAEY ON TIIE MORPHOLOGT OF THE ABIETIKE^. 21

Among these errors may be mentioned tlie opinion of M. Baillon,*
laid before the French Academy on the 9th July, 1860. Baillon,
after examining the evolution of the flower of Taxus haccata L.,
Phyllocladiis rlwmhoidalis, Eich., Torreya nucifera, Lieb., Thuja, Pinus
reaiiiosa, Salisburia, Ginyko, Sm., and Cupressus, arrived at the opinion
that the organs which E. Brown regarded as naked ovvJes are flowers
reduced to a pistil, formed of two carpels, and enclosing one ortho-
tropous ovule reduced to a nucleus ; and that these very simple
flowers are never inserted on a leaf or " bract" (or rather " carpel"),
but always on the axis, on which they are sometimes terminal and
sometimes lateral ; and further, that the cupulc or aril of Taxineae
is a dilatation of the axis, '" commonly called a disk."

Now what are the reasons which lead M. Baillon to regard the
naked owle of Eobert Brown, and almost all recent botanists, as two
united carpels ? He states that the first developed part of the flower
(or what is usually called naked ovule) of all Conifers consists of two
small tubercles, opposite to one another, and shaped like a horse-shoe,
exactly resembling the carpels of Amarantacese, Chenopodiacese, &c.,
in the first stage of evolution. From this resemblance, he regards
these tubercles not as the integuments of an ovule, but as carpels,
and states that their apices afterwards form two equal or unequal
styles. The nucleus of the ovule, according to him, a2)pears after
these carpels. This period of evolution is described in detail in Pmus
resinosa, and illustrated by figiu'es. As regards that part of M.
Baillon's opinion which relates to the more tardy appearance of that
which he calls the ovule, his figures do not show it to be the case ;
but, on the contrary, in t. l,f. 10, in which the earliest rudiments of
the " carpels" are sho^vn, the ovule is also represented, so that M.
Baillon's wordsf are contradicted by that figure. Baillon's statements
regarding the evolution of the flower of Conifers are confirmed by M.
Payer,J who seems to have examined Finns and Cupressus chiefly.
Payer, however, speaks in such a manner of the time of appearance
of the " ovule" and "pistil" that it is doubtful which of the two he
considers to appear first ; but whatever his opinion may be, he, at all
events, does not confirm M. Baillon, for he says " the flower appears
in Cypresses and Pines as a httle protuberance, on each side of which
arises a little ridge resembling exactly a very young leaf"

The priority of origin of the outer covering (carpels of Baillon),
or the central body (ovule of Baillon), shoidd by no means be
neglected, as its determination may assist ia fixing the nature of
both. For if the central protuberance appear first and the external
envelope later, the central protuberance is an ovule, because the
nucleus appears before the integument ; but, on the other hand, if

* Recueil d'observations botaniqnes, t. i. Paris, 1860.

t 1. c. p. 7. " Ce qu'on voitapparaitre d'aborcl de la fleur femelle c'est nne paire
depetites feuilles carpellaires en forme de fer a cheval."
X In Baillon's paper, I. c. p. 17, et seq.

22 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

tliG exterior envelope appear first and the central swelling later, the
body is a pistil, because the carpel always appears earlier than the
ovule.

Tliis mode of discovering the nature of the parts fails only in
cases where a single ovule apjDears to be a direct continuation of the
axis, as in Bheum, Polyrjonum, «&c., because in these cases it is im-
possible to decide upon the instant of time at which the apex of the
axis becomes changed into the nascent ovule or its nucleus. Baillon,
indeed, mentions that the ovules of Conifers arise from the axis ; but
if the contrary view be established, the test of priority of origin may
certainly be applied to the determination of the nature of the different
parts of the organ under consideration.

Early in January, 1861, 1 examined, for the purpose of testing M,
Baillon's statement, the female flowers of Thuja orientalis L., Taxus
haccata L., Ciipressus sempervirens L., CalUtris montana, Juniperus
cominunis L., J, splicerica Lindl., J. Snbina Jj., J. virginiana L., and
Pinus Larix L. The climate of Regensbui'g not being hot enough ta
enable GingTco biloha, Phyllocladus or Tarreya to flower, even in the
greenhouse, I regret not to have had it in my power to examine more
than a very few of the species on which M. Bailion's observations
were made.

With the exception of the Larch, the flowers of all the plants
which I examined were almost fully, or at least half^ developed ; but
even in this state of advancement I was led to doubt the accuracy of
M. Bailion's statement, that the outer covering (or integument of
authors) consists of two carpels. For when two carpels are present,
two separate apices (styles, Baillon calls them,) may be expected to
be visible ; and, in fact, all Bailion's figures of the adult organs in
question show two lobes or apices, as in the figure of Pinus resinostty
t. i. f. 28, &c., Tlmja orientalis, t. ii. /. 17, Ciipressus sempervirens,
t. ii. f. 20, 21, Phyllocladus 'rJiomhoidalis, t. ii. f. 24, Taxus haccata,
t. ii./! lli, 15. Except, however, in the Tew, in which I found the
micropyle to present the appearance of an arched or more rarely
straight fissure, the ends of which are opposite to the two highest leaf-
scales (bracts), the margin of the organ in question (Bailion's pistil-
lum) was not, in the plants I examined, by any means constantly two-
lobed,and in the Junipers 1 never observed it to be so. The margin of
the "pistillum" oi Juniperus splicerica, which appeared fidly developed,
was invariably entire, and formed by a circle of ten or eleven cells. In
the other species of Jimiper it was generally obliquely truncate, and
in the same species, nay even in the same specimen, it was at one
time irregularly sinuate or repand or toothed, at another emarginate
on one side or perfectly entire. In CalUtris montana the orifice was
very wide and surrounded by about twenty cells, and its margin was
either irregular or repand, or 3-4-toothcd, or quite entire. I never
saw it two-lobed. In Thuja orientalis and Ciipressus sempervirens,
in which Baillon always figiu"es it as two-lobed, I fomid it occasion-
ally so, but more frequently the orifice was irregularly sinuate or

CASPAET ON THE MOEPHOLOGT OF THE A.BIETINEJ3. 23

lobed, irregiilarly crenate, or even quite entire. Richard, too, thus
describes the organs of certain Conifers, e.g. Finus Cedrus* " margin
unequally and irregularly cut into 2-5 segments, which are irregularly
erose toothed or repand ;" and Pinus bahamea,f " limb longer on one
side and slightly divided at the margin into two or three somewhat
imequal lobes." These descriptions and figures throw stiU more
doubt on the existence of Baillon's " two carpels." It was, however,
in Finus Larix, in which I fully studied the evolution of the cone-
scales, that I acquired a complete conviction of Baillon's error. In this
plant, what BaiUon calls the ovule, appears first in the form of a
convex, almost hemisphserical boss, around which, some weeks later,
the integument is produced, not imder the form of two distinct horse-
shoes, but of a complete ring, uniform in height aU round. I tried
in vain to find any indication of a double origin. It is impossible to
consider the floral organ of Finus Larix as anything else than a nucleus
surrounded by an integument, that is, an ovule ; and as it is incre-
dible that the integument of Finus Larix should, from the first, be a
regular ring, while that of the other Conifers examined by M. BaiUon
presents, in its earliest condition, the appearance of two horse-shoes,
the observations of MM. BaiUon and Payer appear to me more than
doubtful.

Were it however the case, that in some Conifers this integument
originated as two distinct tubercles, it would by no means necessarily
follow that these two tubercles indicate the presence of two organs
of distinct origin, not referable to the integument of the gemmule.
Eor:

1. Two-lipped integuments are occasionally met with, which no
one regards as two distinct carpels. Thus in FolygaJa comosa the
outer coat of the ovule is produced obliquely upwards and subcucullate,
and is divided by a deep fissure into two lateral lobes. Payer
makes no mention of theseif in Folygala speciosa, though he figures§
the ovule-coat of Treonandra verticillata as two-lipped, which is only
the case at a late stage of the development of the ovTile. The period
at which the lijjs appear seems, however, of little consequence.

2. Other oi'gans certainly exist, which, though single and not
composed of two united together, do yet, at their first appearance,
show two distinct apices, as, for instance, the stipules of Victoria
regia and l^uryale ferox, whose evolution I have examined, and the
upper palea of grasses which Payer himself describes and figures in
Friza media, Fanicum aduncum, Triticum monococcum, JShrharta
panicea and Stipa juncea.\\

3. There are certain ovules whose coats sometimes originate
equally all round, while at other times, in the same species and even
in the same ovary, they are visible on one side earlier than on the

* Richaid Mem., p. 63, t. xvii. no. 1. f. D. t !• c. p. 76, t> xvi. f. L.

t Organogenie, t. xxxi. f. 39. § 1. c. t. xxix. f. 31, 37.

II Organogenie, p. 701, et scq.

24 OEIGIKAL ARTICLES.

other. Tliis I have noticed in Berteroa ineana and Thlaspi arvensis^
in whose ovnles the lower part of the cylindrical nucleus is thicker
than the ujiper, and the two integuments arise seemingly both at
once from the lower thickened part, at one time all round and at the
same height, at another time unilaterally. As in these cases, true
ovule-coats are developed on one side first, and not equally all round,
it does not seem unfair to infer the possibility of their appearance in
two distinct places or by two gibbi. The alternation of the two lips
of the o\T,ile-eoat of Taxus, with the two uppermost bracts, may be
understood to depend on the existence of more ample room for de-
velopment on the two sides where there are no bracts, than on the
other two, where the bracts come in contact with the ovule. It is well
known, that organs increase most in size and vigour in those parts
which are free and not interfered with by other organs, while they
are weaker and smaller, where they are pressed on by neighbouring
organs and deprived of nutriment. In the Abietineae this may be th&
cause of the bilobation of the ovule-coat, as the two teeth in. Ahies
excelsa, for instance, are on those sides of the ovule wliich are not
pressed on either by the axis or the scale.

The second pai't of Baillon's proposition, regarding the flowers of
Conifers, is that they always arise from the axis and never from a
leaf or bract, or rather cai-pel. This is sho^^Ti to be erroneous as to
Abietinefe, at least by the monstrous larch described above. It is-
also excellently refuted by Baillon and Payer's own observations on
Pimis resinosa. As described by Baillon, the scales of Pinus pssinosa
are develoi)ed in the following manner. The scale appears first as a
small, dorsally compressed, broad boss in the axil of the bract. From
the first boss sj)ring three others, one central and two lateral. The
lateral bosses become broader, assume the form of auricles, cohere
externally, and, increasing mainly in width, are gradually converted
into an obliquely ascending lamina, the scale itself, which bears a
little above the middle in the median line, the subcentral boss, " the
organic apex of the axis," which axis produces no more appendages,
increases very little in size, and in the adult state, presents the forn>
of a hook bent inwards and downwards. On the upper surface of the
lateral -wings, towards their lower margin, which is turned towards
the primary axis, the ovules are, according to BaiUon, produced at a
later period.

From this description it is evident that three distinct organs, all
differing in period of origin, can be distinguished, each of which i»
developed from that immediately preceding it.

1. The axis which originates in the axil of the bract.

2. The ear-shaped organs, which spring laterally from this axis,
and are called by Baillon the two lateral lobes. These ascend
obliquely and form the greater part of the scale, but are so situated
with respect to the minute axis, as manifestly to exhibit the character
of appendicular organs. They form two nearly i-ight angles Avith the
ascending axis, and spread out laterally and almoot horizontally,.

CASPARY ON TnE MORPHOLOGY OF THE ABIETINEJ3. 25

HO that no one who has learned even the elements of morphological
botany, can help recognising them as leaves, and as the primary and
only leaves prodnced on the evanescent axis.

3. From the two lateral organs spring those third in order,
namely, the ovules.

Nowit is certainly wonderful, but it is not the less true, that Baillon
and Payer, failing to distingidsh the second organs (the lateral
leaves) from the first, though Baillon's description is sufficiently
accurate, have confounded both together, and considered them to be
a single organ, called by Payer a flattened form of the peduncle ;
thus rashly following Schleiden, (who, more than twenty years before
fell into the same mistake, of describing the axis and its primordial
leaves as a simple axis), and Mirbel,* who 46 years before confounded
these three very distinct kinds of organs under the common name of
peduncle.

Payer further says,t that " this flattened form of peduncle does
not surprise those who are aware of its existence in the branches of
se ^ eral plants, such as Suscus, X^IopJiyJI a, Phyllocladus, &c." No
one, however, but a tjro in morphology, would confound the scale of
Pinus resinosa, on whose upper surface, almost in its middle, the
growing point rises as the hooked apex of an evanescent axis, utterly
distinct both in position and direction, from the morphological apex
of the lamina of the proper scale, with the flattened branches of
Puscus, &c., whose withered growing point occiipies the very apex
of the lamina, and in which no trace of appendicular organs is found
below the growing point.

Baillon, in a somewhat impressive manner observes, after stating
some opinions of others on the structure of the flowers of Conifers, that
" the new modes of observation afibrded by the study of organogeny,
may with propriety be applied to the verification of these opinions."
M. Baillon may learn, from the mistakes into which he has been led by
the employment of a method which he and Payer alone imagine to
be new, that the different grades of evolution of an organ, caunot be
understood -vvdthout an accurate knowledge of the nature of the axis
and its appendages, and of the relations which exist between them.
M. Baillon, however, hardly knows the elements of morphology. How,
for instance, does it happen, that, at the present day, he uses the
term alternate,^ which was thus applied a century ago, to describe
the arrangement of the bracts of the female flowers of Conifers ?

Dr. Lindley,§ who considers the scales of pine cones to be carpels,
(that is, leaves), refers to a cone-like gall oi Pinus ahies, figm-ed by
Iiichard,|| which he mistakes for a cone, and in which he regards the
scales as being changed into the form of the acicular leaves of Pinus
ahies. Baillon has been led by Lindley into the same mistake, of
regarding this gall as a cone, and only differs from Lindley, so far,
that he thinks it is not the scales but the bracts which are changed

* Elemens de physiol, vegetale, 1815, i. p. 347. f In Baillon's paper, p. 20.
t 1. c. p. 6. § Veg. Kingd. p. 227. |i Mem. t. xii.

26 OEIGnfAL ARTICLES.

into leaves.* Had Baillon read the passage in Eieliard, to wliicK he
refers, he would have seen that Richard correctly regarded the gall as a
leafy branch, changed by the attacks of some insect into a false cone.
Degeei't describes the insect by which these galls are made, {Chermes
o&ie^2>, Linn.), and figures it and its gall. J He says, " those who
have no accurate botanical knowledge, may readily mistake the galls for
fir-cones and fruit." Kaltenbach§ says, in like manner, "that these
galls closely resemble fir-cones, and may readily be confounded with
them by ignorant people." ||

From the observations given above, it is certain that the flowers
of AbietineaB, consist of naked ovules rising from a carpel, and not of
pistils springing from an axis. It has been almost universally
acknowledged by authors, from the time of Richard down to that of
Baillon,^ that the flowers of Conifers and Cycads, are almost uniform
in structure, following the same laws, with very trifling difierences.
It appears, therefore, probable that the ovules of all Conifers, Taxiis
included, are borne on carpels and not on the axis, though at first
sight this appears incredible. I shall return to this subject elsewhere.

V. — Osr THE Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzeeland,
By John Lubbock, Esq., F.E.S.

Archeology forms the link between Geology and History — the past
and the present. If in its more recent portions it is scarcely distin-
guishable from History, yet when we pass back to its commencement,
we find ourselves to have imperceptibly glided into the domain of
Geology, without noticing any boundary to sejDarate the one from the
other. The beginning of Archseology being, in fact, but the end of
Geology, it is not surprising that they should, in the course of their
development, have presented some remarkable analogies. M. Morlot
has well pointed these out in his " Le^on d'ouverture d'un cours sur
la haute antiquite, fait a I'Academie de Lausanne."

Even, indeed, as the remains of extinct animals were at first sup-
posed to be few and far between, whereas, in fact, the surface of the
earth is made up of the dust and skeletons of our predecessors, so
the relics of man, long looked upon as rare and exceptional in their
occurrence, are gradually presenting themselves in unexpected pro-
fusion. Loth, however, to distrust the existing chronology, our
antiquaries long referred all the most beautiful and well-made wea-
pons to the Romans, just as all fossils were attributed to the
action of the Deluge. Passing on, then, with a graceful compliment to

* 1. c. p. 1 1. \ Geschichte von Insckten, deutsch von Gbtze, iii. p. 66, et seq.

X T. viii. f. 1 — 29. § Monographic dcr Familie der Pflanzenlause, p. 202.

II I may further refer, for information about these galls and the insect which
produces thein, to Burmcister, Handbuch der Entomologie, ii. 1. abtheil, p. 90, and
Koch, die Pllanzcnlause (aphider), p. .317, where the insect is well figrnxd at f. 387
and 388. ^ 1. c. p. 11.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 27

two of our most eminent contemporaries, M. Morlot points out that
as Lyell, the reformer of Zoology, by studying the changes now
taking place on the earth's surface, has explained the results which
Greology brings before us, and thus arguing from the known to the
unknown, has used the Present as a key to unlock the Past ; so M.
Thomsen, by collectiug the implements and recording the habits of
existing savages, has thrown much light xipon the manners and cus-
toms of ancient times. Fully recognising the imperfection of the re-
cord in the one case as well as ia the other, we must guard ourselves
against any hasty conclusions and generalisations, but it seems now to
be well established that a considerable elongation of the received
chronology is required in Arch&eology as decidedly, though not of
course to such an extent, as in Greology.

Perhaps, also, we may regard it as, to say the least, highly probable,
that in Northern Em'ope there have been three great epochs in the
history of man — primary, secondary, and tertiary — the first of Stone,
the second of Bronze,* and the third of Iron. This conclusion, which
we owe in the first instance to the Northern and especially to the
Danish Archaeologists, has been much strengthened by the recent
researches in the lakes of Switzerland.

It is however probable, as was mentioned in our last number,
that the Stone period will require much sub-division. In all classi-
fications we are apt, at first, to take the apparent, for the real dimen-
sions of the more distant portions, and it is only as we obtain a
closer acquaintance with them, that we discover their real propor-
tions. Thus, it would appear, that the Stone age must be divided
into at least two periods ; that of the drift on the one hand, and on
the other hand, that to which the Danish Kjokkenmoddings and the
Swiss Lake Habitations appear to belong.

These Lake-dwellings or " Pfahlbauten," — a term whose nearest
English equivalent is " Pile-works" — were made known to us in the
following manner.

In consequence of the extraordinary dryness and coldness of the
weather during the winter months of 1853 and 1854, the rivers of
Switzerland did not receive their usual supplies, and the water in the
lakes fell much below its ordinary level, so that in some places a broad
strand was left uncovered along the margin, while in others shallow
banks were converted into islands. Tlie water level of this season was,
indeed, the lowest upon record. Tlie lowest level marked on the so-
called stone of Stafa was that of 1674, but in 1854 the water sank a
foot lower. These unusual conditions, though very imfavourable to
navigation, enabled the Swiss Archaeologists to make the important
discoveries which we are about to bring before our readers.

* In a grave at Mare Hill in Staffordshire, Mr. Carrington found " a piece of
" lead, having the appearance of wire, which subsequent researches prove to have
" been accidentally fused from metalliferous gravel present upon the spot." May
not copper have been first obtained from some bright piece of ore, used as an orna-
ment, and burnt with its wearer ? The coincidence of a knowledge of metal with
the practice of burning the dead is at least significant.

28 OEIGrS'AL AETICIES.

M. Aeppli of Meilen, on the Lake of Zuricli, appears to Kave
been tlie first to observe, in the bed of the lake, certain indications
of human activity, ^hich he jnstly supposed might throw some light
on the history and condition of the earliest inhabitants of tiie Swiss
valleys. In a small bay between Ober Meilen and Dollikon, the
inhabitants took advantage of the lowness of the water to increase
their gardens, by building a wall along the new water-line, and
slightly raising the level of the piece thus reclaimed, by mud dredged
from the lake. In the course of this dredging they found great
numbers of piles, of deer-horns, and also some implements. The re-
searches at this place conducted and described by Dr. F. Keller,
have been followed by similar investigations in other lakes, and have
proved that the early inhabitants of Switzerland consti'ucted some, at
least, of their dwellings above the surface of the water, as is done in
the present day by savages in various countries, as for instance
the Papons of Xew Guinea, whose huts, circular or square in form, are
grouped on wooden platforms, elevated a few feet above the level of
the water, supported by numerous piles driven into the mud, and
connected with the land by a narrow bridge.

This method of construction, indications of which are found in
various parts of Europe, was especially mentioned by Herodotus,* who
describes the Pceonians of Lake Prasias, in Thrace, as li\'ing in cabins
situated on a platlbrm, supported above the water by great piles.
Each cabin had a trap-door opening on to the lake, and the whole
settlement communicated with the main land by a bridge.

The Swiss " PfaJilhaufen,''' or lake habitations, have been described
by M. Keller, in three memoirs presented to the Antiquarian Society
of Zurich, in 1S51, 1S5S, and 1860, and by M. Troyon, in a special
work, " Sur les Habitation Lacustres," 1860, in which the author
gives a general account of what has been done in Switzerland, and
compares the results obtained in his native land, with the lake-
dwellings of other coimtries and times. The discoveries in Lake
Moosseedorf have been described in a special paper by MM. Jahn and
Uhlmann (Die Pfahlbaualterthumer von Moosseedorf. Bern, 1857.) ;
and we owe to M. Eiitimeyer two works on the animal remains from
the Pfahlbauten, the first " IJntersuchimg der Thierreste aus den
PfaUbauten der Schweiz," published by the Antiquarian Society of
Zmich, in 1860 ; and still more recently a larger work — " Die Fauna
der Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz." Collections of objects fi*om these
localities have also been made by many Swiss Archasologists.

The Flora has been studied by M. Heer, whose results are con-
tained in the last memoir published by M, Keller. Nor must we omit to
mention M. Morlot's short paper in the " Bulletin de la Societe Yau-
doise," and his more recent " LeQon d'Ouverture d'un cours sur la
haute Antiquite fait a I'Academie de Lausanne." From the conclusion
of this lecture, indeed, I must express my dissent : not that I would

• Her. Book V. ch. 16,

LUBBOCK OX THE A^'CLEaTT T.^KT. HABITATIONS OF S-WTTZEELANT). 29

undervalue ^vliat M. Morlot calls the Practical Utility of Geology,
nor that I am less sanguine as to the fature advantages of Arcliseology.
Science, however, is like virtue, its o^vn reward, and the improvement
of the mind must be regarded as the highest object of study. How-
ever this may be, M. Morlot is, to use his own metaphor, labouring
earnestly in the vineyard, and is improving the soil, though, as in the
old fable, it may be in the false hopes of finding a concealed treasure.
The Swiss Archaeologists have, indeed, made the most of a golden op-
portunity. Not only in Lake Zurich, but also in Lakes Constance,
G-eneva, Xeufehatel,'^ Bieime, Morat, Sempach, in fact in most of the
large Swiss lakes, as well as in several of the smaller ones (Likwyl,
Pfaffikon, Moosseedorf, Luissel), similar lake-habitations have been
discovered. In the larger lakes, indeed, not one, but many of these
settlements existed ; thus, M. Keller mentions, in Lake Bienue,
eleven; in Lake Xeufchatel, twenty-six; in the Lake of Greneva,
twenty-four ; in that of Constance, sixteen ; and many more, doubt-
less, remain to be discovered.

Tlie dwellings of the Grauls are described as having been circular
huts, built of wood and lined with mud. The huts of the Pileworks
were probably of a similar nature. This supposition is not a mere
hypothesis, but is confirmed by the preservation of pieces of the clay
used for the lining. Their preservation is evidently due to the building
having been destroyed by fibre, which has hardened the clay and
enabled it to resist the dissolving action of the water. These frag-
ments bear, on one side, the marks of interlaced branches, while on
the other, which apparently formed the iiuier wall of the cabin, they
are qvdte smooth. Some of those which have been found at Wangen
are so large and so regular that the Swiss Archa?ologists feel
justified in concluding that the cabins were circular, and from ten
to fifteen feet in diameter. Though, therefore, the architecture of
this period was very simple, still the weight to be sustained on the
wooden platforms must have been considerable, and their construc-
tion, which must have required no small labotir,* indicates a con-
siderable popvdation. It would, indeed, be most interesting if we
coidd construct a retrospective census for these eai'ly periods, and
M. Troyon has made an attempt to do so, though the results must,
naturally, be somewhat vague. The settlement at Merges, which is
one of the larirest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1200 feet long and 150
broad, which would give a suiface of 180,000 square feet. Taking
the cabins as being 15 feet in diameter, and supposing that they
occupied half the siuiace, leaving the rest for gangways, we may esti-
mate the number of cabins at 311, and if we suppose that, on an
average, each was inhabited by four persons, we shall have, for the
whole, a population of 1244. Starting from the same data, we should
obtain for the Lake of Neufchatel, a population of about 5000. Alto-

* '"Increasing density of population is equivalent to increasing facility of produc-
tion." Bastiat, Hannonies of Political (Economy, p. 12.

30 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES.

getter, 68 villages, belonging to tlie Bronze xlge, have been discovered
in Western Switzei'land, and by the same process of reasoning tliey
may be supposed to have contained 42,500 persons ; while for the
preceding epoch, the population may, in the same manner, be esti-
mated at 31,875.

Por a moment it may surprise us that a people so uncivilised
should have constructed their dwellings with immense labour on the
water, when it would have been so much more easy to have built
them on dry land. The first settlers in Switzerland, however, had to
contend with the Boar, the "Wolf, the Bear, and the TJrus ; and sub-
sequently, when the population increased, and disputes arose, the lake
habitations, no doubt, acted as a fortification, and protected man
from man, as they had before preserved him from wild beasts.

Switzerland is not, by any means, the only country in which lake
dwellings have been used as fortresses. In Ireland, a number of
more or less artificial islands, called " Crannoges,"* are known his-
torically, to have been used as strongholds by the petty chiefs. They
are composed of earth and stones, strengthened by numerous piles,
and have supplied the Irish Archaeologists with numerous weapons
and bones. From the Crannoge at Dunshauglin, indeed, more
than 150 cart-loads of bones were obtained, and were used as manure !
These lake dwellings of Ireland, however, come down to a much later
period than those of Switzerland, and are frequently mentioned in
early history. Thus, according to Shirley, " One Thomas Phelliplace,
" in his answer to an inquiry from the Government, as to what castles
" or forts O'Neil hath, and of what strength they be, states (May 18,
" 1567) : ' For castles, I think it be not unknown unto your honors,
" he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the
*' raising of the strongest castles of all his countreys, and that fortifi-
" cation that he only dependeth upon is in sartin ffresliwater loghes
" in his country, which from the sea there come neither ship nor
" boat to approach them : it is thought that there in the said forti-
" fied islands lyeth all his plate, which is much, and money, prisoners
" and gages : which islands, hath in wars to fore been attempted, and
" now of late again by the Lord Deputy there. Sir Harry Sydney,
" which for want of means for safe conducts upon the water it hath
" not prevailed.' "

Again, the map of the escheated territories, made for the Govern-
ment, A.D. 1591, by Francis Jobson, or the " Piatt of the County
of Monaghan," preserved in the State Paper Oifice, contains rough
sketches of the dwellings of the petty chiefs of Monaghan, which
"are in all cases surrounded by water."t In the "Aiuials of
the Four Masters," and other records of early Irish history, we meet
with numerous instances in which the Crannoges are mentioned, and
some in which their position has not preserved them from robbery and

* See Wilde's Catalogue, V. i. p. 220.
t Ibid. p. 23L

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 31

destruction ; so that we need not be surprised to find that most of
the Swiss Lake-habitations appear to have been destroyed by lire.
Though, however, these latter resemble the Irish Crannoges in their
position and use, they differ considerably from them in their construc-
tion. In one or two places, indeed, as for instance at the Steinberg,
in the Lake of Bienne, it is possible that an island may have been
formed, the bottom of the lake having been artificially raised. It is curi-
ous that a canoe laden with stones, was actually found near this spot,
it having, apparently, sunk with its load, at the time whenthe Steinberg
was in process of construction. After all, however, it seems probable
that even in this case, the object was only to obtain a firmer founda-
tion for the piles. At the present time the highest part is eight feet
below the surface of the water, and nothing justifies us in looking
back to any such alteration of level. Moreover, even now the piles
project two or tln-eefeet above the surface, upon which.therefore, the
cabins cannot have been intended to stand. A small island in Lake
Inkwyl, however, reproduces almost exactly the Irish Crannoge.

After having chosen a favourable situation, the first step in the con-
struction of the Lake-habitations was to obtain the necessary timber.
To cut down a tree with a stone hatchet must have been no slight
undertakmg. It is, indeed, most probable that they made use of fire,
in the same manner as is done by existing savages in felling trees and
making canoes. Burning the wood and then scraping away the charred
portion, renders, indeed, the task far more easy, and the men of the
Stone period appear to have avoided the use of large trees, except
in making their canoes. Their piles were imbedded in the mud
for from one to five feet, and must also have projected Jfrom four to
six feet above the water level, which cannot have been very different
from at present. They must, therefore, have had a length of from
1-5 to 30 feet, and they were from 3 to 9 inches in diameter. The
pointed extremity which entered into the mud still bears the marks
of the fire, and the rude cuts made by the stone hatchets. The piles
belonging to the Bronze period being prepared with metal axes, were
much more regularly pointed, and the differences between the two
have been ingeniously compared to those shown by lead pencils well
and badly cut. Dragging the piles to the lake, and fixing them
firmly, must have required much labour, especially when their number
is considered. At Wangen alone M. Lolile has calculated that
40,000 piles have been used ; but we must remember that these were
probably not all ]jlanted at one time, nor by one generation. Wangen,
indeed, was certainly not built in a day, but was, no doubt, gradually
added to as the population increased. Herodotus informs us that
the Pceoniaus made the first platform at the pubHc expense, but
that subsequently at every marriage (and polygamy was permitted),
the bridegroom was expected to add a certain number of piles to the
common support. In some localities, as at Eobenhausen, on Lake
Pfeffikon, the piles were strengthened by cross beams. The Pile-
works of subsequent periods differ little from those of the Stone age,
except, perhaps, that they are more solidly constructed. The piles,

S2 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

also, are less? decayed, and project above tlie mud farther than those of
the preceding epoch. M. Morlot considers that the horizontal plat-
form rested upon the top of these piles, at such a height as to allow for
all ordinary variations in the level of the water. M. Suter, however,
supposes that in some cases, at least, the platform was not attached
to the perpendicular piles, but rested upon the water, rising and
sinking with it. The structure of the Pileworks at TVauwyl, in
the Canton of Lucerne, certainly seems to lavour this view. It was
composed of four rectangular divisions, separated by narrow channels,
over which, no doubt, bridges were thrown, and through which canoes
might pass. The piles were less numerous than usual, and were
grouped principally round the outer edge of the platforms. In this
case they have been preserved by peat ; they are from three to four
and a half inches in diameter, all rounded, and not formed of split
timber. In order to ascertain their length, M. Suter dug up two
of them ; the longest penetrated four feet through the peat, and ten
feet six inches into the ancient bed of the lake ; the other, also
four feet through the peat, but only four feet six inches lower. M.
Suter examined the piles carefully, but fruitlessly, to ascertain any
manner in which the platform can have been attached to them.

Tlie platform itself consisted of five layers of trees, curiously and
carefully fastened together by clay and interlaced branches of trees, but
like the perpendicular piles they were examined in vain for any traces
of notches, mortises, holes, ligatures, bolts, or any other contrivance,
by which the upright pUes and the platforms could have been fas-
tened together.

Not only were the debris of their rej^asts, and other rubbish
thrown into the water, but more or less valuable weapons and instru-
ments must have been sometimes lost in this manner, especially as
children formed, of course, the usual proportion of the population.
Many of the articles presently to be mentioned, were however,
in all probability, engulphed at the destruction of the Pfahlbauten,
some of which were perhaps burnt and rebuilt more than once.

The number of stone implements which have been abeady found
is quite astonishing ; at Wangen, in Lake Constance, many hiuidred
weapons of various sorts have been discovered, and a great number
also at Moosseedorf,'Wau^vyl and Eobenhausen,in none of which places
has a single piece of metal been as yet met Avith, a fact which, taken
in connexion with the great number of bronze implements which
have been collected from other Pileworks, clearly indicates that
the settlements above mentioned, belonged to the age of Stone. Not
only, hoY^'evcr, is metal absent, and not only, as we have already
seen, does the Fauna indicate a greater antiquity, but the stone
weapons themselvess are less varied and less skilfully made. Most of
them are made from rocks which occur in Switzerland, though it is pro-
bable that the flint was brought from Prance. The absence of any great
blocks of this valuable material in Switzerland accounts for our not
finding any of the large, flat axes which are so characteristic of
northern JEurope, and especially of Denmark. At Wangen, the

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 33

stone implements resemble those of Moosseedorf, and are principally
formed of indigenous rocks, wliicli to judge from the fragments
scattered about, were evidently worked up at these two places. One
or two bits, however, consisted of Oriental Nephrite, which is green,
transparent, and of remarkable hardness, and if these really belonged
to the Stone age, the fact is very remarkable, as this substance,
according to Swiss mineralogists, does not naturally occur in Swit-
zerland, and must have been brought from Egypt or Asia. On this
point, however, it would be desirable to have more information ;
since, if we are to suppose that any such extended commerce
existed, it is difficult to understand why bronze and iron were not
also introduced. Weapons of Nephrite have also been found at
one or two other places, belonging to the Bronze age, and where
therefore its presence is less inexplicable. The stone implements
found in the settlements belonging to this earliest period consist of
hammers, axes, knives, saws, lance-heads, arrow-heads, corn-crushers,
and polishing blocks. Some of the hammers were made of serpentine
with a hole pierced through one end, and are, like aU pierced stones,
of very great rarity, belonging perhaps only to the end of the Stone
period . Some of them are cylindrical, others more cubical in shape.
The axe was preeminently the im])lement of antiquity. It was
used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic purposes, and
great numbers have been found, especially at Wangen, (Lake of
Constance) aud Concise (Lake of Neufchatel). With a few excep-
tions they were surprisingly small, especially when compared with
the magnificent specimens from Denmark ; in length they varied
from six inches down even as low as one, whUe the cutting edge had
generally a width of from 15 to 20 lines. Mint was sometimes used,
and nephrite, or jade, in a few cases, but serpentine was the principal
material. Most of the larger settlements were evidently manufacturing
places, and many spoilt pieces and half finished specimens have been
found. The process of manufacture is thus described by M. Troyon.
After having chosen a stone, the first step was to reduce it by
blows with a hammer to a suitable size. Then grooves were made
artificially, which must have been a very tedious and difficult opera-
tion, when flint knives, sand, a little water, and an unlimited amount
of patience, were the only available iustruments. Having carried
the grooves to the required depths, the projecting portions were re-
moved by a skilful blow with a hammer, and the implement was then
sharpened and polished on blocks of sandstone.

Sometimes the hatchet thus obtained was simply fixed in a handle
of horn or wood. Generally, however, the whole instrument con-
sisted of three parts. A piece of horn, two or three inches in length,
received the stone at one end and was squared at the other, so as to
fit into a longer handle either of wood or horn. These intermediate
pieces present several variations, some are simply squared, others have
a projecting wing which rested against the handle, some few are
forked as if to I'eceive a wedge, and one had a small transverse hole
apparently for the insertion of a peg.

N. H. R.— 1862. D

34 OKI GIN AL ARTICLES.

The knives may be considered as of t\vo sorts. Some differ from
the axes, principally in having their width greater than their length.
In other cases they were made of flint flakes. In this manner also
were obtained the saws, which in addition had their edges someAvhat
rudely dentated ; they were fixed into handles of wood by some sort
of cement ; but we do not find in Switzerland any of the semilunar
saws, which are frequent in Denmark.

The arrow-heads were made of flint, or in some cases of rock crystal,
and were, as in Ireland, of tliree principal sorts, between which how-
ever, there were a great many varieties. The fii'st sort had a diamond
shape, the posterior half of which was, in some specimens, shorter
and rounded ofl". Tlie second sort had the posterior margin more or
less excavated, so that the angles being produced, as it were, into
wings, clasped the shaft and enabled the arrow-head to be more
firmly fixed. In the third sort, the middle part of the posterior side
had a projection which sunk into the shaft. There are also found
rounded stones, pierced with one, or sometimes with two holes. The
use of these is uncertain, but they may perhaps have been used to
sink fishing lines.

"Waste not, want not," is a proverb which the Lalie- dwellers
thoroughly appreciated. Ha\'iug caught any vrild animal, except
the hare, they ate the flesh, used the skin for clotliing, picked
every fragment of marrow out of the bones, and then in many
cases, fashioned the bones themselves into weapons. The larger
and more compact ones served as hammers, and, as well as horns
of the deer, were used for the handles of hatchets. In some cases
pieces of bone were worked to a sharp edge, but they can only
have been used to cut soft substances.* Bone harpoons, poig-
nards, arrow-heads, and javelin heads also occur, and pins and
needles of this material are very common. Teeth also, and par-
ticularly those of the wild boar, were used for cutting, and were
also, in some cases, worn as ornaments or armlets. There can be
little doubt that wood was also extensively used for different pur-
poses, but unfortunately most of the implements of this material
have perished. A wooden mallet, however, was found at Concise.

For our knowledge of the animal remains from the Pileworks
we are almost entirely indebted to Prof. Eiitimeyer, who has pul)-
lished two memoirs on the subject. (Mittheiluugen des Antiq. Ge-
sellschaft in Zurich, Bd. xiii. Abth. 2, ISGO ; and, more recently, a
separate work. Die Eauna des Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz, 1861.)
The bones are in the same fragmentary condition as those from
the Kjokkennioddings, and have been opened in the same manner for
the sake of the marrow. There is also the same ab.^ence of certain bones
and parts of bones, so that it is impossible to reconstruct a perfect
skeleton even of the commonest animals.

The total number of species amounts to about 66, of which 10 are

* According to Sir E. Belcher, however, shaipenccl pieces of horn are used
by the Esquimaux in the preparation of flint -weapons.

LUBBOCK OS THE ANCIEXT LAKE UABITATlOXS OP SWITZEBLAND. 35

fishes, 3 reptiles, 17 bii'ds, aud the remainder quadrupeds. Of the
latter, eight species may be considered as having been domesticated,
namely, the Dog, Pig, Horse, Ass, Goat, Sheep, and at least two species
of Oxen. The bones very seldom occur in a natural condition, but
those of domestic and wild animals are mixed together, and the state
in Avhich they are found, the marks of knives upon them, and their
having been almost always broken open for the sake of the marrow,
are all evidences of human interference.

Two species, the one wild, the other domestic, are especially nu-
merous,— the Stag and the Ox. The remains of these two indeed equal
tliose of all the others together. It is, however, interesting, that
in the older settlements, as Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, and Sobenhauseu,
(Lake Pfeffikon,) the Stag exceeds the Ox in the number of speci-
mens indicated, while the reverse is the case in the more modern
settlements of the western lakes, as, for instance, those at Wangen aud
Meilen.

Next to these in order of abundance is the Hog. More sparing
again, and generally represented by single specimens where the pre-
ceding occur by dozens, are the Roe, the Goat, and the Sheep, which
is most numerous in the latter settlements. With these rank the Fox
and the Martens. The Pox indeed, appears, whether fi'om choice or
necessity, to have been eaten during the Stone period. Thi<i conclu-
sion is derived from the fact that the bones often present- the marks
of knives, and have been opened for the sake of the marrow.
YvHiile, however, it is very frequent in the Pileworks of the Stone
epoch, it has not yet been found in any settlement belonging to the
Bronze period. Oddly enough, the Dog is, at least in the lake dwel-
lings of the Stone period, rarer than the Pox, though more common
than the Horse or the Ass; and of other species but few specimens
have been met with, though, in some localities, the Beaver, the Badger,
and the Hedgehog appear in some numbers.

Tlie Bear and Wolf, as well as the Urns, the Bison, and the Elk seem
only to have occasionally been captured; it is probable that the latter
species were taken in concealed pits.

Prom the small lake at Moosseedorf, M. Eiitimeyer has identified
the following list : — Of the Dog, 3 spechnens ; Fox, 4 specimens ; Bea-
ver, 5 specimens ; Eoe, 6 specimens : Goat and Sheep, 10 specimens;
Cow, IG specimens ; Hog, 20 specimens ; Stag, 20 specimens.

It is certainly very striking to find two wild species represented by
the greatest number of specimens, and particularly so, since this is
no exceptional case ; but the whole sum of the wild, exceeds that of the
domesticated individuals, a result moreover which is confirmed by the
other settlements of this epoch. Not only does this indicate a great
antiquity, but it also proves that the population must have been some-
times subjected to great privations, not only from the necessary un-
certainty of supplies so obtained, but also because we cannot suppose
that foxes would have been eaten except under the pressure of hunger.

In his first memoir. Prof Eiitimeyer gives an interesting table,

1)2

OEIGINAL AKTICLES.

wliich I here subjoin, premising that 1 denotes a single individual ;
2, several individuals ; 3, the species which are common ; 4, those
which are very common ; and 5, those which are present in great
numbers. An x indicates a trace, and I have inserted a + in those
cases in which the species have occui-red since the table was constructed.
I may also repeat that Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Eobenhausen, and Wan-
gen belong to the Stone period, while Meilen and Concise were also
inhabited during that of Bronze, and Auvernier and Steinberg have
even produced a few weapons of iron.

STONE.

BRONZE.

IRON.

1 The Brown Bear

2 The Badger

3 The Martin .

4 The Pine Martin

5 The Polecat

6 The Ermine

7 The Otter

8 The Wolf

9 The Fox .

10 The Dog .

1 1 The Wild Cat .

12 The Hedgehog .

13 The Beaver . .

14 The SquiiTel . .

15 The Marsh Boar

16 The Wild Boar .

1 7 The Domestic Hog

18 The Horse . .

19 The Elk . . .

20 The Stag . . .

21 The Roe . . .

22 The Fallow Deer

23 The Ibex . . .

24 The Goat . . .

25 The Sheep . .

26 The Urua . , .

27 The European Bison

28 The Ox . .

29 The Kite . .

30 The Goshawk
31

32 The Ringdove

33 The Wild Duck

34 The Garganey

35 The Heron .

36 The fresh water Tortoise

37 The edible Frog

38 The Salmon .

39 The Pike . .

40 The Carp . .

41 The Bleak . -.

Ursus Arctos . ,
Meles vulgaris
Mustela Foiua
„ Martes .
„ Putorius .
„ Erminea .
Lutra vulgaris
Canis Lupus , .

„ Vulpes . .

„ familiaris .
Fells Catus . .
Erinaceus europseus
Castor fiber . .
Scuirus europoeus
Sus Scrofa palustris
„ „ ferus
„ „ domesticus
Equus Caballus
Cervus Alecs .

„ Elaphus

„ Capreolus

„ Dama .
Capra Ibex . .

„ Hircus .
Oris Aries
Bos primigenius
„ Bison . .
„ Taurus domesticus
Falco Milvus . ,

„ palumbanus

„ Nisus . .
Columba Palumbus
Anas Boschas . .

„ quenpiedula ?
Ardea einerea
Cistudo curopapa
Rana esculenta .
Sal mo Salar . .
Esox Lucius . .
Cyprinus Carpio .
,, leuciscus

t*i

i-^

-S

"?.

•S

'l>

(X)

2 '

....

• ■ • •

(X)
(X)

* • • •

• • • •

'+'

• • • «

• • • •

• • • ■

(X)

• • • •

(X)

(2)

(X)

• * a •

(X)

• • • •

? 1

?1
2

3
3

• • • •

(X)

....

(X)

• • • •

• • « •

e . • .

.. ..

• • • •

3-4

(X)
(X)

• • • •

'(x)'

3-4

• • • •

• • •

• • • •

-f

.. . .

s 5

5
1

.')

(X)

• . • .

3
2

* + *

ITJBBOCK ON THE AITCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF 8WITZEELAND. 37

The additional species added since tliis table was published are : —

42. The Mouse, M. sylvaticus. A single specimen, from Eo-
benhausen. Our common house-mice and rats seem to have been un-
known, and even this species is at present represented by but a sLugle
specimen.

43. The Hare, Lepus timidus. Of this species only a single
bone has yet occurred. It was found at Moosseedorf. It is very
remarkable that any nation should have eaten the Fox and spared
the Hare, and nothing but a feeling of superstition can account for
such an anomaly, which, however, accords weU with the entire absence
of the Hare from the Kj5kkenmoddings of Denmark.

44. The Chamois, Antilope rupicapra. This species is represented
by a piece of skull from Eobenhausen.

45. A second race of domestic Oxen.

46. The Ass.

The additional birds which have been discovered are : —

Aquila fulva, Meyer. The Golden Eagle. At Eobenhausen.
Aquila haliaetus. A single bone found at Moosseedorf is rather

doubtfully referred to this species by M. Eutimeyer.
Strix alves. From Concise.
Sturnus vulgaris. „ Eobenhausen.
Cinclus aquatinus „

Tetrao bonasia „

Ciconia alba. Not unfrequent at Moosseedorf and Eobenhausen.
Fulica atra. Eobenhausen.

Larus. Sp. in „

Cygnus musicus. „

Ajiser segetum. „

Tlie additional species of fish are : —

Perca fluviatilis. Eobenhausen.

Scardinius erythropthalmus. „

Chondrostoma nasus. „

Lota vidgaris. „

And one or two species belonging to the genus Squaliua.
The common Mouse and our two House-rats, as well as the domestic
Cat and the Barndoor-fowl are absent from the Lake-habitations of
Switzerland as from the Kjokkenmoddings of Denmark; at least Prof.
Eiitimeyer attributes to a later period a single bone of the latter which
was found at Merges, a settlement belonging to the Bronze period.

The bones of the Stag and the Wild Boar often indicate animals
of an unusual magnitude, whUe on the other hand the Fox appears to
have been somewhat smaller than at present.

The Dogs varied less than at present, in fact they aU belong to one
variety, which was of middle size, and appears to have resembled our
present Beagles. (M. Eiitimeyer describes it as " resembling the Jagd-
hund" and the " "Wachtelhund.")

The Sheep of the Stone period differed from the ordinary form, in
its small size, fine legs, and short, goat-like horns : particulars,
in which it is nearly resembled by, some northern, and mountaia

S8 OIIIGIKAL ARTICLES.

varieties at tlie present day, as for instance by the small sheep of the
Slietlands, Orkneys, Welsh liills, and parts of the Alps. At Wamvyl,
however, M. Eii'timeyer found traces of an individual with large
horns.

Tlie number of wild species of Sheep is so great, and our know-
lodge of Ihem is so deficient, that M. Eiitimeyer does not venture to
express any opinion concerning the origin of our domestic varieties,
except that he is inclined to trace them up to several wild races.

It is singular, tliat though remains of the Horse have yet been
found in all the Pileworks, they are so rare tliat their presence may
a]mo.st be considered accidental: thus Wangen has only produced a
single tooth, Moosseedorf, a metatarsal bone, which has been polished
on one side, Eobenhausen, a single Os naviculare tarsi, and Wauwyl,
only a fcAv bones, v.'hich may all have belonged to a single specimen.
On the other hand, when we come to the Bronze period, we find at
Steinberg, numerous remains of this species, so that, as far as these
sliglit indications go, the Horse, though undoubtedly present in the
Stone age, seems to have been rarer than it became at subsequent
periods. All the remains of the Horse belonged undoubtedly to
the domestic species.

. Though he refers some bones to the Wild Boar, and others to
the Domestic Hog, yet he considers that the greatest number of the
remains of this genus belong to a diiferent race, which he calls Sus
scrofa palustris. This variety Avas, in his opinion, less powerful and
dangerous than the Wild Boar, the tusks being much smaller in pro-
])orti<)n ; in fact he describes it as having with the molar teeth of an
ordinary full grown Wild Boar, the premolars, canines, andincisives of
a young Domestic Hog. He considers that all the bones of tliis
variety from Moosseedoif, belonged to wild individuals, while of those
from Nidau- Steinberg, Eobenhausen, Wauwyl, and Concise, some
bore in his opinion evidences of domestication. It has been supposed
by some naturabsts that this variety was founded only on female
specimens, but in his last work, M. Eiitimeyer combats this opinion
at some length, and gives copious descriptions and measurements of
the diflevcnt parts. He also points out numerous sexual difterences
in the S. palustris, of the same nature, but not so well marked, as
tliose of tlie Wild Boar. Eelying also on its well defined geographical
and historical range, lie denies that it can be considerd as a cross be-
tween the Wild Boar and Domestic Hog, or that the difterences which
He|>arate it from the former, can be looked upon as mere individual
pecidiarilies. He considers, indeed, that as a wild animal it became
extinct at a very early period, though the tame S^\•ine of India whicli
agi-ee clo.^ely with this race may perhaps have been descended from it.

Our Domestic Hog fii-st makes its appearance in the later Pile-
works, as for instance at Concise. M. Eiitimeyer does not, however,
consider lliat it can have been derived from the Wild Boar (Sus
scrota), nor does he think that it was tamed by the inhabitants of
Swii/ei-laud, but is rather dis])osed to look "upon it as having
been introduced, and the more so, as he finds at Concise traces

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLANI). 39

of an Ox (-B. trochoceros) wliich does not occur in tlie earlier
Pileworks. In considering whether a given animal was wild
or domesticated, we must be guided by the folloTvdng considera-
tions : the number of individuals represented ; the relative propor-
tions of young and old ; the absence or presence of very old individuals,
at least of species that served for food ; the traces of long, though
indirect, selection, in diminishing the size of any natural weapons
which might be injurious to man ; the direct action of man dining
the lile of the animal ; and finally the texture and condition of the
bones.

Applying these considerations to the Sus palustris from Moos-
seedorf, it is evident, firstly, that the argument derivable from the
number of young specunens loses much of its force on account of
the great fertility of the Sow, and the ease with which the yoimg
can be found and"^ destroyed ; secondly, in the number of individuals
represented, it is equalled by the S'tag, vvhich certainly was never
domesticated ; thirdly, some bones of very old individuals have been
found and some of very young, even of unborn pigs ; the small-
ness of the tusks is, according to M. Eiitimeyer, a characteristic of
the race and not an evidence of domestication ; the bones are of a
firm and close texture, and the only cases of decay have arisen from
an extreme degradation of the teeth, which would certainly be
unlikely to occur in a domestic animal, finally, none of the teeth
show traces of any filing or other preparation, except such as may
have taken place after the death of the animal, from all of which
reasons M. Eiitimeyer infers that the inhabitants of Moosseedorf
had not yet succeeded in taming either the Sus scrofa palustris or
the Sus scrota ferus.

M. Eiitimeyer has paid great attention to the texture and condi-
tion of the bones themselves, and in many cases can from these
alone distinguish the species, and even determine whether the bone
belonged to a wild or a domesticated animal.

In wild animals the bones are of a firmer and closer texture,
there is an indescribable, but to the accustomed eye very characteristic,
scvdpturing of the external surface, produced by the sharj^er and
more numerous impressions of vessels, and the greater roughness
of the surfaces for the attachment of muscles. There is also an
exaggeration of all projections and ridges, and a diminution of all
indilferent surfaces. In the consideration of the remains of Oxen, these
distinctions have proved of the greatest importance. By their assist-
ance, and this is in some respects the most interesting part of the
work, M. Eiitimeyer has convinced himself that besides the two wild
species of Bos, namely the Urus (B. primigenhis) and the Aurochs
{B. bison or Bison Europeus), three domestic races of Oxen occur in
PileworlvS.

The first of these is allied to, and in his opinion descended from,
the Urus, and he therefore calls it the Primigenius race. This variety
occurs in aR the Pileworks of the Stone period. The second or
Trochoceros race, he correlates with a fossil species described luider

OEiaiNAL AETICLES.

this name by F. von Meyer, from the Diluvium of Arezzo and
Siena, This variety has hitherto only been found at Concise.

The third, or Longifrons race, is by far the most common of
the three. It occurs in all the Pileworks, and at Moosseedorf and
"Wangen — that is to say, in the settlements which are supposed to be
the oldest, ahuost to the exclusion of the Primigenius race. M.
Eutimeyer considers that it is the domesticated form of B. longifrons
of Owen, but as the word " longifrons " seems to him to be inappro-
priate and incorrect, he uses the name " braehyceros," which was ori-
ginally proposed in manuscript by Owen for this species, but which
has also been used by Gray for an African species, and ought not
therefore to be adopted.

A subsequent portion of the work is devoted to the examination
of the existing races of Eurojjean Oxen. The old Trochoceros race
he considers to be extinct, but he sees in the great Oxen of Fries-
land, Jutland, and Holstein, the descendants of the Bos primigenius.
This race does not now occur in Switzerland, but he considers
that there are at present in that country two distinct varieties of
Domestic Oxen. Tlie one of various shades between light grey
and dark brown, but without spots, and prevailing in Schwyz, tJri,
Wallis, &c., in fact, in the whole country south of a line dra^vTi from
the Lake of Constance to WaUis, agrees in its general osteological
characters with the Bos longifrons of Owen. The other or spotted
variety, which is generally of smaller size, and prevails in Isorthern
Switzerland, is considered by M. Eiitimeyer to be descended from the
B. frontosus, a species found fossil in Sweden and described by Nillson.

I wiU not express any opinion of my own as to these conclusions.
The subject is one no less dilhcult than important, and our space
does not permit us to lay before our readers the details given by M.
Elitimeyer, to whose work therefore we mvist refer all those who wish
for more information on the subject. All naturalists must feel much
indebted to M. Eiitimeyer for the labour he has spent, and the light
he lias thrown upon the subject, whether we eventually adopt his
conclusions or not. In six woodcuts at the termination of this
memoir, I give representations of the skulls of these three races, and
those of the corresponding fossil species.

Human bones occur in the Pileworks but very seldom, and may
no doubt be referred to accidents, especially as we fmd that those of
children are most numerous. One mature skull was, however, dis-
covered at Meilen, and has been described by Professor His, Avho
considers that it does not diiFer much from the ordinary S^sviss type.
And while his work was in the press, M. Riitimeyer received from
M. Schwab four more skulls, two of which were obtained at Nidan-
Steinberg, one at Sutz, and one from Biel.

M. Troyon has a very interesting chapter on the different modes
of burial ; he points oiit that the disposition of the corpse after
death, had a deep meaning and is perhaps of greater importance than
tiie nature of the tomb, which must in many cases have depended
upon tliat of the materials which came to hand. The Greeks gener-

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 4fi

ally burnt their dead ; considering fire as the means of purification,
while the Persians, shrank from such an act, regarding fire, according
to Herodotus, as a deity. Other nations, looldng upon the earth as
the universal mother, returned into her bosom the remains of their
dead, fortunately ignorant of the deduction that as we brought
nothing into the world so we can take nothing out of it, and re-
garding it therefore as a sacred duty to bury with the departed his
most useful weapons and most beautiful ornaments. Tliis belief
seems to have been almost as general as the hope of a resurrection,
and even among the Jews we find a trace of it in the words of Eze-
kiel (ch. xxxii. p. 27). "And they shall not lie with the mighty
" that are fallen of the uncircumcised, which are gone down to hell
" with their weapons of war."

In tombs of the Stone age the corpse appears to have been almost
always, if not always, buried in a sitting position, with the knees
brought up imder the chin, and the hands crossed over the
breast.* This attitude occurs also in many Asiatic, African, and
American tombs. M. Troyon, quotes the following passage from
a work published by Andre Thevet, in 1575 ; " Quand done (speak-
ing of the Brazilian aborigines), leurs parents sont morts, ils les
courbent dans un bloc et monceau dans la lict oh. ils sont decedes,
tout ainsi que les enfants sont au ventre de la mere, puis ainsi enve-
loppes, lies et garrottes de cordes, ils les mettent dans une grande vase
de terre." M. Troyon adds, " Chez certains Indiens, les meres, apres
avoir donne a I'homme, avant de I'inhumer, I'attitude qu'il avait dans
le sein maternel, epanchent leur lait sur la tombe. Cet usage dea
meres, qui assimile I'homme apres sa mort au petit enfant qu'elles
nom*rissent de leur lait, s'est conserve, sauf I'attitude, il est ATai,
jusqu'au commencement de ce siecle, dans le centre de I'Europe, dans
la vallee alpestre des Ormonts ;" making this last statement on the
authority of M. Terrise, Avho was himself an eye-witness of this
extraordinary custom.

Making allowance for the marine animals, such as the seals and
oysters, the cockles, whelks, &c., the fauna thus indicated by the
remains found in the Swiss lakes, agrees remarkably with that which
characterises the Danish Kjokkenmoddings, and belongs evidently to
a far later age than that of the celebrated stone hatchets, which were
first made known to us by the genius and perseverance of M. Boucher
de Perthes.f ^om qib n

, 'Lii, .V . IL<

* See for Denmark, Worsaae's Antiquities, Eng. Edit. p. 89. To jndge from
Mr. Bateman's excellent volmne just published, " Ten years diggings in Celtic and
Saxon Gravehills," the same position was, to say the least of it, very common iu
early British Tombs, in which also the corpse was generally deposited on its left
side. It woidd be very interesting if some Archajologist would tabulate all the ac-
counts of ancient graves, showing the ornaments and weapons which have been
found with ditferent methods of interment.

t Whether the Drift race of men were really the aboriginal inhabitants of
Europe, still remains to be ascertained. M. Riitimeyer hints, that our geographical
distribution imlicates a still greater antiquity for the human race.

42 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

Instead of the Elepliaut and Eliuioceros we find in the later or
f«eeond stone period, in that namely of the Kjokkenmbdding and
" Pfahlbauten," the Urns and Bison, the Elk and the Eed deer already
installed as monarchs of the forests. The latter indeed, with the
Boar, appears to have been very frequent, and to have formed a most
important article of food to the Lake-dwellers. The Urns, or great
fossil Ox is now altogether extinct. It was mentioned by Caesar,
who describes it as being little smaller than an elephant. (Hi sunt
magnitudiue panlo inti-a elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri.)
According to Herberstem, it stUl existed in Switzerland during the
sixteenth centuiy, soon after which, however, it must have become
extinct.

The Aurochs, or European Bison seems to have disappeared from
Western Europe even earHer than the Urus. There is no liistorical
record of its existence in England or Scandinavia. In Switzerland
we cannot trace it later than the tenth centui'y, but it is men-
tioned in the " Niebelungen Lied," of the twelfth century, as occur-
ring in the Forest of Worms, and ia Prussia the last was killed iu
the year 1775. At one period indeed, it appears to have inhabited
almost the whole of Europe, much of Asia, and part even of Ame-
rica, but at present it is confined in Europe, to the imperial forests in
Lithuania, where it is preserved by the Emperor of Kussia, while,
according to Nordmann and Yon Baer, it still exists in some parts
of Western Asia.

We have no notice of the existence of the Elk in Switzerland
during the historical period, but it is mentioned by Ca?sar as exist-
ing in the great Hercynian forest ; and even in the twelfth century it
was to be met with in Sclav onia and Hungary, according to Albertus
Magnus and Gresner. In Saxony, the death of the last is recorded
as having occurred in 1746. At present it inhabits Prussia and
Lithuania, Einland and Eussia, Scandinavia and Siberia, to the shores
of the Amoor.

Tlie Ibex disappeared from most of the Swiss Alps, perhaps not
much later than the Elk. It lingered longest iu the West. In
Grlarus the last one perished in 1550, though near Chiavenna it
existed until the commencement of the 17th century, and in the Tyrol
until the second half of the 18th, while it still maintains itself in the
mountains surrounding Mont Iseran.

The extermination of the Bear, like that of the Ibex, seems to
have begun in the East, and not yet to be complete, since this animal
stni occm'S in the Jura, in Wallis, and in the South-Eastern parts of
Switzerland.

The Eox, the Otter, and the different species of Weasels, are
si ill the common carnivora of Switzerland, and the Wild Cat, the
Badger, and the Wolf still occur in the Jura and the Alps, the latter
in cold winters venturing even into the plains.

The Beaver on the contrary has at last disappeared. It has
long been very rare in Switzerland, but a few survived until the
beginning of the present century, in Lucerne and Wallis. Eed deer

LUBBOCK OX THE ANCIENT LASE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 43

were abuudaut in the Jura and Black Forest iu tiie twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries, though they do not apjiear to have been so large
as those which lived in earlier times. The last was shot in Basle,
at the close of the eighteenth century, v/hile in Western Swdtzerland
and WaUis they lingered somewhat longer. The Eoedeer still occurs
in some places.

The Fauna thus indicated is certainly very much what might have
been expected. We find most of the species which characterise the
post-tertiary epoch in Europe. Some of the larger ones have since
iallen avv-ay in the struggle for existence, and others are becoming
rarer and rarer every year, while some maintain themselves even now,
thanks only to the inclemency and inaccessibility of the mountainous
regions Avhich they inhabit. Tlie gradual process of extermination,
which has continued ever since, had however even then begun.

Taken as a whole, therefore, the animals of the Swiss Pileworks
belong evidently to the Fauna, which commenced in post-tertiary
times with the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, the Cave
Bear, and the -Fossil Hya?]ia. These extinct species appear to have
co-existed in Europe with aU of its present indigenous inhabitants ;
it was, indeed, long supposed that man belonged to a subsequent
period, but recent investigations have shown, that he is no exception
to the rule.

While, however, we must regard tlie Fauna of the Stone age as
belonging to the same Zoological epoch with that of the later drifts
on the one hand, and the present time on the other ; we cannot
forget that the immense time which has elapsed since the end of the
Tertiary period, has produced great changes in the Fauna of Europe.
In this Post-tertiary era the Pileworks occupy, so to say, a middle
]30sition. Distmguished from the present Fauna of Switzerland in
the possession of the Urus, the Bison, the Elk, the Stag, and the
Wild Boar, as well as by the more general distribution of the Beaver,
the Bear, the Wolf, the Ibex, the Roe, &c., they diifer equally from
tlie drift gravels in the absence of the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros,
the Cave Bear, and the Cave Hyaena.

M. Riitimeyer, however, thinks that we may carry this division far-
ther, and he considers that some of the Pileworks presenting a more
archaic character than others, they may be arranged as follows : —
Istly, Moosseedorf
2ndly, As being somewhat more recent, Wauwyl, Robenhauseu,

Wangen, and Meilen.
Srdly, The Lake-habitations of Western Switzerland.

It is of course unnecessary to point out the interest and impor-
tance of such a distinction, which accords so well with that indicated
by the study of the weapons and tlie state of pi*eservation of the piles.
Thus, the Urus has only occurred at Moosseedorf and Robenhausen ;
the Aurochs only at Wauwyl ; the Bear only at Moosseedorf and
Meilen. A glance at the table given at page 250, will show that several
other species have as yet only occurred at Moosseedorf and Roben-
hauseu, a fact however whidi indicates rather the richness than the

OEiaiKAIi ABTICLES.

antiquity of these localities. Possibly indeed we may consider tlie
presence of these larger species as an indication of their greater abun-
dance in the oldest period ; but we must not forget that not only the
Bear and the Elk, but also the Aurochs and Urus come down to a much
later period. On the other hand, the abundance of wUd animals, and
the fact tliat at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl the Fox was more abundant
than the Dog, while elsewhere the reverse is the case, certainly speaks
in favour of the greater antiquity of these two settlements.

The evidence derived from the distribution of the domestic animals
is perhaps more satisfactory. The Sheep is present even at Moossee-
dorf, though not so numerous as at the Steinberg. On the other
hand, the Horse is frequent at the Steinberg, while at Moosseedorf
only a single tooth was discovered, and even this had been worn as
an amulet or an ornament, and may have been brought from a distance.
Finally, the domestic Hog of the present race is absent from all the
Pileworks of the Stone period, excepting perhaps the one at "W^.u-
wyl, and becomes frequent only at the Steinberg.

If succeeding investigations confirm the conclusions thus indicated,
we may perhaps conclude that the domestic animals, which were com-
paratively rare in the Stone period, became more frequent after the
introduction of bronze, a change indicating and perhaps producing an
alteration of habits on the part of the inhabitants.

Eare, indeed, as they may have been, Oxen, Horses, Sheep, and
Groats could not be successfully kept through the winter in the cli-
mate of Switzerland, without stores of provisions and some sort of
shelter. A pastoral people, therefore, must have reached a higher grade
than a mere nation of hunters. We know, moreover, in another man-
ner, that at this period agriculture was not entirely imknown. Thia
is proved in the most unexpected manner, by the discovery of car-
bonised Cereals at various points. Wheat is most common, ha\'ing
been found at Meilen, Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the latter place,
indeed, many bushels were found, the grains being united in large
thick lumps. At other times the grains are free, and without chalF,
resembling our present wheat in size and form, while more rarely
they are still in the ear. Ears of the Hordeum hexastichon L. (the
six rowed Barley) are somewhat numerous. This species differs from
the H. vulgare L. in the number of rows and in the smaller size
of the grains. According to De CandoUe, it was the species gene-
rally cultivated by the ancient Eomans, Grreeks, and Egyptians. In
the ears from Wangen, each row has generally ten or eleven grains,
which however are smaller and shorter than those now grown.

StiU more unexpected was the discovery of bread, or rather cakes,
for leaven does not appear to have been used. They were flat and
round, from an inch to 15 lines in thickness, and, to judge from one
specimen, had a diameter of four or five inches. In other cases the
grains seem to have been roasted, coarsely ground between stones,
and then either stored up in large earthenware pots, or eaten after
being slightly moistened. A similar mode of preparing grain was
used in the Canary Islands at the time they were conquered by Spain,

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 45

and even now constitutes the principal food of the poorer classes. In
what manner the ground was prepared for the cultivation of corn we
know not, as no agricultural implements have as yet been found
except sickles : it is probable however that bent stakes supplied the
place of the plough.

Carbonised Apples and Pears have also been found at Wangen,
sometimes whole, sometimes cut into two, or more rarely into four
pieces, which had evidently been dried and put aside for winter use.
The apples are more frequent than the pears, and have been found
not only at "Wangen, but also at Eobenhauseu in Lake Pfeffikon,
and at Concise in Lake Neufchatel. Both apples and pears are small
and resemble those which still grow wild in the Swiss forests. No
traces of the Vine, the Cherry, or the Damson have yet been met with,
but stones of the Wild Plum and the Prunus padus have been found.
Seeds of the Easpberry and Blackberry and shells of the Hazel nuts
and beechnuts occur plentifully in the mud.

From aU this, therefore, it is evident that the nourishment of the
dwellers in the Pileworks consisted of corn and wild fruits, of fish,
and the flesh of wild and domestic animals. Doubtless also milk waa
an important article of their diet.

The list of plants found in the Pileworks stands as follows : —
Pinus abies.
„ picea.
„ sylvestris.
Quercus Eobur.
Fagus sylvaticus.
Populus tremula.
Betula alba.
Alnus glutinosa.
Corylus avellana.
Prunus spinosa.

„ padus.
Eubus idasus.

„ fruticosus.
Wlieat.
Hordeum distichum.

„ hexastichon.

Trapa natans.— This species was supposed to be extinct in
Switzerland ; but, as M. Troyon informs me by letter, it has recently
been discovered in a living condition. It has, however, become very
rare.

Plax.
Hemp.
Juncus.
Arundo.
Neither Oats nor Rye have yet been found. Small pieces of twine
and bits of matting made of hemp and flax may have been parts of
some article of clothing. Por the latter purpose also there can be

46 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

little doubt tliat the skins of animals were used, and some of tlie
stone implements seem well adapted to assist in their preparation,
Wilde the bone pins, and the needles made from the teeth of boars,
may have served to fasten them together.

The Pottery of the Stone a^e presents nearly the same charac-
ters in all the settlements. Very rude and coarse, it is generally
found in broken pieces, and few entire vessels have been obtained.
The potter's wheel seems to have been unknown, and the baking
was very imperfect. The form was frequently cylindrical, but several
of the jars were rounded at the base, and without feet. The rings
of pottery, which at a later epoch were used as stands for these
earthen tumblers, are not found in the Lake habitations of the Stone
period, but some of the vessels had small projections which were
pierced in such a manner that strings might be passed through them,
and the vessels might in this manner be suspended. Some of them
were also pierced by small holes at different levels. Professor Heer
suggests that these may have been used in the prejDaration of curds,
the small holes being intended to permit the escape of the milk.

Several of the vessels are ornamented with simple marliings,
generally mere impressions of the finger or of the nail. Neitl;er in
the Stone, nor in the Bronze period, do we ever find either in the
pottery, or on the bronze weapons, any representation, however rude,
of a7i animal ; the ox'namentation being generally confined to straight
or curved lines, forming in many cases a very elegant ornament.
One vase, however, which was foimd at Wangen, is distinguished by
more elaborate ornaments, the lines being evidently intended to re-
present leaves.

The lakes on which Pileworks of the Stone era have as yet
been foiuid, are Constance, Zurich, Bienne, Neufchatel, Geneva,
Inkwyl, Nussbaumen, Pfeffikon, Moosseedorf, and Wauwyl. Settle-
ments of the Bronze period existed on the Lakes of Geneva, Luissel,
Neufchatel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach, but none have as yet
been found on Lake Constance. It has been supposed from this
that the age of Stone lasted longer in Eastern than in "Western
Switzerland, and that flint and serpentine were in use on Lake
Constance long after Bronze had replaced them on the Western
Lakes. We can hardly suppose that the inliabitants of Inkwyl and
Moosseedorf in Berne, who imported flint from France, can have
been iguorant of the neighbouring civilization on the Lake of
Bienne. Perhaps, however, settlements of the Bronze age may yet be
found on the Lake of Constance ; but as the question noAV stands,
Pileworks of tlie Metallic period are pecidiar to Western and
Central Switzerland. The constructions of the latter period are
more solidly built, but do not otherwise appear to have differed
materially from those of the Stone age. They are often, however,
situated farther from the laud and in deeper water, partly no doubt
on account of the greater facility of working timber, but partly also,
perhaps, because more protection was needed as the means of attack
were improved. The principal implements of Bronze are, swords.

LUBBOCK 0?r THE ANCIENT LAKE UABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 47

daggers, axes, spear heads, knives, arrow heads, pins, and ornaments.
TiicTnumber of these weapons wliich have been discovered is already

verv great.

From the settlement at Estavayer, in Lake Neufchatel, the follow-
ing collection of bronze implements has been obtained : — •
Pius with large spherical and ornamented heads 36
„ ordinary heads - - • • .9^
Knives
Bracelets
Sickles
Axe
Hook .
Chisel .
Small rings
Buttons
Dagger blade
Arrow head .
Pieces of spiral wire

1
1
27
2
1
1
6

Maldng altogether .... 214 objects of bronze.
Again at Merges (Lake of Greneva) forty -two bronze hatchets and
thirteen pins have been fomid. From the Steinberg M. Schwab has
obtained five hundred bronze hair-pins, besides other instruments of
the same metal. Tliese are of the same type as those found in other
parts of Europe, and the swords are characterised, as usual, by the
small space alloAved for the hand. They were, however, made in
Switzerland, as is shown by the discovery at Merges of a mould for
celts, and at Estavayer of a bar of tin.

The pottery of this period was more varied and more skilfully
made than that of the Stone age, and the potter's wheel was already
in use. Eings of earthenware are common, and appear to have
been used as supports for the round bottomed vases. As neither
copper nor tin occur in Switzerland, the possession of bronze implies
the existence of commerce. It is difficult to say from whence the
copper was obtained, but Saxony and Cornwall are the only parts of
Europe which produce tin. It is, however, possible that Asia may
have supplied both the one and the other. The presence of amber
shows that there must have been a certain amount of conuiiunication
with Xorthern Europe.

The Pileworks of Switzerland appear to have become gi'adually
less numerous. During the Stone age they were spread over the
whole coimtry. Confined during the Bronze era to the Lakes of
AVestern Switzerland, during that of Iron, we find them only on the
Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. In these settlements not only has
a new substance made its appearance, but the forms of the imple-
ments are different. We have indeed copies of the bronze axes made
in iron, just as we found before that the early bron^.e celts were
copies of the still earlier stone axe, but these are exceptional cases.

48 OEIGIKAL AETICLES.

The swords have larger handles and are more richly ornamented ; the
knives have straight edges ; the sickles are larger ; the pottery is
more skilfully made and is ornamented with various colours ; the
personal ornaments are also more varied, and glass for the first time
makes its appearance.

Col. Schwab has found at the Steinberg more than twenty cres-
cents, made of earthenware, and with the convex side flattened, to
serve as a foot. They are compressed at the sides, sometimes plain,
sometimes ornamented, from eight to twelve inches from one horn to
the other, and from six to eight inches in height. They are con-
sidered by Dr. Keller to be religious emblems, and are taken as evi-
dence of moon- worship. He refers to Pliny, xvi. 95 ; " Est autem id
" (viscum) rarum admodum iuventu et repertum magna religione peti-
" tur et ante omnia sexta luna, quae principia mensum annorumque his
" facit, et sseculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde
" habeat nee sit sui dimidia ; omnia sanantem appelaides suo vocabulo.^'
Tliis passage he translates as follows : " The misletoe is however very
rare, but when it is found it is gathered with great religious ceremony,
especially on the sixth day of the moon, at which epoch begin their
months, years, and divisions of thirty years, because it has then suffi-
cient force, and yet is not in the middle of its course ; calling it Heal-
all in their language." This name has generally been referred to
the misletoe. (See The Celt, Eoman and Saxon, p. 48.) But the S^-iss
archaeologists consider that this is a mistake, and that it propei'ly
refers to the moon.

A field of battle at Tiefenau, near Berne, is remarkable for the
great number of iron weapons and implements which have been found
on it. Pieces of chariots, about a hundred swords, pieces of coat of
mail, lance heads, rings, fibulse, ornaments, utensils, pieces of pottery
and of glass, accompanied by more than thirty pieces of Gaulish and
Massaliote money anterior to our era, enable us to refer this battle-
field to the Eoman era.

After this period we find no more evidences of Lake habitations
on a large scale. Here and there indeed a few fishermen may have
lingered on the half-destroyed platforms, but the wants and habits of
the people had changed, and the age of Pileworks was at an end.

We have, however, traced them through the Stone and Bronze
dowai to the beginning of the Iron period. We have seen evidences
of a gradual progress in civilization, and improvement in tlie arts, an
increase in the domestic animals, and proofs at last of the existence of
an extended commerce. We found the country inhabited only by
rude savages and we leave it the seat of a powerful nation. Changes
so important as these are not effected in a day ; the progress of the
human mind is but slow ; and the gradual additions to human know-
ledge and power, like the rings in trees, enable us to form some idea
how distant must be the date of their commencement. So varied
however are the conditions of the human mind, so much are all na-
tions affected by the influence of others, that when we attempt to

LUBBOCK ON THE AKCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 49

express our impressions, so to say, in terms of years, we are bafSed
by the complexity of tlie problem, 'aud cau but confess our ignorance.
Occasionally indeed we obtain a faint glimmer of light, but the result
is only to show us obscurely a long vista, without enabling us to de-
fine any well-marked points of time. Thus in Denmark we found
three periods of arborescent vegetation, corresponding to the three
epochs of human development, and we know that the extermination of
one species of forest tree and its replacement by another is not the
work of a day. The Swiss archaeologists, however, have attempted to
make an estimate somewhat more definite than this.

Tlie torrent of the Tiniere* at the point where it falls into the Lake
of Greneva, near Villeneuve, has gradually built up a cone of gravel
and alluvium. In the formation of the railway this cone has been
bisected for a length of one thousand feet, and to a depth in the cen-
tral part, of about thirty-two feet six inches above the level of the rails.
Tlie section of the cone thus obtained shows a very regular structure,
which proves that its formation was gradual. It is composed of the
game materials (sand, gravel, and larger blocks) as are even now
brought down by the stream. The detritus does indeed difter slightly
from year to year, but in the long run the differences compensate
for one another, so that when considering long periods and the struc-
ture of the whole mass, the influences of these temporary variations,
which arise from meteorological causes, altogether disappear, and
need not therefore be taken into account. Documents preserved
in the archives of Yilleneuve show that in the year 1710 the stream
was dammed up and its course a little altered, which makes the
present cone slightly ii-regnlar. That the change was not of any
great antiquity is also shown by the fact that on the side where
the cone was protected by the dykes, the vegetable soil, where
it has been affected by cultivation, does not exceed two to three
inches in thickness. On this side, thus protected by the dykes, the
railway cutting has exj)osed three layers of vegetable soil, each of
which must, at one time, have formed the surface of the cone. They
are regularly intercalated among the gravel, and exactly parallel to
one another, as well as to the present surface of the cone, which itself
follows a very regular curve. The first of these ancient surfaces was
followed on the south side of the cone, over a surface of 15,000 square
feet ; it had a thickness of four to six inches, and occurred at a depth
of about four feet (1.14 metre measured to the base of the layer)
below the present surface of the cone. Tliis layer belonged to the
Eoman period, and contained lioman tiles, and also a coin.

The second layer was followed over a siu'face of 25,000 square
feet ; it was six inches in thickness and lay at a depth of 10 feet
(2.97 metres, also measured to the bottom of the layer). In it have
been found several fragments of unvarnished pottery, and a pair of
tweezers in bronze, which to judge from the style belonged to the

* See IMoiiot, Le^on d'OuvcrUirc, &c.
N. H. E.— 1862. E

50 OT?TGTNAL ATITTCLES.

Bronze epoch. The third layer has been followed for 3500 square
feet ; it was six or seven inches in thickness, and lay at a depth of 19
feet (5.69 metres) below the present surface : in it were found some
fragments of very rude pottery, some pieces of charcoal, some bro-
ken bones, and a human skeleton with a small, round, and very thick
skull. Fragments of charcoal were even found a foot deeper, and it is
also worthy of notice that no trace of tiles was found below the upper
layer of earth.

Towards the centre of the cone, the three layers disappear, since,
at this part, the torrent has most force, and has deposited the coarsest
materials, even some blocks as much as three feet in diameter. The
farther we go from this central region the smaller are the inateriala
deposited, and the more easily might a layer of eai-th, formed since
the last great inundations, be covered over by fresh deposits. Thus,
at a depth of ten feet, in the gravel on the south of the cone, at a
part where the laj^er of earth belonging to the bronze age had
already disappeared, two unrolled bronze implements were dis-
covered. They had probably been retained by their weight, when
the earth, which once covered them, was washed away by the
torreiit. After disappearing towards the centre of the cone, the
three layers reappear on the north side, at slightly greater depth,
but with the same regularity and the same relative position. The
layer of the Stone age was but slightly interrupted, while that of the
Bronze era was easily distinguishable by its peculiar character and
colour.

Here, therefore, we have phenomena so regular, and so well marked
that we may apply to them a calculation, with some little confidence
of at least approximate accuracy. Making then some allowances, for
instance, admitting three hundred years instead of one hundred and
fifty, for the period since the embankment, and taking the Eoman
period as representing an antiquity of from sixteen to eighteen cen-
turies, we should have for the age of Bronze an antiquity of from
2900 to 4200 years, for that of the Stone period from 4700 to 7000
years, and for the whole cone an age of from 7400 to 11,000 years.
M. Morlot thinks that we should be most nearly correct in deducting
two hundred years only for the action of the dykes, and in attri-
buting to the Eoman layer an antiquity of sixteen centuries, that is
to say, in referring it to the middle of the third century. This would
give an age of 3800 years for the Bronze age and 6400 jeam for that
of Stone, but on the whole he is inclined to suppose for the former an
antiquity of from 3000 to 4000 years, and for the latter of from 5000
to 7000 years.

In the settlement at the foot of Mt. Chamblon we have, according
to M. Troyon, a second instance in which we obtain at least some
approximation to a date. The intei'est which attaches to this case
Arises from the fact that Pileworks have been found in the peat at a
considerable distance from the lake, whereas it is evident that at the
time of their construction the spot in which they occur must have
been under water, as this mode of building would have been quite

LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF 8WITZEELAND. 51

out of place on dry laud. This however indicates a very consider-
able antiquity, since the site of the ancient city Eburodunum must
have been, at tliat time, entirely covered by the lake, and yet the name,
which is of Celtic origin, denotes that there was a town here even
before the Eoman period. In order, however, to form an idea of
the time at which the dwellings at Chamblon were left dry by the
retirement of the lake, we must have in the valley a point of deter-
mined age, to serve as a term of comparison, and such a point
we find in the ancient city of Eburodunum (Tverdon), which was
built on a dune extending from Jorat to the Thiele. Between this
dune and the lake, on the site at present occupied by the city of
Tverdon no traces of Eoman antiquities have ever been dis-
covered, from which it is concluded that it was at that period under
water. If then we admit that at the close of the fourth century the
lake washed the walls of the Castrum Eburodense, we shall have fifteen
centuries as the period requned to eftect this change. The zone thus
luicovered in fifteen hundred years is 2500 feet in breadth, and as the
piles at Chamblon are at least 5500 feet from the water, it may be in-
ferred that three thousand three hundred years must have elapsed
since they were left diy. This Lake-dwelling belonged to the Bronze
period, and the date thus obtained, agrees pretty well with that obtained
from the examination of the Cone de la Tiniere. M. Troyon adds that
" rien ne fait soup^onner, pendant I'epoque humaine et anterieurement
" a notre ere, des conditions d'accroisement difterentes de celles qiu ont
" eu lieu posterieurement aux Eomains; le resultat obtenu est meme un
" minimum, vu que la vallee va se retrecissant du cote du lac et que
" nous avons admis la presence de celui-ci au pied meme d'Eburodunum
" dans le JY^ siecle de I'ere chretienne, tandis qu'il est probable que
" la retraite des eaux n'a pas ete insensible depuis le moment ou les
" Eomains se sont fixes sur ce point."

However this may be, and while freely admitting in how many
respects this calculation is open to objection, we may stiU observe
that the result agrees in some measure "wdth that given by the Cone
de la Tiniere. The ancient history of Greece and Eome, as far as it
goes, tends to confirm these dates, since we know that at the time of
Homer and Hesiod, arms were, in part at least, made of iron, and as
we Ivnow that, at a very early period, there was a certain amount of
commerce between Helvetia and the shores of the Mediterranean, we
can hardly suppose that a metal so immensely important as iron, can
have remained unknown in the former country, long after it was gene-
rally used throughout the latter.

Still, though we must not conceal from ourselves the imperfection of
the archaeological record, we need not despair of eventually obtaining
some more definite chronology. Our knowledge of primitive anti-
quity has made an enormous stride in the last ten years, and the future
is full of hope. I am glad to hear from M. Troyon that the Swiss
archjpologists are continuing their labours. They may feel assured that
we in England await with interest the results of their investigations.

OEiaiNAL ABTTCLES.

Bos PRiMiGENius. A. Skiill of tlic existing Race, after RUtimeycr. — B. Fossil
skull. Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Birds.

B. LONGIFRONS. A. Skull of the existing Racc, after Eiitimejer, — B. Fossil skull.
Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Bu'ds.

B. FRONTOSUS. A. Skull of the existing Race, after Riitimcyer. — B. Fossil skull,

after Nillson.

YI._]SrEw Eeseaeches respecting the Co-existence oe Man
WITH THE Great Fossil Mammals, regarded as Charac-
teristic OF THE LATEST GrEOLOGiCAL PERIOD. By M. Edward
Lartet. (Ann, des Sc. Nat. 4me Serie. Tom. XV.)

The town of Auriguac, situated in the arrondissement of St.
Gaudens (Haute Garonne), is placed nearly on the summit of one of
five eminences, constituting a hiUy range, whose geognostic formation
and upheaved strata manifest its relations with the dislocated spurs of
the Pyrenean system. The contour of this oreographic projection, in
which the strata of the chalk and of the uummulitic or supracretaceous
rock are not always incHned in the same direction, differs but little
from that of the tertiary hiUs which rise below it to the west. The
confused and miinformed traveller, consequently, approaching Aurig-
uac from that side, would not perceive the transition which is
manifested under his feet, were not his attention awakened by a
sudden change in the nature of the rocks and by the evidences of
dislocation presented in the road-cuttings.

The road leading from Aurignac to the little town of Boulogne in
the same arrondissement, runs pretty nearly from east to west, on the
southern flank of the mountain of Portel. On the opposite side, to the
south, rises the mountain of Fajoles,* forming an_ elongated, saddle-
shaped ridge, which runs in pretty nearly the same direction, and which,
though of lower elevation, and nowhere precipitous, is nevertheless
completely isolated from all the hydrogra])hic influences of the district.
Between these two eminences, or mountains, is a contracted valley
along whose bottom runs the brook of Eodes or Arrodes, which, on
reaching, a little more to the west, the foot of the mountain of
Portel, turns sharply round to the north, and after running a few
kilometres to the north-west joins the Louge, a small river which
takes its rise on the plateau of Lanemezan.

* In the patois of the cotmtry : 3[ountagno de las Najoles, mountain of Beeches.
But at the present time not a single beech tree is to be fomid either on this moun-
tain or in the surrounding country, nor does there exist any rememljrancc or
tradition even of their formerly having flourished there. The arboreal vegetation
of any region is subject to great variations in the progress of time, even indepen-
dently of any change in the climatal conditions. The valuable researches of
Professor J. Steenstrup on the Skovmosses, or Forest Turf-bogs of Denmark,
have shown, that in that coimtry there have been three distinct periods of arboreal
vegetation since the existence of man : 1, that of the Pine ; 2, that of the OaJi; and
3, that of the Beech, which continues to the present day. The soil, in process of
time, becomes exhausted of the elements more especially adapted to the nutrition of
forests of one kind or another. The disappearance of this vegetation involves that
of the species of animals which feed upon the foliage. The Cock of the Woods,
which was common in Denmark in the Pine-period, no longer exists there. The
discoveries of M. Tournal in the caverns of the Aude shows that at a certain epoch
in the pre-historic period, man consumed for food the Stag, Reindeer, Wild Goat,
Eelix nemoralis, Sj-c. At the present day the Stag is no longer found in the south
of France, the Reindeer has retired to the Arctic regions of Europe, the Wild Goat
is scarcely represented by rare descendants on the lofty peaks of the Alps and
Pyrenees, whilst Helix nemoralis has entirely disappeared with the forests from
that part of the country.

54 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

Following the rapid descent of the road from Aurignac to Bou-
logne for about a mile, (1600 metres), the traveller reaches a point
whence, on the opposite side of the valley, the low ridge of the
mountain of Fajoles does not rise more than about twenty metres
above the stream of the Eodes. On the northern slope of this
eminence may be seen an escarpment, more or less natural, of the
nummulitic rock (calcaire a melonies of M. Leymerie), and on
the side of this a sort of niche, or shallow gi-otto, whose arched
entrance looks to the N.W. The floor of this excavation, which
is now completely cleared out, is not more than 2i metres in
horizontal depth, with an extreme width of 3 metres at the en-
trance. It is situated about 13 or 14 metres above the level of
the stream. Outside the grotto, and a little below it, the calcareous
soil forms a sort of platform, some metres in extent, slightly inclined
towards the brook, and leaning on the south against the escarpment
of the rock, the perpendicularity of which had, probably, originally
been in part produced by the hand of man.

Ten years ago the existence of this cavern was unknown. Its
approaches were concealed under a heap, or talus, formed of frag-
ments of the rock and vegetable soil, probably throvsm down solely
by atmospheric agency. The place, nevertheless, was often resorted
to by the sportsmen of the neighbourhood, owing to the circumstance
that at a point in the outer heap of earth, pretty nearly on a level
with the vault of the grotto, there was a hole, into which the rabbits,
when hotly pursued, were accustomed to take refuge.

A labouring man, J. B. Bomiemaison, employed in the breaking
of stones for the repair of the neighbouring road, was led to intro-
duce his hand and arm into this hole, whence, to his great surprise,
he brought out a bone of considerable size. At once suspecting the
existence of a subterranean cavity, and cm'ious to find out what it
contained, he dug away part of the talus below the opening. At
the end of some hours he came upon a large slab of stone, of no
great thickness, and placed vertically in front of an arched opening,
wbich it closed completely, leaving only a hole, resorted to by the
rabbits, imcovered. Wlien tliis slab was removed, he noticed a cer-
tain quantity of bones and skulls, whicli he at once recognized as
human. The bones, which belonged to several skeletons, were found
partly imbedded in a loose soil, whicli might have been introduced
into the sepulchre at the time of interment.

This discovery of Bonnemaison's was quicldy noised abroad ; the
curious in sucli matters flocked to the place, and various conjectures
were formed to explain the occiuTence of sucb an abundance of
human remains in a situation so remote from any actual habitation.
The older inhabitants of the district recalled the circumstance that at
a remote period, a band of coiners had been surprised in the exercise
of their nefarious industry, in a solitary house at no great distance
from the spot. This was held sufficient to justify the popular impres-
sion that tliesc gentry had been also guilty of numerous murders,

LAETET ON HUMAN BEMAINS. 55

tlie traces of which they had concealed by depositing the bodies of
theii' victims in this cavity, whose existence was known only to
themselves.

In order to put a stop to all these conjectures, Dr. Amiel, at that
time Mayor of Aurignac, caused all the human remains to be col-
lected, and re-interred in the parish burial-ground. But previous to
this translation of the relics, he ascertained, to his own satisfaction,
by counting the number of certain homologous portions of the
skeletons, that they must have belonged to 17 individuals. Some
of the characteristic forms found among them appeared to him refer-
rible to females ; whilst other portions, from their incomplete ossilica-^
tion, denoted the presence of young subjects below the age of
puberty.* It should also be remarked, that among the human bones
taken from the interior of the cavern, J. B. Bonnemaison distin-
guished several teeth of large mammals, both carnivorous and her-
bivorous. He also collected in the same situation, eighteen small
discs, pierced in the centre, doubtless that they might be strmig
together as a necklace or bracelet. These discs, which were of a
whitish compact substance, fell iuto various hands; some w^ere sent,
with some mammalian teeth, to IM. Leymerie, by M. Vieu, superin-
tendent of roads and bridges at Aurignac, whose researches in this
district of the department have afforded numerous and useful mate-
rials for the study of the paleontology of the Haute- Garonne.

Shortly afterwards M. Leymerie ti-ansmitted to me the mamma-
lian teeth, with the information respecting them with which he had
himself been furnished, viz., that they had been foiuid on the moun-
tain of Pajoles. Amongst them I recognized the molars of the
Horse, Ox, (Aurochs ?) a canine tooth of the Hyena, another canine
which appeared to me to belong the gi'eat cave Felis, two other teeth
of a smaller carnivore, probably a Fox, and, lastly, the point of a
Stages antler.

Subsequently, on my journey to Toulouse, M. Leymerie showed
me the small perforated discoid bodies, which had been sent to him
at the same time A\dth the above teeth. The hurried examiuation
that we made of these objects, whose origin had not then been indi-

* According to the report of Bonnemaison, the mass of human bones, at the time
they were removed from the cavern, included two enth'e crania, but when M.
Amiel reached the spot these were no longer so. The operations of removal, trans-
port, and second iulimnation, would necessarily occasion other alterations in bones
rendered so fragile from their antiquity; but nevertheless the examination of these
remains, such as they were, appeared to be very desirable. Measurements taken
fi-om the bones of so many individuals, would have afforded, to some extent, the
means of deducing the average stature and proportions of this unknown race ; and
from the fragments of the face and skull, indications of some value, respecting the
general form of the head, might also have been obtained. But unfortunately no
one at Aurignac, not even the sexton, after an interval of eight years, retained any
recollection of the precise spot at which these human remains had been deposited in a
common trench.

56 OBIGINAL ARTICLES.

cated with sufficient precision, did not allow of our ascertaining tlie
material of which they were composed, nor of forming any opinion
with respect to the pui'poses for which they might be intended. But
M. Leymerie having been so obliging as to forward them to me at
Paris, through our common friend M. Collomb, I have been enabled
to determine their structure, which appears to me to be analogous
with that of certain marine shells. The slightly convex face of some
of the discs, though worn and half polished by artificial rubbing, still
affords some traces of the projecting cost(B of the shell of a species of
Cardium. My first surmise to this effect has since been confirmed
by the stricter examination, which M. Deshayes, at my request, has
been good enough to make of one of these bodies.*

* M. de Vibrayc has recently obtained twenty -four s)nall perforated discs of tlie
same material and form. These were found in a cromlech in the dejiartment of the
Lozere about five miles from Meude ; tlii.s cromlech, which had probably been used
as a sepulchre, contained human remains, together with some bones of animals of
existing species. There were also found, at the same time and place, a long flint-
knife, with some spear- and arrow-heads of the same material. These latter olijccts,
from the finish of their manufacture, and the other accessories of the burial jilace,
indicated an epoch far more recent than that of the Aurignac cavern. Perforated
beads of the same form but in different materials, are not rare in the necklaces and
other ornaments found amongst the Assyrian antiquities.

It is well known, that at St. Achcul near Amiens, in the same diluvial beds that
have furnished so many flint implements, there have also been collected a consider-
able number of beads, mostly formed of the poly]iaries of Coscinopora (jlohdaris
Beads of this kind, many of which are pierced artificially, are not rare in collections,
and they may be seen in the Louvre, the Cluny Museum, and at tlie Jardin des
Plantcs, alongside the flint implements bronglit from St. Achcul. I had noticed in
the Assyrian Museum in the Louvre, similar beads which had been found in the
excavations at Khorsabad, on the supposed site of the ancient Nineveh. Having
obtained from M. Barbet de Jouy, one of the keepers of the Louvre, permission to
make a closer comparison between the Khorsabad beads and others recently brought
by M. de Vibraye from St. Acheul, we thought it better, in order to give an
authoritative support to the surmise we had entertained, to refer the matter to M.
]VIilne-Ed wards, Member of the Institute and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences.
The resxdt of the examination made by this competent judge was to show an
identity of form and species between at least one of the perforated corals brought
from the ruins of Nineveh, and those found in the (Hluvium at St. Achcul.

[These bead-like Foraminifera, Orhitollnn concava, according to Mr. Frcstwicli,
(Phil. Trans. Vol. 150, p 290), occur abundantly in the Chalk, and they are found
some whole and some perforated, so that the latter condition can no longer be
regarded as artificial. — Eds.]

M. de Longperricr had also pointed out to me a complete identity of form between
the obsidian-knives of Mexico, and those of the same material found by M. Place
in the foundations of Nineveh, where they had probably been deposited as a kind of
votive offering.

At the time of the conquest of Mexico, Fernando Cortcz obseiTcd that the
native barbers cut the hair and beards of their customers with razors made of
obsidian. Fragments of the same mineral and fashioned in a similar manner, have
been collected on the field of Marathon, and may be seen in the Museum of
Artillery, in the same glass cases with the flint arms of ancient Gaul. Thus wo
perceive the same form cmploj'cd in the same manner, at extreme geographical
distances apart, and at very considerable chronological intervals. " Man," says M.
Troyon, (Habitations lacustres, &c.) " placed under analogous circumstances, acts
in an analogous manner, irrespective of time or place."

LAETET O^ HUMAN REMAINS.

All remembrance of Boimemaisou's discovery was nearly lost,
when, passing through Anrignae in October, 1860, the circumstances
attending it were related to me by M. Vieu, with details not before
given, and which led me to decide upon visiting the place. I went
there, accompanied by three workmen, one of whom was the original
discoverer of the cave.

The sepulchral vault, in the partially cleared state it had been
left by him, was at that time, on the level of the floor, 2J metres
deep, and 2| metres high, measured at the centre of the arched
entrance, which, as has been before stated, looked towards the N.W.
The accompanying wood-cut represents a section of this cavity, or
grotto, as it was at the time of my visit, and before the removal of

the layer B, composed of loose earth and fragments of rock, in
which I still found several human bones imbedded, together with
flint implements, worked portions of Reindeer's horn, and a consider-
able number of mammalian bones, in a state, comparatively speaking,
of remarkable nreservation.

In the figure, the layer £ in the interior of the grotto is represented
as continuous with the external layer C, in which the very numerous
mammaUan bones were all found broken, or even comminuted, and
moreover sometimes burnt or gnawed by cai'nivorous animals. When
I inquired of Bonnemaison whether, at the time he discovered the
cave, the continuity of the interior layer B with that on the exterior
marked C, were not interrupted by the vertical stone slab, by which
the entrance was closed, he was unable to give any positive reply.
The two parallel dotted Hues therefore, indicating in F the place
occupied by the slab, have been continued only to the siu'face of the
layer as it existed at the time of my visit. If the stone slab had
been preserved, it would have been sufiicient to put it in its original
place to ascertain whether it extended below the level of the bone
layer, but unfortimately Bonnemaison had found it convenient to
break it up for road material. However this may be, the perfect
state of preservation of the bones imbedded in the interior layer of
the grotto, denotes that the carnivorous animals, the Hj'enas amongst

68 OEIOINAL ARTICLES,

others, had at no time beeu able to get iu. It may be supposed that
at each occasiou of a burial the slab was removed for the moment,
and replaced as soon as the ceremony Avas finished. The most
rational explanation that can be oflered of the presence of the remains
of animals within the sepulchre is, that they had been introduced as
part of the funeral rites, — a proceeding of which analogous instances
may be found in many of the sepulchres of primordial times.*

As regards the posture of the skeletons, and the direction in
which they lay, I was imable to obtain any information from their
discoverer. It is evident that the floor of the grotto was not wide
enough to allow the bodies of seventeen indi\'iduals to be placed side
by side in the extended posture, and that its height was insufficient
to admit of their being heaped one upon another. But the semi-
circular configuration of the sepulchre aftbrds good ground for the
supposition that the attitude given to the bodies was that which is
well known to have been adopted in many of the sepulchres of primi-
tive times ; that is to say, with the body in a sitting or crouching
posture, and bent downwards upon itself. This practice would not
only economize the space occupied by each individual, but woidd
also, according to some archaeologists, realize the symbolic thought
of restoring to the earth, — our common mother, — the body of the
man who had ceased to live, in the same^postiire that it had before his
birth, in the bosom of his individual mother.f It is for this reason,
that in the figure of the cavern I have represented three skeletons iu
the crouching posture, warning the reader, at the same time, that the
representation is altogether hypothetical.

Having noted these particulars respecting the circumstances con-
nected with the first discovery of the sepxdchre, I proceeded to the
examination of the disturbed layer of loose earth remaining in it.
The first strokes of the pickaxe disclosed a tooth and sevei-al human
bones, after which was tui*ned up an implement or weapon, made of
Stag's or Reindeer's horn, in the form of a slender tapering spike,
about 9 inches long, and carefully rounded. The lower extreun'ty
was about half-an-inch wide, and bevelled off on each side, as if in-
tended to be fitted uito a handle ; the point was broken off and could
not be recovered. Close to this were found half of a Horse's jaw-
bone, some teeth of the Aurochs, the lower jaw of a lieindeer, and

* This kind of votive oflerinp; is rcniarkcil in the sepulchral monuments of the
so-temied Dniidical, or Celtic type, as well as in the more reccut tumuli of Gaul,
both before and after its subjugatitni by Kome. I have even been able to trace, in
a sepulchre evidently not more ancient than tlie 10th century of our era, a continu-
ation of this ancient custom of burying witli the defunct his horse, arms, objects of
att'cction, broken earthenware, trophies of the chase, and the bones of animals botli
wild and domesticated.

t This attitude of the body bent upon itself, has been noticed in most of the
primordial sepultures of the north and centre of Europe, and it has been also
observed in the foundations of Babylon. Diodorus Sicnlus informs us that it was
]iractised by the Troglodytes, a pastoral people of Ethiopia. In more recent times
it is seen iu use among various peoples iu America, and some of the youth Sea
Islauds.

LAETET ON HUMAN EEMAINS, 59

gome entire bones of the great cave Bear, (Ursus spelwus),Yox, &e.,
&c. Outside the cave, where the heap of fallen earth D still re-
mained, and whose upper border is indicated by a dotted line, I
noticed, at the base, at E, a blackish layer, evidently composed of
ashes, and of fragments of charcoal and of earth like the surrounding
vegetable sod. On breaking with a hammer the surface of this
layer of ashes and charcoal, I detached some taurine teeth (Aurochs),
teeth of the lieindeer, and some fragments of bone, blackened by the
action of fire.

Upon this, the methodical and complete exploration of all the
layers, more or less compact or loose, and both within and without
the cave, was at once undertaken. The work, which was performed
by intelligent men, and constantly under my own superintendence,
was completed on two occasions, with an interval of several days.
The following are the results obtained : —

The lower layer E, composed of ashes and charcoal, taken as a start-
ing point among such a complexity of circumstances as are evidenced in
this locality, iudicates in reality the presence of man and the existence
of a fire-place or hearth, around which it must be supposed he made his
repasts. This hearth was several square metres in extent, and consti-
tuted a sort of platform formed of the nummulitic rock, fi'agments
of which had been laid so as to level the natural inequalities of the
surface ; which here and there presented a good many ^•ery thin plates
of fissile sandstone, most of which were reddened by the action of
fire. The nearest locality at the present day, where this fissile stone
is found, is a distance of some hundreds of metres on the other side
of the valley, at the foot of the mountain of Portel.

The layer of ashes and charcoal, whose proportionate thickness
is exaggerated in the figure, was not in reaHty more than from six to
eight inches thick, and it gradually thinned off towards the entrance
of the grotto, into which it did not extend. There were found in it
a very great number of teeth, principally of herbivorous animals,
together Avith many hundi-eds of fragments of their bones. Some of
the bones were carbonized, and others simply reddened from having
been exposed to a low heat. The greater uiunber did not appear to
have been subjected to the action of fire. The majority of the frag-
ments were those of long bones having medullary cavities, and of
tliese, almost aU appeared to have been broken in a uniform manner.
A great many of those which had not been exposed to fire bore the
marked impress of the teeth of a carnivorous beast, which had left
only the thick and compact shafts of the great bones of the Aurochs
and Rhinoceros. The discovery, among the very ashes of the fire,
of the coprolites of the Hyaena showed that it was that powerful
carnivore which had doubtless taken advantage of the absence of
man to devour the remains of his repasts. It is also to the voracity
of the Hyenas that we may attribute the almost complete absence,
either on the hearth or in the ossiferous deposit about it, of the
vertebras and other spongy portions of the herbivorous bones.

60 ORiaiNAL ARTICLES.

Besides the peculiar mode in wliicli they are broken, denoting that
it had been done for the piu'pose of extracting the marrow,* there may-
be sometimes observed, on the siu'face of the bones, scratches and
shallow cuts, which appear to have been caused by the edge of some
instrument employed to remove the flesh.

In fact, we collected among the very ashes on the hearth a hun-
dred pieces of silex, some of no definite form, but the greater number
fashioned after the type so imiversally met with and designated by
archaeologists under the name of " knives." It would appear that a
portion at least of these implements had been manufactured on the spot,
as we found, in the neighbourhood of the hearth, the nuclei of the
blocks from which splinters of various dimensions had been struck
off. We also found, in the same situation, a stone of a circular form,
flattened on two sides with a central depression on each, and
constituted of a rock not found in this region of the Pyrenees, and
which, from the explanation of its object given me by M. Steiuhauer,
Conservator of the Ethnographic Museum at Cojienhagen, was used
for renewing, by skilful blows, the edges of the flint knives. Tlie
central depression on each flat side was intended for the fingers and
thumb in the required manoeuvre.f We also procured from among
the ashes two portions of silex broken so as to have niimerous facets,
which have been regarded by archaeologists as missiles [sling- stones],
and which are rendered more destructive by the numerous angles
presented on the surface.

Besides these flint arms and knives there were also found, both
in the ashes and in the superjacent ossiferous layer, many other
instruments of divers forms, and made for the most part of the more
compact portion of the Reindeer's horn. Some of these are in the
form of arrow-heads, simply lanceolate, and without vdngs or recur-
rent barbs, such as are found in arrow-heads of a more recent
period. All are broken immediately below the widened base of the
lance-shaped portion. Some of these arrows appear to have been
reddened by the action of fire, as if they had been left in the flesh of
the animal when it Avas cookeni. One of the largest among them
exhibits, on its two opjiosite surfices, some impressions in the form
of a cross, which, though with some hesitation, may be regarded as
having been caused by the teeth of a carnivorous animal in its endea-
vours to draw the arrow from the wound (? ?). One of these bone-

* Travellers relate that among people who live chiefly on the products of the
chase, the maiTow of the bones of the Ilcrbivora is highly appreciated and sometimes
reserved for the chiefs. Among the Laps and Grcenlauders the maiTow taken
warm from the animal is held one of the greatest dehcacies, and is presented as a
mark of honour, according to M. Morlot, to the \Tsitor and Government ofhccrs. —
Morlot, Etudes geologico-archeologiqnes en Dancmarch et en Suisse-

t lm])lemcnts for the same pui-j)ose have been figured in the " Atlas of Anti-
quities of the Stone Age of Denmark," by M. Worsaae. M. Alphonse Milne-
Ed\\ai-ds has also informed me that' he saw similar implements m one of the
museums iu Holland recently viaitcd by him.

LARTET ON KUMAlSr REMATlSrS. 61-

implements, in the form of a very slender and sharp-pointed bodkin,
appears to have been made from the horn of the Roebuck, which is
far more compact and harder, than the horn of the Stag or the Eein-
deer. It is in a very good state of preservation, and would still
serve to make holes in the skins of animals for the purpose of joining
them together vnth a coarse kind of suture. This implement was
found in the ossiferous layer above the ashes.

Another instrument, also of Eoebuck horn, has an equally sharp
point, but is not so tapering that it could serve for a needle or awl,
and it might be asked whether it could not have been employed for
the piu^pose of tatooing (?).

Other implements of various dimensions and in the form of a
thinnish blade, represent, according to M. Steinhauer, the polishers,
made of Keindeer-horn, used by the Laplanders to smooth the coarse
sutures of their skin garments. In support of this supposition it may
be noticed that on one of these instruments, the marks of repeated
friction may be observed on both sides.

Another instrument, of pretty nearly the same shape, appeared to
me intended for quite a difterent purpose. On one side, the surface
presents all the roughness of the Reindeer's horn, but it has neverthe-
less been carefully polished, and it is sensibly cui'ved and concave in
a longitudinal direction. The ojjposite side is convex and poHshed
throughout.

Another blade of Eeindeer horn which is unfortunately broken at
each end, exhibits, on one side which is carefully polished, two series
of equidistant transverse lines, separated by an interval in the middle
of the fragment. On each edge, also, may be observed a series of
shallow notches at pretty regular distances apart. Tliese marks and
notches suggest the notion that they might be intended to represent
numeral signs expressive .of various values, or perhaps belonging to
distinct objects.

Another portion, of which I am unable to explain the use, is a por-
tion of Eeindeer's horn, in the middle of which, at the point where an
antler sprang from the stem, is an oval hole or perforation, whose
side is marked with grooves resembling, except that they do not run
in a spiral direction, the worm of a screw. This fragment was found
in the layer of ashes.

The handle of some imjjlement made of Eeindeer's horn was found
in the interior of the cave, beneath the space where the bodies had
been deposited, and in close juxtaposition with several flint imple-
ments, worked Avith more care than those left in the fireplace ; a
circumstance leading to the supposition that aU these choicer objects
had formed a sort of votive offering. The handle in qviestion pre-
sents, near the base, the mark of the place whence the lowest, or
brow antler had been removed, in order to render the gi'asp more
convenient; higher up, is the truncated base of the second antler,
which is hollowed out, for some luiknown purpose ; and at the end
of the stem portion, is the principal opening for the fixing of the

62 OKTOryAL AETICLES.

weapon into the handle, and which is continued to the base of the
horn. One of the flint implements above alluded to is a knife
manufactured with particular care, and appearing never to have
been used.

One of the most curious of the relics discovered in this exploration
is the canine tooth of a young Great Cave Jiear (JJrsiis s^elceus).
Tlie cro'5\"n has been entirely deprived of enamel, afterwards thinned on
the two sides, and a groove running along the concave border
simulates a sort of buccal commissure, or the opening of a bird's beak ;
an oblong fossette visible above and a little behind this, in the
situation that would have been occupied by the eve, and surmounted
by a superciliary line, completed an ill-defined resemblance to some
animal fonn, perhaps a bird's head. The maker, or, as one might say,
the artist, who certaijily had at his disposal large canines of the same
species of Bear, chose that of a young individual, no doubt because
the still existing pulp cavity enabled him to complete the perforation
with less trouble. The tooth, in fact, is perforated ft-om end to end,
so as to admit of its being suspended by some means. It was foimd
very near the entrance of the cave, and exactly at the spot where
Bonnemaison, after the removal of the stone slab, had subsequently
collected the rubbish from the interior. It had probably been
originally interred with one of the bodies as a token of afiection, or
as an amulet, and was overlooked when all the human remains were
removed byM. Amiel.*

It has been remarked that some of the flint implements must
have been manufactured on the spot. The same may be said of some
articles in Eeindeer horn ; for we collected, partly among the ashes,
partly in the superjacent layer of rubbish, the remains of the horns
of that animal, from which the antlers and other portions, likely to
be made useful as implements, had been removed.

The experience acquired by this primitive people had even thus
eariy taught them that the shed horns, which at the present day
are preferred by cutlers, are better nourished and more compact
than those taken in the growing state from the head of the liring
animal. A single horn of a yoimg indi^ idual was found, which had
been cut off immediately after the death of the animal, doubtless
that its soHtaiy point might be used. It was still attached by the
base to the frontal bone, and at and below the seat of fracture the
striped lines of numerous cuts made with the blunt edge of a flint
tool may readily be perceived.

^ijnong the asihes we also found the disjointed laminae of the
molars of the Elephant (S. primigenius). In these laminae, from which
the enamel is detached, the ivory appears to have been very much al-
tered by the action of fii'e. It is impossible to sui-mise the purpose for

* In the sepulchres of the ancient Livonians, we are infonncd bv M. Frederick
Troyon, that pierced teeth of the Bear are found, which had been worn no doubt
as charms or amulets.

LAETET O^' nrilAN BEMArN'S. 63

wliicli these were luteudecl ; but tliere can be no doubt tbat tlie teeth
had been thus disjointed piu-posely, for in the rubbish above the ashes
we found the basal portions of two molars of the Elephant from which
it was clear that the upper portion, in which the laminae are longer
and ^-ider, had been detached. Particles of charcoal are still adhe-
rent to one of these fragments. This is all that we discovered of
Elephant's remains.*

The portion of the ossiferous rubbish B, comprised between the fii'e-
place, or inferior layer of ashes and charcoal, and the rubbly mass of
vegetable earth above, which, before Bonnemaison's discovery, con-
cealed the entrance of the cave, was nearly a metre in thickness. In
it were found, as in the ash-layer, many bones of Herbivora, always
broken and comminuted in the same manner, and some also gnawed
bv Hvjenas. In the same sitiiation, likewise, we met with scattered
particles of charcoal ; the bones of the Carnivora were tolerably
abundant. These were often entire, and, when broken, the fracture did
not present the uniform character so remarkable in the herbivorous
bone ; and none of the carnivorous remains were gnawed, or exhibited
any marks of the teeth of the Hyfena.f ISTor on these bones could
any of the scratches or incisions made with cutting instruments be
perceived, which are so often noticed in the herbivorous bones. J
In explanation also of the presence in this situation of a considerable
quantity of the remains of Carnivora of different sizes, it may be
suggested that these animals served prmcipaUy to furnish skius and
furs for clothing and the protection of man against the weather.
Nevertheless it should not be forgotten that in the interior of the
cave, among the human skeletons and in the soil beneath them, the

* It may be asked, -nhy, if Elephants existed at that period at the foot of the
Pyrenees, arrows or other implements made of the ivory of then- tusks are not
met with. " The Ethiopians in the army of Xerxes," says Herodotus, " used long
arrows made of cane, pointed, instead of iron, with a sharp stone. They had also
javelins armed with the horns of the Koc-deer (?) pointed and fashioned Hke the
head of a lance." Elephants nevertheless existed in Ethiopia, as is proved by the
circumstance that ceitain nations in that country were termed Elephantophagi.
The Phoenicians, moreover, fetched ivory fiora Ethiopia, with which they traded
amongst other nations. But the Ethiopians, like the sub-pyrenean people, had the
common sense to perceive that ivory was more difficult to work, more brittle, and
less durable than the horns of the various species of Cci-viis.

t This circumstance, made me think that in the wild state the Hyena might
have a repugnance lo feeding on the tlesh of Carnivora ; but M. Jules VeiTcaux
who, when at the Cape of Good Hope, fed domesticated Hyienas with the flesh of
the dog, has assured me that llyajnas when retiring in troops into caverns, sometimes
devour that of their comrades who may fall sick. Mr. Brown, in his journey to
Darfour, relates that when an individual in a troop of Hyaenas is wounded, the rest
fall upon and devour him. Dr. Buckknd also was of opinion that in the ossiferous
caverns in England, even the bones of the Hytena had been gnawed by their
congeners.

t In this respect, however, an exception must be made in the case of two frag-
ments of a young Ursus spelaus, on one of which more especially (part of the pelvis)
may be seen numeroiis streaks, which it might be supposed had been produced by
the repeated action of a tool employed to remove the flesh.

64 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

bones of Carnivora were tlie most numerous ; whence it may be
supposed tliat tliese animals entered largely into the funeral rites,
of which analogous instances may be seen in sepiilchres of a more
recent period.*

One cii'cumstance struck me as remarkable : that although we
collected a gi-eat many lower jaws, almost entire, of Carnivora, and, in
the interior of the cave, some of herbivorous animals, not a single
upper jaw in the entire state, nor any considerable portion of the
cranium of any of these animals were met with. Must we conclude
that the crania in general had been broken to pieces for the
extraction of the brain ? The North American Indians, accordmg to
Hearne, as quoted by M. Morlot, prepared the skins of animals with
a lye composed of the brain and marrow. " The Samoiedes," says
PaUas, " split up the bones of the Eeindeer, in order to devoiir the
marrow quite fresh and raw. Their favourite food consists of the
brain taken raw and steaming from the skull ; and they also devour
in the raw state, the young horna of the Eeindeer, when they are
beginning to sprout."

In the soil within the cave at JB, were discovered, as has been said,
several human bones which had been left buried in it, after the
removal which had been effected, several years before, of the skeletons
interred in the burial ground of Aurignac. It was in the same
situation that were found the most highly finished flint implements
and the finest specimen of worked Eeindeer's horn, as well as an almost
entire horn of that animal. The only bones of Herbivora that we
obtained in a good state of preservation, were also procured in the
same deposit. The carnivorous bones constituted the majority, and
amongst these, those of the Fox were the most numerous, after which
came those of the Great Cave Bear ( Ursus spelesus). Of this species,
one specimen must have been introduced entire, since we found in
very close contiguity, the various bones of its skeleton. Amongst the
individuals of this great species of Bear whose remains had been
conveyed into the cave by the hand of man, one must have been a
female in an advanced stage of gestation, for in the loose earth out-
side the cave we met with several remains of a foetus nearly at the
period of birth. "Whilst the bones of the Herbivora found outside
the cave were all broken and comminuted, burnt and gnawed, both
those found in the ashes, as Avell as tliose lying in the layer of earth
above the ash-layer, the bones found in the interior had, on the
contrary, been well preserved, and, in particular, showed no mark of
their having been attacked by the teeth of Carnivora. "Whence it may
be concluded that these parts of animals had been introduced into the
sepulchre for a special purpose ; and, at the same time, that the
entrance had been constantly closed against the Hyaenas.

* Tlie Laplanders of the ])resent day are not so dainty as we may suppose the
aborigmos of Aqiiitainc to have been, for, according to J. Acerbi, (Voyage au C;ip
Nord) they cat inditi'crcntly the Bear, Wolf, Fox, Otter, and Seal.

LARTET 0?r nTTMA?T EE1MATK9.

Tlie general assemblage of the Mammalian remains collected at
Aurignac, shows that the Carnivora, in number of species, were
almost equal to the Herbivora. Subjoined are lists of both, with an
approximate valuation of the number of individuals referrible to each
species.

1. TJrsus spelceu9

2. TJrsus Arctos ?

3. Heles Taxus

4. Putoriiis vulgaris

5. Felis spelcsa

6. Felis Catus ferus

7. Hi/cena spelcea

8. Canis Lupus

9. Canis Vulpes

1. Caeitivgra.

Number of individuals.

5
1

1
1
1
1
5
3
18

— 6

— 2

— 6

— 20

12 —

3 —

10 —

2. Heebiyoba.

1. FlepJias primigenius, two molars.

2. Rhinoceros f ichor inus

3. Equu^ Gaballus

4. Equus Asinus?

5. Sus Scrqfa, two incisors.

6. Cervus Elephas

7. Meg ac eras hihernicus

8. C. Capreolus

9. C. Tarandus
10. Bison europceus

Among the Carnivora, Felis spcslea was represented only by
a single canine and a premolar bearing the mark of a fracture
caused by some violence. From this it may be presumed that the
body of the animal was never conveyed to the spot, and that the
teeth had been brought with a special intention, and the rather so
because both were collected within the sepulchre, and one of them
(the canine sent to M. Leymerie) beyond (a travers) the human
bones at the first discovery of the place by Bonnemaison.

As the two molars of the Elephant are also the only relics of that
species, their being brought by man to the place where they were
found, may also be referred to some customary purpose. And the
same may be said of the two incisors of the Wild Boar, likewise
the only relics of that species discoverable among such a considerable
heap of bones.*

* In the lower grotto of Massat, another ancient station, where man has left
mmierous relics of his feasts, the Boar is also represented only by a single molar.
Certain nations of antiquity had, at an early epoch, a marked repiignance to the

N. H. K.— 1862. F

66 ORIGINAL ARTICLES..

I have omitted to enumerate in the list of Herbivora two half-
jaws of a Field Mouse (Campagnol), and the calcaneum of a Hare,
which may hare been accidentally introduced independently of
human agency.

It is well known that an aversion to the flesh of the Hare, is
still more general than that against pork. The Hare was regarded
as impure by several of the nations of antiquity. Caesar (Z)e Bell.
Gallic, lib. V. c. 12) states that among the inhabitants of Britain the
use of its flesh as food was forbidden.* The Laplanders at the
present day always regard it with horror, and among several
nations of our part of Europe the flesh of the Hare is still despised.
The remains of the Hare and Eabbit are very abundant in the ossi-
ferous breccias and in many of the caves in the Pyrenees ; but I
have met with no traces of their existence in the lower grotto of
Massat, nor have their remains been noticed in other caverns which
appear to have been inhabited exclusively by man. The bones of
the Hare are not mentioned among those of the numerous animals
recognized in the Danish Kitchen-middens,t nor have any been
found below the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland belonging to
the various ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron.

With respect to the Horse, it appears from the broken and
comminuted state of his bones, resembling that in which those
of the ruminants are found, that his flesh entered largely into the
food of the aborigines of Aurignac. Nevertheless, at Massat, a
station a little less ancient, the bones of the Horse are entirely ab-
sent, Avhilst in the cavern of Bise, which was used as a habitation
by man at a period when the iieindeer still lived in the south of
Trance, the broken bones of the Horse were, according to M. Tournal,
equally abundant with those of the rimiinants. The Sarmatians,
says an ancient historian, Avere distinguished from other nations,
and in particular from the Celts, by their taste and predilection for
the blood and flesh of the Horse, and for Mare's milk. The Horse
is wanting in the Stone age in Switzerland and in Denmark. Never-
theless, in Switzerland, in the 10th century of oiu' era, horse-flesh
was served at the table of the monks of St. Gall, at a period, when
amongst other European nations its use as food was forbidden under
pain of excommunication.

flesh of the Wild Boai- or of the Pig. Their flesh, it is well known, was excluded
from the diet of the Egyptians and of the Jews, who, nevertheless, had domesti-
cated the species. The Scythians, according to Herodotus, abstained fi-om the flesh
of the Hog, and the Gallo-Greeks held it in equal aversion. How can the fact be
explained, then, that the ancient Gauls, who had affinities with both those people,
used pork as a considerable part of their food? Observations made in the ancient
stations of the aborigines of Denmark, and beneath the lacustrine habitations of
the Stone period in Switzerland, have shown that those primitive races also fed
largely upon the flesh of the Wild Boar.

[• Though he states, nevertheless, that the Britons bred the Hare, Fowl, and
Goose, though forbidden to use them as food, " animi, voluptatisquo causa."]

[f Vid. Nat. Hist. Rev. 1861, p. 489.]

LAKTET O'S HUMAN EEMAINS, 67

The Ehinoceros appears also to have been eaten by the Pyrenean
aborigines. Some molar teeth, and a certain number of bones
belonging to a young individual, were found at Aurignac in the
layer of earth above the ashes. All the vertebrae and the spongy
parts of the long bones had disappeared, devoured without doubt by
the Hyaenas ; but the thick and compact portions of the shafts of
the long bones were left. They are broken in the same manner as
those of the other Herbivora, and several fragments still bear the
traces of cutting instruments. Another proof, moreover, that when
the carcase of this young Ehinoceros was brought there, it had been
recently slain, is afforded by the circumstance that its bones, after
they had been broken by man, had afterwards been gnawed by the
Hyffinas, which would not have been the case had they not been still
fresh and filled with theii' gelatinous juices.*

The rarity of the common Deer and of the Irish Elk, represented
at Aurignac, each by the remains of a single individual, might be
explained perhaps by the great abundance of those of the Eeindeer.
We know that in a wild state, antijjathies exist between certain
closely allied species, or sometimes between species belonging to the
same genus, which lead them to inhabit perfectly distinct districts.

The Aurochs and the Eeindeer, then, are the species which have
figured the most often in the feasts of whose relics we find only what
was spared by the Hysenas. The situation of the hearth, on a plat-
form overlooking the valley and stream of the Eode, allow also of the
supposition that a great part of the bones might have been thrown
to the bottom of the valley, whence they wovild afterwards be
removed by the current of water, or decomposed by atmospheric
agencies.

The long bones of these ruminants, so rich in marrow, have all
been broken for its extraction. Not one has been forgotten ; every
bone, down to the first phalanges of the Stags and Eeindeer, which,
like the long bones, contain a medullary cavity, has been carefully
opened. But the way in which this has been done is neither so
methodical nor so elegant as that noticed in the Danish kitchen-
middens, the bones in which have aU been split with remarkable
dexterity, in such a way as to expose, at a single blow, the whole of
the marrow they contained: as may be seen for instance in the
cannon-bone, or metatarsus, of the Aurochs, and of the Deer. At
Aurignac, as well as at Massat, this mode of fracture is rather rare,

* Several African nations eat the flesh of the Ehinoceros, and amongst others
the Hottentots. " The ShangaUas," says Bruce, " are very fond of its tiesh,
although it is veiy hard, almost tasteless, and witli a strong musky smell; tlie most
delicate part in their estimation is the sole of the foot, which like that of the
Elephant and Camel, is of a cartilaginous and soft substance." According to
M. Boitard (Diet. Univ. d'Hist. Nat) the Indians hunt the Rhinoceros for their
horns, and to eat their flesh. The Chinese are of opinion that after swallows-nests,
the eggs of the lizard, and puppies, there is nothing so delicate as the tail of the
Ehinoceros, and a kind of jelly made from the skin of its belly.

58 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

and, in general, badly executed. This may be ovring perhaps to the
want of appropriate tools, which have not been found at either
place, whilst the Danish aborigines were provided with them in
abundance. At Aurignac, therefore, and also at Massat, the long
bones are rarely split longitudinally ; sometimes the ends have been
broken off, but more often the bones appear in some way to have
been broken and reduced to fragments by blows from a stone ; and
in these two situations we have found, in the neighbourhood of the
remains of the banquet, the blocks and pebbles, which may have
served for this operation.

It may be asked, how is it, that with arms in appearance so in-
efficient as those we have described, the aborigines of ancient Aqui-
tania ventured to attack animals of the size of the Great Cave Bear,
Ehinoceros, &c. ?*

It may be presumed, that, like the ancient Grermani spoken of by
Cfesar, the primiti\e inhabitants of the Pyrenees were acquainted
with the art of constructing snares for these great animals, and of
catching them in pits, concealed under the leaves and branches of
trees. And besides this, their accurate knowledge of the most vul-
nerable points in the bodies of the animals, and the precision of their
aim, either with the arrow or dart, might to a certain extent com-
pensate for the imperfection of their rude weapons.f

Such is the general statement of the observations it was possible
to make during the complete and careful exploration of the Aurignac
station. The circumstances to which they relate are complex ; and
their succession also indicates a considerable lapse of time. The
first traces of living creatures met with in the loose and, speaking
geologically, comparatively recent deposits, are those of man, proving
that he had made a fireplace on the platform outside the little cave,
whilst the thickness of the layer of ashes upon this site shows that it
was inhabited for a long tune, or, at any rate, that it was frequently
visited.

The complete absence of any trace of fire in the interior of the
grotto, and the state of comparative preservation of the bones found

* In spite of all the attention which I have devoted to the examination of the
bones found at Am-i<;iiac, and to the other circnnistantial evidences afforded at that
place, I have failed to delect the faintest indication of the existence of the JJog, that
habitual companion of man in the chase, in all climates and in cveiy state of bar-
barism. Under the piles belonging to the stone age in Switzerland, the remains of
a diminutive race of Dogs have'been met with. In studying the fauna of the Danish
kitchen-middens, Prof Stcenstruj) lias satisfied himself, from the way in which
certain bones have been gnawed, that tlic Dog must have been the latest companion
of the aborigines, and he has even fuund reason to believe it may sometimes have
been eaten by them. At Massat (Ariege), a station far more recent than that of
Aurio-nac, I have myself fancied that I could perceive indications of the presence of
the Dog, from the wav in which some of the herbivorous Ixmes had been gnawed.

t The Shangallas, 'according to Bruce, kill tlie Rhinoceros with the worst arrows
it is jiossible for a people making use of arms at all to have; and they flay it after-
wards with knives no better than their arrows.

LARTET ON HUMAN REMAINS . 69

tliereiu, denote that the cave, closed against all access from the ex-
terior, must have been consecrated to human burials.

The fragmentary condition of the bones of certain animals, the
modeia winch they are broken, the marks of the teeth of the Hy.Tna
on bones necessarily broken in their recent condition, even the dis-
tribution of the bones and their significant consecration, lead to the
conclusion that the presence of these animals, and the deposition of
all these remains, are due solely to human agency. Neither the
inclination of the ground, nor the surrounding hydrographical condi-
tions, allow us to suppose that the remains could have been brought
where they are found by natiu^al causes.

The large amount of the remains of animals which had served as
human food, and their presence at different levels, would indicate that
successive assemblages had gathered at this spot. These assemblages
probably took place on each occasion of the burial of the various indivi-
duals interred ui the grotto. And it is highly probable also that the
station ceased to be frequented when the sepulchral cave, being
fuUy tenanted, would no longer afford space for further inhumations.

The gentle and prolonged action of simple atmospheric agencies,
would be sufficient, in course of time, to account for the detachment
of fragments from the escarpment of the adjacent rock, and the
gradual accumulation of loose fallen earth, by which the site of the
fire-place outside, and the slab closing the opening of the sepulchral
cave, would be entu-ely covered.

The antiquity of the sepulchre cannot be ascertained either from
tradition or liistory, nor from numismatic data, no document of this
kind relating to it having been met with.

Regarding the svibject archseologically, we perceive, in the ab-
sence of any kind of metal, and the common employment of imple-
ments and weapons of flint and bone, sufficient indications that the
station of Aurignac should be referred to that ancient period of pre-
historic times, denominated by antiquaries of the present day, — the
age of Stone.

Palseontologically, the human race of Aurignac belongs to the
remotest antiquity, to which, up to the present time, the existence of
man or the vestiges of his industry have been traced. This race, in
fact, was e^ddently contemporary with the Aurochs, Reindeer, Grigantic
Elk, Eliinoceros, Hyaena, &c. ; and, what is more, with the Great
Cave Bear (17. spelcBus), which would appear to have been the ear-
liest to disappear in the group of great mammals, generally regarded
a-s characteristic of the last geological period.*

But, it will be said, how does it happen, if the sepulchre of

* The chemical examination by M. Delesse of the Anrignac bones, fiimishes a
further excellent means for determining the question of contemporaneity. The
respective analyses wliich he has made demonstrate that the bones of the Reindeer,
Rhinoceros, Aurochs, &c. have retained precisely the same proportion of nitrogen,
as the human bones from the same locality.

70 Oeioinal aeticles.

Aurignac is to be referred to a period, coeval with the most ancient
geological deposits in which the products of human industry have
been foiuid, — the diluvial beds of St. Acheul and of Abbeville, —
that the violent phenomena of that diluvian period, and the great
cataclysm* connected with those beds, have not affected the original
conditions of this cavern ? It is obvious, in fact, that nothing has
been disturbed, and that, not only have a simple slab of stone a few
centimetres in thickness, and a thin covering of loose earth, sufficed
to preserve intact the sepulchre itself, but also that outside the
cave, the relics of the funeral repasts and the various implements
and arms left by the human inliabitants have not been disturbed.

It has been observed above that, from its isolated position in the
mountain range of Aurignac, the mountain of Fajoles is completely
protected from the streams and torrents of the surroimding country.
Nevertheless, upon looking at the geological map of Trance, we find
tliat the colour indicating the great alluvial deposits of the Garonne,
Adour, &c.,t is wanting in the interval between the little valleys
which connuence on tlie plateau of Lanemezan. A very slight
elevation of the borders of this plateau has been sufilcient to protect
the whole of the intermediate region, (more than 200 square leagues.)
within which are comprised tiie district of Aui-ignac, from the
invasion of this diluvium or Pyrenean drift.

* I am here obliged to repeat what I have ah-cady said elsewhere: viz., that the
grand words, revolution of the (/lobe, catachjum, iiniversal pirturhation, yeneral ca-
tastrophes, S,-c., have been introduced by a sort of abuse into tlie technical language
of Science, seeing that they tend to give an exaggerated significance to phenomena,
■which geographically have been very limited in extent. These phenomena, how-
ever stupendous they may appear to us, as manifested witliin the limits of our
sensible horizon, are reduced to very little when brought down by actual calculation
to their relative importance as regards the whole surface of the globe. Evciything,
moreover, indicates tliat the successive production of these partial accidents forms
part of the nonual conditions of the course of nature, and that the great harmony
seen in the ))hysical and organic evolutions on the surface of the eai'th, has in no
case been aifected by them.

Aristotle full\' comi)rchended those alternating movements of the land, which
at several intervals have changed the relations of continents and seas. He also
reduced to its regional projiortions tlie deluge of Deucalion, so embelhshcd and
magnified by the fictions of poetry. This great naturalist appears to have been
obliged to combat the fantastic conceptions of the revolutionist philosophers of his
time; and the rude apostrophe which he addressed to them, " ridiculum cnim est,
]iroptcr parvas et moinentaneas pernnitationes, moverc ipsum totum." (Meteorol.
1. i. c 2.), might well, after tAvo thousand years, be applied to some among us,
geologists and paleontologists of the present day.

f These alluvial beds or diluvium occupying the bottom of the valleys of the
Garonne and of the Adour, should not be confounded with the pebbles and
argillaceous deposits, lying at a higher level on terraces more or less continuous,
ordinarily on the left s'ide of the course of the rivers. These deposits, in which the
granitic, ophitic, and other feldspathic pebbles, are almost always in a decomposed
fr'tatc, belong to a more ancient period, or that of the original excavation of the
valleys. At the l)Ottom of the valleys of the Garonne and of the Adour, the granitic,
and other pebbles of the Pyrenean drift, are numerous and perfectly preserved.
None of the kind arc met with in the little valleys descending from the plateau of
Lanemezan.

LAETET ON HUMAN EEMAINS. 71

In the valley of the G-aronne, the Pyrenean drift is the geological
or synchronal equivalent of the diluvium, of the Seine and of the
diluvial deposits of Amiens, Abbeville, &c., because it is in these
alluvial beds, that are found the remains of Eleplias primigenius, Bliino-
ceros tichorinus, and other species regarded as characteristic of the
diluvimn.

But tliis phenomenon of torrential recrudescence, which has pro-
duced the diluvium, and whose cause must be sought in a sudden
return to regional conditions of extreme temperature, has been
manifested, only to a comparatively very trifling extent, in all the
valleys descending from the plateau of Lanemezan. It is not astonish-
ing therefore, to find that the sepulchre of Aurignac, if it existed at that
time, should not have suifered any damage from the efiect of the
great floods of the period, seeing that, from its com^jarative altitude,
it was placed beyond their reach.

I would, nevertheless, go farther, and say that viewed simply
under the palseontological relations manifested in it, the sepulchre
of Aurignac claims a very high comparative antiquity. In fact, the
Great Cave Bear, which we there behold evidently cotemporary with
man, has not, so far as I know, yet been found in France in the
diluvium. It is true, that it has been mentioned in a list which has
several times been reproduced, of the fossil Mammals discovered in the
diluvial beds of Abbeville ; but I have in vain tried to get at the source
of the methodical determination upon which this statement rests, and
from all that I have seen of its fossil remains the Bear, either from
the valley of the Somme, or from the environs of Paris, belongs
to a species, or to more than one species, very certainly distinct from
Ursus spelijeus. In the centre of Prance, and in England, all the
'remains of the latter species, not foimd in caverns, come from
deposits, regarded by geologists as more ancient than the diluvium.

It will, doubtless, be objected to this, that the remains of Ursus
spelcBus occur very abundantly in most of the caverns of the con-
tinent, and even in some of those in England ; but, at the same time,
it must not be forgotten that the date of the filling of these caverns
is evidently to be placed beyond the epoch assigned by geologists to
the diluvial phenomena, because in several of these caverns, at any
rate, the remains of Mammals are met with, which are sometimes
included in the lists of species referred to the latter phases of the
tertiary period.

We see then, that if we rely solely upon the consideration of the
palseontological concomitances, the result we should arrive at would
be, that the sepulchre of Aurignac should be referred, together with
all the circumstances accompanying it, to an epoch anterior to the
diluvium properly so termed. In confining the force of this remark
simply within the limits of its inductive value, I do not think I am
losing sight of the reserve with which new propositions should be
introduced, when they as yet repose only on negative observations.

72 OKiaiNAL AETICLES.

YII._The Sumatean Elephant. By Prof. H. Sclilegel.

[The following translation from tlie Dutch, of a pa])er read by Prof.
H. Sehlegcl, before the Eoyal Academy of Sciences of Holland,* gives
some fui-ther details re.^ipecting the Sumatran Elephant. This species
was distinguished by Temminck some years ago, from the Elephant
of Continental India, and proposed to be called U I epJi as sumatranus,-\
but is hardly known to Naturalists of this country, except from the
short notice of it communicated by the late Prince Charles Bona-
parte, to one of the meetings of the Zoological Society of London,
in 18i9.:— P. L. S.]

It is well known that Sumatra is the only island of the Indian
Archipelago, where Elephants are found "udld. Magelhaens has in-
formed us, that the Elephants which he saw in Borneo, were intro-
duced there, and that the animal is as little indigenous to that
island as to Java.

So long as all living Elephants were treated of as belonging to
one species, no one thought of comparing them together ; and even
after Cuvier had pointed out that the Elephant of Africa was ^-ery
different from that of India, yet the opinion remained that all the
Asiatic Elephants constituted but one sj^ecies, though, as we shall
presently show, the examples on which Cuvier established his Weplias
africamis, differed specifically inter se. This idea, indeed, had gone
so far that no one took the trouble to examine further the Elephants,
which were brought alive from time to time from Sumatra to Java,
and there kept in a half-domestic state, but people were content to
refer them to the so-called Indian or Asiatic Elephant, to which also,
according to Cuvier, the Ceylonese Elephant belongs.

As, however, nothing is proved by a negative, and it is of great
importance in a large Museum to obtain illustrations of the Eaunas
of different countries, I never ceased to urge my predecessor, Heer
Temminck, to obtain specimens of the Sumatran Elephant for the
Eoyal Museum. In August, 1845, I was fortunate enough to be
gratified in this respect, several examples of Elephants from the dis-
trict of Palembang in Sumatra, having been liberally forwarded to
the Museum, by his Excellency the Baron J. C. Baud— at that time
Governor of the Dutch possessions in India. As I was unpacking
lliom it appeared to me that they differed in several respects from
the Elephant of Bengal. I occupied myself, therefore, with draAv-
ing up tlie characters of these two animals, compared with those of
the African Elephant, and gave the results to Heer Temminck ;

* Sec Vcrslagen en ^Mcdedeclingen der Koninlilijke Academie van Weteu-
scliappcn, Afd. Niituiirkundc, 1861, p. 101.

•[• See his " Coup d'ocil sur les possesions Nederlandaises dans les Indes Ori-
cntales." Vol. II. p 91.

% See I'loc. Zool. Soc. 1849, p. 144.

THE SUMATRAN ELEPU.VXT. 73

wliich lie afterwards piiblislied,* calling the new species by the name
Elephas sumatramis.

Since that period, several other examples of the Elephant h'ving in
Sumatra have been brought to the Netherlands, so that I have had
the opportunity of examining them. Amongst these were seven skele-
tons, of which throe are still in the Royal Museum, several skulls, a
young specimen of about three feet high also now in the Museum, and
a living animal about six feet high now in the Zoological Grardeus, at
Amsterdam. All these specimens exhibited alike the characters, in
which they differed from such examples of the so-called Indian Ele-
phant, as I have examined.

I say the so-called Indian Elephant, because it has not yet been
settled to which species we should apply this name. The name is
generally given to that species of Elephant which has been brought
from Continental India, and particularly, as it appears, from Bengal
to Europe. This practice we have followed, but we must never-
theless guard ourselves from believing that this was exactly the
species which Cuvier described under the name JEleplias indicus.
Cuvier assigns to his E. indicus twenty dorsal vertebrje, and conse-
quently a like number of pairs of ribs. This would lead us to
believe that Cuvier's determination was made upon a skeleton of the
species which lives in Sumatra, and not upon one of the Bengalese
species, which has only nineteen dorsal vertebrae and a like number
of pairs of ribs.f

The under jaw figured by Cuvier, pi. 5, fig. 3, seems, judging from
the width of the laminre of the teeth, to belong also to the Suma-
tran species.

The figure, pi. 1, fig. 1, is on the other hand apparently taken
■from a skeleton of the Bengalese Elephant, since it has only nineteen
dorsal vertebrae and as many pairs of ribs, and this is perhaps also
the case with the figure of the skull, pi. 4, fig. 1, and that of the
under jaw, pi. 5, fig. 2.

The supposition that both the other skeletons, examined by
Cmaer, belonged to the second Asiatic sort is fully established by
what he says, pp. 60, 67.

He says here, that he has examined three skeletons of the Indian

* Coup cl'oeil, II. p. 91.

f It is very curious that Cuvier seems to have quite overlooked the differences
in the uumher of dorsal vertebra; and ribs, not only in both the Asiatic but also in
the African Elephant, for otherwise he could hardly have avoided alluding to tliem.
The chapter of his Osseniensfossiles (I. p. 12), in which he speaks of the skeleton
of the Elephant, has the heading " Description gcncrale de I'osteologie de I'Ele-
phant, priucipalement d'apres I'Elephant des Indes,"' and it seems from the parti-
culars here mentioned, that his principal object was the comparison of the skulls of
the African and Indian Elephants; on the other hand that he confined himself to
the consideration of the skeleton of Elephas sumatranus of Ceylon, while his figm'e
of the skeleton represents that of the Bengalese Elephant. Again, (p. 241) he says,
V Elephant (thus speaking generally), a uiie vertebre dorsale c* une paire des coU'sa
plus, i. c. than the Mastodon, which, according to him, has only nineteen.

t4t OEiaiNAX AETICLES.

Elephant. One of these, which, according to Cuvier, belongs to the
variety called Dauiitelah by Corse, was sent to the Museum at
Leyden, in 1815, six years before the appearance of the second edition
of the " Ossemens Fossiies," (see that ed. p. 66), where it exists at
the present day. This skeleton agrees in all particulars with the
Elephant of Bengal, having only nineteen dorsal vertebrae and the
like number of ribs. The description which Cuvier gives of his
Elephas indicus seems, therefore, to have been based exclusively upon
his two other skeletons. Both of these, as he himself informs us,
were from Ceylon. He tells us this, in the Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, (1806, p. 148), speaking of the male which he identifies
with the variety, MooJcnah of Corse ; and he says the same (Oss. Poss.
p. 67) of the female, which he considers as belonging to the variety
Komarea of Corse, adding that these were the skeletons of two
Elephants brought from Ceylon to the Netherlands in 17S6, and
afterwards taken from thence to Paris.*

Hence it appears very clear that Cuvier described his ElepTias
indicus from specimens of two different species, one of which agrees
with the Elephant of Bengal, whilst the others have all the charac-
ters of the Elephant of Sumatra. Since, therefore, both the latter
skeletons attributed by Cuvier to Ceylon, presented the characters
of the Elephant of Sumatra, it appeared to me to be probable that
the Ceylonese Elephant belonged to the Sumatran species, and not
to that of Bengal — the so-called Elephas indicv^. This conjecture has
been now wholly unexpectedly confirmed through a fortunate con-
junction of circumstances, in a manner which leaves no further
doubt on the subject. Tlie celebrated traveller Diaed, advanced in
years, but still endued with that untiring zeal and youthful activity
by which science and our National Museum have profited so largely,
during his long service under the government of the Netherlands,
passed three months in Ceylon, in 1838, on a journey undertaken
with the object of investigating the system of cultivation, and em-
ployed his leisure time in collecting the animals of the island. During
some Elephant-shooting expeditions, he obtained a male and female
Elephant from seven to eight feet high, and besides these two young
specimens, which he placed entire in casks filled with arrack. The

• In the Paris Museum at the present moment, as I learn by a fiiendly com-
munication of Dr. Pucheran, there are, besides the skeletons of the two Ceylonese
Elephants, brought from Holland to Paris in 1795, and examined by Cuvier, a thii-d
sent by Duvaucel from Bengal. M. Pucheran confirms the fact, that both the
Ceylonese clephant-jkeletons have twenty dorsal vertebrae and twenty pairs of ribs.
He finds, however, the same number in the skeleton from Bengal. From this one
might be led to suppose, that the Ceylonese Elephant Ls also found in Bengal. But
I think it would be rash to consider' this fact established by a single observation,
as all the skeletons of Bengalese Elephants which I have examined have had, with-
out exception, only nineteen dorsal vertebrce and nineteen ribs. It is more likely
that Duvauccl's skeleton was taken from a Ceylonese Elephant; examples of this sort
being, as we shall afterwards show on the authority ef Hcer Diard, often brought
living to Bengal.

THE SUMATBA.N ELEPHANT.

ship in which most of H. Diard's specimens were sent to Europe,
received so much damage at sea near the Mauritius, that the goods
were mostly trans-sliipped, and sent in another vessel to Europe. It
thus happened that she did not arrive in the Netherlands until two
years after she had quitted Ceylon, and then with the news that the
cask containing one of the young Elephants had been obliged to be
thrown overboard, having become decomposed. A better fate
awaited the second cask, containing the other young individual, which
had been destined for Professor Owen of London ; and this and
the skin and skeleton of the old male Elephant, as also the skull of
the old female reached us well preserved. Tliese are now in the
National Museum at Leyden, and, as an accm-ate investigation has
convinced me, differ iu no respect from our examples of the Suma-
tran Elephant, thus belonging to this species, and differing in the
following particulars from ElepTias indicus.

The Elephant of Sumatra and Ceylon, {ElepJias sumatranus) has
small ears like E. indicus, and approaches this species also in the
form of its skull, and the number of the caudal vertebras ; but the
laminfe of its teeth are wider, and in the number of its dorsal verte-
brae and pairs of ribs it differs from both the other known species.
As far as we know, there are seven cervdcal, three lumbar and four
Bacral vertebrae in all the species of Elephas alike. E. sumatranus
and E. indicus agree in the ninnbcr of caudal vertebrje, winch is
usually thirty- thi-ee, but in very yoimg examples sometimes only
thirty. In E. africanus, on the other hand, the taU never contains
more than twenty-six vertebrae. Einally, the numbers of dorsal
vertebrae and pairs of ribs are different in each of the three living
species of Elephant, being in E. africanus twenty-one, in E. suma-
tranus twenty, and in E. indicus nineteen.

It is also remarkable, that the number of true ribs is alike in all
the species, that is, only five ; whilst in the three species, as above given,
the corresponding numbers of false ribs are fifteen, foui'teen and
thirteen. Hence it follows that the augmentation of these parts in
the different species, takes place in the direction of the hindermost
dorsal vertebra and pair of ribs.

The laminae of the teeth afford another distinction, which, how-
ever, is less apparent to the eye than that taken from the number of
the vertebrae. These laminae, or bands, in E. sumatranus are -wider
(or if one may so say, broader in the dii-ection of the long axis of the
teeth) than in E. indicus. In making this comparison one must
remark that the distinction is less evident in yomiger individuals, and
that there are met with in all species of Elephants, within certain
definite limits, remarkable individual differences in respect of the
width of these laminas.*

* The difFerences wluch we pointed out as existing between the skulls of the
two sorts of Asiatic Elephants, in Teniminck's Coup d'oeil, (II. p. 9, note), seem,
now that we have examined a greater number of examples, not to be constant.

OEIGINAL AETICLES.

In their external form also the two Asiatic Elephants appear to
present some differences. Heer Westerman, Director of the Gardens
of the Zoological Society of Amsterdam, which has for several years
possessed two female elephants of middling age, one from Calcutta and
the other from Sumatra, informs me, on this subject, that the Suma-
ti-an example is more slender and more finely built than the Benga-
lese, that it has a longer and thinner snout, and that the rump at the
end is more broadened and covered with longer and stronger hairs,
in which respect it reminds one rather of the African than the Indian
Elephant, and lastly that the Sumatran animal is more remarkable
for its intellectual development than the Indian.

The last mentioned observation agrees in a remarkable way with
w^hat Heer Diard has lately wi-itten concerning the Elephant of
Ceylon. He says, on this matter, " I'Elephant de Ceylon se dis-
" tingue de celui des Indes par une aptitude d'intelligence instinc-
" tive, celle de facile educabihte : aussi ces elephaus de Ceylon, de
" tout temps recherches par les Princes de I'lnde se trouvent I'etre
" encore aujourdhui plus qu' aucun autre par les Anglais pour les
" differens services auxquels on les employe. J'ai eu I'occasiou
" d' observer plusieursgrandes troupes de ces animaux et une parti-
" culierement, qui avait fiui par se laisser prendre dans ime gi-ande
" enceinte etablie par les ordres du Grouvernement, qui a cette
" epoque oii la guerre de I'lnde etait encore loin d'etre terminee
" faisait tout ce qu'il est possible pour recruter un certain nombre de
" ces animaux afin de les dirigervers le Bengale."

When we collect Avhat is known respecting the distribution of
both species of Asiatic Elephants, it seems that this animal is met
with eastward of the Indus throughout the whole of Hindostan,
Bengal, and the wade districts of Em-ther India to Siam and Cochin-
Chiua, and also on the islands of Ceylon and Sumatra ; that one of
the species, U. sumafranus, has only yet been met with on the islands
of Ceylon and Sumatra,* whilst the so-called Indian Elephant has
been brought to Europe exclusively from Continental India.

So far as I can discover, tlie greater number of Elephants brought
to Europe from Continental India, have been obtained from Bengal.
It remains therefore a question, whether all the Elephants of
Continental India belong really to one species, or whether, in tliese
widely extended regions, there may not be different species of Ele-
phants, and the Elephant of Trans-gangetic India may not perhaps
belong to U. sumatramis. A similar question may be asked with
respect to the Elephant of Southern India, compared with the
E. smnatranus of Ceylon, since these districts approach one ano-
ther very nearly. We have, it is true, no more reasons for answer-

• The whole area of tlie distribution of the Asiatic Elephants is, on the globe,
eml)race(l in a district of the form of an elongated quadrangle of 40 degrees in length
and 25 in breadth, of which about half is taken up by sea. It lies between 65» and
1U5" E. L. and irom IS. to fcj. extends from about 35"" and 25" N. to 5°S.

THE STJMATBAN ELEPHAlfT, 77

ing tliese questions in the affirmative than the negative, but they
must be determined by ascertaining the facts, in order to know the
exact boundaries of the range of E. indicus*

K, as we have reason to believe is the case, the Elephant of
Southern India agrees with that of Bengal, then the phenomenon
that the Ceylonese animal belongs to another species, and that species
the Sumatran, is certainly very remarkable. The Fauna of Ceylon
shows, it is true, in some respects, differences from that of Southern
India ; one of the most noticeal^le of which is, that not one of the
Monkeys living upon this island is identical with those of India.
Nevertheless the Fauna of Ceylon agrees much better with that of
India than with that of Sumatra, where not only entirely different
species, but even other forms of Monkeys occur {e. g. the Orang-
outang, severtil Gibbons, amongst which is the abnormal Hylobcdes
syndacti/lus, the Galeopithecus, Sfc.) and wliich island besides pro-
duces, to mention some of the larger species, a Rhinoceros, the Indian
Tapir, a very different species of Bos and of Moschus, an Antelope,
the Argus, Folyphctroti, several very peculiar species of Hornbill,
(<?. g. Buccros bicornis, and B. galeatus), and many other species and
genera, which are not met with in Ceylon. It would be, however,
anticipating the progress of science, when, as now, so small a quantity
of incomplete materials are before us, to make comparisons between
the Faunas of these countries, and it wovdd be still more precipitate
to attempt to draw general conclusions therefrom.f

If we take into consideration at once the size of the laminse of

* The works of Naturalists and travellers throw no light upon this subject.
Corse (Phil. Trans. 1799, p. 245) it is true, tells us that the Bengalcse distinguish
three races of Elephants — Mooknah, Danntelah and Komarea; but the distinctions
which he gives of these races, seem to refer exclusively to the lesser or greater size
and the form of the tusks. But we know how much the tusks of this animal vary
according to the sex and the individual, and that these teeth sometimes, even in old
females, acquire a considerable size.

j- I think the attention of Natitralists ought to be turned also to the Elephants
of the different parts of Africa. We meet, among the skulls from this Continent,
with some which, as regards the extraordinary shortness of the tusk-jaw-bones,
arc proportionately shorter and much broader tlian is generally the case. Such a
skull is figured by Cuvier, (Oss. Foss. I. pi. 4, fig. 2), whereas on the same plate,
(fig. 10) the usual form of the skull of the African Elephant is represented. That
this difference is not sexual I have repeatedly observed : one might therefore sup-
pose that the individual, the skull of which has such a remarkably contracted form,
belongs to another variety or species. All the South African Elephants, that I have
seen, belong to the ordinary form. I do not know the locality of the short skull.
It would be veiy desirable to coni]\are the Elephants from different parts of Africa,
in order to knoAV with certainty whetlier they are all identical, or show local differ-
ences. The latter is not impossible, since most animals from the two chief divisions
of Africa differ specifically from one another, or at least show differences in size,
&c., as, for example, is the case with tlie Ostrich of Algeria and that of South Africa.
In every case it is remarkable, that the area of Asia tenanted by the Elephant is ten
times smaller than Africa, and that this area embraces two species, whilst the
African Elephant is spread over the whole Continent — that is, over an area ten times
as great as that of the two Asiatic species together.

78 OBIGINAL AETICLES.

the teeth, in the different species of Elephant, and the numbera of
the ribs and dorsal vertebrae, we obtain the remarkable result that,
as the latter numbers decrease, the laminae become narrower. In
E. africanus these laminne are widest, and here we also find the greatest
number of dorsal veriebraB and pairs of ribs : E. sun atr amis, in
which the laminae are narrower, has twenty dorsal vertebrae and pairs
of ribs : E. indicus, in which they are stiU narrower, only nineteen.
In the Mammoth, {E. primigenius) where they are narrowest of all,
the number of dorsal vertebrae and ribs, appears to be only eighteen.*
As tlie conclusion of this short notice, we may remark that
Cu\ier, by neglecting to compare together specimens of the different
species of Elephants, and to attend to the numbers of their dorsal
vertebrae and ribs, deprived himself of the discovery of the third
living species of Elephant, and thereby missed a principal argument
for his assertion, that E. primigenius belonged to a different species
from those now in existence. Had he not lost this piece of evidence
he would have obtained an overbearing argument in the last-named
question, and Naturalists would have become acquainted with the
existence of a third species of Elephant, half a century sooner.

VIII. — Obseevations ok some Australian akd Eeegeean

HeTEROCTATHI A3fD THEIR PARASITICAL SiPITNCULUS. By Johu

Denis Macdonald, E.K, F.E.S., Surgeon of H. M.S. "Icarus."

In two separate casts of the lead off the Bellona Eeef, Lat. 21.
51. S., Long. 159. 28. E., we obtained specimens of living Polypi,
referable, as Dr. Gray has since very kindly informed me, to the genus
Heterocyathus, and on comparing them with others previously
collected by me in the Eeegee group, I found that they were specifi-
cally different, though ob\aously belonging to the same genus.

The corallum is simple, free, depressed, broad and flattened at
the base, becoming smaller towards the cali/x or oval disc, which is
more or less oval in figure, and comparatively shallow, with a well-
developed septal system following the regnant number six.

The septa are disposed in three sets, or whorls, according to the order
of their development, viz. a primary set, which is most prominent and
madeup of six or twelve members, a secondary, equal in number and
alternating with these, and a tertiary set, of double that number and
alternating with the other t^A^o. The primarxj septa have, on either
side, a thin sub-parallel lamina, with which they are blended at the
thecal margin, being only connected with them internally by means

• That the Mastodons form, not a diverging, but a parallel series with the
Elephants, seems evident from the wiiolly ditierent form of their tusks, also from the
fact that the Mastodon gujanteus has only twenty dorsal vertebra; and an equal
number of ribs— that is less than E africanus—yjYnhi the knobs of the teeth are
far larger than those of the last-named animal.

MACDO'ALD ON HETEROCTATHUS AND SIPUXCULUS. 79

of the columella. Tlie secondary septa are furnished with laminre of
tlie same description, which join those of the first set, at an acute
angle, without reaching the columella ; and the tertiary septa pass
into this point of union, having no supplementary laminae of their
own. The two sets of plates, just noticed, pi-esent a rounded shoulder
internally (more prominent in the primary ones) giving them the
character of lateral pali, or dismemberments of the septa.

The columella is composed of a spongy tissue, with an oval and
slightly convex summit.

All the plates of the disk are spongy, or minutely granular, on the
siu-face, but compact within. The body of the corallum is spongy at
the axis, in contiiuiity with the columella, more compact below and
around this, and again more porous towards the exterior, especially
above.

The loeuli are circumscribed, but not crossed by synapticults or
interseptal dissepiments. They are just double the number of the
septa, lying one on either side of the latter, and are thus ai*ranged by
pairs in three distiuct circles ; the internal corresponding with the
primary, the middle with the secondary, and the external with the
tertiary rays.

In the species taken at the Bellona Shoals the oral disk was dis-
torted, with a central constriction, as though a process of fission had
been going forward. In one specimen indeed the opposite margins
of the disk had actually coalesced. The primary septa were twelve in
number, and all the plates are so much compressed that the loeuli
are exceedingly narrow. Tlie external surface of the corallum is
beset with minute graniJations disposed in broken longitudinal liues
with porous channels between them ; on the other hand, iu the Pee-
geean species the disk is regular, with six primary rays and wider
loeuli, and the external surface of the corallum is coarsely gi'anulated,
without any very obvious linear disposition, as the first rudiments of
costce.

In a recent visit to Moreton Bay we di'edged (ia a few fathoms
depth) two beautiful specimens of another species of this genus,
differing from the foregoiug iu having well marked longitudinal costce,
exactly forty-eight iu number, and corresponding, each for each, with
all the radiating sep)ta and lamincE, with which they are directly con-
tinuous at the margin of the disk. The principal lamince are falcate
towards the hollow of the cup and deeply notched, toothed and
echinate, as they pass into the spongy columella, whose actual limit
is thus rendered less defijiite than in the other species described.

Of the soft parts of these polyps, I can say but little. They
appear to be very scanty, from the fact, that when the animals are
immediately taken from the water there is scarcely anythiug to be
seen but a brown, soft and tenacious matter, filling up the crevices of
the skeleton above described, and all the prominent points and ridges
become quite bare. Tlie whole surface of the corallum is covered
over with a thin ectodermic layer, which however is much worn at the

OKIGrN'AL AETICLES.

"base. In tlie fragments removed very cautiously with a knife, I
could recognise what appeared to be portions of simple tentacula,
muscular fibres and a fibrous matrix, bro-\\m pigment cells, the usual
yellow or amber-tinted spherical globules of the subjacent parts, and
ciliated epithelium, from the lining of the common cavity. The
analogy of other cases suggests the probability that the tentacula
correspond with the outer whorl of loculi.

The most remarkable circumstance coimected with these polyps,
is the invariable presence of a little solitary Sipimculus in a beauti-
fully excavated burrow at the base of the corallum. The imilbrm
position of the opening and sinistral direction of this burrow, first
observed in dead specimens, led me to suppose that it was in some
way connected with the economy of the polyps themselves, but having
discovered its occupant to be one of the coral perforating Sipun-
culidcs, which abound in the South Seas, the riddle was quickly
solved. Tlie body of one of these parasites, taken from a Bellona
Eeef specimen, is about f of an inch in length, terete, but gradually
increasing in diameter from before backwards, and exhibiting a
permanent curvature forwards, corresponding Avith that of the bur-
row.

The crested proboscis is about three times the length of the body,
and crowned Avith simple ciliated tentacula. On the dorsal surface,
immediately behind the base of the proboscis, is a little oval and
brownish callosity, answering the purpose of an operculum, when
the animal is retracted into its cell, and close behind this disk is the
anal aperture. The posterior extremity of the body is furnished with
a similarly constituted, but slightly conical, shield. As the opercular
disk meets the rest of the dorsal surface, at an angle more or less
obtuse, the proboscis appears to hold a subterminal ventral position,
and protrudes itself somewhat perpendicularly to the axis of the
body. The surface of the latter is beset witli minute asperities, dis-
posed serially, or irregidarly scattered. These become larger and
more numerous towards the dorsal region, and more definitely ago-re-
gated at the extremities ; they constitute the before mentioned oper-
cular and caudal disks. As they extend themselves on the proboscis
they grow smaller, and begin to assume a more orderly arrangement,
and finally form into closely set rings of minute and recurved hooks,
reaching to the base of the oral tentacula. This parasite is evidently
closely allied to the little animal from the Indian seas, named LifJio-
dermis ciineus, by Cuvier, and which was the only species knoAAoi to
him.

_ In the Coral borers, Avhich are nearly identical with the little
annuals here noticed, I found that the oesophagus was encircled by a
nervous collar, with a cephalic enlargement on either side, from which
tentacular nerves arose, and, in contact with which, dark eye specks
were distmctly visible ; there is also a single ventral nervous chord,
givmg off lateral ner\es at stated intervals, but without any very appa-
rent ganglionic dilatations. I observed, moreover, that the cavity of

MACDONALD ON HETEEOCTATUUS AND SIPUNCULUS.

the body was lined with a ciliated membraue, which was reflected round
the larger branches of a transparent (probably water) vascular sys-
tem running along the spirally coiled intestine, with its singularly
constructed central suspensory ligament. All this militates against
the supposed JUchinoderm nature of Sipunculus, and give it radiating
affinities with the Annelida, Polyzoa and Tunicata, though perhaps
only of a representative kind. The simple anatomy of the larval
form, the Atlas of Peron, if it be not indeed a permanent one, is also
of great importance in this connexion.

'//jih 'Ml .
5^

Eefekences
I. Sipunculus Heterocyafhi, (natural size)

a. Opercular disk. b. caudal disk.
a. Opercular disk. b. caudal disk. c. proboscis,

2. Ventral view enlarged.

3. Dorsal view enlarged, a. Opercular disk. b. anus. c. proboscis.

4. Corallum, seen from above, enlarged, a. Columella, b. primary, c. secondary
and rf. tertiary rays. e. primary. /. secondary and g. tertiary loculi. h.h.h. Open-
ings communicating with the burrow.

5. Lateral vicAv, shewing a. the aperture of the biuTow.

[The case of parasitism here descrilied has an especial interest if viewed in
relation to the apparently anomalous characters of the palfeozoic Pleuro diet yon, which.
we are much inclined to regard as a coral perforated in a similar manner. — Eds.]
N, H. R.— 1862. G

IX. — Oy TBX AItoloCtT of the Oeaxg UiAyG. Ey "William Selby
Chiircli. B.A., Lee's Eeader in Anatomy, Ckrist Ctiureli, Oxford.

(Cmitinued from Xat. Skt. Bev.j'or 1S61, page 516.)

The Flexor Long^us PoUieis appeared at first si^lit to be a portion
of the Flexor Profundus, but its origin Tras distinct, as it arose from
the radius, and remained distinct from the Flexor Profundus through-
out its whole course. It went to the index only in the Orang ; and, as
it passed through the annular ligament, it sent off a slip to the tendon
of the Flexor Profundus. The tendon of this muscle was supplied
with a Liirnhricalis muscle, inserted as in man; each of the branches
of the Flexor Profundus were also suppHed with a good-sized Lum-
hricalis muscle. In the Gorilla, the Pie.ror Longus Pollicis sends a
small tendon to the thumb, though the mass of the muscle has there
become a flexor of the index. (Duvemoy. 1. c. p. 106.) In the ]Magot
and Cebus, these muscles become fused on the palm of the hand,
forming as it were a common Flexor Profundus. In the Magot. the
radial portion, or Flexor Pollicis. went chiefly to the iudex, and a
slip from the ulnar portion, or Flexor Profundus, snpplied the chief
portion of the tendon going to the pollex. In the Cehus, the same
ftision of the muscles toot place : but the radial portion was much
the stronger, and supplied the thumb with a tolerably strong tendon,
as well as the index and middle fingers, the ulnar portion supplying
the third, fourth and fifth digits with tendons.

The arrangements of the Lumhricales in these ^lonkevs was
peculiar. They formed a fleshy mass on the palmar surface of the
fused tendons : the first and second arose together from the tendon
of the index, and partly from that of the third digit and the slip
supplying the thumb : the third and fourth arose together from the
tendons of the third and fourth digits. They were all inserted on
the radial side of the first phalanx of the fingers.

Yesalius* states that the Flexor Long^is Pollicis is present in the
tailless apes, but that it is only a branch from the Flexor Profundus
in. the tailed ones.

The Flexor Suilimis is subject to many slight variations in man,
but in these Monkeys it presented almost the same appearance that it
normally does. The Flexor Profundus frequently has a distinct head
coming from the internal condyle of the humerus, and fusing with
the Test of the muscle lower down. (Theile.+) The Flexor Longus
Pollicis has been noticed double ; one part going to the thumb as
usual, the other joining that tendon of the Flexor Profundus, which
supplies the index. fTheHe.*) And a more frequent anomaly is the
presence of a second head from the internal condyle of the humerus,
or the receipt of fibres from the Flexor Profundus or the Suilimis,
which would appear to parallel the fusion of the Flexor Pollicis
and Profundus met with in the bulk of the Quadrumana. Mr.

* Vol. i. p. 254, t Encv. Anat. torn, iii. p. 246. ± Ditto, p. 249,

CHTBCH OX THE ilTOLOGT OF THE OBAyG rTA>-G. 88

MeTrMiiaie* mentions, on tLe authority of Gantzer. a fascicle going
from the Flexor FoUicis to the tendon of the index. It is remarkable
also that the Falmaris Longus, which is so frequently absent iu man,
should be pres^ent in most of the Quadrumana.f

The Abductor Longiis FoUicis or Extensor Ossis JTet-acarpi was
present, as also the Fxtensor Secundi Internodii FoUicis, but the
Fxtensor Frimi internodii was abse-nt. The tendon of the Extensor
Ossis ITetacarpi FoUicis was split into two portions, the larger being
inserted into the os trapezium, and the smaller into the metacarpal
bone. In man a small slip of the tendon normally goes to the os
trapezium. % As no portion of the tendon went to the first phalanx,
I see no reason for considering the anterior portion of the tendon
as the homologue of the Ext. Frimi Internodii, as is stated by YroHk
in the article " Quadrumana," in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and
Physiology. Exactly the same arrangement was found in the Celus ;
but in the ^Slagot, the anterior portion was the larger, and the
smaller portion was inserted into a sesamoid bone, and not into the
trapezium. Both muscles exist in the Chimpanzee (Trolik, p. 20),
and in the GoriUa (Duv. p. 97).

The Extensor secundi internodii was very weak : it arose from the
ulna and the interosseous ligament in front of the Extensor indicis.
Duvemoy mentions finding it proportionately as large in the Chim-
panzee as in man, and as being smaller and weaker in the Grorilla.

The Alductor PoUicis Brevis consisted of three distinct thin
muscular layers, which were inserted together into the base of the
first phalanx. The innermost layer arose fr'om the os trapezium, the
other tno from the annular ligament.

The Opponens FoUicis and Flexor Frevis FoUicis presented no
points of interest ; the Opponens was very weak and small, the Flexor
of tolerable size. The Adductor FoUicis was very large, arose from
the palmar ligament, which was prolonged down the whole length
of the metacarpal bones of the third and fourth digits, and was
inserted into the under side of the first phalanx of the thumb. The
Adductor was with difficulty divisible into two portions, one coming
fi'om the palmar ligament, the other from its metacarpal prolonga-
tions ; the division between the two was not nearly so evident as in
the adductor of the hallux. In the Magot the Adductor possessed
two distinct heads, the longer of which came from the external
palmar fascia, the shorter from the os trapezium. The Opponens
was relatively stronger than in the Orang. The Abductor was formed
on the same plan. In both the Cebus and ]\Ligot I found a thin

* Mr. McWhinnie, Yariedes of ihe Musenkr Svstem. London Medical Gazette,
Januarv 1S46.

•j- Henle, 1. a, p. 196, mentions the following important varietr of the muscle
in man, " Instead of the Fhxor polUeis lonpus, the indicator portion of the Flexor
digiiorum prcfwuiti^ receires a slender head from the common origin of the SHper-
ficial muscles." — [Eds.]

{ Ellis, Demonstration of Anatomv, p. 3-3, 5th edition.

8J- ORTGIXAL RETICLES.

muscular layei', arising fi'om the palmar ligament wliicli formed three
small muscular digitations, which were inserted into the radial side
of the first phalanx of the fourth and fifth digits, and the third into
the ulnar side of the first phalanx of the index. A similar muscular
expansion was found in the feet of these monkeys.

The Pahnnris Brevis was, I think, absent, but as the animal had
been skinned before I examined it, the muscle may have been cut
away. Dr. Traill found none in the one he dissected. In the Chim-
panzee it is present (Vrohk, 1. c. p. 20). It was remarkably large in
the Magot, arching over the whole of the carpal portion of the hand,
reaching from the external side of the little finger to the internal
side of the thumb ; it was present also in the Cebus.

The Abductor, Flexor Brevis and Opponens Minimi Digiti pre-
sented no peculiarities worth notice.

The Dorsal Inte^rossei presented the same general appearance as
in man, only differing in the greater development of the Abductor
Indicis ; but the palmar set differed considerably, being seven in num-
ber ; the index possessed two, the radial one being a broad flattened
muscle, which arose from almost the whole length of the metacarpal
bone of that finger, and was inserted into the upper and inner side of
the metacarpal of the pollex ;t the one on the ulnar side arose from the
under and inner surface of the metacarpal of the index, and was in-
serted into the first phalanx of the sam.e finger ; the middle and ring
fingers had each two and the little finger one, similar muscles. In both
the Cebus and Magot the dorsal muscles resembled man's, but the
palmar ones closely resembled those of the Carnivora; they were also
seven in number, and arose from the pahnar ligament, as well as
from the metacarpal bones, which they completely hid from view.

The hand of the Orang and of the Chimpanzee appears at first
sight to be less perfectly organized than that of some of the other Qua-
drumana, owing to the total absence of any long flexor of the thumb ;
the absence of this muscle permits of a greater independence of motion
in their thumbs than in any of the other monkeys, in which the long-
flexor exists as a portion of the Profundus. In the Orang and Chim-
panzee the great development of the Abductor, and the well marked
Flexor Brevis in some degree make up for the absence of the long
flexor. The double adductor has been observed in man (M'Whinnie).
Wagner, when speaking of the hand of the Quadrumana, says :
" The individual mobility of the fingers is much more limited than in
man, and this is more particularly the case with the thumb."* This
is perfectly true of lower Quadrumana, as is shown in the case of the
Cebus, but I think in the Baboons and Magots the greater develop-
ment of the muscles of the thumbf proves that they can move the

* Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals. 11. Wagner,
p. 18. Translated by Talk.

•f This appears to conespond with the Musculus interosseus volaris primns — (a
fourth palmar interosseus) described by Henle, 1. c., p. 228, as constant in the
himian liund. — [Eds.]

CHFRCH ON THE MYOLOGY OF THE OEANG UTANG. 85

thumb independeutly, and are capable of seizing an object in the
same way as the Oraugs and Man, i.e. with the fingers on one side
and the thumb on the other.

In the Chimpanzee and the Orang this freedom of motion has
been obtained at the expense of the sti'ength of the thumb, in which
point they are Tery inferior to Man or the other Quadrumana.

The hand of the Orang contrasts unfavourably with that of the
Chimpanzee, owing to the absence of the Extensor Frioni Internodii
Pollicis and the Extensor Froprius Indicls.

In the rudimental thumb of the Ateles aU. these muscles exist,
showing that its development is merely arrested and not suppressed.

The Muscles of the Posterior Extremity.

The Iliacus, Fsoas Magnus and Fsoas Parvus presented much the
same appearance as in man ; they are flatter, and in accordance with
the elongated shape of the pelvis, longer ; beneath these muscles a
small one was found, mentioned by Professor Owen,* as present in
the Orang, but not in the Chimpanzee, which arose from the ileum
in close coiuiection with the Fectus Femoris, passed over and was
attached to the capsular ligament of the femur, and was inserted
into the trochanter minor.

The Tensor Vagin<je Femoris was absent ; it is present in the
Chimpanzee, small and narrow in the Grorilla (Duvernoy, 1. c. p. 83),
and relatively stronger than in man, in the Magot ; it is well deve-
loped in the Cehus.

The insertion of the Sartorius was one inch below the head of the
tibia, on its inner surface ; this muscle was well developed.

The Pectineus in the Chimpanzeef gives off" a slip to the origin of
the Sartorius. In the Magot this muscle was very strong, arising
from the whole of the anterior edge of the pubes, covering in the
origin of the Adductor Brevis, and verging on the Gracilis.

The Gracilis was proportionately much stronger than in man, and
took its origin from a wider space on the pubes. In man its origin
covered the space of two inches only, while in the Orang it covered
one and a half inches ; it was inserted together with the Semitendino-
sus, but below the Sartorius, partly into the tibia and partly into the
superficial fascia of the leg ; its insertion extended half way down the
tibia, which bone measured six inches, Avhereas in man, where the
tibia measured 141 inches, the insertion ot the three muscles, Sarto-
rius, Gracilis and Semitendinosus, only extended three and a half inches
below the head of the tibia.

The Semitendinosus was fleshy throughout and, at its lower end,
the muscular fibres bifurcated to form two tendons, the superior one
being inserted immediately below the upper part of the Gracilis, one
and a half inches below the head of the tibia, while the other became

* Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Vol. i. p. 69, f Ibid. Vol. i. p. 68.

86 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

continuous with the fascia of the leg, three inches below the head of
the tibia.

In the Chimpanzee, Trolik states that the tendon is partly in-
serted into the inner tuberosity of the tibia.

In the Magot these muscles were very large, especially the Gra-
cilis, which covered a space of If inches on the pubes. They were
implanted, together with the Sartorius, one inch below the head of the
tibia, and not one below the other, neither did they send any fibres
to the fascia of the leg.

The Semimemhranosus took its origin by fleshy fibres alongside of
the Semitendinosus, and remained fleshy throughout ; it was inserted
as in man. This muscle was very large in the Magot, and was in-
serted by a small and strong tendon an inch and a half in length
into the head of the tibia.

The Biceps Femoris difiiered widely from the corresponding muscle
in man. It consisted of two distinct muscles ; the superior, or ischi-
atic portion arose fi'om the tuberosity of the ischium, and passed
down the outside of the thigh, to be inserted into the heads of the
fibula and tibia. This portion gave off" a strong muscular slip which
was inserted into the lower third of the external surface of the
femvir. This slip is not mentioned by Professor Owen, neither does
it occur in the Chimpanzee.

The second, or femoral, portion arose from the outer surface of the
femur, extending from two and a quarter inches below the gi-eat tro-
chanter to within the same distance of the external condyle of the
femur, and formed the lower portion of the outer hamstring. Before
its insertion into the fibula and anterior fascia of the leg, it gave oft'
a slip which was inserted irato the posterior fascia of the leg. In the
Grorilla, the two heads of the Biceps are distinct, but very similar in
disposition to those of man (Duvernoy, 1. c.) . In the Ateles, the Biceps
is figured by Cuvier, PL 59, as resembling man's. In the Cebus, the
femoral portion was entirely wanting ; the isehiatic portion was very
strong, and gave oft' a slip to the femur, as in the Orang ; a small,
but strong, tendinous baud went to the head of the fibula, while the
rest of the muscle became continuous with the fascia of the leg. In
the Cebus also, I found, beneath the Ghifaus Maximus, a thin tendon,
which arose from the fiiscia surrovmdiug the root of the tail, and be-
came a thin muscular band as it descended along the inner surface of
the biceps, and was inserted into the external fiiscia of the posterior
part of the leg, much in the same manner as the slip given off" from
the short head in the Orang.

In the Magot, the Biceps was single, and wanted the slip going
to the f(>mur ; it was remarkably broad and thick, having a uniform
breadth of two inches ; and was inserted partly into the head of the
fibvila, but chiefly into the fascia of the leg.

The short head of the Biceps is often wanting in man,* in which

* Eiicyd. Aiiat. Tom. iii. ^. 305.

CHURCH ON THE MTOLOOY OF THE OKANO UTANO. 87

case tlie Biceps would closely resemble that of the bulk of the Qua-
drumaua. Mr. M'Whiiiuie ineutions, on the authority of Saltzmauu,
a muscular slip given oif from the Biceps, and having a tendinous
insertion on the outer part of the leg between the Gastrocnemius and
Soleus.

The low insertion of the Biceps and of the Gracilis, Semitendi-
nosus and Semimembranosus, together with the greater size and the
presence of fleshy fibres throughout the whole length of the two
latter muscles, point directly to scausorial habits of the Quadrumana,
and must tend to relieve the strain caused by the weight of the body
on the knee during climbing ; and in the Orang, where the insertion
of these muscles was remarkably low, they must prevent the knee
from being straightened, and so incapacitate the animal for assimiing
the erect posture.

The Glutceus Maximits was weak, and had a small origin ; it did
not reach to the spine of the ilium, and it was inserted into the
fascia lata and the linea aspera, Avitliout sending any fibres to the
great trochanter. The Glutceus Medius was largely developed, as
appears to be the case generally among Quadrumana.

The Glutceus Minimus appears to be differently described by
various writers. Professor Owen* mentions its presence, but does,
not describe its origin ; while the muscle described as the Glutceus-
Minimus by Dr. Traill, I have regarded as the Gemellus superior,
which arose not only from the spine of the ischium, but from the
posterior edge of that bone as well. In the Cehus, the Glutceus Mi-
nimus is large, and arises from the dorsum and posterior edge of the
ihum. The muscle described by Dr. Traill as the Musculus Scan-
sorius, and mentioned by Professor Owenf as the Invertor Femoris,
was very well developed in the Orang, but appeared to be wanting or
merged into the Glutceus Minimus in the Cebus ; it arose, in the
Orang, from the whole of the anterior edge of the ilium to within
three-fourths of an inch of the acetabulum, and was inserted into the
front of the great trochanter: the same disposition of this muscle,
was found in the Magot.

The Piriformis was large and well developed, but narrower than
in man ; in both the Magot and Cebus it had begun to be fused with
Glutceus Medius ; this is occasionally the case in man, when the Pyri-
f or mis is largely developed. J The Gemelli were large, especially the
Gemellus Superior, which arose not only from the tuberosity of the
ischium, but from the elongated ilium, also covering a space of one
inch and a quarter ; its tendon was quite distinct from that of the
Obturator internus, which was also of large size.

In the Magot the Gemelli and the Obturatores internus and exter-
nus Avere present, but rather small ; the large size of these muscles
in the Orang, together Avith the presence of the small muscle

* Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Vol. i. p. 68. f Ibid.

X Mr. Hallett, Ed. Med. and Surgical Journal, 1848.

88 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES.

described ^^^tll the Iliacus and the Invertor femoris may perhaps be
owing to the freedom allovred the hip joint by the absence of the
ligamentum teres, which the Orang alone of the Quadrumana wants.
The Adductor muscles were of coarse textm'e, and split into
numerous bundles. In the Magot the Adductor Longiis formed a
distinct belly, partly inserted into the tibia (Yid. Cm-ier, 1. c,

PI. e31-32).

The Tibialis Anticus was relatively stronger than in man ; it
arose from the tuberosity and anterior surface of the tibia, for a space
of three inches and a half, and its tendon was split into two portions,
the posterior and larger, being inserted into the cimeiform bone, the
anterior and smaller, into the base of the metatarsal bone of the
hallux. In this instance there was no dirision of the muscle into
fascicles, as described in Article Quadrumana in the Cyclopa-dia of
Anatomy and Physiology, and in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society, therefore I think there is no reason to consider the anterior
division of the tendon as belonging to the Abductor Sallucis Zongus,
especially when we observed a similar arrangement in the Abductor
PolUcis, and that, in man, a small slip of tendon normally passes on
to the metatarsal of the great toe.*

In the Chimpanzee, Professor Owen states that the tendon is
inserted into the scaphoid. In the Cebus the muscular belly is
divided into two fascicles, which may be regarded as the Abductor
Sallucis Longus and Tibialis Anticus. In the Magot the same
arrangement is found.

The Extensor Froprius Hallucis was remarkably w'eak and slen-
der ; it arose from the upper part of the fibula and the interosseous
ligament, and was inserted as in man. Cuvier has figiu-ed, 1. c. PL 19,
an extensor of the index distinct from the Extensor coimnunis ; it was
absent in this instance, and neither Professor Owen nor Duvernoy
mention it.

The Extensor Communis Digit orum resembled man's. The Pero-
noBUs Longior arose from the head of the fibida, the outer and back
part of that bone and the intermuscular septum, for a space of three
inches, and was inserted into the m^etatarsal bone of the hallux, acting
as a powerful flexor of that digit. The Peronceus Brevior arose toge-
ther with the preceding muscle, and was inserted into the metatarsal
bone of the fifth digit ; it was a much more fleshy muscle than the
Peronceus Longior, and remained fleshy on the posterior surface almost
to the point of its insertion. The Peronceus Tertius was absent.

In the Magot and Cebus the Peroncei Longior and Brevior re-
sembled those of the Orang, only diftering in their greater relative
size, but both of them possessed a Peronaeus Tertius, which consisted
of a thin muscular layer lying beneath the Peronceus Brevior, and
terminating in a very fine tendon, which passed through a slit in the
tendon of the Peronceus Brevior on a level with the cuboid bone, and

• Ellis's Demonstration of Aiiiitom}^, Edit. 5, p 754.

CHURCH OK THE MYOLOGY OF THE OEANG UTAXG. 89

ran along the superior surface of tlie metatarsal of the little finger,
to be mserted with that of the Extensor Communis Digitorum.

In the Magot the Feronceiis Tertius became tendinous very high
up the leg, passed down, closely applied to the posterior part of the
PeroncBus Brevior, accompanying the tendon of the latter muscle until
its insertion, and did not pass through a slit in it as in the Cebus.

The Gastrocnemius was remarkably thin and weak, causing the
absence of any calf to the leg ; this muscle is stated by Duvernoy to
have remained distinct from the Soleus in three specimens dissected
by him, but in this instance the two became fused, three inches above
the point of insertion.

The Soleus was intimately connected with the external head of
the Gastrocnemius, and arose from the head of fibula, by a very narrow
tendon, receiving no fibres from the tibia and not even encroaching
on the FopUteus or Flexor digitorum.

In the Cebus the Soleus was much larger, but had only a single
origin from the head of the fibula. In the Magot both these
muscles were, much larger, forming qidte a calf to the leg. The
Soleus remained distinct for a much longer period than in the Orang,
and it arose by two heads, one from the fibula, the other from the
external condyle of the femur.

The Plantaris was wanting ; as stated by Duvernoy and Dr.
Traill, it is present in the Chimpanzee and wanting in the Grorilla,
(Duvernoy, 1. c. p. 93). It was well developed in the Magot, arising
in conjunction with the external head of the Gastrocnemius ; it was
absent in the Cebus. This muscle appears not to be as often absent
as it is usually supposed, not one case being met with by Mr. Hallett.
The FopUteus, which was not found by Dr. Traill, was present in
the Orang, and also in the Cebus and Magot, being very large in
the latter animal. The most striking points in the muscles of the
posterior extremity were the weakness of the Glutcei muscles, and
the striking development of the Gracilis, Semi-membranosus and
Semi-tendinosus. The abductors were very similar to man's, but were,
perhaps, slightly stronger, while the Quadriceps extensor was much
weaker. The leg of the Orang contrasted with that of the Magot
most strikingly. In the latter animal the muscles of the poste-
rior region were developed so as to form a large and well-shaped calf,
while the excessive development of the Tihialis Anticus gave quite a
deformed appearance to the anterior region, the large development
of these muscles seeming to point to the terrestrial habits of this
animal. The Feronceus tertius was absent in the Orang, and is fre-
quently wanting in the human subject ; and the Feronceus Brevis
is subject to many variations in man, presenting abnormal conditions
once in every five subjects examined by Mr. Hallett.

The Flexor Lonc/us Figitorum had not such a large origin as in
man, it extended dowTi the tibia to within 2\ inches of the lower end
of that bone, while in man it reached to within 3 inches. The mus-
cular fibres did not terminate in a tendon until the muycle had

90 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

passed the inner malleolus ; consequently instead of occupying the
groove together with the Tibialis posticus, it lay on the external
surface of the groove. It broke up into three tendons distributed to
the second, the fourth, and little toes. The portion for the second
toe was supplied with two Lumhricalis muscles, inserted into the tibial
side of the first phalanx of the second and third toes ; the tendon of
the little toe was also supplied with a Lumhricalis muscle inserted
into the tibial side of the first phalanx of that toe. The tendon of
the fourth toe is perforated by the Flexor haUucis* while those of
the second and little toes perforate the tendons of the Flexor brevis.

In the Orang it sent no slip to the tendon of the deep Flexor
(Flexor hallucis). In the Cehus this muscle is small, the largest
portion of its tendon going to the little toe, and forming a perforat-
ing tendon ; the smaller portion mainly joins the slip of the Flexor
hallucis, which goes to the hallux, and it also sends small tendinous
slips to the other divisions of the deep flexor, as the Flexor hallucis
might well be called. In the Magot this muscle is of considerable
size, and is largely supplied with Lumhricales, which form a fleshy
mass on the surface of the tendon, and are inserted into the inner
and dorsal surface of the first phalanx of the second, third and fourth
toes on the tibial side ; the one going to the little toe usurps the
ofl&ce of the Flexor brevis pedis, and is perforated by the tendon
of the Flexor communis. This muscle sends a small tendinous slip to
the tendon of the Flexor hallucis which supplies the hallux, and has
also other tendinous connections with that muscle, but does not fuse
with it as completely as the Flexor pollicis does ^v-ith the Flexor pro-
fundus, in the hand.

The Flexor Lonr/us Hallucis, arose by two heads, the long head
arising from the external condyle of tlie femur, together with the
external head of the Gastrocnemius ; the short head arose from the
posterior and inner surface of the tibia to mthin an inch and a half
of its distal end. It formed a large tendon which bifurcated and
went to the last phalanx of the middle and fourth toes, the tendon of
the latter perforating a branch of the Flexor communis, and that of
the middle toe a branch of the Flexor brevis. Both of the tendons
were supplied with a good sized Lumhricalis muscle, which was in-
serted into the tibial side of the first phalanx of the respective toes.
No slip whatever went to the hallux. In the Gorilla a very strong
tendon goes to the hallux as Avell as to the third and fourth
digits (Duvernoy, 1. c. p. iii). In the Cebus it supplies the second
toe, as well as the third and foui'th, and sends a strong branch to
the haUux. In the Magot the same arrangement obtains. The
Tibialis Posticus was remarkably weak in the Cebus : in the Orang
it did not present much difference from the corres])onding muscle
in man.

A^ery great weight has been laid upon the great development of

'* And therefore probably represents a division of the Flexor brevis. — [Eds.]

CHURCH ON THE MTOLOOY OP THE OEANG TJTANQ. 91

tlie Flexor Hallucis in man, and the absence of any slips to tlie other
toes, but many instances are recorded, in which the tendinous band
which unites the Flexor hallucis to the Flexor communis, was pro-
longed, forming two tendons accompanying, but distinct from, the
tendons of the Flexor Digitorum which supply the second and third
digits ; in fact, so common is this, that Vesalius has figured it, (PI. 14),
and mentions it as no rare occurrence (p. 295), as also does Theile.*
NoAV this distribution of the tendons is exactly what is met with in
the bulk of the Quadrumana, excepting that in them, the branches
usually go to the third and fourth digits. Another point in which
the foot of the Quadrumana resembles man, is in the course taken
by the Peronceus lonc/ns, and I might add, also, the distribution in
gome of them (the Inuus and Cehus for instance) of the Peronceus
tertius.

The portion of the Extensor Brevis Pedis which went to the hallux
might almost be regarded as a distinct muscle, for, owing to the
position of the hallux, its fibres scarcely mix at their origin with those
of the rest of the muscle.

In the Cehus and Magot, owing to the hallux being almost in the
same plane with the other digits, the hallucal portion resembled
the other digitations of this muscle.

The dorsal Interossei diftered in no respect from the correspond-
ing muscles in man, excepting that one on the tibial side of the index
had a second head attached to the hallux, exactly corresponding to
the Abductor indicis in the hand.

This head from the hallux Avas not present in either the Cehus or
Magot, and accords with the greater freedom permitted to the hal-
lux in the Orang, for in the Orang the hallux can be flexed inde-
pendently of the other digits, and, in fact, it presents the closest
resemblance to the poUex.

The Ahductor Hallucis arose from the calcaneum and the internal
aiuiular ligament, and chiefly diftered from that of man in the large
size of its origin from the annular ligament. In the Cehus and Magot
it arose by two distinct heads from the calcanemn and the plantar
fascia. In the Orang it had an insertion into the metatarsal bone
as well as into the first phalanx. djiw boiiqqw

The Flexor Brevis Pedis arose by two distinct heads, separated
by the plantar nerves ; the upper and smaller head arose from the
ligament covering the astragalus, and fi'om the inner margin of the
groove on that bone which transmits the Flexor Lonc/us Hallucis ;
the lower and larger head arose from the calcaneum. This muscle di-
vided into two portions, and was inserted by tendons which gave
passage to the deep flexor, into the second phalanges of the second
and third toes. Dr. Traill describes it as going to all four digits.
In the Chimpanzee and Grorilla it goes to the second and thii-d digits
only (Duvernoy, 1. c). In the Cehus and Magot it arose by a single

* Encyc. Anat. Tom. iii. p. 323.

92 OEIGmAL AETICLES.

liead from tlie calcaneum, and supplied the index only, being a
Flexor proprius of that digit. The portion of this muscle going to
the little toe in ui?.n is not unfrequently wanting, and its absence
is compensated by either a branch from the Jblexor communis, or by
a muscle resembling a lumiricalis,* just as in the Magot.

The Abductor Mminii Digiti arose from the calcaneum, and
formed a strong tendon inserted into the proximal end of the first
phalanx of the fifth digit. In the Magot this muscle was inserted
into the proximal end of the fifth metatarsal bone, its oflice being
usurped by the strongly developed Peronceus tertius ; in the Cebus,
however, in Avhich the Perojiasus tertius is developed, this muscle was
of considerable size, and was inserted in the visual manner.

The Flexor accessorius arose by a single fleshy head from the under
surface of the calcaneum, and broke up into a broad tendinous ex-
pansion, which was inserted into the tendon of the Flexor communis
which supplied the little finger, and into a very fine tendon which
accompanied the tendon of the Flexor communis, and after giving
passage to it by a slit, was inserted into the second phalanx of the
fifth digit, thus usurping the office of the Flexor brevis, and acting
instead of the LumbricuUs described in the Magot. In the Cebus
and Magot the Flexor accessorius clutched on to the tendon of the
Flexor communis as in man.

The Flexor Brevis Hallucis arose from the internal cuneiform
bone and the plantar fascia, and possessed two small bellies, the ex-
ternal of which was inserted into the first phalanx, the internal into
the metatarsal of the haUux. In the Magot the inner belly formed a
separate muscle, very much resembling an interosseous muscle ; it
arose from the external cuneiform bone and was inserted into the
sesamoid bone of the fibular side of the hallux.

The Adductor Hallucis was very large, and divisible into two
muscles. (Vide Cuvier, 1. c, PI. 16, where he considers the Flexor
Brevis as a third adductor.) Beneath what Cuvier terms the Adducteur
oblique, which I have described as the Flexor brevis, a strong fleshy
muscle is found, arising from the anterior border of the peroneal
sheath, from the head of the metatarsals of the third digit, and
from the upper part of a strong band of ligament, which stretched
across from the head of the third digit to be inserted into the distal
end of the metatarsal and proximal end of the first phalanx of the
second digit. This portion is called by Cuvier Adducteur opi^osant
des quatrieme et cinquieme doigts. Arising from the lower portion of
the ligament just described is a thinner muscular layer, inserted over
nearly the whole length of the metatarsal bone of the hallux : this is
described by Cuvier as the Adducteur transverse.

In the Magot the Adductor was very powerful, especially the
upper portion, which arose as in the Orang, but gave off" a slip to the
metatarsal of the hallux. The inferior portion was also strong, though

• Enc. Anat Tom. iii. p. 439.

CHURCn ON THE MYOLOGY OF TUE OK.OTG UTANG. 93

tlie ligament which stretched across the plantar space Avas not so
strong as in the Orang, and thinned ont at its lower edge into a thin
fascia. Arising from this ligament, in the Magot and Cehis, were
three muscular slips, which were inserted by short and flattened
tendons into the tibial side of the first phalanx of the foiu'th and fifth
digits, and into the fibular side of the same bone in the second digit ;
thus exactly paralleling the arrangement found in the hand of these
monkeys.

The Transversal is Pedis did not exist in any of the three monkeys.
It is mentioned by Duvernoy as being represented by ligament in
the Orang. It has been noticed to be wanting in man.*

The Plantar Interossei presented a wide difterence from those in
the human subject. The first digit has one on the fibular side ; the
third and fourth digits, one on each side ; and the fifth digit, one on
the tibial side. They are large muscles, and not only occupy the
space between the bones, but also lie beneath them, covering them
in on the plantar surface ; each muscle is inserted into the upper
part of the bone of the first phalanx of its respective digit.

In the Magot, the Interossei differ from the Orang, none of them
having any dorsal origin ; they therefore appear all to belong to the
plantar group. They are eight in number, and arise from the sheath
of the PeroncBUs Lonc/us. The fifth digit has one, the rest two. The
muscles are inserted into the sesamoid bones and head of the first
phalanx of the digits. The middle digit has a third, which, perhaps,
ought to be regarded as coming from the under part of the fascia,
sending the muscular slips before described to the second, fourth and
fiftli digits, rather than from the sheath of the Peronceus. Its in-
sertion is also different from the others, being inserted into the upper
and outer side of the first phalanx of the third digit. The second,
fourth and sixth interossei are the largest, and are visible on the
dorsal surface between the metatarsal bones.

If now we briefly review the chief points of difference between the
muscular systems of the Quadrumana and of Man, we find in the muscles
of the trunk few points of interest. The abdominal muscles are much
thicker and stronger, to support the weight of the intestines when
the animal is on all fours. The cervical muscles also are stronger ;
but, with the exception of the digastric, differ very little from man's.
The digastric presents an intermediate condition in the Orang, the
chief insertion being into the angle and inner surface of the jaw,
corresponding to the usual insertion in the Quadrumana and lower
animals ; but it sends forwards a slender tendon lying on the inferior
surface of the mycohyoid muscle to be inserted, as in man, at the
symphysis of the jaw. The presence of the Clavio-troclielien appears
to be almost equalled in man by the division of the Levator Anguli
Scapulcs into several distinct portions, and their occasional insertion
into the spine instead of the angle of the scapula.

• Mr. M'Whinnie, on the authority' of Bochmer.

94 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES.

I was unable to find any record of a slip being given ofT in man
from tlie Latissimus dorsi* to the Olecranon, tbough. it frequently sends
one to the Pectoralis major on its posterior surface, or to fuse with the
Coraco-brackialis at its origin.f In man, tlie Pectoralis major occa-
sionally sends a slip downwards to the internal condyle of the humerus.
The variations of the extensor and flexor muscles of the hand have
been already described ; but I cannot agree with Wagner in saying
" that the Flexor Brevis is fused -svith the Abductor, and that the
Flexor Lonyus PoJlicis is only a tendon of the Flexor Profundus ;"| as
in all three of the Apes dissected the origin of the Flexor Longus
PoUicis was distinct from that of the Profundus. In the posterior
extremity, the Biceps appears the most svibject to variation of any of
the muscles, with the exception of the Perouaeus Tertius, both in man
aaid the Quadrumana. In the foot of the Quadrumana, which is too
often regarded as approaching more nearly to the structure of the
hand than of the foot in man, owing, I think, to too great stress
having been laid on the opposability of the hallux and the length of
the phalangeal bones, we find that in the Orang alone is the hallux
independent in its motions ; in all the rest, even the Chimpanzee, § it
is supplied with a flexor tendon in common with some of the other
toes, thus approaching nearer to the organization of the foot in man.
The other muscles of the foot are strictly homologous with those in
the human foot, and only analogous to those in the hand.

The PeroncBus Longior, the Extensor and Flexor Brevis, and the
Flexor accessorius are foimd in the Quadrumana as in man, modified in
their distribution so as to suit the habits of the animals, but performing
similar functions, and having the same homological relations. In the
Interosseous muscles we see an approach to the Carnivora ; more espe-
cially in the Magot, which has sesamoid bones developed on all its
toes. "Wagner (1. c.) states that the interosseous muscles of the
posterior extremity are arranged like those of the same name in the
human hand ; but I tliink, from the descriptions before given, they
will be seen in all instances to resemble rather the Carnivora. The
anatomy of the Quadrumana, as mentioned by Vrolik, forms a most
interesting connection between the Bimana and the lower animals,
especially the Carnivora, as they possess so many points of resem-
blance to both orders.

* Vide Editor'.s Note on the Latissimus dorsi, p. 542 of the preceding Niunber of
this Review.

t Encyc. Anat. Tom. iii. p. 124. . J h c. p. 19.

§ Vrolik, p. 20.

X. — Anatomical Notes. — By Professor Hyrtl, of the University

of Vienna.

(Continued from Nat. Hist. Rev. for 1861, p. 324.)
5. Pneumatic Processes of the Occipital Pone.

Some time since I directed the attention of anatomists to a very
interesting and anomalous process of the condyloid portion of the
occipital bone (Wiener. Medic. AVochenschrift, 1860, N. 45).

This process is sitviated between the articular process of the
occipital bone and the mastoid process of the temporal. It pre-
sents an elliptical form, the long axis of which is vertical, and its
circumference is about that of the tip of one of the fingers. The
process is not solid, but consists of many cells, which are in direct
comminiication with the " air-containing" cells of the mastoid pro-
cess. Hence I have called these processes " Pnemnatic."

Since the notice above referred to was written, two additional
instances of the occurrence of this process have presented themselves
to me. One was given me by a student, who found the skull in a
large bonehouse in a burying place, in his native town in Bohemia.
The other was observed in a female skull, from my dissecting room.
In both of them the processes are as large as a hazel-nut, and they
are covered by so thin a- layer of compact osseous structure, that the
internal arrangement of the air-containing cells can be easily dis-
tinguished. In the female skull refen-ed to, the cells of the pneu-
matic process extend as far as the condyloid process of the occipital
bone, where they lose their partition walls and unite to form a single
rather large cavity.

It is a curious fact, that the cells of the pneumatic process commu-
nicate with those of the mastoid, passing, as they do, across the mastoid
suture ; but there are many similar cases in Comparative Anatomy,
where the pneumatic cavity of the frontal bone extends (across the
coronal and lamhdoid suture) to the occipital bone {Elej^lias and
almost all other Pachydermata).

These pneumatic processes have been since observed by several of
my fellow-anatomists, who have, in sundiy communications to me,
confirmed my observations in this matter; and I doubt not but
that every Craniological Collection of any extent will likewise afford
evidence of their existence.

I can boast of the possession of a very large series of crania, as
for a long time past all the skulls of the subjects of my dissecting
rooms are carefully prepared by maceration, and the number so pre-
pared varies each year from 200 to 300, yielding thus an abundant
supply for the hunting out of anatomical curiosities.

A careful investigator will not confound the new process with the
paramastoid process, which is very often present in skulls. This
latter is a strong process, with a thick layer of compact substance,

96 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

containing no cells (simply common reticular substance), and is most
commonly united to the lateral part of the Atlas by synostosis.

I cannot give a better proof of the difference between the two
processes, than by stating that both these processes are to be seen
in a skull in my collection (No. 711).

These processes are of no practical interest, but they are worthy of
notice in a morphological point of view. Some of the older anato-
mists tell us of " a double mastoid process" — mistaking, I think, the
pneumatic process for a secondary mastoid.

6. 0)1 " Endless" Nerves.

There has been of late years a very great excitement among physi-
ologists, in reference to experiments as to the functions of nerves.
Careful anatomical investigation as to their origin and distribution
has, I fear, been thrown somewhat into the back ground. I do not
speak of the svibject of the microscopical investigation of nerves, but
of then' origin and distribution, such as can be determined by simple
dissections.

JSTow-a-days many are inclined to regard human descriptive ana-
tomy as a science abeady completed, and fancy that to it only trifling
details can be added ; but this is far from the case, and I would that
the scalpels of the anatomist would work a little closer and finer, and
that they would try to emulate, as it were, some of those high
powers of our microscopes ; for, in the minute anatomy of parts,
very much remains to be done. To proceed, however, to the subject
matter of this note. I think the commonly used term, anastomosis,
is capable of a stricter interpretation than is generally given to it.
As when a nerve A, as the text-books say, anastomises with B, we
want to know whether a branch of -4 goes to B, or a branch of B to A.
In a great number of anastomoses, it is true, we have clear evidence
on this subject. Others will, doubtless, follow.

But we would further inquire : What does a branch, coming from
A to B do, wJie?i united with B ? The text-books tell us that the
branch coming from A to B will remain with B, or will separate from
it, and go to nerve C.

" That, in some cases, the branch coming from the nerve AtoB
wiU, passing along B, 7'eturn to its nervous centre," is the newly
established fact, which I wish to call attention to noAV.

Wlien a nerve returns to its origin, it has no peripherical end, and
it may, perhaps with convenience, be called o-eXtjc, just as engineers
and iiicchanies call a circular cord " ein Seil ohue Ende."

Such nerves oceiu* in the ansa hypoglossi, in the anastomoses
between the branches of the spinal-nerves in the upper and inferior
extremities. When an accessory obturator* nerve exists, the greater
part of its fibres will be found to return with the true obturator
nerve, with which it anastomoses, to the spinal marrow. The palmar

* Adam Schmidt, Ncrvi Lumbales.

PROFESSOR HTRTL S jVNATOMICAL NOTES.

and plantar nervous arches afford also opportunities of witnessing
these nerves Avithont end. They are likewise met with in the loops
of the anterior branches of the spinal nerves ; in the anastomoses of
the right and left Hypoglossus ; in the fleshy portion of the Grenio-
hyoid muscles. That is to say, I have found such returning nerves
in the localities referred to.

It will be the labour of years, if not of a life, to discover all the
anastomoses which possess or are destitute of these " regressive"
fibres.

These nerves not being lost in the substance of muscles, nor in
sensorial surfaces, may merit the paradoxical appellation of ' endless
nerves.'

To thoroughly investigate this very important fact in anatomy, I
should suggest the co-operation of a number of practical anatomists,
who would undertake to investigate* such and such anastomoses, and
who would give in an annual report of the result of their joint
labours. I will, in the course of this winter, take my share. The
returning branches are sometimes in such thick bundles that they
can, by a careful dissection, be easily traced onward.

It may be the case, indeed is so, in some of the instances alluded
to, that a few of the returning fibres from B pass toward G, and
continue onwards to the periphery ; but even then a certain amount
of nerve fibre does undoubtedly run backward to the nervous centre
from which they emanated.

In the Chiasma opticum, fibres
have been observed by Hannover,
Mayo, and others, running from
one nerve bundle to another, and
forming a loop, which is ' a nerve
without end.' These instances
show that the thing is not quite
new.

The annexed woodcut exhibits
this form of recurrent anastomoses
in a Hypoglossus. h, branch from
a, meeting the first cervical and
proceeding back again. <?, branch
from first cervical proceeding back
along second cervical.

7. On Portions of Lungs destitute of Blood Vessels.

When I obtained the Professorship of Anatomy in the University
of Prague I published a little treatise, entitled " Strena anatomica

• By means of the scalpel more than by any efforts at ' microscopising.'
N. II. 11—1862. ' H

98 OEIGESTAL ARTICLES.

de novis piilmonum yasis in OpKidiis viviperiiise repertls." This*
treatise was printed for the use of my class, but was never pnblislied;
so the anatomical world took little or no notice of it. In it I stated
that in the genns Coluber, the middle portion of the lungs neither
received vessels from the pulmonary arteries nor gave branches to
the puhnonary veins ; but that it received arteries from' the aorta and
Bent veins to the vena portfe, the posterior pai't of the lungs having
no supply of blood-vessels at all.

Lapse of time and further investigation have brought me many
additional proofs of the correctness of this statement, which I can
now announce with certainty to occur in all snakes. Fi'om the spot,
where the interior surface of the lungs loses its reticulated aj^j^earance
(as is the case with the posterior two-fifths of the sacciform lungs)
every vestige of circulation is absent. The very finest injection
fails to penetrate this portion, which is positively deprived of blood-
vessels.

I find that the longer the body of the snake, the longer is the
bloodless portion of its lungs.

The interior surface of the lungs of the thick-bodied venomous
snakes is, throughout its entire length, covered with hexagonal cells,
and these are well supplied with both arteries and veins. This is
also the case with the snake-like Scincoids {Pseudopus anguis) ; in
all other snakes only the anterior two-fifths of the lung is provided
with cells whose arteries come from the pulmonary artery, and
whose veins go to the pulmonary vein ; the third fifth receives its
arteries from the aorta, sending its veins to the vena portse ; whilst
the remaining two-fifths receive no blood-vessels at all.

When a lung like this is inflated, it will be found that this lower
portion expands to double, or even triple, its former size, while the
anterior part expands to not more than one-half its original diameter.
This posterior portion of the lung, which is quite incapable of respira-
tion, may, therefore, be regarded as a reservoir of air, which is pro-
bably consumed when external circumstances, such as fiight, hyber-
nation, &c., prevent a regular respiration. ' ''f^^ '''

jjirgvery snake, when frightened or surprised, is known to inflate its
body to a very considerable degree, and to give utterance to a pecu-
liar hissing sound, AA'hich I think is neither a sign of terror nor anger,
nor produced by expiration, as the cry of other animals, but is the
necessary physical resiJt of the creature taking in rapidly a large
sup])ly of air in case of necessity-^ this air, passing through the small
glottis, causing the sniffle. ' "^ 'ivm;; ofi: loi ^o.'

I" When I referred to the middle portion of the lungs, as receiving
branches from the aorta and giving branches to the vena porta", these
vessels miist not, for a moment, be confounded with the common
nutrient blood-vessels of other lungs, as in mammalia, where they are
well known as the arteria? et vente bronchiales ; for, were these
vessels in the snakes only nutrient, then would not the anterior part
be deprived of them. ifio>l-

PHOFESSOU nYETl/s ANATOMICAL NOTES. Q9

The aorta contains mixed blood ; when this blood, therefore, is so
brought to the lungs, the venous portion of it is oxygenated, and
then this ox3^genated product goes to the vena porta?. This is an
extraordinary fact, and cannot, I think, be physiologically understood,
so long as we loiow so little of the chemistiy of the production of
bile in reptiles.

In all those genera of short-bodied snakes, where the pulmonary
branches of the aorta are wanting, there are, in addition to the pul-
monary vein to the aviricle, three to five small pulmonary veins going
direct to the vena portse. The necesKsity for arterialized blood in the
organ supplied by this vein is therefore placed beyond a doubt.

8. 0)1 tlie Hadial Artery in the Cheiroptera.

A very curious anatomical fact, and one not devoid of physiological
interest, is to be found in the membranous expansion of the ' wing'
of the bat. It consists in the immediate transmission of arterial
blood into a. venous trunk, without the intervention of capillary
vessels. This I have found to be the case in the following genera: —
Plecotus, Vespertilio, Hhinolophus, Pteropus, Noctula.

Inject a bat, through the aorta, with a coarse injection material
(specimens from abroad, which have been long preserved in spirits,
reqviire a somevv'hat finer material), which you are siu-e will not too
easily enter the capillary system. The wings ought to be extended,
so as to facilitate the passage of the fluid through the brachial artery
into the arteries of the arm and hand. Even should the injection
meet with but a very second-rate success, still it will be found that a
large vein will be also filled. This vein imns along the free margin
of the fold of the integument, and extends from the shoulder joint to
the carpus.

This vein is the somewhat modified vena cephalica of man and the
other mammalia. A very careful investigation as to where the artery
ends and the ^'ein begins, shows us that the radial artery, whicli
tends towards the metacarpal bone of the thumb, describes a circle
round the base of the thumb, from its palmar to the dorsal side, and
is, on reaching the back of the hand, reflected towards the forearm,
as a vein (vena cephalica) which takes its way between the two
layers of the before alluded to fold of the integument to the arm-pit,
where it terminates in the vena axillaris.

Before becoming a vein, the radial artery sends off the requisite
branches for the nutrition of the parts in connection with the elon-
gated metacarpal and phalangeal bones ; but, at the same time, its
real termination is not to be sought for in the capillary system, but
in the peculiar manner I have just referred to ; for, owing to having
used a coarse injection, no capillary vessels have been filled, and yet,
notwithstanding, a venous trunk (larger than the vena brachialis
itself) is filled up with the injection material, throughout eitlier the
whole or entire of its length (reckoning from the thumb).

100 ORIGINAL ABTICLES.

K the arm be alloAvecl to remain folded, tlie result will not be
satisfactory, as many of the arteries of the arm will probably be bent
on themselves, there bein^; articulations in the osseous system of the
extremity ; but if the unfolded wing be tied down to a slip of wood,
the more favourable position of the trunk and branches of the bra-
chial artery wdll cause the injection seldom or never to fail.

The immortal discoverer of the circulation of the blood, in whose
lifetime the existence of the capillary system was not known, sur-
mised that part of the arterial blood passed to the veins " per porosi-
tates carnis," and part by a direct " anastomosis" between arteries
and veins. His spirit may, perhaps, rejoice that the latter of these
suppositions has now, at last, been proved to have been not a merely
arbiti-ary surmise.

Microscopic observers of the circulation in the transparent mem-
branous web of the bat's wing have mentioned, that the veins in
certain distinct localities of the wing may be seen to pulsate like
arteries. I shall feel happy if this short note of my researches may
explain the true reason of this hitherto unexplained phenomenon.
Though pulsation extends not to the capillary vessels, yet physiolo-
gists will admit that it must extend to a vein, when that vein is the
immediate prolongation of an artery, and the ti'unk of a vein pulsating
will, in all probability, cause some of its smaller branches to do the
same.

0. On tlie Ophthalmic Veinjoitiing the Po7'tal System.

In the tailless Batrachians a very considerable addition to the
number of vessels going to the vena portae is to be met with. Among
others, the ophthalmic vein sends its blood to the portal system. If
the main trunk of the vena portse of a frog or toad be injected — (it
is better to open the vein where it passes through the pancreas ; the
attachment to this gland serving to keep the vein open ; the injection
must be thrown towards the intestines, not towards the liver) — it
will be found that all the veins of the pharnyx and of the roof of the
mouth have been filled, and hence must, therefore, have belonged to
the portal system. These veins form a most complicated network,
the main trunks of which are of considerable diameter, so that one
might fancy they saw a cavernous structure. The capillary vessels
of the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx join these venous
trunks without any sensible diminution of their calibre (as is the
case in other organs), and in addition, they are joined by two large
veins, which come out of the floor of the orljital cavities, and are the
true ophthalmic veins. The injection, if successful, has entered them,
and has filled, likewise, the choroid, iris, and the vascvJar hyaloid.

It may be mentioned here, that the above alluded to insertion
of capillary Acssels into large venous trunks is by no means restricted
to the mouth and pharynx. In the testes and ovaries the same
thing occurs, for the capillaries of these organs meet large venous
blood-vessels which surround the germinal follicles in the ovary, or

piiOFESsoE iitetl's ajtatomical kotes. 101

tlie perfectly closed spermato-genetic cells in the testicle, and this is
not only the case among tlie Progs, but prevails, without exception,
throughout the whole classes of the Eeptilia and Amphibia.

10, Oil some additions to our Jcnoioledge of Retia mirahilia.

I have just concluded a memoir on recently discovered " Eetia
mirabilia " in Mammals and Birds, which is for presentation to the
Imperial Academy of Science, and which will probably be published
in the Transactions of that learned Society. But as I cannot hope
that its publication will take place for some time, I give the follow-
ing brief epitome of its contents, but refrain from giving the descrip-
tive particulars in detail. In Birds these Eetia mirabilia occur
only in the Tibial artery (Tibio-tarsal artery) of long-legged species
— they are not found in any of the short-legged species — this con-
clusion is the result of the investigation by means of injection of
more than fifty genei'a. The rareness of injected preparations of birds,
wiU add somewhat to the value of my memoir ; one great merit of
which will consist in a series of splendid drawings from nature. It
may be of interest to append the names of some of the more remark-
able. Among the Cursores, I foimd the most complicated and richest
Uete mirabile in the Apteryx awstralis, where it extends from the
foreleg to the middle of the elongated tarsus ; it covers the main
trunk of the tibial and tarsal artery, crossing and recrossing it, so
that, to the casual observer, it would appear as if the artery split up
into so many branches, and that these composed the rete, but on closer
examination the tibio-tarsal artery will be seen threading its way
underneath the densely compact mass of the rete, and emerging,
undiminished in its size, from its inferior end. In the Ostrich
(^Struthio); Rhea ; Dromaius ; Casuarius; Leptoptilus ; Plioenicopterus ;
Ardea; Ibis o'eligiosa (Sacred Ibis), and many others belonging to the
ArdeidfB, the rete is found only in the foreleg. In the Ostrich
and its congeners the rete is very small, consistiug of a few (2-4)
elongated and very slender branches, which are so closely applied to
the chief trunk of the tibial artery, that their discovery and isolation
require a good eye and sharp instruments. In the Apteryx the
numerous vessels that enter to form the rete never return to unite
with the tibio-tarsal artery, from which they originally sprung.
"When they cease to surround and accompany that artery, they imite
to newly formed arteries, providing for the deficiency of the colla-
teral branches of the main artery, which latter are totally wanting
from the commencement of the rete. I lay some stress on the fact
that the main trunk of the anterior tibial* artery and its prolonga-
tion as tarsal is only destined to supply the toes, the rest of the soft
parts of the foot receive their blood from the various newly formed
arteries, into which the rete mirabile branches off" at its inferior

* The posterior tibial is wanting.

102 ORIGINAL AllTICLES.

bouuclary. The tibio-tarsal rete niirabile of this wingless bird is
therefore unipolar. In tlie iwWj developed rete of Struthio and its
congeners it is however bipolar ; each of its few constituent branches,
inserts itself into the trimk of the tibialis some inches above the
tarsal point.

I ha^e also recorded the attempt at formation of rete mirabile in
short-legged birds, and among them a very singular case in Apteno-
di/tes {Spheniscus).

Among the mammalia the number of hitherto kno^vn* retia
mirabilia and plexuses has been considerably increased ; the arteries
of the anterior and posterior extremities of many Pachyderms are
provided with them, as I have observed in the Peccary, Tajacu,
Phacochoerus, Tapir, Hyrax {cnpensis and syriacus), and in the com-
mon pig. I have little doubt but that anatomists, who are so very
fortunate as to live near the Zoological Gardens, London, or the
Jardin des Plantes, Paris, will be able in time to include among the
number, the names of such grand animals as JElephas, Rhinoceros
and Hippopotamus, which, like many other prodigies of ' fei^ax mon-
strorum Africa' (Plin.) will never come within my reach.

Among the true Quadrumana, there is no rete mirabile, but a
strange tendency towards the formation of one is to be found among
the thumbless apes, as in Afeles, where it manifests itself in the divided
aspect of the elsewhere single and undivided arteries.

In the Prosimii, the collateral branches of all the main trunks
jut out like a series of rays, so that a number of them have quite
the appearance of tufts of tassels, a disposition which was discovered
by Johannes Miiller in other animals, and denominated by him, ' Eete
mirabile unipolare diffusum,' (as in Thjnnus) ; this curious origin of
numerous side branches in the form of tufts or tassels, occurs in
Lemur, Galago, Lichanotus, whilst in Tarsius spectrum and Stenops
gracilis, true plexiform retia mirabilia occiu' in the brachial and the
crural arteries.

Ilitlierto retia have not been found among the Carnivora ; the first
instance I saw was in the genus Viverra, where it occurs in the
cutaneous branches of the crural artery ; it accompanies the saphenous
nerves, and forms a very slender and pretty rete saphemun, which
extends through the leg as far as the ankle. In the Marsupials
plexiform retia mirabilia are deficient in the limbs, but they are
found well developed in the palatin and inferior maxillary arteries.

The special function of these retia appears still to be buried in
obscurity, but still it may not be useless to collect thus a larger
series of facts : some day or other, doubtless, they will be weighed in
the balance of physiological reason.

* Since tlie time of Carlisle (Pliil. Trans. 1800), who discovered them in the arm
of the 81oth, they have been ol)sorvcd (by Vrolik) in Sicnops ; (by Baer)
among the Whales; (by Koscnmullcr) in the Senl ; (by Allman, Kept. Brit,
Afpoc. 1844) in Dasypus, and (by myself, Proceed. Imp. Acad. Vienna, vols. v. vi.)
in Myi'inecophoga, Mnnis, Chlumijdophorus, Ornitlwrh>j7ichus, and 2'richecus.

PEOFESSOE HYETL's ANATOMICAL KOTES. 103

11. On intervertebral Synostoses and Suturce in JFish.

I have collected together from almost every quarter of the world,
a large series of fish skeletons, numbering several hundi^eds. When
siu-veyiug from time to time my treasures, I have been struck by the
many examples occurring among them, of what, if it occurred in the
human subject, would be considered a disease : I I'efer to the osseous
union of a greater or lesser number of vertebra? into a solid mass,
with the total disappearance of all intervertebral articulations, and of
every vestige of cartilage or articular cavity, so that every ti'ace of
mobility has gone. rfteiitzs TOiTOt^oq birB 'f

The number of coalesced vertebrae is from two to six, and this
synostosis takes place more frequently in the tail than in the trunk
of the fish. When one remembers that the locomotive powers of a
fish chiefly depend on the extreme flexibility of its vertebral colimm,
one would think that the diminution of this flexibility by the
abolition of the intervertebral articulations, would not only cause
some inconveniences to the creatm-e, but even endanger its existencei^
This is, however, obviated by the fact that the confluent vertebrae are
not larger than the non-confluent ones, their length being so much
reduced, that the five coalesced vertebrae are not longer than one ;
and a slight fraction of a non-coalesced one. It is a very remark-
able sight to see such a synostotic series of vertebrae in the tail of
some powerful fish; and this too, not by any means the result of
pathological deformity, there being no callosity present to suggest' g,,
mechanical injury, and no deposits of calcareous matter to induce us
to regard the synostoses as a senile metamorphosis; for it occurs iu
both old and yoiuig individuals, and in those of both sexes. The
union is oftentimes so perfect that it is only by the presence of the
two superior or inferior spinous processes, that we perceive that
it has taken place; the intervertebral foramena appear never to
be perfectly obliterated, though they are exceedingly diminished iu
size.

The synostosis is, without doubt, of a physiological character, and
it must take place very early in life, when the length of the bodies
of the vertebrae is so short, that two, three, four, or five such lengths
is equal to the length of a single vertebra of a fully grown-up
individual. When the increase in length is stopped, the increase in
circumference continues, as in the non-synostosied vertebral bodies.
This synostosis does not appear to occur in any of the short-bodied
fishes. It does not occur in the short-bodied Sparoid, Moenoid, nor
Squamipennate fish, nor in any Labyrinthoid, but in most of the other
families it occurs the oftener, the longer the fish. In the Eel tribe
(especially Gymnoius), iu the Mormi/rus {kut £^oxr]y Gymnarchus'),
two, three, and even four portions of the vertebral column are
affected with this vertebral synostosis.

Another instance of solid and immovable vertebral imion is to be
found iu the genus Ostracion, the body of these curious fish being

104 ORIGINAL ABTICLES.

walled-iu by sucli a thick and almost enamelled carapace of solidly
wedged plates, that it is only tlie end of the tail that appears
heyond this strong coat of armour. The vertebral column has no
mobility whatever, and is quite destitute of muscles ; the bodies of the
vertebrae are not anchylosed, but they and their superior arches are so
firmly united by sutui'es, that flexion or extension between them, or
throughout the whole length of the column, is perfectly impossible.
This is, perhaps, the only instance of true suturse between vertebrsB
to be met with in the animal kingdom,

12, On the Arteria mediana lingiice.

There is a small artery of this name, which has been overlooked
by all anatomists. Ordinary injection materials will not be fine
enough to demonstrate it, but the material which I make use of in my
microscopic injections, answers however admirably, Diu'ing the
many years I have been engaged in the preparation of anatomical
injections, I have met with this artery so often, as to be able to
exhibit a series (niunbering some dozens) of specimens, in which it
may be seen in its difterent stages of evolution. From this little
troop of human tongues we derive the following information: —

The Arteria dorsalis linguae supplies the basal portion of the
superior svu'face of the tongue, that portion between the papillae
circumvallatae and the epiglottis, it then spreads itself into a number
of branches, each of which is very fine and superficial; the posterior
branches of the one side, meet with the branches from the other
in the median line, at the base of the tongue; a median artery is
formed after the same manner, as the two vertebral arteries unite to
form the basilar artery in the cavity of the skull.

The Arteria mediana linguae runs forward to the point of the
angle formed by the two comerging lines of the papillae vallatae —
here it either ends or divides, and surrounds the larger papillae, and is
then continued on as a single vessel, which continues its onward
course to the top of the tongue. This artery is of very small size,
but it is situated so superficially, as to be easily seen without any
preparation. It is contained in the mucous membrane of the tongue,
not below it, as in all the other arteries of this organ. When the
artery, in a well injected tongue, is not at once apparent, a little
manipulation will soon reveal it. There are tongues whose siu-face is
not very rich in filiform papillae, and tliese too, very short, so that
the tongue resembles a close cut-velvet ; such tongues will show
this artery without any help from the scalpel; but when the filiform
papilUe are very long and densely set (such tongues are called in
German, " pelzige Zungen"), the artery may be best seen and dissected
out by dividing the papiUae in the middle Hue of the tongue by a
pin, or better by shaving the surface of the tongue with a razor.

Perhaps I have dwelt too long on a vessel, which, if wounded,
would not yield three drops of blood ; but every anatomist likes to

PROFESSOE HTRTl's ANATOMICAL NOTES. 105

deal sometimes in trifles, and the smaller the organ discovered by our
ap])lication, the more satisfaction have we. Should science attend
only to discoveries that may be saleable in the market of practical
life, where would she be standing in the present day ?

Among my anatomical preparations of tongues, there is one of
Cynocephalus Hmnadryas, and one of Tapirus Americanus, in which
the arteria mediana linguae is of very considerable size, and extends
throughout the length of the tongue to apes. In Cynocephalus, it
here divides into two branches, which connect themselves with the
foremost twigs of the arteria profunda linguse. I find this vessel
also in the tongue of Aquila ftdva. O -Sii

13. On the Rami perferantes of the anterior Tibial mid
Feroneal Arteries.

AYlien an isolated injection of the anterior tibial artery is made
(the trunk on the dorsum pedis must be ligatured, to prevent the
filling of the tibialis posterior by the large anastomosis between
these two vessels, in the first intermetatarsal interspace) some small
arteries will be discovered filled in the deep layer of the calf of the
leg. According to the ordinary ideas, the anterior tibial artery is
only destined for the muscles, &c. on the forepart of the leg, but on a
closer examination, some four or five small branches ■wall be found,
which perforate the interosseous ligament at almost equal distances,
and reach the posterior part of the leg; they keep close to the
periosteum, along which membrane they ramify, and they are joined
by ofli"sets of the posterior tibial, coming to the same fibrous
membrane.

Tbe peroneal artery is injected with the same results ; its perfo-
rating branches go across, through the interosseous ligament, to the
periosteum of the anterior aspect of the tibia, and iiltimately
anastomise with the periosteal branches of the tibialis antica ; the
tibialis postica does not send off" perforating branches.

Tliese communicating branches may be of some practical use in
cases of ligature of either of the above-mentioned arteries : there is
in my anatomical collection a preparation of the arteries of the fore-
leg, where a communication is kept up between the trunks of the
tibialis antica and peronea, by a very stout-looking vessel of about
the calibre of a raven's quill. The anastomosis takes place about
half-way down the leg, and the peroneal artery is suddenly augmented
in volume at the sjDot where the communicating branch joins the
peroneal.

106

XI. — Upon a koj^-steiped Mi'scle coisTfECTED WITH THE Orbital
Periosteum of Majs^ and Mammals, and on the Musculus
Kerato-ceicoideus. By Wm. Turner, M.B. (Lond.), F.RS.E.,
Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, Uniyersity of Edinburgli.*

"Whilst engaged in making a dissection, ia the hnman subject,
during the winter session of last year, of the superior maxillary, or
second division of the fifth cranial nerve, my attention was attracted
to a pale-reddish, soft, mass, filling up the narrow chink of the
spheno-maxillary fissure, and extending, from the sphenoidal fissure
in the sphenoid bone, to the infra-orbital canal in the superior maxil-
lary bone. It was evidently connected to the superior (ocular) as-
pect of the periosteum of the orbit, and it was pierced by the orbital
branch of the superior maxillary nerve, from which, as well as from
the ascending branches of the spheno-palatine ganglion, it appeared
to receive its supply of nerves.t It completely shut ofi" the superior
maxillary nerve, with its infra-orbital continuation, from the cavity
of the orbit.

Since the period of making the above observation, I have availed
myself of several opportunities of examiniag the same region in other
subjects, and have constantly observed appearances, of a nature simi-
lar to those just described. The amount of the reddish mass and the
depth of its tint vai-ied slightly in difi'erent instances. Frequently,
it was so pale as scarcely to attract attention, which may perhaps be
the reason why it has so long been neglected by anatomists. AVhen
carefully examined with the nalved eye, or, still better, with a single
lens, it was seen to exhibit a fibi-ous appearance. A small portion
snipped ofi" with scissors, teazed out with needles, and placed on the
stage of the microscope, under a quarter inch objective, was observed
to ibe composed of pale, flattened, band-like fibres, having a faintly
granular aspect, and presenting indications of elongated nuclei at
iatervals. From these characters I had little doubt that the struc-
ture in question consisted of the non-striped form of muscular fibre.

As considerable difficulty is alw^ays experienced in obtaining for
examination the contents of the hxnnan orbit, in a perfectly fresh
condition, I, in the next instance, proceeded to dissect the orbits of
some of the more readily obtained mammals, Avith a xiew of ascertain-
ing if a similar structure existed iu them. In the orbit of the sheej),
I have most satisfactorily observed appearances which have fidly con-
firmed the opinion of the structure already expressed. The orbit of
this animal difters from that of man in possessing much less perfect
walls. As a consequence of this, the orbital membrane, or periosteum,
is a structure of much impoi'tance, for it stretches across the floor of

* Read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 19th, 1861.

t That jMcckel's ganghou sends brandies to the periosteum of tlic orbit is a fact
that has long been known to anatomists, though there have been difficulties in the
way of giving a satisfactory reason why such an arrangement prevails. The exis-
tence of the small muscle uow described, accounts for the distribution.

TFKNER ON THE ORBITAL AISTD KEEATOCEICOID MUSCLES. 107

the orbit from its outer to its inner wall, extends backwards to the
optic foramen, and comj)letes the boundary of the cavity at the spot
where the bony wall is wanting.

If the contents of the orbit be carefully removed, and the orbital
membrane examined from above, it will be seen to be a well defined
structure, distinctly fibrous, and in many places having an almost
tendinous-like aspect. Intimately connected with, and forming an
essential part of it, is a thin layer of a pale reddish substance, which
extends across the greater part of the floor of the orbit, passing back-
wards to the optic foramen and sphenoidal fissure. In close contact
with this structure, especially at the posterior part of the orbit, is a
well-marked vascular net-work, sufficiently injected with blood to be
distinctly visible. This vascular plexus constitutes a small rete mira-
bile, connected with the ophthalmic artery. By removing a small por-
tion of the reddish mass, teazing it out with needles luider water, and
examining it with a quarter inch objective, it may be seen to be com-
posed for the most part of flat, pale, non-striped fibres, collected
together in bundles, having a faintly granular aspect and exhibiting
decided indications of nuclei in their intei'ior. These bundles of flat
fibres are mingled Tvath ordinary fibrous tissue, both white and yellow,
the latter becoming more distinct after the addition of acetic acid.
The pale, non-striped fibres have aU the characters of the involuntary
muscular fibre. Being desirous however of ascertaining if these
fibres could be resolved into their constituent fibro-cells, I adopted
the plan which has been recommended by Belchert, and macerated a
portion of the orbital membrane for forty-eight hours in dilute hydro-
chloric acid. I then found that, by the aid of a very slight dissection,
the fibres readily resolved themselves into the elongated fusiform
cells of which they were composed. In no tissue which I have ever
examined, consisting of the non-striped muscle, have I succeeded in
obtaining more beautiful and more perfect specimens of the contrac-
tile fibre-cell than in this muscle of the orbital membrane. The fusi-
form shape of the cells, their size, and the elongated rod-like nucleus
in the centre of each cell, gave to the texture a most characteristic
appearance. I may also mention, that when the orbital muscle in
the sheep Avas examined without the addition of any re-agent, besides
distilled water, a number of elongated rod-like nuclei were always
met with, lying free in the water surrounding the preparation, which
had evidently been loosened and detached during the dissection with
the needles. These nuclei corresponded in their characters to those
met with in the interior of the fibro-cells. The characters which I
have now enumerated render the muscular nature of the reddish tex-
ture connected with the orbital membrane sufficiently clear.

On referring to the authorities who have written on the structure
of the orbital membrane I find that the following opinions have been
expressed concerning it.

Bendz* in a paper " On the orbital membrane in the domestic
Mammals," describes it as distinctly fibrous, but possessing a consi-

* Miiller's Archiv, 1841, p. 196.

108 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

derable quantity of a yellowish tissue, wliicli lie considers to be elastic,
interpolated with it. He regards the opinion, which had been previ-
ously advanced by GurJt, that the tissue was muscular, to be erroneous.
Stannius* states that in those animals, in which the bony wall of the
orbit is incomplete, the separation between the orbital cavity and the
temj^oral fossa is mostly effected by a fibrous membrane, containing
also abundant elastic tissue. He states that Sucloljjhi regarded these
elastic fibres to be muscular in Bears, and that Meckel described a
muscle in the orbital membrane of Ornithorynchus. Chauvemif
speaks of the fibrous membrane which completes the cavity of the
orbit as entirely composed of white inextensile fibres. GurltX con-
siders it to be a strong fibrous membrane, with yellow elastic fibres
interpolated. S. Ji£uUer,§ in a very brief communication, states that
he has found flat muscular fibres in the inferior orbital fissure in man,
and corresjD ending structures connected to the membrana orbitalis
of mammalia.

It was supposed by those, who held that the membrana orbitalis
was a highly elastic and not a muscular structure, that it was through
its elastic recoil that the eye-ball was re-protruded in those animals
which retracted the ball through the contraction of a retractor
muscle. H. Muller, again, who speaks more positively than any who
have preceded him, not only of the existence of a muscle, but also
of the kind of fibre of which it is composed, considers that it antago-
nizes those muscles which retract the eye-ball into the socket, and
that thus, the rejjrotrusion of the globe is produced, not by a mere
elastic recoil but by a muscidar contraction.

If this hypothesis be correct, an arrangement exists in this locality,
which is certainly to be regarded as an unusual one, viz. : an involun-
tary muscle acting as a direct antagonist to a vohmtary muscle. AVlie-
ther the hypothesis be correct, or not, I am disposed to consider that the
muscle has some especial relation to the vascidar arrangements in the
orbit. Its extension backwards to the foramina through which the
orbital vessels proceed, and with which it is in immediate relation,
and the very abundant vascular network found in connection with it,
point, I think, to some special relation between the muscle and the
vessels, a relation which is not at all inconsistent with what is known
of the function of non-striped muscle in other localities.

Occurrence of the Musculus lyerato-cricoidews. — In a paper,
entitled " Remarks on the Musculus Kerato-cricoideus (Merkel's
muscle)," published in the Edinburgh Medical Journal, February,
1860, I directed attention to an account, which had been given
by Dr. Carl Merkel of Leipsic (Stimm und Sprach-Organ, 1857),
of a hitherto imdescribed muscle of the humau larynx. Merkel
described this muscle as arising from the posterior surface of the
cricoid cartilage, and extending obliquely upwards and outwards to

• Lehrbuch der verglcichenden Anatomic, 1846, p. 401.

•f Traite d' Anatomic Comparee, 18.57, p. 753.

j Handbuch der Vcrgleicli. Auat. der Haus. Saugethierc. 1860, p. 733.

§ Siebold and Kollikers Zcitschrift, 1858, p. 541.

TURNER ON TUE ORBITAL AND KERATOCRICOTD MUSCLES. 109

be attached to the posterior margin of the inferior horn of the thyroid
cartilage. He stated that the muscle was not found in every larynx,
and tliat when present it existed only on one side.

In my remarks, I supplemented the description of Merkel with
some additional particulars, more especially pointing out, that, al-
though, as a rule, the muscle only occurred on one side, right or left
as the case might be, jet that a double muscle might exist. I figm-ed
an example of such a bilateral muscle, which at that time was the
only one I had seen. Since then I have met with two additional
cases in which a double kerato- cricoid muscle was present. One of
these was especially noteworthy, for the muscle, on both sides, was
more largely developed than in any previous example that had fallen
under my notice. The great size of the kerato-cricoid muscle was
combined with a general laryngeal muscularity. The occurrence of
three examples of a double kerato-cricoid muscle, during the last tw^o
years, within my o^vn ex]5erience, shows that the bilateral arrange-
ment is not so imusual as was in the first instance supposed.

JVote. — Since the above paper was in type, my attention has been
directed, by Professor Huxley, to a communication by H. Miiller,
dated Dec. 15th, 1860, entitled " On the influence of the sympathetic
upon some muscles, and on the extensive occurrence of unstriped
muscles in the skin in the mammalia."*

As this paper throws some additional light upon the probable
action of the orbital muscle I append a short abstract of it : —

H. Miiller, after referring to the many puzzling questions which
have arisen respecting the function of the sympathetic nerve, and
its relations to the muscles supplied by it, proceeds to ask two
questions :

1st. Whether and which unstriped muscles are supplied by other
nerves than the sjrmpathetic ?

2nd. Wliether and which transversely-striped muscles are under
the influence of the sympathetic ?

In answer to the first, the action of the oculo-motor nerve upon
the unstriped fibres of the iris cannot be doubted : the vagus also
acts upon unstriped muscles, and the experiments of Schifl" have
shown that the greater part of the vascular nerves are not connected
with the sympathetic.

The second question may be most effectively answered by consi-
dering the effect produced upon the eye-ball by division or irritation
of the cervical sympathetic. Miiller, for this purpose, refers to the
experiments of Bernard, E. Wagner, and Brown- Sequard ; the
general tendency of which is to show, that division of the cervical
sympathetic produces narrowing of the paljiebral fissure, retraction
of the bidb, projection of the nictitating membrane and narrowing of
the anterior nares and the mouth. Irritation of the nerve by gal-
vanization, on the other hand, produces increase of the opening of

* Uebcr den Einfluss des Sympathicus auf einige Muskeln, &c. Von H, Miiller,
" Vevliandlungeu der Phys. Med. Gesellschaft in WiJrzburg."

110 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the lids, projection of the bulb, retraction of the nictitating mem-
brane, relaxation of several facial muscles. Respecting the causes
which produced these changes there was some difference of opinion.
R.Wagner could scarcely conceive that any force, save the contraction
of the two obliqui, could produce projection of the eye-ball, and yet
he asks, "how could these transversely-striped muscles receive
excito-motory fibres from the sympathetic?" Brown- Sequard, again,
considered that retraction of the bulb, after section of the nerve, was
produced by the active contraction of the retractor and recti, and
that its reprojection by subsequent irritation was a reposition. Schiff
regarded the projection of the bulb as due to the action of the
obliqui : the movements of the lids he considered to be passi-\e, and
due to those of the bulb.

Eemak, on the other hand, believed that the narrowing of the
palpebral fissure was due to a relaxation of the levator palpebra? supe-
rioris, accompanied by a spasmodic contraction of the orbicularis.
Moreover, he conceived that the sympathetic acted upon the volun-
tary muscles of the Hds about the eye.

Muller considers that it is now no longer necessary to discuss
the various probabilities respecting the influence of the sympathetic
upon the voluntary muscles of the eye, as a complete series of unstriped
muscles have now been observed, which will serve as a foundation for
explaining the movements in question.

These muscles consist of three divisions : —
1st. In the oi'bital cavity of mammals, a membrane (membrana
orbitalis), consisting of imstriped muscles with elastic tendons, exists,
which, by irritation of the cervical sympathetic, projects the contents
of the orbit, especially the bulb, forwards. Eetraction is produced by
the transversely-striped retractor. In man, the orbital muscle is
much reduced in size, and the retractor is wanting, so that a distiuct
projection of tlie bulb does not follow irritation of the symj)athetic,
as Wagner and H. Muller himself have observed.

2nd. The projection of the nictitating membrane in mammals is
mostly due to the retractor bulbi under the influence of the N.
abducens. Its withdrawal depends on some unstriped muscles
which are under the influence of the sympathetic. In hares, how-
ever, the withdrawal is due to a transversely strij^ed muscle, which
is not supplied by the spnpathetic but by the oculo-motorius. In
man, the lid and its muscles are rudimentaiy.

3rd. The upper and lower lid possess in man, and ia very many
mammals, unstriped muscles, which have the power of drawing them
back. They are more feeble in the upper thai) the lower lid, so that
by irritation of the sympathetic the latter is drawn back in a more
marked manner than the former. Narrowing of the palpebral fissure,
after section of the cervical syuipathetic, depends upon relaxation of
these nmscles. Yet recession of the eye-ball may depend upon
relaxation of the orbital muscle. Muller, then, concludes that the
movements occasioned by experimenting on the cervical sympatlietic,
are not such as to entitle us to infer an influence of that nerve upon
voluntary striped muscle. lie also considers that the movements

TUENEE ON THE OEBITAL AND KEKATOCETCOID MUSCLES. Ill

about the nose and mouth, said by Bernard to be produced by
section of the sympathetic, if they do take place, are owing to the
presence of unstriped cutaneous muscles.

Miiller next inquires into the existence of unstriped muscles in
the skin of the ear. He has occasionally found, on galvanizing the
cervical sympathetic in cats, that a movement of the hairs growing
upon the skin at the entrance of the concha, has taken place.
Tliis experiment has, how^ever, frequently failed both in cats and
other animals. A careful examination of the skin of the part did
not giA'e any indications of unstriped muscles, but very distinct
muscles were seen connected to the hair follicles. He considers
these experiments of interest, as they appear to indicate whence
the muscles of the hair follicles receive their nerves. Owing to
the movement of the hairs being limited to a very small locality,
during the irritation of the sympathetic, one must suppose that
only a very small part of the unstriped muscular apparatus of the
skin of the cat can be regulated by the cervical sympathetic.

XII. — Note sue l'E]S"cepe:ale de e'Ceakg-outakg, par J. L. C.
Schroeder van der Kolk et W. Yrolik.*

[By the kindness of the distingnished authors of tliis essay, we are enabled to lay
it before the readers of the present number of the Natural History Review ;
wherein it fitly takes its jjlace, as an important link in the chain of evidence by
which the baselessness of the three assertions, that the " posterior lobe," the
" posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle," and the "hippocampus minor," are
structures " peculiar to " or " characteristic of" the human brain, has been placed
beyond the possibility of cavil. The statements in the paper to which MM.
Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik refer in theu' opening sentence, were sub-
stantially refuted in the essay " On the Zoological Relations of Man to the Lower
Animals," published in the number of this Review for Jamian', 1861 ; and v/ere
so obviousl}', either irrelevant or incompatible with fact, that we deemed them
undeserving of further criticism. But, for MM. Schroeder van der Kolk and
"Vrolik, this singular brochure had an importance, which its scientific contents
could not confer upon it. For though these eminent anatomists declare them-
selves decided opponents of all forms of the doctrine of progressive development,
they are above all, lovers of truth ; and therefore, at whatever risk of seeming to
lend support to views which they dislike, when, in that paper and elsewhere,
they found their facts denied, their words misquoted, and their very figures mis-
interpreted, they felt it their duty to take the first opportunity of pubhcly repu-
diating the abuse of their authoritj^, iu a formal note addressed to the learned
Academy of which they are members. 3ijf^i>>

As none of our readers, who are interested in the question, are likely to be unacquainted
with French, we content ourselves with accurately reproducing the text and its
accompanying plate ; a course, which in such a case as this, has its obvious
recommendations. — T. H. H.]

Monsieur Eichard Owenf vient de publier un memoire sur les
caracteres anatomiques du cerveau de I'homme et des singes. Pre-

* Extrait des comptes rendus de 1' Academic Roj'ale des Sciences, Sectiou Sciences
Exactes, Vol. XIII. Amsterdam.

t R. Owen. On the Cerebral characters of Man and the Ape in Annals and
ilagaziiie of Natural History, 3d Series, Vol. VII. No. 42, July 1861, p. 456.

112 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

occupe dc la question remise sur le tapis par les aiiteurs des Vestiges
of Creation et de la Natural Selection, et anime peut-etre par la
poleniiqiie, qui en a ete le resultat, cet eminent naturaliste a voulu
prouver par des faits anatomiques, que I'espece Homme n'a pas pu
provenir de I'espece Singe. Chercliant ces faits principalement dans
la sti'ucture du eer\^eau, notre honorable confrere a cru de son devoir
de reproduire les dessius de feu Tiedemann pour le cerveau d'un
negre* et les notres pour le cerveau du Chinipansef, afin de fairs
voir qu'il y a une difference prononcee entre rencephale de I'homme
le moins developpe et celui de ces singes superieurs, que Ton
nomme anthropomorphes. — Ces faits, ajoute-t-il, gagnent en im-
portance, si Ton considere qu'ils ont ete publies bien avant que la
transmutation des especes fut devene une question scientifique, par
consequent sans y avoir egard, et probablement aussi sans que les
auteurs aient songe a la possibilite qu'une telle liypotliese put
etre emise imjour. Monsieur Owen nous fait I'lionneur d'y joindre
quelques paroles bienveillantes sur I'exactitude de nos dessins, qu'il
a pu apprecier en les comparant avec les dissections qu'il a faites du
cerveau du Chimpanse, de I'Orang-outang et du Grorille ; le cervelet
du Gorille, que nous n'avons pas disseque, lui parait proportionelle-
ment plus gi'and que celui des deux autres anthropomorplies, et il en
deduit I'etonnante force muscnlaire de cet animal.

Jusque la nous n'avons qn'a nous feliciter d'un accord scientiSque,
dont nous sommes heureux et fiers. Malheureusement im pen plus
loin, notre illustre confrere parait s'etre laisse enti'ainer par son desir
de combattre la theorie de M. Darwin, et, si nous ne nous trompons
fortement, il s'est fourvoye. Pour prouver que le cerveau du negre
s'eleve sans transition et d'xuie maniere brusque avidessus de celui des
singes anthropomorphes, M. Owen affirme que le lobe posterieur de
I'hemisphere, la corne postcrieure du ventricule lateral, et dans celle-
ci I'eminence, que Ton nomme pes Hippocampi minor, qui existent
tons dans le cerveau du negre, manquent chez ces singes. II ajoute
que I'absence de ces parties offre un caractere bien tranche et meme
des plus importants, pour distinguer le cerveau des quadrumanes de
celui de I'homme. Afin de bien preciser, il se sert des jiaroles sui-
vantes, que nous avons cru devoir traduire.

" Pour les definitions concises, dont on se sert dans les systemes
zoologiques pour caracteriser les groupes, il est avant tout necessaire
de bien definir les termes. J'ai en soin delafaire dans mon memoire
sur la classification primaire des mammiferes+ d'apres les difterences

* 'V. Tiedemann. On the Brain of the Negro compared with that of the Euro-
pean and the Orang-outan in Philoso/Mc. Trans, year 1836.

t Schroeder van der Kolk en W. Vrolik. Ontleedkundige Vcrhandeling
over dc gedaantc en hct maakscl der herscnen van den Chinipan.se, in Verl). der
Eerste Klnsse vim hct. Kvninklijk Nedvrl. lastituut, 3e llccks, Ecrstc Dccl, LI. 2C3.
Amstenhuu, 1849.

% V. On the Characters, Principles of Division and Primary Groups of the class
Mammalia in Jonriiul of' the Proceedintjs of the Linnaun iiocitty. Vol. II. No. 5,
June 21, Ao. 1857.

KOTE SUE l'eNC^PHALE DE l'oRANQ-OUTANG. 113

specialea du cerveau. Le terme du lobe posterieur y avait primitive-
ment uu sens uu peu vague. Avec M.M. Cruveilhier, Todd et
d'autres, je ne recounaissais pas de lianite naturelle entre le lobe
moyen ou temporal et le lobe posterieur ou occipital de I'hemispliere
du cerveau humain. Par consequent, je ine vis force de prendre mon
point de depart tant de la structure interne, que de la position relative
des parties. D'apres cela j'ai nomrae lobe posterieur celui qui
recouvre le tiers posterieur du cervelet et se prolonge au dela de
celui-ci."

Suivant ce raisonnement nous serious coupables d'une fausse in-
terpretation, en nommant lobe posterieur une partie du cerveau, qui
ne se prolonge pas autanc et qui ne contiendrait pas de corne ventri-
culaire posterieure.

M. Owen le dit d'une maniere implicite, en ajoutant : " neanmoins
" je n'ai aucvui doute, que mes confreres faillibles n'aient dit la verite,
" telle quails Ventendent, en aiBrmant que les singes d'un ordre supe-
" rieur out uu lobe posteriem* a I'hemisphere de leur cerveau, une
" corne posterieur dans leur ventricule lateral et dans celle ci un pes
" Hippocampi minor ; mais de mon cote, je crois aussi prononcer une
" verite strictement scientifique d'accord avec les definitions de ces
*' parties, en affirmant qu'elles ne sont propres {peculiar) qu'a I'espece
" liumaine."

Ces paroles, publiees au mois de Juin 1861, paraissent etre une
reponse a uu memoire, publie au mois de Janvier de la meme annee,
par M. Huxley.*) Ce savant, qui nous fait I'lionneur de nommer
uotre travail de 1849, one of the most valuable memoirs on the cerebral
organisation of the higher Apes that has been yet written, deduit de
nos observations et de nos planches justement le contraire de ce que
M. Owen y a vu.

M. John Marshall, qui vient apres M.M. Huxley et Owen,
insiste sur cette singuliere controverse, en citant nos planches " so
" differently interpreted just now, being equally quoted to shoiv the
" PRESENCE and the absence in the quadrumanous brain, of the same
" parts, viz. the posterior lobes, the posterior cornu and the hippocampus
" minor.'' f H fait quelques reflexions sur nos dessins, sur lesquelles
nous revieudrons plus tard, mais il y reconnait toutes les parties,
dont M. Owen nie I'existence chez les singes. Outre cela, il donne
une belle photographie du cerveau du Chimpanse, dans laquelle U les
montre toutes.

Nous devons encore citer M. Gleorge Eolleston,^ veuu apres

* Huxley. On the Zoological Relations of Man with the Lower Animals, in
Natural History Review, No. I. January, 1861, p. 69. London.

f On the Brain of a young Chimpanzee. By John Marshall. In Natural
History Review, No. III. July, 1861. London.

X G. Eolleston. On the Affinities of the Brain of the OrangUtang, in Natural
History Review, No. II, April, 1861.

N. H. R.— 1862. I

114 OBIOINAL ARTICLES.

M. Huxley et avant M. Marshall, qui recoimait ces parties et les
decrit chez I'Orang-outang.

II parait que rannee 1861 a ete funeste en Angleterre aux Cliim-
panses et aux Orangs, et que la question meme de leur organisation
cerebrale a bien vivemeut emu les esprits. L'accord d'opiuion qui
reoTie entre nous et ces trois auteurs nous flatte et nous liouore.
Nous nous rejouissons de la faeilite qu'offrent les Jardins Zoologiques
etablis partout aujourd'hui, et de I'excellent esprit qui anime leurs
directeurs. Une erreur, qui se serait perpetuee autrefois, est mainte-
nant bien vite eclaircie.

En comparant les paroles de M. Owen avec I'appui unanime
donne a nos travaux pas trois iiommes eminents, nous ne nions j)as
que nous en sommes extremement frapp es et profoudement affliges.
D'aprea les louanges, donnees a I'exactitude de nos dessins, nous ne
nous attendions pas au reproclie d'avoir meconnu le caractere ana-
tomique du cerveau des singes superieiu's ou antliroponiorplies.
Nous avons represente dans nos planches les parties que M. Owen
refuse au cerveau du Chimpanse ; nous les avons decrites dans le
texte de notre memoire. M. Owen nous loue de notre exactitude,
et par une contradiction in adjecto, d uie chez les singes I'existence
des parties memes, que de son aveu, nous y axu-ions si bien decrites et
ei bien representees. Si nous avons bien compris la phrase, dans
laquelle il enveloppe un dementi un pen voile, c'est sur I'uiterpreta-
tion qu'il nous attaque. II s'agit d'eclaircir celle-ci et de la defendre.
Cette defense est devcnue d'une certaine importance, depuis que la
pretendue absence du lobe posterieur aux hemispheres du cerveau
des singes est devenue im des arguments, que Ton oppose a I'hypo-
these de la transformation des especes, theorie que Ton doit a M.
Darwin, et qui, quoique connue seulement depuis environ deux ans,
jette deja un eclat plus vif que sa soeur afnee, vieillie sous le nom de
Vestiges of Creation. II y a entre elles un trait de famille ; mais la
cadette se glorifie d'un nom univerfsellement respecte, I'ainee se cache
sous le voile de Tanonyme. L'histoire nous apprend que de telles
theories fi-appent et seduiseut surtout les esprits jeimes et pleins
d'avenir. Elles reparaissent de temps a autre et accompagnent
prcsque toujours les tourmentes politiques ct religieuses.

line fatalite, qui s'explique par la nature meme de la lutte, lui
donne toujours un caractere d'animosite tres vive et presque toujours
personelle. Un desir trop ardent de vaincre enleve aux antagonistes
I'esprit calme, qui lea dirige dans leurs autres ti'avaux. lis ne se
donnent pas le temps de delier le noeud ; leur impatience leur fait
croire qu'ils n'ont qu'^ le couper. Une phrase trcs forte, par la-
quelle M. Agassiz definit la theorie Darwinicnue en fait preuve ; il
la nomme une erreur scientifique, fausse dans les faits, non scientifique
dans sa methode et peraicieuse (mischievous^ dans sa tendance.
M. Darwin est un homme trop eminent pour meritcr une accusation
teUement formidee. On pent regretter qu'une imagination trop
vivo, une faeilite de conception qui eblouit plutot qu'elle n'eclaire, en

NOTE SUE l'ETTCEPHALE DE l'oRANO-OUTAKO. 115

le poussant clans le labyrluthe des hypotlieses, lui ait fait quitter le
champ des observations oCi I'on aimait taut a le suivre, mais on ne lui
contestera jamais im talent hors de Hgne, ni un savoir aussi profond
qu'etendu.

Cette digression fait voir que nous ne sommes pas partisans d& la
tlieorie qvii porte le nom de son auteur. Mais s'il faut la combattre,
nous desirous que ce soit par des arguments a I'abri de tout reproebe
et par des faits clairs, evidents, irrecusables. Sans cela on court risque
de faire tort au systeme meme, que Ton Teut defendre.

Nous craignons que M. Owen ne soit tombe dans cette faute. —
Si nous avions commis une erreur, soit d' observation, soit d'interpre-
tation, nous serious heureux de pou\ar I'avouer, en cbercbaut notre
excuse dans ce qu'il nomme ime faillibilite que nous admettons et
reconnaissons en toute bumilite, et nous trouverions en meme temps
notre consolation dans Tidee, que cette errem- eut procure un argu-
ment de plus contre une hypothese qui nous deplait. Mais, a notre
regret, nous ne pouvons nous executer avec cette bonne grace. Nous
avons revu nos dessins et nos preparations de I'annee 18-19. Nous
reconnaissons avec M. Ovren, que les dessins sont exacts. Non
satisfaits de cette approbation, nous avons repete, au mois d'Aout
dernier, la dissection d'un cerveau d'Orang-outang, mort au Jardiu
Zoologique d' Amsterdam, que nous devons a la generosite de M.
"Westerman et a la courtoisie de notre collegue M. Van Geuna.
Nous soumettons a votre appreciation, messieurs, la dissection du
ventricule lateral gaucbe de ce cerveau, et nous osous esperer, que
les anatomistes qui assistent a cette seance, n'y meconnai trout ni un
lobe posterieur a I'bemisphere, ni une corne posterieure au ventricule
lateral, ni une eminence dans cette corne, eminence que nons croyons
avoir le droit de uommer un indice de pes Hippocampi minor.*
Quant a la definition du lobe posterieur, nous ne sommes pas d'accord
avec notre honorable confrere sur I'absence de limite entre le lobe
moyen et le lobe posterieur de I'bemisphere. Nous trouvons entre
ceux-ci un sillon transversal, formant une ligne de demarcation, tout
aussi distiucte chez le Chimpanse et I'Orang, que chez I'homme.
Pour voir ce sillon, il s'agit de bien enlever la pie mere, ce qui n'est
pas toujours facile.

A vrai dire, ce lobe posterieur ou occipital ne se prolonge pas
autant que chez I'homme ; il ne recouvre pas si bien le cervelet, du
moins il ne le cache pas completement, surtout vers les cotes : mais
il n'y a rien la dedans, qui nous empeche de lui donner le nom qui

* En parcourant le proces-verbal de la seance du 28 Sept. 1861, public dans nos
Comptes rerulus, on ven-a que la presence des parties contestees y a ete uiiiversello-
ment recoiuiue par les anatomistes presents a la seance. Le seul doute, qui soit
reste, se rapporte au pes Hippocampi minor. La preparation etait deja conservee
depuis deux mois environ dans de I'esprit de vin et Ton sait que cette liqueur conser-
vatrice raccornit toujours la siibstance cerebrale.

A I'etat frais I'indice du petit pied d'Hippocampc etait plus prononce que main-
tenant.

116 OBIGINAL AKTICLES.

lui est du. D'ailleurs il ne faut pas oublier, que lorsqu'on retire Ic
cerveau du crane, il ne garde pas ses proportions normales. II
s'afFaisse par le poids des hemispheres qui, en s'ecartant, decouvrent
en partie le cervelet. M. G-ratiolet et les auteurs Anglais, que
nous venous de citer a la page 113, font ce reproche k nos planclies de
I'anuee 1849. — Ce reproche est merite. On devrait maintenir ou
remettre le cerveau dans le crane, pour le dessiner et, en tout cas,
corriger les proportions du dessin d'apres un moule pris de la surface
interne du crane, methode nouvelle, que nous devons a M.M. Wagner
et LucAE et dont nous nous servirons a I'avenir. Par rapport au
developpement du cervelet, nous ne croyons pas faire une chose
inutile en rappelant que, d'apres les mesures que nous avons publiees
en 1819, le cervelet du Chimpanse et de I'Oraug-outang est propor-
tionellement plus grand que celui de rhomme. Cela doit avoir une
certaine influence sur la maniere dont il se trouve pour une partie a
decouvert chez ces animaux, qui ont les lobes occipitaux moius
etendus que ceux de I'homme.

L'existeuce de ce lobe occipital chez les singes n'est pas une
decouverte nouvelle dont nous puissious nous attribuer le merite ;
Tiedemann I'a deja represente en 1821 chez le maimon {Macacus
nemesfrimis* Cuvier dit que chez les singes, les hemispheres se
prolongeiit en arriere, comme chez I'homme, pour y former les lobes
posterieurs, qui posent sur le cervelet. Nous avons indi(jue un lobe
posterieur dans le cerveau presque lisse du Stenops. f D'ailleurs ce
lobe ne manque pas toujours chez d'autres mammiferes. Tiedemann
decrit de petits lobes occipitaux chez le Phoque, et, ce qui est plus
frappaut eiicore, il les indique et il les depeint chez le Dauphin, J
M. G-ratiolet dont personne ne meconnaitra I'autorite, dit§ " que
" dans I'homme et dans les singes, se detache de la partie posterieure
" de I'arc du ventricule lateral, un prolongement un peu recourbe en
" dedans, comme la corne d'ux Rhinoceros ou comme une grift'e. Ce
" prolongement est la corne posterieure ou occipitale du ventricule
" lateral. Ce prolongement est fort remarquable ; dans les singes, il
" a une grandeur enorme, eu egard a I'ensemble du ventricule lateral,
" dont Tare est fort petit."

Ainsi il est e\ident, que nous ne sommes pas les seuls qui attri-
buent un lobe posterieur aux hemispheres du cerveau des singes. Si
dans le regne des faits I'erreur est possible, il est heureusement tout
aussi facile de la refuter. Nous avons cm de notre devoir de
defendre la science contre une interpretation fausse, dont I'invasiou

• Iconcs cerebri simiarum et qnonindam animalium rariorum. Hcidelbergae, 1821.

t Schrocder van der Kolk et W. Vrolik. Keeherches d'anatomie compareo
snr le genre Stenops d'llliger, dans Bijdrafien tot de Dicrhunde, uitgegeven
door het Koninklijk Gcnootschap Natura Artis Manigtra, I. D. Amsterdam," 1848 —
18.54.

X UiUersuchuiKjen ilhfr die Natur des Memehen, der Thiere und der PJlanzen
B. II. S. 258. J);u-m.sta(lt, 1827.

§ Anatomie comparee du systeme nerveux. Tome II. p. 74et75, Paris, 1839—1857.

NOTE SUE l'eNCEPHALE DE l'oRANG-OUTANG. 117

la menacjait sous le patronage d'un nom justement celebre. Mais
que Ton ne s'y trompe pas. C'est a tort qu'on ira clierclier dans
notre refutation un argument pour la transmutation des especes.
n y a sans donte, avec une grande diversite dans les details,
p. e. I'ordre et la forme des circonvolutious, la proportion des
hemispheres, la largeur des lobes frojitaux etc., il y a, disons nous,
une certaine conformite generale entre I'homnie et les singes ;
leur cerveau se rapproche du cerveau humain ; I'homme n'a rien dans
son encephale qui manque absolument aux singes, mais en tout cela
nous ne voyons aucune raison pour nous faire admettre que I'homme
soit un singe perfectionne. Plus nous etudions I'organisation des
animaux et plus nous nous sentons affermis dans notre conviction,
qu'il y a parmi eux des types fixes, representes, quoique dans beau-
coup de nuances bieu A'ariees, par des animaux, qui se ressemblent
sous certains rapports.

Mais nous n'y ti'ouvons jamais I'image d'une eehelle ascendante,
continue, non interrompue, mais plutot celle d'un reseau. Nous ne
connaissons aucune espece de singe forinant une transition directe a
I'homme. Si on voulait a toute force faire naitre I'espece homme de
I'espece singe, il faudrait cliercher sa tete dies ces petits singes, qui
se groupent autour des Sajous et des Ouistitis, sa main chez le
Chimpanse, son squelette chez le Siamang, son cerveau chez I'Orang.
Si on n'a pas egard a la difterence des dents, il est evident que
I'aspect general du crane d'un Sajou, d'un Ouistiti, ou de quelqu'autre
espece congenere ressemble bien plus, quoique en miniatiu'e, au
crane de I'homme, que celui d'un Gordle, d'un Chimpanse ou d'lm
Orang adultes ; le carpe du Chimpanse a la meme nombre d'os que
celui de I'homme, celui de I'Orang au contraire se distingue par ce
singulier os intermediaire, que Ton retrouve chez tons les autre
singes ; le squelette du Siamang par le sternum, par la forme du
thorax, par les cotes et le bassin, ressemble bien plus au squelette
humain, que celui du Grorille, du Chimpanse et de I'Orang ; nos
recherches ont montre que le cerveau de I'Orang se rapproche plus
du cerveau humain que celui du Chimpanse. II faudrait done clier-
cher les traits de la famille humaine chez quatre Primates difterents,
dont un d'Amerique, deux d'Afrique, un troisieme de Borneo, un
quatricnie de Sumatra ; les parents ]iriniitifs de I'homme seraient par
consequent tellement disperses, qu'il devient par la bien difficile de
croii'e a une telle souche.

En terminant, nous prions 1' Academic de vouloir nous accorder
la faveur de publier dans ses comptes-rendus le memoire et la planche
que nous avons eu riiouneiu" de lui soumettre.

Tltreclit et Amsterdam,
le 28 Septembre 1861.

118

On DimorpTiism in Prmmla. — Mr. C. Darwin has examined tlie
sexual relations of the two forms in the Cowslip, Primrose and other
species of Primula, called by florists ' pin-eyed ' and ' thrum-eyed.'
The one (pin-eyed) mth the style reaching beyond the anthers to the
mouth of the corolla-tube, which is slightly widened above, stigma
globular and rough, the pollen-grains small and oblong in form, and
perfecting comparatively few seeds : the other (thrinu-eyed) with a
short style, and smooth, depressed stigma, falling short of the anthers,
pollen-grains spherical, corolla-tube of uniform diameter, and per-
fecting a larger number of seeds than the former.

Between these forms four crosses can be tried : — viz. the stigma of
the long-styled form, fertilized by its own pollen and by that of the
short-styled, — and the stigma of the short-styled by its own pollen and
that of the long-styled form. Fertilization by own-form pollen Mr.
Darwin calls ' homomorphic,' by pollen of dissimilar form ' heteromor-
phic' Experiment showed the heteromorphie (in which insect agency
is absolutely essential) to be much more fertile than the homomorpliic
union, in which the forms were as sterile as are many distinct species
when crossed. The object of the dimorphic condition Mr. Darwin
considers to be to favour the sexual union of distinct individuals of
the same species.

Other similar cases of dimorphism were named in five distinct
Natui-al Orders.— i>irtw. Soc. Proc. Nov. 21, 1861.

A letter, dated Sept. 12, 1861, has been received from Mr. Mann,
Botanical Collector to the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, giving an account of
his ascent of the Peak of St. Thomas, (7,500 ft.) in the island of that
name in the Gulf of Guinea.

The ascent is described as extremely diflicult. Mr. Maim found
a tropical forest vegetation ascending to the very summit. Glei-
cheina dichotoma, a shore plant at Fernando Po groAvs upon the top,
and Eluis growing in that island only to 1000 ft. was found in St.
Thomas to 3000. A Conifer {Fodocarpus) and an Anthocleista were
also collected, On Clarence Peak, Fernando Po (10,700 ft.) 55 tem-
perate plants were collected by Mr. Mann at and above an elevation
of 5000 ft. This indefatigable collector expects shortly to ascend the
Cameroon Mountain on the main land (13,000 ft.)

Note on tlie Hahits of Vipers.— 1\iQ parental instincts of most
cold-blooded_ Vertebrata lead them no farther than to deposit their
eggs in a suitable locality. As a general rule, we may say of them,
in the beautiful words of Job,

" She leavcth her eggs in the ciirth,— And warmcth them in the dust,

Porgetting that the foot may crush them,— Or tliat the wild beast may break them.

blieis hardened against Her young ones,— A,'? tliougli thcv were not liers."

NOTE ON THE HABITS OF VIPERS. 119

But this rule, though geueral, is not without exception. The males
of the genus Oasterosteus (Stickleback) build a nest, watch over
the eggs, take care that they shall have frequent supplies of fresh
water, and do not leave the young ones till they are able to take care
of themselves.* Several species of Toads and Erogs attach their eggs
to their bodies and so carry them about ; while the fishes of the genus
Bagrtis\ have a still more curious habit, for in this case the males
carry the eggs about in their mouth, and retain them there till the
yoimg obtain some size. It is supposed that the eggs are disgorged
when the fish is about to feed, and then are taken in again, because
in the mass of eggs, one or two belougiug to different species have oc-
casionally been Ibund, In the common Viper the young remain
with their mother some time after birth, and it has been frequently
asserted that on any alarm they run into her mouth for safety.
Though not altogether without analogy, this habit is so extraordi-
nary, that the statement has always been regarded with some suspi-
cion, and the question is summed up by Dr. Bell, as follows : —

" Tliere are on record numerous statements, of various degrees of
" credibility, of the cm'ious fact that the female Viper allows her
" young ones to retreat into her stomach for safety, when alarmed by
" any sudden danger. These statements generally declare that the
" mother, on the occurrence of any such emergency, opens her mouth,
" and that the young immediately enter it, and pass into the sto-
" mach, where they remain protected until the danger be passed, or
" the Viper has gained a place of safety : it is added, in many cases,
" that, on killing tlie mother, the youug have been found within the
" stomach, and on being liberated, have at once resumed all their
" former activity. The question has been re-opened of late by the
" publication of several communications in a most respectable peri-
" odical, to which the reader is referred. J It will be observed, that
" with one exception, the writers have given their statements only on
" hearsay, and that in the one case which is given from personal ob-
" servation, the circumstance is stated to have occurred when the
" writer was a boy. The first impression made on the mind of one
" accustomed to compare evidence with probability, and to weigh
" the value of assertions by the rules of analogy, is, that the mis-
" take, if it be one, may have arisen from the viviparous character of
" the animal ; but the opinion is so general, the mass of evidence so
" considerable, and the details in many cases so minute, as scarcely
" to allow of the question being thus summarily disposed of; and in
" this state of doubt upon so interesting a subject, it is pei'haps
" better to await the results of direct experiments, which might be
" readily made in any locality where these reptiles abound." — Bell's
British Be^tiles, p. G9.

• See Mr. Wariiigton's very interesting papers iu the Aiui. and Mag. of Nat.
Hist, for 1852 and 1855.

•j- Wyman, American Journal, 1859.

t See several Nos. of the Gardener's Chronicle, in April 1848, &c.

120" MISCELLANEA. ,

TLougli twelve years have elajisecl since the above passage was
written, the subject remains as doubtful as ever ; fear of their poisou
having probably been the means of sa\ang the Vipers from the
" direct experiment" here suggested. The following letter will there-
fore, I feel sure, be read with interest. The writer is a gi'eat friend
of mine : he is a son of Mr. Greorge Warde Norman, one of our
greatest political economists, and in his testimony the utmost re-
liance may be placed. He writes to me as follows : —

" Bromley Common, 23rcl Oct. 1861.

" Dear Lubbock, — The following are the particulars which you
requested me to send to you.

On the 2nd of September I was out shooting with our game-
keeper. In walking through a wood, the keeper, who was a shori, dis-
tance behind me, noticed a viper on the ground. It was a little over
two feet long, but was not accurately measured. The keeper affirms
that directly the viper was disturbed, he saw two young ones run
into its mouth ; he is convinced that he saw two, and thinks, but
is not certain, that he saw three. He put his foot on it, cut its head
off, and brought the body to me.

We commenced skinning it by turning the skin inside out, and
drawing it off from head to tail. On partially removing the skin, we
could see several young ones inside, which were all moving about and
seemed as lively as possible. In order to preserve them in the con-
dition in which they then were, we drew the skin on again and tied
up the orifice of the neck. On arriving at home, I opened the body
and found that all the young vipers, 11 in number, were dead, as I
imagined from suffocation.

The keeper says, that he has several times before seen young
vipers when alarmed run into their mother's mouth for safety.

Yours sincerely,

PuiLiP Norman."

Assuming, as I feel no hesitation in doing, that Mr. Norman's
statement is thoroughly correct, the only remaining question would
be whether the young vipers thus found in the body of their mother,
were the same which the keeper saw, or supposes that he saw, run-
ning into her mouth. My friend, not being an anatomist, does not
venture to state that the young were in the stomach, but he feels no
doubt that this was the case ; and, if they had been in the ovidiict
some traces of the foetal membranes would probably have been
perceived. I shall be happy to forward the specimens to any Na-
turalist who may wish to examine them. The young ones themselves
are eleven in number ; between six and seven inches in length ; and
were about to moult, a new layer of scales being fully formed under
the outer skin. I am unaware what is the condition and size of
young Anpurs, when they first see the light, but I do not imagine that
Ibhey could be of so large a size.

I cannot but express a hope that Mr. Norman, having thus sho^vn
his interest in Natiu-al History, and his power of observing, will not
allow this to be his last contribution to our science.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

%f^VUlVS.

XIII. — The Writings of M. Pabre.

Obseetattons sur les mceijrs des Cerceris. Aim. des Sci. Nat.

Tome IV. Ser. 4.
Etude sur l'insttjStct et les Metamorphoses des SraEGiEisrs.

Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome VI. Ser. 4.
Memoire sur l'IItpermetamouphose et les mceurs des Meloi'des.

Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome Vll. Ser. 4.
Eeciierches sur l'Anatomie des Organes Eeproducteurs et

SUR LE Deyeloppement DES Mtriapodes. Ann. des Sci. Nat.

Tome III. Ser. 4.

Miss Martineau in lier " Eastern Life" expresses lier wonder that
after a co-existence of GOOO years or more we cannot understand
the language of a single animal. But how few men are there who
make any effort to do so. Even among naturalists, how large a pro-
portion catch but to hill, and study only the dead. In Entomology
we have had but two liubers, nor can we be said yet to understand
thorougMy the habits of a single insect. The most startling dis-
covery of the last few years relates to a species which has been
domesticated from time immemorial. Gladly, therefore, do we wel-
come an Entomologist who steps boldly out of the common path; in
some cases, indeed, we may feel disposed to think that M. Fabre's
enthusiasm leads him to attribute to his favourites, feelings of which
we can hardly suppose them capable ; but we cannot criticise what
we have enjoyed so much, and the error, if it be one, throws an
additional charm over his writings. Out of the many species whose
manners and customs are described by M. Eabre, we must confine
ourselves to three ; and even then we cannot in so short an abstract
do anything like jvistice to the wit and brilliancy of the original.
N. H. R — 1862. K

122 EEVIEWS.

In the mefQoir which we have placed at the head of this article,
M. Fabre devotes himself to the genus Cerceris.

In the latter part of September, this insect, which is one of the
solitary wasps, begins to hollow out a sort of gallery in the earth —
horizontal or vertical, according to the species— and to enclose therein
her progeny, together with the food destined for their future support.
She shews herself in no wise particular as to the nature of the soil in
which she works, provided it be pei'fectly dry, and exposed during
a great part of the day to the heat of the sim. She takes ingenious
advantage of any projection in the ground, or bimch of weeds, under
the shelter of which she can pierce her gallery, and thus add as it
were a peristyle to her dwelling. Though the Cercerides do not form
themselves into communities, M. Fabre observes that they generally
choose to live near each other, and the nests lie close together, to
the number of eight or ten. It is curious to watch the labours of
these insects in forming their habitations, and the patience with
which they drag up successive heavy loads of sand, and eject it from
the entrance of their holes. The sight of their tiny jets of sand
constantly recurring attracted the attention of M. Pabre, in the first
instance, to these Little excavators. He watched them, resting from
their labours and basking in the sun, the females often flying to the
surrounding trees, pursued by the males, who hover about, idle spec-
tators of the toil carried on before their eyes. Fights frequently
ensue between them for the possession of some particular female,
who sits an apparently unconcerned beholder of the struggle for
supremacy, and, when the victory is decided, quietly flies away in
company with the conqueror. The males, which are only half the
size of the females, do not condescend even to enter the galleries
which are in course of excavation ; and neither by carrying a single
grain of sand, nor by assisting in the subsequent troublesome task of
collecting provisions for the young, do they share in the industry
around them. Having completed the nests for the reception of her
eggs, it now remains for the thoughtful parent to provide the nourish-
ment requisite for her young, when they shall emerge from the shell.
The victim chosen for this pmposeis a large Curculio (Cleomis optJial'
miens). On her return from a foraging expedition, the Cerceris may
be seen flying homewards, heavily weighed down by her prey, which
fche embraces, the underside of her body opposed to that of her victim.
Alighting at a short distance from her hole, she proceeds to drag the
Cleonus painfully up to the entrance of its prison, often slipping
back, and rolling with it down among the loose grains of sand, only
to recommence undauntedly her toilsome ascent. M. Fabre had the
curiosity to weigh both the Cerceris and her prey ; the first averaged
1.50 milligi'ammes, the second 255 ; a fact which would render the
flight of the Cerceris a matter of considerable surprise to any one
not aware of the great muscular power possessed by insects.

Either by robbing her nest of the prey, or by attacking the
Cerceris at the moment when she arrived with her booty, and forcing

THE WEITIXGS OF M. FABRE. 123

her by means of a straw to relinqiiisli it, M. Faljre succeeded in
possessing himself of about 100 Cu-rculios. Tlie insect to which he
dii-ected his attention is not the Cerceris Bupresticida, which attacks
indiscriminately all the Buprestes, but one of its congeners, and
more exclusive, apparently, in its tastes ; as all the Cui'culios he
examined belonged, vdila. one single exception, to the same species.

It is difficult to see why, of four kinds of Cerceris, two should
make choice exclusively of Curculios, two of Buprestes ; thus restrict-
ing their chance of finding \dctims within such narrow limits : and
the total want of outward resemblance between Curculios and Bu-
prestes also raises the question why these two groups especially
are selected. As, however, we shall see hereafter, this problem has
been satisfactorily solved by M. Fabre.

After what has been written on the subject by M. Dufour, it is
needless to state that the Curculios examined by M. Fabre, tliough
deprived absolutely and entirely of aU power of motion, were still
not dead. In fact, from their freshness of colour, suppleness of mem-
brane, and general internal condition, it was almost impossible to
realize their being utterly incapable of the least movement. Througli
heat sufficient to have di*ied up any animal which had suffered ordi-
nary death, through damp wliich would have caused rapid decomposi-
tion, M. Fabre preserved these beetles in paper cornets or in glass
tubes : and after a fortnight the viscera were as fresh, the act of dis-
section was as easy, as they would have been in the case of a living
creature. In the face of facts like these, we cainiot possibly attribute
this immoveable state to antiseptic agency alone. Life is there, but
numbed, as it were, and paralysed : a miracle beyond the power of
chloroform or aether to perform, having its origin in the mysterious
laws of the nervous system.

In this state of vegetation the animal functions still faintly exert
themselves : digestion continues as long as the stomach contains
food. By the aid of benzine vapour and of a voltaic battery, M. Fabre
succeeded in obtaining some feeble movements of the legs and antennae,
even up to the fifteenth day after this extraordinary suspension of
muscular power had taken place ; whereas, the same experiments,
when made upon beetles dead, in the true sense of the word, only two
liours, were productive of no result whatever.

These facts, indeed, militate strongly against the supposition that
the Curculios are dead, and merely preserved by some means from
natural decay. The weapon with which they are overcome is of
course the venomous sting of the Cerceris : but how can this pene-
trate througli the coat of mail worn by the Curcuho ? in which, more-
over, there is no trace of injury or wound to be discovered after the
combat is over. The key to this mystery has been obtained by M.
Fabre, after an amount of patient investigation which would have
wearied out a less persevering and intelligent observer.

With great difficulty, and after a long search in fields and hedges,
he succeeded in captiu-ing several live specimens of Ciu'culio, which

K 2

124 BETIEWS.

he placed at the enti'auce of their cuemies' abode, in the ho])e of
tempting the Cercerides to attack the prey thus brouglit to tlieir
very doors, and to perform under his eyes the act of which he had
already in many cases mtnessed the marvellous results. But the
victims thus offered were scornfully rejected : the inglorious booty
treated with disdain. The experiment of putting a Cerceris and a Cur-
culio together in a bottle was attended with no better success. Their
positions seemedreversed: the Cerceris, too overcome by fear to attempt
resistance, tried vainly to escape, while her antagonist fiercely seized
one of her legs between its jaws. Thus baffled, M. Fabre was struck
with the ingenious idea of waylaying a Cerceris retumuig with her
booty, and contriving to substitute for it a living Curculio. This
experiment succeeded to admiration. As soon as the Cerceris per-
ceived her prey to have slipped from her grasp, she struck the earth
with her feet, and turned impatiently hither and thither : then, sud-
denly perceiving the living Curculio placed close to her by M. Fabre,
pouuced upon it, and proceeded to carry it off. Instantly, how-
es'cr, discovering it to be still uninjured, she placed herself face to
face with it, seized its rostrum between her powerful mandibles, and
pressed her forelegs heavily upon its back, as if to cause the opening
of sonie ventral articulation. Quickly then she slid her abdomen
beneath the Curculio, and struck her venomous dart sharply twice
or thrice into the joint of the prothorax, between the first and second
pair of legs. In one second, without a convulsive movement, without
those twitches of the limbs which generally accompany the death
agony of any animal, the victim dropped motionless, struck as if
by lightning. The Cerceris then, turning the apparently lifeless
insect on its back, embraced it as before described, and bore it away
in triumph. Three times did M. Fabre repeat this interesting expe-
riment, each time with precisely similar results. It must be clearly
understood, that on each occcasion he restored to the Cerceris her
original captive, and took possession of that which he had himself
pro\ided, in order to examine it at his leisure. Greatly did he mar-
vel at the dexterity with which the fatal stroke had been dealt. Not
the slightest trace of a wound was to be found : not the least drop
of vital liquid spilt. The puncture made by the sting of the Cerceris
is indeed so microscopic, that chemistry can furnish no poison suffi-
ciently powerful to produce with so small a quantity so startling an
effect : and it is, in fact, not so much to the venom of the dart as to
the physiological importance of the exact point at which it entei's,
that we must ascribe the cessation, so complete, so instantaneous, of
all active life.

In most insects there are three ganglia, which furnish the nerves
of the Anngs and legs, and on which the power of movement jjrinci-
pally depends. The first, that of the prothorax, is distinct from the
others in aU Coleoptera ; but the two last, those of the meso- and
meta- thorax, though generally separate, are in some species united
together. Now, it is a well-known fact, that, in most cases, the more

THE WKITINOS OP M. FAEEE. 125

closely the nervous system is united, centralized as it were, tBe more
perfect are the animal functions, and also, of course, the more easily
vulnerable. Therefore the Cerceris, whose instinct teaches her at
one stroke to annihilate these functions, chooses her victims precisely
from the species in Avhich tliis centralization is most complete : the
Buprestes, namely, of which the nervous centres of the meso- and
met a- thorax are confounded in one large mass ; the Curculicnidre, of
whicli the three thoracic ganglia lie near together, the two last quite
contiguous to each other.

The green larvae found by Ecaumur in the nests of his solitary
wasps {Ochjnerus spinipes) w^erefullof life, though apparently plunged
by some mysterious means into a state of lethargy: the simple expla-
nation of which is, that, in these creatures, the nervous system is more
cliftused over the body and consequently loss ail^cted by an attack at
any given point. It is, we must remember, of the greatest importance
to the Cerceris that her prey should be completely numbed and inca-
pable of the least movement : otherwise, what would become of the
precious egg laid among struggling Coleojitera ? what of the ten-
der little grub, which should emerge in the midst of their great horny
claws, writhing convulsively about in a narrow cell ? If she attacked
feeble and apathetic larvae, one can imagine that a less complete anni-
hilation of muscular action would suffice ; but in the case of beetles
twice her own size it woidd be worse than useless ; and she therefore
picks out, with imerring precision, from the numerous tribes of Co-
leoptera, two of those i)est calculated by the peculiarities of their
nervous system to be rendered thoroughly powerless.

In order completely to establish his opinion, it remained for M.
Fabre to prove that he could by similar means produce a similar
result. And this he found himself able to perform with perfect ease,
by punctviring the insect with a needle dipped in ammonia at the
prothoracic joint, behind the first pair of legs. Any corrosive
liquid applied to the thoracic medullary centre Avould have the
same effect. His experiments were made in the first instance upon
LameUicorns (Scarabceus sacer, S, laticoUls) ; on Buprestes {B.
cenea), and on Curculionida?, especially on the particular species so
often previously examined by him. He afterwards tried his skill
upon Carabidte {Oarabus, Procustes, ChlcBiiius, SpJiodrus, Nehria,
&c.) ; upon Longicorns (^SaiJerda, Lamia), and upon Melasomas
{Blaps, Scaurus, Asida). In the case of Scarabrei, Buprestes, and
Ciu'culionidsp, the effect of his experiments was instantaneous: alb
motion ceased suddenly, without a single convulsion, at the instant
the fatal drop touched the medullary centre. Not the dart of the
Cerceris herself could have a more prompt or lasting effect. Not-
withstanding their complete immobility, M. Fabre's victims re-
mained alive for three weeks or a month, preserving the flexibility of
all theii" joints, and normal freshness of viscera. Digestion proceeded
for the first few days, and movements could be provoked by a voltaic
current. In the case of IScarabaJus, however, this state cannot always

126 EEVIEWS.

be produced. If the wound made by the needle be too deep, or the
drop of ammonia too large, the victim really dies, as is speedily pro^'ed
by its decomposition. If, on the contrary, the puncture be too slight,
the insect recovers, after a shorter or longer period of profound
lethargy, and regains, at any rate partially, its pristine vigom'. On
those Coleoptera, the thoracic medullary centres of which are distant
from each other, the effect produced by ammonia is very different.
A wound which would have completely and permanently stumied a
vigorous Scaraboeus sacer causes only violent convulsions in a Carabus
of moderate size. Gradually the insect becomes calm, and slowly
regains its original condition. If the experiment be repeated several
times on the same individual the same results ensue, until the wound
becomes too severe, and the poor animal expires. Melasomas and
Longicorns are more sensitive. The corrosive liquid plimges them
instantly into a stupor, which is however only temporary ; and the
next day they are lively as ever. Thus, by the process so perfectly
successful in the case of Scarabtei, Curculionidae, and Buprestes, it
is impossible to produce the same state of paralysis in those Cole-
optera of which the three thoracic ganglia are situated at a distance
from each other,

M. Tab re's second paper is as interesting as the first : it relates to
the habits and metamorphoses of the Sphex in general, and of Sphex
Jlavipennis in particular. He opens the subject in his own inimitable
style, with a beautiful description of insect hfe, an abridgment of
which would give no adequate idea of the richuess of colouring, and
felicitous arrangement of epithets which invest all the writings of this
author with a peculiar charm.

Towards the end of July, the Sphex Jlavipennis, tearing open the
cocoon which has hitherto enveloped her, takes flight from her subter-
ranean abode: and during the month of August she may be observed,
enjoying her brief holiday, flying gaily from plant to plant, and basking
in the bright rays of the summer sun. But the preservation of her race
exacts from her the sacrifice of the few remaining days of her short
life, and from the beginning of September she devotes herself to la-
bour for the good of her posterity. She is not more fastidious than
the Cerceris in the choice of a site for her operations : a loose sandy
soil and plenty of sun being the only desiderata. She takes no pre-
cautions for sheltering her work during its progress, and it is pitiable to
observe the destruction often caused by a shower of rain, by which many
a half-finished nest is washed into a heap of imdistinguishable ruins.

The Sphex Jlavipennis rarely works alone : from ten to twenty
individuals generally combine to excavate a gallery; accompanying
their labours with a species of song, sharp and intermittent, modula-
ted by the vibration of their wings and body. A keen enjoyment of
their task seems to animate these little sappers and miners : they
spring here and there with delighted activity, and in the course of a
few hours a gallery is completed. AVheu examined it is Ibimd to con-
sist of a horizontal corridor, serving as an a\enue to the hidden cells

THE WRITINGS OP M. FABKE. 127

destined for the larvae. After proceeding for a distance of two or
three inches, this corridor takes an abrupt curve, and tends for a cor-
responding depth more or less obliquely downwards, terminating in
an oval cell, placed horizontally. Tlie sides of this cell have not been
in any way cemented or plastered together : but it is easy to perceive
that they have been fashioned with peculiar care, and the sand dili-
gently smoothed and planed down, so that the tender grub shall incur
no danger from the crumbling of its prison walls. On the completion of
one of these little chambers, it has to be provisioned: and then the Sphex,
closing it up, proceeds to hollow out another of the same dimensions
alongside it. This process she repeats twice or thrice before finally
filling up the entrance to her subterraneous nursery, and effacing all
outward trace of its existence by smoothing and patting down the
outside sand. There are thus three, sometimes four cells connected
with each corridor : and as the number of eggs laid by every female
Sphex is about thirty, it follows that from seven to ten galleries are
required by each.

And as the energetic little insect has finished her labours before
the end of September, it is evident that only two or three days can
be devoted to the excavation of a gallery, to the task of furnishing
the separate cells Avith provisions, laying an egg in each, closing the
door, and in fact winding up the whole establishment. If we con-
sider from how great a distance the Sphex often has to bring the
captives of her bow and spear, and also how often rainy days must
intervene to prevent her from following the chase, it is easy to see
that she must toil hard to make the best of her time, and cannot
pretend to give to her nest that solidity and finish which charac-
terize the abode of the young Cercerides. For the nest of the
Cerceris is the work of years, transmitted from one generation to
another, added to and improved by each ; while that of the Sphex
resembles a tent, pitched hastily by the belated traveller, and in-
tended only to serve as shelter for a single night. A slight varia-
tion is observable in the excavations of Sphex alhisecta and the
Ammopliila ; they dispense altogether with the horizontal corridor,
digging merely a vertical passage, two or three inches in depth, con-
nected with a single ceU. Pursuing their labom'S apart from each
other, they have obtained the name of " Solitary wasps."

Let us now, in company with M. Fabre, watch for the return
of a Sphex flavipennis to her nest ; she carries her booty, a grass-
hopper many degrees heavier than herself Alighting at some dis-
tance from her nest, she proceeds to drag her victim along with her
powerful mandibles. After much exertion on her part, he is placed
in such a position as to touch the door of his future prison with the
ends of his antennae. The Sphex then relinquishes her hold, descends
into her nest, and immediately reappearing, seizes her prey,
according to M. Fabre, with a little joyful cry, and drags him down
into the cell prepared to receive him. Other Hpnenoptera dispense
with this preliminary visit to the interior of their strongholds ; the

128 EEVIEWS.

Cerceris merely relinquishes her captive for an instant at the en-
trance, in order to turn round and crawl backwards — thus more
conveniently pulling him after her. "Wliy then should the Sphex
]5ersist in paying this domiciliary visit before introducing her victim ?
Pcrhajjs through apprehension lest one of the Tachytes, who make
use of the same kind of cells for their offspring, and are accustomed
to provision them in like manner, should have taken advantage of
the lawful owner's absence, to deposit an egg in the cell ready scooped
out. But however this may be, the manoeuvres of the Sphex are in-
variably the same. M. Fabre's experiments on this head are very
curious. He took advantage of her momentary absence to remove
the grasshopper, and place it at a few inches distance. Tlie pro-
prietor returned, uttering her usual cry, looked anxiously about, and
finally, perceiving her prey, dragged it back to her door, and ■i)laced
it again in precisely its former position ; then leaving it, descended
as before into her nest. The same process was repeated by M. Fabre
thirty or forty times, in the hope that the Sphex, taught by expe-
rience, would cease to lose sight for a moment of her captive and
convey it at once into the earth. But the perseverance of the insect
triumphed over that of the philosopher; or rather, her acts not being
dictated by reason, she knew not how to leave the path marked out
for her by instinct.

In the case also of a Sphex alhisecta, an inflexible adherence to
settled laws in this respect was strikingly manifest, presenting a
still more curious instance of the rigidity of instinct and its
inapplicability to imusual conditions. Having, in the course of
one^ of his experiments, removed her victim from the sight of a
Sphex albisecta, M. Fabre observed the insect, after seeking vainly
in all directions, descend for a few instants into her cell, and then
emerging, proceed to cover up the entrance, as if her task were
now satisfactorily accomplished ; a striking exemplification of the
manner in which acts of instinct depend one upon another, and
admit of no variation, notwithstanding that their object may be
entirely defeated by the alteration of siu'rounding circumstances.
In the normal state of things, observes M. Fabre, the Sphex pur-
sues her prey, lays an egg and closes her nest ; an accident deprives
her of her booty ; no matter — that part of her duty is over, she there-
fore performs the remainder, and shuts up the unlucky egg quite
unprovided for. Tliink of the melancholy fate entailed by maternal
stii])idity upon the helpless little new-born lai'va— fancy it emerging
from the shell, in the full expectation of a satisfactory meal, and tlie
miserable disappointment awaiting it, ending in despaii' and a lin-
gei'ing death. Many larvc'e must so perish; for the case above-
mentioned is by no means exceptional. M. Fabre repeated the
experiment several times, meeting almost invariably with the same
results; aiul on o])ening the nests he frequently found cells either
su])])]icd inadetpiately with provisions, or containing none at all.

The rest of this paper is chiefly anatomical, and devoted to an

THE WKITINOS OF M. PABRE. 129

nccouut of the metamorphoses undergone by those larvae which are
fortunate enough on leaving the shell to find their larders weU
supplied ; but we must pass on to give a short summary of M. Fabre's
paper on the habits and metamorphoses of Sitaris humeralis.

This interesting beetle is parasitic on Anthopliora, in the galleries
of which it lays its eggs. These are hatched at the end of September
or beginning of October ; and M. Fabre not umiaturally expected
that the young larvae, which are active little creatures with six
serviceable legs, would at once eat their way into the cells of the
Anthopliora. No such thing: till the month of April following they
remain without leaving their birthplace, and consequently without
food ; nor do they in this long time change either in form or size.
M. Fabi'e ascertained this, not only by examining the burrows of the
Anthophoras, but also by direct observation of some young larvfe
kept in captivity. In April, however, his specimens at last threw
oft' their long lethargy, and hurried anxiously about then prisons.
Naturally inferring that they were in search of food, M. Fabre sup-
posed that this Avould consist either of the larvae or pupae of the
Anthophora, or of the honey with which it stores its cell. All three
were tried without success. The two first were neglected, and when
placed on the latter they hurried away, or perished in the attempt,
being evidently unable to deal with this sticky substance. M. Fabre
was in despair : " Jamais experience," he says, " n'a eprouve pareille
deconfiture. Larves, nymphes, cellules, miel, je vous ai tout ofiert ;
que voulez-vous done, bestioles maudites ?"

The first ray of light came to him from our countryman, New-
port, who ascertained that a small parasite found by Leon Dufour
on one of the wild bees, and named by him Triungulinus, was, in
fact, the larva of the Meloe. The larvae of Sitaris much resem-
bled Dufour's Triungulinus, and acting on this hint, M. Fabre exa-
mined many specimens of Anthophora, and found on them the larvae
of his Sitaris. The males of Anthophora emerge from the pupae
before the females, and as they come out of their galleries, the little
larvae fasten upon them. Not, however, for long : their instinct
teaches them that they are not yet in the straight path of develop-
ment ; and watching their opportunity they pass from the male to
the female Bee. Guided by these indications, M. Fabre examined
several cells of Anthophora : in some, the egg floated by itself on the
surface of the honey ; in others, on the egg of the Anthophora, as on
a raft, sat the still more minute larva of the Sitaris. The mystery
was solved. By a process of reasoning too long for us to insert, M.
Fabre convinced himself that at the moment when the egg is laid,
the Sitaris larva springs upon it. Even while the poor mother is
carefully fastening up her cell, her mortal enemy is beginning to
devour her oft'spring. For the egg of the Anthophora serves not only
as a raft, but as a repast. The honey, which is enough for either,
would be too little for both ; and tlie Sitaris, therefore, in its first
meal, relieves itself from its only rival. After eight days the egg is

130 liETIEWS.

consumed, and on the empty shell the Sitaris undergoes its first trans-
formation. The life of almost all insects is divided iuto four stages ;
the Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Imago: the larva, indeed, may moult several
times, but the conditions of life being unaltered, the form is generally
the same, and the change is only in size. Very different is the case
with our Sitaris : the honey v^'hich was before fatal is now necessary;
the activity which before was necessary, is now useless; consequently,
with the change of skin the active, sHm larva changes into a white,
fleshy grub, so organised as to float on the surface of the honey, Avith
the mouth below, and the spiracles above the surface ; " grace a I'em-
bonpoint du ventre, la larve est a I'abri de I'asphyxie." In this state
it remains till the honey is consumed ; then the animal contracts,
and detaches itself from its skin, within which the other transforma-
tions take place. In the next stage, which M. Fabre calls the Pseudo-
chrysalis, the larva has a solid corneous envelope, and an oval shape,
and in its colour, consistence, and immobility reminds one of a Dip-
terous Pupa. The time passed in that condition varies much. When
it has elapsed, the animal moults again, and once more resembles the
second stage (?). After this it becomes a pupa without any remark-
able peculiarities ; and finally, after these wonderful changes and
adventures, in the month of August the perfect Sitaris makes its
appearance.

We wish that we could have done M. Tabre's paper more justice;
that we could have given some specimens of his peculiar raciness of
style, his wonderful power of description. But already we have been
tempted beyond our limits. "We can do no more than mention his
observations on Meloe, and his excellent paper on the Myi^iapodes.
All lovers of nature, however, should read what he has written, and
we think we can promise them that they will not be disappointed.
Por oursehes, we offer our cordial thanks to M. Fabre for the
pleasure which his writings have given us.

XIV. — A History of British Sessile-etek Crustacea. By C.
Spence Bate, Esq., F.E.S., E.L.S., and J. O. Westwood, Esq., M.A.,
E.L.S., Hope Professor of Zoology at Oxford. (J. Van Voorst.)

EECHERCnES SUR LA EaUNE LiTTORALE DE BeLGIQUE ; CRUSTAcfes.

Par p. J. Van Beneden, Professor a rUniversite Catholique de
Louvain.

The work which we have placed at the head of the present article,
and of which three nmnbers only have as yet appeared, will be a very
valuable addition to our knowledge of the British Crustacea. The
classification proposed by Messrs. Spence Bate and Westwood is as
follows : —

CnUSTACEA.

131

AMPniPODA.

Group. Division. Subdivision. Tribe. Family. Subfamily.

Saltatoria=Orchestii(lse

Nor-

malia. "a rina.

Natatoria= Gammaridte

Vacantia. "^

Stegocephalklcs
Lysianassidcs

Ampeliscides
Phoxides

Gamma- ^

Gammaridcs

Domicola •{
I
I

Corophiidae

Podocerides

Coropliiides

Abcr- S

\^ Chcluridte

TT • S Hyperiidfe

HyiiermaJ Phronimidaj

. . . Dulichiidse

Caprellidse

r-^"'!'*- 1 Cyamid£e

Talitras, Orchcstia, Al-
lorcliestcs, Nicrea.

Montagua, Danaia,

Lysianassa, Callisoma,
Auonyx.

Ampelisca.

Plioxus, Sulcator, Ki-oi-
yira,Wcstwoodia,Gray-
ia, iVIonoculodes, Am-
philocliiis, Darwiuia,
Urotlioe, Lilgeborgia,
Phajdra, Istea, Iphime-
dia, Otus, Acanthono-
tus.

Gammaras, Dexamine,
Atj-lus, Phenisa, Cal-
liope, Eusii-us, Leuco-
tlioe, Aora, Stimpsonia,
Protomedia, Bathypo-
reia, Niphargus, Cran-
gonyx, Gammarella,
Melita, MiBra, Mega-
lutera, Eurysthcus, A-
matilia, &c.

Podocenis, C)Ttopliium,
Amphitoe, Sunamphi-
toe, Cerapus, Sipliouo-
ccetus, &c.

Corophium,Drj'opc,Cra-
tippus.

Chelura.

Hyperia, Lestrigonus.

Phi'onima.

Dulichia.

Proto? ProtelIa,CaprelIa.

Cyamus.

Tlie tliree principal divisions of tlie body they call Cephalon, Pereion,
and Pleon ; for tlie parts of the mouth they propose the new name
" Siagonopods," a term, however, which seems to us unnecessary ; the
appendages of the Pereion are with them pereiojiods, and those of
the Pleon, pleopods, in addition to which they give to the three
posterior pairs the designation of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd uropods. The
internal anatomy of the Amphipoda does not come within the scope
of their work, but in addition to an excellent outline slvetch of each
species, they give magnified representations of the more charac-
teristic organs. On the whole the work will be a most valuable
contribution to our knowledge of the British Pauna ; but we must
defer any farther consideration of it till it is completed.

Tlie volume for which we are indebted to the learned Professor
of Louvain is rather a series of monographs than a complete work
on the Ci'ustacea of Belgium. The first chapters are devoted to the

132 REVIEWS.

MysidfiD. Tlie development of the embryo in this abnormal family
had already been shortly described, but Professor Van Beneden has
here worked it out in detail, and has pointed out several interesting
facts in addition to those already knowTi.

The MysidiB have no true branchiae ; but in connection with the
heart there are, on each side, five small lateral blood-vessels, and
according to Professor Van Beneden, " Ces canaux correspondent
" exactement aux vaisseaux brauchiaux des crustaces plus eleves, et
" e'est sur leur trajet que se developpent les lamelles branchiales des
" decapodes en general. II existe ainsi une petite circulation ; le
" sang sort du coeur et, apres avoir, parcouru la place qu'occupent
" les brancliies dans les autres decapodes et surtout apres avoir regu
" un confluent veineux des appendices cephaliques, retoiu-ne rapide-
" ment au meme coeur pour en etre chasse de nouveau." Professor
Van Beneden considers that Mysis difters from the other Crustacea
in the curvature of the body of the embryo. " II est inutile," he says,
" de faire remarquer que les Mysis s'eloignent des crustaces, tant par
" les premiers rudiments de Tapparition blastodermique que par la
" maniere dont le corps se replie sur lui meme. En general I'abdomen
" et la queue se plieut sous le thorax et se croisent avec les appendices
" cephalothoraciques. Dans les Mysis, le corps se replie en sens
" inverse vers le dos, et tous les aj^pendices, depuis ceux de la tete
" jusqu'a ceux dela queue, au lieu de secroiser, sont couches dans le
" meme sens." Not only, however, is this the case, as he admits in
the allied genera Idothea and Ligia, but we find the same thing also
in Oniscus and Asellus (Rathke Abhandlungen zur bildungs- und
entwickelungs — Geschichte des menschen und der Tliiere. Leipsig,
1832-1833). And it is also well shown in Zaddach's beautiful
memoir on the embryology of Phryganea (Untersuchungen liber die
Entwickelung und den Ban der Grliederthiere. Berlin, 1854). In
the Diptera and Coleoptera, namely in Donacia crassipes among
beetles, in Chironomus,* Simvilia (see Kolliker's " Observationes de
prima inscctorum genesi"), and Melophagus (Die Portpflanzung und
Entwickelung der Pupiparen, Leuckart), among flies, the same
phenomenon holds good; so that far from regarding it as exceptional
and peculiar to Mysis, we are rather disposed to look upon it as the
normal disposition of the embryo among the Articulata.

The condition and embryonic development of the organs of sensa-
tion in Mysis are especially interesting. With reference to the ocular
peduncles, indeed. Professor Van Beneden says, p. 62, " Ce pedicule
" (le pedicule oculaire) n' apparait aucunement comme les autres appen-
" dices,et semble avoir une autre valeur morphologique ; " an assertion,
however, which appears scarcely reconcileable with his, almost imme-

* With reference to Chironomus, Kollikcr expressly says : — " Qiiando primum
" corporis articuhvtio expressa cerni jiotost, primus ad octavum us(pic articuhim in
" parte abdoniinah, nonus ad tertium dccimum in ori dorso siti huut" — a position
which is well shown in the plate.

CRUSTACEA. 133

diately following, statement, that " dans le honiard ies

" pedicnlcs oculaires se developpent plus tot et indiquent plus claire-
" ment que cliez les Mysis leur communaute d'origine avec les
" organes appendiculaires." It appears, therefore, as is indeed
directly stated in p. 29, that in spite of some confusion of expression
in p. 62, Professor Van Beneden does, in fact, consider the ocular
pedicule as the appendage of the anterior segment. He also regards
the " telson" as representing a posterior segment, and adopts, there-
fore, Milne Edwards' view, that the body of a Crustacean consists of
twenty-one segments, in opposition to those naturalists who see only
twenty.

So accustomed are we to see the organs of sensation located in
the head that we cannot but feel astonished to find that the ear of
Mysis is not in its head, but in its tail. This curious fact, which
was discovered by Leuckart, has been confirmed by several distin-
guished naturalists, and last, not least, by M. Van Beneden, who
moreover, like Kroyer, has traced a nerve from the last ganglion to
the otolithe. We may find a parallel case in the little worm described
by Quatrefages, under the name of Polyojihthalmus, which has eyes
on every segment of the body. Amphicora Sahella also, another
■worm, has, according to O. Schmidt, eyes in its tail. Moreover,
among insects, the Crickets and Grrasshoppers have an organ in the
anterior pair of legs, which is considered by some good observers to
be an ear, but which certainly is, like the remarkable organ at the
base of the halteres of Flies, an organ of some special sense,
though what that sense may be it is not so easy to decide.

The Professor does not always do justice to his predecessors.
Thus under the Cetoehilidae he refers only to Roussel de A^auzeme
and Groodsir, entirely ignoring all that has since been written on this
family. He mentions only one species belonging to the group, and
this one he attempts to identify with the Cetochilus septentrionalis.
His description of it, however, clearly shows that it does not belong
to this family of Entomostraca at all, but is one of the Calanidse,
and belongs probably to the genus Calaniis, which may at once be
distinguished from Cetochilus by the position of the eyes. Many of
the Calanoidea have at the anterior extremity of the cephalothorax
two curious horns, which were mistaken by Groodsir for anteimse.
Professor Van Beneden corrects this error, which, however, was
pointed out long ago by Baird, and has been adopted by no subse-
quent writer. The description which he gives of the difierent parts
is almost useless for identification, as the characters mentioned are
those which are common to many species: take away the extremities
of the antennae (antennules of V. Beneden), those of the abdomen,
and the posterior pair of legs ; half the species of Calanus would be
undistinguishable from one another. Of this our author was e\'i-
dently not aware, and his attention has not been particularly draT\Ti
to the characteristic organs. Moreover, we cannot supply the de-
ficiencies from the plate. He gives thi'ee very dissimilar represen-
tations of the antennae ; two of them, however, are small, and perhaps,

134! EEVIEWS.

therefore, not intended to be strictly accurate. Unfortunately,
however, this is not the only error. In his two figures of the animal
the proportions of the segments are different, the anterior cephalo-
thoracic segment being absolutely longer in the smaller figure. It
is, indeed, djfiicult to believe that the two drawings have been taken
from the same species, as the abdominal segments differ not only in
proportion but in number, and the length of the antennae is by no
means the same. Again, the abdomen, as represented in figure 5,
differs from that either in figures 1 or 7, agreeing, indeed, with figure
7 in the number of segments, but differing in their proportion as
well as in the form of the caudal lamellae and the number of the
caudal setae. Still, the drawings are good, and apparently truthful.
Some of the differences above alluded to (and which are by no
means all that might have been pointed out) may be sexual cha-
racters; some may be the result of mutilation; but there are
others which cannot be accounted for in this manner ; and as there
are many species of this group which are at first sight very similar
to one another, we suspect that in Professor Van Beneden's Plate
sviii., and in his description, two or more species have been eon-
founded together.

The pretty little Isopod, originally described by Slabber under
the name of Agaat-Pissebet, has been rediscovered by Van Beneden,
and named by him Slabberina, after its first observer. The sperma-
tozoa of this species (Plate XV. figure 10) are, according to the figure
given, in the form of a long seta with a bundle of shorter hairs at
one end. If, however, we may judge from the parallel case of
Asellus, these bodies are not simple spermatozoa, but we have here
another case of bimorphism in the seminal elements. In our com-
mon fresh- water Asellus aquaticm, the spermatozoa are of two
sorts. The first are oval, or more or less elongated bodies diverging in
the form of a brush from a common point of attachment. Pi'om the
same point arise several long and slender setae, which, however, are
often attached together along their whole length so as to look like a
single filament. We presume that the same is the case with Slab-
berina, and that we may add this genus, therefore, to the small but
gradually increasing number of species in which the spermatozoa are
of two sorts, and which are, perhaps, destined, ere long, to throw a
new light on the whole subject of generation.

An interesting chapter is devoted to the Sacculinidae. Tliey
are parasitic on higher Crustacea, and are the most degraded of
their class. The sandy shores of Ostend are inhabited by great
numbers of common Crabs. Three-quarters of these carry on
the underside of the abdomen a little yellow ball, which is sometimes
as large as a nut, and which, of course, prevents the abdomen from
fitting into its furrow. This yellow globule, at first sight like nothing
less than the active lively Crab, belongs nevertheless to the same
great group of animals, and forms the genus Sacculina of Tliompson.
A secoiTd member of the same family, the Peltoyaster Pacjuri, attaches
itself, as its name denotes, to the Hermit Crab, whose name is, indeed.

CBUSTACEA. 135

a very misnomer. The so-called happy families, which we sometimes
see in our streets, offer no such odd assemblages as we may often
find in and on the shell of a dead whelk. First we have the Hermit
Crab himself ; the margin of the shell is often tenanted by a species
of Anemone {Adamsiapalliata), while the rest of its surface is covered
by a growth of the curious and pretty little polyp, known as Hydrac-
tinia ecliinata. Nor is the Pagurus the only occupant of the shell.
]Mi\ Grosse tells us of a co-tenant in the form of a beautiful Nereid
worm, which, like the preceding species, feeds on the crumbs which fall
from the rich man's table. " The soft and serpent-like Annelide,"
Ave quote from Mr. Spence Bate (Zoologist, 1859, p. 6687), " smells
" the repast that the master of the house is enjoying, and, like a wily
" guest, takes care to be present at the meal, even though unbidden.
" See ! beneath the Crab the beautiful head glides out. While the
" self-confident owner is devouring one piece, and in his full enjoy-
" ment looking round and, perhaps, admiring the submarine scenery,
" the worm attaclis that which is in the other hand, and by little and
" little the Crab feels it going, and makes an eflbrt to stop it on the
" way ; but it evidently can be seen, by his manner, that he caiuiot
" believe that any one woidd be so rude as to steal his dinner out of
" his very mouth, and does not think much about the undevoiu'ed
" food, but which, nevertheless, is slowly, gradually, and surely taken
" away."

To this interesting group must be added the Feltogaster Fagiiri,
wliich, when mature, has a regular oval form, and a reddish colour,
due to the numerous eggs it contains. So little does it, indeed,
resemble a Crustacean that we cannot wonder at the mistakes which
have been made concerning its true nature. Cavolini regarded it aa
a sort of animal-gall, not recognizing it as an entire animal, but
supposing that some other Crustacean deposited its eggs in the
Pagurus. Thompson first described it correctly, and recognized its
afiinities with the Lerneidae. Eathke at first placed it among the
Ti'ematodes, in which he was followed by Diesing and Dujardin,
though the latter, indeed, says that it " parait etre toute auti'e chose
" qu'un trematode." KJroyer expresses no opinion as to its afiinities.
Steenstrup classes it with Bopyrus, among the Isopods. Lilgeborg
looks upon it as a Cirrhiped. Professor Van Beneden places the
Sacculinidpe in his list of Crustacea, observed on the shores of Belgium,
immediately alter Lerneonema, and explains their homologies as
follows : —

" Que Ton se figure, en cffet, des Nicothoe, dont les deux poches s'etendraient
tout autour du segment qui leur donne naissance, en d'autres termes, dont le
segment tout entier se prolongerait en arriere de manitere a enveloppcr I'abdomen
et la queue ; il y aura un orifice posterieur d'evacuation, un veritable cloaque
d'oiseau ; en supposant ensuite que la tete s' allonge comme dans les Lcrnea bran-
chialis et plonge de la menie maniere dans les chair, que les segments en arriere et
en avant s'eflacent pour ne plus laisser place qu'cn segment scxuci, nous aurons ime
idee de cctte transformation siugulierc d'un animal regulier ct symetriquc en sac
informe et gaine a ceufs."

13G

>riKl«:tl ^riidtn.

XV. — On the Desirability of an English Translation op
Aristotle's History op Animals : by Eev. W. Houghton,

MA., r.L.s.

•!

Op all the great intellectual luminaries that have enlightened the
different departments of human learning, it would be difficult if not
impossible to name one that can justly claim to rival Aristotle in the
extent and depth and philosopMc value of his writings. The Zoo-
logist may well feel a degree of pride when he remembers that this
great man was the founder of his science ; for it is to Aristotle that
he is indebted for the birth of Zoology ; it is he who fii-st attempted
to reduce to a system the various and diversified forms of animal
life which even the limited geogra]ihical knowledge of the ancients
served to make them acquainted mth. Truly one stands aghast when
one contemplates over hov/ wide a field of human thought the vast
mind of Aristotle wandered, and how ably and comprehensively each
subject is treated. The modern zoologist, knowing well how exten-
sive an area his own particular science occupies, devotes his
time and study to acquire, as perfectly as he is able, a general
knowledge of the laws of the animal kingdom, and afterwards is fain
content for the most part to confine himself mthin some circum-
scribed bomidary, and to give his attention towards the full and exact
elucidation of some particular group; but when we think of Aristotle's
labours, whether in the field of Natural Science or in that of Dialec-
tics and Logic, we can only wonder and admire, but cannot attemjit
to imitate. " Had this extraordinary man," Swainson* well observes,
" left us no other memorial of his talents than his researches in Zoo-
" logy, he would still be looked upon as one of the greatest philoso-
" pliers of ancient Greece, even in its highest and brightest age. But
^' when it is considered that his eloquence and his depth of thought
" gave laws to orators and poets, that he was almost equally great
" in moral as in physical science, we might almost be tempted to
" think that the powers of the human mind had retrograded, and that
*' originality of thought and philosophic combination existed in a far
*' higher degree among the heathen philosophers than in those Avho
" followed them."

But though all the encomiums that have been passed upon Aris-
totle, from the time of Cicero to our own day, are justly due, when
we reflect on the time in which the philosopher lived, when Science
was unaided by the modern mechanical appliances which the ingenuity
and skill of man has planned and executed, we must not be led into

• Dhcourse on the Study of Natural History, p. 6.

HOUGHTON ON ARTSTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 137

the error of su2)posiug that Zoologicul science has made but little
progress since the days of the Stagyrite, nor must we be unprepared
to meet, in the Physical writings of our author, with many errors
and fables, — much chalf mingled with the grain.

The following remark of Buffon can not certainly be regarded as
unimpeachable now, though it serves to show how rapid a stride
Zoology has made since the days of the IVench naturalist : —

" Aristotle's History of Animals is perhaps even now the best work of its kind i
he probably knew animals better and under more general views than mc do now-
Although moderns have added their discoveries to those of the ancients, I do not
believe that we have many works on Natural History that we can place above ihosc
of Aristotle and PUny."— (J^m-^. Nat. i. p. 62.)

Still though it would now properly be regarded as a mark of ig-
norance to compare the state of Zoological science as first promul-
gated by Aristotle, with its more developed though still imperfect
form as it has been handed do^vn to us by Cuvier, Milne-Edwards,
Owen, and a hundred other patient workers in the same inexhaustible
mine, it is nevertheless true that it was Aristotle who first taught us
to look to the internal structure as the only safe guide to a natural
system of classification, and who by his own anatomical investigations,
to which he frequently refers, led the way in which Cuvier afterwards
so successfully followed.

But there is no need for me to enlarge at all on a topic with which
every zoologist is familiar ; the object of this paper is to call the at-
tention of English naturalists to the desirability of having such a
faithful translation of the Trepl Zwwv 'laroplag as shall present in an
accurate form the contents of that great book. The utility of such a
translation must I think be evident to every student ; he wiU find in
the Treatises on Animals that some of the same problems which have
engaged the attention of modern naturalists presented themselves
ages before in a somewhat similar form to the enquiries of Empedocles
and other ancient philosophers. Who, for instance, can fail to discern
in the following passage from the De Partihus Animalium the question
on the theory of development, as advocated by Lamarck and the author
of the "Vestiges of Creation:" — "Similarly some philosophers assert,
with respect to the generation of animals and plants, that from water
flowing in the body the stomach was produced, and every organ re-
cipient of food or excrement, and that by the passage of the breath
the nostrils were burst open." (Yol. i. p. 640, ed. Bekker.) The reader
will find, again, in Aristotle, matter relating to " Spontaneous Gene-
ration," a theory which has recently been advocated by M. Pouchet*
with considerable ability, and supported by many curious, though at
present inconclusive results.

It is desirable to have an English translation of the " History of

* Hcterogcnie, oil I'raile de la generation spontanee, Paris, 18.59, and Genese
ties pro1 o-organismcs dans I'air calcine et a I'aide de corps puirescible pvrtes a la
temperature de 1.50 degres. in Compt. Rend. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1860.
N. H. R.— 1862. L

138 ORIGINxVL ARTICLES.

Animals," because no available good one at present exists. Tlie
whole works of Aristotle were translated into English by Mr.
Thomas Taylor in 1812 ; but this work, which was executed for a
gentleman in London of the name of Mereditli, at whose expense it
was printed, is so rare that few persons have ever seen it even in
public libraries.* But the translation of the Natural History portion
in a scientific point of view is almost worthless ; a few instances
taken merely from the first chapter of the History of Animals will
suffice as a sample, — ralra Se. tU fxkv ulu ToJv fiopicjv lariv is ren-
dered, " but some of the parts are the same in species.''^ Again, \f yw
?£ yivoQ o'lov opvida /cat lxdvy,is, rendered by this translator to express
the exact opposite to what Aristotle means : thus — " I speak of
those whose genus is the same as birds and fisliei' ! Although
it is perfectly true that Aristotle uses the term yivoQ in a very in-
definite sense, sometimes to denote a " class," sometimes a " genus,"
and any division between the two, yet he would never have asserted
that a fish and a bird were to be comprehended in the same yivoQ.
In the passage in question, he intended to express the ytVog of bii-ds
as one division, and the yivog of fish as another. (§ 2.) Again,
avuirvtiv Kui tfCTTj'iO', " inspiration and expiration," is rendered " respi-
ration and expu'ation." The note to explain the word oXodovpia
conveys the following explicit piece of information, " a kind of
spongy and marine excrescence ;" the KapafooL are translated " locusts,"
without a word of warning not to confuse the locusta {Palinurus
locusta ?) the Crustacean, with the Orthopterous insect of that name.
And to sum up may be added the following passage in ch. 5, § 4 — Tibv
Zi. Trrrjvwy ra jxtv nrepwrd kaTW, oloi' aeroc kcil lepa^' to. Se TrrtXwrct, oiov
HiXiTTU Kid iiriXoXovdrj' ra ^f ZtpfjiOTrrepa, o'lOV a.Xw7rr]L, Kal vvKrepic-
" But of birds some are winged, as the eagle and the hawk ; others
have a dry membrane for feathers, as bees and beetles ; and others
have leathern wings as the bird called alopex [or the flying fox] and
tlie bat." These specimens are sufficient to show that Taylor's trans-
lation cannot be regarded zoologically in any sense as expressing
the meaning of his author ; at the same time we have no intention
to pass any judgment at all on the whole work, but these instances
are cited in order to prove that a translator of a work on Natural
History should have some zoological knowledge.

"With respect to other translations I am only able to speak of the
French one by M. Camus.f This seems to be a most creditable pro-
duction ; and the translator, who has taken infinite pains to get at the
meaning of his author, appears, as far as my slight knowledge of his
work goes, to have been successful. Perhajjs to the matter-of-fact
English mind, M. Camus occasionally leads one to fear he is giving us

* I believe only 50 copies were printed ; a set was sold in London a few weeks
ago by Mr. Hodgson for £14. 14«.

f Histoire des Animaux (TAridote, avec la Traduction Fraiigoine, par M.
Camus, A Paris, 1783.

• HOUGHTON ON AEISTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 139

a little more than Aristotle intends, but this is all. Tlie first volume
contains the G-reek and the Prench on opposite pages ; the second
Aolume contains a Dictionary of Notes.

No doubt the translator would frequently find himself utterly at
a loss to identify the names of many of the animals mentioned by
Aristotle ; this arises partly fi-om paucity of description, — several
animals weU known to the ancients, from the very fact of their being
weU-knowTi, are with much dilficulty identifiable, — partly from our
ignorance of the extent of the countries from which Aristotle may
have received specimens ; for our author, singularly enough, does not
give us much information on this point. His great desire apparently
was, to form a system of classification ; this was just the task suited
to his generalising mind, he cared more for comparative anatomy
than for a laiowledge of the geographical distribution of, or tlie par-
ticular localities inhabited by, the animals of which he speaks. Stahr,
in his admirable article on Aristotle (in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Gr. and
'Bom. Biog.), has drawn attention to some passages in the writings
of the KStagyrite, in which it appears that " he is fond of noticing
physicians and their operations, in his explanatory comparisons."
Aristotle's father was a physician to one of the kings of Macedon,
and author of several works on natural science, whence can readily be
traced Aristotle's fondness for subjects of this nature.

Pliny appears to be the great authority for the story that Aris-
totle received much help from Alexander the Great, who, says the
lioman naturalist, " having a strong desire to learn the nature of
" animals, entrusted the prosecution of the design to Aristotle, a man
" who held the highest place in every department of learning ; he
" placed then under his control several thousand men in every region
" of Grreece and Asia, Inmters, fowlers, fishers, or men who had the
" superintendence of parks, of cattle, of the rearing of bees, of fish-
" ponds and a\^aries, so that no existing animal might escape his
" notice. He obtained such information from these persons, that he
" was enabled to write some fifty volumes on the subject of animals,
" which deservedly hold a high repute." {H. N. viii. 16.) Athenseus
(ix. p. 398,) asserts that according to report, Aristotle received 800
talents from Alexander to enable him to produce his work.* Now it
certainly does strike one as a strange thing that there is no mention
of, nor any allusion whatever to such assistance from Alexander,
and there is nothing in his own writings to lead one to suppose
that Aristotle had ever received any assistance at all from the King
for the prosecution of this work. I camiot, therefore, help thinking
that the whole story is an exaggeration, and that the greater

* The Attic talent being equivalent to £243. 15s, the required sum would
amount to £195,000 ! Well may Schu'z remark "that it would be easy to show
that an assessment of the whole kingdom of Macedon, even su])i.'0,sing that
Alexander had presented Aristotle with the returns of many years, coulil not have
supplied the sum."

L 2

140 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

part of the animals Aristotle describes, which have come under his
own observation, were inhabitants of no veiy distant lands.

Schneider {Epimetr. i.) says on this subject, " I do not remember
" to ha^'e discovered any trace in the History of Animals which could
" induce me to believe that Aristotle was acquainted with any of the
" animals from the interior of Asia and of India, which are supposed
" to have been made known to him by those who accompanied Alex-
" ander in his expedition." (See also the arguments of Schulz quoted
by Schneider. Epemetr. i. p. xlv.) Of course a question of this
kind is of great importance, because its satisfactory solution wovdd
seem to determine to some extent the countries, portions of whose
Fauna Aristotle describes.

Hence, as was observed, the translator will often be much per-
plexed in his attempts to identify very many names ; and it appears
to me that where he is not certain of his identification, it is desirable
to put the Greek word in Roman letters, and to leave the note to
supply other information. Another caution to be observed should
be mentioned. The translator should be extremely careful not to
over interpret his author ; not to use sentences or terms which mo-
dern science has stamped with some definite technical meaning, as
the equivalents of the Greek, imless it can fairly be demonstrated
that the expressions or terms are strictly identical in signification.
The use of a modern scientific term wiU often be found to convey a
wrong impression, if applied for the purpose of translation.

But in order to render the proposed work of real utility to the
Natviralist, the translator must be able to ensure the cordial co-ojie-
ration of Zoologists — the various branches of Zoology which require
elucidation in the notes can hardly be ever expected to receive this
adequately from one man, unless he can depend on assistance from
those who have paid particular attention to the diflerent departments.
Again, the work must be done by degrees ; the translation should
fi.rst be made, then carefully corrected after a patient study of all
that Aristotle has written on the subject of animals ; for it is quite
unreasonable to suppose that even a small portion of the ' History of
Animals ' can be fully understood and accurately interpreted until
all that Aristotle has written which bears on the subject has been
thoughtfully digested ; the notes should be the last thing to be done.

The following translation of the first chapter of the History of
Animals must therefore be regarded as provisional, and this is
especially the case with respect to the notes, because there can be
little doubt that a competent knowledge of the other treatises which
bear on Zoology would serve to make clearer many of the names
which are therein considered. The text of Schneider has been fol-
lowed.*

* Aristotelis de Anivudihus Ilistorice, Libri x. Ed. Jo. G. Schneider. 4 vols. 8vo.
Lips. 1811, This is far the best edition of this work. Schneider studied Zoology,
and has pidilished some papers on the Reptilia.

HOUGHTON ON ARISTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 141

It appears to me that it is desirable in the attempts at identifica-
tion of the various names of animals to interpret Aristotle by Aris-
totle as far as possible ; for when we wander off into the Zoological
mazes of Pliny or Aelian, we enter a field full of fable, and one
therefore from operations in which little solid aid is to be antici-
pated.

I should be glad to learn that this short paper is deemed of suffi-
cient importance to stir up in the minds of Naturalists a desire to
possess an English Translation of the History of Animals.

Aristotle's History of Animals.
Chapter I.

Of the parts of animals some are simple, as many, namely, as are
divided into similar parts, as flesh into flesh ; others are compoimd,
as many, namely, as are divided into dissimilar parts, for the hand is
not divided into hands, nor the face into faces ; of these latter, some
are called not merely parts but members, as is the case with all those
which being of themselves entire have within them other parts, as the
head and the leg, the whole of the arm and the trunk,* for these
of themselves constitute entire members and contain different parts ;
all the dissimilar parts, moreover, are composed of similar ones, as
the hand of flesh, nerves, and bones. Now some animals have all the
parts the same one with another, others different. Some parts are
the same in form ; as, for instance, the nose and the eye of one
man are identical with the nose and the eye of another, and
flesh is identical with flesh, and bone A\'ith bone. Similarly in
the ease of horses, and as many other animals as in form we say
are the same one wdth another, for the parts stand in the same
relation each to each as the whole to the whole. Again, some
parts are the same, but difler in excess and defect, as in the case of
those animals whose kind is the same ; by kind I mean such a differ-
ence as there is betM^een a bird and a fish,t for of these animals
each differs in its kind and in relation to its kiud,:f: and there are

* Gwpo?, Aristotle in this place and in ch. 7, uses this term to denote the
" ti-unk" of the body; in ch. 10, he applies it in a more limited sense, to signity the
breast or thorax.

f ykvoQ, in this passage, will thus be identical with the ' class' of modern zoolo-
gists, but the term is employed by Aristotle in no definite sense; y'tvoQ may denote
either a r/emis, an order, or a class. In ch. 6, § 1. the Cephalopodous molluscs are
regarded as one of the yh/t] jxiyioTa, comprising the Classes of Bkds, Pish, &c. ;
the Cetacea are similarly classified.

\ Kara to ytf og Kai vpog to ykvoQ. Aristotle asserts that the differences which
exist between animals, as for instance between a bird and a fish, may be viewed
under two aspects ; there are differences between the various families, genera, or
species which comprise the class, and there are differences between the classes them-
selves, when viewed relatively to each other. Some MSS. omit Kai 7rj)6t,' r. y.; see
Camus, Animanx (VAri^tote, i. p. 487.

142 OEIOINAL ARTICLES.

many fonns* of fishes and of birds. Almost all tlie parts of animals
differ one from another, according to their various capabilities of dis-
tinction, as, for instance, in colour or in shape, — in which respect some
are more aftected than others, some less, — or with reference to the
question of many or few, large or small size, in shorty in point of excess
and defect ; for some animals are crustaceous, others are testaceous ;t
some ha\'e a long beak, as Cranes, others a short one ; some have
many feathers, others only few ; moreover, even in these last-named
animals some ]>arts are different from others, for some are furnished
with spurs while others are not so provided; and some possess a crest,
others do not ; but to sum up, most of the parts of which the whole
body is composed are either the same or they differ in their conti'arie-
ties, according to excess and defect, for one may refer the terms
'more' or 'less,' to what we understand by 'excess' or 'defect.'
Again, some parts of animals are the same neither in form, nor in
respect of excess and defect, but by analogy; as a bone when compared
with a (fish's) spine, a nail with a hoof, a hand with a claw, and a
scale Avith a feather, for what a feather is to the bird, that a scale is
to a fish. AVith respect then to the parts which each living thing
possesses, tliey may be in this way both different and the same.

Similarly also with regard to the position of the parts ; for many
animals possess the same parts, but they are differently situated ;
some, lor instance, have the mamma3 on the breast, others near the
thighs. Again, of similar parts, some are soft and moist, others diy
and hard ; by moist I mean that which is either altogether so, or
such as continues moist so long only as its nature admits, as blood,
serum, fat, suet, marrow, the generative fluid, gall, milk in those ani-
mals which possess it, flesh, and whatever is analogous to these
things ; one may also mention excrementitious matters, as phlegm,
and the sediments from the belly and the bladder. Dry and hard
parts are such as nerves, skin, veins, hair, bone, cartilage, nail, horn,
(for the part which has the same form has the same name, and in a
Avord, is called " horn "), and as many substances as are analogous to
these things.

Now, the differences which exist between living things are in
7'eference to their modes of life, their actions, their dispositions, and
their parts. We will, first of all, speak of these things in a general
way, and subsequently attentively consider each particular kind.
The differences in reference to their modes of life, their actions, and
their dispositions are such as these,— some are aquatic animals,
others are terrestrial in their habits. The aquatic animals are so in
a twofold manner, some inasmuch as they spend their life and gain

* tUoi; means literally " tliat which is seen," the " form or shape," like the
Latin Species; it must not be restricted to denote what zoologists understand by the
term xpccies ; Aristotle uses it in a more extensive sense.

t (xaXaKosTQaKa is clearly the representative of the Crustacea ; offrpaKoSefi/ia
of the tcdoceous viollusc.i, which arc occasionally mentioned under the simple term
oarpioy. Scc ch. C § 1 ; und Ilk. V. 13. § 9.

HOTJGHTON ON AETSTOTLe's niSTOUT OF ANIMALS. 1-13

their food in the water, aud admit and eject the water, of which if
they are deprived, they die, as is the case with most of the fishes ;
others, inasmuch as they get their food and spend their time in the
water, but do not admit water, but air, and produce their young out
of the water. There are many footed animals of this kind, as tlie
otter and the latax* and the erocodile,t and winged animals, as
the aiihyiaX and the diver,§ and footless animals, as the water-ser-

* kvvdplg K. Xcira^. Most commentators understand by ivvSpig, the otter,
(Lutra vnlgaris) ; the word occurs again only in Bk. viii. 7. § 5. wliere it is men-
tioned with the KCKJTiop, (*' beaver"), the aaQkiJiov, the aarvpiov, and the Xdra^,
as a wild quadruped which gets its food about lakes and rivers ; it is described as an
animal that will bite a man, aud will not let go its hold till it hears the bone crack.
Herodotus (\\. 109) mentions tvvcpieg with "bcavevs and other square-faced animals,"
as being taken about a large lake in the country of the Geloni or Budeni, (a Scythian
race, who dwelt east of the Tanais ( Don). He adds that their skins were sewn to-
gether as borders to cloaks. There can be no doubt that the h/vSplg of Aristotle
denotes the otter, for besides the general agreement of its description with this
animal, an additional proof may be seen in the figures of two water animals, resem-
bling otters, with a fish in the mouth of each, preserved iu the Lithostrotum Brixjnes-
tinum, or the Mosaic pavement at I'nienesti, and which have inscribed over them
the Greek word ENHYAPI2. The reader may see an engraving of this Mosaic
pavement in Shaw's Travels, 8vo. ed. ii. p. 294 ; or in the folio ed. 1738, p 2.5.
This writer has also [Siippl. p. 84 (fol.)] a Dissertation on this pavement, for the
history of which the reader may consult Montfaucon's Antiquities, vol. xiv. As to the
Xc'iTci^, it is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusion with regard to its iden-
tity; it is mentioned again in the above-named i)assage, and is described as being
thicker than the kwvpig, and as having larger teeth, with which it cuts the branches
by the river's banks; the hair of the ^a^aa? is said to be in appearance something
between that of the seal and the stag. It is possible, as Pallas (Specileg. Zoolog. xiv.
p. 42.) has conjectured, that the latuoc has been named from an ill-observed or ill-
described specimen of beaver ; but may we not conjecture that some species distinct
from the Castor Jibcr existed in the time of Aristotle (about 2,200 years ago) which
has since become extinct ? This supposition is in some measure perhaps supported by
the circumstance that a large extinct species of Beaver coexisted at a comparatively
late period with the Castor Jiher, at one time a very abundant European species,
though now, we believe, found with modified habits, only on the banks of the
DaniTbe and in the neighbom-hood of the Black Sea. Remains of its gigantic con-
gener ((?. Trognntheritm, C\n. Tror/o)itherium Cuvicri, Fisdi.)ha\e been found at
Bacton and other places in Norfolk, associated in lacustrine deposits with the
remains of the Manmioth, Rhinoceros, Ox, Horse, Roebuck and other Deer, &c.
But its existence was first made known by the discoveiy of its fossil cranium on the
borders of the Sea of Azof. Is it therefore too extravagant to surmise that it might
have existed, together with the Common Beaver, in that and the neighbouring re-
gions of Asia down even to the time of Aristotle, and might have come within his ken,
either by actual observation, or, it might be, by recent traditional repute ? The word
XdraK etymologically points to some animal that plunges into the water with a splash.

f See note on Crocodiles, v. 27. § 2.

% aWvin, a word of very uncertain meaning. See note on v. 8. § 4.

§ KoXyju/3ic, may denote some species of 'grebe'; the term as employed by
Athenojus (ix. p. 39.5.) with the epithet t) ixiKpd, points apparently to the ' httle
grebe' or " dabchick," {Podiceps minor), but Aiistotle (viii. 5. § 8.) mentions the

probable that it is used iu no very restricted sense to denote either of the genera,
Poiliceps or Colymbus.

144 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

pent.* Some creatures, on the other hand, get their food in the water,
and are unable to li\'e out of it, and yet admit neither air nor water, as
the jelly-fish and the testaceous molluscs. Of aquatic animals, some
belong to the sea, some to rivers, some to salt-water marshes, and
some to fresh-water marshes, as the frog and the cordylus.'f Of
marine animals, some belong to the deep sea, others to the shores,
others to the rocks. Of terrestrial animals, some admit and eject
the air, which is called inspiring and expiring, as man, and all the
land animals which possess lungs ; others do not admit the air,];
although they live and get their food on the land, as the wasp and
the bee and other insects. By insects I mean such animals that
have incisions on the body, whether on the upper parts alone, or ou

* vSpoQ, perhaps the common ringed snake, Natrix torqnata, which has a wide
geographical range, and was doubtless known to Aristotle, tliough other water-loving
opliidians may be comprised under the term, (see ii. 12. § 12.)

f Kop^D/Xog. Commentators and naturalists have long been in doubt as to what
animal the Cordijlus rcjiresents. Its characters as given by Aristotle arc the follow-
ing— It is a quadraped both aquatic and terrestrial in its habits, possessed of gills,
but destitute of lungs, and is the only known instance of an animal having at the
same time feet and gills [De resplrat. x.) ; it swims with its feet and tail, which
latter organ is somewhat like that of the glonis, (^Silurus f/laiiis?) see Hist. Aiiitn.
i. 5. § 3 ; it takes its food on the land, (viii. 2. § 5.) Schneider {Ainwt. ail Hist. An.
i. .5.) thinks Aristotle alludes to some genus of amj>hibia allied to the Siren lacer-
Una, Lin., the mud eel of the U. S. of America, or to the Proteus angninus. Cuvier
seems to have entertained the same opinion ; it must be confessed, however, that
there are difficulties in the way of this explanation, for all the i?/rc««/<f are possessed
of lungs as well as gills dui-ing the whole period of their existence. It is possible
that the animal to which the Cordylus bears the closest resemblance, though the points
of agreement are not altogether satisfactory, is a young specimen of eft, ( Suluman-
driilcE) at the period of its life when the branchiiK and feet are developed, and \\hilc
the lungs are in a rudimentaiy state, so that they might have been overlooked. Still
there is even, in this case, the following difficulty to get over, viz., that, according to
our author, the Corch/lns takes its food on the land, while the young eft, at the
above-named period of its existence, is aqimtic in its mode of life ; but it is possible
Aristotle may have observed young efts to crawl upon the ground before the
entii'e absorption of thebranchiii\ when the pulmonarj' apparatus was sufficiently ad-
vanced to enable them to exist out of the water, and that from lack of following up
his dissections at ditiercnt periods of its existence he has erroneouslj- supposed that
the young eft, with a temporary possession of branchiiu and a temporary absence of
lungs, was an adult form, percnni-ln-anchiate and always destitute of lungs. Ilon-
delet has tigured a monstrous form, which he calls Cordylus, to which the reader
who is fond of the curious may refer. {Hist, des l'oiss.\). 176.) Schneider refers
to a long disputation by J. Hermann [Cumment. ad Tabulam. cjjinlt. f. 294.) to
which we have not had opportunity of access.

J Comp. also Z't'7^(v<.;;iyY.7/o//f, ix. 29, ed. Bekker. " That insects do not respire
has been remarked by us before ; this is evident in small animals, as flies and bees,
for they can swim a long time if the water be not very hot or very cold." The
beautiful mechanism of the tracheal apparatus whereby insects respire was, of course,
unknown to Aristotle, who had no microscope. He Avas aware, however, of the fact
tliat if an insect were covered with oil it would speedily die {Hist. A/iim. viii. 2G) ;
see also Phny, N. H. xi. 19, Aelian Hist. An. iv. 18 ; Basil (a.d. 329) seems to
have been aware that insects admitted air through some external openings. He
says that if vinegar is si>read over insects that have been in oil they immediately
revive, the passages being thereby opened. {Homil. 8 in Hexcem.^

HOTJGHTON O^ AEISTOTLE's HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 145

these as well as on the lower parts. Of land animals, many, as was
said before, obtain their food from the water, but of aquatic animals
which admit sea-water not one gets its food from the land. There
are some animals which, for the first part of their existence, live in
the water, and then assume other forms, and live out of it, as is the
case with the gnats in the streams and the oistroi.* Again, some
animals are stationary, others locomotive; the stationary animals
are in the water, but of land animals not one is stationary. Now,
in the water many animals li\^e in the condition of being fixed to
something, as many kinds of testaceous molluscs ; and even the
sponge appears to possess some sensation, evidence of which is to be
seen in the fact that, as people say, it is with more difficulty torn
away unless its removal be effected by stealth.f 8ome animals are
both fixed and free, as is the case ^^dth a certain kind of acalephce
so-called, J for some of these get free by night and take their food ;
and many animals are free but motionless, as oysters and the holo-
thuria§ so-called. Some are swimming animals, as fish, and those
{cejjhalopodous) molluscs, which are soft externally, || and Crustacea,
as the Carahoi*\ others are walking animals, as the race of crabs,
for these, though water animals in their nature, go on their feet.
Of land animals, some are winged, as birds and bees, and those
differ in some respects one from the other; others are footed
animals, of which some are Avalking, some creeping, some wriggling ;
but there is no animal which is solely capable of flying in the same

* This passage is regarded by Schneider as coriiipt. As to the ifiitiQ and
olffrpof, see notes on i. 5. § 5.

f For the different kinds of sponges mentioned by Ai-istotle, see v. 14, and note.
It is interesting to find Aristotle asserting the animal nature of sponges, though the
evidence given as a proof thereof may not recommend itself to the zoologist ; he
expresses a doubt, however, in his ti'eatise {De partibus Animulium, iv. 5.) whether
sponges ought to be classed with animals or plants.

J aKaXi](pr). The fixed acaleph is represented by our sea anemone, ^cfm/a; the
wandering acaleph by the Mcdusidcs, see iv. 7, and Pliny, N. //. ix. 45.

§ 6\o9ovpia, which occurs nowhere else in the Hist. A?iivi., is mentioned again
in the Depart. Anim. iv. 5, with sponges, Pulmograde Medusaj, i-KvtviiovtQ) " and
other marine things of a like nature." It is probable that the Echinoderm of that
name {Ilolothuria) may be intended, though perhaps the asteroid polype Alcf/onium,
may be included. With respect to the incapability of moving ascribed by Aristotle
to the holothuria and some of the testaceous molluscs, it must be remembered that
our author lived in days when aquai-iums were xmknown, and that he judged pro-
bably from the almost lifeless appearance which certain marine animals exhibit
when examined out of the water.

II TCI fiaXc'iKia denote those genera of the Cephalopoda which have no externai
shells, such as Sepia, LoUgo, and Octopua. See iv. 1. § 1.

^ KupajSoi. It is uncertain what crustacean this tenn signifies. The descrip-
tion as given by Aristotle (iv. 2.) agrees in some respects with the 2^alinnrid<£.
Schneider says " de Carabo arniotandum cum minime congruere cum cancro homaro
Linn, quorum compararunt hucusque viri docti." He is inchncd rather to refer the
Kcipa^oQ to the Cancer ehphas, Herbst. and has a dissertation on the subject in
Dcr Gese.lhchoft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin Maijazin. Vol. I. P. iii,
p. 163. seqq.

146 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

way in wliich a fisli is solely capable of swimming, for the skin-
winged animals walk, for a bat has feet, and a seal imperfect feet.*
Of birds, some are weak-footed, which on this account are called
footless (cLTTo^eg) ; but this little bird (airovc) is strong-winged, and
nearly all the birds that are like it are strong-winged, but weak-
footed, as the swallow and the drepanis, for all these birds are similar
in their habits and in their wings, and in general appearance. Now,
the apoiis makes its appearance at all seasons, but the drepanis only
when it is wet during the summer, at which time it is both seen and
caught, but on the whole the bird is rare.f

Many animals too are capable of both walking and summing.
There are also the following diflerences with regard to their modes
of life and their actions ; some animals are gregarious, others solitary,
both of footed, winged, and swimming animals ; and some are both gre-
garious and solitary, and of these some live in political communities,
others are not so united ; as instances of gregarious animals may be
mentioned, amongst birds, the family of pigeons, the crane and the
swan, but of birds with crooked talons not one kind is gregarious, —

* KiKo\o[3o)iiivoQ," imperfect," or "truncated." The notion conveyed has been
applied by Cuvier to one of his sub-classes, Bluttlata, forming the order Cetacea.

+ It is impossible to determine with satisfaction the Hirundinidte of Aristotle,
or to refer the Greek terms anovg and SpsTravic to their resi^ective species; the
ysXiSwv from its being described as destitute of down or feathers on the legs, as well
as from other indications, seems to denote the Hirundo riistica ; but although many
writers have identified the dirovg with the common Swift, (Cypselus apus); there is,
as M. Camus has well obsei-ved, some grave objections to this opinion ; for Aristotle
(ix. 21.) thus speaks of the olttovq. " Now the apodes, vahxch. some csll cijpselli,
resemble swallows (^f^'^ovfe), as was before observed, for it is not easy to dis-
tinguish them from swallows, except fi-om the fact of their having rough legs ;
they make their nest in long hollows made of clay, (iv kv^eWktiv Ik tt/jXou
TmrXafffxivaii; fiaKpalc.) wliich have just sufficient entrance for them. They
build their nests in narrow places, luider rocks and caves, so as to avoid the
observation both of man and animals." In some respects this passage would suit the
House Martin, (i/. «/'Z'/c«,) but not in all; this bird, if it is safe to draw conclusions
from what we see in this country, is by no means in the habit of avoiding men, on
the contrary it courts their society ; nor can the nest be properly described as being
' louo-.' Again, the description quoted above will not allow us to identify the dTrovg
with the common Swift, which neither avoids men nor builds nollow nests
of clay. As to the drepanis (SpsTravie) which word occurs nowhere else in Aristotle,
so far as we have been able to ascertain; it is etymologically highly descriptive of
the su:kk-sha])cd wings of the ' Swift,' but it is difficult to believe that the bird should
have been so rarely seen in Greece as stated by Aristotle. Is it possible that the
SpEiravig may denote the Alpine Swift, {Cypselus aljiinus,) which, as Latham {Ge-
neral Hut. of Birds, y'li. p. 324, 4to ed. 18-23) says, frequents ponds and marshes
for fifteen or twenty days, after which it retires to the mountainous parts to breed;
" which flies so high as to be out of sight, and is known only by being heard." M.
Camus identilies the drojiuvis with the Sand Martin, (II. r/paria) and quotes the
authority of M. de Monlbeillard for believing these birds were taken for tl)e sake
of food which is fiit and good. There can be no doubt that Aristotle was acquainted
with all the above named Eirundinida;, though we are unable to reconcile all liis
statements with the known halnts of the diflcrcnt species. The proverb we often
use, '' one swallow docs not nuike a sunnncr," is as old as our author ; see Eth.
Mc. i. 6. ed. Bckker.

HOUGHTON ON ARISTOTLE's HISTOKT OP ANIMALS. 147

amongst swimming animals many kinds of fish, as those which they
call runners,* such as tunnies, paJamydes, and amice ;t man is both
gregarious and solitary. Political animals are those amongst whom
the work of all is some one common thing, which is not the case
with all the gregarious animals ; such is man, the bee, the wasp, the
ant, the crane ; and of these some are under rulers others are with-
out any ruler ; the crane and the whole family of bees are under a
ruler, but ants and an immense number of other animals are with-
out a ruler. Some, both of the gregarious and solitary ammals^t''vi'e
resident in one spot, others are migratory ; again some are carnivo-
rous, others frugivorous, others omnivorous, others feed on particular
things, as the family of bees and of spiders, for the former feed on
honey and a few other things of a sweet nature, but spiders by
chasing flies ; and other animals feed on fish ; some animals hunt ;
some are accustomed to lay up their food in store, others do not
so ; some ha^'e dwellings, others have none ; of those which have
dwellings, the mole, the mouse, the ant, and the bee are examj)les ;
of those which have none are many kinds of insects and quadrupeds.
Again, with respect to their localities, some animals live in holes, as
the lizard and the snake ; others above ground, as the horse and the
dog ; some burrow holes, others do not ; some are nocturnal, as the
owl and the bat, and others are diurnal in their habits. Again, with
respect to tame and wild animals, some are always tame, as man and
the mule, others are wild as the leopard and the wolf, while others can

* dpofiddfc, a term of very questionable import, which is appHcd in a general
sense to different fish ; another division is characterised by an equally unintelligible
name, pvdhg (see iv. 8, § 13 ; v. 9, § 6 ; vi. 16. § 2; viii. 15, § 2, .5, 6),
Aristotle gives us no clue whereby we may be able to comprehend the meaning of
these terms. Whether ^pofiaStg may denote the swiftness at which some fish
swim, or whether it has reference to their migratory habits it is dilficult to say ;
and again, whether pvuStQ, is meant to express fish that go with the current,
or what else, we cannot determine. M. Camus (ii. 667) says, " Cette expression
(pvdSii;) vient d'un A^erbe grec, qui signifie fluere, couler ; or que peut-on
entendre par des Poissons qui coulent, sinon des poissons qiii forment win bande
qui passe prompfcment ? " Both the SpofiaSeg and the pvdStQ are gregarious
and this is all that is positively known. Neither Gesner's explanation nor that of
M. Camus is at all satisfactory that pvcidiQ denotes " fish that remain in great
numbers in one place." — (See M. Camus' note, lower down).

t There seems no reason to doubt that the Qvwoq of Aristotle is identical with
the Tlujnnus vulgaris, Cuv. et Valenc The turmy fishery of the Mediterranean
is of great antiquity. The 7r»jXo/xwe which (vi. 16, § 4,) is said to be in appear-
ance a year younger than the Qvvvoq may perhaps denote the Bonito, {Thyn-
■iius pelawys) for which fish this term has been employed as the specific name by
Cuvier and Valenciennes. As to the ajuia, it may be represented by the
Pelamys sn-da, Cuv. et Valenc. Rondelet {L'Histoire des Poiss. p. 193) has
figured this fish, and with much reason has identified it with the amia ; the P.
sarda having long and strong teeth, by which character it is distinguished fi-om its
immediate congeners, will suit Aristotle's description of the amia, winch he mentions
as attacking large fish. The same author, says Cuvier, had observed the length
of the gall bladder which is greater than in most other fishes. It must, however,
be confessed that there is some uncertainty respecting the precise identification of
the two latter Greek terms.

143 OEIGIN^AL ARTICLES.

speedily be rendered tame, as the elepliaut for instance. Again, (ani-
mals may be divided) in another way, for all tame races are also wild,
as horses, oxen, pigs, sheep, goats and dogs. Some animals are able
to make a loud noise, some are mute, others are possessed with a voice,
and of these latter some have a language, others are incapable of
uttering distinct sounds ; some are garrulous, others are silent, some
are songsters, others are unable to sing ; but to sing and talk most at
the season of copulation is common to all birds. Some animals fre-
quent the fields as the wood-pigeon, others the hills as the hoopoe,
others live with man as the pigeon. Again, some are very prone
to venery, as the tribe of partridges and cocks, others preserve
chastity, as the crow family which seldom copulate. Again, some
animals are given to defend themselves, others to keeji watch against
the approach of danger ; in the first class I include such as either
attack other animals or defend themselves when injured ; by the
second class I mean those which have in themselves something which
serves as a means of avoiding suffering.

In disposition animals differ in the follomng particulars ; some are
gentle and demure and not stubborn, as the ox, while others are
passionate, stubborn, and stupid, like the wild boar; others are
sagacious and timid like the stag and the hare ; others mean and
insidious like serpents ; others liberal, brave, and noble, like the
lion ;* others generous, fierce, and insidious, like the wolf; by noble
I mean that Avhich is descended from a good race, by generous that
which does not degenerate from its own nature. And some animals
are cunning and full of mischief, like the fox ; others lull of spirit,
loving, and fawning, like the dog ; others gentle, and readily tamed,
like the elephant ; others are modest, and always on the watch like
the goose ; others are envious and fond of display, like the peacock.
But of living things man alone is capable of deliberating ; many
animals share in memory and ability to learn, but no other being
except man is capable of reminiscence.

Of each particidar kind of animals, both with respect to then'

* The Lion is saifl to be ivytvr]g,the WoW ytwaiog. The former tenn may
be properly rendered "noble;" it is not so easy to give a suitable translation of
the latter Greek word. In the Rhetoric (ii. 15, § S), Aristotle makes again the same
distinction between these two terms — ivytvi'ig is " that which refers to
excellence of birth," yivvcuog "that which does not degenerate from its natiu'e" —
the English word ' generons,' though now not used in the sense attributed to
ytvvaloc, appears originally to have been sometimes so understood ; its opposite
quality 'degencrous' or "degenerate," implies a falling from the original healthy
and vigorous qualities that belong to the genus, [tie, oenvs) and in this sense the
expression ' degenerate ' continues to be used ; and while we can speak of a
' degenerate' breed of cattle, are unable, b}^ the employment of the simple term
' generate,' or ' generous,' to express the opposite quahty of an animal perpetuating
its own vigorous characteristics to succeeding generations ; JM. Camus renders
yivvaioQhy "vigoureux;" it may be rcjuarked that the word "generous" has
by some writers been applied to animals, as " a generous pack of hounds " — or
" a fjencrous stud " ; we licar too " of (jcnerovs wine." Does not this epithet imply
what Ai-istotlc means by ytwalog, viz. "that which will not degenerate."

HOuanTON ON aeistotle's history of animals. 149

dispositions and modes of life we intend to speak hereafter with
more precision.*

XVI. — The Atlantis Hypothesis in its botanical aspect. —

By Professor Oliver.

A PEBirsAL, some few months ago, of certain passages in Professor
Heer's important essay on the climate and vegetation of the Tertiary
period,t induced me to investigate rather carefully the relations
between the Tertiary and some existing Floras, especially with refer-
ence to the hypothesis advanced by Professors Heer and Unger, that
during the Miocene period there existed an Atlantic junction between

* Although English Naturalists appear to have given little attention to the study
of Aristotle and the Natural History of the ancients generally, the suhject has not
escaped the notice of our Gennan friends ; on the contrary, careful enquiry would
no doubt disclose much valuable pertinent matter. There are several published
treatises which bear on the subject of Aristotle's Zoological Works, the titles of some
of which are here added, though we confess we have only been able to consult a
very few of them.

Beckmann, J., De Mstoina naturali veterum lihcllus. Petrop. et Gotting. 1766.
Gallisch, Fr. And., de Arhfotele rei naturalis scriptore. Lips. 1776.
Schneider, J. G., Icthjolootfe Veten/m Specimhia. Franc, ad Viad. 1782.
Probcn von der Fischkunde der Alton, in Leipz. Mag. Jalirg. 1783, p. 62.

Petri Artedi SijiionijmJa Piscium Greeca et Latiiia emendafa, ^-c. Lips. 1789.

Ucber die von Aristoteles lieifchrichencn Gaftungen uiid Arten von Krebsen.

Rerl. Mag. 1807, p. 163.— Z^/*, 1818, iv. p. 1453.
Billcrbeck, H. L. Jul. De Strigibus ah Aristotele, Plinio, cateraque Scriptorum

Veterum grcge Commemorafis. Hildeshem. 1809.
Kohlcr, J. Herm Aq, Aristotele>t, de Molluscis Cephalopodibiis (■Trepl rwi> na\aKiu)i'^

Comment. Rig. 1821.
Werber, W. J. A., Arhtoteles Verdien.tt um die wissenschnffUche Bcarheitung der

Zoologie und. scin Eitijlui<s bis auj'n?i sere zeit. Isis, 1822, p. 476—492.
Titze, F. N. Ueber die nissenschaftliche Behandlungsart der Naturkunde ilber-

liaupt, vorziiglich aber der Thierkunde : Griech. und Deutsch, niit Anmerk.

Leipz. 1823.
Wiegman, A. F. A., Observationes Zoologicce Criticae in Aristotelis Historiam Ani-

vialium. Lips. 1826. Isis, 1827, xii. p. 1078.
Muller, J. Ueber den glatten Hai des Aristotelcs und iiber die Verseliiedenlieitcn

nnter den Uaijischen u. Roclien in der Entwicliel. des Eies. Bcrl. 1842.
Franzius, A. von., Aristofeles' Vier Biicher die Theile der Thicre. Griechisch und

Deutsch undmit Sacherhliirenden Anmerkungen. 1853.
Meyer, J. B., Dissertatio de Principiis Aristotelis in distrihutione animalium

adhibliis. Berol. 1854.
Ariatoteles Thierhunde ; eiji Beitrag zur Gescldchte der Zoologie, Plnjsiologie

und alten Philosophie. Berl. 1855.
Rose, Valentin., De Aristotelis librorum ordine et auctoritate Conimcntatio. Bcrol.

1854.
Thiol, H. De Zoologicnrv^n Aristotelis lihrornm ordine ac di.\tribufione, imprimis

de librorum Tripi ?ojwv [lopiiov prima. (Ex progran). gyninas. Elisabet. 1855,

Edito rcpetitum.) Vratislaviaj, Gosohorsky, 1855.
Lenz, H. O., Zoologie der altcn Grieclwn und Bonier, deulscJt, in Ausziigen (ins deren

SchriJ'ten, nebst Anmerkungen. Gotha, 1856.
t " Rccherches sur le Climat et la Vegetation duPavs Tertiare," 18G1.

150 OBiarKAL a^rticles.

Europe and America. Witli regard to this question I have been led to
differ from these authors, and am confirmed in the view advanced by
Dr. Asa Gray* in reference to plants, and previously by Mr. Dax'winf
with regard to animals, that the migrations resulting in a community
of types in the tertiary beds of Europe and the present flora of the
Eastern states of the Nortli American continent, took place probably in
a comparatively high latitude to the north of the Pacific ocean. In
this short paper I propose to give the grounds upon which I think
this opinion may be based. I shall embody further, some observa-
tions bearing upon the general and mutual relations of the North
Temperate floras, with others of a critical character, which have
suggested themselves by the comparisons I have had occasion to
institute, referring to some of the determinations of fossil species in
Professor Heer's " Flora Tertiaria Helvetise."

Had I felt myself on more secure ground in touching upon ques-
tions intimately bound up with geological problems, I might have
chosen to prefix the title of Professor Heer's work to tliis notice, and
to have aimed at a more complete review of it than, in my inability
to appreciate properly some of the more strictly geological features,
I can venture upon.

The data upon which my enquiries are based, are chiefly these.
So far as the Tertiary Flora of Europe is concerned, I believe that the
general aspect of the questions touched upou is not sensibly atFected
by confining myself almost exclusively to the materials furnished from
Switzerland in the " Flora Tertiaria." The statistics of recent Floras
rest upon Njnnan's " Sylloge Flora3 Europcefe," Mr. Bentham's
"Hand-book of the British Flora," Mr. Black's Catalogue of
Japanese Plants appended to Hodgson's Japan, A. Grray's " Manual"
for the Northern, and Chapman's " Flora" for the Southern United
States, AYebb and Berthelot's " Hist. Nat. des iles Canaries," and minor
papers. The Hookerian collections have been of essential service in
the comparison of specimens and of recent with extinct forma.

With regard to the basis upon which comparisons between recent
and fossil (tertiary) floras should rest, I appi-ehend that the principal
reliable results which are attainable in the present state of know-
ledge are, in the main, quite as Hkely to issue from comparisons of
genera as of species. It is true, that in some cases, fossil remains suflice
to enable the further step to be taken of tracing identical, analogous
or representative specific forms in past and present floras ; but these
are rather exceptional, and from the necessity of attaching a primary
importance to the character of the nervation, venation and form of
leaves, which must often render even ordinal determination ex-
ceedingly uncertain, from the very fragmentary character, frequently,
even of these imperfect data, and, farther, from our ignorance of
types which, it may be assumed, are now extinct, I believe that we
can best eliminate several sources of error by depending rather on
generic than specific identifications or parallels. It may be truly

* Mem. Am. Acad. N.S., vol. vi. p. 377. fVoyage of Beagle. Ed. 1839, p. 151.

OLIVER OX THE ATLANTIS HTPOTUESIS. 151

objected that the fossil is ofteu referred first to the species, then to
the genus, and not as in recent botany, first to the genus, then to the
species ; but recollecting how seldom fossil remains enable us to
ascertain how far tr^'o forms may be removed in floral or in fruit
structure, which resemble each other precisely in their leaves ; see-
ing, moreover, that if the specific determination or analogy be correct,
that of the genus must necessarily be so, while indeed, if the former
be incorrect, the latter may yet hold good, — I cannot but think it
the safer coiu-se in the discussion of the present question to confine
myself to comparisons of genera solely. The case is Avidely difl:erent
when we compare the species of recent floras with each other, inas-
much as here we deal usually with indi\ddual elements of a value
much more nearly equal, and are thus in a position better able to
appreciate the minor facts of recent migration and modification of
type which such a collation might indicate, than it is possible we
could be from the comparison of a recent with a fossil flora, or of
two recent floras based ujdou their genera solely. In spite of their im-
perfection there can be little question, but th&t the most important
problems of plant-distribution are to be solved only by a constant
reference to fossil remains, and according as we compare existing
with extinct floras of recent or of more remote geological date, shall
we find that the comj)arison of species with species, of genus with
genus, of order with order, and of sub-kingdom with sub-kingdom,
have each their proper place and value in helping us to a right
ajDprehension of the changes which in respect of plant-distribution
our planet has experienced. In the case of the flora of the tertiary
period, from the imperfect nature of the evidence upon which we
must at present depend, and the cuTum stance that probably at least
one-fifth or one-fourth of its generic types, referable with more or
less probability to existing natural orders, are extinct or indeter-
minable, (exclusive of the various forms grouped under Fhyllites,
Antholites and Carpolithes) , I believe that a comparison of specific
forms is quite as calculated to mislead as reliably to inform ; and
although I regard Professor Heer's attempt to indicate the living
analogues of Swiss tertiary plants in his tabulated enumeration as
very able, yet I do not think the general results attained by it
add to the issue of a generic correlation ; while Professor Unger's
catalogue of tertiary species and theii' North American representa-
tives* appears to me overstrained in favour of the Atlantis hypothesis,
and calculated to give a false impression. We must not, however,
overlook the peculiar and qualifying circumstances, referred to above,
under which the generic determination of not a few fossil species
must be made : — that the reference of the fossil to a recent genus
frequently depends less upon the recognition in the fossil, of any one
essential^character of such genus, than upon its resemblance to some
single species or group of species of the genus in some one or two
points of small importance, or of no importance at all, generically,

* Die Versunk. Insel Atlantis, p. 26.

152 ORTOIKAL AETTCLES.

The character of veuation ofteu differs very materially in the
same natural genus. Take, for instance, Liquidambar, one of the
older generic types of Dicotyledons, and compare L, styraciflua,
L. cliinense, and L. Altingia, both in respect of form and venation
of the leaves. The nervation and venation in Loranthus is very
variable ; also in South American species of Coiissapoa. Compare
G. calophylla, PL, C. fontanesiana, Tree, (C. sylvatica, PI.)? ^^^
G. trinervia, Spr. Compare also the species of Styrax, and such a
list might be indefinitely extended.

I have not, in tabulating, restricted myself to fossil genera, the
determination of which has been based upon indubitable evidence ;
though by attaching, in the table, p. 175, a numerical reference to
several of the genera which appear doubtful, and which are remarked
upon at the end of this pajjer, I have partly distinguished between
those which, to the best of my judgment are to be depended upon,
and those which should be accepted with more or less doubt. I say
partly distinguished, for I have thus marked only about thirty genera,
though I believe that .fully one hundred of these generic determina-
tions are more or less doubtful.

In the notices which follow, all reference to Cryptogamous plants
is omitted ; partly, because with the exception of the vascular groups,
the fossil data are almost valueless ; partly, because I have myself
but a very limited acquaintance with the most important of the vas-
cular orders — Filices, and partly, because I believe they do not
afford material additional evidence aftecting the principal question
discussed. I have introduced several statistical items of informa-
tion which do not directly bear upon the dispersion of the tertiary
flora and the hypotheses of Atlantic or Pacific migration, but these
have appeared sufficiently interesting on independent grounds. I
cannot claim for the numerical details anything like absolute accu-
racy, though I believe them to be trustworthy in the main.

The Tertiary Flora of Europe ; its general character, ^c. This
is admirably reviewed by Professor Heer in his essay on the climate
and vegetation of the tertiary epoch. As this is separately published
at a very moderate price I must refer to it for detailed information
and confine myself here to principal features. The Swiss tertiary
remains of Phgenogamous plants, exclusive of " incertae sedis," are
distributed through 80 natural orders, and about 196 genera,
(Dieots. 160, Monocots. 36), of which 151 (Dicots. 133, Monocots. 21)
are yet existing types. The total number of species of Phanerogamia
is estimated at about 800, of wliich number nearly half are referred
to nine or ten natural orders. These latter are as follows: —

species 25
„ 23
„ 21
„ 20

The sequence of the above largest orders varies if the four stages
of the tertiary deposits be separately considered. In tlie first and

Papilionacere,

species 117

Grraminacefe.

Amentaceje,

Coniferse,

Cyperacese,

Compositae,

Proteacese,

Aceraceae,

Lauraceaj,

OLITER ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS.

153

second stages Ehamnacese rank as tlie Gth and 5tli order respectively.
In the fourth stage, Proteacese are not included among the first eight
orders, while Compositfe take the foiu'th place. In the third stage, the
remains of but three Coniferse are recorded. The proportion of
ligneous to herbaceous species is considered to have been very large,
there being upwards of 530 of the former, of which number more than
one half were arborescent. 327 are reckoned to have been evergreen.*
The groups which, either in number of species or individuals, espe-
cially gave a character to the Tertiary epoch vegetation, are

Coniferae, in" El. Tert. Helvetise" referred to 9 gen. 23 species.

Palmae 8 „ 15 „

Populus .,...,. „ 8 „

Salix .

Myrica

■Quercus

Ulmus and Planera

Ficus

Platanus

Liquidambar

Aceracae

Lauraceae

Proteaceae

Ehamnaceae

Legumiuosae

Juglandeae

Prof. Heer in a chapter entitled " Comparison of Plants of the
Swiss Tertiary Plora with species now existing," f enumerates 41
species, exclusive of cellular plants, based upon both leaf and fruit or
flower remains (marked * in the following list), and in a second list
SO species resting upon leaf remains only, sufficient, however, to enable
him to indicate for each species a living analogue. Although I should
probably differ as to the specific counterparts in some cases, there
can be but little doubt as to many of the generic identifications.
These genera are, ^Woodwardia, *Pteris, *Aspidium, Osmunda,
*Juneus, *Arm>do, ^Sparganium, ^Potmnogeton, Smilax, Sabal,
^Gli/ptostrohus, *Taxodium, * Sequoia, Myrica, Carpimis, *Populus,
^Salix, *Quercus, *Ulmus, * Planera, * Platanus, ^Liquidambar,

* This is Professor Heer's estimate, and I have not the means of analysing
it. Dr. Hooker has directed my attention to the importance of ascertaining satis-
factorily the exact proportions generally prevailing between ligneous and herbaceous
plants, and the proportion of evergreens in tnily tropical floras. I presume all the
Lauracece to have been reckoned among evergreens by Professor Heer. He
says (Recherches, &c., p. 60) " * * • les Lam-iers et les Camphriers gardaient
sans interruption leur verdoyante panire." — In th-e South United States, of the six
species of Lauracese which occur there, four are deciduous, and in the Himalaya
Dr. Hooker informs me some of the oi-der are commonly bare in winter. To the
absolute numbers given by Professor Heer, I think comparatively little value can
be attached, though probably the relative proportions in, for example, his table of
the sequence of orders, may be sustained,
t Recherches sur le Climat, &c. p. 5.5,
N. H. K— 1862. M

131

154 OKTGIJfAL ARTICLES.

^Polygonum, *Salsola, *Laurus, Persea, *Cinnamomum, '^Emho-
thrium, Drijandra, Ficus, *Leptoineria, *Diosp>/ros, *Acerates,
Fraximis, *LirioJendron, *Acer, Ilex, Zizyphus, Berchemki,
*Jihatnnics, *Paliurus, Pirns, *Juglans, Plerocarya, *Colutea,
*Pobinia, *Gleditsckia, Caesalpinia, * Cassia.

In discussing tlie cliaracter of the Swiss Tertiary Plora,* its
general relations to existing Floras are indicated. The methods of
comparision employed, Prof. Heer says " incontestably prove that, at
the Tertiary period Switzerland was inhabited by types which are
now scattered over every part of the world, but of which the ma-
jority correspond to American species ; Europe ranks only second,
Asia third, Africa fourth, and New Holland fifth. In Europe it is
the Mediterranean region ; in America, the Southern United States ;
in Asia, Japan, the region of the Caucasus and Asia Minor ; in
Africa, in proportion to their area, the small islands of the Atlantic,
which support the gi'eatest number of analogous species." Speaking
of the distribution in the Tertiary, as compared with the present
period, of generic types, he selects Juglandese as offering a marked
contrast between their present wide, and former restricted area.
Prof. Heer limits the present distribution of Pterocarya to the
Caucasus, Juglans to Persia and North America, and JEngelhardtia
to the Sunda Islands. Two species of Pterocarya, however, grow
in Japan, three species of Juglans are recorded from the same region,
where also another generic type is met with in Platycarya {Portuncea,
Lindl.), and Engelhardtia occurs in the Himalaya. Carya is not held to
be generically distinct from Juglans by Messrs. Hooker and Bentham.
Viewed in respect of the sjoecies which contributed most largely
to the mass and physiognomy of the tertiary vegetation, he says, "The
Elora of Japan with its abundance of Camphor-trees and its Cflyptos-
trohi, that of the Atlantic islands with its Laurels, the American Flora
with its numerous evergreen Oaks, Maples, Poplars, Plane-trees,
Liqiiidavihar, Pohinia, Sequoia, Taxodium, and ternate- leaved Pines,
and finally that of Asia Minor with its Planera and Populus miita-
lilis occupy the first place." Without distinction of stage in
the Swiss deposits, the first rank, in respect to abundance of indi-
viduals, Prof. Heer assigns to Lauraceae, second, Cupidiferae. In the
first stage, Proteaceae, Khamnaceae and Cupressiueae predominated;
in the second, Ehamnaceae and Palmaceae; third Proteaceae; fourth,
Salicaceae, Aceraceae, Papilionaceae, Juglandeae and Sapindaceae.
The climate of Europe he believes to have been, during the lower
miocene, about 13°, and the upper miocene 16° Fahr. warmer than at
present, while the large relative proportion of ligneous, evergreen
and aquatic species, with layers of lignite, bear testimony to its
ample humidity.

With a view to avoid imnecessary repetition in the following
paragraphs, and to save space, I have drawn up the subjoined table,
showing the distribution of existing genera of the Swiss Tertiary in
the recent Floras of Europe, Japan, of Europe and Asia (including
Japan), taken together, and the Southern States of America.

* Becherches sur le Climat, &c. p. 58.

OLIYER ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS.

155

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Genera of Swiss

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P.
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Genera of Swiss

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Tertiary.

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Monocoti/ledons.
Anxiido

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Phragmites .

Cinnamomum

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Pimelca .

Oryza .

Ela;agnus'" .

Cyperus

Protea .

Scirpus .

Persoonia

Carex .

Grevillea

Juncus .

Hakca .

Smilax .

Dry and ra

Cliamserops'^" .

Embothrium .

Sabal .

Banksia

Manicaria

llhopala

Geonoma

Lomatia

Typha .

Leptonieria .

Sparganium .

Aristolochia .

Potamogeton .

Erica

Naias

Andromeda

Butomus^

Clethra'7

Hydrocharis .

Monotropa

Iris

Vaccinium

Puya

Diospyros
Macreightia'^ .

Dieotylcdons.

Styrax'^ .

Libocediiis-* .

Bumelia'^

Widdriugtonia

Myrsine

Taxodiimi^ .

Porana .

Glyptostrobus

Mcnyanthes .

Podocarpus .

Acerates"

Sequoia

Fraxinus

Pinus .

Lonicera

Liquid ambar'^

Vibm-num

Populus

Gardenia

Salix .

Hedera .

Myrica .

Panax .

Alnus .

Cornus .

Betula .

Vitis .

Carpinus

Weinmannia^^

Ostrya .

Ranunculus .

Corylus''

Clematis

Quercus

Liriodendron .

Ulmus='

Berberis

Plaiiera

Nymphaea

Ficus

Nelunibium .

Ai-tocai-pus"^ .

Lepidium

Platanus^ .

Clypeola

Polygonum .

Samyda'

Salsola .

Tcrminalia'' .

Pisoma='<*

Combretum" .

Laui-us .

Myrtus .

Persea .

Eugenia'

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Metrosideros .

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156

ORIGINAL AETICLES.

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Sapindus

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Medicago

Dodonaea

Trigonella

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Robiuia .

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Psoralea

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Euphorbia^*

Tephrosia

Pittosporum''

Glycyrrhiza .

Celastrus

Colutea .

El£eodendi-on

Phaseolus

Ilex

Pterocaipus .

Zizyphus

Dalberma

Paliurus

Sophora

Ccanothus'^

Edwardsia

Berchemia

Cercis .

Rhamnus

Gleditschia .

Khus .

Bauhiiiia

Zantlioxylum

Ceratonia

Ptelea^ .

Coesalpinia

Ailanthus

Cassia .

Juglans .

Acacia .

Carya .

Mimosa .

The Tertiary and existing Mora of Europe. — The genera common
to the Tertiary Flora of Switzerland, and the recent Flora of Europe,
as shown in the above table, are about 76 in number ; (Dicots. 60 ;
Monocots. 16) or 12 fewer than are common to the Tertiary beds and
the South United States Flora, and but 1 fewer than are common to
the same and Japan.

Of the characteristic orders and groups of the Swiss Tertiary the
constituents in the existing Flora of Europe are —

Gen. Species.

Gen.

Species

PalmaD

1 1

fLauracese

fConifersB

7 40

fProteaceae

Populus .

Ehamuacese

'. 3

Salix

60-70

Juglandese

Myrica .

fLeguminosfe

852

Quercus .

12-15

fAceraceae

Ulmus

tAmentacese

• 11

130

Planera .

tCyperacesB

. 13

257

Ficus

fGramineaj

. 91

554

Platanus .

1-3

fCompositse

138

1400

Liquidambar

OLIVEE ON THE ATLANTIS nTPOTHESIS. 157

The nine largest orders of the Swiss Tertiary are marked f iu the
above list.

According to Professor Heer,* the recent Flora of Switzerland
includes 24 natural orders with ligneous species,t of which IS are
common to the Tertiary beds. J These latter are — Coniferae, Amen-
taceae, TJlmaceae, Elaeagnese, Aristolochiaceae, Thymelese, Apocyneje,
Oleacese, Ericaceae, Caprifoliaceos, Araliacese, Cornaceae, Tiliace;©,
Iliciuese, Ehamnaceae, Celastraceae, Acerinese, Berberidea). Tliese
orders include in the recent Flora 152 species, in the Tertiary
253. In Britain there are about 1230 Phanerogamia (Dicots. 923,
Monocots. 307) referred to 479 genera (Dicots. 3(35, Monocots. 114),
and 88 natural orders (Dicots. 73, Monocots. 15). About 116 species
(9 per cent.) are ligneous. Of Bi'itish genera about 48 are common
to the Swiss Tertiary (Dicots. 37, Monocots. 11).

The Bovey Tracey fossil remains Professor Heer has shown to
be pre-eminently characterized by Miocene species. § Out of 49
species which have been discovered, 20 occur iu Miocene beds on the
Continent. The Bovey Flora includes the following recent genera :

Phragmites Laurus \ Nyssa\\ Gardenia'^

Sequoia Eucalyptus ? j Fterocarya ? Vitis

Ficus Eugenia \ Vaccinium Anona\\

Quercus Celastnis j Andromeda Nymipli^a.

Professor Heer points out that none of the Bovey species are
common to the Miocene of Iceland, and that, excepting Sequoia and
Quercus, the genera are also distinct.

In Iceland there are, according to Dr. Lindsay's list (1860J, 426
Phanerogams (Dicots. 290, Monocots. 136) belonging to 159 genera
(Dicots. 119, Monocots. 40), and about 48 natural orders (Dicots.
39-40, Monocots. 8). The only woody plants are birch, willow,
juniper, and rose. Common to the Swiss Tertiary there are in
Iceland

Gen. Orders.

Dicots. . . . . 12 . . 19-20
Monocots. . . . ij . . Q

The following genera occur in Tertiary beds in Iceland : — Spar-
qanium,Pinus, Sequoia, Betula, Alnus, Salix (rare), Corylus, Quercus,
Ulmus, Platanus, Acer {A. otopterix, being the commonest Tertiary
tree), Vitis, Liriodendron, Rhamnvs, Rhus, Juglans.

The Tertiary and Japanese Floras, ^<?.— About 71 natural orders
are common to Japan and the Swiss Tertiary ; of these 51 are re-
presented by identical genera, accepting the determinations of ' ' Flora

* 1. c. p. 38.

t Exclusive of LeguminosEe, Eosaceje, Ranunciilacefe.

X I have united some of Prof Heer's Orders for the sake of uniformity.

§ Paper read before Royal Society, Nov. 21, 1861.

II Very doubtful, especially the last two.

158 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

Tert. Helvetia?" for the fossil species. Tlie total number of genera
common to Japan and tlie Tertiary is 77, as enumerated, p 175.
Nearly the same number, it has been observed, is common to Tertiary
and Eecent Europe. But the 77 common to Japan include 26 not
in Eecent Europe, and amongst these are several eminently charac-
teristic tertiary types.

The Phanerogamia of Japan are approximately —

Nat. Orders. Genera.
Dicots. . . 132 543

Monocots. .17 126

149 669

Indigenous species hitherto published about 1550. Tlie 10 largest
Nat. Orders are — *

Gen.

Species.

t Gramineae

. 56

138

t CompositsB

. 52

Eosacese .

. 24

t Cyperacefe

Eanunculacege

. 18

Liliacese

. 19

t Cupulifer£B and Salicacese 8

t*Conifer£e

. 16

t*Eeguminos8e .

. 27

OrchidacesB

. 24

ominant and characteristic Japanese

Nat. Orel

Gen.

Species.

t*Laurace8B

. 11

CaprifoliacesD .

Saxifragese

Ternstroemiacea)

Berberidese

t*Acerace8e

Celastracese .

*Ehamnacea}

*JuglandesB

Styracaceae

01eace?e

Euphorbiaceso

. 15

*More8e .

Of the characteristic groups of the Swiss Tertiary, in addition to
those marked X iii the above, we have in Japan —

t The sequence of Orders given by M, De Candolle (Geog. Bot. 1207) appears
to have been founded upon imperfect material. It is after Zuccariui.

OLIVEB, ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS.

159

■

Gen.

Species

Palmae .

Populus .

SaHx

Myrica . . . .

Quercus

IJlmus

Planera .

ricus

Platanus

Liqiiidambar .

Proteacese

The niue largest Orders, numerically, of the Swiss Tertiary have
t prefixed in the above lists. I estimate that about 40 per cent, of
the Japanese phanerogamia are ligneous species. These species are
included in 238 genera.

It ought to be borne in mind that the Japanese Flora has been
as yet but imperfectly explored. The area of the Islands is given at
about 26G,600 square miles.

Tlie Tertiary and American States Flora, ^c. — The close analogy
subsisting between the Tertiary Flora of Europe and the existing
Flora of the Eastern, and especially the Southern States of North
America is generally acknowledged. Professors Heer and linger
have recently examined critically into this relationship, establishing
it upon a wide basis of detailed comparisons. Our Table p. 175
shows that 88 genera (Dicots. 74 ; Monocots. 14) are common to the
Swiss Tertiary and the South United States Floras ; these belong to
73 Natural Orders, of which 52 are represented by identical genera.
The foUoAving genera from the above table do not occur in Japan ;
those, however, growing in Asia or Europe have * affixed.

Sabal

Persea

Carya

TyjDha*

Sassafras (* ?)

Eobinia*

Sparganium*

Andromeda*

Psoralea*

Naias*

Monotropa*

Terminalia*

TaxodiumJ

Bumelia

Tephrosia*

Ostrya*

Liriodendron

Cercis*

Planera*

Eugenia*

Grleditschia*

Lepidium*

Dodonaea*

Cassia*

Platanus*

Ceanothus

Mimosa*

Pisonia*

Ptelea

The South United States Flora includes about 836 genera (Dicots.
663 ; Monoc. 173), referred to 161 Nat. Orders (Dicots. 134 ; Monoc.
27). The total number of indigenous sj)ecies is near 2530 (Dicots.
1900; Monoc. 630). Of these about 22 per cent, are ligneous.

X Taxodvim dubium, Prof. Goeppert says probably occurs in the fossil state in
Kamtschatka, {i>ifra,p. 181.)

160

ORIGINAL AETICLES.

Tlie largest Orders are in the

States.

STATEi9.

Gen.

Species.

Gen.

Species.

t ComjiositaB

. 81

354

273

t Cyperacese

. 21

216

213

t Grraminese

. 52

176

162

t Leguminosae

. 49

145

Labiatse

. 23

Scrophnlariacese

. 23

Ericaceae*

. 19

Eosaceae ,

. 17

Orcliidaceae

. 19

111

Eanunculaceae .

. 17

In the Northern States Eanunculacese is the ninth order, Labiata^
the tenth.

The Orders marked f are included in the nine largest of the Swiss-
Tertiary. It has been observed above that out of the nine largest
Japanese Orders, six were thus marked (ante, p. 178).

The groups which especially characterize United States forest
vegetation, are Taxodium, Magnolias, Hickories, "Walnuts, Planeray
Negundo, Liriodendron, Maples, Oaks, &c. The largest Orders
(besides the four marked above) and characteristic Groups of the
Swiss Tertiary in the States are —

States.

Gen.

SpecieSi

Gen.

Species.

Amentaceae

Proteaceae

LaurineaB

Conifera3

Aceraceae

. 2

Palmas .

Popvilus .

Sahx

MyricaJ

Quercus

Ulmua .

Planera .

Picus

Platanus

Liquidambar .

Ehamnaceae .

'. 8

Leguminosae .

. 49

145

Juglandeae

. 2

* Includes Vaccinicte, Monotropeae, Pyroleae.
X Myiicacese in Southern States, 3 gen. 4 species.
„ Northern „ 2 „ 3 „

OllVEE ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS. 16l

In the Northern States, according -to Dr. Gray,* 218 (10-3 per
cent.) are shrubs or woody vines, and 130 (6'2 per cent.) trees.

]VIr. Lesquereux mentions the folloAving genera as having been
identified in North American Tertiary beds.f Probably Miocene
plants, from Vancouver and BeDingham Bay, "Washington Territory —

Populus
Sahx
Quercus
Planera

Picus ?

Cinnamomum

Persoonia

Diospyros
Acer
Platanus ?

Salisburia

Chamserops

Sequoia.

From Pleiocene beds, Tennessee : —

Laurus, Prunus, Quercus, Fagus, identified with recent species of
South Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico : and from Pleistocene beds,
Kentucky, — Quercus, Castanea, XJlmus, Planera, Prinos, Geanothus,
Carya, Gleditschia, Acorus, all recent forms now found along the
Atlantic coast. In the Vancouver beds Proteaceae are dominant.

Prof Goeppert mentions the following genera as having been
found in the Miocene beds in Alaska and the neighbouring Aleutian
Islands,! Gaulinia, Salix, Alnus, Taxodium dubium, (probably also
found in Kamtschatka), Sequoia, Juglans ?, Populus.

Belation of the Japanese Flora, also that of the Old World
generally, to the Flora of the Eastern States of North America. —
The general relations of the Plora of Japan and also those of the Plora
of the Northern States have been most ably discussed by Prof Asa
Gray. Theformerinapaperinthe Memoirsof the American Academy,§
the latter in Silliman's Joui-nal. || For much interesting detail I must
refer to these valuable essays, from the last-named of which I borrow
the following facts referring to the Flora of the Northern States, not
having, myself, tabulated the recent European and American Floras
with a view to bring out their analogies and difierences farther than
is noticed under previous heads. According to Dr. Gray there are
321 species (Dicots. 180, Monocots. 141) common to the Northern
States and Europe out of a total phanerogamous Flora in the
former of 2091 species (Dicots. 1490, Monocots. 601). If closely
representative be added to identical species, this number would be
raised to about 435, or over one-fifth of the whole, while, on the
other hand, but about 114 species (of 92 genera) are represented by
identical or strictly analogous species on the Oregon and Californian
side. 326 Northern United States genera belong to Europe, but
of these 284 are difiused over the greater part of the Northern
Hemisphere.

Compared with Europe the Northern States are rich in ordinal

* Sill. Journ., Ser. ii., xxiii. 374. f Sill. Joiivn. 1859, i. 359.

% Bull. Ac. Imp. St. Petersburg, iii. 448. § N. Ser. vi. 377.

II Ser. ii. xxii. Sept. 1856.

162

OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

types, possessing 26 Nat. Orders uot in Europe, while Europe lias
only 7 to 10 orders absent from the States. Nevertheless the Euro-
pean families give character to the vegetation. Dr. G-ray says
farther, that of these 26 orders 20 have their principal development
in troi^ical regions, while 3 of the remaining orders have tropical or
sub-tropical representatives.* This circumstance is noteworthy when
we consider that the mean annual temperature of the Northern
States is lower than that of "Western Europe.

I find about 300 genera (Dicots. 21'2, Monocots. 00) are common
to the Southern States and Japan. To this number the Northern
States add 33 (Dicots. 24, Monocots. 9), making a total of 330—340
in Eastern North America. The Japanese orders not represented
in the Eastern States are as follow, with the number of their genera
and species.

Lardizabaleae

gen

. 5

species.

Alangiaceae

gen.

, 2

species,

Bixaceae

))

Dipsaceae

Pittosporaceae

Jasmineae

Stercudiaceae

Myoporineae

Elseocarpeae

Gi-esneraceae

Aurautiaceae

Helwingiaceae

Coriarieae

5»

Proteaceae

Meliosmeae

Chloranthaceae 3

Meliaceae

Piperaceae

Tamaricineae

Antidesmeae

Begoniaceae

Ophiopogoneae

About 320 Japanese genera (Dicots. 274, Monocots. 50) are absent
from the States ; of these the most remarkable and characteristic of
the Japan Flora seem to belong to Berberideae and Lardizabaleae,
Ternstrcemiaceae, Zanthoxylaceae and allies, Eosaceae, Laiu'aceae,
and Coniferae.

A marked difference has been indicated (supra) between the
Floras of the East and West Coasts of North America in the relatively
small number of species common to these Floras as compared with
the number common to the Eastern States and Europe. Dr. G-ray,
in his memoir on the Japanese Flora,t points out that there are
fewer Japanese species represented in West North America than in
Europe, while there are more in East North America than in either.
If strictly identical species alone be regarded, however, the European
proportion is favoiu-ed. In his table, including 580 Japanese entries,

* The same botanist points out tlie almost complete deficiency of forms peculiar
to West Europe in Temperate America ; a deficiency remarkably contrasting with
the large niunber of East American forms repeated or represented in Eastern Asia.
The only genera divided between East North America and Europe which Dr. A.
Gray can find are Ostrya, Narthecium, Psamma, Cakilc, Scolopciulr'mm ?

t 1. c. p. 437.

OLIVEE ON THE ATLAKTIS HYPOTHESIS. 163

there are, having corresponding representative species, in
Europe, over 48 per cent., identical species 27 per cent.

"West North America, about 37 „ „ 20 „

East „ „ „ 61 „ „ 23 „

Moreover of 353 extra- European genera in the Northern States 130
are common to East Temperate Asia, while but 87 occur in AVest
North America. About 90 genera are represented in North America
and Japan which are absent from Europe, and of these 65 do not
occur in extra-tropical "Western North America,* where farther, no
order is represented wanting in the Northern States of East America,
excepting Grarryaceae and Hydroleaceae, and these both occur in the
Southern States.

The Atlantic Islands Flora.f — The American element in the
Flora of the Atlantic Islands is very subordinate, while Mediterranean,
with a proportion of peculiar or Macaronesian types, greatly pre-
dominate, the former very remarkably. The African element is, as
is well known, singularly deficient. Prof. Heer points out as a trace
of the connection which he conceives to have existed formerly
between these Islands and the New "World, the American genera
Clethra, Bystropogon, Cedronella and Oreodaphne, species of which
occur in the Madeiras and Canaries. With regard to these, however,
it may be observed that Clethra is not exclusively a New "World type.
One species is Japanese and one or two grow in the Philippines and
Borneo. The present focus of the genus appears to be in South
America. But one species, C arborea, grows in the Atlantic Islands,
in some of which it is very abundant. As to Bystropogon, Messrs.
"Webb and Berthelot limit the genus to Macaronesian species,
excluding the section Mintliostacliys, under which Mr. Bentham
groups the American forms in the Prodromus. At best, this genus,
as Ml-. Bentham informs me, scarcely differs in technical characters
from Mentha, though the habit of the island species is very different.
Of Cedronella, another Labiate plant, but one species grows in the
Islands, G. canariensis. Hasskarl describes a species from Japan.
Oreodaphne prevails in the West Indian Islands and South America;
it is unrepresented in the States ; species occur, also, in South Africa,
Madagascar and Mauritius. Recently Mr. Mann, botanical collector
to the Royal Gardens at Kew, has sent to Sir W. J. Hooker two or
three species of Laurel from the mainland of West Tropical Africa,
wdiich, although not yet determined, form a connecting link, relieving
the isolation of the Atlantic species, both of Oreodaphne and Fersea.
I have examined the Elora of Webb and Berthelot and can find
scarcely any evidence to add to that noted by Prof. Heer. The
genus Messerschnidtia, limited by these authors to Canarian and

* Gray, 1. c. 441.
t For some excellent obsei-vations upon the general relations of the Madeira and
Canary Flora, see a paper by Sir C. J. F. Bunbury, Linn. Proc. Bot. i. 1.

164 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

Tropical American forms is, according to De Candolle, but a section
of Tournefortia, including in one subsection the Canarian plant, while
other subsections include two African and an Indian species.

Of the genus Persea, of which one species (P. indicd) is a domi-
nant tree in the Canaries, Madeira, and Azores, two species grow in
the Southern States, while others are found in New Grenada, Peru,
and as far South as Chili. Commelyna agraria, Euphorhia tenella, and
Bidens pilosa cannot be accepted as indigenous to the Atlantic
Islands.

We may"gather from the above paragi'aphs that a close and very
peculiar analogy subsists between the Flora of Tertiary Central Eu-
rope and the recent Eloras of the American States and of the
Japanese region ; an analogy much closer and more intimate than is
to be traced between the Tertiary and recent Floras of Europe. We
find the Tertiary element of the Old World to be intensified towards
its extreme eastern margin, if not in numerical preponderance of
genera, yet in features which especially gave a character to the Fossil
Flora. I have taken occasion to show, in the above notices, that
this accession of the Tertiary element is rather gradual and not
abruptly assumed in the Japan islands only. Although it there
attains a maximum, we may trace it from the Mediterranean, Levant,
Caucasus, and Persia, in Chamcerops, Platanus, Liquidamhar, Ptero-
carya, Juglans, ^c, then along the Himalaya and through China ;
the Eastern Himalaya and China, indeed, forming with Japan one
great botanical region. The table given at p. 175 shows that about 120
Tertiary genera are represented in Europe and Asia, including Japan,
taken together, while, as stated already, but 88 are represented in the
Southern American States. We learn also that during the Tertiary
epoch, counterparts of Central European Miocene genera certainly
grew in North-west America, amongst them, one marked genus now
limited to the Japanese region (Salisburia). We note, further, that
the present Atlantic Islands Flora affords no substantial evidence of
a former direct communication with the main land of the New World,
though the cu'cumstance of an extraordinary predominance in it of
the Mediterranean element tends to countenance the probability of
the hy[)othesis of E. Forbes and others that a coimection formerly
existed between these Islands and some part of Western Europe.
The consideration of these facts leads me to the opinion that
botanical evidence does not fiivour the hypothesis of an Atlantis. On
the other hand, it strongly favom's the view that at some period of
the Tertiary epoch. North-eastern Asia was united to North-western
America, perhaps by the line where the Aleutian chain of islands
now extends, since there is sufficient ground to belie\'e that the
temperature in that latitude was liigh enough to allow the migra-
tion of types, which at the present period, are characteristic of lower

OLITEE ON THE ATLATfTIS HYPOTHESIS. 1G5

latitudes.* Professor Heer himself says,t " Comme les types japon-
nais occupent line place importante dans notre flore tertiare, il est
permis de supposer qu'a I'epoque tertiare le Japon etait joint an
contiaent Americain." — Tlie general character of the Tertiary Flora
appears to me to be almost as conspicuous,— in some respects more
conspicuous — in Japan than in the American States. We have
shown that of the nine largest orders numerically of the Tertiary, six
are included in the nine largest of Japan, and but four in the nine
largest of the Southern States ; while, farther, the remaining three
of the nine largest Tertiary orders are much more developed in Japan
than in the Southern States. They are

Lauracese, in Japan 11 gen. 25 species. In So. States 4 gen. 6 species.
Aceraceae „ 2 „ 15 „ „ 2 „ 6 „

Proteacese „ 1 „ 1 „ „ 0 „ 0 „

The Japanese flora is the only one which I have found presenting
such close correspondence in this respect with that of the Tertiary
period. In Australia 5, India 4, Europe 3, and in the New World 4, J
of the largest orders of each respectively, are included in the cor-
responding nine of the Tertiary. Nor must the large percentage of
ligneous species in the Japanese (40 per cent.) as compared with
the Southern United States flora (22 per cent.) be overlooked.

That the Tertiary element should be more decidedly expressed in a
comparison of the genera in Eastern Asia than in the American States,
is by no means required unless we can show that its development
and persistence have been equally favoured by climatal and other
conditions in both regions since the Tertiary period. It might have
been fairly expected, moreover, that on Professor Heer's hypothesis,
the North American element in the Flora of the Atlantic islands
should have been more decided, favourable as would appear to be
their climate to the growth of the plants of the Southern States ;
but we do not find in these Islands more of this element than
they might have derived from Eiu'ope during a connection with
it in, or subsequent to, the Tertiary period. With regard to
the few American species mentioned by Dr. A. Grray§ as occurring
in Western Europe, and opposed to the view that the inter-

• Prof. Goeppert says, (Bull. Ac. Imp. St. Petersburg, iii. 460, 1861), " Wenn
vvir nun die ausgedehnte Verbreitung der schon jctzt im Polarkreise auf den Aleuten,
in Gronland, Island, Kamtschatka nachgewiesenen Flora der Miocenen formation
betrachten, die sich vielleicht auch noch iiber das nordlichste Amerika auf Nord-
Siberien und die luseln des Eismeeres erstreckt * * * * so diirfen wir wohl
annebmen, dass in jenen jetzt so unwirthlichen Gegenden zur zeit der Miocen
periode ein milderes Klima, etwa eine mittlere Temperatur von mindestens 8-9" dort
herrschte, um eine Vegetation zu fdrdeni, wir sie gegenwartig in mittleren und
siidlicheren Nordamerika und Europa angetroifen wird."

t Recherches, &c., p. 216.

t The principal orders of these four areas I have taken from Dr. Hooker's
" Introductoiy Essay to the Flora of Tasmania," p. xxxv.

§ 1. c. 442.

166 OEIGINAL AETICLES. .

cliange of European and New "World forms had taken place via
Asia, viz. Eriocaulon septangulare, Betula alba, Spartina and Suhu-
Inria, — to wliicli I may add Naias Jlexilis (a common North Ame-
rican plant, but extremely rare in Europe, which I discovered in
Connemara some twelve years ago), it may be observed that all of
these, save the common birch, are aquatic or littoral salt-marsh
plants. Wlieu we recall the observation of Mr. Darwin relative to
the number of seeds often contained in the mud of ponds, &c.,
the wandering habits of wading birds, and the chances favoiiring the
dispersal of aquatic sjjecies,* no argument can be based upon them
of any weight compared with the preponderance of evidence in favour
of an Asiatic migration aflbrded by the relatively large number of
existing types peculiar to E. America and the eastern margin of the
Old World, as compared with the few peculiar to America and
Europe. Why Betula alba should be included among the above
species I am at a loss to understand. It grows across Europe, in the
Altai and Amoorland. Subularia also extends eastward to the Altai,
according to Ledebour.

1. Samyda. One species of Unger's occurs in the Swiss beds. I
have not seen any true Samyda with the lateral veins nearly so
numerous and approximate : it may be a Casearia, but this is ex-
tremely doubtful.

2. Banisteria and Hircea rest u2)on very imjjerfect materials.
They cannot be satisfactorily determined from Professor Heer's
figures. The same is also true of Coriaria.

3. PifeZea— resting upon single foliolae or indeed single leaves,
cannot be satisfactorily accepted in the absence of the dry and easily
preserved fi-uits. The leaflet figured as P. Weberi certainly much
resembles a lateral one of P. trifoliata. The genus is placed in
ZantJtoxylece by Dr. Hooker.

4. Sterculia tenuinervis, Heer, stated to resemble S. Labrusca,
Ung., and compared as to form and direction of the leaf-lobes with
S. (Firmiana) platanifolia, L. resembles the trilobate form of this
species very fairly. S. platanifolia, however, is not an American,
but a Chinese and Japanese plant. S. modesta is very doubtful.

5. Apeibopsis. With fruits 5 to 16-valved, and leaves described
as palmiuerved ; but none have been certainly identified with the
fruits. Notwithstanding Professor Heer's observations, I consider
the affinity of these remarkable fruits yet imsettled. Probably
imder this generic term two or more genera may be included. Tab.
cxviii., 23, resembles Hura ; fig. 27 an Aristolochia.

6. Neyundo, rests upon an uncertain identification

7. Pittosporum. — A determination of Ettingshausen's ; very
dubious, as Prof Heer observes, as to the Swiss specimen. Judging

* Origin of Species, p. .386. Vide, also De Candollc, Gcog. Bot. Kais. p. 519.

OLIVER ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS. 1G7

from Heer's figures it differs from Pittosjiorum in the absence of the
persistent base of the style, and perhaps also, of the lines of septa on
the dehisced valves.

8. LeguminoscB. — Many of the genera must be received with
much caution. I am not prepared to make any definite observation
upon them just now.

9. ^^<</e«^■«.— Excepting fig. 17, Tab. cviii. (a fragment) Prof
Heer's figures are unlike the genus, in the absence of a more decided
and continuous intramarginal vein. The two species described are
Unger's.

10. Melastomites. — Surely not Melastomaceous, failing the pro-
minent lateral nerves which almost always reach nearly to the apex
or rejoin the midrib.

11. Terminalia and Comhretum. — Both of these seem to me ex-
tremely dubious. C. europcBum is Weber's ; O. 'purpurewn of Vahl
{Poivrea coccinea) with which lie compares his plant, differs both in
form of leaf and venation. Often the base is not at all narrowed,
indeed almost subcordate, and the apex acute or subapiculate. In
the absence of the easily preserved winged fruits of many of the
Order, Combretaceae must be accepted with doubt.

12. Weinmminia. — One species resting on leaflets only and a
5-partite flower (?) must remain dubious.

13. Ceanothus. — A determination of "Weber's. Prof. Heer re-
gards it as doubtfid. I have compared liis figure of a leaf-fragment
Avith C. azureus, and I agree that it is very doubtful indeed.

14. Bumelia. — I have examined the species of the Hookerian
Herbarium, and doubt if the fossil plant have anything to do with
the genus.

15. Macreightia. — Thwaites finds an Ebenacea in Ceylon, with a
3-partite calyx, which he provisionally refers to Macreightia. M.
ohovata figured in Martins (Fl. brasil. Ebeu. Tab. ii.) has a calyx
totally different from Heer's plant, the lobes shorter or scarcely
equalling the tube. In other South American species which I have
seen, the calyx is distinctly gamosepalous ; least so iu a species in
which the calyx is very much smaller than that figured by Prof
Heer, whose plant seems indeed as likely to be a Maha as a
Macreightia.

16. Styrax. One species.— I have not seen >S'. Bensoin (with
which Prof Heer compares a leaf which he refers to the same species
as that affording his fruit) in fruit, but certainly the leaves of
Malacca specimens differ considerably from Heer's fig. 11 c. Tab.
ciii. in that they are not narrowed to the base, but are generally more
or less ovate or ovate-lanceolate. The transverse veins connecting
the secondary ones are remarkable in 8. Benzoin ; these are not re-
presented in the fossil leaf The fruit almost as nearly resembles
that of some species of Tilia as of Sty rax.

17. Clethra. — Foiuided, -udth doubt, on a portion of a leaf I
see nothing in C. alnifolia corresponding to the markiugs figured on

168 OEIGTNAL ARTICLES.

the fossil fragment. In some species the upper surface of the leaves
is beset with tufted or stellate hairs.

18. Apocynacece and AsclepiadecB. — Evidence does not appear suffi-
cient to show that both orders have been met with.

19. Liquid amhar. — Prof Heer's figs, h, c, d, Tab. Ixxxvii answer
very well to Liquidamhar fruits ; figs. 2 a and h, of Tab. li. however
jnay be something quite different, the carpels appearing to be almost
free and superior. The figure which Prof. Heer copies, with proper
acknowledgment, from Schnitzlein is worse than useless. Schnitz-
lein's figure seems to me to be copied or adapted from Hayne
(Gewachse, xi. 25). Both botanists figure the ovules, moreover, as
attached to the dorsal suture. The fruit is fairly represented by
Gaertner {De Fruct. xc. e.) and Lamarck (copied from the former),
Tab. 783, 2. Tlie fruits of four species are in the Kew Herbarium.

20. Pisonia. — This appears extremely doubtful. Tlie slender
object, fig. 48, Tab. cliii. borrowed from Ettingshausen, can scarcely
be a young fruit of Pisonia, tapered to so fine a point, without trace
of the upper part of the perianth.

21. Sassafras ^sculapii. — A doubtful member of the genus. Apart
from its entire outline, the leaf (Tab. xc. 14) seems too acute.

22. Persea Braimii, if a Laurel, I think as likely to find its
analogue in Asia as in America. P. Carolinejtsis, has proportionally
narrower leaves, and the secondary veins are hardly prominent
enough. P. Gratissima is, in some respects, more like P. Praunii,
but its petioles are longer. P. costata, Nees. is perhaps as near to
it as either. I do not find the same tendency to obovate outline in
P. indica.

23. ElceagnecB rest upon very insufficient data ; only leaf remains.

24. Euphorbia is extremely doubtful, also Eupliorhiophyllum, a
genus of Ettingshausen's.

25. Plataneae. — Prof. Heer, speaking of the Tertiary forms of
Platanus, (PI. Tert. ii. 74) says that if we refer existing forms to the
two species of Linnaeus, that found in the middle Miocene of
Radoboj (Croatia) may be compared to P. orientalis, while that of the
upper Miocene of Schossnitz (Silesia) and of the Swiss deposits, be-
longs to the P. occidentalis series. Dr. Hooker called my attention
to an observation of Miller in his " Grardener's Dictionary" (1731),
which it may be worth while copying. Of P. orientalis aceris folio,
he says, " * * although by some supposed to be a distinct species
from either of the former (P. orientalis and P. occidentalis) yet is
no more but a seminal variety of the first, for I have had many plants
which came up from the seeds of the first sort, which ripened in the
Physick Grarden (at Chelsea), which do most of them degenerate to this
third sort, which, in the manner of its leaves, seems to be difterent
from either, and might reasonably be supposed a distinct sort by
those who have not traced its original."

26. Artocarpus. {A. oeningensis.) This seems rather a Ficus
than an Artocarpus. Unger's Artocarpiditim would seem a very
doubtful member of the same order.

OLITEE OlSr THE ATLAKTIS HTPOTHESTS. 1G9

27. Ttrxodiiim.—Trof. Heei*'s T. duhium appears to me as near
to Olypfostrobus as to Taxodium, especially in the reduced squamreform
leaves, wliicli Taxodium (excepting T. distichum var. imhricaria , Natt.)
generally wants. The fragment, Tab. xvii. 1 and 4 (Flora Tert.) of
T. Fischeri is exceedingly like Glyptostrobus, as Heer observes. In
the Eoyal Grardens at Kew is a fine tree which I think may be the
Cwpressus disticha j3. nutans ; " foliis remotioribus subsparsis" of
Alton's " Hortus Kewensis." This tree is traditionally reported to
be of Japanese origin, though on no positive authority. It difters
conspicuously in the leaves, usually one-third to one-half longer
than in T. distichum, being irregularly disposed along the deciduous
branchlets, which are often G — 9 inches in length. The leaves are
not at all distichous.*

28. Libocedms. — In the absence of the strobili this genus must
be received with doubt.

29. Butomus. — Extremely ambiguous, resting on two opposite
carpels, each bearing a style. The only Aroid (Aronifes) is also
very doubtful, as Prof. Hecr admits.

30. Chamcerops and Sabal. — Tertiary fan-leaved species are re-
ferred to these recent genera, which are characterised thus (Flora
Tertiaria, p. 85). Chamcerops. — " Folia flabelliformia, palmato-mul-
tifida, radiis induplicativis ; omnibus e rhachide abbreviata, rotunda
exeuntibus ; petioli aculeati v. dentati." Sabal. — ^" Folia flabelli-
formia, palmato-multifida, n^diis induplicativis rhachis elongata,
infra cuspidata, supra cristata." Professor Heer says further, in the
genus Sabal we have an unarmed petiole, and the rhachis prolonged
into the laniina, on the upper side of which it terminates in a crest,
wanting in Chamcerops. In reference to these points, I have
examined several species in cultivation at Kew, and feel satisfied
that Professor Heer's distinctions are not of generic value.

In Ghamcerops excelsa and gracilis the petioles are unarmed.
The rhachis on the upper side of the fan is strongly crested in
Ch. Fortunei and Ch. gracilis. In the latter sjDecies the crest
projects from one half to five-eighths of an inch, perpendicular to
the lamina. The petiole of Ch. Fortunei is scarcely armed, being
serrate along the margins above. I do not find ChamcBrops to have
the rhachis much prolonged into the lamina on the underside, while in
some species of Sabal the prolongation is very marked. But this is
the case in Old World palms, which may be as nearly related to the
Tertiary plant as Sabal ; for example, a palm-leaf from the Grambia,
"West Africa, in the Kew Museum, has the rhachis bearing a small
triangidar crest above, while below it is prolonged some six inches.
In Hyphaena I have seen the rhachis in a young plant to be much
prolonged both above and below, and destitute of a crest.

* The GlyptoKtrolius of " Flora TerfAaria" appears near to G. hetei'ophtjllus.
"^'his species, however, has the squam£e of its stroboli bearing a triangular dorsal
apicuhis, patent or slightly reciu-ved, and the suleiof the margin alternate with wart-
like elevations. I do not observe these characters m Prof. Heer's figures.
N. H. R.— 1862. N

170 0EIC4TNAL AETICLES.

31. I observe tliat tlic Rev. M. Lowe in his excellent Manual
" Flora of Madeira" (pp. 249, 251), states it as his opinion that the
leaves figured by Prof. Heer in his Memoir on the Fossil Plants of
S. Jorge (Zurich, 1855), p. 28, t. ii. fig. 1, 2, under the name Corylus
australis, are impressions of terminal leaflets of Hub us discolor : Fig.
3 appears to be a leaflet of JR. gi'andifolius, and Heer's " JJlmu%
Saherosa, Moench,'''' t. i. f. 24, he regards as the impression of a
lateral leaflet of the same species. Tab. ii. f. 3, Corylus australis
and f. 28, Psoralea dentata, Dec. ? Mr. Lowe thinks most probably
are also Buhi.

XVII. — On the Anatomy of the Short Sun-fisii (Ortiika-
ooRiscus mola). By John Clelaud, M.D., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, University of Glasgow.

[Read at the Meeting of the British Association at Manchester, September 1861."|

The singular external configuration of the Short Sun-fish naturally
leads one to expect that the internal structure will present great
deviation fron the ordinary arrangements of parts in fishes ; and
such an expectation is more than fulfilled on dissection, by the
disclosure of peculiarities which extend to every system in the
economy.

It is now a number of years since Professor Goodsir read a
communication to the Wernerian Society on the anatomy of this
curious fish ; * and since then he has, at various times, had speci-
mens dissected under his superintendance, preparations of parts
preserved, and notes and di-awings taken. I had the good fortune,
while a demonstrator in his rooms, to make one of these dissections
in 1860, and on that occasion had the opportunity of examining
particularly the skeleton in the recent condition, the muscles and
the viscera. In prepai'ing the following description, drawn princi-
pally from that dissection, I have been indebted to Professor
Goodsir for placing at my disposal a series of notes on the
arrangement of the muscles, taken by Mr. Tm*ner, ou a former
occasion, as well as a number of drawings.

External Measurements.

The specimen dissected in ISGO measured 38 inches, from the
mouth to the tip of the tail. Of this distance, 7 inches belonged
to the caudal fin, and 12 wore in front of the pectoral ; so that
the trunk, behind the shoulder girdle, was only 19 inches long ;

* Read in 1840, and pul)lishcd in the Edinburgli New Philosophical Journal,
Vol. 30, p. 188.

CLELAISD OTT THE ANATOMY OP THE SHORT STTN-PISH. 171

while, Oil the other hand, the greatest height, exclusive of fins?,
was 24 inches. The pointed dorsal and anal fins, which stood
out nearly at right angles to the body, nieasiu'ed each 16 inches
in length, and, at their broadest parts, near their bases, 8 inches,
from before backwards.

Dermal Structures.

The structure of the integument, which was about an inch
thick over the trunk, has been specially studied by Mr. Tiu'ner,
whose description will be found below. It is separated from
the muscles, and from the abdominal cavity, by a strong aponeurosis.
At the origins of all the fins it becomes soft and loose, so as to
allow of their free movement. On the dorsal, anal, and pectoral
fins, it is reduced to a thin membrane, very difficult to detach ;
but on the caudal fin it retains a considerable thickness, and the
caudal fin rays must be dissected out from the dense matrix of
integument in which they are imbedded, before their course can
be displayed.

Besides the little spinous tubercles studded all over the skin,
there are several much larger sclerous tegumentary formations.
Arming the prominence which projects above the mouth, are one
large, and several smaller hard plates, as much as half an inch in
thickness ; and at the extremity of each caudal fin ray, is a half-
moon-shaped plate of the same kind, thick on the deep aspect,
and coming to an edge at the free margin. The deep asj^ects of
all these plates exhibit perforations of considerable size for vessels,
and an iiTegular arrangement of minute rounded projections.
The superficial aspect of those from the head is divided into
little areas, corresponding to the tubercles of the skin ; that of
the caudal plates presents tubercles, or sjiines, more irregular and
prominent than those on the general surface of the body.

Tliere is exhibited, by a vertical section of one of these plates, a
closely set vertical series of large, irregular, and on all sides inter-
communicating tubes, whose outlines are visible even to the naked
eye, and which are imbedded in a hyaline matrix.— (Pt. V. fig. 3).
These tubes are most regularly disposed towards the deep aspects
of the caudal plates, and most irregularly toward the free
extremities of the same. In the latter situation they are seen
frequently expanding into large irregular dilatations, into which
several of them open from difterent directions. The spines upon the
surfaces of the caudal plates are composed of the same translucent
structure as those projecting from the tubercles on the surface of
the general integument, and show in section the same striated
appearance. Toward the deep aspects of these spines, the tubes
in the neighbourhood tend to converge by free extremities ; and
isolated portions of the same structure as that of which the tubes
are composed, are seen like large cells, or strings of cells, of various

N 2

172 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

size, in tlie substance of a number of tlie spines. In water, or in
spirit, tlie tubes stand out with a rounded opaque appearance from
tlie clear matrix. They become clearer on the addition of liquor
l^otassce ; but when a diy section is placed in turpentine or Canada
balsam, they are rendered quite transparent \ so much so, that it is
advisable, before adding turpentine, to steep the specimen in a
potash solution of carmine, which dies the tubes, and leaves the
matrix uncoloured, save only at the part bounding the deep aspect,
where, there being less mineral deposition, and consequently a softer
texture, the staining is nearly uniform.

The clearing up of the tubes, on addition of turpentine, brings
into view in their interior, a great number of long, and generally
somewhat pointed crystals, lying for the most part transversely in
them, or nearly so. They are usually broader in the middle than at
their extremities, are not always perfectly straight, and are always
distinct from one another. Probably they are composed of carbonate
of lime. There are also some dark opaque masses, of irregidar size
and shape, scattered in both matrix a3±d'tuT)es.

That the tubes are to a certain extent hollow, is shown by the
great abundance of small bells of air which remain in them on
addition of turpentine. "While, on the other hand, that they are
not altogether hollow is certain, not merely from the small size of
the air bells, which remain distinct even when crowded thickly
together, are with difficulty expelled, and do not move about ; but
also, because transverse sections exhibit only some irregular perfora-
tions, while the cut ends of the tubes stain uniformly with carmine.
The large dilatations, above alluded to, however, are hollow in the
centre.

When sections of the plates are calcined, the contents of the tubes
are burned entirely away, and only the matrix remains, having suffered
just sufficient change to render it less transparent, and caj^able
of readily imbibing the carmine die.

The tubes have a somewhat irregularly nodulated outline, as if
composed of large cells placed end to end. Their contents have an
obscurely granular appearance, which becomes more distinct towards
the deep aspects of the plates, where one can even distinguish in
them bodies like small cells. In sections steeped in nitric acid,
which removes the mineral matter with effervescence, the granular
appearance of the contents of the tubes comes out much more
strongly, while the matrix and superficial spines appear structureless.

In turpentine the matrix exliibits, at many places, a number of
irregularly matted fine black lines, somewhat resembling those which
may be seen in calcifications of fibrous tumours. They are found
most abundantly ami closely felted beneath the bases of the super-
ficial spines.

"When the structure of the dermal plates, now described, is
compared with that of the general integumeut it becomes apparent,
I think, that the former structm*e is derived from the latter, by

CLELAND ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SHOET SUN-FISIT. 173

altered aiTangemont of its parts, deposition of mineral matter, and
increased A-ascularity. To say that the tubes in the plates are
developed from series of communicating cells, is only to hazard a
conjectui-e ; but their granular contents, no doubt, correspond to tho
abundant interstitial substance in the meshes of the integument ;
while the fibrous element composing these meshes is fully repre-
sented in the matrix of the dermal plates. A minute injection of a
recent specimen is greatly to be desired to show the arrangement of
that great vascularity Avhich is indicated by the large canals for
vessels. We might then be able to form a comparison of the
relations of the dermal plates to the integument of the sun-fish on
the one hand, A\ith those of boue to cartilage on the other.

Anatomy of the Trunk.

The skeleton of the sun-fish can only be properly examined in
the recent state, on account of the important part played in its
formation by large masses of cartilage (Pt. V. fig. 1.) The osseous part
consists of a peculiar fibrous modification of bone, for the most part
soft and spongy. It is composed of a network of fibrous laminae,
liardened by deposition of mineral matter, and imbedded in car-
tilage remarkable for the small size of its coi'puscles. It has been
described by Leydig.*

The osseous vertebrae are 16 in number, 8 abdominal and 8 caudal.
I say the osseous vertebrse, because beyond the sixteenth there
is, at least in some specimens, a cartilaginous element, of somewhat
ambiguous morphological value. The basioccipital bone projects so
far behind the other bones of the skull, that it is liable on a cursory
glance to be mistaken for the fii-st vertebra, a mistake into which
Wellenbergh has fallen.f The neural arch of the fii'st vertebra pro-
jects forward and overlaps the basioccipital bone, while those of the
third and fourth vertebrae slope almost directly backwards ; that
of the second is therefore prolonged into two processes, one passing
horizontally forwards over the first, and the other horizontally back-
wards, over the third. The first dorsal interspinous bone lies in
front of the iifth vertebra. The neural arches of the succeeding
vertebrae, as far as the foiu:'teenth, become more and more vertical,
and have intercalated between them, so as to fill up the intervening
spaces, the expanded extremities of huge interspinous bones. The
neural arch of the fifteenth vertebra is prolonged into a cylindi'ical
process, which incKnes forward, and abuts against the corresponding
process of the vertebra in front. The sixteenth vertebra is a simple
bone which gives ofl" no processes whatever.

The haemal arches of the caudal vertebrae are all prolonged into

* Leydig, Lehrbuch d. Histologic, § 151.

t Wellenbergh, Observationcs Aiiatomicac de Orthragorisco mola. Lugd.
Bat. 1840.

174 OEiaiNAL ABTICLES.

long cylindrical processes, striking nearly vertically downwards.
The first is in contact, at its extremity, with the second.

There are no traces of any transverse processes, nor are there
any ribs. Along the middle lateral line a strong fibrous septum
runs, attached, on the one hand, to the vertebral column, on the
other, to the subcutaneous aponeurosis.

The dorsal interspinous bones are fourteen in number, and,
except the first, are flattened out, and in mutual contact at their
vertebral extremities, cylindrical and free in the distal half of their
extent. Their distal extremities are inserted into a large bolster-like
mass of cartilage, deeply grooved on its sides for the tendons of the
fin muscles. The first of the series is closely articulated to the
second, is pointed at both extremities, and projects a process
forwards which gi\es attachment to the tendon of a muscle coming
from the occiput.

The interspinous bones of the anal fin, eleven in number, are
most of them shaped similarly to those of the dorsal fin, but are
much longer, and not prolonged so much between the vertebral
processes. Their distal extremities, which are inserted into a large
mass of cartilage, similar to those of the dorsal fin, are twice as far
removed as they from the vertebral column. The first of the series
is a huge shafted bone, connected at its proximal end with the
ha-nial spines of the first and second caudal vertebra^, and at its
distal end bifui'cated ; evidently, therefore, to be looked on as
equivalent to two interspinous bones run together. The tenth and
eleventh are very small, and abut against the ninth.

There are seventeen rays in the dorsal fin, sixteen in the anal.
The two fins are as like one another as possible. One description
will suffice for both. Each ray is composed of a pair of slender
bones, placed one on each side of a block of cartilage. The most
anterior of these blocks is shoi-t and very thick, the succeeding four
or five get rapidly longer and are not so stout, and the remaining
ones dwindle quickly both in length and thickness. They are
closely compacted together in one firm mass. The fin rays that
enter into the formation of the anterior edge of the fin, end in stout
points, so as to make that edge unyielding ; biit the bony elements
of the remaining rays are prolonged beyond the cartilaginous
foundations, and split up into fibres which bend backwards and
spread in a thin fold of integument which forms the yielding
posterior edge of the fin.

The structure of the tail is more remarkable still. It has eleven
fin rays, and as many corresponding interspinous bones, viz., five
superior and six inferior. The proximal extremities of the inter-
spinous bones approach one another, and abut on the posterior edges
of the ascending and descending processes of the fifteenth vertebra :
their distal extremities diverge, and, at the two ends of the series, are
in continuation with those of tlie dorsal and anal fins ; while, in the
middle of the series, they are in a line with the tip of the sixteenth

CLELAND ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SHORT SUN-FISH. 175

vertebra, wliicli itself looks like an interspinous bone. Each
iuterspiuous bone is connected distally with a little mass of cartilage
marked by a groove for a tendon; and these masses are joined
together by a thin cartilaginous thread : the uppermost and lower-
most are also joined, in the same way, to the great cartilages suj)-
portiug the dorsal and anal fins ; and the chain is completed by a
similar little mass coiTcsponding to the tip of the last vertebra,
joined to the masses above and below it, and differing from the
others only in not being gi-ooved for any tendon. Each caudal ray
consists of a broad conical cartilage in contact wdth the cartilage
terminating the corresponding interspinous bone, on each side of
which springs a slender osseous sli^), which comes in contact with its
neighbour of the opposite side, and pursues its way through the
dense integument, to terminate opposite one of those hard plates
w^hose structure has been already described. As the dorsal, caudal,
and anal fins are continuous, this mode of termination of the rays of
the latter affords the only definite line of distinction between them
and those of the former. Either from neglecting this circumstance,
or from a variation of the number in different specimens, Welleu-
bergh has allotted thirteen rays to the tail.

Lying in the same range as the cartilaginous bases of the fin rays,
and differing from them only in being broader at the point, and
having no osseous ray, there is, in the specimen from w^hich I
describe, a cartdage corresponding to the end of the vertebral
column (Pt. V. fig. 1, i.) ; and notwithstanding that it has no osseous
ray, there is a small hard plate opposite it in the margin of the tail.
This cartilage and the smaller one which supports it are not placed
quite opposite the extremity of the sixteenth vertebra, but are
displaced sHghtly upwards, resembling, in this respect, the upwardly
inclined last vertebra of other osseous fishes. The claims of these
two cartilages to be grouped with the chain of vertebrae, ajjpear to
me to be indisputable. In that case the smaller cartilage must be
looked on as an intervertebral disc.

However we may theorize on the matter, the facts are these :
that if we pass the eye backwards along the vertebral coliunn, we
find the two cartilages in question continuous with the series of
bodies of vertebrae ; while if we pass the eye from the dorsal, round
by the caudal, to the anal fin, we find that the sixteenth vertebra lies
in the series of interspinous bones, that the succeeding cartilage
forms part of the continuous cartilage on which the interspinous
bones abut, and that the terminal cartilage Kes in the series of
cartilaginous bases of fin rays. The importance of these peculiar
arrangements, as tending to throAV light upon the structiu'e of the
fan-shaped bone which terminates the spinal column of most fishes,
is noted by Professor GoodsLr, in his paper already referred to.
But perhaps the most curious and important point, as exhibiting how
great is the amount of variation possible among individuals of one
s])ecies, is the inconstancy of the cartilages terminating the spinal

176 ORiaiNAL AETICLES.

column. They were present in the specimen described by Mr.
Groodsir, who mentions tliem as seventeenth and eighteenth vertebrae ;
and, in that instance, they appear to have been both in a dii'cct line
with the vertebral column. On the other hand, in another specimen,
of the tail of which Mr. Groodsir has preserved a cast, the eleven
caudal fin rays are placed exactly opposite the corresponding
interspinous bones, but in their series there is no cartilage corres-
ponding to the end of the vertebral column. In an additional
specimen, from which a driii'd skeleton has been, this winter, pre-
pared for Mr. Goodsir, by his former pupil, Mr. Eamsay Traquair,
who has taken particular care with reference to this point, the
caudal rays are of the same number as the interspinous Ijones, but
are not placed opposite to their extremities : that which corres-
ponds to the interspinous bone immediately below the sixteenth
vertebra is placed opposite the extremity of the vertebral column,
and its two osseous slips separate, one to join the ray above, the
other to join the ray below ; while the extremities of these rays con-
verge to a common dermal plate, which obviously consists of at least
two fused together. Lastly, Wellenbergh's sketch, taken from a di'ied
skeleton, exhibits two fin rays placed closely together opposite the
end of the vertebral column, their extremities converging to two
dermal plates closely united.

Muscles of tie Trunk.— {7t. VI. fig. 2). The peculiarity of the
develo])mcnt of the muscles of the trunk, consists in the almost
total disappearance of all except those of the fins, which are of
enormous size. This was first pointed out by Professor Goodsir.
Meckel, indeed, describes the muscles of the sun-fish,* but his
description is not at all accurate.

The muscular masses which move the dorsal and anal fins extend
upwards and do\vnwards from the middle lateral line. They are
both very much stronger at the fore j^art than behind. That
belonging to the dorsal fin is prolonged forwards along the whole
length of the trimk to the back of the skull ; while that belonging
to the anal fin presents an abrupt anterior margin at the back of
the abdominal ca\ity. As the middle lateral line is only half as far
removed from the dorsal as from the anal fin, and as the two fins are
of equal size, the greater vertical space available for muscles of the
latter is compensated for by the greater antero-posterior space
occupied by those of the former. Behind and in contact with those
two sets of muscles, is a fim-shaped arrangement of distinct muscles,
ending in tendons, one going to each caudal ray. Here, also, we find
that, on account of the position of the middle lateral line, the
muscles to the superior caudal rays, take origin diflerently from
those of the inferior rays : for, while the latter arise only from the
corresponding interspinous bones, and that part of the penultimate

* Meckel, Comparative Anatomy. French Edition. Vol. v, p. 184.

CLELAISTD ON TUE ANATOMY OF THE SllOUT SUN-FISH. 177

ossseous vertebra, against which each abuts, aa well as from the
superficial aponeurosis; the former arise, in addition, for some
distance along the fibrous septum of the middle lateral line, and
overlap the posterior muscles of the dorsal fin.

The muscles of the dorsal and anal fins demand a more detailed
description. The individual muscles of which they are composed
are not entirely distinct ; they run into one another to a certain
extent ; but they are arranged on a definite plan ; and this plan is
the same in both. The typical arrangement is this : each muscle
consists of two triangular laminfe, a superficial and a deep, con-
nected anteriorly by a tendon directed obliquely backwards, and
incloses between its layers the succeeding muscle, Avhile it is itself
similarly surrounded by the muscle in front. Its posterior fibres are
longest and most vertical, and form the base of the triangle ; the
most anterior fibres are short and oblique, forming the apex.
(Pt. VI. fig. 3), The superficial lamina arises principally from the
fibrous septum of the lateral line ; but, at its posterior part, where
it extends beyond the muscle in front, it arises also from the
superficial aponeurosis. The deep lamina arises from the interspi-
nous bones and intervening processes of vertebrae.

The tendons after quitting the muscles become more vertical, and
lie in very loose watery areolar tissue till they reach the cartilaginous
piUows at the extremities of the interspinous ranges. They are then
received into deep perpendicular grooves which are completed into
tubes by the tough integumentary tissue. Mr. Turner, in his notes,
describes an arrangement by which the tendons are lubricated in these
tubes : viz. a very loose and watery areolar tissue confined in sittt, by a
thin but dense layer of membrane which lines the tube, extends beyond
it, and is reflected thence to the surface of the tendon, like the theca of
a tendon in the human subject, for example. Of course the most an-
terior muscles, especially of the dorsal fin, deviate a good deal from
what is here given as the characteristic arrangement, but generally
there is the same pennate disposition of fibres, and the same sheath-
ing of one muscle within another.

To the joints and movements of the dorsal and anal fins Mr.
Groodsir particularly directs my attention. He points out that,
while in fishes generally there is a distinct joint for each interspinous
bone and fin ray, and each of the latter moves independently ; in the
■sun-fish the cartilaginous bases of the dorsal and anal fin rays
respectively are compacted together to form a single body, trans-
versely convex, which moves in one mass in a corresponding
concavity of the cartilaginous pillow, the surfaces being lubricated
by watery connective tissue, such as has already been referred to.

Instead of beiag compound organs whose motions are the
result of the harmonious movements of the constituent simple
organs, the dorsal and anal fins of the sun-fish are each a single
organ, moving on a single joint. As regards the method of their
movements : — the sun-fish being destitute of a great lateral muscle

178 ORIGINAL ATtflCLES.

by whicli to wield its vertebral column as an instrument of pro-
gression, is, apart from the undulatory movements of its short tail,
which probably acts principally as a rudder, entirely dependent on
its dorsal and anal fins. But a mere lateral movement of these,
caused by the contraction of a whole muscular mass first on one side
and then on the other, would not produce progression ; and indeed
(as it appears to me) the integument is too unpliable to admit of
such contraction. The movement is doubtless a feathering one,
a combination of flexion and rotation ; and, that Avhich determines
the movements so as to produce progression is the greater strength
of the muscular masses anteriorly. It may be conceived thus : let the
most posterior muscles of the dorsal fin on one side be contracted,
and at the same time the anterior muscles of the opposite side : the
former will fix the hinder angle of the fin to their own side of the
joint ; while the latter, being much stronger, will not only drag the
anterior angle of the fin to the other side, but will also flex it, so that
the fin will strike the Avater backwards. Let us now suppose that
the muscular contraction passes forwards in a wave on one side, and
at the same time backwards on the other, and so round and round :
the fin will administer a series of strokes backwards, alternately on
one side and the other. If the anal fin be moved in the same
manner so as always to be vertical to the dorsal, the action will be a
very regular one. Wlien we understand that the fins are thus moved
by a continuous wave of contraction travelling along their muscles,
we are also enabled to see the advantage of the individual muscles
being expanded and sheathed each one within that in front : for, by
this an'angement, the fibres contracted at any one moment are
scattered over as great a space as possible ; the muscular mass
will therefore midergo but little change in form as the wave passes
along it, and will so accommodate itself to the imyielding limits of
the space in which it is contained.

There is an additional small muscle in connexion with the dorsal
fin, so small that its action nuist be very slight. (Pt. V. fig. 1, e.)
It is so closely in contact, in the middle line, with its fellow of the
opposite side as to be in appearance one with it, and stretches from
the tip of the supraoccipital to the first dorsal interspinous bone.
Mr, Tiu-ner pointed it out to me : he had described it in his notes.
It consists of a small muscular belly, prolonged back into a long
tendon, like the plantaris in man, and exists with the same attach-
ments in other fishes, only in them it is muscular throughout.

There are only two small vestiges of the abdominal muscles, so
small that they have been hitherto ujidetected. One of them,
(Pt. VI. fig. 2, e) arises on the lower half of the shoulder-girdle from
the " idna : " its fibres were, in the specimen now described, less than
two inches long ; and the majority terminated abruptly on the mem-
brane over the abdominal cavity ; only a very few of the superior
ones being continued into meagre tendons which passed up to the
" clavicle." The other abdominal muscle (Pt. VI. fig. 2, d),

CLELAND ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SHORT SUN-FISH. 179

tendiuously from the tip of tho " clavicle :" its musciilar fibres are
very sparse, about three or four inches loii^, and are directed
downwards and bacliAvards, and prolonged into scattered tendinous
fibres Avhich are lost on the subcutaneous aponeurosis at the lower
and back part of the abdominal cavity.

Besides these two insignificant muscles which cover only a trifling
part of its extent, there is nothing but a membrane betAveen the
abdominal cavity and the integument.

Superficial iympTiatic and veins. — A very large lymphatic vessel
was observed in the subcutaneous aponeurosis, in the middle lateral
line. It extended nearly as far back as the posterior margin of the
dorsal fin, and there received a branch from above, and another from
behind, and continued its course directly dowTiwards till within a
little distance of the anal fin, then passed forwards, always becoming
broader, flatter, and weaker in the Avails, till, at the posterior margin
of the abdominal cavity, it was lost sight of, and probably poured its
contents into some of the lymphatic lacunae surrounding the viscera,
to be afterAvards described.

The blood from the neighbourhood of the dorsal and anal fins
was returned principally by two superficial veins from each, AA'hich
continued superficial until near the middle lateral line. Each of
these veins received its branches from precisely the same district as
its neighbour, so that there was much crossing of branches, and
even the main trunks of the ascending pair crossed one another ia
contact, but always AAathout anastomosis, as far as was observed.

Nervous system. — The brain and spinal cord of the sun-fish have
been described and figured by Arsaky {Be Piscium cerelro et
medulla spinalis. Salle, 1813, p. 5), whose work I have not as yet seen;
but his description is referred to, and a sketch given from his
drawing, in Cams' Comparative Anatomy. I have had an oppor-
tunity of verifying Arsaky's description as regards the extreme
shortness of the spinal cord. The spinal canal is occupied only by a
Cauda equina, which is made up of nerves Avhich can be traced up all
the way to within the cranial cavity, behind which there is no spinal
cord.

On the other hand, as if to supply, to some extent, the gan-
glionic functions of the sj)inal cord, there is a pecuHar arrangement
outside the spinal canal, tln-oughout the whole length of tho abdo-
minal cavity. As each nerve emerges from the canal, it mal<es for
the abdommal aspect of the fibrous septum of the middle lateral
line, and presents a larger or smaller gangiiform enlargement, and
commmiicates with the nerves in front and behind it by a branch to
each, larger than its branches of distribution. Thus a cord runs
from the vagus to the first spinal nerve, from the first to the second,
and so on. In like manner also the trigeminal, branchial, and vagus
nerves appear to be united.

180 ORiaiNAL ARTICLES.

AlfATOMT OF THE HeAD A^D ShOFLDEHS.

(Pt. VI. fig. 1.) Tlie bones of the skull exhibit nothing very re-
markable in their number and relations, but present some peculiarities
of proportion. The supraoccipital bone lies a long way in front of
the back part of the basioceipital, and, on the other hand, the mouth
is projected forwards by the combined intermaxillaries being placed
entirely in front of the nasal (Owen's), not overlapping it, but moving
rather after the fashion of a parrot's beak.

As regards the base of the skull : the basisphenoid is powerfully
developed, presenting considerable vertical thickness ; and the vomer
is very small, and lies underneath the fore part of the nasal. The
bones of the roof of the skull are particularly thick and spongy. Tho
supraoccipital and paroccipitals are small, and each developed into a
pointed process directed backwards. The nasal is broad and square,
and is inseparably attached to the anterior extremity of the
primordial cranium. Tlie great frontals lie quite free on the surface
of the latter ; and, as they present no serrated sutures, dro]) easily
separate from each other and the rest of the skull, when laid bare.
They form the greater part of the roof of the skull, and, projecting
as they do, as fiir back as the exoccipitals, they drive the postfrontals
and mastoids still further back. The latter extend back a long Avay.

As regards the lateral wall : the exoccipitals, look almost directly
baclvwards and are perforated for the vagus ; and in front of tliem
is the disputed bone called alisphenoid by Professor Owen, petrous
by Professors Groodsir and Huxley, and wliich, in this instance,, is
perforated for the branchial nerve.*

In front of this is a large foramen which transmits the trigeminal
and optic nerves ; and which is bounded above by the orbitosphenoid
of Owen — the alisphenoid of Goodsir and Huxley, and in front by
the mesially situated bone of the interorbital sej^tum, which, how-
ever, only invades the posterior half of the septum, the rest
remaining cartilaginous.

The prefrontals are very far separated, being, on each side, in an
angle between the great frontal and nasal, and perforated, as usual,

* For my own part, I am quite satisfied that the petrous hone of the cod is re-
pi'escntcd in tlie carp by that part of the cxoccipital whicli gives passage to the
branchial nerve, while in the sun-fish the same element, giving passage to the same
nerve, fomis one bone along with the alisphenoid, and is the posterior jiart of the
■bone dcscril)cd in the text. This variation in the development of an osseous clement
is quite parallel to what we know with regard to the internnixillary bone in the
human subject, which is normally developed from the maxillary, but, in cases of
cleft palate, is found in front of the vomer. As to the detemiination of the ali-
sphenoid and orbitosi)henoid, 1 follow Professor Owen's view, being particularly
convinced of its accuracy by the arrangement in the skull of Jlalopterurus, where
the orbitosphenoid is rendered unquestionable by being conq>lctcIy jicrforated by the
optic nerve. — See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, October, 1858.

CLELAKD ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SnORT SUN-FISH. ISl

by the olfactory nerves, which almost immediately afterwards pierce
the skin to supply the extremely minute nostrils, situated about an
inch in front of the eyes.

The osseous texture of the bones behind the trigeminal nerve
extends inwards to the cranial cavity. Both on the external and
internal aspect they have regular edges which come almost in contact,
but in the thickness of the wall there is a greater quantity of
persistent cartilage than bone.

On inspecting the interior of the cranium, I find, strange to say,
that there are no otoliths at all, and that each ear has only two
semicircular canals, which ai'e, however, of great length.* The
small vestibulary sacs of opposite sides are united by a slender tube.
Thus it appears that, of the three principal organs of special sense
in the sun-fish, two are very imperfectly developed, while the re-
maining one — the eye — is very large, its globe being, in the specimen
described, more than an inch and a half in diameter.

Concerning the face bones little need be said. On account of
the small size and projecting position of the jaws, the palatals and
pterygoids are very short, while the tympanic series (of Owen) and
the preoperculum are very elongated. The palatals send backwards
long processes on the sides of the basisphenoid, which supj)ort them
against the pressure of the maxillaries. The epitympanic articulates
not only with the mastoid and postfrontal, but also with the
alisphenoid.

The bones of the opercular range are three in number. "Wellen-
bergh could find only two, and contradicts Meckel who describes
three ; but Meckel is right. The operculum is very small ; its
breadth does not exceed that of the joint on which it moves. The
interoperculum is slightly dilated above to lay hold of tlie operculum,
and is prolonged down as a linear process, which is continued into
a ligament which, concealed by the preoperculum, is directed toward
the angle of the lower jaw. The suboperculum is a mere linear
ossification contained in this ligament.

The shoulder-girdle is very large in proportion to the head. There
is no suprascapular bone. The elongated scapula articulates im-
mediately with the mastoid. To the lower half of the coracoid is
attached the " ulna ;" and against the upper border of this abuts a
roAv of small bones which support the pectoral fin. These bones are
four in number ; they lie in a row, are similarly related to the fin,
and are very like each other in general appearance, especially the
most anterior two of them. Tet, the first of them is related to the
coracoid and " ulna " exactly as is the " radius " in the cod, and, like

* Professor Goodsir has pointed out to me that the ear in Petromyzon has like-
wise only two semicircular canals. In Bddlostoma and Mya-inc the membranous
vestibule is reduced to a ring. In none of these genera are any otoliths found.
See Miiller " Ucbcr den eigenth. Bau des Gchbrorganes bei den Cyclostonien.'
Berlin, 1838.

182 OEIOINAL ARTICLES.

it, allows passage to a large nerve for the depressors of the fin, by
the space between it and the " nlna." (I merely make this obser-
vation without endeavouring to draw any morphological conclusion.)
The " clavicle " is very remarkable. It articulates mth the coracoid
and scapula, and passes downwards and backwards in continuation
of the direction of the latter to a point a little beyond the carpal
range. There it terminates in a joint, and sends back a barb-like
process which lies outside the two last carpal bones, so as completely
to fix that range in the plane from before backwards.

The pectoral fin has twelve rays, which are based on cartilages,
on the same principle as the other fins. It is worked by four
muscles, two of whicli, arising one from the external, the other from
the internal surface of the " ulna," respectively depress and elevate
it ; while the other two, arising, one from the lower part of the
coracoid, to be inserted along with the tendons of the depressor,
the other from the upper part of the coracoid, to be inserted with
the tendons of the extensor, more especially serve to rotate it.

A]S"ATOMT OP THE ViSCEEA.

The Abdominal cavity. — There is a general peritoneal cavity. Tlie
intestines are coiled closely together, and the coiled mass is sur-
rounded by one tight in\'estment of peritoneum with an appearance
of muscular fibres in its substance. The general arrangement of the
peritoneum is very simple. A mesenteric fold arises along the
whole length of the superior and posterior margins of the abdominal
cavity, beginning in front where the oesophagus enters the abdomen,
and suspending it and the stomach by their dorsal margin from the
superior wall, and the coil of intestines from the posterior. The
right and left layer of peritoneum, after iuA'csting the stomach, meet
beneath it, and pass down to the liver and invest it, and again
beneath the liver a fold of peritoneum surrounds the vessels which
pass between it and the intestines. The intestinal coil is in addition
connected with the right edge of the liver by a special short stout
ligament of peritoneum. (Pt. VI. fig. 2, /!) A distinct and free
funnel of pex'itoneum surrounds the vessels entering the cardiac
cavity from the li^'er.

The liver occupies about half the bulk of the abdomen. It con-
sists principally of left lobe ; but in front it passes imder the stomach,
and slightly to its right side, so as to form a small right lobe. From
the two lobes, two hepatic veins pass directly from the liver into the
auricle of the heart : they enter side by side, with about an inch
between them, and the left is three or four times the diameter of the
right. There is a large gall bladder with a long gall duct which
opens into the cavity of the stomach itself (Ft. V. fig. 2.) The
spleen is small and compact ; it lies between the liver and stomach.

Tlie stomach and intestines have very strong muscular walls like
a turtle's, in compensation for the absence of muscular abdominal

CLETtAOT) ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SHORT SUN-FTSH. 183

walls. On cutting into tlie investing bag of the intestinal coils, a
bloody looking fluid pours out, and the interstices between the coils
are seen to be occupied by numerous loculi varying in size and in
the consistence of their walls. These were traced upwards on the
stomach, and found to pour their contents into an arrangement of
very large sinuses on the sides of the cesophagus as it entered the
abdomen, — the sinuses of Monro.

In the fluid contained in these loculi, Mr. Turner, after ex-
amining it microscopically, notes that he observed " numerous small
pale corpuscles about the size of and a little smaller than the white
blood corpuscles of man. Each of these corpuscles exhibited finely
granular contents. No decided nucleus was visible. The outlines
of the corpuscles were irregular."

The stomach extends the greater part of the length of the abdo-
minal cavity. It is merely a slightly dilated part of the alimentary
canaL (Pt. V. fig. 2.) At its pyloric extremity there is a slight
curvature and a momentary constriction, followed by a thick part of
the intestine which soon enters the common sac. The intestine
makes about six coils forward and back again, these coils being of
various length and rolled on one another. The first coils are on the
left side. The upper part of the intestine is most dilated ; in the
middle of its course it becomes small ; and again it is dilated above
the rectum. Throughou.t its whole extent its membrane is finely
reticulated ; but this appearance is in some parts concealed by the
length of the villi. The villi are longest in the part immediately
following the stomach, in the middle of the course of the intestine,
and in the rectum. The commencement of Avhat I call the rectum
is marked, about seven inches from the anus, by a circular fold or
valve of the mucous membrane, one and a half lines deep. There are
longitudiual rugse above this; below it the rugas are transverse.
The arteries of the stomach and intestine are derived from a trunk
Avhich comes ofi' from the aorta before entering the abdominal cavity.
The veins fall into the liver.

The urinary bladder and the single ovary receive their blood by an
artery given off" from the aorta immediately before lea\iug the
abdomen and which accompanies the ureter. They return it by a A^ein
which runs along the whole length of the abdomen in the fold of
peritoneum above the stomach. The ureter enters the bladder near
the upper end, on the anterior aspect, by an elongated slit. (Pt. V. fig.
2, e.) It arises by two branches, one from each kidney. The kidneys
lie in contact behind, but are quite distinct ; they are most bulky
behind ; in front they are each prolonged forwards above a fibrous
septum which attaches the scapula and the branchial pouch to the
vertebrae. The great vein returning the blood from the tail divides,
immediately on reaching the abdomen, into two branches, which enter
the kidneys, and ramify within them. It was not satisfactorily
ascertained whether or not there was any direct communication
between the veins entering the kidneys and those leaving them. The

184 OEIGrN-AL ARTICLES.

latter pass in front of the fibrous septvim above mentioned, and run
down, one on each side of the commencement of the Q3So])hagiis,
being joined, doubtless, by the veins from the head, and fall into
the heart side by side.

The heart is veiy perfectly supplied with valves. Wellenbergh
has described those of the bulbus arteriosus, viz., four in niunber,
two of them large, and two small ones intercalated between them ;
and also the four semilunar valves which prevent regurgitation into the
auricle. The latter he describes as equal : in my specimen there
are two of them large, and the intervening ones not half the size.
Besides these there are other three semilunar valves guarding the
openings of the veins into the aiu-icle, and joined edge to edge Avith
one another, viz., one for each hepatic vein, and a very large and
muscular one over the entrance of the two systemic veins.

Branchial cavity. — The gills on each side are enclosed in a large
pouch, opening on the outside by an opercular ajoertui-e only two
inches long; and internally by five apertures about the same length,
of which the first is in front of the first branchial arch, and the last
between the fourth branchial arch and the pharyngeal bone. The pouch
extends down to the middle line, and upwards almost to the ver-
tebral column, and is surrounded almost comj)letely by strong
muscles.

From the preceding sketch of the anatomy of the sun-fish, it
will be observed that the leading characteristic of its structiu'e is
concentration. Thus the head and shoulders are greatly developed,
while the trunk is cut short : of lateral fins it has only one pair, the
pectorals : of the mesial fins it only depends upon two for progression,
and each of these is compacted into a single organ. Thus also as
regards its nervous system, the origins of its spinal nerves arc acumu-
lated behind the brain ; and as regards its organs of sense, the
olfiietory organ and the ear are very imperfect, while the eye is
extremely large.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate V. — Fig. \. View of the skeleton of tlic short snn-fish t-alien from a cast.
a, is placed under the first vertebra, the bone in front of which is the basioccipital:
h, the cartilage corresponding t(j the extremity of the vertebral colnmn; -while aliovc
and l)elow it are arranged the caudal fin rays, each consisting of a cartilage, osseous
slip and dermal plate: c, cartilaginous ])illow on which the dorsal fin moves: //, that
on which the anal fin moves: e, attrahent muscles of tiie dorsal lin: f, muscles of
the o]iposite side of the dorsal fin: g, muscles of the opjwsite side of the anal fin.

Fig. 2. View of the intestines lying in their natural coils, but divested of tlie
covering of peritoneum which encloses them, a, tha stomach: b, the gall-bladder:
c, the urinary bladder, partially opened to exhibit the longitudinal slit by which d,
the ureter, ojiens into it : e, the ovary.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of a portion of one of the dermal phites which
terminate the caudal fin rays. The inferior margin of the figure rejiresents the
aspect which is imbedded in the integument, showing the elevations on its surface ;
while, toward the left side, is a jiortion of the free margin, with the section carriecl
through a .spine ; and at the upper part of the same margin is shown the felted

CLELAND ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SHOUT SFN-ETSH. 185'

arrangcniciit of fibres, mentioned in the text. The manner in which tlie crj'stals
lie in the tubes is exhibited.

Plate VI — Fig. 1. Skeleton of the head and shoulder, a, supraoccipital bone ;
h, paroccipital ; e, fi-ontal ; d, nasal ; e, prefrontal ; ./', bone of the interorbital
septum; r/, orbitosphcnoid ; /, alisiihenoid ; li, postfrontal ; /, mastoid ; wj, scapula ;
n, coracoid; o, ulna; j), the bone described ui the text as belonging to the row of
cari)al bones, yet corresponding to the radius in its relations to the coracoid and
idna ; q, the bone called clavicle ; r, intermaxillaiy ; s, maxillary ; t, palatal ;
V, dental, articular, and angular portions of the lower jaw; w, entopterygoid ;
x^ hy]iotympanic ; y, mesotym])anic ; z, epitympanic ; 1, operculum ; 2, prcoper-
culum, beyond whose posterior and anterior margins are seen projecting the
intero]>erculum and suboperculum.

Fig. 2. View of the muscles a, muscles of dorsal fin ; h, muscles of anal
fin; c,c, are placed opposite the most su]ierior and most inferior muscles of the
caudal fin; rl, small abdominal muscle, arising from the tip of the clavicle, and
resting on the jieritoneum; e, the other small abdominal muscle, arising from the
ulna, and likewise resting on the peritoneum. The peritoneum is torn open
inferiorly, so as to exhibit the inferior margin of the liver, and the intestines sur-
rounded by their common investment, together with, y, the peritoneal ligament con-
necting the liver and intestines; rj, the vent.

Fig. 3. A few of the individual muscles of the left side of the anal fin, showing
how each muscle is sheathed by that in front, and how the tendons pass into the
grooves, and are there invested with sheaths.

XVIII.— On the Structure and Composition of the Integu-
ment OF the Oetheagoriscus mola. By William Turner,
M.B. (LoncL), r.E..S.E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy,
University of Edinburgh.

Seteral noteworthy peculiarities, both structural and chemical,
are presented hy the integument of the short sun-fish. These I had
an opportunity of examining, not only in the specimen dissected by
Dr. Cleland, but in one dissected a few years ago by Professor
Goodsir and myself The skin of the latter varied in its thickness
in different parts of the body of the animal, from not more than a
quarter of an inch to four or five inches. In one examined many
years ago by Mr. Groodsir, which was a remarkably large fish, it
reached in places as much as six inches.* The great thickness of the
slun was produced by an opaque, white, tough and resisting structm-e,
which extended from the tubercle-covered surface of the integument
to the loose areolar tissue lying between it and the muscles. WTien
blocks of this white structure were cut off, and set on one side for a
short time, a considerable quantity of a pale straw-coloured, serous-
looking fluid drained off" from them, so as greatly to diminish their

* In the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. 30, p. 188, Mr. Goodsir gives an
account of the microscopic characters of the skin of this specimen, which he dis.se<t3d
in 1840. but as he only employed a doublet in the examination, the description is
necessarily an imperfect one.

N. H. R,— 1862. O

186 OKIGIKAL ARTICLES.

size. This fluid heated, either alone, or with nitric acid, gave a
flocculent albuminous precipitate. It contained no oil, and exhibited
when allowed to cool, after being heated, no tendency to gelatinizatiou.
Wlieu portions of the white structure were heated in their own
fluid, in a water bath, and then allowed to cool, gelatinizatiou took
place, which was due, not to any peculiarity of the fluid, but to the
chemical composition of the opaque white substance, in the inter-
spaces of wliich the fluid was infiltrated. Other portions of the skin
placed under an exhausted receiver, along with sulphuric acid,
shrivelled up to flake-like shavings of glue. The white mass was
thus shown to belong to the gelatine-yielding structures, and to have
no similarity hi composition to the blubber-yielding integument of
the cetacea.

From the chemical examination it was probable that this
structure was to be regarded as cutis, a supposition which was
confirmed by a microscopic examination. When small portions of
the cutis were examined in the fresh state, under a magnifying powei'
of 200 diameters, they were found to be composed of a closely arranged
network of fine fibres, the exact characters of which could not be
clearlv studied until they were separated by dissection ^vith needles.
(PI. VI. fig. 4.) It was then seen that the fibres presented
certain special peculiarities, which distinguished them from the fibres
of ordmaiy connective tissue. Instead of being collected in fibril-
lated bundles, each fibre possessed a distinct form and outline, (some
being almost twice as broad as others), and extended for some
distance, pursuing either a slightly wavy, or a curling tortuous
course. From the veiy curly nature of many of these fibres I
thought that they represented the elastic element of the cutis, but,
on the addition of acetic acid, they disappeared in the same manner
as the undulating fibres. This observation was repeated on fibres
taken from various parts of the cutis, so that it may fau-ly be stated
that the elastic element was either altogether absent from the skin
of this fish, or was at a minimum. Throughout the entire tliickness of
the cutis, the fibres presented a well-marked reticulated arrangement,
which distinguished them from that which is generally described to
exist in the sldn of fishes, where the fibres ai'e mostly disposed in
bundles parallel to the free surface, being crossed only at compara-
tively wide intervals by bundles possessing a vertical direction. In
the meshes of this reticulation the abundant fluid of the skin was
lodged. Numbers of small, ovoid, elongated, sometimes roundish
cells, some of which possessed a single, others two or more nuclei,
were also contained in these meshes. (Fig. 4.) These cells were
visible, not only in the fresh skin, but after the addition of acetic
acid, and even in those slices of the skin which had been digested in
the water bath. From the close relation which these cells had to the
fibres amongst which they were imbedded, I thought it likely, that,
by a careful examination, it might be possible to see processes
springing from them in such a manner as to produce that stellated, or

TURNER ON THE INTEGUMENT OF THE SHORT SUN-FISH. 187

radiated, aspect, which has recently beeu described by many observers,
in connection with tlie corpuscles of the connective tissue generally.
For this purpose I subjected, to repeated observation, portions, not
only of the fresh skin, but also sections which had been hardened in
spirit, or chromic acid, without being able to convince myself that
such stellate connective-tissue corpuscles existed in this cutis.*
Passing through the cutis from its deep to the tubercle-covered
surface many nerve fibres were seen. In slices of the skin, which
had been previously steeped in chromic acid, and then slightly acted
on by caustic potash, the nerve fibres appeared, as they approached
the deep surface of the tubercles, to present indications of a net-work-
like arrangement beneath the tubercles, bu.t not entering in them.

When the free surface of the integument was examined it was
seen to consist of a multitude of tubercular plates, large enough to be
distinguished by the naked eye, but requii'ing for their due examination
the use of a compound microscope. These tubercles were polygonal
in shape, irregularly serrated at their margins, by which serratures they
were connected together. (Fig. 5.) A short firm spine projected from
the centre of each tubercular plate. In some eases the spine was
acuminated at its free extremity, but more generally it was an
irregular ridge-Hke projection, widening out at the base and
strengthened laterally by buttresses. These spines gave to the
surface of the skin a shagreen-like aspect. A granular pigment
was scattered over the surface of many of the plates. In some cases
it wa.s collected into stellate, at others into rounded masses, and at
others it existed as free scattered granules. It gave to the tubercles a
brownish colour, or metallic lustre. It was never found on the
apices of the spines, although it frequently extended for some
distance up their sides. The tubercles which did not possess any
pigment, had a dull white appearance.

Vertical sections through the tubercles and their spines, enabled
one to obtain a clearer conception, not only of their structure, but
of their relation to the subjacent cutis. (Fig. 6.) The tubercles
rested by their deep aspect on the fibrous cutis, with which they
were very closely united. The outline of this portion of the cutis
was unbroken and continuous, not at all times straiglit but slightly
undulating, and occasionally presenting short digitiform elevations,
which might, although did not necessarily, correspond to the position
of the spines of the tubercles. Tlie tubercles themselves consisted of
two parts, which possessed distinctive microscopic characters, a
superficial cuticular and a deeper hard portion, both of which
differed structui-ally and chemically from the subjacent fibrous cutis.

* It is important, therefore, in discussing the presence of corpuscles in con-
nective tissue, to keep in mind, tliat they may exist in very large numbers in this
texture, a.« in the skin now under consideration, without possessing a radiated and
anastomosing arrangement.

o 2

188 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

The cuticle covered the superficial surface of the tubercles and
extended for some distance up the sides of the spines, although I
never saw it passing over their free ends. It was continued from
the outer surface of one tubercle to that of the adjacent ones, over
the serrated aj)posed margins. In it, and in it only, the pigment of
the skin was contained.

The deeper hard part of the tubercle, which OAved its great
density to the deposition of a calcareous, or other inorganic, material
in its substance, formed the chief portion of the tubercle, and the
spine projecting from it. It presented very slight traces of structure,
a few taint lines, running for the most part horizontally, constituting
the only markings on it. The spine had a closely similar aspect,
and in many cases appeared to possess a cavity in its interior.
In the spine faint lines might be seen, extending in a direction parallel
to its long axis. When the tubercles were acted on by hot caustic
potash, they were entirely broken up and resolved into a number of
particles, some of which were elongated, others irregidarly shaped,
respecting the nature of which it would be difficult to give a positive
opinion. When a portion of the skin was digested in warm caustic
potash the tubercles separated from the cutis, whilst the cuticle still
remained connected to their outer surfaces. The inference might be
drawn from this, that the hard part of the tubercles, like the cuticle,
was an e})idermal, rather than a dermal structure. Such an inference
might possibly, however, be erroneous, as the separation along this
line might perhaps be due to the alkali acting more readily on the
fibrous cutis than on the diflierent parts of the tubercle. An absolute
opinion as to the homology of the tubercles could only be given by
tracing the manner of their development.

By digestion in hydrochloric acid the inorganic material was
dissolved out of the hard part of the tubercle.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate VI. — Fig 4. — Fibres and cells of cutis. X 200 diam. This figure simply
gives the anatomical elements of the cutis, as seen in a jwrtion which has been
dissected with needles. The cellular element bears a larger iDroportion to the fibrous
element tlian has here been represented.

• Fig. 5. Surface view of integument, showing serrations at margins of tubercular
plates, central sjiines, and various forms of pigment arrangement. X 4,5 diam.

Fig. 6. — Section through tubercular plate with its spine, and subjacent cutis.
X 120 diam.

189

gibliocjraiihm

XIX.— PERIODICALS.

Additions to former Lists of existing Periodicals.
(Vol. I. pp. 85 and 219).

1. Ameeica.

Contr. Col. — Contribuciones de Colombia a las Ciencias y Artes
Bogota, 1861. 8vo.

Cal. Proc. — Proceedings of tbe Californian Academy of Sciences.
San Pi-ancisco, 1859-61. Vols. i. and ii. 8vo.

2. Great Britai]S", Ireland and the Colonies.

Dub. Q. J. — Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science, containing
Papers read before the Roy. Dublin Soc, Royal Irish Academy,
Greolog. Soc. and Nat. Hist. Soc. of Dublin. Edited by the Rev. S.
Haughton. 8vo. Dublin.

Jam. Q. J. — The Jamaica Quarterly Journal of Literatm'e, Science,
and Art. 8vo. Kingston.

3. France, Belgium, and Switzerland.

Baill. Bull. — Bidletin bibliographique des Sciences physiques,
naturelles et medicales. l''« Annee, 1860. (Quarterly). 8vo. Paris,
1861.

Norm. Bull. — Bulletin de la Societe linneenne de Normandie
S'^e Vol. 1859-1860. 8vo. Caen, 1861.

4. G-ERMANY.

Kon. Ges. S. — Schriften d. Kouigl. physikalisch-okonomischen
Gesellschaft zur Konigsberg. 4to. Konigsb.

Reg. C. B. — Regensberg : — Correspondenz-Blatt. des Zoolo-
gisch — Mineralogischen Vereines. 14th Jahrg. smaU 8vo. Regens-
burg. 1860.

Schlesisch. Abhand. — Abhandlimgen der Schlesischen Gesell-
schaft fiir Vaterlaudische Cultur. 8vo. Breslau.

Wien. Schrift. — Schriften d. Vereines zur Verbreitung natur-
wissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien. Vol. i. 1860-61. Wien, 1862.
2 plates. 8vo.

5. Holland, Russia, and Scandinayia,

Eenn. Act. — Acta Societatis Eennicse.

Einsk. Bidr. — Bidrag till Einlands Naturkannedom,' Etnografi

190 ErBLIOGEAPHT.

och Statistik, utgifna af Fiiiska Vetenskaps-Societeten. 8vo.
Helsingfors, 6 Hiipt. 1861.

Ups. U. A. — IJpsala Universitets Arskrift. Svo. Upsala.

6. Spain and Italy.

Att. Soc. Aclim. Sicil. — Atti della Socleta d'Aclimazione e cli
Agricoltura in Sicilia. Svo. Vol. i. 1861.

Geuoa Arcli. — Arcliivio per la Zoologia, I'Anatoinia, e la Fisio-
logia, publ. p. Gr. Cauestrini, Gr. Doria, P. M. Ferrari, e. M. Lessona.
(Vol. i.) Svo. Genoa, 1861.

Mil. Atti. — Atti della Societa ItaHaua di Scienze naturali.
(Vol. ii.) Svo. Milan, 1861.

Ven. Atti. — Atti del Imp. Eeg. Istituto Veneto, di Scienze,
Letteri, ed Arti. Ser. 3, A^ol. vi. Svo. Venice.

Zoological JJibliogvapijw.

XX. — General and Mixed Works on Zoology, Geographical

Distribution, etc.

Agassiz, Lonis. — Contributions to the Natural History of the
United States of America. 4to. 1861. Vol. iii. 26 pi. Phila-
delphia.

Baer, K. E. v. — Siir I'extinction des especes animales au point de
vne physiologique et uon-physiologique et particulierement siir la
disposition des especes contemporaiues de I'homme. Petersb. Bull,
iii. p. 369. 1861.

Berlepsch, H. — The Alps or Sketches of Life and Nature in
the Mountains. Translated by Eev. L. Stephen. 17 plates. Svo.
London, 1861.

Boner, Charles. — Forest Creatures. Svo. London, 1861.

Brandt J. F. — Premier Eapport sur I'expedition dirigee par lui
et qui avait pour has une exploration zoologique et paleoutolo-
gique de la Russie meridionale. Petersb. Bull. ii. p. 501. 1861.

• Second rapport sur 1' Expedition zoologique et paleon-

tologique dirigee par lui. Petersb. BuU. iii. 74. 1860.

" Sur I'extinction de la vie animale dans la bale de Balaklava,

par suite de la putrefaction d'uue grande quantite de poissons.
Petersb. Bull. iii. p. 84. 1860.

liecherehes sur la signification des mots d^ovroTvpawoQ

et axwXr]^ des ecrivains grecs et romans. Petersb. Bull. iii. p. 335.

1861.
Bronn, H. G.— Die Classen und- Ordnungen d. Thierreichs,

etc. Vol. iii. Svo. Leipzig.
Cooper, J. G. M.D. — On New Californiau animals. Cal.

Proc. ii. p. 118. 1861.

ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTEIBUTION, ETC. 191

Ceisp, E. — On some points relating to tte habits and anatomy of

the Oceanic and of the Freshwater Ducks, and also of the Hare and

of the Eabbit, in relation to the question of Hybridism. Zool. Proc.

18G1, p. 87.
Crotch, W. D. — Notes on the Eauna of Shetland. Zool. 1861,

p. 7337.
Deltaille, C. — Etudes siu' I'Histoire naturelle. 4'"^ serie. Nou-

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DoBKER, E. Ph. — Handbuch der Zoologie m. besond. Beriick-

sicht derjenigen Thiere, welche in Bezug auf Eorst- u. Land-

wirthschaft, sowie hinsichtlich der Jagd vorziiglich wichtig sind. 2

Pts. Woodcuts and 22 Plates. Eoy. 8vo. Aschaffenburg, 1862.
Dumas. — Deux pieces historiques concernant les opinions de

Lavoisier au sujet de la formation des etres organises, et celles de

N. Le Blanc au sujet de la theorie des engrais. 8vo. Paris, 1861.
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p. 109.

Der Besuch auf den Nikobareu. Yien. Z. B. Yerh. X.p. 369.

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GrERTAis, P. — Notice sur les travaux de Zoologie, d'Anatomie

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Observations on M. Du Chailki's papers " on the new species

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Notice of Helogale, a New Genus of Yiverridse. Zool. Proc.

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— - Notice of a New Species of Pilot "Whale {Glohiocephaltis)^

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Bennett, Gt. — Note on the E^-g of tlie Piping Crow, or Magpie of
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Notes on the Ornithology of Labrador. Ibid. p. 216.

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A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 489.
' Eemarks on a Woodpecker from Siam. Zool. Proc. 1861, p,

182.
Description of a new species of the family Gaprimuljidce.

Ibid. p. 182. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 282.

N. H. R.— 1862. P

202 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Gould, J. — Descriptions of two new species of Humming-birds be-
longing to the genus Hyptiroptila. Ibid. p. 198.

Description of a new species of Hornbill from Western

Africa, Ibid. 18G0, p. 380. A. K H. 3 ser. vii. p. Ii7.

Description of a new species of the genus Moho of Lesson.

Ibid. 18G0, p. 381. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 148.

Description of a new Odontopliorus (0. melanonotus) . Ibid.

1860, p. 381. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 149.

Two new species of Eudyptes. Zool. Proc. 18G0, p. 418.

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GrEAT, G. R.— Note on the genus BusilornU. Ann. N. Hist. 3 ser.
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■ List of species composing the family Megapodiidse, with de-
scriptions of new species, and some account of the habits of those
species. Ibid. p. 288.

Eemarks on, and Descriptions of, new species of Birds lately

sent by Mr. A. E. "Wallace from Waigiou, Mysol, and the Gagie
Islands. Ibid, 1861, p. 427.

GuNDLACH, J. — Tabellarische Uebersicht aller bisher auf Cuba beo-
bachteten Yogel. J. Orn. 1861, ix. p. 321.

GuENET, J. H. — On some additional species of Birds received in col-
lections from Natal. Ibis, 1861, p. 128.

Hakcoce, Zows. — Notice of the Breeding of the Tufted Duck {Anas
{fuligiila) in Northumberland. Tynes. Ti-ans. v. 1861, p. 39.

— — — Notice of the occurrence of Cuprimulgus ruficollis in England.
Tynes. Trans, v. 84.

Haksmajstn, a. — Conspectus generalis ovorum avium Europam habi-
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Haetlaub, G.— Bericht iiber die Leistungen in der Naturgeschichte
der Yogel Avahrend des Jahres, 1860. Wiegm. Arch. 1861, ii.
p. 37.

Berichtigungen und Zusatze zu meinem " System der Orni-

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Ornithologischer Beitrag zur Eauna Madagascar's. Mit

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Drei neue afrikanische Vogel d. Pariser Sammlung. J. Orn.

viii. p. 340.

On a new Bird from "Western Africa. Ibis, 1861, p. 321.

Heike, E. — \]cber 3Iyiozetetes icterophrys, n. sp. J. Orn. ix. 3, p. 197.
Hellmaiw. — Wilde Taube und Baummarder gemeinschaftlich einen

Baum bewohnen. Ibid. 1861, ix. p. 396.
Heugli:^. T. v. — Ueber einige ornithologische Sammlungen vom

Rothen Meer imd der abyssinischen Kiiste bis Tigreh. Ibid. ix.

3. p. 193.
On new or little kno-^ni Birds of North-Eastern Africa. Ibis,

1861, pp. 69, 121.

On a new African species of the genus Zosterops. Ibid.

1861, p. 357.

AYES. 203

Holland, T. — Zur Eiitwickelungsgeschiehte d. Federn. J. Oni.

viii. p. 311.
Oruithologlsclie Notizen vom Friilijalire 1861. Ibid. ix.

p. 397.
HoMEYEB, A. V. — Ueber eine ansclieineud neue Art d. Gattung

JPlyctolophus. Ibid. viii. p. 357.
Ibbt, L. Howard. — Notes on Birds observed in Oudb and Kumaou.

Ibis, 1861, p. 217.
Jacque, Ch. — Le PoulaiHer, monographie des poules indigenes et

exotiques, amenagements, croisements, eleve, &c. Texte et

de dessins par Ch. Jacque. 12mo. Paris, 1861.
Kruper, T. — Ueber Sitta Syriaca in Grieelienland. J. Ornith. ix.

p. 129.

Ueber Sylvia orpliea in Griecbenland. Ibid. p. 276.

Ueber Aquila Bonelli in Griechenland. Ibid. viii. p. 441.

Lawrence, G. N. — Descriptions of three new species of Birds.

New York, Lye. vii. p. 303.

Catalogue of a collection of Birds made in New Granada,

with Notes and Descriptions of new Species. Parts I. and II.
Ibid. vii. p. 288, 315.

Letcester, a. a. — Narrative of a Shooting Excursion to the Moun-
tains of the Richmond Eiver, New South Wales, in quest of
Prince Albert's Lyre Bird. Ibis, 1861, p. 167.

Lilljeborg, Prof. "VV. — Ornithologiska Bidrag. Upsala Arsski'ift,
i. p. 263.

Om den roda faryen hos Gypaetus. Ibid. p. 487.

Meves, W. — Bidrag till Jemtlands Ornithologi. Ofvers. af Kongl.

Vet. Ak. Porhandl. 1860, p. 187.
Neubebt, "W. — Notizen iiber einige Palle des Briitens von Papa-
- geien in Deutschland. Z. w. Zool. xi. d. 197.
Newman, Edwabd. — Collected Observations on the Nests and Eggs

of British Birds. Zool. 1861, p. 7393, 7439, 7474.
Newton, Alfred. — Description of a new species of Water-hen

(GalUmda) from the Island of Mauritius. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 18.

A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 417.
Remarks on Pallas' Sand-grouse {Syrrhaptes paradoxus).

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 203.

On a hybrid Duck. Ibid. 1861, p. 392.

On some new or rare Birds' Eggs. Ibid. 1861. p. 393.

Particulars of Mr. J. Wolley's discovery of the Breeding of

the Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus.) Ibis, 1861, p. 92.

On the possibility of taking an Ornithological Census.

Ibid. p. 190.

Abstract of Mr. J. Wolley's Researches in Iceland respect-

ing the Gare-fowl, or Great Auk {Alca impennis Linn). Ibid,
p. 374.

On the occurrence of the Snowy Owl {Nyctea nivea) in the

Coimty Mayo. Dublin, Q. J. Ap. 1861, p. 179.

p 2

201 BIBLIOGUAPHT.

Newton, Edward. — Ornitliological Notes from Mauritius. Ibis,

1861, pp. 180, 270.
NoRDMAK2f, Aethub t. — TJebersicht der bis jetzt in Finnland imd

Lapplaud vorgekommenen Voegelarten. Mosc. Bull. 1860, i. p. 1.
Opel, F. M. Ed. — Der Kukuk, Beitrage zur Kenntniss d. Cuculus

canorus. 2nd edition. Svo. Dresden, 1861.
Owen, Eichaed. — Der Keblsack der grossen Trappe {Otis tarda)

J. Orn. 1861, ix. p. 398.
Owen, Eobt., and Saitin, Osbeet. — On tlie nesting of some Gua-
temalan Birds. Ibis, 1861, p. 58.
Paekee, W. K. — On tbe Osteology of Balcsniceps Bex. Zool.

Trans, iv. p. 269.
Pelozeln, a. t. — Zur naheren Kenntniss d. Morphmis guianensis

(Daud.) J. Orn. viii. p. 337.
Eatenswoeth, Loed. — On certain Changes in the Plumage of the

Pheasant. Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 38.
Eeinhaedt, J. — On the Affinities of BaJwniceps. 1860, Zool. Proe.

p. 377. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 144.
• Das Kirgisische Steppeuhuhn (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) in

Jutland. Z. Nat. xvii. p. 167.

List of the Birds hitherto observed in Greenland. Ibis,

1861, p. 1.

Nogle Bemserkninger om Slaegten Balceniceps. Overs. Dansk.

Fork 1861, p. 135.
EiccHiAEDi. — Sui plessi vaseolari degli Uccelli. 2 plates. Mil. Att.

ii. p. 147.
EoDD, E H. — Occurrence of the Spotted Eagle, {Falco ncEvius) in

Cornwall. Zool. 1861, p. 7311.
Sayille, S. p. — Notice of the Discovery and Capture, for the first

time in the British Isles, of the Marsh "Warbler, {Calomoherpe

palustris). Zool. 1861, p. 7755.
SALvrrf, Osbeet. — Descriptions of three new species of Birds from

Guatemala. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 202.
On the nesting of some Guatemalan Birds. Ibis, 1861,

p. 58.

Quesal-shooting in Yera Paz. Ibid. p. 138.

A List of Species to be added to the Ornithology of Central

America. Ibid. p. 351.
Saxbt, H. L.— Notes on the Birds of Belgium. Zool. 1861, p. 7537,

7624.

Notes on the Food of Birds. Zool. 1861, p. 7809.

ScnATiLOFF, J. — Katalog meines ornithologischen Museums der

A^ogel Tauriens. Mosc. Bull. 1860, xxxiii. p. 488.
ScLATEB, P. L. — Note on Milvago carunculatus and its allied species.

Ibis, 1861, p. 19.
Notice on the occurrence of the American Meadow- Starling

{Sliirnella ludoviciana) in England. Ibid. p. 176.
On the American Barbets {Capitonidcej. Ibid. p. 182.

EEPTILIA AXD AMPHIBIA. 205

ScLATER, P. L. — Eemarks on the Greographical Distribution of the

Genus Turdus. Ibid. p. 277.
On a rare species of Hawk of the Grenus Accipiter, from

South America. Ibid. p. 313.
Note on the Sypotriorchis castanonotus of Dr. Heuglin.

Ibid. p. 316.
Characters of ten new species of American Birds. Ibid.

18G0, p. 461.

Exhibition of a Specimen of the American Meadow- Starling

(SturneUa ludoviciana). Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 30.

Additions and Corrections to the List of the Birds of the

Falkland Islands. Ibid. p. 44.

List of a Collection of Birds made by the late l\Ir. W. Osbiu^n

in Jamaica, with Notes. Ibid. p. 69.

Characters of some new species of American Passeres. Ibid.

p. 127.

On a new species of the Genus Copsy chits from Borneo.

Ibid. p. 185. Ann. K H. ser. 3. p. 265.

On a new species of Bir-d of the Genus lApavgus of Boie.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 209.

On the Island Hen of Tristan d'Acunha. Zool. Proc. 1861,

p. 260. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 498.

Descriptions of twelve new species of American Birds of the

Families Dendrocolaptidse, Pormicariidse, and Tyrannidae. Ibid,
p. 377.

Catalogue of the Birds of the Falkland Islands. Ibid. p. 382.

Note on the Ocellated Turkey of Honduras. Ibid. p. 391.

Index generis Elainese ex lamilia Tyraunidarum, additis

novarum specierum diagnosibus. Ibid. 1861, p. 406.

On two new species of Heteropelma. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii.

p. 487.

Characters of eight new species of American Birds. Ann.

N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 329.
ScHLEGEL, H. — Eioige Worte iiber die Schwarz-Kakatus und iiber

die Paradiesvogel. (Uebersetzt von E. Baldamus.) J. Orn. 1861,

ix. p. 377.
SiMPSOK, W. H. — A Fortnight in the Dobrudscha. Ibis, 1861,

p. 361.
Speeitzekhofer, G. C. — Beobachtimg iiber den Friihjahrzug meh-

rerer Zugvogel in den Douau-Auen Wiens. Yien. Z. B. Verb.

X. p. 73.
Steve>"son, Henet. — Ornithological Notes from Norfolk during the

late severe Weather. Zool. 1861, p. 7389.
Stone, Stephen. — Hints which may be useful to Egg Collectors.

Zool. 1861, p. 7420.
Sucklet, G. — Description of a new species of North American

Grouse. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 361.

206 BIBLIOaEAPHT.

SwiNHOE, E. — Notes on the Ornithology of Hong Kong, Macao,
and Canton, made during tlie latter end of February, March,
April, and the beginning of May, 1860. Ibis, 1861, p. 23.

Notes on the Birds observed about Talien Bay (North

China) from June 21 to July 25, 1860. Ibid. p. 251.

On the Ornithology of Amoy and Foochow. Ibid. p. 262.

Notes on Ornithology taken between Takoo and Pekin, in

the neighboui^hood of the Peiho Eiver, Province of Chelee, North
China, from August to December, 1860. Ibid. p. 323.

Vennok, H. Gr. — A Short Eeview of the Sylviadae, or "Wood- "Warblers
foiuid in the vicinity of Montreal. Can. Nat. \i. 1861, p. 319.

Wallace, A. E. — On the Ornithology of Ceram and Waigiou. Ibis,
1861, p. 283.

Notes on the Ornithology of Timor. Ibid. p. 847.

AVheaton, J. M. — Catalogue of the Birds of Ohio. Columbus, Ohio,
1860.

"Williams, E. P. — On the Occurrence of the Spoonbill in the County
Cork. DubL Q. J. 1861, p. 179.

8. JReptilia and Amphibia.

Cope, E. D. — On the Iguana of Andros island (Cyclura hceolopha).
Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 123.

On Amblystoma microstomiim, n. sp. Ibid. p. 123.

• Notes and Descriptions of Anoles. Phil. Proc. p. 208.

— Contributions to the Ophiology of Lower California, Mexico,

and Central America. Ibid. p. 292. •

On the Eeptilia of Sombrero and Bermuda. Ibid. p. 312.

DuM^RiL, A.— Eeptiles et Poissons de I'Afrique occidentale. 11

plates. Arch. d. Mus. x. p. 137.
Gegenbatjb, C— Ueber Ban u. Entwickelung d. Wirbelsaide bei

Amphibien. Plate. Hall. Abh. vi. p. 179 ; and 4to. Halle, 1861.
Gervais, p. — Note sur I'osteologie du Moloch, genre de Sauriens

propre a la Nouvelle HoUande. Ann. d. S. N. xy. p. 36.
Gbat, J. E. — On the Genus Manouria and its Affinities. Zool. Proc.

1860, p. 395. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 215.
, — Note on Aspidochelys Living stonii. Zool. Soc. Proc. 1860,

p. 430. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 226.
. Description of a Soft Tortoise from Camboja (Trionyx or-

tiatus.) Zool. Soc. Proc. 1861, p. 41. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 422.
On a new Species of "Water Tortoise ( Geoclemmys melanos-

terna) from Darien. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 204.

List of Mammalia, Tortoises and Crocodiles collected by

M. Mouhot in Camboja. Ibid. p. 135.
GuNTHEE, A. — On the dentition of Rerpeton tentaculatum. A. N. H.

3 ser. vii. p. 195.
, Qua West- African Genus of Snakes (Meizodon) {CoronellaJ.

Zool. Proc. 1860, p. 427. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 223. (Figs.)

PISCES. 207

GuNTHER, A. — Ou the Opliidiau Genus Helicops. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii.

p. 425.

Second List of Siamese Eeptiles. Ibid. p. 266.

Account of the Eeptiles sent by Dr. Wucherer from Bahia.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 12. Ann. K H. ser. 3. vii. p. 412.

On the Anatomy of S,egenia ocellata. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 60.

On the Anatomy of Monitor nlloticus from "Western Africa,

and of Begenia albojularis.. Ibid. 1861, p. 109

On a new Species of the Family Boidae. Ibid. p. 142

Second List of Siamese Eeptiles. Ibid. p. 187.

List of the Cold-blooded Yertebrata collected by B. H.

Hodgson, Esq. in Nepal. Ibid. p. 213.
Jan. — Iconographie generale des Ophidiens. Livr. 1. 6 plates. 4to.
Milan, 1860.

Bemerkungen iiber die Typhlopiden. Wiegm. Arch. 1861, p. 1.

Ueber die Familie Homalopsidse. lb. p. 87.

Jacquaet, H. — Memoire sur le coeur de la Tortue tranche. Ann. d.

Sc. Nat. (Zool.) xvi. p. 303.
KJENNicoTT, E. — On tln-ee new forms of Eattlesnakes. Phil. Proc.

1861, p. 206.
Key, Ernst. Axel. — Ueber die Endigungsweise der Geschmacksner-

ven in der Zunge des Erosches. Arch. Anat. 1861, p. 329.
Mitchell, S. Weir. — Eesearches upon the Venom of the Eattle-

snake : with an Investigation of the Anatomy and Physiology of

the Organs concerned. Smiths. Contr. xiii. 1860.
Muller, H. — Ueber Muskeln in den Lungen von Triion. "Wiu-z.

Zeitsch. ii. 1861, p. 131.
NiLssoN, S. — Skandinavisk Eaima. Tredje Delen. Amfibierna.

Andra Upplagan. Lund. 1860.
Pagenstecher, Arnold. — Ueber das ausgedehnte Vorkommen von

Gallensgangsuetzen bie Eeptilien. Wurz. Zeitsch. i. 1860, p. 248.
Peters,W. C. H. — Beschreibuug von zwei neuen Schlangen, Mizodon

variegatus, aus West-Afrika, und Bothaopsis quadriscutata. Berl.

Mon. 1861, p. 357.
Ueber eine neue Gattung von Eidechsen aus der Eamilie der

Scincoiden, Sepomorphus caffer. Ibid. p. 423.

Ueber eine neue Gattung von Eidechsen aus Mexiko, Xeno-

sauriis fasciatus. Ibid. p. 454.

Ueber eine Sammluug von Schlangen aus Huanasco in Mex-

ico. Ibid. p. 462.

Ueber die Schlangengattung Opisthiodon. Ibid. p. 618.

On the Asiatic Snake called Taphrometopon Uneolatum, by

Prof. Brandt. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 47. A. N. H. 3 ser. \il p.

481. (With figures.)

De Serpentum familia Uropeltaceorum. Commentatio zoo-

logica. 4to. Berlin, 1861. (2 plates.)
Eathke, H. — Untersuchungen iiber d. Arterien d. Yerdauungs-
werkzeuge d. Saurier. Mun. Abh. ix. p. 125.

208 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Eeichert, C. B. — Der Paltenkranz an den beiden ersten !Purclmngs

— Kugeln des Erosclidotters und seine Bedeutung fiir die Lehre

von der Zelle. Areliiv. Anat. 1861, p. 133.
Heinhaedt, J. — TJeber einige kleine Gruben an d. Sebuppen man-

cher Scblangen. AViegm. Arcb. xxvii. p. 127.
Saltik, O. — On a Collection of Eeptiles from Guatemala. Zool.

Proc. 1861, p. 227.
On Two new Eeptiles from Guatemala (Thamnocenchris

aurifer, et Hyla liolochlora, Salv.) A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 326.
Steickeb, S. — Untersucbungen iiber die ersten Aulagen in Batra-

cbier— Eiern. Z. w. Zool. xi. p. 315.
"WucHEREE, Dr. O. — On tbe Opbidians of tbe Province of Babia,

Brazil. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 322.
' Description of a new Species of Elapomorjiyhus from Brazil.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 325.

4. Pisces.

Abbott, Chas. C. — Observations on Cottus Copei, Abb. Pbil. Proc.

1861, p. 15.
■ Notes on tbe Habits of ApJiredoderus say amis. Ibid. 1861,

p. 95.

On Cyprinus corporaJis, Mitch. ; referring it to tbe genus

Semotilus, Eaiinesqvie. Pbil. Proc. 1861, p. 154.
Andeews, W. — On tbe Cod and Ling Pisberies of Ireland. Dubl.

E. S. 1861, p. 382.
Bleeker, p. — Bijdrage tot de Ivennis der Viscbfauna van Nieuw-

Guinea. Acta Ind. Keerl. Batav. N.S. Tom. I.
Enumeratio Specierum Piscium bucusque in Arcbipelago

Indico observatarum, adjectis habitationibus relationibusque ubi

descriptiones earum recentiores reperiuntur, nee non speciebus

Mus. Bleeker. Bengal. Japon. Capens. Tamanicisque. Acta

Ind. Neerl. Bat. N.S. Tom. I.
- Mededeelino; omti-ent viscbsoorten nieuw voor de Kermis der

Eaima van Singapoer, &c. Amst. Versl. 1861, p. 28.
Tets over de Visch fauna van bet eiland Pinang. Ibid. 1861

P 81.

Tets wer de geslacbten der Scaroiden en bunue Indisce Arcbi-

pelagiscbe soorten. Ibid. 1861, p. 228.

Conspectus generum Labroideormn analyticus. Zool. Proc.

1861, p. 40S.
Bruch, C. — TJeber eigentbiimlicbe Fortsatze der Piscbwirbel. Z. w.

Zool. xi. p. 170.

Ueber die Mittelband der Piscbe. Ibid. p. 165.

Ueber osteologiscbe Gattungscbaractere beim Karpfenge-

scblecbt. Wurz. Zeitscb. ii. 1861, p. 86.

Vergleicbende Osteologie d. Ebeinlacbses {Sahno salar L.) m.

besond. Beriicksicbt. der Myologie nebst einleiteuden Bemerkgn.

PISCES. 209

iib. die skelettbildenden Gewebe der Wirbelthiere. 7 coloured

plates. Eolio. Mayence.
Canestrini, J.— Zur Systematik der Percoiden. Yien. Z. B. Yerh,

X. p. 291.
S. Pleuronettidi del Golfo di Geneva. 4 plates. Genoa,

Arch. 1861, i. p. 1.
luteruo alio sviluppo del Dactylopterus voUtans, G. V. ed al

geuere CepJial acanthus. Figure. Genoa, Arcli. 1861, i_. p. 45,
Sopra ima nuova specie di OpJiicephalus seuza ventrali {Ophi-

cephalus apus.) Figure. Genoa Arch. 1861, ii. p. 77.
Castelnau. — Memoire sur les Poissons de TAfrique australe. 8vo.

Paris, 1861.
• Memoire sur les Poissons de lAfrique centrale. Svo. Paris,

1861.

CosTE. — Voyage d'exploration sur le littoral de la Prance et de
ritalie, 2e edition, suivie de nouveaux documents sur les pecbes
fluviales et marines. 4to. Paris.

Datt, De. J. — Fragmentary Notes on the Generative Organs of
some cartilaginous Fisbes. Plate. E. S. E. Trans, xxii. p. 491.

DoLEscHALL, C. L. — On Oxijheles gracilis, Bleeker (A fisb residing
in the stomachal cavity of Echinoderms, {Calcita discoidea, Tri-
pang edidis and T. anaoias). A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 340. Trans-
lated from Natuurk. Tijdsch. v. Ned. Ind. Deel. xv. p. 163 ; and
Wiegm. Arch. 1860, p. 819.

Dow, J. M.— Notice of Viviparous Fish {Analleps Boioii) from the
Bay of La Union, State of San Salvador. Zool. Proc. Jan. 22,
1861. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 420.

DuMEML, Aug. — Lettres relatives au Catalogue des Poissons de la
Collection du Museum d'Histoire Nat. de Paris ; et au Catalogue
de la Menagerie des Eeptiles, &c. Arch. d. Mus. x. 429.

' Eeptiles et poissons de I'Afrique occidentale. Axchiv. d,

Mus. X. p. 1.

FiLippi, F. D'E.—Lehistes. Nuovo genere di Pesci della Famiglia dei
Ciprinodonti. Figures. Gen. Ai'cb. 1861, p. 69.

Sid genere Dichelaspis e su di una nuova specie di esso

propria al Mediterraneo. Genoa Arch. 1861, i. p. 71.

Nota sopra il genere Leptopterygius di Troschel. Genoa

Arch. 1861, i. p. 79.
Gill, Theodore. — Catalogue of the Fishes of the Eastern Coast of

North America, from Greenland to Georgia. PhU. Proc. Jan.

1861.
Description of a new Species of the Genus Anahlcps of

Gronovius. A. Doivei. Ibid. p. 3.

On the Classification of the Eventognathi or Cyprini, a

Suborder of Teleocephali. Ibid. p. 6.

Appendix to the Monograph of the Philypni, and description

of the genus Lembus, Glinth. Ibid. p. 16.

Synopsis of the Subfamily of Clupeinse, with Descriptions of

new Species. Ibid. p. 33.

210 BIBLIOGEAl-nT.

Gill, Theod.— Synopsis of the Subfamily of Perciuse. Ibid. p. 44.

Synopsis generum Phyptici et Affinium. Ibid. p. 52.

Revision of the Grenera of North American Scifeniuse. Ibid.

p. 79.

On the LiostominpB. Ibid. p. 89.

On the identity of the G-euera Neomcenis of Girard, and

Lutjanus of Bloch. Ibid. p. 93.

On two new species of Marine Pishes. Ibid. p. 98.

On the HaploidonotinfB. Ibid. p. 100.

On the genus Anisotremus. Ibid. p. 105.

Synopsis of the Uranoscopoids. Ibid. p. 108.

Notes on some Genera of Pishes of the Western Coast of

North America. Ibid. p. 164.

On a new type of Aulostomatoids, found in Washington

territory. Ibid. p. 168.

On the genus Podothecus. Ibid. p. 258.

— — Descrij)tion of a new generic type of Blennoids. Ibid. p. 261.

Monograph of the Tridigitate Uranoscopoids. Ibid. p. 263.

Synopsis of the Polynematoids. Ibid. p. 271.

Observations on the Genus Coitus, and Descriptions of two

new Species (abridged from the forthcoming Report of Capt. J.

H. Simpson). Post. Proc. viii. 40. 1861.

Descriptions of New Species of Pimelodinse. {Ictahirus

Simpsonil, Gill. Amiurus obesus, Gill. Noturus occidentalis, Gill.)
Ibid. p. 42. 1861.

Description of a new Species of the Genus Tigoma, Girard.

Ibid. p. 42, 1861.

Synopsis of the Genera of the Subfamily of the Pimelodinse.

Ibid. 46. 1861.
Gray, J. E. — On the Habits of the Pipe-Pish and other Pishes.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 238.
GtjNTHEB, A. — Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Pishes in the

collection of the British Museum. Vol. III. Loudon, 1861.

8vo.
• On a new Species of Pish belonging to the genus Fagrus.

Zool. Proc. 1860, p. 491. Ann. N. H. n. s. viii. p. 80.

On a new Genus of Australian Preshwater Pishes. ( Nanno-

perca.) Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 116. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. A^ii. p. 490.

On a new Species of Pish of the Genus Oerres. Zool. Proc.

1861, p. 142. Ann. N. H. ser. 3, vii. p. 189.

On a Collection of Fishes sent by Capt. Dow from the Pacific

Coast of Central America. Ibid. 1861, p. 370.

On a new Species of Pleetropoma, from Australia. Ibid.

p. 392.

On three new Trachinoid Pishes. Ann. N. H. ser. 3. vii. p. 85.

On the immature state of the Sea-Devil {Lophius piscatorius)

A. N. H. ibid. p. 190.

On the British Species of Mu(jil, or Grey Mullets. Ibid.

p. 345.

PISCES. 21i

GijNTiTER, A. — A Preliminary Synopsis of the Labroiu uenera.

Ann. N. H. ser. 3, viii. p. 382.
Habtmakn, Egbert. — Bemerknngen iiber die elektrischen Organe

der Fische. Arch. Anat. 1861; p. 646.
HoLMBEEG, H. J. — TJeber Eischkultur in Finnland. Mosc. Bull.

1860, 2, p. 321.

Kaup. — Eine neue Art des Genus Pegasus, Linn. "Wiegm. Arch.

1861, p. 116.

Knee, Eud. — Ichthyologische Berichtigungen. Wiegm. Arch. 1861,

p. 57, 152, 232, 807.
IJeber den Flossenbau der Fische. Woodcuts. Wein Sitz.

xliii. 1, p. 123.
KETSERLiNa, E. — Neue Cypriniden aus Persieu. 9 plates, roy. Svo.

Berlin.
Lee, J. E. — Structure of the Scales of Lepidotus and Lepidosteus.

Plate. Geol. iii. p. 458.
Lerebotjllet, M, — Eecherches d'Embryologie coniparee sur le

developpement de la Truite. Aim. d. Sc. Nat. Zool. xvi. p. 113.
McDonnell, E. — On the Organs which in the Common Eay are

homologous with the Electric Organs of the Torpedo. Dubl.

Q. J. i p. 1.
Martens. — Ueber einen neuen Polyodon aus dem Tantsekiang und

iiber die sogenannten Glaspolypen, mitgetheilt von Peters. Berl.

Mon. 1861, i. p. 480.
Mordecai. — Note on the Food of the Shad. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 2.
MuLLER, H. — TJeber die Einwerkung der "VVarme auf die PupiUe des

Aals. Wurz. Zeitsch. ii. 1861, p. 133.
NiLSsoN, F. — Ueber einen Gymnetrus GrilU an d. Bermudainseln.

Z. Nat. 1860, p. 334.
NoRRis, Thadd. — Eemarks on a Species of Osmerus taken in the

Schuylkill below Fairmount Dam. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 58.
Salm, Horstmar. — TJeber eine Monstrose Forelle. Wiegm. Arch.

1861, p. 100.
ScnuLTzE, Max. — Die Kolbenformigen Gebilde in der Haut von

Fetromyzon und ihr Verhalten im polarisirten Lichte. Arch.

Anat. 1861, p. 228, 281.
ScHULZE, Franz Eilhard. — TJeber die Nervenendigung in den

sogenannten Schleimkanalen der Fische und iiber entsprechende

organe der durch Kiemen athmenden Amphibien. Ibid. 1861,

p. 759.
Steindacher. — Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Gobioiden. Vien. Sitz.

xlii. p. 284.
Thompson, W. — Notice of the Capture of the Long-finned Tunny

on the Chesil Beach. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 340.
Thoron, O. de. — Sur les poissons musiciens de I'Amerique du Sud.

Compt. rend. Ixiii. p. 1073.
Yalatour, Martial. — Eecherches sur les glandes gastriques et les

tuniques Musculaires du tube digestif dans les Poissons osseus

et les Batraciens. Ann. d. Sc. N. xvi. p. 217.

212 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Vajs-Beneden,M. — Note sur le developpement dela queue des Poissons

plagiostomes. Aim. d. S. N. xv. p. 124.
"Wyman. — Notice of a peculiarity in the Eye of Anahleps, by which

it is enabled to see as well iu the air as in the water. Phil. Proc.

1861, p. 56.

XXII. — Antstjlosa.
1. General and Mixed Works.

CANTo:fir, Edwin — An account of some Parasitic Ova found attached
to the Conjimctivse of the Tmile's Eyes. Q. J. M. Sc. New Ser.
i. p. 40.

Hicks, J. BRAXTON.^On the Homologies of the Eye and of its parts
in the Invertebrata. E. Soc. Proc. xi. p. 81.

Laxgee, K. — Ueber den Gelenksbau bei den Arthrozoen. 4. Beitrag
zvir vergleichenden Anatomie u. Mechanik der Grelenke. 3 plates.
Imp. 4to. "Wien, 1860.

Lawson, H. — On the affinities of the groups Trematode, Planarii©,
Hirudinei ; and on the formation (»f a new class of Annuloida for
the reception of these Animals. Dubl. E. S. 1861, p. 374.

Lubbock, John. — Notes on the Generative Organs, and on the Forma-
tion of the Egg in the Annulosa. Part I. E. Soc. Proc. xi. p.
117. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 407.

2. ArtJiropoda.
(a) Crustacea. — (h) Arachnida. — (<?) 3Iyriapoda. — (d) Insecta.

(a) Crustacea.

Adams, Akthue. — Notes on certain Crustacea observed abroad.
Zoolog. 1861, p. 7319.

On the Eapid Growth of Cirripedes. Zoolog. 1861, p. 7321.

Note on Lepidmnis glacialis. Zoolog. 1861, p. 7403.

Baied, W. — Description of a new Species of Branchijms (B. exi-
mim) from the Pool of Gihon in Jerusalem. An. N. H. 3 ser.
viii. p. 209.

Description of two new Species of Entomostracous Crusta-
ceans from India {Streptocephalus dicliotomus (Baird). Daphnia
Newportii (Baird). Zool. Soc. Proc. Dec. 11, 1860. A. N. H.
3 ser. vii. p. 324.

Description of a new Entomostracous Crustacean, belonging

to the order Phyllopoda, from South Australia {Estheria Birchii).

Zool. Soc. Proc. Nov. 13, 1860. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 149.
Bate, C. Spence. — On the Oecui'rence of Polar Species of Crustacea

in the Wettern Lake, Sweden. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 230.
On the Morphology of some Amphipoda of the division

Hyperina. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 1.

AirKTJLOSA. 213

Bate, C. Spence and "Westwood, J. O. — History of British Sessile-
eyed Crustacea. (Parts 1-3). 8vo. London.

The Crab and its Allies. (Continuation). Zool. 1861, p. 7548,

7553.

BniiHL. — Ueber das Yorkommen von Estei'ia und Branchipus um
Pest. Vien. Z. B. Verb. x. p. 115.

Clafs, C. — Ueber die blassen Kolben und Cylinder au den Antennen
der Copepoden imd Ostracoden. Wurz. Zeitseh. i. 1860, p. 234.

Ueber den Bau Ton Notodelphys ascidicola Allm. Wurz.

Zeitseh. i. 1860, p. 226.

Ueber die Famibe der Lernaeen. Wurz. Zeitseh. ii. 1861,

p. 10.

Ueber den Bau und dieEntwickeluns: YonAchtheres Fercarum.

Z. w. Zool. xi. p. 287.
Zur Kenntniss der Malacostracenlarven. Wurz. Zeitseh. ii.

1861, p. 23.

FiLippi, P. DE. — Nuova Linguatula con embrioni diparticolar forma.
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Geesteeldt, G. — Ueber die Pluss-Krebs Europas. Plate, 4to.
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Heeklots, J. A. — Catalogue des Crustaces qui ont servi de base au
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Hesse, N. — Memoire sur deux nouveaux genres de I'ordi'e des Crus-
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HowsE, E.ICH. — On the occurrence of Nephrops Norivegiciis on the
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Johnson, J. Yate. — Description of anew Species of Cancer obtained
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Leeeboullet. — Du mode de fixation des ceufs aux fausses pattes ab-
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LiLLJEBOEG, Prof. W. — Om de parasitisken Crustacerna Z^>/o^e och
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Liriope et Peltogaster, H. Eathke. 3 plates. Ups. N. A.

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Supplement au meme Memoire. 4 plates, ib. p. 73.

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214 BIBLTOOKAPnT.

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ANNULOSA. 215

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Pagenstechee, H. a. — Ueber das Ei von Gale erminea. Arch.
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216 BIBLIOQBAPHY.

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Revision du genre Agra. Soc. Entom. Ann. iv. i. 1. p. 1.

Nouvelles especes des genres Tricondyla et Therates. Ibid.

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p. 175.
CnAViONERiE, B. DE LA. — Description de trois Lepidopteres nouveaux

de rile de Corse. PI. 2, fig. 11-13. Soc. Entom. Ann. iv. i. 1.

p. 29.

Hennaphrodite du Chelonia Latreillei. Ibid. iv. i. 1. p. 31.

Chebean. — Sur les antennes du Spilopliora trimaculata. Ibid. p. 200.
Chevrolat, a. — Eeflexions et Notes synonymiques sur le Travail

de J. Thomson sur les Cerambycides, avec descriptions de

quelques nouvelles especes. Journ. Ent. 1861, i. 3, p. 185.
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p. 189.
CoQUEREL. — Nouvelles especes du genre Sternotomis. Plate. Soc.

Entom. Ann. 1861, 185.

N. H. R.— 1862. Q

'218 BIBLIOGKAPHT.

CoTTES, G. DES. — Amhlystomus Baymondi, Cryptocephalus raphael-

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.CoTTES, Gr. DES. — Coleopteres francais nouveaux. Plate 2, fig. 1.

Soc. Entom. Ann. iv. i. 1. p. 97.
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p. 38.
Crotch, W. D.— Notes on Hemiptera. Ent. W. Int. 1861, p. 227.
CzAGi, A. — Analytische Darstelluug der Histeriden. (Eortsetzung).

Wien. Ent. Mon. v. 329-363.
Darwin, C— On the Fertilization of British Orchids by Insect

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8vo. Le Mans.
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DoTiEN, C. A. — Bomlyx Mori u. B. Huttoni aus dem Englischen von

Horsfield iind Moore ubertragen. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 13.
■ Epilogus subgaleatus. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 49.

Melolontha {Polypliylla) Jiololeuca % eine Anfrage an siidrus-

sische Entomophilen. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 291.

DouBLEDAT, H. and H. H. Crewe. — Notes on new or little known

British EupithecicB. Zool. 1861, p. 7566.
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i. p. 2L

Ghrysopa nigricornis, nouvelle espece de Ne^Toptere. Ibid.

p. 192.

DouRS. — Catalogue raisonne des Hymenopteres du departement de

la Somme. l'^ partie. Melliferes. 8vo. 51 pp. Amiens.
Dubois, C. E. — Les Lepidopteres de la Belgique, &c. Liv. ix. 14.

Brussels, 1861.
DuFOUB, L. — Notices Entomologiques (Plate 1). Soc. Entom, Ann.

iv. i. 1. p. 5.

Sur les cocons de la Puce Commune. Ibid. p. 255.

Egger, J. — Dipterologische Beitrage. Vien. Z. B. Verh. x. p. 339.
Fortsetzung der Beschreibung neuer Zweifliigler. Ibid. x.

p. 663, 795.
Eugenies. — Kong. Svensk. Fregatt. Eesa omkring Jorden. Haft,

6, 7. Zoologi. 3, 4. Insekter af C. Stal, pp. 113-298. 3 plates.
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16mo. MontpeRier.
Fairmaibe et Germain. — Cerambicides nouveaux du Chili. Soc.

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Faivre, E. — Eecherches sur les proprietes et les fonctions des Nerfs

AlWULOSA. 219

et ties Muscles de la vie organiqiie cliez uu insecte, le Dytiscus

marginalis. Comp. rend. Hi. p. 651.
Pafyel. — Sur les Pacderiis a abdomen concolore. Soc. Eutom.

Ann. 1861, p. 230.
Feldee, C. — Ein neues Lepidopteron aus der Eamilie der Nymplia-

liden u. seine Stellung im natiirliclien Systeme, begriindet ans

der Synopse der iibrigen Gattungen. Col. plate. 4to. Jena.
Le^ndoptera nova Columbise Series i. Eut. Men. Wien.

1S61, V. 3.

Lepidoptera nova a C. Semper in insulis Pliilippiuis collecta

diagnoscibus exposuerunt C. et E. Eelder. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861,

v. 10.
• Observationes de Lepidopteris nonnullis Cliinse centralis et

Japoniae. Ibid. 1862, vi. p. 22.
Eeeeaei, p. M. — Descrizione della membraua del corio sviluppata

nel Pachymerus staphyliniformis, Scbilling. Grenoa Arch. 1861, i.

p. 79.
EiEBEB. P. X. — Die Grattimg OpJithalmicus. Ent. Mon. Wien.

1861, 9.

Die Europaisclien Hemiptera (Halbfliigler Rhyncota heter-

cptera) nacli der analytisclien Methode bearbeitet. Cahiers
3 and 4. 8vo. Wien. 1861.

Floe, G-.— DieEhynclioten Livlands in systematisclier Folge beschrie-

ben. A'^ol. I. Ehpieliota frontirosti'ia, Zett. (Hemiptera liete-

roptera, Ant.) Dorpat, 1860.
Floe, G. — Kritik der von Fieber in den Jahren, 1858 bis 1861, verof-

entbcliten Schriften liber Eliyncboten (Heteropt^ren). Ent.

Mon. Wien. 1862, vi. p. 1.
Feauenfeld, G. E. v. — Bericlit ilber weitere Bearbeitung der

Novara-Sammkmgen und Fortsetzung der Diagnosen neuer

Lepidopteren von b. Felder. Sitzd. Kais. Akad. Wiss xliii. p.

25, 45.
Feet.— Om^.r Pfafenselleri. Ent. W. Int. x. p. 164.
Feetee, C. p.— Lepidopterologiselies. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 295.
Peivaldszkt. — Ein neuer Grottenkafer aus Ungarn. Ent. Mon.

Wien. 1861, p. 387.
Fuss, C. — Leistus gracilis u. alpiooln. Zwei Siebenbiu^g. Kafer-

Arten. Hermans. Sieb. Ver. xi. p. 29.

die Siebenbiirg. Seydmaenus- Arten, ib. p. 127.

die Siebenbiirg. .E'ro^-Arten, ib. p. 146.

Beitrag z. Siebenbiirg. Kaferfaima, ib. p. 231.

Yyl-es, T.— JcJiroia Grisella. Ent. W. Int. v. p. 179.

G^KRi^-KU, K.— JJehev Colias Myrmidone. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861,
V. 10.

Folia aliena. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 107.

Geblee. — Coleopterorum species novae, a Dr. Scbrenk in deserto
kirgiso-songorico anno 1848 detectae. Mosc. BuU. 1860, xxxiii.
p. 1.

Q 2

220 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

GrfeniK, J. B. — Notes pour servir a I'histoire des insectes nuisibles si

ragriculture, a rhorticiilture et a la sylviculture daus le departe-

ment de la Moselle. Nr. 5. Insectes qui attaquent les poiriers ;

2^ partie ; orthopteres, uevropteres, tliysauopteres, hymeuopteres,

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Gerstaecker, a. — IJeber die Grattuug Sapyya (Latr.) St. E. Z.

1861, p. 309.
Grebel, C. — Neue Ostiudisclie Sclireckeu. Z. Nat. sviii. p. Ill,
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1861, p. 254.
Glaseb, L. — Lebensiiiliigkeit des befrueliteten Cossus-Eies iin Leib

der todteu Mutter. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 451.
GoRDOis' George. — List of Lepidoptera hitherto found within the

Province of Norway, &c. Arranged according to Doubleday's

' List; 2nd. Ed. Zool. 1861, p. 7663.
Graaf, H. AV^. de. — Tweede Naamlijst van Inlandsche Hemiptera.

Ent. Tijds. 1862, v. p. 72.
Deux nouveUes especes de Tortricides. PL 12, fig. 1, 2.

Ent. Tijds. 1861, iv^" ^leel, p. 167.
Guenee, a. — Etude sur le genre LitJwsia. Soc. Entom. Ann. iv.

i. 1. p. 30.
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Pavonia-media {Bomhyx Pyri and B. Spini, Borck). A. N. H.

3 Ser. vii. p. 150 (from C. rend. 1860, p. 774).
Hagen, H.— Ueber Insektenztige. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 73.
Die Phryganiden Pictet's nach Typen bearbeitet (conclusion)

Ibid. 1861, p. 113.
Hagen, H.— Insekten Zwitter. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 259.
Hajvion, M. — Note sur I'eleve du Ver a Sole en Bretagne. Comp.

rend. lii. p. 519.
Hampe. C. — Ueber die Lebeusweise des 3fetcecus paradoxus und

Attageniis pantherinus. Ent. Mon. "Wien. 1861, v. 3.
Einige neue Kafer aus Croaticu iind Siebenbiirgen. Ibid.

1861, V. 3.
Harold, E. v.— Beitrage zur Kenntuiss eiiiiger caprophagen Lamel-

licornien. Berl. E. Z. 1861, p. 92.
Harris, T. W. — Observations on tlie Transformation of the Ceci-

domyife. Bost. Proc. 1860, p. 179.

On Cicindela Ileutzii. Bost. Proc. 1860, p. 185.

• On the Synonymy of three North American Butterflies.

Bost. Proc. 1800, p. 189.

On Hoplocampa ruhi. Bost. Proc. 1860, p. 235.

Herklots, J. A. — De Larve van Anoncodes Melamwa von Linne,
1 col. plate. Ent. Tijds, 1861, iv'^^ deel, p. 164.

PIerrich-Scuaeffer.— Systcmatisches Verzeichniss der Europiii-
schen Schmetterlinge. 8vo. Eegensb. 1861.

Neue Schmetterlinge aus Europa u. den angrenzenden Liin-

dcrn. Part 3. 8 col. plates. 4to. Eegensb. 1861.

AJ^NULOSA. 221

Heerich-Schaeffer. — Corresponclenzblatt fiir Sammler v. Insecten,

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Eegensburg. 1861.

Ueber Gastropaclia Arhiisciilae. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 55.

Hewitson, W. C— Exotic Butterflies. Part 39.

Descriptions of some Butterflies from the Collection of Mr.

WaUace. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 50.
Descriptions of new Diui'nal Lepidoptera. 2 plates. Journ.

Ent. 1861, i. 3, p. 155.
Heyden, C. v. — Eragmente aus meinen entomologisclienTagebiicliern

(continued). St. E. Z. 1861, p. 31.
Hill, Eichard. — On the Sleep of Insects. Jam. Q. Journ. 1861,

p. 207.

On Insect Vision. Ibid. p. 182.

HisiNGER, Ed. — Ofversigt af Finlands hittills kanda Orthopterer

jemte korta beskrinfnigar. Einsk. Bidr. 6 Haft. 1861, p. 1.
Holmgren, A. E. — Monographia Ophionidum Sueciae. (Ex actis

reg. acad. scient. Holm.) 4to. Stockholm, 1861.
HuELL, Q. M. E. — Ver Aanteekening omtrent het leven ende

wetenschappelijke werkzaamheden, in leven Bidder van onder-

scheidene orden, gepensioneerd Schout bijuacht, lid van verscliil-

lende geleerde Genutschappen, &c. Ent. Tijds. 1860, vi. 1.
Jaubert, J. M. AND Egbert du Luc. — Prodrome d'histoire natu-

relle du Departement du Var. 2^ partie. Catalogue des Insectes

Coleopteees. Publie par la Soc. d'etudes scientifiques et

archeologiques de Draguignou. 8vo. Draguignon.
Inchbald, p. — Cynips G/echomae.

Cecldomyia Salicis, Schrank. Ent. "W. Int. x. p. 61.

Cecidomyia Taxi. Ibid. 76.

Cynips Rosae Spinosissimae. Ibid. x. p. 179.

. The WiUows. Ibid. x. p. 197.

Janson, E. W.—JPhilo)itJms Scictattis. Ibid. x. p. 6.

Jekel, H. — Eemarks on the Pollinosity of the Genera Lixus and

Larius. Journ. Ent. 1860, i. 1, p. 12.
Kawell, H.— Entomologische Mittheiluugen. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 123.
Keferstein, a. — Ueber jungfriiiUiche Zeugung bei Schmetterlingeu.

St. E. Z. 1861, p. 438.
Keller, A. u. J. HoFFMAiSTf. — Systematische Zusammenstellung

der bisher in Wllrtemburg aufgefundenen Mikrolepidopteren.

Wiirt. Jahr. xvii. p. 263.
Kiesenwetter, H. v. — Beitrag zur Kaferfauna Griechenlauds.

Siebentes Stuck. Berl. E. Z. 1861, p. 221.
Eine entomologische Excursion in das Wallis und nach dem

^tn*

Monte Eosa im Sommer, 1861. Ibid. p. 360.
Kronhelm, a. t. — Ueber Oeligwerden der Schmetterlinge. St. E,

Z. 1861, p. 453.
KuTSCHERA, E. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der europaischen Haltici-

nen. Ent. Mon. AVien. 1861, ix. p. 233.

222 BTBLIOGEAPHT.

L.iBOTJLBfejST:. — Metamorphose de la Tacliina {Mcmcera) villica.

Plate. Soe. Eiitoni. Auu. 1861, p. 231.
Description et figure d'uue larve d'ffistride de Cayenne, ex-

traite de la peau d'lm homme. Ibid. p. 219.
liALLEMA^D ET SiEODOT. — Note sur TObservation microscopiqne

der graines de vers h Soie arant et pendant rineubation. Comp.

rend', lii. 198.
Ledeeee, J. — Ueber Alb. Kindermanns letzte Lepidopterologiscbe

Ausbente. 2 plates. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861, v. p. 141.
Nemeophila Metelkana. n. sp. Plate. Ent. Mou. Wien.

1861, T. p. 162.
Le Geaxd, G. — Liste de coleopteres du departement de I'Aube.

8vo. Troyes.
LErcKAET, H.— Die Laryenzustande der Miisciden eine Torlaiifige

MittbeHuug. Weigm. Arch. 1861, xxrii. 1, p. 60. A. N. H.

3 Ser. Tiii. p. 428. ^
LiKCECTJM, GriDEON. — Notice on the Habits of the " Agricnltural

Ants " of Texas. Linn. Joiu-n. 1861, vi. p. 29.
LoEw, H.— Neue Beiti-age zur Kenntniss der Dipteren. 7 Beitrag.

4to. Berlin, 1861.
Die Dipteren-Eauna Siidafrika's. Part I. 2 plates. 4to.

BerHn, 1860.
Ueber die Art en der Grattuug Maltericerus, Eond. Ent.

Mon. Wien. 1861, v. 10. _
Diptera aliquot in insula Cuba collecta descripsit. Ibid.

V. 2, p. 33.
i GymnojJten/s princiimlis n. sp. Ent. Mon. "Wien. 1861, v.

p. 166.

Ueber die africanischen Trypetina. Plate. Berl. E. Z. 1861,

p. 253.

Diptera Americae septentrionalis. Centuria prima. Berl. E.

Z. 1861, p. 307.
Beschi-eibung einiger neuer em'opaischer Dipteren. Ent.

Mon. Wien. 186l, v. p. 348.

Lis^oe svperciliosa. n. sp. Ibid. p. 351.

Blaesoxipha giylloctona nov. genus et species. Ibid. p. 3S4.

LoGA>", E. E. — Observations on the Eamilies Agaristidce and Mela-

meridee. Zool. 1861, p. 7406.
XiTJCAS, H. — Pachydema Lethierryi. Soc. Entom. Ann. iv. i. 1.

p. 101.

Mallaspis Moreletii $ . Ibid. 1, i. p. 104.

Sur le geni'e Eiigastei' de la Eamille des Locustinen. Ibid.

1861, p. 213.

Sur la mnniere de \\\re du Mellinvs sabulost's. lb. p. 119.

M'Lachlan, R — Notes on British Trichoptera, with Descriptions

of New Species, &e. Ent. Ann. 1862, p. 21.
Eemarks on the suj^posed influence of the Eood of the

Larvae in cauj^ing variations in Lepidoptera. Ent. AV. Int. x.

n. 157.

A^NULOSA. 223

Makn, J. — Zur Lcpidopteren-Fauua von Amasia. 2 plates. Ent.

Mon. Wien. 18G1, v. p. 155.
Marseul, S. a. be. — Supplement a la Monographie des Histerides.

2 plates. Soc. Eutom. Ann. iv. i, 1, p. 141.
Massalokgo, a. — Catagraphia nonnullarum Graphidearmn brasili-

ensium. 2 plates. A'ien Z. B. Verh. x. p. 675.
Matthews, A. — Discovery of two new Species of Ptilium, new to

the British Eauna, and the description of a new Species of that

Genus. Zool. 1861, p. 7409.
Mat, J. W. — Translated Life-Histories of Sawllies, from the Dutch

of M. SneUen von VoUenhoven. Zool. 1861, p. 7522, 7571, 7718.
Mate, Gr. L. — Die europaischen Eormiciden. Nach der analyt.

Methode bearb. Plate. 8vo. Wien. 1861.
Mengelbie, W. — Eeiseskizzen aus den Alpen. St. E. Z. 1861,

pp. 93, 118, 153.
MicKLiTZ, F.— Beitrag zur Bastardfrage. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 295.
MiLLEE, L.— Neue Grottenkafer. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861, 9.
MiLLEE, C. — Habit of the Lana of Orchestes Fagi. Ent. W. Int.

X. p. 101.
Neue Kafer aus Kindermann's Vorrathen (conclusion).

2 plates. Ibid. v. 7, p. 201.

Anophtliahnus dalmatinus, n. sp. Ibid. v. 8, p. 255.

Mink, W.— Entomologische Notizen. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 128.
MoKTEorziEE. — Hemipteres de la Nouvelle Caledonie. Soc. Entom.

Ann. iv. i. 1, p. 59.
■ — Coleopteres de la Nouvelle Caledonie (conclusion). Ibid.

1861, p. 265.
MoEAWiTZ, De. E. — Beschreibung einiger neuen Chrysomelidse aus

der Umgegend von Sarepta. Mosc. Bull, 1860, i. p. 298.
MoEEis, F. O.— A Natural History of British Moths. Part ix. 15.

2 col. plates. London, 1861.
MoEEis, J. G. — Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North

America (Smithsonian Institution). Washington, 1860.
MoTSCHOULSKT, M. ViCTOE. — Enumeration des nouvelles especes

de Coleopteres rapportees de ses voyages. Mosc. Bull. 1860, ii.

p. 539.
Enumeration des Coleopteres rapportes en 1859, par M.

Severtsof des Steppes meridionales des Kirghises. Peters. Bull.

ii. 513. 1860.

Etudes Entomologiques. Neuvieme annee. Helsingfors, 1860.

Mtjlsant, E. — Opuscules entomologiques. ll^cahier. 8vo. Plate.

Paris, 1860.
Mtjeeat, A>'de. — On the Pediculi infesting the different Eaces of

Man. 2 plates. E. S. E. Tru. xxii. p. 567.
Newman, Edwaed. — Interesting fact in the Economy of the genus

Colias. Zool. 1861, p. 7359.
Occurrence of Zygcena AcJii/Iece in Ireland. Zool. 1861,

p. 7565, 7676.

224 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

NowicKi, M. — Enumeratio lepidopterorum Haliciae orieutalis".

8vo. Plate. Leopoli, 1860.
Oste]S'-Sacken.— Entomologisclie Notizen. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 5l!
Ueber die Gallen undandere durch Insecteu hervorgebraclite

Pflanzen-deformationen in ]S^ord- America. Ibid. p. 405.
Ott, a. — Die Eagara-Seidenraupe {Bomhyx cynthia Drury) aus

China. Hire Geschichte, iln-e Zucbt u. ihre Eutterpflanze. Plate.

Sto. Zurich, 1861.
Paiva. — Barao do Castello de. Description of two new species of

Coleoptera from the Canary Islands. A. N. H. 3 Ser. A'iii. p. 210.
Parfitt, Ed wahd. — Notes on the Eamily Plin/rumidce. Zool. 1861,

p. 7370. ^ ^ JJ

Pascoe, E. p. — Notices of new or little-known genera and species

of Coleoptera. 6 plates. Journ. Ent. 1860, i. 1, p. 36 ; 2, p. 98.
PERKUfS, V. R. — Some Eemarks on the common Glowworm {Lam-

pyria noctilucd) and its larva. Tynes. Trans, v. 85.
Philippi. — Catalog der chilenischen Arten des genus TeJephorus.

St. E. Z. 1861, p. 20.
PowEE, J. A. — Description oi Pliilontlius jyrolLvus. Zool. 1S61, p. 7325.
rEAi;>', S. V. — Abbildung. u. Beschreibimg. europaischer Schmetter-

linge in systematischer Eeiheufolge. Pt. 20, 21, 22. Hov. 4to.

Niirnberg, 1860-61.
Peellee, C. H. — Beitrage zu einem natiirliehen System der Coleop-

teren. 8vo. Jena.
Peest, W. — Description of the Larva of JEpione vespertaria. Zool.

1861, p. 7322.
Peittwik. — Die Generationen und dieWinterformen der in Schlesieu

beobachteten Palter. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 191.
Eathke, H. — Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Insekten.

St. E. Z. 1861, pp. 169, 229.
Eeiche, L.— Coleopteres nouveaux du Nord de I'Afrique. Soe.

Entom. Arn. iv. i. 1, p. 87.
■ Description de Coleopteres nouveaux recueillis en Corse par

B. de Chavigtierie. Ibid. p. 201.

Notes synonpniques sur divers Coleopteres. Ibid. p. 211.

liEJNnoLD, E.— Eauna Hannoverana. Abth. i. Yerzeichniss der

bei Hannover vorkommenden Schmetterlinge. Zusammengestellt

unter Mitwirkg. der H.H. Lehr. Ki'oessmann u. Eevisor Glitz.

4to. Hanover, 1860.
EossLEE. — Saturnia Cyntliia,'¥. — Wiesb. Jahrb. Yer. Nat. xiv. p. 420.
Ueber die Zurichtung von Kleinschmetterliugen fur Samm-

luugen. Ent. Mon. Wieu. 1861, v. 3.
Zur Naturgeschichte von Geometra Fohjgrammaria. Ibid.

1861, V. 3.
Gedanken iiber die Bedentung der Malerei auf den Schmet-

terlingsfliigeln. Ibid. v. p. 168.
EoGE.NiiofEE, A..~-CuculUa formosa, n. sp. Yien, Z. B. Ycrh. x.

p. 775.

ANNULOSA. 225

EoGER, J. — Die Powem-artigeu Aineiseu. Berl. E. Z. 18G1, p. 1.

Myrmicologische Naelilei^e. Ibid. p. 163.

EoNDxVNi. — Del Greuere Bertea. Plate. INIil. Att. ii. p. 56.
Sugli Insetti che concorrono alia feeoudazioue del semi neUe

Aristolocliie. Plate. Mil. Att. ii. p. 133.
Nova Species italiea generis Dipterorum Sphixiinorpliae.

Plate. Mil. Att. ii. p. 144.

Siille abbitudiui della Fhora fasciata. Plate. Mil. Att.

ii. p. 165.

De genere dipteroriim Neera. lb. p. 185.
Stirpis ceeidomyarum genera revisa. Ibid. p. 286.

EuspiA'i, H.— Entomological Notes. Ent. "W. Int. x. p. 133.
KuTiiE, J. F. — Deutsche Braconiden. Aus desseuNaehlass veroffeut-

licht von H. Eeinliard. (Zweites Stiick.) Berl. E. Z. 1861,

p. 132.
Saktorius, a. — Besclireibuug einiger Monstrositiiten von Kafern.

Wien. E. Mon. 1861, i.
Ueber Euryommatus Mariae, Eog. Ent. Mon. AVien. 1861,

V. 10.
ScHALiKOFF, J. u. J. BoESENKOW. — Mittlieilungen iiber die A\^an-

derungen der Gryllus migratorius auf der Tauriscbeu Halbinsel

im Jalire 1859 u. iiber das Yorkommen einer Species von Gordi-

aceen in den Bauchholilen derselben. Mosc. Bull. 1860, i. p. 294.
ScHAuruss, L. W. — Die europaisclien ungefiiigelteu Arten der Gat-

tung Sphodrus. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 240.

Anthicus vittahis, Lucas. Ibid. p. 324.

Zwei neue Silphiden-Gattungen. Plate. Ibid. p. 423.

ScHAUM, H. — Eiue Decade neuer CicindeUden aus dem tropisclien

Asien. Plate. Berl. E. Z. 1861, p. 68.

Die Bedeutung der Paraglossen. Ibid. p. 81.

ScHEKCK, A. — Die Nassauisclien Bienen, Wiesb. Jahrb. Ver. Nat.

xiv. p. 1.

Die deutsclien Gattimgsnamen d. Bienen. lb. xiv. p. 415.

. Die Honigbiene v. Hymettus. lb. xiv. p. 417.

ScuiNEK, J. E. — Vorlaufiger Commentar zum dipterologisclicu

Tbeile der " Eauna Austriaca." Part iii. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861,

V. p. 137.

Eauna austriaca. Die Eliegen. (Diptera.) Nacli der

analyt. Methode bearb. Mit der Characteristik siimmtl. eiu-op.
Gattgn.,der Beschreibg. aller in Deutsclilandvorkommen den Arten
u. dem Verzeichnisse der bescliriebenen europ. Arten. Parts
vii. viii. 8vo. Yienna, 1862.

Schmidt, E. — Heterogynis diikia. Yien. Z. B. Yerb. p. 659.

Drei neue Hohlenkiifer aus Krain (witb 3 figures). Ibid.

X. p. 669.

ScHEENCK, L. V. — Eeisen im Amur-Lande. Yol. ii. part 2. Coleop-

teren. 6 col. plates, ^to. Petersb. 1861.
Scott, .1. — The Larva of Micropteryx. Ent. W. Int. x. p. 3.

226 BIBLIOGEAPnT.

Scott, J. — On Hemiptera, commonly called Bugs. Ent. Ami,

1862, p. 150.
ScuDDER, H. S. — Eemarks on the American Wliite Ant. (Termea

frontalis, Haldeman.) Bost. Proc. 1860, yii. p. 287.
On tlie Grenus Baphiclopho7'a, Serv. ; with Descriptions of

four species from tlie Caves of Kentucky, and from the Pacific

Coast. Ibid. \\\\. p. 6. 1861.
Sepp, J. C. — Nederlandsche Insecten. Ser. ii. Nos. 5-16. Plates.

Leyden, 1861.
Shipstone, W. — On the Habits of JBomhi/x Callunw. Zool. 1861,

p. 7359.
SiEBOLD, Y. — Ueber Agriotypus armatus. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 59.
SiGisroRET, V. — Hemipteres exotiques nouveaux. Plate 2, fig. 2-5.

Soc. Entom. Ann. iv. i, 1, p. 55.
Smith, F. — Descriptions of new genera and species of Exotic

Hymenoptera. Plate. Joiirn. Ent. 1860, i. ii. p. 65 ; 1861,

i. iii. p. 146.
Notes on Hymenoptera observed during the past Season ;

some Observations on Hymeiiopterous Parasites, and a Mono-

gi-aph of the Eamily Chrysididae. Ent. Ann. 1862, p. 69.
Descriptions of some new species of Ants from the Holy

Land, with a Synonymic List of others previously described.

Linn. Jouru. 1861, vi. p. 31.

Catalogue of Hymenopterous Insects collected by Mr. A.

E. Wallace in the Islands of Ceram, Celebes, Ternate, and
GUolo. Ibid. p. 36._

A few Observations on Cynips lignicola and G. radicis. Zool.

1861, p. 7330.

A Contribution to the Natural History of Ants. Zool. 1861,

p. 7612.
Snellen, P. C. T. — Mededeelingen over Nederlandsche Lepidop-

tera. Part 2nd. Ent. Tijds. iv. 2. p. 88.
Stainton, H. T. — A Chapter on Zygcena Minos. Ent. Ann. 1862,

p. 50.

New British Species of Lepidoptera in 1861. Ibid. p. 105.

. ■ ..i Observations on British and Continental Tineina. Ibid.

p. 119.

Larva of Micropteryx. Ent. W. Int. x. p. 15.

A Notice of Gelechia siibdeeiirtella and its larva. Ibid. p. 22

Natural History of the Tineina, the Genus Gracilaria.

Ent. W. Int. X. pp. 23, 31.

Natural History of the Tineina, The Genera Coriscium

and Orinx. Ibid. p. 54.

— On the Lai'va of Gelechia Caulige7iella, Schmid. N. S. Ibid.

p. 100.

Essai Monographique stir le genre Coleopliora. (Notes on

M. B. D' UzeUe's paper in the Annales de la Societe. Ent. de
Prance 1859). Ibid. p. 192.

ANNULOSA. 227

Staintox, H. T. — Micropteryx Sparmanni. Ibid. p. 233.

Prof. Zellee and J. "W. Douglas. — Tlie Natural History of

the Tineina. Vol, 6, containing Depressaria, pt. 1. 8 col. plates.
London, 1861.

Stal, C. — Miscellanea homopterologica. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 129.

Staudlngek, O. u. M. Wocke. — Catalog der Lej)idopteren
Europa's u. der angrenzenden Lander. Catalogue des lepidop-
teres d'Eiu-ope et des pays limitropLes. Dresden.

Catalogus lepidopterorum europaeorum. 8vo. lb.

Alpliabetisclies Verzeichniss. der Arten der Lepidopteren.

Eoy. 8vo. lb.

Ueber einige neue und bisher verwecbselte Lepidopteren.

St. E. Z. 1861, p. 287.
Stieelin, Gt. — Beitrag zur. Lisekten Fauna von Epirus. Coleop-

tera and Hemiptera. Ent. Mon. Wien. 1861, v. 7, p. 216.
Kevision der europaisclien Otiorynchus. Arten. Berl. E.

Z. 1861, Becbeft.
Strauch, a. — Catalogue systematique de tous les Coleopt^res

decrits dans les annales de la societe entomologique de France

depuis 1832 jusqu'a 1859. 8vo. Halle, 1861.
Thomson, C. Gr. — Skandinaviens Coleoptera, synoptiskt bearbetade.

Tom. i.-ii. 8vo. Lund, 1859-60.
TiscHBEiN. — Ichneumon liictatorius $ L. mit zweifachen Tarsen am

recbten Hinterbeine. Plate. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 428.
Van Westjiaas (F. A. de Eoo). — Een Hermaplirodiet van Te-

phrosia ct'epusctilaria, AV. V. pi. 12, fig. 3.
ViNER, Hart. — Description of a curious Form of Dipterous Larva,

Linn. Proc. vi. 1, 1861.
VoLLENHOVEN, S. C. S. — De Inlaudsclie Bladwespen en hare

gedaantewisseling en levenswijze beschreven, (with 4 plates).

Ent. Tijds. iv. 2, p. 65, v. p. 49.
Beschrijvig van einige nieuwe soorten van Lucanidas, 3

plates, 1 coL) Ibid. 3-4, p. 101.

Description de qiielques especes nouvelles Lepidopteres. 3

col. plates. Ibid, deel p. 156.
Walker, Francis. — Catalogue of the Dipterous Insects collected at

Gilolo, Ternate, and Ceram by Mr. A E. Wallace. Linn.

Journ. 1861, vi. p. 4.
Characters of undescribed Species of the Genus Leucopsis.

Journ. Ent. 1860, i. 1, p. 16.

Characters of undescribed Species of the Family Chalcida3.

Ibid. i. 3, p. 172.
Waterhouse, Gr. E. — Notice of an unrecorded British Species of

Fhilonthus — P. scutatus of Erichson, Kraatz, etc. Ent. W.

Int. 1861, 232.
Wernebtjrg. — Ueber die scheckensaiimigen Arten des Grenus Hes-

peria. St. E. Z. 1861, p. 62.
Zur Natui'geschichte der Geom. Fomonaria. Ibid. p. 322.

228 BIBLIOQEAPHT.

AVest, Tuffen. — On certain Appendages to the Feet of Insects
subservient to holding or climbing. Liini. Journ. 1861, vi.
p. 26. Linn. Trans. 1861.

Westwood, J. O. — Catalogue of the Orthopterous Insects in the
Collection of the British Museum. Part 1, Phasmida. 48
plates. Eoy. 8yo. 1859.

AViLDE, O.— Zur Palterfaima v. Zeitz a. d. Elster. Z. Nat. 1860, p. 301.

■ Pie Pflanzen und Eaupen Deutschlands. Versuch einer

lepidopterologischen Botanik. Vol. ii. Systematische Beschrei-
bung der Eaupen. 10 plates, 8vo. Berlin, 1861.

"Wockeu. Statjdinger. — Eeise nach Finnarken. St. E.Z. 1861, p. 325.

AVoLLASTON, P. V. — On certain Coleoptera from the Island of St.
Aancent. A. N. H. 3 Ser. yii. p. 246, viii. p. 90-197.

< On certain Coleopterous Insects from the Island of Ascen-
sion. A. N. H. 3 Ser. viii. p. 299.

On additions to the Madeiran Coleoptera. A. N. H. 3 Ser.

viii. p. 99.

■ On the Halticida? of the Canary Islands. Journ. Ent. p. 1.

On the Coleoptera of the Salvages. Ibid. i. 2, p. 84.

On certain Coleopterous Insects from the Cape of Good

Hope. Ibid. 1861, i. 3, p. 133.
AVoEMALD, Percy C. — List of Trichoptera and ]S"europtera captured

near London in 1861. Zool. 1861, p. 7803.
AVtman, Jeffries. — Observations on the Habits of a species of

Hornet (Vespa) which builds its nest in the ground. Bost.

Proc. vii. 411, 1861.
Zellee. — The Larva of Fmnphila Actceon. Ent. AV. Int. x. p. 163.

3. Anarthropoda.
Annelida. — Suctoria. — Anniiloida.

Batllet, C. — Experiences sur le Cysticercus tenuicollis et sur le

Tenia qui resulte de sa transformation dans I'estomae du Chien.

Ann. d. S. Nat. xvi. 99.
Baird, Dr. AV. — Note on the Occurrence of Mlaria sanguinea in

the body of Galaxlas Scriba, a fresh-water Fish from Australia.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 207.
Description of some new species of Intestinal AVorms (En-

tozoa) in the Collection of the British Museum, {Ascaris ; Oor-

dius; Tetralothrium.) Zool. Soc. Proc. Dec. 11, 1860. A. N". H.

3 Ser. vii. p. 229.

Notice of the occurrence of Sclerostoma equinum ? in the

Testicle of the Horse. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 271. A. N. H. 3 Ser.
viii. p. 502.

Note on Lerncea cyc?o/>^mw« occurring in the Gills of Cyclop-

terinus spinosus, a fish from Greenland. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 239.
Caeteb, II. J. — On a Bisexual Nematoid AVorm, which infests the
connnon House-Flv {Musca domestka) in Bombay. A. N". H.
3 Ser. vii. p. 29.

AKNUI.OSA. 229

CLAPA-RiDT:, Ed. — Beltrag zur Kenntniss der OepTiyrea. Arch. Anat.

1861, p. 537.

TJeber Pohjdora cornuta, Bosc. Ibid. p. 542.

CoBBOLD, T. S.— On the Cystic Entazoa from the "Wart-Hog and

Eed Eiver Hog. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 93.
List of Entozoa, including Pentastomes, from Animals dying

at the Zoological Society's Menagerie, between the years 1857-60

inclusive, with Descriptions of several new species. Zool. Proc.

1861, p. 117.
Colin, G-.— Sur la presence d'vme Linguatule dans les ganglions

mesenteriques du Mouton ; et sur sa transformation dans le nez

du Chien en Pentastome tenioide ; (Extract.) Comp. rend. lii.

p. 1311.
CoemajS^e. — Hirndoculture : Memoire relatif aux plans du marais

convert pour I'education des sangsues, par A. Germane, eleveui*.

4-to. Montelimart ; (Paris, P. Asselin.)
Sur le meme sujet :

a. Essai medical sur les sangsues, par Eochette. Paris, 1803. 8vo,

b. Histoire natui-elle et medicale des sangsues, contenant la descrip-

tion anatomique des organes de la sangsue officinale, avec des
considerations physiologiques sur ces organes, des notions
tres ettudues sur la conservation domestique de ce ver, sa
reproduction, ses maladies, son application, etc., par J. L.
Derheims. Paris, 1825. 8vo. 168 pp. avec 6 pi.

c. Eecherches sur le genre Hirudo, par MM. Pelletier et Huzard

fils. 8vo. 4-23 pp. avec 3 pi. col. Jovirnal de Pharmacie, 1825,
t. xi. p. 105.

d. Monographie des sangsues medicinales et officinales, par A. Char-

pentier. Paris, 1838. 8vo 64 pp.

e. Sur la multiplication des sangsues, par M. Huzard fils. Paris,

1841, In-8, 43 p., avec 1 pi. 1 fr. 50.

f. Monographie de la iamille des Hirudinees, par M. Moquin-Tan-

don, professeur d'histoire naturelle medicale a la Eaculte de
medecine de Paris, membre de I'lnstitut de France. JSTouvelle
edition revue et augmentee. Paris, 1846, in 8 de 445 p. avec
atlas de 14 pi. gravees et coloriees. 15 fr.
Dataine, M. — Traite des Entozoaires et des Maladies vermineuses

de r Homme et des Animaux. 8vo ? Paris, 1861.
DiEsiNO. — Eevision d. Nematoden. Plate. Vieu. Sitz. vol. 42.p. 595.
Eberth. — Ueber Strongyhis tenuis, (Mehlis.) "Wurz. Zeitsch. ii.
1861, p. 47.

Ueber die Muskeln und Seitenlinien des Trichocejyhalus

dispar. Ti. w. Z. xi. p. 96.
Ehlers, E. — Ueber die Grattiuig Priapulus Lam. Ein Beitrag zur

Kenntniss der Grephyreen. Z. w. Zool. xi. p. 205.
EiLipPT, E. DE. — Troisieme Memoire pour servir a I'histoire genetique

des Trematodes. Tur. Mem. xviii. p.
Grube, E. — Beschi-eibungen neuer oder wenig bekannter Seesterne
und Seeigel. In-4 avec 3 pi. color. Jena, Frommann. 5 fr. 50.
Acta Academife naturge curiosorum.

230 BIELrOGEAPHY,

Hodge, G. — On tlie Commou Brittle Star (Opkioeoma rosulu), witli

some Eemarks on the Growth of the Rays and their Aj)pendage8.

Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 41.
' On the Occurrence of Uraster glacialis at Seaham Harbour.

Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 62.
HoughtOjST, W. — Eemarks on the Glossiphonid^e, a Family of dis-

cophorous Annulata. Q. J. M. Sc. New Ser. i. p. 33.
HowsE, EiCHAED. — On the Occurrence of Goniaster eqiiestris on the

coast of Northumberland. Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 59.
KJerEESTEiN, "W. — Ueber parasitische Pilze aus Ascaris Mystax. Z.

w. Z. xi. p. 135.
Einige Bemerkungen iiber Tomopteris. Arch. Anat. 1861,

p. 360.

AJS^D Ehlees. — On the Anatomy of the SipuncuU. A. N. H.

3 ser. vii. p. 486.

(From. G5tt. Nachr. Nov. 13, 1860 ; Bibl. Univer. (Bull.

Scient.) p. 387.
KcEBEELE. — Des cysticcrques de tenias chez I'homme. 8vo. Paris,

1861. Gazette hebdomadaii*e.
Lawson, Heney. — On the Affinities of the Groups Trematoda Pla-

nariao and Hii'udinei ; and on the Pormation of a new class of

Annulosa for the Reception of these Animals. Eoy. Dubl. Soc.

Journ. Juty, 1861.
Leydig, Peakz. — Die Augen und neue Sinnesorgane der Egel. Arch.

Anat. 1861, p. 588.
Haben die Nematoden ein Nervensystem ? Bemerkungen

zu dieser Prage. Arch. Anat. 1861, p. 606.
Lymajs", Theodoeb. — Descriptions of new Ophiuridse, belonging to

the Smithsonian Institution, and to the Museum of Comparative

Zoology at Cambridge. Best. Proc. 1860, p. 193, 252.
Description of a new Star Pish. {Astrophyton Caryi, I^J^-)

Best. Proc. vii. p. 424, 1861.
MoLiN, R. — Prodromus Paunae Helminthologicae Venetae adj , dis-

quis. anat. et crit. 15 plates. Vien. Denk. xix. p. 189, and 4to.

Vienna, 1861.
On the Retrograde Metamorphosis of certain Nematode

Worms. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 491. (From Wien. Sitzungsb.

xxxviii. p. 706.
NoEMAN, Alp. Meele. — On an Echinoderm new to Science, from

Ireland, {Strephenterus claviger.) A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 112.
RouiN, C. — 0\\ i\\e Spermatophora oi ^orae Hirudinei. (Compt. rend.

Aug. 1861.) A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 431.
Saltee, S. .1. A. — On the Structure and Growth of the Tooth of

the Echinus. R. Soc. Proc. xi. p. 166.
Salzmann, Dr. — Einige Notizen iiber Taenien. Wurtz. Jahrb. xvii.

p. 102.
ScuMiDT, Oscae. — Ueber Planaria torva Autor. Z. w. Z. xi. p. 87.
Untersuchungen iiber Turbellarien von Corfu und Cepha-

lonia nebst Nachtrjigen zu frijheren Arbeiten. lb. p. 1.

AOTfULOSA. 231

Schneider, A. — Einige Bemerkungen zu 0. Schmidt's " TJnter-
' sueliuiigen iiber Turbellarien vou Corfu und Cephalonia." Arch.

Anat. 1861, p. 783.
Stewart, J. A. — Description of Asteronyx loveni, Mull, et Trosch.,

a new British Starfish. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 96.
Stewart, T. H. — Observations on the Anatomy of the Echinoderms.

Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 53.
Wallich, Gr. C— Eemarks on some novel Phases of Organic Life,

and on the Boring Powers of minute Annelids at great depths

in the Sea. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 52.
Welnland, D. p. — Beschreibuug zweier Taenioiden aus dem Mens-

chen ; TJeber die Bandwiirmer der Indianer u. JSTeger ; Monstro-

sitat -von Taenia solium L. u. Versuch einer systematik der

Taenien. 5 plates. Nov. Act. xxviii. and 4to. Jena, 1861.
"White. — Description of a new Species of Gordius. (G. trifurcatus?)

Bost. Proc. 1860, p. 175.
Wyville-Tiiomson, J. — On the Embryology of Asteracanthion

violaceus. Q. J. Mic. Sc. New. Ser. i. p. 99.

Ili.'ic^llainiit

Note on the Habits of the Yipee.

In reference to the " Note" on this subject in our last number
(p. 118) we have received several interesting communications from
Dr. J. Davy, to whom specimens of the young vipers reported to
have taken refuge in the maternal mouth, were forwarded for
examination.

Dr. Davy remarks that, if, as Mr. Norman appears to be sure,
the eleven young Yij^ers were all found in the same situation (in
the interior of the mother) he has little doubt that that place was
the uterus and not the stomach. His reasons for coming to this
conclusion will be found in the following observations, consisting for
the most part of extracts from his letters.

" Neither of the three sj)ecimens," he says, " examined by me
bore any marks of having breathed, or of being in a state sufiiciently
advanced, as I imagine, for independent existence. The poison fangs
were not fully developed, though whether at the time of birth
these organs are fully formed or not, I do not know. Probably,
considering how small and feeble the young snakes would then be,
those organs would then be little more than rudimentary, and if so
that may accoimt for Vipers, which are so prolific, not being more
common, defenceless as they would thus be, and exposed to the
attacks of so many enemies."

" The lungs again were perfectly collapsed. If respiration had
taken place, I should not have expected this ; and I do not think that
there would be a complete absorption of the air by the spirit. The

232 MTSCELLAXEA.

stomacli was quite empty, as also the intestine, with the exception
of the lower portion, which contained some yelk from the included
viteUus."

" The circumstance that in some of the specimens a portion of
\'itelline sac was still external to the body, is, I think, adverse to the
conclusion that any of them had left the uterine cavity. For were
the young ones born with the vitellus thus exposed to the rough
friction unavoidable in locomotion, on land, such a delicate structure
could hardly but suifer injury."

AVith reference to the circumstance that the yoimg vipers ap-
peai'ed to be moulting, Dr. Davy remarks : —

" That this was very distinctly the case in two specimens, the
fine cuticle readily separating and exposing a surface of a brighter
hue." But this moulting he apprehends is not incompatible with
their ha\-ing been taken from the abdominal (or uterine) cavity.

" May it not be supposed," he observes, " that the yoimg of the
snake before birth are subject to several moults, necessary as they
increase in size after the integument has been fully formed." In some
foetal vipers dissected by him less advanced than those in question
such was the condition of the skin ; the colouring and markings were
distinct and precisely similar to those of their parent. In these
instances also the poison fangs though formed could not be detected
until the specimens were dried, when, the soft enveloping tissue
shrinking, their points came into view.

On the supposition that JVIi*. Norman's gamekeeper was not de-
ceived in what he saw, but that he really witnessed the swallo'^'ing of
two or three of its brood by the parent Yiper, may it not probably
be assumed that she actually devoiu-ed them ? A primd facie objec-
tion to this supposition, lies in the fact above pointed out by Dr. Davy,
that the specimens of yoimg examined by him were in an immature
condition and had not breathed, and consequently that they had not
been born at all. To this it may be answered, that it is by no means
certain that the Yiper produces the whole of its brood at once. The
young may be issued one or two at a time as they reach maturity,
the rest remaining in the uterine cavity. Those which were swal-
lowed might have been more perfect than the individuals examined by
Dr. Davy.

That excellent observer, considers it not at all improbable that the
parent snake may occasionally devour its own young when pressed
by hunger, and if so, that the seeing it in the act may have led to tlie
popular notion. In order to show the occasionally stupid and blind
voracity manifested by Reptilian animals, Dr. Davy relates an instance,
in Ceylon, of one snake in confinement with another swallowing his
companion though about the same size as itself. And an incident in
the same island was related to him by the person who witnessed it
of a Python owing its death to an attempt to swallow a Deer, the
horns sticking in its throat. Other instances of the same kind might
be cited, and amongst these, as noticed by Dr. Davy, one which
occurred in the Zoological Gardens a few years since of a Python

MISCELLAN-EA, 233

swallowing its blanket. He also relates an anecdote, for tlie acenracy
of which he can vouch, of a large Frog, in Ceylon, which, reversing
the usual order of things, attempted to avenge the wrongs of its race
by trying to swallow a Duck. Both were found dead, the head of the
Duck in the gullet of the too ambitious Frog.

In further support of the opinion that the Yiper may on occasion
commit infanticide, Dr. Davy notices an interesting account of the
Slow Worm {A. frarjiJis) given by D. Eankin, Esq. in the 5th volume
of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. In speaking of the
food of this Reptile, Mr. Eankin remarks ; " I have good grounds
for belie^dng that its own young are not rejected." and gives an
instance of his having witnessed the deed. " Of a brood," he says,
" during tlie first day one was no doubt devoured by its parent, for I
found half the tail unconsimied, which the little creatiu'e had, in all
probability, wriggled olf in an instinctive struggle. The parent and
young ones were confined in a box." Now, if the Slow- Worm, Dr.
Davy pertinently asks, " occasionally devours its young, why should
not the Yiper ?"

On Collecting and PKESEuyiNG Specimens or Fishes

AND Eeptiles.

Through the zealous efibrts of the present able head of the Zoolo-
gical department at the British Museum, the series of specimens of
cold-blooded Yertebrata preserved in spirits has of late years re-
ceived very considerable accessions. From one of the most indiffe-
rent in Europe, our national collection is, as regards this class of
zoological preparations, now become one of the finest, if not the very
best, in the world, embracing as it does about 7000 specimens of
Eeptiles and 20,000 of Fishes. A well known and accomplished
Grerman naturalist. Dr. A. Gilnther, has been engaged for these last
three years in arranging and cataloguing this vast mass of materials.
Dr. Giiuther has abeady prepared and published catalogues of the
SatracMa saJientia and the Colubrine Snakes, and is now engaged in
working; out the extensive series of Fishes, of which he has already
issued three thick volumes, relating to the Acauthopterygians. But
although so much has ah'eady been done towards the investigation
of these exteusive departments of the Animal Kingdom, still more,
we may safely say, remains to be done. The Eej)tilian Faunas of
many parts of the globe are as yet comparatively but little known,
and in the class of Fishes still larger discoveries remain to be made.
So little trouble is involved in the preparation of this class of Zoolo-
gical Specimens, that it is easy for any person resident abroad, how-
ever little leisure he may have, to give imjiortant assistance to science
in this matter. For the following directions how to set about this
in the most simple way, we have to thank the kindness of one of
our correspondents who is greatly interested in the subject. We

N. H. K.— 1862. R

234 MISCELLAl*fEA.

may remark fhat as regards fislies, tliougli at the present moment
the fresh- water species of the inner waters and mountain-streams
of extra- European countries are the most important desiderata ; yet,
those from the low lands and marine fishes are also very valuable.

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Fishes and B,eptiles.

1. Collect fishes of every size. The eel-like fishes ought not to
exceed thirty-six inches in length ; the broad kinds not eighteen.
Six specimens of each species will be quite sufficient.

2. Tie to each specimen a label of parchment or of tin foil, on
which the name of the exact locality where the specimen is procured,
is written, or a number referring to a list of localities.

3. Cut a small slit in the belly of the specimens, so as to admit the
spii'it, but do not remove the intestines.

4. Put the specimens into a large jar or tub containing spirit to
extract the water, mucus, etc. This spirit may be used for any
number of specimens as long as it is strong enough to preserve them
from earlij putrefaction. Leave the specimens in this spiint for
from 8 to 10 days.

5. Transfer the specimens into other spirit, stronger than the
former, and leave them there for another fortnight.

6. Pack, finally, the specimens in spirit which is strong enough
to be inflammable with a lighted match. In spirit, like this, the
specimens may be shipped, and will keep for 6 or 8 months. Eum
of the strength indicated, answers very well for this purpose.

7. The best way of sending specimens is in a square tin box fitted
into a wooden case. "Wrap each specimen in a piece of linen to pre-
vent the rubbing off of the scales and other injuries. Pack the speci-
mens as close as herrings, and do not leave any free space at the top
or on the sides of the box. Fill the box with spirit, taking care to
drive out the air which may remain between the specimens, and
close it hermetically by soldering do-wn the cover. The best Avay
of closing the box is to make a small round hole in the cover of the
box. First fix dov\ n the cover of the box, then pour spirit through the
small hole, until the box is quite full. This hole may then be easily
closed by another small square lid of tin.

8. Tiu-n the box upside down and see whether it keeps in the
spirit perfectly.

9. E jptiles of every description may be preserved in the same way.
However, as they naturally contain less fluid, it will be sufficient, to
change the spirits once.

10. It frequently happens in very hot climates, that tlie specimens
begin to decompose even in very sti'ong spii'its ; in such cases, it will
be better to add arsenic or corrosive sublimate to the spirit. This
ought to be mentioned to the party who receives or opens the box.

11. It may be advisable to prevent sailors, servants, etc' from
tasting the spirits. This may be done by adding some nauseous
substance to the mixture.

P. L. S.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

%ivnxv^.

XXV. — On the Tavo Forms, or Dimorphic Conditions, in the
Species op Pritnula, and on their remarkable Sexual Ke-
LATiONS. By Charles Darwin. Linnean Society's Journal, \I.
(Botany), pjj. 77-96.

We do not wisli to attach an undue importance to the observations
which have been here recorded by Mr. Darwin upon the remarkable
sexual relations which he has proved to exist between individuals of
that very commonest and most familiar of our spring favourites, the
Primrose ; yet we may say, with all sincerity, that Botanical Science
has, of late years, been enriched with few of equal value. And this
impresses us as especially the case if we regard the impulse and
direction which these obsei'vations must necessarily give to future
investigation. The simj)le fact that, in one set of primroses or cow-
slips, the stigma reaches to the mouth of the corolla-tube, the anthers
being externally invisible, while in the other set the anthers surround
and close its mouth while the stigma is far down the tube, is not, of
course, advanced by Mr. Darwin as novel. As he says, gardeners
speak of the two forms as the " pin-eyed " (with stigma at the mouth
of tube) and "thumb-eyed" (with anthers at mouth of tube). Child-
ren too, he tells us, select the former for their necklaces ; the upper
part of the corolla-tube being wider, and not closed by sessile anthers,
they more easily slip them over each other. It is the satisfactory
explanation which, with characteristic sagacity, this distinguished
zoologist oifers of the (botanical) fact that primarily concerns us,
and it is this that we so greatly admire.

We feel that we are yet far from being in a position to enter
upon a discussion of the general question of sexuality in plants : it is
a very large subject, and the basis upon which we can rest an argu-
ment is much too slender for useful application. We shall be content,

N. H. R.— 1862. 8

236 REVIEWS.

therefore, to devote the short space at our disposal to a review of the
facts and conclusions established by Mr. Darwin, directing attention
to other instances of dimorphism iu other and very different species
of flowering plants.

We may, after a certain fashion, rudely group the kinds of di-
morphism exhibited in the flower under two heads. First, a dimor-
phism, apparently favourable to variation, marked primarily by a
partial or complete separation of the sexes, which may be accom-
panied or not by alteration iu the form or arrangement of the
parts of the perianth surrounding them ; and, second, a dimorphism,
conservative, and unfavourable to variation, marked prunarily by an
alteration in the form or arrangement (frequently a reduction) of the
outer whorls of the flower, which more or less completely enclose and
seal up the sexual organs, which are never wholly separated.*

Such grouping we may well designate as rude, but there do cer-
tainly appear to be two classes or kinds of dimorphism, which even
in the present state of our knowledge — feeling as it were our uncertain
way — it may be well to distinguish, and we do not see how better to
define them thau as above.

It is to the first group that we may refer the primroses, and with
them a very numerous company indeed of trees, and shrubs, and
herbs. There are comparatively few natural orders of flowering
plants out of the 200 or 300 which are generally recognized, in which
we do not find more or less of a diclinous condition — a condition
which necessarily involves " dimorphism " in respect of the sexual
organs. There are numerous Orders invai'iably, or almost invariably,
characterized by luiisexual flowers. There are others again in which
a tendency to this condition is more or less conspicuously manifest
in many of their members. A large proportion of the trees of tem-
perate Europe bear only flowers thus dimorphic. In the oak, beech,
chestnut, and pine, for example, this dimorphism is extreme. In the
stamen-bearing flowers, we find no rudiment of a pistil — in the pistil-
bearing, no rudiment of stamens. But between plants which we
may regard as wholly homomorphic, and consequently witli flowers
completely hermaphrodite, and the extremes just cited, Ave have an
infinity of intermediate conditions.

Parting from the hypothetical truly homomorphic hermaphrodite,
we find in the case of Sir. Darwin's Primulas one of the first grades
of incipient dimorphism of which cognizance can be taken.

Hence one peculiar interest of his observations, to which we recur.
Besides the difterences abeady mentioned in the relative length of
the style and height of the anthers in the corolla-tube of these plants,
Mr. Darwin points out that in the long-styled form the stigma is
globular and rough with minute papilla?, and the poUen-grains about

* This second f!;ronp we have not framed to indnde a dimorphic condition of the
male flower, or of the female flower, of a unisexual plant. We arc not aware, how-
ever, that such exist. If there he none, the circumstance is worth noticing.

DAEWIN OK PEIMULA. 237

7/7000ths of an inch In diameter, while in the short-styled form the
stigma is depressed and nearly smooth, the pollen-gi-ahis ranging from
10/-to-ll/-7000ths of an inch in diameter. Our own observations
entirely confirm the minute accuracy of these statements, though of
the relative sizes of the pollen-grains we have only judged by com-
parison of them by the eye, on the same slip of glass under the
microscope.

To these differences between the two forms, we may add another,
noticed while dissecting the flowers. The ovules of the long-styled
Primula, which Mr. Darwin states to produce a smaller number of
seeds, are considerably larger (and probably less numerous) even
before the flower expands, than in the short-stj^led form, which he
finds to produce the larger number of seeds. These two forms — the
long-styled and short-styled —occur in nature in about equal pro-
portions. It is not yet satisfactorily shown that the same plant can
produce both forms, though this is a point to which we think further
attention might be directed, especially m those species which have
occasionally a second or autumn flowering.

Now the carefully conducted experiments of Mr. Darwin, which
are described in detail in his paper, show a remarkable difference in
the influence exercised by the pollen upon the stigma of its own
flower and upon the stigma of a flower of the other form. Fertilisa-
tion of a flower by pollen of its own form he terms ' homomorphic,'
by the pollen of the other form ' heteromorphic' And it is the hete-
romorphic unions which he shows to be pre-eminently fertile. If,
therefore, the abundant production of good seed be advantageous to
the species, so must be heteromorphic fertilisation, a process de-
pendent however upon circumstances, which we may call accidental,
though they are nevertheless certain and ever-acting. The agency ot
insects is absolutely necessary for the crossing of the different forms,
and there can be no question but that the part they play in this
economy is of the very highest importance. Having explained the
provision which nature has made to favour the crossing of distinct
individuals, Mr. Darwin suggests the possibility that the species of
Primula may possibly be tending to a dioicous condition. In their
present condition they are, as he observes, ' subdioicous hermaphro-
dites.' "We are not in possession of corresponding facts relative to
any other species in either of the groups which are distinguishable of
dimorphic flowers ; so that, unable to institute a single comparison, we
are reduced to the necessity of specidating upon very meagre mate-
rials. AV^e have referred the case of the Primulas to one category
with imisexual or diclinous flowers, whether of monoicous or dioicous
plants does not immediately affect the question. We have done so
simply because between the comparatively trivial amount of dielinism
in Primula and the more extreme instances which are at hand on
every side in overwhelming number, we are utterly unable to draw
the line.

Before we proceed to give a few instances from our second

238 RETIEWS.

category we would just recall a difficulty wliicli constantly presents
itself when we contemplate this subject from — so far as we can ap-
prehend it — Mr. Darwin's point of view. If these plants be tending
to a diclinous condition, if such a condition advantage the species,
how and wliy did they ever become hermaphrodite ? We cannot
help conjecturing that there may be in plants two counter- agencies
at work, the one acting as a constant check upon the other ; the one
conservative, favouring the persistence of unaltered forms, indicated
in the general barreimess of hybrids and the difficulty of crossing
many nearly allied g|)ecies as well as in other and special arrange-
ments which we shall afterwards advert to, the other favouring, it
may be ever so slightly, a tendency to vary, indicated by the various
grades of diclinism, as also by special obstacles contrived absolutely
to prevent self- fertilisation in hermaphrodite flowers.* "While we
may, with perhaps the greater shew of reason suggest that certain
species are tendmg to a separation of the sexes, we must not forget
that arguments may be advanced to shew that it is not impossible
but that they may be striving towards more perfect hermaphroditism,
especially if we bring to mind the evidence (to which indeed we arc
scarcely hardy enough to attach a particle of weight) furnished by the
' Greological Eecord.' This evidence does certainly appear in favour
of a greater predominance of unisexual forms at an early period than
obtains at the present day. A consideration of instances referred to
our second kind of dimorphism may perhaps enable us to appreciate
better the phenomenon, and further illustrate the remark that there
may possibly be two coimter agencies at work manifesting themselves
in various dimorphic conditions.

Linnaeus in the ' Praelectiones Botanicae'f remarks of Viola mira-
hilisihsbt the eaz'ly flowers provided with a corolla are often barren, while
others appearing subsequently and destitute of a corolla are fertile.
This observation was extended by Gingins who published a Memoir
on the Violaceae in 1823. He shewed that violets presented the
singular peculiarity of producing imperfect flowers, more or less
destitute of petals, but with perfect fruits, which fruits he adds are
" quelquefois meme plus pai'faits que ceux qui succedent aus fleurs
completes." M. Monnier of Nancy, yet further extended our know-
ledge of this dimorphic condition in the violets. J He says of Viola
hirta that none of the early spring flowers yield fruit, " they all
abort and wither up ; " after the first flowering the leaves assume a
fuller development, they become more hairy and bear in their axils
flowers destitute of corolla and with the five stamens almost always
free and shorter than the ovary. The peduncles bearing these flowers
curve downward and bury the ovaries under the sut^face of the soil
where the seeds are ripened. M. Monnier found the sweet-scented

* Conf. Hooker Introd. E.ssay to Tasmanian Fk)ra, x.

t Ed. 1792, ].. 401.

j Guilleniin's Archives dc Botanique, 1833, i. 412.

DARWIN ON PRIMULA. 239

flowers of V. odorata to be quite infertile. In this sj)ecies, as in V.
hirta (which some botanists unite with it) it is the later flowers,
without corolla and with stamens of variable length, which give the
fertile capsules. Plants of the double violet he showed also bore
apetalous flowers. V. ericetorum was found to exhibit the same
phenomenon. This botanist concluded from his observations that
the species of the section Nominium* of the genus Viola have two
flowerings, the first vernal with well-developed petaloid flowers not
maturing seeds, the second aestival, with abortive corollas but always
fertile. The dimorphism in Viola has been more recently examined
by M. Michaletf and M. Miiller.J The former says that the earlier
of the ' apetalous' flowers ofler transitional forms between the two
states, which, however, he did not sufiiciently follow. The second
flowering lasts from the close of the first through part of the summer
even until autumn ; the May and June flowers being scarcely one-
fourth the size of the earlier ones. In these he finds the calyx to be
hermetically closed over the flower, leaving a large and empty space
above the ovary, which he considers may favour fecondation. The
sepals are afterwards burst open by the enlargement of the capsule.
The petals are not entirely absent but fall considerably short of the
sepals ; they are membranous and hyaline, occasionally they are re-
duced to one or two, hence the summer flowers are not correctly
described as truly apetalous. M. Michalet observes that he never
found the anthers open, even in flowers the ovary of wliich was cer-
tainly fertilized. The style is much shorter than in the ' petaloid'
flowers, the stigma truncate and funnel-shaped at top, the cavity
opening into the ovary. The stigmatic siu-face seems smooth and
not papillose. How fecondation is effected in these flowers he is
unable to say.

A case parallel to the above is described by M. Michalet in the
Wood-sorrel {Oxalis Acetosella), with the difference that the early and
beautiful petaloid flowers are regularly fertilized, and produce perfect
seeds. In the second or summer flowers, the sepals are closely
applied and hermetically closed over the essential organs as in the
violet. The petals, usually of the normal number, are much shorter
than the sepals ; they are rarely all wanting. There are ten stamens,
of which five are smaller and appear quite barren ; the five larger
ones are fertile, and incline over the stigmas, with which they are
described as being aj^parently united by delicate filaments. The
part which these J)lay, M. Michalet is unable to explain. The
anthers appear to remain closed, and the pollen seems as it were
deliquescent. The seeds of the smaller flowers, which are rij^ened
luider the surrounding moss and detritus, offer no apparent differ-
ence from those of the normal ones. The same observer finds

* Messrs, Hooker and Beutham in their " Genera Plantariim" attribute dimor-
phous flowers to all the sections excepting Mdaniuni,

t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vii. 465. J Bot. Zeit. 1857, 729.

2X0 KEVIEWS.

hypogean flowers of Linaria spuria which ripen seed, but these
flowers offer no notable difference from the rest.

We have ourselves examined the dimorphic flowers both of Viola
and Oxalis, but have nothing to add to M. Michalet's detailed
account. Another case of similar character, however, in a far
removed natiu'al order, has recently been closely under our notice ;
and as it is one which we believe is not widely knowTi, although it
has been carefully investigated by M. Brongniart, and is described
by M. Ad. de Jussieu in his " Monographie des Malpighiacees,"
and by Torrey in his 'Flora of New York' (i. 428), vce may be
permitted to give some account of it here. Our observations
have been made solely upon dried specimens, so tliat we can only
speak to structural facts. The most important problems which
these phenomena suggest, it is needless to say, can only be solved
by study and carefully watching of the living plant, and this we have
not yet had the opportunity of doing. Linnaeus long ago* wrote of
Campanula perfoliata— " flores laterales raro corollo instructos pro-
ducit, sed tantum calycem semen continentem ; flores vero terminales
perfecti sunt." This species we have not examined, though, from
M. Jussieu's accountjt it would appear to have been the same that
M. Brongniart observed. This excellent botanist found, in the
smaller flowers, a 'tympanimi' covering the base of the calyx-tube.
This is the rudiment of the corolla. On removing it he found the
stigma and stamens with well-formed pollen. Our attention has
been devoted to two Indian species (C. canescens) alluded to by
Messrs. Hooker and Thomson in their Prsecursores ad Floram
Indicam,! and G. coforata. We find the smaller and apparently
apetalous flowers to be usually lateral, often borne on short racemes
springing from the lower leaves of the stem, though sometimes they
abound along the branches of the principal inflorescence. They are
various in size, from that of a coriander seed to a pea. The ovary is
inferior, as in the normal flowers, though occasionally only two-celled.
The limb of the calyx is not always regularly five-lobed, but often,
and especially in the smallest flowers, three-lobed or irregularly
divided. The disc of the flower is covered by a completely closed
hairy membrane, with a slight mammilliform elevation in the centre.
This membrane is the rudimentary corolla, and the number of petals
composing it is indicated by converging lines. On dissection, this
elevation is found to cover a pentagonal or five-lobed body which at
first sight resembles a stigma, but examination shows that each lobe
is opposite to a corresponding lobe of the calyx-limb, and that each
lobe of the pentagonal process is united to the base of the opposed
calyx-lobe by a delicate cord, the filament in fact of the stamen, of
which the lobe of the central body to which it is imited is tlie anther.
The stamens are extended horizontally between the upper mem-

* rrtclcctioiics Botauicw, 'J99. f Op. ell. 84.

:j: .Jouni. Liuu. Soc. ii. 7.

DAEWm OK PEIMULA. 241'.

braiie and the lower, which separates them from the ovary, aud the
anthers, closely applied, are apparently quite connate and together
adnate to the stigma. We have observed in soaked specimens what
we have every reason to believe are true pollen granules, with their
tubes penetrating the tissue of t]ie stigma. "',

The contents of the ovary do not appear to differ in the normal
and abnormal flowers. In Campanula colorata we have seen flowers
intermediate in character between those above described, and normal
ones, in which the corolla, instead of being imperforate, opened by
teeth in the centre, though, falling short of the calyx- lobes in length,
— the style considerably lengthened and the anthers free. In con-
nection with the occurrence of dimorphous flowers in Campauulaceae,
it may be well to bear in mind that the method of fertilization of the
noi'mal flowers was long a puzzle to botanists. For a detailed
notice of the vai'ious hypotheses suggested to explain it we must
refer to M. A. de Candolle's Monographic des Campanulees (1830)
and especially to M.M. Brongniart* and Tulasne'sf Papers in
" Amiales des Sciences Naturelles." In these flowers the anthers
open and discharge their pollen before the expansion of the corolla.
M. Du Petit-Thouars conjectured that the stigmas were fertilized
before it opened. He found that the stigmatic lobes were slightly
divergent in the bud at a time when the anthers might be supposed
to open and that they again close shortly before the corolla expands :
after its expansion they are once more divergent. This view was
considered to be supported by the case of the allied Goodeniete and
Scaevolae in -which the pollen is received into a capsule or indusium
terminating the style before the flower opens. AVhen the corolla ex-
pands the indusium in these plants is closed. Again, much attention
has been directed to what have been termed the ' coUecting-hairs '
with which the style in the Bell-flowers is so frequently clothed.
A function has been attributed to them in the fertilisation of the
flower, but this, as Brongniart showed was due to imperfect observa-
tion. These hairs, which brush ofi' the remaining pollen from the
anthers as the style shoots up through them, frequently become
invaginated, like the finger of a glove drawn back half way up : the
sheathing portion entangles a few of the grains so that they appear
actually drawTi into the tissue of the style : hence the mistake. M.
Tulasne, whose observations are of the highest authenticity, finds
that pollen received upon the stigma produces the tubes which ferti-
lize the ovules. How the pollen reaches the stigma must be more
fully settled by careful observation. It is highly probable that
insects play an important part in its conveyance, as various observers
have suggested. There are other plants belonging to difterent
Natural Orders to those above noticed, which oflfer like dimorphism.
In Caryophyllaceae, Maximowicz,J describes a Stellaria (dis-

* 2e Ser. xii. 244. f 3e Ser. xii. 71.

X Primitiae Fl. Amurensis, 57.

212 EEVIEWS.

tinguishecl geuerically under the name o^ Krasclienihoivid), "floribus
superioribus sterilibvis, infimis (radicalibus) anantheris fertilibus
carnosulis." The flowers from the axils of the lower leaves become
buried in the soil and are described as " floribus * * clausis * * *
petalis staminibus stylisque nullis, capsulae rotiindatae parietibus
carnosis, seminibus fuscis * * * embryone peripherico arcuato
albumineque normali ! donatis." The normal flowers are petaloid
with the stamens nearly equalling the sepals. He says, " verosi-
millime capsulae intra imniculam steriles." M. Weddell* and Asa
Gray,t describe dimorphism in the genus Impatiens : M. Weddell
in the common I. Noli-me-tangere. In this plant some of the fruits
ripen Avithout the previous expansion of the flowers to which
they belong. All the whorls of the flower exist, but excepting the
ovary, they are extremely small and rudimentary, uniting into a
little hood, which the fruit, in elongating, bears up with it and wears
as a cap. These abnormal flowers arise near the normal ones, but
usually in lateral peduncles. Dr. Grray gives some interesting parti-
culars respecting the structure of the normal flowers of the American
species, in which certain membranaceous appendages of the filaments
are connivent and more or less coherent over the summit of the
pistil, entirely preventing the access of pollen in the greater propor-
tion of even fully developed flowers, which, consequently, fall away
unfertilized. In some, however, the growing ovary pushes the stigma
through the cap, thus securing its fertilization.

M. Jussieu records dimorphous flowers in the section Meioste-
mones of the Natural order Malpighiaceae. In Acanthaceae {BueUid)
it was long ago observed by Dillenius. And we might adduce other
instances, but these must sufiice, for we possess no instance of this
kind of dimorphism, referred to our second category, which has been
fully and satisfactorily described, much less explained ; indeed the
examples which Ave have given are amongst the most marked and the
best observed.

The main feature and that to which we would wish to direct
attention in, at least some, of these cases, is the occurrence of a
second kind of flower in which it would seem that nature has espe-
cially contrived to exclude the possibility of fertilization by other
thau own-flower stamens. It is true that the anthers in the closed
flowers of Viola and Oxalis are stated never to have been found open,
but in the Campanula observed by us the pollen evidently had access
to the stigma ; and indeed, M. Michalet points out, as we have said,
the existence of fijie threads coimecting the anthers with the
stigmas in the " hermetically closed " flowers of Oxalis. These fine
threads, there can be no doubt, are the pollen-tubes. It is
impossible that we should here enter upon the role of these remark-
able flowers in the economy of the species to which they belong.
We do not possess, as we have already said, a sufiicient basis of

* Jussieu, ilalpighiaccesi, 85. f Gcu. United Statet-, ii. lol.

DARWIN ON PRIMULA. 243

facts to work upon. It must suffice to suggest coujecturally that
a conservative agency, if we may so term it, is at work in the
vegetable kingdom, over and above the inherent check of a hke
tendency possessed in a high degree by the great majority of species,
which absolutely prevents miscellaneous or Avide hybridization or
crossing. We do not forget that the question of hybridization of
distinct species may be entered upon, to a certain extent, apart from
that of the crossing of different individuals of the same species, and
that a most important distinction may be drawn between them, but
facts fail to show how far the check which prevents a crossing of
species operates in preventing too wide a crossing of individuals of
any one species, if indeed it operate in the latter case at all. "We
have alluded to what have seemed to be special contrivances in
certain flowers to prevent self-fertilization. Several familiar cases
might be quoted but we have already exceeded a reasonable limit,
and until some more careful observers, with a measure of that
earnest diligence in an unprejudiced search after truth, which so
pre-eminently characterizes Mr. Darwin, shall have described to iis
the true character and end of some of these anomalous structures it
would be useless to offer any blind speculations with regard to them.
Einally, let us beg those who have opportunity, — and but a short
time each day, if perseveringly devoted to the purpose, Avill suffice
for important results, — let us beg that they will select for careful
watching and study either one of the common cases of dimorphism
mentioned above, or some of the plants which we have adverted to
as offering obstacles to self-fertilization. Either class promises well
to be resultful. Let us just observe that it is by no means essential
that the observer should be a " botanist." Mr. Darwin is not a
botanist, nor did he ever pretend to be such, yet his observations
prove of the very highest value to botanical science.

[In the above paper we have not referred to the phenomenon of
dimorphism exhibited by various Orchidaceae. AYe hope to return
to the subject, in connection with Mr. Darwin's new work on the
' Fertilisation of Orchidaceae ' in a future number.]

irfjginjtl ^rticU^.

XXYI. — Ok the Evidence or the Antiquity op Man, aefoeded
BY the Physical Steuctuke op the Somme Valley. By
John Lubbock, Esq., F.E.S.

"While we have been straining our eyes to the East, and eagerly
watching excavations in Egypt and Assyria, suddenly a new light
has arisen in the midst of us ; and the oldest relics of man yet
discovered, have occurred, not among the ruins of Nineveh or
Heliopolis, not in the sandy plains of the Nile or the Euphrates,
but in the pleasant valleys of England and France, along the banks
of the Seine and the Somme, the Thames and the Waveney.

So unexpected were these discoveries, so irreconcileable with even
the greatest antiquity then assigned to the human race, that they were
long regarded with neglect and suspicion. M. Boucher de Perthes
to whom we are primarily indebted for this great step in the history
of mankind, published his first work on the subject, " De I'industrie
primitive, on les arts et leur origine," in the year 1846. In this he
announced that he had found human implements in beds immistake-
ably belonging to the age of the drift. In his " Antiquites Celtiques
et Antediluviennes " (1847), he also gave numerous illustrations of
these stone weapons, but unfortunately the figures were so small and
rude, as scarcely to do justice to the originals. For seven years
M. Boucher de Perthes made few converts ; he was looked upon as
an enthusiast, almost as a madman. At length, in 1853, Dr. EigoUot,
till then sceptical, examined for himself the drift at the now cele-
brated St. Acheul, found several weapons, and believed. _ Still the
new creed met with but little favour ; prophets are proverbially with-
out honour in their own country, and M. Boucher de Perthes was no
exception to the rule. At last, however, the tide turned in his
favour. Dr. Falconer, passing through Abbe%alle, visited his col-
lection, and made known the result of his visit to Mr. Joseph
Prestmch, who, accompanied by Mr. John Evans, immediately pro-
ceeded to Abbeville and examined carefully not only the flint
weapons, but also the beds in which they were found. For such
an investigation our two countrymen were especially qualified:
Mr. Prestwich from his long examination and great knowledge of the
more recent strata ; and Mr. Evans as having devoted much study to
the stone implements belonging to what we must now consider as the
second, or at least the more recent, stone-period. On their return to
England Mr. Prestwich communicated the results of his visit to the
Eoyal Society,* (On the Occurrence of Flint Implements associated

* Phil. Transiict. 1860.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 245

with the remains of extinct species, in beds of a late Geological
Period, May 19, 1859), while Mr. Evans described the implements
themselves in the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries (1860).

Shortly afterwards Mr. Prestwich returned to Amiens and Abbe-
ville, accompanied by Messrs. Godwin Austen, J. W. Flower, and E.
"W. Mylne. In the same year Sir Charles Lyell, whose opinion on the
subject was naturally expected with great interest, visited the now
celebrated localities. In 1860, I made my first visit with Mr. Busk
and Captain Galton, under the guidance of IMr. Prestwich, while
SirEodericli Murchison, Professors Henslow, Eamsay, Eogers, Messrs.
H. Christy, Eupert Jones, James Wyatt, and other geologists,
followed on the same errand. M. L'Abbe Cochet, therefore ,_ in his
" Eapport adresse a Monsieur le Senateur Prefet de la Seine-In-
ferieure," (1860) does no more than justice to our countrymen, when
after a well-merited tribute of praise to M. Boucher de Perthes, and
Dr. Eigollot, he adds, " Mais ce sont les Geologues Anglais, en tete
" desquels il faut placer d'abord M.M. Prestwich et Evans, puis M.
" M. Flower, Mylne, et Godwin Austen, et enfin Sir C. Lyell ....
" qui .... out fini par elever a la dignite de fait scientifique la
" decouverte de M. Boucher de Perthes."

Soon after his return, Mr. Prestwich addressed a communication
to the Academy of Sciences through M. Elie de Beaumont, in which
he urged the importance of these discoveries, and expressed a hope
that they would stimulate "les geologues de tons les pays a une
" etude encore plus approfondie des terrains quaternaires." The
subject being thus brought prominently before the geologists of
Paris, M. Gaudiy, well known for his interesting researches in
Greece, was sent to examine the weapons themselves, and the lo-
calities in which they were found.

M. Gaudry was so fortunate as to find several flint weapons
in situ, and his report, which entirely confirmed the state-
ments made by M. Boucher de Perthes, led others to visit the
valley of the Somme, among whom I may mention M.M. de Quatre-
fages, Lartet, Collomb, Hebert, de Yerneuil, and G. Pouchet.

In the " Antiquites Celtiques," M. Boucher de Perthes suggested
some gravel pits near Grenelle at Paris, as being, from their position
and appearance, likely places to contain flint implements. M. Gosse
of Geneva has actually found flint implements in these pits, being, I
believe, the first discovery of this nature in the valley of the Seine.*
In that of the Oise a small hatchet has been found by M. Peigne
Delaeourt at Precj', near Creil.

Dr. Noulet has also found flint Aveapons with remains of extinct
animals at Clermont, near Toulouse.

* M. L'Abbe Cochet states (1. c. p. 8) that similar weapons have been found at
Sotteville, near Rouen, and are deposited in the Musee d' Antiquites. There seems,
however, to be some mistake about these specimens, at least M. Pouchet, who
received us at Rouen with the greatest courtesy, was quite unaware of any such
discovery.

246 ORIUI>'AL ARTICLES.

Nor have these discoveries been confined to France. There has
long been in the British Mnseum a rude stone weapon, described as
follows : — " No. 246. A British weapon, found with elephant" s tooth,
" opposite to black Mary's, near Grayes inn lane. Conyers. It is a
" large black flint, shaped into the figure of a spear's point." Mr.
Evans tells us, moreover, (1. c. p. 22) " that a rude engraving of it
" illustrates a letter on the Antiquities of London, by JNIr. Bagford,
" dated 1715, printed in Hearne's edition of Leland's Collectanea,
" Vol. I. 6. p. Ixiii. iVom his account it seems to have been found with
" a skeleton of an elephant in the presence of Mr. Conyers." This
most interesting weapon agrees exactly with those foimd in the
valley of the Sonime.

Li the museum belonging to the Society of Antiquaries, Mr.
Evans found, on his return from Abbeville, some specimens exactly
like those in the collection of M. Boucher de Perthes. On examina-
tion it proved that they had been presented by Mr. Frere, who found
them with bones of extinct animals in a gravel pit at Hoxne in
Suff"oIk, and had well described and figured them in the Archseologia
for the year 1800.

Again, twenty-five years ago, Mr. Whitburn of Godalming, (See
Prestwich, Ggol. Jour. August 1861), examining the gravel pits be-
tween Guildford and Godalming, remarked a peculiar flint, which he
carried away and has since preserved in his collection. It belongs
to the " drift " type, but is very rude. Thus this peculiar type of
flint implement has been actually foixnd in association with the bones
of the mammoth on various occasions during nearly a hundred and
fifty years ! While, however, these instances remarkably corroborate
the statements made by M. Boucher de Perthes, they in no way de-
tract from the credit due to that gentleman.

In addition to the aboN'e mentioned, similar hatchets have been
found in Suflblk, Kent, Bedfordshire, and Hertfordshire. In the
first of these counties Mr. Warren of Ixworth obtained one from a
workman in a gravel pit near Icklingham, and he subsequently
found another himself. This specimen closely resembles the one
figured in this E/Cview (Vol. I. PI. VII. fig. 10), which was given
to me by M. Marcotte of Abbeville, who obtained it from Moulin
Quignon.

The next discovery was made by Mr. Leech, on the shore between
Heme Bay and Eeculvers, whence altogether eleven specimens have
been obtained, six found by Mr. Leech, and five subsequently by
Messrs. Evans and Prestwich and Wyatt.* In the gravel near Bed-
ford, again associated with remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hip-
popotamus (?), ox, horse, and deer, Mr. Wyatt has foimd implements

* " Another implement of the round pointed form has been discovered in Kent
(Nov. 18G1), on the surface of the ground at the top of the liill on the east side of
the Darcnt, about a mile E.S.E. of Ilorton Ivirby, by Mr. Whitakcr, F.G.S., of
the Gcok)gical Siu-vey." — (Evans' Archa;ologia, 1861, p 18.)

LUBBOCK ON TTTK ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 247

i-esembling botli of the two princij^al types found at Abbeville and
A miens.

Finally, Mr. Evans himself, near Abbots Langley in Hertford-
shire, has picked up on the surface of a field a weathered hatchet with
the top broken off, but otherwise identical in form A\'ith the spear-
head-shaped specimens from Amiens and Heme Bay.

But why, it may be asked, should the history of this question be
so recounted? Why should it be treated differently from any
other scientific discovery ? The answer is not difficult. That the
statement by Mr. Frere has been forgotten for half a century ; that
the weapon found by Mr. Conyers should have lain unnoticed for
more than double that time ; that the discoveries by M. Boucher de
Perthes have been ignored for fifteen years ; that the numerous cases
in which caves have contained the remains of men together with those
of extinct animals, have been explained away ; are facts which show
how deeply rooted was the conviction that man belonged altogether
to a more recent order of things, and, whatever other accusation
may be brought against them, geologists can at least not be said to
have hastily accepted the theory of the coexistence of the human
race with the now extinct Pachydermata of Northern Europe.

Though, however, the distinguished geologists to whom I have
referred, have all, with one exception, expressed themselves more or
less strongly as to the great antiquity of these curious weapons, still,
I do not wish that they should be received as judges ; I only claim
the right to summon them as witnesses.

The questions to be decided may be stated as follows : —

1st. Are the so-called flint implements of human workmanship, or
the results of physical agencies ?

2ndly. Are the flint implements of the same age as the bones of
the extinct animals mth which they occur ?

3rdly. Are we entitled to impute a high antiquity to the beds in
which these remains occur ?

4thly. What are the conditions under which they were deposited ?

To the first three of these questions an affirmative answer would
be given, almost unanimously, by those geologists who have given any
special attention to the subject. Fortunately, however, there is one
exception to this rule ; Blackwood's Magazine for October, 1860, con-
tains an article in which the last two questions are maintained to be
still unanswered, and in which therefore a verdict of " Not Proven"
is demanded. Not indeed that there is any difference of opinion as to
the weapons themselves. " For more than twenty years," says Prof.
Eamsay, " I have daily handled stones, whether fashioned by nature
•' or art, and the flint hatchets of Amiens and Abbeville seem to me as
" clearly works of art as any Sheffield whittle."* It will be better
however to quote from the candid sceptic in Blackwood. " They
bear," he admits (p. 438), " unmistakeably the indications of having

* Atlicnajiim, July 16, 1859,

248 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

been sTiaped by the skill of man." Bnt best of all, an hour or two
spent in a pit, examining the forms of ordinary flint gi'avel would,
we are sure, convince any man that these stones, rude though they
be, are undeniably fashioned by the hand of man.

Still, it might be supposed that they were forgeries, made by
the workmen to entrap unwary geologists. They have however
been found by Messrs. Boucher de Perthes, Henslow, Christy,
Flower, Gaudiy, Pouchet, Wyatt, and others. One seen, though
not found in situ, is thus described by Mr. Prestwich. " It was
" lying flat in the gravel at a depth of 17 feet from the original
" surface, and 65 from the chalk. One side slightly projected. The
" gravel around was undisturbed, and presented its usual perpendi-
" cular face. I carefully examined the specimen, and saw no reason
" to doubt that it was in its natural position, for the gravel is
" generally so loose, that a blow with a pick disturbs and brings
" it doA\Ti for some way around ; and the matrix is too little ad-
" hesive to admit of its being built up again as before with the same

" materials I found also afterwards, on taking out the

" flint, that it was the thinnest side which projected, the other side
" being less finished and much thicker."* Neither in my first visit,
nor this spring, when with Mr. Prestwich and Mr. Evans, I made
another careful examination of these localities, was I so fortunate as
find any implement in situ. But evidence of this nature, though
interesting, is unnecessary ; the flints speak for themselves. Origi-
nally of a dull black, they have been more or less discolored and
their surfaces are generally stained yellow or wliite, according to the
nature of the beds in which they have been lying. As this discolora-
tion follows the contours of the present surfaces, it is evident that the
alteration of color has been subsequent to the manufacture, as I have
attempted to show in the first Volume of this Eeview. (PL VII. fig. 11.)
Even when, as is the case in some strata, the color is unaltered, the
weapons have a glossy surface, and a lustre very unlike newly broken
flints. In many cases also they have an incrustation of carbonate of
lime and small dendritic markings. Moreover, it must be remembered,
that when M. Boucher de Perthes' work was pubhshed, the weapons
therein described were totally unlike anything then known Since
that time, however, not only have similar implements been found in
various parts of England and France, but as already mentioned it has
since come to light that similar weapons were in two cases actually
described and figured in England many years ago, and that in both
these instances they were found in association wdth the bones of ex-
tinct animals.

On this point, therefore, no evidence could be more conclusive.

It has, however, been suggested that though the worked flints are
really found by the workmen in the mammaliferous gravel, they
may perhaps be comparatively recent, and have gradually inserted

» Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 292.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 249

themselves fi-om above by tlae force of gravity. Here however, again,
I cannot do better than quote from the writer in Blackwood, " that
" a few minutes' inspection of the beds containing and overlying the
" flint implements of the Somme will assure any observer that they
" are entirely destitute of the imagined crevices, and are moreover
" altogether too compact and immoveable to admit of any such insi-
" nuation or percolation of surface objects."

Taking all these circumstances into consideration, it cannot be
doubted that the flint implements really belong to the same age as
the sands and gravels in which they occur.

Perhaps the most striking peculiarity of these weapons is, that
they are never polished, not a single specimen having presented a trace
of grinding ; while, on the other hand, the implements of the later
stone period, those which occur in burial-places, river beds, &c., are
always carefully polished.

As regards their form, they are grouped by Mr. Evans under
three heads :

" 1. Flint flakes, apparently intended for arrowheads, or knives."

" 2. Pointed weapons, analogous to lance or spear heads."

" 3. Oval or almond-shaped implements, presenting a cutting edge
all round."

The flakes ofi'er no special peculiarities, Tlie mode of their
manufacture has already been described and illustrated (Nat. Hist.
Eev. Oct. 1861),* and similar articles have been used by savages in
aU ages and countries, where flint or obsidian was obtainable.

The implements of the other two forms, which, however, pass almost
imperceptibly into one another, are on the contrary quite unlike any
of those belonging to the last or polished stone-period. The nearest
approach to them is made by the small and rude implements found in
the Danish Kjokkenm6ddings,t but these again have a peculiar form,
and would be at once distinguished by any experienced observer.
During my last -sasit to Abbeville, I was much interested by finding,
in the museum of M. Boucher de Perthes, a few small hatchets, which,
both in shape and size, very closely resembled those which are found
in the Danish Kjbkkenmoddings, but all of these belonged to the
later or post-elephantine period. It is, I think, probable that similar
axes will be foimd in other countries, but that they have generally
escaped notice hitherto on account of their rudeness.

Up to the present time no bones of men have been found in the
strata containing the flint implements. This, though it has appeared
to some so inexplicable as to throw a doubt on the whole question,
is, on consideration, less extraordinary than it might at first sight
appear to be. If, for instance, we tiu-n to other remains of human
settlements, we shall find a repetition of the same phenomenon. Thus

• See also Sir E. Belcher, British Ass. T. I860, p. 154, and Mr. Tylor's
" Anahuac," p. 331.

t Nat. Hist. Review, Vol. 1, PJ. VII. figs. 8 and 9.

250 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

in the Danisli refuse-heaps, where worked flints are a thonsancl times
more plentiful than in the St. Acheul gravel, human bones are of
the greatest rarity. In this case, as in the Drift age, mankind
lived by hunting and fishing, and could not therefore be very nu-
merous. In the era however of the Swiss lake habitations, the case
was different. M. Troyon estimates the population of the " Pfahl-
bauten" during the Stone age as about 32,000 ; in the Bronze era,
42,000. On these calculations, indeed, even their ingenious author
would not probably place much reliance : still, the number of the
Lake villages already known is very considerable ; in four of the Swiss
lakes only, more than 70 have been discovered, and some of them were
of great extent : "Wangen, for instance, being, according to M. Lohle,
supported on more than 40,000 piles. Yet, if we exclude a few bones of
children, only five skeletons have been obtained from all these settle-
ments taken together. The number of flint implements obtained
hitherto from the drift of the Somme valley, is not estimated at more
than 3000 ; the settlement at Concise alone (Lake of Neufchatel)
has supplied about 24,000, and yet has not produced a single human
skeleton. (Rapport a la Commission des Musees, October 1861, p. 16).
Probably this absence of bones is almost entu'ely attributable to
the habit of burying ; the instinct of man has long been in most
cases to bury his dead out of his sight ; still, so far as the drift of
St. Acheul is concerned, the difficulty will altogether disappear if we
remember that no trace has ever yet been found of any animal as small
as a vian. The larger and more solid bones of the elephant and rhi-
noceros, the hippopotamus, ox and stag * remain, but every vestige
of the smaller bones has perished. Till we find the remains of the
dog, boar, roedeer, badger, and other animals which existed during
the drift period, we camiot much wonder at the entire absence of
human skeletons.

In all the other places where flint implements have occurred they
have been very rare (except perhaps at Hoxne), and though the as-
certained mammahan famia is not everywhere quite so restricted as at
St. Acheul, still very few small animals have as yet occurred.

It is useless to speculate as to the use made of these venerable
weapons. Almost as well might we ask to what would they not be
applied. Infinite as are our instruments, who wovdd attempt even
at present to say what was the use of a knife. But the primitive

* The bones of the stag owe their preservation perhaps to another canse. Prof.
Kiitimeyer tells us tliat among the bones from the Pfahlbauten none are in better
condition than those of the stag ; this is the consequence, he says, " ihrem dichten
Gefiige, ihrer lliirte und Sprodigkeit, so wie der grossen Fettlosigkeit," pecuharities
which recommended them so strongly to the men of the stone age, that tliey used
them in preference to all others, nay almost exclusively, in the manufacture of those
instruments wliich could be made of bone — (Famia der Pfahlbauten, ]). 12). How
common the bones of the stag are in quaternaiy strata, geologists know, and wc
liave here perhaps an explanation of the fact. The antler of this animal is also pre-
ferred at the present day by the Esquimaux in the maiuifiicturc of their stone
weapons. (Sir E. Ik'lchcr, 1. c. p. 154.)

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN". 251

savage had no j^vich choice of tools ; we see before us perhaps the
whole contents of his workshop ; and with these weapons, rude as
they seem to us, he may have cut down trees, scooped them out
into canoes, grubbed up roots, killed animals and enemies, cut up his
food, made holes in winter through the ice, prepared firewood, built
huts, and in some cases at least they may have served as slingstones.
When, however, we shall have considered the physical evidence as to
the then condition of the country, and the contemporary animals,
Ave shall better be able to form a conception of the habits of these
our long lost progenitors.

For I have as yet but partly answered the second of the two
questions with which we started. Even admitting that the flint
hatchets are coeval with the gravel in which they occur, it remains
to be shown that the bones of the extinct animals belong also to the
same period. With reference indeed to two of those ordinarily
quoted as belonging to this group, there may still be some little
doubt. It seems very questionable whether any remains really be-
longing to the cave-bear have ever occurred in these beds, as will
presently be mentioned, and though a few tusks of the hippoj)otamus
have been found, yet (as this genus never occurs in the corres-
ponding beds of Germany) it is possible that they may have been
washed out of some older stratum.

But as regards the elephant and the rhinoceros the case is differ-
ent. There is not the slightest reason to doubt that they really
belong to this period and, in the case of the rhinoceros, we have the
evidence of M. Baillon that the bones of the hind leg of a rhinoceros
were found, at Menchecourt, in their relative situations, while the
rest of the skeleton was discovered at a little distance. In this case,
therefore, the body must have been entombed before the decay of the
ligaments. Sir Cornewall Lewis, however, iu his interesting and
able, even if unsatisfactory work, on the Astronomy of the Ancients,
argues that even if we must give an afiirmative answer to the
two first questions, and admit the coexistence of man in Western
Europe with the mammoth and tichorine rhinoceros ; still we may do
this by bringing these animals down to a later period, as weU as by
carrying man back to an earlier one.

Fairly admitting this, let us now, therefore, turn to the physical
evidence in the case, and see how far this will enable us to give any,
and if so what, answer, to the third of the above questions.

In this part of the subject I shall be principally indebted for my
facts to Mr. Prestwich, who has long studied the quaternary beds,
and has done more than any other man to render them intelligible. In
most of his conclusions I entirely concur, but I may perhaps be per-
mitted to mention that though the following statements are given on
his authority, I have verified almost the whole of them for myself,
having had the ad\antage of visiting, with him and Mr. Evans, many
localities not only in the valley of the Somme, but also along the
banks of the Seine and its tributaries.

N. H. R.— 1862. T

252 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Fig. 4, gives a section across the valley of the Somme at
Abbeville, taken from Mr. Prestwich's first paper.* "We shonkl
get almost the same arrangement and position of the different beds,
not only at St. Acheul, but elsewhere along the valley of the Somme,
wherever the upper beds have not been removed by subsequent
action of the river. Even at St. Valery, at the present mouth of
the river, we found a bed of gravel at a considerable height above
the level of the sea. This would seem to show that at the period of
these high level gravels, the channel was narrower than it is at
present, as indeed we know to have been the case even in historical
times. So early as 1605 our countryman Versteganf pointed out
that the waves and tides were eating away our coasts. Sir C.
Lyell gives much information on this subject, and it appears that
even as lately as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the town of Brighton
was situated on the site now occupied by the Chain Pier.

Mr. Prestwich has showai+ that a section, similar to that of the
Somme, is presented by the Lark, Waveney, Ouse, &c. while it is well
shown also along the banks of the Seine. Probably, indeed, it holds
good of most of our rivers, that along the sides of their valleys are
patches of old gi-avels left by the stream at various heights, before
they had excavated the channels to their present depth. Mr. Prest-
wich considers that the beds of sand and gravel can generally be
divided into two more or less distinct series, one continuous
along the bottom of the valleys and rising little above the water
level ; the other occurring in detached masses at an elevation of 50
to 200 feet above the valley. Eather, perhaps, these are the two
extremes of a series, once continuous, but now almost always pre-
senting some interruption. A more magnified view of the strata at
St. Acheul, near Amiens, is shoA^ai in Fig. 2. The upper layer of
vegetable soil ha\Tng been removed,

1. A bed of brick earth from four to five feet in thickness, and
containing a few angular flints.

2. Below this is a thin layer of angular gravel, one to two feet in
thickness.

3. Still lower is a bed of sandy marl, five to six feet thick, with
land and fresh water shells, which though very delicate, are in most
cases perfect.

4. At the bottom of all, and immediately overlying the chalk, is
the bed of subangular gravel in which the flint imj)lements are found.

In the eai'ly Christian period this spot was used as a cemetery :
the graves generally descend into the marly sand, and their limits
are very distinctly marked, Fig. 2 ; an important fact, as showing
that the rest of the strata have lain undisturbed for 1500 years.
The coffins used were sometimes made of hard chalk, sometimes of
wood, in which latter case the nails and clamps only remain, every

* Phil. Trans. 1800. f See Principles of Geologv, p. 315.

t Proc. Roj. Soc. 1862.

LUBBOCK; ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 253

particle of wood lla^'ing perished, without leaving even a stain behind.
Passing down the hill towards the river, all these strata are seen
to die out, and we find ourselves on the bare chalk ; but again at a
lower level occurs another bed of gravel, resembling the first, and
cappetl also by the bed of brick earth which is generally known as
loess.

These strata, therefore, are witnesses ; but of what ? Are they
older than the valley, or the valley than they ? are they the result of
causes still in operation, or the offspring of cataclysms now, happily,
at an end. According to the accomplished writer in Blackwood their
testimony is but unsatisfactory. Examined they tell one tale;
cross-examined they contradict themselves, until the jury falls back
hoi:)elessly on a verdict of " not proven."

If, indeed, we can show that the present river, somewhat swollen
perhaps, owing to the greater extension of forests in ancient times,
and by au alteration of climate, has excavated the present valley, and
produced the strata above enumerated ; theu " the suggestion of an
" antiquity for the human family so remote as is here implied, in the
" length of ages required by the gentle rivers and small streams of
" eastern France to erode its whole plain to the depths at which
" they now flow, acquires, it must be confessed, a fascinating gran-
" deur, when, by similitude of feature and geology, we extend the
" hypothesis to the whole north-west frontiers of the continent,
" and assume, that from the estuary of the Seine to the eastern
" shores of the Baltic, every internal feature of valley, dale and
" ravine — in short, the entire intaglio of the surface — has been
" moulded by running Avaters, since the advent of the human race."

But, on the other hand, it has been maintained that the pliant
facts may be read as " expressions of violent and sudden mutations,
only compatible with altogether briefer periods." The argument of
the Paroxysmist, I still quote from Blackwood, would probably be
something like the following : —

" Assuming the pre-existing relief, or excavation rather, of the
" surface to have approximated to that now prevailmg, he will ac-
" count for the gravel by supposing a sudden rocking movement of
" the lands and the bottom of the sea of the nature of an earthquake,
" or a succession of them, to have launched a portion of the tempo-
" rarily uplifted waters upon the surface of the land."

Having thus heard the arguments of Counsel, let us now call the
witnesses to speak for themselves.

Taking the section at St. Acheul and commencing at the bottom,
we have first of all the subangular gravel throughout Avliich, though
especially at the lower part, the flint implements occur.

A similar bed may be found here and there all along the valley
of the Somme ; at St. Acheul it is about 90 ft. above the pi-esent
river level ; at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville, the same ; while
at Picquigny and at Cai'sar's Camp near Liercourt, we found it at a
height of 150 feet. Though only occurring in places, this gravel is so

254 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

similar in composition and contents, that we seem justified in assuming
it to have been at one time continuous ; and we may almost take the
section, Pig. 4, as representing generally a section taken anywhere
across the valley, only bearing in mind that through the action of
subsequent causes, the gravel and the beds covering it have been in
most cases removed. Nor is this a phenomenon peculiar to the
Somme. During our last excursion we visited many gravel pits
liolding a similar relation to the Seine, while Mr. Prestwich in his
recent communication to the Eoyal Society,* extends the same state-
ment to many other rivers in England and Prance, the greatest
height of the gravel above the present river level, varying however
in different cases. At St. Acheul and in several other places this
bed of gravel, Avhich for the future we "onll call the liigh level gravel,
is separated from the loio level gravel by a bare tract of the
underlying rock. We do, however, sometimes find beds at inter-
mediate levels, and must therefore consider the upper level, and
lower level gravels as the extremes of a continuous series, rather
than as strata separated by an intermediate and difterent condition
of the valley.

The mammalia found in this upper level gravel are but few ; the
Mamuioth, the Hhinoceros tichorhinus, with species of Hos, Cervus,
and Eqnus are almost the only ones which have yet occurred at St.
Acheul, but beds of the same age in other parts of Prance have, in
addition, supplied us with remains of the Bear, of a species of Tiger,
of the Hycena spelcea, Cervus tarandus priscus, of a species of Dog,
of the Musk Ox, and the Jlipfopotmmis. The Mollusca however are
more numerous ; they have been identified by ]\ii'. J. Gr. Jeffreys,
who finds in the upper level gravel 43 species, all of them land or
freshwater fonns, and all belonging to existing species. It is hardly
necessary to add that these shells are not found in the coarse gravel,
but only here and there, where quieter conditions, indicated by a
seam of finer materials, have preserved them from destruction. Here,
therefore, Ave have a conclusive answer to the siiggestion that the
gravel may have been heaped up to its present height by a sudden
irruption of the sea. In that case we should find some marine re-
mains ; but as we do not, as all the fossils belong to animals which
live on the land, or inhabit fresh waters, it is at once evident that
this stratum not being subaerial, must be a freshwater deposit.

But the gravel itself tells its even more than this: the river Somme
flows through a country in which there are no rocks older than the
chalk, and the gravel in its valley consists entirely of chalk flints and
tertiary debris.-f The Seine, on the other hand, receives tributaries
which drain other formations. In the valley of the Tonne we find
fragments of the crystalline rocks brought from the Morvan. J The val-
ley of the Oise is in this respect particularly instructive : " de Ma-

* rroccedings. 1862. f Buteux, 1. c, p. 98.

X D'Archiac, rrogres de la Geologic, p. 163.

LUBBOCK ON THE iJS^TIQUITT OF MAJS-. 255

quenoise a Hirson* la vallee en preseute que des fragmeuts plus ou
luoins roiiles des roclies de trausition que traverse le eours de la
riviere. Eu descendant a Etreaupont, on y trouve des calcaires juras-
siques et des silex de la craie, formations qui ont suceede aux roches
aneiennes. A Guise, le depot erratique est com-
pose de quartzites et de schistes de transition de quelques grucs plus
recent, de silex de la craie, et surtout de quartz laiteux, dont le
volume varie depuis celui de la tete jusqu'a celui de grain de
sable .... Au dela les fragments de roches aneiennes diminuent
graduellement en volume et en nombre." At Paris we found the
granitic debris brought down by the Tonne to form a notable
proportion of the gravel; and at Precy, near Creil on the Oise, the
fragments of the ancient rocks were abundant ; but lower down the
Seine at Mantes, they had both diminished -very much in quantity,
and at Eouen and Pont de I'Arche we saw none, though a longer
search would doubtless have shown us fragments of them. This case
of the Oise is however interesting, not only on account of the valu-
able evidence contained in the above quotation, but because, though
it flows, as a glance at the map wiU show, immediately across and at
right angles to the Somme, yet none of the ancient rocks which form
the valley of the Oise, have supplied any debris to the valley of the
Somme : and this though the two rivers are at one point within six
miles of one another, and separated by a ridge of only 80 feet in height.

The same division occurs between the Seine and the Loire : "bien
" que la ligne de partage des eaux de la Loire et de la Seine,
" entre St. Amand (Nievre) et Artenay, au nord d' Orleans, soit a
" peine sensible, aucun debris de roches venant du centre de la France,
" par la vallee de la Loire n'est passe dans le bassin de la Seine. "f

In the Vivarais near Auvergne, " Les depots diluviens, sont com-
" poses des memes roches que celles que les I'ivieres actuelles entrai-
" nent dans les vallees, et sont les debris des seules montagnes de la
" Lozin, du Tanargue et du Mezene, qui entourent le bassin du
*' Vivarais.]:

Again,

" Le diluvium des vallees de I'Aisne et de I'Aire ne renferme que
" les debris plus ou moins roules des terrains que ces rivieres coupent
" dans leur cours."§

Other instances of the same law may be quoted ; Mr. Prestwich
has found it to hold good in England, but as it is an important link
in the chain of evidence on which his views depend, it seemed better
to take the facts from other observers. The conclusion deduced by
M. D'Archiac from the consideration of these observations, and spe-
cially from those concerning the valley of the Seine, was " que les
" courants diluviens ne venaient jDoint d'une direction unique mais

* D'Archiac, 1. c. p. 155. J D'Archiac, 1. c. p. 160.

t D'Archiac, 1 c. p. 1G4. ^ Malbos. Bull Geol. Vol. III. p. 631.

256 OBIGINAL AETICLE9.

" qu'ils convergaient des bords du bassin vers sou centre, suivant les
" depressions preexistantes, et qne leur elevation ou leiir force de
" transjwrt ne suffisait j)(is pour f aire passer les debris qu'ils charriaient
" d'une de ces valUes dans C autre.''''*

Coiisideriug, however, all these facts, reinembering that the con-
stituents of the upper level gravels are, in all cases, derived from beds
now in situ along the valley, that they have not only foUoAved the
lines of these valleys, but have done so in the direction of the
present waterflow, and without in any case passing across from
one river system to another, Ave may surely, I think, follow Mr.
Prestwich in his conclusion that these gi-avels have been brought
down, and deposited by the present rivers.

The sandstone blocks which occur in the gravel appear indeed at
first sight to be irreconcileable with any such hypothesis. In some
pits they occur frequently, and are of considerable size ; the largest
I have myself seen is represented in the section, Eig. 1, taken
close to the railway station at Joinville. It was 8 ft. 6 inches in length,
with a width of 2 ft. 8 in., and a thickness of 3 ft. 4 in. Even when
we remember that at the time of its deposition the valley was not
excavated to its present depth, we must still feel that a body of water
with power to move such masses as these must have been very different
from any floods now occurring in those valleys, and might fairly per-
haps deserve the name of a cataclysm. But whence could we obtain
so great a quantity of water ? AVe have already seen that the gravel
of the Oise, thovigh so close, is entirely different from that of the
Somme, w^hile tliat of the Seine again is quite different from that of
any of the neighbouring rivers. These rivers therefore cannot have
drained a larger area than at present ; the river systems must have
been the same as now. Nor would the supposition after all account
for the phenomena. We should but fall from Scylla into Charybdis.
Around the blocks we see no eAddence of violent action ; in the section
at Joinville, the grey subangular gravel passed under the large block
abovementioned, with scarcely any alteration. But a flood which could
bring down so great a mass would certaiidy have swept away the
comparatively light and moveable gravel beloAv. "We cannot therefore
account for the phenomena by aqueous action, because a flood whicli
would deposit the sandstone blocks would remove the underlying
gravel, and a flood which would deposit the gravel Avould not move
the blocks. The Deus ex machina has not only been called in most
unnecessarily, but Avheu examined turns out to be but an idol
after all.

Driven, then, to seek some other explanation of the difficulty,
Mr. Prestwich falls back on that of floating ice. Here we have an
agency wdiich would satisfactorily explain all the difliculties of the
case. The " packing" and propelling action of ice would also ac-
coimt for some irregularities in the arrangement of the beds which

• L.c, p. 163.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 257

are very difficult otherwise to imderstaiid. We are, iudeed, irresisti-
bly reminded of the figure given by 8ir Charles Lj^ell* from a
view taken by Lieut. Bowen, of the boulders drifted by ice on the
shores of the St. Lawrence. I wish that I could transfer this view
to our pages ; but Sir C. Lyell's work must be in the hands of almost
every geologist, and it will, perhaps, therefore, be unnecessary for me
to quote the accompanying description, accurately as it portrays what
must, I think, have been taliing place in the valley of the Somme thou-
sands of years ago, just as it does in the St. LawTence at the present
time. Nor does the physical evidence only, point to a more arctic cli-
mate during the period now under consideration ; the fauna also tells
the same tale. The moUusca, indeed, do not afford much evidence,
but though mainly the same as those now living in the country, they
have rather northern tendencies, 35 out of the 43 species being at pre-
sent found in Finland.f With the mammalia the case is difterent. The
Reindeer, the Musk Ox, the Norwegian Lemming, and the still
more ^Arctic Myodes torquatus, all of which occur in the drift,
are decidedly indications of a cold climate. The circumstances
attending the discovery of the Tichorhine rhinoceros in Siberia, the
fact of the Mammoth of the Lena being enveloped in ice so soon
after death that the flesh had not had time to decay, as well as the
manner in which these extinct Pachydermata were provided against
cold, all tend to show that the ^lephas primigenius and the Rhino-
ceros ticliorhinus, unlike their congeners of to-day, were inhabitants
rather of Arctic than Tropical climates. That there are in this argu-
ment two weak points, I must frankly admit. In the first place, it
may be objected that the Hippopotamus major, of which bones occur
in the drift, could scarcely have existed in a cold country. Mr.
Prestwich, indeed, suggests that this species may, perhaps, like its
gigantic relatives, have been fitted to flourish in an arctic climate.
But there is some difference of opinion as to its occurrence ; it
has not yet been found in the " diluvium" of Germany, (Sir C. Lyell,
Supplement to Manual, 1857, p. 8), and though remains of it have
undoubtedly occurred in the drift gravel of the Somme, there is
some reason to believe that they are not in quite the same condi-
tion as the bones of the Elephant and Rhinoceros ; it is possible, there-
fore, that they may belong, as Dr. Falconer suggests, to an anterior
period. Secondly, it might also be argued, that the animals above-
mentioned, though at present confined to the colder regions, may
once have lived in temperate countries. Lentil lately we should
have regarded the Tiger as an essentially tropical animal ; yet it is
now known to be common in the neighbourhood of Lake Aral, in the
forty-fifth degree of north latitude ; and " the last Tiger killed, in
" 1828, on the Lena, in lat. 521", was in a climate colder than that
" of St. Petersburg and Stockholm. "J

• Principles, 1853, p. 220. f Proc. Roy. Soc. 1862, p. 44.

X Lyell, Principles, p. 77.

258 OKIGINAL AETICLES.

While, however, admitting these two possible objections, it is
still, I think, felt by most Palaeontologists, that though the presence
of one Arctic S2:)ecies would scarcely perhaps justify any very decided
inference as to climate, still that the co-existence of such a group
as this ; the musk ox, the reindeer, the lemming, the Mi/odes tor-
qitatus, the Siberian mammoth, and its faithful companion the woolly
haired rhinoceros, decidedly indicates, even though it may not prove,
the existence of a climate unlike that now prevailing in Western
Europe. But when, in addition, we get the physical evidence brought
forward by Mr. Prestwich, the disturbed condition of the beds, and
the presence of the large blocks, the inference is much strengthened.
The amount of diflereuce still remains to be ascertained. Taking the
present range of the Musk ox and Reindeer as his guides, Mr. Prest-
wich assumes a difterence in the mean winter temperature of 19° to
29°. While, however, admitting the probability of a somewhat greater
winter cold, we are not, I think, yet in a position to estimate the
amount of change.

It must always be borne in mind that the temperature of Western
Europe is at present exceptionally mild ; if we go either to the east
or west, to Canada or Siberia, we find countries under the same
latitude as London and Paris suflering under a far more severe
climate.

The river St. Lawrence, to which I have pointed as throwing so
much light on the transport of the blocks now in question, is actually
in a lower latitude than the Seine or the Somme. Moreover, geologists
are agreed that at the period of the boulder clay, a period imme-
diately preceding that now vuider consideration, the cold in Western
Europe must have been far more intense than it is at present. The
subject is treated at length in an excellent paper by Mr. Hopkins*
(then President of the Geological Society), and it is admitted (p. 61)
that many of our rivers have probably followed their present direc-
tions " ever since the glacial period." Mr. Prestwich's hypothesis
involves therefore in reality no cliancje of climate. He only supposes
that, in this early period of our rivers, the temperature of Western
Europe agreed with that which had i)receded, rather than with that
which now prevails ; or rather, perhaps, that, in this intermediate
period, the temperature had neither the extreme severity of the glacial
era, nor the exceptional mildness of modern times.

But though diminishing the imjjrobability of the suggestion,
these considerations throw no light on the alteration of the condi-
tions which must have taken place to produce an alteration of
climate so great as that inferred by IVIr. Prestwich.

The principal causes which have been suggested are the fol-
lowing : —

Istly. A possible variation in the intensity of solar radiation.

* Geol, Journal, 1852, p. .56.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 259

To this Mr. Hopkins sees no a priori objection ; but lie does

not feel disposed to attach much weight to it, because it is " a
" mere hypothesis framed to account for a single and limited
" class of facts, and unsupported by the testimony of any other
" class of allied, but independent phenomena."

2ndly. Admitting the proper motion of the sun, it has been sug-
gested that we may have recently passed from a colder into a
warmer region of space.

I must refer to Mr. Hopkins' paper for his objections to this
suggestion, which certainly appear to " render the theory
" utterly inapplicable to the explanation of the changes of
" temperature at the more recent geological epochs." (L c.
p. 62.)

Srdly. The eflect of an altered position of land and water.

This cause, which has been advocated by Sir C. Lyell with so
much ability, would no doubt have the effect attributed to it,
but it seems scarcely applicable to the present difficvilty,
because the geography of Western Europe must have been
nearly the same during the period under consideration, as it is
at present. The existence of a continent north of Scandinavia
and Scotland, might indeed go far towards accounting for the
phenomena; but to this suggestion we must make the same
answer as to the first.

4tlily. An alteration in the earth's axis.

The possibility of such a change has indeed been denied by
many astronomers. My father, on the contrary, in a letter to
Sir C. Lyell,* has maintained that it woidd necessarily follow
from upheavals and depressions of the earth's surface, if only
they were of sufficient magnitude. This suggestion, however,
like the preceding, involves immense geographical changes, and
would therefore necessarily have required an enormous lapse of
time.

Sthly. IMi". Hopkins, in the paper to which I have ah-eady alluded,
inclines to find another solution of the difficulty in the suppo-
sition that the Gulf Stream did not at this period warm the
shores of Europe " A depression of 2000 feet would," he says,
" convert the Mississippi into a great arm of the sea, of which
" the present Gulf of Mexico would form the southern ex-
" tremity, and which would communicate at its northern

" extremity with the waters occupying the great

" valley now occupied by the chain of lakes." In this case
the Gulf Stream would no longer be deflected by the Ame-
rican coast, but would pass directly up this channel into the
Arctic Sea ; and as eveiy gi"eat ocean current must have its
counter cvirrent, it is probable that there woidd be a flow of

* Gcol. Jour., Vol. V. p. 4.

2G0 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

cold water from the north, between the coasts of Norway and
Greenland. The absence of the gulf stream would probably
lower the January temperature of Western Europe 10 degrees,
while the presence of a cold cm-rent from the North would
make a farther difference of about three or four degrees ;*
an alteration of the climate which would apparently be sufficient
to account for all the phenomena. This theory, Mr. Hopkins
considers as no mere h3^othesis, but as necessarily following
from the submergence of North America, which has been in-
ferred from evidence of a different nature.
In this case, of course, the periods of great cold in Europe and in
America must have been successive and not synchronous ; and it
must also be observed, that in this suggested deflection of the Gulf
Stream Mr. Hopldns was contemplating a period anterior to that of
the present rivers. For if we are to adopt this solution of the diffi-
culty, what an immense time would be required. K, when the
gravels and loess of the Somme and the Seine were being deposited,
the Gulf Stream w'as passing up what is now the Valley of the Mis-
sissippi, then it follows that the formation of the loess in that valley
and its delta, an accumulation which Sir C. Lyell has shown to
require a period of about 100,000 years, would be subsequent to the
excavation of the Somme Yalley, and to the j)resence of man in
Western Europe.

Thus, therefore, though the alteration of climate apparently in-
dicated by the zoological contents and the physical condition of the
beds, might by increasing the power of the floods, add to the erosive
action of the river, and thus diminish on the one hand the time
required for the excavation of the valley, still the very alteration
itself appears, on the other hand, to require an even gi-eater lapse of
time.

But even if the presence of the sandstone blocks, and the occa-
sional contortions of the strata, far from being objections to Mr.
Prestwich's views, seem rather to speak strongly in their favour,
still the height which the gravels sometimes attain above the pre-
sent water-level, is at first sight a great difficulty, and we cannot
wonder therefore that these beds have generally been attributed to
violent cataclysms, owing to the emergence of the land, to astrono-
mical causes, and even to the elevation of the Andes.

M. Boucher de Perthes has always been of this opinion. " Ce
" Cflquillage, cet elephant, cette hache, on la main qui la fabriqua,
" furent done temoins du cataclysme qui donna a notre pays sa con-
" figuration presente."t

M. C. D'Orbigny, observing that the fossils found in these quater-
nary beds are all either of land or freshwater animals, correctly dis-
misses the theory of any marine action, and expresses himself as

* Hopkins, 1. c, p. 8.5. f M*-'". Soc. d'Em. rAbbcvillc, 1861, p. 475.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 261

follows : — " Ell efFet ropinion tie la plupart des geologues est que les
" cataclysmes diluviens ont eu pour causes predominantes de fortes
" oscillations de I'ecorce terrestre, des soulevements de montagnes
" au milieu de I'ocean, d'ou seraient resultees de grandes erosions.
" Par consequent les puissants courants d'eau marine, auxquels on
" attribue ces erosions diluviennes, auraient du laisser sur les conti-
" neiits des traces autlieutiques de leur passage, tels que de nombreux
" debris de coquilles, de poissons et autres animaux marins analogues
" a ceux qui vivent actuellement dans la mer. Or, aiiisi que M.
" Cordier I'a fait remarquer depuis longtemps a son cours de geologic,
" rien de semblable ii'a ete constate. Sur tons les points du globe
" oil Ton a etudie les depots diluviens, on a recoiinu que, sauf quelques
" rares exceptions tres contestables, il n'existe dans ces depots aucun
" fossile marin : ou bien ce sont des fossiles arraches aux terrains
" preexistants, dont la denudation a fouriii les materiaux qui com-
" posent le diluvium. En sorte que les depots diluviens semblent
" avoir eu pour cause des plienomenes meteorologiques, et paraissent
" etre le resultat d'immenses inondations (Teaio douce, et uoii d'eau
" marine, qui, se precipitant des points eleves vers la mer, auraient
" denude luie graiide partie de la surface du sol, balaye la generalite
" des etres organises et pour aiiisi dire iiivele, coordonne les bassins
" liydrographiques actuels."* (See also D'Arcliiac, 1. c. passim). It is
unnecessary for me to point out how entirely these views difter from
the one here advocated, and which we owe mainly to the persevering
researches of Mr. Prestwich. Such cataclysms as those supposed by
Mr. D'Orbigny, and many other French Greologists, even if admitted,
would not account for the results before us. "We have seen that
the transport of materials has not followed any single direction, but
has in all cases followed the lines of the present valleys, and the
direction of the present waterflow ; that the rocks of one valley are
never transported into another ; that the condition of the loess is
irreconcileable with a great rush of water ; that the mammals and
molluscs are the same throughout the period ; while, finally, the
perfect preservation of many of the most delicate shells is clear proof
that they have not been subjected to any violent action.

We must, moreover, bear in mind that the gravels and sands are
themselves both the proof and the results of an immense denudation.
In a chalk country, such as that through which the Sonime flows, each
cubic foot of flint, gravel or sand, represents the removal of at the very
least twenty cubic feet of chalk, all of which, as we have already seen,
must have been removed from the present area of drainage. In
considering, therefore, the formation of these upper and older gi'avels,
we must not picture to ourselves the original valley as it now is, but
must, in imaguiation, restore all that immense mass of chalk which
has been destroyed in the formation of the lower level gravels and
sands. Mr. Prestwich has endeavoured to illustrate this by a dia-

* C. D'Orbigny, Bui. Geo. 2nd ser. V. xvii. p. 66.

262 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

gram,* and I must once more repeat that this is no mere hypo-
thesis, since tlie mass of sand and gravel cannot have been produced
wdthout an immense removal of the chalk.

Far, therefore, from requiring an immense flood of water, two
hundred feet in depth, the accumulation of the gravel may have
been effected by an annual volume of water, differing little from that
of the present river.

A given quantity of water will, however, produce very different
effects, according to the manner in which it passes. " We learn
" from observation, that a velocity of three inches per second at the
" bottom will just begin to work upon fine clay fit for pottery, and
" however firm and compact it may be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds
" are more stable than clay when the velocities do not exceed this : for
" the water even takes away the impalpable jiarticles of the superficial
" clay, leaving the particles of sand sticking by their lower half in the
" rest of the clay, which they now protect, making a very ^^ermanent
" bottom, if the stream does not bring down gravel or coarse sand,
" which A^dll rub off" this very thin crust, and allow another layer to
" be worn off'. A velocity of six inches will lift fine sand, eight
" inches will lift sand as coarse as linseed, twelve inches will sweep
" along fine gravel, twenty- four inches will roll along rounded peb-
" bles an inch diameter, and it requires three feet per second at the
" bottom to sweep along shivery angular stones of the size of an egg."t

If, therefore, we are justified in assuming a colder . climate than
that now existing, we should much increase the erosive action of the
riA^er, not only because the rains would fall on a frozen surfiice, but
because the rainfall of the winter months would accumulate on the
high grounds in the form of ice and snow, and would every spring
prodiice floods much greater than any which now occur.

We now come to the light-coloured sandy maid (Fig. 2). It
is described by Mr. Prestwich as follows, " White siliceous sand
" and light-coloured marl, mixed with fine chalk grit, a few large sub-
" angular flints, and an occasional sandstone block, irregular patches
" of flint gravel, bedding waved and contorted, here and there layers
" with diagonal seams, a few ochreous bands, portions concreted.
" Sand and freshwater shells common, some mammalian remains."

In the pits at Amiens this bed is generally distinct from the un-
derlying gravels, owing perhaps to the upper portion of the gravel
having been removed ; but in several places (Precy, Ivry, Bicetre,
&c.) we saw this section complete, the gravel coarser below becoming
finer and finer, and at length passing above into siliceous sand. These
sections evidently indicate a loss of power in the water at these par-
ticular spots, rapid enough at first to bring down large pebbles, its
force became less and less until at length it Avas only able to deposit
fine sand. This, therefore, appears to indicate a change in the course

• Proceed. Roy Soc. 1862, p. 41.

t Cyc. Brit. Article " Rivers," p. 274.

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 263

of tlie river, and gradual excavation of the valley, which, by supplying
the floods vnth a lower bed, left the waters at this height with a gra-
dually diminishing force and velocity.

The upper part of the section at St. Acheul consists of brick
earth, passing below into angvdar gi^avel, while between this and the
underlying sandy marl is sometimes a small layer of darker brick
earth. These beds, however, vary much even in adjoining sections.
Tiikcn as a whole they are regarded by Mr. Prestwich as the repre-
sentatives of that remarkableloamy deposit which is found overlying
the gravels in all these valleys of Northern France, and which, as the
celebrated " loess" of the Eliine, attains a thickness of 300 feet. The
greatest development of it which I have seen was in a pit in the Eue
de la Chevalerie, near IvTy, where it was twenty-two feet thick,
some of which however may have been reconstructed loess brought
down by rain from the higher ground in the immediate neigh-
bourhood.

Assuming that this loess is composed of fine particles deposited
from standing or slowly moving waters, we might be disposed to
wonder at not finding in it any traces of vegetable remains. We
know, however, from the arrangement of the nails and hasps that in
some of the St. Acheul tombs wooden coffins were used, while the
size of the nails shows that the planks must have been tolerably thick ;
yet in these cases every trace of wood has been removed, and not
even a stain is left to indicate its presence.

Such is a general account of those gravel pits which lie at a height
of from 80 to 150 feet abo^e the present water level of the valleys,
and which along the Somme are found in some places even at
a height of 200 leet.

Let us now visit some of the pits at the lower levels. At about
thirty feet lower, as for instance at Menchecourt, near Abbeville,
and at St. Eoch, near Amiens, Avhere the gi-avels slope from a height
of about sixty feet down to the valley, we find almost a repetition
of the same succession ; coarse subangular gravel below, finer ma-
terials above. So similar, indeed, are these beds to those already
described, both in constitution and in the animal remains they
contain, that it Avill be unnecessary for me to give any farther
description of them.

Finally, the lowest portion of the valley is at present occupied
by a bed of gravel, covered by silt and peat, which latter is in
some places more than twenty feet thick, and is extensively
worked for fuel. These strata have afforded to the antiquaries of
the neighbourhood, and especially to M. Boucher de Perthes, a rich
harvest of interesting relics belonging to various periods. The depth
at which these objects are fomid has been carelully noted by M.
Boucher de Perthes.

" Prenant," he says, " pour terme moyen du sol de la vallee, une
" hauteur de 2 metres audessus du niveau de la Somme, c'est a 30 a
" 40 centimetres de la surface qu'on rencontre le plus abondamment

204 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

" les traces du moyen-age. Cinquaute centimetres plus bas, ou
" commence a trouver des debris remains, puis gaUo-romains. Ou
" continue a suivre ces dernicrs pendant un metre, c'est a dire
"jusqu'au niveau de la Somme. Apres eux, Adennent les A^estiges
" gaulois purs qui descendent sans interruption jusqu'a pres de
" 2 metres audessous de ce niveau, preuve de la tongue habitation
" de ces peuples dans la vallee. C'est a un metre plus bas, ou a 4
" metres environ audessous de ce meme niveau, qu'on arrive au
" centre du sol que nous avons nomme Celtique, celui qui fbulerent
" les Gaulois primitives ou les peuples qui les precederent ;" and
which belonged therefore to the ordinary stone period. It is, how-
ever, hardly necessary to add that these thicknesses are only given by
M. I3oucher de Perthes " comme terme appro ximatif."

The " Antiquites Celtiques " was published several years before
the Swiss Archaeologists had made us acquainted wath the nature of
the Pfahlbauten ; but, from some indications given by M. Boucher de
Perthes, it would appear that there must have been, at one time,
lake-habitations in the neighboui"hood of Abbeville. He found con-
siderable platforms of wood, with large quantities of bones, stone
implements, and handles closely resembling those which come from
the Swiss lakes.

These weapons cannot for an instant be confounded with the
ruder ones from the drift gravel. They are ground to a smooth
surface and a cutting edge, while the more ancient ones are merely
chipped, not one of the many hundreds already found having shown
the slightest trace of grinding. Yet though the former belong to the
stone age, to a time so remote that the use of metal was apparently still
imknown in Western Europe, they are separated from the earlier
weapons of the upper level drift by the whole period necessary for
the excavation of the Somme Valley, to a depth of moi'e than 100
feet.

If, thei'efore, we get no definite date for the arrival of man in
these countries, we can at least form a vivid idea of his antiquity.
He must have seen the Somme rumiing at a height of, in round
numbers, a h\indred and fifty feet above its present level. From
finding the hatchets in the gravel up to a level of a hundred feet, it
is probable that he dates back in Northern France almost, if not
quite, as long as the rivers themselves. The face of the country must
have been indeed unlike what it is now. Along the banks of the
rivers ranged a savage race of hvmters and fishermen, and in the
forests wandered the mammoth, the two-horned, woolly, rhinoceros,
a species of tiger, the musk ox, the reindeer, and the urus.

Yet the geography of France cannot have been verj difierent
from what it is at present. The present rivers ran in their present
directions, and the -sea even then lay between the Somme and the
Adur, though the channel was not so wide as it is at present.

Gi'adually the river deepened its valley ; inetfective, or even per-
haps constructive, in autumn and winter, the melting of the snows

LUBBOCK ON THE ANTIQriTT OP MAX. 265

turned it every spring into a, roaring torrent. These floods were pro-
bably more destructive to animals even tlian man himself ; while,
however rude they may have been, our predecessors can hardly be
supposed to have been incapable of foreseeing and consequently es-
caping the danger. While the water, at an elevation of 150 feet
above its present level, as for instance at Liercoiu't, had sufficient
force to deposit coarse gravel ; at a still higher level it would part
with finer particles, and would thus form the loess which, at the same
time, would here and there receive angular flints a,nd shells brought
down from the hills in a more or less transverse direction by the
rivulets after heavy rains.

As the valley became deeper and deeper the gravel would be
deposited at lower and lower levels, the loess always following it ;*
thus we must not consider the loess as a distinct bed, but as one
which was being formed during the same time, though never at the
same place as the beds of gravel. Fig. 3, I have given an imagi-
nary diagram, the better to illustrate my meaning ; the loess is
indicated by letters with a dash and is dotted, while the gravels
are represented as rudely stratified. In this case I suppose the
river to have run originally on the level («), and to have deposited
the gravel (a) and the loess (a) ; after a certain amount of erosion
which would reduce the level to (b), the gravel woidd be spread
out at b, and loess at (b'). Similarly the loess (c') would be contem-
poraneous with the gravel (c).

Thus while in each section the lower beds would of course be the
oldest, still the upper-level gravels as a Avhole would be the most
ancient, and the beds lying on the lower parts of the valley the most
modern.

For convenience I have represented the sides of the valley as
forming a series of terraces ; and though this is not actually the case,
there are several places in which such terraces do occur.f

It is, however, well known that rivers continually tend to shift
their courses ; nor is the Somme any exception to the rule ; the valley
itself indeed may be comparatively straight, but within it the river
winds considerably, and when in one of its curves, the current crosses
" its general line of descent, it eats out a curve in the opposite bank,
" or in the side of the hills bounding the valley, from which curve it
" is turned back again at an equal angle, so that it reci-osses the line
" of descent, and gradually hollows out another curve lower down in
" the opposite bank, till the whole sides of the valley, or river-bed,

* See Mr. Prestwich's paper read before the Royal Society, June 19th, 1862.

■f While attributing the excavation of these valleys to the action of the existing
rivers, Mr, Prcstwich doubts wliether they could have produced such an eftect
without an elevation of the land. INIarine shells occur at Abbeville about 25 feet
above the sea-level ; this bed Mr. Prestwich coiTclates with some of the raised
beaches round our coasts, and with the lower level valley gravels. The higher
level valley gravels correspond in his opinion witli tlic raised beaches which occur
at a higher level.

266 ORIGINAL AKTICLES.

" present a succession of salient and retiring angles." (Lyell, Princi-
ples, p. 206.) During these wanderings from one side of the
valley to the other, the river continually undermines, and removes
the gravels which at an earlier period it had deposited. Thus the
upper-level gravels are now only to be found here and there, as it
were in patches, while in many parts they have altogether disappeared,
as, for instance, on the right side of the valley between Amiens and
Pont Eemy, where hardly a trace of the high level gravels is to be
seen.

At length the excavation of the valley was completed ; the cli-
mate must have aj)proached what it is now, and whether from this
change, or whether pei'haps yielding to the irresistible power of man,
the great Pachydermata had become extinct. Under new conditions,
the river, unable to carry out to sea the finer particles brought
down from the higher levels, deposited them in the valley, and thus
raised somewhat its genei'al level, checking the velocity of the stream,
and producing extensive marshes, in which a thick deposit of peat
was gradually formed. "We have, unfoi'tunately, no reliable estimate
as to the rate of formation of this svibstauce, but on any supposition
the production of a mass more than 20 feet in thickness must have
acquired a very considerable period. Yet it is in these beds that we
find the remains of the stone period. Prom the tombs at St. Acheul,
from the Eoman remains found in the peat near the surface of the
ground, at about the present level of the river, we know that fifteen
hundred years have produced scarcely any change in the configuration
of the valley. In the peat, and at a depth of about 15 feet in the
alluvium at Abbeville, are the remains of the stone period,* which we
know from the researches in Denmark and Switzerland to be of an
age so great that it can only be expressed in thousands of years.
Yet all these are subsequent to the excavation of the valley ; what
antiquity then are we to ascribe to the men who lived when the
Somme was but beginning its great taslc ? No one can properly ap-
preciate the time requu'ed who has not stood on the heights of Lier-
court, Picquigny, or on one of the other points overlooking the valley :
nor, I am sure, could any geologist return from such a visit without an
overpowering sense of the change which has taken place, and the enor-
mous time which must have elapsed since the first appearance of man
in Western Europe.

* We shall probably ere long be able to divide this era into several divisions.
Already we have two well marked epochs, the elephantine and the post-elephantine.
But Prof. Worsaac proposes, and not withont reason, to subdivide this latter into the
period of the " Kjdkkenmijddings " on the one hand, and that of the " Pfalilbautcn "
on tlie other. The contents of the Danish tumuli belonging to the Stone period,
agree ratlicr with tliose from the lake habitations of Switzerland, than with those
which occur in tlic Refuse-heaps of Denmark, and though we could not expect to
find numy well-worked implements in the kjokkenmoddings, we ought otherwise
surely to have obtained ere now at least some broken pieces of the beautiful Hint
weapons which were so common in Denmark during the later part of the stone period.

xubbock: ox the axtiquitt or mak. 2G7

We cannot but ask what manner of men they were who lived in
these distant times : did they resemble the present inhabitants of
Arctic Europe, who were regarded by a quaint old "n-riter of the last
century as beino; even lower than Apes,* or did the celebrated Nean-
derthal skull (Nat. Hist. Review, Yol. I. p. 155) belong to this race
of men ? We may hope that the discovery of a skeleton will ere
long enable us to answer this question ; may the veteran antiquary
of Abbeville himself be the fortunate finder of the first human bones
in the drift !

But were these the first settlers in Europe? M. Lartet answers in
the negative, and ingeniously attempts to construct a Palseontological
Chronology. (Ann. Sci. Nat. iv. ; Ser. V. xv. 6217.) The great
cave-bear ( Ursus sjjeJceus) has been frequently found associated with
man in caves, but its remains have, according to M. Lartet, not yet
been found in the river drifts. The species is indeed quoted by
Messrs. Buteux and Ravin, on whose authority it is also given by
Messrs. Prestwich and Evans ; but M. Lartet, after careful exami-
nation, not having been able to find the specimen originally attributed
to this species, concludes that the Ursus spelceus perished at an
earlier period, and that the Hyaena spelcea and the Felis spelcea
belong only to the earliest beds of the drift. The caves, therefore,
in which these animals have been found associated with the remains
of men, indicate, he thinks, a stiU greater antiquity for the human
race.

Negative evidence in Palaeontology must indeed always be re-
garded with suspicion, but I may at least be permitted to repeat
the opinion that it is not in a northern country and in a cold climate
that we shall find the first traces of man. No nation would choose
such an abode ; civilised man, indeed, may prefer a temperate
region, favom-able to the exercise both of mind and body ; but the
savage wiU go where he can most readily satisfy savage wants ; he
will not therefore betake himself to temperate, still less to Arctic
regions, until driven there by increasing density of popidation.

But are we justified in concluding that even the cave men were
the earliest human settlers in Western Europe ? Surely not. The
whole history of Palaeontology is a standing protest against such an
assumption. We have not indeed as yet the materials to decide
the question, but if we were to express any opinion on the subject,
it would seem more philosophical to imagine that the genus Homo
dates back to a period as ancient as the other widely-spread genera
of Mammalia; and that wherever the bones of Deer, Elephants,
Horses, Oxen and Dogs are to be found, there we may fairly expect
ere long to discover also the remaias of Man.

* " Such is the description of this little animal, called a Laplander; and it may
" be said, that, after the Monkey, he approaches nearest to ^la.i\:'—Regnard'&
Journey to Lapland, p. 164.

N. II. R.— 1862. U

268

OKiaiNAL ARTICLES.

I: ■■.;«»

. ? . ■:\0

c ~,

VO I to ~ •

vk « -91?^ .;^•: -,';c)i9

O ;
'u' b

Q-.

LFBBOCK ON THE ANTIQUITY OF AT AN. 269

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.

Plate VII. — A flint instmment found near Abbeville; slightly reduced. Our
artist has been so careful to present a faithful imao-e of
this interesting specimen, that he has even copied exactly my
memorandum as to the place and date of its discovery.

Wood Engravings. —

Fig. 1. Section taken in a pit close to the Joinville Station.

b. Red angular gravel, containing a very large sandstone

block.
d. Grey subangular gravel.

Fig. 2. Section at St. Acheul near Amiens.

a. Brick earth, with a few angular flints.

b. Red angular gravel.

c. Marly sand, with land and freshwater shells.

d. Grey subangular gravel, in which the flint implements
are found.

e. Coffin.
/. Tomb.

Fig. 3. Diagram to illustrate deposit of loess and gravel.

a' Loess corresponding to a contemporaneous with gravel a
2-' Loess „ „ „ b

c' Loess „ „ „ c

1. Level of valley at period a

2. „ „ b

3. „ present.

Fig. 4. Section across the valley of the Somme at Abbe\-ille, after
Prestwich ; the length is however reduced to one-third.

XXVII. — On the IVIammals, Birbs, etc., of the Mackenzie
EivER DiSTEiCT. By Bernard H. Eoss, Esq.

Fort Simpson, McKensie's River District.
10th November, 1861.

Mt r>EAR Sir John,— I am happy to acquaint you that I have
procvtred from the Toueon, through the kindness of Mr. Lockhart,
who is in charge of that establislnneut, two teeth and three tusks of
the Elephas primigenius, or what Prof. Leidy calls, in his " Ancient
Fauna of Nebraska," Elephas americanus. Two of the tusks are
moderately-sized portions ; but they show clearly the great cuiwe
that distinguishes the fossil from the existing species of elejohants.
The third tusk is of much larger dimensions, not much decayed, and
nearly straight. It possibly may belong to some other animal.
How curious it is that a tradition exists up the Peace Eiver of some
immense animal.

If you do not require the specimens, after examination, might I
suggest the British Museum as a proper place to deposit them in ?

270 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Should you have any particular destination in view, do witli tliem as
you think fit.

I enclose to your address an amended list of the mammals, birds,
and eggs collected in this district up to the present date. This,
however, excludes more than 300 specimens from various posts,
which I have not yet had time to arrange ; and among which some
additional species will doubtless be found. At present, the list
contains about 50 sjjecies of mammals and 190 of birds. A
considerable portion of the names has been corrected by Professor
Baird, and the remainder I am responsible for ; and I do not think
there are many errors, as I am now becoming tolerably au fait at
identifications. If you think the list would be of interest, as
showing the progress of Zoological investigation in the Arctic
regions, might I ask you to forward it, after perusal, to some scien-
tific journal. You will find, on reading, that the Coli/mbf^s Adamsii
is of frequent occmrence on Great Slave Lake ; and I have received
about a dozen specimens fii'om the Big-Island. Two specimens of
the Somateria V. nigra ha\e also been procm^ed on the same sheet
of water, which is the richest field for rare birds of any place in the
district. My o-mi Fort Simpson collection you will recognise by a
(II) placed after the species obtained here; and from the number
thus marked you can form an idea of my labours. The number of
specimens collected by myself is about 1000. I procured one nest of
the Nyctale Micliardaonii containing three eggs, but I expect four "nnll
prove to be the complete number. The bird had built in a Avood-
pecker's deserted hole. Two nests of the Surnia ulula were procured
for me, one at Lapierre's House and one at Salt Eiver. They were
built some height up pine trees, and contained each four eggs.
One set is for the British Museum, for which Institution I am
forming a general collection. I am surprised that a specimen of the
Sialia arctica has not come in yet.

Ton will see that the advance in Oology is considerable. Could a
full series of the eggs of all birds be obtained, I think that they would
lead to the most easy and natmal classification for the Aves. The
conformation and position of the nests is so much influenced by the
natural features of the locality in which they nest, that, though of
secondary value, they could not be much depended upon. IVom
overlooking this fact, the great ornithologist, Andubon, has in some
instances doubted the correctness of other writers' identification of
eggs, because the construction of the nests did not absolutely agree
with those which fell under his own observation.

A post has been established this year among the Eskimos. It is
built on the Anderson or Inconnue River, a stream rising at some
distance eastward of Foi"t Good Hope and falling into Liverpool
Bay. I am not very sanguine of the sxiccess of the speculation, in
a commercial point of view.

I hope to obtain leave of absence next year. I have now been
fifteen years in this district, and think I deserve a holiday. Tlie

EOSa ON MAMMALS, ETC. OP THE MACKENZIE EIYER DISTRICT. 271

District is now greatly improved. I have nice carpeted rooms, and
a library of above 700 volumes, besides the use of a public one of
about the same size.

With best wishes, I remain, my dear Sir John,

Eespectfully and truly yours,

Bebnaed H. Eoss.
Sir John Richardson, C.B. &c. &c.

A List of Mammals, Birds, and Eeas observed in the
McKenzie's Eitee District, with Notices. By Bernard
E. Eoss, Corresponding Member N. H. Society, Montreal.

MAMI^IALS.

I. — Order Eapacia.

(Insectivora.)

Family Soricidce.
No. of Species.

1. Sorex Fosteri (?)\\ (Ei char dson) .") This genus is abundant

2. Sorex pahostris (/JW (Bachm). ) throughout the District,

as far North as the Arctic coast. I cannot speak confi-
dently as to either the names or the number of the species.

(Carnivora. )

Family Felidce,

G-enus Lynx.

3. Lynx canadensis \\ (Eafin.). Canada Lynx. Loup Cervier,

of the Canadians ; Cat, of the Hudson's Bay residents ;
Picheu, of the Cree Indians and Eed Eiver Half-Breeds ;
Che-say, of the Chipewyan Indians. This animal is nu-
merous some years, but is migratory, following the hares
(Lep. Amer.), its principal food. It ranges to the Arctic
coast in summer. In the winter, it does not leave the
shelter of the woods.

Family Canidce.

(Lupinse.)

Grenus Canis.

4. Canis griseo-alhiis (Eich.). Strong-wood Wolf. Loup-gris,

of the Canadians; Ma-hee-can, of the Cree Indians;^
Nun-dei-yah, of the Chipewyans; Yess, of the Copper
Indians ; and Mah-nuckh of the Anderson Eiver Eskimos.
Of this species I consider that there are two varieties, —
one of which is of a dark colour and large size, inhabiting
the wooded portions of the District as far North as the

272 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

No. of Species.

Youcoii Eiver. The other is usually of a dirty white tint,
with, in general, a dark stripe down the back, and frequents
the barren grounds northwards to the Arctic coast. It is of
smaller size than the first-mentioned variety, and lives in
much larger bands ; indeed, it may possibly be a distinct
species.

(Vulpiuae.)

Grenus Vulpes.

5. Vulpes fulvus *\ Red, Silver, and Cross Foxes. Ma-kay-sis,

var. fulvus\\ /of the Cree Indians; Naw-kee-thay,

Vulpes decussatus\\ C of the Chipewyan Indians; Pee-sdot-eh,
Vulpes argentatus\\ J of the Anderson River Eskimos. This
species, in all its varieties, is found all over this District to
the Arctic coast. They are most numerous around the
shores of the lakes, and in swampy tracts on the banks of
the larger rivers. In the mountain ranges they are rare.
The proportions of the various colours killed in the
McKenzie District are as follow: — Eed, -A-; Cross, -rV;
Silver, -^.

6. Vulpes lagopus , AVhite and Blue Poxes. Both these

var. lagopus \ varieties inhabit the barren grounds
Vulpes fuliginosus \ and shores of the Arctic Sea. The
latter is exceedingly rare, much more so than the Silver
Fox is in the Fulvus species. Wliite Foxes have been
killed on the south shore of Grreat Slave Lake, and one
Blue one on the north shore.

Family Mustelidce.

Martinse.

Genus Mustela.

7. Mustela americana\\ (Turton). American Sable Marten.

Tlia, of the Chipewyan Indaans ; Naw'-they, or Naw'-fey,
of the Slave Indians. Common wherever there are woods ;
but migratory. The farther North that the skin is
obtained, the darker the tint of the pelage. On the
Toucon River they strongly resemble the Siberian Sable.

8. Mustela Pennantii (EvsXebew). Fisher. Pecan, of the Cana-

dians ; Tha-cho, or Big Marten, of the Chipewyan Indians :
rare. Range, up to 62° North.

Genus Putorius.

9. Putorius pimlhis (And. and Back.). Least Weasel. New

York to Big Island, Great Slave Lake.
10. Putorius Cicognani (Bonap ). Small Brown Weasel. Boston
to 62° North : common.

ROSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OF THE MACKENZIE BIVEB DTSTEICT. 273

No. of Species.

11. Piitorius RicTiardsonii ? (Bonap.). Little Ermine. Boston

to Lapierre's House : ratlier rare.

12. Putorius noveboracensis ?\\ (De Kay). Ermine. Northern

New York to 62° North : rare.

13. Putorius Joni]iccmda?\\ (Richards). Long-tailed Weasel.

Upper Missouri to 62° North : rare. I am far from
certain of the identities of the three last species. All the
Ermines which are killed in this District have the white of
the winter coat slightly tinged with sulphur yellow.

14. Putorius vison\\ (Richards.). Brown Mink. Teth-gew-say, of

the Chipewyan Lidians ; Trai-ek-puck, of the Eastern
Eskimos. Range, from Florida to the Arctic coast :
common.

15. Putorius nigrescens \\ (Aud. and Back.). Little Black Mink.

N orthern New York to 62° North. This supposed species is
nothing more than the young of the P. Vison.

Genus Gulo.

16. Giilo luseus II (Sabine). Wolverine. Carcajou. N6-gah, of

the Chipewyan Indians ; Kha-vig, of the Eastern Eskimos.
Northern New York to Arctic coast : common.

Lutringe.

Genus Lutra.

17. Lutra canadensis \\ (Sabine). Otter. Naw-pee-ah, of the

Chipewyan Indians. Florida to Ai'ctic coast: not un-
common.

(Melius.)

Genus Mephitis.

18. Mephitis mephitica (Shaw). Common Skunk. Texas to Port

Resolution, Great Slave Lake. I have never seen a living
specimen of this animal in McKenzie's River ; but I found
the bones and a part of the skin of one a short distance
from the shores of Great Slave Lake.

Family TJrsidcs.

Genus Ursus.

19. Tlrsus Iwribilis (Ord.). Grizzly Bear. Sas-tel-kie, of the

Chipewyan Indians. Plains of Upper Missouri to Youcon
River : not rare in the moimtain ranges.

20. Ursus americanus\\ ^ (Aud. and Back.). Black and Brown

var. americanus > Bears. Sas, of the Chipewyan In-

Vrstcs cinnamoneus ) dians. Common throughout to the

Arctic Circle, and beyond : the brown variety is very rare.

21. Ursus arctos ? Barren-groimd Bear. Inhabits the barren-

grounds and Arctic coasts. Distmguished from the
U. Jiorihilis by its smaller size and reddish coloration.

274 ORIOINAL AETI0LE8.

No. of Species.

22. Ursus maritimus (Linn.). Polai' Bear. Nait'-suck of the

Eastern Eskijiios. Common along tlie Arctic coasts.

II. — OeDER KODENTLi.

Family Sciuridce.

(Sciurinse.)

Grenus Sciurus.

23. Sciurus hudsonius \\ (Pallas). Cliickaree. Throughout to

within the Arctic circle.

Genus Pteromys.

24. Fteromys alpinus (Eichs.). Eocky Moimtains Plying Squirrel.

Pound on the mountain ranges of the Liard Eiver : rather
rare.

Genus Tamias.

25. Tamias quadrivittatus || (Eichs.). Missouri Striped Squirrel.

Prom lat. 33° 30' to 67° North : very abundant on the
Liard Eiver.

Genus Arctomys.

26. Arctomys monax || (Gnielin). Ground Hog. South Carolina

to 62° North : rare.

27. Arctomys pruinosus (Gmelin). North to Arctic circle: abun-

dant on the mountain ranges.
28 Arctomys Kennieottii (Eoss). This I consider to be a new
species ; but I may be wTong. It is of small size, and
inhabits the Northernmost ranges of the Eocky Mountains.

(Castorin89.)

Genus Castor.

29. Castor canadensis |1 (Kuhl). Beaver. Isa, of the Chipewyan

Indians. Throughout North. America to within the Arctic
circle : very abimdant.

Family Muridce.

(MurinsD.)
Genus Jaculus.

30. Jaculus hudsonius \\ (Wagler). Jumping Mouse. Pennsyl-

vania to Youcon Eiver. Common at Portage-la-loclie :
rare, in McKeuzie's Eiver.

Gen VIS Hesperomys.
81. Hesperomys myoides \\ (Gapper). Hamster Mouse. New
York to Arctic Sea. Very abundant, east of the Eocky
Mountains : not found westward, on the Youcon Eiver.
This species is very annopng in dwellings, as it carries off
quantities of sugar, rice, &c., in its cheek-pouches, to store
for its winter consumption.

BOSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OP THE MACKENZIE RITEE DISTKICT. 275

No. of Species.

Genus Arvicola.

32. Arvicola riparia H (Ord.). JMiddle States to tlie Arctic Sea :

common.

33. Arvicola BicliardsoniiW (De Kay). 620X0^11: rare.

34. Arvicola xantliognathus (Leach). Eed-clieeked Arvicole. North

to the Arctic Sea : common.

Grenus Piber.

35. Fiber zihetMcus \\ (Cnvier). Musk Eat. Dzin, of the Chipe-

wyan Indians. North America to Arctic Sea : abundant.

Family Hystricidce.
Genus Erithezon.

36. Frithison dorsatus \\ (Cuvier). Wliite-haired Porcupine. From

Pennsylvania to within the Arctic Circle : common.

37. FritMzon epixantlms (Brandt). Yellow-haired Porcupine.

Prom Upper Missouri to Liard's Eiver.

Family Leporidce.
Genus Lepus.

38. Lepus americanus \\ (Errl). Wliite Eabbit. _ Kha, of the Chipe-

wyan Indians. Prom Virginia to within the Arctic Circle :
migratory.

39. Lepus glacialis (Leach). Arctic Hare. Newfoimdland, North,

to Arctic Sea : not common.

Genus Lagomys.

40. Lagomys princeps (Eichs.). Little Chief Hare: common

among mountain ranges of the Liard's Eiver.

III. — OkDEB EtJMIN ANT I A.

Family Cervida.

(Cervinse.)

Genus Alee.

41. Aloes americanus \\ (Jardine). Moose. Tin-der'-yah, of the

Chipewyan Indians. New York to within the Arctic
Circle : abundant.

Genus Eangifer.

42. Eangifer carihou\\ (Aud. and Bach.). Strong-wood Caribou.

Prom Maine to the Youcon Eiver : abundant.

43. Fangifer groenlandicus. Barren-ground Caribou. Barren

grounds and Arctic coasts in spring, summer, and autumn ;
fringes of the woods, in A^dnter. Chipewyan name for both
species, Et-thin'.

Family Cavicornia.

Antilopinse.
Genus Aplocerus.

44. Aplocerus montanus \\ (Eichs.). Mountain Goat. Prom

Northern Cascade Mountains to the Arctic Sea : not
uncommon.

276 ORIGLNAL ARTICLES.

No. of Species.

(Ovinae.)

Grenus Ovis.

45. Ovis montana (Cuvier). From the Upper Missouri to witLin

the Arctic Circle.

(Bovinae.)

Genus Ovibos.

46. Ovibos moschatus (Blainville). Musk-Ox, Eh-gir-ray-yaz-ze

(Little Bvxffalo) of the Chipewyan Indians, barren grounds
and Arctic coast : not rare.

Grenus Bos.

47. Bos americanus (Gmelin). Bison. North to Little Buffalo

Eiver, Grreat Slave Lake.

IV. — Order Cheiroptera.

48. Vespertilio sululatus (Say). Korth to Salt Eiyer : very rare.

BIEDS.

Those marked thus * are winterers ; thus f , the eggs have been procured.

I. — Order Eaptores.

Family Falconidce.

Genus Falco.
1. Falco anatum (Bonap.). Duck Hawk. North to Slave Lake:
rare.
t2. Falco columharius\\(h\m\.). Pigeon Hawk. North to Lapierre's

House : common.
t3. Falco s^yarveriusW (Linn.). Sparrow Hawk. North to La-
pierre's House : rather rare.

Genus Astur.

4. Astur atricapillus (Bonap.). North to Fort Good Hope: rare.

Genus Archibuteo.

5. Archibuteo Sancti-Johannis (Gray). Black Hawk. North

to Salt Eiver : rare.

6. Archibuteo lagopus\\ (Gmelin). Eough-legged Hawk. North

to Lapierre's House : common.

7. Archibuteo fennigineus ? \\ (Gray). Squirrel Hawk. North to

Fort Simpson (uncertain) : rare.

Genus Buteo.
fS. Buteo Swainsonii (Bonap.) Swainson's Buzzard. North to
Slave Lake : rare.

Genua Accipiter.
t9. Accipiter fusciis\\ (Gmelin). Sharp-skinned Hawk. North to
Fort Simpson : rare.

BOSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OF THE MACKENZIE RIVER DISTRICT. 277

No. of Species.

Genus Circus.

10. Circtis hudsonicus (Lacej)). Marsli Harrier. North to Slave

Lake : rather common.

Genus Aquila.

11. Aquila canadensis\\ (Linn.). Goklen Eagle. North to Arctic

coast: rare.

Genus Haliaetus.
tl2. Haliaetus leucocephalus\\ (Linn.). Bald Eagle. North to Arctic
coast : common.

Genus Pandion.
tl3. Pandion carolinensis (Gmelin). Osprey. North to Arctic
coast : common.

Family 8trigid(S.
Genus Bubo.
*14. Buho virginianus\\ (Swain.). Horned Owl. North to Arctic
Circle and beyond.

Genus Otus.
*15. Otus Wilsonianus\\ (Lesson). Long-eared Owl. North to
Fort Simpson : rare.

Genus Br achy otus.
*16. Brachyotus Cassi7iii\\ (Brewer). Short-eared Owl. North to
Eort Simpson: common.

Genus Nyctale.
*tl7. Nyctale Bicliardsonii\\ (Bonap.). Sparrow Owl. North to
Eort Simpson : rather rare.

Genus Nyclea.
*18. Nyctea nivea (Daudin). White Owl. North to Eort Nor-
man : rare.

Genus Surnia.
*tl9. Surnia ulula\\ (Linn.). Hawk-Owl. North to Arctic coast:
common.

II. — Order Scansores.

Family Ficidce.

Genus Pieus.
*20. Ficus villosus\\ (Linn.). Hairy Woodpecker. North to Eort

Simpson : common.
*21 Ficus pubescens (Linn.). Downy Woodpecker. North to Eort

Liards : not rare.

Genus Picoides.
*22. Ficoides arcticus\\ (Swain.). Black-backed Woodpecker. North

to Simpson : rare.
*23. Ficoides hirsutus\\ (Vieillot). Banded Woodpecker. North to

Good Hope.

278 ORIGINAL AKTICLES.

No. of Species.

*24. Ficoides dorsalis \\ (Baird). Striped "Woodpecker. North to
Simpson. But one specimen of what I am disposed to
consider to be this very rare bird has been secured. It
resembles the P. hirsutus, except that the white is marked
on the back in longitudinal instead of lateral lines.

Genus Sphyi-apicus.

t25. Sphyrapicus varius\\ (Baird). Yellow-bellied Woodpecker.

North to Fort Simpson : common.

Genus Colaptes.

t26. Colaptes auratus\\ (Swain.). Golden Woodpecker. North to

Peel's Eiver : common.

Genvis Hylatomus.
27. Hylatomus pileatus (Baird?) Black "Woodcock. North to
Port Liards : rare.

III. — Ordee Inses sorbs.

Family Caprimulgidce.

Genus Chordeiles.
t28. Cliordeilespopetue\\(YieVL.). Night Hawk. North to Lapierre's
House : rather rare.

Family Alcedinidce.
Genus Ceryle.
t29. Ceryle alcyon\\ (Boie). Kingfisher. North to Peel's Eiver :
common.

Family ClopteridcB.

(Tyranninse.)

Genus Tyrannus.

30. Tyrannus caroUnensis\\ (Baird). King Bird. North to Simp-

son: rare.

Genus Sayornus.

31. Sayornus Saytis\\ (Baird). Says' Flycatcher. North to Simp-

son : rare.
132. Sayornus fuscus\\ (Baird). Pewee. North to Simpson: rare.

Genus Contopus.
33. Contopus horealis\\ (Baird). Olive-sided Flycatcher. North
to Simpson : rare.

Genus Empidonax.
t34. Emindonax pusillus\\ (Swain.) North to Fort Simpson : rare.
t35. Fmpidonax Trailii. Traill's Flycatcher. North to Fort Eesolu-

tion : rare.
t36. Fmpidonax minimus \\ (Baird). Least Flycatcher. North to

Fort Simpson : common.

ROSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OF THE MACKENZIE RIVER DISTRICT. 279

No. of Species.

Family TurdidcB.
(O seines.)
Genus Turdus.

t37. Turdus PallasiiW? (Cabanis). Hermit Thrush. North to

Simpson : identity uncertain.
t38. Turdus Swainsonii\\ (Cabanis). Olive-backed Thrush. North

to Lapierre's House : abundant.
t39. Tu7'diis AlicicB (Bain). North to Toucon Eiver ; only found

west of Eocky Mountains.
t40. Ttirdus migratorius\\ (Linn.). Robin. North to Lapierre's

House: abundant.

(Eegulinse.)
Genus Eegulus.

41. Begulus calendula (Licht.). Euby-crowned "Wren. Fort Ee-

solution : rare.

Family St/vicolidce.

(Motacillinse.)
Genus Anthus.

42. Anthus ludovicianus\\ (Licht.) Tit-Lark. North to Fort

Simpson : not common.

(Sylvicolinse.)
Genus Mniotilta.

43. Mniotilta varia ? \\ (Vieill.). Black and white Creeper. North

to Simpson : very rare.

Genus Oporornis.

44. Oporornis agilis?\\ Connecticut Warbler. Fort Simpson:

identity doubtful.

Genus Helmiutophaga.
f45. Helmintopliaga peregrina\\ (Cabanis). Tennessee "Warbler.

North to Fort Simpson.
fiG. Helmintopliaga celata (Baird). Orange - crowned AVarbler.
North to Eesolution : rare.
47. Helmintopliaga ruficapilla ("Wilson). Nashville "Warbler.
North to Eesolution ; rare.

Genus Seiurus.
f48. Seiifrus novehoracensis\\ (Gmelin). "Water Thrush. North to
Lapierre's House : common.

Genus Dendroica.

|49. Bendroica coronata \\ (Linn.). Myrtle End. North to La-
pierre's House : rare.

f.50. Dendroica striata (Forster). Black-poll "Warbler. North to
Lapierre's House : common.

280 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

No. of Species.

tSl. Dendroica aestiva\\ (Gmelin). Yellow "Warbler. North to

Lapierre's House : abundant.
t52. Dendroica maculosa\\ (Gmelin). Black and yellow "Warbler.

North to Fort Simpson : rather rare.
•f-53. Dendroica palmaruiri\\ (Grmelin). Yellow red-poll "Warbler.

North to Eesolution : rare.

Genus IVCyiodioctes.
54. Myiodioctes pusillus (AYilson). Green black-cap Fly-catcher.
North to Lapierre's House : very rare.

Genus Setophaga.
fSS. Setophaga ruticilla (Linn.). Eed-start. North to Fort Good
Hope : common.

Family Ilirundinidce.

Genus Hirundo.
56. Hirundo horreorum (Barton). Barn Swallow. North to Fort
Eesolution: rare.
t57. Hirundo lunifrons\\ (Say.). Cliff Swallow. North to Eat
Eiver: common.
58. Hirundo hicolor^^ (Vieill.) "White-bellied Swallow. North to
Good Hope : rare.

Genus Cotyle.
t59. Coiyle riparia \\ (Linn.). Bank Swallow. North to the
Arctic sea : abundant.

Family Do^nbycillidce.
Genus Ampelis.
|60. Ampelis garrulus \\ (Linn.). "Wax-wing. North to Youcon
Eiver : not rare. An egg of this bird has been obtained
on the Youcon by Mr. E. Kennicott. I have been in-
formed by Mr. J. Hope, schoolmaster of the Church Mis-
sionary Society, resident at Fort Franklin, on Great Bear
Lake, that these birds nest in numbers in that vicmity ;
but biiild so high up the trees as to render it difficult to
obtain the eggs. A specimen was shot at Fort Liards in
February, which causes me to mark the species as a winter
resident.

Family Laniidce.

Genus Collyris.

61. Collyris horealis j] (Bon.). Northern Shrike. North to Good

Hope : not rare.

62. Collyris I udovicianus ? \\ (Linn.). Logger-head Shrike. Fort

Simpson : rare ; doubtful.

(Vieroninse.)
Genus Vireo.

63. Vireo olivaceus \\ (Vieill). Eed-eyed Fly-catcher, North

to Fort Simpson : rare.

BOSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OF THE MACKENZIE RIVER DISTRICT. 281

No. of Species.
64. Vireo ffilvus\\ (Bou.). Warbling Fly-catcher. North to Fort
Simpson : rare.

Family ParidcB.

Genus Parus.
*65 Parus septentrionalis\\ (Harris). Chickadee. North to Fort

Simpson : not rare.
*QQ. Parus atricapillus\\ (Linn.). Black-cap^ Tit, North to Fort

Simpson: rare.
*67. Parus hudsonicus \\ (Forster). Hudson's Bay Tit. North to

Fort Simpson : not rare.

Family Fringillidce.

(Coccothraustinse.)

Genus Pinicola.
*68. Pinicola canadensis \\ (Brisson). Pine Grosbeak. North to
Fort Good Hope : not rare.

Genus Curvirostra.
*69. Curvirostra leucoptera \\ (Gmelin). North to Fort Good
Hope.

Genus Aegiothus.
*f70. Aegiothus linaria\\ (Linn.). Lesser Eed-poll. North to Fort

Good Hope : abundant.
*f71. Aegiothus canescens\\ (Gould). Mealy Eed-poll. North to
Lapierre's: common.

Genus Plectrophanes.

(Plectrophanes.)

72. Plectrophanes nivalis \\ (Meyer) . Snow Bunting. North to

Good Hope : abimdant.

(Ceutrophanes.)

73. Plectroijlianes lapponicus\\ (Selby). Long-spur. North to

Fort Simpson.

74. Plectrophanes pictusW (Swain.). Painted Bunting. North to

Fort Simpson.

(SpizelHnae.)

Genus Passerculus.
f75. Passerculus savanna \\ (Bon.). Swamp Sparrow. North to
Fort Simpson : abundant around Slave Lake.

76. Passerculus sandwichensis\\ (Baird). North to Fort Simpson

rare.

77. Passerculus antMnus ? (Baird). Great Bear Lake: uncertain.

Genus Zonotrichia.
t78. Zonotrichia leucojjhf'gs (Forster). North to Eesolution: rare.
179. Zonotrichia Gambelii\\ (Nuttal). North to Lapierre's House :
abundant.

2S2 OEIGiyAL AETICLES.

No. of Species.

f80. ZonofricTiia ambicoUis\\ (G-meliii). Xorth to Fort Simpson:
ratlier rare.

Genus Junco.
81. Junco oregoneus\\ (Towns.). Oregon Snow Bird. Xorth to
Fort Simpson : rare.
|S2. Junco hi/emaUs\ (Sclater). Snow-bird. Xorth to Good Hope.

Genus Spizella.

tS3. Spizella monticola\\ (Baird). Tree Sparrow. Xorth to La-

pierre's House : abundant.
fS4. Spizella sociaIis\\ (a) (Wilson.) Social Sparrow. Korth to

Fort Simpson : abundant.
•fSo. Spizella socialis\\ (5) (Wilson). Striped-crown variety. Xorth

to Fort Simpson : common.
f86. Spizella pallida (BonaT^.). Xorth to Fort Eesolution : rare.

Genus Melospiza.
fS". Melospiza Lincolnii] (Baird). Lincoln's Finch. N'orth to
Fort Simpson : not rare.
88. Melospiza palustris (Baird). Swamp Finch. Xortb to Fort
Eesolution: rare.

(PassereUinse.)

Genus PassereUa.

■j"89. PassereUa iliaca\\ (Swain.). Fox Sparrow. XortK to Lapierre's
House : common.

Family Icteridce.

Genus Melotkrus.

90. Melothrus pecoris\\ (Swain.). Cow-bird. Xortli to Fort
Simpson : very rare.

Genus Asrelaius.
fOl. Afjelaius phceniceus\\ (VieiU) Swamp Blackbird. jS^orth to
Fort Xorman.

92. Agelaius gulernator\\ (Bon.). Eed-shouldered Blackbird.

Xortb to Fort Simpson : common.

93. Agelaius tricolor\\ (Xutt). Bed and wbite-sbouldered Black-

bird. Xorth to Fort Simpson : rare.

Gentis Xantbocepbalus.

94. Xantlioceplialus icferocephalus (Baird). Tellow-beaded Black-

bird. Though no specimen of this bird has been procured
I observed it once at Fort Simpson.

(Icterinse.)

Genus Scolecophagus.

95. ScolecopJiagus feri'ugineus\\ (Swain). Eusty Blackbird. Xorth

to Good Hope : common.

EOSS Oy MAMilAXS, ETC. OF THE MACKE>'ZIE EITEB DISTBICT. 283

No. of Species.

96. ScoJecopTiaqiis cyanocephalus\\ (Cab.). Brewer's Blackbird

Xortb to Fort Simpson : not rare.

(Quiscalinae.)

Grenus Quiscalus.

97. Quiscalus versicolor\\ (Yieill). Crow Blackbird. Xorth to

Fort Simpson : rare.

(^Family Corvidce.)

Grenus Comis.
*98. Corvus earntrorus\\ (Bartram). Eaven. North to Arctic
coast : abundant.
99. Corvus americanus (Aud.). Common Crow, to 61° north lati^
tude : abundant.

(Grarrulinee.)

Grenus Pica.
*100. Pica hudsonica (Bon.). Magpie. On west of the mountaiDsi
north to Lewis and Pelly Eivers.

Genus Perisoreus,
*101. Perisoreus canadensis\\ (Bon.). Canada Jay. Xorth to La-
pierre's House : abundant.

IT. — Oedeb Easobes.

(Columbae.)
Family Columhidae.

(Columbinae.)

Grenus Ectopistes.
102. Fctopistes migratoria\\ (Swain). "Wdd Pigeon. Xorth to
Fort Norman : not common,

(GaUinae.)

Family Tetraonidae.

Genus Tetrao.
*103. Tetrao Eichardsonii (Doug.). Black Partridge. North to

Fort Halkett : only in the movmtains.
*tlOl!. Tetrao canadensis\\ (Linn.). Spruce Partridge. North to

the Arctic coa^t : abundant.

Genus Pedicecetes.
*tl05. Pedicecetes pliasianeJlus (Baird). Sharp-tailed Grouse.
North to Fort Good Hope.

Genus Bonasa.
*ti08. Bonasa umhellus\\ (a) (Steph.). Euffled Grouse. North to

Fort Simpson : common.
*tl06. Bonasa u?nbellus\\ (6) (Baird). Yar. TJmbeUoides. Grev
Mountain Grouse. North to Lapierre's House : common,
N. H. R.— 1862. X

284 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

No. of Species.

Genus Lagopus.
*107. Lagopus alhis\\ (And.). White Ptarmigan. North to Arctic

coast : common.
*108. Lagopus rupestris (Leach). Ptarmigan. North to Arctic

coast : rather rare.
*109. Lagopus leucii/rus\\ (Swain). White-tailed Ptarmigan. North

to Lapierre's House in the mountains.

V. — Order Grallatores.

(Herodiones.)

Fa7nily Oruidae.

Grenus Grrus.
110. Orus americanus\\ (Ord). White Crane. North to Eort
Simpson: rare,
fill. Grus canade7tsiis\\ (Temm.). Brown Crane. North to Arctic
coast : common.

112. Grus fraterculus (Cassia). North to Toucon Eiver: only

west of Eocky Mountains.

Grenus Botaurua.

113. JSofaurus lentiginosus (Steph.). Bittern. North to Arctic

coast : rare northward.

(Grallae.)
Family CliaradriidcB.

Genus Charadrius.

114. Charadrius virginiciis\\ (Borck.). Golden Plover. North to

Arctic Coast : abundant.

Genus ^Egialitis.

115. jFgialitis semipalmatiis\\ (Cab.). Semipalmated Plover. North

to Port Simpson : common.

Genus Squaterola.

116. Squaterola helvetica (Cuv.). Black-bellied Plover. North to

Port Simpson : rare.

Family ScematopodidcB.
Genus Strepsilas.

117. Strepsilas intcf'pres (Illig.). Turnstone. North to Big Island :

rare.

Family FecurvirostridcB.

Genus Eecurvirostra.

118. Becurvirostra americana (Gmelin). American Avoset.

North to Port Eae : rare.

Family Phalaropodidce.

Genus Phalaropus.

tll9. Phalaropus h yperhoreiis (Temm.). North to Port Eae : rare.

OSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OF THE MACKENZIE RIYER DISTRICT. 285

No. of Species.

Family ScolopacidcB.
Genus Gallinago.
120 Gallinago Wilsonii \\ (Bou.). Euglisli Snipe. North to Fort
Simpson: rare.

Genus Macrorliamphus.
tl21. MacTorliamplms griseus^ (Leacli), Ked-breasted Suipe. North
to Fort Norman : rare.

122. Macrorhamplius scolopaceus\\ (Laur.). North to Lapierre's

House: rare.

Genus Tringa.

123. Tringa maeulata\\ (Vieill). Ja<ik Snipe. Nofth to Fort

Simpson: common.

124. Tringa Wilsonii \\ (Nutt.). Least Sandpiper. Fort Simpson:

rather rare.
tl25. Tringa Buonapartii\\ (Sch.). North to Fort Simpson : rare.

Genus Calidris.

126. Calidris arenaria (Blig.). Sanderling. North to Big Island :

rare.

Gemis Ereunetes.

127. Ereunetes petrijicatus || (lUig.). Semipahnated Sandpiper.

Fort Simpson: rare.

Genus Micropalama.
tl28. Micropalama 1iimantopivs\\ (Baird). North to Fort Simpson t
very rare.

(Totaninae.)
Genus Gambetta.
129. Gamletta melanoleuca \\ (Bon.). Tell-Tale. North to Fort
Simpson : rare.
flSO. Gamhetta flavipes \\ (Bon.). Yellow Legs. North to
Lapierre's House : very abundant.

Genus Ehyacophilus.
131. Wiyacophilus solitarius\\ (Bon.). Solitary Sandpiper. North
to Fort Simpson : common. It is rather a misnomer to
call this bird solitary, as I have generally observed them in
large flocks.

Genus Tringoides.

tl32. Tringoides inacularius\\ (Gray). Spotted Sandpiper. North
to Fort Simpson : abundant. I have never observed this
species to keej? in flocks.

Genus Tryngites.

133. Tryngites rnfescens || (Cab.). BufT-breasted Sandpiper.

North to Fort Simpson : rare.

Genus Limosa.

134. T.imosaliiidsonica i^^WiW?). North to Big Island : rare.

X 2

286

OBiaiNAL ARTICLES.

No. of Species.

Genus Niinieniiis.

135. Numenius lorealis (Lath.) Eskimo Curlew. North to Eort

Good Hope : rare.

Family Rallidce.

(Ealliuse.)
Genus Porzana.

136. Porzana carolincB (Vieill). Common Eail. North to Big-

Island: rare.

Genus rulica.

137. Fulica ainericana\\ (Gmelin). Coot. North to Fort Simpson :

rather rare.

VI. — Order Natatoees.

(Anseres.)

Family Anatidae.

(Cygninae.)

Genus Cygnus,

(Olor.)

138. Cygnus americanus\\ (Sharj).). American Swan. North to

Arctic coast : not common.
tl39. Cygnus buceinator\\ (Richd.). Trumpeter Swan. North to
Arctic coast : common.

(Anserinse.)
Geniis Anser.
(Chen.)
1^0. Anser hyperboreus\\ (Pallas). Snow Goose. North to Arctic
coast : abundant.

141. Anser albatus (Cass.). North to Fort Eesolution. Although

no specimen of this Goose is among our collection I am
certain that I have shot it on Slave Lake.

142. Anser Fossil (Baird). Eoss's Wavey. North to Fort Eeso-

lution. There can be little doubt of the existence of these
three species of Snow Geese (exclusive of the Blue Wavey
of Hudson's Bay), as the Slave Lake Indians have a dif-
ferent name for each kind. The first which arrives is the
middle-sized species which I believe to be the A. albafus ;
next comes the smallest sort, the A. Fossii ; and lastly, the
A. hyperboreus, which arrives Avhen the trees are in leaf,
and is called the Yellow Wavey by the Indians.

(Anser.)
143 Anser Gambelii\\ (Hart.). White-fronted Goose. North to
Arctic coast : common.

Genus Bernicla.
tl44. Bernicla canadensis \\ (Boie). Canada Goose. North to
Arctic coast : common.

ROSS ON MA.MMALS, ETC. OP THE MACKENZIE EIVEE DISTEICT. 287

No. of Species.

fl4<5. Beniicla I£utchinsii\\ (Bon.). Hutchin's Goose. North to
Arctic coast : common.

146. Bernicla Barnstenii?\\ (Ross). This bird was shot at Fort

Simpson. It is of very large size, with the breast of a
bright fawn colour. The delta of feathers running up into
the lower mandible is white, instead of black, as in
B. Canadensis. The tail is of 16 feathers. The Indians
consider it a species distinct from the Canada Groose. It
seldom flies in parties of more than five or six. I cannot,
however, positively state it to be a new species until the
Berniclce of North America are properly worked up, as
they are in rather a hazy condition at present.

147. Bernicla hrenta (Steph.). Brant. North to Toucon River.

From information. This may probably be the B. nigricans
(Cassin), as the Youcon has, in all likeliliood, a Pacific
Fauna.

(Anatinae.)

Grenus Anas.
tl48. Anas loschas \\ (Linn.). MaUard. North to Arctic coast :
abundant.

Genus Dafila.
tl49. Dafila acuta j| (Jenyns.). Pin-tail. North to Lapierre's
House : common.

Genus Nettion.
flSO. Nettion carolinensis \\ (Baird). Green- winged Teal. North
to Peel's Eiver : abundant.

Genus Querquerdula.
tl51. Querquerdula Biscors (Step.). Blue-winged Teal. North to
Fort Resolution : rare.

Genus Spatula.
tl52. 8patula chjpeata || (Boie). Shoveller. North to Good Hope :
- not common.

Genus Mareca.
1153. Mareca americana \\ (Step.). American Widgeon. North to
Peel's River : common.

(Fuligulinae.)
Genus Fulix.
154. Fulix marila (Baird). Big Black-head. North to Fort Reso-
lution : rather rare.
tl55. Fulix affinis \\ (Baird). Little Black-head. North to Peel's
River : abundant.
156. Fulix collaris \\ (Baird). Ring-necked Duck. North to Fort
Simpson: rare.

Genus Aythya.
tl57. Aythya vallisneria (Bon.). Canvass Back. North to Slave
Lake : common.

288 ORIGINAL AKTICLE8.

No. of Species.

Genus Bucephala.
tl58. Bucephala alheola \\ (Baird). Spirit Duck. North to Arctic

coast : abuudaut.
tl59. Bucephala americanaW (Baird). Groldeu Eye. North to Arctic
coast : not rar,e.

Genus Histrionicus.
IQO. Histrionicus torquatus\\ {Qon.). Harlequin Duck. North to
Arctic coast : rare.

Genus Harelda.
161. Harelda glacialis\\ (Leach). South Southerly. North to
Arctic coast : abundant.

Genus Malauetta.
tl62. Malanetta velvetina (Baird). Velvet Duck. North to Arctic
coast : not rare.

Genus Pelionetta.

163. Pelionetta perspicillata \\ (Kaup.). Surf Duck. North to

Peel's Eiver : abundant.

Genus Somateria.

164. Somateria V. nigra (Gray). Slave Lake Eider. A male

specimen of this very rare bird was shot by me at Fort
Eesolution, in 1858 ; and a female was obtained by Mr.
Alex. McKenzie, in 1861, at the same place. It is exceed-
ingly rare, having never been seen elsewhere in the district.

(Erismaturina?.)
Genus Erismatura.

165. Erismatura ruhida (Bon.). Kuddy Duck. North to Slave

Lake : rare.

Merging.
Genus Mergus.

166. Mergus serrator \\ (Linn.). Ked-breasted Merganser. North

Peefs Eiver: common.

Genus Lophdytes.

167. Lophodi/fes cucullatus (llich). Hooded Merganser. North to

Slave Lake : rare.

(Givia?.)
Family Phalacrocoracidce.

Genus Graculus.

168. Graculus dilophus (Gray). Double - crested Cormorant.

Slave Lake : rare.

Famihf Pelecanidee.
(Crytopelicanus.)
Geiuis Pelecanus.
169« Pelecanus er}/throrhynchus (Gmelin). American Pelican.
North to Big Island : conunon.

EOSS ON MAMMALS, ETC. OP THE MACKENZIE ElVEB DISTRICT. 289

No. of Species.

Family Laridce.

(Lestridinse.)

Genus Stercorarius.

170. Stercorarius pomarinus (Temm.). Pomarine Skua. Slave

Lake : very rare.

171. Stercorarius parasiticus \\ (Temm.). Arctic Skua. North to

Fort Simpson : rare.
tl72. Stercorarius parasiticus, var. Eichardsonii. Slave Lake : rare.

173. Stercorarius catarraches (Temm.). North of Slave Lake: very

rare.

174. Stercorarius Gepphus \\ (Bru.). Buffon's Skua. North to

Lapierre's House : rare.

(Laridae.)
Genus Larus.
"I'175. Larus glaucescens\\ (Light.). Glaucus-winged Gull. Slave

Lake : abundant.
1 176. Larus argentatus \\ (Brii). Herring Gull. North to Arctic

coast: abundant.
tl77. Larus californicus (Lawr.). California Gull. Slave Lake :
abundant.

Genus Chroicocephalus.

178. Chroicocephalus Philadelphia (Laur.). North to Fort Simpson :

not rare.

Genus Hissa.

179. Missa septentrionalis \\ (Laur.). Slave Lake : very common.

(Sterninse.)
Genus Sterna.
flSO. (S'^ernffl caspj'a (Pallas). Caspian Tern. Slave Lake : rare.
fl81. Sterna Wilsonii \\ (Bon). Wilson's Tern. Slave and Bear

Lakes : very rare.
fl82. Sterna macroura\\ (Naum). Arctic Tern. Bear Lake:
abundant.

Genus Hydrochelidon.

183. Sydrochelidon plumbea (Wilson). Short-tailed Tern. Slave

Lake : rare. Numerovis other species of the sub-family
Lariaae doubtless exist in this district ; and will appear by
degrees as the collections increase.

Family Colymhidce.

(Colymbinse.)
Genus Colpnbus.

184. Colymlus torquatus || (Brii). Loon. North to Arctic coast :

abimdant.

185. Colymbus Adamsi.\\ North to Great Slave Lake : abundant.
|186. Coly mbus arcticus \\ (Linn.), var. Pacificus. To Arctic coast:

rather rare.

290 OEIGINAL ABTICLES.

No. of Species.
187. Colynibus septentrio7ialis* (Jjmi\.). Eed-throated Diver. To
Arctic coast : abundant.

(Podicipinge.)

Genus Podiceps.

•j"188. Podiceps Griseigna \\ (Gray). Eed-necked Grebe. North to

Pern's Eirer : common.
fl89. Podiceps cornutus\\ (Latliam). Horned Grebe. North to
Lapierre's House : common.
190. Podiceps amitus (Latham). Eared Grebe. Slave Lake : rare.

Genus Podilymbus.
fl91. Podilymhics podiceps (IjRur.). Slave Lake : not common.

Additio?ial.

192. JVumenius hudsonicus (Latham), Hudsonian Curlew. Slave
Lake : rare.

II shows specimens were obtained at Fort Simpson.

Remarks.

The Northern range of the birds means the Northernmost Post at
■which a specimen has been obtained. I have on hand about 300
specimens yet unexamined, among which a few additional species will
doubtless be found.

The following other collections have also been made : —

Fish— At Eesolution, Big Island, Simpson, Bear Lake, and Liards.

Insects — At Eesolution, Simpson, Youcon, Peel's Eiver, and
Good Hope.

Geological Fossils, ^e. — On Clear Water, Elk, McKenzie,
Anderson, and Eat Eivers.

Ethnological — In the District generally.

Meteorological Observations made, and register kept, atPorts Simp-
son, Youcon, Anderson, Eae, Norman, Good Hope, and Bear Lake.

XXVIII. — Note ok the Distobtions which present themselves
IN the Ckania op the Ancient Biutons. By Joseph Barnard
Davis, M.E.C.S. Engl. F.S.A. &c.

During the lengthened and minute investigation of ancient British
skulls, to which I have been impelled by the preparation of the
" Crania Britannica," I have been frequently struck with a peculiar
flatness n\ the occipital region prevailing among them. It often
extends over a good part of the parietals, about the posterior portion
0\ the sagittal suture, and over the upper part of the occipital bone.

DAVIS ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 291

Hence I have denominated it parieto-occipital flatness. The most
peculiar and characteristic, normal form of these crania, which is very-
general, exhibits a shortness of the whole calvarium. Tliis form must
not be considered universal, yet it has prevailed among tribes far
apart, if not deserving to be looked upon as difiei'ent races. Such
natural shortness has been found to be so common as in a material
degree to mask the parieto-occipital flatness, to which allusion is
now made. Another complication was early perceived in the occur-
rence of posthumous distortion, to which the skulls of the ancient
Britons, like those of other people, are liable. The crania of those
who were buried under tumuli have become singularly deformed by
the pressure of the superincumbent earth, acting constantly upon a
moist and slightly plastic body like the spheroidal skull. Others,
whose remains were tnclosed in cists, kistvaens, and cromlechs, were
mostly defended from the mechanical influences which produced
posthumous deformation. Still the effects of this kind of compres-
sion are often evident in the occipital region. Hence they serve to
interfere with our aj)j)reciation of that deformity which manifests
itself in the parieto-occipital flatness. It was only after witnessing
many examples in which both kinds of distortion were present, and
observing that they were not coincident, but quite independent of
each other, that their real distinctness became fully ajjparent. In
some ancient British crania of young subjects, preserved in the
Bateman Museum, the original parieto-occipital flatness is observed,
and at the same time another distinct and non-coincident flattening,
generally on one side of the occipital region, which is clearly post-
humous. To this subject I have directed attention in the Descrip-
tion of the Newbigging SkuU in the " Crania Britannica," plate 21,
p. (4) ; and more at length in the Description of the Green Lowe
Skull, plate 41, p. (2). In the examples enumerated in these places
both the two kinds of deformation manifest themselves, and, since
they do not correspond, it is obvious that they have no relation to
each other — one has been produced before and independently of the
other.

It has long appeared to me most probable that the parieto-occipital
flatness now under consideration was produced by some artificial
process. In the Description of the undeformed British Skull from
Caedegai Barrow in Denbighshire, " Crania Britannica," plate 23, p. 3,
I distinctly attributed it to art at an early period of life. Still, tlie
subject being curious, it may be deserving of some further atten-
tion and additional evidence, by which it will be satisfactorily proved
that the ancient Britons observed certain practices which resulted
in deformation of the skull. Further investigation has shown that
neither these practices nor their results were confined to the .ancient
Britons alone, but have equally prevailed among the ancient Cale-
donians and Hibernians and the ancient Gauls.

I wiU, in a few words, describe the appearance of this peculiar
parieto-occipital flatness. It varies in extent in the different crania

292 OBIGIKAL AETICLE3.

iu which it is seen ; it also varies somewhat in its position, so as to
present much diversity in the angle which its plane forms with that
of the vertical line of the cranium ; but it is always situated about
the point of junction of the sagittal and lambdoidal sutures. This
particular spot is commonly the centre of the flatness, which extends
upwards upon the parietals and do^vTiwards on the occipital, in dif-
ferent degrees in difterent examples. The flatness itself is seldom
perfect, for the progressive growth of the head, after the flattening
influence has ceased to operate iu infancy, has almost always occa-
sioned some rounding of the surface, so as to give it a slight con-
vexity. Nevertheless, the parieto-occipital flatness is very mai'ked,
and gives the idea of its having been produced by impression upon a
plane. It is by no means always quite symmetrical, but, on the
contrary, it is very often more apparent and aKtensive on one side
than the other, as if the head had not rested ujjon the plane exactly
at right angles to its long axis. It occiu'S in the skulls of females
as well as of males, and is thus shown not to be any mark of distinc-
tion, such as the distorting processes to which the head was sub-
jected iu infancy among the Scythian tribes described by Hippocra-
tes, among the ancient Aymaras, among the Chenooks and other
races of North and South America. With these people there was a
notion of nohility attached to the deformed head, which was wholly
unapproachable by the inferior orders, such as slaves and women.
In many cases, the diameter of the area of the flatness is fully four
inches in every direction. It is impossible to estimate the compara-
tive prevalence of this flatness with accuracy. In the plates of the
" Crania Britaunica," it is plainly perceptible in the skull from
G-reen Grate Hill Barrow, PI. 4 ; that from End Lowe, PI. 13 ; that
from Codford Barrow, PI. 14. (Pig. 1.) where it is especially
apparent ; that from the Juniper Green Cist, PL 15 ; that from the
Lesmurdie Cist, PI. 16 ; that from the Newbigging Cist in the
Orkneys, PI. 21 ; that from the Kinaldie Cist, PL 25 ; that from the
Wetton Hill Barrow, PL 34 ; that from Green Lowe, PL 41 ;
and that from Ballard Down Barrow, PL 45. Thus we have
reason to presume that it was a very general peculiarity of the
aboriginal inhabitants of Britain and its islets. Parieto-occipital
flatness is obviously present in two ancient Orcadian crania, derived
from Cists in the Island of Pomona, in my collection. A skull
disinterred from a Kistvaen in the Phoenix Park, Dublin, to be
figured in the " Crania Britaunica," proves that it prevailed among
the ancient Hibernians. This is most likely that of a young man
of about 30. The flatness extends over a little more of the sagittal
region of the parietals than over the occipital. It is asymmetrical,
the depression being greater on the right than the left side, which
causes a slight projection on this side, near the middle of the parietal.
It is above three inches in length, but not quite so broad, and its centre
is just above the juncture of the sagittal and lambdoidal sutures.
In this case, the deformed surface is perfectly flat. We have

DATIS 0:S THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 293

equally satisfactory proofs that this occipital flatness was a charac-
teristic of the skulls of ancient Gauls. It exists in many contained
in the Gralerie Authropologique, at the Jardin des Plantes, and is
quite obvious in some of those derived from the excavation of the
dolmen at Meudon, near Paris. A cast of one of these crania in
my possession, is perhaps the most marked example of parieto-
occijiital flatness I have seen, and at the same time it indicates most
convincingly the artificial nature of the distortion. (Fig. 2.) This
also is the skull of a man, and is remarkably short. The flattened
sui'face is nearly four inches in diameter in each direction, and rises
up from just above the tuberosity of the occiput almost perpendicu-
larly. At the junction of the sagittal with the lambdoidal suture
there is a slight depression. The flattening is not quite symmetrical,
but rather greater on the right side. In this example the plane of
the flatness is, as nearly as possible, parallel to that of the vertical
line of the calvarium, or the line drawn through the centre of the
ear and the point of juncture of the coronal sutiu-e with the
sagittal.* I have observed this peculiar flatness in many skulls of
very young subjects, an evidence that it is produced at an early
period of life.f

In turning to the cause of so general a deviation of form, it
becomes at once evident that it must have arisen from the operation
of influences which were all but universal. They must have been
set in action at the earliest period of infantile life, and upon both
sexes ; yet there is no evidence that they were used with any
express design for the production of this deformation. They clearly
resolve themselves into the particular mode of niu-sing infants
employed by the women of the ancient Britons, Caledonians, Hiber-

* It ought not to be omitted to be mentioned here, that the latg learned and
excellent Swedish craniologist, Professor A. A. Retzius, designated this and the
other brachycephahc skulls derived from the Meudon dolmen, " Basque." Arndt,
Bask, Rudolf Keyser, Nilsson. and others had argued in an erudite manner, that
all Western Europe in the oldest period was inhabited by a so-called Turanian
race, who had brachycepluxlic skulls, of which the Finns and the Basques are the
only representatives. On the discovery of many crania of this form among the
osseous relics of the dolmen, at Meudon, the ardent Retzius regarded this, which
is a mere hypothesis, to be fully proved, and he subsequently treated it as an estab-
lished fact, and boldly asserted that these were the skulls of Basques, i. e. of the
primeval race now supposed to be represented by the Basques. See his " Blick pa
Ethnologiens niirvarande Standpunkt," 1857, p. 8. Wc may respect the iervid
affirmation of so amiable a man, but are not able to allow that these crania are
anything more than those of ancient Gauls, of the tribe of the Parish. Such
conclusion is not favourable to this large hypothesis, but it is believed to be iu con-
formity with the facts and sober philosophy.

■f It should likcAvise be particularly noticed that the parieto-occipital flatness is
seen to occm- in crania from Cists, where they were defended from superincumbent
pressure, as well as in those from Barrows. This is a convincing evidence that it is a
deformation of a totally different kind from posthumous distortion, which owes its ori-
gin to compression after burial. See Cran. Brit. p. 37. Atheniemn, Aug. 6, 1859.

294 OEIGTNAL ARTICLES.

nians and Gauls. And, if any further proof were required that such
nursing did produce this flatness, it is afforded by an examination of
the skulls of those tribes of North American Indians, who adopt
cradle-boards for their infants. In the calvarium of a Lenni-Lenape
from an old grave on the Delaware, which is in my collection,
exactly the same parieto-occipital flatness is seen, occupying the spot
already pointed out. (Fig. 3.) Like European examples, this cranium is
asymmetrical, being more depressed on the right than the left side, as
is generally, perhaps universally, the case ; which has arisen from the
child having been laid with an inclination to the right, or, more
likely, having had by nature greater power in the organs of the
right half of the body.*

It seems most probable that the board upon which the women of
the so-called "Celtic" tribes placed their new-born infants to be
nursed, was not a mere piece of flat board, like that in use by some
of the North American Indian tribes. More likely it had a sort of
inclined or sloping shelf, or pillow, at its upper part, against which
the child's head rested. Some contrivance of this kind is introduced
into the cradles of the Flathead-Tribes, on the Columbia Eiver, as is
seen in the figure given in Morton's " Crania Americana," p. 204,
although, in this case, it is not placed in a sloping position. Tlie
different angle at which this inclined shelf for the head was intro-
duced, accounts for the diversities in the direction of the parieto-
occipital flatness, as seen in different skulls. Probably with a
supply of the soft flocculent sphagmim, the child woidd be secured
by straps, and retained in a pretty comfortable position, during the
period of suclding, which lasts a long time among all primitive
people. And, with a cradle so contrived, the mother would not be
confined, Kke a modern mother, to one spot or apartment in the
neighbourhood of her child, which is, in one sense, much of a fixture,
but able to take her nursling about with her in all her laborious
journeys and occupations, either when attending upon her husband,
or engaged in her own family duties.

These cradle-boards among the ancient Britons would be made of
thin and light wood, probably willow. Hence, if they were occa-
sionally interred with the mother or child in the barrow, which is
likely, " there is no reason to expect that any fragments of them
would still remain in a recognizable form ; but, now that this
particular mode of nursing upon a cradle-board is made known,
some traces of its presence may yet be detected.

• Among the South American tribes the same custom has prevailed. In two
prepared lieads of Quichuas, or Chinch as, (men) kindly presented to me by the
learned Professor J. Y. Simpson of Edinburgh, from the Chincha Islands, off the
coast of Peru, the parieto-occipital flatness is strongly manifested in the same spot,
and the same plane as in the Lenni-Lenape. It is deeply impressed, extensive, and
has l)ccn produced withfjut counter-pressure on the frontal bone, therefore, no
doubt, by the cradle-board.

DAVIS ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 295

There has been a good deal of diversity in the effects of this com-
pression against the cradle-board, in different instances. A diversity
in great measure to be attributed to the varying obliquity of the
sheS' for the pillow, already alluded to, and also to the degree of
compression. In the case of the Codford skull, " Crania Britan-
nica," (Plate 14, or Pig. 1 here) and in the cast of the Meudon
skull (Fig. 2), a greater share of the parietal bones has been flat-
tened. And the deformation has proceeded to such an extent as to
render these examples almost parallel to some of those of America.
In the "Crania Americana," Plates 8 and 9, are two ancient Peru-
vian calvaria, from the Temple of the Sun, in which the occipital
region has been rendered almost perpendicular from this compres-
sion. And in the famous mound calvarium from the ancient Mound
in the Scioto Valley, (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
Vol. i. ; Squier and Davis's Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi
Valley, p. 288, PL XL VII.) the same result is presented. In some
cases the flattening was carried to still more exaggerated lengths.
Some instances in my collection are very extreme, as that of au
ancient Pakomame from Gruatemala, No. 378 ; that of an ancient
MuizcA, from Facatativo, in the plain of Bogata, No. 30G ; and
that of an ancient Peruvian, No. 918. But it is probable that in
these tribes a counter-pressure was exercised upon the frontal bone.
This was not the practice among the ancient Britons.

The parieto-occipital flatness in ancient British skulls is mostly
very moderate in extent, and shows itself as an oblique plane, about
the position in which the posterior fontanel was situated. Dr. L. A.
Gosse, in his " Essai sur les Deformations artificielles du Crane,"
has illustrated at some length the exaggerated form of compression
of the occiput, under the title of " Tete deprimee par derriere," but
has not paid much attention to the slighter flatness now described.
Yet lie has this incidental remark : — " Passant dans I'ancien con-
" tinent, ne tardons-nous pas a reconnaitre que ce berceau plat et
'' solide y a produit des effets analogues. Les anciens habitants de
" la Scandinavie et de la Caledonie devaient s'en servir, si Ton en
" juge par la forme de leurs cranes." p. 74.

Notwithstanding this parieto-occipital flatness of ancient British
skulls, and others of so-called Celtic races, which is the result of the
intervention of art, although without distinct design, and which may
now be considex'ed to have been demonstrated, one usual normal
form of these crania is brachycephalic, and that decidedly so. To
this form I have applied the epithet typical. And it is too obvious
to need remark, that the mode of nursing would heighten this
brachycephalism. That the impression of the occipital region did
so heighten it is indisputable ; but, that it had the slightest influence
in producing it, is quite contrary to the laws of physiology, and I
believe wholly untenable.

Postscript. — Although not immediately connected with the sub-

296 ORIGINAL ARTICLES,

ject of this Note, yet closely allied to it, is a very curious distorted
skull of an Anglo-Saxon woman, derived from the cemetery at Harn-
ham, near Salisbury. It has been carefully and correctly figured in
the " Crania Britannica," p. 40. However improbable in the pre-
sent state of our knowledge it has seemed, I have always felt myself
obliged to regard this as an example of artificial deformation, and
have referred to the distorted skull of an ancient Peruvian woman
(" Crania Americana," plate 3) as closely resembling it in form.
The latter presents the peculiar ridges which indicate the position of
the compressing bandages in Peruvian skulls. These are also jire-
sent, although slight, in the Hai^nham specimen. It is, perhaps, in
some measure to be attributed to the gi^eat improbability of the
Saxon tribes having employed artificial means to distort the cranium,
that we owe another attempt at explanation. In his recent valuable
work, "Zur Morphologic der Eassenschadel," Professor J. C. Gr.
Lucae, of Frankfort, has the following passage : — " Der in der ersten
" Decade der Crania Britannica, Chap. iv. pag. 40, abgebildete vers-
" chobene Schadel eines Weibes, der nach Angabe der Autoren durch
" Kunst entstanden sein soil, verdankt sicher seine Bildung den vor-
" handenen Synostosen. Nach der Abbildung ist hier gleichfalls der
" grosse Keilbeinflugel mit dem Scheitelbein verwachsen. Da aber
"hier auch zugleich der Keilbeinfliigel mit dem untere Theil des
*' Stirnbeines verwachsen ist, so ist hier nicht allein ein Sattel, son-
*' dern auch das gauze Stirnbein flach gestellt," S. 53. Although
distortion by synostosis is an ingenious conjecture, and quite con-
sistent with the rationale of deformation in other crania depicted by
Dr. Lucae, to which he refers, it is singidarly at variance both with
the figure of the Harnliam specimen, and with the skull itself. In
the woodcut, the spheno-parietal, the spheno-frontal, and the spheno-
temporal sutures, so far from being the subjects of synostosis, are
distinctly and accurately represented on the left side as quite open.
There is even a slight gap in the position of the second, occasioned
by the breaking off of a portion of the frontal. And, in the skull
itself, these sutures, both on the right and left sides of the head, are
seen to be patent and entire without any obliteration. That synos-
tosis could have given rise to the deformation, as the distinguished
Professor of Anatomy at Franldbrt presumes, is wholly inadmissible.
The skull of a man of about 40 years of age, a Merovingian Frank,
from the cemetery at Envermen, near Dieppe, in the Department of
Seinc-Inferieure, in my collection. No. 209, presents, although in a
lesser degree, the same kind of deformation, and that with all the
sutures of the alisphenoid open, therefore, without synostosis. The
hint thrown out in the description of this Harnham specimen, that
further research may probably reveal much more extensive distortion
among ancient European tribes, seems to be rather confirmed than
otherwise.

DAVIS ON THE CPANIA OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS.

297

Fig. 1.

Fig, 2.

Fig. 3.

EXPLANATION OF TILE FIGUEES.

Fig. 1. Profile of skull of an ancient Briton, from a barrow at Codfordj Wilts
(region of the Belgce).

The parieto-occiiDital flatness is nearly equal to that of Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Profile of skull of an ancient Gaul, from the dolmen discovered at Meu-
don, Seine et Oise (Region of the PaiHsii), July 1845.

The parieto-occipital flatness is very extensive, and its plane is as nearly as pos-
sible parallel to that of the vertical line.

Fig. 3. Profile of imperfect calvarium of a Lenni-Lenape, from a grave found,
in 1861, at Delawai-e Gap, Pennsylvania.

The parieto-occipital flatness presents itself at a very different angle from that of
Pigs. 1 and 2, stUl one that is common among ancient British skulls.

The figures are all quarter size.

298 OKIGHKAL AETICLES.

XXIX. — The Structuee of the Stem in Dicotyledons; being
References to the Literature of the Subject. By Pro-
fessor Oliver, E.L.S.

It is my aim in the present communication to embrace references,
under the heads of the respective Natural Orders, to all the recent
literature which I have been able to find, referring to the internal
structure of the axis of woody Dicotyledons in respect of the arrange-
ment of the tissues and microscopic character of the cells and vessels.
Upon the subject of the anatomy of the axis — which has not
been greatly pursued by English botanists, — we have very numerous
observations on record, but these want extending and correlating
before any satisfactory generalisations can be based upon them, and
the fii'st steps of progress appear to be supplied by the collecting of
these scattered data.

These references are mostly very brief and without much abstract
or comment, unless my o^vn or other observations have suggested
any. "When the figures of wood-structure in the elementary works
which I have seen aj)peared to be worthy of mention I have given a
reference to them. The plates of Grew,* Maljjighi,! Leeuwenhoek, J
Hill,§ and other of the fathers of phytotomy I have not thought it
needful to quote. In the essays of H. v. Mohl, and numerous other
writers upon general structural questions, much special information
is often included which it would be an endless labour thoroughly to
single out and refer to here. I have, however, endeavoured to notice
all the more important cases in which wood-structure is thus inci-
dentally described. Brief notes are added upon a few of the specimens
and preparations contained in the Museum of the Royal Grardens
at Kew, at least in those instances in which they have indicated
interesting structural features. I refrain, in this communication,
from touching upon the bearing which stem- structure may have upon
Systematic Botany and Palaeontological Research, as well as from
entering upon a discussion of the obscure and difficult subject of the
relations which may be traced between the structure of the tissues
and their function, and between the character of the axis generally
and that of the floral-organs, upon which latter, indeed, it may be
that the operations of systematists have been hitherto a little too
exclusively based. I do not apprehend, however, that in respect to
practical Systematic Botany, the methods usually accepted of esti-
mating affinity, resting upon floral structure, are likely to derive
from the anatomical structure of the stem an aid other than cor-
roboratory, corresponding in some measure to that aff'orded by the
sensible properties of plants.

• Anatomy of Plants, 1682, with diagrams of the Structm-e of the Vine, HoHy,
Hazel, Barberry, Apple, Pear, Plum, Ehn, Ash, Walnut, Fig, Pine, Oak, Sumac, &e.
•j- Anatome plantarum, 1G73. X Arcana Naturae.

§ The Construction of Timber, 1770.

OLrVEE ox THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 299

Tlie sequence of the Orders in the followiug list is, in the main
that of M. De CandoUe.*

Bakunculaceae. — Clematis. Dutrochet, H. Sur raccroissement, des
Vegetaux, 1821, vii. 397. with fig.— Guillard, A. Sur la Moelle,t
Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iii. viii. tab. xvi. 3. 4. — Buzareingues. Ann. Sc.
Nat. XXX. tab. vii. 3, 4, and Ser. ii. i. tab. v. — Schleiden. Princi-
ples of Botany, (Eng. Trans.) 251, (fig). — Quekett. Histology, 84,
(fig.)~Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood.'— Carpenter. The Mi-
croscope, (1856,) 431, (fig.) also (?) sub. nom. Aristolocliia, p. 440.
— Anemone. Vaupell, C. iiber d. peripherische Wachsthum d.
Gefassbiindel, &c. Leipsic, 1855, p. 21, tab. 2. — Hellehorus.
Link, H. F. Icones Anat. Bot. 1857, fasc. ii. xi. 1-5. — Cimicifuga
and Delphiiiiuin. Hartig, Th. Beitrage z. vergleichenden Anato-
mic der Holzpflanzen. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 93, 96. On absence of
medullary rays ; the structui'e of the vascular bundles, &c. ; Tha-
lictrum, p. 108, Bastcells in the wood.

DiLLENiACEAE. Criigcr. H. Einiger Beitrage z, Kenntniss von
sogenamiten anomalen Holzbildungen des Dicotyleustammes.J
Bot. Zeit. 1850. 166. On the structure of Dolioca^-pus Rolandri,
with figures.

Magnoliace^. — G-oeppert, H. E., TJeber die anatomische Structiu?
einiger Magnoliaceen. Linnsea. 1842, 135. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser.
ii. 18, 317. — Drhnys Winteri. The wood consists of dotted
prosenchyma traversed by medullary rays, the cells of which are
punctuated and considerably larger than in Coniferse. — Tas-
mannia aromatica ofliers a similar structure. — Magnolia, Lirioden-
droit and lUiciuni differ in having dotted vessels traversing the

* My best thanks are due to Sir W. J. Hooker, for the free access constantly
permitted me to his invaluable botanical library, which has been of very great service
in the preparation of this list.

f Sections of Acer, Pla.ta?ius, Corylus, Fraxiuus, Broussonetia, llespilus,
yEsculvs, 4'c. are figured in this paper.

X This important paper of Dr. Criiger's, comprising much information upon
the structure and development of lianes, does not readily admit of being usefully
abstracted. I have referred under the several orders, to the genera which he
describes in detail, noticing those which arc illustrated by figures. Among the general
conclusions to which the examination of numerous lianes leads this botanist, are the
following, (I.e. p. 49 1 ) . The essential points in which their stems ditfer from others are
— The greater longitudinal extension of the stem in general and of its elementaiy
parts in particular, during the first period of its growth and a proportional retarda-
tion oi' development in a transverse direction; a straighter and more separate course
of the vascular bundles by which the medullary rays acquire greater extension ;
a predominance of parenchyma and vessels, both of which tissues retain their
vitality until late, — the parenchyma its capability of multiplying, the vessels of con-
veying fluids.

By the persisting vitality of the tissues is to be explained the multiplication of
the layers in the interior of many Uanes. The twistings and angular bendings of
many species are also to be ascribed to the same circumstance. The influence of
the development and fomiation of the leaves on the structure of the stem is veiy
marked in Bignoniaceae. The various divisions of the stem are mechanical, and as
they are not constant in position, are to be ascribed to several accidental causes.

N. H. R.— 1862. Y

300 OKIGINAL ARTICLES.

prosenchyma in alternating, concentric zones as in Dicotyledons
generally. —Winteracece. Miers, J. On the. Ann. Nat. Hist.
Ser. iii. 2, 34?. Dotting of the vessels. — Henfrey, A. Micr.
Diet. "Wood:'— lllichm. Gray, A. Introd. Botany, 1858,43.
Dots on wood-cells (fig.)- — The wood presents the normal dicoty-
ledonous arrangement of tissues. The prosenchyma is minutely
dotted longitudinally, on, at least, surfaces transverse to the
medvdlary rays. (D.O.)

Ajs'onace^. — Martins, " Flora Brasiliensis," 64. Brief notes on the
wood of Anona crassijlora and other species. — Ci/athostemma.
Griffith. NotulfB iv. 708.

ScHizAKDKACEJE. — Lindley. J. Veg. Kingdom, 305. — Griffith, Notulse,
iv. 715. — Kadsura Roxburghiana. The prosenchyma cells bear
longitudinal rows of minute, oblique, slit-like dots. A faint circle
surroiuids these, due to very narrow, lenticular, intercellular
cavities, as in MamamelidecB, &c. (D.O.) — Sphcerostema. Lindley,
J. Introduction to Botany, 1 p. 06, and PI. ii. 20. Markings on
wood cells.

Lardizabaleje. — Stauntonia latifoUa. Lindley, J. Introd. Botany,
i. 213. With curved medullary rays, (iig.)

Menispermace^. — Gaudichaud. Eecherches sur I'Organographie,
&c., des Vegetaux, tab. xviii. 13. — J. Decaisne. Sur les Lardiza-
balees, Arch, de Museum, 1839, i. 143, with figs. — Menispermum
canadense, p. 154. Descriptions of young and adult stems are
given. In the latter the original number of vascular bundles is
found to have undergone no increase, the 18 — 23 fascicles which
completed the circle in the first year, have received addition
chiefly to their outer extremities and assumed a spathidate
outline in section. The liber bundles of thick-walled, tapering
cells, on the other hand, have not increased, and are found
isolated and opposed to each of the wood-wedges. The wood is
formed of dotted tubes varying in diameter ; where they border
upon the pith, annidar and unreliable spiral vessels occur. — Cocculus
Icmrifolius, p. 157. Presents up to a certain period an arrange-
ment of parts similar to that of M. canadense, the original
vascular bundles continuously progressing outwards and the
liber remaining unchanged. The vascular wedges do not increase
proportionately in breadth with their growth in length, so that the
medullary rays become progressively larger. After some years
the wood fascicles cease growing, and in the cortical cellular tissue
originates a second series of bundles, similar to the first formed,
excepting in the absence of spiral vessels at their inner side and of
liber externally. After these bundles have attained their max-
imum development they, in tvirn, cease to grow, and a third series
forms in the parenchym of the bark and so on. — Cissampelos
Pareira, p. 204. Analogous in structure to Cocculus. The first-
formed zone of wood alone possesses liber. Between subsequently
formed zones tliere is a thin layer of thick-walled cellular tissue,
quite distinct from liber.— J. D. Hooker and T. Tliomson. Flora

OLITER ON THE STEM OF DICOTTLEBOXS. 301

Indica, i. p. 167. Tlie authors endorse generally M. Deeaisne's
proj)ositions, and point out that though closely allied genera have
often very similar wood, so have more distantly allied ones
(Limncia, Pacliycjove, — Coscinium, Anamirfa), while close allies
sometimes differ very materially (Tinospora, ParalcEiia). In the
numerous genera examined in respect of stem structure, the
pith was found to foi'm a very varying proportion to the diameter
of the stem, from one-fifth (FarabcBna) to three-fourths (Aspido-
caryn). From the centre towards the wood bundles the cells
become denser, vertically elongated, and truncate at their ex-
tremities. The wood-wedges vary in number in different species,
from about twelve (Glusauipelos) to seventy (Coscinium). They
consist of dotted pleurenchyma traversed by barred vessels. The
medullary rays are usually narrow and often dense. The liber
bvmdles exterior to each wedge, more or less lunate and isolated,
or sometimes confluent. The structure of the stem (usually
several years of age) is described in the following genera, —
Coscinituii, Aspidocarya, Parahcena (sagittata), Tinospora {crispa),
Anamirta, TiUacora, Limacia {velutina, ohionga, ciispidata) , Coccu-
lus (Leceha, villosus), Pericampylus, Stepliaida (^rotunda, elegans),
Cissampelos (Pareira), Cyclea (populifoUa), Pachygone, Fihraitrea
(th\ctoria, ? hamatocarpd), Tinomisciam, Pycnarrhena. — Clypcea.
Griffith. Notulse iv. 305—319. — Cocculus. Martins von, Grelehrte
Anzeigen, 1812, SS7.— Cocculus laurifolius. Lindley, J. Introd.
Botany, i. 214, (with figs.) — (C. palmatus, in text). Schacht,
H. Die PflanzenzeUe, p. 281, tab. six, Der Baum, pp. 95,
199. — Nageli, C. Beitrage zu Wissen. Botanik, i. 16.
Selected as typical of those Dicotyledons which have successively
limited rings of cambimn tissue in protenchym.*— Eadlkofer,
L. Ueber dans anomale Wachsthum des stammes bei Menis-
permeen. Flora, 1858, 193. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. 10,
161. Eeferriug chiefly to the second generation of cambium
tissue in the cortical parenchyma exterior to the liber zone of
the first wood bundles, — originating the new and concentric for-
mation of woody tissue in Cocculus laurifolius. — Schacht, H.
Lehrbuch, ii. 57. — Menispermiim. Eichard, Nouv. Elemens de
Botanique, 1816, 154.— Mohl, v., Ueber d. Bau * * der Eanken-
und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75.
Berbekidaceae. — Podophyllum, Bipliylleia. Brown, E. in Tuckey's
Congo. 442 (in note). ^ — Agardh. Theoria Systematis Plantarum,75.
On Structure and arrangement of the vascular bundles.

* Nageli (1. c.) distinguishes two tissues, the cells of which undergo division.
That of which each organ primarily consists, and which is also often active to a late
period if not during its entire lifetime, he terms Mtristem. The other tissue is
Cambium. The original Meristem and all tissues developing immediately fi-onr it he
calls Frotenchtjm. Cambium, and all tissues directly or indirectly derived from it,
Epenchijm. This important essaj' refers especially to the relations subsisting be-
tween the position of the leaves, and the arrangement of the vascular cords in the
stem.

302 OEIGINAL ARTICLES,

Nymphjeace^. De Canclolle, A. P. • Sur les Nympliaeacces. Soc-
Phys. de Greneve, i. 2. — Treeul, A. Etudes aBatomiques et orga-
nogeniques sur la Victoria regia, et anatomie compares du Nelum-
lium du Nwpliar et de la Victoria. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. 1.
145,— J. D. Hooker and T. Thomson. " Flora Indica," i. 236.
The central medullary mass is surrounded by a tolerably well-
defined zone of vascular bundles. Liber, wood-wedges and
medidlary rays are absent, and the vascular tissue confused,
possibly from the crowded state of the internodes. Victoria,
in the absence of a pith-like centre is regarded as excep-
tional.— Caspary, E. Sur la Structure de la tige. (Bot. Zeit,
1857.) Bull. Soc. Bot. iv. 718. — Einige wenige Bemerkungen
iiber den Bau des Stammes der Nymphfeaeeae. Plora,
1857, 717, also in Bot. Zeit. 1857, 791. The vessels are
scattered in the central vascular system of the stem, not
arranged in a circle : in the outer portion of the central sys-
tem they anastomose in short, dense bundles, allowing cords
to pass to the leaves, peduncles, roots, &c., through regular
openings. — Bonn, Sitzungsbericht. 1858, xv. and Flora 1859,
118. On the formation of cork-cells and absorption of spiral
vessels in Nymphaca gigantea. — Nwpliar lutea. Treeul, A. E«-
cherches sur la Structure et le developpement du Nuphar lutea.
Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iii. 4, 286. The structure of the rhizome, of
which a detailed account is given, is stated to be quite similar to
that of Monocotyledons. There are no distinct concentric layers
nor medullary rays, the fibrous fascicles being separated by inter-
posed pith-parenchyma. Its density decreases from the^ cir-
cimiference to the centre. — Vaupell, C. ilber d. peripherische
"Wachsthum d. Gefassbiindel, &c. Leipsic, 1855, p. 23. — Victoria.
Henfrey, A. On the Structure of the Stem of V. regia. Phil.
Trans. 1852, 289, with 2 Plates. A. N. Hist. Ser. ii. 10, 398.
The internal structure is quite monocotyledonous in character.
No true woody fibres, no cambium layer, no arrangement of the
vascular bundles in zones. The vascvdar fascicles, composed of
spiral vessels, and annular and reticulated ducts, are isolated in
the parenchyma of the stem.
Nelumbiace^. Mii-bel. Observations Anat. et Physiol, sur le
Nelumbo. Aim. d. Museum. 1809, xiii. 465. — Endlicher imd
Unger. Grundziige d. Botanik, 92. — Treeul, A. Ann. Sc. Nat.
Ser. iv. 1, 145. Differs from Nymphseacese in the anatomical
character of the rhizome.
Papayeraceae. — Chelidoninm. Moldenhauer. Beitrage z. Ana-
tomie d. Pflanzen, 1812, 141. — Amici, J. B. Observations Mi-
croscopiques, Ann. Sc. Nat, 1824, vol. i. 224, tab. 13.— Link, H. F.
Icones Anat. Bot. 1837, Fasc. ii. xiv. 8. - Schultz, C. H. Die
Gyklose,* Nova Acta, 1841, xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xvi. — Bocconia.

* Sections of othei' herbaceous plants are figured in this essay, viz. Tropceolum,
Coehlcaria, Brassica, Impatiens, Plantago, Valeriana, Portulaca, Erodium, Occalis.

OLIVEK ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 303

Scliultz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta, 1841, xviii. Suppl. ii.
tab. xvii. 1, 2.

CEUCiFEEiE. Hartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 109. Araiis alhida.
— Hanstein, J. iiber den Bau des Dicotylen Holzringes.
Pringsheim's Jalu'b. i. 231, with figures. Conuection of arrange-
ment of the leaves with the wood- formation.

Eesedaceae. — Reseda lutea. Mueller, J. Monographie de la
Famille des Besedacees. Zurich, 1857. Anatomic, p. 16, tab. 1.-
The wood- zone consists of thick- walled prosenchyma traversed oy
wide dotted vessels and some much elongated parenchymatous
cells which are found in the immediate neighbourhood of the
vessels. The medullary rays are complete, narrow, and tolerably
numerous. The liber cells are very thick-walled, long, and col-
lected usually in groups of 3 to 7.

BiXACEAE. — Bixa Orellana. Medullary rays are numerous and
narrow. The wood consists of elongated cells, not much thick-
ened and often with abrupt terminations, traversed by very
minutely dotted or slit-marked vessels, usually two or three
together radially. (D. O.)

PoLTGALACEiE. — Securidaca erecta? J. Decaisne. Sur les Lardi-
zabalees. Arch, du Museum, 1839, i. 205. Eemarkable from
the curvature and ii^egularity of its wood-zones, is figured (PL x.)
Destitute of medullary rays. No liber was observed. — Criiger, H.
Bot, Zeit. 1850, op. cit. IGl. An account of the structure, with
figures, of Securidaca voluhilis. Catacoma lucida, p. 161.

CAETOPHYLLACEiE.— DJawMzw. Eichard. Nouv. Elemens de Bo-
tanique, 1846, 129.— Hartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 109. Wood of
— Acantliophyllum, &c. Oliver, D, Observations on the Structure
of the Stem in certain species of the Natural Orders Caryophylla-
ceae and Plumbagineae. Linn. Trans, xxii. 289. With' 2 plates.
Eelating chiefly to the arrangement of the tissues in species
of Acantliopliylhcm. In A. spinosum, in very young internodes
of the stem, the pith is found to be much elongated transversely ;
this elongation increases until it divides the vascular zone, and
a belt of cambium cells encloses separately the divided por-
tions. In the older internodes the relative arrangement of the
vascular and cellular systems becomes excessively complicated
and no true pith is recognisable. Medullary rays are absent.
In the adult stems of A. spinosum spiral vessels are more or less
intermixed with the numerous slit-marked vessels which irre-
gularly traverse the parenchyma, and I have found some reason
to beheve that, in this and another species, in the early stages of
the development of the stem, prior to the dislocation of the con-
centric zones and tissues generally, that very narrow annular
belts of spiral vessels are repeated at intervals concentrically.
The arrangement of the woody bundles in other species of
Acanthophyllum is described, and attention called to the re-
markable abundance in the cellular tissue of the stem, of crystals

301 OBIGINAL ABTICLES.

of oxalate of lime. — Eegnault. Aim. Se. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 118.
— Dianthus. The wood is distributed in two, three, or more con-
secutive zones, often inten^upted, or broken into fragments, in
transverse section, by more transpai'ent and wider belts of elon-
gated, attenuate, delicate cells with numerous slit-marked vessels.
Medullary rays are absent. Stellate crystals of oxalate of lime
abound in all the parenchym. In Arenaria rigida the form of the
woody masses is very irregular ; they include no vessels, these
being confined to the iuvading, thin-walled, fibroid tissue. Silene
pseudo-otifes has a nearly continuous wood without alternating
opaque and transparent zones. The modification of structure in
Gypsophila saligna, is also described. — Acanthophylhtm squa-
rosum. Boiss. This is the A. spinusum of Kotschy, and of my
paper in the Liiinean Transactions. M. Eegnault's observations
(1. c. p. 73) led me to re-examine sections of this plant. I have
to confirm my previous observations referred to above, on the
occurrence of true (uni'oUable) spiral- vessels in the wood-zone of
young branches, mtermediate to the yet distinct pith parenchyma,
and the cortical tissue. Slit-marked vessels traversing paren-
chyma, constitute the mass of the ' wood,' and the spirals require
to be carefully distinguisshed from them. These spirals are of
both extremely minute and tolerably wide calibre, the latter
nearly equalling in size the prevaiHug gashed vessels. I am not
prepared to say positively that the spiral vessels occurring in the
young stem (prior to the general derangement of its tissues) are
arranged in concentric and narrow rings, as in the paper above-
noticed I suggested they might be. — Acanthoplnjllum (Grriffith's
Affghan Coll. 15G2) possesses very numerous spiral vessels of
small calibre. These accompany the slit-marked vessels which
form the bulk of the wood. I continue to think they may be
more or less distinctly disposed in concentric rings around the
pith. (D.O.)

LiNACEiE. — Litium. Link, H. Gr. Elementa Phil. Bot. 1837, tab. ii.
— Eeissek, S. Die Fasergewebe des Leines, &c. Ext. Denkschf.
K. Ak. Wiss. Wien. vi. with plates. An account of the develop-
ment and structure of the bast-cells.

Steeculiace^i;. — Adansonia. "Walpers, G. Ueber Adansonia digi-
tata. Bot. Zeit. 1852, 295. Description of wood structure and
especially of liber. — Boinhax pentandra. Schleiden. Wiegman's
Arch. 1839, pt. 3. A. N. H. iv. 245. Wood almost entirely of
parenchyma, spiral annular and reticulated vessels,with rarely pro-
senchyma in exterior part of annual rings. — Delahechea rupestris.
The wood, of which an imperfect specimen is in the Kew Museum,
presents zones at unequal intervals of large tubular cavities, the
greater diameter of which is radial. These a2)pear to result from
the decay or resorption of enormous cords of delicately thin-
walled cells. The firmer portions of the wood consist of tliin-
walled parenchyma through which are scattered, between the

OLITEB ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 305

numerous medullary rays, small and narrow clusters and belts of
thick- walled, elongated, tapering cells, with dotted vessels. The
bark I have not seen. (D.O.) — Schleideu. Principles of Botany,
60, 62.— Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' A¥ood.'

TiLiACEAE. Kieser. Mem. Sur I'organisation des plantes, 1814,
tab. 17. Structure of TUisi.— Tllia. Mirbel. Sur I'origine,
&c. du Liber et du Bois. Mem. du Museum, 1828. xvi. 26, with
figs., also Elemens de Phys. Veget. tab. xiv. 19, 20. —
Mohl, H. V. Ueber d. Ban der porosen G-efasse der Dico-
tyledonen. Abh. Ak. Wiss. Miinchen, i. 445, with figs. — Link,
H. P. Icones Selectae, 1840. Fasc. ii. t. ii. 7-12.— Schultz, C. H.
Die Cyklose. Nova Acta. 1841. xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xxxiii.
—Mohl, H. V. Bot. Zeit. 1855, 878. On liber of — Tlenfrey, A.
Micr. Diet. ' Wood.'— Schacht, H. Lehrbuch. i. 338. Der
Baum, 95, 199.

Malpighiaceae. Martins, von. Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1842, 389. — •
Eichard. Nouv. Elemens de Botanique, 1846, 153.— Lindley,
J. Introd. Botany, i. 212. Pigure of liane-stem. — Criiger,
H. Bot. Zeit. 1851. op. cit. 465. An account of wood struc-
ture, with figures of Stigmaphyllon and Tetrapterys. — {Mal-
pighiaceae ?) Wigand, A. Einige Beispiele anomaler Bild-
ung des Holzkorpers. Plora, 1856, 673. With fig. — Banis-
teria. Gaudichaud. Guillemin's Archives, ii. 502 PI. 19. —
Banisteria paniculata. Molil, H. v. Ueber de Ban * * der
Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. — Banis-
teria. Karsten, H. Vegetations-organe der Palmen, 1847, 140.
— Malpighia nitens. Link, H. P. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837.
Ease. ii. xi. 6-8. — Stigmaphi/llon. Gaudichaud. Eecherches
sur I'organographie, de des Vegetaux. tab. xviii. 11. — Jussieu,
Ad. de. Monograph des Malpighiacees, p. 100. Ann. d. sc.
Nat. Ser. ii. 15, 234. The stem in this order is always ligneous,
and either independent (especially the genera with fleshy fruits)
or a climbing liane (the greater portion of the winged-fruited
genera). In the liane species the wood, instead of present-
ing a continuous zone around the pith, is usually found to be
interrupted by prolongations of the cortical layers, which
extend sometimes to the centre and divide the stem into several
distinct fascicles, each invested by its proper, or by a common
bark. In others {Stigmaphyllon) the cellular tissue of the bark
forms a network extending to the medullary sheath, dividing
the wood circle into very numerous compartments, more or less
irregular in form and size. The wood is generally characterized
by the large development of dotted vessels. — In Byrsonima
coccolohaefolia, p. 101., an arborescent species, the structure of
the wood scarcely differs from that prevailing in Dicotyledons.
Numerous medullary rays of uniform thickness part from a
central pith. In cross section concentric zones, alternately pale
and dark, traverse the wood. In the former, dotted vessels pre-
ponderate, in the latter, thick-waUed prosenchyma. — BuncJiosia

306 OlilOINAL ARTICLES.

nitida presents a similar structure. In Btigmapliyllon margi-
natum, a climlting species, the accession of an irregular arrange-
ment of the ligneous mass is traced from young, herbaceous
branches, Avhich exhibit nearly the usual structiu-e. In older
stems the ligneous mass presents a sinuous outline, wdth pro-
jecting angles. It consists of dotted prosenchyma and elongated,
smooth, thick- walled fibroid cells, traversed by very wide-mouthed,
dotted vessels. The medullary rays, formed usually of a single
row of dotted cells, pass from the pith sometimes in straight
radial lines, sometimes interrupted and crossed by flexuous
and irregularly concentric processes of similar composition.
There are two distinct cortical layers, the outer suberous, marked
by several dark, concentric lines, the inner compact and paler.
Liber is absent, except from the oldest layers where scattered
fibres occm\ — Tetrapterys Ouilleminiana, p. 106 and fig. presents
a wood regularly lobed, with 8 sinuses which follow vertically
a spiral direction. Erom the pith, extending to each groove, is a
broad ray, distinguishable only from the rest of the wood by the
absence of large vessels. In old branches the regular contour of
the woody axis is lost. The wood consists of plain or slightly
dotted, thick-walled, ligneous fibres traversed by wide, dotted
vessels. The medullary rays are straight and continuous. Liber
occurs in large bundles in the bark. — Banisteria nir/rescens, p.
107 and fig. Different stages in the development of the stem
are described. In the older branches the continuity of the wood
is interrupted by several very deep projections of cortical tissue
advancing towards the pith, the principal lobes are less deeply
divided by similar processes. Vessels, small and few towards the
axis, are wide and numerous in the lobes. The bark consists of
a small number of layers each with its liber deposit, the fibrous
cells of which are described. In a stem of 7 centimetres diameter,
a cross section presents the appearance of several branches
twisted together ; one ligneous bundle is central, with pith and
medullary sheath ; the surrounding bimdles are destitute of
these, consisting of dotted vessels and prosenchyma.

EETTnEOXYLE^. Martius. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Gattung, ^ri/-
throxylon. Abh. K. Bayer. Ak. iii. Abth. ii. (Ext.) IIolz. p. 12.

Canellaceae. Miers, J. On the Winteraceae. Ann. Nat. Hist.
Ser. iii. 2, 34. Dotting of the vessels.

DiPTEBOCAEPE.?;. Kortlials, P. W. Over eenige soorten van de
Familie der Dipterocarpeae. Temminck's Verhandel. 1839-42.
p. 49.

Ztgophyllaceae.— GMff/cM;;?, &c. Lindley, J. Yeg. Kingdom, 479.

SiMAEUBACEAE. AUmitlus. B. Mirbcl. Elemens de Phys. Veget.
tab. xiii. 1.

AcERACEAE. — Acer. Schultz, C. II. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta, 1841.
xviii. vSuppl. ii. tab. xxiv. — Gfray, A. Introd. Botany (1858),
118-19. (with figs.)— A^e^?iwJo. Gray, A. Introd. Botany (1858),
121, (with ^g9,.)~Acer. Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood.' (and

OLITER ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS.

307

fig.) — Scliaelit, H. Dev. Baum, 195. — Jussieu. Elemens de Bot.
pp. 49, 52 (figs.)

Sapindaceae. Eichard. ISTouv. Elemens de Botanique. 1838, 136.
— Gaudicliaud. Eecherclies Grenerales, 1841, tab. xiii. — Martius,
von. Grclelirte Anzeigen, 1842. 390. — Treviranus. Ueber einige
Arten anomalisclien Holzbildung bei Dicotyledonen. Bot. Zeit.
1847, 393.— Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. ii. i. 126. On the origin, &c.
of tlie accessory wood-masses, in Paullinia pimiata, Serjania
S-ternata, and S. Selloviana. — Gaudicliaud in Guillemin's Archives,
ii. 501, PI. 19. — Gaudichaud, Eecherches sur I'Organographie,
&c. des Vegetanx, tab. xiii. 1-4, and tab. x\aii. 14-21. — Schleiden.
Principles of Botany, 253.— Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1851, 481. On
the structure of Paullinia and Serjania ; detailed observations,
with figures. — Sehacht, H, Lehrbuch, ii. 57. — Serjania paniculata.
Mettenius, G. Einige Beobacht. iiber den Ban der Bignonien.
Linnsea, 1847. 582. Three peripherical wood-cords are included
within the outer cortical and a liber layer of the central axis. In
these cords the centre is occupied by elongated cells with brown
contents, surrounded by a few spiral vessels. The central axis pos-
sesses a true pith. — S. cuspidata. Jussieu, Ad. de. Monograph des
Malpighiacees, p. 110. The branches are acutely triangular ; the
angles each occupied by a ligneous bundle, separated from the
axial bundle by interposed cortical tissue.

HiPPOCASTANEAE. — Aesculus. Link, E. H. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837.
Ease. i. vii. 6-12.— Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood.'

Cedbelaceae. — Chloroxylon Swietenia. The medullary rays are very
numerous, vertically of small extent, though usually two or three
cells in diameter. Tlie vessels traversing a wood of normal Dico-
tyledonous character, are of smaU calibre and very minutely
dotted. (D.O.)

Ampelideae. — Vitis. Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta, 1841,
xxviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xxxii. — Vitis vinifera. B. Mirbel. Elemens
de Phys. Veg. tab. xii. 1. — Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood.'
Sehacht, H. Der Baum. 200.

Vitis. (sp. indeter. foliis pedatis-
Malacca. Coll. Griffith.) _ The
stem, from 3-8ths to § in. in
diameter, presents a very unusual
develoj)ment of the suberous layer
of the bark, which is vertically fis-
sured. Some portions are nearly
equal in thickness to the wood-
zone. In cross-section, as figured,
the latter is found to be divided
by two opposite, vertically-con-
tinuous, plates of comparatively
dense tissue, destitute of wide-
mouthed vessels, which abound

308 OEIQINAL AETICLES.

in tlie rest of the wood, and traversed by wide medullary
rays. Vessels of small diameter are scattered througli their
thickened prosenchyma. The structure of the wood-zone imme-
diately around the pith resembles that of the two plates. In
drying, the bark and pith have slightly separated from the wood,
and the medullary rays of the more vascular portions of the latter
are fissured. — Cissus hi/dropJwra. Graudichaud. Ann. So. Nat. ii.
Ser. vi. 143. Medullary rays of — Voyage de la Bonite. Bot.
Atlas, tab. 132-3. — Eecherches sur I'organographie, &c. des Vege-
taux, tab. xiii. 5. — Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1S50. op. cit. 141. Obser-
vation on structure of Cissus.

BALSAMiisnEAE. — Impcttiens. Kieser. Mem. sur I'organisation des
plantes, 1814, tabb. 11-12.

PITTOSPORACEAE. — Pittosporum. Trevirauus. L. C. Phys. d. Ge-
wachse, 1835. i. tab. iii. 31-2.

Anacaediaceae. — Pistacia, Bhus. Kieser. Mem. sur I'organisation
des plantes, 1814, tab. 16, 17. — Schinus, Rhus. Schiiltz, C. H.
Die Cyklose. Nova Acta, 1841, xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xx.— Phus
typhinum. Eichard, A. Nouv. Elemens de Botanique, 1838. 109.

Juglandeae. — Jitglans. Mohl, H. v. Bot. Zeit. 1855. 879. On
liber of — Schacht, H. Der Baum. 196.

Celasteaceae. — Celastrus scandens. Mohl, H. v. TJeber d. Bau * *
der Eanken- und SchHngpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. — Celas-
trus. Jussieu, Ad. de. Monograph des Malpighiacees, p. 117. A
climbing species from India, presents the woody axis parted into
three lobes, indicated externally by spiral grooxea.—PJuoni/mus
tingens. Lindley, J. Introd. Botany, i. 213. (with fig.)

IxicusTEAE.— iZear. B. Mii'bel. Elemens de Phys. Veget. tab. xii. 2.

Ehamnaceae. Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1850. op. cit. 126. Observa-
tion on structure of Gouafiia. — Rhamnus. CarjDenter. The Mi-
croscope, 1856. 433. (figs.)

Legtjminosae. Hartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859. 109. Eccentric wood-
formation in. — Adesmia. linger, Frz. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d.
Parasit. Pflanzen, 1841, tab. ii. — Amorplia fruticosa. Ti-eviranus,
L. C. Phys. d. Grewiichse, 1835, i. tab. iii. ^^. — Apios. Duchartre,
P. Compt. Eend. 1853, t. 37. 1^0.— Astragalus. Mohl, H. v.
Untersuchungen iiber die Enstehungs-weise des Tragacanth-
gummi. Bot. Zeit. 1857. 33. Ann. Nat." Hist. ii. Ser. 20. 165. Ee-
ferring to structure of pith and medullary rays. — Aedemone
mirabilis. Hallier, E. Ueber ein neties Schwimmholz vom weissen
Nil. Bot. Zeit. 1859. 153. (With 1 plate.) The wood-cylinder is
formed principally of a lax, thin-walled, regular parenchyma,
traversed by isolated ligneous fascicles, and numerous complete
medullary rays. The vessels are either separately scattered in the
ligneous parenchyma, or, several together, are surrounded by
prosenchyma, forming fibro-vascular bundles. Numerous liber-
cells travcr^^e the cortical parenchyma, many of them ramified. —
Glycine sinensis. Jussieu, Ad. de, Monograph des Malpighiacees,

OLITER ON THE STEM OF DICOTTLEDOlSrS. 309

p. 361. Ill a stem 10 cent. diam. may be counted five zones of
wood separated by as many concentric rings of violet-coloured
liber-cells. The wood-rings are irregular in width, often sinuous
in outline, and traversed radially by cellular bands. A second
ligneous zone does not form until the stem has reached about
eight years of age, to which period but one ring of bark envelopes
its central cylinder. About this time, exterior to the first ring
of bber, the stem becomes laterally thickened by ligneous fascicles,
which extend and ultimately meet each other, forming a second
zone concentric to the first. After the lapse of some years a
third belt originates in a similar manner, and so on with the rest.
— Glycine caribaea and Phaseohis. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau **
der Eanken- uud Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. — Halo-
dendron. Link, Y. H. Icones Selectse, 1839. Fasc. i. viii. 1 — 2.
— Phaseolus. Kieser. Mem. sur I'orgauisation des plantes, 1814.
tab. 13. — Saematoxylum Cmnpeachianum. Unger, F. Ueber den
Grrund der Bilduug der Jahreslagen dicotyler Holzpflanzen. Bot.
Zeit. 1847. 268. Observation on the alternation of parenchyma-
tous with prosenchymatous tissue in the wood. — Phaseolus.
Kieser. Mem. sur I'organisation des plantes, 1814, tab. 13. —
Sophora japonica. De Candolle, A. Introd. a la Botanique,
tab. ii. 1. — Gytisus Laburnum. Hanstein, J., iiber den Zusam-
menhang der BlattsteUung mit dem Bau des Dicot. Holzringes.
Pringsheim's Jahrb. i. tab. xvii. 14-16. — JJlex,^''C. Kieser. Mem.
sur I'organisation des plantes, 1814, 306, tab. xxii. — JBauhinia.
Eichard. Nouv. Elemens de Botanique. 1846. 155. — Schleiden.
Principles of Botany, 254. — Graudichaud. Eecherches sur I'organo-
graphie, &c. des Vegetaux, tab. xviii. 1-3. — Jussieu, Ad. de. Mo-
nograph des Malpighiacees, p. 118. The woody axis is frequently
divided into fascicles by invasions of the cortical tissue ; the
whole usually united by a common bark. In Sclinella macros-
tachys the numerous fascicles are spirally wound ; some of the
outer bundles finally separate completely as distinct branches.
Vide also p. 124. — Sclinella. Martins, von. Gelehrte Anzeigen,
1842. 388.— Crijger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1850. 122. Detail, with
figures, of the structure of Bauliinia (Caulotrehis), and B,hyn-
chosia phaseoloides. Also 1851. p. 469 — Cassia b-angtilata,
and p. 471 Entada polystachya. — Mimosa (JEntadaJ. Dutrochet.
Mem. Auat. et Physiog. des Yegetaux, &c. 1837. tab. xiv. 3-4. —
3f. pudica. Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta, 1841. xviii.
Suppl. ii. xviii- xix.
EosACEAE. — Mespilus. Link, H. F. Icones Selectae. 1839. Fasc. i.
viii. 3-5. Structure of the spines. Also figured from liosa,
jRibes, Berberis, &c. — Fyrus Mnlus. Mirbel. Mem du Museum.
1828. xvi. 30. (fig.) — Prunus Cerasus. IMirbel. Mem. du Museum.
1828. xvi. 29. (fig.)— Link, H. F. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837. Fasc.
i. vi. 1-3. ' Icones SeleetaB,' 1839. iv. 4, 5. — Pyrits, Prunus.
Schacht, H. Der Baum. 195.— Mohl, H. v. Bot. Zeit. 1855. 879.

310 OJBIGINAL AETICLES,

On liber of. — Prunus (Avium) . Wigand. iiber die Deorganisation
der Pflanzenzelle. Pringsh. Jalirb. iii. 115. The first section of
this paper relates, principally, to the transformation of certain
tissues both of the wood and bark into cherry-gum, — a compound
of gum arable and cerasin. — Sosa. Meyen, P. J. P. Auat. und
Phys. d. Grewachse. 1836, tab. iii. 11. — Buhus. Kieser. Mem. sur
r organisation des plantes, 181^!. tab. 16. — Schultz, C. H. Die
Cyklose. Nova Acta, ISil. xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xxv.

Caltcajs^theae. — Calycanthus. Mirbel, M. Sur I'organisation de la
tige d'un tres-vieux G. Jioriclus. Ann. Sc. Nat. 1828. 14. 367.
(With 1 pi.) Noting the occurrence of fibro-vascular bundles
occupying the angles of the stem. Each of these fascicles pos-
sesses a proper cortical envelope, superimposed woody layers
(thicker towards the axis of the stem), medullary rays and pith.
— Treviranus, L. C. Phys. d. Gewachse, 1835. i. tab. 1. 10. — Link
in Proi'iep's, N. Notiz. xxxiv. Plora, 1845, 558. Observations on
the structure of the accessory axes of G. floridus. — Treviranus.
Ueber einige Arten anomalischer Holzbildung bei Dicotyle-
donen. Bot. Zeit. 1847, 379. On the formation of vascular
bundles in the bark, and their coiuiection with the leaves. Vide
also Henfrey, Ann. N. Hist. Ser. ii. 1. 125. — Mettenius, Gr.
Einige Beobacht. iiber de Bau der Bignonien. Linnsea, 1847.
580. Referring to the peripherical woody centres occurring in
Calycanthaceae. Their minute structure is detailed in Galycan-
thus floridus, in which they are found in yearling stems as four
liber-bundles isolated in the cortical parenchyma. Each bundle
towards the axis of the stem is accompanied by a formation of
spiral vessels, and, within these, by wood-cells and dotted ves-
sels. In stems of five years old the liber bvmdles are found
unaltered, while the wood has laterally extended itself to about
twice its size in the first year. Small bast-bundles are distributed
round the central woody axis. — Graudichaud. Gruillemin's Ar-
chives, ii. 493. Origin of accessory wood bundles. — Lindley, J.
Introd. Botany, i. 209. On excentrical woody axes. — Lindley, J.
Veg. Kingdom, 541.— Hartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859. 109. Cortical
vascular bundles of.

Chetsobalakeae. Criiger, H. Westindische Pragmente. Bot. Zeit.
1857, 281, with pi. On the structure of the siliceous bark
of a Moquilea (Caraipa augustifoUa), called Gauto or Gauta.
Also, p. 298, on wood of same. The vessels are irregu-
larly scattered through a wood of the usual Dicotyledonous
character, excepting that, at short intervals, the prosenchyma is
interrupted by very mimerous vertical bars of thin- walled cells,
transverse to radius ; these are tolerably continuous concentrically,
though often broken by the openings of the vessels. The remark-
able siliceous bark (' el cauto') of this (?) tree is fully described
by Criiger.— See also II. v. Mohl. Bot. Zeit. 1801, 211, and
Wicke, p. 97.

OLITEE ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. * 311

EnizoPHOEEAE. Sclileiden, Principles of Botany, (pith.) 65.

Halorageae. — Trapa natans. Barneoud, F. M. Sur Tanatomie et
I'organogenie du Trapa natans, L. Ann. Se. Nat. ser. iii. 9. 227.
(figs.) In adult stems the vascidar bundles of the medullary
sheath, consisting of wide annular vessels, are numerous, forming
a continuous circle. There are no unrollable spiral vessels.—
Cucurhita, Bryonia. Kieser. Mem. sur 1' organisation des plantes,
1814. tab. 6—10, 12.—Cucurbita. Mohl, H. v., Bot. Zeit. 1855,
889. On liber of. — Nageli, C. Ueber die Siebrohern von Sit-
zungsb. H. b. Ak. Mlinchen, 1861, 212.

Passiflobaceae. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau * * der Eanken und
Schlingpflanzen, Tubingen, 1827. § 75.

Papataceae. Criiger, H., Bot. Zeit. 1851. Observation on the
structure of Garica Papaya.

PoETULACEAE.— Povtulacaria. Link, H. F. Icones Selectae, 1839.
Fasc. i. vi. 5-14. — Eegnault, Ann. So. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 106. Tali-
num speciosum possesses isolated liber bundles, a fibro-vascular wood
zone interrupted transversely and obliquely by belts of thinner
tissue (arrested as it were in their development), and medullary
rays. The prosenchyma of the wood is punctate chiefly towards
the rays. The structure of Anacampseros., Claytonia, Povtula-
caria, and Portulaca, more or less diverse from the above, is
described.

Pakon"schieae. Eegnault. Ann. So. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 106. Parony-
chia bonariensis presents a continuous circle of elongated, thick-
walled cells representing liber, exterior to the wood, which is
formed in two distinct zones. Tlie inner consists of prosenchyma
uninterrupted by medullary rays, with numerous vessels sur-
rounding the pith : the outer, of ligneous fibres and vessels, not
in a continuous circle, but in uninterrupted, radiating plates. The
vessels are regularly dotted, as also the wood-cells, between which
are very minute, rounded cavities, arranged in regular series
along the cells. Modifications of structure in Anychia dicliotoma,
Telephium Imperati, and Corriyiola littoralis are described.

Teteagoniaceae. Eegnault. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 101. In
Tetragonia expansa, hber is absent. The wood, consisting of pro-
senchyma traversed by numerous vessels, in adult stems presents
an inner continuous zone uninterrupted by medullary rays. Ex-
terior to this, towards the angles of the stem are successively
superimposed independent masses, forming from two to five incom-
plete belts. These isolated woody masses are separated concen-
trically by zones of generative cells.
Mesembrtaceae. Eegnault. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 95. The
group offers a peculiar epidermal structure. The liber-layer and
medullary rays are absent. Cords of tissue corresponding to
portions of the ' couche generatrice' occur in the wood, on the inner
face of which, around the pith, are vessels, chiefly spiral, arranged
in radiating rows, sometimes isolated, sometimes in fascicles. The

312 * OBTCilNAL ARTICLES.

diiferential characters presented by tlie species have but a secon-
dary importance.
Cactaceae. De Caudolle, A. P. Eevue de la Famille, in Mem. du Mu-
seum, 1828, x\di. Latige, p. 5. — Scbleiden, Wiegmann's Arch. 1839,
pt. 3, A. N. H. iv. 245. In Melocactus, Echinocactus, Mammillaria,
the wood consists akoost entirely of short, broad, thin-walled cells,
obtusely conical at ends, with very thick annular or spiral cells. —
Also in Beitrage zur Anatomic der Cacteen ; with 10 plates.
The vascidar bundles occur under three modifications. 1. Pos-
sessing liber, and corresponding to the usual structure of the vas-
cular bundle in Dicotyledons, excepting that in the later-formed
wood-layers spiral vessels are found. 2. Bundles in which the
liber is replaced by gum-canals. 3. Yascvdar bundles with cells
having flattened, projecting rings in the interior and spiral vessels.
These cells are wanting in Pereskia, Rhipsalis, Cereus, and flat-
stemmed Opuntias ; they form the main part of the wood in
Echino- and JSIelocactus. In Mammillaria , with a few spirals in
the medidlary sheath, they form the entire wood-mass. Annnal
zones do not occur. Eings of wood formation answering to con-
siderable periods of time are found : their cause is uncertain. A
detailed account is given of the various tissues of the stem. —
EcTiinocactus, Melocactus. Brongniart, A. Obs. sur la structiire
du SigiUaria, Sfc. Arch, du Museum (1839), i. 442. Tab. xxxv.
Independent vascular bundles are found scattered in the pith of
some species. — Meyen, F. J. E. Neues System d. Pflanz.
Physiol, (fig. tab. i. and iii.) — Harting, P. Bijdrage tot de Ana-
tomic der Cacteen., v. der Hoeven imd Vriese, Tydschrift, 1842,
181, with 2 plates — Graudichaud, Guillemin's Archives, ii. 502.
pi. 19.- Schleiden, Principles Bot. 255.— A. Trecul, Extrait d'un
Memoire inedit sur les formations spirales, annidaires et reticu-
lees, &c., Bull. Soc. Bot. i. 67. Eeferring especially to the
structure and development of the spiral fibres in the wood cells.—
Trecul, A. Compt. Eend. 1854, t. 38, 114^5.— Cactus. Meyen,
E. J. E. Phytotomie, 1830. tab. x. 1. 4.— Corda. Ban des Pflan-
zenstammes, in AVeitenweber's Beitrage z. Nat.und Heilwiss. Prag,
1836,— C. cliilcnsis. Meyen, E. J. E. Anat. imd Phys. d. Gewachse,
1836, tab. viii. 24-5. (other Cactaceae) tab. ix. — Cactus. Meyen,
E. J. E. Neues System Pflz.-Physiologie, 1837, tab. i. 1, 5, 8-
10. — Cereus. Tur])in, P. J. E. Analyse Microscopique du tissu
cellulaire de la moelle et de I'ecorce, &c. Ann. Sc. Nat. 1830,
20-26— Link, H. E. Anatomia plantarum, 1843. tab. iii. 1-6,
EpipJnjllum, Opunfia, Cereus. — Link, H. E. Icones Selecta, 1840,
Ease. ii. iii. — Iihip6alis, ^'C. tab. iv. 5-11. — Ilelocacttis. Miquel,
E. A. W. Monographia generis Melocacti, Nova Acta Ac.
Caes L. C. 1841. xviii. Suppl. i. Truncics, p. 115. — also
Anatomische Bemerkungen iiber den Ban der Melocacten. Lin-
naea. 1842, 465. Ann. Sc. Nat. ii. Ser. xix. 164. Supplying a
lacune in Schleiden's observations. A minute account of the in-

OLIVER ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 313

ternal anatomy of M. microcephalus. — Opvntia. Link, H. F.
Icones Anat. Bot. 1837. Ease. ii. xv. 4-5.

!RiBESiACEAE. — Bibes. Hanstein, J. Ueber den Zusamnienliang der
Blattstellung mit dem Bau des Dicotylen Holzringes, Prings-
heim's Jalirb. i. tab. xvi. 10.

Alangiaceae. Lindley, J. Veg. Kingdom, 720.

Ceassulaceae. — Sevipervivum, and other Crassulaceae. Brongniart,
A. Obs. sur la Structure du Sigillm'ia, ^c. Arch, du Museum,
(1839) i. 437. On the absence of true medullary rays, and rela-
tion of medullary vascular bundles to the leaves. — Crassula por-
tulacea. p. 445. Destitvite of a ligneous zone. The fascicles of the
medullary sheath, consisting of spiral vessels and spiral, annular
and reticulate ducts, increase in number and size without admix-
ture of wood-prosenchym. — Cotyledon. Link, H. F. Icones Se-
lectae, 1839. Ease. i. vii. 1-2.— Wiegmann's Arch. 1839, 224. A.
N. H. iv. 241. Wood formed of prosenchym destitute of vessels,
traversed by vertical cords of thin-walled parenchym which include
spiral vessels. — Lindley, J. Veg. Kingdom, 345. — Sedum. Henry,
A. Ueber die Bildung der Wurzel-zasei'n v. S. Telephium, ^o.
Verh. N. H. V. 1860-1. Chiefly referring to the structure of the
tuberiform root-fibres. That of the stem which offers no pecu-
liarity, is described. — Eegnault, Eecherches sur les affinites de
Structure des Tiges des plantes du groupe des Cyclospermees.
Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 87. — Sempervivum arbor eum. A
woody stem several years of age presents a cellvilar cortical zone,
including outer suberous and inner herbaceous layers. Wood con-
sisting of crowded, thick- walled and irregularly dotted prosen-
chyma, traversed by isolated vessels. Zones, consisting of vessels
and elongated, quadrangular, delicate cells, destitute of markings,
are disposed concentrically through the wood, which is destitute
of medullary rays. Vascular bundles, consisting of annular ves-
sels, unroUable spirals and elongated cells occur in the wood
around the pith, which offers no unusual character. Other
Crassulaceae present a similar type with modifications noted in
Rocheafalcata, Sempervivum Haivorthi, S. leucohlepharum, Sedum
deltoideum, S. oxypetalum, Crassula portulacea, C. ruhens, Jlm-
hilicus pendulinus. The Order is generally characterised by
the absence of liber, and of medullary rays in fully developed
wood ; by the presence of cords of soft, fibroid cells and vessels
(corresponding to isolated portions of the generative zone) in the
midst of the wood, and the prevalence of parenchymatous tissue,
giving the character of succulence to the group.

Begoniaceae. Link. H. F. Anatomia Plantarum, 1843, tab.
ii. 4-5. Figures of pith cells. — Treviranus, Bot. Zeit. 1847,
398. Ann. N. Hist. Ser. ii. i., 29. (Eeport by Henfrey.) On the
unsymmetrical arrangement of the wood-bundles in climbing
species. — Vaupell, C. liber d. peripherische Wachsthum d.
G-efassbiindel, &c. Leipsic, 1855, 28. tab. 1. — Hildebrand. De

314 OEIGIKAL ARTICLES.

Caulibus Begoniacearuin imprimis iis qui vasorum fasciculis in
pareuchymate medullari dispersis simt praediti, 1858. Berlin;
and also Anatomische Untersuchungen uber die Stiimme der
Begoniacien. BerHu, 1859. With 8 plates. Eeferring especially
to the structure of the wood-mass, presence of vascular bundles
in the pith (out of 128 species observed, 28 had medullary vas-
cular bundles), and course of the fascicles.

Umbellifeeae. Buzareingues, C. Gr. d., Ann. Sc. Nat. 1833. 30.
Sur I'ordre de distribution des fibres dans le corps central de la
tige, p. 347. — Jochmann, E. Gr. De Umbelliferarum Structura
et evolutione nonnulla. Breslau, 1855. § 3. The normal type
presents a wood-zone surrounding the pith, which latter in pro-
gress of grc^i^h disappears, leaving a cavity from node to node.
This wood-zone is usually continuous, traversed by very narrow
medullary rays and made up of primary fascicles formed by the
cambium of the bud and secondary ones subsequently developed.
The former each have two liber bundles opposed to them, the
latter but one bundle each. In Silaus pratensis the pith is
traversed by scattered vascular cords. — Hartig. Th. Bot. Zeit.
1859. 96. — Angelica, Cicuta. Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova
Acta, 1841, xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xxi.-ii. — AntJiriscus, Link. H. F.
Icones Anat. Bot. 1837. Fasc. ii. x. 6.* — Seracleum, Link. H.
F. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837. Fasc. ii. xii. 1-3.

AEAiiiACEAj:. Aralia 7'acemosa. Gray, A. Introd. Botany (1858,)
118. Vascular bundles in the pith (in note). — Hedera. linger,
Fr. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Parasit. Pflanzen, 1841, tab. vi.

LoEANTHACEAE. Kortlials, P. W. Verhand. over de op Java, &e.
verzamelde Loranthaceae, p. 210. — also Aanteekeningen o\'er
eenige Soorten van Loranthus in v. der Hoeven und Vriese,
Tydschrift, 1836. (stam.) p. 189. —W. Griffith. Parasitism
of. Linn. Trans, xviii. 78. — Karsten, H. Beitrag zur Ent-
wiekelungsgeschichte der. Bot. Zeit. 1852 (Holz.) 361. With
fig. — Viscum. Eaeser, Mem. sur Torganisation des plantes, 1814,
305, tab. 22.— Bischoff. Lehrbuch, ii. 62.— Link, H. F. Icones
Anat. Bot. 1837, fasc. ii. x. 7-8. Icones Selectae, 1842, fasc. iv.
viii. i. 7.— Unger, Frz. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Parasit. Pflanzen,
1841, tab. iii. vi. — Chatin, G. A. Anat. Comp. d. Veget. (Parasites)
tab. Ixxix.-lxxx. Plates only received. — Decaisne, M. De la Struc-
ture ligneuse du Gui. Compt. Eendus, 1839, 204. — also Me-
moire sur le Developpement du Pollen, de I'ovide et sur la
Structure des Tiges du Gui. Ext. Mem. Ac. Eoy. Bruxelles,
1839, xiii. With figures. The pith is immediately surrounded
by eight fascicles, corresponding to the inner edges of the eight
primary wood-bundles, these consist of elongated fibrous cells,
similar to those of the cortical liber fascicles ; they are accom-

* The root sti-ucture of other UmbclUfcrae is figured in ' Icones Selectae,' tab.
iii. & iv.

OLIVEE ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 315

paiiied by annular vessels. True spirals are not found either
sheathing the medulla or in the wood. The wood-bundles which
are traversed by extremely numerous and very narrow medullary
rays, are composed of stout, thick-walled, dotted fibres, amongst
which are scattered much longer, tubular, attenuated cells, with
thick, transparent walls destitute of markings. Opposite and
external to each of the eight ligneous fascicles are isolated bundles
of liber, plunged in the green parenchyma of the bark. These
liber-bundles, which do not increase with age, are attenuated
towards the extremities of each interuode of the stem, and are
not continuous through the articulations, where the wood-fibres
of the contiguous iuternodes interlace. M. Dutrochet was mis-
taken in supposing the joints to be separated by a transverse
layer of cellular tissue. — Willshire (Dr.) Contributions to Struc-
tural Botany, Ann. Nat. Hist. IS 42, ix. 84i. Confii^matory of
Decaisne's Observations on the Structure of the Nodes. — Pitra,
A. Ueber die Anheftungsweise einiger phanerogamen Parasiten
an ihre Nahrpflanzen. Bot. Zeit. 1861, 53. With figs. — Myzo-
dendron. E.. Browoi, Linn. Trans, xix. 231 (in note). — Dr. J. D.
Hooker in ' Elora Antarctica,' ii. 289, tab. cvii. ; Ann. Sc. Nat.
Ser. iii. 5, 193. In the important essay on the structure of this
genus a full account is given of the internal anatomy of M,
punctulatum and M. hrachystacliyum , also brief notices of that
of M. quadrifloruvi and M. linear if olium. The first two species
named difter so remarkably in structure, " that no one, from
an examination of their wood alone, would hesitate in pro-
nouncing them to be plants widely separated in a natural
system." In M. ptmctulatum there is no pith ; the axis is
formed of a dense, thick- walled proscnchymatous tissue of very
small cells, from which wedge-shaped plates are projected after
the manner of medullary rays into the surrounding tissue (the
zone usually occupied by prosenchyma in woody dicotyledons)
which is wholly, or almost wholly, formed of elongated tubes of
nearly equal diameter, dotted, annular, transversely barred, or
containing more or less interrupted spirals. Ordinary prosenchyma
and true spiral vessels were not observed either in the medullary
sheath or iimer portion of the annual layers. — -M. hradiystachyivm
has a pith of soft cellular tissue communicating with the bark by
broad medullary rays. These are separated by woody plates in
two concentric series, formed almost entirely of scalariform tissue,
with, sometimes, prosenchym ; the series are separated by a broad
belt of parenchyma. The formation of the two concentric wood-
zones is described at length (p. 299). — Chatin, Gr. A. Anat. Comp.
d. Vegetaux (Parasites), tab. Ixxiv.-vi. The anatomy of 3£.
hr achy st achy um, M. ohlongifolium, M. lineari/olium and M. punc-
tulatum, with sections showing the attachment of the parasite to
Fagiis. The text has not reached us. — Arceuthohiuvi oxijcedri.
Chatin, Gr. A. Anat. Comp. d. Yeget (Parasites), tab. Ixxvii. Text
N. H. R.— 1862. Z

S16 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

is not to hand. — Antidaj)hne viscoidea. Chatin, G. H. Anat.
Comp. d. Veget. (Parasites), tab. Ixxviii. Plate only received.

CoMPOSiTAE. — Arctium. Buzareiugues, C G. de. Ann. Sc. ]Srat,
1833. 30. tab. vi. — Arctium and Onopordon. Hartig, Th. Bot.
Zeit. 1859. 91. — Centaur ea. Chatin, Gr. A. Anat. Comp. d.
Vegetans. Livr. iii. 9. (In note) absence of medullary rays in.
—Dahlia. Mobl, H. v. Bot. Zeit. 1855. 889. On liber of.—
Helianthus tuherosos. Turpin, P. J. P. Svu" I'organisation inte-
rieure, &c. Mem. du Musenm, 1839. xix. 1.

Hamamelideae. Griffith, Asiatic Trans, xix. — BucJclandia, (p. 95)
Sedgeioickia (p. 99.) — Oliver, D. On Sycopsis. Linn. Trans,
xxiii. 83. AVith woodcuts. Observations based upon an exa-
mination of BucMandia, HJiodoleia, Trichocladns, Hamamelis,
Sycopsis, Eustigma, Distylium, Corylopsis and Liquidamhar, in
■wliich genera a close uniformity in respect to minute wood
structure was remarked. The discs of the prosenchyma are due
to the presence of minute lenticular cavities between the ad-
joining wood-cells ; the canals opposed on each side to these
cavities are almost invariably elongated laterally, though some-
times nearly circular and very minute. The wood is traversed
by numerous vessels which are generally transversely barred.
The medullary rays are numerous and narrow. — BucJclandia.
The markings on the prosenchyma are very distinct. The medul-
lary rays are numerous, usually one cell in diameter ; vertically
they are very variable in extent, commonly presenting 10-12
superimposed cells, though I have counted about 45. (D. O.)

CiNCHONACEAE. Weddell, H. A. Histoire Naturelle des Quin-
quinas. Paris. 1849, p. 18. Tab. i. ii. (C. Cali&aya) 24-30.
Also structure of the cortical layers of other species. The wood
presents annual zones traversed by medullary rays radially,
vertically by dotted vessels. Eadial, thin plates of thick-walled,
muriibrm parenchyma also occur, termed by M. Weddell, " faux
rayons meduUaires," and regarded by him as analogous Avith the
cellidar partitions in many liane stems. They occiu' in other
Hubiaceae. Large lacunes bounded by proper walls are found in
the pith. The liber cells are often of much wider diameter than
the cortical cells which they traverse, are very thick-Avalled, and
isolated, grouped 2-5 together or disposed in interrupted, radiating
plates. — Cincliona (succirubra and lueumaefolia). Klotzsch.
ilber d. Chinarinde. With plates. Abhand. K. Ak. Wiss.
Berliu, 1857, Q2.—Poederia. Mohl, H. v. IJeber d. Ban * *
der Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen. 1827, § 75. — Criiger,
H. Bot. Zeit. 1851, 470. On the structure of Sahicea hirta,
with figures.

EuBiACEAE. — Bubia tinctorum. Decaisne, J. Sur la Garance, Ee-
cherches Anatomiques et Physiologiques. Bruxelles, 1837. Stem
Structure, p. 19, tab. v. Anatomy of an etiolated stem, tab. vii.
— Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta. 1841, xviii. Suppl. ii.
tab. XX v.

OLIVER ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 317

Ebenaceae. — Biospyros Ehenum. Schacht, H. Der Baum. 198.
LoGANiACEAE. — Stri/chnos toxiferu. Large cords of extremely
tliiu-walled pareucliyma (ofteu more or less oblong transversely
to radius), traverse the wood. In these occur minute pris-
matic (?) crystals. (D. O.)
Campanulaceae. Payer. Bull. Soc. Bot. v. 3i3. Occurrence of
liber-fibres in the pith. — Ci/phea. Mohl, H. v. TJeber d. Bau
* * der Eanken- uud Schlingpflanzeu. Tubingen, 1827, § 75.
— Trachelimn. Link, H. P. Anatomia Plantarum, 1843. tab.
ii. 1-3.
MoNOTBOPAEAE. linger, Frz. Beitrage z. Kenntuiss d. Parasit.
Pflanzen, 1841, tab. ii. iii vi. — Chatin, Gr. A. Anat. Comp. d.
Vegetaux, Livr. ^^. 244. Stem structure is described in detail
in Fterospora Andromedea, Monotropa unijlora, Hypopitys lanu-
yinosa, H. multiflora, Schweinitzia odorata, Sarcodes sanguinea.
Tlae stem, distinguished from the rhizome, has its fibro-vascular
fascicles frequently separated by medullary plates, the vessels, of
various form, being collected into bundles Avithout having the true
spirals, (which are rarely wanting) arranged in a special zone
around the medulla, excepting in H. lamiyinosa. A distinct
fibro-cortical system fails both in the stem and rhizome.
vide also Compt. Eend. 1857, t. 44, 713.
Peimulaceae. Vaupell, C. Ueber d. peripherische Wachsthum d.

Grefassbiindel, &c. Leipzig, 1855, p. 5.
Mtesinaceae. — Edyeworthia. Ealconer, H. Linn. Trans, xix.

(lignum) 100.
Solan ACE AE. — Nicotimia. Eichard, A. Nouv. Elemens de Bo-
tanique, 1846. 130. On the structure of the cells of the medul-
lary rays.
Oleaceae. — 'Fraxinus. Link, H. F. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837.
Pasc. ii. XV. G, 7.— Schacht, H. Der Baum, Vdh.— Fraxinus
excelsior. Dippel, iiber die Entstehung und den Bau der Tiip-
fel. Bot. Zeit. 1850. 335, with figs. Eeferring to the pores in
the septa of the vessels.
Jasmin aceae. — Jasminum gracile. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau

* * der Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827. § 75.
Capbifoliaceae. — Samlucus nigra. Link, H. E. Anatomia planta-
rum, 1843. tab. V. — Sambucus, Viburnum. Mohl, H. v. Bot,
Zeit. 1855, 879-80. On lihev ol—Lonicera caprifolium. Mohl,
H. V. Ueber d. Bau * * Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen, Tubingen,
1827, § 75.
Apoctnaceae. — Echites, sp. Jussieu, Ad. de. Monograph des
Malpighiacees, p. 117. A structui^e similar to that of Gymnema
sylvestre. — ' Mulongo,' {Malouetia furfuracea, Spr. ft. grandifolia.)
This wood, used for fishing-floats on the Uaupes, consists of elon-
gated very thin- walled cells, many of them with transverse septa,
usually sparingly dotted, with here and there vertically super-
imposed series having their walls covered with miiuite dots.

z 2

318 OBIGIKAL AETICLES.

These do not differ in size or in other respects from the sur-
rounding tissue in which they appear as the representatives ot
vessels. In cross section the wood almost precisely resembles
that of Coniferae owing to the absence of ducts. Ihe me-
dullary rays are numerous.

'rn

)r=;/

jig 2

fig. J.

figS.

Fig. 1, longitudinal. Fig. 2, transverse sections of Mulongo ' wood.
Fig. 3, shows irregular thickenings of the cell-wall, more highly magnified.

— Nerium. Link, H. T. Anatomia plantarum, 1843, tab. viii.
l-^.—Vinca (Hber). Schacht, H. Pflanzenzelle. 217. t. 8.

As.cij'&viKD-E.KE.—Asdepias fndicosa. B. Mirbel, Elemens de Phys.
Veg. tab. xi. 2. — Gynanchum, Asclepias. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d.
Bau * * Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen, Tubingen, 1827, § 75.-—
Oymnema sylvestre. Jussieu, Ad. de. Monograph des Malpi-
ghiacees, p. 117. Under a thick, suberous layer is a second,
whitish cortical zone, which projects unequal, radial plates into
the woody axis, lobing its contour. — Iloya carnosa. Link, H. P.
Icones Anat. Bot. 1837. Fasc. ii. xii. 4-5. ■

CoNTOLTULACEAE. Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1850. p. 177. An
account of the structure of Argyreia speciosa, m detail. —
Jussieu, Ad. de. Monograph des Malpighiacees, p. 123. Convol-
vulus malaharicus. The wood is almost entirely composed of
large dotted tubes arranged in 8 or 9 concentric circles, sepa-
rated by as many cortical zones, which communicate with each

OLIVEU ON THE STEM OE DICOTYLEDONS. 319

other by irregular prolongations in a radial, oblique, or
sinuous direction. The structure of the root of G. Turpetlmm and
of the stem of one or two other undetermined Convolvnlaceae is
described.— Hartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 108. Wood cells in
bast. — Ipomaea. Mohl, H. v. XJeber d. Bau * * der Eanken-
und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. — Cuscuta europaea.
Unger, Fi"z. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. parasit. Ann. Wien. Mus.
ii. — Cuscuta. Unger, Erz. Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Parasit.
Pilanzen. 1841. tab. vi. — Chatiu, A, Compt. Eend. 1856. t. xlii,
269 . — also in Auatomie Comp. des Vegetaux. Livr. iii. i.
with figs. Noting the absence of medullary rays, of unreliable
spiral vessels and of a cortical fibrous layer. Modifications of
structure are described in C. Epith/mum, C. major, 0. densifiora,
C. reflexa, G. americana. In G. monogyna true spiral vessels
occur; also a zone of large dotted fibres.— Uloth, W. Beitrage
z. Physiologie der Cuscuteae. Flora, 1860, 257, 273, with figs.
The connection between the parasite and its prey is minutely
described. — Pitra, A. Ueber d. Anheftungsweise einiger phanerog.
Parasiten, Bot. Zeit. 1861, 72.

AcANTHACEAE. — Tliunlergia. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau * * der
Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75.

BiGNONiACEAE. Martius, von. Grelehrte Anzeigen. 1842, 390. —
Richard, Nouv. Elemens de Botanique, 1846, 152.— Biffnonia
Lindleijana. Mettenius. G-.,* Einige Beobachtungen liber den
Ban der Biguonien. Linnsea, 1847, 567. With 1 pi. The only
notable peculiarity in young shoots is presented by the liber, of
which four large bundles, isolated at right angles from each other,
traverse the outer layers of coi'tical parenchyma, forming longi-
tudinal ridges on the exterior of the stem. The rest of the liber
formation is deeper in the cortical cellular tissue. In cross
section of the adult stem it is found that the formation of the
wood-zone has been arrested at an early period, at foui* distinct
spaces in its circuit, each opposite to one of the isolated bast-
bujidles ; that, at these portions, the cambium layer appears
to have formed, principally, alternating zones of liber and paren-
chyma, while, over the rest, wood-cells and vessels have been
formed. The four alternating bark and wood formations are
separated radially by medullary rays of 3 or 4 series of cells,
between rows of which a fissure is found to have originated co-
extensive with the dissimilar formations. The wood is traversed
by wide-mouthed vessels, isolated, or in radially disposed groups ;
where these border on the pith, spiral vessels occur. — Treviranus,
Bot. Zeit. 1847, 398. Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. ii. 1. 129. On
structure of Bignonia capreolata. — Graudichaud. Guillemin's
Archives, ii. 501. PI. 19. — also in Eecherches sur I'organographie,
&c. des vegetaux, tab. xiv. 4. Other species of Bignoniaceae, tab.
xviii. 4-10.— Voyage de la Bonite. Bot. Atlas, tab. 132. 16, 17.
— Schleiden. Principles of Botany, 251-2. (with figs.)— Jussieu,

320 OttlGtNAL ARTICLES.

Ad. de. Monograph des Malpigliiacees, p. 118. Many of the
climbing species are remarkable from the very deep, longitudinal
channels in their wood-mass, filled by the cortical tissue, which
forms radiating plates from the circumference towards the centre.
Usually these plates are four in number. In Bignonia capreolata
(p. 119) the annual wood formations are separated by circles
of wide vessels. In older stems the origiaal, symmetrical,
4-lobate, woody axis becomes broken up, the four lobes being
separated by a cross of parenchymatous tissue, and each, deeply
groved in its margin, gives off into the cortical tissue ligneous
bvmdles which agaia unite and merge into the parent mass. Each
of the lobes retains a portion of the original medullary sheath at
its inner angle. Generally the Bignoniaceae are distinguished
by a symmetrical regularity. The invading plates and cones
(in cross section) of cortical tissue consist almost entirely of
liber. — Criiger, H. Einiger Beitrage z. Kenntniss von sogenann-
ten anomalen Holzbildungen des Dikotylenstammes. Bot. Zeit.
1850, 101. A detailed account of the structure of SpatJiodea
corymhosa, Bignonia unguis (liane species), with figures, and of
Tecoma ^-jphylla (arborescent.) — Bignonia. Lindley, J. Introd.
Botany, i. 213. Eigure of 4-lobed woody axis. — Schacht, H.
Lehrbuch. i. 342. ii. 59. Der Baum. 103.

BoEAGiNEAE. — BoTago. Cassini, H. Opviscules phytologiques, 182G,
ii. 517 — Crijger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1851, 468. On structure of
Tournefortia hirsutissima. — Pulmoiiaria, Omphalodes. Vaupell,
C. Ueber. d. peripherische Wachsthum d. Gefassbiinclel, &c.
Leipsic, 1855. 22, 2(5.

Labiatab. Mirbel, Mem. sur TAnatomie, &c. d. Labiees, Ann. du
Museum, 1810, xv. Tige, p. 223, with figures.— A. Kirchhoff, De
Labiatarum Organis Vegetativis commentarium Anatomico-Mor-
phologicum. Erfurti, 1861.

Verbekaceae. — Avicennia. — Scldeiden, Wiegmann's Arch., 1839,
pt. 3, A. N. H. iv. 245. The wood consists almost wholly of
porous vessels. Principles of Bot. 63. — Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet.
' Wood:— Pefrcsa. Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1857, 305. Structure
of the wood of. Also Tectona, p. 304.

ScEOPHULAEiACEAE. — Bliinantlieae. Chatiii, A. Comptcs rcndus.
1857, 470, and Ami. Nat. Hist. Ser. ii. 19, 331. Bull. Soc.
Bot. iii. 14. — also in Anat. Comp. d. Vegetaux, Livr. 5, 137,
with plates. Various modifications of stem-structure are de-
scribed in detail in Oholaria virginica, Castilleja arvensis,
Schalbea americana, Bartsia viscosa, B. lati/olia, B. olpina,
B. chilensis, Trixago Apula, Odontites rtihra, O. Jaubertiana,
O. UUea, O. longijlora, Euphrasia ojjicinalis, E. minima, E. tricuspi-
data, E. alpina, E. speciosa, E. pahulosa, Gymbaria dahurica,
BJiinantlius glabra, RltyncJiocorys Elephas, Pediciilaris palustris,
P. sglvatica, P. Ferrotetii, P. vertieillata, P. foUosa, P. comosa,
P. scepimm-Carolinum, P. striata, P. grandijlora, Ilelampyrum

OLITEE ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 321

arvense, M. cristatum, M. prateiise, Tozzia alpina. A true fibro-
cortical system is generally absent in tlie Rhrnantlieae. In
several genera tlie medullary sheatli becomes confounded or con-
fused witb the ligneous zone, wliicb is destitute of medullary
rays, excepting in the rhizomes of some species of Fedicularis.
General observations on the anatomy oi Bhinantlieae {vide p. 209).
— Pitra, A. iiber d. Anheftungsweise einiger phanerog. Parasiten,
Bot. Zeit. 1861, 65, with figures. — Orobancheae. Unger. Frz.
Beitrage z. Kenntniss d. Parasit. Pflanzen, 1811, tab. iii. —
Duchartre, Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iii. 47-1. Compt. Eend. 1844, i,
93. — Lory, Ch. Observations sur la Eespiration et la Structure des
Orobanches, &c. Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iii. viii, 15, 165. Present a
central pith passing insensibly into the ligneous zone ; medullary
sheath and rays are absent. The narrow wood-zone is made up
of triangular fascicles of elongated, thick- walled cells, surrotmd-
ing annular and unreliable spiral vessels. — Henfrey, A. On
the Structure and Habits of the Orobanchaceae. Ann. Nat.
Hist. Ser. ii. iii. 29. — Chatin. A. Compt. Eend. 1856, tab.
xlii. 792. — Anatomie Comp. des Vegetaux, Livr. iii. 44, with
plates. The stem-structure is described in Orobanclie crue^ita, O.
JSpithymum, O. Galii, O. pruinosa, O. Teucrii, O. ainethystea. —
Phelipeae, p. 66, P. ramosa, P. indica, P. arenaria, P. coerulea. —
Epipliegus, p. 78, E. Virginianus. — Conopliolis, p. 81, C. ameri-
cana. — AnoplanthicSy p. 84, A. uniflorus, A. comosus, A. Bieber-
steinii. — Clandestina, p. 89, C. rectiflora. — Lathrcea, p. 95, L,
Squamaria. — Poschniakia, p. 99, P. glabra. — Aeginetia, p. 103,
jE. indica. — Hyobanclie, p. 105, H. sanguinea. General observa-
tions on the Anatomy of Orobanchaceae, p. 108. In Orobanche
the vascular bundles form a series of bundles in the midst of a
continuous layer of woody fibres ; in Philipcea the slender
woody fibres are exterior to the vascular bundles of the stem.
Conopholis and Epiphegus have their fibro-vascular bundles
isolated by medullary plates. Spiral vessels are absent in the
vegetative organs of Gtandestina and Lathrcea ; the number and
form, in section, of the vascular biuidles differ in these genera.
In PoschniaJcia the fibro-vascular system is traversed by medul-
lary rays. Aeginetia and Hyobanclie have the fibro-vascular
bundles isolated by parenchyma ; these genera differ from true
Orobancheae in the form and arrangement of their fascicles in
the rhizome. — Latliraea Squamaria. Bowman, J. E. On the
Parasitical Connection of, &c. Limi. Trans, xvi. 399. — Ducharti'e,
M. Anatomical and Organogenical Researches on L. Clandestina.
Ann. Nat. Hist. 1845, xv. 410. Eemarking the absence of
medullary sheath, of spiral vessels, and of medullary rays. The
arrangement of the vessels (reticvilated or dotted) in the wood-
zone is described. — also Observations sur la, in Mem. Sav.Etraug.
X. 1847, with plates. A detailed account of the anatomy. — Chatin,
A., Anatomie du L. Squamaria comparee a celle du Clandestina

322 OBIGES'AL AETICLES.

rectiflora. Bull. Soe. Bot. iii. 24:2.— Clatidestina. Chatin, A., Bull.
Soc. Bot. iii. 242. — Lathraea. Pitra, A. iiber d. Anheftuugsweise
eiaiger phanerog. Para-siteu. Bot. Zeit. 1861, 64, with figures. — -
Fhilipaea. Pitra. A. iiber d. Anheftungsweise einiger plianerog.
Parasiten. Bot. Zeit. 1S61, 72.

Saltadobaceae. — Salradora persica. The arrangement of the wood-
tissues is remarkable, and deserves examination. (D. 0.)

PLVMBAGrsTAE. Ebel, AV. De Armeriae genere Prodromus, 1840.
— Armeria, Plumbago. De eaide, p. 6 — Plumbago. — Bameoud, F.
M. Sur le Developpement des Plantaginees et des Plumbaginees,
Paris, 1844, 26. tab. ii. 26. — also Entnickelung und den Bau der.
Compt. Eendus, 1844, Juli 30. — Oliver, D. Observations on the
Structure of the Stem in certain species of the jS^atural Orders
Carvophyllaceae and Plumbagineae, Liroi. Trans, xxii. 292, with
figures. The wood of Armeria maritima, Acantholimon diapen-
sioides, and perhaps Statice arhorea, is destitute of medullary
rays. In the latter species the pith is traversed by cords of thick-
waUed tissue. The arrangement of the wood in species of Acan-
tholimon is described. In A. diapensioides and Statice arhorea,
apparently minute intercellular cavities were observed in the
wood-prosenchyma. — Statice. Hartig. Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 96.
Structure of the wood, and absence of medullary rays.

Pla^ttagentlae. Barneoud, P. M. Sur le Developpement, &c., des
Phmtaginees. Paris, 1844, p. 14, tab. i. 2S. — Flantago. Endlicher
and Unger. Grrundziige d. Botanik, 101. Vascular bundles
scattered thi'ough parenchyma of stem.

PoLTGOXACEAE.^ — Fohjffonum.' Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau * * der
Eanken-und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. — Link,H. F.
Icones Anatomico-Botanicae, 1837. Fasc. i. tab. iv. 5-10. — Uti-
mex, Rheum. Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose, JSTova Acta. 1841, x-viii.
Suppl. ii. tab. XV.

jS'rcTAGLN'EAE. Meyer, E. H. F. De Houttuynia, &c. 1827, p. 40.—
Unger. Fr. TJeber d. Bau und d. "Wachsthum des Dicotyledoneu-
stammes.* St. Petersburg, 1840, with plates. Link, Jahresber.
1840. In Mirahilis, the author distinguishes a double vas-
cular system — an inner and an outer. The former is simple,
consisting of a vascular zone and its included central vascular
bundles which pass into the leaves. The latter is made up of several
superimposed vascular belts, formed independently of each other
and of the former, and connected only by anastomosis. — Martins,
von ; Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1842, 391. — Liudley, J. Teg. Kingdom,
507.— Schleiden, Principles of Botany, 251.-^Heufrey, Mic. Diet.
'Wood,' on Pisonia. — Boerhaavia. Lindley, J. Observations on

* In Section viii. of this treatise, based upon the investigation of wood-structure
in Salix, Unger discusses the relations of the inner and outer series of vascular
bundles in woody Dicotyledons, and their relation to the svstem of herbaceous
rpecies, &c.

OLITEE ON THE STEM OF 1IIC0TTLED0>'S. 323

pith of B. repanda. Introd. Botany, i. 192, also in Penny Cy-
clop. X. Exogens. — Mirahilis. Bernliardi. Ueber Pfl. Grefasse,lS05,
12, 20, tab. 1. fig. 1. — BischofF, Lehrbuch, ii. Q^.—Fisonia, S(c.
Sclileiden, "Wiegmann's Arcbiv. 1839, 223. — Lindlev, J. Introd.
Botany, i. 215. witb fig.-Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1850. p. 164
Observations on Structure of Fisonia. — Eegnault, Ann. So. Xat.
Ser. iv. xiv. 144. Pisoniafragrans. Witbiu the double, cellular,
cortical layer, is a fibrous circle, often interrupted, however, and
eometimes concealed by the crystalline concretions which abound
in this part. The wood is divided by a few medullary rays, each
consisting of a single row of cells "with dotted walls. The wood
prosenchyma is thick- walled and finely dotted ; its mass present-
ing, in cross- section, a series of rounded spaces, elongated parallel
to the circumference, and disposed so as to form interrupted con-
centric circles around the pith. In each of these islets in the
wood are found two layers — the outer (towards the bark) of
tolerably large and rather long cells ; the inner, elongated, fibroid,
and closely packed — together recalling the arrangement of tissue
in the generative zone. The vessels are always disposed on the
inner face of these islets, where they form irregular, radiating trains,
plunged in the wood-prosenchyma. Isolated fibro-vascular bundles,
corresponding to those found scattered through the wood, aro
found in the pith. Their structure is described in detail. Oxy-
haphus viscosus and Mirabilis present essentially the same struc-
tiu'e ; the liber-fibres, however, seem absent in the former.
CHEyoPODiACEAE. — Chenopodium. Link, H. F. Ann. du Museum,
1812, xix. 339. Note on.— Elementa, Phil. Bot. 1837, i. 245.—
Bischoff, Lehrbuch, ii. 57. — Unger, Fr. Ueber d. Ban, &c. de^
Dicotyledonen-Stammes. St. Petersburg, 1840, with plates. — Link,
Jahresb. 1840. Absch. atI. Structure and growth of Chenopodia-
eeae (and Amaranthaceae). As in Nyctajineae, there occurs a
double vascular system. An interior in the pith and immediately
around it, continuous through the entire stem, and supplying the
appendicular organs with vessels : and an exterior system, essen-
tially distinct from the former in its composition, likewise con-
tinuous through and proper to the stem, especially forming the
wood-mass. — Beta. G-audichaud, Eecherchessurrorganograpliie,
&c. des Yegetaux, tab. xii. 1-4 — Schacht, H. PflanzeuzeDe, 2^3,
t. XT. — Brongniart, A. and others. Eej)ort on Mem. of M. De-
caisne ' Eecherches sur I'organisation anatomique de la Betterave,'
Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. ii. 11, 49. — Liudley, J. \e^. Kingdom, 512-3.
Schacht, H. Pflanzenzelle, 283. — Anohasis {Haloxi/lon), Ammoden-
dron. M. Basiner, iiber. — in ' Eeise durch die Kirgisensteppe,'
in Baer und Helmersen's Beitrage, z. Eenntniss d. Euss. Eeiches.
XV. 93. — C. A. V. Grernet. Notizen iiber den Bau des Holzkor-
pers einiger Chenopodiaceen. Moscow Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat.
1859, 164, with 1 plate. — Chenopodium album and Sahola Kali
agree in the absence of liber and of medullary rays, in the presence

324 OEIGINAL AETICXES.

of continuoua woody zones, and of cambium tissue between its
several layers. The wood of the Salsola appears, in cross section,
to be spirally continuous, unlbldiug itself from the pith outwards,
so that a line drawn radially crosses several (five are figured) of
its folds. The coils are separated by a continuous cambium-layer,
Avhich, on approaching the periphery, divides, enclosing several
scattered vascular bundles. The vessels are chiefly disposed to-
wards the exterior margin (towards the bark) of the Avood-spiral.
Modifications of a structure, essentially the same as in the above
species, presented by JELaloxylon, Ammodendron, Atriplex, Halimus,
and Halostachys caspia, are described. (In the Atriplex, M.
Eegnault states M. Gernet to have found thirty alternating zones
of wood and generative tissue. I do not find him saying so : he
figures a smaller number. But in speaking of the structure of the
'false' medullary rays of this species he points out that these con-
sist of as many as thirty vertically superimposed cells, which appa-
rently confirms their character as medullary rays, but as they are
absent in the inner layers of the wood he cannot accept them as
such. D. 0.) In Halostachys, the parenchymatous rays, resembling
medullary plates, found in Atriplex are absent. The wood occurs
in concentric zones, apparently answering to years of growth, al-
ternating with corresponding parenchymatous rings Im-
portant general observations are aifixed, and attention called to
the manifold variety in the arrangement of the cambium system
in the various types of structure exhibited by the difierent genera.
M. Gernet calls wood in which the alburnum and duramen are
readily distinguishable 'heteroxylous,' — those in which the distinc-
tion is not apparent ' homoxylous.' — Hartig, Th. Eot. Zeit. 1859,
108. Wood of — Eegnault, Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 133. Closely
resemble Amarantaceae in respect of the arrangement of parts.
They tend to differ in the structiu^e of the epiderm and suberous
layers. Medullary rays are absent. Campliorosma monspeliaca
is said to differ remarkably from the rest of the family ; its struc-
ture is not detailed.
Amaeantaceae. Link, H. F. Ann. du Museum, 1812, xix. 339.
Note on. — Amarantus. Link, H. P. Icoues Anat. Bot. 1837,
Paso. ii. X. 4-5. — linger, Fr. vide Chenopodiaceae, (linger) supra.
— Lindley, J. Veg. Kingdom, 510.— Ilartig, Th. Bot. Zeit. 1859.
108. Wood of — Eegnault, Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv. xiv. 127.
Lestihudetia syphilitica offers an luiinterrupted liber- circle of
thin cells in groups of two or three : wood distributed into more
or less completely concentric zones, separated by belts of a com-
position identical with that of the outer generative layer and des-
titute of vessels. The vessels, marked by delicate punctuations
disposed in transverse lines, are arranged in radiating series
amongst the wood-prosenchyma, the cells of which are slightly
dotted. The structure oi Amarantus spinosa, and of an unknown
Mexican Amarantacea, is described. They all agree in the presence

OLIVER ON TUE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 325

of liber ; of a generative layer composed of two kinds of elements,
masses of whicli ai'e also variously disposed in tlie wood ; of me-
dullary rays, and intra-medullary, fibro-vascular fascicles. Dee-
ringia difters remarkably in some respects, tlie wood consisting of
isolated, fibro-vascular bundles, completely surrounded by pa-
renchyma, in wliich they are arranged in concentric circles. These
bundles are separated radially by the broad medullary rays, con-
centrically by layers of cells apparently proceeding from them
and identical with them in structure.

Phttolaccaceae. — Phytolacca dioica. Martins, C. Dela Croissance
du Bel Sombra. Eev. Hort. 1855, 122. Noting the formation
of seven ligneous layers in five months, in the stem. — Treviranus,
L. C. Noch Etwas iiber den Stammbau der Phytolacca dioica. Bot.
Zeit. 1856, 833. The spongy wood consists of concentric, unequal
fibrous layers, separated by intermediate zones of cellular tissue.
Vascular bundles occur in the pith. Tlie structure of the wood-
zones, &c. is briefly described, and compared with that of allied
orders. — Nageli, C. Beitrage z. Wissenschaft. Botanik, i. 14. Tlie
structure of the stem is minutely described ; it is selected as the
type of those Dicotyledons which possess successively limited
rings of cambium tissue ia ' Epenchyma.' — Regnaidt, Ann. Sc.Nat.
Ser. iv. xiv. 139. Phytolacca icosandra. The fibres of the corti-
cal zone exterior to the 'couche generatice' terminate abruptly by
plane surfaces . The wood consists of fibro-vascular masses, which
regularly alternate with the medullary rays ; these are nearly
equal to them in size, composed of thickened cells pierced with
numerous minute canals. The woody bundles are formed of much
thickened and very minutely dotted parenchyma. Young stems
have but one wood zone ; in older stems another is superimposed,
with this remarkable alternation that the fibro-vascular bundles of
the external zone continue the medullary rays of the inner. P. escu-
lenta presents a similar structure. Rivina laevis is also described.

EuPHORBiACEAE. — Euphovhia. Schultz, C. H. Die Cyklose, Nova
Acta, 184'1, xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. v. vi. — E. erosa. Link. H. F.
Anatomia Plantarum, 1843, tab. ix. 4, x. xi. — Schacht, H. Die
Sogenannten MUchsaft-Gefasse der Euphorbiaceen u. s. w. sind
Milchsaft fiihrende, nicht selten verzweigte Bastzellen. Bot.
Zeit. 1851, 513. Bast-cells of.— Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1850,
126. Observation on Structure of Omphalea. — Buxus. Baillon,
H. Monographic des Buxacees, 1859, 8. The relation of the
quadrangular form of the stem to the development of woody
fascicles in the cortical layers from each pair of leaves. The
structure of the adult wood is described and figiu'cd. — Pachy-
sandra, p. 10. Structure of the rhizome. — Buxus. Schacht, H.
Der Baum, 195. — Sarcococca, Baillon, H. Monographic des
Buxacees et des Stylocerees, 1859. Structure des rameaux, p. 7.
The stem presents the usual anatomical structure of Dicotyledons.

Garryaceae. Lindley, J. Bot. Register, xx. 1686. also Ann. Sc.

326 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Nat. ii. Ser. ii. 157. The wood is destitute of concentric zones, con-
sisting chiefly of dotted tubes, traversed by a few annular or
reticulated vessels, and disposed in plates separated by broad,
radial, medidlary processes. — Lindley, J. Veg. Kingdom, 295.

Phytoceekeai;. — P. gigantea. Griffith, W., in Wallich's ' Plantae
Asiaticae Eariores,' iii. 11, pL 216, and in Grriffith's ' Icones,'
ccccxc. No description farther than references to plates. The
'medullary rays,' so-called, are represented as symmetrically
disposed, enormously thick, and at equal distances apart ; in a
young stem about 9 in number. They are composed of elon-
gated, tapering cells, traversed by barred vessels. The wood is
very porous, from numerous, wide, slit-marked ducts immersed
in its dotted prosenchyma. Distinct concentric zones form in
the wood, each with its own ' rays,' which are independent of
those of the adjoining zones. — P. macrocarpa. Grriffith, Notulae,
iv. 324.— Treviranus Bet. Zeit. 1847, 400. Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser.
ii. i. 131. (Report by Henfrey.) Jvissieu's arguments do not dis-
prove the view that the plates projecting inwards from the bark-
layers originate in the liber. — P. palmata. A. de Jussieu. Monog.
des Malpighiacees, 122. The soHd, radially-disposed plates
(regarded by Griffith as medullary rays) M. Jussieu considers
to belong to the wood system, and that they form the innermost
portion of a second ligneous ring which would develop concen-
trically, exterior to the first. — Lindley, J. Introd. Botany, i. 211.
with fig. — Mettenius, on Structure of Fhytocrene. Beitrage zur
Botanik, 1850, p. 50. — Mohl. H. v. Einige Andeutungen iiber
den Ban des Bastes. Bot. Zeit. 1855. Referring to the vertical
plates traversing the wood, which the author considers to corre-
spond to the liber-plates of Bignonia. — Eadlkofer, L. TJeber das
anomale Wachsthum des Stammes bei Menispermeen. Flora,
1858, 206.

Lacistemaceae. Schnitzlein in Martins, ' Flora Brasil.' p. 280.

Platanaceae. Link, H. P. Pecherches sur 1' Anatomic des Plantes.
Ann. du Museum, 1812, xix. 340, with figs. — Platanus orientalis.
B. Mirbel. Elemens de Physiologie Vegetale, 1815, tab. ix. 1.
— P.occidentalis. Gray, A. Introd. Botany, 1858,37 (figs.) —
Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood,' and Elements of Botany,
534 and fig.— Schacht, H. Der Baum, 200.

Coeylacea-E. — Quercus. Kieser. Mem. sur TOrganisation des
Plantes, 1814, tab. xiv.— Mirbel. Mem. du Museum, 1828, xvi.
(fig.) — Buzareingues. Ann. Sc. Nat. xxx. tab. vii. 1, viii. & ix.
— Mohl, H.v.Ueber die EntA\dckel. des Korkes, &c., 1836.— Du-
trochet, I'lnstitut. No. 192.— Bischoft; Lehrbuch, tab. ii.— Mohl.
H. V. Ueber den Wieder-ersatz des Korkes bei Q. Suher. Bot.
Zeit. 1848, 361. — Hoftinann, H. Zur Kenntniss des Eichenholzes,
Flora, 1848, 369, 1 pi. A detailed account of the general and
minute structure of the pith, wood, medullary rays, and cortical
layers of Q. pedunculata. — Fagus. Mirbel. Mem. du Museum

OLIVEE ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDONS. 327

1828, xvi. 31 (fig.)— Ti-evir anus, L. C. Pliyslol. d. Gcwachse,
1835, i. tab. iii. 34-6.— Mohl. H. v. Bot. Zeit. 1855, 880. On
liber of. — Fagus, Carpitnis, Quercus. Hartig. Bot. Zeit. 1859, 94,
Ql. — Fagus Porsteri. J. D, Hooker, ilora Antarctica, i. 300,
t. cvii. 1 L and 12.— Corijlus. Carpenter. The Microscope, 1856,
434 (fig.) — Corylaceae, several genera. Scliacht, H. Der Bauin,
191-8. — Henfrey, A. Micr. Diet. ' Wood.' {Fagus, Carpimis,
Quercus).

Betulaceae. — Betula. Link, H. T. Elementa Phil. Bot. 1837,
tab. iv. 1. — Betula alba. Link, H. P. Icones Anat. Bot. 1837,
fasc. i. vi. 4-15. — Schulz, C. H. Die Cyklose. Nova Acta. 1841.
xviii. Suppl. ii. tab. xxxiii.— Mohl. H. v. Bot. Zeit. 1855, 880. On
liber of. — Henfrey, A.Microg. Diet. (Salix, Populus, Hazel, Alder)
' Wood,' — also Schacht, H. Der Baum, 198. — Salix (vide note
p. 25.) Unger, Fr. TJeber d. Ban, &c. des Dicotyiedonen-Stammes,
St. Petersbiu-gh, 1840, Absch. viii.

Lafbaceab. Nees v. Esenbeck. Systema Laurinearum, 1836. Brief
mention of wood structure, p. 6. — Laurus Sassafras. Kieser.
Mem. surl'Organisation des Plantes, 1814, tab. xiii. — Hernandia.
Schacht, H. IJeber eigenthiimliche * * * Erscheinungen in den
Verdickungs-schichten gewisser Holz-zellen. Bot. Zeit. 1850, 697.
On the wood cells ot— Cassyta. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Ban * * *
der Eanken- und Schlingpflanzen. Tubingen, 1827, § 75. —
Chatin, A. Compt. Eend. 1856, tab. 42, 329, Anatomie Comp.
des Vegetaux, Livr. iii. 27, with figs. Modifications of structure
are described in Cassgtha hrasiliensis, C. casuarinae, C. filiformis,
C. glabella and C. trijlora. UnroUable spiral vessels appear to be
wanting, except in the last two species. Medullary rays and
liber are absent.

MoNiMiACEAE. Tidasne, L. E. Monographia Monimiacearum.
Ai'ch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. viii. 1855, 282. The slender prosen-
chyma cells are irregularly dotted, and traversed by vessels of
very variable diameter, slit-marked or dotted.

Santalaceae. — Thesiacees. Chatin, Anatomie. Comp. d. Yegetaux,
Li^r. 9% 297 (with plates). The stem-structure is described in
detail in Thesium Immifusum and 8 other species, in Comandra,
Fusanus, Leptomeria, Arjona, Quinchamalium, Choreirum, JVa-
nodea, Osyris, Henslovia, 5 spp., Santalum, 4 spp., Mida, Plioi-
acarpos, Pyrularia {Sphoerocarya), Myoscliylos, Suchleya, An-
thobolus, Exocarpus. Nanodea differs anatomically from other
Santalaceae. Its ligneous system does not form a continuous
zone, but is usually very irregularly broken up into segments by
interposed parenchymatous processes. It consists (1) of dotted
prosenchyma radially disposed ; of (2) other fibrous cells, some
square, some compressed in section, also radially disposed, and
separating the former ; and (3) a few dotted vessels. Spirals are
absent (?) In BucMeya the fibro-cortical bundles, in an annual
stem forming almost a continuous circle, subsequently become

328 OEIGIKAL ARTICLES.

broken up into isolated portions, vnth increase of the stem in
diameter. The annual (?) wood formations are regularly formed
of two broad, concentric belts, the inner vascular, the outer prosen-
chymatous. Medullary rays are numerous. (The conclusion of
the Santalaceae has not yet reached us.) — Chatin, A. Sur 1' Ana-
tomic des. Bull. Soc. Bot. iv. 978. The stem structure of the
following genera is described — Arjona, Quinchamalium, Naywdea,
Osyris, vol. v. 39. — Cervantesia. Anat. Comj). d. Yegetaux
(Parasites), tab. Ixxiii. 7, 8. Tlie text has not reached us. —
Osp'is. — Planchon. Bull. Soc. Bot. v. 289, 446, also in Compt.
Eend. July 20, 1858 and Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. iii. 2, 225.—
Henslovia. Lindley, J. Bot. Eegister xx. 1686. The wood is
regularly zoned, filled with dotted ducts like those of JJlmus. —
Thesium. Pitra, A. ilber d. Anheftungsweise einiger phanerog.
Parasiten. Bot. Zeit. 1861, 69, with figs.

Thtmelaceae. — Daphne. Link, H. F. Anatomia Plantarum, 1843.
Tab. viii. 6. A'arious forms of liber-cells. — Aquilaria AgaUocha?
'Aquila Wood.' Certain scattered cords of tissue, in section
elongated transversely to radius, traverse the wood (which ia
other respects agrees with the ordinary structure of Dicotyledons.)
Their muiute structure requires further examination. (D. 0.)

Peoteaceae. — Dryandra, Hakea. Link, H. P. Icones Selectee,
1839. Fasc i. vii. 3-10.— Criiger, H. Bot. Zeit. 1851. 471.
Observations on structure of Rhopala.

Aeistolochiaceae. Mohl, H. v. Ueber d. Bau * * der Eanken-
und Schliugpflanzen. Tubingen. 1827. § 75. — Aristolochia
lahiosa. Graudichaud, in Guillemin's Ai'chives, ii., 501, pi. 19.
1833. — J. Decaisne. Sin* les Lardizabalees. Arch, du Museum,
1839, i. 143, with figures. A. Labiosa, p. 152. The woody
bundles are formed of porous tubes of various diameter, irregu-
larly intermixed. Each bundle divides like the rays of a fan.
There is no trace of concentric zones. The liber occurs in iso-
lated fascicles, immersed in the cortical parenchyma, each corres-
ponding to a division of the wood mass. — .4. SipJio, p. 153.
Annual zones are obvious, owing to the formation of the wider
vessels in the early growth of wood of each year. The medullary
rays are numerous. The liber, at first continuous, becomes broken
up into bundles and isolated with age in the cortical cellular tissue.
— A. Clematitis exhibits an arrangement of woody bundles,
similar to that presented by A. lahiosa. — Lindley, J. Yeg.
Kingdom, 793, fig. — JSchleiden. Principles, 253. — Duchartre, P.
Compt. Rend. 1854, t. 38, 1141. — Asarum (1142), Bragantia
(114i2), Aristolochia (1143). The stem of -4. cgtnbifera, presents a
compressed inth, surrounded by a fibro-vascular zone, in the
fascicles of which the large vessels are irregularly scattered. The
liber-zone, at first continuous, is progressively divided into
numerous small bmidles, which do not stand in any relation of
number or position to the wood-bundles. — In A. Sipho the large

OLIVEB ON THE STEM OF DICOTYLEDOXS. 329

dotted vessels are arranged in concentric circles, resembling
annual zones, but corresponding to different periods of vegetation.
— Asarum. Yaupell, C. iiber d. peripherische Wachstbum d.
Gefassbiiudel, &c. Leipsic, 1855, 25. — Asij)Jionia. Griffith, Linn.
Trans, xix. 334.
Nepenthaceae. Kortbals, P. "W. Over bet Geslacbt NepentJies,
in Temminck's A'erbandel. 1839-42, witb numerous figs, tabb.
XX, xxi. The anatomy of JSf. ampidlaria is minutely described.
The adult stem presents a tolerably "wide, parenchymatous pith,
traversed vertically by isolated spiral vessels, woody bundles,
with primary medullary rays, and a series of inosculating
secondary plates, one cell in thickness, forming an irregular net-
work between the primary rays. Tlie wood-bundles consist of
dotted prosench}Tna with, especially towards the periphery, rather
wide, dotted vessels ; towards the pith spiral vessels occur scat-
tered through the prosenchyma. Exterior to the cambimn-layer
is a rather thick belt of spiral vessels; others are found scattered
through the cortical parenchyma. — Treviranus. Ueber einiger
Arten anomalischer Holzbildung bei Dicotyledonen. Bot. Zeit.
1S17. 400.— Henfrey. On Progress of Physiol. Bot. A. N. H. 2 ser.
i. 131. Bark, Avood, liber, and pith are full of spiral-fibrous cells.
— Lindley, J. Introd. Botany, i. 211. J^. distillatoria. The
pith abounds in spiral vessels ; a dense layer of Ligneous tissue
occupies the place of the medullary sheath. There are no me-
dullaiy rays, and the wood has no concentric zones. Between
the wood and bark is a thicb parenchymatous layer, " in which
an immense quantity of very large spiral vessels is found." Veg.
Kingd. 287.— Miquel, P. A. W. Joum. Bot. Ned. 1861. p. 278.

(To be concluded in, our next.)

XXX. — Eemaeks on the Teanslation of the fiest chaptee
OF Aeistotle's Histoey of Animals. By John Scouler,
M.D. F.L.S.

It is to be regretted that we have no English translation of the
History of Animals, and that a work which should be studied by
every naturalist, is inaccessible to all Avho are not acquainted with
the original language.* The French translation of Camus is as good
as an excellent scholar could render it who was ignorant of Natural
History. The Germans possess not only a translation of the
Natural History, but also one of the treatise on comparative
Anatomy (De Partibus). The translation of the Natural History is

* This article was written before the appearance of Sir. Cresswell's Translation,
recently published Ijy Mr. Bohn. — (Ed N. H. E.)

830 OEIGETAL AETICLES.

by Dr. Strack, and is a faithful version of the text, but with very
few notes. The English version, by Taylor, we have not seen,
and if the Stagyrite has not met with better usage at his hands
than Plato and Plotinus have done, our loss is small. As Lobeck
savs of him, "saepe grammaticam, saepissime sensmn pervertit."

The qualifications required on the part of a translator of the
Natural Historv of Aristotle, are much more varied than those
which suffice for rendering an ordinary classic into a modem
tongue. In translating such a work, the scholarship is the smallest
difficulty, as the language is the easiest to master of any Greek
author, and the text is now nearly as perfect as it ever can be. In
executing a translation, the edition by Schneider should be chosen,
as being the one naturalists are in the habit of consulting, and
because it is followed by a Latin translation, and a valuable apparatus
of notes and dissertations, and we may add, because the editor was
both an able naturalist, and a learned scholar. But while Schneider
should ser\'e as the basis, a constant reference should be had to the
more recent and amended text of Eitter.

An indispensable requisite on the part of a translator is, that he
should possess the most familiar acquaintance with the other Aris-
totelian treatises on the physical sciences. He must know not
merely the Greek language, but the Aristotelic language, and be
master of his philosophy of nature. In the History of Animals
there are many things which are but briefly indicated, and apparently
out of all natural connection with the subject, which can only be
understood by the more copious illustrations to be found in other
works. To understand the natural history, we must consult the
long series of treatises from the Meteorology to the De Atdma. Of
the danger of neglecting this we shall soon have to give examples. In
addition to this, an extensive knowledge of zoology and comparative
anatomy is essential. In this respect such knowledge as is drawn
from books alone is insufficient ; the translator must be a practical
anatomist, and from long experience, skilful in the diagnosis of
species. "With this preliminary discipline, even a moderate amount
of scholarship will enable a naturalist to overcome difficulties which
would perplex a Scaliger or a Bentley. Unless he know the structure
of the ovum of the cuttle-fish, the history of the Hectocotyle, the
envelopes of the embryo in the different classes, he will find great
difficiilties in mastering the text of Aristotle.

It is time to apply these remarks to the translation of the first
chapter of the History of Animals, which appeared in the la.st
number of the Eeview. We are surprised to find the word ravpa
translated 7ierve. Xow in Aristotle and all authors before him up to
Homer, this word is never used in the sense of our English word
nerve, it always means ligament or tendon. This is a serious error ;
for a knowledge of the nervous system was the weakest point in the
anatomy of the Stagyi-ite. Of the nerves he knew almost nothing ;
and it was Erasistratus, said to have been the grandson of our philo-

SCOULER OX TEAXSLATIXG ARISTOTLE. 331

sopher, who first recognised the character of the nerves, and traced
their origin to the brain and spinal marrow. A gain, p. 144. lleview, we
have in the translation " salt-water and fresh-water marshes." Now
there is not a word about salt-water in the original ; the proper
rendering is lakes and marshes. If the translator had turned to
YI. 13, he would have found that if salt-water marshes be correct,
then the Perch, the Carp, and the Silurus are marine fishes. At
p. 145, the Greek word IkvcnrairriKa, is, strangely enough, translated
wriggling. Aristotle is classifying the different modes of locomotion
as flying, walking, and swimming, and then adds the ilyspastic as a
species of the genus. This error is suq^rising, as the precise meaning
of the term is given by Aristotle himself. If we consult the treatise
de Incessu, we find it signifies to crawl like an earth-worm, and
expresses the mode of progression of gasteropods, caterpillars, and
worms.

It is surpi-ising that the translator should find any difficulty
respecting the two well-known words tlcoc and yiroc, of such frequent
employment in the ^\Titijigs of Aristotle, and so familiar to both
naturalists and metaphysicians. It is true they are sometimes used
rather loosely in the History of Animals, but this seldom gives rise
to any difficulty. The Avord dloc, in the language of Aristotle,
signifies not merely form but species, and also the essence of a
thing, that which constitutes it what it is. As to yivoc, there is no
difficulty whatever. Aristotle knew as well as we what classes and
orders mean, though he did not use our phraseology; but he speaks of
a summum genus and subaltern genera. Thus, birds form an order,
or simimum genus, and palmipeds are a subaltern genus.

We are told by the translator, p. 112, that parts differ according
to their capabilities of distinction. If the Stagyrite had expressed
himself in this wav, he would never have been

*' II maestro di color che sanno."

The sense is very obvious, that he means to express their qualities,
and in the categories he tells us that qualities admit of contraries
(black and Avhite), and differ in degree, or more and less. The whole
of the passage respecting analogous parts is completely misimder-
stood, although a most important part of our author's doctrine. The
analogy between a scale, a feather, and a hair, was first mentioned by
Empedokles, as quoted by Aristotle in the treatise de Anima. Tlie
passage is iuterestiiig, but too long for insertion. Although the
facts were admitted by both philosophers, the difference between
Empedokles and Aristotle is as gi-eat as that between Oken and
Cuvier. According to Empedokles, animals are modified by ex-
ternal agents, and the scales and fins of a fish might be changed
into feathers and wings of a bird. Aristotle, on the other hand,
resting on final causes, asserts that the function determines the
organ, and that different structiu'es may perform the same function.
When he says parts are different and the same, the words have a very
N. H. R.-I1862. 2 A

332 ORIQIKAL ARTICLES.

different meaning from that which Goethe would affix to them.
When the translator has the rendering " a hand with a claw," he has
lost the meaning of the passage ; it should be, a hand and the forceps
of a crab, both analogous as to function.

The akalephe or Actinia has been a stumblingblock to the
translator. In one place, 144, he translates it the jelly-fish, he then
correctly renders it by Actinia, and again the rendering akalephe is
a Medusa. Now akalephe always signifies the Actinia, and never
the Medusa ; it was also called kvi^u, and was used as food. The
description of Archistratus leaves no doubt as to this ; he mentions
them in the same verse, and compares their feelers to leaves.

Kvi^ag 6\p(i)i'uy rag an<piK6fiOVQ aKaXtjcpag.

As to the wandering of the akalephe it is well-known that the
Actinia can move from place to place.

The Holothuria has also been misunderstood by the translator. It
ia a Medusoid animal, and has no relation to the animals which have
obtained that name in modern times. When Aristotle brings the
sponge and the Holothviria together, his intention has escaped the
translator. The free Holothuria and the adherent sponge agree in
this, that they are incapable of locomotion. If this is not strictly
true of the Medusa, it holds good of some other animals.

We shall notice only two other mistakes. At p. 145, the sentence
beginning, " There are some animals which for the first part of their
" existence," &c. The meaning of Aristotle is, there ai'e insects
w^hich pass their larval state in the water, and afterwards become
winged insects. The gnat and the oistroi are not diflerent animals,
but diftereut states of the same animal.

The translator has thrown no light on the ojiinion of Aristotle
respecting the supposed animal nature of the sponge, nor has he
succeeded in finding the solution of the difficulty. As the subject is
of some interest, we shall endeavour to explain the mistakes into
which many writers have fallen respecting the opinions of Aristotle.
With respect to the sponges, properly so called, we think his opinion
is that they are truly plants, -rravTekCJg iome rolg ([>vtoIc, viii. 1. 3.
When he speaks of their shrinking when laid hold of, he subjoins his
usual sceptical ale (pafxt, as they say. He also says their contractility
is denied by the people of Torone, where he himself must have
examined the sponges in his youth. On the other hand, however,
he mentions another kind of sponge, called Aphjsia, because it could
not be cleaned. This kind has great ducts or pores, but their tissue
is compact, and when cut up their substance is found to be more
dense and glutinous than that of other sponges, and resembles lung.
It is agreed on all hands that this kind lives for a long time, v. 14. 6.
I'his kind, although called a sponge, is obviously the Alci/onhcm
digitabim, or some allied species. When it is remembered that the
Alcyonium is endowed Avith motion and sensation, Aristotle's dis-
cussion respecting the nature of rhe sponge becomes intelligible.

333

Sibliouiiaplm.

(1861, continued.)
XXXI.— Z OOLOGICAL.

MOLLUSCA.

1. General and Mixed.

Adams, Abthub. — On some new Species of Mollusca from the North

of China and Japan. A. K H. 3 ser. viii. p. 135, 239, 299.
Adams, H. — Descriptions of a new Grenns and some new Species of
Shells from the Collection of Mr. Gumming. Zool. Proc. 1861,
p. 143, 383.
Bell, Egbert. — List of Eecent Land and TVesh water Shells collected
around Lakes Superior and Huron in 1859-60. Can. Nat. vi.
1861, p. 268.
Bernardi. — Description des especes nouvelles. J. Con. i. p. 46.
Bland, J and Cooper, J. G-. — Notice of Land and Fresh-water
Shells collected by Dr. J. Gr. Cooper in the Rocky Mountains,
etc., in 1860. New York. Lye. vii. p. 362.
BouRGUiGNAT, J.R. — Malacologie terrestre et fluviatile de la Bretagne.

8vo. Plates. Paris, 1861.
Broun, H. G. — Die Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs,
wissenschaftlich dargestellt in Wort und Bild. Dritter Band,
Weichthiere: Malacozoa. Lief. 1 — 14. 44 plates. Royal 8vo.
Leipz. 1861.
Bielz, E. a. — Vorarbeiten zur Eauna der Land- und Siisswasser-

MoUusken Siebenbiirgens. — Herraannst. Siebenb. Ver. xi. p. 49.
Carpenter, Philip P. — Lectures on Mollusca, or Shell-Fish and
their Allies. Prepared for the Smithsonian Listitution. 8vo.
Washington, 1861.

• Check Lists of the Shells of North America, prepared for

the Smithsonian Listitution, by Isaac Lea, P. P. Carpenter,
W. Gr. Binney, and Tem])le Prime. 8vo. Washington, Smith-
sonian Institution (1860).
DoHRN, Dr. II. — Descriptions of new Shells from the Collection of

H. Cumming, Esq. Zool. Proc. 1861. p. 205.
DuNKER, W. Gr. — Mollusca Japonica descripta et tabulis tribus

Iconum illustrata. 3 col. plates. 4to. Stuttgart.
- Beschreibung neuer MoMusken. Malak. Blatt. Vol. viii. p. 35.

Beschreibung einiger von v. Hochstetter auf Neuseeland

gesammelten Siisswasser-Mollusken. Ibid. p. 150.
Gabb, AV. M. — List of the Mollusca inhabiting the neighbourhood
of Philadelphia. PhH. Proc. 1861. p. 306.

334 BLBLIOGBAPHT.

GroriJ), A. A. — Description of IS^ew Shells collected by the "Tnited
States yorth Pacific Exploring Expedition. Bost. Proc. vii. p.
161, 828. 8S2. 400, and viii. p^ 14.

Geedlee. Y.— Conciivliologisches aus dem Xordosten Tirol's. Yien.
Z. B. Yerh. x. p. 803.

HiGGEvs. Eev. H. H. — On some Specimens of Shells from the Liver-
pool Museum. ori£:inally from the Patholosrical collection formed
bv the late ^b-. G^skoin. B. Ass. Eep. 1860. p. 116.

Jeefeets. J. GwT>-. — Eeport of the Eesults of Deep-sea Dredging
in Zetland, with a Xotice of several Species of MoUusca new to
Science or to the British Isles. A. X. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 297.

Sui Testacei marini delle Coste del Piemonte, traduzione

con note ed un catalogo speciale per il golfo della Spezia del prof
Gr. Capellini, dottore in scienze naturali. 8vo. Genova. 1861.

McAsDEEW, EoBEET. — On the Division of the European Seas into
Provinces, with reference to the Distribution of MoUusca. X.'S.
H. 3 ser. riii. p. 433.

MoBELET, AETHrs. — Series conchyHologiques comprenant I'enumera-
tion des Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles recueillis pendant le
cours de differents voyages ainsi que la description de plusieurs
especes nouvelles. Livr. 2«. 3 plates. Svo. Paris, 1861.

Coquilles nouvelles des iles orientales de I'Afrique. J. Con.

i. p. 45.

MoBTiLLET, Gabbiel DE.— Annexion a la Eaune malacologique de
Prance. Svo. Paris, 1861.

Pease. "SV. H. — Descriptions of a Xew Species of Mollusca from
the Pacific Inlands. Zool. Proc. 1861. p. 242.

Petit de la Saessate. — Notice sur les Mollusques marins des iles
Acores. J. Con. i. p. 28.

'- Decouverte faite p. M. Jeffreys d'opercules doubles dans des

individus du Buccinum tmdatum. Ibid. p. 36.

Pfeieeeb, L.— Xovitates conchologicae. Abbildung u. Beschreibg,
neuer Conchvlien. Eiarures et descriptions des coquiUes nouveUes.
Part 15. 3 col. plates. 4to. CasseL 1861.

PowEB, .Jea>->t:tte. — Observations et Experiences physiques sur
la Bulla lignaria, TAsterias, V Octopus vulgaris et la Pinna
nohilis ; La Eeproduction des Testaces univalves marins ; Moeurs
du Crustace Powerii: Mceurs de la Mart re commune. Eaits curieux
d'uneTortue; VArgonauta Argo ; Plan d'Etude pour les Ani-
maux marins ; Faits curieux d"une Chenille. Svo. Paris, 1860.

Eeete, L.— Elements of Conchology ; an introduction to the Xatural
History of Shells and of the Animals which form them. 2 vols.
Eoyal Svo. col. plates. London, 1861.

Eatexel, EDMr>-D.— Description of New Eecent Shells from the
Coast of South Carolina. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 41.

Sebbes, M.*iCEL DE. — Des alterations que les Coqudles eprouvent
pendant la \-\e des animaux qui les habitent et meme apres leur
mort. Mont. Mem. iv. p. 183.

MOLLUSCA. 335

Stkobel. — Sulla distribuzione oro-geografica dei Molluschi in Lom-

bardia. Mil. A. H. ii. p. 39.
Stiatpsox, "Wm. — On the Marine Shells brought bv Mr. Drexler

from Hudson's Bar, and on the occurrence of a Pleistocene

deposit on the Southern shore of James' Bav. Phil. Proc.

1861, p. 97.
Teisteam, Eev. H. B. — Catalogue of a collection of Mollusks from

Bermuda. Zool. Proc. 1S61, p
Catalogue of a collection of Terrestrial and Pluviatile Mollusks

made by M. C. Salvia, in Gruatemala. Ibid. p. 229.
TfiTox. G. "W. — On the Mollusca of Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Phil,

Proc. 1^61, p. 396.
"WiLLULMSoy, A. E. — Xote on Land and Fresh-water Shells collected

in the environs of Toronto. Can. Journ. X. S. vi. p. 327.
"Willis, T. E. — Catalogue of the Marine Shells of Xova Scotia.

Bost. Proc. viii. 61. 1S61.

2. CeplialopTiora.

Adams, Abthue. — On some additional new Species of PyramideUidcs
from the Islands of Japan. A. X. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 41.

On some new Species of £uUma, Leiostraca, and Cerithiopsis,

from Japan. Ibid. p. 125.

On the Animal of Alycceus, and some other Cyclophoroid

Genera. Ibid. p. 196.

On a new Genus and some new Species of Pyramidellidce from

the Xorth of China. Ibid. p. 29o.

On a proposed new Genus, and on some new Species of

Pelagic Mollusca. Ibid, ^^ii. p. 401.

On the ScaJidce or '• "V\'entletraps " of the Sea of Japan ;

vaxh. Descriptions of some new Species. Ibid. viii. p. 479.
BEXSoy, W. H. — Xotes on the Pteropodous Gemis Hyalaa, and

Description of a new Species. A. X. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 21.
' Description of a new Alycceus, from the Andaman Islands ;

with Xotes on other Indian Cyclostomacea. Ibid. p. 28.

Characters of a sriffantic Selix from Southern India, and of

other Species from Xorthem India, the Midayan Coast, and the
Andaman Islands. Ibid. p. 81.

Beexabdi, a. — Monographie du genre Conns ; faisant suite aux
Mouosraphies de Eeeve, Elener et Sowerbv, 2 col. plates, 4to.
Paris.^

Bi>">'ET, "V\". G. — Catalogue of Land and Freshwater Univalve
Mollusks. collected in British America by Messrs. Eoss, Kenni-
cott, and Drexler, PhU. Proc. 1S61, p. 330.

— ^ Xotes on the Terrestrial MoUusks of the Peninsula of Cali-
fornia. AVoodcuts. Ibid. p. 331.

Blakd, J. — On the Geographical Distribution of the Genera and
Species of Land Shells of the West India Islands ; with a Catalogue
of the Species of each Island. Xew York Lye. vii. p. 33o.

336 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Blanford, W. J.— Note on a Species of Flectopylis, Benson, occur-
ring in Southern India. A. N. H. 3 ser. Aii. p. 244.

Bouchard- Chantebeaux, M. — Observations sur les Helices saxicaves
du Boulonnais. Plate. Ann. S. N. 4 ser. xvi. p. 197.

,BoTTTER, M. — Eapport sur un Poulpe geant observe entre Madere et
Tenerifte ; with additional communications by Moquin-Tandon
and Milne Edwards. C. rend. liii. p. 1263. (Abstract in A. N.
H. 3 ser. ix. p. 187).

Bbadt, Gr. S. — On the Occurrence oi Alderia modest a, near Sunder*
land. Tynes. Trans, v. 151.

Brown, A. D. — Descriptions of two new Species of Helix. "Wood-
cuts. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 333.

Collin GWOOD, C— Eemarks upon some points in the Economy of
the Nudibranchiate Mollusca. Plate. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 33.

Eemarks on the Eespiration of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca.

B. Ass. Eep. 1860, p. 113.

On the Nudibranchiate Mollusca of the Mersey and Dee.

Ibid.

Dalton, James. — On the New British Phijsa. Zool. 1861, p. 7318.

DoHRN, H.— Zur Kenntniss von 3Iitra. Mai. B. 1861, viii. p. 133.

Hancock, Albany.— On certain points in the Anatomy and Physi-
ology of the Dibranchiate Cephalopoda. N. H. E. 1861, p. 473.

Note on the Occurrence of Acmcea testudinalis at Culler-
coats. Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 68.

Hetnemann, r. D. — Die nackten Schnecken des Erankfurter
Gebiets, vornehmlich aua der Gattung Limax. Mai. B. 1861,
viii. p. 85.

Ueber Amalia marginata {Limax marginatus, Drap.) 3 figs.

Ibid. p. 154.

Die alteste Eigur des Limax cinereus. Lister. Ibid. p. 163.

HowsEjEich.- — On the Migration Southwards oi Acmcea testudinalis.

Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 58.
Krohn, a. — Beitrage z. Entwickelungsgeschichte d. Pteropoden u.

Heteropoden. 2 plates. 4to. Leipz. 1861.
Lawson, Henry. — On the Generative Sj'^stem of Helix aspersa and

hortensis. Woodcuts. Q. J. M. S. Oct. 1861, p. 264. (x\ud

Dub. Q. J. of Science, i. p. 172.)
Lea, Isaac, — Descriptions of new Species of ScTiizostoma, Anculosa,

and Lithasia. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 54.
Description of a new Species of Neritina from Coosa Eiver,

Alabama. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 55.

Descriptions of Eorty-nine new Species of the Genus Melania.

Ibid. p. 117.

Description of a new Genus (Strephobasis) of the family

Melanidce, and of three new Species. Ibid. p. 96.

Descriptions of Seven new Species of the Genus lo. Ibid.

p. 393.

Lewis. — On Species of Pa7Mr//«a found in the Erie Canal and Mo-
hawk Eiver. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 2.

MOLLUSCA. 337

Lowe, Rev. E. J. — Diaoiioses of new Canarian Laud-Mollusca. A.

N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 104.
Lubbock, John. — On the Development of Buccinum. B. Ass. Hep.

1860, p. 139.
Maecel de Sehees. — Sur la troncature normale des Coqiiilles

des Mollusques gasteropodes, etc. Soc. Greol. Bull. 1861, p. 87.
Mennell, H. T. — On the occurrence of several Species of Nudi-

branchiate MoUusks, at CuUercoats. Tynes. Ti-aus. v. 1S61,

p. 61.
Moore, Thomas J. — On tlie Eecent Cephalopoda. Liv. Proc. xv.

1860, 1861, p. 197.

Moquin-Tandon. — Observations sur les Prostates des Gasteropodes

androgpies. J. Con. i. p. 9.
MoECH, Otto A. L. — Review of the Fennetidce, Part I. Zool. Proc.

1861, p. 145. And Part II, Ibid. p. 326.

Norman, A. M. — On the Discovery of Fhysa acuta (Drap.) in
England. Plate. A. N. II. 3 ser. vii. p. 114.

j3i(jirus punctilucens (D'Orbigny) and Eolis northumhrica

(Aid. and Han.) at CuUercoats. Tynes. Trans, v. 1861, p. 61.

Pfeifper, L. — Descriptions of Porty-seven New Species of Land
Shells, from the Collection of H. Cumming, Esq. 2 plates.
Zool. Proc. 1861, pp. 20, 190, 386.

Diagnosen neuer Heliceen. Malak. Blatt. viii. pp. 16, 77.

Helix Codrimjtoni Gray, guttata Oliv. und deren nachstver-

waudte Arten. Ibid. p. 105.

Diagnosen einiger Landschnecken von Neuseeland. Ibid.

p. 146.

Diagnosen ueu eutdeckter Landschnecken. Ibid. p. 167.

PiETTE, E. — Sin- un nouveau geni'e de Gasteropodes {Exelissd). Soc.

Geol. Bull. 1861, p. 14.
Eeeve, Lovell. — A Revision of the Synonymy of the Boat and

Melon Volutes, "Les Gondolieres" of Lamarck. A. N. H. 3

ser. vii. p. 268.
RowELL, J. — Description of a New Species oi Pu'pa from California.

New York Lye. vii. p. 287.
Sandbeeger, G. — Kurze Betrachtungen liber Sipho und Siphonaldute

sowie iiber UrzeUe und andere aussere und inuere Merkmale der

Schale des Gemeineu SchifFsbootes {Nautilus Pompilius, Lin.) ;

nebst eiuigen Vergleichungen mit analogen Stiicken der Gattun-

gen : Clymenia, Goniatites und Ammonites j with Plate. Ber.

Giess. Oberh. Ges. 1859, p. 75.
Saes, Michael. — Om Siplwnodentalium vitreum, en ny Slsegt og tot

af Denialidernes Familie. 3 plates. 4to. Christiania, 1861.
Schwaetz von Mohrensteen, G.— Ueber die Pamilie der Rissoiden

und insbesondere die Gattung Bissoina. 11 plates. Vien. Denk.

xix. p. 71.
Tate, George. — Notes on the Distribution of Acm<sa tesfudinalis.

Berwick. N. C. iv. 213.

338 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Troschel, F. H. — TJeber die systematisclie Stellung der Gattung

Solarium. Plate. Wiesm. Arch, xxvii. p. 91.
• Das Gebiss der Schneckeu zur Begriindimg emer iiatimichen

Classification untersucht. Part IV. 4 plates. 4to. Berlin,

1861.

2. Acephala.

Adams, H. — On two new Genera of Aceplialous Mollnsks. (Culfellus,

Maeoma). Zool. Proc. June 26th, 1860. A. H. N. 3 ser. vii.

p. 142.
CosTE, M.— Note sur le repeuplement du littoral par la creation

d'liuiticres artificielles. C. rend. lii. p. 118.
Duis'KER, Dr. W. — Solenacea nova Collectionis Cumingianae descripta

a Gnilielmo Dunker. Zool. Proc. 1861, p.
Fischer, P. — Note siu* ranimal du genre Perna. Plate. J. Con. p. 19.
Gabb, W. M. — Eemarks on Gryphcea calceolay and Ostrea marsliii.

Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 21.
Gray, Dr. J. E. — On a large Species of Teredo, supposed to be the

Animal of the Genus Furcella, Lamk. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 313.
Ha:nley, Sylvajs'tjs. — Monograph of the Family Nuculidce, forming

the Lamarckian genus NucuJa. 5 plates. 4to. London, 1861.

Description of a new Lida. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 242.

Description of a new Species of Pandora. Ibid. p. 272.

Harting, M.— Eemarques sur la maniere dont les Tarets perforent

le bois. Ann. S. N. 4 ser. xiv. p. 127.

HoETEN, Van der. — Observations on Teredo navalis, and the mis-
chief caused by it in Holland. B. Ass. Eep. 1860, p. 136.

HowsE, KiCHARD.— On the Occurrence oi Xyloplaga dorsalis at the
mouth of the Tyne. Tyues. Trans, v. 1861, p. 57.

On the Occurrence of Pecten danicus at Sunderland. Ibid.

p. 58.

Jeffreys, J. G. On the British Teredines, or Ship-Worms. B. x\ss.

Eep. 1860, p. 117.
Lea, Isaac. — New Unionidee of the United States. Plates. Phil.

Acad. Journ. iv. 2nd ser. p. 191.

Descriptions of Exotic Unionidce. Plates. Ibid. p. 235.

New Unionidce of the United States and Northern Mexico.

Plates. Ibid. p. 327.

' • Descriptions of Twenty-five new Species of Unionidae from

Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Florida. Phil.

Proc. 1861, p. 38.

Descriptions of Two new Species of Anodonta, from Arctic

America. Ibid. p. 56.
Descriptions of Twelve new Species of Uniones, from Ala-
bama. Ibid. p. 59.

Descriptions of Eleven new Species of the genus Tlido

from the United Stales. Ibid. p. 391.

MOLLrscA. 339

Lewis, James. — On the Colours of the Nacre of Freshwater Bivalves.
Bost. Proc. vii. 1860, 245.

- On the Habits and Grrowth of the Unionidcs. Phil. Proc.
1861, p. 57.

MotiLS, X. — Les Huitres. 2 plates. Svo. Paris, 1861.

Prime, Temple. — Notes on the Cyrena salmacida and the Cyrenella

americana of Morelet. Plate. New York Lye. Adi. p. 314.
■ Synonymy of the Cy eludes, a family of Acephalous Mollusca.

Part 2. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 25.
Descriptions of new Species of Cyrena, Corbictila, and Splics-

rimii. Ibid. p. 125.

Monograph of the Species of Sphcerium of North and South

America. Ibid. p. 402.

Descriptions of three new Species of Mollusca of the genus

Sphcerium. Ibid. p. 414.
Synonymy of the Species of CyreneVa, a genus of Mollusca

belonging to the Family of the Lucinidse. Bost. Proc. vii. 345.

1860.
Synonymy of the known Species of Bangia, a genus of

Mactracea. Ibid. viii. 347. 1860.
Note sur quelques especes peu connues des genres Batissa,

Cyrena, Corbicula, et Sphaerium. J. Con. i. p. 38.
Eeeye, Lotell. — On the Aspergillum, or Watering-pot Mollusk.

B. Ass. Eep. 1860, p 120.
Eomee, E. — Kritische Uebersicht der Arten aus der Cythereen-

gruppe Meretrix Lam. Malak. Blatt. viii. p. 45.

tJeber Saxidomus. Ibid. p. 63.

■ Ueber Mactrea vitrea Chemn. Ibid. p. 159.

• Kritische Uebersicht sammtlicher Arten aus der Cythereeu-

gruppe Callista, Poli. Ibid. p. 174.
RoLLESTO^, GrEO. & EoBEETsoN, C— On the Aquiferous and Ovi-

ducal System in the Lamellibranchiate Mollusks, (Absti-act). R.

S. Proc. xi. p. 411. Also, in A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 426.
TBYOJf , Gr. W. — Synopsis of the Eecent Species of GastrochcenideB,

a family of Acephalous Mollusca. Phil. Proc. 1861, p. 465.

4. Brachiopoda.

Davidso^t, T. — On Eecent TerehratulcB. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 24.
Lacaze-Dtjthiehs, H.— Histoii-e Naturelle des Bracliiopodes vivants

de la Mediterranee. — Avant-propos et premiere Monographic:

Histoii'e de la Thecidie [Thecideum onediterraneum). 5 plates.

Ann. S. N. 4 ser. xv. p. 259. [Abstract in C. rend. liii. p. 849 ;

also in A. N. H. 3 ser. ix. p. 77.]
Macdonald, John D.— On the Physiology of the Pallial Sinuses of

the Brachiopoda. Plate. Linn. Trans, xxiii. p. 373.
MuLLEE, Fbitz. — Die Brachiopodenlarve von Santa Catharina.

340 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Zweiter Beitrag. Wiegm. Arch, xxvii. p. 53. [Abstract iu A. N.

H. 3 ser. viii. p. 505.]
E.EETE, LovELL. — A Kevision of tlie History, Synonymy, and Greo-

graphical Distribution of tbe recent Terebratulce. A. N. H.

3 ser. vii. p. 169.
• On the recent Terebrcttulee ; in reply to some Obserrations

by Professor E. Suess, of Vienna. Ibid. p. 443.
SuESS, Peop. — On the recent Terehratulce. Ibid. p. 382.

5. Molluscoida.

Busk, Gr. — Description of New Polyzoa, collected by J. Y. Johnson,

Esq. at Madeira, in the years 1859 and 1860. 2 plates. Q. J. M.

S. (Zoophytology), Jan. 1861.
■ Descriptions of New, or imperfectly known Polyzoa. No. 1.

2 plates. Q. J. M. S. (Zoophytology), Apr. 1861.
HiNCKS, Eev. J.— Note on the Ovicells of the Cheilostomatous

Polyzoa. Woodcut. Q. J. M. S. Oct. 1861, p. 278.
Macdonald, Johk D. — On the Circulation of the Blood in Pegcea,

as bearing on the question of a Lining to the Vascular System in

the Tunicata in general. Plate. Linn. Trans, xxiii. p. 371.
• On a New G-enus of Tunicata occurring on one of the Bel-

lona Reefs. Woodcuts. Linn. Proc. vi. p. 78.
Macgilliveat, p. H. — On some new Australian Polyzoa. Plate,

Vict. Trans, iv. p. 97.
Notes on the Cheilostomatous Polyzoa of Victoria and other

parts of Australia. 2 plates. Ibid. p. 159.
MiiLLEE,PEiTZ. — On theCouimon Nervous System (Kolonial Nerven-

system) of the Bryozoa (Polyzoa), exemplified in Serialaria Coti-

tinkii, n. sp. [Translated from Wiegm. Aa'ch. xxvi. p. 311.]

Q. J. M. S. Oct. 1861, p. 300.

C(ELENTEEATA.

1. General and Mixed.

Agassiz, Louis. — Contributions to the Natural History of the
United States of America. Vol. III. 26 plates and many wood-
cuts. 4to. Boston, 1860.

Geeeke, Joseph Beat. — A Manual of the sub-kingdom Coelenterata.
Woodcuts, fcp. 8vo. London, 1861.

HiJsrcKs, Eev. J. — A Catalogue of the Zoophytes of South Devon
and South Cornwall. Plate. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 152. Con-
tinued in ibid. p. 251 (2 plates) ; p. 290 ; and p. 360.

2. Actinozoa.

Aldee, Joshua. — Occurrence of a Sea Pen {Virgtilaria Christii,
Koreu and Danielss.) new to Britain. Tynes. Trans, v. 1861,
p. 60.

CQELENTEKATA. 341

DucHASSAiNG, P., ET MiCHELOTTi, J.— Memoire stir les Coralliairea

des Antilles. 9 plates. Torin. Mem. 2 ser. xix. p. 279.
G-RUBE, Ed. — Besclireibiing eiuer neueu Coralle {Lithoprimnoa arc-

tica), und Beinerkungen iiber ihre systematisclie Stellung.

ScUesiseh. Abhand. 1861. 125.
HoEFMAK, L. — On the Eormation of Coral Eeefs. Jam. Q. Journ.

1861, p. 187.
HoLDswoRTH, E. W. H. — On an undescribed Species of British

ZoantJius. Woodcut. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 99.
Johnson, J. T. — Description of a second Species of Acanthogorcjia

(J. E. Gray) from Madeira. Zool. Proc. 1861, p. 296.
■ Notes on the Sea- Anemones of Madeira, with descriptions of

new Species. Ibid. p. 298.
Luete3:n, C. — Einige Bemerkungen iiber die an den dJinischen

Kueste beobachten Arten der • einfachen Seescheiden {^Actiniae

simplices). Z. Nat. xvii. p. 160.
MiiLLER, Fritz. — TJeber die angebliche Bilateralsymmetrie der Eip-

penquallen. Wiegm. Arch, xxvii. p. 320.
Price, John. — On Cydippe. B. Ass. Kep. 1860, p. 120.

3. Hydrozoa,

Allman, Prof. — Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. A. N. H. 3 ser.
vii. p. 168.

Busk, G-. — On a new Hydroid Polype belonging to the genus Cor-
el ylophor a, Allm., discovered by Senator Kirchenpauer, of Eitze-
biittel. Plate. Q. J. M. S. Oct. 1861, p. 283.

HiNCKS, T. — On Glavatella, a new Genus of Corynoid Polypes, and
its Reproduction. 2 plates. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 73.

On new Australian Hydrozoa. 2 plates. Ibid. p. 279.

Hodue, George. — Occui-rence of Corymorpha nutans at Seaham.
Plate. Tynes. Trans, v. p. 80.

-^ On a new Hydroid Zoophyte {Podocoryne Alderi). Plate.

Ibid. p. 82.

Krohn, a. — Beobachtungen iiber den Bau imd die Fortpflanzung
der Eleutheria Quatref. AViegm. Arch, xxvii. p. 157. [Trans-
lated in A. N. H. 3 ser. ix. p. 1.]

Lacaze-Du Thiers, M. — Embryogenie des Eayonnes. — Eeproduc-
tion geneagenetique des Porpites. C. rend. liii. p. 851. [Abstract
in A. N. H. 3 ser. ix. p. 186.]

M'Creadt, — . — On the Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Harbour.
A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 342. (Abstract.) (Leuckart's Bericht in
"Weigm. Arch. 1860. p. 67.) [The original paper was published
in 1859, in the First Volume of the Elliot Society, p. 103-221.]

MiiLLER, Fritz. — Cunina JCoUikeri, u. sp. Beitrag zur Natur-
geschichte der Aeginiden. Plate. Wiegm. Arch, xxvii. p. 42.

' ■ Polypen imd Quallen von Santa Catharina. Olindias sam-

baquiensis, n. sp. Plate. Wiegm. Arch, xxvii. p. 312.

Ueber die systematische Stellung der Charybdeiden. Ibid,

p. 302.

342 BIBLIOaBAPHT.

Sars, M. — On the Nurse-genus Corymorpha and its Species, together
with the Medusae produced from them. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 353.
[Translated from Wiegm. Arch. xxvi. p. 347.]

"WiiiGnT, T. Stbethill. — On Hermaphrodite Eeproduction in
Chrysaora hyoscella. Plate. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 357.

Protozoa.

Balbiani, Gr. — Recherches sur les Phenomenes sexuels des Infu-
soires. 3 plates. J. de Physiol, iv. p. 102. Continued in ibid,
p. 194 ; p. 431 ; and concluded p. 465.

BowERBANK, J. S. — On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongi-
ad(S. Part II. (Abstract). E. S. Proc. xi. p. 372. Also, in A.
N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 420.

Carpenter, "William B. — Greaeral Eesults of the Study of Typical
Porms of Foramimfera, in their relation to the Systematic Ar-
rangement of that Group, and to the Fundamental Principles of
Natural History Classification, N. H. E. 1861, p. 185.

• On the Systematic Arrangement of the Ehizopoda. Ibid.

p. 456.

Carter, H. J. — On the Structure of the larger Foraoninifera. A.
N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 246.

Notes and Corrections on the Organization of Infusoria. &c.

Ibid. p. 281.

Further Observations on the Structure of the Foraminifera,

and on the larger Fossilized Forms of Scinde, &c. including anew

Genus and Species. 2 plates. Ibid. p. 309, 366, 446.
Claparede, Ed. — Etudes Anatomiques sur les Annelides, Turbella-

ries, Opalines et Gregarines observes dans les Hebrides. 7 plates.

Gen. Mem. xvi. Part I. p. 71.
Claparede, E. et Lachmann, J. — Etudes sur les Infusoires et les

Ehizopodes. 13 ])lates. Gen. Inst. vii. p. 1. (Also published

separately, forming the third (and last) part of the work).
Eberth, Jos. — Ueber ein neues Infusorium im Darm verschiedener

Vogel Woodcut. Z. W. Z. xi. p. 98.
Ueber die Psorospermienschliiuche der Cephalopoden. Ibid.

p. 397.
Ehrenberg, C. G. — Ueber die ueueren die japanische Glaspflanze

als Spongia betreffenden Ansichten, und Erlaliterungen der Syno-

nyme zu Bowerbanks Spongolithen-Tafeln. Berl. Mon. 1861,

p. 452.
Ueber d. Tiefgrund d. stillen Oceans zw. Cahfornien u. d.

Sandwich Inselu. bis. 15,600 fuss. Tiefe. Ibid. p. 820.
Verlaiifige Mittheilung iiber das mikroskopische Erdlebeu

nach Dr. Hochstetters von der Erdumsegelmig der Fregatte

Novara mitgebrachten Material ien. Ibid. p. 888.
Enoelmann, Tn. W.— Zur Naturgeschichte der Infusionsthiere. 4
, plates. Z. W. Z. xi. p. 347.

PBOTOZOA. 343

Haeckel, E. — Ueber neue lebende Eadiolarien cles Mittelmeerea.

Berl. Mon. 1860, p. 795-835.
Leuckaet, Eud. — Ueber Paramecium (?) coli, Malmst. Plate.

Wiegm. Arch, xxvii, p. 81. (Translated in A. N. H. 3 ser. viii.

p. 437 )
Mettenheimke,C. — Beobaclitungen iiberniedere Seethiere, angestellt

in Norderney im Herbst. 1859. 2 plates. Senck. Abh. iii. p. 287.
M5BIUS, K. — Das Meerleuchten. 8vo. Plate. Hamburg, 1861.
Parker, W. K. and Jones, T. li. — On the Nomenclature of the

Poraminifera. A. N. H. 3 ser. viii. p. 161, 229.
Pasteuk, M. L. — Animalcules infusoires vivant sans gaz oxygens

libre et determinant des fermentations. C. rend. Iii. p. 314.

(Abstract in A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 343.)
E.EUSS, Aug. E. — Entwin-f einer systematischen Zusammenstellung

der Poraminiferen. Vien. Sitz. xliv. p. 355. (Abstract in A. N.

H. 3 ser. viii. p. 190.)
ScHULTZE, Max. — On the Grenus Cornuspira, belonging to the Mono-

thalamia ; with Remarks on the Organization and Reproduction

of the Polythalamia. A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 306. (Translated

from Wiegm. Arch. xxvi. p. 287.)
Die Hyalonemen. Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der

Spongien. 5 col. plates. 4to. Bonn. 1861.
Slack, Henry J. — Microscopical Notes. Woodcuts. Q. J. M. S.

p. 132. Apr. 1861.
On the Peproductive Elements of the Rhizopoda. Plate.

A. N. H. 3 ser. vii. p. 360.
Wright, T. Strethill. — Observations on British Protozoa and

Zoophytes. 3 plates. Ibid. p. 120.
On OpTiryodendron abietinum. Plate. Q. J. M. S. p. 98.

Apr. 1861.
Wezesniowskt, Aug. O. — Observations sur quelques Infusoires.

3 plates. Ann. S. N. 4 ser. xvi. p. 327.

XXXn. — Note on the Co-existence or Man with the Dinornis

IN New Zealand.

Mr. Walter Mantell obtained strong, if not unequivocal, evi-
dence that Dinornis elephantopus and D. crassus existed contem-
poraneously with Maori natives in the Middle Island of New
Zealand. The bones " are in a recent and most perfect condition.
" They retain the usual proportion of animal matter, and have under-
" gone no mineral change Remains of native ovens, with

844 MISCELLANEA.

" the baking stones, were not far from the chief collection of bones of

" D. elephantopus Both were covered by drifted sand from

" three to seven feet in thickness. Some of the bones have been
" scorched by fire."* Again in his interesting " Note on the locality,
affording the femur of the D. gracilis,'''' Mr. Cormack says,t " At the
" same spot there was a kapura maori, or native cooking fireplace,
" dug into the surface of the substratum, and full of stones that had
" once been heated (to convey the heat to the food laid upon them),
" and left, just as similar cooking-places are left at the present day
" by the natives — about two feet from which lay the bones. Close to
" the fireplace, and similarly imbedded, were bones of smaller birds,
" and of fishes similar to those found at present in the sea adjacent ;
" all, including those of the Moa, having been evidently the remains
*' of the food cooked here at a former period and eaten, as my native
" attendant remarked, by the then native inhabitants." The evidence
afi'orded by these ISew Zealand kjokkenmbddings certainly appears
to establish satisfactorily the co-existence of the Moa and the Maori ;
nevertheless the following letter which I have received from M. Lartet
will, I am sure, be read with interest.

" MoN CHER Monsieur Lubbock, — Je puis aujourd'hui, avec I'assentiment de
M. Serres, Professeur d' Anatomic comparee au Jardin des Plantes, vous fovirnir les
renseigneraents que vous souhaitez sur Ics ossements de Dinornis et autres acces-
soires donnes au Museum d'liistoke Naturelle, le 29 Oct. 1858, par M. W. Mantell.
Cos ossements avaient ete trouves, en 1857, en creusant un lit de sable renfermant
de I'axigite de fer titanifere, &c. a Tc-rangataque, AVaingogoro au cote oucst de
North island de la Nouvellc Zelande; une partie des accessoires parait provenir
dune autre localite indiquee, par M. W. Mantell, sous le nom de Euamoa.

" Lc morceau capital donne par M. W. INIantell, est un membre entier qu'il
rapporte a une espece nouvelle {Dinornis elephantopus).

" Parmi les morceaux non classes et sur lesquels M. W. Mantell n'a pas laisse
de renseignements ecrits, on pent reconnaitre des portions de femur, des phalanges
et tout la partie superieure d'un crane de Dinornis doiit les cavites sont encore
reniplies d'une melange de cliarbon et de cendres, il y a aussi une phalange unguale
otfrant im etat de carbonisation tel que Ton doit supposer qu'au moment oii elle a
ete soumise a Taction du feu elle retenait encore beaucoup de substance gelatineuse.

" Avec ces ossements d'oiseaux se trouvent quelques restes de mammiferes sur
les quels je n'ai pas trouve de renseignements ecrits, mais classes comme de meme
provenance. C'est d'abord une demi-mandibule d'un carnassier du genre Canis que
j'ai pu rapprocher de celle attachee a un crane de Canis ausfralis que possede notre
collection, sans y remarquer d'autre difference qu'un peu raoins de grandeur.

" II y a aussi plusieurs dents de phoque et un humerus d'un jeune individu de
cette faniille (^ui parait avoir ete soumis a faction du feu. Les dents m'ont paru
app.artenir au Phnca Ifpf.onijx.

" J'avais oublie de mentionner que Mr. W. Mantell a egalement donne de nom-
breux fragments de coque d'oeuf trcs minces qu'il attriljue au Dinornis.

" Voici maintcnant en quoi consistent les accessoires donnes par Mr. W. Mantell
comme se rattachant circonstauciellement et synchroniqucment, a ces debris de
Dinornis.

" 1". Un caillou ovalaire et dont la surface alteree par Taction du feu ne permct

• Owen, Trans. Zool. Soc. Vol. iv. p. 156. '\

t Trans. Zool. Soc. Vol. iv. p. 146. ,|

MISCELLANEA. 345

pas de bien determiner la nature mineralooique — il me parait etre de roche phitoniqne;
ce caillou de la forme et de la grosseur dun petit ceuf de poule, ou mieux encore de
la forme d'un ceuf de Palmipede, avait du servir, suivant M. Mantell, a faire cuire
Ics oiseaux.

" 2*. Un grand eclat de silex noiratre, offiant sur I'une de ses faces presqiie
plane, le renflement en cassure conchoidale si characteristique des eclats de silex ob-
tenus artificiellement; I'autre face presente deux plans obliques separes par une
arete mediane et longitudinale: Tun des bords est plus tranchant que I'autre.
Suivant JNI. Mantell ce silex taille a du servir a couper les chairs.

" 3". Plusieurs eclats d'obsidienne a, bords plus ou moins tranchants mais sans
forme definable. M. Mantell n'a donne d'autre renseignement sui- ces eclats
d'obsidienne que leur provenance de Rangataque.

" 4". Un autre fragment de gres lustre a plans de cassure multiples et une seule
facette lisse, simplement indique comme pi-oveuaut de Ruamoa."

These additional facts will, I think, be read with interest, and fully
justify the conclusion,* that in all probability the " Moa was ex-
" terminated, like the Irish gigantic Deer and the Dodo, by the
*' agency of man."

Parthenogenesis in the Silk-worm Moth.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1856 I have endeavoured to
record all the species of Articulata in which virgin females have
produced fertile eggs. Among the Lepidoptera the genera Psyche
and Solenohia multiply generally by Parthenogenesis, while in other
genera this only occvu's as a rare and exceptional phenomenon.
While, however, some cases seem to be satisfactorily established, we
have no observations on the conditions of their occurrence. In the
Comptes E,endus for the 16th December, M. Jourdan records the
results of some experiments on the silk-worm moth. There is a
tradition among some of the ancient families of silk-growers in the
south of Prance, that one of the best ways of regenerating their
races of silk-worms was to employ what is called " virgin seed," that
is to say, unimpregnated eggs.

To test the truth of this statement M. Jourdan made the
following experiments. He isolated 300 cocoons of a variety which
has four moults, and only gives one yearly silk crop ; and from these
he obtained 147 female moths and 151 males. Out of these 147
females only six laid fertile eggs — two gave 7, two 4, one 5, and one
2. These 29 eggs were the only ones which were hatched, though
many others passed through the early stages of embryonic develop-
ment. The whole number of eggs laid was about 58,000, so that the
proportion of fertile ones was about one in two thousand.

He made a second experiment on a variety which, instead of one
generation in a year, has five or six, and undergoes three moults.
Out of 50 cocoons he bred 23 females and 26 males. Seventeen out

• Rupert Jones, in Mantell's Wonders of Geology, 7th edition, p. 129.

346 MTSCELLAXEA.

of the t\\'eiity-three females laid fertile eggs, though M. Jourdan
is convinced that neither in this experiment nor in the former one
can any impregnation have taken place. The good eggs were in
the proportion of one to seventeen. M. Jourdan does not mention
the sex of the young thus produced ; he promises, however, to repeat
his experiments on a larger scale. I. L.

Botanical Information. — Fruiting specimens have been received
by Sir W. J. Hooker, of a very remarkable plant, growing in the
Dammar country, "West Africa, evidently closely allied to the genus
jPM?nio«, alluded to by Dr. Wei wilsch (Linn. Proe. Bot. v. 185), though
probably specifically distinct from his plant. A coloured sketch by
its discoverer Mr. Baines was forwarded with the specimens. The
plant is represented as destitute of the curious tubular stem described
by Welwilsch, but the huge riband- like spreading leaves, several feet
in length, and the character of the infrutescence corresjjond very
well with his account. Instead, however, of a single pair of leaves,
Mr. Baines represents the plant as possessing at least two pairs
crossing each other at right angles. The female flowers are ar-
ranged in lanceolate, closely-imbricating, squarrose cymes, 2 — 3
inches in length. Dr. Hooker, who is describing the specimens,
considers the Tmnhoa to be undoubtedly Gnetaceous. The structure
of the young fruits agrees very closely with that observed in Gnetum
itself.

Common Ling i^Callema vulgaris) in Massachusetts.

That "America has no heaths " is a botanical aphorism. It is un-
derstood, however, that an English surveyor, nearly 30 years ago,
found Callema vulr/aris in the interior of Newfoundland. Also that
De la Pylaie, still earlier, enumerates it as an inhabitant of that
island. But this summer, Mr. Jackson Dawson, a young gardener,
has brought us specimens of Kving plants (both flowering stocks and
young seedlings) from Tewkesbury, Massachusetts, where the plant
occurs rather abundantly over about half an acre of rather boggy
ground, along with Andromeda cali/culata, Azalea viscosa, Kalmia
angustifolia, Guatiola aurea, &c., ajiparently as much at home as
any of them. * * * * It may have been introduced, unlikely as it
seems, or we may have to range this heath with Scotopendrium offi-
cinarum, Saliularia aquatica, and Marsilea quadrifoUa, as species of
the old world so sparingly represented in the new, that they are
known only at single stations, — perhaps late-lingerers rather than
new comers. Asa Gray, in Silliman's Jour, xxxii. (1861.) 290. We
have seen a specimen of the Americaii Callema, forwarded to Dr.
Hooker. It does not seem to dift'cr in the least from the common
Ling of our moorlands.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

%ev'HW^.

XXXIII.

1. BeEICHT tJBER DIE ZUSAMMENKUNFT EINIGER AnTHROPOLOGEK,

in September 1861, iu Grottingen. Leipzig, 1861.

2. ZuR MoRPHOLOGiE DER Eassen-Sch:u)el. Voii Dr. J. C. G.

Lucce. Frankfurt, 1861.

3. The Mensuration of the Human Skull. By J. Aitkin Meigs,

M.D. Philadelplaia, 1861.

4. Le Kephalographe. Nouvel Instrument destine a determiner

la Figure et les Dimensions du Crane ou de la Tete Humaine.
Par P. Hartiug. Utrecht, 1861.

5. EssAi suR LES Deformations Artificielles du Crane. Par

L. A. Gosse. Paris, 1855.

6. Craniometrie of onderzoek van den Mensohelijken Schedel

BiJ verschillende Volken, in Vergelijking met dien tan
DEN Orang Oetan. Door J. A. Kool. Amsterdam, 1852.

7. Untersuchungen uber Schadelformen. Von Dr. Joseph En-

gel. Prague, 1851,

8. Observations on the Human Crania contained iu tlie Museum

of the Army Medical Department, Fort Pitt, Chatham. Crania
Britannica. By J. Thurnam and J. B. Davis, 1858-62.

[With Plate VHI.]

The above long list of comparatively recent works, chiefly on
the subject of Craniometry, or on the various modes in which the
dimensions, proportions, and form of the Human Cranium may be
estimated and defined, and to which numerous additions of prior
date might be made, will alone suffice to show, how much im-
portance is now deservedly attached to this branch of Comparative
Anthropology. A term, first proposed, we believe, by the illus-
N. H. R.— 1862. 2B

348 BETIEWS.

trious V. Baer, and under which is comprehended that department of
the great science of General Anthropology which embraces more
particularly the study of the physical characters of the different
varieties of the Human Eace, and which has of late assumed more
and more the features of a definite branch of Science.

Long confined in great measure to Ethnologists, and not very
sedulously, and by no means very successfully cultivated even by
them, it has in more recent times begiui to claim its due importance
in the eyes of the Zoologist and Comparative Anatomist. It has also
become one of the most useful aids to the Archaeologist, and even, it
may be said, to the Greologist, whose pursuits seem at length to be
converging to a common point.

The great questions embraced by Comparative Anthropology,
concern not only the true nature and value of the diversities so mani-
festly exliibited in the different varieties of the existing races of man-
kind, but also those relating to the connection between them and the
priscan populations whose remains have of late years more especially
occupied the attention of philosophical enquirers.

Much has been done and great labour has been expended on this
branch of science, but, nevertheless, some of the most important
problems connected with it still await solution. Its hitherto limited
progress may be assigned to several circumstances, amongst which it
may chiefly perhaps be noticed that the purely physical enquiry —
witli which, regarding Comparative Anthropology as apart of Zoology,
we alone have to do, — has been in great measure postponed as it
were to the philological ; a course which a little consideration will, we
think, show to be unlikely to lead to any satisfactory result. But it
is also attended with inherent difficulties of its own, regarded simply
as a physical enquiry. The difficulties attending the investigation of
the diversities of human beings, it is scarcely necessary to observe
are far greater than are met with in other branches of Zoology. In
the case of animals and plants, copious collections can be made and
stored up in museums for accurate and leisurely examination and
comparison, but it would be impossible to make similar collections of
the different forms of the human race. At best but few perfect
specimens of pure or unmixed races (to use an indefinite term) can be
obtained, and the Anthropologist at home is compelled to rely for the
materials of his studies upon the incomplete descriptions and imper-
fect figures of travellers, or upon such fragmentary portions of the
body as can be easily obtained and transported.

A Gorilla or a Chimpanzee can be caught and sent alive to the
Zoological Gardens, or killed and forwarded in a cask of rUm to the
British Museum, but loud would be the outcry were similar attempts
made to promote the study of Anthropology.

It follows that the principal part of our materials for this study
can consist only of the more permanent and portable portions of the
frame. Amongst these it is manifest, for many reasons, that the
cranium taken singly is by far the most important, and it is to this

CRANIOMETRY ANT) CRANIO GRAPHT. 349

part of the skeleton, therefore, that the labours of the Comparative
Anthropologist have necessarily been mainly devoted.

The study is of course chiefly of a morphological nature, and de-
pends therefore for its data upon measurement and delineation.

Hence have arisen the arts of Craniometry and Craniograpiiy,
which form the subjects of the follovi^ing observations.

Easy as it might at first sight seem to be to contrive such a system
of measurement, as would suffice to give a tolerably good notion of
the capacity and relative proportions of the cranium, it has not been
found so easy in practice ; a.nd although to an artist it may appear
a facile task to produce a faithful picture of a skull, experience has
shown that the great majority of figures hitherto given ai'e absolutely
worthless for accurate comparison, or in fact for any scientific pur-
pose.

For these reasons it happens that the expensive and valuable
materials for craniological enquiry collected in many places, have as
yet not been rendered so available to science as they might have been,
no means having hitherto been devised by so describing and delineat-
ing the objects contained in them as to render it needless for en-
quirers to visit the collections themselves, if they desire to institute
exact comparisons.

This has arisen mainly from the want of a precise and common
plan of investigation, and of recording the observations made.

Without some common plan of operations, it is extremely diffi-
cult, and in some respects impossible to institute such comparisons
between the data of different observers, as are alone sufficient for the
deduction from them of reliable general results.

The necessity of some such accord among Anthropologists has
long been felt, and has daily become more and more imperative, as
the importance of their science has become more extensively perceived.
Inspired, by this need. Prof v. Baer, to whom science is already so
deeply indebted, in conjunction with Prof E. "Wagner, issued in
August, 1861, an invitation to a select number of Grerman and other
Craniologists to meet, in the, to them, classic town of Gottingen, and
confer upon the general interests of Anthropology, but more espe-
cially to agree, if they could, upon the adopting of some uniform system
of measurements, and upon some plan of making drawings, casts, or
other representations of the cranium. This meeting, which, as a pre-
liminary one, was purposely confined to a few, accordingly met in the
month of September, and consisted of Prof. v. Baer, E. Wagner, Vrolik,
Luc«, Bergmann, Meissner, and E. H. Weber, and one or two others,
whilst communications were received from Prof. Schaft'hausen and
Prof. Harting. Names alone sufficient to show the reliance that may be
placed upon the result of their deliberations, and highly auspicious for
the future progress of Anthropology.

After some introductory observations from Prof v. Baer, who
Avorthily occupied the chair in such an assembly, in which he gave a
general and very interesting survey of the scope and state of Ant hro-

2 B 2

350 REVIEWS.

pological enquiry, the followiug programme of proceedings was
proposed.

1. To compare and decide upon the best method and apparatus

to be employed in the graphic and plastic representation of the
whole body.

2. To inquire into the best method to be followed in the measur-

ing and description of the entire body, and of individual
parts.

3. To promote the mutual communication of catalogues of the
materials for Comparative Anthropology, collected at various
places.

4. To consult about the establishment of a Journal to serve as a
medium for the publication of communications relating to
Anthropology, and of making known any additions to Anthro-
pological science that might appear elsewhere.

5. To receive divers communications.

G. To consult as to the future development of the Association, as
it was desirable, in the first place, that the experience which
might be gained in the use of the methods recommended,
should after a time be mutually communicated by its mem-
bers to each other ; and secondly, because it might be advisable
that the Association should be enlarged, and its objects made
more comprehensive.
7. To entertain propositions of any kind.

The first subject submitted to the meeting was Dr. Lucge's me-
thod of making geometrical drawings of the cranium, which appears
to have been highly approved of, if not adopted by the meeting. As
this method is fully described in Dr. Lucse's memoir, cited at the
head of this article, we will not here enter upon it further than to
make some remarks upon its merits in comparison with other modes
of delineation, on which a few words wdl afterwards be given.

Subsequently the subject of Craniometry was taken up, when the
Chairman explained the system he had adopted and described in his
" Crania selecta." Into the nature of this system, which will doubt-
less form the basis of the much desired uniform plan yet to be agreed
upon, we shall enter pretty fully, after making a few observations
on Craniometry in general.

The space at our command will prevent our attempting to give
any historical review of the various plans and systems of measure-
ment adopted by Craniologists from the time of SpigeHus to the pre-
sent day. And this in fact is the less required, since such a review,
very ably and fully drawn up by Dr. Meigs, will be found in his
essay, above cited, and which, it may be mentioned, first appeared in
the North American Medieo-Chirurgical Eeview, for September,
1861.

The main object of Craniometry is to ascertain and express in
numerals so many of the various dimensions of the skull as may
suffice to show its proportions as a whole, and the relative propor-

CKANIOMETEY AJSD CRANIOGEAPHY. 351

tions to each other of its various parts, either absolutely, or iu com-
parison with other crania. The measure of the cranium proper, or
brain case, may be taken either on the exterior or the interior. For
general piu'poses the former may be held sufficient, but in cases where
the question turns upon the actual size and corlfiguration of the
brain, the latter is indispensable. In this point of view it cannot
be too strongly recommended to the possessors and ciu'ators of cra-
niological collections, that a certain proportion, at any rate, if not all
the crania should be bisected in the median plane.

Before stating our own views with respect to cranial measure-
ments, we will now briefly extract from the Gottingeu Report the
substance of the system proposed by Prof. v. Baer, in the hope that
with some modifications perhaps, the scheme proposed by him, and
which appears to have been weU received by his associates at the
meeting, will eventually be generally adopted.

The principles by which Prof. v. Baer was guided in proposing
his measurements, were — 1. To determine the points between which
the measures are taken as precisely as possible, so that two persons
measuring a cranium at dilFerent times, should find their measures
closely in accord. 2. To select such points, as would afford measures
from wliich the form of the skull could be appropriately estimated.
The points, therefore, would not by any means be always homologous
for any particular measure, as for instance, the greatest breadth
of a cranium would be measured between the points on either side
at which it really existed, whether the points in question were situated
higher or lower — the precise situation of the points, however, being
noted. 3. To avoid as much as possible the projecting ridges, which
vary much in different individuals according to their muscular de-
velopment. 4. To select, as respects the proper cranium, those
points where the outer surface is nearest to the inner, so as to
obtain a nearer approximation to the actual form of the brain.
In the case of the glabella, however, he has been obliged to depart
from this rule. Any accurate measurement of the brain in its
various dimensions, can, in the absence of the recent brain, only be
obtained from casts of the cerebral cavity.

To the measm*ements formerly given by Prof. v. Baer in his Crania
Selecia, p. 4, et 5, he has since added several others of the cerebral
cavity taken in skulls that have been divided in the way just recom-
mended ; together with several of the face. In these measurements
he has had in view, in as few columns as possible, the expression as it
were in numbers of an image, or of dimensious from which the form
of the skull might be re-constructed.

He proposes also the employment of certain definite termini of
the nature of those employed in Zoology and Botany, to express
mthout periphrasis the various views of the cranium, as seen from
above, from behind, &c.

1. It is well known that Blumenbach placed great importance in
what he designated the " norma verticalis," or the view obtained by

352 REVIEWS.

resting the cranium upon its base, and looking down vertically upon
the summit. Besides this " norma verticalis," Prof. v. Baer adopts, 2. a
" norma occipitalis,''' wliieh is obtained by the placing of the skull in
the horizontal position, in the line of sight of the observer Avho
should view it at a certain distance. In this view the most marked
and distinctive differences of contour will be observed, although as
remarked by v. Baer, the foundation of them all is a pentagon.

3. A norma frontalis, or the view obtained by looking at the skull
placed in the same position, from the front.

The measures proposed and used by v. Baer are : —

1. The Length of the skull measured from the glabella to the
most projecting part of the occiput — unless that should happen to
be the much developed superior occipital ridge or spine.

2. The Breadth — measured at the widest part— the points as to
height above the auditory openings on each side where this is placed
being noted.

3. The Height, measured from the level of the anterior and poste-
rior borders of the foramen magnum, to the most distant point of the
vertex.

4. But since the height measured in this way does not correspond
with that of the cranium, regarded as in a horizontal position, and
consequently would not agree with the height as shown in a photo-
graphic figure or geometric drawing — this dimension may be mea-
sured in a second manner, or in the perpendicular dii'ection as it may
be termed. This measure is taken by placing one branch of the stem-
compasses (Stengelzirkel), beneath the foramen maguiun, and pa-
rallel with the plane of the zygomatic arch, and the other on the
highest part of the cranium.

5. The horizontal circumference of the cranium measured in the
usual way by means of a graduated tape passed round its greatest
circumference on a level with the glabella.

G. The cranial arc measured longitudinally in the mesial line, and
commencing at the fronto-nasal suture. The entire arc is subdi-vdded
into fom- portions, one extending from the fronto-nasal svitm-e to the
junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, a second corresponding
'in length to the sagittal suture, a third from the termination of this
to the spine of the occiput, and the fourth from this point to the
posterior border of the foramen magnum.

7. The chord of this great arc is the distance from the anterior
border of the foramen magnum to the fronto-nasal sutui-e. This line
may be taken as representing the distance between the root of tlie nose
and the anterior margin of the foramen magnum, but as it includes the
width of the frontal sinuses, it cannot be regarded as showing the sum
of the bodies of the cranial vertebrae, which can only be properly mea-
sured in the sawn skull.

8. The position of the foramen magnum, estimated from the most
prominent part of the occiput.

9. The greater or less development of the occiput may also be

CRANIOMETET AND CEANIO GRAPH Y. 353

estimated, according to the metliod proposed by Eetzius, who mea-
sured the distance from the external auditory foramen to the gla-
bella, and to the most projecting part of the occiput.

10. The external auditory foramen is, relatively speaking, a fixed
point, as has been pointed out by Carus. But, at the same time,
its position must not be regarded as absolutely fixed. At any rate,
its position with respect to the foramen magnum is liable to vary.
Oenerally speaking, a transverse line drawn through the centre of
each opening, would pass over the anterior part of the foramen mag-
num, and consequently would nearly correspond with the line of
support — but sometimes it will run a little in front of this direction, or
over the anterior margin of the foramen, or even in very short skulls
altogether in front of it. A circumstance which should be noted.

11. Besides the extreme breadth Prof. v. Baer takes three latitu-
dinal measures at different poiuts, viz. : at the forehead, the parietal
eminences, and behind the ear, that is to say at the junction of the
parietal and occipital regions.

The frontal region is measured first at the narrowest part in front
or immediately behind the external orbital process — (not including
the temporal ridge) and secondly, towards its posterior part, or close
upon the coronal suture, the greatest width at this part being just
below the temporal ridge.

12. The distance between the centres of the parietal protuber-
ances.

13. 14. In order to determine the development of the hinder
part of the cranium where the occipital region begins, he takes a
point on a horizontal level with the auditory opening and in a
straight line behind it, and iaimediately behind the border of the
base of the mastoid process, and measm-es the distance between the
corresponding points on either side. This line may be regarded as
the chord of the arc measured from the same points over the vertex.
The value of the points above indicated is not so arbitrary as it
might seem, since it corresponds to the curve of the transverse
sinus, and the chord gives an approximate measure of the breadth of
the tentorium and of the space for the cerebellum. AU these
measures do not give absolutely the dimensions of the cerebral
cavity, but they are comparable inter se, and except the glabella the
points from which they are taken are so selected as to approach near
the cavity.

15. In order to estimate the space occupied by the braiu, the
skull must be sawn in two — which is best done in the medial plane.
The length of the bodies of the cranial vertebras, he says, (not quite
truly) can now be measured by a line drawn from the anterior angle
of the foramen magnum to the foramen coecum. The length of the
arc from the latter point to the foramen magnum is also displayed •
whilst at the same time the angle formed between the upper surface
of the basilar process with the plane of the foramen magnum, and
with the cribriform plate of the ethmoid is clearly seen. The alti-

354 REVIEWS.

tudes of the different divisions of the cerebral cavity can be estimated
for each vertebra, whose bodies are now fully visible. The length,
breadth, and heij?ht of the cerebrum may be easily measured, but
the solid contents are not so readily determined in this way. Casts
of the interior are required to effect this purpose.

Having thus stated the system of measurements proposed by
Prof. V. Baer, we would remark that it appears to us defective, prin-
cipally in the circumstance that it does not afford sufficient data for
estimating the relative proportions of the different divisions of the
cranium ; or, at any rate, not so completely as we think this should
be done. Otherwise, we are ready to adopt nearly all his measures,
though simply for convenience sake, placing them in a different order
of succession, and adding those we deem necessary.

We conceive that a comparatively small number of measures will
suffice for the purpose of showing : —

1. The proportions of the entire cranium as regards length,
breadth, height, and internal capacity (when the skull is sufficiently
perfect), and consequently to afford some idea of its comparative
dimensions.

2. The comparative dimensions of i}iQ frontal, parietal and occi-
pital regions, corresponding to the main divisions of the brain. To
Avhich should be added, to complete an ethnological view of the skull,
the estimation of,

3. The degree of pro- or orthognathism, or what is equivalent to
the so-termed facial angle ; the situation of the foramen magnum or
rather of its anterior border ; the breadth of the face at the level of
the external orbital processes of the frontal bone, and of the zygo-
mata ; and the width of the ethmoidal bone or between the orbits.

All these measures may be comprised in from 25 to 30 columns
at most, and they appear to us sufficient for any purpose to which
Craniometry can be applied, while some of them, it is possible, may
be omitted without harm. Placed in order they would stand thus : —

Cbanial.

Length.

11. Vertical radius.

Breadth.

12. Parietal „

3.
4.

Height.
Circumference.

13. Occipital ,,

14. Frontal transverse arc.

Longitudinal arc.

15. Vertical „ „

Least frontal breadth.

16. Parietal „ „

7.
8.

Greatest ,,
Parietal „

17. Occipital „ „

18. Longitudinal frontal arc,

9.
10.

Occipital „
Frontal radius.

19. „ parietal „
10. „ occipital „

, Facial.

Orbital breadth.

4. Fronto-nasal radius.

2.
3.

Zygomatic „
Ethmoidal „

5. Maxillary radius.

CEANIOMETRT AND CKANIOORAPHT. 355

In this table it will be seen that the measurements, so far as the
exterior of the skull is concerned, include nearly all those of Prof.
V. Baer and other craniologists, with some additions, required, as it
seems to us, for the objects above proposed.

But a few words in explanation of it will be required. "And,
firstly, with reference to the word vertical, it will be necessary to
define what is meant by a vertical line in the cranium, a thing
which does not appear, so far as we are aware, to have been
hitherto very precisely laid down. To do this, and before we
proceed to measure the cranium, and especially before we attempt
to delineate it, it is necessary to determine upon some fixed position
in which it is to be regarded, and with reference to which many of
the Lines in which the measurements are taken are to be conceived
as drawn. "We have also, in the second place, to determine upon
certain fixed points from which certain of the measurements are to
be taken. Without these precautions any accurate comparisons are
impossible.

1. With respect to the position of the skull. It is obvious that
this depends simply upon what we are to regard as its vertical or its
horizontal plane, either of course being sufficient for the determina-
tion of the other. The importance of the determination of this point
is acknowledged by all craniologists, although up to the present time
there does not seem to have been much accord respecting it among
them.

In the Gottingen Eeport (p, 35), Prof. v. Baer remarks, that, in
the delineation of a skull, " it is atjove aU things necessary that an
" agreement should be come to respecting the horizontal plane, in
" order that difterent figures should be really comparable." Though
this observation is eminently true as regards figures of the cranium,
it is scarcely less applicable in the case of taking, at any rate some,
of the measurements. The horizontal plane, hitherto most usually
adopted, has been one passing through the centre of the external
auditory foramen and along the floor of the nostrils. But a little
consideration will show that this is not the true horizontal plane of
the head. A really horizontal line starting from the centre of the
auditory foramen would, in most cases, as remarked by v. Baer
(p. 36), pass a good way above the floor of the nose. The plane of
the foramen magnum, which some have assumed as the horizontal
plane, is still further from the true one, and is besides excessively
variable. Professor Lucse, in his excellent figures, has assumed that
the direction of the zygomatic arch, or rather of its upper border,
coincides with the horizontal plane. In this we are fuUy disposed
to agree, though we think that the plane in question may be ascer-
tained in a more precise way than by simjjly taking the zygoma
itself, which is often considerably curved, as the indicator. If we are
not mistaken the Abbe Prere first proposed to take as a vertical line
one drawn from the middle of the auditory foramen to the junction
of the coronal and sagittal sutures. At any rate, we have adopted

356 EEVIEWS.

this line invariably as the vertical line of the skull, and it will be found
in the vast majority of cases really to be so (VV. Fig. 1. PI. VIII.).
Now, if a line be drawn at right angles with this, also through the
centre of the auditory foramen (HH. Fig. 1), it will be found to run
in the same plane with the zygoma, and to cut the nostrils at a vari-
able distance above their floor ; — the distance varying according to
the downward development of the superior maxillary bones, and thus
affording, in some cases, a useful character. This we regard as the
horizontal or base line of the cranium.

2. With respect to certain points in the cranium from Avhich
some of the measurements are to be taken. The more important of
these appear to us to be —

1. The fronto-nasal suture, from which the measure of the longi-
tudinal arc commences, and to which the fronto-nasal radius is
measured.

2. The posterior border of the foramen magnum.

3. Tlie most important of all — the centre of the external auditory
foramen. If a wire be passed directly through this point, it wiU
enter the cavity of the skull through the internal auditory opening,
and pass out at the other side, of course in the same direction, tra-
versing the pons varolii, and thus nearly corresponding with the
point at which the cruxa-cerebri begin to expand. Lines radiating
from this point to the surface of the brain will consequently give
pretty nearly the depth of that organ in the various directions. In
the same way, if similar radial lines can be drawn to points on the
exterior of the skull, these wiU aff"ord a rough approximation to the
depth of the brain in the given directions. At any rate, they wdU
afford data for the comparison of one skull with another. From the
same point also are measured the transverse arcs, wliich coiTCspond
in direction with the radii of the same denomination, and afford a
comparative idea of the greater or less convexity of the craniimi in
the different regions.

4. The occipital spine.

5. The anterior border of the alveolus of the upper jaw. To this
point is measured the maxillary radius, and the diftereuce in length
between this and the fronto-nasal radius wiU be found, perhaps, a
better criterion of the degree of projection of the jaws than is
afforded by any of the uncertain means hitherto devised for ascer-
taining the so-termed facial angle.

G. The most projecting points in the zygomatic arches.
7. The external angular processes of the frontal bone.
It will be necessary to add but a few words further explanatory
of the measurements in the table ; which will, however, better be
imderstood by reference to the figures in the accompanying plate
than by any detailed description. In —

Fig. 1. (Plate VIII.) V, V, is the vertical line, and also the direc-
tion in which the vertical radius and transverse arc
are measured.

CEAJS^IOMETBT AND CRANIOOEAPHT, 357

H, H, is the horizontal line of the cranium,
w, marks the maxillary radius.
n, „ fronto-nasal „ and tranverse arc.

/, „ frontal „ and „ „

V, „ vertical „ and „ „

p, „ parietal „ and „ „

0, „ occipital „ and „ „

B, B, shows what may be termed, in contradistinction to
the horizontal, the basal line of the cranium, or, more
properly speaking, of the cerebrum : it is a line drawn
in the direction of a plane, extending from the level
of the occipital spine to that of the glabella.
Pig. 2. Ip marks the direction of the longitudinal vertical plane ;

zz that of the zygomatic breadth.
Fig. 3. hk, corresponding to Ip in Fig. 2, marks the direction in

which the height of the cranium is taken.
Eig. 4. Ip, longitudinal vertical plane ;

tp, transverse vertical plane. The intersection of these
lines is the vertex.
Fig. 5. Ij} and tp signify the same as in Fig. 4, and their intersec-
tion, nearly at the middle of the anterior margin of
the Jvramen mar/num, of course corresponds with the
vertex above, the distance between the two points
being the height of the cranium.
Having obtained these measiu-es, the next question is, what is to
be done with them ? In the first place, they afibrd the means of
rovighly estimating the absolute dimensions of any cranium as com-
pared with another ; and secondly, they aUow of our using precise
numerical values, in place of words, in speaking of the comparative
proportions of difterent classes of skulls ; that is to say any term so
employed may and ought to be associated with a given numerical
value.

An idea of this kind appears to have been entertained by Prof v.
Baer, who seems to have been the first to express the proportions or
some of the proportions of a cranium in terms of a common module
— that chosen by him being the length, and in this we have followed
him. It will readily be seen that by the adoption of this plan, the
comparative length, or shortness, or height, or any other dimensions
of a cranium may be accurately expressed in figures. As, for in-
stance, assuming the length as the standard or modulus, crania, as
regards their breadth or height, may be said to have it .6, .7, .8 or .9
of the length — the two former numbers actually embracing pretty
nearly all the crania hitherto classed as dolicocephalic, whilst under
the two latter will be found included all or nearly aU the so-termed
brachy cephalic skulls.* By reference again to the same module, the

* M. Broca also (Bull, dc la Soc. d'Anthrop. July 1861,) proposes to take, as
" iudice cephalique," the proportion of length to breadth ; and, as we think very

358 EEYIEAVS.

degree of prognathism and of occipital prolongation, zygomatic breadth,
and so on, may also readily be expressed and placed in columns, so
that the comparison of one set of forms with another, and their aver-
age values, may be seen at a glance.

Having said so much on the subject of measurements, our space
will allow of but few observations on that of the graphic representa-
tion of the cranium, to which, however, even greater importance
should be attached.

The objects to be held in view in preparing figures of crania
for scientific purposes, are— 1. That the cranium should invariably
be represented in a certain defined position ; 2. that it should be
represented either of the natural size, or reduced to a given pro-
portion ahke in aU cases ; 3. that so many figures should be
given of each cranium, as without any perspective may afli^ord a
sufficient idea of the outHne of a section of the cranium in the
three dimensions of length, hreadth, and height, together with a
view of the face, as seen in front, and of the base, regarded in
the horizontal plane. Five figures of a skull are consequently, in
our opinion, indispensably requisite to aflTord an adequate idea of its
conformation.

Three modes of delineation with these objects in view may be
followed. 1. That of geometric projection, so ably advocated, and
so usefully employed by Professor Luc», and described by him in
the Memoir above cited, and to which the reader is referred. 2. By
photography ; and 3. By means of the camera lucida. Not having
had an opportunity of seeing Dr. Lucse's apparatus, we can only say
with reference to it that it appears extremely well adapted to the
purpose, and probably easy of application ; and that the figures draAvn
by its means must necessarily, if carefully done, be faithful trans-
cripts of the object, as seen in a geometric plane. But as we do not
naturally see objects in such a plane, it is obvious that figures so
represented must to the eye appear unnatural, and unlike the object
itself from which they are taken. If a cranium, for instance, be held
at the usual distance from the eye, the more distant parts are neces-
sarily seen in perspective — and so far, a figure drawn mthout allow-
ance for this, must be unlike the original, when placed alongside it.
The fact is that no drawing can really represent more than a single
plane, so as to admit of distances being measured iipon it. ^ And it
follows, therefore, that all the objects proposed in geometric draw-
ings, such as those of Prof. Lucje, wiU be answered by having figm-es
of each plane, in which it may be desired to take the measure-

usefiilly, suggests that crania, as regards their general proportions, might be arranged
in three categories : —

I. Cranes dolicocepliales J ^; P^^^ dolice'phales, ent're 75 ct 79.6
II. Cranes mesaticephales 77.7 „ 79-6

T.T/-(. t- u 'II ^A. sous brachycephales . 80 „ 84.9
lU. Cranes brachycepliales j ^ ^^^^-^^^ ^ ^ _ . 85 ct ou dcla.

CEANIOMETRT AND CBANIOGEAPHT. 359

meuts. Sucli figures as these can be very readily and accurately
made by means of tlie ordinary camera lucida, and a few very
simple contrivances, for placing the cranium in the proper positions
and at the proper distances for the proportionate size, only are
required.

With respect to the size in which crania should be represented,
convenience alone would suggest that one below the natural should
be adopted ; and for all possible purposes it would seem that they
would be answered by figures half the size of nature, as well as by
larger ones, which are not a whit more useful, nor in fact more na-
tural, when we consider the usual distances at which a skull and a
drawing of it are by most persons respectively viewed. The various
views of the cranium we should propose, are :—

1. The side or profile view {norma lateralis).

2. Tlie posterior or occipital view {norma occipitalis).

3. The anterior or frontal view (norma frontalis) .

4. The vertical view {norma verticalis), and

5. The base view {norma hasalis).

In taking these five views, the position of the skull on its sup-
port, which should be capable of rotation, only requires to be changed
once, that is to say, from that in which the vertical line is perpendi-
cular, to that in which it is exactly horizontal and the basal line in
turn perpendicular. It is almost needless to observe that in order to
ensure accuracy it is necessary that the camera should, as nearly as
possible, be opposite the centre of the perspective plane in each posi-
tion of the cranium.

Many other points cormected with craniometry have been left
unnoticed for want of space, but which still deserve attention, as
much perhaps as those we have so hastily touched upon. Such are^
for instance, the internal capacity and the various modes of ascer-
taining it in the unopened cranium ; the form of the nasal opening,
with respect to which so much of interest is given in Mr. William-
son's very valuaJjle and interesting account of the collection of
crania at Fort Pitt ; the shape and position of the orbits ; the various
forms of the lower jaw ; the effects of age, or art, or posthumous
change in modifying the form of the skuU, &c. — subjects the discus-
sion of which would amply occupy as much space as we have already
filled. For the same reason we have been compelled to defer any
more particular notice of several very ingenious and valuable instru-
ments that have been contrived to facilitate the measiu-ing of the
cranium. Some of these contrivances have for their object, or are
capable of being applied not only to the accurate and minute mea-
surement of the skull, but also, by the method of taking a series of
abscisses and ordinates, to allow of such a scheme of the various sur-
faces being laid down that an outline of the curves can be drawn from
it. This appears to be the plan followed — as we gather from an
observation by Prof Wagner, in the Gottingen Eeport (p. 86), — •
by Dr. Aeby of Basle ; and the same object may very readily be

360

REVIEWS.

carried out by a very ingenious craniometer contrived by Prof.
Huxley.*

Prof. Harting's Kephalograph, is an instrument constructed
mucli on the plan of one used by hatters for the piu'pose of taking
the measure and form at the same time of the head ; and it is so con-
trived that the outlines thus obtained can be imprinted on paper, by
a series of points affixed to the ends of the little sliding rods.

"We have, ourselves, been in the habit of using an instrument or
craniometer, contrived on the principle of a shoemaker's guage, and
similar in fact to the "Stengel-Zirkel" of v. Baer; consisting, that is
to say, of a stem, a, a, about 12 or 13 inches long, with two branches,
b, b, one of which can open out to a right angle by a fixed hinge
at one end of the stem, whilst the other, in the same way capable of
being placed at a right angle with the stem, may also be slid up and
down it, as shown in the woodcut.

The same instrument will also be found useful, if not indispensable, for
the taking of the radial measures. It is adapted for this piu-pose by
the addition of a conical plug c, c, upon each arm, which like the stem
are graduated to inches and j^-ths, and which plugs can be slid up
and down the arms so as to stand at any given distance from the
stem. One of these plugs being inserted into each external auditory
opening, its centre will of course correspond with the centre of that
opening, and the radial distance from this point to any given point
on the periphery of the cranium may readily be estimated on the
arms of the craniometer, when the stem is made to touch the peri-
phery of the cranium at the desired point.

As regards the measures to be employed, we are inclined, and for
the reasons propounded by Prof. v. Baer, to prefer the English inch
divided into ji^ths, to the French metrical system, which, however,
appears, from what passed at the Gottingen meeting, Likely to be
more generally adopted. It would be very desirable in any case that
this point were determined once for all, not only in the interest of
craniometry but of science in general.

* A " nouveau cephalograiilic," apparently on the same principle, constructed
by M. Mattliieu, is described in the Bulletins de la Soc. d'Anthrop. II. p. 680. And
another cephalometer by M. Anteline is also mentioned, but not described.

361

XXXIV. — Selecta EuNaoETJM Caepologia, ea doctjmenta et

ICONES POTISSIMUM EXKIBENS QVM VAEIA EEUCTTTUM: ET SEMI-

NUM geneea in eodem fungo simul atjt ticissim adesse
demonsteent. — Junctis studiis ediderunt Ludoviciis-Eenatus
Tulasne et Carolus Tulasne. Tomus primus. Erysiphei. Praemit-
tuntur prolegomena de fungorum conditione naturali crescendi
modo et propagatione. Parisiis, 1861. 4to.

This work is well calculated to maintain tlie credit of the Prencli
Botanists as being foremost in the dissemination of sound views upon
the subject of Fungi. The notion of PKny that fungi originated " ex
pituita arborum," of Bauhin (in 1623), that they were produced by
thunder and rainy weather, and of Dillenius (in 1719), that they
arose " ex putredinosa fermentatione," may now create a smile, but
such ideas are in reality not far removed from those of more modem
writers, who have treated the Uredinei as a diseased condition of
vegetable tissue.

In noticing the succession of fallacies which have thus existed
from time to time, the authors observe, " Longam banc opinionuna

errorumque seriem dum moleste contemplemur, hoc

tamen non nobis displicet, quod gallici scriptores omni tempore sen-
tentias probatiores ssepius tueantur," and they refer with satisfac-
tion to the writings of Jussieu and Bulliard as being in advance of
the general ignorance in which the subject was enveloped. Dismiss-
ing, however, in a very short space the controversies of the earlier
naturalists, the authors start upon the assumption that fungi are
now known to originate from seed, that they develop gradually, that
they produce fruits of various kinds, and afterwards perish, and that
their vitality is of a vegetable not of an animal nature ; and although
in consequence of the doubts raised by De Bary as to the nature of
the Myxogastres, these organisms are excluded from the considera-
tions applicable to fungi in general, and are only casually alluded to
throughout the work, the authors do not hesitate to say that De
Bary's views are " contra omnem ferme verisimiHtudinem."

In the remarks at the commencement of the second chapter rela-
tive to the great number of existing fungi, allusion is made to the
statements of Pries upon the same subject in the Summa Vegetabi-
Kum Scandinaviae, but the " quadraginta millia formarum," to which
Pries' estimate applied, included the whole of the Agaricini, and not
(as is stated in the text), only the genus Agaricus. We may observe
that Pries' calculation is entirely speculative, and it is not improba-
ble that his conjectural numbers are far too high. With regard to
the Pyrenomycetes, of which Pries reckons there may be 100,000
species, no data exist to justify such an assumption. Our own
experience would lead us to think that the great Swedish mycolo-
gist has considerably over-estimated the number of ideally distinct
forms.

362 REVIEWS.

We should have been glad, if space had allowed, to have quoted an
interesting note in which the authors comLat the views of Linnaeus
as to the nature of vegetable life. The discussion, however, is of a
metaphysical nature, and we must refer our readers to p. 9 of the
text. Nor can we do more than refer to the observations on the uses
of fungi, which point out their importance as agents in the solution
and destruction of defunct organic bodies, dead vegetable matter
being by their action made fitter for the sustenance of living plants.
The assumption above alluded to that all fungi originate from
seed is qualified to some extent by the subsequent remarks, in which
the authors say, " Quare cl. Theodoro Bail libenter assentimus qui
verum seu legitimum Fungorum semen nos fortassis tamdiu ignora-
turos contendit qiiamdiu de eorum sexu incerti manserimus." The
true nature of the spores of Fungi has been the subject of much dis-
cussion. Link contended that nothing could be called a true seed
except what originated from an impregnated ovule, and following out
this view, applied the term " spores" to the reproductive bodies of
cryptogamic plants. Eichard, setting out with the assumption that
all the Cryptogamia of Linnaeus are devoid of sexual organs, says,
" Les corpuscules par lesquels ces plantes se reproduisent n'ayant pas
d'embryon ne sont pas graines." GTgertner speaks of the spores of
fungi as " granula venditata pro seminibus," and says, " meridiano
sole clarius (est) quod granula ista de vero semine nihil praeter for-
mam externam nacta sint, et quod rectissime habeat Schsefierus qui
ea jamdudum ad gemmarum gregem amendanda censuit." Ehrenberg
— bearing in mind the fact that the variations from the typical forms
in fungi are not less remarkable than in other plants, and that gemmae,
whilst they reproduce the individual, never give rise to such varia-
tions- -comes to the conclusion that spores have a higher rank than
buds. Lastly, the authors of the present work, taking these various
views into consideration, give their own opinion in the following
words, " Quocumque modo igitur se habeant corpuscula ilia quibus
propagantur Fimgi, semina sunt sui generis, quin imo sincerrima
semina sensu Linnaeano, nunirum ova, planta nova, singulatim
praegnantia, decidua et ssepissime timicata, aut si malueris, corcula, tot
novarum plantarum compendia."

Although the sweeping assertions of Eichard and Gaertner have,
so far as relates to the higher cryptogams, been entirely disproved, it
can hardly yet be asserted that the spores of fungi are " ova planta
nova praegnantia." To describe them as " corcula tot novarum plan-
tarum compendia," is a far safer generality.

In speaking of the nature and importance of the spores of finigi,
reference is naturally made to Fi'ies' views on the subject. It is well
knoMTi that that distinguished writer dwells strongly upon the im-
portance of a careful attention to the general phenomena of growth
in fungi, and that he is inclined to lay less stress upon the characters
derived from the sporidia. For instance, in speaking of the generic
distinctions of the higher Pyrenomycetes, we find him writing as

TTJLASTfE, SELECTA rUNaORUM CARPOLOGIA. 363

follows at p. 380 of the Summa Vegetabiliuin Scandinavise, " Hac
differentia rite perspecta, nobilissima Pyrenomycetiun genera seque
perspicua evadimt, ac maxime naturalia, et ignoscant precor hodierni
mycologici, qui omnem vim in subtilissimis notis ponunt, hgec omni-
bus vegetationis et morplioseos rationibus congrua genera, ut prime
obtutu mox recognoscantur, ex sporarum et ascorum differentiis,
mihi minime ignaro, impossibile fuisse divellere." We tbink, how-
ever, that the comparison at p. 24 of Fries' observations in the Elen-
chus Fungorum, with the later views of Fresenius and de Notaris
is hardly fair upon the former. It should be remembered that the
2nd volume of the Elenehus was published 20 years at least before
the works of Freseuius and de Notaris, and the particular passage
alluded to is so caut' >usly worded that it could not be objected to at
the present day. " Quatenus sporidia septata, etc., ad genera dis-
tinguenda sufficiant, dubium sane videatur, cum hie character a
mrdtis generibus iisque naturalissimis vilipendatur." In fact, so far
as regards the Sphseriacei, which is the family to which Fresenius and
de Notaris specially allude, the remarks of the latter writer seem to
go too far. That the shape and structure of the sporidia are of im-
mense importance in the distinction of species no one wiU deny, but
the value of these characters as generic distinctions is far less mani-
fest. Those genera of the Sphseriacei, which might be defined by
their sporidia, exliibit other features by which, mthout any assist-
ance from the fruit, they might be separated from their nearest
allies.

In the fifth chapter, mention is made of a point which is stiU in
dispute with regard to those spores which mycologists call basidio-
sporous. If we understand this question rightly, the MM. Tu-
lasne are of opinion that the sterigmata or stalks of these spores are
simply prolongations of the basidial cell, the spore itself being the
swollen apex of the sterigma cut off by a septum from the lower por-
tion, whereas, according to the views of Schacht and Hoffmann, the
spore is formed within the dilated apex of the sterigma, as in a true
ascus, the ascus being adnate to the spore. The question is of some
systematic importance,* because if Schacht and Hoffmann are right,
the fructification of the basidiosporous fungi differs from that of the
ascigerous ones only in the fact of the ascus being adnate to the
spore. The determination of the question would seem to be capable
of solution if we could ascertain the number of membranes of which
the spore consists. Although it would be difficult, if not impossible,
to do this in most species, on account of the small size of the
spores, it might perhaps be effected with the assistance of proper
chemical reagents in some of the large-spored Coprini. If the views
of the MM. Tulasne be correct, the spore would have two membranes
only, whereas, if Schacht and Hoffmann are right, there must be four

* IfDeBary's obsei'vations on Agaricus mcllcus (Botanische Zeitung, Dec. 2,
1859), are correct, normal asci may exist in the same plant with normal basiUia.
N. H. R.— 1862. 2 C

364 EETIEWS.

membranes, viz. the outer and inner membrane of the spore Itself,
and the outer and inner membrane of the ascus or basidium, within
which it is produced, and to which it is adnate. If the numbers of
membranes covihl not be ascertained when the spores are first shed,
it is possible that, by inducing them to germinate, the obseryation
might be rendered easier.*

In speaking of the manner in which the spores of fungi are dis-
persed, the authors refer to the observations of the Messrs. Crouan,
with regard to the opening of the asci of Ascobolus. In this genus
the tip of the ascus sometimes sphts at the top in a circumscissile
manner, and bends backwards, exhibiting the appearance of a little
cap or helmet thrown back and adhering by a hinge. The Messrs.
Crouan give figures of this mode of dehiscence in several species of
Ascobolus figured by them (see Annales des Sc. NatiireUes, 4th
series, Vol. vii. PL 4, and Vol. x. PI. 13), and they state that the cap,
or operculum as they call it, is often entirely detached by the rapid
and instantaneous escape of the spores. The MM. Crouan appear
to think this dehiscence worthy of special notice, as they suggest that
it aff'ords an additional generic character to distinguish the Ascoboli
from the Pezizse, and the MM. Tulasne speak of it as occurring only
in Ascobolus saying " Ascoboli solius, quautiun sciamus, theca ex-
trema rescisum dimittit galeolum." "We are incHned to think,
however, that the fact is not of much importance, for the same thing
occurs in Sphasria herbarum, where the asci have been seen to open
in a manner precisely similar to that observed by the Messrs. Crouan
in Ascobolus. A figure of the fruit of this Sphsoria, sho\\ang the
peculiar dehiscence of the asci is to be found in the Quarterly Jour-
nal of Microscopical Science, Vol. iv. PI. xi. fi". 32, 33. f

The thick gelatinous envelope of the spores of certain Pyrenomy-
cetes forms the subject of a few remarks at p. 44 and 45, and refer-
ence is there made to a note in Nylander's " Synopsis methodica Li-
chenum," where that author, after speaking of the existence of this
envelope in Lichens, says, " Parmi les champignons c'est surtout

* Vittadini's explanation of the formation of basidiospores would seem to
be intermediate between that of the MM. Tulasne and that of Schacht and
Hoffmann. According to Vittadini, the spore is formed within the ascus or basi-
dium, and is carried outwards by the protrusion of the inner membrane only of the
basidium.

f With regard to the question as to whether the asci of Ascobolus are (as its name
would imply), really ejected, the authors say (note, p. 32), " Omnes apud Ascobolos quos
novimus, thecffi equidem supra discum hymeninum, singulse saltern sua vice debitoque
tempore, vertice emerso prominent et paraphyses plus minus excedunt, strato autem
supposito cui ab oiigine imponuntur semper quodam modo hserent, nee secus evacu-
antur atque Pczizanmi et cseterorum Discomycetum asci, nisi quod ita lailgo pr^re-
scindantur seu decaeuminentur, ut galericulus tintinnabuUformis amoveatur." Mons.
Coemans, in his recent able monograph of the genus Pilobolus in the " Memoires
couronnes," of the Belgian Academy, also expresses doubts as to the emission
of the asci in Ascobolus, a fact whicli, he says, has been rather assumed than
proved.

TtriASKE, SELECTA PFNOORTTM CARPOLOGIA. 3G5

chez le Sphgeria scoriadea Fr. qu'elle est d'uue epaisseur remarquable."
We do not think that Sphaeria Bcoriadea is more remarkable than
several other species iu the thickness of this envelope, which as far
as our observation goes is as well if not more fully developed in
SphcBria Tilice Fr., Sphceria profusa Fr., Sphceria putaminuon, Schwein.
and several others. A striking instance of a similar envelope is
figured by the MM. Crouan in the spores of Ascobolus macrospo-
rus Cr.*

In the sixth chapter of the present work, a good deal of space is
devoted to an attack upon the oj)inions of Fries as to the fructifica-
tion of Cytispora, and some analogous genera. Fries supjDoses
(or did suppose at the time when the Summa Vegetabilium Scandi-
navia? was written), that all Pyrenomycetes with simple naked spores
were abnormal or atypical, and that the conversion of asci into spores
was a circumstance of common occurrence. The MM. Tulasne, on
the other hand, contend that the Cytisporse and the analogous kinds
of fungi are normal but transitory forms, constituting a peculiar re-
productive apparatus, and being, as it were, a primary sort of fructifi-
cation. It is probable that the latter view may be the correct one,
but we doubt if sufficient consideration has been given to the other
side of the question. The argument from the supposed age of the
great Swedish observer, savours somewhat of an anachronism, for
although now " in crepusculo vitse susB,"t it must be remembered
that the observations in question were written 14 years ago. Nor
do the remarks at p. 54 appear to us very convincing, where it is said,
" Quis non miraretur tot fungillorum millia fera semjjer atypica et
" abortiva occurrere." And again, " In harmonia naturae et nos ipsi,
" Linnsei exemplo, maxime confidimus, quare tot monstra tot abortivos
" foetus exstare negamus." We thinlc it might be objected that
atypical and abortive forms are not so uncommon amongst fungi as
to make Fi'ies' suggestion so unnatu.ral as it is argued io be. With
regard also to the possibility of the reduction of asci to spores, we
thmk that the observations of Messrs. Berkeley and Broome on Stil-
lospora macrosperma (supported as they are by what has been since
noticed in Sphcsria Cryptosporii (which seems identical with Sph.
suffma^v.), Steganosporium cellulosum, and Fatellaria atrata,)X are
rather too summarily dismissed.

In the Botanische Zeitung for 1854, Dr. De Bary brought forward
some observations to show that the common Eurotium herbariorum,
and Penicillium glaucum are two forms of fruit of the same fungus.
The difficulty of ascertaining this satisfactorily can only be appre-

* Annales des Sc. Nat. 4tli Series, Vol. vii. PI. 4, fig. 8.
t " Sub vitse meae crepnsciilo meminisse juvat, quantas voluptates perfectiorum
fungorum studium per quinquaginta et quod excurrit annos continuatum, mihi
paraverit." Fries, in Preface to the " Monographia Hymenomycetum Suecise."
p. xi.

X Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, Vol. iii. p. 272, Vol. iv. p. 197,
and Vol. vii. p. 228.

2C2

366 EEVTEWS.

elated by those who have attempted to trace the two forms of fruit
from the same mycelium. The late Professor Henfrey had com-
menced some observations on the subject not long before his lamented
decease, and was disposed to doubt the correctness of De Bary's con-
clusions. We find, however, that the MM. Tulasne appear satisfied
upon the point, for they say (note 2, p. 63), "Novissimis his tempo-
ribus propria experientia percepimus mira ilia ab oculatissimo
Baryo observata cum vero ni fallimus quadrare." They add that
the conidiiferous fruit varies to a great extent, so much so as to
pass from the form of Aspergillus glaucus to that of JPenicilUum
glaucum.

In connection with the question of the double fi'uctification of
moulds, we find some important remarks upon the Genus Azygites
of Fries. The authors have observed that the flocci produce simple
or forked stems, each surmounted by a whitish vesicle filled with
minute spores, and that upon the same mycelium fruit occurs of a
more imposing appearance, globose, pyriform, or elongated and lage-
riform in shape, consisting of a dark membrane, which is sometimes
very minutely tuberculate, and which encloses a number of dark
spherical spores. " His omnibus perpensis (they add), nonne vide-
bitur vesicxilam solitam unde fimgilli mucorini dicti principem suam
notam hactenug traxerunt minoris esse dignitatis quam vulgo sesti-
matur ?"

This question, which, if answered in the affirmative, involves the
abolitioti of the order of Physomycetes, must be left for the consi-
deration of mycologists, but it may be observed that the fact of the
occurrence of two sorts of vesicles containing different kinds of
sporidia has not escaped the notice of Mr. Berkeley, who, neverthe-
less, retains the order which was first established by himself.*

The eighth chapter of the work is devoted to the consideration
of the mode of germination of the spores of fungi and the different
kinds of mycelium. It is strange that after the niunbers of observa-
tions which have been made upon germination, it should still be a
disputed question whether that process takes place by extension of
the outer membrane of the spore, or by the protrusion of the inner
one. Gaertuer, Eichard, Ehi-enberg, Corda, Schmitz and Schacht
maintained the former view, but notwithstanding this array of au-
thorities, the MM. Tulasne remark, " Suadet autem analogia germen
semper ex endosporio oriri." No one can, we think, dispute that
in the cases cited, viz., Puccinia, Hypoxylon and Xylaria, there is no
extension of the outer coat, and to these might have been added
Helminthosporium, Coniothecium, Steganosporium, and others, in
wliich the germ-filament is certainly a prolongation of the endo-
sporium. It is difficult to suppose that the mode of germination is
not uniform throughout the fungi, and yet Mens. Coemans, in his
recent monograph of the genus Pilobolus, states that the germi-

• See Introduction to Ciyptogamic Botany, p. 297.

TITLASNE, SELECTA FUNGORUM CAEPOLOaiA. 367

nation of spores in P. crystallinus takes place, or at least commences,
by enlargement of the outer membrane.* Judging also by the
figiu-es only, it would seem that Bail supposes the same to be the
case ill the germination of the spores of Sphceria typhina Pers.,t
but we cannot assert positively that such is his opinion. Spliceria
thelebola is alluded to by the authors as emitting terminal and
usually oblique germs. We have not ourselves seen the germination
in this species, but it may be observed that the spores are furnished
at each extremity with an extremely delicate ciliary appendage,
which is not easily visible without careful illimiination. These ap-
pendages might easily be taken for germ-filaments, but they are
exactly terminal, not oblique, and would seem to be of the same na-
ture as the appendages to the spores of Sphceria taleola Er., which
are ranked by the authors with other setiform processes, such as
those which occur in Pestalozzia, Dilophosphora, &c.

One of the subjects discussed at some length in this work is the
nature of those numerous fungi which, although in reality belonging
to different genera, and even families, have got classified together
under the general name of Sclerotium. "We have only space to no-
tice one or two of special interest ; those mycologists whose atten-
tion is directed towards solving the difficulties which still exist upon
many points in the economy of those productions, will find a mine of
information in the MM. Tulasne's pages. The general nature of Sclero-
tia is so well described by Mr. Berkeley in his Outlines of British
Mycology, that we quote his words here. At p. 57 he says, " Not
only do many fungi remain long in the state of spawn without form-
ing fruit, but they give rise occasionally to productions quite at
variance with the characters of the perfect plant ;" and after noticing
instances where the spawn assumes a root-like form, he adds, " Scle-
rotium, on the contrary, is formed by the concentration of threads
into solid wart-like bodies or nuggets, entirely devoid of fruit, but
which on occasion give rise to various kinds of fungi, as Agarics,
Pistillarise, Pezizse, &c. . . ."

One question of difficulty connected with Sclerotia, and upon
which the MM. Tulasne are at issue with other authors, is as to the pro-
duction of different kinds of fungi from the same Sclerotium, or of the
same fungi from different Sclerotia. Agaricus tuber osus is an in-
stance of this. — Pries has stated in the Syst. Mycologicum % that
this Agaric is produced from Sclerotium cornutum, 8. Fungoruvi, S.
muscorum, and others indiscriminately, upon which the MM. Tulasne
remark (p. 108, note), " Verbis his, nota niuic vera Sclerotiorum
natura, non minus offendimur, quam si quis, nobis adstantibus, uvas
de spinis aut de tribulis ficus collegisse contenderet," and they ex-

* It would seem that the MM. Tulasne have themselves noticed something of
this kind, for they say at p. 94, " Semina plurima sub germinationem, solitam mo-
lem non mutant ; e minimis vero pleraquc tunc plus minus augeutiir."

t Sec Bail m Nova Acta, Vol. xxLx. % Syst. Myc, Vol. i. p. 133.

368 EETIEWS.

press the lite surprise with regard to Mr. Berkeley, who has said
that the same species of Pistillaria is produced by Sclerotium com-
planattitn, Tod., and Sclerotium scutellatum, A. and S.

Here it may be observed that the first volume of the Systema
Mycologicum was wTitten more than 40 years ago, and Fries cannot
fairly be assumed to retain all the opinions expressed in that work.
Indeed, upon turning to the account of Agaricus tuherosus given in
his latest work, the " Hymenomycetes Suecias," we find no mention
of the several Sclerotia alluded to in the Systema Mycologicum ; the
plant is there described as " semper innatus tuberi solido, glabro,
sclerotioideo, lutescenti."

Whether the authors or their opponents are right is a matter
upon which it is very difficult to form an opinion. We cannot think
the matter is so clear as the former consider it to be. Tries and
Berkeley may have been mistaken ; it may be that Ag. tuherosus*
is never produced except from Sclerotium cornutum, and that the
Pistillaria of Sclerotium scutellatum is more delicate and branching
than that of Sclerotium complanatum ; but the instances alluded to
in a former number of this Eeview, f of the apparent production of
two diflerent sorts of Claviceps by the ergot of Phragmites, and of
Agaricus papillatus by the ergot of rye, still remain quite unex-
plained.

Before parting with the Sclerotia we must notice the case of
the Peziza which is produced from Sclerotium sulcatum. This
Sclerotium inhabits the pith of the stems of Carices, and has been
observed by Mons. Diu-ieu de Maisonneuve to produce a small brown
Peziza, which is described at length at pp. 103 and 104 of the
present work, and to which the authors have given the name
of Peziza Duriseana. The account communicated by Mons.
D. de Maisonneuve to the MM. Tulasne, is so interesting
that we have been induced to translate that part of the note in
which it occurs. He says, " Carex arenaria of Linnscus occupies
" a well-defined space % of about 100 acres, forming a dense mass.
" When it has commenced forming spikes it all at once becomes with-
" ered and lank from the effects of the fungus of wliich it has long
" been the nidus. In this state it bears a wonderful resemblance to

* Vol. i. p. 11.

f We would call attention here to a paper by St. Schulzer v. Miiggenburg, in
the 10th vol. of the Transactions of the " Zoologisch-hotanische Gcsellschaft " of
Vienna, on the Sclerotium of Ag. tuherosus. The autlior seems to be of opinion
that the Sclerotium and the Agaric are independent organisms, and tliat the growth
of tlie Agaric from the Sclerotium is analogous to that of Hyduum aiu-iscalpium
from fir-cones.

X We do not know how to translate the expression for the exact locality of this
plant. The words used are, " in jirato Fargensi." In a previous part of the note
the locality is spoken of as " ad Garumiuc ripas in pratis arcnosis aridisque agri
" Sirionensis, hand ])r()ciil a Vasatum tinihus, ct antique Fargarum castello, nunc
" funditns everso." The " Ager Sirionensis " must be the country round the ancient
Sirio, which stood at or near to the conllucuce of the Ciron and the Garonne.

TULASNE, SELECTA FTJNaOEITM CAEPOLOOIA. 369

" Carex ligerica Gay, and it usually dries up entirely before the
" flowers are fully developed. This whole mass of Carex is so entirely
*' occupied by the propagula, or rather the mycelium of the stranger,
" that it is difficult, to find even a single cuhn withia the limits above
" defined which is free from the parasite. It follows that it would
" remain barren unless propagated by rhizomata, and I can easily
" imagine that the whole mass has originated from a single Carex
" which in the first instance admitted the fungus, and then in suc-
" ceeding years crept far and wide in every direction. For Carex
" arenaria L. abounds everywhere in the country about Bourdeaux,
*' but bears the Peziza only at " Fargse," in the particular spot above
"mentioned. You should know also that a single Sclerotiiun, or
" more rarely two or three are produced in each cidm above the base,
" and that the culms are at the same time almost invariably marked
*' above the middle by from ten to fifteen punctate distinct rings,
*' placed almost at equal distances and formed by the very minute
" Epidochium ambiens Desm. May we not conclude that some rela-
*' tion exists between this phoma-like pyrenomycete and the co-existent
" Sclerotium of the Peziza ?" Upon this latter suggestion of M. Du-
rieu de Maisonneuve, the authors remark that they have found Epido-
cJiium affine Desm. (a plant hardly difiering from Epidoclimm am-
biens) in Schoenus nigricans L., and in some Carices, and they con-
sider it possible that the Epidochium and the Peziza are different
forms of fruit of the same fungus, although the question as to their
production by the very same mycelium is not yet settled. The point
is very interesting, and one which may be recommended for the con-
sideration of those botanists who have the opportunity of watching
Carex arenaria.

The authors did not succeed in their attempts to produce the
perfect fruit of Sclerotium varium. They sowed it in the summer
of 1860, and in the February following, numerous smooth delicate
" cauliculi" were produced, which afterwards assumed the form of very
acute funnels, but they all died long before arriving at perfection.
Mons. Muenter of Greifswald, who has lately given an account of his
experiments in the Xlth Vol. of the second series of the Eeports of
the Belgian Academy,* was more successful. He sowed some speci-
mens of Sclerotium varium in the month of December, 1857, and
after the lapse of a year and a half, viz. in July, 1859, the Sclero-
tium produced a Peziza, apparently a Ibed to, but distinct from, P.
tuberosa Bulliard. M. Muenter has given figures of his Peziza in
the volume above referred to. Sclerotium sulcatum Desm. and the
Sclerotium of Typhula have also been observed to lie dormant for
more than a year, as is men\.ioned at p. 106, (note 2) and p. 110,
(note 1) of the MM. Tulasne's work.

We have not space to notice the interesting remarks upon Ehizo-
morpha and other forms of mycelium, which the reader will find dis-

* Bull, de I'Acad. Royale dcs Sciences, &c. de Bruxelles, Vol. xi. p. 215.

370 EEVIEWS.

cussed in the concluding portion of the 8th chapter, where there will
also be found some comments upon the questions, whether Fungi
have true roots, and whether such a thing as a unicellular fungus
exists. To both of these questions the authors incline to give a nega-
tive answer, qualifying the latter however with the remark, "

merito qu»rat quispiam cur Fungi quum'AIgis indubia, imo proxima
conjungantur necessitudine, parem structurse simpHcitatem quando-
que etiam non exliibeant." ^

The controversy with regard to the existence of sexes in fungi
may be dismissed in a few words. Although the recent observa-
tions of Hofmeister and De Bary point to the probability of the
occurrence of some process such as that which takes place in Achlya
and the allied Algse, it is premature to speak, as Bail has lately done,
of the discovery of sexuality in the Tuberacei, ks if it were a fait
acco7npli. With regard to Hofmeister' s observations they really
amount to little more than the suggestion of a probability, and
although De Bary's go somewhat further, much remains to be done
for the solution of this great mycological problem. In fact, the
opinion (as old as the time of Micheli) which attributes male func-
tions to the cystidia of the Agaricini, and Klotzsch's more recent sug-
gestioos as to the paraphyses of the Discomycetes, can hardly be yet
said to be displaced. No prudent mycologist will be disposed to quarrel
with the authors' conclusions when they say, " Ideo ad hoc sevi non
longe processit notitia nostra de Fxmgorum organis sexualibus, si
qua sunt ;" nor mth their further argument, that inasmuch as no one
doubts the existence of sexes in AlgaB, there are therefore legitimate
reasons for suspecting their presence in Fimgi, a suspicion which is
confirmed by a well-groxmded confidence in the manifest harmony of
nature.

The concluding chapter of the " Prolegomena" consists only of a
few remarks on the present condition of mycology and the most
desirable means of advancing the science. The systematic portion
(occupying only about a sixth part of the present voliune) is limited
to the Erysiphei, and contains copious descriptions, accompanied by
exquisite figures, of the typical species. The plates are five in num-
ber, and surpass if possible in beauty even those in the " Fungi
hypogsei."

That the authors may have health and leisure for the speedy pro-
duction of the concluding volumes of this remarkable work will, we
are sure, be the earnest wish of all mycologists.

371

XXXV. — On the vaeiotts Conteiyances ut which Beitish.
AKD Foreign Oechids aee teetilized by Insects, and on
THE GOOD EFFECTS OP iNTEECEOSSiNG. By Cliarles Darwin,
M.A., F.E.S., &c. With illustrations.

Amongst the prominent diiferences between the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, there is one which, though never taught in
schools and seldom alluded to in books, cannot fail to occur to the
reflecting Naturalist ; it is this, that whereas imisexuality is the rule
amongst the highest orders of animals, and hermaphroditism becomes
more frequent as we descend in the scale, the contrary is the case with
plants. It is not our purpose here to discuss this curious contrast, of
the significance of which in a scientific point of view we have hitherto
been absolutely ignorant ; it is enough to say that the results arrived
at in the work whose title heads this article, show that amongst many
plants apparent and real hermaphroditism are totally difierent things,
and that before reasoning further on the subject, we must begin again
not only to observe, but also to experiment.

But our future observations will be of very little use if they are
to comprise nothing more than the circumstances of the presence of
both sexes in one plant, or on one individual ; observations, to lead
to any good results, must not only be systematically and carefuUy,
but intelligently made ; they must, in fact, be suggested by some pre-
vious idea, and collected for the support or the contrary, of some
possible or probable truth ; and the wider the application of that
truth, the more fruitful and suggestive will be the accumulated ob-
servations directed to its elucidation.

In the present work Mr. Darwin has given the results of obser-
vations made for the purpose of trying his theory, " that no herma-
phrodite fertilizes itself for a perpetuity of generations ;" his ulterior
hypothesis, of the origin of species by natural selection, is, as enim-
ciated by himself, untenable if the contrary were demonstrable.
Now one of the most obvious objections to this position Hes in the
fact that the higher plants are structurally hermaphrodite, and that
not only is it the apparent design of that condition to ensure the
fertilization of each flower by its own pollen, but that a multitude of
minor points in the structure of the flower appear to be as many
contrivances to render self-fecundation doubly sure. To controvert
this view was a bold idea, under any circumstances ; and to show,
as Mr. Darwin has done, that in one very large Natural Order of
plants, and in that very Order in which the contrivances seemed most
directed to ensure self-fertilization, all our previous notions were
wrong, and most of our observations faulty, is a great triumph, that
cannot fail to secure to its author a more attentive hearing for his
ulterior views than these have hitherto gained. Nay further, had
Mr. Darwin not investigated this point he would have had no secure
foundation for his great hypothesis, for, as we have observed already.

372 • EETTEWS.

tliis question of structural hermaphroditism is a fundamental one ;
and the rule that the more perfect plants are so constructed must
occur to every one as a notable and insuperable objection to cross-
fertiUzatiou, in default of its being shown that first impressions are
in this, as in so many other cases, utterly fallacious ; or, in other
words, that we have utterly misinterpreted the phenomena we have
hitherto recorded.

In his introductory pages the author indeed states that the pri-
mary object of his work is " to show that the contrivances by which
" Orchids are fertilized are as varied and almost as perfect as any of
*' the most beautiful adaptations of the animal kingdom ;" and such,
no doubt, was his primary object in publishing his observations in^the
form of a separate treatise, addressed to the general reader ; but the
real primary object of the investigation, and therefore, in its best
sense, of the work too, is involved in his secondary object, " to show
"that these contrivances have for their main object the ferti-
"lization of each flower by the pollen of another flower." It is
under this last point of view that we shall notice its contents, con-
fining oiu-selves mainly to an endeavour to make them and their
importance clear to the readers of the Natural Sistory Review, as-
suming that they, like ourselves, were previously very iusufiiciently
acquainted with the whole subject of the structure of Orchid flowers
and the functions of their parts. We must however, in limine say,
that without an accurate knowledge of many Orchids, the whole sub-
ject is not intelligible, and that to understand it thoroughly requires
a practised botanist. The key to the whole lies in the right compre-
hension of the exact structure, position, and relations of the ros-
teUum to the other parts of the flower in every species commented
on : and when we add that this rostellmn is usually a very minute
organ ; that it is a compound and highly differentiated body ; that
the figures it assumes are seldom comprehensible from descriptions ;
that it alters much in form during develoj)ment and suddenly changes
its aspect after fertilization ; that its homologies are obscure and its
functions often intricate and always dependent on external agencies
for their exercise ; — it will be obvious that Mr. Darwin's is no work
for the general reader and our task one of unusual difficulty. To put
the matter more plainly, we do not believe that any student can,
after his three months course of botany as usually taught in Europe,
describe accurately the rosteUum of any British genus of Orchids ;
and yet we must assume that our readers can. Such being the case,
it may be wondered why Mr. Darwin chose the popular form for his
treatise ; for his many and good reasons we must refer to his intro-
duction, adding, that for other reasons we are glad that he has done
so, amongst them, because Mr. Darwin's wT^itings afford the best
specimen in English biological literature, of rigidly accurate descrip-
tions expressed in perfectly simple language ; of a style and language,
in short, that are equally admirable and charming ; we are glad too
that the public should have in an available form the means of seeing

DAEWIN ON PEBTILIZATION OF ORCHIDS. 373

how varied are the accomplishments, how laborious the investigations,
and how sharpened become the faculties of a working naturalist with
a theory to establish, and how subservient the latter may always be
kept to the sternest demands of facts and their teachings.

The book opens with a brief description of the structure of
Orchid flowers, and of the terms applied to their organs, and is divi-
sible into three parts, of which the first is devoted to British Orchids,
the second to exotic forms, and the third to general considerations on
the structure, morphology and physiology of Orchids. Such at least
would be our division of the work, but the author has disposed of
the whole matter in seven chapters, without concise headings, some-
what arbitrarily, as if the conception of putting forth the treatise as
a separate work were an after- thought ; an arrangement that does not
recommend itself to the general reader, who thus loses sight of the
grand divisions of the Order as well as of the subject.

The general results obtained from all Orchids then are — 1. Tliat
the structural obstacles to self-fertilization are almost insuperable.

2. That the adaptation of all parts of Orchid flowers is for cross impreg-
nation of one flower by the pollen of another of the same species o^^

3. That insects are the agents of fertilization almost invariaWy."

4. That the labeUum is the landing place of the insects, and contains
the object of attraction to them in the shape of a honey-bearing spur,
or sweet pulpy excrescences, or nectar-distilling hairs. 5. That the
relative position of the labeUum to the reproductive organs is such,
that an insect to reach the attractive object in the former, places
head or thorax in contact with the latter. 6. That an insect on its
first visit to a hitherto unvisited flower, must in its search for honey
usually so place itself as to close the stigmatic cavity, while at the
same time it removes the pollen. 7. That in numerous cases, so
long as the insect remains on the plant whose flowers it has sucked,
the pollen retains such a direction as that it cannot reach the
stigma of any flower it visits ; and that, as owing to its unerring in-
stinct it never visits the same flower twice, it cannot reach the stigma
of that from which the pollen was taken. 8. That in many cases, after
a certain period, generally longer than that spent by the insect in one
flower or plant, the pollen spontaneously assumes such a direction
that it is infallibly applied by the insect to the stigma of another
flower of the same species as that from which it took the pollen.
Bearing these points in mind we shall now very briefly review the
principal modifications in structure and method of fertilization pre-
sented by the British genera of Orchids examined by Mr. Darwin.

Orchis mascida, morio,fusca,maculata, latifolia, and Aceras anthro-
pophora. In these an insect alights on the labellum, and pushing its
head into the cavity at the base of the labellum, the rosteUum is
touched, its membranes ruptured along definite lines, and the viscid
balls at the base of the pollinia consequently cement themselves to
the insect's head or proboscis, with the poUinia erect. In this posi-
tion the pollinia cannot touch the stigma of a flower subsequently

§74 EEVIEWS.

visited ; but they do not retain this position, they gradually become
depressed and point forwards, and assume such a position that they
infallibly strike the stigma of the next flower visited. The viscid
stigmatic surface is not adhesive enough to overcome the attachment
of the whole poUinium to the insect's head, but is adhesive enough to
overcome the cohesion of the pollen grains, inter se, which are conse-
quently detached in masses, and one poDinium may therefore fertilize
many flowers. There are many other beautiful little contrivances
noticed by Mr. Darwin which are brought into play in this operation,
of which we have given an outline only.

Orchis pyramidalis difiers considerably from its allies ; the most
cmious point connected with it being the union of the viscid balls of
the pollinia into the form of a siugle saddle-shaped disc, which clasps
the autennse of moths in a most rapid and remarkable manner, causing
a divergence of the pollinia : but for this divergence, and their suc-
ceeding depression, they could not reach the stigmatic sm'faces of
subsequently visited flowers. O. ustulata presents many points in
common with O. pyramidalis. A catalogue is given of twenty-three
sdecios of Lepidoptera which were fovmd to have pollinia of O. pyra-
midalis attached to their probosces, one of which bore seven pair.

Oplirys mwscifera. In this plant the pollinia have doubly-bent
caudicles, the eflect of which seems to be the same as that of the
movement of depression in Orchis.

Ophrys aranifera. The caudicles here are nearly straight, and a
movement of depression is hence necessitated.

In O. apifera the method of fertilization differs, not only from all
others of its genus, but from all other Orchids. The greatest structural
difference is in the caudicles, which are so slender as to be flexible
with the weight of the poUen itself. The consequence is, that the pol-
linia hang out of their pouches, and are blown by the wind against
the stigmatic surface, and self-impregnation ensues almost infalUhly.
Mr. Darwin finds it almost impossible to escape the conclusion that
self-fecundation is here absolute : his discussion of the case is most
ingenious, but he can do no more than show that crossing is
possible.

O. arachnites. The priucipal point established regarding this is,
that it is certainly not, as supposed by some, a variety of O. apifera,
but more closely allied to O. aranifera, with which it agrees in its
method of fecundation.

Herminium Monorchis has floAvers highly attractive to bisects, and
seems adapted to a similar mode of fertilization as Orchis.

Hahenaria viridis. There is no movement of depression in the
-pollinia, and it is not apparent at first how the latter can strike the
stigma. The explanation is most curious and unique. There are
three nectarial spots, and an insect bearing the pollen must, to reach
the two lateral of these, so move its head that the pollinia strike tlie
stigmata ; the supplementary nectaries thus replacing the power of
movement of the caudicles and disc.

DARWIN ON FERTTLTZATTON OF ORCHIDS. 875

Gymnadenia eonopsea and alhida differ iu detail only from Orchis.

Habenaria clilorantha has a drum-like viscid disc of great func-
tional importance, but its structure and action are far too complicated
to be abridged here.

H. hifolia is found to differ in so many characters from H. chlo-
rantha as to be considered an undoubtedly good species, and further
it is fertilized in a totally different maimer.

^pipactis palustris. The labelliun is of peculiar structure, the
distal half being hinged on the other so lightly that a fly depresses
it. An insect entering the flower depresses the distal portion (which
closes after it), and reaches the nectarial cayity without touching the
rostellum ; but, in backing out, the action of raising the said distal
portion forces the insect against the rostellum, when it removes the
pollen. There is no movement of depression required ; for, on the
entrance of the insect in another flower, the polhnia it bears are
brought into immediate contact with its stigmatic surface. In
E. latifolia, the distal portion of the lip is not flexible, and the
operation is more simple.

Geplialantliera grandijlora presents the all but unique case of an
Orchid wanting the rostellum {Cypripedium being the only other);
its pollen grains are separate and spherical. Here perpetual self-
fertiKzation is imperfectly secured by the friable pollen grains reach-
ing the stigma at a very early period indeed ; but the structure of
the flower and relations of the parts are such that insects must help,
so that the flowers are partially fertilized by their own poUen and
partly by that of other flowers. The details are very intricate, and
the discussion highly interesting and curious.

Goodytra repens is one of the most interesting British Orchids, as
connecting several distinct forms ; iu the development of a caudicle
and cohesion of the pollen grains, it approaches the tribe Ophrece; in
other respects it is allied to JEpipactis, Spiranthes, and Orchis,

Spiranthes autumnalis. The rostellum here bears an erect boat-
shaped disc, filled with a viscid fluid, and decked with a membrane
endowed with the power of fissiu-ing on the slightest stimulus (but
not spontaneously). The poUinia consist each of two brittle, leaf-
like laminae, and are exposed by a contraction of the anther case.
The lip, at an early period, moves away from the rostellum, leaving a
narrow passage to the nectary. The flowers are visited by bees,
which touch the rostellum with their proboscis, causing the boat's
deck to burst and expose the viscid fluid which attaches the pollinia
to their proboscis. But at the period when the flower is open
enough to allow of bees removing the pollinia, the aperture is not
sufiiciently wide to allow this to be applied to the stigma. The
flower thereafter opens wider by the further movement of the la-
bellum ; hence it happens that fully expanded flowers are fertilized by
newly expanded ones. The analysis of the whole operation is most
graphically given by Mr. Darwin.

Malaxis paludosa has flowers with the lip turned upwards, owing

37G REYTEWS.

to a greater than usual twist of the ovary, and the upper sepal and
petal are reflexed instead of protecting the flower. The pollen-
masses are almost wholly exposed, and so placed that an insect
must withdraw tliem on visiting the flower, and carry them off" lying
parallel to its proboscis, and in the proper position for being applied
to the stigmatic cavity of the next flower visited.

Listera ovata. The rostellum is here exceedingly curious, being
divided internally into loculi, a structure found in no other Orchid
but Neottia. It is exquisitely sensitive, rupturing suddenly with a
touch of the finest human hair, and ejecting a ball of viscid matter
at its apex. The pollinia, wliich lie free and are very friable, have
their bases so close to the apex of the rostellum, as to be invariably
entangled in the expelled viscid mass. The long lip presents a lon-
gitudinal nectarial ridge. Insects visit this, crawl upwards, touch
the apex of the rostellum, when the viscid matter shoots out, carry-
ing the pollen masses by tlieir entangled lower ends, and glueing
them to the insect's head The insect visits other flowers, and masses
of the friable pollen are left on their stigmatic surfaces.

Listera cordata and Neottia nidus-avis present essentially the
same structure and method of fertilization as L. ovata.

To complete this extremely brief and incomplete account of the

phenomena in British Orchids we should by right aUude to Cypri-

pedium, of which genus however only exotic species were examined.

This genus, as is well known, differs from all other Orchids in having

three confluent stigmata (hence no rosteUum), the anther of other

Orchids represented by a shield-like body, two fertile anthers, and in

the pollen grains being glutinous. Fertilization seems here to take

place by insects visiting the flower to extract the sweet fluid from

the glandular hairs within the labellum ; to effect this they insert

their proboscis into a narrow chink which leads to the anthers, the

sticky grains of which attach themselves to their proboscis, and are

■ conveyed to other flowers. Oypripedium is thus the only genus in

which the pollen grains attach themselves not only to the insect's

proboscis but to the stigmatic surface, which is not viscid.

We have preferred thus giving a rather extended resume of Mr.
Darwin's observations on British Orchids to reviewing the very ex-
tensive and intricate chapters devoted to foreign Orchids, tlie homo-
logies of Orchid flowers, and general considerations ; both because they
may be repeated by any observer and extended by many, and because
this procedure of ours gives a better idea of the completeness of the
work than a more sporadic selection of his observations and experi-
ments, results and conclusions, could have. Those other chapters are
however by far the more interesting and important, and to them we
shall at some future time recvu", if opportunity offer. It remains to
add that the work is copiovisly illustrated with most useful and in
general very clear woodcuts, which would, however, have been greatly
increased in value had the insects been introduced, in position, on
the flowers.

377

•rtrjinal glrtirUs*

XXXVI. — A E-EPOET 01!^ RECENT EeSEARCHES INTO THE MeSTIITE

Anatomy of the Spinal Cord. By "W. B. Kesteven, F.E.C.S.
[With Plates IX. X. XI.]

The object of the writer lias been to collect in brief compass, from
various essays and monographs, the principal results of recent re-
searches into the microscopic anatomy of the spinal cord, embracing,
on the present occasion, that portion only of the cord which extends
from below the medulla oblongata.

The several essays by Mr. Lockhart Clarke have been followed as
the basis of the following remarks, and the information is conveyed
for the most part as nearly as possible in the words of Mr. Clarke.
Lest it should appear that an undue prominence is thus given to the
observations of that anatomist, it shoiild be borne in mind that the
advances recently made towards an accurate insight into the rela-
tions of the elements of nervous structiu^es, are mainly due to the
method of preparing transparent sections, wliich was introduced by Mr.
Clarke, and which with some slight modifications has been followed
by subsequent investigators, who have all more or less confirmed the
accuracy of his observations. Stilling's magnificent and voluminous
treatises having been founded upon the results of the examination by
reflected light, of thin sections of simply hardened cord, aflbrded
conclusions which have been shown by later observers to be in many
points obscure and erroneous. The great diversity of opinion that,
until very lately, existed on almost every point of the anatomy of the
nervous centres, may be learnt from the historical sections of Schroe-
der van der Kolk's, Stilling's, and other essays — while a notable
approach towards agreement in observations and inferences, has been
perceptible since the examination of transparent sections by means
of transmitted light.

The following Bibliography embraces all essays or works having
reference to the microscopic anatomy of the spinal cord, of which
the writer has been able to avail himself.

It is from no want of appreciation of the value of the labours of
Grrainger, Solly, Bowman, Todd, and other previous anatomists, that
this subject has been taken up at a late point in its history. To have
done otherwise would have been to occiipy the pages of this journal
with an historical disquisition foreign to its objects and superfluous
to its readers.

J. Lockhart Clarke. — 1. Eesearches into the Structure of the
Spinal Chord. Philosophical Transactions, 1851. — 2. On certain
Functions of the Spinal Chord, with further investigations into
its Structure. Fhilosophical Transactions, 1853. — 3. Further

378 OETGnTAL AETICLES.

Eesearches on the Grey Substance of the Spinal Chord. Philo-

sopliical Transactions, 1859. -;

B. Stfllen'g. — 1. Xeue TJntersuchtmgen iiber den Bau des Eacken-

marks. Fiinf Lieferunc/en, FranJcfurt, 1S56-1S59. — 2. Atlas

^Miki'oskopisch-Ajiatomischer Abbildungeu. Vie-r Lieferungen,

1S56-1S59.
KoLLiKEE. — Manual of Human Histology. London (Sydenham

Society), 1853.
Ph. Ows.iAy>'iKO"w. — Disquisitiones IMicroscopicse de MedulljD

Spinalis textura, imprimis in piscibus facitatas. Dorpat. 1854.
!R. Wag>t:e.. — Xeurologische TJntersuchiingen. Gottingen, 1854.
J. Le>*ho3SEK. — Xeue TJntersuchungen iiber den feineren Ban des

Centralen Xerven systems des Mensehen. Wien, 1858.
ScHEOEDEE TAX DEE KoLK. — On the Minuto Structure of the Spinal

Cord, etc. London, 1859 {Neio Sydenliam Society).
Beow^t-Seqeaed. — Lectures on the Physiology and Pathology of

the Central Xervous System. Philadelphia, 1860.
Fe. GrOLL. — Denkschi'iften der Mediz.-Chir. Gesellschaft d. Kanton

Zurich. 1860.
J. B. Tease. — Contributions to the Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.

San Francisco, 1860.
E. Eeissxee. — Beitrage zur Kentniss von Bau des Eiickenmarkes

von Petromyson fluviatilis. Dorpat. 1860.
L. Steeda. — Ueber das Eiickenmark imd Einzelne Tlieile des Gehims

Ton Esox Lucius. Dorpat. 1861.
J. DEA^f. — [Microscopic AnatomT of the Lumbar Enlargement of the

Spinal Cord. Cambridge, U.S. 1861.
J. TEAroOTT. — Contribution a I'Anatomie ]\Iicroscopique de la

moelle epiniere de la Grenouille. Quoted from the German, in

Brown-Sequard's Journal de Physiologie, Janvier, 1862.

The subject will be treated under the three heads of : —

1. The structure of the white columns.

2. The form and structure of the grey matter.

3. The origin and course of the nerve roots.

I. SxErCTUBE OF THE WhITE COLE3J3fS.

The anatomical elements of the white columns present different
appearances, according as they are examined ia longitudinal or ia
transverse sections.

A longitudinal section exhibits the general aspect of a structure
consisting of parallel fibres running lengthwise. A minute examina-
tion shows them, as described by IVIr. Lockhart Clarke, to consist of
nerve-fibres taking different directions, — transversely, olliqv.ely, and
longitudinally, together with blood-vessels and connective tissue.

On tracing the transverse fibres, these are found to proceed from
the grey matter, or from the nerve-roots, and to form a kind of plexus
between bundles of the longitudinal fibres, with many of which they

EESTEVEN 0>' THE ANATOMY OF THE SPLS'AL CORD 379

may also be seen to become continuous after alterijig tbeir course.
A large number of these transverse fibres approach the surface in
fissiires which contain connective tissue, and admit the passage of
vessels from the pia mater of the surface. Within the grey substance
they may be ti'aced in connection with the roots of nerves, with the
processes of the multipolar ceEs, and with the fibres which form the
commissures.

The oblique fibres may be regarded as intermediate between the
transverse and the longitudinal ; they form the deeper strata of the
cord, lying nearer to the grey matter from which they proceed up-
wards and downwards, becoming longitudinal after running a variable
distance.

The longitudinal fibres constitute the greater portion of the mass
of the white columns ; they are the more superficial, and run nearly
parallel to each other.

Dean describes four principal courses of the longitudinal fibres : —
1st, obliquely upwards and inwards, penetrating sooner or later into
the grey substance : 2nd, fibres which may be slightly oblique at
starting, but soon assume a directly transverse course, sometimes
varying this by slightly a-scending or descending ; these fibres ajre
mostly of the finest sort : 3rd, fibres which enter the posterior column
at various angles, but very soon bend roimd, often at quite a sharp
angle, descending in a coiirse more or less oblique : -Ith, fibres which
are looped or recurrent, seeming to unite both ascending and descend-
ing fibres. Besides these four classes, the first three of which have
ah'eady been noticed by Stilling, Dean observes, " every variety of in-
termediate course will be fovmd, the bimdles of fibres being braided
together in most complex manner." " The anterior and lateral
columns, apart from the anterior roots, are only partially derived
from the cells of the anterior and posterior cornua, soine of the white
longitudinal fibres seeming to be direct continuations of the posterior
roots, after these have passed through the grey substance ; the poste-
rior columns are composed almost exclusively of the posterior roots,
a few fibres appearing to be derived from cell processes coming from
the large cells, situated on the margin of the posterior cornu : what
coui'se these fibres take after lea\Tug the grev substance, I have
been luiable to determine definitely." — p. 10.

Stilling also points out that the longitudinal fibres do not all follow
a parallel course, but that many, after a longer or shorter extent, bend
in other dii'ections ; but whether all or only some are thus diverted,
and whether others continue to follow the v^hole length of the cord,
he has not determined. Sometimes horizontal fibres are traceable
into the roots of the nerves. The oblique fibres he describes, simi-
larly with ]\Ii'. Lockhart Clarke, as passing upwards and downwards,
and in one of his plates gives an illustration of their crossing one
another. The transverse fibres. Stilling remarks, ai'e more numerous
where the larger nerve roots arise. Their course is not always in
exactly the same plane, neither are they always straight, but present
N. H. K.— 1S62. 2 D

380 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

frequently a bowed outline as they traverse the bundles of longitu-
dinal fibres, to form the roots of the spinal nerves.

The white columns (Strange), Goll observes,* consist principally
of longitudinal fibres running parallel to each other, forming the
medium of communication of single portions of the cord with the
brain, and intersected by radiating bundles (Balkensfrahlen) of nerve-
fibre, which he describes as branching off like the veins of leaves
for the most part dichotomously, then again subdividing and con-
nected with each other. Coarser radiating bundles may be noticed
to divide the fibres into clusters of from twelve to fifteen districts of
radiations. Finer bundles subdivide these again into trapezoid or
rhomboid shaped clusters of the cut ends of the horizontal fibres.
These radiating bimdles are the medium of the passage of vessels and
nerve fibres from the centre to the surface. The periphery and
borders of the anterior fissures are covered with a layer of fine con-
nective tissue, which latter sends inwards processes connecting it
with the radiating bundles and the neuroglia. Grail also delineates,
in a somewhat exaggerated diagram, two wedge-shaped tracts of the
posterior white columns bounding iaternally the posterior middle line,
and on their outer sides being in contact with the posterior roots of
the nerves as they pass from the posterior horns of the grey sub-
stance. These tracts are not always distinctly marked.

Kollikert distinguishes in the Avhite substance only horizontal and
longitudinal fibres, " running parallel to each other, never interlacing
nor constituting small fixsciculi. The number diminishes from above
dowTiwards, because they successively pass inwards towards the grey
substance, presenting the general characters of the central nerve-
fibres." The transverse fibres are found in those portions of the
columns which adjoin the horns, and at the points of entrance of the
nerves, and in the white commissui'e.

Schroeder van der Kolk| describes the course of longitudinal
fibres in the anterior and posterior columns, and the passage of some
of these fibres into the transverse rays connected with the cells in
the grey matter. These contain, according to this author, separate
filaments for the several fimctions of sensation, motion, and reflex
action, and exist in greater numbers in the cervical and lumbar ex-
pansions, where the majority of reflex actions and movements are
excited and combined.

A transparent section at right angles to the axis of the cord ex-
hibits very clearly the arrangement of the longitudinal and transverse
fibres. (Plate IX. fig. 1.) The latter are seen passing among the cut
ends of the former, and, as it were, majjping these out into circum-
scribed districts of bundles. Stilling has devoted one fasciculus of his
folio atlas to the delineation of the divers forms presented by these
blocks, or districts, as exhibited in opaque sections. By the employ-
ment of colouring matter (e. g. carmine or archil), the cut ends of the

• P. 135. t Vol i. p. 408. X P. 56.

KliSTEVEN ON THE A2TAT0MT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 381

longitudinal fibres are subjected to anatomical demonstration by-
transparent sections. The axis-cylinder of the nerve-tube becomes
tinged with the colouring matter, while its surrounding sheath remains
untinged. In this way the transverse fibres become distinguishable as
they traverse the bundles of longitudinal fibres, the dyed ends of which
thickly dot the field of the object glass of the microscope, (fig. 1.)

By gentle pressure of a fresh nerve the solid cylinder may be
protruded, and thus demonstrated in its recent state. This is readily
efiected in the nerves of fishes {e.g. Cod). The author of an elaborate
essay on " General Nerve Physiology," in a late No. of the British
and Foreign Medico- Chirui-gical Eeview,* observes: — "As to the
tubular nature of the axis- cylinder, we once thought that we had
convinced ourselves of this in the anterior nerve-roots of the ox. But
on examining our preparations, in which the axis cylinder gave the
appearance of having a double contour, with a finer microscope, the
tubular appearance cannot be made out, and the axis cylinder, under
a very high power, appeared to consist of a finely granular homogene-
ous substance. We have now little doubt that the axis cylinder is
a solid or semi-solid fibre, continuous with the contents of the
nerve-cell." The same writer expresses his concurrence in Mr.
Lockhart Clarke's opinion that Stilling was, in his examinations of
nerve structure, misled by his mode of making his preparations.

A transverse section exhibits also the relations of tlie fissures of
the cord — the anterior and posterior median, and several lateral or
radiating fissures which admit the passage of vessels. The general
distribution of the latter is beautifully shown by the use of trans-
parent injections.t The principal source of supply is by one or,
sometimes, two arterial trunks passing down the anterior fissure,
piercing the anterior commissure to send a branch on each side of the
central canal, then rapidly dividing and subdividing into almost as
many and as minute branches as there are nerve processes. So nu-
merous are their ramifications and anastomoses, that a network of
minute meshes is formed in the grey matter, and its superior vascu-
larity strongly marked, (fig. 2.) A second source of vascular supply is
from the pia mater of the aurface. Vessels may be seen traversing the
white columns, and passing inwards to the grey matter, giving ofl"
branches to their connective tissue and fibres in their course inwards.
In the Boa the size of the vessels of the grey matter is, relatively to
that of the higher animals, large, and their course distinct.

The connective tissue consists of a fine net- work between the fibres
and blood-vessels of the columns. In the calf this tissue may readily
be seen to be interspersed with a multitude of minute cells or nuclei,
which send out processes or fibres in different directions to assist in
forming the net-work of areolar tissue. The smallest cells of the

* July 1862, p. 3.
t The writer has traced the vessels in many exquisite specimens of injected cord,
prepared by C. M. Topping, 7, Haverstock Street, City Road.

2 D 2

382 OEIGiyAL AETICLES.

substantia gelatinosa of the caput cornu posterioris are considered by
Clarke as belonging to tlie connective tissue. The outer ends of the
epithelial cells which surround the central canal send out delicate
processes which radiate in all directions, and by their peripheral
ends are always in connection with the areolar or connective tissue.
Some processes may be traced to the blood-vessels and pia mater
through the grey substance and columns, at right angles to the axis
of the cord, joining the connective tissue. We have ourselves seen
this connection of the epithelial cells of the canal -^-ith the pia mater
of the anterior fissure, in a beautiful preparation by IVIr. Lockhart
Clarke, of the cord of a foetus of a sheep three inches only in length
— leaving no longer any possibility of doubt on the existence of the
connection.

Dean* observes — " My own observations are entirely in agree-
ment with the description which J. L. Clarke has given of the con-
nective tissue." " Tlie view which Clarke has taken of the possible
relation between connective and true nerse tissue seems very valuable ;
for I have long been satisfied of the impossibility of fully distinguish-
ing with our present means, between these two tissues, which seem
to run into each other so closely as to suggest very strongly the im-
portant question, whether there is any actual and essential difier-
ence between them, or whether the connective tissue of the cord be
intermediate in its natm-e, passing on the one hand into nerve tissue,
and on the other into pia mater."

Groll (p. 136) describes the interstitial substance or Neuroglia of
the white columns as being identical with the finest fibres, forming
the sheaths of the nerve fibres, and as continuous throughout the
entire length of the spinal cord. This is also shown by Mr. Clarke,
Phil. Trans, pi. xxii. fig. 48. At the edges of very thin sections Goll has
seen the short sections of axis cylinders fallen out, leaving a honey-
comb structure distinctly perceptible. At the borders of the anterior
fissure this neuroglia is continuous, with a fine fibrdlated texture,
which is interposed between the white column and the pia mater.

n. FOEM AITD StEIICTTJEE OF THE GrEET SrBSTAIfCE.

1. Form. The general outlines of the grey matter are well known,
as are also its division into anterior and posterior horns. It may be no-
ticed that these outlines are not so clearly defined as the cord tapers
towards its lower extremity. At the lower part of the conus medul-
laris, or conical extremity, the posterior grey substance forms a single
broad mass, consisting behind of a softer, paler and more transparent
lamina or baud (the gelatinous substance). The anterior portion of
the grey substance of the conus, however, retains more of the form of
the cornua, being divided into two parts by the anterior fissure, near
the base of which fibres are seen crossing and decussating to form the

* P. 2.

KESTEVEN ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COED. 383

anterior commissure. In ascending towards the lumbar region the two
lateral cornua, and the ijosterior commissure begin to appear. In the
conus medullaris the central canal is larger than in any other region
of the cord. It continues to enlarge through the lower part of the
coiius, nearly reaches the anterior fissure, and extends backwards to
the gelatinous substance, in front of which it dilates in a lateral direc-
tion. The grey substance gradually decreases in quantity, and is
encroached upon by the antero-lateral columns. Numerous small
cells are scattered throughout it.

The Jilum terminale, in its natural state, appears to be a nearly
cylindrical tubule, but, when hardened in spirit, or chromic acid, is
more or less flattened at the sides, so that the canal becomes com-
pressed and sometimes completely coUapsed. The grey substance is
at last reduced to a mere fringe from the edges of which a series of
processes extend through the white substance to the pia mater at the
surface.

On examining the cord upwards from the conus towards the lum-
bar enlargement, certain modifications are found to take place in the
form and disposition of the grey masses. The two halves of the
posterior mass begin to separate from each other at the middle line.
The rudiments of the posterior cornua begin to be marked out by the
separation of the grey matter, and the first appearance of the pos-
terior vesicular columns is an increasing mass of caudate cells a
little behind the spinal canal. The changes continue to increase from
below upwards, and reach their greatest extent in the middle of the
lumbar region, where the posterior cornua are broad and long, and
widely separated, while the posterior commissure is reduced in breadth,
^©i'^g T3^ of ^^ ^^h instead of -^-^ as at the lower end of the cord.

A similar series of alterations takes place also in the form and
arrangement of the anterior grey horns, whereby they assume a shape
the opposite of what they presented lower down. They now turn
rather outwards than inwards, and have a large irregularly clubshaped
extremity. The caudate vesicles have become exceedingly numerous,
and are grouped together in several large masses, chiefly on the outer
and middle parts of the cornua.

In the dorsal region the arrangements of the grey substance are
again reversed. The posterior grey substance again consists of a
single mass extending uninterruptedly and nearly horizontally across
from side to side — on the other hand, the anterior cornua are long,
straight and narrow, projecting directly forward. Its caudate vesicles
are less numerous and collected in one or two small groups towards
their extremities.

From the middle of the dorsal region to the cervical enlargement
of the cord, the alterations in the form of the grey substance are
again reversed, being nearly similar to those found to take place on
proceediug upwards from its lower extremity. The process of division
of the posterior mass is renewed, the commissural bands are pressed
forward, marking the posterior cornua — the anterior become broader

384 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

and longer and contain a larger number of vesicles. The general
arrangement of the grey substance has a striking resemblance to that
.of the lumbar region.

In the spinal cord of Man the form of the grey substance differs
somewhat from that of Mammalia. Throughout, the posterior cornua
stand completely apart, and are joined only at their bases by a narrow
transverse commissure. Each posterior vesicular column occupies
the whole inner half of the cervix, and in appearance resembles that
of mammaha in the upper part of the lumbar enlargement.

Dr. J. Traugott states that before and behind the central canal
in the cord of the frog, the grey matter consists of a gelatinous con-
nective tissue and differs notably from its characters in other parts — a
difference which is not found in the cord of man or other vertebrates.
In other parts the grey substance consists of the cellular and fibrous
elements. Its radiated character is due to the processes extending
from the epitheHum of the central canal, and which belong probably
to the connective tissue. The cells are large and small, the larger
are more abundant in the anterior horns, the smaller in the posterior
— both varieties of the nerve cells are met with scattered together
throughout the grey substance.

The anterior commissure is formed of fibres passing across from
one side to the other and enclosing longitudinal fibres. The posterior
commissure is very slight and is even sometimes w^anting. The pos-
terior nerve-roots send processes to the anterior commissure.

The fibres of both commissures are described by Schroeder van
der Kolk as consisting of white fibres not in immediate connection
with nerve roots, although probably indirectly connected with the
anterior roots by means of ganglionic filaments. (Plates X, XT.
figs. 4 and G, L and M.)

The cells of the grey matter present great variation in form, size,
(fig. 1 c), and number of processes, depending much, as observed by
Dean, " on the direction of the plane of section with respect to the
situation of the cell."

A distinction foimded on the size of the cells has been attempted,
dividing them into motor, sensitive, and sympathetic, but this is
a purely hypothetical and unfomided distinction, since there are
many cells, wiiich as Dean justly remarks, should be sensitive in the
anterior cornu, and motor in the posterior.

Dean regards the cells as simply an enlargement of the axis
cylinder containing a granular substance and a nucleus. The cells
however possess such clearly distinctive characters as to justify their
being regarded as altogether independent structures giving off pro-
longations of their outer membrane.

Dean defines the distinctive characters of grey and white matter,

or vesicular and fibrous, as consisting in the presence of true nerve

cells in the grey or vesicular, v.hily they are absent in the white or

fibrou^t substance. " The so-called cells of the wliite substance, de-

.Bcribed by Stilling and others," Dean adds, " are nothing more than

KESTETEN ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COED. 385

the cells belonging to the connective tissue, or as sometimes occurs,
true nerve cells which have been isolated from the grey substance by
the plane of section."

With reference to the connections of nerve-cells one with the
other, the following summary of various opinions may be quoted from
Dean. " Schroeder van der Kolk describes and figures, for the most
part very truthfully, the communications between cells by means of
longer or shorter fibres. He states that two cells are often united
by more than one fibre, but so far as my own observations reach,
this is exceedingly rare. He seems to infer that cells of the pos-
terior cornua are also connected, though he does not mention ever
having seen this. Lenliossek speaks of the cells as being multipolar,
and connected together in a continuous chain from the apex of the
conus medullaris to the brain, and figures the union of several cells
from the cervical enlargement of the human cord.* Bidder and
Kupffer notice the same fact ; they were also able to make out
cell connections in longitudinal sections. Stilling agrees with the
authors cited above, considering these cell connections, however,
as independent of those he believes established between all the cells
of the elementary tuhuli. Both Stilling and Schroeder van der
Kolk describe the cell-process as bifurcating, distant cells being
connected together by this first divisioji, or by means of still fur-
ther ramifications. Stilling carries this division of the cell-process
much further than Van der Kolk, making the branches split again
and again, till they are reduced to the finest elementary tuhuli. My
own observations agree in this respect much more nearly with the
figure and description of Clarke ; his statement that the cell-pro-
cesses divide and subdivide into smaller branches, so that the space
between them appears to be occupied by a minute network of the
most delicate fibrils, is entirely correct. I have uniformly seen the
cells connected by fibres never smaller than the axis cylinder of the
finest nerve fibres of the white substance, being usually (measured
at a sufilcieut distance from the cell for the diameter to be uniform),
about -0001 -00025" in diameter."

These connections of the ceU processes, indicated by Lockhart
Clarke in 1851, may with care and patience be traced in very thin
and transparent longitudinal sections of the horns. As the fibres
change their plane, a frequent adjustment of the focus is required
under the use of the higher powers of the microscope. The analogy
of the relations of the fibres proceeding from unipolar cells in lower
classes of animals strengthens the conclusions which have been
founded upon the careful examination of the apparently inextricable
net-work of cell-processes, nerve-fibres, blood-vessels, and connective
tissue.

The anterior and posterior cornua are divided by an imaginary
line drawn across from either side of the central canal outwards to

This statement must be taken subject to ftiture confirmation.

386 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the lateral white column. From the upper part of the lumbar to
the lower part of the cervical regions of the cord, the lateral portion
of the grey substance between the anterior and posterior cornua con-
sists of a peculiar vesicular tract, paler and more transparent than
the rest, and which has been named by Lockhart Clarke the tractus
mtermedio-lateralis. (Plate X. figs. 3 and 4.) This tract consists, for
the most part, of oval, fusiform, and pyi'iform cells sending processes
to the lateral columns and to the transverse commissures. The tractus
mtermedio-lateralis was first shown by Mr. Clarke, to be in intimate
connection with the lower roots of the spinal accessory nerve in the
cervical region. It constitutes the motor column of the respiratory
muscles of the abdomen and thorax.

" The tractus intermedio-lateralis, in Man, closely resembles that
of Mammalia, and contains cells of the same kind, but rather smaller.
In the upper part of the cervical region, a similar, but somewhat
larger, tract reappears in the same situation, and projects in the same
way into the lateral column. It increases in ascending to the third
pair of nerves, where the form of the entire grey substance presents
a very striking resemblance to that in the upper part of the dorsal
region. This tract is traversed by several roots of the spinal acces-
sory nerve, in their course forwards to the anterior cornu, and con-
tributes, with the edge of the posterior cornu, to form a beautiful
network in the lateral column, through which the nerve enters. Its
cells are triangular, oval, and fusiform in different directions : some
of them are elongated in the direction of the transverse commissure,
and towards the front of the posterior vesicular column ; others ex-
tend outwards with radiating fibres through fissures of the lateral
column. Tliere is reason, therefore, to believe that this tract forms
a part of the tractus intermedio-lateralis. In the Sheep and Ox, and
probably in all Mammalia, a peculiar group of cells, which is tra-
versed by the roots of the spinal accessory nerve, is found in the
same situation ; and this group, in ascending the medulla oblongata,
retires inwards to the s])ace behind the canal, and there contributes
to form the nucleus which gives origin to the highest roots of the
nerve. The cells ol» the tractus intermedio-lateralis are elongated
with their processes in a longitudinal direction, and reached by both
the posterior and anterior roots of the spinal oierves, and perhaj)s by
the spinal-accessory. ■ The latter nerve extends fonoards to the ceUs
of the anterior cornu, which also send some of their processes longi-
tudinally, and are reached by the posterior roots.

Mr. Clarke has shown that while one portion of the upper roots
of the spinal-accessory nerve, and one portion of the vagus roots pro-
ceed inwards to their respective nuclei beJiind tJie canal, other portions
of both bend forwards to the vesicular network into which the anterior
cornu has become resolved, and that some of the roots of the trifacial
nerve descend lonyitvdinaUy throvr/h the caput eornio, between the
transverse roots of the vagus. In this course they are probably
brought into connexion with the respiratory centres, and perhajjs also,

EESTEVEN ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COBD. 387

like the vagus, with the anterior grey substance of the medulla.
These extensive and intimate connexions seem to afford an explana-
tion of the mechanism by which impressions made on the vagus and
on the incident fibres of the trifacial and spinal nerves, may call
into action the whole class of respiratory muscles ; and if the tract
just described in the upper part of the cervical region be continu-
ous, as it probably is, with the tractus intermedio- lateralis, which
is reached by the dorsal nerves supplying the intercostal and other
respiratory muscles of the trunk, the explanation in question wiU
be stni more complete.

The tractus intermedio-lateralis is larger at the upper part than
in the middle of the dorsal region. On the one hand it projects
further into the lateral columns, and on the other tapers inwards,
across the grey substance, to near the front of the vesicidar cylinder.
As it ascends through the cervical enlargement it gradually disap-
pears. In the region of the upper cervical nerves there appears a
vesicular tract in the same position as the tractus intermedio-lateralis,
composed of the same kind of cells, which send their processes out-
wards through the lateral column, and inwards to join the fibres of
the transverse commissure behind the central canal. It is traversed
by the fibres of the spinal accessory nerve as they bend forwards on
their way to the anterior cornu. (fig. 3.)

To insure accuracy of description Mr. Clarke has further divided
each posterior cornu into its caput and its cervix. Tlie capict is its
broad expanded extremity, the cervix is the remainder of the cornu
as far forwards as the imaginary line above described. This dis-
tinction is founded on the facts : 1. That the caput differs in struc-
ture from the cervix ; and 2. that in the medulla oblongata it is
thrown aside from the cervix and after being traversed in succession
by the roots of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves, becomes the
principal nucleus of the trifacial.

The caput cornu posterioris consists of, 1. an outer and compara-
tively transparent portion — the gelatinous substance, and 2, the inner,
more opaque portion, or base.

The gelatinous substance (fig. 4. g.) consists of, A. Nerve fibres.
B. Nerve cells. G. Blood-vessels. D. Connective tissue.

A. The nerve fibres are transverse, longitudinal and oblique. Tlie
transverse fibres run out through the posterior border of the gela-
tinous substance through the posterior columns towards the
posterior fissure, to form the posterior roots of nerves. The
primitive fibres composing these bundles are not grey fibres, but
tubules of small average size, the larger possessing double con-
tours. They vary from y^^^o to -sToTo^^^ ^^ ^^ mch. in diameter,
intermixed with some of ^i^q-q of an inch within the posterior
border of the gelatinous substance. The oblique fibres are inter-
mediate between the transverse and horizontal, of which they are
continuations, as well as with some fibres of the posterior roots.

B. Nerve cells — these vary much both in shape and size. They are

388 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

round, oval, fusiform, pyriform, cx'escentic, triangular, stellate, or
otherwise irregular, and have from at least two to eight processes
which extend in different directions — transversely, obliquely, and
longitudinally — forming part of the longitudinal bundles, the com-
missures, and roots of nerves.

Nearly the whole inner half of the cervix cornu is occupied by
the remarkable and important column of cells, the posterior vesicular
column, (see M. fig. 3 and 4) extending throughout the whole length
of the cord, but varying somewhat in size and appearance in different
regions. Both in man and mammalia its diameter is greatest in
the upper third of the lumbar enlargement. The processes of these
cells are prolonged in every direction — transversely, longitudinally,
and obliquely : transversely they are continuous on the one hand with
the roots of the nerves, and on the other with the posterior com-
missure. The smallest cells doubtless belong to the connective tissue.
The anterior, or more opaque portion, of the posterior cornu, con-
tinuous with the cervix, presents a large proportion of longitudinal
fibres, to which indeed its opacity is owing. Its transverse fibres are
continuous Avith the roots of nerves, and with the longitudinal
columns. The cells are of small size, for the most part fusiform or
oval, having their long axes in the direction of the opaque or longi-
tudinal nerve roots.

Schroeder van der Kolk, while he does not recognize the indepen-
dent existence of the posterior vesicular columns, nevertheless speaks
of several distinct columns of multipolar cells. In like manner Len-
hossek speaks of the cells in the posterior horn being accumulated
laterally, but asserts that the existence of Clarke's posterior vesicu-
lar column is not established.

In the filum terminale a fringe only of grey substance is found
surrounding the dilated canal except in front, at the bottom of the
anterior fissure. This fringe contains a number of cells which re-
semble those of the connective tissue. As it ascends, the grey sub-
stance increases in quantity and projects forward to form the anterior
cornu, at the extremity of which a few large cells are grouped to-
gether. Through the lumbar region these large cells increase in
number, in projiortion to the size of the anterior roots of the nerves
and form several large groups, chiefly in the outer half of the cornu.
These cells are round, oval, fusiform, triangular, or stellate ; their
delicate processes are from two to eight or more in number, extend
in different directions and divide into numerous branches— some pro-
longed into the antero-lateral white columns, others into the anterior
roots of nerves.

B. Nerve cells of the gelatinous substance (g. fig. 4). These are,
a. large, h. small, and c. intermediate ; the large cells are found
among the semi-circular fibres which run within the external border
of the gelatinous substance, and never extend beyond the middle of
its depth. They are more or less oval, fusiform, crescentic and ii-regu-
lar, containing distinct nuclei, and giving off ii'om two to six processes.

KIESTEVEN ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COED, 389

extending in different directions ; many of the finest pass out with
the posterior nerve roots into the posterior columns. The small
cells, many of which are nearly as small as blood discs, abound in
every part — they are round or oval, somewhat pyrifonn and give off
two or more processes. The intermediate cells are found chiefly
near the verge of the posterior columns ; some, although they are
still true cells, are so fusiform as to appear like gradual dilatations
of the fibres.

2. The anterior, or more opaque, portion of the caput cornu posteri-
oris is continuous with the grey substance of the cervix, and is sur-
rounded by the arched lamina of the gelatinous substance. In some
parts of the cord, as seen in a transverse section, it has the form of a
cone, in other regions it is more or less angular or rounded. It con-,
sists of longitudinal, transverse, or oblique fibres and ceUs. The
longitudinal fibres are collected into bimdles and are the principal
cause of the opacity of this portion of the caput. The transverse
fibres are continuous with the posterior roots of the nerves and the
longitudinal cells, and cross each other in a great variety of ways.
The oblique fibres are continuations of the transverse and longitu-
dinal at different angles and in different planes.

The cells are mostly of the smallest and intermediate size — the
majority are oval and fusiform and have their long axes chiefly in the
direction of the oblique and horizontal nerve roots, and of the longi-
tudinal fibres with which they appear to be continuous. A few
larger cells are scattered at unequal intervals.

The cervix cornu posterioris (fig. 4) is described by Mr. Lockhart
Clarke in considerable detail, " not only on accoiuit of its great in-
terest and apparent importance, but in order that we may recognize
its parts as the same during the changes which they undergo in pass-
ing through other regions."

The cervix is thus defined by the author : —

" The caput cornu posterioris on each side, would be marked off
by an imaginary line extending across from the antero-lateral ex-
tremity of the gelatinous substance to the bottom of the posterior
median fissure ; while the cervix is included between this line and
another drawn nearly horizontally across from the anterior border
of the transverse commissure which arches over the pellucid space
surrounding the central canal."

On the inner or median half is found the remarkable longitudinal
columns, the columnw vesiculoscs posteriores (figs. 3 and 4). Each
consists of a somewhat dark cylinder of fibres interspersed and sur-
rounded by cells and their processes. The fibres are in great part
derived from the posterior roots of the nerves, and are much finer
than those of the white columns. These fibres interlace each other in
bundles in the most intricate manner. The cells are oval, fusiform,
and stellate, diftering in size, some being as large as those of the
anterior cornu. The processes of the cells intersect the cylinder in
various directions, sometimes suddenly changing their course to become

390 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

longitudinal, sometimes escaping directly to surrounding parts. The
cells around the cylinder send off their processes into the anterior
and posterior cornua, and contribute to form the commissure behind
the central canal. In the inner side of the cervix of the middle of
the cervical and lumbar enlargements the cells are larger than in
any other region — in man and mammalia they are here reduced in
size. These columns do not exist in birds.

The posterior roots are intimately connected with the vesicular
columns, as will be shown farther on.

Van der Kolk, as already stated, doubts the independent existence
of this particular column (p. 37), " As Clarke has correctly stated,
several columns of multipolar ganglionic cells extend through the
entire length of the spinal cord, those in the anterior being the
principal ; next in importance, those at the side of the posterior
commissure ; then those in the middle of the grey matter, between
the anterior and posterior horns ; and, lastly, those in the posterior
horns themselves, as the smallest. These columns, however, are not
to be regarded as qiiite independent ; on the contrary, they are all
more or less connected."

A band of fibres from the posterior transverse commissure after
curving round the front of the vesicular cylinder, runs longitudinally
outwards to the tractus intermedio-lateralis. Between the latter
tractus and the caput cornu, fibres descend from the roots of the
nerves, and run partly outwards to the lateral column, and partly
forward to the anterior cornu passing through the intermediate tract.
Near the outer border of the vesicular columns, at the base of the
caput, and near the edge of the cervix, the longitudinal fibres are
formed iuto thi'ee or more bundles among, and sometimes embraced
by, cells and their processes.

In receding from the middle of the dorsal region towards either
extremity of the cord, the posterior cornua gi'aduaUy separate from
behind forwards, receiving between them the deep encroaching layers
of the posterior columns, until in the middle of the cervical and
lumbar enlargements they are joined by a narrow band of the trans-
verse commissure, immediately behiud the canal. The posterior
vesicular columns simultaneously undergo changes in form, size, and
structure. As they approach the cervical enlargement the cylinder
or opaque portion of each is gradually reduced in size. Sometimes
the cylinder is intersected by fibres of the transverse commissure ;
other fibres of the commissure in their passage outwards enclose it,
reunite and run backwards through the caput cornu, diverge and
traverse the gelatinous substance as posterior roots of nerves.

At the upper part of the cervical region, near the origin of the
third pair of nerves, a darker mass of cells is found at the base of
the cervix on its median border, (fig. 3.) It gradually diminishes
upwards, and disappears near the first jjair of nerves.

In descending the cord from the dorsal to the lumbar region, the
posterior grey substance undergoes a series of changes nearly similar

EESTEVEN ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COED. 391

to those which are observed in ascending to the cervical enlargement.
The posterior cornua become separated in a direction obliquely
backwards. At the upper part of the lumbar enlargement the
posterior vesicular columns are decidedly larger than in any other
part of the cord. Its larger cells are more numerous, and do not
form a circumscribed group, but lie scattered through the whole inner
half of the cervix which their processes traverse in different direc-
tions and planes. Through the remaining half of the lumbar enlarge-
ment, the posterior vesicidar columns are gradually less encircled by
their processes, which are also fewer in number, but are still traversed
by the divergent fibre of the transverse commissure, and by a plexus of
the posterior roots which sweep round on their outer sides.

In descending the lower portion of the lumbar enlargement, the
border of the grey substance between the posterior cornua is
gradually drawn backwards, so that in the same proportion the space
behind the canal, containing the transverse commissure becomes
deeper.

Near the level of the second pair of sacral nerves is a pecuMar
group of cells, which was pointed out by Clarke in 1851, and was
regarded by him as the commencement of the posterior vesicidar
column, but that anatomist now couciu"s with Stilling in regarding
it as a distinct group. It is more or less oval, but is not entirely
isolated from surrounding cells. The principal part of the group is
intimately connected with the anterior roots of the nerves.

Dean, who had independently examined the cells of the horns in
the lumbar region before he had seen Clarke's paper (1859), observes,
that his "observations are entirely in agreement with his state-
ments iu all important particulars."

Tlie central canal, as first exactly described by Clarke ia 1851,
is lined with columnar epithelium, and ia the ox, with fusiform cells
also. Between these two kinds of epitheKum there are different
grades of transition. They are aU beautifully packed in close
apposition, so that the convexity of each is applied to the concavity
of those which surround it. In the human cord the canal is often
filled with what would appear to be the debris of epithelium, for
nothing is to be seen but a confused heap of nuclei ; but sometimes
in the midst of this heap there remains a small opening or canal,
and sometimes two such secondary canals, each being lined by a
regular layer of columnar cells. The cilia of the epithelium are
coarser and less numerous than those in the larnyx and trachea.
The light coloured space surrounding the canal is interspersed with
nuclei, or minute cells. Some of them are oval or round, finely
granular, and exactly resemble those in the connective tissue of the
white columns.

KoUiker formerly denied the existence of a central canal, but is
quoted by Lenhossek as having admitted its existence.

" Hannover," observes Clarke, " regards the cells which line the
cerebral ventricles as true nerve-cells, and Bidder takes the same view

392 OBIGINAL ARTICLES.

of those round tlie spinal canal ; while Stilling considers them ad
epithelium, but nevertheless, believes that the fibres vrhich they give
off form elementary parts of the primitive nerve-Shrea and nerve-ceUs,
with both of which, according to him, they are directly continuous.
He professes to have seen the peripheral ends of two epithelial-cells
unite with each other after a shorter or longer coiu-se, and then
enter a nerve-ceU. ; or the process of a nerve-cell divides into two or
three branches, which end in two or three epithelium-cells. By
the most careful examination of some hundreds of preparations, I
have never been able to perceive that the epithelial processes are
connected with any other than the small cells or nuclei which I
have already described. I have sometimes seen the process of a
large nerve-ceU extend close up to the epithelium, but I have gene-
rally succeeded in tracing it round the canal to the opposite side of
the cord. If the processes of the epithelial cells were directly con-
tinuous with, and formed elementary parts of, nerve-ceUs and nerve-
fibres we might reasonably expect to find the number of the former
always in pro])ortion to that of the latter ; but the very reverse is
the case ; for, as we have just seen, in the Jilum terminale, where
both nerve-cell^ and ?^er^Je-fibres have entirely disappeared, the canal
is much larger, and the epithelial-cells are consequently much more
numerous than in any other region ; while, as I have already shown,
their processes may be traced through the surrovmding white sub-
stance as far as the surface of the cord."

Dr. Eeissner describes the spinal cord of the Lamprey as being
colourless, and devoid of fibres having the characteristics of nerve-
fibres in other vertebrata. It presents neither anterior nor posterior
fissure, but simply a septum proceeding from the coimective tissue
around the central canal. The central canal itself is also divided
by the septum into two halves. The grey matter consists of fibres
and cells. The smallest cells belonging to the connective tissue.
Three kinds of larger cells are distinguished by M. Eeissner, viz. —

a. Large inner cells — which are found towards the middle line of
the upper or posterior columns, have the form of flattened nuclei,
sending processes upwards and downwards, and some to the surface.

/3. The large outer cells — have various forms, mostly elongated,
beginning at the external border of the grey matter — they send nu-
merous processes, as many as six from one cell — which form the axis
cylinder of the fibres going to the nerve roots, anterior commissure,
and longitudinal columns.

y. ISmaller cells— tl\e9>e are scattered among the larger cells - then*
finer processes go to the posterior roots and to the radiating fibres of
the posterior commissure.

Owsjannikow states that in fishes all the fibres of the spinal nerves
entering into the spinal marrow are connected with nerve cells.

(Omnes cum cellulis gangliosis esse conjunctas) ;

and that, in every coll, processes meet from the anterior root, from the
posterior root, and from the commissiu-es. That the white substance

KESTEVEN OJf THE ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COED. 393

is formed of processes of the cells going upwards towards the brain ;
that these are united by connective tissue.

Dr. Stieda divides the cells of the grey matter, in the Pike, into
large and small, the former have generally about five processes, the
latter only two. He has never seen the processes of the cells on one
side of the cord communicate with those of the opposite side. The
processes of the cells are traceable to the nerve roots and into the
longitudinal fibres. The nuclei of the white and grey substance be-
long to the connective tissue.

III. The Oeigin and Connection of the Nerve Eoots.

That the posterior roots of the spinal nerves are attached to the
posterior columns, and the anterior roots to the anterior columns,
only — was the statement made by Mr. Clarke in 1851. This state-
ment was repeated by him in 1853, and with the additional statement
that the lateral columns are in immediate connection with the spinal
accessory. In his last communication to the Eoyal Society, 1858,
Mr. Clarke reiterates the same account in opposition to the denial of
Stilling, who maintains that a few fibres traverse the posterior part
of the antero-lateral columns, having, Mr. Clarke suggests, probably
mistaken vessels for nerve-fibres.

Posterior roots. The bundles which compose these are larger
than those of the anterior ; but their component fibrils are mostly
finer and more delicate. In a longitudinal section of the cervical
enlargement of the cord of a Cat (fig. 5), the bundles are described as
being seen to be of tlu'ee kinds. The first kind enter the cord
transversely, and pursue a very remarkable course. Each bimdle
after traversing the longitudinal fibres of the posterior column, in a
compact form and at a right angle, continues in the same direction
to a considerable, but variable, depth within the grey substance, dilat-
ing and again contracting in a fusiform manner ; it then bends round
nearly at a right angle, and rimuing for a considerable distance in a
longitudinal direction dowji the cord, sends forward, at short intervals,
into the anterior grey substance a number of fibres like those issuing
from the roots of plants.

" The fibres projecting into the anterior grey substance have the
following distribution. Part of them form loops with each other
within the grey substance, ^particularly near its border ; others extend
directly into the anterior white column A, C, and bending round
both upwards and downwards, are seen sometimes to re-enter the grey
substance and form with each other a series of loops, and sometimes
to continue a longitudinal course within the anterior white columns,
amongst the fibres of which they become lost. AVhether the latter, also,
ultimately form broader loops with corresponding fibres of the grey
substance, it is impossible to ascertain. But even if those which ascend
in the anterior columns are continued upwards to the brain, one can
scarcely avoid inferring that those which descend re-enter the grey

394 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

substance, either to form loops, or to become continuous with the
fibres of the anterior roots, since the whole of the latter, as we shall
presently see, proceed directly to the grey substance. Indeed, (adds
Mr. Clarke), I have sometimes felt almost persuaded that a great
number of the fibres of these posterior roots are directly continuous,
in the grey substance, with those of the anterior roots ; but I caiuiot
make this statement with absolute certainty ; and as the question is
one of extreme difficulty, I shall hereafter endeavour to make it a
subject of special attention."

The second kind of bundles which form the posterior roots tra-
verse the posterior columns transversely, and with different degrees
of obliquity from without inwards, extending nearly as far as the
posterior median fissure. They enter and pass through the grey
substance at various angles, and in compact bundles which decussate
and interlace each other in the most complicated manner. Some of
their fibres cross over to the opposite side through the posterior
commissure, behind the spinal canal ; others extend into the posterior
and lateral white columns ; and the rest may be traced deeply into
the anterior grey substance, where they separate in various directions
and are ultimately lost to view.

The bimdles which compose the third kind of posterior roots
enter the cord obliquely. A few of their fibres proceed near the
surface both upwards and downwards, and pass out again with the
roots above and below them. The rest cross the posterior white
columns obliquely and chiefly upivards, a small number only passing
downwards. Interlacing with each other, and the other roots already
described, they diverge and reach the grey substance at points suc-
cessively more distant from their en trance in proportion to the obli-
quity of their course. The remainder, or most divergent, take a
longitudinal course with the fibres of the white columns, among
which tliey are lost. It is impossible to say whether any of these
longitudinal fibres are continued as far as the brain, or whether they
ultimately reach the grey substance of the cord. It is also extremely
difficult to trace the other fibres of these roots after they have reached
the grey substance.

In the preceding account of the distribution of the posterior
nerve roots it will be seen that Mi'. Clarke anticipated the statements
of Brown-Sequard on the same point. (Grazette Medicale, 1855).

Of the Anterior Roots, (fig. 6. a, a, a.) The anterior roots of the
spinal nerves, as Clarke formerly described them, traverse the anterior
part of the antero-lateral columns in distinct and nearly straight
bundles. They form no interlacement with each other, like the
posterior roots, until they reach the grey sulistance. Here their
fibres diverge in every direction, like the expanded hairs of a brush.
Some, near the margin, are easily seen to form loops with those of
contiguous buufUes ; others run outwards to the lateral columns, and
inwards to the antei-ior columns after decussating in the anterior
commissure with corresponding fibres from the opposite side. A

KESTEVEN ON THE ANATOMY OP THE SPINAL COED. 395

large number diverge equally dowmoards and upwards, for some
distance in the grey substance, while the remainder pass more deeply
backwards and are lost. In no single instance has the author seen
any portion of these roots take a longitudinal course on directly
entering the anterior white cohnnns.

" But besides the transverse bundles which form the anterior roots,
a continuous system of exceedingly fine transverse fibres may be
seen to issue from the anterior grey substance. They pass through,
nearly aH at right angles to, the anterior white columns, and disappear
as thoy proceed towards the surface of the chord ; but as many of
them may be observed to turn round and take a longitudinal
direction, it is probable that at the points where they disappear they
all follow the same course. Within the grey substance they wind
about and are gradually lost, mingling with the fibres of the anterior
roots, and with those proceeding from the fine bundles of the posterior
roots, which, perhaps, are continuous with them.

" It may then, Mr. Clarke adds, be fairly laid down as a well
established fact, that nearly all, if not the whole of, the fibres com-
posing the roots of the spinal nerves, after passing through the
anterior and posterior white columns of the chord, proceed at once
to its grey substance ; and that if any of them ascend direct It/ to the
brain, it must be tJiose only of the posterior roots which run longitu-
dinally in the posterior columns."

The connection of the nerve roots with the cells is established
uj repeated observations of the majority of observers, although it is
not equally certain that all the nerve roots are derived from cells ;
many fibres of the anterior roots, for instance, being continuations
of fibres from posterior roots.

*" It appears that there are probably, as regards origin, the
three following classes of nerve roots, viz :—

1st. (a) Anterior roots which arise from or terminate in anterior
cells.
(b) Posterior roots which arise from or terminate in posterior
cells.

2nd. Anterior and Posterior roots which meet in cells in the
central part of the chord.

3rd. Anterior and Posterior roots which are directly continuous,
i.e. unconnected with any cells in the chord.

" The first class consists of nerve roots which are united, if at all,
through medium of deeper lying cell-groups, those of the last two .
classes being more directly continuous. I am, however, very far from
intending to imply any supposed diflference of function between
these classes, for I am very strongly convinced that the function of
cell anrl fibre is every where the same ; and one of the principal
objeeti I have had in view in the above classification has been to

• Dean, p. 10.
N. H. R.— 1862. 2 E

396 OKIGIKAX ABTICLES.

show how closely anterior and posterior roots are connected, and how
nearly they come to having a common origin."

Van der Kolk gives drawings of the connections of the fibres of
nerve roots with the multipolar cells, which, he says, he has repeatedly
succeeded in tracing, although owing to the fibres not pursuing a
perfectly straight course, they are often cut through in making
sections of the cord. " There can be no doubt," he remarks, " that
the roots of the motor nerves arise from the spinal cord, and more
particularly from the ganglionic cells of the anterior horns," The
investigation of the connection of posterior roots with the cells.
Van der Kolk has found more difficult ; he has traced them into the
horn proceeding towards the cells, but their minuteness has prevented
his seeing whether they absolutely pass into the cell. A portion of
the posterior roots, viz : those for sensation, are however subsequently
described by Van der Kolk as passing, immediately after their entrance
into the spinal cord, upwards along the posterior columns in order
to repair to the brain, or seat of perception. They do not penetrate
the grey matter, while the rest of the posterior roots, or those for
reflex action, are said by him to go to ganglionic ceUs of the posterior
iiorns. These distinctions however are theoretical, not anatomical.

Stilling lays it down as the general role that the nerve-roots
pursue an apparently unbroken course of nerve fibrils from the cord,
but not always preserving the same plane. Spaces entirely free
from fibres between two neighbouring nerve-roots are rarely met
with.

Dr. Brown-S^quard (of whose philosophical researches a lucid
exposition was given in a previous number of this journal) also
expressly states that he has fomid the " nerve-fibres of the spinal
nerves, after they have entered the grey matter, attaching them-
selves to the nerve-cells."

Measueements.
Cells in grey matter

Width f ^^ to -j^ In.

f -JL_

^ , J 2 90

Length ? ^4-^ to ^-

JNuclei 01 cells . . _j._ to v-r--^

Processes of ceUs . . -^^ to j^l-

Nerve-fibres in longit. cols. -g\\ to -g^-^

in roots - J^^ to ^^^

Gelatmous subst. ^-i^- to -j^^^

Commissural gJ-,^ to -^^-^

Blood-vessels . . _i- to ^oioo

The above measurements represent the average dimensions of the
several structures, but do not affect to indicate their minimum or
maximum.

397

XXXVII. — On Distoeted Human Skulls. By Professor WyviUe
Thomson.

It seems to have hitherto been generally admitted that the bones
of men and of the lower animals found in a fossil or subfossil state
retain precisely or with an inappreciable amount of contraction, the
form which they possessed during life, and that therefore their mea-
surements form as valid a basis for argument or for speculation, as if
we had had an oj^porturdty of deriving them from the recent bones.
Several singular cases have been observed during the last few years,
showing that bones may undergo a very decided change in form, after
burial, without being wholly disintegrated. These distortions are
comparatively slight, rarely, if ever, altering the bone sufficiently to
obscure its distinctive characters : they only occur as a rule in thin
flat bones, they appear never to affect the teeth ; they are therefore
of little importance in the case of the lower animals.

One congeries of bones, the human skuU, seems to be specially
Hable to such posthumous alterations. This liability depends doubt-
less upon the great size of the brain-cavity in proportion to the
thickness of its walls, and to the extreme closeness and frequent
partial anchylosis of the sutxires, resisting the separation of the
bones under slow pressure, in cases where slight softening has ren-
dered the skull in mass to a certain extent plastic. Now that the
proportions and measurements of skulls found in old sepulchres, and
in connection with ancient habitations are believed to throw so much
light upon the distribution of human races, it becomes of importance
to ascertain generally the frequency of such distortions, their extent
and description, and the circumstances under which they usually or
unusually occur.

Opportunities of observation seem to be frequent, and the pheno-
mena are usually well marked. Since I first thought of the matter
towards the close of last summer, and with but little time to devote
to such questions, I have seen, I should think, more than thirty skidls
more or less distorted ; and I have little doubt that there already
exist, scattered in antiquarian collections, materials which might add
greatly to our stock of information. All the distorted skulls which
I have had an opportunity of examining, have been twisted nearly in
the same way, though in a greater or less degree. This uniformity
of malformation is so evident, that ia cases where a number of such
skulls have been found together, it has led to the idea that the form
was a hereditary malformation, or that the skulls belonged to a
family of idiots. Messrs. Davis and Thurnam (" Crania Bi-itan-
nica,'.' plates 15, 16 and 27), figure skulls from cists at Juniper Grreen,
near Edinburgh, at Lesmm'die, Banffshire, and in Orkney, all of
which are slightly distorted. In reference to these skulls, Mr. Davis
suggests the question, " whether a slight distorting jjrocess may not
have influenced the cranial conformation of the Britons, at least of

2 E 2

398 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

the Northern tribes." I had an opportunity last summer, through
the kindness of Mr. Oeorge Petrie ol" Earkwall, of examining one of
the Orkney twisted skulls. Mr. Petrie, who has paid great attention
to Archaeology, was perfectly acquainted with the phenomenon. He
kindly furnished me with a photograph of a well-marked example,
and informed me that he had met with many skulls in the cists and
barrows of Orkney, showing the same form of obliquity. The present
short notice is meant merely to direct more general attention to this
curious subject, and to indicate certain conclusions which appear to
be applicable at all events to one great group of cases. "Whatever
explanation we may accept, so uniform a result clearly points to an
equally uniform cause. As ah-eady indicated, my own observations
have led me to conclude with Professor Owen, Dr. Johnson of Shrews-
bury, and others who have had an opportunity of examining good
specimens, such as the Wroxeter twisted skvills, that the distortions
are due to what has been termed by Professor Owen, " tomb pres-
sure," a cause of posthumous change, which was, I believe, first sug-
gested in a definite form by Dr. Thurnam, and whose importance
in certain cases is fully admitted by Mr. Davis in the work already
cited. Before entering more fully into this question, I shall briefly
describe three skiills, selected because they have been procured fi'om
distant localities in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and are to be
referred in all probability to widely diflferent periods and tribes ; and
because the distortion in all three cases, though highly characteristic,
is slight, and slight distortions only can give rise to any serious mis-
conception as to their cause.

During the recent explorations at Wroxeter, a number of skeletons
were disinterred in a piece of ground called the Orchard, witliin the
walls of the Eoman city of Uriconium. The skeletons had evidently
been buried. They were however simply imbedded, without any
appearance of protection, in soil richly impregnated with vegetable
matter. Although there is no tradition of the place where they were
found ever having been used as a graveyard, I am by no means sa-
tisfied with the evidence which refers these skeletons to the Eoman
Seriod. The dead were rarely, if ever, interred within the walls of
toman towns, and the true cemetery, containing abundance of cine-
rary urns, with bm'nt bones, has been discovered in its usual site,
outside the walls of Uriconium. Among a rude people, a certain
reverence always attaches to ruins, and it is by no means impossible
that this site was chosen for the burial of their dead, after the des-
truction of the Eoman city, by some British tribe. Of nineteen
skulls found in the Orchard, twehe were more or less distorted, and
the character of the distortion was so uniibrm that it was the general
impression that the remains were those of a race afilicted with some
peculiar congenital malfoi-matiou, or of an aboriginal tribe, slaves
possibly to the Eomans, and whose fashion it was to squeeze the heads
of their infants, after the manner of the Caribs and Platheads, only to
t]ie production of au iiiliiiitcly more grotesque deformity.

PEOFESSOR THOMSON ON DISTORTED HUMAN SKULLS.

399

Eig. 1. is a view of the base of one of the most characteristic
of these deformed skulls. The bones of the face, with the right
temporal, and a part of the right side of the occipital bone are wanting.
The form of the posterior portion of the cranium is nearly normal,
perhaps it may be slightly compressed laterally. All the twisting is
in front of a line joining the zygomatic processes of the temporal
bones. The right external angular process of the frontal bone, and
the right orbit are forced downwards and inwards, carrying the orbit
on the opposite side, upwards and outwards, and displacing the eyes
nearly an iach on either side. The congeries of bones is bent in
mass, the sutures remaiuiag perfectly close. Along a liue passing
from the upper and outer angle of the left orbit, through the upper
portion of the temporal fossa, across the coronal suture, and for about
an iach and a half iuto the sphenoidal angle of the left parietal, the
bones are somewhat abruptly bent. Lines of minute cracks with
perfectly sharp edges traverse this line of flexure, the cracks are
widest and most e\ddent where the bending is most abrupt. The
Orchard skulls generally are rather long, with a weU marked occipital
protuberance. Were it not for the doubt caused by the peculiar
circumstances of their interment, I should be inclined to refer them
to the Celtic tjrpe,

For an opportunity of examining and figiu-ing the next example
(Fig. 2.) I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Grrattan of Belfast.
It is one of a series disinterred by Mr. Grrattan in May, 1853, from
a sepulchral mound at Mount Wilson in King's County, and des-
cribed by him in the 1st Vol. of the Ulster Journal of Archaeology.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

400

oeighstal articles.

These remains are undoubtedly extremely ancient. The skulls ex-
amined, about fifteen in number, form an interesting group, somewhat
intermediate in form between the true Celtic and the roimd types.
The skuU figured is that of a child about eight years of age. The
bones are thin and delicate, and many of the sutures are slightly
separated. As in the former case, the posterior portion of this skull
is nearly normal, but the frontal region is greatly distorted. The
right external angular process of the frontal, and the right orbit are
forced downwards and inwards, and the left upwards and outwards.
The whole frontal bone is twisted round to almost exactly the same
degree, only in this case to the right, and in the other to the left.
The twist commences in both from the same line of comparative
weakness in the cranial arch, a line nearly coincident with, but not
involving the integrity of, the coronal suture. As shown in the wood-
cut, the physiognomy of the change in form in these two skulls is
almost precisely the same.

For Fig. 3* I am indebted to a photograph taken by Mr. Petrie

Fig. 3.

* Explanation of the woodcuts. Fig. i. Skull from the " Orchard," Uriconium.
Fig. 2. Skull Ironi a sepulchral mound at Mount Wilson, Iving's County, Ireland,
Fig. 3. Skull from a cist, Pomona, Orkney, a. A line joining a point in tlie centre
of the glabella with the external occipital ridge, and forming the present axis of
the base of the skull, b. Axis of distortion of the frontal region, found by drawing
a line perpendicular to a straiglit line cutting symmetrically tlic two orbital arches.
c. Axis of vertical tomb-pressure.

PEOFESSOE THOMSON ON DISTORTED HUMAN SKULLS. 401

of a skull from a cist in Orkney. The distortion is not so strongly
marked in this as in the two former cases, and the character of the
distortion is slightly different. In most cases of skull twisting the
bones of the face have escaped distortion, by separating from the
bones of the head — in this they have remained attached and have
become involved in the change of form. In the two former cases, the
crania posterior to the coronal sutures remained nearly normal, in
this case the whole of one side of the skuU has been forced sUghtly
inwards, forcing out and bulging the opposite side to a corresponding
degree. Erom the difference in position, the twist in the frontal
bone is not so evident, but the axis of distortion of that bone, when
projected, follows almost exactly the same course as in the two
former occasions.

From these three, and from many other examples of skuUs, whose
distortions present essentially and closely the same features, out-
numbering by ten to one the cases in which there is the slightest
difficulty in referring the distortion to this common type, I conclude
that a peculiar and definite form of distortion of the human skull,
varying in degree, but constant in essential characters and physiogno-
mic effect, is extremely common in connection with ancient burial,
and that it is totally independent of period, and of race, and nearly
so of the original form of the head. The first question which sug-
gests itself is whether this distortion was caused by a system of
artificial pressure and bandaging during life, or by posthumous
changes. That the distortion was posthumous I believe we have
ample proof In the three cases described the change is com-
paratively slight. The distortion is frequently carried further, though
still in the same direction, till the deformity produced is evidently
inconsistent with life ; before this occurs, however, the sutures most
usually give way, and the skuU fttlls to pieces. When this has been
the case, it has often been found that still fm-ther changes have taken
place in the form of the individual bones, and that they will not fit
at the sutures, when put in position. This circmnstance has already
been adduced by Mr. Davis as an argument in favour of posthu-
mous changes in the form of bones. To my mind, however, we have
the most absolute proof in the systems of cracks traversing the bends.
These cracks have perfectly sharp edges, so that they could not pos-
sibly have been produced by slow pressure during life. They are
almost microscopic where the curve is slight, increasing in width and
depth with the abruptness of the bend, and in some cases the bone
has given way along their course, breaking short off". They are evi-
dently the result of unequally supported pressure, on dead bone,
reduced to an imperfectly plastic condition. The change in form was
then posthumous, due to tomb-pressure, and the range of inquiry is
narrowed to the two questions : What circixmstances reduce the thin,
bones of the skull to that peculiar plastic condition in which they
are softened without being disintegrated, and bent without giving,
way at the sutures ? And wliat cause has given the subsequently

402 ORIGINAL AKTICLES.

applied pressure, this uniformly oblique direction, producing under
the most diverse circumstances the same regular irregularity ?

The first question need not detain us long. It is well known
that thin bones when long macerated become quite soft, and can of
course be bent. Still, as the posthumous distortion of bones is im-
doubtedly an exceptional process, it may be well to glance at the
physical and chemical circumstances which seem favourable to its
occurrence. To give a distorted skull, the bones must clearly be
reduced to a certain condition of plasticity, and yet they must retain
enough of their original character to harden and set when dried.
To produce this result a certain amount of the organic matter must
still remain in the bone, and the bone may be altered in one or in
both of two ways ; either the whole bone may be partially decomposed,
a part of the mineral and a part of the animal matter being replaced
by water, and the bone thus softened, a process which will render
the b6ne more and more friable until it is thoroughly disintegrated,
or, imder exceptional circumstances, a large part, or the whole, of
the mineral matter may be dissolved out, and the animal matter at
the same time preserved, the bones thus become light and flexible
and yet they retain their integrity. The first of these is the ordinary
case of the rotting of bones in a damp churchyard. I shall give one
extreme case of the second, to show, not only that the process occurs,
but that it may be carried to an almost indefinite extent. The late
liev. Prof. Fleming of Edinburgh had in his possession a head of
Bos longifrons (Owen) taken from a bog in the south of Scotland,
only weighing a few oimces, and, when damped, as flexible as a piece
of leather. In this case the mineral matter had been almost entirely
removed by some acid produced probably by the fermentation and heat-
ing of a portion of the moss, while the animal matter remained tanned
and preserved by the antiseptic principles in solution in the bog water.
The condition of the distorted skulls may probably be frequently
produced by a compromise between these two processes. The bones
are imbedded in mould, frequently peat or virgin soil, containing a
large proportion of vegetable matter, and probably enough of tannin
to retard the decomposition of the chondrine — while the fluids perco-
lating through the soil, highly charged with carbonic acid, the product
of the decomposition of the vegetable matter, and containing various
salts in solution, must gradually decompose and remove the inorganic
constituents, thus increasing the flexibility of the bone. My friend
Dr. Henry Johnson of Shrewsbury, who has carefully analysed the
bone of the Orchard skulls, puts gi'eat faith in the peculiar properties
of humic acid.* I find the information on this point somewhat ob-
scure. It may be sufilcient at present to indicate the general results,
without attempting to trace the actions of the several re-agents.

Notwithstanding theii- undoubtedly great age, the Orchard skulls

• Dr. Johnson, in a paper lately read before the Royal Society, and of which a
notice will be found in the Royal Society Proceedings, for 1862, states that he be-
lieves that free iiitric acid also exists in the soil of the Wroxeter cemetery.

PROFESSOR THOMSON ON DISTORTED HUMAN SKULLS. 403

do not differ much in chemical composition from recent bone. The
inori^anic matter (73.243)* is apparently greatly in excess, but its
proportion is increased by a considerable quantity of fine silicious
sand, which has sifted into the cancelli. Allowing for this infiltrate,
we may regard the amount of organic matter (26.757) as little below
the average. It is most likely that all the constituents of a given
portion of bone have been slowly and pretty equally reduced.

The relative amount of organic matter in these bones from the
Orchard ; in a bone of the short-horned ox, in the ordinary state of
preservation from the marl at the bottom of an Irish bog (Postpleis-
tocene) (37.221) ; in a bone of the same species, domesticated by the
Eomans (a.d. 300) at Uriconium (20.172) ; in the bone of an Irish
elk (Postpleistocene) (37,2) — seems clearly to show the extremely
limited value of a theory such as that of M. Couerbe (quoted in the
Lancet, Feb. 22nd, 1862), that bones lose 3 per cent, of organic matter
in a century. Possibly such a generalization may apply to bonfes
slowly decaying in dry air in a stone coffin, but in the case of buried
bones the proportion of their organic to their inorganic constituents,
at the end of a hundred or at the end of ten thousand years, would
depend entirely upon the circumstances of their burial.

In this discussion I have purposely omitted the possible case of
bones being first distorted and then fossilized. This double change
occurs in some mammalian remains from the French tertiaries, but
no cases have as yet been met with which bring it within the scope
of the present inquiry.

The question as to the cause of the constancy in the style of
deformity is one of rather greater difficulty. As I have stated above,
the skulls presenting this peculiar distortion have all, so far as I am
aware, been found surrounded, supported, and filled with vegetable
mould. Some of them — for example, those from the Orchard at
Uriconium — had undoubtedly been buiied at once in the soil without
any coffin or external defence, and it is very probable that all may
have been interred either in this most simple way or in rude stone
chambers, which were either filled up with earth at the time of
burial, or into which the soil shortly afterwards drifted. We may
then conclude that in all, before the body was thoroughly decom-
posed, the head was supported in the position which it had assumed
at the time of burial.

A glance at the position of the heads on the slate slabs of a
dissecting-room will show at once, not only that it is a matter of some
delicacy to poise and support the head vertically on the apex of the
occipital protuberance, on a plane surface, a delicacy which our
ancestors were little likely to attend to in their ruder forms of burial,
but that the heads tend to fall over to either side, and to remain

* For careful and valuable analyses of these and other bones, fossil and sub-
fossil, I am indebted to my friend Dr. McCrea, chemical assistant in Queen's College,
Belfast. As Dr. McCrea means to continue his researches, I shall leave the details
of his results to be given by himself in a future paper.

404 OEIGENAL AETICLE3,

inclined at something like a definite angle varying from 25° to 30®,
The articulations of the neck, from their structure, only yield to a
certain extent, thus defining the angle of inclination, which may be
modified, however, within certain narrow limits by the state of the
soft parts of the individual, and by the form of the occipital bone.
It may possibly reach its maximum in the Celtic head, in which the
occipital protuberance is usually conical and strongly marked. The
vertical point of a skull resting carelessly in this natui'al position
Avould be removed from the centre of the frontal bone to a point
above and somewhat within the outer angle of the orbit, and midway
between the superciliary ridge and the coronal suture.

Pressiu-e is principally applied vertically to bones buried in loose
soil, and the tendency is for bones and soil together to be compressed
and to set downwards. The common form of distortion illustrated
by the three above examples is exactly what would be produced
were vertical pressure apjDlied to the spheroidal skull, rendered
somewhat flexible, and its walls supported by a yielding mass within,
were the skull slightly weak along a Une nearly coinciding with the
coronal suture, and were the axis of vertical pressure to be repre-
sented by a line joining the lateral point indicated, on the frontal
bone, right or left, with a point a little above the outer end of the
superior curved line of the occipital, on the opposite side.

Such are the circumstances which seem to me to account suffi-
ciently satisfactorily for this remarJiable form of distortion. One or
two further considerations suggest themselves. Another form of
distortion, much more calculated to embarrass the ethnologist, and
much less easily detected, probably exists more generally than we at
present imagine. Frequently in ancient graves we have evidence that
the head had been carefully propped in a vertical position. Heads
so placed, and surrounded with soil, would be in exactly the same
circiimstances as to the effect of pressure as in the former case, only
the axis of vertical pressiu'e would pass through the centre of the
frontal bone. The effect of pressure in this direction would be to
flatten the frontal and the occipital bones, to bulge the parietals
regularly out, and to shorten the skull. The head might be very
considerably shortened by extremely slow and well-supported vertical
pressure, especially after the separation of the maxillary bones and
tlie rupture of the basi-occipital by the cervical vertebrae, frequently
an early effect of pressure ; without materially affecting the symmetry
of the cranium. A force acting in this direction, however, would take
the squamous sutures at great disadvantage, and might probably be
much more effective than oblique pressure in breaking up the head.

Distorted skulls are frequent in connection with ancient sepul-
ture ; they are certainly not common in modern churchyards. The
reason is obvious. Certain conditions are favourable to steady regular
distortion. The head ought to be at once surrounded and supported
by soil, and fine soil should sift into the cavity as the soft parts are
decomposed. Tlie soil sliould be spongy and moist, and the moisture

PEOFESSOB THOMSON" ON DISTOKTED UUMAJf SKULIS. 405

should contain some antiseptic vegetable principle in solution, to
prevent tlie too rapid decay of the animal matter. I do not say that
distortions might not occur under other circumstances, but all these
evidently favoiu'able conditions exist specially in the peaty virgin soil
which forms most barrows, and which fills most cists. The plan of
modern burial is very unfavourable to any such chronic changes in
form. The head receives no support in the cofl&n during the progress
of decay. The moisture soaking through the rank earth of a grave-
yard promotes instead of checking decomposition. There is no
drainage or absorption, and bones and braiu sink into one softening
putrifying mass; and, finally, the head is relieved from all vertical
pressure by the coffin lid, until either the bones have become
thoroughly disintegrated, or until they are so dry and carious as to
break rather than to yield. Of course, the undeformed skulls in vaults
and catacombs do not enter into the question, as they have been
subjected to no vertical pressure.

I am weU aware that this shoi^t notice is anything but exhaustive.
I believe, however, that the subject is worthy of some investigation,
and I mean to take every opportunity of extending observation and
of increasing our meagre stock of facts. It is my present conviction
that many, most probably all, of the old skulls which have been found
in Europe, and whose distortions have been referred to artificial
compression during life, will be found to owe their deformity to some
variety of tomb-pressure.

P.S. — The above communication was in the hands of the pub-
lishers before the appearance of the last number of the " Review,"
but too late for publication. I, therefore, had not the advantage of
Mr. Davis' ingenious paper, a paper which derives additional value
from the author's great experience.

Mr. Davis believes that he can thoroughly eliminate the results of
posthumous pressure ; it is remarkable, however, that the parieto-
occipital flatness referred by him to the use of cradle boards, should
correspond so perfectly with a form of distortion which I had not had
an opportunity of studying, but whose frequent occurrence I had
anticipated from a totally different cause.

In discussiug the subject of posthumous distortion, the question
has frequently arisen — Wliy is the distortion usually so sHght ?
Why, when the depressing force has been sufficient to alter the form
of a series of bones, individually so strong, and so firmly united
together, has it not gone on to its complete disruption? It must
always be remembered that, inmost cases, the head has been completely
surrounded and fiUed, supported from within and from without by soil;
that, therefore, no compressing force was applied to the skull alone,
but that the compression or subsidence acted equally upon the whole
mass, skuU and soU. Sand, or soil consisting entirely of inorganic
matter, is capable of but little compression. Vegetable soU, on the
other hand, and especially peaty or virgin soil, may be considerably

406 OBIGINAL AETICLES.

compressed, but the process is a slow one, depending upon the
gradual decomposition of a part of the vegetable matter, and has a
very definite limit.

A grave is naturally frequently sunk till the digger reaches a
harder layer of soil, which forms a point d'appui for the back of the
skull, or, in a cist, the occiput rests upon a stone. Resistance is thus
offered to the forcing of the whole head downwards, and the com-
pression of the skull is limited by the amount to which the bed of
loose soil thrown or drifted in, immediately round it, is capable of
subsidence.

I have lately been assured, however, that some of the Orkney skulls
in which this characteristic obliquity is clearly marked, have been
found in cists which have not been filled up with soil or sand. Such
instances, if authenticated, would suggest the solution, that in the
ease of a body slowly decomposing in a damp situation, the bones of
the head may become so thoroughly softened during the putrefaction
of the soft parts as to subside slightly. The subsidence would of
course be vertical, and its direction in reference to the form of the
skull would depend as before upon the position of the head at burial.
The process would be limited by the total decomposition and removal
of the soft parts, the skiill being left comparatively dry.

XXXVIII. — On the G-eemikation" op Eeticulaeia itmbeina,
Er. By Frederick Currey, M.A., r.E.S. Sec. L.S.

JReticularia umbrina is a fungus too well-known in this country to
require any introductory description or comment. It belongs to the
Myxogastres, a family which has lately attracted considerable interest
on account of the attempt of Dr. De Bary to transfer the plants
belonging to it to the animal kingdom. One of the most striking
peculiarities observed by that author was the peculiar mode of ger-
mination of the spores of many of the species. Instead of protrud-
ing in the first instance colourless filaments, as is the case with
almost all fungi in which germination has been observed, De Bary
noticed that in several of the Myxogastres, the contents of each
spore escaped in the form of a single zoospore. The plants men-
tioned by De Bary as those in which he had observed these zoospores
are the following, JEthalium septicum, Physarum albipes, Stemonitis
fusca and ohtusata, Arcyria punicea, Trichia ruhiformis, pyriformis,
and varia, Lycogala epidendron, and Beticularia umbrina. There
seems, however, some little doubt about the latter species, for in his
introductory notice in the Botanische Zeitung (1S5S), the plant was
called Beticularia maxima, and moreover the description of the spores
at p. 158 of the paper in Siebold and Kolliker's Zeitschrift does not
accord with the spores of Beticularia umbrina, as I have observed

CUEEET ON GEKMINATION OF RETICULAEIA UMBEINA. 407

them in this country. The writer there says that in the spores of
this species, one half (or nearly so) of the membrane is much more
delicate than the remaining portion, the line of demarcation between
the two portions being sharply defined. In all the spores of Beticu-
laria umbrina which I have examined, I find the membrane of one
uniform thickness.

At the time when De Bary's observations were made, the exist-
ence of zoospores in fungi had not been ascertained, but they have
since been found to occur in the common white rust of the Cruciferse
(^Cystopus candidtis IjOy.), and hxFero)iospor a.

Of course the discovery of zoospores in other fungi diminishes
the importance- of the fact of their existence in the Myxogastres, but
it is still a matter of considerable interest to ascertain whether the
phenomenon is general, for out of about 250 species of which the
tribe consists, the zoospores have as yet not been observed in more
than a dozen, a number hardly sufliciently large to justify the general
inference of uniformity in germination which De Bary seems inclined
to draw.

I have lately had the opportunity of examining fresh specimens
oi Beticularia U7nbrina, and. of experimenting upon their germina-
tion. The spores are of a brown colour and globular shape, they are
very small, their diameter beiag only 0.0003 inch. The oiiter mem-
brane is echinulate, but the prominences are exceedingly minute, and
can only be clearly made out under a high power of the microscope.
I placed some spores in a drop of water on a glass slide over night,
protecting the latter from evaporation by a bell-glass. On the fol-
lowing morning the contents of many of the spores had escaped in
the form of colourless globular vesicles without motion, but when
exposed to the sun the shape of the vesicles changed, and they as-
sumed the form of the zoospores figured by De Bary in his PI. vii.
fig. 3 d d', and PI. viii. fig. 7 d, as occurring in ^thalium septicum and
A.rcyria punicea.

Their size varied but little, the average length being about 0.0005
inch. After becoming elongated, they exhibited an active vn:'iggling
motion, but no motion of rotation, such as is mentioned by De Bary.
Their movements were confined to a very limited space ; they did
not travel about over the field of the microscope like the zoospores
of Algae. I am doubtful whether they possessed one or two ciha ; it
is possible the number varies.

Sunlight and warmth appear to have a strong effect in hastening
the germination, for a few days after the above experiment I took
some spores from another specimen of Iteticularia umbrina, and
placed them at once in full sunshine protected as before. In very
little more than three hours the zoospores were produced in the
greatest profusion. Their number was much greater than on the
former occasion ; by far the greater part of them agreed exactly in
form and motion with those which I had previously observed. A
few however were of irregular ama?boid shape, similar to those shown

408 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

in De Bary's Plate vii. fig. 7 and 8. I did not ascertain whether
these latter ever resumed their ordinary outline. Although most of the
zoospores had become quiescent, a few were still active after the lapse
of 48 hours : beyond which time I was unable to carry on my obser-
vations. Many, if not most, of the zoosj)ores exhibited a vacuole at
the tliicker end, but owing to their constant motion it was impossi-
ble to ascertain whether this vacuole was contractile or not.

XXXIX. — Eeplt to the Eemakks on the Translation of
THE First Chapter of Aristotle's History of Animals.
By the Eev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S.

The critical observations that appeared in the last number of this
Journal on the translation of the first chapter of the History of
Animals are an admirable commentary on the truth of my remark,
(No. VI. p. 140) that " it is unreasonable to suppose that even a
small portion of the History of Animals can be fully understood and
accurately interpreted, until all that Aristotle has written, which
bears on the subject, has been thoughtfully digested." They are so
in a two-fold manner; in the first place because the "Remarks"
very justly and deservedly censure one or two undoubted errors in
my translation, and in the second, because they contain not a few
themselves.

Without then attempting to offer any excuse for " nerve" being
given as the rendering of vevpov, — for it is an error I frankly
own, — and acknowledging also the vague and un- Aristotelian trans-
lation of Tzupa Tcie Twv TraOiifiaTwy havriuxxeic by " according to their
capabilities of distinction," I proceed to make a few comments on
the other criticisms of the Reviewer.

The rendering of Xt^vala by " salt-water marshes" is condemned
as an error ; " there is not," says the writer, " a word about
salt-water in the original; the proper rendering is ' lakes' ; if the
translator had turned to vi. 13, he would have found that if salt-water
marshes be correct then the Perch, the Carp and the Silurus are
marine fishes," (p. 331). Now, if such an argument be allowed, it
follows by parity of reasoning, that the oysters which were kept in
Xifivai and termed Xi/jLvofTTpea (iv. 4. § 3 ; v. 13. § 9,) are freshwater
animals.* The fact of the matter is that Xifirrf may mean either, " a
salt-water," or " a fresh-water marsh or pond ;" the former is pro-

* Since this paper was written I have had access to Spratt and Forbes' valu-
al)le work on Lycia, and jiccordin<;ly insert the following extracts, which bear on
some of the Greek names of animals under discussion.

" The Xinvoarpta, fixed and s]iiny and of the oyster kind, was the Spondylus
common cnouiih in the Greek seas," {Travels,i\. p. 112). The Keviewcr is welcome
to either opinion.

nOTJOHTON ON THE TEANSLATION OF ARISTOTLE. 409

bably the original signification of the term, as from \tju>>, like the
Latin cesfuarium : at any rate there is no inaccuracy in the rendering,
even though Aristotle be understood to be speaking of " ponds" or
" lakes," as the Eeviewer ought to have known.

The next complaint is, that " the Grreek word IXvcnraffriKd is
strangely enough translated '-wTigghng' ;_if we consult _ the treatise
de Incessu," it is added, " we find it signifies to crawl like an earth-
worm, and expresses the mode of progression of gasteropods, cater-
pillars and worms." Not being acquainted \nih the term, I was
content to take the meaning given in Liddell and Scott's Lexicon.
There should not be any thing to excite surprise in the mind of an
ordinary individual, in the fact that I did not know that the Greek
word occurs in the Treatise de Incessu, seeing that I made no
pretence to any profound acquaintance with all Aristotle's physical
works.

It is worthy of note, that when the Eeviewer mentions other
treatises besides the Historia Aiiimalium, he omits to give the refer-
ences.* However, I have gone carefully through the de Incessto,
and find the Greek word in question mentioned once, viz., in cap. ix.
Vol. i. p. 709, Ed. Bekker. Aristotle is speaking of the mode of
progression in footless animals ; I give the passage itself in full, —
TO. 3' airoca ra /xei' KVfiaivovra irpoepxerai (rovro Ca ^lttux; <TVju/3atV£t* to.
fxev yap £7rirJ/e yVQ, nadaTrep o'l ofeiQ, rag Kajx-nraQ Troielrai, ra o £lq to ayio,
uiairep al mfxiraL), ?/ Ei KVfiavcnQ Kafnn) kariv' ra F IXvffTrdaei xpwM^J'a»
KadciTTsp TO. Ka\ovf^E^'a yrie evrepa Kai foMWai. ravra yap t<S jxiv ijyoviiivio
7rpofp)(£rai to ck Xonvhv aG)^a irdv Tvpug tovto (Tvi'dyovtn ical tovtov tov
Tpoirov EiQ TUTTov EK TOTTov jU£ra/3dX\oi»<7t. " Now of footloss auimals
some proceed by undulations of the body, which may be done in two
ways ; for some make their inflexions on the ground like serpents,
while others do so in an upward direction like (some) caterpillars ;
but the undulation here s])oken of is an inflexion ; others use an
ilyspastic mode of progression, like wJiaf are called the entrails of the
earth and leeches, — for these animals advance with the anterior part
of the body, and draw together all the rest of the body to this part,
and in this manner go from place to place." Here then we see that
the ill/spastic method of progression is that which is adopted by
leeches, and what are called " the entrails of the earth ;" what these
latter may denote I have been unable to ascertain ; certain, however,
it is that they are distinct from earthworms ; Aristotle couples them
with leeches, and says, they adopt a similar mode of progression.
"Whence then, I ask with reasonable surj)rise, does the Eeviewer get
his earthworms, gasteropods, caterpillars and worms ? The ilyspastic
mode of progression is clearly that which is so familiarly known as
being characteristic of the HirudinidcB. If my error of rendering

* The interesting passage in the de Anima (ref. ?) respecting Empedocles and
analogous parts, I have been unalile to discover in that Treatise.

410 ORIGIlS'Al AETICLES.

WvaTrairrim by "wriggling" is surprising, wliat must be the Re-
viewer's correction under the circumstances of the case ?

The Greek word is etymologically derived, I have not the shghtest
doubt, from elXvio, (akin to e'iXu)) " to fold up or enwrap," and
airaofjiai, " to draw one-self up" ; the combuied term well expresses
the mode of progression of leeches and " geometric or looping" cater-
pillars. I cannot agree with Mr. Cresswell, who renders the term by
" creeping in the mud" (as from 1\vq), because this would come
rather under the category of " where" than " in what manner," and
is lar too indefinite to express the peculiar mode of progression of
the leech family.*

Another matter of surprise is occasioned by the supposition,
" that the translator should find any difiiculty respecting the two
well known words yivoq and ddoQ of such frequent employment in
the writings of Aristotle, and so familiar to both naturalists and me-
taphysicians." I can assure the Reviewer that I had no difficulty
whatever in understanding the precise meaning of both these terms.
As to yivoQ it is certain that Ai'istotle uses it to denote either ' a class,'
or an ' order,' or a ' genus ;' but where the ancient Philosopher has
only two distinct terms, and modern Zoologists so many to express
the various divisions in the animal kingdom, it is not so simple a
matter as is supposed to render the Greek term correctly in every
instance ; Mr. Cresswell's recent translation, excellent as I believe it
to be, will aftbrd illustrations of the truth of this remark. As to
fX^oc, I am aware, that when Aristotle uses this term in what we
shoixld call a scientific sense, it differs in no respect from the
' species' of the modern Zoologist, but he does not always so employ
it. Thus, (i. 6. § 3) he speaks of many forms {tilr^) of viviparous
quadrupeds, which are without " recognised generic names," as Dr.
WheweUt well translates avijw^a. It is clear that uZt} in this
passage is not to be restricted to ' species,' because Arisbotle speaks
of these I'ihr] (§ 1.) as having specific differences, and seems to regret
that they are, with the exception of the Xo^ovpa (_£J(2'?<w/r»), without
names, by means of which the groups might be respectively charac-
terised. J

* See Etym. Mag. s. v. ed. Gaisf. otto tov tlXtJaOai Kai TTratrOai. The form
IkvffTraaQat (t for ft) led Lexicographers to doixbt the etymology. See Stephani
Thes. and Hesych. Lex. s. v. Josepluis (^Antiq. i. 4.) uses the term as expressive
of a serpent's mode of ]n'ogrcssion.

t Bint, of the Induct. Sciences, iii. p. 292. Ed. 1857.

J " I ought also to remark that, although Aristotle has exemplified gi'oups cf
animals which agree with many of the modem classes, orders and genera, their rela-
tive value is not .so defined; and his, in most respects, natural assemblages would have
commanded greater attention and been earlier and more generally recognised as tlie
basis of later systems, had its immortal author more technically expressed an appre-
ciation of the law of the subordination of characters ; but Aristotle applies to eacli
of his groups the same denomination, viz, ykvog, germs; distinguishing, however,
in some cases the greater from the less."— Owen, nw ilie Classi/ication, c^c of the
Mammalia, p. 3.

HOUGHTON ON THE TRANSLATION OF ARISTOTLE. 411

I am nest informed that I have completely misunderstood the
whole of the passage respecting analogous parts, an evidence where-
of, it is assumed, is to be found in my rendering of x^V '^poQ x*?^'?"
by " a hand with a claw ;" " it should be," we are told, " a hand with
the forceps of a crab, both analogous as to function" (p. 332). What
authority has the Eeviewer for thus restricting the analogy ? xv^^l
denotes the claw of various animals, and though it may be that
Aristotle's mind more particularly adverted to a crab's claw, yet the
analogy holds equally good in the case of some other animals, as of a
scorpion for instance, and, in short, is applicable to any animal which
uses its ■)(ri\ai as a man his hands, irpog to Xafitiv koX icaTatTyjuv clvtI
Xeipwj'.* I confess that I had in view when I made the translation
the forceps of a crab as the x*?^'/ in question ; I have often watched
the droll manner in which crabs use their claws, and been struck
with the analogy here mentioned by Aristotle. From the remark of
the Eeviewer it would appear that in his opinion no other animal but
a crab has claws which may be considered as analogous to hands.
If Aristotle was acquainted with any kind of parrotf he could not
fail to have been struck with the analogy between a ytip and the
X>?X>/ of a bird. In the de Partibus (iv. 12. p. 692), Aristotle com-
pares the proboscis (fxvKTyp) of the Elephant vdth a hand. See also
Hist. An. ii. 1, § 2. Again, in the de Partibus (iv. 8. p. 685), the
arms of some of the Cephalopoda that are furnished with suckiag
discs (KorvXridoveo), are regarded by Aristotle as analogous to hands ;
and there is a passage in the Hist. Anim. (ii. 1. § 2) which it is a
pitv the Eeviewer had not seen, where Aristotle compares the
divided fore-feet of quadrupeds to hands. "Ex^i ^e rd TETpairola <fwa
KoX ^woroKa avTi twv (ipa")^i6vit)v aiceXr] TrpocxQia, Tzavra fiev to. TerpaTroSa^
fxaXiara d'avdXoya raTe X^P'^' ^" TroXvo-X'^*/ <^VTu>y' ■yjpriTai yap irpbq
•KoXXh b}Q x£p(Ti- From this it is quite clear that the analogy be-
tween x««|0 and xr]Xv must not be restricted to such as exists between
a hand and the forceps of a crab ; perhaps the crab's claw is the best
type to be taken ia illustration of the simile, but the analogy is evi-
dently one of " more or less ;" the manner in which the rapacious
birds use their claws must also not be entirely left out of the ques-

* De Part. Anim. iv. 8. i. p. 683. Ed. Bekker.

•f There is reason, however, to believe, that Aristotle was not personally ac-
quainted with any kind of Parrot. Fi-om the manner in which he speaks of " the
Indian Bird" {Hist. Anim. viii. 14. § 6), it would appear that his knowledge was
derived from hearsay. With the later Greeks and Romans, it is well known, pan'ots
were great favourites. The kinds with which they were acquainted belonged chiefly
to the genus Pal<2ornis,Y\g.,oi which the P. Alexandri and P. torquatus were
perhaps the best known species. See Mr. "Vigor's interesting paper " On a group of
Psittacidee known to the Ancients " in Sowerby's Zool. Journal, ii. p. 37. Strack,
Kiilb and Cresswell identify Aristotle's 'Indian Bird' with the Grey Parrot {Psit-
tacus erythaeus), a species strictly confined to Western Africa !

N. H. R.— 1862. 2 F

412 OBIGINAL AHTICLE3.

tion, though I do not remember that Aristotle draws tliis compari-
son in their case ; though their x*/-^"' are in every sense to them
avTi ytipCjv TrpoQ to \afte~iv ical KaTaaj^^elv.

I must not omit to notice another rendering ^-hich, though not
mentioned in the 'Eemarks,' was condemned by a writer in the
Saturday Review, when Mr. Cresswell's recent translation was cri-
ticised ; the rendering in question was that of Aristotle's octtovv
Trpoc uKuvdav by " a bone when compared with a spine." " Tliere is
no analogy," it was said, " between a bone and a spine." I confess
that my idea of ' spine ' was that of a ' spinous bone ' of a fish, and
that the Greek aKavQa had this meaning rather than that of " a back
bone," or " spinal column." I was in error, however, and so was
the writer in the Saturday Review, as I shall demonstrate. The
Grreek uKavda does properly denote the backbone of a fish (or a ser-
pent), and not an isolated spinous bone. I have referred to various
passages in Greek authors where the word occurs, and find the above
statement is correct ; but we must confine our attention to Aristotle,
who says (iii. 7. § 6), ra 2' woTOKOvvra atcavBav t'x^i, >/ i-ffTW &Girep toIq
rerpairocny i/ paj^ic, — " oviparous fish have a sjoinal column like the
backbone of quadrupeds," i.e. they have an osseous vertebral
column (Teleostia), and not a cartilaginous one like the viviparous
fish {Selachia) ; the small disconnected bones of fish (Kara riiv o-ap/ca
Ktyjii)picfiiiva) are called aKavdLa ; now, in order to express the analogy,
we must understand oaTow to denote not a disconnected bone, (in-
deed Aristotle says the bones depend on one bone and are connected,
there is no such thing as a separate bone (iii. 7. § 1,) but the con-
nected series of vertebrae which form the spinal column, or baclcbone.
Aristotle draws the analogy from living animals, and the comparison
lies between the whole vertebral column, and not any separate bone,
and oarovv must be imderstood in this sense, in order to render the
analogy intelligible and the translation accurate.*

As to the difficulty attending the satisfactory solution of what the
u.Ka\r](pr] denotes, I have to observe that I am only one amongst many
who have been unable to arrive at the conclusion that some Actinia
is always denoted, and never a Medusa. Over the same " stumbHng-
block" even Cuvier tripped. As to the quotation from Archestratus,
it merely proves that the Acalepha; he was speaking of were Actiniae,
which nobody ever denied ; but it does not prove that the Acalepha?
of Aristotle and other Greek and Latin writers can never denote any
of the Medusfe. The uniform manner in which ancient authors speak
of the stinging properties of the animal, and the very etymology of
the term, may well incline us to believe that in some instances the
Medusa) must be intended, for stinging properties, as far as relates

* Sec also Poster. Analyt. ii. 14, where Aristotle mentions the analogy between
oOTOvv, uKavda and the ai'j-n-eiov, "bone of the cuttle-fish."

nOUOHTON ON THE TnAKSLATtON OF ARISTOTLE. 413

to tlieir being handled, are scarcely appreciable in the case of the
Actiniae, unless it be to a few tender-skinned ladies.*

Tlie following piece, of criticism is interesting on account of its
curiosity.

" The Holothuria has also been misunderstood by the translator.
It is a Medusoid animal, and has no relation to the animals which

have obtained that name in modern times The free Holothuria

and the adherent sponge agree in this, that they are incapable of
locomotion. If this is not strictly true of the Medusa, it holds good
of some other animals!'''' In other words, the Holothurion is a
Medusoid animal, but it is not, because this latter creature is capable
of locomotion ; therefore it must be something else !

There was nothing extraordinary in my suggesting that the b\o-
QovpLov might signify either the Echinoderm of that name, or the
Aleyonium digitatum. I am more inclined to the latter opinion, be-
cause the possible etymology of the term (from oXog, " whole," and
dvpioy, " a little door,") may be of some smaU value in helping us
to refer it to the Aleyonium^ with its numerous little polygonal
depressions.f

The Reviewer then proceeds to notice "two other mistakes :" he
gives us, however, only one (?) " The gnat and the oistros are not
different animals, but different states of the same animal." Why,
then, does Aristotle name both the gnat (efxirig) and the olarpog
together as dipterous insects which have a sting in their head?
(i.v. §5.)

Scarcely less satisfactory is the Reviewer's attempt to explain
Aristotle's opinion with regard to the animal nature of the sponge ;

* " The ancient Greeks inclticled nncler the name oi Aoalepha both the Medusa
and the Actinea ; and, indeed, they closely approach in organization. When, how-
ever, we are told by Aristotle, after he has distinctly described the common rock-
m\\ohiimgActineeE, that there is a kind which detaches itself at night from the rocks,
we must not suppose (as has been hitherto conjectured) that he confounded the two
animals — the floating 3Iednsa and the fixed Actinea — and had mistaken the fonner
for a state of the latter. In the Greek seas, and especially on the coast of Lycia,
there are true Aciineee, which are equally at home fixed to the rock and swimming
about the sea, even far from land." (Trav. in Lycia, ii. p. 120.) The authors
have figured some species of floating Actinea, of which also an interesting account
is given (p. 121).

f " The Holothurias are exceedingly sluggish creatm-es, but scarcely so much
so as to pennit our considering them to be identical with the creatm-es called Holo-
thurice by the ancients, which are said by Aristotle to be motionless and of a nature
between the anhnal and the plant, and to differ from sponges only in their being
detached. May he not have had in view the large, round, sponge-like S-pongodium,
li\'ing free on the sea-bed, and abundant in the Greek seas ? This is the more
likely, since (in the fourth book and eighth chapter of the ' History of Animals,')
he mentions the Holothuria of modern naturalists distinctly, when he states that
experienced fishennen assert they have speared, when fishing, black, round, cylin-
drical animals like pieces of wood ; a description which cannot be mistaken, since
it exactly appUes to the common Greek sea-cucumbers." — L>jria, pp. 117, 11 8.

2F2

414 OEIQINAL AETICLE8.

indeed, utterly untenable is his theory that the Aplysias is the
Alcyonium digitatum or some allied species, as I shall show by-and-by.

" With respect to the sponges properly so called," the Reviewer
remarks, " we think Aristotle's opinion is that they are truly plants,
TravTiKCjQ 'ioiKe toIq (pvToic."* Now, first of all, I submit that eoike
denotes " resemblance," and not " identity ;" and in the second place,
that it is quite evident, from a comparison of the diiferent passages
where Aristotle speaks of the sponge, that he could not say to which
kingdom it belonged, because he thought there were living things
which did not belong exclusively to either the animal or the vegetable
kingdom, but which partook as it were of the nature of both, — >; yap
(pvaig [leTafiatPEi eTvv£\u)e airo twv ai^v^wi' dg to. i^Ja did riji' ^bjyrwy
fxtv ovK ovT(i)v Zk C<^(i)v, ovTixiQ (1)071 "hoKtiv TTa/xxttv fJiKpov Sia<pipeLV
daripov darepov ru avveyyvg aWy'iXoig. " Nature passes in unbroken
series from inanimate to animate objects, through living things indeed
which, however, are not animals, in such a manner that the one
appears to differ ia no respect from the other by reason of their
continuity."! Again, in the Sisf. Anim. viii. i. § 3. " The transition
from plants to animals proceeds in an unbroken line, as was stated
before, so that one might doubt whether some marine things are
animals or plants. "J

As to the Aplysias which in the " Eemarks" is so readily referred
to the Alcyonium digitatum, there cannot be a doubt that it is some
kind of veritable sponge. Aristotle (ii. 14, § 2 — 6), is speaking of
various kinds of sponges, and thus describes the Aplysias. " There
is another kind which people call Aplysias, because it cannot be
washed ; it has large pores, but in other respects the substance is
compact ; when cut in two it is more compact and sticky than the
sponge ; the whole resembling lung ; this kind is confessed on all
sides to have sensation and to be long lived. They are readily dis-
cerned in the sea near the sponges, from these being white as the
mud settles upon them, while the Aplysiai are always black." It
seems clear that the Aplysias is a sponge from the following consi-
derations. (1.) Becau.se the comparison is made between it and
sponges, and it is described as having large external pores with a

* Aristotle (Z>e Part. iv. 11. cd. Bek) uses a still stronger expression than the
above ; ovtol yap TrdfiTrav txovcn ^vtou ^vvafiiv. But even this cannot be inter-
preted, when taken in connection with his other remarks, to mean, that sponges are
plants.

t De Partibus, iv. 5. p. 681. ed. Bek.

X " The sponge-fisheries were probably conducted among the ancient Greeks as
they are now. Hence, information being obtainable with facility, we find a full
account of the sponge in the writings of Aristotle. He appears to have been deeply
interested in his history, on account of the link it seemed to present between the
aiiimal and vegetable natures. Therefore the question whether sponrjes possessed
sensatio?i is discussed by hiin more than once, and left undecided." — Lycia, ii.
p. 126.

HOUGHTON ON THE TBANSLATION OF AEISTOTLE. 415

dense internal structure, (2.) Because being mentioned with sponges
the meaning of the term airXvmaQ, " that which cannot be washed,"
is a strong argument that some sponge, useless perhaps in a com-
mercial point of view, is indicated. It is absurd to suppose that the
black Aplysias can be represented by the white or cream coloured
Alcyonium digitatum, or that the Greek name should ever have been
given to any species of Alcyonium ; neither can the large pores attri-
buted to the Aplysias be supposed to indicate the small depressions
of the asteroid polype, thus so erroneously sought to be identified
with it.*

I have only one more remark to notice. " When it is remem-
bered," we are told, " that the Alcyonium is endowed vdth motion
and sensation, Aristotle's discussion respecting the nature of the
sponge becomes intelligible." I do not see the force of this argu-
ment, because the " motion" attributed to the Alcyonitim must refer,
of course, to the movement of the Polypes within the cells, and not
to the entire mass, which is no more endowed with locomotion than
the sponge ; unless Aristotle had observed the Alcyonium in a vessel
of sea water or shallow rock pool, he could not have vdtnessed the
movements of the polypes here spoken of; and if he had seen the
curious spectacle he would have had no doubt of the animal nature of
the substance, and would probably have made some mention of the
interesting sight afforded.

Aristotle's treatises on Natural History are to be understood
only after long and pains-taking research ; my object in publishing a
paper on the subject was, as I stated, to stir up in the minds of
Naturalists a desire to possess an English translation, (which, thanks
to Mr. Bohn and Mr. Cresswell, we now possess), the translation
and notes were expressly admitted to be provisional, and they,
with the " Remarks" in the last " Eeview," are a striking illustration
of the real difficulties a translator must experience who cautiously
and honestly sets about the work.f

* " Aristotle distinguishes sponges under two heads, those that might be
cleaned and those which could not. Of the last, he states that their substance
was compact, but perforated by large canals. They were more viscous than other
sponges, and when dried remained black, llie description exactly apj^Ues to the
common coast line sponges of the Aegean, useless for economic purposes." — Lycia,
ii. p. 127.

t I may state that the whole of this paper was written before I had seen either
Strack's or Kiilb's Gemiau translation, or the " Travels in Lycia " by Spratt and
Forbes.

41G

XL. — Phaneeogamia.

Alefeld, Dr.— Feber Vicieen. Bonpl. 1861. pp. 66, 99, 116, 139.
With a proposed distribution of tlie group into tribes and
sub-tribes and a Synopsis of the Species, with descriptions in
German. Observations upon the germination of the Vicieae
precede the descriptive portion of the paper.

— Ueber die beiden Orobus venosus (Miihlenb. und Al. Braun.)

Bonpl. 1861, p. 211.

Ueber Pisumfrigidum, Alf. Bonpl. 1861. 236.

Now P. formosum, the author ha\'ing identified his plant
with Orobus formosus of Steven.

Ueber Juglans, L. Bonpl. 1861. p. 434.

The American species {J. nigra, J. clnerea, &c.) constitute a dis-
tinct genus — Wallia, based upon shght differences in the pericarp.

Ueber Cicer Soongoricum, Ste])h. p. 348.

Die»Embryolage einiger Papilionaceen. Bot. Zeit. 1861.

p. 129.

Ueber Hibiscus Lampas, Cav. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 297.

Hibiscus Lampas, and two allied species, are raised to generic .
rank under the name Azanza. The author considers his new
genus nearer to Thespesia and Gossypium than to Hibiscus.

Ueber die Stellimg der Gattung Gossypium und mehrer

andrer. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 299.

Gossypium, Mtgosia, Thespesia, Sturtia, and Azanza constitute

a Tribe ( Gossypiidae) referred to Bombaceae.
Amo, M. del. — Sobre la distribucion geografica de las familias de

las plantas ci'uciferas, leguminosas, rosaceas, salsolaceas, amenta-

ceas, couiferas y gramineas de la Peninsula Iberica. Mem. Ac.

Cien. Madi'id. V. 223.
AscHERsoN, P. — Die Zweifelhaften Gefiisspflanzen des Vereius-

gebiets. Verh. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 124.
Die Wichtigeren im Jahre 1860 entdeckten und bekannt

gewordenen Fundorte in der Plora des Vereinsgebiets. Verh. Bot.

Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 159.

Einise Ortsnamen im Grossherzo^thum Posen die von Pflau-

zennamen abgeleitet sind. Bonpl. 1861. p. 35.

AsHFiELD, C. J. — On the Botany of the Borders of Suffolk and Nor-
folk, near the source of the river Waveney. Phytol. 1861. 321.

Baker, J. G.— Curator's Report for 1860 on Botanical Exchange
Club. Thirsk, 8vo. pp. 20.

"With remarks upon various critical British Species, and de-
siderata of the Club for 1861.

PHANEEOGAMIA. 417

BABmOTOiT, Chas. C. — Discovery of Isoetes Hystrix in Guernsey,
announced in a Letter addressed to tlie Secretary of the Linnean
Society. Linn. Soc. Proc. V. p. 188.

Grrows in " damp spots on L'Ancresse Common."

On tlie Discovery of Garex ericetorum, Poll, as a native of

Britain. Linn. Journ. vi. 30.

Gathered by Mr. Ball on the Gogmagog HiUs, Cambridge.
Baenitz C. — Flora der ostHchen Niederlausitz. Mit besonderer
Beriicksichtigung der Umgebungen von Neuzelle, Guben, Som-
merfeld und Soran, zum Gebrauche auf Excursionen. Gorlitz,
1861, 12mo. pp. 162.
Baillon, H. — Recherches organogeniques sur la Flexu* femeUe des
Coniferes. Ann. S. N. Ser. iv. xiv. p. 186. (Vide Vol. I.
N.H.E. p. 92.)

■ Organogenic Researches on the Female Flower of the Coni-
ferae (trans.) Ed. Phil. Journ. N.S. xiii. p. 181, with 1 plate.
— — — Genera Euphorbiacea tria nova. Eec. d'Obs. Bot. i. p. 50.
Payeria, HassJcarlia, and Sagotia are the genera described.
Species Euphorbiacearum. A. EujDhorbiacees Africaines,

pp. 58, 139, 251.

Bureava and Mareya are the new genera described. Some
remarks are added upon the African sj)ecies of Grotoy^

Sur le Nectar secrete par les glaudes septales d'une Brome-

liacee. p. 87.

With treatment, by re-agents, of the nectar. No analysis is
given.

Memoire sur le Developpement des Fleurs a Couronne.

p. 90.

The genera treated of are Peliosanthes, Narcissus, and Pan-
cratium. In opposition to the view of M. Gay, the author
states that the corona at its first appearance is totally indepen-
dent of the androecium, and that it is an expansion of the recep-
tacle.^

Enumeration des Euphorbiacees cultivees dans les jardins

botaniques de Paris, pp. 104, 340.

Organogenie florale de Xanthium. p. 117.

Description d'vme Flacourtianee nouvelle. p. 120.

Eriudaphus Closianus — the Sapium Driimmondi of gardens.

Considerations sur la Partlienogenese dans le regne vegetal.

p. 124.

With observations on the fecundation, &c. of Ilercurialis,
Pryonia, and Goelebogyne, which the author does not consider to
offer true Parthenogenesis.

Observations organogeniques pour servir a I'histoire des

Polygalees. p. 174.

Eeferring to the Organogeny of Monnina and Muraltia.
— — Experiences sur des Boutures des Fleurs. p. 181.

Eeferring to the buds borue upon the inferior ovary of Gacta-

418 BIBLIOGEAPnT.

ceae, the autlior suggests whether horticulture might not imitate
what in the case of this group occurs spontaneously. Dr. Baillon
obtained young plants from the axils of the " ovarian " leaves
from cross sections of the ovary of a Jussiaea placed under glass.
Baillon, H. — Generum novorum quatuor descriptio. p. 184.

The genera are Tandonia, Gavarretia, Wurtzia, and Begnaldia;
— all Euphorbiaceous.
"' Eecherches siu" I'organisation et le Developpement des Eri-

coidees. p. 189.

Including Monotropeae, Pyrolaceae, Ei'icineae, Cyrilleae,
Upacrideae, Humiriaceae, and Sarraceniaceae.

' Note sur une nouvelle espece du genre Sorocea. p. 212.

S. KlotzscTiiana, Spruce's No. 3794.
— — — — Memoire sur le developpement du Fruit des Morees. p. 214.
Sur une Bruyere a Gynecee monstrueux et sur le Placenta

normal de quelques Ericinees. p. 287.

Note sur un Paradoxe de regularite dans les fleurs de la

Limoselle. 305.

The occurrence of regular tetramerous flowers in Limosella
aquatica, the posterior sepal being aborted and the two posterior
lobes of the corolla connate.

Me^joire sur la SjTnetrie et I'organogenie florale des Maran-

tees. p. 306.

With an account of the floral organogeny of Thalia dealbata ;
the development of the flower in Calathea, Stromanthe and 3fa-
ranta is described as agreeing with it in essential points. The
author regards the Marantaceae as ha\ang a regular double
perianth, and three stamens in one verticil, each opposed to a
segment of the corolla. Of these stamens, usually two, some-
times one, or exceptionally all three, split above, in the part cor-
responding to the anther, one division ordy becoming fertile and
pollen-bearing. The arilliform thickening of the ovules of Ma-
rantaceae is due to a swelling of the primine.

Experiences relatives a I'absorption des Liquides par les

Eeuilles. p. 328.

With statements of the quantity of water absorbed by the
leaves, plunged into vessels containing it while still attached to
the tree.

Observations sur les Ovules des Anemones et de quelques

autre Eenonculacees. p. 334.

1. On the occurrence of ovides, abortive at an early stage
in the development of the pistil, in Anemone and Adonis. 2. M.
Baillon believes the Hellebores to have ovules with but a single
coat, in opposition to M. Barneoud's opinion that iu all Eanim-
cidaceae there are two. 3. The relative position of the micro-
pyle, aftbrdiug a character distinguishing Eanimculaceae from
Ddleuiaccae. 4. Memorandum on the two minute lateral glands
at the base of the connective in Anemone and some Berberideae

PHAlfEEOGAMIA. 419

suggesting that they may represent leaflets of a (compound)
staminal leaf.
Baillok, H. — Note sur im Lys et un Oeillet Monstrueux. p. 838.
In each case the floral axis had elongated bearing numerous
leaflets, the sexual organs being abortive.
■ Organogenie florale des Roxburghiees. p. 245.

With brief observations on the afiinities of the group.
• Observations sur VEuphorhia paucifolia, Kl. p. 291.

No. 1208 of Preiss's New Holland Collection, regarded as a
new generic type.

Etudes sur 1' Anatomic, la Physiologic et le Developpement

des Tiges et des Eacines. p. 298

1. Lemna minor, showing its entirely cellular structure.

2. Asparagus officinalis, detail of the anatomy of the stem
and root.

-Eecherches sur 1' organisation, le developpement et I'anatomie

des Caprifoliacees. p. 353.

The genera are grouped under 6 types, viz. — With regular
flowers : 1. Leycesterieae, stamens 5 : cells of ovary pluri-ovu-
late. 2. Samhucineae, stamens 5 : cells of ovary 1-ovulate.
3. Symphoricarpeae, stamens 5 : cells of ovary 4, 2 1-ovulate, 2
pluri-ovulate. With irregular flowers : 1. Lonicereae, stamens
5 : cells of ovary pluri-ovulate. 2. Triosteae, stamens 5 : cells
of ovary 1-ovulate. 3. Linnceece, stamens 4: ovary cells 3, 2
pliu-i- and 1 1-ovulate.

The wood structure of the Honeysuckle is described.

Organogenie florale du Sesame. Eec. d'Obs. Bot. ii. 1.
This is described in detail,
• Monographic des PJiyllanthus (continued), ii. 13.

Observations sur V Antholoma, Labill. p. 21.

The structure of the flower is described. The author agrees
with Planchon in referring the genus to Elasocarpeae. Analyses
are figured.

Species Euphorbiacearum. — A. EuphorhiacSes Africaines.

2"^^ pai'tie (suite), p. 27. An enumeration, with descriptions of
novelties.

Sur remission des tubes polliniques des Selianthemum, p. 56.

Pointing out the development of pollen-tubes, from grains of
pollen remaining on the surface of the anthers after dehiscence.
These tubes are directed toward the stigma, and bridging over
the intervening space, curve and find their way into the stigmatic
papillae.

Sur une nouvelle espece du genre 3Ienarda, p. 60.

Balfgue, J. H. — Observations on Temperature in connection with
Vegetation, having special reference to the Frost of December,
1860. With a Eeport on the effects of the late Frost on the
Plants in the Eoyal Botanic Grarden of Edinburgh, by J. McNab.
Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 58.

420 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Baifofe, J. H.— The Calabar Ordeal Bean. E. S. E, T. xxii.
p. 305. With 2 plates.

The plant affording this ordeal poison is described as a new
genus {Physostigmd) of the Tribe Phaseoleae. It is allied to
JPhaseolus ; the legumes resemble those of Mucuna, the hilum
and calyx those of Canavalia. The obtuse stigma is covered by a
"ventricular sac or hood which extends along the upper part of
the convexity of the style."

Description of Asafoetida Plants, {NartJiex Asafoetida, Falc.)

which have recently borne flowers and fruit in the Eoyal Bo-
tanical Garden of Edinburgh. With 2 plates, p. 361.

Beddome, E. H. — Contributions to the Botany of Southern India.
Madras Journ. N. Ser. vi. 70.

The new genera described are Tetraglossa (Euphorbiaceae
near Trewia) and Laneasagum {Antidesmeae).

Bentham, Geoege. — Elora Hongkongensis : a Description of the
Elowering Plants and Ferns of the Island of Hong Kong. 8vo.
pp. 481. (Introd. li.) London, 1861.

The preface contains a brief account of the Island, its phy-
sical aspect and climate, the materials upon which the work is
based, and observations on the geographical relations of the
Hongkong Flora. The total number of species described is 1056
(including some which have probably been introduced), referred
to 591 Genera, and 125 Nat. Orders. The native species are dis-
tributed imder seven geographical t3rpes or floras, of which the
Tropical Asiatic includes the largest proportion (398). 159
species have not, as yet, been found out of the island ; most of
these, however, are to be expected in Southern China. The
Hongkong Flora is compared with those of Aden and Ischia,
which are both similarly situated as to proximity to the main-
land and of about equal size, but widely different in soil and
climate.

Hongkong affords of native species 1003, belonging to 125 N. orders.

Aden „ 95 „ 42 „

Ischia „ 792 „ 82

The Introduction consists of outlines of Botany framed with
special reference to local Floras, and an analytical key to the
Orders and anomalous Genera of the Hongkong Flora. Under
the respective heads of the several orders, genera, and species
described is given ui brief their general geographical distribu-
tion.

A new genus of Hamamelideae is described under the name
Tetrathyrium.

• — On Fissicahjx and Prioria ; two recently published Genera
of Leguminosae. Linn. Trans, xxiii. 389. AVith 2 plates.

In Fissicahjx (Dalbergieae) a Venezuelan tree, the broad
wings of the fruit do not arise from the sutures, as in Dalber-
gieae generally, but from the centre of the valves. The embryo

PHAJ!JEEOGAMIA. 421

is perfectly straight. Prioria (near Copaifera) is described by
Grisebach, in ' i'lora of British West Indies.' Tlie fruit, un-
known to him, is figured by Mr. Bentham.

Bentham, George. — Notes on Menispermaceae. Linn. Proe. Suppl.
Vol. V. (Bot.) p. 45.

The apparent opposition of the stamens to the petals in the
trimerous, dimerous, and tetramerous species of the Order (as also
in Berlerideae) is due to the circumstance that the petals and
stamens are each usually in two whorls, — the outer stamens
being opposite to the outer petals, the inner stamens to the
inner petals. A synopsis of the sufficiently known genera of
American, tropical, cocculoid Menispermaceae is given, followed
by general observations upon each genus.

■ Notes on Tiliaceae. p. 52.

Mr. Bentham, with Dr. Hooker, adopt 37 genera, which are
disposed vmder 6 tribes, grouped into 2 suborders, — JSolopetalae,
characterized by the petals, which are always of petaloid nature,
being always present (except in one or two Grewias), narrowed
at the base and deciduous ; and Heteropetalae, marked by petals
when present being more or less sepaloid, attached by a broad
base and usually persistent.

A synopsis of the Tribes is given, followed by critical obser-
vations upon the Genera. New species of Liihea and Mollia are
described from Spruce. The species of Sloanea are diagnosed,
some new species of Spruce's being described at length. Of the
genus EcJnnocarpus, Bl. five new species are described from
N. E. India, and one from Australia.

Notes on JBixaceae and Samydaceae. p. 75.

Tlie authors of the new ' Genera Plantarum ' propose to
unite Decandolle's Orders Bixaceae and FlacourtiacecB, Samydeae
and Homalineae into two Orders, viz., Bixaceae with hypogy-
nous, and Samydaceae with perigynous stamens. Baiiera is
referred to the latter Order. A synopsis of the Tribes of each
Order is given with anenumerationof their included genera, upon
many of which critical observations are added, with descriptions
of new and imperfectly known species.

Beetoloni, a. — Miscellanea Botanica, Fasc. xxi. 1861, pp. 18.
With 5 plates.

•— — — Come si comporta il midoUo delle piante dicotiledonali dopo
il suo compiuto sviluppo. Bologna, 1861. (Mem. Ac. Sc.
Istituto. xi.) pp. 16.

Bell, li. — List of Plants collected on the South and East shores of
Lake Superior, and on the North shore of Lake Hiiron in 1860.
Ann. Bot. Soc. Canada, i. 67.

Bejsttlet, Eobt. — A Manual of Botany : including the Structure,
Eunction, Classification, Properties, and Uses of Plants. Lon-
don, 1861.

422 BIBLIOOEAPHT.

Beeo, 0.— Cortex Quillajae. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 140.
The structure of the bark is described at length.

Mexicanische Sarsa2)arille aus ManzaniUa. With 1 plate.

Flora, 1861. p. 373.

"With the microscopic character of the rhizome.
Mantissa ii. ad. Kevisionem Myrtacearum Americae. Lin-

naea xxx. p. 647.

Temu, n. g., near Blepliarocalyx and Myrtus, is described.
BiCCHi, C. — Descrizione di una nuova specie del genere Tulipa. I.

Giard. Augt. 1861, 50. T, Beccariana of the section Tulipanum.
Bizio (D. G.) Sopra I'olio deUa camomilla (M. ChamomiUa). Sitz. d.

Kais. Akad. Wiss. xHii. 2. p. 292.
Black, A. A. — Catalogue of Japan Plants. An Appendix to

Hodgson's Japan.

Including " the great bulk of the plants described or noted

as having been found in Japan since the publication of Thun-

berg's ' Mora Japonica.' "

It is based upon the enumerations of Siebold and Zuccarini,

and Asa Gray, including also the Japanese plants of Blume, Mor-

ren and Decaisne, and Kunze, with the addition of species

collected by Wilford, Alcock, and Hodgson. About 1600 species

of phaenogamous plants and ferns are catalogued. There are 18

genera of Eanunculaceae, 8 of Ternstromiaceae, 14 spp. Maple,

25 genera Eosaceae, 15 spp. Hydrangea, 4 spp. Hamamelideae,

11 gen. Lauraceae, 23 Oaks, 16 gen. (of 47 spp.) Coniferae, 5 spp.

Palmae, 45 Carices, 8 Bamboos, 11 spp. Viburnum, including

V. opulus.
Blackie, G. S. — On the Cornus Jlorida of the United States. Ann.

Bot. Soc. Canada. Vol. i. p. 22, also in Canad. Nat. and Geol. vi. 1,
Blaese, G. — Die natiirlichen PamiHen der wildwachsenden Pha-

nerogamen Kur-, Liv- imd Esthlands. Mitau. 1861. 12mo.

pp. 75.
Blytt, M. N.— Norges Plora. Porste Deel. Christiania, 1861. Svo.

pp. 386.

Vascular Cryptogams to Sparffanium.
BocQUiLLON, H. T. — Observations sur le genre OfHia, Adans. Baillon,

Pec. d'Obs. Bot. ii. 4.
■' Eevue du Groupe des Verbenacees. Baill. Eec. d'Obs.

Bot. ii. 81.

The author discusses the intergeneric relations of the Verben-

aceae, the organogeny of several genera, the general character of

the inflorescence, floral and fruit structure and symmetry, the
- vegetative organs and natural affinities of the group.
BoCKELEB. — Ueber eine zweite Species der Gattung Courtoisia, Nees,

nebst einigen Bemerkungen iiber die Gattung imd die ihr uahe-

stehenden Genera. Plora, 1861, p. 331.
BoisDUVAL et DuHAMEL, MM. — Une Herborisation a Notre-Dame-

de-la-Ti-appe (Ornc) faite en Aout 1861. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 534,

PnANEROGAMIA. 423

BoLLE, C. — Ueber Formen von Vicia Craeea, L. Verb. Bot. Ver.

Brandenb. ii. p. 76.
— Der Weinstock in der Mark verwildert gefunden. Yerh.

Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 153. — Ueber Triticum caesiwn,

p. 156.

Die Serofularien der Canariscbeu Insebi, ein Beitrag zur

Florenkenntniss dieses Arcbipels. Act. Soc. Zool. Bot. Vienna,
1861. 1. Wien Verhandl. xi. 193.

Eight Canarian species of ScropJmlaria are described.
Addenda ad Floram Atlantidis, praecipue insularum Canari-

ensium Gorgadumque. Bonpl. 1861, p. 50.
Bo30«ET, M. — Snr un caractere variable des especes du genre Iheris.
Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861, p. 158.

Eeferring to the divergence of the lobes terminating the wings
of the fruit above, which, in some species, varies in the same
corymb.
BoENET, Ed. — Note sur le Fhycagrostis major. Bull. Soc. Bot.
viii. 456.

With a minute description of the male and female flowers,
and the development of the embryo.
BoRszczow, El. — Die Pharmaeeutisch-wichtigen Eerulaceen der
Aralo-caspischen Wiiste, nebst allgemeinen IJntersuchungen iiber
die Abstammung der im Handel vorkommenden Gummiharze,
— Asa-Eoetida, Ammoniacum und Galbanum. Mem. Ac. So.
Petersbg. vii. ser. iii. No. 8. With 8 plates.
Brady, H. B. — On the Seed of Dictyoloma j)eruviana, DC. Trans.
Micr. Soc. 1861, p. 65. With 1 plate.

Eeferring to the microscopic structure of the seed- wing. The
radiating fibres, connected at their outer margin, of which each
of the concentric wings consists, Mr. Brady believes to be the
thickened lateral walls of the elongated cells, persisting after the
rupture of the front and back.
Beaun, a. — Zuriickfiiln^ung der Gattimg Leersia, Sw. zur Gattung
Oryza, L. With fig. Verb. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii.
p. 195.

Ueber die Wirkung der Spiitfroste auf die Blatter von

JEsculus Hippocastanum. Berlin. 1861. Aus Monatsber. K. Ak.
d. W. p. 691.

> Memoire sur les Graines charnues des Amaryllidees ; la

Viviparite et les Transformations de 1' Ovule Vegetale. Ann.
S. N. Ser. iv. xiv. p. 5. With 1 plate. (Trans.)

The original memoir appeared as an aj)pendix to the author's
Essay on Polyembryony, &c. in the Transactions of the BerHn
Academy (1859). I. In respect to the fleshy seeds of Ama-
ryllideae, Prof Braun distinguishes, with M. PrUlieux, two essen-
tially different kinds, which he calls, respectively, bulbous and
tubercular seeds. The bulbous seeds result from an anatropous
ovule having two integuments, of which the outer is formed of a

424 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

thick fleshy mass traversed by vascular bundles. The embryo is
not developed in these prior to the fall of the seed from the fruit.
The tubercular seeds are produced by a more or less campylo-
tropous ovule destitute of integuments, of vfhich the endosperm
forms a fleshy mass vdthout vessels. The embryo develops at an
early period, and before the fall of the seed. A detailed account
is given of the ovules and seeds of Symenocallis, Amaryllis Bella-
donna, and species of Crinum. II. The various conditions in-
cluded under the general term Viviparity are enumerated, and
the question of the morphological signification of the ovule and
its parts discussed. Apropos of the latter subject, the author
states the only example known to him of the formation of a
foliaceous bud replacing the nucleus in the interior of an ovule.
In this case, observed by Schimper, the ovules (of Nigella Dama-
seend), although enlarged and elongated, retained their anatropous
form and two integuments, of which the inner projected beyond
the outer one, which was more or less open. The inner coat pre-
sented a micropyle, sometimes very minute, sometimes widened.
In the former case, the leafy bud broke through the side of the
coat ; in the latter, it projected from the micropyle. Upon one
of the small leaflets borne by these ovular buds, M . Schimper found
a rudimentary ovule, consisting of a conical nucleus and basal
annulus, from which it projected.

.BRAUisr, A. — TJeber eine Sonderbare "Wirkung der diesjahrigen Spat-
froste auf die Blatter der gemeinen Eosskastanie {JEsculus hippo-
castanuiii) und einiger anderer Baume. Berlin Monatsb. 1861,
691.

Brononiaet, Ad. — Note sur le Sommeil des Peuilles dans line Plante
des Grraminees, le Strepliiurn Guianense. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii.
p. 470.

During ' sleep ' the distichous leaves overlap each other
closely, the upper surface of the limb of each being applied
against the sheath and lower face of the leaf immediately above.
The sleep movement commences long before nightfall, between
4 and 6 p.m. in the long days of summer.

Beongniart, Ad. et A. GtRis. — Observations sur I'Ovule et la
Grraine du Posidonia Caulini. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 472.

In reference to the debated structure of the seeds, the authors
find the 'canal' of elongated cells traversing the interior longi-
tudinally to constitute the single vascular bundle of the tigellus
of the embryo. The true micropyle is hardly discoverable in the
seed, owing to the integuments being usually desti-oyed. The
brown spot which may have been taken for such is the point of
origin of the radicle, thus corresponding, however, with the micro-
pylar extremity.

Brongniart, Ad. — Observations sur un genre remarquable de Yio-
lacees de la NouveUe-Caledonie. Bull. Soc. Bot. 1S61, p. 77.
Agatea of Asa Gray (for which name M. Brongniart proposes

PHANEEOGAMIA. 425

to substitute Agation, owing to its pronunciation, wliicli he con-
siders, as pronounced on the Continent, identical with that of
Agatliaea, Cass.) A specimen sent from New Caledonia re-
quires modification of the generic character. A description is
given of the ripe fruit.

BRONGisriART, Ad. et A. Gris. — Note sur un genre nouveau d'Om-
belliferes de la Nouvelle-Caledonie. Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861. p. 121.
Myodocarpus, of which two species are described. Both are
arborescent or shrubby, one species with simple leaves. Vittae
are absent, but numerous spherical glandular reservoirs are im-
mersed in the pericarp.

Description de quelques Eleocarpees de la Nouvelle-Cale-

donie. BuU. Soc. Bot. viii. 198.

With descriptions of six New Caledonian species of Ulao-
carpus and of the new genus Dtiboiizetia, Panch. Characterized
by entire petals, 5-locular ovary, and capsular 5-celled fruit, with
septicidal dehiscence.

Note sur le genre Joinvillea de G-audichaud, et sur la famille

des FlageUariees. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. p. 264.

The authors recognise in a plant of the Sandwich Islands,
the Joinvillea elegans of Gaudichaud ; the structure of which is
described in detail. This genus, with Flagellaria, constitutes the
family Elagellarieae, characterized by solitary, suspended, ortho-
tropous ovules and embryonary structure analogous to that of
Eestiaceae and its allies. The above characters remove it from
Juncaceae, to wliich order Flagellaria was doubtfully appended
by E. Brown.

Sur un nouveau genre de Nyctaginees de la Nouvelle-Cale-

donie. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 374.

Vieillardia, an arborescent plant, remarkable in the order from
its straight embryo and the almost complete absence of albumen.
Sur quelques cas de transformation des etamines en car-

pelles. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii 453.

In Sempervivum, Gheiranthus (the stamens transformed into
carpellary leaves), and Polemonium cosruleiim. In the latter plant
the petals were represented by free, green foliolae nearly equalling
the calyx, between these and the pistil was a circle of carpels re-
placing the stamens ; these were united laterally to each other,
enveloping the central ovary and forming five flattened cells, each
usually enclosing two rows of ovules. By artificial fertilization
M. Brongniart obtained fertile seeds from both the central normal
ovary and the surrounding metamorphosed stamens.

BucHEKATi, F. — Morphologische Bemerkungen iiber einige Acerineen.

Bot. Zeit. 1861, 265, 273, 281. With 1 plate.
Bemerkungen uber die AVachsthumsweise der Corydalis

clmiculata. With figs. Bot. Z. 1861, 321.

Describing the germination and development of the leaves.

42G BIBLIOGBAPHT.

Caeeii^ee, M. — Considerations generales sur I'espece. (Suite.) Eev.
Hort. 1861, pp. 46, 76, 98, 118, 138, 157, 178, 198, 218, 298,
337, 355.

Caeeuthees, W. — On some Species of Oaks from ISTorthem China,
collected by "W. F. Daniell, M.D. Linn. Journ. vi. 31.

Caspaet, E. — Einige Pelorien. Sclirift. K. Gesell. Konigsberg, 1860,
i. 59. With figs.

Orchis latifolia, Columnea ScMedeana, Digitalis purjmrea.

Bulliarda aquatica, p. 66. With plates.

A detailed account of the morphology, anatomy, distribution,
&c. of the species.

TIeber Beschadigung holziger Pflanzen durch den Erost.

Konigsb. Sitzbericht. 1860. 3.

Ueber einige Pflanzen-Bastarde. p. 12.

Ueber die Stellung der Aeste und Bliithen und die Eichtuns:

der Blattstellung an Ast und Stamen bei der gelben Mummel.
p. 23.

Ueber die Cacteen Nordamerikas. p. 23.

Ueber das Yorkommen der Hydrilla verticillata, Casp. in

Preussen, die Bliithe derselben in Preussen imd Pommern, und
das Wachsthum ihres Stammes. Verh. 35. Vers. Nat. Konigsb.
1860. 293. With 4 plates.

Including observations upon this plant made subsequent to
the publication of the author's work on the Hydrilleae. The
anatomy, general structure, and development of the species are
described in minute detail.

Sur le Bulliarda aquatica, DC. Ext. Act. Soc. Phys.-econ.

Konigsberg. 4to. pp. 25. 2 plates.

An account of the structure and development of the plant, its
geographical distribution, &c. The question as to whether fer-
tilization of the flower takes place under water the author leaves
undetermiued.

De Abietinearum, Carr. Eloris feminei structura morpho-

logica. 4to. pp. 12. Eegiomonti Pr. vide also Ann. S. Nat. Ser.
iv. xiv. 200, and N. H. E. ii. 19.

Berichtigung einiger Irrthiimer des Herrn Nitschke. Bot.

Zeit. 1861. p. 182.

Eeferring to Herr Nitschke's comparison of the stipulary
appendages found on the upper side of the leaf-stalk of Brosera
rutundifolia vnth the setae on the petiole of Aldrovanda in re-
spect of morphological import.

Caspakt, E. — Aufix)rderung an H. Dr. Nitschke und noch einige
Worte liber dessen Arbeit iiber Brosera rotundifolia. Bot. Zeit.
1861. 278

Ueber das Yerhalten von Pflanzen zu Verwundungcn.

Konigsb. Sitzungsb. Jahrg. ii. 11.

PHANEKOGAMIA. 427

Cauvet, M. — Notice organographique sur quelques plantes de la
famille des Cactees. Eec. Mem. de Med. Ser. iii. v. 67. (Bull.
Soc. Bot. viii. 641).

Observations on the structure of the ligneous system, leaves,
epiderm, the fruit, &c. of Opuntia.

Etudes sur le role des raciaes dans I'absorption et I'excretion.

Strasburg, 1861.

M. Cauvet is of opinion that rootlets in perfect health do
not excrete poisons absorbed by the plant; it is through the
leaves, by their death and fall that poisons are eliminated.
With regard to the elective power of the so-called spongioles,
he behoves that if salts be absorbed in unequal proportions it is
owing to their special action on the tissue of the absorbing
extremity.
Chapmajs-, a. "W. — Flora of the Southern United States. 1860.

Leitneria (Myricaceae, gen. uov.) is described.
Chatln", Ad. — Sur la Structure anatomique des Petales comparee a
celle des Feuilles; une consequence physiologique des faits ob-
serves. Bull. Soc. Botan. viii. p. 22.

The colouring matter of petals is stated to be contained in
epidermal cells {Calendula, Dahlia, &c.) ; and with regard to its
condition, whether liquid or granular, as well as seat, it may be
generally affirmed that what is the rule in the case of leaves is
exceptional in petals.

Excursion botanique dirigee en Savoie et en Suisse. Bull.

Soc. Bot. 1861. viii. pp. 127, 210, 302, 333.
A list is given of the species collected.
Sur un cas extraordinaire de monstrosite (?) offert par le

Cytinus hypocistis. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 196.

The ovaries, destitute of parietal placentas, were almost
entirely occupied by a pendulous, pedicellate, cellular mass, the
import of which is left doubtful.
Sur les plantes des vieux Chateaux. Bull. Sqc. Bot. viii. 359.

Of the plants naturalized on and about old edifices, M. Chatin
distinguishes at least two principal groups. The one, and older,
represented by Diantlms Caryophyllus and Salvia Sclarea he
terms the group of the Middle- Age period ; the other, charac-
terized by Aegopodium Podagraria and Eruca sativa, the group
of the Eenaissance period. Under the former he includes Fceni-
culum vulgare, Silyhum Marianum, Leonurus Cardiaca, Satureia
montana, Sfc; as additional species under the latter, Petasites
officinalis. Iris foetidissima, Corydalis lutea, Ruta graveolens,
Sedum dasyphyllum, Atropa, ^c.

The Thorn Apple and Henbane apparently characterize a
more recent epoch, as also JJrtica pilulifera, Aspemgo procum-
bens, Sfc. Notes are added upon the localities of the species and
the uses to which they were applied,
N. H. R.— 1862. 2 G

428 BIBLIOOEAPHT.

Chatin, Ad. — Sur I'Androcee des Cruciferes. Biill. Soc. Bot. viii. 370.
471.

EeferriBg specially to the doctrine of " dedoublemeBt."
M. Chatin adopts the \ae\v of Dr. Lindley, that the outer whorl
of stamens is incomplete owing to the abortion of those opposite
to the anterior and posterior sepals. The pistil he considers as
consisting of four carpels alternating with the inner stamens
(opposite to the sepals), the anterior and posterior carpels being
constantly aborted.

Clarke, Joshua. — On a New British Plant. Linn. Proc. v. p. 187*
JjatliijTUS tuberosus, from near Ongar, Essex.

Cleghorn, De. — List of Plants growing in the Bangalore Garden,

Mysore. Ti\ans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 223.
Notes upon the Coco-Nut Tree and its Uses. Trans. Ed.

Bot. Soc. vii. 155.

Clos, D. — Cladodes et axes ailes. Mem. Ac. Toul. (Ext. 8vo.
pp.31).

A detailed study of the foliaceous branches, termed Cladodia,
of Huscus, Euphorbia, Ojmntia, ^c. The leafy peduncle of Tilia,
M. Clos considers due to a branching of the axis, one portion ex-
panding into a sterile cladodium, the other elongating to bear the
flowers.

He distinguishes three forms of winged stem, — with the wing
an epidermal development, destitute of veins, — with veined wings,
and wings which physiologically replace the leaf, termed pseudo-
phyllodia as in Acacia platyptera and some species of Statice.

• Nouvel apergu sur la Theorie de I'lnflorescence. BuU. Soc.

Botan. viii. pp. 11. 36.

Des caracter^s pistillaires du genrg Euscus. BuU. Soc. Bot.

viii. p. 280.

Relating chiefly to the fleshy covering of the ovary (which
from analogy, the author considers to represent the androecium
in the female flower), and the internal structure of the latter, which
M. Clos tinds in B. aculeatus and M. HypogJossum constantly
unilocular.

Eemarques sur la germination du Cocotier et sur la Clandes-

tine. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. p. 294.

Upon the uatm-e of the " Pomme-de-Coco" developed in the
pericarp during germination, which the author appears to regard
as tigellus ; and the parasitism of Glandestina upon Crifhmum.
Discussion de quclques points de glossologie botanique. Bull.

Soc. Bot. viii. 615.

In continuation of previous papers. The terms commented
on are Lohum, Lacinia (foHi), Folium compositum, laciniata, de-
composita (folia).
CoHN, Feed. — Ueber d. Ursprung der schlesischen Plora. Schles.
Gres. Bot. Bericht. 1860. p. 48.

PHANEROGAMIA. 429

CoHN, F. — Ueber Contractile Grewebe im Pflauzeiireicbe. Schlesisch.
Abhand. 1861. p. 1.

CoLMEifio, M. — Observaciones j reflexiones liecbas sobre los Movi-
mientos de las hojas y flores de algimas plautas, con motivo del
eclipse de sol del 18 de juHo de 1860. Mem. Ac. Cien. Madrid.
V. 193.

Lychnis vespertina opened its flowers during the eclipse.

CoMMAiLE ET Lambeht. — Sur le fruit du Pin-a-pignons et sur la pre-
sence du cuivre dans plusieurs vegetaux, notamment dans ceux
de la famille des Coniferes. Eec. Mem. de Med. Ser. iii. v. 331.

Cooke, M. C. — A Manual of Structural Botany. London, 1861.

Coeenwindee, B. — Etudes sur la Migration du Phospliore dans
les Vegetaux. Ann. S. N. Ser. iv. xiv. p. 39.

In a previous memoir in tbe Transactions of tbe Society of
Sciences at Lille (1857), the author showed that at the time
when the seeds of the Beet reach maturity phosphoric acid was
no longer present in the root. This essay contains the result of
further observations relative to the " migration" of phosphorus ;
important as the element accompanying nitrogenous matter in
all phases of plant life. The cotyledons of seeds exhausted by
the development of young shoots are found to be destitute of
phosphoric acid, the ashes consisting in great measure of silica
and lime. Substances excreted by plants as gum and manna
contain no phosphorus. The author remarks the presence in
notable quantity of phosphoric acid in marine Algae and Zost,era,
while analyses of sea-water aiford no trace of it and conjectures
the possibility that in the sea the phosphates may exist in com-
bination with animal matter, as in the unctuous film found float-
ting upon its surface. In pollen (of the White Lily) M. Coren-
winder states that a larger proportion of phosphoric acid was
found than in the seed of wheat. The acid was also found in
the spores oi Lycopodium clavatum.

CoENALiA. — Sui caratteri del seme sano dei bachi da seta. Plate.
Mil. AU. ii. p. 255.

CossoN, E. et Germain de Saint-Pierre.— Flore des environs de
Paris. Ed. ii. Paris, 1861. pp. 962.

CossoN, E. — Listes des plautes observees aux environs de Thurelles
(Loiret), sur les deblais et les remblais recents du Chemin de fer
de Moret Ti Montargis. — Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 479.

Sur les Voyages Botaniques, &c. de H. de la Perraudiere.

Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 591

CouTBJEAN, M. — Un fait de geographic botanique a Fappui de la
theorie de I'iufluence physique du sol sur la dispersion des plantes.
L'Instit. xxix an. 231. A resume of a.n article by this author,
referring to the floras of gneiss and arkose regions in the Jura.

Dalzell, H. a. and A. Gibson. The Bombay Flora, or short de-
scriptions of all the Indigenous Plants hitherto discovered in or
near the Bombay Presidency ; together with a Supplement of

2G2

430 BIBLIOGRAPET.

Introduced and Naturalized species. Bombay, 1861. 1 vol. 8vo.
pp. 332. Suppl. pp. 112.

With brief descriptions of the species, but none of Genera and
Natural Orders.

Dattbei^t, C. — On the Power ascribed to the Eoots of Plants of
rejecting poisonous or abnormal substances presented to them.
Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. xv. 209.

On the Physical Forces concerned in the phenomena of

Vegetation, and especially on those which form the subject of
the Memoirs " On Colloid Bodies," contributed by the Master of
the Mint. Gard. Chiton. 1074. 1098. 1861.

Debeaux, O. — Catalogues des Plantes observees dans le territoire
de Boghar (Algerie.) Ext. Act. Soc. Linn. Bord. 1861. Svo.
pp. 121.

• Sur la vegetation de quelques localites du littoral de la Chine.

Eec. Mem. Med. Ser. iii. vi. 334. 1861.

Some account of the vegetation of Amoy, Shanghai, and
Tchefou.

Decaisne, J. — Sur I'origine organique des vrilles de Cucurbitacees.
Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 461.

Observations upon an anomalous melon flower, in which one
of the calycine segments was prolonged into an ordinary curled
tendril, — confirmatory of M. Naudin's view that the tendril
results from the nerves of a leaf deprived of parenchyma, pro-
ceeding from an axillary atrophied branch, and opposed to Dr.
Clos' interpretation, that it is due to a collateral ' dedoublement'
of its adjacent normal leaf.

DeCandolle, Alph. — Flora Brasiliensis. Pasc. xxviii. Pars-Bego-
niaceae. pp. 337. With 11 plates.

All the species, 83 in number, are referred to the typical
genus Begonia.

DeCandolle, C. — De la production naturelle et artificielle du Liege
^dans le chene-liege. Ext. Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve, xvi. 1860.
pp. 15. 3 plates.

Cork of commerce is obtained from Quercus ocddentalis. Gay,
in S. W. Prance and Portugal, and Q. Suber in S. E. Prance, Italy,
Algeria, and the Mediterranean Islands. M. DeCandolle de-
scribes the first formation of true cork in the cortical layers. It
is formed of polyhedric cells, square ia section, deposited in
annual layers alternating with one or two rows of tabular cells,
with rather thicker walls. The square cells constitute the true
cork, the tabular ones Periderm.

The cork formed prior to the first decortication of the oak is
valueless : it is termed ' male,' and the operation of its removal
' demasclage.' The cellular tissue, with its subjacent liber laid bare
by the process, the workmen call ' la mere,' and it is in this tissue
at a variable distance from the surface, that the new cork {liege
femelle) first forms, increasing by the addition of annual layers in

PHANEEOGAMIA. 431

its inner face. After an interval of from seven to eight years the
tree undergoes a second ' demasclage.' The anatomical relations
of the ' liege male' and the ' liege femelle,' the structure of the
periderm and of the zones, alternating ia density, of the cork, are
treated of and illustrated by figures.

DELA.VAUD, C. — Etude teratologique sur des feuilles de I'Orme cham-
petre. BuU. Soc. Bot. 18G1. p. 104.

Observations upon abnormal leaves of an Elm ( Ulmus eampes-
tris), apparently resulting from the incomplete union of a pair of
leaves free towards their summits ; due, however, to a hypertrophy
of single leaves.

Note sur une Eleur tetramere de Tigridia Pavonia. p. 146.

De Melicocq, Le Baron. — Pliysiologie vegetale aux xiv^, xv® et xvi^

Siecles. BuU. Soc. Bot. viii. p. 288.
Des Moulins, Ch. — Sur la pelorie anectariee du Linaria vulgaris.
Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 504.

Memorandum of two spurless-flowered specimens in the
author's herbarium, collected in the South of France.
De VisiANr, R. — Plantarum Serbicarum Pemptas, ossia Descrizione
di cinque Piante serbiane. Mem. deUIst. Venetoix. 165. Opiates.
With detailed description and figure of JPanqicia, a new genus
of UmbeUiferae, noted in Sem. Hort. Bot. Patav. cat. 1857.
Other new species are described and figured.
Dewet, C. — Caricography. Am. Journ. Sc. xxxi. 23. xxxii. 38.

Descriptions of new and imperfectly known species of Garex.

DiCKSOK, Alexander. — Note on Baillon's Organogenic Researches
on the Female Flower of the Coniferae. Ed. Phil. Journ. N. S.
xiii p. 193.

" The small scale-like body situated near the apex of the ap-
parent scale ia most of the species of Araucaria" the author
regards as the representative of the cone-scale of Abies. In Dmn-
onara the axillary scales are incorporated with the bracts of the
cone, as in Araucaria hrasiliensis : a imion to a greater or less
extent of the base of the bract and that of the 'scale' is usual, if
not universal, in Abies and Pinus.

On some of the Stages of Development in the Female Flower

of Dammara australis. Ed. Ph. Journ. 1861. Ext. pp. 8. With
1 plate. Also Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 207.

Showing that the cone-scales of Dammara are, as in Araucaria,
* the leaves of the cone-shoot.' The author's observations confirm
BaiUon's view of the primitive duality of the envelopes of the
" nucleus" or ovule.

Dickson, A. — Observations upon the Morphological Constitution of
certain Abietiaeous Cones. Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 47.

DouMET, FUs. — Souvenir d'lme herborisation au mont Viso faite
pendant la session extraordinaire de la Societe botanique de
France. 8vo. 22 pp. Ann. Soc. d'Hort. de I'Herault.

432 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

DowDEN, Prof.— On a Plant poisoning a Plant. Eep. Brit. Ass.
1860. 110.

Deessee, C. — On abnormal forms of Passijlora ccBrulea. Eep. Brit.
Ass. 1160. 110.

On the Morphological Laws in Plants. Eep. Brit. Ass.

1860. 110.

Deummond, a. T. jun. — Contributions to the Local Mora of King-
ston. Ann. Bot. Soc. Canada, Yol. i. pp. 33 — 40.
A list of species with their localities.

DucnAETEE, P. — Note sur deux particiilarites observees dans une
Jacinthe. Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861. p. 158.

Two flowers had contracted an adhesion by the outer surface
of one lobe of the perianth of each : the flowers were both com-
plete. A slender scape, bearing a simple, terminal flower, sprung
from the plant bearing the above.

Note siu" ime particularite qui s'est montree, en 1860, dans

la vegetation de la pomme-de-terre Marjolin. Bull. Soc. Botan.
vii. p. 456.

Noting a tendency in this variety of the potato to form sub-
terranean branches and tubers without throwing up aerial stems.
This anomaly usually occurs in winter, and M. Decaisne attri-
butes it to defective warmth and hght.

• Note sur une Tulipe a tige tripartie. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii.

p. 462.

Each division of the scape bearing well developed flowers of
nearly equal size.

Sur une Monstruosite de DelpJiinium AJacis. Bull. Soc.

Botan. Aii. p. 483.

The entire inflorescence was transformed into successively
super-imposed whorls of sepals and carpellary leaves. Towards
the summit of the stem were four or five concentric circles of free
oval-lanceolate sepals — apparently resulting from the superior
and lateral sepals of several flowers. Immediately within these,
without the interposition of petals or stamens, were numerous
distiuct carpels, mostly of normal structure, and enclosing ovules.
The interior were iisually more or less open, and passing into
simple leaves. Upon the margin of the open carpels were imper-
fectly developed ovules. Above the carpellary whorl was a second
series of leaflets, less coloured and petaloid than the lowermost ;
then a second circle of carpels, most of which were imperfect.
Above these, and terminating the axis, was a compact mass of
small linear greenish leaflets.
Note sur trois fleurs monstreuses. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 450.

These were — 1. A prohferous variety of Sosa gallica — the
flowers with eight sepals and thirteen spirally arranged petals,
upon a torus in no degree elongated. 2. A tetramerous flower
of Iris Xi;pliium ; and 3. Decandrous flowers of ISolanum tuber-
osum.

PnANEBOOAMIA, 433

DucHARTBE, P. — Note BUT la secretion salee du Tamarix gallica au
bord de la mer. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 614.

Showing that the saline deposit observed upon the leaves of
the Tamarix is due to a glandular secretion formed when the
plant grows in a soil containing more or less salt.

rioraison et Fecondation de V Agave potatorum. Bull. Soc.

Bot. viii. 629.

Tertilization was effected by a swarm of flies after carefully
applied artificial means had failed.

DupouE, Leon. — Diagnoses et observations critiques sur quelques
plantes d'Espagne mal connues ou nouvelles (suite). Bull. Soc,
Botan. vii. pp. 426, 441.

DuYAii- JouvE, J. — Sur la Synonymic d'une espece d'Equisetum.
Bull. Soc. Bot, viii, 637.

EicHLEE, A, W.— Zur Entwickelungsgeschicbte des Blattes, mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Nebenblattbildungen. Mar-
burg. 1861. 8vo. pp. 60. Witli 2 plates.

ENGELMA]ST*f, Dr. — On three hybrid Verbenas. Trans, Ac. Sc. St.

Louis, i. 675.
Eenzl, Ed. — Diagnoses Plantarum Orientalium et Observationes

botanicae (in Tcliihatcbfeff", Asie mineure, iii^ partie).

A new genus of Cruciferae (Physalidiu'ni) is described.

Eebmokd, Ch. — Note sur la Germination du Sapindus divaricatus.

Bull. Soc, Botan. vii. p. 494.
Sur xuie Tige fasciee du Oucurhita JPepo. 1. c. p. 496.

EiscHER, J. C. — Verzeichniss d. Gefasspflanzen Neu- Vorpommerns
und Eligens. 4to. pp. 56. Stralsund, 1861.

This catalogue, arranged alphabetically, includes 1070 species,

EouEinEE, E. — Mimoseae and Acacieae. — These pour le Doctorat.
(Des Tenifuges employes en Abyssinie.) Paris, 1861.

With a synopsis of the species of Alhizzia, Dur., of the genera
of Acacieae, and tribes of Mimoseae. Vide also A. Sc. N, iv^, Ser.
xiv. 368,

Eeitsch, el — Eesvdtate mehrjahriger Beobachtungen iiber d. Belau-
bung und Entlaubung der Baume und Strauche im "Wiener
botanischen Garten. "With 1 pi. "Wien. Sitzungsb, 1861. 81,

— Begriff der Phanologie und iiber Belaubung und Entlau-
bung der Baume und Strauche. "Wien. Verhandl. xi. 261.

■ Thermische Constanten fiir die Bliithe und Pruchtreife von

889 Pflanzenarten, abgeleitet aus zehnjiihrigen Beobachtungen
im K. K. botanischen Garten zu "Wien. Wien Sitzungsb. xliv.
711.
Gaecke, a. — Die Gattung Goethea. Bonpl. 1861, p, 17.

"With one-celled anthers and warted poUen, the author refers
it, with Endlicher, to Malvaceae ; he upholds the genus as dis-
tinct from Favonia.

434 BIBLIOQEAPHY.

Gaecke, a. — Die Stellung der Gattung Morina im naturlicheu Sys-
tem. Bonpl. 1861. p. 49.

Confirming tlie received view, in opposition to that of the
late Dr. Klotzsch, that Morina is Dipsaceous, not Acanthaceous.

Ueber Die Gattung Triclianthera. Ehrenb. Bonpl. 1861.

p. 115.

Stating the genus Trichantliera, Ehrenb. to be identical with
Sermannia, L.
Gaeeeau, L. — Eecherches sur la distribution des matieres minerales
fixes dans les divers organes des plantes. Ann. S.N. Ser. iv. xiii.
p. 145. With 1 plate.

An account of experiments instituted with a view to ascer-
tain the chief causes determining the distribution of mineral sub-
stances in the various organs of plants, their comparative quan-
tity, and the part they play in the plant economy. The memoir
is divided into two portions ; the first treating of the inorganic
constituents of plants, the second devoted to the function of the
azotised ceU-contents, and the circidation of ceU-sap. Tables are
given of — (1) Tlie percentage of inorganic constituents in various
organs gathered at different periods ; also (2) in radicles and
fibrils which have vegetated at the expense of their seed in dis-
tilled water solely ; (3) in fibrils of aquatic and terrestrial plants ;
(4) in stems of various ages ; (5) in the pith and cambium -layer
of the elder ; (G) in the axes and fronds of cryptogams ; (7) in
leaves ; (8) in ripe seeds, as compared with ovules ; (9) analyses
of the ashes of seeds ; (10) of the axes and youngest leaves of
buds; (11) of the stems of trees, terrestrial and aquatic herbs,
the leaves of ligneous plants, of cryptogams, &c.

The author shows the very unequal distribution of inorganic
constituents, and the remarkable variation in respect to their
amount in the different organs of plants. That while their pro-
portion in the axial organs of ligneous plants decreases vnth
lignification, in herbaceous species it increases with age. The
same accumidation takes place, as a rule, in leaves, with the ex-
ception of those specially modified, forming calyx, pericarp, &c.
The contrast is pointed out between the analysis of the seed,
deprived of episperm, and that of other parts of the matured
(monocarpic) plant. The former containing but the elements
constituting the phosphates of lime, potash, soda, magnesia ; the
latter oxides of iron, manganese, carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia, sulphates, chlorides, silica, &c. — phosphates having almost
entirely disappeared. In reference to the azotised contents of
cells, M. Garreau is of opinion that the threads (or canaux) of
protoplasm, which radiate from the nucleus, are in direct com-
munication mth the corresponding processes of adjacent cells,
and that thus the active formative matter, which possesses a
similar composition and fulfils Like essential functions with that
of animals, may remove itself from old or thickening cells.

PHANEROGAMIA. 435

Gat, J. — Note sui* I'Histoire du Bidens radiata, Tliuill. Bull. Soc.
Bot. 1861. p. 153.

With the syuonjmy of the plant.
' Observations sur le travail de M. Grenierrelatif auPosiWoM2a

Caulini. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 453.

Nouvelles observations sur une Anomalie bulbaire du Leu-

cojum aestivum. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 457.

A form presenting two or three bulbs superimposed on the
same axis, and separated by long internodes.

Le Chamcerops excelsa, Thunb., sa patrie, le climat qui lui

convient, son introduction dans I'Europe occidentale, les changes
qu'il a d'y etre naturalise, son Jlbrillitiiwi, les usages economiques
auxquels il pent servir, &c. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 410.

In a postscript are given Wendland's characters of his genus
Trac hi/ carpus, based upon the Eastern species of Chamcerops,
(C. excelsus, O. Fortunei, C. Martianus, and G. Khasianus).

Siu* la plante designee sous le nom de Fyrethrum Wtllemoti.

p. 459.

According to M. Gay, P. cinerariaefolium, Trev.
Une Excursion botanique a I'Aubrac et au Mont-Dore,

principalement pour la recherche des Isoetes du plateau central

de la France. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 508, 541, 619.
Germain de Saint- Pierre. — Nouvelles observations sur le Posi-

donia Caulini. Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 474.

With detailed account of the reproductive organs and ger-
mination.
GoDRON, A. — Observations sur les Bourgeons et sur les Eeuilles du

Liriodendron tulipifera. Bull. Soc. Botan. viii. p. 33, With

1 plate.

Explaining the occasion of the truncate summit of the leaf.
Graells, M. de la Paz. — Eamilletes de Plantas Espafiolas escogi-

das. Mem. Ac. Cien. Madrid, iv. 459. With 9 plates.
Gras, Aug. — Note sur quelques rectifications de Synonymic. Bull.

Soc. Bot. viii. p. 270.

Eeferring to names of Allioni's.

Sur le Cardamine granulosa. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 463.

Gray, Asa. — Note on the Genus Orapheplwrum, Pesv., and its

Synonymy. Ann. Bot. Soc. Canada, 1861. p. 55. also Am. Ac.

Proc. V. 190.

Announcing the re-discovery of the Dupontia Cooleyi of the

author's " Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States,"

and its identification with Graphephorum melicoides, Beauv. An.

enumeration of the species of Orapliephoriim is appended.
■ Characters of some Compositae in the Collection of the

United States South Pacific Exploring Expedition, under Captain

Wilkes, with Observations, &c. Am. Ac. Proc. v. p. 115.

With amended characters of WilJcesia and Arf/yroxipJiiiim,

and description of new species.

436 BIBLIOGRAPUY.

Oeat, Asa. — Notes on Lobeliaceae, Goodeniaceae, &c. of the Collec-
tion of the Uuited States South Pacific Exploring Expedition, p. 146.
The neAv species are described.

Enumeration of a Collection of Dried Plants made by L. J,

Xantus, at Cape San Lucas, &c. in Lower California, between
August, 1859, and February, I860, and communicated to the
Smithsonian Institution, p. 153.

A small collection made by Mr. Xantus at San Lucas and
vicinity, containing a considerable proportion of new species.
The distribution numbers are quoted.

A Ciu-sory Examination of a Collection of Dried Plants

made by L. C. Ervendberg around "Wartenberg, near Tantoyuca,
in the Ancient Province Huasteca, Mexico, in 1858 and 1859.
p. 174.
G-BENiEB, Ch. — Eecherches sur le Posidonia Caulini, Konig. (Suite).
Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. pp. 419, 448.

A minute account of its structure, together with technical
descriptions of the genus and species. Observations are intro-
duced upon typical forms, species, and genera — the author pre-
ferring the comprehensive Linnean genera, with brief diagnoses
and subdivisions, to those of fragmentary character with long
diagnoses which have multiplied so fast in recent times.

Gbindon^, L. H. — A Manual of British and Foreign Plants, vsath
their Latin and English Names. London, 1861.

A Catalogue of upwards of 5000 species, either in cultivation,
indigenous to Britain, or of economic or literary interest. The
native country of each is given.

GrEis, Aethue. — Du Developpement de la Fecule et en particulier
de sa Resorption dans I'albumen des graines en Germination,
Ann. S. N. Ser. iv. xiii. p. 106. With 6 plates.

M. Gris' observations refer chiefly to the dissolution of the
starch granules ia the albumen of the seeds of wheat, barley,
maize, and other Gramineae, Arum, Polygonum, Rivina, and a
few other genera. Resorption takes place after two modes;
either by a local action of the dissolving agent, attacking the
granule irregularly, or uniformly diminishiug its bulk insensibly.
Tlie simple starch granules examined, with the exception of those
of Promus, were subject to the former, and compound granules
(also those of Promus) to the latter mode of dissolution.

Sur le developpement de la graine du Eicin. A. S. N. iv.

Ser. XV. (Bot.) 5.

Tlie author directs attention to the adhesion between the
secundine and lower portion of the nucleus, and the idtimate
disappearance of the free portion of the latter, with the increase
in size of the embryo sac, within which the albumen is formed.

Sur le genre Crossostylis de Forster. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 379.

Including a description of the fruit and seed unknown to
Dr. Gray (U. States Expl. Exped. 610, t. 77).

PnAJS^EEOGAMIA. 437

Gets, Arthur. — Sur le developpemeut de la graine de Eicin. C.
Eend. 21 Oct. 1861.

— Essai sur la mesiire du degre d'elevation ou de perfection

organique des especes vegetales. Paris, 1861. 8vo. pp. 32.
GrEisEBACH, A. H. E. — Flora of the British West Indian Islands.
Pt. iv. (Caprifoliaceae to Apocynaceae).

JPhialanthus (Eubiaceae, near ScolosantJms), Monanthemv/m
(Vernoniaceae), and ChcEnocephalus {Senecionideae), are the new
genera described. Stryclinos is included under Apocynaceae,
sect. Hautvolfieae.

Bemerkungen zu Willkomm's Monographie der europais-

chen Krummholzldefern. Plora, 1861. 593.

"With a synopis of the eight, geminate-leaved, European Pines.
Zur Systematilv der Birken. Flora, 1861. 625.

GrROENLAND, J. — Sur les hybrides du genre jEgilops. Bull. Soc.
Bot. viii. 612.

Hybrids obtained from the artificial fertilization of JEgilops
ovata and -M. ventricosa by different varieties of wheat were found
rarely to retain theii' hybrid character, but to return almost in-
variably to the type of the male parent, and ultimately die out.
A natural 'hybrid,' however, (Imown to be such from the circum-
stance that its produce was, in part, sterile, with all the character
of a Triticum, and in part, true ^gilops triticoides) has jDcrpetuated
itself since 1858 ■with a rapid increase of fertility, the last gene-
ration, retaining all the hybrid character, having been as fertile
as ordinary cultivated wheat.

Geosse, Ernst. — Flora von Aschersleben. Die im umkreise von
einer Meile um Aschersleben wachsenden Phanerogamen, nach
dem Liiuie'schen System geordnet und mit den zum Selbstbe-
stimmen nothigen characteren verseheu. Aschersleben, 1861. 8vo.
pp. 74.

GuBLER, A. — Observations sur la flore du departement des AJpes-
maritimes. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 237.

— De la mer comme source de calcaire pour les plantes du

littoral. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 431.

— = Etude teratologique sur une anomalie du Pinus Pinea, con-

stituee par la permanence de la foliation primordiale, transitoire.
BuU. Soc. Bot. viii. 527.

GuiBOUET, M. — Observations sur le duvet des Chatons de Peupliers.
Journ. Pharm. et Chem. 1861. p. 81.

Showing the down of the seed to be arilloid and not a coma or
corona as described by some authors.

GuiLLARD, A. — La Famille des Urticees. Presse Scient. iii. p. 305.
With observations on the structure of the stem, the charac-
ter of the inflorescence, &c.

Gulliver, Geo. — On the Eaphides of Lemnaceae. A. N. H. 3 ser,
vol. vii. p. 423.

Noting their occurrence in all British species of Lemna.

438 BIBLIOGEAPUT.

Hall, H. C. tan. — Bijdrage tot de Organograpliie der Planten, in-
zonderheid over Stipulae en Bracteae. With 3 plates. Yer.
Med. K. Ak. Wet. Amsterd. 1861, 245.

Halliee, Eris'st. — Die Vegetation auf Helgoland. Ein Eiilirer fiir
den Naturfrennd am Eelsen und am Seestrand. Zugleicli als
fxrundlage zu einer Elora von Helgoland. With 4 plates. Ham-
burg, 1861, pp. 48.

The Elora includes 150 Phanerogamia, 17 of which are stray
plants in gardens or naturalized, and 13 more or less doubtful.

Die Flora der Insel Helgoland. Bonpl. 1861, p. 227.

With catalogue of native Phanerogamia.

Haetingee, a. — Oesterreich's u. Deutschland's wildwachsende od.
in Garten gezogene Griftpflanzen, in naturgetreueu Abbildgn.
Parts 1 to 3. 12 col. plates. Folio. Vienna, 1861.

Hasskael, J. E. — Horti malabarici clavis nova (cont.) Flora,
1861. 401, 481, 545, 577, 609, 737.

Hectoe, J. — Physical Features of the central part of British North
America, with special reference to its Botanical Physiognomy.
Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 168.

Helbeeich, Th. de. — Descriptio specierum novarum. Ann. Soc.
Nat. iv. ser. xiii. p. 379.

Species of Cavipanula, Centaurea, and Mattia.

Henslow, J. — On the supposed Grermination of Mummy Wheat.
Eep. Brit. Ass. 1860. 110.

Hildebeajst), F. — Die verbreitung der Coniferen in der Jetztzeit
und in den friiheren geologischen Peiioden. Bonn. Verb. 1861.
199.

■ Einige Beobachtungen aus dem GTebiete der Pflanzen-Ana-

tomie. 1861. Bonn. 4to. pp. 28. 2 plates.

Upon (1) the occurrence of stomata upon petals; (2) the
pollen of Morinq elegans ; (3) anatomical sti'ucture of certain
capsules with circumscissile dehiscence, &c. ; (4) the position of
the embryo, with respect to the axes of the flower and stem, in
Cruciferae and other Dicotyledons ; (5) the anatomy of the win-
ter buds of Potamogeton crispus ; and (6) the occurrence of
superimposed buds in the leaf-axils of Lonicera, Passiflora coeru-
lea, Cornus ^nascula, Sambucus nigra, the Ash, and other species.
(Ext. Bot. Zeit.)

AuatomiHche untersuchunffen iiber die Farben der Bliithen.

Pringsh. Jahrb. iii. 59. AVith 1 plate.

lieferring to the forms vmder which various colouring matters
are found in flowers and their distribution in the tissue of the
several organs. The author's observations warrant the following
general conclusions : — (1.) That the colour of flowers is in con-
stant connection with cell-contents, never with the cell- wall ; (2.)
Blue, violet, rose and, if there be no yellow in the flower, deep
red, ai'e due, with little exception, to a cell-sap of corresponding
colour; (3.) Yellow, orange and green are usually associated

PHANEROaAMIA. 439

with solid, granular or vesicular substances in the cells. (4.)
Brown and grey, and in many cases bright red and orange, appa-
rently uniform to the unaided eye, are found to be compounded
of other colours, as yellow, green or orange with violet, or green
and red ; bright red and orange, in like manner, of blue-red with
yellow or orange ; (5.) Black, excepting in the Bean, is due to a
very deeply coloured cell-sap ; (6.) All the cells of an organ are
rarely uniformly coloured. (7.) The colour usually resides in
one, or in a few, of the outer cell-layers. (8.) The coloured cells
are but exceptionally covered by a layer of imcoloured ones.
(9.) Combinations of colour are occasioned by diversely coloured
matters in the same, or in adjacent cells.

HiNCKS, W. — An Attempt at an unproved Classification of Fruits.
Canad. Journ. ISGl. 495.

Exhibited in a tabular form, which does not admit of material
abridgement.

Haetig, Th. — Ueber die Bewegung des Saftes in den Holzpflanzen.
Bot. Z. 1861. p. 17.

With the results of investigations subsequent to the publication
of the author's previous paper on the same subject (Bot. Z. 1858).

1. The Bleeding of the Hornbeam (Carpinus). When the
stem is tapped in April, the flow of sap varies at different hours
of the day ; beginning to flow about 9 p.m., it finds a maximum
between 2 and 4 a.m., continues till about midday, and then ceases
imtil evening. Dr. Hartig found, during the hours of the after-
noon, that not only does the flow of sap cease, but that it is re-
absorbed by the wound from the chamber of his apparatus. He
describes the means employed to ascertain the force of this suction,
which was found equivalent to a column of mercury 17 1 inches in
height, although at the time of the expeViment it is probable the
time of most active bleeding had ah-eady passed. The insufficiency
of the endosmose hypothesis to explain the phenomenon is pointed
out, and attention directed to the influence upon the ascent of sap
of the varying relations of the fluid and gaseous contents of the
conducting tissues, due to the increased or diminished density of
the latter.

2. Liber Sap. Flowing in spring from incisions cut -with the
point of a knife obliquely or horizontally through the bark-layers
of several trees (as the Maple, Beech, Oak, Lime, &c ) and usually
abounding in sugar. If incisions be made from below upwards on
the same side of the tree, sap flows from each wound ; if cut from
above downwards, from the uppermost only : hence the conclusion
that Bast-sap descends. This is constant, however, only in Rohinia
pseudacacia. Li the Maple, sap will flow from the lower woimds
if they be cut more deeply than the upper.

3. Cambium Sap. By scraping the newly-formed wood-cells
of the cambium-layer from the svu-face of the alburnum attei' the
removal of the bark in spring, and separating their fluid contents

440 BIBLIOOBAPHT.

hj pressure, tlie author obtained a sap differing from that formed
ia the wood and liber in the presence of phosphorus (phosphate
of magnesia). Comparative examinations of the three saps are
given. Phosphoric acid was found only in combination with
magnesia.

4. Summer Evaporation. With table of estimated proportion
of evaporation per square foot of leaf surface in nine species. This
projDortion was found to vary in different species iadependently of
the number of leaves and extent of their surface.

5. Evaporation from the Pine in winter. Excepting during a
period of frost (in the winter 1859-60), the amount of loss from
evaporation was such that it could only be sustained by the ab-
sorption and ascent of fresh sap. The daily maximum of evapo-
ration through the warmer season, from a fir 3 feet high, was ^Ib.,
the minimum, y'-olb.

6. The Economy of Evaporation. In the beginning of March,
branches of two adjoining Weymouth Pines, the trunk of one of
which had been 'ringed' some four years previously, were intro-
duced into sej)arate glass globes. The evaporation from the im-
injured tree was sufficient to cover the surface of the glass with
moisture in the coui'se of half an hour, while, after an exposure
of three days, no trace was deposited in the other.

7. On the difference in the soluble contents of the sap in the
root and upper jjart of the tree.

8. Experiments on the absorption (aufsaugung) of coloured
fluids by wounded sm'ftices. The result of several experiments is
detailed. Water or tree-sap was found to be absorbed less rapidly
than poisonous solutions.

Herbich, Eb. — Ueber die Verbreitung der in Galizien und der
Bukowina wildwachsenden Pflanzen. Wien Verhandl. xi. 33.

Bemerkungen liber den bei Kj-akau wildwachsenden Saro-

thamnus vulgaris. Wien Verhandl. xi. 399.

HoELZL, K. — Botanische Beitrage aus Galizien. Wien Verhandl.
xi. 433.

On the botanical observations made by Hacquet on his Car-
pathian journey.

HoFFMANF, Herjiajstn. — ZuT Konntniss der Vegetations-normalen.
Bot. Zeit. 18G1. pp. 177, 185.

HoFMEisTER, W. — IJeber durch die Schwerkraft bestimmten Eich-
tungen von Pfianzentheilen. Pringsh. Jahrb. iii. 77.

Neue Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Embryobildung der Pha-

nerogamen. II. Monocotyledonen. Abh. K. Sachs. Gres. Wiss. vii.
(1861). 631.

The author points out the remarkable general analogy obtain-
ing in Monocotyledons in the mode of develojjment of the sexual
organs. The embryogeny, &c. of numerous species belonging to
upwards of twenty Natural Orders is described and illustrated by
figures.

PHAXEEOOAMIA. 441

HoOKEE, J. D. — Introductory Essay to the Elora of Tasmania.
(German Trans., Ext. from Bot. Zeitsch.) Wien. 1861. pp. 39.
Also resume of above, Flora, 1861. 417-425.

et T. Thomsok. — Praeeursores ad Eloram Indicam. Cruci-

ferae. Linn. Proc. v. p. 128. "With a Clavis generum by Dr.
Hooker.

The genera are grouped according to tlie arrangement to be
adopted by Mr. Bentham and Dr. Hooker in their forthcoming
' Genera Plantarinn.' The new genera described are—Allocerathim,
foiinded.oiiChoris2)orastricta, DC; Atelanthera (Arabideae, Hk. f. );
Loxostemon, founded upon a little plant near Cardamine, with the
longer stamens geniculately divaricate above (doubtfully included
in Arabideae) ; and Lepidostemon (Sisymbrieae), from an elevation
of 14,000 to 16,000 feet in the Sikkim Himalaya.

HooKEE, J. D. — On the A^egetation of Clarence Peak, Fernando Po ;
with Descriptions of the Plants collected by Mr. Gustav Mami
on the higher parts of that Mountain. Linn. Journ. vi. 1.

Dr. Hooker's notes refer chiefly to the temperate plants, 56 in
number, collected, ^vith one exception, at or above 5000 feet ele-
vation. Twenty additional species, ascending a little over this
height, belong to tropical types, and are excluded from the tem-
perate Flora. Of the 56 species, 32 are natives of Abyssinian
mountains, and 13 others are closely allied to plants of that
country. Of the total 76 Clarence Peak plants, 16 inhabit
Mauritius, Bourbon or Madagascar, 8 more being closely allied to
species from these islands. Only 12 of the 76 are known to be
South African, and of these all but Liizula have been also fomid
in Abyssinia. Peddiea is the only peculiarly South African genus,
and this is not temperate at Fernando Po. Dr. Hooker's com-
parisons establish (1) an intimate relationship between the Flora
of Clarence Peak and that of Abyssinia ; (2) a curious relation-
ship with the East African Islands ; and (3) its almost total dis-
similarity from the Cape Flora. The species are enimierated and
the new ones described.

■ On the Distribution of Arctic Plants. Linn. Trans, xxiii. 251.

With a North-circum-polar Map illustrating the Regions of Vege-
tation. Vide Nat. Hist. Eev. vol. i. Bibliog. p. 101.

On Three Oaks of Palestine. Linn. Trans, xxiii. 381.

Quercus pseud o-coccif era, Desf. (a portrait of an example of
which, ' Abraham's Oak,' at Mamre, is given), Q. cegilops, and
Q. infectoria. Their synonymy and distribution is given. Q.
pseudo-coccifera is the most abundant tree throughput Syria,
covering the rocky hills with a dense brush-wood. Q. infectoria
was met with on the eastern slopes of Lebanon, to the south of
Safed, and on the summit of Carmel. It is rendered conspicuous
by an abundance of red-brown, shining galls. Q. (sgilops, the
Vallonea Oak, is gregarious in Syria, though never forming a
brush-wood. It rises to the height oi 20 to 30 feet. Two plates

M2 BIBLIOGEAPIIT.

are given, exhibiting the variety in form, &c. of the acorn and cup
of Q. pseudo-coccifera and Q. agilops.

Howard, J. E. — Illustrations of the Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,
mth coloiu-ed plates by W. Fitch, and Observations on the Barks
described. Part 7 to end. London, 1861.

Ikmisch, Th. — Beitrage zur Morphologic der Amaryllideen. Halle,
1860. 4to. pp. 76. 12 plates.

Forming the first part of the author's " Beitrage zur Morpho-
logic der Monocotylischen Grewachse."

' Einige Bemerkuugeu iiber Poteriwn sanguisorba and poly-

gamum. Bot. Z. 1861. p. 45.

A monstrous inflorescence of the former species is described,
in v^rhich twenty -two long-stalked spikes were produced from the
top of the peduncle. The aestivation of Poteriuoii and Sanguis-
orba is stated to be imbricate, not valvate, as described in some
works.

Ein neuer thuringischer Standort der Diplotaxis muralis.

Bot. Z. 1861. p. 46.

TJeber Polygonum ampliihium, Lysimacliia vulgaris, Comarum

2)alustre und 3fenyanthes trifoliata. Bot. Zeit. 1861, p. 105,
121. With plate.

A minute account of the germination of these species.
TJeber zwei varietaten der Brunnenkresse. Bot. Zeit. 1861.

316.

On two forms of Nasturtium officinale, water cress, differing
in the fruit. They are named vars. longi- and brevi-siliqua,

Noch einige Beobachtungen iiber die Stipulae bei Lotus,

Tetragonolohus und Bonjeania. Bot. Z. 1861. 329. With figures.

Erne monstrose Hyacinthe. Bot. Z. 1861. p. 342.

In the axil of two opposite lobes of the perigone double
flowers had originated, while other smaller ones were inclosed in
the envelopes of the central flower.

TJeber die Adventivknospen auf den Wurzeln von Asclepias

syriaca, L. Verb. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hffc. ii. p. 122.
Jaubekt, M. le Comte. — Note sur quelques plantes du haut Perou.

Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861, p. 114.

With descriptions of two new species discovered by the

MM. Grandidier in the Mountains of Peru, Salpicliroma J)i-

dieranum and Alstroemeria Didierana.

Note sur VAttalea fimifera. Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861, p. 156.

Jessen, C. — Ueber Alopecurus rutheivicus, Weinm. Bot. Z. 1861.

p. 49.*
TJeber die Lilie der Bibel. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 77.

JoBDAJS', A. — Quelques mots siu* le Geranium purpureum, Vill. Suivis
de la description de deux plantes nouvelles des environs de Gre-
noble. Paris. 8vo.

IvABScn, W. — Anatomische und Physiologische Beobachtungen

PHANEROQAMIA. 443

ixber die Eoizbarkcit dor Geschlechts-organe. Bot. Z. 1861. pp.
25, 33. With 1 plate.

Eelating to observations upon the irritable organs of Ber-
heris and Mahonia, Cynareae, Rata grcweolens, Pnrnassia and the
stigma of 3Iimulus. The minute structure of the filaments of Ber-
ber is and Mahonia is described and compared in young and mature
stamens. The structure of the stamens also and the nature of their
irritability in the Cynareae is explained. Herr Kabsch states the
stigma to be fully developed subsequent to the shedding of the
pollen by its surroimding anther-tube, consequently fertilization
must require insect or foreign agency.

Kabsch, W. — Anatomische und Physiologische Untersuchungen
iiber einige Bewegungserscheinungen im Pflanzenreiche. Bot.
Zeit. 1861. pp. 345, 353, 362, 369. With 2 plates.

With detailed account of the structure of the irritable organs
in Stylidium, Heliantliemum, Sedysaruni gyrans, and other species;
the influence of an electric current upon their movements, &c.
In the common Rock-rose the author considers the minute hairs
which surround the base of the stamens to be the irritable organs,
the stamens themselves being passive.

Ueber contractile und irritabile Gewebe der Pflanzen.

Schles. Ges. Bot. Bericht. 1860, p. 4.

With observations on the contraction, through irritation, of
the stamens of Centaur eae.

Kaesten, Hermann. — Der unterstandige Eruchtknoten. Bot. Zeit.
1861. p. 153. With 1 plate.

Considered with special reference to Pomaceae and Cactaceae.

Ueber die Wirkung plotzlicher, bedeutender Temperatur-

veriinderungen auf die Pflanzenwelt. Bot. Zeit. 1861. 289.

The author's observations are based upon the stems of tree-
ferns {Balantium and Cyathea) which he had forwarded from
Venezuela to Berlin, and which had been exposed to a very low
temperature during the transit from Hamburg. Some placed in
a warm house never recovered, others {Balantium) immersed in
cold water were saved, though their temperature was so low that
they were coated thickly with ice after some hours immersion.
None of the Cyatliean lived.

De la Vie sexuelle des Plantes et de la Parthenogencse. Ann,

Sc. Nat. iv. Ser. xiii. p. 252.

Preceded by a historical introduction recounting from the
earliest observations upon the sexuality of plants to the recent
experiments of Braun and Eadlkofer. The author claims priority
of the discovery of the mode of fructification in Vauclieria, and
criticises M. Pringsheim's remarks upon it. A detailed account
of the structure of Coenogonium and of the pollen and formation of
the embryo in Coelehogyne is given. In this plant the author
states that in the Botaaic Gardens of Berlin he finds a fifth part
N. H. R.— 1862. 2 H

444 BIBLIOaEAPHT.

of the flowers to be hermaphrodite. In conclusion Parthenogenesis
in the vegetable kingdom is definitively stated not to occur.
Karsten, H. — Elorae Columbiae Terrarumque adjacentium Speci-
mina Selecta. Tom. i. fasc. iv.

Craepaloj)rumnon,Si section of thegenus Macourtia of Endlicher,
the author regards of generic rank. Two new species of Cin-
chona are described. Sterculia Cola figures as the type of a new
genus of Terebinthaceae, Siphoniopsis, Karsten. Talpinaria, n.g.
is founded upon a Pleurothalloid Orchid from the upper Cordil-
lera. Fasc. V. (completing Vol. i.) includes the following
new genera: — Tammisia (Eubiaceae) near Sommera; ScJimar-
dcsa (Swieteniae) — this is Mutheria, Eoem. ; Trimeranthus (Me-
lastomaceae), near Cficetolepis, DC.

Blumenentwickelung aus der "Wurzelspitze. Flora, 18G1.

p. 232.

Notice of the development of a flower at the extremity of an
adventitious root of a Balsam.

On the Sexual Life of Plants and Parthenogenesis. A. N. H.

iii. viii. ser. v. 7, 81. 200. (Trans.)

Plantarum Pamiliae secundum ordines naturales dispositae.

Pol. 1 sheet. Berlin, 1861.

Phanerogamae are divided between the sections Teleocarpae
{Angiospermae, Lindl.) and Notliocarpae ; the latter grouped
under Ecarpidiatae (JBalanophoraceae, Cynomorieae, LorantJiaceae)
and Carpelligerae, (including Coniferae, Juss. and immediate al-
lies.) Burmanniaceae, Bafflesiaceae and Cytineae form the alliance
Aphyllae, in Monocotyledones. The Natural Orders generally are
grouped under the Alliances of Endlicher, Bartling and Linnseus.
Keddie, W. — Notice of a Botanical Trip to Ben Lawers and Schie-

hallion. Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 202.
Keeneb, a. — Die Wiilder des ungarischen Tieflandes. Bonpl. 1861.

pp. 31, 55, 78.
Kebnee, J. — Salix Erdingeri, eine neue Weidenbastart. Wien Ver-
handl. xi. 243.

A hybrid between 8. daphnoides and 8. Caprea.
KiCKX. — Eapport sur une hybride de Cirsium, decrite par "Wes-
mael. Brux. Bull. xii. p. 240.

Eapport sur quelques plantes recueillies dans les environs de

Bruxelles, par L. Pire. Ibid. p. 290.
KiRCHHOEP, Alf. — De Labiatarum organis vegetati\as commenta-

rium anatomico-morphologicum. Erfurti. 1861. 8vo. 31 pp.
KiBSCHLEGER, Ee.— Observations sur la derniere livraison des anno-
tations a la Elore de France et d'Allemagne. Bull. Soc. Bot. vii.
pp. 435.
KLiNaoEAEFE, V. — Zur Flora der Provinz Preussen. Verb. Bot.
Yer. Brand. Hft. ii. p. 103.

_ Ueber die Verbreitung eiuiger Holzpflanzeu in der Provinz

Preussen. Konigsb. Schrift. Jahrg. ii. 119.

PHANEEOOAMIA. 4i5

Klinsmnan, E. F. — Clavis Dilleniana ad Hortum Elthainensem.

4to. Danzig.
KoTSCHT, Th. — Der westliche Elbrus bei Teheran in Nord-persien.
Wien. 1861. 8vo. pp. -46.

Griving an extended account of the botany of the region.

Umrisse von Siidpalastina iin Kleide der Friihlingsflora.

V. Z.-B. Ges. Wien. 1861. pp. 16.

Notes on the Spring-botany of Southern Palestine, visited by
the author in 1855.
KoTSCHT, Th. — Die Eichen Europa's und des Orients. Liefg. vi.

With 5 plates.
Lacroix, S. De. — Des Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench, O. rubella,
Eeut. G. rubescens, Pers. C. gracilis, Gren. Bull. Soc. Bot.
viii. p. 258.
Landeueb, X. — Zusammenstellung der Forstgewachse in Griechen-

land. Bonpl. 1861. p. 192.
Lassiis, a. de. — Analyse du Memoire de Gaetan Monti sur VAldro-
vandia, suivie de quelques observations sur I'irritabilite Aq^/oIU-
cules de cette plante. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 519.

Noting the irritability of the terminal appendages of the leaves.

Lecoq. — Botanique populaire, contenant I'histoire complete de toutea

les parties des plantes et I'expose des regies a suivre pour decrii'e

et classer les vegetaux, avec application a I'agricultiu'e et a I'hor-

ticulture. In-18 jesus, 408 p. Paris.

Lepevbe, Ed. — Aper^u sur la flore de I'arrondissement de Chartrea,

Supplement. Chartres. 8vo. 1860. pp. 8.
Lemaiee, C. — Genre nouveau de la Famille des Asparagacees.
(Ext. de I'lUust. Hort. 1861.) With 1 plate.
Beaucarnea founded on three Mexican species.
Lepine, Jules. — Note sur le Veppamarum Vembou (Azadirachta
indica, Juss.) Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861. p. 95.

On the medicinal properties of the plant, and characters of

an oil extracted from the seeds, &c.

Letourneux, T. — Sur la Distinbution Geographique des Plantes

dans le Departement de la Vendee et les Regions voisines. Bull.

Soc. Bot. 1861. pp. 91, 124, 160.

LiNDLET, John. — On Japanese Coniferae. Gard. Chron. 1861, p.

265. With a description of Veifchia, n. g.
Lindsay, W. L.— The Flora of Iceland. 40 pp. 8vo. Ext. Phil. Ed.
1861, and Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 114.

With a revised catalogue of species hitherto found in the
island. The total number of Phanerogams is stated at 426, of
which 1S6 are Monocotyledons. Of Cryptogams 437 species are
enumerated.
Livingston, John S. —Experiences sur les effets des Gaz narcotiques
et caustiquea sur les Plantes. Ann. Sc. Nat. iv. Ser. xiii. p. 297.

Translated from the " Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical
Society."

2H 2

446 BIBLIOaEAPHT.

Llanos, Fr. A. — Nuevo apendice 6 suplemcnto a la Flora de Fili-
piBas del P. Fr. M. Blanco. Mem. Ac. Cien. Madrid, iv. 495.

Including descriptions of the genera Zarcoa (apparently a
Brieclelia,rQievve^ to Sterculiaceae), Baranda (Barringtoniaceae),
Castanola (Terebintliaceae).
Lloyd, John. — Isatis tinctoria. Phytol. 1861. p. 151.

On the occurrence of the plant near New Wandsworth. (The
Isatis was sown by Mr. Hanbury, Ed.)
LoGiE, Alex.— List of Plants found growing in the Neighbourhood
of Hamilton, during the years 1859 and 1860. Aim. Bot. Soc.
Canada, Vol. i. p. 90.
Lothian, J. — Botany of Argyleshire. Phytol. 1861. 331.
Lowe, John. — On the Homologies of the Floral Organs of Phanero-
gamia and the Higher Cryptogamia. Trans. Bot. Soc. Ed. vii. 215.
Lucas, C— Flora der Insel Wollin. Verb. Bot. Ver. Brandenb.

Hft. ii. p. 25.
Macvicae, Dr. — The Tlieory of Terminal Fructification in the Simple
Plant, of Ovules and Pollen, and of Spores. Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc.
vii. 13, and Ed. Phil. Journ. 1861.
Mann, G-. — Account of the Ascent of Clarence Peak, Fernando Po ;
altitude 10,700 feet. Linn. Journ. vi. 27.

Shrubs grow to between 400 to 500 ft. of the top, amongst
them a taU Erica. A large Hypericum forms the greatest part of
the bush at a high elevation.
Maechand, Leon. — Du Croton Tiglium. Eecherches botaniques et
therapeutiques. Paris, 1861. 4to. pp. 94. 2 plates.

Eecherches botaniques sur le Croton Tiglium. Baill. Eec,

d'Obs. Bot. i. 232. With 2 plates.

A minute account of the structure of the plant.
Maesson, Th. — TJeber Corydalis pumila, Echb. Verb. Bot. Ver.

Brandenb. ii. p. 72.
Martens, C. — Des cii'constances qui peuvent determiner la floraison
de V Agave americana. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 575.

M. Martins suggests that the flowering of the Aloe may, in
certain cases, be the result of ' debilitating causes,' as a recent
transplanting or mutilation.
Maetius, C. F. Ph. von.— Flora Brasiliensis. Fasc. xxvii. pars.

Antidesmeae (vide Tulasne), Begoniaceae (v. A. De CandoUe),
Celastrineae, Iliciiieae, et Ehamneae (v. Eeissek).

Ueber den Charakter und die Systematisclie Stellung der

beiden Pflanzengattuiigen Lahatia, Swartz, und Pouteria, Aubl.
Mimch. Sitzb. 1861. 571.

Fouteria is a spurious genus, based upon flowering specimens
of a Lahatia and fruits of a Tiliacea, near Sloanea.

Mourouca, Aubl., eine iichte Convolvulaceen-Gattung. p. 578.

A detailed description founded on Surinam specimens of Split-
gerber's. The genus is shown to be truly Convolvulaceous ; the
stamens alternating with the corolla-lobes, not opposite to them,
as stated by Aublet.

PHANEKOGAMIA. 447

Mason, F. — Burmah, its People and Natural Productions, &c. In-
cluding a Catalogue of Plants, with their vernacular names and
native uses. Rangoon, 18G0. 1 vol. 8vo.

Masters, M. T. — On the Normal and Abnormal Variations from an
assumed Type in Plants. Eep. Brit. Ass. 1860. 112.

Remarks on the Theory of the Metamorphosis of Plants.

Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 54.

Note on an imusual mode of Germination in the Mango.

Linn. Journ. vi. 24. With cuts.

Eeferring to two specimens in the Kew Museum. One of the
cotyledons is absent in both : the plumide, in one case, gives oif no
shoot at all ; in the other, it gives rise to three shoots from its side :
adventitious roots, moreover, spring from one of the cotyledons.
On Prolification in Flowers, and especially on that Form

termed Median Prolification. Linn. Trans, xxiii. 359.

European Natural Orders most frequently affected by Median
Prolification (the development of an adventitious bud from the
centre of the flower) are Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and
Mosaceae : it is also commonly met with in Sci'ophulariaceae,
Primulaceae, and Umbelliferae. Mr. Masters considers plants
having an 'indefinite' inflorescence to be more subject to it than
those with a ' definite' one. The relation is pointed out between
this deviation and the normal prolongation of the axis occurring
between the whorls of the flower, or in the carpellary cavity.
Instances of prolification are figured from Geum rivale, Phlomis
fruticosa (in which a sessile adventitious flower-bud and a single
carpel with a basilar style occupy the place of the 4-lobed ovary).
Digitalis purpurea, Aquilegia, Campan,ula (with a free calyx, and
a bud replacing the pistil), and Fuchsia.
MiCHALET, Eugene. — Sur la Floraison des Viola de la section
NoMiMiTJM, de VOxalis acetosella et du Linaria spuria. Bull.
Soc. Botan. vii. p. 465.

The structure of the so-caUed 'apetalous' flowers of Viola alba,
Bess, is described. These are found to have minute hyaline
petals, sometimes reduced to one or two in number. The anthers
were never foimd open, even in flowers the ovary of which had
been fecundated. The stigma is described as obliquely truncate
and hoUowed into a funnel, the lower part of which communicated
directly with the cavity of the ovary. After fecundation, the
canal becomes obliterated. The mode of fertilization of the
ovules remains obscure. F. hirta and V. odorata present a similar
structure in their ' apetalous flowers.'

In Oxalis acetosella, M. Michalet finds the ordinary pedun-
cidate spring flowers to be succeeded by others about the size
of a pin's head, very shortly pedunculate and often hypogean.
The structure of these is described. The emission of pollen
from the anthers has not been observed. The seeds produced by
these flowers do not appear to difter from those of the first

448 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

flowering. In Linaria Elatine axes are found to develop from
the lower leaf-axils which bury themselves beneath the surface,
bearing flowers imperfectly developed, but not offering any re-
markable structiu-al peculiarity. Fertilization takes place as in
ordinary flowers.

MiEGEviLLE, l'Abbe de. — Trisetum agrostideum, Tr. in the Pyrenees.
Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 448.

MiEKS, John. — Observations on the Bignoniaceas. A. N. H. 1861.
Ser. 3, vol. vii. p. 153.

A minute description is given of the structure of the seeds
and fruit in several genera of the Order. The former are usually
provided with three distinct integuments — the outermost often
expanding into a broad wing, showTi to be the true testa by the
passage through it of the raphe, — and an intermediate coriaceous
layer, probably a development of the secimdine, and a third, pro-
vided with distinct chaiaza, attributed to the tercine. In reference
to the carpellary structiu'e of Bignoniaceae, Mr. Miers advances
the hypothesis that the pistil (in EuhlgnoniecB) is composed of
four plicate carpellary leaves bearing ovules, not on their margins
but midribs, and confluent by the sterile margins and adjacent
faces of each pair, — thus constituting a bilocular ovary. The
bilobate stigma is assumed as composed of four stigmata con-
fluent in pairs, as, according to the author, is constant in
BoraginacesB, Labiatse, &c. In Catalpece, with the dissepiment of
the fruit transverse to its faces, a quadricarpellary origin is also
maintained, — the arrangement of the carpels and the placentation
being different. In the tribe Platycarpecc (Miers) the pistil is
normally bi-carpellary. Amphicoma Mr. Miers considers to belong
to CyrtandracsfB. A description is added of a Bignoniaceous fruit
(referred to Tanaecium allvftorum, DC.) in the British Museum
collection, remarkable from the parietal attachment of the seeds.
— ibid. pp. 255-268. In Crescentiaceae, Mr. Miers regards the
ovary as made up of two carpels, placeutiierous on their midribs
and conjoined by their thickened sterile margins. In Cyrian-
dreae, held of Ordinal rank, and Pedaliaceae, a similar structure
of the ovary obtains. Sesameae, having an ovary normally com-
posed of four carpels, placentiferous on their inflected margins
which form a central column, the author would exclude from
Bignoniales. A placenta-bearing midrib of the carpels he be-
lieves to be universal among Bignoniaceae, Crescentiaceae,
Cyrtandraceae, Pedaliaceae, and Gesneraceae. Observations upon
the relative position, &c. of the anther-lobes in certain genera of
Bignoniaceae are given. — ibid. pp. 386 to 396. An amended de-
scription of Adenocalymna, and descriptions of five new species.
— Vol. viii. pp. Ill to 120. Tanaecium is referred to Eubignonieae,
near to Adenocalymna. In the remodelled diagnosis of this genus
the ovary and fruit are descril)C(l as bi-locular. T. parasiticum.,
Sw. is considered to be a Schlet/elia, and truly Cresceutiaceous.

PHAKEROaAMIA. 449

Mters, John.— On the History of the * Mate' Plant, and the clifFerent
species of Ilex employed in the Preparation of the ' Yerba de
Mate,' or Paraguay Tea. A. N. H. 3. Ser. viii. 219, 389.

Mr. Miers points out that several species are theiniferous,
and furnish Mate tea. The Ilex Paragimyensis described by
Eeissek in Martius' ' Flora Brasiliensis ' is not the plant of St.
Hilaire, but made up of two species, discriminated by Bonpland,
and published by Mr. Miers under his M. S. names. Several
other Mate Ilices are described.

MiK, Joseph. — Flora derUmgebung von Olmiltz. Olmiltz. pp. 148.
12mo.

MiLDE, Dr. — Mittheilungen iiber die schlesische Flora. Schles. Ges.
Bot. Bericht. 1860. p. 9.

MiQUEL, F. A. W. — Flora Indiae Batavae. Supplementum ii. Am-
sterdam, 1861. With 1 plate.

With a continuation of the list of Sumatra plants and sta-
tistical summary of the Flora. The total number of species
enumerated is 2642, of which 1409 have not yet been found in
Java. Monocotyledons form over one-seventh of the Phanero-
gamous vegetation. Tlie catalogue is followed by descriptions of
plants new to the first volume of the author's ' Flora Indiae
Batavae.'

The new genera described are Parapanax (Araliaceae), Gono-
cari/um (Phytocreneae?), Skaphium, InodapJinis (Thymeleaceae).
Parartabotrys (Anonaceae), Trigoniastrum (Malpighiaceae), Gar-
pophyllwn, Ptychopyxis (Sterculiaceae), Anaua (Elaeocarpeae),
Microsepala, Aiostrohuxus, Leiopyxis, Coccoceras, Tetrayyne, Sa-
maropyxis (Euphorbiaceae et all".), Galyptroon (Aporoseae), RJii-
nostigma (Gruttiferae), Faranephelium (Sapindaceae), NotJwpro-
tium (Amyrideae?), Nothocnestis, Trooshvt/hia (Connaraceae),
Tetramerista (Ochnaceae?), Strobidia (Scitamineae).

Prodromus systematis Cycadearum. 4to. Utrecht, 1861.

Eemarques sur la flore du sud de la Chine. Jour. Bot. Ned.

1861. 84. With descriptions of new species.

Eevue des Palmiers de I'ile de Sumatra. Journ. Bot. Neer-

land. i. p. 1.

An enumeration of species, including novelties collected by
M. Teysmann. Eeferring to the important differences subsisting
between the Flora of Sumatra and that of Java, and the relations
between the former and that of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo,
Celebes, and the Moluccas, Prof. Miquel observes that species
and genera of Palmaceae are found in Sumatra which have not
yet been discovered in Java (Bentinchia, Iguanura, Calyptrocalyx,
Pholidocarpus, Teysmannia), while some of them are represented
at Malacca and in the Moluccas.

Elodea canadensis, Eich. acclimatee dans les Eaux d'Utrecht.

p. 29.

With nn analysis of the ash of this plant by M. Bisdom.

450 BIELIOGEAPHT.

MiQUEL, F. A. "W. — Plantes noiivelles cultivees dans le Jardin
Botanique de I'Universite d'Utreclit. p. 33.

■ Eemarques sur la Flore du Sud de la Chine, p. 84.

An enumeration of plants, with description of novelties, col-
lected by B. Krone in the S. E. of China, principally in the
province of Canton.

Bourgeons developpes sur les racines des Fougeres. Jour.

Bot. Ned. 1861. 134. Directing attention to buds which form
on the adventitious roots of a Dlplazium. These separate,
forming independent plants.

Note sur quelques esp^ces de Cinchona. Jour. Bot. Ned.

1861. 139. Descriptions of two species collected by Lechler
in Peru.

Temperature elevee du Spadice d'un Fhilodendron Selloum,

C. K. dans le jardin botanique de I'universite d'Utrecht. Journ.
Bot. Ned. p. 144.

With a register of hourly observations. The maximum dif-
ference between the temperature of the spadix (the poUeniferous
surface) and that of the conservatory, was 36° J\

Note sur les Piguiers de la Nouvelle-HoUande. Jour.

Bot. Ned. 1861, 230.

New species are described. All the sections of the genus
Urostiffma are represented in New Holland.

Eemarques sur quelques especes de JV^epenihes. With 2

l^lates. Journ. Bot. Ned. 1861. 272.

With an account of species collected by Teysmann. General
observations are added upon the distribution of Nepenthes, and
the structure of the stem. Most of the species occupy a limited
area, but one ranges in S. E. Asia from the Khasia Mountains,
Cochin China, and Macao on the North, to New Guinea, Java,
and the Louisiade Archipelago. Species occur from the sea-level
to the summits of the volcanic mountains, grovidng upon calca-
reous and syenitic rocks, sandy plains, and the vegetable soil of
the forests.
MoHL, H. TON — Ueber das Kieselskelett lebender Pflanzenzellen.
Bot. Zeit. 1861. pp. 209, 217, 225.

The results of the author's own investigations are preceded
by a review of previous observations on the occurrence of silica
in plants, the methods employed for the removal of organic
matter and isolation of the siliceous framework, general remarks
on the distribution through Phanerogamous Orders of plants
abounding in silica, and the relation of the amoimt of silica in an
organ, as the leaf, to its external appearance — in respect of which
Herr von Mohl states that, as a rule, its aspect does not deter-
mine whether or not it would leave a siliceous skeleton on being
burnt. With regard to the relation of the silica to the cell-
membrane, — whether it occur in a kind of organic union with the
cellulose wall, or, as suggested by several observers, in the form

PHAJ^EKOGAMIA. 451

of minute laminae, gi'anules, or spiculae embedded in its sub-
stance, or as an encrusting layer on the outer or inner side of the
cell, — the author's observations establish the first condition ; the
question, however, as to the precise mode of union of the silica
with the membrane, whether there is a chemical combination
between them, or a mechanical deposition of silex between the
molecules of cellulose, is left for chemists to determine. It is
shown that the deposition of silica certainly takes place in liviug
and even growing organs, contrary to Criiger's opinion that
tissues do not become siliceous during active life. From the shields
of Diatomaceae, which Kiitzing believed to consist of pure silica,
H. V. Mohl finds an organic membrane, retaining the foi*m and
markings of the valve, to remaia after removal of the silica by
fluoric acid. The cells of the mesophyllum and also the vascular
bundles of leaves are found sometimes to be more or less silicified ;
yet, between the siliceous character of the epidermis and that of
these inner tissues, there is no constant relation. In many plants
with a strongly silicified epiderm, no trace of silica is found in the
veins and midrib, while on the other hand, the vascular bundles
may have a large deposit of silica, as in the Oak, Beech, &c.,
while the epidermis is but very slightly silicified. Observations
are added on the occurrence of siliceous masses or nuclei in the
cavity of the cells, as observed by Criiger.

Mohl, H. von. — Eiu Beitrag zur G-eschichte der Keimuug. Bot.
Z, 1861. p. 257.

The author finds in the albumen of Pinus Pinea, and Ricinus
communis during germination, a change of the oily cell-contents
into sugar, through an intermediate stage of starch formation,
as in the case of embryos had been previously remarked by Dr.
Sachs, who, however, failed to observe this sequence of change
in the albumen of Ricinus,

The exceptional character of starch formation as a transi-
tional stage in the formation of sugar from the fatty oil of the
albumen, suggested the probability that it might stand in con-
nection with a growth of the albumen, which measurements
of germinatuig seeds of Ricinus showed to be the case. The in-
crease in bulk is shown not to be dependent on the hygroscopicity
of the albumen cells, but to be due to an actual growth. H. v.
Mohl confirms Dr. Sachs' observation of the formation of Chloro-
phyll in the cotyledons and upper part of the axis of germinating
plants of Pines notwithstanding complete exclusion of light.

— — — Nachtrag zu dem Aufsatze iiber des Kieselskelett lebender
Pflanzenzellen. Bot. Zeit. 1861. 305.

The author finds siliceous deposits in 42 Natm-al Orders.
Species are enumerated in which both the epiderm and vascvdar
bundles of leaves were silicified, also those in which silex was
found in the e])iderm only. In connection -with the unequal
distribution in the epidermis of sUex and its deposit in more

452 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

marked degree iu the cells forming the boss or shield around the
base of the hairs, the occurrence is remarked in these of cysto-
lith-like, white bodies, penetrated with carbonate of lime ; after
the removal of the latter by muriatic acid, excentrically stTatified
processes remain, projecting from a corner of the cell, analogous
to the pedxmcles of cystoliths. Tliese exhibit cellulose reaction
with chloride of zinc and iodine.

MooBE, Alex. G. — On the occurrence of Festuca ambigua, Le Grail,
in the Isle of Wight. Linn. Proc. v. p. 189.

A description is furnished from fresh Isle of "Wight speci-
mens. The plant is contrasted with its allies F. (Vuljjia) ciliata
and F. (V.) pseudo-mi/urus.

MiJLLEB, K. (Berol.) — Annales Botanices Systematicae. ("Walpers.)
vi. Fasc. i. ii. Fluviales to Orchidaceae.

MiiLLEE, C. — De Graminibus novis vel minus cognitis. Bot. Zeit.
1861. pp. 313, 323, 338.

Description of species from various quarters, including seve-
ral of Griffith's East Indian plants.

MuELLEE, r. — Observations on some hitherto undescribed Plants
from New Zealand. Trans. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 153.

Indigenous Vegetable products of the Colony of Victoria.

Technol. ii. 120.

MuLLEB, Ph. J. — Eubologische Ergebnisse einer dreitagigen Ex-
cursion in die granitisehen Hoch-Vogesen der Umgegend von
Gerardmer (Vogesen-Depart. Erankreich). Bonpl. 1816. 276.
The author found on his three-days' tour 43 'species' of
Hubus of which 31 are said to be new ! German descriptions of
these are given.

Munch, Ppaeeee. — Mittheilungen liber einige Nelkenarteu. Elora,
1861. p. 385.

Critical, &c., observations on four species of Bianthus.

MuNBO, W. — On the Identiiication of the Grasses of Linnaeus's
Herbarium, now in the possession of the Linnean Society of
London. Linn. Journ. vi. 33.

Naegeli, C. — TJeber die Siebrohren von Cucurbita. Miinch. Sitz.
Ber. 1861. 212. With 2 plates.

Siebrohren was the term applied by Hartig to certain verti-
cally superimposed series of cells, the septa of which he believed
to be perforated, foiuid in the bast-layers of various plants.
These apparent perforations v. Mohl regarded as thinner por-
tions of the membrane, and proposed to substitute the name
' Gitterzellen ' for Siebrohren. The author's investigations apply
chiefly to the minute structure of the transverse septa of the
' Siebrohren ' and their influence on the transmission of fluids.

Ueber die Verdunstung an der durch Korksubstanz ge-

schiitzten Oberfliiche von lebenden und todten Pflanzentheilen.
p. 238.

With tabulated results of numerous experiments upon peeled

PHAITEROaAMIA. 453

and unpeeled potatoes and apples, instituted with a view to de-
tex'miue whether living and dead tissues are alike aiFected when
exposed to evaporation, or diversely, and to what extent. In
order to kill the tissues they were exposed to frost ; the kinds
of apple, however, submitted to experiment were not affected by
it. Potatoes and apples were selected on account of the cork-
cells of their superficial layers, which prevent rapid evaporation
and enable the tissues to retain vitality some time after separation
from the parent plant.

Naegeli, C. — Ueber die "VVirkung des Erostes auf die Pflanzenzellen.
p. 246.

Upon the questions (1), Are there cells the fluids of which
may be frozen without detriment to vitality?, and (2), Wliat
alterations does frost occasion in the cell-membrane and contents ?

Naudin, M. — Sur les Plantes hybrides. Kev. Hort. 1861. 396.

M. Naudin considers hybrid plants more frequently fertile
than sterile. Petunia violacea and P. nyctaginiflora two species
which are perfectly stable when fertilized by their own pollen,
may be easily hybridized, yielding intermediate forms, closely
resembling each other, and as fertile as theii* parents. Naudiu's
experiments generally establish the fact that hybrids of the first
generation are very uniform ; the second and subsequent gene-
rations show, however, great inconstancy. Of 47 plants raised
from a hybrid between the above species of Petunia, but one
repeated its parent.

NiTSCHKE, Th. — Morphologie des Blattes von Drosera rotundifolia,
L. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 145.

Einige Bemerkungen zu meinem Aufsatze : " Morphologie

des Blattes von Drosera rotundifolia, L." uud des Herrn Prof.
Caspary Beurtheilung desselben. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 221.

Anatomie des Sonnenthau-blattes {Drosera rotundifolia, L.)

Bot. Zeit. 1861. pp. 233, 241, 252. With 1 plate.

Wider des H. Prof. Caspary neuste Polemik gegen meine

Aufsatze iiber Drosera rotundifolia, L. Bot. Zeit. 1861. 308.

NoEMAJT, A. M. — Notes on the Botany of the South Durham Bal-
last Hills in the year 1861. Trans. Tyneside Nat. Club. v. 136.

— — — On the Species into which the Linnean Polygonum avicu-
lare has been divided by Continental Botanists, ibid. 140.

CErsted, a. S. — Til Belysning af Slaegten Viburnum. Vidensk.
Medd. 1860. Ext. pp. 38. With 2 plates.

A monograph of the Linnean genus Viburnum, here treated
as a tribe of Sambuceae, and broken up into five genera, Oi'eino-
tinus (America), Microtinus (Himalaya, China), Solenotinus
(India), Fiburnum and Times.

Oliyee, Daniel. — The Natural Order Aurantiaeeae, with a Synopsis
of the Indian Species. Linn. Proc. Suppl. Vol. v. (Bot.) p. 1.

The species of Sclerostylis of Dr. Wight and Triphasia mono-
pylla are referred to Atalantia, Sclerostylis being suppressed.

454

BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Bergera is included iu Murraya : Piptostylis of Dalzell, and
Cookia iu Clauseiia : Arthromischus, Thwaites, is reduced to
JParamignya. A synopsis of the genera is given, with an enume-
ration of Indian species, many of which are described at length.
A few extra- Indian species are also described within brackets.

Oliver, Dai^iel. — Official Guide to the Ivew Museums. A Hand-
book to the Museums of Economic Botany of the Eoyal Gardens.
London, 1861. pp. 82.

Ondaatje, W. C. — On the Sack-tree of Ceylon (Antiaris saccidora).
Technol. ii. 105.

OuDEMAifs, C. A. J. A. — Notice sur un Pnndmms spiralis, B. "Br.
(^), quia fleuri dans le Jardin botanique d' Amsterdam. 4to.
pp. 6. 2 plates.

■ Ueber den Sitz der Oberhaut bei den Luftwurzeln der

Orchideen. Amst. A^erh. 1861. p. 32.

Note preHminaii-e siu" quelques Cupuliferes de Java. Joiu*n.

Bot. Ned. 1861. 241.

Critical Notes on Blume's species, &c.
Voorloopige mededeeling aangaande de uitkomsten verkregen

bij eene herziening van eenige Javaausche Cupuliferen. (Ext.
K. Ak. Wet. Amst. xii. 1861).

OzAKON, Ch. — Note sur les Plantes les plus remarquables du
versant meridional de la Montagne-noire, recueillies en Juin 1860,
dans le Canton de Mas-Cabardes, ArroncUssement de Carcassomie
(Aude). BuU. Soc. Bot. 1861. pp. 119. 165.

Pablatoee, Ph. — Deuxieme note sm la composition du cone des
Coniferes. 5 pp. 4to. Paris, 1861.

The author regards the cone of Coniferae as a branch, the
leaves of which are reduced to bracts, the flower-bearing branches
frequently abbreviated, with scaly, more or less connate brac-
teoles, and the female flowers reduced to a pistil, consisting of a
imiovvdate ovary with style and two short stigmata. The form
and arrangement of the bracteoles, &c., in Abietineae, Cupres-
sineae, Taxineae, Podocarpeae and Guetaceae are described, and
the relation of their structure to that of Amentaceous Dicotyle-
dons indicated.

■ Note sur VAraucaria brasiliensis, et sur une nouvelle espece

d'Araucaria d'Amerique. Bidl. Soc. Bot. 1861. p. 84.

With a description of A. Saviana, sp. no v. cultivated in the
Botanic Garden at Pisa, and believed to be from Bolivia.

Description de trois especes nouvelles de Cypres cidtivees

dans le Jardin botanique du Museum de Elorence. Ann. Sc.
Nat. iv. Ser. xiii. p. 377.

All probably of Eastern origin, and species which have been
liitherto confused wdth Ci(,pressus pyramidalis and G. horizontalis.
Note sur la Composition du cone des Coniferes. Comptes

liend. iii. p. 164.

Upon the coue-scale, which the author regards as a modified

PnAJ^EEOaAMTA. 455

flower-bearing axis, borne by a bract or bracts with which it is

adnate. The envelopes of the nucleus M. Parlatore believes to

be carpellary.
Pauckert, C a. — Elora von Treuenbrietzen (Schluss). Ver. Bot.

Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 1.
PATEiir, M. — ■Amidon des fruits verts. Relations entre ce prmeipe

immediat, ses transformations, et le developpement ou la, matura-
tion de ces fruits. C. Eend. viii. 814.

Showing the presence of starch in ripe fruits.
Peegee, a. E. von. — Ueber den Grebrauch unserer heimisehen

Pflanzen bei kirchHchen und weltlichen Pesten. Wien Ver-

handl. xi. 279.
Peesonnat, V. — Sur une forme inedite du Capsella bursa-pastoris.

Bull. Soc. Botan. vii. p. 511.

C. ruhescens, V. P. distinguished at sight from C. bursa-pastoris

by the red and white flowers and red coloration of upper part of

fruit.
Sur quelques Plantes des Alpes de Savoie. Bull. Soc. Bot.

viii. 461.
Petee, Heem. — TJntersuchungen iib. den Ban u. die Entwickelungs-

geschichte der dicotyledonischen Brutknospen. Inaugural-Dis-
sertation. Mit 2. Taf gr. 8. Hameln.
PniLippi, E. A. — Ueber Ocymum salinum, Molina. Bot. Z. 1861.

p. 259.

This plant described by Molina in " Saggio sulla storia na-

turale del Chili," as being found every morning covered with

small particles of salt glittering like dew drops, Dr. Philippi

shows to be FranTcenia Bertceroana, Gray. An analysis is given

of the salt. O. salim^n is quoted as a synonym of 0. minwium, L.

by Mr. Bentham in the Prodromus (xii. 33). Molina's mistake the

author explains in the same way that he would his describing an

JErodium as a Scandix, a stag as a horse, &c. &c. !
Botanische Excursion in die Provinz Aconcagua. Bot. Zeit.

1861. 377.
Zwei neue Gattungen der Taxineen aus Chile. Linnaea.

XXX. p. 730.

Lepidothammis and Frumnopitys. The author remarks the

very limited distribution of most of the Chilian Coniferae.

Lihocednis andina and a Fodocarpus appear to be the only species

universally distributed.
PiTBA, Aj)Olph. — TJeber die Anheftungsweise einiger phanerogamen

Parasiteu an ihre Njihrpfianzen. Bot. Zeit. 1861. pp. 53, 61, 69.

With 1 plate.

An account of the parasitism of Viscum albwn, Lathraea,

MJiinantheae, Thesiiira ramosum, Fhelipcea ramosa, Cuscuta.
PLANCHoif, J. E. ET J. Teiana. — Sur la Pamille des Guttiferes.

Bull. Soc. Botan. viii. p. 26.

The authors attribute much importance, in classification, to the

456 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

characters of the seed and embryo. The Ti-ibes Calophylleae and
Quiineae have a small tigellus wdth large, free, or connate coty-
ledons. Observations are recorded on the varied structure of the
episperm of the Clusieae, the position of the raphe, aestivation of
the floral whorls, and symmetry of the flowers.

Planchon, J. E. et J. Teiana. — La \Taie Nature de la Fleur des Eu-
phorbes expliquee par ^xn. nouveau genre d'Euphorbiacees. p. 39.
Confirming the view of R. Brown and others as opposed to
the Linnean view and recent arguments of Payer and Baillon,
fomided on organogenic study, that each stamen is a monandrous
male flower, &c. With description of Calycopeplus, gen. nov. : per-
haps the undescribed genus alluded to by E. Brown in Remarks
on Botany of Flinders' Voyage, as possessing, at the point of
articulation of the several male and female flowers, a true calyx.

— — • — Sur la Pamille des Guttiferes. Conspectus Diagnosticus.
Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861. pp. 66, 96.

The new genera are Oxystemon (New Grenada), Folythecandra
(Amazon and Guiana), Balboa (New Grenada), Oeclematopus
(Brazil), Pilospervia (New Grenada).

Memoire sur la Famille des Guttiferes. A. S. Nat. Ser. iv.

xiii. 306, xiv. 226, xv. 240.

The first section of this important monograph is devoted to
the systematic treatment of the Order — the classification, syno-
nymy, and affinities of the genera. The authors attach a primary
importance to the characters of the embryo for the distribution of
the genera. Three marked types of its structure are recognized :
viz. — 1. "With a very large tigellus, and small but distinct cotyle-
dons (constant in all Guttiferae with capsular fruit and axile
placentation). 2. With a very large, more or less tuberiform
tigellus, presenting a pith which has been sometimes taken for the
embryo, and sometimes described as the commissure of united
cotyledons, or as an internal radicle. The cotyledons are absent,
or represented by superficial folds on the seed. And 3. With a
very small tigellus and large cotyledons, free or united. Besides
reforming the characters of published genera, the following, in
addition to those mentioned above, are described as new: —
C/usiella, Havetiopsis, Tovomitopsis, and Montrouziera (Pancher).
Many new and imperfectly known species are described.

Ples, M. — Examen d'une matiere blanche inorganique, deposee dans
I'interieur du tronc de I'arbre Djati (Tectona grandis), a Java.
Jour. Bot. Ned. IS'ol. 135.

The concretion was formed of phosphate of lime.

PoKORNY, A. — Untersuchungen liber die Torfmoore Ungarns. Wien.
Sitzungsb. xliii. 57. With 1 map.

PoLONio, A. F. — Osservazioni di botanica diagnostica, tratte dall'
erbario Gasparrini esistente nell' orto botanico di Pavia. A. Soc.
Ital. Sc. Nat. iii. 344.

PjiiLLiEUX, El). — Observations sur la Germmation du Miltonia

PHANEEOGAMIA. 457

spectalilis et de diverses autres Orchidees. Ann. Se. Nat. iv. Ser.
siii. p. 288. With 1 plate. And Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 19.

In Miltonia, tlie ovoid embryo contained within the testa pre-
sents neither cotyledon, plumule, nor radicle. On the side next
to the foramen (?) (I'ouverture du sac (testa)), is a cellular pro-
cess commonly found in the ripe seed of a considerable number
of species : it consists of cells placed end to end, and disposed
either in one or two rows. With germination, the embryonary
body (of Miltonia spectahilis) becomes green, enlarges, and bursts
the testa ; then develop, at various points on its lower surface,
papillae similar to the hairs borne on the roots of Phanerogamia.
These papillae, which originate in groups of from two to foiu", are
destined to derive the needful food for the growing plant from
the soil. When the embryo has acquired the size of a poppy-seed,
the apex flattens and becomes rather depressed towards the
centre. At the bottom of the depression originates the first leaf
of the plant. Finally, after very various intervals, roots appear :
their absence in the earlier stages of germination the author couples
with the rudimentary, arrested condition of the embryo.

Prillieux, Ed. — Note sur des Fleurs monstrueuses dimeres et mono-
meres d' Epidendrum Stamfordianum. Bull. Soc. Bot. 1861. p. 149.
These monstrous flowers, which occurred under three forms,
were scattered here and there upon the branches of an inflo-
rescence. The departure from the normal condition consisted
in a reduction in the number of parts of the perianth. These
forms were — (1.) With each verticil of the perianth consisting of
two segments, viz. two sepals, a petal, and labellum — the parts
of the perianth decussating. (2.) The inner verticil, instead of
a petal and labellum, presented two labella opposed to each other,
and each united to the base of the column ; the flower being both
regular and symmetrical. (3.) In two flowers the verticils were
reduced each to a single segment, the outer being represented by
a sepal, the inner by a labellum — these being opposite to each
other.

Note sur des Fleurs monstrueuses de Fuchsia. BuU. Soc.

Bot. viii. 194.

In Avhich the petals w^ere provided with a long claw, often
adnate to the opposing stamen.

PUEL, T.— Note sur I'herbier de feu M. Chaubard. Bull. Soc. Bot.
vii. p. 499.

Note sur le Clypeola Jonthlaspi. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 229.

Its occurrence in the Departement Du Lot.

Eevue critique de la Flore du Departement Du Lot.

(Suite.) BuU. Soc. Bot. viii. pp. 291, 300, 331, 445, 467, 538,
584, 630.

Hand, E. S., jun.— The Heather (Calluna vulgaris), a native of the
United States. Am. Journ. Soc. xxxiii. 22.

Foimd near Tewkesbury, about twenty miles N. W. of Boston.

-i58 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ri-TZEBrEG. — Anfrage, ob TJeberwallung abgehauener Fiebten und
Tannen (StockiiberwaUung) auch an ganz isolirten Stammen, oder
nur an verwacbsenen yorkommt. Verb. Bot. Yer. Braudenb.
Hl"t. ii. p. 69.

Baytn", E. — Catalogue metbodique et raisonne des plantes qui crois-
sent naturellement dans le departement de I'Tonne. Extr. —
Bull. Soc. Sc. de I'Tonne, 1S61. xiv. 39.

Eegel, E. — Catalogus Plantarum quae in borto Aksakoviano eolun-
tier. 1 vol. 8vo. 1860.

Some novelties are described.

Kegel, E. — Uebersicbt der Arten der Gattung Thalictriim, welebe
im russiscben Eeicbe und den angraenzenden Landern wacbsen.
Moskau, 1861. 1 vol. 8vo. Witb 3 plates.

Preceded by observations on tbe peculiar difficulties of tbe
study of tbis group, in wbicb tbe more abundant and complete
tbe material, and tbe more closely it is studied, tbe more difficult
it becomes to define tbe various forms, wbetber as species or
varieties. Tbe species treated of are 19. Tbey are grouped
under sections in tbe autbor's C'lavis according to tbe lengtb or
absence of a stipes to tbe carpels. Tbe sub-sections rest upon
tbe form of tbe filament. jN^o new species are described. T. saxa-
tile, Scbl. and T. flextiosum, Bemb. are treated as varieties of
T. minus, L.

Xacbtrage zur Mora der Grebiete des Eussiscben Eeicbs ostlicb

vom Altai bis Kamtscbatka und Sitka. Being tbe Botany of
Eadde's Expedition in Eastern Siberia, 1858-9. Yol. i. pp. 211.
Moskau. 1861. Witb 5 plates.

Tbis enumeration, wbicb extends from Eanuncidaceae to
Cruciferae {Brassica), includes, besides Eadde's Baikal, Dahurian
and Amur plants, tbose collected by StubendorfF, Eieder and
otbers in Kamtscbatka, or on tbe route tbitber. Some critical
genera, as Aconitinn, Pulsatilla, &c., are elaborated in mucb
detail. Xo new genera are publisbed.

Monograpbia Betulacearum bucusque cognitarum. Mos-

quae. 1861. 4to. pp. 129. Witb 17 plates.

A monograpb of tbe Betulaceae of Bartling, including tbe
genera Betula and Alnus. Of tbe former genus 19, of tbe latter
14, species are described. A Clavis specieruin is prefixed to tbe
detailed Latin descriptions of tbe species of eacb genus ; tbe
extended observations are in German. Betula glutinosa. Fries
(Summa Yeg.), and B. pubeseens, Ebrb. are treated as varieties
of B. alba.

Eegel, E. et F. AB Heedee. — Annotationes botanicae. Appended
to Index Seminum Hort. Betrop. 1861.

Including a ' Conspectus specierum generis Aconiti, quae in
Flora Eossica et in regionibus adjacentibus inveniuntur.'

Eegnault. — Eecbercbes sur les Affiiiites de Structure des Tiges des

PHANEROGAMIA. 459

Plautes du Groupe des Cjcloapermees. Anu. S. N. Ser. iv. xiv.
p. 73. Witli G plates.

Preceded by a brief general review, in respect of anatomical
structure, of various Xatural Orders investigated by previous
observers. M. Eegnault includes under Cyclospermeae the
following Orders: Crassulaceae, Mesembryaceae, Tetragonieae,
Portulaceae, Paronycbeae, Caryophylleae, Amarantaceae, Cheno-
podiaceae, Phytolaccaceae, and Xyctagiueae, — a more or less
extended account being given of the stem-structure in each. Two
conspicuous characters prevail throughout these Orders, distm-
guishiug them from the majority of Dicotyledons, viz. — The pre-
sence in the wood of a generating tissue, and the absence of
concentric annual zones. The thin-walled cells of this generative
tissue are variously disposed through the ligneous mass, — some-
times as isolated cords iu the midst of compact wood, sometimes
forming complete or partial zones separating corresponding
ligneous zones concentrically. Attention is drawn to the relation
subsisting between tliis intraligneous generative tissue and the
vessels of the stem as a point upon which further research is re-
quired. Minor characteristics of the anatomy of Cyclospermeae
consist iu (1) the frequency with which vascular bundles con-
taining vspu"al vessels are foimd isolated in the pith ; (2) the
absence of medullary rays ; (3) the absence in several Orders of
liber, its partial or abnormal character in others ; and (4) the
abundance of crystalline concretions in the parenchyma of the
stem. Viewed in a classificatory point of view, the author con-
eludes — (1) that in each Family of the Cyclospermeae the stem
presents special characters, which establish a type around which
the various genera may be arranged with but secondary variations.
Campliorosma is the sole exception knoAvn to this rule. (2) The
entire group oflers, at least when fully developed plants are
examined, certain general structural characters, which impress on
its members the stamp of affinity.

Heichaedt, H. — Einige Nachtriige zu Garcke's Flora von Halle.
Verb. Bot. Yer. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. IIG.

Eeichaedt, H. W. — Ueber eine Monstrositat der Carex praecox.
Wieu Yerhandl. xi. 237.

Affording evidence in fivoiu' of Kunth's view of the structure
of the female flower in Carex. Forms occui'red intermediate
between the normal flower of Carex and others apparently quite
analogous to those of Schoenoxiphium.

• Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Cirsien Steiermarks. Wieu

Verhandl. xi. 379. — Verhascum pseudo-phoeniceum (Y. Blattai'ia-
pJweniceum) ein ueuer Blendling. 403.

Beitrag zur Flora von Niederosterreich. Wieu Yerhandl. xi.

337 and 371. — Verhascum Neilreickii (Y. spccioso-phlumoiJes),

ein neuer Blendling. 3G7.

N. H. R.— 1SG2. 2 1

460 BIBLTOaEAPHT.

EEicHEiTBAcn, L. et H. G. (fil.)— Icones Florae Germauicae et Hel-
veticae. Tom. xx. Dec. 1.

Including 8olaneae and Scrophularineae (Linaria).
Eeiciienbacii, fil. — Ueber Carex obtusata, Lilj. Bot. Z. 1S6L

p. 246. — Orohanche minor, Sutt. p. 255.
REiNscn, Paul. — Bemerkungen ilber einige Bastardformen der

Gattung Cirsium. Bonpl. 1861. p. 73.
Reissek, S. — Flora Brasiliensis. Fasc. xxviii. Celastrineae, Ilici-
neae et Ehamneae, pp. 115. "With 41 plates.

Celastrineae : the genus JPlenckia is founded upon a single
species of the Central Provinces. Of Maytenus 59 species are
described.

llicineae : the genus Ilex includes 63 species.
Rhamneae : Rhamnidium, a new genus, with the habits of
Berchemia, is described.
Eemt, E. a. — Essai d'une nouvelle classification de la Famille des
Graininees. Premiere partie — Les genres. Paris, 1861. 8vo. pp.308.
The Graminaceae are grouped under five principal classes.

1. Hermaphroditees voerees, with complete flowers, all herma-
phrodite.

2. Hermaphroditees incompletes. Hermaphrodite flowers ac-
companied by rudimentary ones without apparent sex and always
sterile.

3. Polygamies. Tlie same spike or panicle bearing male,
female and hermaphrodite flowers.

4. Mondicees. With but male and female flowers on the
same plant.

5. Diocees. Male and female flowers on separate plants.
Descriptions (in French) are given of all the genera, with

the distribution of the species and an estimate of their number.
EiTsciiL, G. — Neuigkeiten der Posener Flora aus dem Jahre 1860.

Verh. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 105.
EociiEBETJNE, A. DE. — Observations sur le Ruscus aculeatus. Bull.

Soc. Bot. viii. 523.

Tlie author agrees with Kirschleger and others, in opposition

to the view of M. Clos that the urceolus sm*rounding the ovary

in the female flowers of Ruscus answers to the tubus stamineus

of the male. He considers the plant to be monoecious — Sur le

Uracocephalum iiirginianum, p. 547.
EoDET, J. A. — Note sur 1' Anatomic et sur la Physiologie d'un cone

de Pin. C. Eend. liii. 535.

Eclating to the structure of the scales and bracts and the

hjfgroscopicity of the latter.
ScuENK, A. — Botanische Notizen. Zur Kenntniss des Baues der

Saamenschale. Wiirzb. Zeitschr. ii. 216.

On the structure of the testa and hairs of the seed of Bichius

purpurascens, and observations on the epidermal cells of the

testa of seeds swelling up in water.

PnAKEROOAMIA. 461

ScHLEonTENDAL, D. !F. L. V-— Abiiorme Pflanzen-Bildungen. Bot.
- Z. 1861. p. 4.

Notice of tlie observation, by C. Lemaire, of leaf-like appen-
dages developed upon the midrib of the under surfoce of the leaf
in Caladium miritum and Gesneria spicata. Similar irregulari-
ties were observed in the leaves of Heterocentron macrodon and on
the summit of the petiole of a Begonia. Herr Schlechtendal
notices the occurrence of Stachys excelsa with the lower lip of
the corolla having a double median lobe and a fifth stamen deve-
loped. Stachys coccinea is stated sometimes to have the upper
corolla-lobe more or less divided.

-■■■ Ueber den Quebracho der Argentinischen staaten nacli

Prof Burmeister's Mittheilmigen. Bot. Zeit. 1861. p. 137.

Tliere are two species of Quebracho, called Q. bianco and
Q. Colorado. These are referred to the genus Aspidosperma, M.
and Z. A detailed account is given of the fruit and seed of
A. Quebracho bianco.

• Geschichte der Gattung Zizania. Linnaea xxx. p. 714.

Bemerkune;en ueber Pontederia azurea und die Pamilien-

verwandten. (Ext. Abh. Nat. Gesell. HaUe) 1861. 4to. pp. 30.

With 1 plate.

Descriptions of the six genera of Pontederiaceae are appended

.to this memoir.
ScHLEiDEN, M. J. — Grundzlige der wissenschaffclichen Botanik

nebst methodologischen Einleitung. Ed. 4. Leipsic, 1861.
ScHLOTTHAUBEB, A. F. — Phjsiologische und Systematische Beitrage

zur Botanik, (Eortsetzung) xii. Eiige einiger Mangel neuerer

naturlicher Pllanzen-systeme, A. Kritik. B. TJebersicht der

Hauptgruppen und ELlassen des natiirlichen Systems des Gewachs-

oder Pflanzenreiches. Boupl. 1861. pp. 23-31.

Bliithenbau von ^Wj?/wr62a. Bonpl. 1861. p. 370.

ScnNiTZLEiN. — Botanische Beobachtungen. Abh, Nat. Ges. Niirnb.

1861. Bd. ii.

1. On the nature of the aculei of the section Grossularia of

the genus Ribes. 2. On the scales in the flowers of some species

of Sedum.
ScnoTT, H. G. — Aroideologisches. Bonpl. 1861. 367.

Descriptions of new Aroids from the Fijis, Central America,

&c.
ScnuLTZ, J. C. — On the Botany of the Eed Eiver Settlement and

the Old Eed Eiver Trail. Ann. Bot. Soc. Canada, vol. i. p. 22.
With list of species collected near Port Garry and the Trail

to St. Paul.
SciiULfz-BiPOKT, C. H. — Ueber die Hieracien Amerika's. Bonpl.

1861. p. 172.

Eine neue Mikania. p. 175.

Hieracioi'um Americanorum descriptiones. Bonpl. 1861.

325.

212

402 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

ScHULTZ-BiPONT, C. H. — HamuUum Cassini. Bonpl, 1861, 365.

Ueber die Gattung Zaluzania, Pers., eineliistorisch-kritische

Untersuchung. Flora, 1861. 553, 561.
ScHULTZ, F. — Feber einige Arten und Bastarde von Sieracium und
einige Laiibmoose. Flora, 1861. p. 33.

With a table of Synonymy of German Piloselloideae. Hie-
racium stoloniferum, W. et Kit. is stated to be a hybrid between
H. pilosella and H, pratense.
ScHULT^-ScHULTZENSTEnsr. — Ueber riickschreitende Metamorphose

und Hemmungabildung der Blumen. Flora, 1861. p. 65.
— — — Die Bedeutnng der Verzweigung im Pflanzenreich. Flora,

1861. pp. 273, 297.
Schumacher, W. — Die Diffusion in ihrer Beziehung zur Pflanze.
— Theorie der Aufnahme, Vertheilung und Wauderung der Stoffe
in der Pflanze, &c. Leipzig, 1861. 8vo. pp. 288.
ScHWARZENBACH, V. — Untersuchung der Blattstiele von BJieum
undulatum. Wurz. Zeitseh. ii. 97.

Eeferriug to the chemical composition of the sap.
ScHWEESTPURTH, G. — Ueber Bidens radiatus, Thl. With 2 plates.
Verh. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 142.

Ueber eine neue Pflanzenbastard, Dianthus Carthusianorum

arenarius. Verh. Brand. Bot. Vereins. Hft. ii. p. 205. 1 plate.
Seehaus, C. — Hydrilla verticillata. Gasp. var. pomeranica. Verh.

Bot. Ver. Brandenb. ii. j). 95.
Seemann, B. — Podocarpus ? dulcamara, sp. nov. Bonpl. 1861, 253.
A tree of unknown origin cultivated in the Palm-stove at Kew.

Plantae Vitienses. Bonpl. 1861. 253.

A prehminary catalogue of Fiji plants collected in 1860. A
few new genera are indicated (in Ehamneae, Legimiinosfe, Tern-
stroemiaceae,Eubiaceae, Asclepiadeae, Pahneae) but not described.
Eight new Cyrtandreae are mentioned.

Storckiella Vitiensis. Bonpl. 1861. 363,

Description and figure of this new genus of Caesalpinieae.
Cyrtandra Pritcliardii, also from the Fijis, is described in the
same number.
Selin, G.— Ett bidrag till Nordvestra Ny lands Flora. Notiser Sallsk.
pro Fauna et Flora Fennica Forhand. Ny. Ser. Tredj. Hiift.
Helsingf. 1861. p. 123.
Seubert, M. — Lehrbuch der gesammten Pflanzenkunde. Leipsic,
1861. Ed. iii.

Die Pflanzenkunde in popularer Darstellung mit besonderer

Beriicksichtigung der forstlich, cikonomisch, &c. Pflanzen, Leip-
zig. 1861. Svo. 592.
SiMiNG, Tn., P. A. Kaksten, et A. J. Malmgren. — Botanisk
resa till Satakunta och Sodra osterbotten, med uuderstod af Siills-
kapet pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, verstalld sommaren 1859. —
Notiser ur Sallskapets Pro Fauna ct Flora Fennica Forhandliugar.
Ny. Ser. Tredj. ITaft. Helsingfors, 1861.

PHANEBOaAMIA. 463

SouRD-DussiPLES, E. C. — Note sur une finomalie presentee par una
fleur d' Orchis mascula. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 227.

A pollen-mass had been projected upon the labellum.
SouBD-DussiPLES, C. E. ET G. Beegeron. — Note sur un cas de
metamorphose ascendante. Transformation des etamines en
feuilles earpellaires. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 3-18.

Showing the development of the anomalous carpels to be, to
a considerable extent, at the expense of the filaments of the
transformed stamens, and not as, according to the authors, M.
von Mold maintains, of the connective and anther-cells.
SiOHMAJsns", F. — Versuche iiber die vegetation von Maispflanzen in
Wasserigen Losungen ihrer Nahrstoife. Flora. 1861. 679. Also
Gott. Nachr. 1861. 137.

An account of experiments, yet in progress, instituted with
a view to ascertain how far the development of a plant was pos-
sible, removed from the soil ; and further, the influence upon
vegetation of the abstraction of any element of its food, and the
extent to which one element might be substituted for another.
The author's experiments thus far warrant the following general
conclusions : — 1. That, in the case of maize, normal vegetation is -
quite possible without contact with soil, provided its mineral
constituents be supplied to it in proper amount in a weak acid
solution, 1000 parts of which hold not more than 3 parts of the
solid. 2. The plant derives its organic matter from the carbonic
acid of the air, taken up by the leaves. 3. Nitrogen must be
supplied in the form of nitric acid and ammonia. The plant will
not succeed if, with the mineral constituents, either of these be
given alone. 4. Maize requires both lime and magnesia. The
one cannot supply the place of the other. 5. At first soda is not
essential, though without it vegetation soon slackens.
Stub, D. — Beitrage zur Monographie des Genus Draha in den Ear-
paten: Ungarus, Galiziens, Siebenbiirgens, und des Banates
nordlich der Donau. Wien, 1861. 8vo. 46 pp. 3 plates. (Ext.
Oest. Bot. Zeitsch. No. 5.)
Tassi, a. — Esame d'una singularita di struttura dell flore dell' Aqui-
legia vulgaris. I. Giardini, vii. 295.

The carpels were transformed into small lobulate leaves,
bearing leaflets answering to the ovules.
Tatnall, Edw. — Catalogue of the Pha^nogamous and Eilicoid Plants
of Newcastle County, Delawai-e, U.S. arranged according to the
Natural System, with the Synonyms of Modern Authors, pp. 112.
Thienemantst, H. W. — Skizze der Flora Masurens. Flora, 1861.
689,725,756.

Masurenis a tract of varied surface in S. E. Prussia, including
about 600 Phanerogamia, a catalogue of which is given.
Thavaites, G. H. K. — Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylanise. Pt, iv.
p. 241-320.

New genera described are Podadenia, Bimorpliocalyx, Des-

464 BIBLIOORAPHT.

mostemon (Euphorbiaceac), Octarrhena, Ct/lindrochilus (Orclii-
daceae).

Timbal-Lageave, Ed. — Etude sur quelques Cistes de Narbonne.
Toulouse, 1861. Mem. Ac. Sc. Toulouse, Ser. v. t. v. 8vo.
pp. 33, Mvi.

A monogi'apli of the species of Cistus growing in the South
of France. The author remarks a character serving to distin-
guish hybi'id from true species. According to his observations,
the leaves of the branches of hybrids put out in spring, assume
the form of those of the male parent, while those borne by the
summer branches resemble the leaves of the female. In true
species, the leaves are alike in both seasons.

M. T.-Lagrave is of opinion that hybrid plants are more com-
mon than has been generally believed, and that many of these
are fertile, reproducing themselves, though not without more or
less of a return to one of the parent species, tln-ough several
generations. His observations rest chiefly upon Cistus Monspe-
liensis, L., C. laurifolius, L., and O. salviaefolius, L. Minute
descriptions are given, with synonymy of the various forms,
groiiped under the heads of — 1. Plants reproducing themselves
precisely from seed ; and, 2. Plants which do not exactly repro-
duce themselves from seed — crossed or hybrid species. Of these
latter are Cistus albido-crispus, C. crispo-albidus, C. salviaefoHo-
popuUfolius, C. populifolio-salviaefolius, G. Monspeliensi-popvli-
folius, C. salviaefolio-Monspeliensis, C. Monspeliensi-salviaefolius,
G. laurifolio-monspeliensis, G alhido-monspeliensis. Other hybrid
Cistuses are formed between G. laurifolius, C. ladaniferus, and
species crossing with them. In concluding, the author groups the
forms of Cistus under species and hybrid-species. The former he
states to be common, and represented by numerous individuals ;
the latter rare, scattered, and always in few examples. That the
first reproduce themselves precisely in every mode, especially by
seed ; while the latter vary with each evolution, presenting a
tendency towards one of the parents.

Note sur une nouvelle espece du genre Linum. Eull. Soc.

Botan. vii. p. 509.

Linum ruscinonense, T.-L. Confounded with L. alpinum by
authors.

ToMMASiNi, M. E. v.— Ueber zwei zweifelhafte Pflanzen Wulff'en's,
Ilypecoum litorale und Fumaria acaulis. Wien. Verhandl. 331.

Teeviiianus, L. C. — Ueber das Eiuschliessen jeder Pflanzenspecies
in eine Papierhulse als Mittel Herbarien gegen Insekten zu
sichern. Bonn. Verb. 1861. 391.

In Hypcrici genus eiusque species animadversiones. Bonn.

1861. 4to. pp. 15.

. Ueber Fruchtbau und einige Gattungen der Doldengewachse.

Bot. Z. 1S61. p. 9.

1. Observations on the adhesion of the calyx and ovary in some

PHANEKOGAMIA. 4iG5

genera of UmhelUferae (^JPleurosperrmim, JEcliinopliora, Bowlesia
lohata). (2.) The abortion or imperfect development of one
of tlie carpels of the fruit in various genera. Unequal wings or
ribs. (3.) Critical notes on the genus i?eM^era. (4:.) AtJiamanta
verticillata, Sm. (5.) Fruit of Thapsia scahra, Trev. {Meliocarpus,
Boiss.). (6.) Conioselinum. (7.) Callisace. (8.) Dorema and Di-
serneston, Jaub. and Sp. (9.) Arcliangelica G-melini, DC. {Goelo-
pleuruvi, Led.) identical with Ligusticum scoticum, L. (10.)
Gachrys eriantha, DC. and C. involucrata, Pall. (11.) Exoacantha,
Lab. (12.) Grammosciadiwn.

TuEViEAJfUS, L. C. — Lychnis praecox. Bonpl. 1861. p. 205.

A new species, of doubtful origin, cultivated by the author,
in habit resembling L. diurna, in characters L. declinis, Lag.
Observations are added on Lychnis Viscaria and L. alpina, and
the weakness of the characters depended upon for their discrimi-
nation.

TuLASNE, L. E,. — Flora Brasilieusis. Antidesmeae, p. 330. With
4 plates.

Hieronymia of F. Allemao supersedes Stilaginella of Tulasne.
It is the only Brazilian genus of the group. But three species
are described.

IJjs^aEE, F. — Beitriige zur Anatomie und Physiologic der Pflanzen.
Wien. Sitzungsb. xliv, 181, 327.

Eecent investigations on the Transpiration of plants. The
author's chief results are: — 1. Transpiration is a purely physical
process modified by the condition of the plant and dependent on
the temperature, humidity and motion of the aii', the character of
the soil, and the surface adapted for exhalation. 2. Transpiration
undergoes a periodical alternation, the maximum and minimum
depending upon the daily temperature. 3. The two leaf-surfacea
bear different relations to Transpiration : generally, the under-
side exhales more than the upper. 4. Although the Stomata may
be regarded as the organs best suited for Transpiration, yet the
Epiderm also permits it. 5. During Transpiration the crescentic
cells of the Stomata are turgescent and tense according to the
extent to which they are open. 6. As the amount of evaporation
is in proportion to the evaporating surface, so the amount of
water evaporated from a surface covered with vegetation is much
greater than, imder like conditions, from a surface of water of
equal area : the influence of Transpiration on the condition of
the atmosphere is consequently not unimportant in countries
covered with meadows, grass, and woods. 7. In Water-plants,
an elimination of water takes place corresponding to tran-
spiration. 8. The absorption of water by the root under normal
conditions exceeds the loss by exhalation but very little.

Veblot, B.— Sur quelques Arbres remarquables plantes daus le De-

- partement du Loiret. Bull. Soc. Bot. viii. 354.

466 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Verlot, B. — Sur deux EpiloUum et sur un Feshica cultivees au

Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. Bull. Soc. Botau. vii.

p. 507.

The JEpilohia are J?, tetragonum and Tl. Lamyi, Fr. Sch. The

sole diiference between which the author finds to be in the mode

in which the leaves are decurrent. Seeds of Festuca ciliata.

Dauth,, were found to produce F. llyurus, L.
VisiANi, li. DE. — Plantarum Serbicarum Pemptas ossia Descrizione

di cinque Piante Serbiane. Extr. Vol. ix. Mem. Istit. Yenezia,

1860. pp. 11. With 6 plates.

One new genus of Umbelliferae is described, Fanqiqia.
Veiese, "W. H. de. — Remarques sur les arbres qui produisent le

Oetah-perfja. Nat. Tijdsch. Neerl. Ned. xxi. 299, and Journ.

Bot. Ned. 1861. 254.

With description of new species collected by the late Mr.

Motley.
VcJLPius, Pb. — Noch ein Wort iiber Fragaria Hagenhachiana.

Plora, 1S61. p. 393.
Wacker, H. — Uebersicht der Phanerogamen flora von Culm.

Culm, 1861. p. 24.
Walpees, vide C. Mueller.
Walser, Dr.— Die grosse Linde in Leutkirch mit Beziehungen zu

den Wachsthumsverhaltnissen sehr alter Linden unseres clima'a

iiberhaupt. Wilrtt. Jalireshefte, 1861. 57.

Eleven Linden-trees are enumerated to wliich ages are as-
signed as under " with more or less probability."

Linden at Leutkirch . . 346 years.

do. (T.parmfolia) . 364 „

Fribui'g, Switzerland . 384 „

Leutkirch (T. grandifolid) . 405 „

Niirnberg . . . 500 „

Leutkirch (T. grandifoUa) . 660 „

Norwich . . . 815 „

Neustadt . . .892 „

Villars en Moing . . 961 „

Donndorf . . . 1235 „

ChaiUe (nr. Melles) . . 1252 „

Waetmann, Prof — Botanische Notizen. (St. Grail. Nat. Gesellsch.

1860-61). Svo. pp. 16.

Referring to monstrous and hybrid forma. (1.) JBlechnum

spicant, dichotomy of; (2.) Marigold, with proliferous capitulum ;

(3.) Geum intermedium ; (4.) G^. nyo/e, sepals reduced to leaves ;

(5.) Frunus avium, with several carpels in the flower ; (6.) Fyrus

communis, persisting petals of; (6.) Samhncus nigra, variety in

symmetry and relative position of stamens and corolla-lobes ;

(8.) Veronica Anagallis, various abnormal flowers. (Ext. Bot.

Zeit.)
Weddell, II. A. — Memoire sur Ic Cynomorium coccineum, parasite

PHANEEOGAMIA. 467

de rOrdre des Balanophorees. (Ext. Arch. Mus. t. x.) Paris,
p. 39. With 4 plates.

Embracing a detailed consideration of (1.) The geographical
distribution of the Ci/nomorimn ; (2.) Its nurse-plants, mode of
vegetation, duration; (3.) Organography and anatomy of the
rhizome and its appendages, the organs of attachment; (4.)
Scape, scales, inflorescence and the reproductive organs, with the
result of experiments on its germination. In respect to the
latter a remarkable circumstance was the ascending du'ection
always taken by the radicle, a direction which it resumed, if in-
verted, with a sharp curve. M. Weddell partially succeeded in
observing the first stage of its parasitism, upon which further
observations are required. The seed is described as being pro-
vided with a testa, consisting of from five to ten layers of cells
containing resinous matter. This is opposed to the view of Dr.
Hooker who regards the covering of the seed as the adherent
inner layer of the ovary.

Weddell, H. A. — Chloris Andina. Essai d'une Elore de la Eegion
Alpine des Cordilleres de I'Amerique du Sud. Vol. ii. p. 185 to
end of Vol.

Including Umbelliferae, Araliaceae, Saxifragaceae, Cactaceae,
Eibesiaceae, Passifloraceae, Loasaceae, Onagrariaceae, Halora-
geae, Melastomaceae, Eosaceae, Leguminosae, Polygaleae, Hy-
pericineae, Malvaceae, Geraniaceae, Hypseocliarideae, OxaHdeae,
Berberideae, Eanimculaceae, Frankeniaceae, and additions to
vol. ii. The section Oreosciadium of Apium (DC. Prodromus,
iv. 101) is raised to generic rank. The species of tliis genus
are confined to the Andes where some of them reach the level
of perpetual snow. No other new genera are described. The
species of Malvastrum with involucrate flowers and free axillary
or radical peduncles are restored to the genus Malva : the true
Malvastra being limited to acaulescent plants having the pe-
duncles more or less adnate to the petiole subtending them,
and the carpels dehiscent as in Sida. They are confined to
the alpine region of the Andes. M. Weddell proposes Syp-
seocharis of Eemy as the type of a new natural order. Tlie fruit
of this plant is unkno\vn. Oxalis tuherosa is very largely culti-
vated in some of the upper valleys of Peru and Bolivia, where it
replaces to a certain extent the potato.

Wegener, E.— Zur Flora von Pommern. Verb. Bot. Brand. Hft. ii.
p. 102.

Weiss, A. und J. Wiesner.— Beitrage zur kenntniss der chemi-
schen und Physikalischen Natur des Milchsaftes der Pflanzen.
Bot. Z. 1861, p. 41.

Observations upon the microscopical character, chemical
analysis, density and physical relations of the milk-sap of Mu-
pJiorbia Cyparissias, L.

468 BIBLIOOEAPnT.

"Welwitsch, F.— Sur la Vegetation du Plateau de Huilla dang le
Benguela. Bibliotlieque Univ. July, 1861. Ext,
With observations by M. De Candolle.

Extract fi-om a Letter, addressed to Sir William J. Hooker,

on the Botany of Benguela, Mossamedes, &e. in Western Africa.
Linn. Proc. v. p. 182.

Dr. Welwitscli notices the medley of species cidtivated at
Mossamedes (Little Fish Bay), Bananas and Potatoes, Man-
diocca and AVlieat, Sugar-cane and Elax, Hordeum distichum and
Batatas paniculata, &c. An extraordinary ti'ee of doubtful
affinity, growing on the table-land near Cape Negro, is described
in brief. It is said to attain 1 foot in height with a diameter
of 4 feet ; the pair of leaves thrown up at germination persist
through the lifetime of the tree, no others being produced. The
flowers are described as amentaceous, hexandrous, and mono-
gynous. A Bafflesiacea was found upon the branches of a Le-
guminosa.

Wesmael, a. — Nouvel hybride de Girsiiim. Ac. Belg. 2 Nov. 1861.
Between C. arvense and C. lanceolatum. It is described in
much detail.

White, E. B. W. — List of some of the rarer plants observed in the
\dcinity of Perth. Ti\ius. Ed. Bot. Soc. vii. 235.

Botany of Methven, Perthshire. Phytol. 1861. 330.

WiCKE, WiLii. — TIeber das Vorkommen und die physiologische
A^ei'wendung der Kieselsiiure bei den Dicotyledonen. Bot. Zeit.
1861. p. 97.

WiESifEE, J. — Untersuchimgen iiber den Bogenwerth der Blatt-
basen, Sitzungsbericht. K. Ak. Wien. xlii. 1-17.

WiGAND, A.— Beleuchtimg von Schacht's Behandlung der Erage
■iiber die Intercellularsubstanz und die Cuticula. Flora, 1861,
pp. 81, 97.

Ueber die Deorganisation der Pflanzenzelle, insbesondere

iiber die physiologische Bedeutung von Grummi und Harz.
Pruigsh. Jalu'b. iii. 115. With 3 plates.

The author is of opinion that gums frequently if not gene-
rally originate moi-e or less as Tragacanth, which has been shown
by von Mohl to result from a change in the character of the
cell-walls of the pith and medullary rays in certain species of
Astrarjalus. In the first section of this paper the mode of origin
of cherry-gum is minutely detailed. It is a mixture of gum
arable and cerasin, the latter allied to bassorin, from which it
diflers in its solubility in boiling water. It originates both in
the wood and cortical layers, in the latter especially from a
transformation of the cells associated with the fibres of liber,
Avhich II. Wigand terms Hofoiprosenchym or Hornbast. Nu-
merous species belonging to various orders are named in which

^ this tissue is conspicuous. It is suggested that in some cases
Sugar may be foruaed by a similar change jn the cell-waU, as, e.g.

PIIANEKOGAMIA. 469

in Manna. The second section is devoted to resins and balsams

which are shown in part to be of similar origin. The third to

intercellular substance and cuticle.
WiiiLEBKAifD, p. V. — Jakttagelser rorande verkan af Secale cornu-

tiom. Act. Soc. Fen. vii. p. 1.
WiLLKOMM, M. und J. Lange. — Prodromus Florae Hispanicae,

Vol. i. part 1. Stuttgardt, 1861. Filices to Melanthaceae {Ery-

throstictus).

No new genera appear to be described.
AViMMEE, F. — SaHcologische Beitriige. Bresl. Abh. 1861. i. 2.
WiNKLEE, A. ~ Nachtrage und Bemerkuugen ziu* schlesischen

Flora. Verh. Bot. Ver. Brandenb. Hft. ii. p. 107.
WossiDLO, P. — Ueber die Structiir der Juhaea sjiectabUis. Ein

Beitrag zm- Anatomie der Palmen. Nova Acta, 1861. xxviii.

Abh. V. With 5 plates.

The author appends the following conclusions : —

1. The form of the terminal bud in Palms with undeveloped
internodes is never convex, though often flattened, and indeed
concave, according to the greater or less intensity of growth.

2. The structure of Jubaea spectahllis essentially agrees with
that which H. v. Mohl has represented as characteristic of the
Cocos type of stem structure.

3. There is distinguishable in the stem of J. spectabilis, as
also more especially in the Cocos type, a so-called bast-layer
mider the rind which surrounds the proper woody-mass or pith.

4. The vascular bundles of the bast-layer consist solely of
prosenchyma.

5. They do not enter the interior of the stem, but rim through
their entire length, to their entrance into the leaf, within the
bast-layer.

6. They form the principal portion of all the vascidar bundles
entering the leaf.

7. Between the woody-mass and the bast-layer under the
terminal bud is a Cambium zone in which the formation of new
tissues of the stem takes place.

8. All the vascular bundles originate in this Cambium-layer,
including the fascicles of the bast-layer, which are consequently
not, as Schacht maintained, branches of the vascular bundles of
the adventitious roots.

9. The difterence in the course and anatomical composition
of the liber-layer and the central vascular bundles is explained
by the origin of the former on the outer side and of the latter on
the inner side of the Cambium zone.

10. Moreover the bast-fascicles on their entrance into a leaf
are transformed in great measure into complete vascular bundles-

Zollinger, H. — Quelques observations sur I'Histoire naturelle de
File de Madoura. (To the east of Java.) Journ. Bot. Ned,
, 1861. 130.

470 BIBLIOOEAPHT.

XLI. — Cetptogamia.

1. Filicales.

BoLLE, Gael. — Zur Vegetations gescliiclite der Asplenium Seelosiu

Bonpl. 1861. pp. 2-4.
Bosch, R. B. VAi>f den. — Hymen ophyllaceae Javanicae, sive descriptio
Hymenophyllaceariim Archipelagi Indici, iconibus illustrata.
Edidit academia regia scientiarum. 52 plates. 4to. Amstelae-
dami, 1861.

Hymenophyllaceae Novae Caledonise Auct. Vandenboseh.

A. S. N. XV. p. 88.

An account of some new species of Hymenopliyllacese, by the
same author, will be found in the Nederlandsch Ej-uidkundig
Archief V. (1861). pp. 135-186.
Beaijn. — Ueber eine neue Art der Gattung Isoetes. Berl. Mon.
1861. p. 460. Dr. Braun describes a new species of Isoetes
from Japan, resembling in some respects I. riparia, Engelm.
Betdgeman, W. EIencely. — On the Influence of the Venation in the
Reproduction of Monstrosities among Ferns. An. N. H, 3 ser.
viii. p. 490.
DuEiEu, DE Maisonneuye. — A note relative to three new species of
Isoetes, presented to the Botanical Society of France — one being
a variety of I. Hystrix, the two others new species. Bull. Soc.
Bot. Vol. viii. p. 164.
Duval- JouvE. — JNote sur 1' acumen qui termine I'epi de quelques
especes d'Equisetmn par M. J. Duval- Jouve. Bull. Soc. Bot. VoL
viii. p. 368.

Note sur la Synonymie d'une espece d'Equisetum par M.

Duval-Jouve. Bull. Soc. Bot. Vol. viii. p. 637.

This note relates to the synonymy of the plant usually called
Equisetum Telmateia, Ehrh. which M. Duval-Jouve, identifies
with Eq. maximimi of Lamarck and JHquisetum Jluviatile of
Smith and other authors, but not of Linnaeus.
GoTTSCKB.— Hepaticologische Notizen von Dr. C. M. Gottsche in
Altona. Bot. Zeit. January 4, 1861, Vol. xix. p. 1.
The contents of this paper are as follows : —

1. Observations upon Symphyogena flabellata, in which are
discussed the characters of the several plants described under this
name by Labillardiere (Nov. Holl. Plant, spec. t. ii. p. 109, tab.
254, fig. 1) ; Hooker (Musci Exotici, Tab. 13) ; Montague (Voy.
an Pole Sud. 1, p. 216) ; and Mitten (Flora Novae Zeelandiae and
Flora Tasmania)). These characters the author cannot reconcile,
and he proposes a new genus, " Umbraculum," to take in the two
former, in which he thinks it probable Montague's and Mitten's
plants might also be included.

2. Observations on the inflorescence oiBadula complanata.

3. On Biccia Klinggrceffii (Bot. Zeit. 1859, p. 88), which.

CBTPTOOAMTA. 471

tlie author states, is now proved to be only a variety of Biccia
fiuitans.

Hansteik. — ErlaiJterung des Nardoo genannten Nahrungsmittel der
TJrbewoliner Australiens, einer Marsilea-ivvLoSxt, nebst Bemer-
kungen zur Entwickelung dieser Gattung. Berl. Mon. Eeb.,
1862.

Dr. Hanstein describes the structure of the fruit of a species
of Marsilea, called Nardoo by the aborigines of Australia. It is
eaten by the natives, and was used as food for some time by King,
the survivor of the late unfortunate Australian exploring expedi-
tion. The species appears to be new — so far, at least, as can be
judged from fruit alone. Some remarks upon other species of the
genus are also given. The paper is illustrated by a plate con-
taining a number of well-executed figures.

HooKEE. — Species Filicum, being descriptions of all known Ferns,
illustrated with plates. By Sir "William Jackson Hooker, K.H.,
&c. This work has reached the 14th Part, or Vol. iv.. Part ii.
The 15tli Part is promised shortly. Part xiv. concludes with the
commencement of the genus Onoclea.

The British Ferns ; or. Coloured Figures and Descriptions,

with the Needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation of
the Ferns of the British Isles, systematically arranged. By Sir
W. J. Hooker, K.H., D.C.L., &c. With 66 plates, by W. Fitch.
Grarden Ferns ; or, Coloured Figures and Descriptions, with

the Needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation of the
Ferns best adapted for Cultivation in the G-arden, Hotliouse, and
Conservatory. By Sir W. J. Hooker, K.H., D.C.L , &c. With
64 plates, by W. Fitch.

Lasch (W.) — Aspidimn spinulosuvi mit seinen TJnterarten u. varie-
tiiten. Brand. Bot. Ver. ii. p. 77.

Mettenius. — Filices Novse Caledoniae a CI. Viellard collectse. Ela-
boravit G. Mettenius. A. S. N. xv. p. 55.

MiLDE (J.) — Neue Beitrage zur Systematik der Equiseten. Bresl.
Abh. 1861. I. 2.

Ueber exotische Equiseten von Dr. J. Milde. Wien

Z. V. B. Vol. xi. p. 345.

Dr. Milde describes at length five species of Equiseta, some
of which have been previously shortly noticed by other authors.
At the end of the paper are some remarks upon the importance
of the position of the stomata in classifying Equiseta, and on the
assistance in distinguishing species which is afforded by the differ-
ences exhibited under the compound microscope by the siliceous
coverings of the furrows of the branches. Dr. Milde divides
Equiseta into " phaneropora " and " cryptopora," the former
having the stomata in the same plane with the epidermis, and the
latter having the stomata underneath the epidermis, which is
ruptured transversel3^ The cryptopora are again divided into
" monosticha" where the stomata are in a single row, and pleios-

472 BTBLIOQEAPnT.

ticha where they form two or more rows. Dr. Milde considers
that a vast deal of trouble and uncertainty in distinguishing
species will be avoided by attention to the above characters.

MiQiJEi,. — Boiu'geons developpes sur les racines des Fougeres, par
i\ A. W. Miquel. Journ. de Bot. Neerlandaise, 1861. p. 134.

Moore. — Index Filicum. Tliis work has reached the 18th part,
which closes in the middle of the Genus Elaphoglossum.

MuLLER. — Zur Kenntniss des Lycopodium cernuum L. von Karl
Miiller. Bot. Zeit. June 14, 1861. Vol. xix. p. 161.

The object of the author in the present paper is to show that
an entire group of species has hitherto been included under the
common name of Lycopodmm cernuum. He divides the group
into seven species, placing in it a Sikkim-Himalaya plant, found
by Dr. Hooker, and a doubtful one from Cuming's collection
called Lycopodium Marianmn.

Stenzel (K. Cx.) — Untersuchungen iiber Ban und Wachsthum der
Fame. II. Ueber Verjungungserschemungen bei den Farnen.
Von Karl Gustav Stenzel, M.D. K.L.C. D.A. Nov. Act. Vol.
xxviii.

2. Muscales.

Areschottg (F. W. C.) Torfula papillosa "Wils. ein neuer Burger der
deutschen Flora. Brand. Bot. Ver. ii. p. 141.

Dozy, Molkei^boer, van den Boscn et van der Sande Lacoste. —
Bryologia Javauica seu descriptio muscorum frodosorum archi-
pelagi Indici. Fasc. 21 a 26. In. 4. Lugduni Batavorum. Paris,
J. B. Bailliei^e et fils.

Gerber. — Die Laubmoose Oberbayerns. Von G. Gerber. Eeg. Fl.
pp. 305, 321, 337.

Heueleb. — JSTachtrag zu den " Untersuchungen iiber die Hypneen
Tirols," von Ludwig Eitter v. Heufler. Bonplandia, 1861. p. 191.

Ueber die Siidgrenze einiger Laubmoose, von Ludwig

Eitter v. Heufler. Bonplandia, 1861. p. 190.

JuRATZKA. — Zur'Moosflora Oestereichs, von J. Juratzka. "VVien.
Z. V. B. Vol. xi. p. 121 and pp. 235 and 431.

Ueber ein noues Laubmoos, von J. Juratzka. "Wien.

Z. V. B. Vol. xi. p. 267.

_ A description of a new Ilypnum called H.faUaciosum, nearly
allied to H. polygamum.

Le Dien. — Sur im phenomene teratologique observe chez quelques
mousses par M. Emile Le Dien. Bull. Soc. Bot. Vol. 8 (1861), p. 73.
The monstrosity observed by Mons. Le Dien was the produc-
tion of two capsides upon a single pedicel in three plants of
Trichostomum riyididum collected at the great waterfall of Mont
Dore. A letter on the subject by Mons. Durieu de Maisoimeuve
is published in the same volume, p. 297.

CRTPTOGAMIA. 473

MiLDE. — Febersiclit ilber die Schlesische Laubmoos-Plora, von
Dr. J. MHde.

This account of the Silesian Moss-Flora forms an Appendix to
the Botanische Zeitung for 1861. It contains a list (with locali-
ties and comments) of the species, and this is followed by a short
account of the published works on Silesian mosses. The author
then speaks of their distribution with respect to altitude and
soil, and of the relation of the Silesian Moss-Flora to that of
other countries. As the result of his observations he states that
Silesia produces 389 mosses, beiug far more than half of those
which occur in Europe, and he notices a number of species which
find their northern and southern limits within the province.

Die Verbreitung der Schlesischen Laubmoose nach der

Hoheu und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Beurtheilung der Schlesischen
Flora von Dr. J. Milde. Nov. Act. Vol. xxix.

Hypmom insigne Milde, nov. spec, von Dr. J. Milde. Bot.

Zeit. 6 Sept. 1861. Vol. xix. p. 260.

This new species of Hypnum is described at length by Dr.

Mnde. He found it in August, 1861, near Ludwigsbad by

Salzburg.
Pajjcic. — Zur Moosflora des nordostlichen Banates von Dr. Josef

Pancic. Wien. Z. V. B. Vol. xi. p. 93.
PoKOENT. — Untersuchungen iiber die Torfinoose TJngarns V. Sitz.

1861. xliii. iii. 1. p. 123.
E.EICHAIIDT. — Beitrag zur Moosflora des Wechsels in ISTiederoster-

reich von Dr. H. W. Eeichardt. Wien. Z. V. B. Vol. xi. p. 161.
Eeinsch (P. F.) Ueber einige EigenthumHchkeiten der Sporen und

Fruchtbildung von JBryum caespiticium und Funaria liygrome-

trica. Linn. 1861. xv. p. 216.
EosE ET Bescherelle. — Deuxieme note sur quelques mousses rares

ou nouvelles, recemment trouvees aux environs de Paris par

M. M. Ernest Eoze et Emile Bescherelle. Bull. Soc. Bot.

Vol. viii. 1861. p. 82.
Schtmpee. — Observations sur quelques cas de Teratologie Bryologique

par M. W. Ph. Schimper. Bull. Soc. Bot. Vol. viii. p. 351.
These observations relate to some monstrosities observed in

the fruit of certain mosses, and arose out of the communication

made to the same Society by Mens. Le Dien, to which we have

referred above.
ScHdLTZ.^ — Ueber einige Arten und Bastarde von Hieracium und

einige Laubmoose, von Dr. F. Schultz. Eeg. Fl. 1861. p. 33.
Zetteestedt. — Eevisio Grrimmiearum Scandinaviae ; auct. Joh. Em.

Zetterstedt, phil. doct. 8vo. p. 139. Upsala. 1861.

3. Lichens.

Arnold. — Die Lichenen des Friinkischen Jura, von F. Arnold.
Eeg. Flora, 1861. pp. 241 and 257.

474 BTBLIOGRAPnT.

Fries.— Genera Heterolicliciium Europfese recognita ; auct. Th. M.

Fries. 8vo. pp. 116. Upsala, 1861.

Dr. Fries uses the term " Heterolichenes " to include the

Lichenaces of Dr. Ny lander or the Lichenes heteromerici of

Wallroth and Koerber.
,__ — Lichenes arctoi Europae Groenlandiseque hactenus cogniti,

Collegit, examinavit, disposuit Th. M. Fries. Not. Act. Eegise

Soc. Scientiarum Upsaliensis. 3 ser. Vol. 3, p. 103.
.«__ — Miscellanea Lichenologica. Scripsit Dr. Th. M. Fries.

Eeg. Fl. 1861, p. 409.
Hepp. — Further fascicles of Dr. Philip Hepp's European Lichens

have appeared. An account of them is given in the Eegensburg

Flora for 1861. pp. 414, 426, 446.
KoERBEE. — Parerga Lichenologica von Dr. G. "W. Koerber. Dritte

Lieferung. Breslau, Verlag von Edward Trewendt. 1861.
Keempelhuber. — Die Lichenen Baierns, oder Aufzjihlung der

bisher ia Baiern aufgefundenen Lichenen, von M. A. Krem-

pelhuber. Eat. Denk. Vol. iv.
Lindsay, Lauder. — What to observe in Canadian Lichens. Can.

Nat. vi. 1861, p. 282.
Nylajstder. — Espositio Lichenum Wovse Caledonise scripsit "William

Nylander. A. S. N. Vol. xv. p. 37.

An account of some further collections of Lichens from Nevsr

Caledonia, examined since the publication of the author's former

paper in Vol. xii. of the A. S. N. Eighteen new species are now

described ; the whole number of New Caledonian species now

amounts to 105.
Additamentum ad Lichenographiam Andiinn Boliviensium

scripsit "William Nylander. A. S. N. xv. p. 365.

Animadversiones quaedam circa A. von Krempelhuber, die

Lichenen- Flora Bayerns, Eegensb. 1861, scripsit W. Nylander.
Bot. Zeit. XV. November, 1861. Vol. xix. p. 337.

Lichenes Scandinavia; sive Prodi-omus Lichenographias

Scandinavise. Scripsit W. Nylander. Helsingforsito, 1861.

This work (which forms the 5th part of the Society for in-
vestigating the natural history of Finland) embraces the Lichen
Flora of Norway, Sweden, and Finland, extending into the Arctic
regions. It contains some prefatory remarks upon Lichens in
general, a list of the ])rinoipal published works and collections of
specimens, and a detailed account (with synonyms and critical
remarks) of 494 Scandinavian species. The whole number of
known Lichens is estimated by the author at 1499. Of tlie 494
Scandinavian species 27 are new. The author had access to the
herbarium of Acharius, which renders the synonymy very valua-
])\v. There is an appendix relative to nine species which came
to lunul during the ])rinting of the book. There is one plate,
containing figures by tlm autlior of the spores of diflerent species,
amongst which those of Varicellaria, Nvl, are remarkable for their

CRTPTOGAMIA. 475

size, being about 0.3 mm. long by 0.1. mm. wide. The single
species of this genus occurs in Southern Lapland, Arctic Ame-
rica, and in Switzerland, on the bark of trees.

Circa historiam Lichenographije observatiuncula. Scripsit

W. Nylander. Eeg. Fl. 1861. p. 513.
Conspectus Squamariarum. Exposuit breviter W. Nylander.

Eeg. Fl. 1861. p. 716.
NoBMAN.— Descriptio speciei novae Lichenis, quam detexit et sub

nomine Tholurna dismnilis proponit J. M. ^Norman. Eeg. Fl.

1861. p. 409.
Stizenbeegeb.— Anzia, eine neue Flechten-gattimg, aufgestellt von

Dr. Ernst Stizenberger. Eeg. Fl. 1861, p. 390.
Aetinopelte, eine neue Flechten-Sippe beschrieben von Dr.

Ernst Stizenberger. Eegensburg Flora, 1861. p. 1.
Tbevisan. — TJeber Atestia, eine neue gattung der Eamalineen aus

Mittel- Amerika, Von Victor Gr. Trevisan, K. K. wirkKchem

Kammerer. Eeg. Fl. 1861. p. 17.
Synopsis generum Trypethelinarum, auctore V. Trevisan.

Eeg. Fl. 1861. p. 17.

4. Fungi.

Apzelitjs. — Eeliquise Afzelianse, sistentes Icones Fungorum, quos
in Guinea collegit et in aere incisas excudi curavit Adamus Aize-
lius. Interpretatur E. Fbies. 4to. TJpsaliae, 1860.

This work consists of 12 plates, printed in brown, and 4 pages
of text, giving definitions, &c. of the 30 species figured.

Eail. — Mykologische Studien besonders iiber die Entwicklung der
Sphceria typhina Pers. von Dr. Th. Bail. Nov. Act. Vol. xxix.

Dr. Bail states that Sph. typhina is strictly epiphytal. He
describes the perithecia as produced by the germination and
growth of the conidia after the latter have fallen upon the under-
lying stratum or conidial layer ; and he suggests, as a probability,
that the perithecia in Ehytisma, Polystigma, Hypoxylon, Nectria
and other allied genera are produced by the germination of the
conidia. He discusses the nature of the so-called spermatia of
fungi in general, and contends that they are not distinct from
conidia. As far as he could count, each ascus contains four
sporidia,* each sporidum being divided by transverse septa into
numerous cells. The systematic position of the plant Dr. Bail
considers to be in the genus Claviceps. At the end of the paper
are a few remarks upon the early state of Poronia punctata.

Baby, De. — Die gegenwartig herrschende Kartoffelkrankheit, ihre
Ursache und ihre Verhiitung. Eine pflanzen-physiologische Un-
tersuchung in allgemein verstandlicher Form dargestellt von
Dr. A. de Bary, Prof. d. Bot. zu Freiburg, i. B. Mit. 1 Stein-

* The figures (PI. 2, figs. 8 and 9) appear inconsistent with this supposition.
N. H, li.— 1862. 2 K

47G BTBLIOGEAPHT.

drucktafel. Leipzig, A. Forstnersche Buclihandlung (Arthur
Felix), 1861.

This treatise, as its title shows, relates to the well-known
potato disease, which the author, in couimon with other writers,
attributes to the action of Peronospora infestans, a mould which
Dr. de Bary states to be peculiar to the potato, and the allied
species of Solanum. Suggestions are given with regard to
the mode of cultivation, and other precautions which should be
adopted to ward off the disease,
Baut, a. de.— Ueber die Geschlechtsorgane von Peronospora. Bot.
Zeit. 5 April, .1861. Vol. xix. p. 89.

The author states that he has observed in P. calofheca and
P. Alsinearum small curved clavate cells, springing from the
mycelium, which press with their upper end against the wall of
the large vescicular spore cells observed by Tulasne and Caspary.
He considers these latter cells to be 1-spored oogonia, and the small
clavate cells to be antheridia. The spore-cells in their early stage
exhibit an accumulation of granular matter in their interior, not at
first clothed by a membrane. As soon as this ball of granular
matter is formed, the antheridium emits a delicate prolongation
(similar to those of the antheridia of Saprolegnia), which pierces
through the wall of the oogonium, and reaches the granular ball.
The latter then becomes immediately clothed vnth a delicate
colourless membrane, and thus forms an oospore. The contents
of the prolongation are similar to those of the main body of the
antheridia, and no traces of spermatozoa are visible. The forma-
tion of the outer membrane of the oospore of P. Alsinearum from
the surrounding plasma within the oogonium is then described.
The ripe oospore is stated to possess a firm colourless cellulose
membrane inside the dark-brown outer one. The author con-
siders that his observations prove the possibility of the formation
of a cell-membrane directly out of proteine matter, and otherwise
than by secretion from the contents which it surrounds.
BoNORDEN.— Beitrage zur Mykologie. Bot. Zeit. July 12 and 19,
1861. Vol. xix. pp. 193, 201.

Dr. Bouorden's papers contain descriptions of a number of
fungi considered by the author as new species. There are some
remarks upon the genus Cystopus, and upon the sj^ecific distinc-
tions of G. cuhicus and C. candidus, and a doubtful new Cystopus
occurring upon Alisma. He states that the plant figured as
Oidium Tuckeri by von Mohl, in Bot. Zeit. Vol. xi. No. 33,
plate 11, and as Oidium leucoconium by Preuss, in Sturm's
Deutschlaud's Flora, III. Heft. 29-30, Tab. 34, are both identi-
cal with his species Croeysporium fallax. Two new genera are
proposed, " Phacellium " (published in Eabenhorst's Fungi
EuropiiM, Cent. III. 288), belonging to the Isarieee, and distin-
guishable by its septate spores ; and " Polythecium," which is a
compound Cryptosporiiun. The new species described include

CRTPTOGAMIA. 477

an Alysidiuin, a Fusidium, a Fusisporium, four Torulas, an
Oidium, a Hormodondron, two Crocysporiums, a Cephalosporium,
au Aspergillus, a Cylindrophora and a Boletus.

Berkeley aud Broome. — Notices of British Fungi. By the Eev.
M. J. Berkeley, M.A. F.L.S. and C. E. Broome, Esq., A. N. H.
3d Ser. Vol. vii. pp. 373 and 449.

Broome. — See Berkeley.

Cienkowski. — Ueber parasitische Sclilauche auf Crustaceen und
einigen Insektenlarven (Amwbidium para^iticum, m.) von Pro£
L. Cienkowski. Bot. Zeit. 21 June, 18G1. Vol. xix. p. 168.

Lieberkuhn (MiJller's Arcliir. 1856. p. 494) and Schenk
(Verh. der ph. med. Ges. in Wvirzburg, 1858) have described
certain organisms parasitic upon the gills of the larvae of Phry-
ganea, Aselhts aquaticus, and Gammarus pulex. These organ-
isms have been since examined by Prof Cienkowski, who consi-
ders them to be forms of a unicellular plant, to which, from the
amoeboid character of its oospores, and its parasitic habit, he has
given the name of Anwebidium parasiticum. Cienkowski found
the plant on Phryganea and Gammarus pulex, and also very
plentifully upon the larvae of gnats. It is tubular or sac-shaped,
unicellidar, and variable in form ; the largest plants were 0.5™°^
long by 0.01™™ broad; the smallest 0.015™™ long. In the spring
they produce in their interior spindle or sac- shaped bodies which
escape tlirough the cell-wallof the mother plant, being sometimes
projected by the elastic contraction of that cell- wall. Pear-shaped
zoospores are afterwards formed, which when free exhibit amoe-
boid expansions aud contractions, but are distinguishable from
Amoeba diffluens, which they much resemble, by the absence of a
contractile cavity. These zoospores eventually become motion-
less, and at once produce spindle-shaped bodies (young Amoebidia)
in their interior, or they become transformed into resting spores
which, after a time, also produce young Amoebidia. The author
concludes that Amoebidium is a plant belonging to the lower
algae or fungi. He then proceeds to describe a very singular
growth as to which he was long in doubt whether it belonged to,
or was parasitic upon, the Amoebidium. He describes the stages
of development of this growth, which is attached to the sides of
the Amoebidium, and when perfect consists of a large obovate or
pear-shaped cell, crowned with moniliform rows of cells like the
head of an xlspergillus. He concludes that it is a fungus, but
of doubtful affinity, and calls it Basidiolum fimbriatum.

CoEMANS. — Eugene, contra Bonorden. Bot. Zeit. 6 Sept. 1861.

Bonorden, in the paper noticed above, had objected that the
plants No. 232 aud 233, in liabenhorst's third Century, had been
wrongly described by Coemans as the pycnidiferous and spermo-
goniferous forms of Dermatea Cerasi. Coemans here states that
the name given to No. 232 has been confirmed by Tulasne ; but
with regai-d to No. 233, he now considers it a spermogoniferous

47^ BTBTilOGHAPnT,

form of Valsa leucostoma, Fr. He objects tliat Bonorden's proposed
genus, Polythecium, does not differ from Leveille's Micropera.
CoEMANS. — Monographie du genre Pilobolus, Tode, Specialement
etudie au point de vue anatomique et physiologique, par Eugene
Coemans. Memoires couronnes et memoires des savants etran-
gers publics par rAeademie royale des Sciences, des lettres, et des
beaux-arts de Belgique. Tom. xxx.

This monograph is divided into four parts. The first contains
a concise account of the different works which have from time to
time appeared on the genus Pilobolus, commencing with Henry
Baker's essay in 174!4, and concluding with Mons. Coeman's own
paper in the 8th vol. of the Bull, de F Acad, royale de Belgique.

The second part relates to the anatomy of the plants, and
treats separately of the root-like rliizome, the stem or fruit-
bearing cellule, and the globule or sj)orange. The author observes
that one rhizome may produce as many as fifty fructifying cel-
lules. The stem with its membrane and septa is then described ;
after that the sporangium, the structure of which is somewhat
■complicated ; and lastly, the spores.

The third part relates to the physiology, commencing with
the germination of the spores, wliicli is stated to commence by
expansion and ramification of the outer membrane. A mycelium
is formed after from 4 to 8 days, and from this the fructification
Tirises. The author considers that the pearly drops of moisture so
common on the stem of Pilobolus, are produced from the sap of
the plants by the pressure of a gentle endosmotic current passing
into the stem through the basal septum. M. Coemans observed
that the sporangum was projected to different distances, the
greatest being 1 metre 5 centimetres, or more than 300 times the
height of the plant. This pi'ojectiou is supposed by the author
to be caused by the force of the ascending endosmotic current,
assisted probably by the contraction of the " cellule fructifere,"
lander the influence of light. The different " habitants " of Pilo-
bolus, and the curious oscillations in the dewdrops, are noticed
and explained. The plant is said to have its proper place amongst
the Mucorinea?, next to Ascophora. We have not space to notice
the fourth (or systematic) part of this paper beyond saying that
after a careful re^^ew of the five kno^\Ti supposed species, M. Coe-
mans reduces them to two certain ones, P. crystallinus and
P. cedipus, and one very doubtful one, viz. P. roridiis

Tavre, L. — Tuber bnmiale (truffe d'hiver). — Morchella conica
(morille conique). Bull, de la Soc. d. Sc. Nat. de Neuchatel,
Vol. V. p 522.

Fries. — Note sur la distribution geographique des Champignons,
par M. Elie™ Pierre Fries. A. S. N. 4 Ser. Vol. xv.

Fries, E. — Sveriges atliga och giftiga svampar tecknade efter natu-
rcn, utgitha af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. 8 plates, folio.
Stockholm, 1860.

CRYPTO OAMIA. 479

FucKEL. — Enumeratio fungorum Nassovise, collectorum a Leopoldo
Fuckel, Series I. cum tabula lithographica (Figuree ab auctore
ipso coloratse). Ex Anual. Soc. Nass. Nat. scrut. F. xv. p. 1.
Wiesbaden, Julius Niedner, 1861.

A Collection of dried Fungi has been published by this

author. It contains 800 of the species referred to in the above
" Enumeratio."

Mykologisches, von L. Fuckel. Bot. Zeit. 30 Aug. 18G1.

Vol. xix. p. 249.

This paper contains some detached observations on different
fungi (accompanied by figures), of which the following is a sum-
mary : —

1. Sclerotium compactum, D. C. b. Helianthi Eabh. This
Sclerotium, sown in March, produced at the beginning of June a
new Peziza, called by the author P. Sclerotii. It is nearly allied
to P. Caucus, Fr.

2. A new species of Actinothyrium (called A. Ci/tisi), on
Cytisus sagittalis, Kch.

3. Remarks on the double fructification of Uredo Alchemillce,
proposing a new genus for its reception under the name of
Trachyspora. Unless there is some error of observation, which
we strongly suspect, the genus seems admissible.

4. Remarks on the destructive effects of Cytispora riihescens,
Fr. upon living plants of Primus Armeniaca.

5. 6, 7, and 8. Descriptions of new species of Ceratostoma,
Dilophospora, Peziza, and Fusidium. The Peziza seems a fine
species. It is considered by the author to be allied to P. vogesiaca,
M. and N., and P. rhizopus, A. and S.

9. A new genus, Byssothecium circinans, highly destructive
to Medicago sativa. An interesting plant, classed by the author
with the Perisporiacei, but apparently more nearly allied to
Hendersonia.

HoPFMiVJ^N. — Icones analyticse Fungorum. Abbildungen undBeschrei-
buugen von Pilzen mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Anatomic und
Entwickelungsgeschichte von Hermann Hoftmann, Professor der
Botanik in Griessen. Heft. I, und II, Giessen. 18G1 und 18G2.
12 plates.

Kepekstein, "W. — Ueber parasitische Pilze aus Ascaris mystax.
Z. W. Z. 1861. xi. p. 135.

MuENTER. — Sur I'ergot du Seigle et sur les Sclerotium en general,
consideres au point de vue morphologique, par M. J. Muenter,
professeur de botauique a I'Universite de Grreifswald. Bruss.
Bull. 2me Ser. vol. xi. p. 215.

M. Muenter saved some specimens of Sclerotium varium in
the month of December 1857 ; after the lapse of a year and a
half — viz. in July 1859 — the Sclerotium gave rise to a Peziza
dift'ering from Feziza tuherosa, Bull, in its pedicel and disk, as

480 BrBLIOGEA-PHT.

■vvell as ill Its size and colour. The author lias named the plant
Penza Antzii, iu memorT of the late Dr. Antz.

Otth, G.— TJeber die Brand- und Eostpilze. Bern. ISIitth. 1S61.
p. 57.

PASTErB. — De rinfluence de la Temperature sur la fecondite des
spores de Mucedinees, par M. L. Pasteur. C. Eend. 7 Jan. 1861.

Sur k fermentation acetique, par M. Louis Pasteur.

This note relates to some properties of plants belonging to the
genus Mycoderma, with regard to the acetification of alcoholic
liquids.

PoKOR>T. — Ueber die angeblich thierische !Xatur der Schleimpilze
(Myxomycetes), von Dr. A. Pokomy.

This paper consists of a short argument against De Bary's pro-
posal to transfer the Myxomycetous fungi to the animal kingdom.
De Bary's views will be found in Siebold and Kolliker's Zeit-
Bchrift far wiss. Zool. vol." x. p. 88.

Eemt. — Champignons et ti'uifes. par Jules Eemy. Avee 12 planches.
Paris, Libraire Agricole. ISmo. 179 pp.

EorssoL. — Des Champignons comestibles et veneneux qui croissent
dans les environs de Paris, par Ernest Eoussel. 8vo. pp. 68.
Eouen, Paris, Y. Masson et fils.

Saile. — Culture des champignons, avec Tindication d'une methode
nouvelle pour en obtenir en tons lieux par I'emploi de la mousse.
2me edition, IS, 51 pp. Paris.

ScHLECTE^TDAii. — Eine neue Phalloidee, nebst Bemerkungen iiber
die ganze FamiHe derselben, von D. F. L. v. Schlectendal.
Linnsea, vol. xxxi. p. 101.

This paper commences with some account of the literature

relating to the Phalloideae, including Oschatz's observations of

the germination of the spores of Fhallus impudiciis. The author

then proceeds to a rearrangement of the family, retaining the

genus Phallus, vdih. which he unites Dictyophallus of Corda,

Next to Phallus is placed Simblum ; and it is ia this genus that

the new plant referred to in the title of the paper occurs. It is

called by Prof. Schlectendal Simblum sphcEmcephalum, and is

the first of the genus which has occurred ui South America. A

coloured figure is given at the end of the paper. Simblum is

followed by Pcetidaria of St. Hilaire (a genus nowhere figured

and only imperfectly known, but which the author considers to

have much resemblance to Simblum ) ; then comes Colus, Cav.

and Sech. ; then Latemea of Turpin, and then Clathrus, iti

which latter genus is placed Berkeley's Heodiciyon gracile, — the

genua lleodietyon (which follows Clathrus) being confined to

/. ciharium of Tulasne. Staurophallus, Mont., Aserophallus, Lap.

and ;Mont., Lysurus, Fr., and Aseroe, La Bill., foi-m the group of

Lysoroideae, Calathiseus of Montague being united with the latter

genus in a separate section. The paper concludes with a notice

of two plants observed by Loureiro iu Cochin China, and called

CETPTOOAMTA. 481

by him respectively PJialhis impudictis and Clathrus Campana. The
author is of opinion that both these plants belong to the genus
Phallus, but that the former is not identical with P. impudicus.
"We may add that the accoiint of the growth of the spores in
Phallus given at the head of that genus is probably incorrect,
resting as it would seem to do solely upon Oschatz's observations.
Tulasne, in his " JSelecta Fungorum Carpologia," recently pub-
lished, states that the cellular body supposed by Oschatz to have
been produced by the germination of Fhalhis impiidicus was, ia
fact, the spore of some Sporidesmium.

Steeisz. — IS^omenclator Fxmgorum exhibens ordine alphabetico
nomina tarn generica quam specifica ac synonyma a scriptoribus
de scientia botanica fungis imposita auctore "Wenzeslao Matemo
Streinz. Karl Gorischek, AVien.

This work goes beyond its title in containing a Bibliography
of Mycology, in addition to the catalogue of genera and species.

"\YiGA>T).— Ziu" Morphologic und Systematik der Gattungen Trichia
und Arcvria von A. "Wigand. Pringsheiin's Jahrbiicher fiir wiss.
Bot. voL 3. p. 1.

Tliis paper treats of the anatomy of the genera Trichia and
Arcyria, and contains a systematic accoimt of the species. At the
end are some remarks as to the position of the Myxomycetes with
regard to the animal and vegetable kingdoms, in which the author
disputes De Bary's views. The paper is illustrated with three
plates.

5. Algce.

AEEOJrDEAU.— Essai sur les conferves des Environs de Toulouse;
par M. Arrondeau. Act. Soc. Linn, de Bordeaux. 3e Serie,
t. iv. p. 27.

Beadt, G-. S.— Algological !Xotes. Tynes. Trans, v. 74.

CiEyKOWSKi. — (See under the head " Fungi.")

Do>'ki:n*, AEinrE Scott. — On the Marine Diatomacese of Xorthum-
berland, with a description of several new species. Q. J. M. Sc.
New Ser. I. p. 1.

DrcHi;s>'E-DrPAEC, L.V. — 'Dufucus vesiculosus (chene marin, laitue
marine), de ses proprietes fondantes et de sou emploi contre
I'obesite, etc. Paris.

Fleischee. — Ueber JProtococciis roseo-persicinus, Kq. Wurt.
Jahrb. xvii. p. 55.

FEESE:sirs. — Ueber einige Diatomeen von G. Fresenius, Senckenb.
Proc. Yol. iv. p. 63.

Dr. Fresenius describes and figures four species of JTaWcula,
one being new, Finnidaria Silesiaca, Bleisch. and Amphora Sa~
Una, W. Smith. In his introductory remarks he proposes the
adoption of the terms " frons" and '' latus," to express what Eng-
lish observers call the " front view" and " side ^dew."

482 BIBLIOGEAPHT.

Geay, J. E. — On tlie Arrangement of tlie Families and Genera of

Chlorospermous Algae. An. N. H. 3 Ser. viii. p. 404
Geesslt. — Plantes marines du genre des Ulves. Bull, de la Soc. d.

So. Nat. de Neuchatel. Vol. v- p. 522.
Gbeville, R. K. — Descriptions of New and Eare Diatoms.
Ser. I. London Mic. Trans. Vol. ix. p. 39.
Ser. II. „ „ „ p. 67.

Ser. III. „ „ „ p. 73.

Ser. IV. „ „ „ p. 79.

Harvey. — Phycologia Australica ; a History of Australian Sea-
weeds, by William Henry Harvey, M.D., F.E.S. Vol. iv.
Hendey, W. — On Hyalodkcus stihtilis {Craspedodiscus Franhlini).

Q. J. M. S. New Ser. I. p. 179.
■ On AmpMpleura peUiinda. Q. J. M. S. New Ser. I.

p. 87.

On Navicula rJwmboides. Q. J. M. S. New Ser. I. p. 231.

Hicks, J. B. — On the Motionless Species {stato-spores) of Volvox

globator. Q. J. M. S. New Ser. I. p. 2S1.
■ Contributions to the Knowledge of tlie Develoj^ment of the

Gonidia of Lichens, in relation to the Unicellular Algse. Q. J.

M. S. New Ser. I. pp. 15, 90.

On the Diamorphosis of Lynghya, Schlzogonuim, and Pra-

siola, and their connection with so-called Palmellaceaj. Q. J.
Mic. Sc. New Ser. I. p. 157.

HiLDEBEAND. — Uebcr ein Chroolepus mit Zoosporenbildung, von
Dr. Hildebrand. Bot. Zeit. 29 March, 1S61. Vol. xix. p. 81.

Dr. Hildebrand gives an account of a species of Chroolepus
considered by the author to be new, but which he states to have
been pronounced by Kiitzing to be a form of the protean Chroo-
lepus aureum. The author gives an account of the production
of zoospores from flask-shaped cells which appear to be some-
times terminal, sometimes lateral. The zoospores do not difter
materially from those described by Caspary in the Flora for
1858 as produced by 0. aureum var. tomentosum. The author's
experiments tend to show that warmth and moisture are neces-
sary for the production of the zoospores, but that the presence
of light is not essential. He observed that as a rule the number
of zoospores is always either 32 or 61;. He observed the com-
mencement of their germination by self-division. Tlie author
proposes " lageniferum" as the specific name on account of the
shape of the zoosporangia. The plant occurred on the bark of
climbing plants in the Palm House of the Botanical Garden at
Bonn.

Jakiscu, C. — Zur Charakteristik des Guano's von Verschiedenen
Fandorten. (Figures of Diatomaceae.) Schlcsisch. Abhand.
ISGl. p. 150.

KUtzing, F. T. — Tabulae phycologicae od. Abbildgu. der Tauge.
A^ol. 12, pts. 1 to 5. 8vo. 50 plates.

CBTPTOQAMIA. 483

Lambeet ct BuRGTJE. — Etudes sur les Algues dans le departement
de I'Aisne ; par M. M. Ed. Lambert et Burgue, in 8vo. pp. 109.
(Extr. du Bulletin de la Societe litteraire et scientifique de
Chauny (Aisne). Paris, F. Savy.

Lespinasse. — Les Zoospores et les Antherozoides des Algues, Mstoire
de la decouverte, du mouvement et des fonctions pliysiologiques de
ces organes ; par M. Gr. Lespinasse. Bourd. Soc, Linn. 1861.

Lewis, F. W. — Notes on new and rare species of DiatomacefB of the
United States Sea Board. Phil. Proc. 1861. p. 61.

LoBB. — On the self-division of Micrasterias denticulata. Lond. Mic.
Trans. 1861. p. 1.

NaGELi. — Beitriige zur Morphologie und Systematik der Ceramiaceae-
Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bayerischen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften zu Miinchen. Vol. ii. p. 297.

Tlie reputation of the author will ensure the attention of
Botanists to this paper on the structure, reproduction, and classi-
fication of the Ceramiacese. Its length precludes any detailed
account of it ia this place.

Nate. — Algologische Notizen von J. Nave in Briinn. Bot. Zeit.
17 May, 1861. Vol. xix. p. 131.

In this paper the author in the first instance endeavours to
show that Microhaloa originates from the discharged contents
of the cells of the threads of Tolypothrix. The formation of
Merismopaedia by division of the cells of Microhaloa, is after-
wards noticed, and he then mentions the occurrence of a Micro-
cystis very like Microcystis ceruginosa, Ktzg. which appeared to
arise from the irregular division and subsequent disintegration of
the Merismo])a3diae. He considers the connection between Toly-
pothrix and Microhaloa exti^emely probable, that the connection
between Microhaloa and Merismopaedia is beyond doubt, and the
connection betAveen the latter and Microcystis a very probable one.

NoEMAN, Geoege. — On some uudescribed species of Diatomacese.
Lond. Mic. Trans. 1861. p. 3.

Ntlandee. — Diatomaceis Fenniae fossilibus additamentum ; auct.
M. W. Ny Ian der. Saellskapets pro Fauna et Flora fennica
Notiser. Vol. vi. N. S. p. 147. (Published separately in 8vo.
pp.12).

■ Notula circa Spermosiram et Nodulariam Algarum genera,

scripsit William Nylander. A. S. N. Vol. xv. p. 34.

In this note Dr. Nylander expresses an opinion that Nodu-
laria Suhriana, Klitz. Tab. Phyc. is probably only a young state
of Spermosira littoralis, Harv., and that possibly Spermosira
Vrieseona, and litorea Kiltz. may be also only states of S. lit-
toralis.

Sciienk. — Zur Kenntniss der geschlechtlichen Fortpflanzung der

Gattung Vaucheria, von Schenk. Wiirz. N. Z. Vol. ii. p. 201.

The first portion of this paper contains a very short account

of the development of the male and female organs of Vaucheria

4iS4i BIBLIOGRAPHY.

terrestris find V. coespitosa, and of the act of impregnation. Tlie
rest is devoted to a discussion of Karsten's opinions on the sub-
ject of Vaucheria, which the author (adopting Pringsheim's
views) considers to be erroneous.
Stodder, Charles. — Eeport on Slides of Diatomacefe, mounted by
E. Samuels, for Boston (U. S.) Society of Natural History. Lou.
Mic. Trans. 1861. p. 25.

6. Miscellanea of Cryptogamic Botany .

Berg. — Charakteristik der fiir die Arzneikunde und Tecknik wich-
tigsten Pflanzen-Gattungen, oder Atlas zur pharmazeutischen
Botanik, von Dr. Otto Berg, Zweite Auflage. Berlin. 1861.
Gaertner.

Tliis volume relates principally to phsenogams ; but contains
also figures of a few species of Fungi, Algae, Lichens, Mosses,
and Ferns.

Comment ario della Societa crittogamologica Italiana. N. 1. Feb-
brajo, 1861. Geneva co' tipi del E. J. de' Sordo-Muti. A spese
degli Editori dell Erbario crittogamico Italiano. 1861. pp. 45 and
2 lith. plates.

This work is a companion to a collection of Italian cryp-
togamic plants in course of publication. The following are
the contents of the present part: — 1. Cesati on the crypto-
gamic vegetation in the neighbourhood of Vercelli and Biella.
2. Baglietto on some new lichens. 3. De Notaris and Bag-
Hetto on Opegrapha poetarum. 4. De Notaris on Stereopeltis,
a new genus of lichens. 5. De Notaris on a new Octaviana.
C. De Notaris on a new species of Coccosporium. 7. Dufour
on some marine Algse. 8. Caldesi on Sphceria Petrucciana.
9. Gennari on a new species of Isoetes. The part concludes with
an account of the works on cryptogamic botany published in
1860 ; from which it appears that Ease. VII. VIII. and IX. of
the " Erbario ci'ittogamico Italiano" appeared in that year.

Hedwioia. — Ein Notizblatt fiir kryptogamische Studien.

This publication appears very irregularly at considerable in-
tervals of time. We have not been able to meet with all the
parts for 1861. Those which we have seen contain a paper on
Pseudogonidia by Nave, and one on Sphceria Hoffmanni, Er. by
Hofl'mami.

Montaune. — Elorula Gorgonea seu Enumeratio plantarum cellu-
larium quas in Promontorio Viridi (Cap Vei-t) insulisque adja-
ceutibus a divcrsis botanicis et imprimis CI. Bolle, berolinieiisi,
hucusque coUectas, recognovit descripsitque C. Montague, D. M.
A. S. N. 4 Ser. xiv. p. 211.

Neuvi^me centurie de plantes cellulaires nouvelles tant indi-

CRTPTOOAMIA. 485

genes qu"" exotiques. Par Camille Montagne, D. M. Decades I

et II. A. S. N. xiv. p. 167.

This paper contains descriptions of some new Algse, Lichens,

Fungi, and Hepaticse. There is one new genus, an Alga, called

Trichosolen, belonging to the Valoniese, and allied to Ascotham-

nion and Valonia.
Nylajstder. — Grrana qusedam botanica parva oftert "W. Nylander.

Bot. Zeit. 24< May, 1861. vol. xix. p. 142.

Dr. Nylander suggests some alterations in cryptogamic

terminology with regard, 1st, to the fruit, and 2ndly, to the mode

of cell-division.
Eabbniioest. — Additional fascicles have appeared of the following: —

Bryotheca Europaea. — Die Algen Evu'opa's. — Lichenes Europsei

exsiccati. — Hepaticse Europsese. — Eungi Europsei exsiccati.
Specimen Elorse cryptogamse septem insularum editum juxta plantas

Mazziarianas herbarii Heufleriani et speciatim quoad Filices her-

barii Tommasiniani :

1. Cryptogamas vasculares recensuit Dr. H. W. Eeichardt.

2. Muscos frondosos recensuit J. Juratzka.

3. Hepaticas recensuit Dr. C. M. Gottsche.

4. Algas recensuit A. Grunow.
Wien. Z. V. B. vol. xi. p. 411.

Jack, Lentee, and Stitzenbergee. — Ivryptogamen Badens.

The tenth fascicle of this collection has been published.
MiTTEis^. — Musci et Hepaticae Vitieuses. Auctore W. Mitten. Bon-

plandia, 1861, p. 365.
Stizenbergee. — Versuch zur Bereinigung der Terminologie fur die

Eortpflanzvmgsorgane der bliithen-losen Pflanzen, von Dr. Ernst

Stizenberger, Arzt in Constance. Eeg. El. 1861. pp. 193, 208,

225.
Ulotu. — Beitrage zur Elora der Laubmoose und Elechten in Kur-

hessen. Von Wilh. Ulott, Chemiker in Nanheim. Eeg. El. 1861,

passim.
WestejSTDoep. — Sur quelques Cryptogames nouvelles ou inedites

pour la flore beige, septi^me notice; par G. D. "Westendorp,

medecin de bataillon au 12me regiment de ligue. Brass. Bull.

2me Ser. vol. xi. p. 644.

486

Mistdlanca*

(Vjl

The Pile Dwellings on Lake Prasias.

Our readers will remember the passage in which Herodotus describes
the Lake dwellings on L. Prasias. We learn from the " Eevue de
rinstruction Publique" that these have been re-discovered by M.

Deville. .

" L'auteur," it is said, " determine I'emplacement de 1 ancien lac
Prasias, decrit ses habitations lacustres sur pHotis, analogues a celles
qu'avait decrites Herodote, et fixe avec plus de precision qu'on ne
I'avait fait jusqu'ici les situations d'CEsyme, de Dates et de Neapolis.
Enfin quelques inscriptions qu'il a recueillies sur les marbres antiques
nous apportent aussi d'interessantes notions particulierement sur les
mceurs des peuples thraces."

"We shall read with much interest the detailed account of
M. Deville's discovery.

On the Genus Ctnips.

The genus Cynips is specially interesting to physiologists because,
though the species are numerous and the individuals innumerable,
no Entomologist has yet found any male representative of the group.
In the Phil. Trans, for 1858, Mr. Lubbock has described and figured
the development of the ova in Ci/nips KoUari, then known (though
as it appears erroneously) imder the name of C. lignicola, a species
which lives on the oak, and makes round hard galls about as large
as a nut. It presents in addition an interesting example of a change
in geographical distribution. Unknown in this country until Avithin
the last few years, it then appeared in the south-west of England,
whence it gradually spread eastward. Mr. Frederick Smith, Presi-
dent of the Entomological Society, at the July meeting of the Society,
stated that about three years ago it appeared in the woods near Lon-
don, especially on the north side, in very large numbers ; but in the
second year of its appearance the tomtits had discovered that each
gall contained a fine fat grub, and the result was that it was now
difficult to obtain a perfect gall. Mr. Walker corroborated Mr.
Smith's account, both of the appearance and the approximate exter-
mination of the species in the woods near Highgate ; and Prof Ayest-
wood expressed a hope that the fact would be made known as widely
as possible, since it attbrded an additional argument to the many al-
ready produced in opposition to the indiscriminate slaughter of small
birds-

INDEX.

Abietinece, Dr. Eobert Caspaiy on the

Morphology of the Female Flower of

the, 19
Acephala, Bibliography of the (1861),

338
Actinozoa, Bibhogi-aphy of the (1861),

340
Algse, Bibliography of the (1861), 481
Amphibia, Bibliography of (1861), 206
Anartliropoda, Bibliography of (1861),

228
Annelida, Bibliography of, 228.
Annuloida, Bibliography of, (1861), 228
Annulosa, Bibliography of (1861), 212
Anthocleista, 118
Apteryx Australis, Sj-c, Prof Hyrtl on

a Rete Mii-abile in the leg of, 101
Arachiiida and Myriapoda, Bibliography

of the (1861), 214
Aristotle's History of Animals, W.

Houghton on the Desirability of an

English Translation of, 136

„ Eemarks on the Translation

of the Fu-st Chapter of, 329
Arteria viediana linguee, Prof. HjTtI on

the, 104
Arteries, Tibial and Peroneal, Prof

Hyrtl on the Rami perforantes of the,

105
Artery, Radial, in the Cheiroptera, Prof.

Hyrtl on the, 99
Aiihropoda, Bibliography of the (1861),

212
Atlantic Islands, Flora of the, 163
Atlantis, H}']3othesis, in its Botanical

aspect. Professor Oliver on the, 149
Aves, Bibliography of (1861), 199

Bate, C, Spence and J. O. Westwood —
History of British SessUc-eyed Cnis-
tacea, Review of, 130
Batrachia, Prof. Hyrtl on the Veins in

the, 100
Bibliography (1861) of— Acephala, 338
„ Actinozoa, 340

„ Algffi, 481

„ Anarthropoda, 228

„ Annulosa, 212

„ Arachnida, 214

„ Arthropoda, 212

„ Aves, 199

„ Botanical, 416

„ Brachiopoda, 339

N. H. E.— 1862.

Bibliography (1861) of— Coelenterata,34G
„ Crustacea, 212

„ Ciyptogamia, 470

„ „ (Miscellanea),

484

„ Filicales, 470

„ Fungi, 475

„ General and Mixed (Zoolo-

gical), 190

„ Hydrozoa, 341

„ Insecta, 215

„ Lichens, 473

„ Mammalia, 194

Mollusca, 333
MoUuscoida, 340
Muscales, 472
Periodicals (Additional
List), 189

Phanerogamia, 416
Pisces, 208
Protozoa, 342
Reptilia and Amphibia,
206
Bimana, I. Geofifroy St. Hilaire on the

Order, 2
Birds of the Mackenzie Eiver District,

List of the, 276
Bone, Occipital, Prof. Hyrtl on the

Pneumatic Processes of the, 95
Brachiopoda, Bibliography of the (1861),

339
Brain of Apes and Man, I. Geofiroy St.

Hilaire on the, 6
Britons, Ancient, Note by J. B. Davis
on the Distortions which present them-
selves in the Crania of the, 290

Calluna vulgaris, in Massachusetts, 346

Camivora of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 271

Caspary, Eobt., on the Morphology of
the Female Flower of the Abietineas,
19

Cedars, of Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria,
and India, Dr. Hooker on the, 1 1

Cedrus Atlantica, 15
„ Deodar a, 16

Cephalophora, Bibliography of the
(1861), 335

Cerceris, Notice of M. Fabre's Memoir
on the Genus, 122

Cheiroptera of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 276

2 L

488

TNDE5.

Cheiroptera, Prof. Hyrtl on the Radial
Artery in the, 99

Chnrch, W. S., on the Myology of
the Orang-Utang, 82

Cleland, John, on the Anatomy of the
Short Sun-Yish. {Orthaooriscus Mola),
170

Ccelenterata, Bibliography of the (1861),
340

Cord, Spinal, W. B. Kesteven's Report
on Recent Researches into the Mi-
nute Anatomy of the, 377

Crania of the Ancient Britons, Note by
J. B. Davis on the Distortions which
present themselves in the, 290

Craniometiy and Craniology, Review of
various works on, 347

Crustacea, Bibliography of (1861), 212
„ A History of British Sessile-

eyed, by C. S. Bate and J. O. West-
wood, Review of, 130

Cryptogamia, Bibliography of the (1861),
470

Currey, Fred., on the Germination of
Iltticularia umbrina, 406

Ct/nips, Note on the Genus, 486

Darwin, C, on Dimorphism in Frimula,
118

„ " On the Two Forms or Dimor-
phic Conditions in the Species of Pri-
mula, and on their remarkable Sexual
Relations," Review of, 235

„ " On the various Contrivances
by which British and Foreign Orchids
are Fertilized by Insects, and on the
good effects of Intercrossing," Review
of, 371
Davis, Jos. Barnard, Note on the Dis-
toi-tions which present themselves in
the Crania of the Ancient Britons, 290
Dicotyledons, Prof. Oliver on the Stnic-

turc of the Stem in, 298

Elephant, Sumatran, Prof. II. Schlegel
on the, 72

Fabre,M., Notice of the Writings of, 121
Fihcales, Bibliography ofthe (1861), 470
Fish, Prof. Hyrtl, on Intervertebral

Synostoses and Sutures in, 103
Fishes and Reptiles, on Collecting and

Preserving Specimens of, 233.
Fitzinger, L. J., " Die Ausbeute der
Oesterreichischen Naturfurscher an
Siiugtehiereu und Reptilien wahrend
der Weltumsegelung Sr. Majestats
Fregatte Novara," Notice of, 9
Flora ofthe Atlantic Islands, 163

Flora, European, Relations to the Ter-
tiary Flora, 154

„ of Japan, Relations of, to that of N.
America, 159

„ Tertiary, Relations to the existing
Flora of America, 159
„ „ Europe, 156

Fungi, Bibliography ofthe (1861), 475

Geoffi'oy, Hilaire St. Isidore, " Histoire
Naturelle Generale des Regnes Orga-
niques," Tom. II., Review of, 1

Gleichiina dichotoma , 118

Grallatores of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 284

Heterocyathi, and their Parasitical Si-
punciilus, J. D. Macdonald on the
Australian and Feegeean, 78

Hooker, J. D., on the Cedars of Lebanon,
Taurus, Algeria, and India, 1 1

Houghton, W., on the Desirability of an
English Translation of Aristotle's
History of Animals, 136

„ Reply to the Remarks

on the Translation ofthe First Chapter
of Aristotle's History of Animals, 408

Hydrozoa, Bibliogi-aphyof the (1861), 341

Hyrtl,Professor, Anatomical Notes by, 95

Insecta, Bibliography of (1861 ), 215
Insectivora, of the Mackenzie River

District, List of the, 271
Insessores, of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 278

Kestevcn, W. B., a Report on Recent
Researches into the Minute Anatomy
of the Spinal Cord, 377

Lake-Habitations of Switzerland, J.

Lubbock on the Ancient, 26
Lake Prasias, on Pile Dwellings on, 486
Lartet, E. New Researches respecting
the Co-existence of Man with the
Great Fossil INIammals, regarded as
characteristic of the latest Geological
Period, (Translation), 53
Leiopelmn Ilochstettcri, 10
Lichens, Bibliography of the (1861), 473
Lubbock, John, on the Ancient Lake Ha-
bitations of Switzerland, 26

„ Note on the Co-existence

of Man, with the Dlnornis in New
Zealand, 343

„ On the Evidence of the

Antiquity of Man, afforded by the
Phvsical Structure of the Somme
Vallev, 244

INDEX.

489

Lubbock, Jolin, on Parthenogenesis in
the Silk- Worm Moth, 345

Macdonald, J. D., Observations on some
Australian and Feegeean Heterocyathi
and their parasitical Sipunculus, 78

Mackenzie River District, Bernard H.
Ross on the Mammals, Birds, &c. of
the, 269

Mammalia, Bibliography of (1861), 194

Mammals in the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 271.

Mann, G., Ascent of the Peak of St.
Thomas, 118

Man, Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire on
the Systematic Position of, 1
„ M. Lartet on his Co-existence with
the Great Fossil Animals regarded as
characteristic of the latest Geological
Period, 53

„ J. Lubbock on the Evidence of the
Antiquity of, 244

„ Note by J. Lubbock, on the Co-
existence of Man with the Dinoimis
in New Zealand, 343

MoUusca, Bibliography of the (1861),
333

Molluscoida, Bibliography of the (1861),
340

Muscales, Bibliography of the (1861),
472

Natatores of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 286
Nei-ves, " Endless," Prof. Hyrtl on, 96
Novara Expedition, Notice respecting
the Collections of the, 2

Oliver, Professor, on the Atlantis Hypo-
thesis in its Botanical Aspect, 149

„ On the Structure of the

Stem in Dicotyledons; being Refer-
ences to the Literature of the Subject,
298

Orang-Utang, W. S. Church on the My-
ology of the, 82

„ J. L. C. Schroeder van

der Kolk and W. Vrolik, Note sur
I'Encephale de r, 111

Orchids, Review of Mr. Dai-win's "Work
on the Fertilization of, 371

Orthafforisciis Mola, (Short Sun-Fish),
J. Cleland on the Anatomy of, 170

„ W. Turner on the

Stracture and Composition of the In-
tegument of, 185

Parthenogenesis in the Silk-Worm
Moth, 345

Periodicals, Bibliography of, (Additions
to former Lists), 189

Periosteum Orl)ital, W. Turner, upon a
non-striped Muscle connected with
the, 106

Phanerogamia, Bibliography of (1861),
416

Pilc-Dwellings, on Lake Prasias, dis-
covery of, 486

Pisces, Bibliography of (1861), 208

Podocarpus, 118

Primula, C Darwin on Dimorphism in,
118

„ Review of Mr. Darwin's Ob-
servations on the Two Foitos, or Di-
morphic Conditions in the Species of,
235

Protozoa, Bibliography "of (1861), 342

Raptores of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 276

Rasores of the Mackenzie River Disti'ict,
List of the, 283

Reptilia and Amphibia, Bibliography of
(1861), 206

Retia mirabilia, Prof. Hyrtl on some
Additions to our knowledge of, 101

Beticnlaria uvthrina, Fred. CuiTcy on
the Germination of, 406

Rodentia of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, 274

Ross, Bernard H., on the Mammals,
Birds, &c. of the Mackenzie River
District, 269

Ruminantia of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, 275

Scansores of the Mackenzie River Dis-
trict, List of the, 277

Schlegel, Prof. H., on the Sumati'an
Elephant, 72

Schroeder van der Kolk, J. L. C. and
W. Vrolik, Note sur I'Encephale de
I'Orang-Outang, 111

Scouler, John, Remarks on the Trans-
lation of the First Chapter of Aristotle's
History of Animals, 329

Silk-Worm Moth, J. Lubbock on Par-
thenogenesis in the, 345

Sifunculus Heterocyathi, Figure and
Description of, 81

Sitaris hu7neraUs, M. Fabre's Observa-
tions on, 129

Skidls, Wyville Thomson on Distorted
Human, 397

Somme Valley, J. Lubbock on the Evi-
dences of the Antiquity of Man af-
forded by the Phvsical Stnicture of
the, 244

490

n^DEX.

Spliex, Notice of M. Fabre's Observa-
tions on the Genus, 126

St. Thomas, Mr. Mann's Ascent of the
Peak of, 118

Suctoria, Bibliography of, 228

Sim-Fish, J. Cleland on the Anatomy
of, 170

Switzerland, John Lubbock on the An-
cient Lake Habitations of, 26

Thomson, Wyville, on Distorted Human

Skulls, 397
Tulasne, L. E. and C, " Selecta Fun-

gonim Carpologia," Review of, 361

Tumhoa, 346

Turner, W., upon a non-striped Muscle
connected with the Orbital Periosteum
of Man and Mammals, and on the
Musculus Kcrato-cricoideus, 106
„ On the Structure and Composi-
tion of the Integument of Orthagoris-
cus viola, 185

Viper, Note on the Habits of the, 118,

231
Vein, Ophthalmic, joining the Portal

System, Prof. Hyrtl on the, 100

NAT.HISi.H^V.

Yol.ILPUtel

Ktch-dd.etliftL

" "VY.Westimp.

Ceclru5 Lib am, LaacL.

NAT.HIST.RtV.

Yd.ir.FhrtelL

Ktcb del.etlitli.

W "We St imp'

Cedriis atLantica, Man.

NAT HIST. REV.

VolJI. PlaicIIl.

PitctdeLetlitl

W.West imp.

Cednis Deodar a, XoiioL,

NAT HIST REV 1862.

S^t

'^^w^&^^^^^^''S^

SCER .rd. KOLK & m OV^

Aahbee & Daugertidd

Plal& IV

^^u>^hjalj& dj& V oTxvi^ - outang .

ledferi S!^ Covent Garden -

NAT. HIST. RCV 1862.

Plate V.

Rg:2

/ '

AsHbee ,S^ Dangerfield.TiQi 27 SeifcrA 3* Cbveah C-prf'?-

NAT HIST REV 1867.

-Plate VI.

;■•■•••' V

Kr : 6 .

--*>-

^y ■'i^^i Yii- 4

H^. 3 .

AMes k Dapfflrfiflia Mi 22 .Bedlori S* Owsot. Gaod^

/VAT H/sr »£V Inez

Fla/^. VJI

v^S^^^^-^-^i^i^^SBB^i'

NAT. HIST. REV. 1862 .

pia^vm.

G.BTjak.TJeL.

Aabbee &Daigar£aia,li11i.Beifcira S^ CovheJ. Gar.Jen

NAT HIST REV. /862

Plate JX.

TRANiSVEKSE SECTION OF THE CAPUT CORNU POSTERIORIS AND
PARI OF THE CERVIX CORNU, WITH A PORTION OF THE SURROUNDING
' :;UERIUR AND LATERAL WHITE COIUMNS. FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE
CERVICAL ENLARGEMENT OF THE OX.

Magtiitied- 50 Diametjers
(JJm- J.l . aarke )

A Po!iteru/r- whitx'y (hlzoTuu,
\ Lateral Cc/lio-nrze
.■ (His.

TTie netwark- of blood'
vessels & rterve- ft tree
?nzu/- bey seerty tncversififf
{h&aTTey siobstxai/X'
mid nuiff>irig mUy the'
i/u^idZes ofciyO& en<i6of

A COLLECTION OF CELLS IN THE ANTERIOR HORN OF THE CERVICAL
ENLARGEMENT OF MAN

Magnified- 145 Diameters

" a Ltzr^e nadtipolar cells

1/ £lanMcdjed' celis

r Jjorae' vessels .

ij/ Nerve/ /ibree
(■■ <'. Oijnilimcs

. . Jul.- ends cfn&ve'

{fibres.
I f/A.7i . Jfprvc pmce.ss66.

'"Six

ArlJ^ee ^ Daagorfidd itb 2Z, Bedfoni S^ Gjvent Gai>3m ,

Ij ^CENTRAL PARK, ^ ;
1^ NEW YORK, A"^

NAT. Hisr REV 1862.

Flato X.

fig. 3

SECTION AT UPPER PART OF THIRD
CERVICAL NERVES

Maignified. 60 DLaine"ters.

'J/tBT (Zxr7c?y,

E Traduce mtenruxiwr lateralis
0. Jihree of an.tenxrr roots .
W. Posterior veszada/- column/.
~E . Spinal/ acceesoTy Tlerveroote .

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF GREY SUBSTANCE-
FROM DORSAL REGION OF OX .

60 Diameters
fAfberOafke')

Fi^. 4

~0.' F

(Fastener Corrvica/. tfie^ }^l

\ eatrmivtiee ofwhick are/ cut' off.

a The/ flelcdiTWws suistarice'.

E The' arvterCot' comzoa/.

±. Trtvcdu^ ijvtermedxc lateraZos.

G-. Ceftiral' OxnaZ.

H. Fostefior transverse C'yrn7nissur&:

E. Anten'cr D"

X . Anterior 2&dzan/ -f/ssure'.

X. FcstxTibr vesicular cx^umns.

-Ailiee & Jangflrfiela-iift- IZSaiihri- S^ "••vms J-srien..

NAT. HIST. REV. 1862

Fl^lfyXI

LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT
OF THE 0X.__30 Disoneters

Fi^-. 5

P. C Pcste/wr.r Cclumne, sham/uf intedac&7i0^JkS ^vmted hy posteruyr roots.
P. FasCencr rooiis . A..Qj .Anterior Colu/.nns . A Arvteriar' roots .
a SuistoTitia' GelcUuuisa\ Or . Anterior OTid, poetericr ^^ siobstoTic-:
< — -^~, — .^^—^ — .^^ , I traver^e/H/ by -nirss of anterior & pooterior root<$.

Hg. 6

-z.

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UH IfiTS T

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