Natural regions of the U.S.S.R

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"WORKS TRANSLATED UNDER THE RUSSIAN
TEIANSLATION PROJECT OF THE AMERICAN
COUNCIL OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, AND PUB-
LISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

W. CHAPIN HUNTINGTON, EDITOR

TOLSTOY AS I KNEW HIM

My Life at Home and at Yasnaya Polyana

By T. A. Kuzminskaya, sister-in-law

of Leo Tolstoy

THE LAW OF THE SOVIET STATE

By Andrei Y. Vyshinsky, Deputy Minister
for Foreign Affaiis of the U.S.S.R.

HISTORY OF EARLY RUSSIAN LITERATURE

By N. K. Gudzy, member. Academy of
Sciences of the U.S.S.R.

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF THE U.S.S.R.

Edited by S. S. Balzak, V. F. Vasyutin,
and Y. G. Feigin

HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
OF RUSSIA TO THE 1917 REVOLUTION

By p. I. Lyashchenko, member, Academy of
Sciences of the U.S.S.R.

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

By L. S. Berg, President, All-Union
Geographical Society of the U.S.S.R.

RUSSIAN FOLKLORE

By Y. M. Sokolov

HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN THEATRE

(Seventeenth through Nineteenth Century)
By B. V. Varneke, Philologist and Theatre Historian

and numerous others

Natural Regions of the

U. S. S. R.

By L. S. BERG President of
the All-Union Geographical Society
of the U.S.S.R.

Translated from the Russian by
OLGA ADLER TITELBAUM

EdUed by JOHN A. MORRISON
Consultant on Soviet Geography, formerly
Chief, Eastern European Branch, Division of
Research for Europe, Department of State

and C. C. NIKIFOROFF

Soil Scientist, Department of Agriculture

New York • THE MACMILLAN COMPANY • 1950

^Sl

^Ff 73|5ft

COPYRIGHT, 1950, BY AMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNED SOCIETIES

All rights reserved— no part of this
book vruiy be reproduced in any form
wit}iout permission in writing from
the publisher, except by a reviewer
who wishes to quote brief passages in
connection with a review written for
inclusion in magazine or newspaper.

First Printing

Certain material reproduced in this volume, namely,
33 illustrations which are specifically identified by the
use of captions appearing thereunder, was taken from
the German work, V egetationsbilder, Vols. 3, 5, 11, 17,
18, 19, 20 and 23, by Dr. G. Karsten and Dr. H. Schenck
(Editors), published by Verlag von Gustav Fischer,
Jena. The German interests in tlie United States Copy-
right in this work (25 volvunes, 1904-1935) were vested
in 1949, pursuant to law. The use of these illustrations
in this volume is by permission of the Attorney General
of the United States in the public interest under License
No. JA-1359.

PRINTED IN' THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Foreword

THE Russian Translation Project of the American Coun-
cil of Learned Societies was organized in 1944 with the
aid of a subsidy from the Humanities Division of the Rockefeller Founda-
tion. The aim of the Project is the translation into English of significant
Russian works in the fields of the humanities and the social sciences which
provide an insight into Russian life and thought.

In the difficult problem of the selection of books for translation, the
Administrative Committee has had the counsel and cooperation of Slavic
scholars throughout the United States and Great Britain. It is thought that
the books chosen will be useful to general readers interested in world
affairs, and will also serve as collateral reading material for the large
number of courses on Russia in our colleges and universities.

Since Russian history is a continuum, the volumes translated are of
various dates and have been drawn from both the prerevolutionary and
postrevolutionary periods, from writings published inside and outside of
Russia, the choice depending solely on their value to the fundamental aim
of the Project. Translations are presented in authentic and unabridged
English versions of the original text. Only in this way, it is believed, can
American readers be made aware of the traditions, concepts, and ideolo-
gies by which the thinking and attitudes of the people of Russia are
molded.

It should, of course, be clearly understood that the views expressed in
the works translated are not to be identified in any way with those of the
Administrative Committee or of the Council.

The Administratr^e Committee
John A. Morrison, Chair man
Harold Spwacke
Sergius Yakobson
Mortimer Gra\'es
W. Chapin Huntington

Preface

IT is surprising that out of the hundreds of books on
the Soviet Union pubhshed in this country and Great
Britain there has been, until very recently, no systematic geographic
description of that vast country in English. Yet there will be few who
will deny that without a knowledge of the natural features and condi-
tions of a country and the manner in which its people have adjusted
themselves to their natural environment, there can be no real under-
standing of that country. One would think that the great contrasts in
the natural conditions of the U.S.S.R.-arctic tundras and subtropical rain
forests, the greatest lowland plain in the world and mountains over
20,000 feet-and the conspicuous manner in which the natural conditions
have affected the development of the Russian State would early have
attracted the attention of American geographers. The lack of concern
may in part be due to the difficulties placed in the way of individual
travel and study in the Soviet Union by the Soviet authorities. But in
large measure it must be charged to the willingness of American and
British geographers to get their information on the Soviet Union second-
hand from the writings of German and French geographers. However,
even these sources were unavailable to the average American under-
graduate student of geography. The writer of this prefatory note taught
a university course on the geography of the U.S.S.R. for several years
in the early 1930's; aside from what they could get out of a somewhat
propagandistic popular account of Soviet achievements in developing
the country's natural resources, the students (with rare exceptions) had
to depend entirely on the lectures of the instructor. One of the excep-
tions was the translator of this work.

Fortunately for the greatly increased number of students now studying
the geography of the Soviet Union, two general geographies of the
U.S.S.R., one British, the other American, have been published since the
war. But while satisfactory as textbooks, they necessarily do not provide
the systematic detailed description of the Soviet natural environment
which the student needs if his interest is primarily in the physical, rather
than in the human or economic aspects of Soviet geography. That lack,
it is hoped, this book will fill.

viii PREFACE

The science of geography— in all its aspects— is no new subject in Russia.
Even in tsarist days it was well established as a university discipline, and
the Imperial Russian Geographical Society ranked with the national
societies of Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States.
Under the present regime, with its concern for inventorying the natural
resources of the country and its emphasis on planned economic develop-
ment, the geographical sciences have developed rapidly. The problem
facing the Administrative Committee of the Russian Translation Project
was thus one of selection.

Fortunately it was not a difiBcult one to solve. In the first place, since
the Committee had decided to translate also a Soviet economic geogra-
phy, the field was narrowed to that of physical geography. In the second
place, while the literature on the various aspects of physical geography
is voluminous, there are few comprehensive treatments of the entire
Soviet Union on what we would call in this country the "college level."
Finally, the eminence of Professor Berg, the wide range of his experi-
ence and interest, and the recognition which he has received both at
home and abroad pointed clearly to his Priroda S.S.S.R., first published
in 1937, as the most authoritative work in the field.

On the occasion of his seventieth birthday and the completion of fifty
years of scientific activity, a tribute to Berg by A. G. Grumm-Grzhimailo
was published in the Vestnik of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.
( No. 3, 1946 ) . In giving a brief account of Berg's place in Russian geo-
graphical science, we cannot do better than to draw extensively from
this testimonial.

While Lev Semenovich Berg has been a productive scholar in physical
geography and geomorphology, geology, soil science, climatology, lim-
nology, paleogeography, geobotany, zoogeography, ethnography, and the
history of geographic discoveries and investigations, he began his scien-
tific career in ichthyology and it is in that field that he made his first
and perhaps his greatest contributions. Nevertheless, the fact that he
came under the influence, during his student days at the University of
Moscow, of the distinguished geographer, anthropologist, and ethnog-
rapher. Professor D. N. Anyuchin, undoubtedly laid the basis for the wide
range of his interests.

His work in ichthyology provided opportunity for field work in various
parts of the vast Russian Empire. In 1895, while still a student in the
University of Moscow, he investigated the ichthyological fauna in the
basin of the Dniester near his birthplace at Bendery in Bessarabia. In
1897 we find him studying the sturgeon beds at Guryev on the Ural River.

PREFACE K

In the summer following, the West Siberian seetion of the Imperial
Geographical Society, jointly with the Moscow Society of the Friends
of the Natural Sciences, sent him to western Siberia to make a field study
of the region of the lakes of Selety-Dengiz, Teke, and Kyzyl-Kak. With
his appointment as supervisor of the fisheries at the mouth of the Syr-
Darya in 1899, he began a series of exhaustive field studies of the Aral
Sea which occupied him for several seasons. Beginning with ichthyologi-
cal studies, his investigations broadened out to include all aspects of the
hydrography of that as then little known body of water, with particular
attention to the causes of the changes in the level of the lake. The results
of his studies were later published in his classical monograph The Aral
Sea, in which he systematized all the data about this basin, displaying
a profound understanding of the mutually active phenomena occurring
in it and characterizing it as a landscape of the earth's surface. Accord-
ing to Grumm-Grzhimailo, "for completeness of information and definite-
ness of conclusion, there has been nothing to equal it in Russian geo-
graphical literature." In recognition of this achievement. Berg was
awarded the P. P. Semenov-Tian Shansky Gold Medal of the Imperial
Russian Geographical Society and the University of Moscow named him
an honorary Doctor of Geographical Sciences.

Although sent by the Ministry of Agriculture to Bergen in 1902 for
oceanographic study at the Oceanographic Institute, his interest in lim-
nological studies in Central Asia continued. In the summer of 1903 he
was again in Central Asia, this time on Lake Balkhash. He was intrigued
by the extreme shallowness of this large body of water and by the para-
dox that although located in a desert country and without an outlet, its
waters were nevertheless fresh. While in Central Asia that year, he also
spent some time investigating the large mountain lake Issyk-Kul, which
led the following year to a report on its physical geography, geology,
and climatology.

In 1904 and 1905 he studied the fisheries of the Middle Volga, which
resulted in the publication "Sketch of Fisheries in the Volga Basin from
the River Vetluga to the Mouth of the Kama." In 1905 he was made
director of the Department of Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles in the
Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, where
he remained, except for summer field trips, until 1914. This was an
especially active period even for Berg. Possessed of an astounding capac-
ity for work, in the year 1905 alone he published eight monographs and
articles, including his classic work on the fishes of Turkestan and the
provocative article "Is Central Asia Drying Up?" which was translated

X PREFACE

into German and published in the Geographische Zeitschrip in 1907.

The concern with both ichthyology, the field in which Berg first won
his spurs, and the broader aspects of physical geography which these
two studies illustrate, continued tliroughout his St. Petersburg period.
Thus in 1906 and 1907 he worked on the fresh-water ichthyological
fauna of the Caucasus, Lake Baikal, the Amur, Manchuria, Korea, North
China, Siam, and other countries, using materials at hand in the Zoologi-
cal Museum. But in the same years he also prepared a note on the sands
of Bolshie Barsuki in which he established their aeolian origin from local
ferruginous sandstones rather than from the Aral Sea sands to which they
had formerly been attributed; he also wrote a report on the results of
a trip in the summer of 1907 to the glaciers at the headwaters of the river
Isfara in the Turkestan range. In 1909 he published a large work on the
fishes of the Amur basin in which he concluded that they bear a strongly
relict character and are a survival of a subtropical fauna which was well
distributed all over Eurasia at the end of the Tertiary and the beginning
of the post-Tertiary era. In the summer of the same year he made an ex-
tended trip through the Caucasus collecting ichthyological specimens for
the Zoological Museum.

Berg's study of the lakes of Transcaucasia and other new data led him
to write the remarkable article "On the Changes of Climate in the His-
torical Epoch" which appeared in 1911. In this article Berg came to the
conclusion that although the so-called "Briickner" periodic variations in
climate had taken place in the historical epoch, in general the cli-
mate of the Northern Hemisphere had not changed, while in the im-
mediate postglacial period of prehistoric time it was considerably drier
and warmer.

His studies of fish life keeping pace with his broader geographic inter-
ests, Berg in the same year (1911) pubhshed his study "Fauna of Lake
Baikal and Its Origin" in which he came to the conclusion that the fauna
of this great inland sea could not be of marine origin and assigned it to
a special "Baikal" subdivision of the subarctic region. To 1911 also
belong two of Berg's great contributions, The Fauna of Russia and the
article "Forms of the Russian Deserts." In an introduction to the former
work he divides the globe into zoogeographical realms, regions, and sub-
regions on the basis of the geographical distribution of fresh-water fish.
In the latter he develops an interesting classification of deserts; sandy,
clayey, salty, and stony. His increasing interest in geomorphology led
him in 1912 and 1913 to undertake a study of the relief of Chernigov
oblast, in 1913 to publish an article on "An Experiment in Dividing

PREFACE xi

Siberia and Turkestan into Landscape and Geomorphological Zones,"
and in 1914 to a sketch on "Structure of the Surface of Asiatic Russia."
In the last-named he proposed a division of Asiatic Russia into fourteen
geomorphological regions.

During the St. Petersburg period Berg began his close connection with
the Geographical Society which has continued to the present. Elected an
active member on January 28, 1904, that is, before he took up his post
in the Zoological Museum, from the time of his arrival in the capital.
Berg was an active member of several committees of the society, among
them those dealing with hydrography, sand, meteorology, glaciers, bio-
geography, and physical geography. With his eager mind and with the
stimulation of the other natural scientists of the society, it was inevitable
that Berg should attempt a definition of geography, a temptation to
which all geographers succumb sooner or later. In a report to the Geo-
graphical Society on "The Subject and Aims of Geography," he defined
geography as the science which studies landscapes. In his opinion the
sphere of geography includes "the entire outer crust of the earth subject
to weathering, down to the level of the ground water, and in the sea the
whole depth of the water down to the bottom, and the bottom itself to
a depth as far as the influence of the ocean water is felt." While few
American geographers would accept this as a definition of their field,
it is of interest in its bearing on the subsequent development of geo-
graphic thinking in Russia. Berg himself later developed these proposi-
tions into the integrated theory of landscapes of which the present book
is the latest expression.

However, his larger interests did not completely replace his interest in
ichthyology. In 1914 he moved to Moscow to accept a professorship in
that subject in the Fisheries Department of the Moscow Agricultural
Institute. The period of his work in Moscow (1914-1918) coincided with
the First World War; nevertheless, even under war conditions he pro-
duced more than twenty books and monographs. Among these was his
compendium, Fresh-Water Fishes of Russia which, along with its other
scientific merits, has value as a definitive work, unique in its complete-
ness and detail; a fourth edition of this three-volume work has recently
been published. Another outstanding contribution, which but for the war
would have received wider attention in the outside scientific world, was
his monograph "On the Origin of Loess," in which he departed from the
classical aeolian theory to advance an original hypothesis which, although
it has not been widely accepted, has aroused much interest among geolo-
gists and soil scientists abroad as well as in Russia.

xii PREFACE

In 1918 Berg's achievements in the broad field of physical geography
received ofiicial recognition with his appointment to the professorship
in that subject at the University of Petrograd. He also lectured on physi-
cal geography in the Pedagogical Institute of the university and the newly
created Geographical Institute. With his return to Petrograd, Berg im-
mediately renewed his activity in the Geographical Society.

The extremely difficult conditions of life and work in the period of
the Civil War did not break him down. On the contrary, he displayed in
these years an extraordinary capacity for work and accomplished re-
search notable for its range of interest and valuable for its contents. To
the difficult year 1920 belongs his challenging monograph on "Bipolar
Distribution of Organisms and the Glacial Epoch," in which he ex-
plained the interrupted character of the geographic distribution of organ-
isms in terms of climatic changes which took place during the glacial
period. In 1922 there appeared his Climate and Life, a collection of ar-
ticles most of which had already been published but which were rewrit-
ten to take into account the most recent materials. However, this volume
contains also an article "On the Postglacial Epoch of the Desert Steppe"
which had not previously been published. In this article Berg demon-
strated that in the glacial epoch the dry zones, both of the Southern and
the Northern Hemispheres, contracted strongly, but that in the dry post-
glacial period they were greatly extended, both northward and south-
ward. This was the epoch of the steppes and of the xerophytes, of the
formation of loess, of the drying up of the lakes. In the contemporary
epoch, he pointed out, we see the reverse phenomenon: the moist zone
broadens at the expense of the dry, forests invade the steppes, the mois-
ture and shade-loving species of trees advance at the expense of the spe-
cies requiring dryness and light, the chernozems are developed on the
loess soils, the steppe fauna is crowded to the south, dry basins are filled
with water, and the salinity of previously salt lakes is reduced by the
inflow of water.

His long interest in climate culminated in Principles of Climatology
which appeared in 1926 and which has become a standard Soviet text
in this field. It was extensively revised and added to for the 1936 edition.

All of the preceding work in zoogeography, geobotany, geomorphol-
ogy, soil science, and climatology was preparation for his great synthe-
sis of physical geography. The Landscape-Geographical Zones of the
U.S.S.R., which was first published in 1930. A second edition of this
fundamental work appeared in 1936; it included a new section devoted
to the zone of the forest steppe. Berg's teachings about landscape zones

PREFACE xui

won immediate acclaim, and to meet the needs of students he incor-
porated them in textbook form in Priroda S.S.S.R. (Natural Regions of
the U.S.S.R.), which was first published in 1937 and brought out the
following year in a second edition. It is this volume which has been
chosen for translation as best serving the needs of American students of
geography.

Great as has been Berg's work in physical geography, beginning in
1920 he also found time for important contributions to the history of
geographical discoveries, especially those of Russian explorers. In 1920
he published a long article entitled "Information About Bering Strait and
Its Coasts, from Bering and Cook to the Present." In 1924 appeared his
article on "The History of the Discovery of the Aleutian Islands" in
Zemlevedenie and in the same year a book The Discovery of Kamchatka
and the Kamchatka Expeditions of Bering. In 1925 Zemlevedenie pub-
lished his article on "The Role of the Academy of Sciences in the History
of Geologic Discoveries in the Eighteenth Century" and in 1926 his
article on "Services Rendered by the Russians in the Investigation of the
Pacific Ocean." In 1927 he wrote "The History of Geographical Explora-
tions of the Yakutsk Region" for the collection Yakutia of the Academy
of Sciences. A similar study appeared in the Academy's Turkmenia col-
lection the following year. In 1929, as part of the Trudy of its Commis-
sion on the History of Knowledge, the Academy issued his "A Sketch
of the History of Russian Geographical Science." Most recently he com-
pleted the centennial history of the All-Union Geographical Society.

Although Berg's interest in the geographical sciences has been, as we
have seen, wide ranging, he has never given up the field in which he first
made his mark— ichthyology. In 1939 he resumed his work as an ichthyol-
ogist at the Zoological Institute, and in 1940 produced a study on "The
System of Ichthyoids and Fish, Both Living and Fossilized," which,
according to Professor I. F. Pravdin, is the best embodiment of all our
knowledge of the evolutionary grouping of these fauna. During the last
war, while in Kazakhstan (to which he was evacuated on orders of the
Academy of Sciences ) he occupied himself with a study of the ichthvologv
of several lakes. On his return to Leningrad in August, 1944, he resumed
his work in the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences, where
he is now working.

Only a few of the most significant publications of this great Russian
scholar have been mentioned here; in all he has published over 480
articles, monographs, and books.

It is not surprising that he has been highly honored. In addition to its

xiv PREFACE

Semenov-Tian Shansky Gold Medal, the Geographical Society in 1915
also rewarded him with its highest award, the Constantinovsky Medal.
In 1934 he was elected to the Council of the Society and in 1940 he
became its president. On his return to Leningrad in 1944 he devoted him-
self with his usual energy to restoring the activities of all its departments
and committees which had been interrupted by the period of the block-
ade and siege. His services to science have also been recognized abroad.
He is an honorary member of the Sao Paulo Society of Naturalists and of
the Ichthyological Society of America, a corresponding member of the
Royal Zoological Society of London and a member of the Masaryk Agri-
cultural Academy of Prague and of the American Geographical Society.
In 1936 he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Asiatic Society of India
for his work in the study of the zoology of Asia. His achievements have
also been recognized by his government. In 1934, on the completion of
forty years of scientific endeavor, the Soviet Government awarded him
the title of Meritorious Worker in Science, and in 1945 conferred on
him the Order of the Red Banner of Labor.

The translation of Berg's Priroda S.S.S.R., which is here presented
as Natural Regions of the U.S.S.R., follows the original Russian text scru-
pulously. Certain sections, notably those on flora and fauna, are probably
more detailed than are needed for students in American university depart-
ments of geography. On the other hand, it is believed that this detail
will be welcomed by plant geographers and zoogeographers. While pri-
marily for students of geography, it is hoped that the book will serve as a
reference work on the U.S.S.R. for all students of the natural sciences.

It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that no translation of
a single work can "open wide the door" to the rich storehouse of Russian
geographical literature. At best it can provide an introduction; for this
purpose the extensive references to other Russian works make Berg's
work especially useful. But the student who wishes to specialize in
Soviet geography cannot escape the necessity of learning to read Russian.
Only with this essential tool can he hope to have access to what Russian
geographers have written about their own country. It is to be hoped
that in addition to providing a general survey of the physical geography
of the LT.S.S.R., this book will stimulate many to learn Russian.

Ability to read Russian is not enough, however. Rich as is Russian
geographical literature, it is no substitute for field study in the country
itself, for ^tudy in Soviet universities and institutes, and for direct con-
tact with Soviet geographers. It is to be hoped that the Soviet authorities

PREFACE XV

will eventually permit the same freedom of study and travel for American
students in their country which is accorded by the United States to stu-
dents and scholars from abroad.

Much credit is due the translator of this work for her devotion to her
task, her careful attention to the innumerable minutiae of a work of this
kind, and the very considerable amount of research which she undertook
to ensure the correct identification of plant and animal names. Only a
person herself profoundly interested in Soviet geography and impressed
by the great value of the work she engaged to render into English could
have produced a translation of this high quality. The writer of this note
takes great satisfaction from the fact that his teaching provided the
original stimulus for the undertaking.

In presenting the translation of Professor Berg's work to the American
reader, the Administrative Committee of the Russian Translation Project
believes that it is filling a long-felt gap. It is to be hoped that the book
will be useful not only to the students of geography and the natural
sciences, but also to the widening circle of serious-minded nonspecialists
who wish better to understand the Soviet Union.

J. A. Morrison, Chairman, Administrative
Committee of the Russian Translation
Project, American Council of Learned
Societies

Washington

April 1947

Translator's Foreword

M

ANY of the technical terms which appear in L. S.
Berg's Natural Regions of the U.S.S.R. cannot be
found in any general Russian-English dictionary. A comprehensive list of
some seven hundred Russian-language dictionaries, arranged by sub-
ject, showed that technical dictionaries in the several special fields with
which this book is concerned are few and in large part inaccessible. In
order to translate some of the terms, therefore, it was necessary to use
other sources. Some discussion of the methods used may help explain any
unique treatment of technical terms in this translation.

The translation of plant and animal names was facilitated by the pro-
vision in Berg's text not only of the Russian common name for each plant
and animal, but of the taxonomic name as well. Since the language of
taxonomy is universal, translation directly from taxonomic to common
names is likely to be more reliable than translation from the vernacular
of one language to another.

Plants. The first source consulted in translating plant names was Stand-
ardized Plant Names,'* which is the most recent and most complete among
the sources available. Where a plant does not appear in Standardized
Plant Names, the next source used was L. H. Bailey, The Standard Cyclo-
pedia of Horticulture, which often gives alternative taxonomic names by
which a given plant is known; some of these names in turn do appear in
Standardized Plant Names. Where a plant was to be found in neither of
these sources, a number of others were used, the most important of which
appear in a selected bibliography at the end of this foreword.

In cases where a taxonomic name other than that given by Berg is
more widely accepted in this country at present, this other name has been
inserted in the text in brackets. It was thought best not to risk introduc-
ing errors by substituting outright for the taxonomic names given by
Berg, and so both names are given in each such case. A few changes ha\e
been made in Berg's spelling of taxonomic names, in order to make the
spelling consistent with the Index Kewensis.

A few plants for which Berg gives only the common names were iden-

* See Translator's Bibliography for complete reference data for all works cited in
this foreword.

xviii TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD

tified by means of their taxonomic names as given in a number of Russian
sources listed in the bibhography. A good source for vahdating plant
names is V. L. Komarov, Flora S.S.S.K. (Flora of the U.S.S.R.).

The advantage of having taxonomic names given deserves comment.
In some cases, translation directly from the Russian common name into
English, with no mention of the taxonomic name of a plant, would leave
the reader uncertain as to the exact plant in question. For example,
zheleznoye derevo may be translated as "irontree" or "ironwood." Stand-
ardized Plant Names identifies the irontree as genus Metrosideros. L. H.
Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, describes Metrosideros
as one of several genera of the myrtle family called ironwoods. L. H.
Bailey and Ethel Zoe Bailey, Hortus Second, identify the irontree as
Metrosideros. It so happens that Metrosideros is a genus of trees or
shrubs native to New Zealand, Australia, and the Pacific Islands, and not
found in the Soviet Union at all. Under "ironwood," the following entry
appears in Hortus Second: "ironwood"— Ostrya virginiana, the Ameri-
can hop hornbeam; "Catalina ironwood"— Lyonothamnus floribundus; and
"desert ironwood"— OZnei/a Tesota. But the tree to which Berg is refer-
ring when he uses the term zheleznoye derevo is not Metrosideros, nor
Ostrya, nor Lyonothamnus, nor Olneya. It is the Persian parrotia, Par-
rotia persica. If the common name zheleznoye derevo were not accom-
panied by the taxonomic name, and if it were translated directly from
Russian into English as "irontree" or "ironwood," an American reader
would certainly be misled as to the tree in question.

In many cases dictionary definitions offer several choices in the trans-
lation of a given plant name. For example, dictionary definitions of the
Russian word yel include "fir," "red fir," "spruce," and "pine." When the
word yel is accompanied by the taxonomic name Picea orientalis or
Picea glehni, it is clear that the exact translation for scientific purposes
can be only "spruce."

The word kedr has not been translated as "cedar," as it is defined in
any number of Russian-English dictionaries. According to Standardized
Plant Names, there is wide misapplication of the term "cedar." On the
basis of the taxonomic names supplied by Berg, kedr has been translated
in different parts of the book as "Siberian stone pine" {Pinus sihirica
[P. cemhra sihirica]); "Japanese stone pine" (P. pumila); or "Korean
pine" (P. koraiensis) .

Animals. Animals were identified by means of their taxonomic names
in a number of sources, the most important of which appear in the bibli-
ography. A few mammals for which Berg gives only the common names

TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD xix

were identified by means of their taxonomic names as given in two Rus-
sian sources which also appear in the bibhography. Many of the fish were
identified in the same fashion in a book written by L. S. Berg himself,
Ryby presnykh vod S.S.S.R. i Sopredelnykh Stran (Fresh-Water Fishes
of the U.S.S.R. and Adjoining Countries).

In the case of fish, particularly, dictionary translations from the Rus-
sian are often misleading, so that identification according to taxonomic
names is important. For example, nalim appears in the dictionary as
"burbot" or "eelpout," while according to Berg's own source, nalim is
"loach" {Lota lota). Golets, which is defined in a dictionary as "loach"
or "ground gudgeon," may be identified, from its taxonomic name, Sal-
velinus, as "charr."

The word kulik (which is defined in one Russian-English dictionary
as "woodcock," "wood grouse," or "snipe") is used by Berg in such a
broad sense that he is clearly referring to a category larger than that of
a single species of birds. A list was made of all the birds to which the
name kulik is applied in Berg's text, to see what they have in common,
and the word was translated as "shore bird."

In the section which deals with the subzone of mixed forests, mention
is made of a bird for which the Russian name is vertlyavy dyatel. This
has been taken to be the wryneck, a member of the woodpecker family,
which is characterized by its habit of twisting its head from side to side.
The habitat and distribution of the wryneck, as given in H. E. Dresser,
A Manual of Palaearctic Birds, are not inconsistent with this conclusion.

Soils. In translating the sections concerned with soils and soil chem-
istry, extensive use was made of the Yearbook of Agriculture, Soils and
Men. Many soil terms which are peculiarly Russian will be found in the
glossary. Two Russian sources which were useful in identifying soil and
geological terms are listed in the bibliography.

Place Names. Map sources which were particularly useful in validat-
ing place names are listed in the bibliography. Many of the place names
with Russian case endings, such as "sky," "skoy," "skoye," "skava," have
been simplified by dropping the suffix after "sk." Thus, "Kronotskaya vol-
cano" appears in this translation as "Kronotsk volcano," "Lake Rakhmanov-
skoye" as "Lake Rakhmanovsk." In cases where the adjectival form is de-
rived from the name of a particular landscape feature (generally a river),
the nominative form has been substituted for the adjectival form. Thus,
"Yeniseisky ridge" appears in this translation as "Yenisey ridge," "Burein-
skiye Mountains" as "Bureya Mountains," "Zeisko-Bureinskava Lowland"
as "Zeya-Bureya Lowland." The names of Russian administrative units are

XX TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD

given in Russian, as in the original, and have not been translated. These
terms ( kray, ohlast, okrug, raion ) appear in the glossary. The place names
Predkavkazye and Preduralye have been translated, respectively, as "North
Caucasus Foreland," and "West Urals Foreland." (The corresponding
terms, Zakavkazye and Zauralye, are familiar as "Transcaucasus" and
"Trans-Urals.")

Glossary. Because this book deals with several special fields, it was
thought wise to prepare a glossary. This appears at the back of the book,
and includes some of the more technical words in each field which may
be unfamiliar to a reader well versed in one or several of the other fields
treated.

Acknowledgments. A number of biologists at the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in Washington (D.C.) helped to identify plants and animals which
do not appear in the sources listed in the bibliography, and gave their
advice regarding current taxonomic usage. The translation profited greatly
from the generous counsel of Dr. Egbert H. Walker, who devoted many
hours of his time to checking the sections which deal with plants. Of the
animals, the mammals were checked by Dr. Remington Kellogg; the birds,
by Dr. Herbert Friedmann. Fish were checked by Dr. Leonard P.
Schultz; Mr. Austin H. Clark was kind enough to identify, by reference
to Berg's monograph on fish, an entire list of the fish which are men-
tioned without taxonomic names in the original of this text. Amphibians
and reptiles were checked by Dr. Doris Cochran, with the help of Dr.
Ernest Schwartz, who is especially familiar with amphibians and rep-
tiles of the Old World. Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, Dr. E. A. Chapin, and
Dr. J. P. E. Morrison gave their advice on the invertebrates. I am in-
debted also to Dr. John P. Decker, Department of Botany, University
of Nebraska, for his generous advice with respect to plants, and for sug-
gesting excellent source material.

The ultimate responsibility for the translation of plant and animal
names rests, of course, with the translator. A file has been kept of the
source or sources in which each plant and animal was identified, so that
any questions in this connection may be answered readily. Some of the
taxonomic names missing in the original Russian edition have been added,
in brackets, in this translation.

Since it was not possible to reproduce satisfactorily the illustrations
which appear in the original work, those for the English translation were
selected from several Russian and German sources, care being taken
that those selected would be appropriate to the text. The chief sources
for the illustrations were the excellent German collection, Vegetations-

TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD xxi

bilder (Verlag von Gustav Fischer in Jena) and Aziatskaya Rossiija, the
monumental descriptive work on Asiatic Russia issued hy the Imperial
Ministry of Agriculture in 1914.

I am especially grateful to Dr. Constantin C. Nikiforoff of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, who read the entire manu-
script with painstaking care and made many and valuable suggestions
as to the English equivalents of the Russian scientific terminology, espe-
cially in the sections dealing with climate, relief, and soils. He also ad-
vised in the selection of the illustrations.

Of the many people to whom I am indebted for assistance at various
stages in the preparation of this translation, the one whose contributions
have been the greatest is Dr. John A. Morrison, formerly of the faculty
of the Geography Department of the University of Chicago (1928-1938),
whose course in the Geography of Soviet Russia at that university moti-
vated this translation. Dr. Morrison read the successive drafts of the
translation as they were prepared, and made detailed and invaluable
suggestions and revisions.

The University . of Chicago Libraries and the City Library of Spring-
field, Massachusetts, extended many courtesies in making materials avail-
able as they were needed. Extensive use was made of materials at the
Library of Congress, the Smithsonian Institution, the Department of
Agriculture Library, and the New York Public Library.

Finally, I am deeply grateful to my husband. Dr. Sydney Titelbaum, for
his invaluable advice and encouragement, and to my sister-in-law, Sylvia
Maloff, for her generous help in proofreading the final typescript.

Olga Adler Titelbaum
Chicago, Illinois
April 1947

Translator's Bibliography

Plants

Bailey, L. H., The Cultivated Evergreens. New York, Macmillan, 1923.

, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. New York, Macmillan, 1914.

, and Bailey, Ethel Zee, Hortus Second. New York, Macmillan, 1941.

Carpenter, J. Richard, An Ecological Glossary. Norman, University of Oklahoma
Press, 1938.

Index Kewensis. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1893.

Jackson, Benjamin Daydon, A Glossary of Botanic Terms. Philadelphia, Lippin-
cott, 1900.

Komarov, V. L., ed., Flora S.S.S.R. (Flora of the U.S.S.R.). Moscow, Lenin-
grad; Akad. Nauk, 1941.

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Flants. London, Longmans, 1855.

Perfllyev, I. A., Flora Severnovo Kraya (Flora of Northern Kray). Archangel,
Sevkraigiz, 1934, 1936.

Rehder, Alfred, Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. New York, Macmillan,
1927.

Schumann, Carl, Mir Rasteny (The Plant World). St. Petersburg, 1906.

Standardized Plant Names. Salem, Mass., American Joint Committee on Hor-
ticultural Nomenclature, 2nd ed., 1942.

van Wijk, H. L. Gerth, A Dictionary of Plant Names. The Hague, Martinus
Nijhoff, 1911; published by the Dutch Society of Sciences at Haarlem.

Wulff, E. v., ed., Kidturnaya Flora S.S.S.R. (Cultivated Plants of the U.S.S.R.).
Moscow-Leningrad, State Ag. Pub. Co., 1935.

Animals

Berg, L. S., Ryby presnykh vod S.S.S.R. i Sopredelnykh Stran (Fresh-Water
Fishes of the U.S.S.R. and Adjoining Countries). Leningrad, 1932, 1933.

Bikhner, E. A., Mlekopitayushchic (The Mammals). St. Petersbm-g, 1906.

Cambridge Natural History, Tlie. New. York, Macmillan, 1895-1909.

Check-List of North American Birds, prepared by a committee of the American
Ornithologists' Union; 4th ed. Lancaster, Pa., Amer. Ornith. Union, 1931.

Ditmars, Raymond L., Reptiles of the World. New York, Macmillan, 1933.

— , Snakes of the World. New York, Macmillan, 1931.

Dresser, H. E., A Manual of Pahearctic Birds. London, published by the au-
thor, 1902.

Hartert, Ernst, Die Vogel der palaarktischen Fauna (Palaearctic Birds).
Berlin, R. Friedlander und Sohn, 1910.

Jorgensen, Harriet L, and Blackbume, Cecil L, Glossarium Europae Avium
(Glossary of European Birds). K0benha\Ti, Ejnar Munksgaard, 1941.

xxiv TRANSLATOR'S BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lydekker, Richard, ed., The Royal Natural History. London, Frederick Warne,
1893-1894.

Neave, Sheffield Airey, Nomenclutor Zoologicus. London, Zool. Soc. of London,
1939.

Newton, Alfred, A Dictionary of Birds. London, Adam and Charles Black,
1893-1896.

Ognev, S. I., Zveri S.S.S.R. i Prilezfiashchikh Stran (Animals of the U.S.S.R.
and Adjoining Countries). Moscow-Leningrad, 1935.

Philhps, John C, A Natural History of the Ducks. Boston, Houghton MiflBin,
1922.

Pratt, Henry Sherring, A Manual of Land and Fresh-Water Vertebrate Animals
of the United States. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son, 1923.

, A Manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals. Philadelphia, P. Blakis-
ton's Son, 1935.

Regan, Charles Tate, Natural History. London, Ward, Lock, 1936.

Ridgway, Robert, A Manual of North American Birds. Philadelphia, Lippincott,
1896.

Stejneger, Leonhard, and Barbour, Thomas. Check List of North American Am-
phibians and Reptiles. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1939.

Soils and Relief

Glossary of Terms on Roads and Soils in Roadbuilding. Leningrad, Moscow;
Gostransizdat, 1932.

Meister, A. K., Slovar po Geologo-razvedochnomu delu (Geological-Prospect-
ing Dictionary). Leningrad, Moscow, Novosibirsk, 1933.

Yearbook of Agriculture, Soils and Men. Washington, U.S. Gov't. Printing Office,
U.S. Dep't. of Ag., 1938.

Maps

Andrees Allgemeines Handatlas. Bielefeld und Leipzig, Velhagen und Klasing,

1922.
Great Soviet World Atlas. Moscow, 1937-1939.
Literary Digest New Map of Soviet Russia. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co.,

1935.

Contents

Foreword— The Russian Translation Project v

Preface by /. A. Morrison vii

Translator's Foreword xvii

Translator's Bibliography xxiii

Introduction 1

I. The Tundra Zone 2

II. The Forest Zone 22

A. The Taiga Subzone 23

B. Subzone of Mixed Forests 49

III. Broad-Leaved Forests of the Far East 60

IV. The Forest Steppe 68
V. The Steppe 90

VI. The Zone of the Semidesert 111

VII. The Desert Zone 125

VIII. Mountains of Soviet Central Asia 164

IX. The Soviet Humid Subtropical Regions 192

1. The Colchian ( Kolkhidskaya ) Lowland 192

2. The Talysh Lowland 198

X. Mountains of the Caucasus 202

1. The Glavny (Main) Range of the Caucasus 202

2. Daghestan 228

3. The Armenian Plateau and the Dry Regions

of the Eastern Transcaucasus 232

4. Mountain Talysh 239

XL Mountain Crimea 241

XII. The Ural Range 263

XIII. The Altay 274

XIV. The Sayans 287
XV. Lake Baikal and the Trans-Baikal Region 299

XVI. Mountains of Northeastern Siberia 311

XVII. Mountains of the Far East (The Amur Basin) 318

XVIII. Sakhalin 328

CONTENTS
xxvi

335
XIX. Kamchatka

345
XX. Mountains of the Arctic

Bibhography

^, 369

Glossary

Russian Transhteration Table ^^^

379
Index of Plants

Index of Animals

General Index

418

Tables

TABLE

1. Temperatures in Eastern Siberia (in °C.) 23

2. Climate of Petrovsko-Razumovsk, in the Subzone of Mixed Forests 49

3. Precipitation in Blagoveshchensk (in mm.) 61

4. Temperature, Humidity, and Wind during Sukhovey in Saguny 91

5. Precipitation in the Semidesert (in mm.) 112

6. Quaternary History of the Caspian Sea 116

7. Temperature in the Desert (at 1:00 p.m.) 126

8. Wind Velocity in Repetek (m. per second) 131

9. Temperature and Precipitation in Gaudan, 1898-1914 171

10. Precipitation in Kheirabad and Ashkhabad, 1928-1931 (in mm.) 171

11. Crops Cultivated in the Zeravshan Valley 173

12. Zonal Sequence of Vegetation in Southern and Central Tadzhikistan 184

13. Precipitation in Colchis (in mm.) 193

14. Mean Monthly Temperatures in Poti (in °C.) 194

15. Elevation of Snow Line in the Caucasus 204

16. Temperature and Precipitation in the Forest-Steppe Zone in the
Clavny (Main) Range of the Caucasus 209

17. Temperature in Gagry, 1903-1915 (in °C.) 214

18. Precipitation on the Black Sea Coast 216

19. Temperature and Precipitation in the Subalpine Zone in the Glavny
(Main) Range of the Caucasus 225

20. Climate of Yalta 246

21. Climate of Ai-Petri 248

22. Climatic Observations at Ai-Petri and Yalta on October 18, 1906,

at 9:00 P.M. 248

23. Climate of the Baikal and Trans-Baikal Regions 304

24. Temperatures at Listvenichnoye and Ulan-Ude (in °C.) 306

25. Elevations in the Western Trans-Baikal Region 308

26. Distribution of Manchurian Flora in the Southern Sikliote-Alin 324

27. Climate of Aleksandrovsk and Kirovskoye, on Sakhahn 331

28. Temperature in Tikhy Bay, 1932-1936 (in °C.) 346

29. Temperature at Cape Zhelaniya, 1931-1936 (in °C.) 348

30. Temperature in the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago (in °C.) 350

xxvii

Maps

MAP

1. The Soviet Arctic 3

2. Areas of permanent ground frost 27

3. Limits of pine and spruce in the U.S.S.R. 36

4. Limits of fii- and larch in the U.S.S.R. 37

5. Limits of hnden and Siberian and Japanese stone pine in the

U.S.S.R. 38

6. Limits of Siberian stone pine, alder, and beech in the European

part of the U.S.S.R. 55

7. Limits of maple, ash, and hornbeam (except in the Caucasus and
Crimea) 56

8. Limits of oak and linden in the European part of the U.S.S.R. 57

9. Pamir ranges 168

10. Vegetation of the central and southern Urals and the West Urals
Foreland 269

11. Altay ranges 275

12. Volcanoes of Kamchatka 337

13. Landscape zones of the European part of the U.S.S.R. 351

14. Landscape zones of the U.S.S.R. 352

15. Average mean temperature, January, 1881-1915 354

16. Average mean temperature, July, 1881-1915 355

17. Cloudiness, January, 1896-1915 356

18. Cloudiness, July, 1896-1915 357

19. Average precipitation (in mm.), January, 1891-1915 358

20. Average precipitation (in mm.), July, 1891-1915 359

21. Average annual precipitation (in mm.), 1891-1915 360

22. Average duration of snow cover (in days), 1892-1915 361

23. Mountain ranges of Eastern Siberia and the Far East 362

lllustratioTis

Between pages 32-33

FIGURE

1. The arctic tundra in summer.

2. Bog vegetation.

3. The typical, or shrub tundra.

4. Stunted spruce at the northern hmit of tree vegetation on Kanin Peninsula.

5. Wooded tundra along the southern border of the Bolshezemelskaya tundra.

6. Peat mound in the Bolshezemelskaya tundra.

7. The Irkut River deeply incised in the Central Siberian Plateau. Pine taiga.

8. The taiga in winter.

9. Pine taiga in the basin of the Oka River, a left tributary of the Angara.

10. Yeddo spruce (Picea jezoensis) taiga in Amur oblast.

11. Forest steppe in Voronezh oblast.

12. The Baraba steppe in the forest-steppe belt of Western Siberia.

13. Pine groves in the forest steppe in the Trans-Baikal region.

14. Meadow steppe in the forest-steppe zone, Voronezh oblast.

Between pages 128-129

15. Vegetation of the chalk cliffs.

16. The steppe in the low Mugodzhar Mountains, the southern extension of
the Urals.

17. Typical feather-grass (Stipa) steppe on chernozem soil in Voronezh oblast.

18. The chernozem steppe in Western Siberia.

19. Feather-grass {Stipa lessingiana) steppe in Voronezh oblast.

20. The polyn (wormwood) steppe near Krasnoarmeisk (Stalingrad oblast)
in the semidesert zone.

21. Saltbush (Atriplex canum) in the semidesert near Lake Baskunchak.

22. White pohjn (wormwood, Artemisia maritima) and fescue (Festuca
sulcata) association in the semidesert near Krasnoarmeisk, StaHngrad
oblast.

23. Black polyn (Artemisia pauciflora) in the semidesert near Krasnoarmeisk,
Stalingrad oblast.

24. Biyurgun (Anabasis salsa) and stony solonchaks on the shores of Lake
Baskunchak.

25. Clumps of the halophyte sarsazan (Halocnemum strobilaceum) on the
shore of a salt lake (presumably Baskunchak).

26. Ak-Tyube barkhan sands on Mangyshlak Peninsula.

27. The eastern shore of Lake Balkhash.

28. Barkhan dunes in the Kara-Kum, 12 miles east of the Amu-Darva.

XXX ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

29. Surface of a takyr in summer.

30. Sand dune stabilized by saxaul (left) and reeds (right).

31. Clay desert on the Ust-Urt Plateau, north of Lake Sam.

32. Boyalych (Salsola arhuscula) and tamarisk (Tamarix) on stabilized sand
dunes near Farab (several miles east of the Amu-Darya).

Between pages 192-193

33. Saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) in the Trans-Caspian sandy desert
near Repetek.

34. "Sand acacia" (Ammodendron conolhji) in the Trans-Caspian sandy
desert near Repetek.

35. Calligonum erinaceum on a mound in the Bolshie Barsuki sands.

36. Reed thickets on the shores of Lake Balkhash.

37. Chee grass {Lasiagrostis [Stipa] splendens) in the region of Lake Zaisan.

38. The Airakli table mountains on Mangyshlak Peninsula.

39. Stalin Peak, the highest point in the U.S.S.R.

40. The high Pamir.

41. Khan-Tengri, the highest mountain of the Tian Shan.

42. The detritus-covered lower end of the Zeravshan Glacier.

43. Lake Issyk-Kul in the Tian Shan.

44. Lake Iskander-Kul in the Hisar range (Samarkand oblast).

45. Harvesting wheat at an elevation of 2000 meters in the Pamirs.

46. Thick-shell Persian walnut {Juglans fallax [J. regia fallax]) in Fergana
oblast.

47. Pistache shrubs in Fergana obhst.

48. Karagach (Ulmus densa [U. carpinifolia]) in Samarkand oblast.

Between pages 256-257

49. Beech forest with undergrowth of rhododendron ponticum near the

Black Sea coast south of Gagry in the Colchian Lowland.

50. The Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus, from the glaciers of Mt.
Elbrus.

51. Crossing the Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus at 10,500 feet.

52. A mountain meadow in the Svanetiya range, Kabardino-Balkarian A.S.S.R.

53. A yew forest in the mountains of the Caucasus.

54. Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana) in the mountain forest above Gagry.

55. Pine forest (Pinus sylvestris) on the northern slope of the Caucasus near
Klukhor-Kazarma .

56. Grove of birch (Betula pubescens) at the timber line above Kazbek
station on the Georgian Military Highway.

57. A subalpine tall-herbaceous meadow in Kabardino-Balkaria.

58. Alpine rock vegetation in the mountains of Kabardino-Balkaria.

59. A mountain road in Daghestan.

ILLUSTRATIONS xxxi

FIGURE

60. Lake Sevan on the Armenian Plateau.

61. The flat summit of the Yaila, the main range of the Crimean mountains.

Between pages 288-289

62. Harvesting grapes on the southern slopes of the Yaila near Alushta,

63. Juniper (]uniperus exceha) on the south coast of the Crimea.

64. Crimean form of the Aleppo pine {Pinus pityusa siankewitschi [P.
halepensis pityusa siankewitschi]) and juniper (Juniperus exceha) on the
south coast of the Crimea at Sudak.

65. Crimean pine {Pinus laricio pallanana [P. nigra poiretiana]) on the
southern slopes of the Yaila.

66. Beech forest on the northern slope of the Yaila.

67. The Northern Urals. Subalpine landscape on Mt. Sablya.

68. Coniferous forest on the slopes of Mt. Kvasya in Sverdlovsk ohlast.

69. The Inner Altay. Lake Verkhne-Multinsk and the Katun helki (snow-
capped mountains ) .

70. Mt. Belukha, the highest peak in the Soviet Altay.

71. The Katun River near Toguz-Kan in the Inner Altay.

72. Lake Rakhmanovsk in the Altay.

73. Larch stand and reindeer on a state farm in the Altay (Oirot autonomous
ohlast).

T4l. Altay ibex. The park-like character of the valley bottom is characteristic
of the diy valleys of the Altay.

Between pages 320-321

75. The Western Sayans from the Little Abakan pass.

76. Munku-Sardyk Glacier and Mt. Munku-Sardyk in the Eastern Sayans.

77. Lake Baikal in November.

78. The Kolyma River in its upper reaches.

79. Kronotsk volcano on Kamchatka.

80. Primeval stand of birch (Bctiila crmuni) in Kamchatka.

81. Angelica ursina in a well drained valley meadow in Kamchatka.

Introduction

THE area occupied by the U.S.S.R. is so vast and so
diverse in its natural features that it would not be
expedient to present a physical-geographical description of this entire
territory without dividing it into natural regions. We shall distinguish
first of all the lowlands and the mountains.

The description of the natural regions of the lowlands will be arranged
according to landscape zones. These are regions which correspond to
climatic belts, lying approximately in a latitudinal direction, and char-
acterized by more or less uniform natural features throughout their
extent.

Among the lowlands of the U.S.S.R. we distinguish, beginning at the
north, the following landscape zones: (1) the tundra, (2) the temper-
ate forest, (3) the forest steppe, (4) the steppe, (5) the semidesert,

(6) the desert, and (7) the subtropical forest.

Among the mountain landscapes we distinguish: (1) the Caucasus,
(2) the mountains of the Crimea, (3) the Urals, (4) the mountains of
Soviet Central Asia, (5) the Altay Mountains, (6) the Sayan Mountains,

(7) Lake Baikal and the Trans-Baikal region, (8) the mountains of
northeastern Siberia, (9) the mountains of the Far East, (10) Sakhalin,
(11) Kamchatka, and (12) the mountains of the Arctic. Within each
mountain landscape we shall try, so far as possible, to distinguish ver-
tical zones.

At the conclusion of tliis book there appears a bibliography of the
most important literature concerning the Soviet Union or the greater part
of it. For a more detailed literature, I refer the reader to the works enu-
merated in the books hsted in this bibliography. In the text, reference is
made only to the most important and most recent works. These are taken,
moreover, chiefly from among those which are not cited in my other works.

I ■ The Tundra Zone'

General Chaiacteiistics

THE zone of the tundras occupies the extreme north
of the continents of Europe and Asia. The tundra
proper is characterized by the following features: It is unforested, with
the exception of trees occasionally found in the valleys. The winter is
long and severe. The summer is short and cool, but has long hours of
daylight. The mean temperature of the warmest month does not ex-
ceed 10° C* (nor does it fall below 0° C). Frosts occur even in sum-
mer. Cloudiness is extensive, and there are strong winds. There is little
precipitation because, due to the low temperature, a negligible quan-
tity of moisture passes into the atmosphere. At a certain depth below
the surface of the ground, there is usually a layer of permanent ground
frost.

To the south, the zone of the tmidra proper merges gradually into the
forest zone, through the intermediate zone of the wooded tundra. We
shall consider the wooded tundra together with the tundra proper, as
does Gorodkov.

Subdivisions

Beginning at the north, the tundra zone may be divided into the fol-
lowing subzones ( Map 1 ) :

1. Along the northern border lies the arctic tundra, where not only
trees, but even shrubs are abseiit (Figs. 1 and 2). The latter, when they
do appear, are found only along river courses, or, occasionally, in places
especially sheltered from strong winds. There are no sphagnum peat
bogs, since peat formation generally dies out as we move toward the

^For details and bibliography see L. S. Berg, Fiziko-geograficheskie (landshaftnie)
zonij (Physical-Geographical [Landscape] Zones), I, 1936, pp. 43-94.

* There is no temperature scale indicated in the original text. It would appear,
however, that the temperatures given are in the Centigrade scale, and this scale will
be indicated throughout the book.— Tr.

THE TUNDRA ZONE

3

north. Vegetation in general is extremely scant. There are large expanses
of spotty tundra. The arctic tundra is found on the southern island of
Novaya Zemlya, on the north of the Yamal and the Ob-Yenisey peninsu-
las, on the north of the Taimyr Peninsula, in the delta of the Lena, on the
New Siberian Islands, and on Wrangel Island.

2. South of the arctic tundra lies the subzone of the typical, or shrub
tundra (Fig. 3). While there are no trees, shrub thickets (dwarf birches

40 CO eo

MAP 1. The Soviet Arctic (B. N. Gorodkov, 1935),

I — wooded tundra; II — southern tundra; III and IV — typical tundra (IV — northern, lichen-
moss portion of the typical tundra) ; V and VI — arctic tundra (VI — transition into the ice region) ;
VII — ice region (mountains of the Arctic). A — Urals; B — Byrranga range; C — Chukotsk-Anadyr
mountains; D — Koryak range; E — Verkhoyansk range.

and willows, and ledum ) grow not only along river courses, but are very
characteristic also in the areas between rivers. There are some sphagnum
peat bogs, but they are not strongly developed. Considerable areas are
occupied by lichen (reindeer-moss) timdra. In the northern part of this
subzone there are fewer shrub thickets, and lichen-moss tundra predomi-
nates. The typical tundra has a wide extent. However, on the Kola Penin-
sula its area is limited; it appears only in the form of a narrow coastal
strip to the north of the mouth of the Ponoy and extending as far as the
mouth of the Yokanga.^

3. Still farther south lies the subzone of the southern tundra, where
there are forests, but only along the river courses. In the interfluves,
amid the shrub thickets which predominate here, there are found at most
individual spruces, birches, larches (Fig. 4). There are many sphagnum
peat bogs. Gorodkov calls this subzone the northern wooded timdra.

4. Finally, in the southernmost outskirts of the tundra, where it merges
into the zone of continuous forests, lies the transitional subzone of the

2 See vegetation map in the Atlas Leningradskoy oblasti i Karelii { Atlas of Lenin-
grad ohlast and Karelia), 1934.

4 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

wooded tundra, or preforest zone ( Fig. 5 ) . Here we find forests not only
along the rivers, but also in patches on the interfiuves, between the rivers.
Tundra vegetation is represented by thickets of shrub birches and wil-
lows. In some places there is spotty tundra. Sphagnum peat bogs reach
a tremendous development, occupying no less than half the entire area
of the subzone. Gorodkov calls this subzone the southern wooded tundra.
We regard the subzones of the arctic tundra, the typical ( shrub ) tundra,
and the southern timdra, collectively, as the tundra proper, as distin-
guished from the wooded tundra.

Boundaries

The southern boundary of the tundra proper, which coincides with the
southern boundary of the subzone of the southern tundra, extends from
the shores of the Varanger fiord and the southern end of Kola Inlet
to the lower course of the Ponoy. The entire Kanin Peninsula is covered
with tundra as far south as lat. 67° N. Beyond tliis the boundary of tlie
tundra crosses the Pechora at Pustozersk, the Gulf of Ob and Taz Bay in
lat. 67° N, the Yenisey north of Dudinka; thence it proceeds to the mouth
of the Khatanga, the delta of the Lena, Nizhne-Kolymsk, to the middle
course of the Anadyr, where it turns in the direction of Gizhiga and tlie
Parapolsky Dol, which connects Kamchatka with the continent.^

Where the land mass extends far to the north, as on Taimyr Peninsula,
the forests also extend farther north than usual (on the Khatanga as far
aslat. 723rN).

Climate

The southern boundary of the tundra proper coincides approximately
with the 10° July isotherm, which runs, in general, parallel to the shores
of the Arctic Ocean. Where the mean July temperature is below 10° C.,
trees are usually unable to survive.

Because of the low temperature, little moisture evaporates, over either
land or ocean, and hence there is scant precipitation, the annual mean
being 200 to 300 mm. The sparsity of precipitation creates in the tundra
conditions which are to some extent similar to those in the desert. Thus,
leaching of the surface formations and soils proceeds rather slowly.

^ Gorodkov (1935) draws the southern boundary of the wooded tundra as follows:
from Kola through tlie southern part of the Kanin Peninsula, thence along the Arctic
Circle to Salegard, thence to the lower course of tlie Taz, across the Yenisey near the
mouth of the Khantaika, along the northern border of tlie Central Siberian Plateau,
across the Lena and the Indigirka in lat. 70° N, Nizhne-Kolymsk, along the upper
course of tlie Anadyr, across tlie Gizhiga River, and terminating at Korf Bay on
Kamchatka.

THE TUNDRA ZONE 5

As we move from west to east, the climate of the tundra becomes in-
creasingly continental. The winters grow more severe, and precipitation
decreases. The Murman coast, with a climate strongly affected by the
Gulf Stream, has considerable precipitation (Kola has about 400 mm.)
and very moderate winters; the annual range of temperature in the west-
ern Murman is approximately the same as that on the Black Sea coast
of the Caucasus. In the delta of the Lena (lat. 73° N), however, the
annual precipitation is about 100 mm., and (in 1883) the February tem-
perature, — 42° C, and the July temperature, + 5° C. Beyond the Kolyma
the influence of the Pacific Ocean is already apparent, and the climate
becomes perceptibly more marine. The winter temperatures are not as
low, and the summers are cooler.

The basic factor which controls plant life in the tundra is the summer
temperature, particularly the short duration of the summer. The frost
period (days on which no thawing takes place) in the timdra lasts from
half a year (in Europe) to eight months and more (in Siberia). The
vegetative period in the arctic tundra of western Siberia is only two
months long; in the typical tundra, three.

The temperature in the Siberian tundra may drop to — 50° C. and
lower. We must note, however, that far inland in Siberia the winters are
much more severe than along the coast. Thus, at the mouth of the Yana,
the mean December temperature is 13° C. warmer than in Verkhoyansk,
which lies higher up along the course of the Yana, 3.5° farther south and
already within the forest zone. The explanation (even when one takes
into account the location of Verkhoyansk in a valley basin, with much
lower winter temperatures ) is found in the strong winds along the coast,
which mix the lower and heavier cold layers of air with the higher warm
layers, (In northern Siberia in winter the temperature increases with alti-
tude. ) Winters are even milder on the New Siberian Islands; on Kotelny
Island, in lat. 75° N, the mean winter temperature is 3° to 4° warmer
than on the continent above the mouth of the Indigirka, in lat. 71° N.
On the other hand, the summers along the coast are very cool, and, above
all, the weather is extremely changeable. Bunge describes the summer of
1884 in the delta of the Lena, in lat. 73° N, as follows:

At 1:00 P.M. on July 22 the temperature was 21° C. Many insects were fly-
ing about, among them many mosquitoes. The night was also warm, 15° to
16" C. The following day it was even warmer. There were many butterflies,
and the air was laden with the fragrance of flowers. But presently a northwest
wind came up, it turned cold and rainy, and the temperature at night fell to
-4°C.

6 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

There may be several warm days, like those just described, during a sum-
mer in the timdra. Occasionally (although not in the delta of the Lena)
there are very warm days when the thermometer rises to 30° C. and
higher (in the shade).

The disposition of isobars over the Arctic Ocean is such that in winter
the coastal winds blow from the land, in summer from the sea. Thus,
there occurs a shift in winds, somewhat suggestive of the monsoon. Due
to the proximity of the ocean, the force of the winds in the tundra is con-
siderable. The winds on the shores of the Kara Sea are particularly
strong. On Vaigach Island and in the Gulf of the Yenisey the mean an-
nual wind velocity is 7 to 8 m. per second. In winter snowstorms some-
times occur which last for several days. The force of the wind is occa-
sionally so great as to knock men and deer off their feet. Eastward from
the Yenisey the force of the wind diminishes.

Maximum precipitation in the tundra usually occurs in the latter half
of the summer, in July and August, and in some parts of the European
tundra, in September. Minimum precipitation occurs in February and
March. Despite the sparsity of precipitation, it rains often. Snow may
fall in the tundra during any month of the year, although it falls least
frequently in August. The snow cover is negligible, due both to the small
quantity of precipitation in general, and to the strong winds which blow
the snow away. The thickness of the snow cover is very important for
organic life. In the subzone of the shrub tundra the snow cover protects
the shrubs from being frozen in winter. However, in the arctic tundra,
as Gorodkov points out, the snow cover has a negative effect on the
shrub vegetation, because it melts slowly during the short and cold sum-
mer. Soil which is not protected by snow freezes hard in winter; the
result is permanently frozen subsoil.

On the seacoast in summer there are frequent fogs. They occur when
warm air is carried over the cold surface of the ocean; on Vaigach Island
during the summer months there may be as many as fifteen to twenty
foggy days.

There is little sunshine in the tundra. It is very cloudy, more so than
in any other part of Europe or Asia. The mean annual figure shows
approximately three-fourths of the sky covered with clouds. In the Euro-
pean and West Siberian tundra, the most extensive cloudiness occurs in
autumn; in the East Siberian tundra, usually in summer. In winter (and
spring), however, the tundra, from the Lena eastward, has compara-
tively clear skies. It must be borne in mind, however, that in summer
the maximum intensity of direct insolation of the earth's surface in the
tundra is no less than in the tropics. Generally there is enough light in

THE TUNDRA ZONE 7

the tundra during the vegetative period to support vegetation, but there
is not enough heat.

The fact that ultraviolet radiation in the north is far more intense than
in the middle latitudes is very important.

In the tundra in summer, even at the shallow depth of 1.5 to 2 m., there
is usually permanent ground frost. It is not found on the Kola Peninsula,
but from the Kanin Peninsula eastward it occurs throughout the tundra.
Between Mezen and the Pechora, the sand, which is a porous medium,
thaws by the end of the summer to a depth of 1.5 m. or more; clay, to a
depth of 1.25 m.; and peat, which is a poor conductor of heat, to a depth
of only 35 to 40 cm. Since peat is a far less effective conductor of heat
than mineral soils, permanent ground frost Is found sporadically in the
peat bogs much farther south than in the clays or sands.

Along the southern border of the tundra, peat mounds are widespread
(Fig. 6). It is in these mounds that the southernmost lenses of perma-
nently frozen soil are found; they occur even in the south of the Kola
Peninsula.

In Amderma, on the coast of the mainland opposite Vaigach Island,
the frozen layer reaches an enormous thickness; a borehole sunk here
passed through 216 m. without reaching unfrozen subsoil. Since at a
depth of 216 m. the temperature was still — 4.8° C, it may be assumed
that the total thickness of the frozen layer here is about 400 m.,* the great-
est recorded anywhere in the world.

Despite the presence of permanent ground frost, the upper layer of the
soil is heated sufficiently to allow the growth of plant life. On Cape Kanin,
temperatures above 36° C. have been recorded in the clay loam. The
length of the summer day in the tundra must also be taken into account.
The frozen layer exerts a great influence on the layer of soil which over-
lies it. It cools the soil, and does not permit water to penetrate deeply,
thus contributing to waterlogging; and it decreases the rate of evapora-
tion from the soil. Flowing ground water hinders the formation of per-
manent ground frost; at such spots in the tundra one frequently encoun-
ters willow clumps. In view of the small amount of precipitation in the
tundra, permanent ground frost offers some advantages for the vegeta-
tion, since it preserves moisture in the soils. Moreover, it should be noted
also that water from melted ice, or ice dissolved in water, has the prop-
erty of stimulating the growth of plants.^

Since about 1919, a marked increase in temperature has been obser\ed

* V. Ponomarev, Sovetskoya Arktika (The Soviet Arctic), 1936, No. 4, p. 113.
^E. Fritzman, "Novy vzglyad na prirodu vody" (A New View of tlie Nature of
Water), Priroda (Nature), 1936, No. 2, pp. 30-^1.

8 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

in the Arctic and in the tundra zone (as well as farther south ).^ Evidence
may be found in the very favorable conditions for navigation which have
existed in the Arctic for about the last twenty years. The temperature of
the water in the Barents Sea has shown a marked rise in recent years. At
Mezen the mean annual temperature for the years 1883-1915 was
- 1.6° C, while for the years 1916-1930 it was only - 0.7° C; that is, the
temperature rose almost one degree. The mean for the years 1931-1934
was still higher; namely, — 0.15° C.

The city of Mezen is located on the southern border of the region of
permanent ground frost delineated by Schrenk in 1837. However, in
1933 no ground frost was found at Mezen. Ground frost was found in
isolated patches only 40 km. to the north of Mezen, Apparently the
boimdary of ground frost retreated to the north with the rise in tem-
perature.

The period during which the Northern Dvina at Archangel is frozen
has grown shorter by ten days during the last half century.

1881-1915 19ie-1934 Difference

Thawing May 12 May 8 4 days

Freezing November 8 November 14 6 days

Rdid

The relief of the tundra zone is generally level, although in some
places it is interrupted by elevations, the most important of which are
the Ural Mountains and the mountains of northeastern Asia. These will
be discussed in the sections which deal with mountainous regions.

The Murman region, the coastal strip reaching inland about 100 km.
from the sea, is a dissected plain which drops rather sharply to the sea.
Its average elevation is 150 to 200 m. West of the Vorona River, there
are points along the southern border of the tundra which reach an eleva-
tion of 500 m.'

The western Murman is cut by fiordlike bays. These bays are narrow
and long and sometimes deep; in Kola Inlet, for example, there are depths
of more than 360 m. But in contrast with typical fiords, the shores of the
Murman inlets are low and not so steep as are the shores of true fiords.

® L. S. Berg, "Nedavnie klimaticheskie kolebaniva i yikh vliyanie na migratsii ryb"
(Recent Climatic Fluctuations and Their Effect on the Migrations of Fish), Problemy
■fizicheskoij geogmfii (Problems in Physical Geography), II, 1935, pp. 73-84.

" G. D. Richter, "Orograficheskie raiony Kolsko\'o poluostrova" ( Orographic Re-
gions of the Kola Peninsula), Trudy Inst. fiz. geografii, Akad. nauk (Proceedings of
the Institute of Physical Geography, Academy of Sciences), XIX, 1936.

THE TUNDRA ZONE 9

In some places there is perfect terracing— evidences of an uplift of the
continent. The tundra on the Kola Peninsula (as is the entire peninsula)
is underlain by pre-Cambrian schists, granites, and gneisses, folded dur-
ing pre-Cambrian times. The bedrock is covered by new glacial and post-
glacial deposits: moraines, eskers, sandy stretches, and peat bogs. There
are many lakes. Rybachy Peninsula and Kildin Island, composed of sedi-
mentary strata of the Lower Silurian period, are sharply distinct in relief
and geological structure from the rest of the Kola Peninsula, which is
composed, as we have said, of pre-Cambrian formations. Rybachy Penin-
sula is separated from Kola Peninsula by the deep ( up to 300 m. ) Motov-
sky Gulf. The origin of this gulf is ascribed to faulting which took place
during the Tertiary period. Kildin Island is a plateau, up to 280 m. in
elevation; it drops sharply to the sea on the north.

On Kanin Peninsula, from Kanin Nos (Cape Kanin) to the southeast,
stretches the Kanin Kamen range, 150 to 175 m. in elevation (and in
some places as high as 200 m.). It has a plateavilike appearance, and is
composed in part of crystalline schists, and in part of Paleozoic strata
overlain by moraine deposits. The southern part of Kanin Peninsula is
cut by a trough which reaches from the Gulf of Mezen on the White
Sea to Cheshskaya Bay.

The Timan Kryazh (ridge) extends from Cheshskaya Bay to the
sources of the Vychegda, and on the north reaches into the zone of the
tundra. It consists chiefly of folded Paleozoic strata. On the north the
elevation of the ridge does not exceed 255 m. The ridge terminates at
the sea in rocky promontories.

Kolguyev Island, composed of Quaternary deposits and covered with
mossy tundra, reaches an elevation of 90 m. at its highest points.

Between the Pechora, its tributary the Usa, the seacoast, and the Pai-
Khoy range lies the Bolshezemelskaya tundra (Figs. 3 and 5). A large
part of this tundra is overlain by moraine deposits. On tlie watershed be-
tween the Arctic Ocean and the tributaries of the Pechora and the Usa,
there is a ridge which extends approximately from west to east; it has
an absolute elevation of 160 to 230 m. and a relative elevation of 30 to
65 m. This is a moraine ridge, in some places having the characteristics
of a typical terminal moraine.

The post-PHocene marine transgression extended far to the south along
the river valleys. In some parts of the Bolshezemelskaya tundra there
are a great many small lakes (not over several hectares in area).

Vaigach Island, separated from the continent by Yugorsk)' Shar (strait),
reaches an elevation of 100 m. Here there are zinc-lead, zinc, and copper

10 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

deposits, while on the continent opposite Vaigach there are beds of fluorite
( in Amderma ) , associated with tlie hmestones of the Lower Paleozoic.

In the northern part of the southern island of Novaya Zemlya, ele-
vations of more than 1000 m. are found.

Near Matochkin Shar, individual peaks reach 1000 m. in elevation.
Some 30 to 40 kilometers from Matoclikin Shar, on the southern island,
glaciers begin to appear. On the northern island, in lat. 74° N, glaciers
reach the heads of typical fiords, which are well developed here and
extend inland for 30 to 40 km. At lat. 76° N, there is a continuous icecap,
from under which hills emerge only at the coast. Here we pass from the
zone of the tundra into the ice (Arctic) zone, where the mean tempera-
ture of the warmest month very seldom exceeds 0° C, and then only
slightly.

The shores of Novaya Zemlya are undergoing an uplift. Admiral-
teistva Peninsula was an island in the times of Barents and Litke. Kostin
Strait contained more islands in 1924 than are indicated on the old maps;
some of the former islands, moreover, have been transformed into pen-
insulas.

As we have said, many of the bays of Novaya Zemlya, particularly
on the western coast, are genuine fiords. They lie along fault lines, which
have been deepened and worn away by river and ice erosion. Since
only the southern island of Novaya Zemlya contains any important riv-
ers, the present drainage system, of course, cannot attain great maturity.
On the southern island the rivers flow in canyonlike valleys. Both of the
islands are composed of extensively dislocated Paleozoic strata.

There is reason to believe that during the interglacial period the ice-
cap on Novaya Zemlya melted completely and that the southern edge
of the ice at that time was to the north of the northern island (M. Yer-
molayev).

During the glacial period the tundras of western Siberia were cov-
ered by an icecap. The ice sheet extended south up the Ob as far as
the mouth of the Irtysh and to the Vakh River (a tributary of the
Irtysh).

The Quaternary marine transgression penetrated somewhat south of
the Arctic Circle along the valleys of the Ob, the Taz, and the Yenisey.

The mouths of the Pechora, the Kara, the Ob, the Taz, the Yenisey,
and the Khatanga rivers are distinctive in that, in contrast to the Lena,
for example, they do not form deltas where they flow into the Arctic
Ocean, but end in bays. Some of the bays, like the gulfs of the Ob, the
Taz, and the Yenisey, are very long and narrow. The presence of bays

THE rUNDRA ZONE 11

rather than deltas indicates that the sea has encroached upon the land,
submerging the lower reaches of the river valleys. At present the rivers
are depositing new deltas at the southern ends of the aforementioned
bays. The very plausible hypothesis has been advanced that the Ob and
the Yenisey were united at one time, and had a common mouth in the Kara
Sea at a point considerably farther north than at present. Incidentally,
this hypothesis is supported by the great similarity between the fish
fauna of the Ob and of the Yenisey.

The northern boundary of the Central Siberian Plateau, which is also
the southern boundary of the Taimyr tundra ( to which the Central Sibe-
rian Plateau drops in steep escarpments), extends from the Pyasina
River in lat. 70° N approximately to the lower reaches of the Olenek.
In the northern part of the Taimyr Peninsula lies the Byrranga range;
composed of dislocated Paleozoic deposits in the vicinity of the Taimyr
River, it rises to an absolute elevation of 500 to 600 m.

Between the Byrranga range and the Central Siberian Plateau lies
the North Siberian Lowland, 50 to 70 m. above sea level. It is composed
of Mesozoic marine deposits, glacial drift, and sediments of the Quater-
nary marine transgression; outcrops of trap are also very common. There
are striking traces of glaciation on the Taimyr Peninsula.^ But farther
east, from the Khatanga to Bering Strait, the Siberian tundra was not
covered by a continuous icecap.^ According to another theory, all of
Siberia north of lat. 61° N was covered with ice,^*' but this view is not
supported by field evidence.^^

In the northern part of the Taimyr Peninsula there is a series of terraces
w^hich contain fossils of fauna similar to the fauna of the northern seas
at the present time. The topmost of these terraces, containing mollusks
of the species Saxicava arctica, rises to an absolute elevation of 110 m.
At Cape Chelyuskin there are terraces, 3 to 5 m. above sea level, which

^ N. N. Urvantsev, "Chetvertichnoye oledenenie Taimyra" ( Quaternary Glacia-
tion on Taimyr), Byull. Kom. po izuch. chetvert. perioda (Bulletin of tlie Conrmittee
for tlie Study of the Quaternary Period), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Acad-
emy of Sciences), No. 3, 1931, pp. 23-42.

^ Similarly, the arctic coast of North America from Alaska to Greenland was ahnost
untouched by glaciation.

■^^ V. A. Obruchev, Priznahi lednikovovo perioda v sevemoy i tsentralnoy Azii
(Traces of the Glacial Period in Northern and Central Asia), p. 49; N. N. Unantsev,
"Geologiya i poleznye iskopayemye severa" (Geology and Mineral Resources of the
North), Drevneye oledenenie na severe S.S.S.R. (Ancient Glaciations in tlie North-
em U.S.S.R.), Leningrad, 1936, pp. 129-148.

^^ See also: Ya. S. Edelstein, Geologiya i poleznye iskopayemi/e severa (Geology
and Mineral Resources of tlie North )," Leningrad, 1936, p. 110; V. N. Saks, "6
chetvertichnom oledenenii severa Sibiri" (Concerning the Quaternary Glaciation of
Northern Siberia), Arctica, IV, 1936, pp. 3-27.

12 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

are covered with driftwood derived from contemporary Siberian species.
This indicates that the uplift of northern Taimyr is still in process ( G. Al-
ler). Similar observations have been made also in Novaya Zemlya and
the New Siberian Islands.

In the vicinity of Khatanga Gulf the presence of salt domes has been
discovered recently. (For details regarding this type of structure see
below, p. 118.) The salt dome (elevation 120 m.) on the shore of Nordvik
Bay, which has been penetrated by boreholes to a depth of 300 m., con-
tains vast reserves of excellent salt. This same dome has provided unmis-
takable indications of oil.^"

On Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island of the New Siberian group, there are
elevations as high as 290 m.^^ Outcrops of fossil ice are exposed in the
coastal cliffs.

On the surface of the fossil ice, and also in the cracks which formed
in the ice back in Quaternary times, there are found numerous remains
of Quaternary animals— the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, bull, deer,
horse, musk ox, and a large cat {Felis spelaea), which combines the
characteristics of the lion and the tiger. (It is sometimes incorrectly
called the cave lion.)

Chukotsk okrug is a predominantly hilly country, with elevations of 600
to 900 m. It has been partly subjected to glaciation.

Vegetation "
The flora of the tundra is unique. The tundra proper is treeless, but
almost all the plants, both herbage and shrubs, are perennials. The ex-
planation lies in the fact that the vegetative period is so short that annual
plants do not have sufiBcient time to bear fruit. Many of the plants form
patches of sod, like the dryad (in Europe, Dryas octopetala, in Siberia,
D. punctata), or spread along the ground, like the arctic willow and
birch, so that they have a better chance to avail themselves of the
warmth of the soil in summer, and to protect themselves against evapo-
ration. There are many evergreen plants, but hardly any bulb or tuber
plants. Stunted growth is very characteristic. Lichens are numerous in the

^N. N. Urvantsev, "Geologiya i poleznye iskopayemye Khatangskovo raiona"
(Geology and Mineral Resources of the Khatanga Region), Problemy Arktiki (Prob-
lems of the Arctic), II, 1937, pp. 17-21.

^^ M. M. Yermolayev, "Geologichesky ocherk Novosibirskikh ostrovov" (A Geo-
logical Sketch of the New Siberian Islands), Trudy Arkt. in-ta. (Proceedings of the
Arctic Institute), Vol. 87, Pt. I, 1937, p. 293.

^*B. N. Gorodkov, Rastitelnost tundrovoy zony S.S.S.R. (Vegetation of the Tun-
dra Zone of the U.S.S.R.), Leningrad, 1935, p. 142, izd. Akad. nauk (publication of
the Academy of Sciences).

thf: tundra zone 13

tundra, especially Cladonia, or reindeer "moss" (Cladonia rangijerina) .
These light-loving plants find favorable conditions for development in
the tundra, where tree shade is absent. The growth of lichens proceeds
very slowly in the north. While in the wooded region the increment dur-
ing a summer amounts to 4 to 6 mm., in the typical tundra it is 2 to 3 mm.,
and in the arctic tundra only 1 to 2 mm. (Gorodkov). Sphagnum peat
bogs are very widespread in the northern part of the wooded region of
the tundra. As one moves to the north, they gradually decrease in sig-
nificance.^^ The thickness of peat in the tundra is negligible, due to the
presence of permanent ground frost and the slow growth of sphagnum
mosses. Flowering plants are distinguished by the abundance of flowers,
their large size, and the brightness of their coloring ( Fig. 1 ) .

The absence of trees in the tundra has been explained by a number
of different factors: insufficient warmth in the north, strong and cold
winds, high relative humidity in summer. According to Gorodkov, trees
die in the tundra as a result of evaporation in summer, since little mois-
ture reaches the shoots by way of the root system from the very cold
soil. Winter frosts, however, have no effect upon those species of trees
which make up the northern boundary of the forest.

The flora of the tundra is remarkably uniform throughout— in Europe,
Asia, and America. There are some species of saxifrage (for example,
Saxifraga cernua), which may be found in all timdras throughout the
polar region. But there are also species which, even though they are
widely distributed, do not have a circumpolar distribution. Thus, the tun-
dra sweet grass (Hierochloe pauciflora) is absent to the west of Novaya
Zemlya as far as the continent of America. A third category of species
has a sporadic distribution in the tundras of Europe, Asia, and America.
Such, for example, is the endemic draba (Draha macrocarpa), a typical
tundra plant. A fourth category is distributed within very narrow lim-
its.^*^ Endemic species, that is, species of plants not found in regions
other than the tundra, are not so scarce as was formerly believed. The
tundra contains many plants which are found also in the forest zone.
However, there is a group of plants which are found only in the north,
and also in the mountains of temperate latitudes above the timber hue.
Plants found also in the Altay Mountains are especially numerous in the
Siberian timdras.

^^ However, small beds of sphagnum mosses are encountered even along Lake
Taimyr.

^® A. I. Tolmachev, "Flora tsentralnoy chasti vostoclino\'o Taim\Ta" (Flora of the
Central Part of Eastern Taimyr), Trudtf Polyam. kom. Akad. nauk (Proceedings of
the Polar Committee of the Academy of Sciences), VIII, 1932.

14 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Bogs. Contrary to a common belief, the tundra is not a continuous bog.
In the tundra there are extensive dry areas, although, of course, in gen-
eral there are many bogs. The upland (sphagnum) bog is not wide-
spread in the tundra; the prevailing type of bog is the lowland, or sedge
bog. The southern boundary of the typical tundra is usually the northern
boundary of upland peat bogs. As we have said, the peat layer in the
tundra is not very thick. In the region where permanent ground frost
occurs in patches, that is, primarily in the wooded tundra and in the
southern timdra, large-mound bog may be found, with peat mounds 3
to 5 m. high and 5 to 25 m. in diameter (Fig. 6). This type of bog is
always situated in sheltered, basinlike depressions. Although these basins
are not underlain by a continuous layer of permanent ground frost, iso-
lated lenses of permanently frozen soil are always found in the cores of
the mounds. The mounds are the result of heaving of the soil caused by
the freezing of ground water. The mounds consist of mosses— sphagnum
and others— and lichens, and are profusely covered with cloudberry
(Rubus chamaemorus) (Fig. 2), dwarf arctic birch, bog bilberry, black
crowberry, crystal tea ledum, sheathed cotton sedge ( Eriophorum vagina-
turn), cowberry, and others. Between the mounds there are long winding
depressions (yersei), filled with wet sphagnum-hypnum bogs.

Typical shrub tundra is widespread from the Malozemelskaya tundra
to the Lena. The vegetation of this tundra falls into three levels: the
upper, or shrub layer society; the middle, or herbaceous layer society;
and the lower, or lichen-moss layer society. In the upper, or shrub layer
society, the dwarf arctic birch (Betula nana) predominates (Fig. 3),
giving way east of the Yenisey to the closely related form, B. exilis;
among the dwarf arctic birches there is much crystal tea ledum ( Ledum
palustre), small shrub willow (Salix glauca, S. pulclira), and bog bil-
berry {Vaccinium uliginosum). In the middle, or herbaceous layer soci-
ety, the most conspicuous growth is sedge (Carex rigida), black crow-
berry (Empetrum nigrum), fescue (Festuca supina), and cowberry {Vac-
cinium vitis-idaea) . In the lichen-moss layer society, which covers the
ground, brown and green mosses (not sphagnum) and lichens predomi-
nate. The river valleys contain the same shrubs as the tundra, but here
they reach a greater height (sometimes growing as tall as a man), be-
cause in the valleys the ground frost lies deeper and thaws more quickly
in summer. The type of tundra described here occupies almost the entire
area of the subzone of the typical or shrub tundra, with the exception
of bogs and valleys. But in the northern part of this subzone the number
of shrubs diminishes rapidly.

THE TUNDHA ZONE 15

On the northern tip of the Kanin Peninsula and in other parts of the
subzone of the southern tundra, the small-mound type of tundra takes
the place of the type described above. Here the tundra contains scat-
tered low mounds, 20 to 80 cm, and up to 75 cm. in height, composed of
peat and overgrown with low birches and willows, under which are
found the usual tundra shrubs and herbaceous plants.

East of the Lena, on clayey subsoils, hillock tundra is widespread. The
surface of the tundra is covered with hillocks of sheathed cotton sedge
(Eriophorum vaginatiim) , sometimes with an admixture of sedge. The
plant cover of the hillock tundra also includes sphagnum mosses (both
green and brown) and lichens.

Where sandy subsoils are extensive, lichen tundra is widespread. To
the west as far as the Yenisey, and in the extreme east, reindeer moss
(Cladonia) predominates; in the north of Central Siberia, the more hardy
alectorias (chiefly Alectoria ochroleuca) predominate.

Spotty tundra occupies large level areas of well drained heavy soils.
It is characterized by bare, clayey patches, the size of a plate or a wheel,
surrounded by a border of mosses and lichens, dwarf arctic birch, ledum
{Ledum), bog bilberry, cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) , black crow-
berry, alpine ptarmiganberry (Arctostaphijlos alpina [Arctous alpinus]),
dwarf willows, and others. Gorodkov explains the origin of the spotty
timdra as follows. As a result of the thin snow cover, the surface of the
clayey soils cracks from the frost, forming irregular polygons. The edges
of the cracks crumble, and in the crevices which result plant life takes
root, while on the surface of the patches plants cannot take root because
of the winds. In the spring the bare patches thaw quickly and their mois-
ture spreads.

The Wooded Tundra. The forests of the wooded tundra zone are com-
posed of a variety of tree species. On the Kola Peninsula the north-
ernmost forests consist of birch; between the White Sea and the Urals,
of Siberian spruce (Fig. 4); between the Urals and the Pyasina, of Sibe-
rian larch; between the Pyasina and the upper reaches of the Anadyr,
of Dahurian larch; and in the extreme northeast of Asia, along the rivers,
are found peculiar small woods of Mongolian poplar {Populus suaveo-
lens), Korean willow (Salix or Chosenia macroJepis), and birch {Befida
cajanderi ) .

Extending far to the north, patches of tundra forest are distinguished
by their stunted growth (except in the river valleys, the height of the
trees is 6 to 8 m.), and by their sparse stand (Fig. 5). As a result tlie
light in such forests is good, and light-loving lichens reach a consider-

16 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

able development. According to Gorodkov, the reason for the sparseness
of the tundra forests lies in the subsoil conditions: where permanent
ground frost is present, the tree roots are obliged to spread not down-
ward but laterally, so that there is a smaller number of trees per unit
of surface. In general, however, forest vegetation in the tundra zone
seeks to avoid areas where there is permanently frozen soil. Since drain-
age is better in the immediate vicinity of streams, the level of the per-
manent ground frost is lower along the water courses. This encourages
the growth of trees on the banks of rivers and on their flood plains. For
this reason, as Tanfilyev has pointed out, the forest border bends sharply
to the north along the rivers.

At one time the forests in the tundra extended much farther north than
they do today. Evidence is found in the fact that the peat bogs of the
typical tundra often contain stumps and trunks of firs, birches, and
larches, sometimes as far as 200 km. north of the present northern edge
of the wooded tundra. The period during which the forests extended
much farther north than they do today must have been the dry and rela-
tively warm postglacial period ( the so-called "xerothermic" period ) . Un-
der present climatic conditions, however, the forest is dying out on its
northern boundary and the tundra is encroaching upon the forest. Tan-
filyev was not inclined to attribute this encroachment to a change in
climate; he regarded the extermination of the outskirts of the tundra
forests as being the result of their natural waterlogging, and not as a
result of climatic changes. However, as Sukachev has pointed out, the
extermination of the forest outskirts in the north of the wooded tundra
is not accompanied at all by waterlogging. Gorodkov ( 1935 ) notes a great
number of forest forms in the plant life of the typical tundra. These bear
witness to the fact that in place of the present moss and lichen tundra
there extended at one time a forest region, with sphagnum peat bogs
and coniferous forests: "The lichen and moss tundras appear as the lower
layers of forests which existed here at one time, layers rich in arctic
forms and poor in forest forms." Where there are deep peat deposits
(4 to 6 m.) in the tundra, they were formed not under present climatic
conditions, but during the warmer xerothennic period.

Gorodkov divides the forests of the wooded tundra into several for-
mations. On the sandy and nibbly soils are found lichen forests, or, more
exactly, thin forests. Due to the sparseness of the forest stand, the ground
vegetation of these forests resembles, on the one hand, the lichen cover
of pine groves, on the other hand, the lichen tundra. Lichens (Cladonia
and others) are the basic species, while under the trees the light-loving

THE TUNDRA ZONE TT

lichens give way to mosses. In these forests there is much cowberry, bog
bilberry, bilberry, alpine ptarmiganberry, and black crowberry; there are
some grasses. The shmb layer society, which consists of dwarf arctic birch,
does not grow tall; it reaches only half a meter in height. In the wooded
tundra of the Kola Peninsula, lichen birch groves predominate, consisting
of the low (3 to 5 m. ) and crooked Lapland birch ( Betula kusmisschefii),
closely related to the pubescent birch. In the wooded tundra of Siberia,
lichen forests of larch are widespread; on river terraces these forests attain
a greater height and contain a profuse undergrowth of birch and alder
(Almis fnificosa).

On the clayey subsoils of the wooded tundra there are many green-
moss forests, with a ground cover of green mosses, chiefly hypnum. In
the wooded tundra between the Pechora and the Yenisey there are mossy
fir groves with an admixture of birch and Siberian larch. In Siberia there
are also mossy larch groves. Among the shrubs in the green-moss for-
ests, dwarf arctic birch, willow, crooked birch {Betula tortuosa), and
alder (Alnus fruticosa) are common.

In the river valleys of Siberia there are herbaceous-shrubby larch
groves. They contain much willow, dwarf arctic birch, currant, and
sweetbrier rose. In the larch forests along the Ob and Yenisey gulfs,
where the level of permanent ground frost is lower, the trees grow to a
considerable height, up to 15 m.

In the Khatanga basin and apparently farther east, the subzone of the
wooded tundra does not appear. The tundra borders directly upon the
zone of thin forests.

Fauna
The fauna of the tundra is distinguished in general by its remarkable
uniformity throughout— in Europe, Asia, and America. The number of
species is not large, but many of the species are represented in ex-
tremely large numbers. The land fauna of the tundra is characterized
by its small variability. Those species which contain many varieties far-
ther south, manifest either no local forms in the tundra, or only a few.
This suggests that the fauna of the tundra ^' is new in its present sur-
roundings. Of the mammals,^'' the reindeer, both wild and domestic, is

^■^ G. P. Dementyev, "Ptitsy poluostrova Kanina" (Birds of the Kanin Peninsula),
Shorn, trudov Zool. muzetja (Collected Proceedings of the Zoological Museum), II,
Moscow, 1935.

18 G. P. Adlerberg, V. S. Vinogradov, N. A. Smirnov, K. K. Flerov, Zveri Arktiki
(Animals of the Arctic), Leningrad, 1935, izd. Glavsevmorputi (Board of the North-
em Sea Route), p. 579.

18 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

very characteristic for the tundra, as are, to a lesser degree, the lem-
ming, the arctic fox, and the domestic dog. In the European tundra the
wild reindeer {Rangifer tarandus) is at present almost extinct. In the
fall the reindeer moves from the tundra into the wooded tundra, where
it is warmer; but in summer it returns to the tundra, where it seeks
refuge from the mosquitoes. The domestic reindeer is a universal ani-
mal in the tundra: it is used as a draft animal; its meat is eaten; its skin
is used to make clothing, shoes, chamois, and tent coverings. Clothing
made of reindeer skin, which retains its elasticity even in severe frost,
has no substitute in regions where the winters are severe. The reindeer
grazes all winter long, subsisting on reindeer moss and other lichens and
mosses; it feeds readily on berries, mushrooms, and young greens. In the
Bolshezemelskaya tundra the reindeer stags begin to shed their antlers
in the middle of April, and by the end of the month they are all horn-
less; the does shed their antlers in May, after dropping their fawns. The
dogs which tend the reindeer herds are Eskimo dogs— small dogs with
long white fur and pointed ears. Tundra Eskimo dogs constitute a dis-
tinct group, which differs sharply from taiga Eskimo dogs. Tundra trac-
tion dogs, that is, dogs which may be hitched to sledges, are related to
the Eskimo dog type, but differ somewhat from the type which tends
herds. East of the Yenisey, dogs are used only for haulage, and not to
tend reindeer.

Lemmings (genera Lemmus and Dicrostonyx) are typical tundra ro-
dents. In some years they appear in great numbers. The arctic fox
(Alopex lagopus), a carnivore of the dog family, has a white colora-
tion in winter, brown in summer. Besides the arctic fox, there is a whole
series of white animals in the tundra: the willow ptarmigan, the snowy
owl, the varying hare, the polar bear, the white wolf, and the Eskimo
dog. Some of these animals are always white, others change to white
coat only in winter.

Life in the Bolshezemelskaya tundra does not begin until the middle
of June and ends in September. In winter the tundra is inhabited only
by the arctic fox and sometimes by the willow ptarmigan {Lagopus
lagopus). In spring the first birds to appear are the swans, and next
the wild goose and the white-fronted goose. In the typical tundra there
are no amphibians or reptiles.

Among the fish of the tundra, salmonids predominate: on the Murman
coast, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar); farther east, various whitefish
(Coregonus), the Siberian nelma (Stenodus [S. leucichthijs nehna], a
fish which is closely related to the Caspian-Volgan whitefish), and charr

THE TUNDRA ZONE 19

(Salvelinus), which is found farther north than any other fresh-water
fish (it is found on Novaya Zemlya and on the New Siberian Islands).
In the Anadyr, chum and pink salmon (Pacific salmon of the genus
Oncorhijnclms) appear in considerable numbers.

After warm weather sets in, swarms of mosquitoes appear; they con-
stitute a real hardship for the reindeer. There are fewer mosquitoes on
the seacoast; but in the wooded tundra they occur in unbelievable num-
bers.

Professor Birulya (1907) wrote an excellent account of animal life in
the arctic tundra of Siberia, particularly on the New Siberian Islands and
on northern Taimyr. Apparently, of the birds on northern Taimyr, only
the tundra ptarmigan {Lagopus mutus) and the snowy owl (Nyctea
nijctea) remain during the winter. On the New Siberian Islands, the wil-
low ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) is known to spend the winter. Some
of the tundra ptarmigan retire to the south for the winter, to the edge of
the forests, while others remain through the winter. On Taimyr, rein-
deer, wolf, both types of lemming, and ermine remain throughout the
winter, along with the timdra ptarmigan and the snowy owl. Migratory
birds appear very early in spring. On western Taimyr, in lat. 76° N,
the first of the migratory birds to appear at the beginning of May is the
snow bunting {Plectrophenax nivalis), followed by the shore birds. In
the latter half of June the birds begin to nest. In the latter half of July
they begin to fly south, and by the middle of August the tundra is
empty. However, the snow bunting remains until September, and indi-
vidual birds remain as late as October. Of the mammals, only the rein-
deer, wolf, polar bear, arctic fox, hare, ermine, and two types of lem-
ming are found in northern Taimyr. The same species, with the excep-
tion of the hare, are found on the New Siberian Islands.

Among the animals of the tundra there are some endemic genera.
These include the lemmings (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx) , which are found
predominantly in the timdra.^^ Many birds nest exclusively in the tundra.
Such, for example, are the eider ducks— the king eider ( Somateria specta-
hilis) and Steller's eider (S. stelleri [Polysticta stelleri]), the white-
fronted goose (Anser albifrons), the brant {Branta hernicla), the red-
breasted goose (B. ruficollis), Bewick's swan {Cygnus bewicki), the
black-beUied plover {SquataroJa sqiiatarola), Rosa's gull {Rhodostethia
rosea), and others. Some of the birds are circumpolar in distribution,

^^This is evidence of the fact that the tundra fauna contains archaic elements,
which were developed, apparently, under difiFerent geographic conditions. This con-
clusion is not contradicted by the fact that the animals of tlie tundra are new in
their present environment (see above, p. 17).

20 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

being represented both in the U.S.S.R. and in the tundras of North
America by the same species, without even forming different varieties.
Among these are the king eider, the red-throated loon, the snowy owl,
the glaucous gull, and the phalarope.^°

Origin of the Tundra Landscape

During the glacial period a large part of the tundra was covered by
an ice sheet, and the tundra vegetation, pushed far to the south, was
found, in the form of tundra and wooded tundra, along the periphery
of the glacial cover. At the same time, during this period the mountain
vegetation in the Arctic, as well as in temperate latitudes, was also
forced to move down into the lowlands, and the interchange of organ-
isms between the mountains and the tundra was facilitated considerably.
This interchange explains a certain similarity which may be observed
between the plant and animal life of the Arctic, on the one hand, and
of the mountains which have an alpine zone, on the other. To this simi-
larity Forbes and Darwin had called attention even in their time. The
plants common to both the tundra and the alpine zone include the
dryad (Dryas), the dwarf arctic birch {Betula nana), the ptarmiganberry,
the butterbur, the black crowberry, the spring gentian {Gentiana verna),
and others. The animals include the tundra ptarmigan {Lagopus mutus),
which is native to the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Altay Mountains,
and others.

But, in addition, among the plants and animals of the tundra there are
also steppe, or, more exactly, chiefly mountain-steppe forms, native pre-
dominantly to the tundras of eastern Siberia. Although the tundra and
the steppe, as Gorodkov ( 1935 ) rightly points out, were never adjacent,
nevertheless during the dry postglacial period the steppe, or, more ex-
actly, the forest steppe, extended far to the north— as far as the basins
of the Onega and the Northern Dvina rivers, as is indicated by the dis-
covery in these areas of loesslike clay loams. If this conclusion is cor-
rect, it would have been easy for the tundra to acquire elements of
steppe life. Such plants include the legumes Astragalus and Oxytropis
(Gorodkov calls the tundra species of these genera, mountain-steppe
species), and the Siberian campion (Lychnis sihirica). The animals in-
clude the rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus) and the arctic homed

^° Concerning tundra fauna, see N. Ya. Kuznetsov, "Arkticheskaya fauna Yevrazii i
yeyo proiskhozhdenie" (The Arctic Fauna of Eurasia and Its Origin), Trudy Zoolog.
Inst. Akad. nauk ( Proceedings of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences ),
V, No. I, 1938, pp. 1-79.

THE TUNDRA ZONE 21

lark {Otocoris alpestris). The suslik* {Citellus eversmanni huxtoni)
inhabits the wooded zone of northeastern Siberia ( Bunge saw it daily in
Verkhoyansk), but it is found also in the tundra. In the tundras of Alaska,
in Quaternary deposits, there have been found remains of the camel.
The New Siberian Islands were inhabited at one time by wild horses
and saiga antelope. And at present, steppe landscapes extend far to the
north in eastern Siberia (for example, along the Lena).

The basic element of tundra flora, according to A. Tolmachev (1931),
was developed during the early glacial period in the north of eastern
Siberia and part of America, where the ice cover was not continuous; in
Europe, however, tundra vegetation appeared from the east, as a result
of migration. Gorodkov (1935), however, describes the history of tun-
dra vegetation otherwise: The formation of tundras began in the north
toward the end of the Tertiary or at the beginning of the Quaternary
period, as the climate gradually became cooler. The bog type of Ter-
tiary vegetation was transformed into the peculiar timdra type. Perma-
nent ground frost must have appeared first of all in the Pliocene peat
bogs. Those habitats which became inaccessible to trees and arbores-
cent shrubs were occupied gradually by associations of northern peat
mosses. Furthermore, plants from the arctic mountains also descended
into these regions. The tundra dwarf evergreen shrubs, such as the
ledum or the black crowberry, in the opinion of Gorodkov, are de-
scendants of Tertiary forest plants, which at first had become adapted
to life in the peat bogs of the northern Pliocene forests, and then, at the
beginning of the glacial period, had moved into the tundra. (Litvinov,
on the other hand, held that the ledum, the cranberry, and the an-
dromeda were mountain plants which had descended into the lowlands. )
But we must keep in mind that in northeastern Siberia and in the Bering
Sea region a temperate climate prevailed during Upper Tertiary times,
and it is here that the peculiar "Okhotsk" fauna and flora had their be-
ginning, spreading somewhat to the west. In this region some of the vege-
tation of the tundra may also have had its origin."^

* Known in the United States as the ground squirrel.— Tr.

-^ Cf. concurring opinion of B. Stegman, "O printsipakh zoogeograf. deleniya
Palearktiki" (Concerning the Principles of the Zoogeographical Subdivision of the
Palearctic), Izv. Akad. nauk, seria biol. (Report of the Academy of Sciences, Biological
Series), 1936, No. 2-3, p. 529, on tlie subject of the origin of the bird fauna of the
Arctic.

II • The Forest Zone'

Boundaiies

THE forest zone, or, more exactly, the zone of temper-
ate forests with severe winters, is situated between
the tundra on the north and the forest steppe on the south. The south-
ern boundary of the forest zone coincides approximately with the south-
em boundary of spruce. Occupying a vast expanse (close to half the
entire area of the U.S.S.R.), this region in eastern Europe extends about
as far south as the line through Pulavy (formerly Novaya Aleksandriya-
on-the- Vistula ) , Lutsk, Zhitomir, Kiev, Karachev, Kaluga, along the Oka
to Ryazan, Gorky, Kazan, the mouth of the Vyatka, along the Kama to
the mouth of the Belaya, north of Birsk, north of the Ufa, and from
there south along the Ural range. In western Siberia it extends as far
as the line through Tagil, Irbit, Tyumen, along the Ishim below the
town of Ishim, somewhat above Tara, Kolyvan, and from there south
of Tomsk; that is, in the west as far as lat. 58° N, in the east as far as
lat. 56° N, coinciding with the northern boundary of chernozem. In east-
em Siberia this region extends as far south as the mountain ranges.

General Charactenstics
The forest zone of the temperate latitudes in Europe and Asia is dis-
tinguished by the following characteristics: It is covered with forests,
both coniferous and deciduous. There are many sphagnum bogs. Sphag-
num mosses and cranberry are very characteristic ( although these plants
extend to the south and to the north beyond the limits of the forest zone ) .
While the winter is severe, the summer is warm, the mean temperature
of the warmest month being over 10° C. As a rule, the mean annual
precipitation is about 500 mm. The soils are podzolic, and the subsoils
leached. The ground water is not alkaline.

^ For details see L. S. Berg, Fiziko-geograficheskie ( landshaftnie ) zony ( Physical-
Geographical [Landscape] Zones), I, 1936, pp. 95-289.

22

THE FOREST ZONE 23

Subdivisions

The temperate forest zone may be divided into two subzones: (1) taiga
and (2) mixed forests. The zone of mixed forests of the Far East will be
discussed in the next chapter.

The taiga is characterized by the predominance of coniferous forests
of spruce, larch, fir, and Siberian stone pine (Pinus sihirica [P. cemhra
sibirica]); the common pine also occurs (Fig. 8). Deciduous species-
birch, aspen, alder— are of secondary importance. There are many sphag-
num bogs in the taiga. There is no oak ( except in the river valleys near the
southern border in Europe ) .

In the mixed forests, the so-called "broad-leaved" species, of which the
oak may serve as an example, appear together with the conifers. The
number of sphagnum bogs here is much smaller, and they almost disap-
pear in the south.

In eastern Europe the boundary between taiga and mixed forests is
as follows: the southern boundary of Finland, the Karelian Isthmus
(Toksovo), Novgorod, the Tikhvin Canal, Bezhetsk, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo,
Gorky. This boundary corresponds to the northern boundary of the dis-
tribution of oak in the interfluves. In the valleys along the river courses,
however, oak extends somewhat farther north.

In the Volga region, at the meridian of Kozmodemyansk ( approxi-
mately in lat. 57° N), the fir-spruce-oak belt begins. (Here fir-spruce
forests occur with an admixture of oak. ) The northern edge of this belt
runs through Sanchursk, passes south of Yaransk, south of Urzhum, passes
near Sarapul, and from there proceeds to the Kungur island of forest
steppe (as far as the Irena River).

A. THE TAIGA SUBZONE

Climate
The climate of the taiga, throughout its vast extent, is extremely varied,
but is characterized in general by a relatively warm and rather humid
summer, and a cool or cold winter. The mean July temperature is no-
where less than 10° C, nor greater than 19° to 20° C. Precipitation is
moderate, the mean annual figure being 300 to 600 mm. (but in some
places even less than 300 mm.; this will be discussed below). The maxi-
mum precipitation everywhere occurs in the latter half of the summer,
in July and August. The minimum precipitation in continental regions

24 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

generally occurs in winter, when the prevailing atmospheric conditions
are anticyclonic, with descending air currents which do not favor the
condensation of water vapors. In the forest zone, the minimum precipi-
tation comes in February and March, and, in some places, in the sub-
zone of mixed forests, also in January. As one moves eastward away from
the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, the climate of the forest zone be-
comes more and more continental: the summer becomes warmer, the
winter more severe, and thus the annual range, that is, the difference
between the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest months,
increases.

So far as the climate is concerned, the taiga may be divided into two
parts : ( 1 ) the western, eastward to the Yenisey, and ( 2 ) the East Sibe-
rian, from the Yenisey to the watershed of the Pacific Ocean.

The western part is distinguished by cloudy winters, with relatively
abundant precipitation. South of lakes Onega and Ladoga, the amount
of precipitation reaches 600 mm. per year; in other places it is less.
Westward from the Ural Mountains, in the taiga, the 18° C. July isotherm
moves to the north, reaching farthest north (to lat. 57° N) in the basins
of the Vyatka and the Kama.

The eastern part is distinguished by clear winters with little snowfall.
The basic factor which determines the climate of eastern Siberia is the
presence of a strong winter anticyclone, which exists here from October
to March. During this time, there is a low-pressure area in the northern
part of the Pacific Ocean, in the neighborhood of the Aleutian Islands.
There is also an area of relatively low pressure over the Arctic Ocean.
In summer, on the other hand, the pressure is low in eastern Siberia,
while over the northern part of the Pacific and over the Arctic it is rela-
tively high. Due to these conditions, the East Siberian type of climate
is distinguished by severe but dry winters, with little snowfall, little
cloudiness, and a great many hours of insolation. When the Siberian
anticyclone, with its descending air currents, prevails here, the winter
winds are very gentle, and the weather is sunny and calm, altliough very
frosty. Such weather is associated with winters in anticyclonic regions in
general. In summer, on the contrary, it is relatively hot here, and so dry
that in some places near Olekminsk it is necessary to irrigate the fields.

The following table on page 25 gives an idea of tlie annual temperature
pattern in eastern Siberia.

In Yakutsk, in winter, frosts of — 50° C. are not unusual. They occur
as low as — 60° C. and even lower. In January tlie thermometer never
goes above — 9° C. The lowest temperatures found anywhere in the

THE FOREST ZONE

Temperatures in

Table 1

Eastern Siberia (in

'O

Jan.

Feb.

Makch

A PHI I,

May

June

July

Auo.

Hki-v.

Oct.

Nov.

Dm:.

A.s-NrjAL

AVEUAOB

Yakutsk *
Veikho-
yan.sk t

-4:i.'J
-.50.1

-44. .0

-22.<t
-.31.0

-8..0
— 12.0

2.4

ir,:.i

13.4

19.1

14.9

10.9

2.3

-8..0

-1 4.0

-28.7

-40.2

-40.:;

-10.7

-ir,.'i

* Lat. 62° 01' N. absolute elevation 108 ru., observations for 71 years (during? 1829-192fJ;.
t Lat. 67° 33' N, absolute elevation 100 ra., observations for 38 years (1809, 1884-1920;.

world, almost — 70° C, are recorded in Verkhoyansk. In summer, on the
other hand, in both Yakutsk and Verkhoyansk temperatures of over 30° C.
occur. (In Yakutsk almost 38° C. has been recorded.) The absolute range
in both places exceeds 100° C, greater than anywhere else in the world.

Along the middle course of the Lena summers are generally hot, rela-
tively unclouded, and dry, with long hours of daylight. This combina-
tion of factors results in an altogether peculiar condition: The mean
July temperature in Yakutsk is 19° C; nowhere else in the world is there
found such a high temperature in July in lat. 62° N. Here, and even a
degree farther north along the Lena, spring wheat, spring rye, barley,
oats, watermelon, and melon flourish. Barley and wheat ripen in Yakutsk
about the middle of July. But we must keep in mind that the daily range
of temperature here in summer is very great; sometimes the daytime
temperature reaches 35° C, while after sunset the thermometer drops
to 5° C.

Precipitation in eastern Siberia is generally sparse, from 350 to 150 mm.
In the basin of the middle course of the Lena, it is 250 to 150 mm., of
which only about 100 mm. comes in summer. Such quantities of annual
precipitation as in Yakutsk ( 187 mm. ) and Verkhoyansk ( 128 mm. ) may
be found also in the deserts of the Turanian Lowland, but tlie distribu-
tion of the precipitation is entirely diSerent. The maximum precipita-
tion in Yakutiya comes in the latter half of the summer, in July and
August. In winter ( November to April ) there is very little precipitation,
3 to 10 mm. per month; the deep freezing of the subsoils is associated
with this fact.

One of the characteristic features of the climate of eastern Siberia as
compared with the country west of the Yenisey is the relatively small
amount of cloudiness in winter— less than in summer. The explanation is
found in the descending air currents associated with the winter anticy-
clone, which bring clear weather with them.

In Yakutsk the maximum cloudiness occurs in October (73 per cent),

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28 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

traces in the relief. To date there is no agreement as to the extent of
glaciation which the Russian plain underwent during the Quaternary
period. It is generally accepted that there were three such glaciations,
and that the most severe one, which extended farthest south, was the
second ( the so-called Riss glaciation ) . This glaciation formed two lobes,
extending far to the south along the Dnieper and Don valleys, as is
clearly apparent from every map showing the distribution of glacial
deposits.

The Kola Peninsula and Karelia are composed fundamentally of
strongly dislocated pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks, which either outcrop
on the earth's surface or lie not far below the surface. This structure
contrasts with the country situated to the east and south, where the bed-
rock consists of horizontal sedimentary deposits of more recent date. The
boundary between these two regions is a line from the mouth of the
Onega River to the middle of the eastern shore of Lake Onega, and
extending south along the Svir River.

On the Kola Peninsula, eastward from Lake Imandra (which has a
depth of 67 m.^), lie the plateaulike Khibin massifs and the Lovozersk
tundras. These massifs, with elevations reaching 1300 m., are composed
chiefly of basic rocks of intrusive origin (nephelite syenite, much of which
is now being exploited). The massifs, which are laccoliths, stand out
sharply against the surrounding swampy plain country, which is cov-
ered with numerous lakes (the level of Lake Imandra has an absolute
elevation of 128 m.), peat bogs, and in some places, low wooded hills
composed usually of bouldery material. Traces of Quaternary glacia-
tion have been found on the Khibin massifs; on many of the plateaus
there are boulders of granite and other rocks which are foreign to the
nephelite-syenite massif.

The mineral resources of tlie Kola Peninsula, in addition to apatite
and nephelite, also include iron and diatomites; the Khibin apatite reserves
are the greatest in the world.

In northern Karelia, at Lake Pyavo, the elevations reach over 500 m.
West of Lake Segozero, also, the elevations are considerable. In some
places the watershed between the White Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia
reaches elevations of 255 m.; here a nonexistent chain of mountains was
represented formerly. Evidences of the work of the ice sheet appear in
Karelia with unusual clarity. Eskers and drumlins, roches rnoutonnees,

^ G. D. Richter, Fiziko-geografichesky ocherk ozera Imandra ( Physical-Geograph-
ical Sketch of Lake Iniandra), Leningrad, 1934, izd. Geogr.-ekonom. instituta
(pubhcation of the Geographical Economics Institute).

THE FOREST ZONE 29

dome-shaped hills, and numerous lakes bear witness to the former gla-
ciation.*

Because of the peculiarities of the relief, Karelia, and also the Kola
Peninsula, are distinguished by an abundance of lakes. For the same rea-
son, the rivers are full of rapids. There are many waterfalls; of these,
the Kivach waterfall on the Suna River (which empties into Lake Onega),
is well known, although it is not the highest on this river. The consider-
able gradient of the rivers of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula creates con-
ditions favorable for the development of hydroelectric power. In Karelia
there are a great many lakes, around four thousand of them. Many of
them, as also the bays of the northern part of Lake Onega, extend from
NW to SE, along the prevailing direction of the tectonic lines of Karelia.

At the end of the glacial epoch, during the Yoldian period, the White
Sea was connected with Lake Onega, and the Gulf of Finland with Lake
Ladoga. It is not yet entirely clear whether at this time Lake Onega ( the
surface elevation of which is about 34 m. above sea level ) was connected
with Lake Ladoga (elevation 5 m.). K. Markov^ argues against the pos-
sibility of a connection between the White Sea and the Baltic during
the Yoldian period. Whether or not he is right, both lakes contain animal
forms which are native to both the White and the Baltic seas (of fish,
for example, the four-homed sculpin, Myoxocephalus quadricornis).
Possibly a strait existed between the Baltic and the White seas during
the interglacial period.

The most valuable mineral resources of Karelia are pegmatite, iron
ores, and various structural stones (marble, the famous red sandstones,
diabases, and others).

The relief of the Karelian Isthmus (the area between the Gulf of Fin-
land and Lake Ladoga and bounded on the south by the Neva) is highly
dissected. Here are found hills which rise 200 m. above the level of the
Gulf of Finland; they are of the kame type. According to Markov's expla-
nation, these kames were formed within an englacial lake, which existed
in a thawed patch inside the glacier. The lake was filled with material
brought in by subglacial streams. Within the lake individual smaller
blocks of ice were preserved, and as the spaces between these blocks
were filled with alluvium, kames were formed.

*B. F. Zemlyakov, Chetvertichnatja geologiya Karelii (The Quaternary Geology of
Karelia), Petrozavodsk, 1936, izd. Karel. nauchn.-issled. in-ta. (publication oftlie
Karelian Scientific-Research Institute).

^ K. K. Markov, "Yoldiye\oye more i problema baltiisko-belomorskovo pozdnele-
dnikovovo proliva" (The Yoldian Sea and tlie Problem of tlie Baltic- White Sea
Late-Glacial Strait), Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the Geographical Societ>), LXV,
1933.

30 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Lake Ilmen is a shallow basin, almost completely filled with deposits
from the rivers which empty into it— the Lovat, Msta, Shelon, and others.
As a result, the area and depth of the lake vary extremely, depending upon
the amount of water carried by the rivers. In 1922, when the level of the
lake was high (23 m. above the Baltic Sea), its area was three and one-
half times, and its depth (10 m.) was four times as great as in 1882,
when the level was low ( 16 m. above sea level ) .

We have spoken already of the Timan ridge. It rises in elevation
toward the south, reaching, at the source of the Vychegda, an elevation
of 325 m. The watershed betAveen the left-bank tributaries of the Volga
on the one hand, and the Sukhona, the Yug, the Vychegda, and the
Pechora on the other, is designated on maps as the Sevemie Uvaly
(Northern hills), 250 m. in elevation. There appear to be no hills here
at all, but only a watershed area, in many places level and composed of
moraine deposits.

There are rich beds of potassium salts in the Permian deposits in the
region of Solikamsk, near the western slope of the Urals.

We turn now to a description of the relief of the forest zone of Siberia.
Between the Ural range to the west and the Yenisey to the east lies the
West Siberian Lowland, a portion of the earth's crust which has under-
gone subsidence. This subsidence must have taken place during pre-
Jurassic times, judging by the discovery on the Ob (along the Bolshoy
Yugan River) of Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits (Edelstein, 1932).
There is reason to believe (Meister, 1909; Kassin, 1931) that along its
southern boundary the lowland rests against a fault line which runs in
a northwest direction and marks the northern boundary of the Kazakh
Folded Country ( Kazakhskatja skladchataija strana ) . To the north, merg-
ing into the tundra, the lowland reaches as far as the Arctic Ocean. To
the south, merging into the forest steppe, the steppe, and the semidesert,
it extends as far as the line through Kustanay, Semipalatinsk, Yeniseisk,
and Achinsk. Considering its vast extent, the lowland has a very small
gradient. The low-water mark of the Ob River 3000 km. from its mouth
is only 91 m. above sea level.®

In the watershed areas of Narym kray the prevailing elevations are
from 100 to 140 m. The extreme northern part of the West Siberian plain,
as Ya. S. Edelstein (1936) points out, is somewhat elevated with re-

^Ya. S. Edelstein, "Geomorfologichesky ocherk Zapadno-Sibirskoy nizmennosti"
( Geomorphological Sketch of the West Siberian Lowland), Trudy Inst. fiz. geogr.
Akad. nauk (Proceedings of the Institute of Physical Geography of the Academy of
Sciences), No. 20, 1936, p. 19.

THE FOREST ZONE 31

spect to the central parts. Elevations of 150 to 175 m. have been discov-
ered recently between the gults of the Ob and the Yenisey.

During the first half of the Tertiary period a sea covered the West
Siberian Lowland and was connected with the Aral Sea by a strait in
the vicinity of the present headwaters of the Tobol. From that time on,
western Siberia was no longer submerged, with the exception of the
extreme north, where deposits of a Quaternary marine transgression have
been found. The lowland is composed fundamentally of horizontal Ter-
tiary and Quaternary deposits. Boring in the Kulundinsk steppe has
shown that Oligocene marine deposits occur here to a depth of more
than 300 m. Glacial deposits extend approximately as far south as the
latitude at which the Irtysh empties into the Ob. An ice sheet moved
down from the northern part of the Ural Mountains and another glacier
moved down from the northeast, from the Taimyr region.

According to Ya. S. Edelstein, the Ob River found its channel to the
north somewhere between the two ice sheets. On the West Siberian
plain there is certain evidence of only one glaciation. Interglacial depos-
its have not been discovered anj'where.

On the watershed between the Ob and the Irtysh lies the enormous
Vasyugansk swamp, the highest parts of which reach an absolute eleva-
tion of 125 m. This swamp resulted not from the growing-over of lakes,
but from the waterlogging of dry land by sphagnum mosses. .

On the right bank of the Yenisey below Krasnoyarsk lies the Yenisey
mountain ridge, extending north from the mouth of the Kan River and
composed of gneisses, granites, crystalline schists, limestones, doloixdtes,
conglomerates, and other rocks. The folds of the Yenisey ridge extend
from NW to SE. During the Middle Cambrian and Lower Silurian pe-
riods the ridge was submerged by the sea. Somewhat above the point
where the Podkamennaya (Middle) Tunguska empties into the Yenisey,
the rocks of which the ridge is composed are found on the left bank of
the Yenisey. Flere the Yenisey breaks through the ridge and becomes
wider; at this point lie the Osinovsky rapids. The elevation of the Yenisey
ridge to the south of the Angara River is 300 to 450 m. above sea level, and
the elevation above the Yenisey is 75 to 100 m. To tlie north of the An-
gara River, approximately in lat. 60° N, the ridge reaches an elevation of
1132 m. ( Yenashiminsky Polkan). The Yenisey ridge contains gold.

To the east of the Yenisey ridge lies the vast Central Siberian Plateau.
It extends beyond the Lena into the basins of the Aldan and the Maya.
On the north it is bordered by the North Siberian Lowland; that is,

32 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

approximately by a line connecting the point where the Pyasina River
intersects the parallel of 70° N (in Norilsk raion) ' and the lower reaches
of the Olenek. This boundary runs along a fault line, which in some
places takes the form of a cliff and is accompanied by extrusions of trap.
In Norilsk raion the plateau rises to an elevation of 500 to 600 m. above
the valley floor. To the east the escarpment declines in elevation, and
between the Anabar and the Olenek its elevation is 200 to 300 m. To
the south the plateau extends as far as the heights on the southern bor-
der of Siberia. To the east it reaches as far as the foot of the Verkhoyansk
range, while its southeastern boundary crosses the Olekma in lat. 59° N,
and from here continues along the latitudinal course of tlie Aldan and
proceeds toward the left tributaries of the Maya River. The plateau is
drained by the rivers Angara, Podkammenaya and Lower Tunguska,
Khatanga, Anabar, Olenek, Vilyuy, Lena, and Aldan. The elevation of
the watershed between the Lena and the Vilyuy is approximately 500 m.,
but the plateau decreases in elevation in the direction of the Lena. To
the east, between the Lena and the Aldan, the elevation of the plateau
is generally 200 to 400 m., while near the source of the Lena, the abso-
lute elevation of the plateau is 600 to 700 m., with valleys cutting 150 to
300 m. into the plateau (Fig. 7). The absolute elevation of Irkutsk is
468 m.

The Lena is a very large river, 4150 km. long. Its tributaries, the Aldan
and the Vilyuy, are each more than 2000 km. long. The Lena carries an
average of about 15,000 cubic m. of water per second into the Arctic
Ocean.® Flowing as it does from south to north, this river carries with it
a great deal of warmth. The mean temperature of the water near the
delta of the Lena for the months of June to September is 10° C, while
the temperature of the air here is 1.5° C. lower.®

The Central Siberian Plateau is composed fundamentally of horizon-
tal or very slighdy dislocated marine deposits of Cambrian and Silurian
age. In many places above the Paleozoic marine deposits there occur
layers which contain the fossils of Upper Carboniferous or Permian vege-
tation (the so-called Angara series). Coal of Permian age is found along

^ S. P. Suslov, "K geomorfologii raiona Norilskikh ozer (oz. Lama)" (Concerning
the Geomorphology of the Norilsk Lake Region [Lake Lama]), Trudy Inst. fiz.
geogr. Akad. nauk C Proceedings of the Institute of Ph\'sical Geography of tlie
Academy of Sciences'), No. 14. 19.35, p. 120.

^ B. b. Zaikov, "Reclmoy stok v more Lapte^ikh i Vostochno-Sibirskoye i koli-
chesh'o perenosimovo yim v eti mor)'a tepla" ( The River Drainage of the Laptev and
East Siberian Seas and the Amount of Warmth Carried by the Rivers into These Seas),
Trudtf Aria. inst. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute). XXX\', 1936, p. 7S.

-^ ibid., p. 80.

Fig. 1. The arctic tundra in summer. Note absence of shrubs and abundance of
flowers. (Vegeiafionsbilder. Vol. 5; part 5; plate 33)

Fig. 2. Bog vegetation. Cloudberry (Rufaus c/iomaemorus) and cotton sedge (Erio-
phorum scheuchzeri) in the tundra on Kolguyev Island. {Vegetafionsbilder. Vol. 5;
part 5; plate 31)

Fig. 3. The typical, or shrub tundra. View in the Bolshezemelskaya tundra near
the upper Usa. Note the cover of dwarf arctic birch, Betula nana, the complete ab-
sence of trees, and the level topography. (Vegetot/onsbi/c/er. Vol. 5; part 4; plate
27)

Fig. 4. Stunted spruce at the northern limit of tree vegetation on Kanin Peniflsula.
(Vegetofionsb/7der. Vol. 5; part 4; plate 24)

Fig. 5. Wooded tundra along the southern border of the Bolshezemelskoyo tundra.
(Vegefofionsfai/c/er. Vol. 5; part 4; plate 22)

Fig. 6. Peat mound
part 4; plate 25)

the Bolshezemelskoya tundra. (Vegefotionsb/'/c/er. Vol. 5;

the Central Siberian Plateau. Pine taiga.

m'-i^

Fig 8. The taiga in winter. Transition from
Ibir-
il)

^jf-'ii >. 0<»^'-^'5^5** ^" *° P'"^ "®°'' *^® Angara River. 'Sil
■^^l"" '-tfl;''5C ,';'•?';,* skayo Sovetskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 3:

^. Fig. 9. Pine taiga in the basin of the Oka

River, a left tributary of the Angara. (Aziot-
skayo Rossiyo. Vol. 2: 128)

Fig. 10. Yeddo spruce (P/cea jezoensis) taiga in Amur oblast. {Aziatskaya Rossiya.
Vol. 2: 129)

Fig. 11. Forest steppe in Voronezh oblast. Feather-grass steppe with islands of
deciduous forest. (Vegetationsbi/der. Vol. 17; port 2; plate 8)

Fig. 12. The Baraba steppe in the forest-steppe belt of Western Siberia. {Aziaf-
skaya Rossiya. Vol. 2: 32)

iW^^nmsm^imifHi y^.

Fig. 13. Pine groves in the forest steppe
Rossiya. Vol. 2: 129)

the Trans-Baikal region. {Aziaiskaya

Fig. 14. Meadow steppe in the forest-steppe zone, Voronezh oblast. Fescue growing
on thick chernozem. (Vegefafionsbilder. Vol. 17; port 2; plate 7)

THE FOREST ZONE 33

the right bank tributaries of the Yenisey, in the so-called Tunguska basin.
In some places there are Jurassic terrestrial deposits. The Jurassic trans-
gression extended far up along the Lena valley, all the way to the Vilyuy
basin. Lava fields (trap) are widespread here, and consist chiefly of
diabases. There is also trap in the western part of the plateau, chiefly
in the Yenisey and Khatanga basins. The outpouring of lavas, which took
place mainly from fissures, began during the Carboniferous period and
ended during the pre-Jurassic.

Under the influence of trap extrusions, the coal in some places was
transformed into graphite. ( One of the thickest graphite beds is found on
the Kureika River, a tributary of the Yenisey.) The trap itself is the
source of a series of ore beds. Among these are the Norilsk copper-
nickel bed (75 km. east of the town of Dudinka on the Yenisey) . It seems
probable that the Cambrian strata of the Central Siberian Plateau are
underlain throughout by crystalline schists, which have been found so
far only in the basins of the Anabar^° and the Aldan. The greater part
of the Central Siberian Plateau was not covered by an ice sheet, but
there were glaciers on the bordering heights; for example, on the Ver-
khoyansk range.

On the maps there are mountain ranges indicated within the plateau,
but these ranges are nothing but table mountains, which owe their origin
to the uneven erosion of the plateau. While these mountains were formed
by erosion, it is possible that the considerable elevation which they at-
tain is a result of epeirogenic uplift. Such are the Tunguska Mountains
( 1050 m. ) on the watershed between the Lower Tunguska and the Vilyuy
and a part of the Lena. On the Norilsk plateau, near the source of the
Pyasina, there are unusually clear traces of Quaternary glaciation. In the
upper reaches of the Pyasina, Lake Lama, about 90 km. long and 12 km.
wide, has a depth of more than 200 m. Here the glacier did not extend
over the surface of the plateau, but was confined to the depressions in the
relief. Lake Lama lies in a valley, which was deepened by the glacier.
Elevations rise 800 to 1000 m. above the level of the lake. In the upper
reaches of the Kureika there are elevations as high as 1500 m. The Vilyuy
table mountains ( 1040 m. ) lie on the watershed between the basins of
the Vilyuy and the Olenek.

" Of the most recent literature, see B. N. Rozhkov, G. G. Moor, B. V. Tkachenko,
"K geologii Anabarskovo dokembriya i oknizhajaishchevo yevo nizlmevo paleozoya"
(Concerning the Geology of the Anabar Pre-Cambrian and the Lower Paleozoic
Which Surrounds It), ByuU. Mosk. ohshch. isp. prir. (Bulletin of the Moscow Society
for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological Section), XII, No. 4, 1934.

34 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Soils

In the forest zone of the temperate latitudes, the podzol type of soil
formation takes place under the forests. With sufficient moisture and a
relatively warm summer, which as a rule characterize the climate of the
taiga, the upper horizons of the soil become leached. Aluminum and iron
oxides and bases are carried by soil waters from the upper (eluvial) to
the deeper-lying horizons, where they are precipitated, enriching the
lower horizons with alumina, iron oxide, and so forth, as well as with silt
particles. On the other hand, in the upper, eluvial horizon, silica remains,
and is accumulated, and this horizon becomes sandy. In cross-section,
the striking feature of the podzol soils is their three-colored profile: the
top layer is grayish, colored by the humus; the middle layer is white,
eluvial, sandy, and devoid of color; while the bottom layer is a yellow-
brown color, illuvial, clayey and enriched by sesquioxides, and to some
extent also by bases and humus. It is from the presence of the middle,
white layer that these soils have been given the popular name of podzols
("the color of ash").*

Clay loams are richer in salts and less permeable than sandy soils. As
a result, clay loams are podzolized with greater difficulty than the sandy
soils, out of which the salts are washed very easily. Moving northward
through the taiga, we find that the podzol-forming process gradually de-
creases. The temperatures become lower, and waterlogging begins to
appear, which hinders podzolization. To the south, on the other hand,
podzolization is hindered by insufficient moisture. Thus, this process is
most intensive in the central part of the podzol zone. In the north, bog
prevails; in the center, there are coniferous forests; in the south, there
are mixed and deciduous forests. Finally, the degree of podzolization
depends upon the relief: on elevated portions of the relief, where the
water runs off quickly, slightly podzolized soils are developed; in places
with lower elevation, where the water has a longer time to act, there
is moderate podzolization, which becomes strong in the most depressed
spots.

In the south of the Siberian taiga, degraded soils (gray forest clay
loams), which are characteristic for the forest steppe, are widespread.
These soils will be discussed in detail under the description of the forest-
steppe zone. However, we will say here that these soils are formed as
a result of the encroachment by the forest upon the steppe, bearing wit-
ness to the change from steppe to forest climate. The degraded soils of

* The Russian word for "ash" is zoIa.—Tp..

THE FOREST ZONE 35

western Siberia extend almost as far north as lat. 60° N, much farther
north than in Europe. They extend still farther north in Yakutiya.

The soils in the valley of the middle Lena are unusual. While soils
of the podzol or bog types generally prevail in Yakutiya, in the valley
of the middle Lena— in the region of Yakutsk, on the terrace above the
flood plain— there are found solonized and salinized chemozemlike soils.**
These soils, developed on carbonated loesslike clay loam, in outward ap-
pearance resemble poor chernozem, and are covered with grassy mixed-
herbaceous meadows. At a depth of 1 to 1.5 m. below the surface of these
chernozemlike soils, there is permanent ground frost. Among the meadow-
steppe plants, fescue {Festuca lenensis), koeleria {Koeleria gracilis),
feather grass ( Stipa capillata ) , and mother-of-thyme ( Thymus serpyllum )
predominate. The resemblance to the steppe is apparent not only in the
vegetation, but also in the presence of the Yakutsk suslik ( Citellus evers-
manni jacutensis ) . The reasons for the appearance of steppe soils so far
north (in lat. 62° N) are, on the one hand, a dry climate with little pre-
cipitation and with a hot summer, and, on the other hand, the character
of the bedrock, rich in carbonates and to some extent in other salts as
well. The presence of permanent ground frost, which impedes washing
of the soil and the removal of salts from it, is also a factor.

In addition to podzolic soils, on the watersheds of Yakutiya there are
also found soils which resemble gray forest clay loams, as well as sol-
onized chernozemlike soils, solonetz soils, solods, and solonchaks.

Vegetation

Within the forest zone there are three types of natural vegetation,
forests, bogs, and meadows.

Forests. Of the conifers, the European taiga contains spruce, Scotch
pine (Pinus sylvestris), and, in the northeast, Siberian fir {Abies sibirica)
and Siberian larch ( Larix sibirica ) ; there is also some Siberian stone pine
(Pinus sibirica [P. cembra sibirica]) (Maps 3, 4, 5). In the Siberian
taiga there are spruce, pine, Siberian and Dahurian larch, fir, and Sibe-
rian stone pine. In the Siberian and in the northern part of the European
taiga there is also Siberian spruce {Picea excelsa obovata [P. obovata]),
while in the remaining forest zone there is Norway spruce ( Picea excelsa
[P. abies] ) . Siberian larch grows as far west as the line from the south-
ern end of Onega Bay on the White Sea to Lake Beloye, and from there
to the upper course of the Kerzhents and the middle course of the

* That is, soils with spots of black and white alkali.— Ed, (The Ed. notes in tliis
text are those of the Editor of the American Edition. )

37

38

THE FOREST ZONE 39

Vetluga. Siberian fir extends almost as far west as does larch. Siberian
stone pine, however, has a limited distribution in Europe, extending not
much farther west than the Ural range. Along with the conifers there are
also birch, aspen, and alder. Of the broad-leaved species, linden is the
most numerous in the southern part of the region, and appears also in
some places in western Siberia. Linden is found as far east as Krasnoy-
arsk.^^ Birch (and sometimes pine) occurs in the form of continuous stands
farthest north on the Kola Peninsula. On the Kanin Peninsula and in the
Timan tundra spruce occurs farthest north in some parts, birch in others.
In the Bolshezemelskaya tundra, spruce occurs farthest north; in Sibe-
ria (as also in North America), larch. Thus, the outposts farthest north
are occupied by trees which shed their leaves or needles in winter.

The forests along the northern border of the taiga zone are character-
ized by stunted growth and sparse stands. On their northern boundaries
the forests usually extend into the tundra along the river valleys.

It must be noted that deciduous forests (birch groves and aspen
groves) in the taiga zone are second growth for the most part. They
replace coniferous stands after felling or fires. Birch groves in the ex-
treme north of the taiga zone ( on the Kola Peninsula, in northern KareHa,
and in other places), occur independently of human activity.

Spruce is a species which can endure shade, but which is exacting as
to moisture and as to soil. It requires humid soils, relatively rich in nutri-
ent substances. Because the root system of the spruce is superficial, it can
develop over permanently frozen subsoil (for example, in the northern
part of western Siberia). Where ground water does not remain too long,
spruce grows well. For this reason, in the north there are fine spruce
groves close to the river valleys where the relief is more or less dissected
and the drainage is satisfactory, while farther from the rivers, in the
interfluve areas, are inferior, waterlogged stands of spruce, or only peat
bogs. The spruce stands of the taiga may be divided into the following
principal types (Sukachev):

(1) The green-moss and spruce complex develops on well drained
soils, in places with more or less dissected relief. The soils under this type
of spruce stand are fertile and after the forest cover has been removed,
are readily tilled. The moss cover of the green-moss and spruce complex
is generally continuous, and consists of the so-called "shiny" mosses,
Hylocomium, Hypnum, and others. The herbaceous cover is scant. Wood
sorrel oxalis {Oxalis acetosella), ferns, club mosses, and orchids are char-

"M. M. Ilin, Botan. zhurn. S.S.S.R. (Botanical Journal of tlie U.S.S.R.), XLS,
1934, pp. 385-391.

40 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

acteristic. There is little or no undergrowth. Sometimes there is a small
admixture of aspen and birch, and, in the northeast, fir. Three types of
green-moss and spruce complex are distinguished: oxaUs,, bilberry, and
cowberry subcomplexes. The last-named develop on the drier, sometimes
even sandy soils.

(2) The haircap-moss (Polytrichum) and spruce complex develops on
strongly podzolic soils, less well drained than those on which the green-
moss and spruce complex is found, with less dissected relief, and with
a tendency toward waterlogging. A continuous carpet of common hair-
cap moss (Polytrichum commune) is very characteristic. Sometimes the
moss reaches a thickness of 80 cm. There is some birch, growing in ad-
mixture with the spruce. Where there is a herbaceous cover, sylvan
horsetail (Equisetum silvaticum) is characteristic.

(3) The sphagnum and spruce complex is found in the flat, water-
logged areas. Sphagnum predominates in the moss cover. The spruce is
dwarfed in size, and sometimes grows with a considerable admixture
of birch, pine, or European alder. In the herbaceous cover there are
many bog forms: ledum, bog bilberry, and cloudberry. Sometimes sedges
predominate. The sedge, sphagnum, and spruce complex in the north
is called sogra.

(4) The herbaceous and spruce complex occurs in the valley bottoms
of small rivers. The moss cover is poorly developed, but the herbage
grows thick and tall. Wherever sphagnum does not grow extensively,
spruce grows well, for there is running ground water. The undergrowth
is rich, consisting of black and red currants, bird cherry, juniper, sweet-
brier rose, willow, honeysuckle, European alder, occasionally linden, and
others.

Pine, as distinguished from spruce, is a light-loving species, and is not
exacting as to soil or moisture requirements. As a result, it can grow on
sands, in sphagnum bogs, or on granite ledges. Because of its light-loving
property, the pine often appears, together with birch and aspen, on sites
where spruce forests have been felled or burned down. With the passage
of time there appear under the canopy of pine, shade-enduring species-
spruce, fir, and others, which gradually replace the pine. Pine complexes
are associated predominantly with sandy soils ( they are then called hors )
and with bogs. They are divided into types which are analogous in gen-
eral to the types of spruce stands:

( 1 ) The green-moss, or berry and pine complex is found on dune sands.
There is a continuous moss cover of Hypnum, Hylocomium, and other
forms. The herbaceous cover is thin. Cowberry and pine, oxalis and pine.

THE FOREST ZONE 41

and bilberry and pine subcomplexes may be distinguished. The last-
named marks the first stage of waterlogging.

(2) The haircap-moss (Polytrichum) and pine complex occurs on soils
which are becoming waterlogged. There is a continuous moss cover of
common haircap moss.

(3) The sphagnum and pine complex develops on sphagnum bogs. The
thicker the sphagnum cover, the scrubbier the pine.

(4) In the herbaceous and pine complex the herbage is thick, the
moss cover scant, and the pine reaches a fair size.

(5) The shrub and pine complex is found on rich, dry soils. The under-
growth is excellent. This type is more characteristic of the subzone of
mixed forests.

(6) The lichen and pine, or white-moss and pine complex usually de-
velops on the summits of sand hills. A very characteristic ground cover
consists of a more or less continuous carpet of reindeer moss ( Cladonia )
and Iceland moss ( Cetraria ) . The herbaceous cover is sparse and short.

In a pine complex with a spruce layer, the spruce may appear to be
taking the place of the pine. Birch groves, as a rule, occur as temporary
types.

In western Siberia the taiga begins approximately in latitude 65° N
and extends as far south as a line somewhat north of Irbit, through
Tyumen and Tara, to the region between Tomsk and Kolyvan. Begin-
ning at the north, it is divided into three subregions:

( 1 ) The narrow spruce and larch subregion lies immediately south of
the wooded tundra. Along the Ob this subregion extends as far south as
Berezov; along the Yenisey, it embraces Turukhansk. Here spruce and
larch forests predominate, with an admixture of Siberian stone pine and
birch. The northern boundary of this subregion coincides with the north-
ern boundary of Siberian stone pine.

(2) The Siberian-stone-pine and bog subregion occupies a much
larger area. Within the boundaries of this subregion lie Berezov and
Surgut. Its northern boundary coincides with the northern boundary of
pine. In the well drained areas, spruce and Siberian-stone-pine forests
predominate. Where these are burned over, birch and aspen groves ap-
pear in their place, while on the sandy soils pine reappears.

(3) The urman and bog subregion is somewhat smaller in area than
the Siberian-stone-pine and bog subregion. Within the boundaries of this
subregion lie Tobolsk and Narym. Interstream sphagnum bogs occupy
extensive areas, particularly in the eastern part. The basic type of forest
in the drier areas is the urman (in some parts it is called chern), a dense

42 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

coniferous forest with fir predominating. Of the other conifers in this
subregion, there are large numbers of spruce and Siberian stone pine,
but larches are few. The ground cover consists of green mosses with ox-
alis, bilberry, cowberry, and other herbage; and the undergrowth, of
elder, mountain ash, and linden. On the sands are found ordinary pine
groves. On the cut-over areas and deserted plowlands there are coarse-
herbaceous meadows and thin deciduous forests with meadow flora, so-
called yelans.

Beyond the Yenisey the floral composition changes. The Siberian larch
is replaced by the Dahurian larch, which predominates here and is a
very characteristic feature of the landscape; in Yakutiya the predominant
type of forest is the taiga of Dahurian larch. This tree, which has a super-
ficial root system and which forms accessory roots easily, is associated
especially with areas where there is permanent ground frost. The Dahu-
rian larch, like the pine, is not exacting as to soil and moisture require-
ments. In eastern Siberia there is no taiga of the West Siberian urman
type.

In Yakutiya larch taiga occupies extensive areas, growing on poorly
drained podzolic sandy loams and clay loams. Here the frozen layer
thaws in summer to a depth of 80 to 120 cm.; under a thick moss cover,
to a depth of only 25 to 50 cm. Besides Dahurian larch, there is some
pine and pubescent birch. The herbaceous cover contains ledum. The
moss cover is continuous, but usually does not consist of sphagnum,
which is not favored by the dry climate of this region. On the drier and
more fertile soils, which resemble the gray forest clay loams, cowberry-
larch taiga is developed; the subsoil here is a loesslike carbonated clay
loam; the larches grow quite tall. After burning or felling, in place of
the cowberry taiga there appears European white birch, coppices of
which serve to indicate soils suitable for agriculture. There are three
types of coniferous stands: (1) pure pine (Fig. 9), (2) pine with larch,
and (3) pure larch. In the sands under the pine groves the frost thaws
toward the end of the summer to a depth of 2 to 2.5 m.

Bogs. By bogs are meant areas in which the soils receive excessive
moisture during the greater part of the year, areas which in the low-
lying portions are covered sometimes by shallow water, and on which
grows the peculiar hydrophytic type of bog vegetation. The excess
of moisture and the associated inadequate aeration of the soil bring with
tliem incomplete decomposition of organic remains and their accumula-
tion within the poorly drained soil and on its surface. The result is peat.
The overabundance of moisture in the soil may originate from various

THE FOREST ZONE 43

causes: from an excess of atmospheric, surface, or ground water; from
impermeability of the subsoil to water; from the settlement of hydro-
phytic mosses.

Bog constitutes a very prominent element in the landscape of the forest
zone. Bogs are particularly numerous in the taiga of northern Europe
and in western Siberia. Beyond the Yenisey, however, there are very few
sphagnum bogs. The explanation lies in the scant precipitation, dry air,
hot summers, and better drainage of eastern Siberia.

In the bogs the roots of the hydrophytic plants may extend down to
the mineral subsoil and obtain nourishment from it. The soils developed
on such bogs bear the name "silty-bog" soils. But if masses of dying
vegetation, or peat, accumulate in the bog, the bog vegetation may
lose its connection with the mineral subsoil. When this happens, nour-
ishment must come from precipitation or from the flow of surface water.
In this way a peat bog or torfyanik is formed. The soil of such a peat
bog bears the name "peat-bog" soil.

The excessive moisture in the upper horizons of bog soils impedes the
penetration of oxygen to the lower horizons. As a result, processes of
deoxidization of iron begin in the lower horizons, and ferrous oxides are
formed; they color the deoxidized {gleij) horizon bluish, gray, or black.

Between the poorly drained and the podzolic soils there is a whole
series of gradations. Forest often overgrows the bog, and still more
often it is the other way around— the forest becomes waterlogged. Then
one process of soU formation is superimposed upon another. Half-bog
soils, or bog-podzolic soils result.

According to the manner of origin, two types of bog are distinguished,
those which are formed by the growing over of basins ( lakes and rivers ) ,
and those which are formed by the waterlogging of dry land.

When lakes become overgrown, there takes place a gradual filling-in
of the basin with peat, and the transformation of the lakes into sedge
or herbaceous bog, and, with the passage of time, into sphagnum bog.

The waterlogging of dry areas is a very common process in the north
of the U.S.S.R. and in Scandinavia. Forests are particularly subject to
this process. In the spruce forests, and sometimes also in the green-moss
and pine complexes, waterlogging is initiated by the appearance of the
moss Polytrichum commune (common haircap moss) or of sphagnum
mosses. Sphagnum is characterized by its capacity to absorb large quan-
tities of moisture. Sphagnum peat is highly impermeable to water, so
that thick layers of peat constitute water-resistant strata. Both of these
properties of sphagnum mosses promote waterlogging. Soon after sphag-

44 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

num waterlogging begins, spruce disappears, and the forest changes
into pure pine. Then the pine itself begins to grow poorly. Ultimately
the pine or spruce forest changes into a sphagnum bog with Scotch pine.
Often the waterlogging of an area begins after forest fires or felling in
sections which were formerly dry. Forests, which evaporate an enormous
quantity of moisture, lower the level of ground water in flat areas, and
help keep them drained. With the disappearance of the forest, ground
water appears on the surface.

In the first stage of their development, bogs are usually herbaceous
(sedge) or mossy (hypnum). As the remains of dead vegetation accu-
mulate, the surface of the bog rises to such an extent that there is no
longer access to ground water, and the bog passes from the stage of sub-
soil nourishment to that of atmospheric nourishment. In this way, condi-
tions are created which favor the settlement of sphagnum mosses. The
large sedge {Carex filiformis), characteristic for sedge bogs, disappears.

On sphagnum peat bogs, in the first stage of their development,
scheuchzeria {Scheuchzeria palustris) predominates. This is the scheuch-
zeria peat bog, the wettest of all sphagnum peat bogs. It is almost impos-
sible to walk across it, as there is standing water under the loose moss
cover. With the passage of time, the peat mass gradually fills the watery
horizon, and the bog becomes somewhat drier and passes on to the next
stage, that of the sheathed-cotton-sedge peat bog. In addition to the sod
of the sheathed cotton sedge {Eriophorum vaginatum) , there are many
evergreen undershrubs. These plants are mycotrophic; that is, adapted,
so far as root nourishment is concerned, to live symbiotically with fungi.
Such plants include the small cranberry {Yaccinium oxycoccos) , crystal
tea ledum (Ledum palustre), andromeda {Andromeda polifoUa), and
leather leaf (Cassandra or Lyonia calycuJata [Chamaedaphne calycu-
lata]). The last forms entire thickets. In this stage the sphagnum (pre-
dominantly the red Sphagnum medium) forms a compact mossy carpet,
overlying the compressed peat. If the red sphagnum develops vigorously,
it forms such a dense carpet that only dwarf Scotch pine (Pinus sylves-
tris f. litwinowi), which rises above the surface of the moss carpet only
0.5 to 1 m., is able to survive on it.

Three types of bog are distinguished: (1) lowland, or hypnum and
herbaceous bogs; among these there are sedge, reed, bulrush, reed-grass,
and horsetail bogs; (2) transitional, or forest bogs, with sphagnum as
well as hypnum mosses; among these there are shrub, alder complex,
birch complex, birch and spruce, and birch-aspen-coniferous bogs; and
(3) sphagnum bogs.

THE FOREST ZONE 45

Of the sphagnum bogs tho most characteristic for the forest zone are
the red-moss bogs. On these the sphagnum mosses form a thick carpet
of red or brown color {Sphagnum fuscum, S. medium, S. acutifolium, and
others). Neither flood water nor ground water reaches this bog, which is
nourished exclusively by atmospheric moisture: by rain, dew, and snow.
Since the outskirts of the red-moss bog receive nourishment from ground
water, which is harmful to the sphagnum mosses of which this type of
bog is composed, the periphery of the red-moss bog develops slowly.
The middle, however, which is watered exclusively by atmospheric
moisture, grows quickly, and the bog takes on a protuberant appearance,
the shape of an overturned plate. In addition to the unexacting sphag-
num mosses, the vegetation of these bogs includes ledum, bog bilberry,
andromeda, leather leaf, Scotch heather {Calluna vulgaris), cloudberry
(Rubus chamaemorus) , black crowberry, cowberry, bilberry, cranberry,
sheathed cotton sedge {Eriophorum vaginatum), dwarf birch, pine, and
others. Shrubby red-moss bogs, overgrown with dwarf pine, 1 to 1.5 m.
in height, are very widespread.

Flood-plain meadows. Meadows, as distinguished from bogs and steppe,
are herbaceous expanses which receive a moderate amount of moisture.
The roots of meadow herbaceous plants, twining about each other, form
a continuous, compact sod cover within the soil. Two types of meadow
are distinguished: (1) flood-plain, or wet meadows, flooded annually,
or once in several years, by high w^ater in spring; these meadows lie in
river valleys, but may be found also on the peripheries of shallow lakes
subject to fluctuations of level (such, for example, is the flood plain of
Lake Ilmen); (2) upland, or dry-valley meadows, found in interstream
areas.

It must be kept in mind that aside from tlie flood plains there is no
independent type of meadow vegetation in the lowlands (that is, outside
the mountains) of the forest zone in the U.S.S.R. The upland or dr^'-
valley meadows in the forest zone develop on the sites of cut-over or
burned forests. The economic significance in the forest zone of dry-
valley meadows, which serve for haymaking and pasture, is very great.

On the flood-plain meadows of the forest zone, vegetation of the
meadow, bog, and forest type is developed. Correspondingly, there are
also sofls of the alluvial-meadow, bog, half-bog ( meadow ) , and podzolic
types.

The sofls and vegetation of the flood plains are characterized by cer-
tain peculiar properties which are associated with the fact that the flood
plain, in its entirety or in greater part, is covered for some time every

46 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

year by water, which, when it recedes, leaves on the flood plain a layer
of new sediment. Even at low water (when the high water has receded),
the level of ground water remains high in the flood plain. The unsorted
sediments of mixed sand and clay which are carried by the river at high
water, are sorted on the flood plain, and are deposited according to the
size of the particles: the large and heavy sandy particles close to the
channel and on elevations in the flood plain; the sandy-loam and clay-
loam sediments farther away; and the clay deposits still farther. In this
way, the flood plain is marked off into three strips, according to soil and
vegetation: (1) the sandy, riverain strip (along the channel), (2) the
clay-loam middle strip, and (3) the silt-clay, poorly drained strip on the
edge of the flood plain (along the terrace). Let us examine these
strips.

( 1 ) In the portion immediately adjoining the stream itself, there is an
annual deposit of so much sand, which is subject to shifting and redeposi-
tion, that there is no vegetation here at all. On the sands at some distance
from the channel, there are continuous pure thickets of butterbur {F eta-
sites tomentosus). This plant has a long and rapidly-growing rhizome,
capable of breaking through the deposits of sand. Besides the butterbur,
among the plants which hold the alluvial sands are the field horsetail
(Equisetum arvense) and willow stands, which can obtain nourishment
through the medium of fungi ( mycotrophically ) . The wfllows found here
most often are the basket willow {Salix viminalis or S. gmelini) and the
almond-leaf willow (S. triandra [S. amygdalina]). Besides the willows,
at some distance from the river there are bird cherry, buckthorn, Siberian
dogwood (Cornus sibirica [C. alba sibirica]), sweetbrier rose, black and
red currants, blackberry, and others. Beyond the willow stands lie the
flood-plain meadows (prirtislovie luga). The friable sandy substratum is
clearly laminated; from 0.5 to 2 to 3 cm. of sediment is deposited here
annually. The soil has a thin cover of vegetation, in which there are
many weeds whose seeds are brought by the high water. Here on the
sandy soil spread readily grasses of the rhizomic type, which are capable
of growing in the friable alluvial soils with the aid of their long under-
ground stems. To this category belong smooth brome, wheat grass, and
reed grass. Of these the most typical is brome, which sometimes forms
thickets almost as tall as a man. Of the other grasses there are usually
redtop, canary grass, blue grass, meadow foxtail, fescue, red fescue, tim-
othy, and others. In addition to grasses, there are many legumes (red
clover, meadow pea vine, and others), and also other dicotyledons
("mixed herbage"): yarrow, meadow geranium, sorrel, yellow bed-

THE FOREST ZONE 47

straw, pomegranate, Siberian aconite, and others. The meadows of the
riverain section do not occupy a large portion of the flood plain.

(2) The meadows of the middle part of the flood plain, however,
sometimes extend for several kilometers across the valley. The herba-
ceous stand here is thick and tall. Sometimes in the associations of canary
grass, growths as tall as a man are found. The predominance of certain
grasses, legumes, and other plants makes these meadows very important
agriculturally. The herbage is highly varied: in some parts there is a
monotonous shroud of grasses in pure stands, in others there is a diversity
of herbaceous plants, in still others, a variegated carpet of both. That
strip of the middle section of the flood plain which borders upon the part
next the terrace is characterized (on the Mologa River) by extensive
forests of alder (speckled alder, Alnus incana), aspen, and oak.

(3) The meadows of the terrace section, bordering upon the terrace
which lies above the flood plain, are characterized by the presence of
sedge bogs, which are often hillocky. Sedge bogs usually develop on the
sites of cut-over groves of European alder ( Alnus glutinosa ) , which often
grow in the strip next the terrace. In some places large areas are occu-
pied by tufted hair grass {Descharnpsia caespitosa), a thick grass which
sometimes grows as high as a man's waist. Sedge and tufted hair grass
yield a "sour" hay of small value.

Fauna

During the historical period the taiga has been inhabited by many
large animals: elk, reindeer, roebuck, bear, and lynx, at present either
driven back into more remote parts, or altogether exterminated. There
used to be squirrels, martens, and beavers throughout the taiga, and
sable in the northeastern part of the European Soviet Union and in Sibe-
ria. At present, among the principal animals of economic importance in
the taiga are the squirrel, varying hare, fox, and ermine, and, of second-
ary importance, elk, marten, bear, and others.

The other mammals of the taiga include the flying squirrel {Pteromys
volans or Sciuropterus russicus), which is found from the shores of the
Gulf of Finland and the forests of White Russia, Moscow ohlast, and
Vladimir and Ryazan raions, to the Trans-Baikal region, the Kolyma, and
Sakhalin. The chipmunk {Eutamias asiaticus [E. sibiricus]) , a rodent
which is very characteristic for the taiga, is found in the northeastern
part of the European taiga and in Siberia. The common hare {Lepus
europaeus), unlike the varying hare (L. timidus or L. variabilis), occurs
in Europe, where it is found from lat. 62° N to the steppes and the Cauca-

48 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

sus. The common hare is absent in Siberia. This species avoids continuous
forests. In winter it does not turn completely white (in the Crimea and
the Caucasus it does not turn white at all ) .

Among the birds which are typical inhabitants of the taiga are: ^^ the
capercaillie {Tetrao urogallus), which is found as far east as the Lena;
another species, Tetrao parvirostris,'* peculiar to the taiga of eastern Si-
beria; the hazel grouse {Tetrastes honasia), which is found as far as
northeastern Siberia; the willow ptarmigan {Lagopus lagopus), which,
although common in the tundra, also inhabits all parts of the taiga, living
predominantly in mossy bogs; the three-toed woodpecker {Picoides
tridactijlus) ,^ native predominantly to the spruce forests; the bram-
bling {Fringilla montifringilla) *; the chestnut bunting {Emberiza ru-
tila) *; the waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus) *; several thrushes; the white-
winged crossbill {Loxia leucoptera bifasciata),"^ which is very charac-
teristic for the larch forests; the pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator) ;
the bullfinch (Pijrrhida pyrrhula); the nutcracker {Nucifraga caryoca-
tactes), which disperses the seeds of the Siberian stone pine; the Sibe-
rian jay (Perisoreus infaustus) *; and others. All the birds which have
been enumerated nest in the taiga and are permanent residents. Some
of these birds may be found also in the subzone of mixed forests. East-
ern Siberia is very rich in taiga birds; it contains forty-t\vo species. To
the west, however, their number decreases, but even in the Pyrenees
there are eight species of birds peculiar to the taiga alone. Stegman sug-
gests that eastern Siberia was one of the centers for the distribution of
taiga birds; from here they spread into eastern Europe during the post-
glacial period.

Passerines predominate among the birds of the taiga. Of the birds of
economic importance, the most significant are the hazel grouse, caper-
caillie, willow ptarmigan, and black grouse.

Of the reptiles, the common viper {Vipera berus) is found in all parts
of the forest zone. It exists as far north as the forests of the Kola Pen-
insula, and as far east as Yakutiya and the Primorye. The common lizard
(Lacerta vivipara) has almost the same distribution in this region. It is
common as far as Sakhalin. Of the toads in the Siberian as well as the
European taiga, there is found only the common gray toad ( Bufo bufo ) .
The grass frog {Rana temporaria) is widespread in Europe. In Siberia
it is replaced by the Amur frog {Rana amurensis). This is a land frog

^^V. Stegman, "Die Herkunft der palaarktischen Taigavogel" (The Origin of the
Palearctic Taiga Birds), Arch. f. Naturgesch. (Archives for Natural History), I, 1932.
* The asterisk denotes species which do not cross the boundary of the taiga.

THE FOREST ZONE 49

which descends into the water only to spawn. The edible frog {Rana
esculenta) is virtually unknown in the taiga. It may be found only in the
west, along the southern outskirts. This frog is not found in Siberia.

Among the insects of the taiga we will enumerate some of the Lepidop-
tera. Of all the Lepidoptera, the nun moth {Porthetria monacha) is con-
sidered the most dangerous enemy to the forest; its caterpillar crops the
needles. The pine dendrolimus {Dendrolimus pini) is another very dan-
gerous enemy to the conifers, while the cutworm moth ( Feltia segetum,
whose caterpillar is called the "winter worm") damages the winter grain.

In Lake Ladoga there is ringed seal (Phoca hispida ladogensis).
Closely related forms are found in all the arctic seas, as well as in the
Baltic and Caspian seas and in Lake Baikal. A singular characteristic
of all these seals is that they whelp, as a rule, on the ice.

B. SUBZONE OF MIXED FORESTS

The boundaries of this subzone have been indicated above, on page 23.
The subzone of mixed forests is absent in Siberia, where the taiga passes
directly into the forest steppe.

Climate
The climate of this subzone is rather uniform. As an example, we will
take the climate of Moscow (or, more exactly, Petrovsko-Razumovsk,
near Moscow, lat. 55°50' N, absolute elevation 167 m.). The table below
presents the most important climatological data.

Table 2
Climate of Petrovsko-Razumovsk, in the Subzone of Mixed Forests

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year

Atmospheric

temperature

(°C.)

-10.8

-8.9

-5.0

3.6

12.1

16.0

18.3

15.8

10.1

3.7

—2.7

-8.0

3.7

Number of

days of

frost

30

27

28

16

2.6

0.3

0

0

2.3

14

23

29

175

Relative

humidity

(per cent)

86

84

80

74

66

71

73

77

81

83

87

87

79

Cloudiness

(per cent)

77

75

69

60

56

58

55

58

63

73

86

84

68

Number of

clear days

2.5

2.6

3.8

5.2

4.3

3.4

3.8

3.8

3.8

2.6

1.1

1.6

38.5

Precipitation

(mm.)

25

22

28

33

48

65

75

76

52

49

38

29

538

Number of

days with

precipitation

16

15

13

11

12

13

14

14

15

15

16

17

171

50 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

In comparison with western Europe, Moscow oblast belongs to the
category of regions which have a continental climate. The annual range
in temperature here is considerable (almost 30° C.)- However, the mean
spring temperature in Moscow is the same as the fall temperature, or even
a little lower. The melting of the snow cover in spring absorbs much
heat and lowers the April temperature. As a result, the spring and fall
temperature distribution is the reverse of that usually found in a conti-
nental climate, where the spring is warm and the fall is cold. In a marine
climate it is the other way around.

The snow cover in the vicinity of Moscow usually disappears by
April 19. About the same time the mass blooming of aspen, alder, wil-
low, and black poplar begins. On hot summer days the temperature in
the shade is 20° to 25° C, but occasionally the temperature may rise to
almost as high as 38° C. The nights are rather cool; in July, the thermom-
eter occasionally has dropped at night to 1° C. Winter in Moscow oblast
is of long duration; there is snow on the ground for 140 days. The first
snow falls in the middle of October, and by the latter half of November
the snow cover is established. The winter is cloudy, with frequent snow-
falls.

The climate of Leningrad, which lies on the border between taiga and
mixed forests, is more temperate than the climate of Moscow, because
of the moderating influence of the Gulf of Finland. Although Lenin-
grad lies 4° farther north than Moscow, winter in the lower course of
the Neva is almost 2° C. warmer. The Moskva River freezes on Novem-
ber 8, eighteen days earlier than the lower course of the Neva.

In this subzone the maximum precipitation occurs in White Russia,
in the basins of the Pripyat and the Berezina. Here the precipitation
totals 680 to 695 mm. annually.

Rdid
The so-called Silurian plateau borders on the southern shore of the
Gulf of Finland. Its northern edge, composed of horizontal Silurian and
Cambrian deposits, is called the glint. The glint, which faces the sea,
begins at Baltiisky Port in Estonia, where it has an elevation of 25 m.
Near the Narova (Narva) River, the glint recedes from the seashore
and stretches to the east, at a distance of 12 to 20 kilometers from the
sea, to a point beyond the Syas River (which empties into Lake Ladoga).
The absolute elevation of the plateau reaches 150 m. (for example, in
the vicinity of Kopora station), and isolated points rise even higher;

THE FOREST ZONE 51

thus, the Duderhof Plateau, the highest part of the Neva region, reaches an
elevation of 175 m. In the vicinity of the Duderhof Plateau and near Push-
kino, the Cambrian and Silurian strata are dislocated, apparently as a
result of mechanical glacial action.

The name "Neva depression" is given to the declivity which is bor-
dered on the north by the hills of the Karelian Isthmus ( 200 m. ) and on
the south by the escarpment of the Silurian plateau. In the lower course
of the Neva the bed of Quaternary deposits is 11 to 68 m. thick. In Len-
ingrad itself, two moraines may be distinguished, while in the region
between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga some students identify
three moraines, others two.

In the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland and in the region of the
Neva delta, traces of Quaternary basins, in the form of terraces, coastal
banks, and ledges, are well marked. But as yet there is no unanimity of
opinion among the investigators concerning the particular late glacial
and postglacial seas with which these traces may be associated. One of
the well marked terraces is that which was formed by the last of the
transgressions of the Baltic Sea, the Littorina transgression. The width
of this terrace, along the southern shore of the bay, east of Kopora Gulf,
is usually 0.5 to 1 km., in some places less, in others as much as 2 km. Its
elevation differs at different points, as a result of the unequal uplift of
the earth's crust in these parts during post-Littorina times. At Peterhof its
elevation is close to 7 m. above the present level of the Gulf of Fin-
land. To the west the terrace rises in elevation, while to the east it
declines (at Ligovo it is 3.4 m.). According to Markov, the borders of
Lake Ancylus * and the Yoldian Sea within the region under considera-
tion lie below the level of the Littorina Sea. Above the Littorina terrace,
in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, there is a series of terraces,
which Markov considers to be traces of postglacial lakes which existed
prior to the Yoldian period.

In the upper course of the Volga, west of Lake Seliger, hes the south-
ern part of the Valday heights (elevation at Kamennik— 322 m.). From
here the heights extend to the north as far as Tikhvin, and to the south-
west to a point north of Vitebsk. To the west, the Valday heights de-
cline toward the Lake Ilmen Lowland in the form of a rather steep
slope, with a drop of 50 to 100 m. On the east the heights have no dis-
tinct boundary. The Valday ridge is underlain by projections of Lower
Garboniferous strata over which the glacier deposited terminal moraines
and other detritus. Thus, at Valday, bedrock lies 200 m. higher than in

* Postglacial.-ED.

52 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the central parts of the neighboring Ilmen-Volkhovsk Lowland. To the
south, the bedrock rises even higher. The Valday heights region is bor-
dered on the east by a multitude of lakes, which give the district a very
picturesque character. Some of the lakes are very deep; Lake Valday
has a depth of 80 m.

The basins of the Volga, Western Dvina, Dnieper, and Ilmen in eflFect
are interconnected. The Western Dvina has its source in a vast bog, in
the middle of which, at an elevation of 221 to 223 m., there lie two
lakes. One of them feeds the Western Dvina, while the other belongs
to the basin of Lake Pyono, through which the Volga flows. In spring
one may see part of the bog waters drain into the basin of the Western
Dvina, while part of them drain into the basin of the Volga. The
Dnieper has its source in a mossy bog, overgrown with forest, which
hes in Smolensk oblast, at an elevation of 253 m. Part of the waters of this
bog drain into the system of the Obsha River, which belongs to the
basin of the Western Dvina. The Obsha itself has its source in a small
bog which is also the source of one of the tributaries of the Dnieper. The
existence of the connections between these basins inevitably affects the
distribution of fresh-water fauna and flora.

The Smolensk-Moscow ridge is described by Nikitin (1896) as a ter-
minal moraine ridge extending from Borisov ( White Russia ) through the
central part of Moscow oblast to Gryazovets (Vologda ohlast). A part
of this ridge, which lies within Klin and Dmitrov raions of Moscow ohlast,
is called the Klin-Dmitrov ridge; in Dmitrov raion it reaches an absolute
elevation of 316 m. It must be mentioned, however, that the Klin-Dmitrov
ridge does not have the characteristics of a terminal moraine formation.
In the northern part of Moscow oblast it constitutes a plateau, which
drops in a steep shelf to the flat, forested, and poorly drained northern
lowland, which extends to the north beyond the Volga. The mean eleva-
tion of this shelf is 50 to 60 m. If one travels along the railroad from the
north to Moscow, this shelf is hidden by forests, but it can easily be told
from the elevations of the stations. Thus, the station of Zavidovo, which
lies in the lowland to the north of Klin, has an elevation of 142 m.,
while Pokrovka, which lies on the ridge to the south of Klin, has an eleva-
tion of 208 m.— a difference of 66 m.

The name Polesye is given to the poorly drained, forested lowland
area which lies, roughly speaking, in the basin of the Pripyat River.
This vast lowland, with differences in elevation between its center and
edges of 55 to 80 m., extends to the south as far as the Volyno-Podolsk
Plateau.

THE FOREST ZONE 53

Polesye has many sandy areas, which are attributed to fluvioglacial
origin. Among these sands there are often dunes, which are paraboUc
in shape. Their crests invariably face west, evidence that they were
formed by westerly winds. The sands are usually covered with pine
groves, which give Polesye a northern appearance. In general, however,
Polesye is a poorly drained country. The bogs belong to the lowland
or flood-plain type. The entire vast area of Polesye, says Tanfilyev, "is
one continuous flood plain, with a few, predominantly sandy, dry valleys."
Polesye constitutes an area in which sandy fluvioglacial and lacustrine
sediments were deposited in front of the glacier. Similar sandy areas in
the subzone of mixed forests are found also on the left bank of the Dnieper
opposite Polesye, of the Oka (Meshchorsk Lowland), and of the middle
Volga.

Some parts of Polesye contain "islands" which are foreign to it. Such,
for example, is the Ovruch ridge, in the vicinity of Ovruch, which rises
60 m. above the surrounding lowland. (Its absolute elevation reaches
320 m.)

Soils

The fundamental type of soil under the forests in the subzone of mixed
forests, as in the taiga, is the podzolic type. But there are also variations
which approach the chernozem type.

In the preceding, drier ( "xerothermic" ) epoch, a large part of the sub-
zone of mixed forests belonged to the forest-steppe landscape, where sofls
of the chernozem type must have been formed. Subsequently these steppe
soils were degraded (podzolized) by the encroaching forest. As traces
of this epoch, in many places we find podzolic soils with more or less
clear remains of the steppe type of soil formation. Such soils are found
particularly often on strata rich in carbonates; for example, on loesslike
clay loams and loesses. Similar soils, which are called dark degraded,
chernozemlike, dark-gray degraded, and light-gray degraded, are found
in the north of Chernigov oblast, south of Kaluga, in Western oblast, and
in several other places.

In the Trans-Volga, in the extreme south of the subzone, there are
gray forest clay loams (degraded clay loams) and in some places even
medium chernozems.

Vegetation
The simultaneous presence of oak and spruce is characteristic of the
vegetation of the subzone of mixed forests. To the north, in the taiga.

54 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the oak disappears, while to the south, in the forest steppe, there is no
spruce ( Maps 6, 7, 8 ) .

The subzone of mixed forests may be divided into two belts: ( 1 ) spruce-
oak, without hornbeam; east of the Vetluga it is an oak-fir-spruce com-
plex; and (2) hornbeam, or, more exactly, hornbeam-spruce-oak, in the
southwest part of the subzone. The northern and eastern boundaries
of hornbeam {Carpinus hetulus) are as follows: from a point on the
Baltic south of Libau (Latvia), the northernmost point to which horn-
beam extends, to Vilna (Poland), Minsk, Bykhov on the Dnieper (below
Mogilev), Starodub raion, west of Konotop, and then in the direction
of Poltava, where the boundary turns towards Central Bessarabia. ( Horn-
beam is found also in the Donets ridge, in the Crimea, and in the
Caucasus.)

The characteristic tree of the subzone of mixed forests (and also of
the European forest steppe) is oak {Quercus pedunculata [Q. robur])
—a species which is exacting in its soil and light requirements. Oak
thrives best on clay loams. It will not grow on strongly podzolic soils,
on which spruce grows readily. On the northern boundary of its range,
the oak prefers the flood plains of rivers, where there are unpodzolized,
alluvial soils. Oak, as a rule, grows in mixed stands along with pine,
spruce, fir, aspen, linden, hornbeam, and others. The European filbert
(Corylus avellana) is found everywhere in association with oak. Some-
times the filbert forms a continuous undergrowth under the canopy of the
light-loving species, oak and pine.

Besides oak, there are found in the subzone of mixed forests the same
deciduous species which grow in the taiga, and, in addition, there are
elms (Russian elm and Scotch elm), Norway maple {Acer platanoides) ,
ash, and, in the west, hornbeam. Linden has a wide distribution.

Spruce-oak belt ( without hornbeam ) : Individual oak trees and small
thickets extend as far north as the northern shore of the Gulf of Finland,
while small oak woods appear first on the Valday heights and in the
region between Lake Ilmen and Lake Pskov. In Central White Russia
there are extensive spruce-oak forests; here they prefer loesslike clay
loams. In Moscow ohlast oak and linden forests are found only in spots
in the southern part, adjacent to the Oka, where the subzone of mixed
forests grades into the forest steppe.

Hombeam-spruce-oak belt: South of a line through Minsk, Bykhov,
and Starodub, grow mixed broad-leaved forests with hornbeam and
spruce. The farther south, the less spruce there is, and in the forests
of the former Mozyr okrug spruce is found only in the form of isolated

MAP 6. Limits of Siberian stone pine, cider, and beech in the European
part of the U.S.S.R.

55

AAAP 7. Limits of maple, ash, and hornbeam (except in the Caucasus and
Crimea).

56

MAP 8. Limits of oak and linden in the European part of the U.S.S.R.

57

58 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

island patches. The region of continuous spruce distribution does not
extend as far as the Pripyat ( except west of Pinsk, within the boundaries
of Poland, where spruce forests extend beyond the Pripyat). South of
this river, however, and up to the southern border of mixed forests,
spruce is found in isolated islands, on the outskirts of bogs, or on valley
slopes. Farther west, outside the limits of the U.S.S.R., the boundary
of spruce extends to the mouths of the Vistula.

It is noteworthy tliat in southern Polesye pontic azalea ( Azalea pontica,
or Rhododendron flavum [R. luteum]), an ericaceous shrub, is found.
The azalea grows 1.5 m. tall here, and blooms in large, orange, heavily
scented flowers. This plant is found principally in the Caucasus, chiefly
in the western Transcaucasus, where it grows from sea level to eleva-
tions of 2100 m., forming the undergrowth in the beech and oak forests.
It is found also in Asia Minor. In Polesye the azalea grows on the out-
skirts of pine and spruce-deciduous forests, predominantly on peaty soil,
and has a continuous distribution between Ovruch and Sarny (Poland).

An oak-fir-spruce belt is developed in the Volga region east of the
Vetluga. Here we see a peculiar landscape, to some extent resembling
that which lies to the west, in Poland, where fir (European), spruce,
and oak are found growing together. This same combination of trees,
although represented by different species, is found also in the Far East,
in the Ussuri basin. In the Volga region, the Siberian fir {Abies sibirica)
as a forest-forming species, reaches far to the south, growing in forests
opposite Cheboksary, where it extends almost to the left meadow bank
of the Volga. Twenty-five km. northwest of Kazan there are vast fir-
spruce forests, with a ground cover predominantly of sphagnum mosses.

In the spruce forests of the Vetluga region (where there is an admix-
ture of fir), the herbaceous cover contains a large proportion of southern
species which are characteristic for leafy groves. Such are the European
wild ginger (Asartim europaeum), common lungwort (Pulmonaria
officinalis), sweet woodruff {Asperula odorata), and others. The exist-
ence here of these relicts is explained by the encroachment of taiga
vegetation upon the territory of deciduous forests.

Fauna
Of the large mammals in the subzone of mixed forests there are found
the elk and the roebuck. Along the northern border, during the nine-
teenth century, there were still reindeer, while some parts of White Russia
are inhabited by beaver {Castor fiber) to this day. In the forests there
are bear, fox, lynx, wolf, badger, ermine, and squirrel. Among the birds

THE FOREST ZONE 59

in the broad-leaved forests there are many characteristic forms, common
to the same type of forest in the forest steppe: the roller, green wood-
pecker and wryneck, goldfinch, azure tit, pied flycatcher, icterine warbler,
blackcap, blackbird, and others. Somewhat farther west, within the
taiga, there arc found steppe birds: the hoopoe, roller, and red-footed
falcon (P. Serebrovsky ) .

Ill ■ Broad-Leaved Forests of the Far East

General Chaiacteiistics and Boundaiies

THE subzone of mixed forests, as we have seen, does
not extend east of the Ural Mountains. But after a
great interval, broad-leaved forests reappear in the Far East, in the Amur
basin. Here we find oak again— a different species, it is true, not Euro-
pean, but Manchurian (the Mongolian oak, Quercus mongolica), rather
closely related to the durmast oak {Q. sessiliflora [Q. petraea]), which
is found in the Caucasus, in the Crimea, and in southwestern Europe.
The oak is accompanied again by a series of broad-leaved species— maple,
ash, linden, Scotch elm, hornbeam, represented in part by species differ-
ent from those which appear in Europe, in part by very closely related
species.

This zone begins on the Amur between Albazin and Blagoveshchensk,
and extends along the Amur almost as far as lat. 50° N. The Ussuri
valley is also part of this zone. The zone is characterized by forests of
broad-leaved species, hot summers, severe winters, and a monsoon cli-
mate. Here, as distinguished from the subtropical landscapes of the
western Transcaucasus with its mild winters, we do not find admixtures
of evergreen deciduous shrubs and trees.

Climate
The climate along the middle Amur and in Ussuri kraij is manifestly
of the monsoon type. In summer, when a high pressure area lies over
the Pacific Ocean, moist and relatively cool SE winds blow in the Far
East. But in winter, cold and dry NW and N winds prevail; they blow
from the land mass, from the region of the Siberian barometric maxi-
mum. Because of these conditions, precipitation occurs during the warm
period of the year. Some 85 to 95 per cent or more of the total annual
precipitation falls during the months from April to November. The winter,

60

BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS OF THE FAR EAST

61

however, is dry; only 5 to 15 per cent of the precipitation comes during
the months from December to March. In spite of the southern position,
the winters here are bitterly cold, much colder, for example, than on the
shores of the Gulf of Finland. The southern part of Ussuri kray lies
farther south than Yalta, and yet the mean temperature for January
here is 25° C. lower than in Yalta. Because there is little snowfall in
winter, the cultivation of winter grains is not possible except in the
extreme south. In Blagoveshchensk, for example, toward the end of the
winter the mean depth of the snow cover is only 5 cm. The snow cover
generally disappears by March 24, when the young plants are not yet
safe from frost. The annual distribution of precipitation in Blagovesh-
chensk (lat. 50/4° N, 134 m. absolute elevation) is as follows:

Table 3
Precipitation in Blagoveshchensk (in mm.)

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Yeab

a

3

6

22

41

87

118

122

71

18

6

3

501

As we can see, during the cold part of the year, from November to
March, there is practically no precipitation. The spring is rather late,
cold, and dry. The summer, however, is hot (the mean temperature of
the warmest month is 20° C. or higher) and humid, with a great deal
of precipitation, which often falls in the form of heavy showers. In the
moist and warm atmosphere, vegetation grows very rapidly.

Because of the distribution of air pressure and winds, cloudiness is
greatest in summer, least in winter and fall.

The climate of Vladivostok is described as follows: The greater pro-
portion of precipitation falls in spring and summer, while the autumn is
the finest period of the year. In summer, although it gets very hot,
thunderstorms are very rare. The heat in Vladivostok is oppressive and
humid; perspiration does not evaporate. Everything which is exposed to
the action of the moisture becomes covered with rust or mold, as in the
tropics or in Japan during the period of monsoon rains (nyubay). In
summer, rain drizzles down sometimes for a week or two at a time, just
as in any part of the European forest zone in autumn. Fog obscures all
vision, while the sun remains hidden from sight for weeks on end. Often
on a clear warm day in Vladivostok, a cold penetrating fog suddenly
blows up from the sea, and a fine rain begins to fall. In autumn in Vladi-
vostok people often wear white until the middle of October, but fre-
quently it is necessary to light furnaces even in June, while in museums

62 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

and libraries it is recommended that heating be continued throughout
the summer. In August the rainy season ends, and clearer summer
weather sets in. But in place of the rains there come typhoons— hurri-
canes which carry with them destruction to crops, stock, and so forth,
by floods. September and October are the finest months of the year,
with azure skies, transparently clear and relatively dry atmosphere, often
with complete calm.^

The peculiar features of the monsoon climate of Vladivostok (lat.
43°07' N, absolute elevation 128 m.) are expressed in figures as follows: ^
Of the total annual precipitation of 570 mm., about 65 per cent falls
during the period from June to September. There are only 28 mm. of
precipitation in winter; that is, about 5 per cent. In winter, cold N, NW,
and NE winds prevail; in summer, moist SE and S winds. Relative
humidity is greatest in summer (with a maximum in June: 88 per cent),
least in winter (68 per cent)— contrary to the conditions usually found
in nonmonsoon regions. Cloudiness correspondingly is greatest in sum-
mer, least in winter. The number of hours of insolation is at a minimum
in July (34 per cent of the number possible), at a maximum in December
(75 per cent).

Relid

The relief of this region is rather highly dissected, although in places
there are extensive level areas. Throughout its length, the region is tra-
versed by the mighty river Amur. In the section below the mouth of the
Bureya, where the Amur breaks through the Little Khingan Mountains,
it narrows in some places to half a kilometer, and here the current reaches
the rate of 9 km. per hour. At Khabarovsk the river is covered with ice
during five months of the year, from the end of November to the end of
April. High water on the Amur occurs not in spring, as a result of the
melting of the snows, as in the European U.S.S.R., but in summer, as a
result of the rains.

East of the lower course of the Zeya lies the Zeya-Bureya (or Middle
Amur) Lowland, covered with luxurious herbaceous vegetation and fer-
tile soils. From the eastern slopes of the Little Khingan Mountains
(1400 m.), eastward approximately as far as the great Lake Bolen-
Odzhal, on the left bank of the Amur, lies the vast, flat, and unforested
Lower Amur Lowland, with an average absolute elevation of 50 m. This

^V. E. Gluzdovsky and A. N. Krishtofovich, in the publication, Primorye (The
Maritime Region), Vladivostok, 1923, Pt. I, pp. 3-4.

^M. Partansky, Klimat Vladivostoka (The Climate of Vladivostok), Vladivostok,
1923.

BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS OF THE FAR EAST 63

lowland consists of (1) a meadow terrace; that is, the flood-plain part
of the Amur valley, from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers
wide; and (2) a terrace lying above the flood plain, of the same width
as the meadow terrace. The Lower Amur Lowland, drained by the rivers
Bidzhan, Bira, and Tunguska (which empties into the Amur below
Khabarovsk), is very flat. However, in some places it contains ranges
800 m. high. Finally, there are the Ussuri valley and the Khanka Low-
land, which adjoins the large but shallow Lake Khanka. The depth of
Lake Khanka, which is 90 km. long, does not exceed 2 m. throughout
its greater part.

Soils

The subsoils in the Amur region are ancient, laminated, alluvial de-
posits. Neither glacial deposits nor loess is found here.

In the southwestern part of the Zeya-Bureya Lowland, overlying heavy
clays, there are found soils of deep black color, lying in plowlands and
meadows, and which have the appearance of true chernozems. But these
are not chernozems. They have neither the characteristic granular struc-
ture of true chernozems in their upper horizons, nor the accumulation
of carbonates in their lower ones. In summer the humus horizons are
oversaturated with water. These are meadow, half-bog, podzolic soils,
which, nevertheless, are no less fertile than the true chernozems. In addi-
tion there are some soils of a clearly podzolic type, overgrown with
Asiatic white birch, Dahurian birch, and Mongolian oak ( Quercus mon-
golica). Investigators of the Zeya-Bureya Lowland believe that at one
time this space was covered almost entirely with forest, and was subse-
quently cleared and put under the plow.

In the Khanka region silty-bog soils are widespread.

Vegetation

The fundamental type of vegetation in the lowlands of the Amur region
is the broad-leaved forest.

On the Amur between Albazin and Blagoveshchensk, tlie Trans-Baikal
coniferous forests of Dahurian larch and pine are replaced by deciduous
forests of Mongolian oak {Quercus mongolica) . There are many coppices
of Dahurian larch (Larix dahurica [L. gmelini]), Asiatic white birch,
Dahurian birch {Betula davurica), Scotch elm, and bird cherry, with an
undergrowth of the characteristic Far Eastern shrub lespedeza (Les-
pedeza bicolor). This leguminous shrub forms continuous thickets after
felling and burning of the trees. Since it is as nourishing as alfalfa, it

64 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

serves as an excellent fodder for livestock. There is some ash, linden,
Amur maple {Acer ginnala), euonymus, and Siberian filbert {Corylus
heterophylla) . Scotch pine {Pinus sylvestris) grows in forests along the
upper Amur as far as the mouth of the Zeya, but is seldom found along
the lower Amur. Often in the second layer society of the pine forests,
small oak trees are found. Siberian spruce ( Picea excelsa obovata [P. obo-
vata] ) occurs along the Amur as far as the mouth of the Garin, nowhere
growing in large stands.

Below Blagoveshchensk, along the Amur as far as the Ussuri, both
on the left and on the right banks, lies a vast lowland area, which Max-
imov called the Manchurian "steppe." This lowland, the Zeya-Bureya
Lowland, has been mentioned before. Where it has not been plowed, it
bears a sumptuous herbaceous vegetation growing as tall as a man. In
the meadows the most common and the predominant species is the reed
grass {Calamagrostis langsdorffii [C. canadensis scabra]), a grass which
provides rather good fodder. It is very interesting that in the meadows
of the central Amur region there are found several steppe plants and
animals. These include the capillary feather grass {Sfipa capillata), the
suslik (Citellus eversmanni jacutensis), and the Siberian bustard {Otis
tarda dybowskii). The penetration of these steppe elements must be
attributed to the xerothermic period. However, the spread of the suslik
has been promoted by human activity in the form of plowing. At present
the suslik has spread as far east as the Bureya, and has even crossed to
its left bank. The suslik makes its home in the oak, lespedeza, and filbert
thickets.

The forest vegetation of the Zeya-Bureya Lowland consists of the fol-
lowing species: Mongolian oak, Dahurian birch, Asiatic white birch
{Betula platyphylla) , and aspen. At the extreme north there appear
herbaceous pine groves.

Along the shores and on the islands of the large rivers, particularly on
the Bureya, there are flood-plain forests which bear a rich and varied vege-
tation of Mongolian poplar {Populus suaveolens), Amur hnden {Tilia
cordata amurensis [T. amurensis])^ very closely related to the common
European linden, elms, Manchurian ash, Manchurian walnut {Juglans
mandshurica) , and Amur cork tree {Phelhdendron amurense). In these
flood-plain forests there is a profuse and unique undergrowth, twined by
the large vines of Amur grape {Vitis amurensis). This Manchurian plant,
the stems of which reach a diameter of 15 cm., grows along the Amur
north of lat. 51° N. It is found almost as far west as the mouth of the Zeya
River. The Amur grape occurs also on southern Sakhalin. It bears black

BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS OE THE EAR EAST 65

fruit, which ripens in the latter half of September. In Ussuri kray the wild
grape is gathered by the local population; it is used for wine, preserves,
and the like.

Along the Ussuri the vegetation takes on a completely Manchurian
appearance. There are great numbers of tree and shrub species, among
which many are characteristic southern forms. There are also some vines.
In the Ussuri valley grow tall forests of Japanese elm [Ulmus japonica?],
Amur cork tree, Manchurian walnut (Juglans mandshurica) , white Amur
lilac {Syringa amurensis), bird cherry, Manchurian crabapple [Malus
haccata mandshurica?], Ussurian pear [Pyrus ussuriensis?], and haw-
thorn. There are no conifers here. On the rolling watersheds there is oak
with a slight admixture of Asiatic white birch, Dahurian birch, and aspen,
while higher up there are coniferous forests of Japanese stone pine,
spruce, fir, linden, maple, oak, birch, ash, Scotch elm, and others, with
a luxurious undergrowth and vines.

In the southern part of Ussuri kray (south of the line from Iman to
the Tetyukhe River) the diversity of trees, shrubs, and vines becomes
much greater. A total of 150 species of trees and shrubs have been
enumerated here. Mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, which have re-
mained intact chiefly on elevated portions, are characteristic. Oak pre-
dominates, with an undergrowth of filbert. There are also Korean pine
(Piniis koraiensis), Manchurian fir {Abies holophylla) , Yeddo spruce
(Picea jezoensis, or P. ajanensis) (Fig. 10), Manchurian walnut, birch
(Betula costata), Amur linden, Manchurian maple, and others, as well
as many shrubs and vines. The epiphytic fern, Pohjpodium lineare, grows
on the bark of many of the trees.

The aquatic vegetation of South Ussuri kray is very rich and unique.
Here are found the Hindu lotus {Nelumho speciosa [Nelumbium
nelumbo]); watershield (Brasenia purpurea), a genus which, during
the Quaternary period, appeared also in Europe; trapa (Trapa incisa);
and in some places the gigantic Gordon euryale (Euryale ferox), the
leaves of which reach a diameter of 130 cm.

Fauna
The fauna, like the flora, represents a mixture of northern and southern
forms. Side by side with sable, squirrel, and lemming, there are the
Manchurian tiger, which lives where there are wild boar; deer; roebuck;
leopard; Amiu" wildcat; raccoon dog; and Japanese deer (Cerviis nippon
[Sika nippon]), found in South Ussuri kray. (This same deer is native
also to Japan.) Among the birds there are manv Manchurian forms.

66 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

for example, the Ussuri crane (Grtis japonensis), Japanese ibis {Nip-
ponia nippon), mandarin duck {Aix galericulata) , which is the most
variegated of all ducks; and others. Many of the Manchurian birds nest
far up the Amur; for example, the ringnecked pheasant {Phasianus tor-
quatus alpherakii) and the South Chinese cuckoo {Cuculus micropterus)
at Kumara, and the azure-winged magpie {Cyanopica cyanus), Siberian
golden oriole {Oriolus indicus), and others. Lake Khanka and the Ussuri
are inhabited by the Chinese soft-shelled turtle {Amy da sinensis). Among
the amphibians are the Ussuri salamander {Onychodacttjlus fischeri),
of a genus native to Japan, and the East Asiatic black-spotted frog ( Rana
nigromacidata) , which takes the place of the European edible frog
( JR. esculenta ) . The European tree frog ( HyJa ) and the toad ( Bomhina-
tor) appear in closely related forms in the Far East.

Among the fish, together with northern species, which include, for
example, the lamprey, loach, grayling, and whitefish, there is found a
whole range of Chinese cyprinids and silurids. The discovery in the
Ussuri basin of the snakehead (Ophiocephalus) , a. tropical fish, is worth
noting. But, in addition, in the Amur there are found North Pacific
("Okhotsk") forms, such as the Pacific chum and pink salmon (genus
Oncorhynchiis) , which go up the rivers in large numbers to spawn, as
well as some endemic sturgeons— the Amur sturgeon (Acipenser schren-
cki) and the long-snouted sturgeon (Huso dauricus), which in the Amur
takes the place of the beluga sturgeon (Acipenser huso), a species absent
in Siberia. A fresh-water pearl mussel {Margaritana daJiurica) occurs in
the Amur basin. This mussel is found nowhere else in Siberia except in
Saklialin and Kamchatka. In the Ussuri and Amur basins there is found
another large fresh-water pearl mussel (Cristaria plicata) up to 32 cm.
long; it is native to China and Japan. Its shell yields mother-of-pearl.
In the Amur basin, and particularly in Lake Khanka, there are shrimps
(ten-legged crayfish of the Palaemonidae family). Of the beetles we
must mention a large endemic longicom beetle (Callipogon relictus)
associated with the broad-leaved forests of South Ussuri kray. The other
three species of this genus are found in tropical America.

It is very curious to find on the Amur, and in the Far East in general,
after a great interval, a series of plant and animal forms peculiar to the
subzone of European mLxed forests but absent in Siberia, where this
subzone is not represented. The oak, so characteristic for the subzone
of mixed forests, does not extend east beyond the Ural Mountains, and
appears again only along the Amur, in the form of a different species,
the Mongolian oak {Quercus mongoUca). The European oak is accom-

BliOAD-LEAVED FORESTS OF THE FAR EAST 67

panied everywhere by the filbert {Corylus avellana). The filbert, like the
oak, is absent in Siberia, but reappears in the Amur basin, in the form
of Corylus heterophylla, together with the Mongolian oak. The same
interrupted distribution is characteristic for the azure-winged magpie,
white stork, green or edible frog, catfish, beluga sturgeon, carp, bivalve
mollusk, fresh-water pearl mussel [Margaritana dahurica], fresh-water
crayfish, and others.

The explanation lies in the fact that in Manchuria (as also in the
Caucasus) we see the remains (relicts) of the fauna and flora of the
Middle Tertiary, the preglacial, and, finally, the interglacial period. Dur-
ing the preglacial period some species were distributed throughout the
continent of Eurasia, from western Europe to the shores of the Pacific
Ocean. The colder temperatures which followed during the glacial period
resulted in the disappearance of tliese species everywhere except in
localities favored by a milder climate. Southern Europe, the Caucasus,
the Tian Shan, Manchuria, and Japan constituted such retreats. In Amur
kray, in addition to Manchurian forms, some of the Okhotsk forms have
been preserved. These organisms inhabited the temperate belt of east-
ern Asia during the Upper Tertiary period. To this category belong, for
example, the Pacific salmonids of the genus Oncorhyncus, the fresh-water
pearl mussel Unio, Yeddo spruce, and others.

IV ■ The Forest Steppe'

DeEnition and Boundaries

THE forest steppe is a zone of transition between the
forest on the north and the steppe on the south. In
the typical forest-steppe landscape large masses of forest alternate with
vast sections of steppe, or there are coppices scattered in patches over
a background of steppe (Figs. 11, 12).

The southern boundary of the forest steppe is as follows: from the
northern edge of the Beletsk steppe in Bessarabia to Ananyev, the upper
course of the Ingul, Kremenchug (on the Dnieper), Poltava, Valuiki,
Borisoglebsk, from here to the \'olga somewhat north of Saratov, up the
Volga to the mouth of the Samara River; on the left bank of the Volga,
the Samara River to the Buzuluk pine grove, with a portion jutting to
the north beyond the Eanel River, and to the east as far as Sterlitamak.
East of the Kama there are several islands of forest steppe within the
subzone of mixed forests, extending in part (the Kungur "island") even
into the subzone of the taiga. Similarly, to the south of the southern
boundary of the forest steppe, within the steppes, there is a large island
of forest steppe; this is the Donets ridge. There is a similar island in
Central Bessarabia. These two southern islands owe their existence to
the relief.

Beyond the Urals the southern boundary of the forest steppe is as
follows: Troitsk, somewhat south of Petropavlovsk, the Irtysh (approxi-
mately in lat. 54° N), south of Chanov, and from here southeast to
Barnaul and the foothills of the Altay Mountains, between the Biya, the
Ob, and the Salair ridge. From the Tom River eastward, the forest steppe
in Siberia is found in patches: in the so-called Kuznetsk steppe, and in
Minusinsk, Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kansk, Tulun, Verkholensk, and Ir-

^ For details and bibliography see L. S. Berg, Fiziko-geograficheskie (landslmftnie)
zony (Physical-Geographical [Landscape] zones), I, 1936, pp. 312-427.
68

THE FOREST STEPPE 69

kutsk raions. Forest steppe appears again in the Trans-Baikal region,
but that portion will be deseribed below, in the chapter on the Trans-
Baikal.

Subdivisions

The forest steppe may be divided into two parts, the western and the
eastern. In the western forest steppe, the principal deciduous species is
oak. In the eastern, or Siberian forest steppe, where oak is absent, birch
takes its place (Fig. 12). However, the islands of forest steppe which
lie to the west of the Urals— at Kungur and Krasnoufimsk ^— have a Si-
berian character; they are forested with birch, and not with broad-leaved
species. The forest steppe to the south of Belebey and in some other
sections on the left bank of the Volga is also of the birch type.

The forest steppe may be divided into subzones latitudinally as well.
On the north lies the meadow-forest subzone, or northern forest steppe.
In this subzone there are extensive oak forests in Europe, and birch
forests in Siberia. Here the forest has occupied almost the entire territory
of the steppe. To the south lies the subzone of the meadow steppe, or
southern forest steppe, in which the forest has not yet emerged com-
pletely victorious over the steppe. Here, more or less large sections of
steppe are found together with forest masses or coppices. The steppes
here are underlain by thick and somewhat leached chernozem; in Siberia,
by medium (common) chernozem.

Climate
The northern boundary of the forest steppe coincides approximately
with the 20° C. July isotherm (corrected for sea level), while the south-
ern boundary coincides with the axis of the area of barometric maximum
for temperate latitudes, which extends approximately from northern
Bessarabia through Kharkov and Uralsk, to Lake Baikal. This high-
pressure area divides the forest and forest-steppe zones from the steppe
zone. In summer, particularly in July, the high-pressure area is almost
absent, while in winter it is very sharply in evidence. North of it there
are frequent cyclones, which come from the Atlantic and generally move
from west to east. North of the area, southwest and west winds pre\'ail;
south of it, in the steppes, north, northeast, and east winds. The south-
west and west winds of the forest zone bring moisture. In contrast, the

2 Concerning these, see L. I. Prasolov and A. A. Rode, "O pocln'akh sredneuralskoy
lesostepi" (Concerning the Soils of the Forest Steppe of the Central Urals), Trudy
Pochven. inst. im. DokucJiayeva (Proceedings of the Dokuchayev Soils Institute), X,
No. 7, 1934, p. 60.

70 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

winds of the steppe blow from cold sections into warm, and because
they gradually get warmer, their moisture is unable to condense; for this
reason they bring dry air. Lying on the boundary between the forest and
the steppe zones, the forest steppe is subject to the effects of both forest
and steppe climates.

The average July temperature in the forest steppe ranges from 20° C.
in the north to 21° to 22° C. in the south. The January isotherms run
from northwest to southeast. The January temperature decreases to the
east, from — 5° C. in the western Ukraine, to — 16° C. in the West Urals
Foreland. West of the Dnieper, along the southern border of the forest
steppe, the annual precipitation is about 450 mm. Maximum precipita-
tion comes in June ( as in the steppes ) , except in the north of the western
forest steppe, where it comes in July (as in the forest zone). Minimum
precipitation comes in January and February (in some places in March).
In the forest steppe of western Siberia the climate is even more con-
tinental. In July the temperatures here are the same as in the European
part of the zone, but in January they are lower, from — 19° C. to — 21° C.
In the north, there are 450 to 400 mm. of annual precipitation; in the
south, 300 mm.

The Donets ridge, due to its elevation, stands out as a sort of island
of higher precipitation— 450 mm., while the surrounding steppe has only
400 mm. annually.

The distribution of forest and steppe sections in the forest steppe
depends upon not climatic but historical causes. Given time, with the
present climate, the forest, if left to itself, would occupy the remaining
steppe sections within the forest steppe.

Relief

The relief of the forest steppe differs in many respects from the relief
of the forest zone. This is due to the fact that the greater part of the
forest steppe is covered by loess, a material which is distinguished by
a number of peculiar properties. It is an unlaminated, porous, calcareous
material, with half or more of its entire mass consisting of particles 0.05
to 0.01 mm. in diameter. Loess has the property of crumbling in vertical
walls. Loessial landscapes are characterized by steep, bare bluffs of
yellow loess, deep, branching gullies, and plateau-shaped interstream
areas. All of these features are completely unlike the gently rolling relief
which we see farther north in the region of moraine deposits, where a
loess cover is absent.

The origin of loess is explained in different ways. According to Richt-

THE FOREST STEPPE 71

hofen (1877, 1886), loess is a deposit which originates from wind-
transported dust; the wind carries fine prodncts of wc^athcring from the
deserts and deposits them in ihe steppes, where the dust is held down by
the herbaceous vegetation, and is transformed into a porous unlaminated
stratum— aeohan, or typical loess. However, many of the facts contradict
such an explanation: Contrary to the foregoing hypothesis, in Central
Asia, along the borders of the desert, no "aeolian" loess is being formed
at the present time; the loesses here are usually overlain by sierozems—
a normal zonal soil. It is not clear why the wind must carry particles
predominantly 0.01 to 0.05 mm. in diameter. The extensive distribution
of laminated loesses remains unexplained, and the existence of such
strata as the loesslike boulder clay loams, and so forth, is obscure.

Concerning the Ukrainian loess, the hypothesis has been advanced
that the dust of which it is supposed to be composed was brought by
the wind from the deserts along the periphery of the glacial cover. But
it is well known today that along the southern border of the glacier lay
not desert but tundra and wooded tundra, while still farther south
tree vegetation sprang up immediately in the wake of the receding
glacier. In short, the moraine which was left by the glacier was covered
immediately by vegetation, and there is no reason to believe that the
surface of the moraine was subject to wind erosion, or that the land in
front of the glacier (that is, to the south of it) ever constituted. a desert.
Another source which has been suggested for the dust is deposition by
rivers which drained from under the ice sheet; that is, fluvioglacial de-
position. However (Berg, 1926; S. Sobolev, 1937), if one were to believe
that the loess dust came from the blowing asunder of sands, the area
of sand would have had to be many times greater than the area of the
Ukrainian and South Russian loess.

In the loesslike clay loams on the shores of the Ob River (below the
mouth of the Tom River), V. N. Sukachev" discovered the pollen of the
water lily (Nyinphaea, an aquatic plant), pollen which is not adapted
to transportation by wind. This fact is evidence that the loesslike clay
loams, or, more exactly, the material from which the clay loams were
formed, was deposited by water, and not by wind. As for fauna, in the
loesses there are found rather abundant remains of both aquatic and
land animals. The latter are represented by both mollusks and mammals
—rodents, the mammoth, the horse, the bull, and others. However, it can

^ V. N. Sukachev, "Ob iskopayemvkh rastitelnykh ostatkakh v lyossox ykh porodakh
V svyazi s yikh proiskhozhdeniyem" (Conceniiiig the Fossil Vegetation Remains in
Loessial Strata and Their Origin ) , Dokladtj Akad. nmik. ( Report of the Academy of
Sciences), XV, 1937, No. 4, pp. 183-188.

72 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

be shown that the remains of land fauna in the loess are of a secondary
origin, while the original fauna consisted of aquatic forms.

In accordance with the theory I developed in 1916/ loess and loesslike
materials may be formed from the most varied silts, rich in carbonates,
as a result of processes of weathering and soil formation under dry cli-
matic conditions. The origin of the parent material must be distinguished
from the origin of its loesslike appearance; the parent material may be
of alluvial, diluvial, fluvioglacial, glacial, or other deposition, but it re-
ceives its loesslike appearance, as we have indicated, as a result of
processes of weathering and soil formation which take place in a dry
climate. Some materials of a uniform mechanical composition give rise
particularly readily to loesses and loesslike formations; for example, cer-
tain alluvial and fluvioglacial deposits. This explains the frequent asso-
ciation between glacial and loess regions.

Some parts of the forest steppe are extensively gullied, with consider-
able damage to agriculture; for example, along the right bank of the
Desna in Chernigov oblast, or along the upper course of the Don. The
ravines usually do not exceed several kilometers in length, occasionally
reaching 10 km. Forests retard the formation of gullies. The presence of
gullies in forested areas testifies to the predominance here in the past
of steppes, upon which the forest encroached with the passage of time.
The extensively developed ravines which are found often today are a
result of the clearing of forests in the ravine basin, the plowing of slopes,
and the grazing of stock along the slopes. Forestation of the ravines
quickly halts their development.

In the eastern part of the European forest-steppe zone it has been
remarked that in the gullies which are disposed latitudinally, the steep
slope, devoid of vegetation, faces south, while the gentle slope, covered
with vegetation, faces north. The explanation lies in the fact that the
slope which faces north, lying as it does in the shade, does not dry,
crack, and crumble as quickly, and therefore gives the vegetation a chance
to develop. Furthermore, the snow lies longer here in spring and melts
more slowly. All of these factors lead to a leveling of the slope which
faces north, and to the accumulation of fine outwashed products. On the
contrary, on the slope which faces south, the snow melts very quickly,
and the thawed water brings about intensive erosion, forming steep

* See L. S. Berg, "O proiskhozhdenii lyossa" (Concerning the Origin of Loess),
Izv. Geograf. ohshch. (Report of the Geographical Society), 1916; Klimat i zhizn
(Climate and Life), Moscow, 1922, pp. 69-110, and also the latest summary in my
article: "Problema lyossa" (The Problem of Loess), Priroda (Nature), 1927, No. 6;
1929, No. 4.

THE FOREST STEPPE 73

slopes. This type of asymmetry is not confined to the slopes of the river
valleys in the forest steppe (and the steppe), but appears in the inter-
stream areas as well.

A characteristic feature of the forest-steppe relief is the great number
of hollows, or "saucers"— shallow, round depressions of different size,
sometimes occupied by small ponds, bogs, or temporary pools of water.
They are found predominantly in flat interstream areas. In some parts
of Poltava raion there are so many depressions that the distance between
them is only 2 to 60 m. The depth of the depressions is usually from
0.75 to 1.5 m., occasionally 2 m.; the diameter, 10 to 50 m. In the forest
steppe between the Don and the Volga, the depressions overgrown with
aspen and willow are known as "aspen bushes." In the forest steppe of
western Siberia, the depressions overgrown with birch are known as
kolki. As for the origin of these saucerlike depressions, they are due in
part to the mechanical effect of water which at one time covered the
present-day steppe, and in part to the sinking of the ground as a result
of the leaching out of salts.

The West Siberian forest steppe is characterized by gently undulating
topography: long, gently sloping ridges, or grivy, alternate with hollows.
In the Ishim and Baraba steppes they run chiefly from northeast to
southwest and have a relative elevation of 1 to 4 m., and occasionally
6 to 10 m. They measure hundreds of meters in width and reach several
kilometers in length. The hollows between the ridges often are basins
for solonchaks, bogs, small lakes, and streams. The origin of these ridges
has not been determined.

We now pass on to a description of the major features of the relief.
The Volyno-Podolsk Plateau extends from the lowland which adjoins the
Carpathians (the sources of the Sana and the Dniester, in Poland) into
the U.S.S.R. as far as the middle Dnieper on the east; on the north this
plateau, composed of loess and dissected by ravines, is bordered by an
escarpment beyond which lies the Polesye Lowland; on the south it
reaches as far as a line connecting Balta and Zaporozhye, or to the Black
Sea Lowland. At the source of the Southern Bug the plateau has an ele\a-
tion of 392 m.; at Krements, in Poland, it reaches an elevation of
407 m. Along the Zbruch, which empties into the Dniester on the Polish
border, the elevations along the left bank also reach 385 to 390 m.

The Volyno-Podolsk Plateau is composed of loess and horizontal Ter-
tiary and Cretaceous rocks. Along the river valleys in some places there
are outcrops of crystalline rocks (gneisses, granites, and others). They
belong to the Vohno-Azov (or Ukrainian) crystalline massif, which ex-

74 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

tends from southern Polesye to the Sea of Azov. This massif constitutes
an island of ancient, pre-Cambrian mountains, which have been worn
down to their foundations. In the western part of the Volyno-Podolsk
Plateau there are peculiar elevations, usually ridge shaped, composed of
limestones and called Toltrij. These ridges extend from NNW to SSE for
a distance of about 250 km. This Podolian Toltry belt is 3 to 4 km. wide;
differences in elevation amount to 50 to 60 m. and the absolute eleva-
tion reaches 360 to 380 m. The Toltry are developed most typically at
Kamenets-Podolsk. They originally were the barrier reefs which were
formed in the ancient Miocene sea. Bryozoa, mollusks, calcareous algae,
and occasionally corals contributed to the formation of these reefs. Karst
phenomena are developed in the limestones of which the Toltry are
composed.

The valleys of the streams which drain from the Volyno-Podolsk Plateau
into the Dniester are incised deeply into the plateau. They have the ap-
pearance of canyons, 100 m. or more in depth.

That part of the Ukrainian forest steppe which adjoins the left bank
of the Dnieper constitutes a lowland (the Dnieper Lowland), which
merges into the Central Russian heights on the east. The mean elevation
of the lowland is 90 to 150 m. But elevations in the area between the
sources of the Oka and the Don reach more than 300 m. The Dnieper
lobe of the ice sheet extended over the Dnieper Lowland, but the south-
ern part of the Central Russian heights is free of boulders.

A large part of the area adjoining the left bank of the Dnieper is occu-
pied by the Dnieper terraces, which at one time extended to the east as
far as Priluki, Pir)'atin, Liven, and Khorol. Between Kiev and Priluki
this zone reaches a width of 125 km. To the north it extends beyond
Chernigov into the forest zone; to the south it reaches as far as Dne-
propetrovsk, which lies in the steppe zone. According to different authori-
ties, there are anywhere from three to six terraces in this plain. Dmitriev,
for example, describes six, beginning with the meadow terrace: ^

( 1 ) The meadow, or flood-plain terrace, which reaches a width of 10
to 12 km., is well defined along the middle Dnieper. At Kiev its absolute
elevation is 94 to 95 m. and it rises 3 to 4 m. above the level of the river.

(2) The second terrace (the first terrace above the flood plain), or
the "pine-grove" terrace, at Kiev lies at an elevation of 103 to 119 m.
It is covered with dunes up to 20 m. high which are overgrown with

^ N. I. Dmitriev, "O kolichestve i vozraste terras srednevo Dnepra" ( Concerning
the Number and Age of the Terraces of tlie Middle Dnieper), Zemlevedenie (Geog-
raphy), [Vol. 39] No. 1, 1937.

THE F on EST ST E I'VE 75

pine forest. It is best developed at Kiev, on the left bank, where it reaches
a width of 12 km. This terrace is well represented also at Kremenchug,
According to Dmitriev, it was formed during the Upper Wiirm glacia-
tion.

(3) The third terrace, which belongs to the Lower Wiirm period, is
poorly defined.

(4) The fourth terrace rises 30 to 40 m. above the Dnieper (absolute
elevation, 106 to 126 m.). It is believed to have been formed during the
Riss period.

(5) The fifth terrace occupies an enormous area, reaching as far as
Khorol, Lubny, Piryatin, Priluki, and Borzna. In the latitude of Priluki
it reaches a width of 75 km. This terrace rises 40 to 50 m. above the
level of the Dnieper. In some places on the surface of the terrace there
are great numbers of saucer-shaped depressions, formed by arms of the
Dnieper which lay here at one time. In the region of Gradizhsk, Pivikha
hill (absolute elevation, 169 m.; elevation above the Dnieper, 102 m.)
rises above the fifth terrace. This hill, formerly attributed to tectonic
origin, is actually a terminal moraine. The fifth terrace is believed to
have been formed during the Mindelian period.

(6) On the watershed between the Psyol and the Khorol, the abso-
lute elevation of the sixth terrace usually does not reach 150 m., while
the watershed plateau reaches 160 to 170 m. in elevation, and even
higher at individual points. Dmitriev relates this terrace to the Giinz
glaciation.

East of the Dnieper we find again a large "island" of massive crystal-
line rock, most of which lies beneath the surface; it is a continuation
of the Volyno-Azov massif. This "island" includes the region of the
Kursk magnetic anomaly, which stretches from Fatezh through Shchigry
and Novy Oskol as far as Pavlovsk. At Shchigry, pre-Cambrian fer-
ruginous quartzites have been discovered at a depth of 162 m.

In the vicinity of Lubny lies the famous Isachkovsky hill (absolute
elevation, 147 m. ) , which rises very slightly above the level of the Sula
River. The composition of this hill includes diabase, the eruption of
which took place along a fissure, probably during the Lower Cretaceous
period. During the glacial period, the hill was covered by the ice sheet,
which left a moraine. The moraine is overlain by loesslike clay loams,
and they, in turn, are overlain by loess.®

^ N. I. Dmitriev, "K morfogenezisu Isachkovskovo kholma" ( The Morphogenesis
of Isachkovsky Hill), Izv. Geogr. ohshch. (Report of the Geographical Society), 1935,
No. 1.

76 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The Donets ridge constitutes an island of forest steppe within the
steppe. The presence of forests here in the past was due to the rather
considerable elevation of the ridge; in Mechetnaya Mogila (between
Debaltsevo and Zverevo), the elevation reaches 369 m. In general the
ridge has the characteristics of a gently rolling plateau, stretching from
WNW to ESE for a distance of 370 km. and reaching 160 km. in width.
Along the northern base of the ridge flows the Northern Donets; the
river then turns sharply to the south and cuts across the ridge. The
interstream areas of the ridge have a steppelike, gently rolling appear-
ance and are completely under the plow. The ridge is very rich in min-
eral resources: coal (both bituminous and anthracite), salt, and others.
The upper section of the Carboniferous system is richest in coal, while
the Permian deposits are very rich in salt.

The Volga heights, which will be discussed in greater detail in the
chapter on the steppes, are situated on the right bank of the Volga,
and at the south extend into the steppe zone. Here we will consider
only the highest part, the Zhigulevsk hills, which rise 371 m. above sea
level and 354 m. above the level of the Volga at the mouth of the Samara
River. The Zhigulevsk hills are the product of complex dislocations. Dur-
ing the first half of the Mesozoic period, a domelike uplift occurred
here. Then the northern part of the dome began to subside. This subsid-
ence, which took place along the northern border of the Samara bend,
continued into the Oligocene period and later (but no later than the
Upper Pliocene ) . The extent of the displacement in some places reaches
1200 m.^

In the relief of the southern part of the forest steppe, on the left bank
of the Volga, the influence of the Ural uplift aheady begins to be evi-
dent; the area rises in elevation and to the south of Belebey lie the
Belebey heights, which reach an altitude of 449 m. and serve as a water
divide between the basins of the Kama and the Belaya.

The Ufa Plateau, which lies partly in the subzone of mixed forests, is

situated between the Ufa River and its tributary, the Ayem. This plateau,

270 to 300 m. in elevation, is a gentle anticline of Upper Carboniferous

limestones. Here, as in the region of Permian strata, karst phenomena

are extensive.

^ E. N. Pemnyakov, "K poznaniyu geologicheskoy istorii raiona Zhigulevskovo
kupola" (Toward tlie Understanding of the Geological History of the Zhigulevsk
Dome Region), Byull. Mask, ohshch. isp. prir. (Bulletin of the Moscow Society for
Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological Section), XIII (1935), No. 4, 1936, pp. 461,
471. N. I. Sokolov, "K voprosu o tektonike Samarskov luki" (On the Question of
the Tectonics of the Samara Bend), ibid., XV, No. 3, 1937, pp. 275-292. A. N. Ma-
zarovich, ibid., XIV, No. 6, 1936, pp. 535-536.

THE FOHEST STEPPE 77

The West Siberian forest steppe is characterized in general by flat
relief. We have spoken already of the grit;?/ (ridges) and depressions
found here. As distinct from the European forest steppe, the Siberian
forest steppe has many land-locked lakes, both salt and fresh water. Of
these lakes mention may be made of the large, slightly saline Lake Chany
in the Baraba steppe. The Kokchetav heights, composed of granite and
reaching an elevation of 948 m., also may be noted here. There are sev-
eral lakes at the foot of the highest part, at an elevation of 300 to 400 m.

Soils

The soils of the forest steppe are unique. Some of the soils here were
formed under the forest, while others originated under steppe vegetation.

The forest steppe to the west of the Urals may be divided according to
soil cover into a series of subzones, from north to south: (1) gray forest
soils ( degraded clay loams ) , ( 2 ) degraded chernozem, ( 3 ) leached cher-
nozem and "northern" chernozem, and (4) thick and rich chernozem.

The forest steppe of western Siberia, beginning at the north, may be
divided into the following soil subzones: (1) northern, strongly leached
chernozem; (2) solonchak ( meadow-solonchak ) ; (3) rich chernozem;
between the Irtysh and the Ob rich chernozems are absent over a large
area, and here solonchak soils lie adjacent to medium chernozems; and
(4) medium (common) chernozem.

In western Siberia the forest steppe extends as far south as the southern
boundary of medium chernozem. Since the subzone of southern cher-
nozem (which belongs to the steppe zone) is narrow here, the forest
steppe extends almost as far south as the southern boundary of cher-
nozem; the true steppes begin only a little north of the subzone of chest-
nut soils. P. Krylov classifies as forest steppe the entire region of West
Siberian chernozem. Thus, there is a great difference between the forest
steppe in Siberia and the forest steppe which lies to the west of the
Urals. In eastern Europe the southern, ver)' broad part of the chernozem
zone is occupied by steppe, while forest steppe is found only in the
northern part.

First a few words about chernozem, which is representative of the
steppe type of soil formation. Tlie profile of chernozem on virgin steppe
is as follows: The surface of the soil is usually covered by a mat of vege-
tation, 2 to 4 cm. thick. The soil itself consists of two horizons: one rich
in organic materials, the other a horizon of carbonate accumulation. The
humus horizon, which is generally 70 to 100 cm. thick, has a fine granular
structure at the top. The humus usually comprises 6 to 10 per cent of

78 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the content of chernozems. Soils rich in humus are found overlying heavy
clay-loam subsoils and limestones; chernozems w^hich overlie sandy strata
are poor in humus. An essential condition for the formation of chernozem
is the presence of a considerable quantity of calcium carbonate in the
parent material. Loess, unleached loesslike clay loams, boulder clay loams,
marl, limestones, and chalk are particularly favorable to the develop-
ment of chernozem. Without calcium, says Tanfilyev, there can be no
chernozem. Both the mineral and the organic absorption complexes of
chernozems are saturated with calcium and magnesium. As a result,
chernozem easily resists the decomposing and dissolving action of soil
solutions. And, in general, the washing and leaching of the soil in the
forest steppe and the steppe cannot be very great, in view of the rela-
tively small amount of precipitation and the considerable evaporation.
Soil solutions in chernozem always contain calcium, which promotes the
coagulation of the soil particles. For this reason chernozems have a firm
granular structure, which faA'ors aeration and permeability of the soil.

•The gray forest clay loams, which are found along the northern bound-
ary of the forest steppe, according to Glinka, are secondary podzolic soils,
as distinct from primary podzolic soils, since they formerly belonged to
the chernozem (steppe) type of soil formation, but subsequently were
degraded as a result of the leaching out of carbonates and other salts and
oxides. The degradation of chernozems consists of the leaching out of
carbonates and humus, the reduction in thickness of the humus hori-
zons, the appearance of a podzolized horizon and a horizon in which
sesquioxides accumulate, and the disappearance of the typical granular
structure which is peculiar to the chernozems. The gradual stages in the
degradation of chernozems are as follows: leached chernozem, degraded
chernozem, dark degraded clay loams, and gray degraded or forest clay
loams. Degradation, which takes place under conditions of relatively
abundant precipitation, consists of a gradual transition from the cher-
nozem (steppe) type of soil formation to the podzolic (forest) type.

The gray forest clay loams have a gray humus horizon, the lower por-
tion of which has a characteristic nutlike structure with a distinct pod-
zolic (siliceous) sprinkling on the "nut" particles; the carbonates are
leached out to a considerable depth. In degraded chernozems gray-white
shades appear in the lower portion of the humus horizon.

Thick chernozems are typical chernozem soils. The humus horizon
reaches a thickness of 80 to 100 cm. and more. In the Trans-Volga and in
western Siberia, rich chernozems take the place of thick ones. The humus

THE FOREST STEPPE 79

horizon is not as deep, only about 50 cm,, but the humus content is
greater, often as high as 15 per cent, and sometimes even higher. This
is attributed to the large clay content of the subsoils. The rich (or leached)
chernozems of western Siberia are noticeably podzoliz(id; in the humus
horizon there is a distinct sprinkling of silica.

Among the intrazonal soils, solocLs are very characteristic for the forest
steppe in both Europe and Siberia, just as solonetz soils (Fig. 18) are
characteristic for the steppe and the northern part of the semidesert,
and solonchaks are characteristic for the semidesert and the desert. ( How-
ever, all three are found in both the forest steppe and the steppe.) Each
of these types of soil, associated predominantly with depressions in the
relief, is related genetically to the others. As Gedroits has shown, solon-
chaks, under conditions of increasing moisture, pass over into solonetz
soils, which, in turn, as the climate becomes still more moist, pass over
into solods. The origin of these soils explains their zonal succession. The
sequence, solonchak, solonetz, solod, is simply the succession of stages
in the development of one and the same soil. The transformation of one
soil into the other is related to the constantly increasing moisture of
the climate.

Solonchaks are soils which contain readily soluble salts (sodium or
magnesium, or calcium, or mixtures of these salts). If we assume that
solonchak soil (which contains sodium in its absorption complex) under-
goes leaching as the climate changes in the direction of greater mois-
ture, the soluble salts will be removed, while the sodium remains in the
absorption complex. The new soil, which does not contain large quantities
of soluble salts, but which does contain sodium in the absorption com-
plex, is called solonetz. Solonetz soils are very unstable soils, easily de-
graded. They are transformed readily into solods— soils which are poor in
humus and in which the mineral part of the absorption complex is more
or less leached.

Solonetz soils and solods are very common in the forest steppe of both
eastern Europe and Siberia. There is reason to believe that the greater
part of the chernozems of western Siberia at one time also passed through
a stage of salinization, and that salinized soils generally had a wider dis-
tribution here in the past than they do at present. But even today solon-
chaks occupy a large area in the West Siberian forest steppe; carbonated
solonchaks are particularly numerous here.

The soil cover of the forest steppe clearly testifies to a recent change
in climate in the direction of greater moisture, as a result of which the

80 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

forest began to encroach upon the steppe. At one time, during the warm
and dry sub-boreal period, chernozems extended as far north as the
northern boundaries of the forest steppe. Then, during the relatively cool
and moist sub-Atlantic period, the climate became more humid, and for-
est vegetation, which had moved into the steppe, partly from the north,
partly from the west, began to change the chernozem into podzolic soils.
The encroachment of the forest on the steppe is still in process at the
present time.^

Vegetation

According to the predominant tree species, the European part of
the forest steppe may be called the oak forest steppe, while the Siberian
part may be called the birch forest steppe. However, the birch forest
steppe begins, as we have said, west of the Urals.

We shall describe first the forest landscapes of the forest steppe : broad-
leaved forests, aspen bushes, birch forests, and pine groves.

Oak groves are characteristic between the Dnieper and the Volga. In
addition to the oak {Quercus pedimcuJata [Q. robur]), they include ash,
linden, aspen, smoothleaf elm {Ulmus campestris [U. carpinifolia]) ,^
and maples (Norway maple— Acer platanoides; hedge maple— A. cam-
pestre; and Tatarian maple— A. tatariciim) . Tatarian maple and European
filbert (Coryhis avellana) often fonn the undergrowth; both are very
common in the forest outskirts.

The following herbaceous plants are characteristic for these oak for-
ests: mercury {Mercurialis perennis), common blue squill {Scilla cernua
[S. nonscripta]) , common lungwort {Pulmonaria officinalis), bishop's-
goutweed {Aegopodiuni podagraria), European wild ginger {Asarum
europaeum). Archangel dead nettle (GaJeobdolon luteinn [Lamium ga-
leobdolon ] ) , giant fescue ( Festuca gigantea ) , reed fescue ( F. sylvatica ) ,
hairy sedge (Carex pilosa), and others. All of these herbaceous plants
have wide blades. There are few mosses in the oak groves, or none at all.

The oak, ash, Norway maple, linden, and hornbeam forests to the
right of the Dnieper in the Ukraine are called hornbeam groves. These
forests always have two layer societies: in the upper layer society there
are oak and ash, in the lower layer society, hornbeam or hedge maple.
In western Podolia (and in northern Bessarabia), in areas which have a
mild and moist climate, there are beech forests. (In the beech forests on
the Khotinsk heights in Bessarabia there is a great deal of English ivy

8 For details, see L. S. Berg, Klimat i zhizn (Climate and Life), Moscow, 1922.
^ Or, according to the present nomenclature, Ulmus foliacea.

THE FOREST STEPPE 81

(Ilcdera helix), which spreads along the ground and climbs up the tninks
of the beeches.)

On the southern border of the forest steppe, in the right-bank part
of the Ukraine (west of the Dnieper), lies the Chemy [Black] forest.
The leading species in this forest, which is near Znamenka station, is
oak, with hornbeam occupying second place, and hedge maple, third.
It is interesting that this forest contains a sphagnum bog, on which grow
pyrola and orchids; some birches (one of them, Betula verrucosa)
have been found here also; thus it has a whole colony of northern ele-
ments.

In the forests near Balta (Moldavia), in addition to the common (Eng-
lish) oak, there is often found another, the durmast oak {Quercus sessili-
flora [Q. petraea]), a western species. Northwest of Balta there is an-
other western species, the silver linden {Tilia argentea [T. tomentosa]) .

In the Mius basin on the Donets ridge there is hornbeam.

Aspen bushes, or, more correctly, aspen coppices, of which we have
spoken already, are associated with the forest steppe east of the Don.
They extend to the south as far as the border of the forest steppe, in
some places penetrating into the northern outskirts of the steppe zone.
Where aspen bushes are found, they coincide in their distribution with
the areas covered by solonetz soils and solonchaks. From what we have
said above about solods, this may be understood readily. In Voronezh
ohlast the first trees and shrubs to appear in the depressions are the gray
willow {Salix cinerea) and its companion, the European dewberry {Rii-
bus caesius). Next to appear is aspen, which crowds the willow out to
the periphery. As time passes, elms ( Ulmus ) , European white birch, oak,
Norway maple, and even linden settle in the aspen "bush." Thus, the
aspen groves represent one of the stages in the transformation of the
depressions into forest areas.

In the Kungur forest steppe, birch coppices are found growing on
slightly degraded chernozems rich in humus. This forest-steppe complex
in some places is developing before our very eyes; on two- or three-year-
old formations, young birches may be found growing already beside ten-
to fifteen-year-old and older birch coppices. Individual specimens of
spruce occur among the birch. Under natural conditions the Kungur for-
est steppe apparently would turn quickly into a continuous massif of
birch forest.

In western Siberia, kolki are analogous to the aspen bushes. These
are small woods of pubescent birch (Betula ptibescens), with an admix-
ture of aspen and European white birch (B. verrucosa), and with an un-

82 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

dergrowth of willows. These coppices, like the aspen bushes, are asso-
ciated with depressions which contain salinized soils. To the north, the
koiki merge gradually into larger forest massifs.

Pine groves. The pine, growing chiefly on sands and sandy loams, is
almost the only coniferous tree found in the forests of the forest steppe
(Fig. 13). Occasionally pine may be found growing on exposures of
chalk and on granite (for example, on the Kokchetav heights); in a
few places it may be found growing on peat bogs. The southern bound-
ary of the distribution of pine coincides approximately with the southern
boundary of the forest steppe. Spruce and Siberian larch are found only
rarely in the forest steppe.

The scheme of distribution of vegetation in the forest steppe between
the Dnieper and the Sura is approximately as follows: On the left bank,
on the terrace above the meadow terrace, we usually find the sands occu-
pied by pine. Sometimes within these pine stands there are sphagnum
bogs. Farther from the river, on the sandy loam, we find pine-oak
stands. The soil under these stands is degraded chernozem sandy loam.
In the first layer society here, the pine has an excellent development; in
the second layer society there is oak, with an admixture of smoothleaf
elm, birch, and aspen, and with wartybark euonymus [Euonymus ver-
rucosus?] predominating in the undergrowth. Oak is poorly developed on
sandy-loam subsoils. Still farther from the river, on thick chernozem, is the
steppe, in the midst of which here and there are scattered aspen "bushes."
On the right bank, on gray forest soils near the river and on degraded
chernozems farther away, there grow "upland" leafy groves— oak woods
with more or less admixture of ash. Still farther from the river there are
thick chernozems covered with steppe vegetation.

In the pine groves in the north of Voronezh oblast, and east of the
\'^oronezh River, many northern elements may be found. In addition to
reindeer moss in the white-moss pine groves, cowberry, bilberry, and
pyrola are found in profusion in the peat bogs; in some places there is
cranberry, and heather is very common. However, side by side with
forest forms there are also steppe forms, such as the common woadwaxen
(Genista tinctoria), broom (Cijtisus ruthenicus) , and others. Like the
flora, the fauna of the forest steppe also shows a mixture of forest and
steppe forms.

The Zhigulevsk hills are covered with broad-leaved and mixed forests.
Mention may be made of the Buzuluk pine grove on the right side of the
Samara River, in the Trans-Volga. It grows on slightly podzolized dune
sands. These sands, which reach an absolute elevation of 200 m., are of

THE FOREST STEPPE 83

ancient alluvial origin and arc found in broad basinlikc depressions in the
relief/"

On the Kokchetav heights there are pine groves growing on granite
rocks and on quartzites. In the wetter places th(;re is an admixture of
birch (predominantly European white birch) with the pine. But it is
interesting to note that in the peat bogs in the neighborhood of Lake
Borovoy there is found pollen of alder, elm, oak, Siberian stone pine,
larch, spruce, and fir (Zharkova, 1930).

The pine groves in the Kulundinsk forest steppe, on the left bank of
the Ob, are very curious. The sands which lie in the river valleys here
are occupied by pine groves. The interstream areas are covered with
medium chernozems, underlain by loesslike substrata. Birch kolki (with
some aspen and willow) are associated with the depressions in the inter-
stream areas. Since the pine groves lie in narrow strips from southwest to
northeast along the rivers, they are called "ribbon" pine groves in the
literature. These pine groves lie perceptibly lower than the interstream
steppes, and for this reason the ground-water level here is very high.
The sands form mounds which resemble dunes or ridges. In the depres-
sions between the mounds in the north there are sphagnum bogs; in the
south, solonchak meadows.

Steppes. The steppe portions of the forest-steppe zone constitute the
remains of what was once continuous steppe, disrupted by the forests
which have encroached upon its territory. At present these sections,
covered with fertile soil, are almost entirely under cultivation. Patches
of virgin steppe have been preserved only in a very few places.

In the north of the forest-steppe zone, herbaceous vegetation occupies
the soils of the steppe expanses more or less uniformly, forming a con-
tinuous cover. The herbaceous cover is tall. In the southern half of the
forest steppe, the herbage appears at first glance also to be continuous,
but if the blades are moved apart, it will be seen that the sod does
not cover the soil continuously. The plants grow in separate tussocks,
while between the individual plants or tussocks there are intervals of
completely bare space, 2 to 10 cm. wide. To the south, in the steppe zone,
these spaces grow increasingly larger, until in the semidesert they be-
come striking. It should be added that in the steppes in the southern

^^ A. N. Mazarovicli, "Geologichcskoye stroyenie Za\ olzliya mezhdu g. Kuiby-
shc\ym i Orenburgom" (The Geological Structure of the Trans-Volga Between
Kuibyshev and Orenburg), Byull. Mosk. ohslicli. isp. prir. (Bulletin of the Moscow
Society for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological Section), XIV, 1936, pp. 521-

84 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

subzone of the forest steppe, the herbage does not grow as tall as in the
northern subzone. And in the steppe zone proper, the stand is still
shorter.

Because dicotyledons, with their striking bright colors, grow here in
abundance, the steppes of the forest-steppe zone are called meadow or
mixed-herbaceous steppes (Fig. 14). They are also called northern, as
distinguished from southern (the steppes of the steppe zone proper,
where grasses predominate). At the beginning of the summer, the
meadow steppes are covered in large quantities by a very few species of
grasses, which belong to the broad-leaved group adapted to the rela-
tively moist climate of the northern steppes. These include hairy oat
{Avena puhescens) , meadow brome (Bromiis erecfus), and velvet bent
grass (Agrostis canina). Feather grasses, which are so characteristic for
the southern steppes, are also found in the forest steppe, but do not pre-
dominate here. Two feather grasses of the pinnate group ( Stipa pennata
in the broad sense) are characteristic for the forest steppe of the Cen-
tral Chernozem region ( Kursk, Voronezh, Tambov ) . These are the broad-
leaved feather grass (S. joannis), which is especially peculiar to the
northern steppes, and the narrow-leaved feather grass (S. stenophylla) ,
which grows just as profusely in the southern steppes. Fescue (Festuca
sulcata ) and koeleria ( Koeleria gracilis ) , which are characteristic for the
southern steppes, also are common here, particularly the former, but they
occupy a subordinate position. In early spring the soU is covered with
a continuous carpet of moss (Thuidium abietinum), which grows 2 cm.
tall. This moss cover, which is very characteristic for the northern steppe,
has a great significance: it protects the surface of the soil from erosion
by the melt-water.

As we have said, in the northern steppes ( the steppes within the forest-
steppe zone) dicotyledons, which smother the grasses with their luxu-
rious height, predominate. But Alekhin points out that in the virgin
steppes of the forest steppe (those which are not only unplowed, but
even unmowed), grasses, and particularly feather grass {Stipa steno-
phylla), must have had a much greater significance. Thus, the virgin
northern steppes were feather-grass, mixed-herbaceous steppes.

We will present, according to Alekhin's data," a description of the sea-
sonal changes in the vegetation on the mixed-herbaceous virgin Streletsk
steppe near Kursk: After the snow has melted, the steppe is covered with
a profusion of the large purple flowers of the spreading pasqueflower

^1 V. V. Alekhin, Tsentralno-chernozemnie stepi (The Central Chernozem Steppes),
Voronezh, 1934, izd-vo. "Kommuna" (published by "Communa"), 91 pp.

THE FOREST STEPPE 85

(Pulsatilla patens [Anemone patens]). After several days there appear
the brilHant golden flowers of the spring adonis (Aclonis vernalis). Both
these plants are very characteristic at the end of April or the beginning
of May. They fade qnickly, yielding to the bitter pea vine (Orohns
albtis),'* the stool iris (Iris aplujlla), the snowdrop anemone (Anemone
sijlvestris) , and others. At the beginning of June the pale-blue woodland
forget-me-not (Mijosotis sijlvatica) begins to predominate; it is accom-
panied by the steppe groundsel (Senecio campester), with its yellow
flowers, and by others. At the same time some of the grasses begin to
bloom, and the broad-leaved feather grass (Stipa joannis) throws off its
plumose awns. Toward the middle of June the steppe becomes dark
purple with the blossoms of the meadow sage (Salvia pratensis); at the
same time, the tall grayish panicles of the meadow brome ( Bromus erec-
tus) strike the eye. After several days the inflorescences of the velvet bent
grass (Agrostis canina) unfold. At the end of June the mountain clover
(Trifolium montanum), oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare [Crijsan-
themum leucanthemum]) , and dropwort (Filipendula hexapetala) bloom
in profusion. The plumose awns of the narrow-leaved feather grass ( Stipa
stenophylla) appear. In the middle of July the steppe assumes a dull-
pink shade from the profusion of blooming Hungarian sainfoin ( Onobry-
chis arenaria ) . During the latter half of the summer the steppe no longer
has the appearance of a blooming carpet, but appears rather brown
from the mass of withered plants. Although some new plants do blos-
som, they appear only as individual specimens; such are the larkspur
(Delphinium litwinowi) and the black false hellebore (Veratrum nig-
rum ) .

Altogether, on the Streletsk steppe, in an area of about 1200 hectares,
there have been enumerated 220 different plants, of which 180 belong
to the category of herbaceous vegetation. Among the grasses the most
significant are meadow brome (Bromus erectus) and velvet bent grass
(Agrostis canina). In comparison with the southern or grassy steppes,
the mixed-herbaceous steppes lead in number of grass species (about
20 ) , but trail in number of individuals. Of the sedges, we must mention
the low sedge ( Carex humilis ) , a squat plant, which blooms at the same
time as the adonis. It is considered one of the most important factors in
the formation of chernozem. We must add that the surface of the soil
here, in the spaces between plants, is covered completely by the green
moss, Thuidium abietinum, of which we have spoken earlier.

The abundance of species on the Streletsk steppe, as presented by

* Probably a horticultural form of Lathtjrus vernus.—TR.

86 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Alekhin/- is very interesting. On areas 1 m. square there have been enu-
merated as many as 77 species, and on areas 100 m. square, as many as 120.

In the steppe sections along the southern border of the forest steppe
there are found thickets of xerophytic steppe shrubs— ground cherry
(Prunus fruticosa) , sloe (P. spinosa), Russian almond (Amijgdalus nana),
broom {Cijtisus ruthenicus), spiraea {Spiraea crenifolia), and Russian pea
shrub (Caragana friitex).

Vegetation of the chalky cliffs. We have mentioned already that in the
relatively elevated, and consequently gullied, section of the central for-
est steppe, as for example, the regions of Orel, Kursk, and Kharkov, there
is an area in which glacial deposits are absent. In this area, and also
along its eastern boundary, along the river banks, outcrops of chalk are
often exposed. On these chalky cliffs there is found a peculiar "creta-
ceous" flora (Fig. 15), v^hich has a distinctly relict appearance. It is
regarded as a remnant of Upper Tertiary (Pliocene) vegetation, which,
in areas which were never covered by the ice sheet, survived all the
adversities of the glacial epoch. The outcrops in the basin of the upper
Oskol, near the boundary between Kursk and Voronezh oblasts, is par-
ticularly rich in relict forms. Among such relicts may be mentioned the
small shrubs of Daphne cneonun jtilia and D. altaica sophia; the yellow
alpine skullcap (ScuteUeria alpina var. hipulina), of the labiate family;
a crucifer (Schivereckia podolica), closely related to the draba; the rock
jasmine (Androsace villosa), of the primrose family; and the umbellifer
Bupleurum ranuncuJoides. According to Alekhin, the chalky hills at
Barkalovka (Kursk ohlast) in some places are covered continuously over
areas as large as 30 hectares by the bushes of Daphne cneorwn julia. In
spring, when this plant blossoms, all the hills appear red, and the air is
saturated with the odor of its flowers. This little shrub, 10 to 20 cm. high,
grows best on virgin chernozem. In the southern Alps, Daphne cneorum
extends as far as the alpine zone.

The vegetation of Galichya hill, on the right bank of the Don, near
the crossing of the Don by the railway from Yelets to Gryazi, is very rich
in relict forms. This hill is really a plateau, 235 m. in elevation, composed
of Devonian limestones and covered with leached chernozems. In former
times Galichya hill was covered entirely by an oak forest. On this low
eminence, on an area of about 15 hectares, there grow some 500 species
of plants, a remarkable abundance for our relatively scant flora. The
vegetation of Galichya hill is, without doubt, a remnant of preglacial
flora.

12 Ibid., p. 65.

THE FOliEST STEVl'E 87

Recently many relict forms have been discovered on the Donets ridge
and in adjoining areas. Among such species arc the arum {Arum orien-
tate), a Mediterranean plant, which is found from the Balkan Peninsula
as far east as the Crimea, the Caucasus, and Turkmenia, and which was
found recently in the region of the Azov heights as well; the speedwell
(Veronica tinibrosa), native to the mountains of the Crimea and the
Caucasus; and the West European horsetail (Equisetum inajus). In
some places on the Donets ridge there is hornbeam. All of these plants
are remains of either Upper Tertiary or interglacial flora.

Bogs. The forest-steppe zone as a whole does not present conditions
favorable to the development of interstream bogs. Because of the hot
summers, evaporation is great here. The subsoils are usually loesses or
loesslike clay loams, materials which are not watertight. Finally, the
geographic circumstances in general do not favor the development of
sphagnum mosses. Nevertheless, individual patches of sphagnum bog
are found as far as the southern boundary of the forest steppe, while along
the northern boundary of the West Siberian forest steppe they are nu-
merous.

On the sphagnum bogs in Kharkov, Zmiev, and Kupyansk raions, a
whole series of northern forms penetrates far to the south. Such are
the cranberry, sundew, cotton sedge, some orchids, and so forth.

In the forest steppe the first noticeable signs of salinization are found
on the flood-plain meadows. Thus, on the meadows in southern Tambov
raion may be found such typical solonchak plants as the umbellifer silaus
(Silau.s besseri) and the grass Atropis distans [Puccinellia distans]. The
greater portion of the forest-steppe meadows was covered at one time
with forest. Even today, along the Sura, some sections of the flood plain
are overgrown with oak, bird cherry, and Tatarian maple.

Fauna

The fauna of the forest steppe, like the flora, shows a mixture of for-
est and steppe forms. There are no animals especially associated with the
forest steppe. The species which inhabit the forest steppe are typical of
either the forest or the steppe.

In the forests of the forest steppe there was formerly an abundance of
bear, elk, deer, and roebuck. In some parts there is still squirrel, marten,
elk, and roebuck. In addition to these animals, suslik, jerboa, and bobac
may be found in the steppe portions. Madimir Monomakh says that he
captured wild horses, or tarpans (Equus gmelini). in the Chernigov re-
gion and on the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper. In 1768 Gmelin

88 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

visited the Voronezh region. According to him, about twenty years before
his visit, the tarpan was common in the vicinity of Voronezh. At the
time of Pallas (1769), saiga antelope inhabited the southern forest steppe
on the left bank of the Volga in great numbers. The aurochs ( Bos primi-
genius), a wild ox which is now extinct, inhabited the steppe, forest
steppe, and subzone of mixed forests only recently; about three hundred
years ago it was still found in Poland. The aurochs played a part in the
development of the present domestic ox, particularly the longhorn spe-
cies. Marmots or bobac (Marmota hohak) have practically disappeared
in the European forest steppe; they are still found along the southern
boundary of this zone, between Bityug and Khoper, and in a few other
places. Generally speaking, the Dnieper constitutes the western boundary
for the distribution of this species; however, during historical times the
bobac was found on the right bank of the Dnieper as well, in the region
of the rapids. The beaver was widely distributed at one time in the forests
of the forest steppe; ^^ also the roebuck, which is found occasionally even
today. At the time of Gmelin (1768), black grouse {Lyrurus tetrix) were
common in the neighborhood of Voronezh; today they are rare. At the
beginning of the twentieth century the Kokchetav heights were inhabited
by red deer (Cervtis elaphus canadensis sibiricus [C. elaphus sibiricus]).

Dormice, small rodents of the Muscardinidae family, are very charac-
teristic for the broad-leaved forests.

In the oak forests of the European forest steppe, and in the birch
forests of the West Siberian forest steppe, there nests a series of birds
which, according to Stegman (1936), must be of western European
origin. These include the kite (Milvus milvus), stock dove {Columba
oenas), wood pigeon (C. palumbus), turtle dove {Streptopelia turtur),
green woodpecker {Picus viridis), golden oriole {Oriolus oriolus), thrush
nightingale (Luscinia luscinia), robin (Erithacus rubecula), and others.
The imperial eagle (Aquila lieUaca), although it is called the steppe
eagle, is found in the forest steppe, and nests only in trees. All of the
species which have been mentioned are typical for central, and to some
extent for southern Europe, and decrease in number to the east and north.
In short, the picture is the opposite of that for the distribution of taiga
birds. In general, the bird fauna of the deciduous forests of the forest
steppe differs sharply from the bird fauna of the taiga (Stegman). But
the fauna of the forest steppe has some features in common with the
fauna of the Far East, which has been described earher (pp. 65-67).

^^ Beavers are found even today in the forests of tlie Voronezh River basin, but
they are raised commercially here.

Tin: FOliEST STEPPE 89

The steppe portions of the forest steppe arc very poor in steppe fauna.
The large jerboa {AUactaga jaculus [A. major]) and the spotted suslik
(Citelliis susUcus guttatus) range almost as far north as the Oka. Thus,
they are found somewhat south of Kashira, where, in patches amid the
moderately podzolized soils there are developed dark-gray forest-steppe
soils overlying loess. Here, among the oak and linden forests, there are
areas of northern mixed-herbaceous steppe, with its characteristic vege-
tation: feather grass (Stipa joannis), nepeta {Nepeta ntida), drop-
wort (Filipendtda hexapetala), meadow sage (Salvia pratensis), and
Italian aster (Aster amellus). These flora and fauna are remains of the
xerothermic period, which have survived here under the favorable con-
ditions afforded by chernozemlike soils; the latter, in turn, were pre-
served due to the presence of limestones.

V ■ The Steppe

Definition and Boundaries

THE name "steppe" is given to an area which is more
or less level, unforested, not flooded by high water
in spring, well drained, and covered throughout the entire vegetative
season with a more or less dense herbaceous vegetation growing on
chernozem soils. Outside the steppe zone, steppes are found also in the
forest steppe and in the semidesert, and also in some places in the
mountains.

Within the steppe zone, in addition to steppes there are also other
natural landscapes: flood-plain meadows, flood-plain forests, solonchaks,
solonetz areas, and so forth, but the steppe predominates, and there are
no trees except in the river valleys. In the steppes of the steppe zone,
the predominating soils are medium and southern chernozems and dark-
chestnut soils.

To the north the steppes extend into the forest steppe (see Chapter
IV ) . To the south, in the Black Sea region, they reach to the sea. In the
North Caucasus Foreland they reach as far as the lower course of the
Kuban, and approximately to the line: Krasnodar, the mouth of the Laba,^
Labinskaya, Pyatigorsk, and Grozny. (Farther south in this region we
have the forest steppe of the mountain zone.) To the southeast the
steppes extend to the western boundaries of the light-chestnut sofls:
approximately to a line extending from Grozny through Nizhnechirskaya
on the Don to the right bank of the Volga somewhat north of Dubovka.
Beyond the Volga, the southern boundary is as follows: the line of the
railroad between Saratov and Uralsk, thence a line passing through
Temir, Turgay, to the northern shore of Lake Kurgaldzhin-Dengiz,
thence south to Akmolinsk, to the Irtysh below Semipalatinsk. The Kulun-
dinsk steppe belongs partly to the steppe zone. The higher elevations in

^ On the old maps forests are indicated along the right bank of the Kuban from
Krasnodar to the mouth of the Laba (Mishchenko, 1928).
90

THE STEPPE

91

the Akmolinsk and Bayan-Aul and Kyzyl-Ray massif region, the Chingiz
range, and the area to the east of this range as far as the Irtysh also
belong to the steppes (the chestnut steppes). Then, after a big interval,
we find chernozem and chestnut steppes again on the banks of the
Yenisey in the Minusinsk region.

Climate

The steppe zone has warm and relatively dry summers. The mean
temperature for July does not fall below 20° C, nor does it rise above
23/2° C. In June and July the relative humidity at 1:00 p.m. averages 35
to 45 per cent. The annual precipitation is moderate, 450 to 800 mm. (in
the south, in the region of the chestnut-soil steppes, it may be as low as
200 mm.), with the maximum coming during the first half of the summer,
in June. In some years there may be no precipitation at all for a month
or more during the summer. There is little cloudiness in the steppes; it
reaches a maximum in December, a minimum at the end of the summer.
The snow cover is not deep; in the north its maximum depth ranges
from 20 cm. in the west, to 30 cm. in the east. On the Black Sea coast
and on almost the entire coast of the Sea of Azov the maximum depth of
the snow cover is under 10 cm.; in Yevpatoriya and Ochakov it does not
reach more than 3 cm.

In the steppe zone (and to some extent in the forest steppe), a dry,
usually hot, southeast or east wind or sukhovey is frequent; grain suffers
severely because of these winds. The following table shows temperature
and humidity during the period of a typical sukhovey in Voronezh oblast
( village of Saguny ) :

Table 4

Temperature, Humidity, and Wind During "Sukhovey" in Saguny
(Observations at 7 : 00 a.m., 1 : 00 p.m., and 9 : 00 p.m.)

August
1895

Temperature
(°C.)

7 19

Humidit-v
(per cent

7 1

9

Wind

(direction and velocity in

m. per second)

7 1 9

4
5

6

25.5
26.1
26.9

38.6
35.0
35.2

28.4
27.9
30.0

46
39
40

15
21
19

34
31
25

0
ESE3

SSE6

So SSE2
S12 SEl
S16 SSW12

As we can see, the temperature rose during the day to 40° C; the
humidity fell below 15 per cent and did not rise above 50 per cent; and
the southerly winds reached a considerable velocity— 16 m. per second.

92 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

There is little cloudiness during the sukhoveij. It is believed by some
authorities that the sukhoveij brings heat and dryness from the deserts
and semideserts of Asia. But this is not the case. According to Kaminsky,
the sukhoveij usually sets in when the edge of an anticyclone passes over
a given region; the sukhoveij is associated with descending masses of air.^
In Voronezh ohlast the sukhovey occurs most frequently in August, July,
and May, and blows from SE, E, ESE, and S, but may blow also from
other points of the compass.

Relief

The Volyno-Azov crystalline massif, which extends from southern
Polesye to the northern shores of the Sea of Azov, has been mentioned
already above (pp. 73-74), In the steppe west of the Dnieper, this massif,
covered with sedimentary material, is revealed in outcrops of crystalline
rocks in the valleys of many of the rivers. Outcrops of granite-gneisses
in the Dnieper channel give rise to the Dnieper rapids, ten in number,
between Dnepropetrovsk and Zaporozhye. At present the rapids are
under water as a result of the construction of the dam at Kichkas village.
Before the dam was built the Dnieper dropped 33 m. in a distance of
66 km. At a distance of 3 to 5 km. from the right bank of the river, the
steppe here has an elevation of 125 to 140 m.; at the same distance from
the left bank, the elevation is 110 to 125 m. The Dnieper does not cut
very deeply into the crystalline massif, seldom deeper than 40 m.

In the Krivoy Rog region ( in the basin of the Ingulets— a tributary of
the Dnieper), there occurs a synclinal fold of Krivoy Rog metamoqihic
rocks in the granite-gneiss massif. This formation includes a bed, about
50 m. thick, of so-called "ferruginous" quartzites, which contain enormous
deposits of rich iron ores (hematite).

Outcrops of granite are found also along the Don near Pavlovsk. In
Boguchar on the Don, boring has disclosed granite at a depth of 81 m.,
while in Taganrog boreholes have reached crystalline rocks at 580 m.

In the break between the Dnieper and the Azov crystalline massifs,
the crystalline formation dips far below the surface to reappear near
the Molochnaya River and extend to the east beyond Mariupol. The
Azov crystalline massif consists of gneisses, granites, and other rocks, in
some places transected by veins of igneous (extrusive) rocks. There are
also some laccoliths, which are apparent in the relief. One example is the

2 A. A. Kaminsky, "Tipy zasukh i ravninnykh sukhoveyev S.S.S.R. (Types of
Droughts and Dry Winds of tJie Plains in the U.S.S.R.), Tnidtj Glav. geofizich.
ohserv. (Proceedings of the Central Geophysical Observ^atory ) , I, 1934.

THE STEPPE 93

breadloaF-shaped laccolith composed of andcsitic rock near the junction
ol the Volnovakha and the Kalmius rivers; it was formed by the lifting
of Paleozoic rocks by lavas.

The highest point of the Azov crystalline region is the granite dome-
shaped height of Tokmak-mogila, 308 m. in elevation. This eminence lies
on the watershed between the Dnieper and the Sea of Azov, northeast
of the Verkhny Tokmak station (elevation 205 m.) on the railroad to
Berdyansk.^

In all of the places which have been mentioned, we are dealing with
outcrops of pre-Cambrian crystaUine bedrock, which in some places are
exposed at the surface, and in others are covered by the undisturbed
sedimentary formations of the Russian lowland.^

The left bank of the Dnieper below Kakhovka, and the left bank of
the Dnieper estuary He in a region of sands, which were covered at one
time by continuous forest.

The Kerch Peninsula^ is divided by the bow-shaped longitudinal
Parpachsk ridge into two sharply distinct parts, the northeastern and
the southwestern. The northeastern part has a hilly relief, and at 20 km.
west of Kerch reaches an elevation of 183 m. It is composed of Miocene
and Pliocene deposits, in the form of numerous synclines and anticlines;
these folds merge into corresponding folds on the Taman Peninsula.
Mud volcanoes are associated with many of the folds. The southwestern
part constitutes a plain, composed of Oligocene clays, which lie in folds
oriented to the northeast. These formations are a continuation of the
Oligocene deposits which are found on the northern slope of the moun-
tains of the Crimea. In general, there seems to be a relation between the
southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula and the mountains of the
Crimea; as for the northeastern part, it has no immediate relation to

2 On the hypsometric map of the Ukraine (1:1,000,000, pubhshed in 1937 by the
Gos. uchebno-pedagogicheskoye izdatelsUo Ukrainy [State Educational-Pedagogical
Publishing House of the Ukraine], under the editorship of N. I. Dmitriev) east of
Tokmak-mogila appears Belmakh-mogila, 327 m. in elevation. In M. J. Dmitrlev's
Relijef U.S.S.R. (Relief of the U.S.S.R.), Kharkov, 1936, p. 113, this same elevation
is shown, and it is noted that on the 3-verst map this elevation is given incorrectly as
250 m. The Sea of Azov may be seen from the summit of Belmakh-mogda on clear
days.

^ However, among the crystalline rocks of the Vohiio-Azov massif there are some
more recent than pre-Cambrian.

•' A. D. Arkhangelsky et al. "Kratky ocherk geolog. stroyeniya i neftyan\kh mesto-
rozhdeny Kerchenskovo p-va." (Brief Sketch of the Geological Structm-e and Oil
Beds of the Kerch Peninsula), Trudy Glav. geol.-razv. upr. (Proceedings of the Central
Geological Survey Board), No. 13, 1930, containing a geological map. E. V. Wulff,
"Kerchensky p-v. i yevo rastitelnost" (The Kerch Peninsula and Its \'egetation ) .
Zap. Knjm. obshch. yestestv. (Report of the Crimean Nature Societv), XI, 1929.

94 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the folds of the Caucasus. On the Kerch Peninsula there are rich deposits
of limonite, which are associated with the Upper Pliocene (Kimmeriisk
layers ) .

The heights on the right bank of the Volga to the south of Saratov
have the character of a plateau which narrows and decreases in elevation
to the south. At Saratov it has an average absolute elevation of 250 m.,
while individual points reach 300 m. Farther south, in lat. 51° N, higher
portions of the plateau, 300 to 327 m. in elevation, lie 30 to 50 km. from
the banks of the Volga, on the watershed between the Ilovlya and the
Medveditsa (left tributaries of the Don). At Kamyshin the watershed
between the Volga and the Don lies only 110 to 120 m. above sea level.
The more elevated points (300 to 327 m.) are associated with ridges
of Lower Cretaceous sandstone which have emerged from under the beds
of Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene strata as a result of tectonic processes.

A characteristic feature of the middle and lower Volga regions is the
difference in elevation between the right and the left banks. The Trans-
Volga area is considered a region of subsidence.

In the Trans-Volga the Obshchy Syrt heights are to be noted. In
Novouzensk raion they reach an elevation of 100 to 190 m.; farther east
they reach 280 m. The Obshchy Syrt is of tectonic origin. Its western
part constitutes a system of dome-shaped eminences, or brachyanticlines,
which extend crosswise (NW or WNW) of the watershed of the western
Obshchy Syrt. To the east, the Obshchy Syrt reaches as far as the south-
ern part of Sterlitamak raion.

The Manych valley will be discussed below, in the chapter on the
semidesert.

The Mugodzhar Mountains are the southern continuation of the Ural
range (Fig. 16). They extend from north to south, the northern part
lying within the region of chestnut soils, while the southern part extends
into the region of light-chestnut soils of the semidesert.^ These mountains
lie in two parallel ranges. The western, or main range, reaches an eleva-
tion of 653 m. in Ver-Chogur peak (near the crossing of the range by
the railroad). Some 15 to 20 kilometers to the east of the main range
lies the other, lower range. The western slopes of the Mugodzhar Moun-
tains are steep, the eastern slopes gentle. The lowland between the two
ranges is composed of Paleozoic, sedimentary strata, chiefly Devonian.

^E. N. Ivanova and A. A. Rode, "Pochvy Mugodzharskikh gor i prilegayushchikh
ravnin" (The Soils of tlie Mugodzhar Mountains and the Adjoining Plains), Trudy
Pochven. inst. Akad. nauk. (Proceedings of the Soils Institute of the Academy of
Sciences), X, 1934, p. 82, bibliography, divided according to regions.

THE STEPl'E 95

Hie western range, however, is composed predominarjtly of diabases and
diabase-porphyrites. In general, the Mngodzhar Monntains have a mo-
notonous cover of steppe vegetation. Only in some places in the deep
ravines are there found coppices of birch, aspen, willow, bird cherry,
and the like. On the slopes and in the dry defiles, shrub steppes of pea
shrub [Caragana sp.], spiraea, wild cherry, and Russian almond are
common.

In the steppes of the Ishim basin, and those farther east (and also
farther south), the relief consists of melkosopochnik. This is the name
given in western Siberia to gently sloping low hills, composed of granites,
syenites, porphyries, diorites, and some sedimentary Paleozoic strata.
The hills are usually low, from a few meters to several tens of meters
high; only a few rise to 80 to 100 m. The higher points are usually com-
posed of more resistant rocks— quartzites.

The melkosopochnik region is part of the Kazakh Folded Country,
which extends to the south into the region of the semidesert. To the
north, southward from the West Siberian Lowland, the melkosopochnik
region extends somewhat north of Kokchetav; to the west, as far as the
Ulu-Tau Mountains (elevation 1137 m.); to the south, as far as Lake Bal-
khash. Amid the melkosopochnik there are scattered individual massifs,
relatively high and composed of the same rocks as the melkosopochnik.
These massifs include: the Bayan-Aul granite massif, 1000 m. in elevation;
the heights at Karkaralinsk ( 1463 m. ) ; Kyzyl-Ray ( 1468 m. ) ; Chingiz-Tau
( 793 m. ) , and others. In vegetation these massifs all belong to the steppe
region; on some of them there are pine forests, growing on degraded
chernozems.

These massifs and low hills of the Kazakh Folded Country are of the
same age as the Altay and the northern chains of the Tian Shan. As in
these systems, the most intensive folding took place during the Lower
Paleozoic (Caledonian) period. However, there was also considerable
folding (in a northw^est orientation) during the Upper Paleozoic (\'aris-
can) period. From the end of the Paleozoic to the beginning of the Ter-
tiary this region was dry land. During the course of long periods under
continental conditions, the mountain systems were worn down into the
present massifs and hills. During the Lower Tertiary maritime trans-
gression (which in the Lower Oligocene extended as far east as tlie
Irtysh and as far south as the Chu River) marine deposits were laid down
between the elevations and are ever^'where disposed horizontall\-. Such
dislocations as occurred during this period were of a thrust character

96

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

and resulted in displacement of the strata composing the mounds in north-
west and northeast directions.'

In the melkosopochnik region tliere are many enclosed depressions,
often occupied by salt lakes. In the Carboniferous strata of Karaganda
there are enormous reserves of coal.

The Minusinsk basin will be discussed below, in the section on the
Western Sayans (pp. 290-291).

Just as in the forest steppe, there are many saucerlike depressions m
the steppes. In the southern part of the Black Sea steppes, these are
called pods. These hollows occasionally reach a diameter of several
kilometers, and when the snows melt they sometimes turn into temporary
lakes. The x\gaimany pod, near the Askaniya-Nova (Chapli) preserve,
is about 10 km. in diameter, and the area of its basin is greater than
1700 sq. km. In some places, for example on the western shore of the
Sivash, the pods at one time were subject to marine transgression (see
below, p. 97).

The Black Sea plain extends as far south as the northern shores of the
Black Sea and tlie Sea of Azov, and as far north as Kodry (Bessarabia),
the Volyno-Podolsk Plateau, and the Azov crystalline massif, and coin-
cides with the northern boundary of the Lower Pliocene Pontic Sea. The
Dnieper valley cuts 40 to 125 m. into the Black Sea plain. The flood plain
of the Dnieper is called plaven.

A noteworthy feature of the Black Sea coast are the //mans— the long
and narrow bays or estuaries into which the Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, and
other rivers empty. These estuaries are the drowned valleys of the lower
river courses. The period during which the invasion of the sea took place
cannot be determined without a brief account of the Quaternary history
of the Black Sea, as it has been ascertained on the basis of the most
recent investigations.^

The depression now occupied by the Black Sea has been in existence,
in one form or another, since the Upper Miocene period. At the end of
the Tertiary and the beginning of the Quaternary periods it was occu-

" N. G. Kassin, "Ocherk tektoniki Kazakhstana" ( Sketch of the Tectonics of
Kazakhstan), Problcmi/ sov. geologii (Problems of Soviet Geologv), 11, No. 6, 1934,
pp. 161-180.

^ A. Arkhangelsky and N. Strakhov, "Geologicheskaya istoriya Chemovo morya"
(Geological History of the Black Sea), Byull. Mask, obshch. isp. prir. (Bulletin of
the Moscow Society for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological Section), 1932.
A. D. Arkhangelsky and N. M. Strakhov, Geologiclieskoye stroyenie i istoriya razvitiya
CJiernovo morya ( Geological Structure and History of the Development of the Black
Sea), Moscow-Leningrad, 1938, Akad, nauk S.S.S.R. (Academy of Sciences of the
U.S.S.R.).

THE STEPPE 97

pied by the Chaiidinsk lake, a brackish body of water containing fauna
of the Caspian type; it probably was connected by way of the Manych
depression with the so-called Baku Lake, which then occupied the Cas-
pian depression. During the subsequent Paleo-Euxine epoch, the Chau-
dinsk lake expanded its area. The fauna continued to have a Caspian
character. At the end of this epoch the Dardanelles strait was formed.
Through this strait salt waters penetrated into the Black Sea depression,
and with them also the fauna of the Mediterranean Sea. At this time the
slightly saline Uzunlar body of water was formed, containing the Medi-
terranean mollusks, Cardiiim edule, Syndesmia ovata, and Mytilaster. It
was replaced by the more saline Karangatsk water body, containing a
rich fauna of the Mediterranean type, richer than contemporary Black
Sea fauna. About one-fourth of all the mollusks found in the Karangatsk
waters no longer inhabit the Black Sea, while they continue to exist in
the Mediterranean. It is interesting to note that the Karangatsk basin
contained sea urchins (although very small ones), which are absent from
the Black Sea today. During this period, or during the preceding Uzunlar
period, Cardium edtde penetrated into the Caspian by way of the
Manych strait. During the next stage, that of the semifresh Neo-Euxine
"lake-sea," the water area contracted; on the bottom of the northwest
part of this sea there have been found terrestrial deposits at a depth of
40 m. The fauna of this basin resembles the contemporary Caspian fauna.
At the end of the Neo-Euxine epoch a subsidence of the coast took place;
the lower reaches of the rivers were flooded and transformed into estu-
aries; the ancient Black Sea basin was formed, with water less saline than
at present, but with Mediterranean forms in evidence. As a result of
the subsidence, the depth and the salt content were increased, and the
basin became the contemporary Black Sea.

As we have seen, the estuaries were formed at the end of the Neo-
Euxine epoch. Since that time several of the estuaries have become
completely separated from the sea by spits; as, for example, the estuary
at Odessa, which is famous for its curative muds.

The deep part of the Black Sea was formed by a series of subsidences,
which, as Arkhangelsky points out, took place recently. Shells, sands, and
gravel of the Karangatsk and the Neo-Euxine epochs, which could have
been formed at a depth of not more than 30 m., have been discovered
at deptlis up to 1500 and even 1800 m.

Almost ever)^vhere throughout the steppes the subsoil is loess, a for-
mation which we have discussed already (p. 70 ff.). As a result of the
subsidences which have just been mentioned, in the region of tlie lower

98 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Dnieper loess containing mole holes may be found below the level of
the Black Sea. There are also mounds (kurgans) which apparently were
piled up on dry land, but whose bases at present are flooded by the sea.^

Soils and Vegetation

On the basis of its vegetation, the steppe zone may be called a zone
of grassy steppes (Figs. 17, 18). The steppe areas in the forest steppe,
because of the abundance of dicotyledons, are called meadow steppes
(Fig. 14), while in the semidesert, where polijyi * [Artemisia spp.] and
grasses predominate, there are polyn-grass and polyn steppes ( Fig. 20 ) .^°

Among the grasses in the grassy steppes, the narrow-leaved varieties
predominate, since these are better adapted to the dry climate of the
steppes. Thus, in the chernozem steppes we find the narrow-leaved
feather grass ( Stipa stenophylla ) of the pinnate group, capillary feather
grass or tyrsa (S. capillata), fescue {Festuca sulcata), and koeleria
(Koeleria gracilis). Fescue, unsuited for mowing, provides excellent
green fodder for sheep and horses. At the end of the summer it pro-
duces a second growth, which serves as fodder during the autumn and
winter. The grassy steppes also contain a rather large number of
dicotyledons.

Feather-grass steppes, with Lessing's feather grass {Stipa lessingiana)
predominating, accompanied by capillary feather grass, are found occa-
sionally on chernozems; for example, to the south of Boguchar, on cher-
nozems which are intermediate between the common and the southern
types (Fig. 19). But the feather-grass type of steppe is particularly
characteristic on chestnut soils, where Lessing's feather grass and the
feather grass S. tirsa, accompanied by capillary feather grass, predomi-
nate. These are the dry steppes.

^ B. V. Pyasko\sk)', "Geologicheskoye stroyenie korennovo lozha i sostav allyu-
vialnykh otlozheny nizhne\o Dnepra" (Geological Structure of tlie Basic Channel
and Composition of tlie Alluvial Deposits of the Lower Dnieper), Zemlevedenie
(Geography), Vol. 33, No. 2, 1933, p. 127.

* In Standardized Plant Names (see Translator's Bibliography), species of
Artemisia growing in the western United States are called "sagebrush," while those
growing in the Old World are called "wormwood." However, this usage is not ac-
cepted by all authorities in this country. For tliis reason it was decided to retain
the Russian word pohjn throughout this translation.— Tr.

^°I. V. Novopokrovsky, Zonalnie tiptj stepey Yevropeiskoy chasti S.S.S.R. (Zonal
Types of Steppe in the European Part of the U.S.S.R.), Zemlevedenie (Geography),
Vol. 39, No. 3, 1937, pp. 19S, 201, does not give the name "grassy" or "fescue and
feather-grass" steppes to all of the herbaceous vegetation of tlie steppe zone, but only
to that which is de\eloped in tlie southern parts, on the southern chernozems, dark-
chestnut soils, and the drier varieties of Azov and Nortli Caucasus Foreland cher-
nozems.

THE STEPPE 99

On the basis of soils and vegetation, the steppe zone may be divided
into two subzones: (1) the northern, where the soils are typical cher-
nozems, and (2) the southern, or dry steppe, where the soils are dark
chestnut.

(1) In the chernozem subzone the following types of chernozem are
developed: common, or medium chernozem; southern, or poor cherno-
zem; and, finally, Azov, or North Caucasus Foreland chernozem. In
western Siberia the northern steppe subzone is an area of southern
chernozems (since the area of typical, or medium chernozems there is
occupied by forest steppe); this belt is very narrow.

We have discussed chernozem already. As one moves to the south,
the thickness of the horizons colored by organic matter and their humus
content as a rule decrease. The northeast shore of the Sea of Azov and
the steppes of the western North Caucasus Foreland have a special type
of chernozem— the so-called Azov type. Although it lies to the south of
the belt of common chernozem, nevertheless in its great thickness (up
to 140 to 150 cm. and more) this t)'pe seems to approach the thick
chernozems of the forest steppe. The origin of these chernozems is prob-
lematical. They may have been formed at the time when the Azov steppe
lay at a higher elevation than it does today (Berg); we have spoken
already of the recent subsidences along the northern shore of the Black
Sea (p. 97).

Tanfilyev (1898)^^ describes the vegetation of the virgin chernozem
steppe in Starobelsk raion (to the north of Donets oblast) as follows:
In spring as soon as the snow is gone (usually no later than the middle
of April ) , the small bright-green moss Tortula ruralis appears, and beside
it the filaments of the blue-green alga Nostoc commune. At the end of
April the first spring flowers appear— the common tulip (TiiUpa schrenkii
[T. gesneriana]) , very closely related to the garden tulip, the anemone
{Pulsatilla nigricans [Anemone nigricans]), and the spreading pasque-
flower (P. patens [A. patens]); these are followed by the colewort
(Crambe tatarica, a crucifer), dwarf iris (Iris pumila), adonis (Adonis
vernalis and A. volgensis), and others. In the middle of May the slopes
bloom with whole thickets of the magnificent dark-red fernleaf peony
( Paeonia tenuifolia ) . In the middle of June the steppe wears a continu-
ous blue carpet of blooming sage {Salvia nutans), and is covered with
the silver plumose awns of the feather grasses. In addition to the feather

^^ More recent and more detailed data appear in E. Lavrenko and G. Dokliman,
"Roslinnist Starobilskikh stepiv" (Vegetation of the Starobelsk Steppes), Zhurn. bio-
botan. tsiklu Ukrain. Akad. nauk ( Journal of the Bio-Botanical Section of tlie Ukrain-
ian Academy of Sciences), No. 5-6, 1933, pp. 23-133.

100 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

grasses the rest of the vegetation consists chiefly of grasses— fescue and
koeleria— which grow in ckisters, with intervals of black soil between
them. There is no continuous, coherent sod here, as in the forest zone.
Toward the end of the summer the capillary feather grass begins to pre-
dominate. In autumn, after the rains, the first representatives of the
spring flora reappear— the moss Tortula and the alga Nostoc. On the
Starobelsk virgin steppe, in addition to the herbaceous plants, there are
numerous 'dense thickets of shrubs, which reach a height of about 0.75
to 1 m. and a diameter of several tens of meters. These thickets, which
are called derezmjaks, or visharniks, consist of the shrubs which were
mentioned above (p. 86).

In the southern steppes the vegetation naturally begins to develop
earlier. Thus, in the vicinity of Odessa, the autumn crocus Colchicum
montanum blooms in February, sometimes within the first ten days; the
bulbous perennials— the crocus (Crocus reticulatus) , lion's-leaf (Leontice
altaica), starch grape hyacinth (Mtiscari racemosum), and twinleaf squill
(Scilla bifolia)—aho bloom in February in this region.

For a picture of the southern chernozem steppe on southern cherno-
zems, we may take Pachosky's description of the virgin steppe in the
Askaniya-Nova preserve between the lower courses of the Dnieper and
the Molochnaya rivers: ^^ The annual precipitation here is less than 300
mm.; the winters have little snowfall. In the middle of Klarch life begins
to awaken in the steppe. On sunny warm days the susliks (Citellus
pygmaeus) come out of their burrows. The sod of the steppe grasses
(the most striking of which is the sod of the capillary feather grass,
Stipa capillata ) does not form a continuous cover; in the spaces between
grass tussocks appear the first white flowers of the spring draba ( Draba
or Erophila veriia); it grows particularly readily on places somewhat
trampled by grazing stock, where it is not smothered by the tall steppe
herbage. The gageas (Gagea pusilla and G. hulhifera) also bloom be-
tween the sod tussocks, and almost at the same time as the draba; the
gageas are small liliaceous plants with yellow flowers. Pachosky calls
these ephemeral spring plants which grow in the spaces between the
grass tussocks, ingredients}^ They finish blooming quickly, before the full

^^ I. K. Pachosky, "Opisanie rastitelnosti Khersonskoy gubemii" ( A Description of
the Vegetation of Kherson Gubemiya), II, Stepi (The Steppes), Kherson, 1917,
pp. 6-19. More recent data appear in M. S. Shalyt, "Geo-botanichesky ocherk gos.
stepnovo zapovednika Chaph (b. Askaniya-Nova)" ( Geobotanical Sketch of the
State Steppe Preser\'e at Chaph [Formerly Askaniya-Nova]), Byull. Fitotekhn. stantsii
stepn. inst. "Clmpli" (Bulletin of the Phvtotechnical Station of the "Chapli" Steppe
Institute), I, 1930, pp. 29-52.

^^Zhurn. Russk. botan. obshch. (Journal of the Russian Botanical Society), X,
1925, pp. 123, 124.

THE STEPPE 101

development of the grass sod. Pachosky calls the grasses, compo-
nents.^'^ Toward the middle of April the viviparous bulbous blue grass
(Poa bulbosa var. vivipara) begins to grow green; on its panicles, in
place of flowers, there appear small bulblike buds, which are trampled
into the ground by the stock and serve the plant in place of seeds. This
blue grass is thick on heavily grazed virgin soils, and sometimes covers
large areas continuously; but on virgin steppes which are not grazed
very heavily blue grass does not attain predominance. By the middle of
April the needleleaf sedge (Carex stenophylla) begins to bloom in the
pasture steppe. The red tulip (Tulipa schrenkii [T. gesneriana]), which
is found also on the Starobelsk virgin steppe, blooms about the twentieth
of April. Sometimes this species bears yellow flowers, occasionally pink
or other colors. Another tulip (T. biehersteiniana) , with smaller yellow
flowers, is found here also; in some places it grows in great profusion.
In spring the dwarf iris ( 7m pumila ) brightens the steppe with its varie-
gated flowers. Some of the irises are violet blue, some are yellow. Among
the other flowers which bloom in spring are the steppe valerian {Valeri-
ana tiiberosa), Ornithogalimi tenuifolium (Liliaceae), two astragali, the
buttercup (Ranunculus oxyspermus) , a hyacinth which bears dull-purple
flowers (Hyacinthus sarmaticus) , and others.

The basic steppe grasses (the components, according to Pachosky 's
terminology) which constitute the vegetative cover of the steppe, bloom
later, in May. These are the steppe fescue {Fcstuca sulcata), and the
pinnate feather grasses (Lessing's Stipa lessingiana, and others). We
must mention also the koeleria (Koeleria gracilis) and crested wheat
grass (Agropyron cristatum).

If there has been enough moisture since spring, the steppe presents an un-
usually beautiful appearance at the time of the mass flowering of the pinnate
feather grasses. At this time the steppe is covered by a continuous silver-gray
shroud. This peculiar shroud, composed of the innumerable "plumes" of the
feather grasses, is tossed by the wind just like the surface of an endless expanse
of water. Like water-waves, the gray masses of feather grass rise and fall, cover-
ing and hiding in their bosoms the remains of the plants which bloomed in
early spring. Even those plants which bloom simultaneously wdth the feather
grasses can be distinguished only as exceptions from the background of feather
grass, and usually it is only at close hand that their presence may be noticed.
The foremost among these taller and more noticeable plants is the steppe bristle
thistle {Carduus uncinatus) ; its large red heads interrupt the monotony of the
feather-grass mass.

Many dicotyledons grow in the steppe at the same time as the feather
grasses.
" Ibid.

102 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Toward the middle of June the awns of the pinnate feather grasses
begin to fall off. About this same time the steppe fescue matures. The
steppe takes on a yellowish coloring. Dicotyledons become more notice-
able, and a whole series of new dicotyledons begins to bloom. If there is
much moisture in the soil toward the middle of the summer, the capillary
feather grass blooms luxuriantly. Toward the end of July, the steppe
under favorable conditions becomes covered with a continuous carpet
of flowering capillary feather grass. This feather grass in its usual posi-
tion (that is, with bent panicles) grows as high as an adult person's
knees and higher (the entire bush, when straightened, is as tall as a man
and may reach even 180 cm.). If there is not sufficient moisture during
the summer, the capillary feather grass does not grow so exuberantly;
the flowers do not emerge, but remain hidden within the vagina of the
upper leaf (this, however, usually is not harmful to the development
of the seeds).

Toward auttimn the stalks of the capillary feather grass turn yellow,
while the awns with the caryopses in part fall off, and in part curl up
spirally. By winter the surface of the steppe is studded with the stubble
of the upright stalks of capillary feather grass. Between the stalks the
snow is packed more or less evenly. "A great deal of moisture is con-
densed on the stalks of the capillary feather grass from the fogs which
are usual here in autumn, winter, and spring; the dew which is formed
rolls down in the form of drops and contributes considerably to the accu-
mulation of moisture in the soil." The grazing of sheep on the capillary
feather-grass steppes at the time when the seeds and awns are easily
detached can be very dangerous for the sheep; the caryopsis with the
awn, when it gets caught in the wool of the sheep, is screwed into the
skin because of the hygroscopic winding of the awn, and may penetrate
into the interior of the body.

The root system of the steppe grasses does not reach very deep. The
deeper-lying horizons of soil moisture are utilized by the roots of dicoty-
ledonous plants. When the grass cover is impoverished by grazing,
the moisture has a chance to penetrate into the deeper layers, and thus
on the cropped sections dicotyledons develop in large numbers; an ex-
ample is the steppe euphorbia (Euphorbia gerardiana) , which sometimes
grows in almost continuous thickets over enormous areas (Pachosky,
1924).

On the southern chernozems in western Siberia, in the region of the
large Omsk lakes, capillary feather-grass steppes prevail. The sod of the
grasses covers less than half of the surface of the soil. In the spaces be-

THE STEP PIC 103

tween tussocks brown spots of soil are visible, in some places covered
with dead herbage.

(2) The subzone of southern, or dry steppes, lies on the chestnut soils.
These soils extend in a narrow strip along the northern shore of the Black
Sea, along the right bank of the lower Dnieper, in the northern Crimea,
in the western part of the northern shore of the Sea of Azov, along the
middle course of the Don and the Kuma, along the Volga somewhat below
Kamyshin, in the Trans-Volga, and farther east in the steppes of Kazakh-
stan. In western Siberia these soils extend approximately as far north as
the parallel of the northern end of Lake Selety-Dengiz (lat. 53/2° N),
that is, north of the parallels of Tambov and Orel. Beyond the Irtysh we
find chestnut soils in the Kulundinsk steppe, and also on the left bank
of the Yenisey in the Minusinsk region. Chestnut soils contain less humus
than chernozems— only 3 to 4.5 per cent of the soil mass; this reflects the
smaller number of plants in the southern steppes; the color of the hori-
zons in which organic matter accumulates is not black, but dark brown
("chestnut"); the thickness of these horizons does not exceed 60 cm.;
lamination is observed in the upper part of the humus horizon and com-
paction in the lower. The above account refers only to the dark-chestnut
soils, since the light-chestnut soils are peculiar to the semidesert zone.

Forests. In the steppe zone forests are found only on the flood plains of
rivers (the plavens of the lower Dniester and Dnieper), on the slopes of
river valleys, or on the sandy terraces which lie above the flood plain.

In low places in the flood plain of the Don there grow poplar, black
poplar, willow, and alder; on higher places, forests of oak, aspen, Russian
elm (Ulmtis pedunculata [U. laevis]), smoothleaf elm {U. campestris or
U. foUacea [U. carpinifoUa]), Tatarian maple {Acer tatariciim), euony-
mus, and buckthorn. The forests in the flood plain (plaven) of the Dnies-
ter are distinguished by the great variety of tree species. Thus, in the
Kitskansk forest, opposite Tiraspol, there is Russian elm, smoothleaf elm,
oak, ash, black poplar, silver poplar, willow, hedge maple, hawthorn, fil-
bert, and others. The woodland European grape {Vitis silvestris [V. vini-
fera silvestris] ) is also present; its stems climb up to the tops of the oaks;
at their base the grape stems are sometimes as diick as a person's hand.
On the meadow terraces above the point where the Dniester River
branches, there are coppices of European alder {AInus glutinoso).

On the slopes along the high right bank of the lower Dnieper, there
may be found pear, hawthorn {Crataegus monogyna) , scrub smoothleaf
elm, oak, apple, sloe {Pniiuis spinosa), spiraea, woodland European

104 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

grape, and so on. On the sandy terraces which He above the flood plain
in the steppe zone of the Dnieper and the Don, there are forests. The
big pine grove on tlie Samara River (which empties into the Dnieper
from the left at Dnepropetrovsk) is well known. It lies on the left bank
of the stream, in Novomoskovsk raion. On the shore itself there is an
alder grove {Alniis glutinosa), with a belt of oaks beyond, and finally,
still higher, the pine grove. This pine grove contains cowberry; in the
depressions there are small sphagnum bogs, so foreign to the steppe zone;
the lichen Cladonia sylvatica grows in the open spaces. The oak forest
contains large aspens, as well as smoothleaf elm and ash.^*^

A vast area of sands stretches along the left bank of the Dnieper from
Kakhovka to the sea. In the depressions there are coppices of oak, birch,
aspen, and pear. The birch belongs to the form Betula pubescens var.
glabra, the same as that found on the sands along the lower Bug and
along the Samara. In some places in the coppices there is lilac and drug
Solomon's-seal ( Polygonatum officinale ) under the oak. In the vicinity of
the town of Aleshki there is European alder (Alnus glutinosa), from
which this ancient town (properly called Oleshki) * received its name.
In the flood plain (plaven) of the lower Dnieper there are no real for-
ests, only groups of willow, black poplar, and European alder.

Some of the sands in the Golubinsk forest on the Don (lat. 49° N) are
in motion. They were covered at one time with fescue and feather-grass
steppe, while in the depressions there were birch-aspen kolki. On the shift-
ing sands along the Archeda River ( a tributary of the Medveditsa ) grows
the creeping savin juniper (Jimiperus sabina var. radicans). (The name
of the river is taken from the word for juniper, archa.) On the sandy
terrace of the Archeda are found remains of pine, which is absent here
at present. This region also contains small sphagnum bogs with their
typical vegetation, foreign to the steppes— roundleaf sundew (Drosera
rotundifolia) , club mosses {Lycopodiwn clavatum and L. inundatum),
and others.

Various hypotheses have been advanced to explain the origin of the
sands along the middle Don. Some authorities (Sokolov, 1884) believe
them to be river dunes, others (Dubyansky, 1911) believe them to be
fluvioglacial deposits, while a third group regards them as terrace de-
posits of the Don. The latter two views must be considered correct,

^^ M. I. Kotov, "Botaniko-geografichesky ocherk doliny nizovyev r. Samary"
(Botanical-Geographical Sketch of the Valley of the Lower Samara River), Trudy
Jkhtiol. opijtn. stan. (Proceedings of the Ichthyological Experiment Station), Kherson,
VI, No. 1, 1930, pp. 57-99.

* The Russian word for alder is olkha—Tn.

THE STEPPE 105

The Don sands are ancient alluvial and alluvio-lacustrine terrace forma-
tions, which have as their basis fiuvioglacial deposits/"

Flood-plain meadows, with quack grass {Agropyron repens) predom-
inating, are very typical for the steppes. This grass is of great agricul-
tural importance.

Fauna

It is not true, as some reports would have it, that the virgin steppe at
one time had a continuous uniform herbaceous cover tall enough to
conceal a horse and rider. There have always been different types of
steppe vegetation, depending upon the relief (Pachosky). In the virgin
steppes there were great numbers of wild herbivores: wild horses (tar-
pans), saiga antelope, deer, and roebuck; they roamed in herds, grazing
and trampling large sections, fertilizing the soil, and breaking paths.
In general, as Pachosky points out, the role of the large mammals in the
steppes is very important. The animals trample the seeds of the steppe
grasses into the soil, clear the spaces between the sod tussocks of super-
fluous vegetation, crop the dry, dead stems, and so forth. In Odessa
oblasf, in one place there was preserved a portion of steppe on which in
the course of fifteen years there was neither pasture of stock nor mow-
ing. After this period of time a multitude of weeds and plants appeared
which are not found usually in the typical virgin steppe. The plant
which appeared in greatest numbers was the smooth brome {Bromus
inermis), which, although it does grow on virgin steppe, does not pre-
dominate there. Previously, when there had been grazing in this section,
the steppe had been covered chiefly by fescue {Festuca sulcata).

The grazing of stock kills off the feather grasses first of all, and the
order in which they disappear is as follows: Stipa stenophyUa, S. dasy-
phylla, S. lessingiana, and S. capillata; next to disappear is koeleria.
Trampling that is only moderate does not harm fescue; under heavy
trampling, fescue is replaced by viviparous bulbous blue grass {Poa
bulbosa var. vivipara). This blue grass is remarkable for the fact that
on its panicles, instead of flowers there appear bulblike buds which are
trampled into the soil by the stock and which ser\'e as seeds for the
plant. On heavily grazed virgin steppes, this blue grass sometimes forms
a continuous cover over large areas (Pachosky).

Small mammals— rodents— are also important in the natural economy
of the steppe. They bring a tremendous quantity of earth to the surface.

i^A. G. Gayel, "Peski verkhnevo Dona" (The Sands of the Upper Don), Iz\\
Geogr. obshch. (Report of tlie Geographic Society), LXIV, 1932.

106 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

It is estimated that in some places the suslik excavates about 20 cu. m.
of earth per hectare. In some steppes there may be several hundred bur-
rows of the spotted suslik per dessiatine,' sometimes more than a thou-
sand.

In the virgin steppes along the left bank of the lower Dnieper, there
are many bobac burrows; that is, low mounds at one time excavated by
bobac, or marmots ( Marmota bobak ) , which have disappeared here com-
pletely at present. The width of a bobac burrow is about 2 m., the height
% m.; sometimes there are as many as 200 to 250 such small burrows
per hectare, "so that from a distance it looks as though the steppe were
co\'ered by small ricks of hay" (Brauner). The bobac burrows attract
attention by virtue of the tall weeds which grow on them: sisymbrium
{Sisymbrium pannonicum) , common Russian thistle (SaJsola kali), the
grass Bromus squarrosus, and others. There are no bobac left in the
steppe zone of Europe today, but they are found in the steppes of west-
ern Siberia.

Of the large mammals, the saiga antelope (Saiga saiga [S. tatarica])
was found as far west as the lower course of the Dniester as late as the
end of the eighteenth century; even in the latter half of the last century
it was not rare in the Novouzensk steppes, and along the right side of
the Volga it was found approximately as far as lat. 49° N. The roebuck
(Capreolus) is represented by two species in the Ukrainian steppe: the
Siberian roebuck ( C. pijgargvs) , which onlv recently was found also south
of Zaporozhye, inhabits the forests along the Samara River mentioned
above (p. 104); the European roebuck (C. capreolus) is peculiar to
the remaining part of the Ukraine.^" The red deer (Cerviis elaphus)
also was widespread at one time in the steppes and forests of the
Ukraine; Bronevskv, in his description of the Crimea, tells us that the
steppes around Ochakov and Perekop were inhabited by deer; today
they have disappeared, however, remaining only in the mountains of
the Crimea. The Transvlvanian wild boar [Sus scrofa attila) had disap-
peared from the Dnieper by the middle of the last century. There is evi-
dence that a hundred years ago the beaver was found on the shores of
the Dnieper near Kherson. The wild horse or tarpan (Eqiiiis gmelini)
at one time roamed the steppes in tremendous droves. In 1768 Gmelin
saw a herd of six tarpan 50 km. south of Bobrov. Even in the first half
of the last century the tarpan was rather numerous in the steppes along

* 2.7 acres.— Ed.

1'' According to the studies of K. K. Flerov, tlie Siberian roebuck is only a variety
of the European species.

THE STEPPE 107

the left bank of the lower Dnieper, and it is known from authoritative
sources that the last remaining tarpan mare was killed in 1876 on the
Agaimany pod, in the region of the present Askaniya-Nova, or Chapli
preserve. This horse was not very tall; it was mouse-colored, with a dark
stripe down its back, and had long and heavy hair, a short, almost erect
mane, and a short tail.

Brauner correctly points out that in the past, when the hfe of the
steppe mammals was more mobile, they were able to take better advan-
tage of the natural conditions. They moved out of the steppes into the
forests, plavens, and sand dunes (knchugiiry) in winter, and returned
to the steppes in summer. This was the migratory cycle of the deer,
roebuck, bison, aurochs, and tarpan. Hunting by man forced the deer
and roebuck to seek shelter in the forests, and the saiga antelope in the
semidesert and desert; the aurochs and tarpan became altogether extinct.

In addition to those named above, the following animals are also
characteristic of the steppe. The spotted suslik (Citellus suslicus [C. sus-
licus giittatiis]) is very common, while the gray suslik (C. pygmaeus
brauneri) is found only east of the lower Dnieper. The large jerboa
(Allactaga jaciilus [A. major]) lives in the steppe zone from the Dnieper
eastward. (It is found also west of the river, but not far from it.) The
three-toed sand jerboa {Scirtopoda telum) is peculiar to sandy areas from
the left bank of the lower Dnieper eastward. There are also the common
hamster (Cricetiis cricetus), gray hamster {Cricetidus migratorius) ,
short-tailed steppe vole {Lagurus lagunis), social meadow mouse (M/-
crotus socialis), mole rats {Ellobius talpinus and Spalax microphthal-
mus), and the European polecat {Putorius eversnuinni) .

Of the birds, the great bustard (Otis tarda), which prefers the feather-
grass steppes, and the European partridge (Perdix perdix) are perma-
nent residents in the steppes. Other birds which are characteristic of
the steppes include the little bustard {Otis tetrax), which has almost dis-
appeared in the Ukraine with the plowing of the steppes; the demoiselle
crane (Grus virgo [Anthropoides virgo]); the steppe eagle {Aquila
nipalensis orientalis), which nests on the ground, and therefore, be-
cause of the plowing of the steppes, has almost disappeared in the
Ukraine; and the Calandra lark (MeJanocorypha caJandra), which feeds
readily on blue grass. The aquatic birds include the glossy ibis ( Plegadis
falcinellus) , spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), pelican, heron, sheld duck
(Tadorna tadorna), ruddy sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea), and several
shore birds: the black-winged stilt, avocet, and stone curlew. Several
mountain birds, which are found also in the southern Urals, are native

108 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

to the Mugodzhar Mountains. Such, for example, is the rock thrush
( Monticola saxatilis).

Of the Hzards, the steppe hzard (Eremias arguta) is found as far
west as the Dobrudzha,^^ while the toadhead ( Phrynocephalus caiidivol-
vulus) is found as far as the Don (in the sands of the Golubinsk forest);
the sand lizard ( Lacerta agilis exigua ) is common everywhere; the com-
mon lizard (L. vivipam) is not found in the steppes. The tortoise Testudo
ibera is found as far west as Mariupol. Among the snakes are the steppe
viper (Vipera renardi), the European whip snake (Coluber jugularis),
and the four-striped snake ( Elaphe qiiatuorlineata sauromates ) .

The insect pests include the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) ,
which is hatched predominantly in the reed thickets in the lower reaches
of the rivers (this locust at present has been decreased in number sig-
nificantly in the steppe zone); the locust Calliptamus italicus and its
companions the striped locust (Pachytylus nigrofasciatus) and the blue-
winged locust (Oedipoda coendescens) ; and the caterpillar of the beet
webworm (Loxostege sticticalis) . The solpugid Galeodes araneoides (an
arachnid ) is found as far west as the west bank of the Dnieper.

The Absence oi Forests in the Steppes

Except in the river valleys, there are no forests in the steppes. There
are various opinions regarding the explanation for this fact.

From the time of Pallas ( 1787 ) , the opinion was widespread that man
was to blame for the absence of forests in the steppes. It was believed
that at one time the steppes were covered with forests, which were de-
stroyed by nomads. This view is mistaken. As we know, chernozems are
formed not under forests, but under steppe vegetation. When a forest
grows upon chernozem, the soil undergoes degradation, that is, podzoli-
zation. As a result, we can always determine by examining the soil
whether or not forest ever grew upon it. But perhaps soils degraded by
forest may resume the characteristics of chernozem, if the forest is de-
stroyed and replaced by steppe vegetation. This is possible, but only on
strongly carbonated subsoils (for example, on marls and limestones), or
in places where ground water rich in carbonates rises to the surface. As
a rule, however, degraded soils cannot be restored to chernozem with-
out the intervention of man. Thus, the hypothesis that the steppes were
covered at one time by continuous forests may be dropped.

Many authorities explain the absence of forests by the peculiarities of

^^ It is found as far north as Voronezh.

THE STEPPE 109

the steppe climate, pointing out the insufficiency of precipitation, the
length of the dry period (according to Behr), the dryness of the air in
summer and the considerable evaporation (Kaminsky's view), and the
low level of ground waters. Without a doubt the relation of steppe vege-
tation to ground water has great bearing on the question, but it is not
the decisive factor. Herbaceous vegetation, generally speaking, extracts
moisture from the surface horizons, while a forest extracts moisture from
the deeper layers. Accordingly, steppes are developed in places where
ground water occurs far below the surface, and atmospheric moisture
penetrates in insuflficient quantity to the levels which would be reached
by tree roots— because of the small amount of precipitation, the nature
of the seasonal distribution of precipitation, or, finally, because of the
properties of the soil and subsoil. All of these facts are indisputable.
However, in the forest zone there are found tree species with super-
ficial root systems, species which, nevertheless, do not inhabit the steppes.

It is our opinion that the steppe zone is a regional phenomenon which
represents an intermediate phase between the forest and desert zones.
As such, it is the result of the regional disposition of climatic factors. The
entire combination of climatic features in the steppes is unfavorable to
the development of forests. All the remaining natural factors— the salin-
ization of the soils and subsoils, their mechanical composition, and so
forth— are of secondary and subordinate importance. The fundamental
reasons for the absence of forests in the steppes are: insufficient mois-
ture in summer and dryness of the air with a resulting high rate of
evaporation. This explanation may be confirmed by pointing out that
in eastern Europe the soil and vegetation zones in the south extend, not
from west to east, but from southwest to northeast, corresponding to
the disposition of climatic factors.

Other hypotheses which have been advanced to explain the absence
of forests in the steppes are as follows:

Tanfilyev (1894) held that the reason for the absence of forests in
the steppes is the salinization of the subsoils, particularly the high con-
tent of chlorides and sulphates. According to Tanfilyev's observations,
soils under forest cover react to hydrochloric acid at a greater depth
than do soils in the neighboring steppe; thus it is apparent that the forest
soils are more leached. If the steppe subsoils were to be leached, savs
this scientist, the forests might extend as far as the shores of tlie Black
Sea. The following must be said regarding this view. The content of
chlorides and sulphates in the steppe subsoils is not so great as to impede
the growth of forest upon tiiem. With suitable artificial irrigation, broad-

110 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

leaved species grow very v^^ell on steppe soils and subsoils. Furthermore,
in the western Ukraine large forest massifs are found growing on con-
siderably salinized subsoils.

P. Kostychev (1890) and Sprygin (1922) call attention to the fact
that steppe vegetation is found growing on soils of fine composition, for
example, on loess, while forest grows on soils of coarser composition,
for example, on sands. Thus, the right bank of the lower Dnieper, com-
posed of loesses, has a chernozem topsoil and is covered with steppe
vegetation, while the sandy left bank is covered with forest. But we know
also tliat in the forest steppe extensive areas of loess are found at present
covered with forests.

Pachosky (1917) presents the hypothesis that the natural stages in
the development of vegetation are desert, steppe, and forest, and that,
passing from one stage to another, the vegetation affects and changes
the climate accordingly. Thus, it is not the climate which is responsible
for the changing tvpes of vegetation, but the other way around— the
changes in the vegetation bring about changes in the climate. However,
the history of the climates and vegetation of the Quaternary period,
in so far as it has been revealed by geology and paleontology, does not
confirm this hypothesis. Nor do contemporary climatic fluctuations bear
any visible relation to changes in the vegetation cover.

VI ■ The Zone of the Semidesert

General Characteristics

THE zone of the semidesert, or desert steppes, consti-
tutes the transition from the steppes to the desert.
While in the steppes the vegetation as a rule forms a continuous cover,
in the semidesert bare earth is visible in the spaces between plants; but
in contrast to the desert, the area under vegetation is greater than the
area of bare spaces. The plant and soil cover is variegated. Feather-
grass and polyn steppes predominate (Fig. 20). The soils are light chest-
nut; both soils and subsoils are usually strongly salinized. There are many
salt lakes, among them some containing salt deposits. There are also
many solonchaks and solonetz areas; the latter, however, disappear to
the south. The surface and ground waters are usually salinized. The
climate is dry, with maximum precipitation in June and May.

Boundaries and Subdivisions

Lying to the south of the subzone of dry steppes (which are found
on dark-chestnut soils), the semidesert occupies the lower Volga region
and extends as far south as the lower course of the Sulak west of the
Caspian; beyond the Ural River the southern border coincides approxi-
mately with the escarpment of the Ust-Urt Plateau, and extends east-
ward somewhat north of the Aral Sea (leaving the southern part of the
Bolshie Barsuki,^ the Kara Kum which adjoins the Aral Sea, and the Ter-
tiary plateau in the desert zone), and slightly to the north of Lake
Balkhash.

Formerly I classified the northern belt of light-chestnut soils with the
steppe zone, but at present, in accordance with the findings of Neustruyev
( 1928 ) ," I classify it with the semidesert.

^ Approximately from the railroad station at Chelkar.

- S. S. Neustruyev, "K voprosu o geograficheskom rasprostranenii stepey i pust}Ti v
poclwennom otnoshenii" (Concerning tlie Geographical Distribution of Soils in tlie
Steppe and the Desert), Trudy Pochv. inst. Akad. nauk (Proceedings of the Soils
Institute of the Academy of Sciences), V, 1931.

Ill

112

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Climate

The climate of the semidesert is intermediate bet^^^een the climates of
the steppe and of the desert. There is less precipitation than in the
steppes-250 to 160 mm. (Akhtuba, 247; Astrakhan, 171; Guryev, 161;
Baskunchak, 241; Irgiz, 158; Turgay, 249).

On the shores of the Caspian there is less precipitation than at some
distance inland; this is generally characteristic for low-lying sea coasts.
The maximum precipitation in the northern part of the semidesert comes
in June, as in the steppes (there is a secondary maximum in autumn);
in the south the maximum comes in May, as in the desert. Correspond-
ingly, the minimum precipitation in the northern part, as in the steppes,
comes at the end of the winter (February and March), while in the
extreme south it comes in summer (July, for example, in Irgiz), as in
the desert. The annual range of precipitation may be judged from data
for the stations at Astrakhan, Emba, and Irgiz, as shown in the follow-
ing table:

Table 5

Precipitation in the Semidesert (in mm.)

Station

J...

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year

Astrakhan*

12

11

13

14

19

20

13

14

16

12

12

15

171

Emba railroad

station f

8

5

0

13

?.7

28

17

16

15

22

16

17

197

Irgiz t

9

7

10

14

18

17

6

11

15

17

13

12

158

* 1850-1915, lat. 46° 2l' N, absolute elevation 13 m.

t 1906-1915, absolute elevation 232 m.

J 1875-1915, lat. 48° 37' N, absolute elevation 112 m.

The monthly totals of precipitation fluctuate sharply from year to year.
Thus, in Astrakhan there is most precipitation in June, an average of
20 mm., but there are years when there is no precipitation at all during
the entire month. On the other hand there is one case on record when
107 mm. of precipitation fell here in June— more precipitation than in
the forest zone. The snow cover is very slight: in February, when it
reaches a maximum, it is only 10 cm. This permits stock to graze even
during the winter.

The summer is warmer than in the steppes. The mean July temperature
is 24° to 26° C. The winter is severe. Where the winters are not moder-
ated by the influence of the Caspian (for example, in Astrakhan), the
mean Januaiy temperature is from — 16° C. to — 12° C, significantly
lower than on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. There are years when

THE ZONE OF THE SEMIDESERT 113

the mean January temperature is lower than — 25"^ C, while on indi-
vidual days the thermometer may drop to — 40° C. In summer, on the
other hand, the temperature may rise sometimes to 4(r C. The winter
cold is followed very quiekly by hot weather, and there is almost no
spring.

Relief

Partly within the steppe zone, partly within the semidesert, lie the
valleys of the Manych rivers "' or the Kuma-Manych depression, which
during the Quaternary period was a strait connecting the Caspian with
the Sea of Azov. The Western Manych belongs to the Black Sea basin,
while the Eastern Manych flows in the direction of the Caspian. The
Western Manych is a system of saline lakes and streams which drain
into the Don near Manych stanitsa. Of the lakes which compose the
Western Manych system, the largest is Bolshoy Liman or Gudilo, which
reaches more than 100 km. in length during years when water is abun-
dant (for example, 1932); its depth reaches 3 m.; its waters are brackish.
On its shores are found deposits containing the mollusk Cardium edule,
which penetrated into the Caspian from the Black Sea basin during one
of the late epochs of the Quaternary period. East of Lake Gudilo lies
the Eastern Manych system, which is fed by the Kalaus River. In some
years this river drains part of its waters into the Western Manych system.
The Eastern Manych depression is bordered on the north by the slopes
of the Yergeni Plateau. The highest point of the watershed between the
Western and the Eastern Manych lies at the mouth of the Kalaus River,
at an elevation of 26 m. above the Black Sea. Bogachev discovered the
shells of Cardium edule on the water divide itself. The Eastern Manych
loses itself in the Gaiduk sands, which border on the Kuma River. At
present the Manych Canal for navigation and irrigation is under con-
struction. This canal, 620 km. long, will connect the Sea of Azov with
the Caspian.

At the point where the Volga turns sharply to the southeast, the \"olga
heights merge into the Yergeni Plateau; this falls away abruptly to the
Caspian Lowland, which wiU be discussed below. The greater part of

^ K. Lisitsyn, Geologicheskij ptitevoditel po r. Mamjchu (Geological Guidebook for
the Manych River); Ptitevoditel 2-y chetvertichnotj geol. cot^fer., 1932 (Guidebook
of the 2nd Quaternary Geological Gonference, 1932); "Problema Manychey" (Prob-
lem of tlie Manych Rivers), Azovochemom. geol. trest (Azov-Black Sea Geological
Trust), Trudy (Proceedings), No. 15, Rostov-on-Don, 1936. I. V. Novopokrovsky,
Rastitelnost Sal-many chskovo vodorazdela (Vegetation of the Sal-Manvch Watershed),
Moscow, 1931, izd. Inst, agropochvovedeniya (publication of the Soil Science In-
stitute ) .

114 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the plateau is covered with Hght-chestnut soils containing numerous
solonetz areas; dark-chestnut soils are developed in the west. The higher
points are in the southeast and rise above 190 m. To the west, in the direc-
tion of the Don valley, the plateau decreases in elevation. On the south the
plateau borders on the Manych depression. The Yergeni Plateau is covered
with a herbaceous vegetation of fescue and feather grasses.

Between the Yergeni Plateau, the lower reaches of the Sulak, and the
lower reaches of the Emba River lies the northern part of the Caspian
Lowland. Under this heading we include the entu-e area which was
submerged during the last major transgression of the Caspian Sea, the
Khvalynsk transgression, which extended as far north as the line from
the mouth of the Yeruslan River to Uralsk, and rising to an absolute
elevation of approximately 50 m. This transgression, which it is believed
took place during the epoch of the last, or Wiirm glaciation, extended
along the Volga valley far above the mouth of the Yeruslan; in the
Samara bend its deposits are found up to an absolute elevation of 50 m.^
A large part of the lowland, which borders on the Caspian Sea, lies
below sea level ( — 26 m. ) . The steppe along the Volga reaches sea level
between Yenotayevsk and Cherny Yar. The surfaces of the large salt-
saturated lakes. Lake Baskunchak ( — 18 m. ) and Elton salt lake
(—17.5 m.), lie below sea level. The steppe which surrounds these
lakes lies 10 to 15 meters above sea level. The Volga valley is bordered
both on the right and on the left (Akhtuba) sides by rather steep banks,
which rise some 20 meters above the river. Low-water marks which lie
below sea level extend along the Volga valley as far as the village of
Rovnoye, between Kamyshin and Saratov, while along the Ural they
extend somewhat north of Kalmykov. It is interesting to note that ap-
proximately 600 km. above the mouth, the bottom of the Volga is lower
than the surface of the Caspian. The following are some of the recorded
absolute elevations for the lower sections of the Volga: a little above
Astrakhan, — 58 m.; at Astrakhan, — 45 m.; somewhat below Astrakhan,
— 53.3 m.; at Biryuchya spit, — 26.7 m. These figures indicate that either
the level of the Caspian Sea has risen recently, or else the land mass in
the lower reaches of the Volga has undergone subsidence. On the north-
ern shores of the Caspian there are many traces of a relatively recent
( geologically speaking ) rise in the level of the sea. Evidence is found in
the dissected shore line between the mouths of the Kuma and the
Volga, the character of the isobaths at the mouths of the Volga, and

*E. Permyakov, Bi/uH. Mosk. obshch. isp. prir. (Bulletin of the Moscow Society
for Natviral Research)', otd. geol. (Geological Section), XIII, 1935, No. 4, p. 467.

THE ZONE OF THE SEMIDESERT 115

also the discovery of terrestrial deposits on the sea bottom at the mouths
of the Volga.

As has been noted above, the entire Caspian Lowland was submerged
at one time by the Caspian Sea, and salinized clays, numerous solonchaks,
and extensive sandy areas were left on the surface of the lowland. The
Caspian is a gigantic salt lake, the largest lake in the world (its area is
422,100 sq. km.; including islands— 424,300 sq. km.).'' From north to south
it stretches about as far as from Moscow to the southern shores of the
Crimea. The northern part is shallow; in many places where the depth is
2 m., the shore is invisible. The southern part, however, reaches a depth
of 1014 m. Next to Lake Baikal, the Caspian is the deepest lake in the
world. Its level is 26 m. lower than that of the Black Sea. As in the case
of all lakes lacking outlets, the level is subject to considerable fluctua-
tion, although not so great as is commonly supposed. During the entire
historic period, the level has not risen more than about 5 m. above the
1925 level, when the water was very low. Of this we may judge by the
fact that undisturbed deposits containing the mollusk Cardium edule
(which penetrated into the Caspian from the Black Sea during the pre-
historic period) are found on the shores of the Caspian Sea nowhere
higher than 5 m. above its present level.*'

The mean annual evaporation from the surface of the Caspian is equiva-
lent to a layer of water about 1 m. deep. This loss is compensated for by
the influx of water from the rivers, of which the Volga contributes the most
(about 61 cm. per year), and also by rainfall (about 20 cm.).

We may judge of the ancient extent of the Caspian in the lower Volga
region by the ancient Caspian deposits which are found there. These
consist of two layers— the lower, Khazarsk, and the upper, Khvalynsk,
of which we have spoken already.

The Lower Caspian, or Khazarsk transgression, which took place, it is
believed, simultaneously with the Riss glaciation, was not very exten-
sive. Along the Volga its deposits are not found beyond Kamenny Yar,
or approximately to an elevation of 0 m.

The Khvalynsk deposits, or the deposits of the last Caspian trans-
gression, extend much farther north, but even they do not reach as
far as Saratov (see above, p. 114). It is interesting to note that the

^ G. R. Bregman and A. I. Mikhalevskv, Vodntj halans Kaspiiskovo morija (The
Water Balance of the Caspian Sea), Baku, 1935, izd. Azerbaidzhan. fih Akad. nauk
(pubUcation of the Azerbaidzhan Branch of the Academy of Sciences), p. 9.

^ L. S. Berg, "Uroven Kaspiiskovo mor\-a za istoricheskoye vremya" (The Level
of the Caspian Sea During the Historic Period), Problemy fz. geografii (Problems
in Physical Geography), I," 1934, pp. 11-64.

116 NATURAL REGIONS OP THE U.S.S.R.

Khvalynsk deposits extend in lobes along the stream valleys and even
along the ravines which empty into the streams of the high west bank
of the Volga. Thus, not only was the Volga in existence during the
Khvalynsk period, but even the relief of this area was developed before
the advance of the Khvalynsk Caspian transgression.

The towns of Dubovka and Kamyshin are located on the terrace of
the Volga valley which lies next to the flood plain and which here is
covered by Khvalynsk deposits, while Saratov and Syzran, which are lo-
cated on the same terrace but farther from the mouth of the Volga, lie
beyond the limits of the Khvalynsk transgression.

The accepted scheme of the history of the Caspian during the Quater-
nary period is as follows (chiefly according to Mazarovich, 1928,^ and
Milanovsky, 1931):

Table 6

QUATERNAKT HiSTORY OF THE CASPIAN SeA

Geological

Epoch

History

Postglacial epoch
Wiirm

Riss-Wurm
Riss

Mindel-Riss

Mindel

Gunz-Mindel

Level dropped to —26 ra.

Khvalynsk transgression, Upper Caspian layer, elevation 50 ra.,

connection with the Black Sea
Atelsk layer, fresh-water deposits, loesslike clay loams
Khazarsk transgression. Lower Caspian layer, elevation 0 m.
Astrakhan layer, estuary, bog, and river deposits
Baku layer
Gurovsk layer, fresh- water deposits

Giinz \
Pliocene /

Apsheron, Akchagj^I

It should be kept in mind that the parallel with alpine glaciations is
provisional.

In the Volga delta, so-called "Behr's mounds" are very characteristic.
These ridges, which consist of more or less clayey sands, were described
first by Behr in 1856. They are from 400 m. to 8 to 10 km. long (and even
up to 20 km.), and about 200 m. wide. Above Astrakhan their height
is usually not more than 6 m., while below Astrakhan they may be as high
as 8 m. On the right bank of the Volga in the Astrakhan region the
mounds lie approximately in an east-west orientation, whfle in other
places they are oriented southwest or southeast. The mounds usually are
the sites of settlements in the delta; the central part of Astrakhan lies

^ A. N. MazarovicK, "Opyt skhematicheskovo sopostavleniya neogenovykh i
posletretichnykh otlozheny Povolzhya" (Experiment in the Schematic Comparison
of Neogene and Post-Tertiary Deposits of the Volga Region), Izv. Akad. nauk (Re-
port of the Academy of Sciences), 1927, pp. 1090-1093.

THE ZONE OF THE SEMIDESERT 117

on one of them. To the north they are found as far as the Yenotayevsk
district, to the west as far as the mouth of the Kuma, and to the east
as far as the mouth of the Emba. The mounds overHe deposits of the
Khvalynsk transgression; they are composed of diagonally laminated Cas-
pian sands which contain contemporary Caspian shells (but no Cardium
ecluJe), and appear to have been the coastal banks of the receding
Khvalynsk sea.

The elongated depressions betvveen the Behr's mounds in the region
of the Volga delta are called ilmens. They are very numerous to the west
and to some extent to the east of the Volga delta. Many of them are cut
off from the sea by extensions of the delta. But within the delta the lakes
(which are found usually in the deltas of big rivers) are also called ilmens.
In one ilmen of the delta not far from the sea there is Hindu lotus
(Nelumbo nucifera [Nelumbium nelumbo]); this is the only place in
Europe where this plant is found.

The Kuma River in dry years does not reach the Caspian, while the
Emba flows to the sea only at high water. In summer the water in the
Emba, as in all shallow rivers of the semidesert, is brackish.

Large areas of the Caspian Lowland are covered with sands.

Eastward of a line from Lake Elton to Lake Baskunchak lie the Ryn
(or Naryn) sands. Here sand mounds and sandy steppe predominate.
These sands are held fast by tree-shrub and herbaceous vegetation, but
upon excessive grazing of stock and destruction of sand vegetation, they
turn into shifting sands.

East of the Volga delta there is a large area of shifting sands. There
are sands also to the west, between the lower Volga and the Yergeni
Plateau. In a natural state the sands are generally held fast; they are
set in motion as a result of the unwise use to which they are put.

On the shores of salt-saturated Elton, Baskunchak, and Inder lakes
there are outcrops of Permian deposits, rich in gypsum and rock salt.
It is the leaching of the rock salt which gives rise to the salt in the lakes.

In the semidesert part of the Caspian Lowland there are several iso-
lated hills. Among these is Bolshoye Bogdo hill, which may be seen from
a great distance in the steppe, rising 171 m. above Lake Baskunchak
and 125 to 130 m. above the surrounding steppe. It is composed of dis-
located Triassic strata. The Inder hills beyond the Ural River rise 56 m.
above Lake Inder, the absolute elevation of which is — 24 m.® These
hills are composed of Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Upper

^ Z. V. Yatskevich, "Karst Inderskovo podnyatiya" ( The Karst of the Inder Uplift ) ,
Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the GeographicarSociety), Vol. 69, 1937, p. 940.

118 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Tertiary (Akchagyl and other) deposits, which are all dislocated. In the
Inder region, in the layers containing gypsum, rich beds of boric salts
have been discovered in recent years.

In the region of the Inder hills, karst phenomena, in the form of sinks
of diflFerent shapes and sizes, are developed extensively. These sinks are
associated with leaching of the gypsum bed (Yatskevich).

Another series of low eminences, no higher than 60 m. in relative ele-
vation, is found between the Volga and the Ural. Beyond the Ural, on
the watershed of the Saghyz River and the Emba, lie the Imankara
(absolute elevation 225 m.) and the Koi-Kara (125 m.) hills. But in
addition to these more prominent hills in the region between the lower
Volga and the Emba (and also somewhat beyond the Emba), there are
scattered a large number of low hills (as many as 400). All of these
eminences, including the Inder hills, belong to the salt-dome type:
These are local uplifts ( brachyanticlines ) , brought about by the intru-
sion of salts and gypsum from the lower strata into the more recent sur-
face formations.^ The rock salt and gypsum are of Lower Permian age.
The thickness of the salt series in the domes is tremendous: a borehole
sunk at Dossor (between the lower Ural and the Emba) passed through
salt from 774 m. to 2804 m., and still had not reached the end of the salt-
bearing series. The domes were formed in several stages by a series of
tectonic movements. In Emba raion the first signs of domes are attrib-
uted to the end of the Jurassic, but they acquired their present appear-
ance only during the Upper Tertiary period, between the Sarmatian and
the Akchagyl strata (Shumilin). The area of the Caspian salt domes
merges on the north with the Obshchy Syrt (Bogdanov). In the conti-
nental Jurassic deposits along the Emba there are rich beds of petro-
leum.

Between the Caspian Lowland and the Mugodzhar Mountains lies the
Emba Plateau, composed of horizontal Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits.
In many respects it is analogous to the Turgay tableland, which lies on
the other side of the Mugodzhars. Here, to the south of the Emba, there
are many low table mountains separated from the plateau by erosion.
But the Emba Plateau is distinguished from the Turgay country by the
presence of salt domes.

^V. E. Ruzhentsev, "Osnovy tektoniki Uralo-Embenskovo raiona" (Tectonic
Foundations of the Ural-Emba Region), Bijull. Mosk. Obshch. isp. prir. (Bulletin of
the Moscow Society for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological Section), VIII,
1930; S. V. Shumilin, "O tektonike Embenskovo raiona" (Concerning tlie Tectonics
of Emba Raion), ibid., XI, 1933; A. A. Bogdanov, "Solyanie kupola Nizhnevo
Zavolzhya" (Salt Domes of the Lower Trans-Volga), ibid., XII, 1934.

THE ZONE OF THE SEMlDESEliT 119

Only the southern part of the Miigocl/har Mountains lies in the semi-
desert. To the south these mountains drop in the steep escarpments of
the Dzhaman-Tau range, which is composed of igneous and metamorphic
rocks, and merge into the plain with very little relief.

To the east of the Mugodzhar system, between it and the Ulu-Tau
Mountains (elevation 1120 m.) lies the Turgay tableland. On the north
it passes into the West Siberian Lowland, on the south into the Turanian
Lowland. The relief of the Turgay tableland is extraordinarily unique.
Here we see isolated low plateaus and table mountains, with intermit-
tent depressions. The table mountains were separated from the plateau
proper by water and wind erosion. They often protrude amid wide sur-
rounding lowlands in the form of "mountain islands," 100 to 200 m, in
elevation. Absolute elevations here sometimes reach 300 m., but are gen-
erally lower. The Aral Sea never extended into this area. The table
mountains are composed of horizontal Tertiary deposits.

The southern outskirts of the Kazakh Folded Country, which has been
mentioned already (pp. 95-96), extend into the zone of the semidesert.

Soils

Under the conditions which obtain in the dry climate of the semidesert
( and desert ) , the soils are characterized by low humus content and a thin
humus horizon ( characteristics which are associated with the sparse veg-
etation), and by the lesser intensity of chemical processes in the soil,
and, consequently, by lesser decomposition of the mineral mass. Soils
which are only slightly leached contain a large quantity of calcium and
magnesium salts, and some sodium and potassium salts; water extracts
from these soils have a slightly alkaline reaction. The horizon at which
effervescence from hydrochloric acid occurs lies not far from the surface
of the soil, sometimes even at the very surface. The horizon in which
salts accumulate is also near the surface.

In the semidesert, in proportion as water plays an increasingly smaller
role in soil formation (as Neustruyev points out), the influence of the
parent rock begins to predominate. Clayey soils are subject to greater
salinization than sandy soils. Consequently the desert types of soil for-
mation and vegetation are manifested more clearly on clayey substrata
than on sands; the latter appear to carry us back into more northern
zones. In the semidesert and desert "each parent rock has its own cor-
responding boundary of soil landscapes, or regions. As a result the re-
gional and subregional boundaries are very tortuous and irregular"
(Neustruyev). The character of the parent rock is responsible also for

120 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the unusual diversity of colors ("complexity") of the semidesert soil
and vegetation cover, which is determined predominantly by that element
which is found in least quantity— in this case, water. The slightest in-
crease or decrease in the supply of soil moisture, as a result of the relief
and the composition of the parent rock, quickly results in a change in the
soil and vegetation cover.

In the semidesert under its normal moisture conditions, light-chestnut
soils predominate. They contain carbonate salts at some depth, but not
at the surface, as do the desert soils. Light-chestnut soils are solonized;
that is, their absorption complex includes sodium. The humus horizon
is only 30 to 40 cm. thick. The amount of humus is small, only 1 to 3
per cent in the upper horizons, and the humus is distributed unevenly
through the soil profile. Below the surface horizon, which is 10 to 15 cm.
thick and has a laminated structure, there lies a compact, slightly sol-
onized horizon which has a prismatic structure. Below this there is a dis-
tinctly solonized and compact carbonate horizon. The lower portion of
the soil profile contains soluble salts. As we have said, at a depth of
about 0.5 m. these soils contain a large quantity of carbonates, while
in the lower horizons, from a depth of about 1.8 m., there is usually
gypsum.

At one time the semidesert soils were classified as brown earths,
but at present the trend is to classify them with tlie light-chestnut
soils.

The semidesert contains a great number of salt lakes, solonchaks, and
solonetz areas (which originate, as we know, from solonchaks). Even
the rivers often carry salt water. Thus, the water of the Saghyz River
(between the Ural River and the Emba) is suitable for drinking during
only one or two months of the year. The soils and subsoils are usually
saHnized. The salts are derived in part from salinized bedrock and sub-
soils (for example, in the area of Permian salt-bearing rocks, or in that
part of the Caspian Lowland where the Caspian deposits are saline).
In part, however, the salts are derived from the chemical weathering of
rocks which yield salinized soils. As a result of the dry climate, the salts
are not removed completely from the soil by water, but accumulate to
some extent in the soils and subsoils. The dry ( xerothermic ) epoch, which
preceded the present period, particularly favored the accumulation of
salts.

Solonchaks are formed where ground water, rising by means of capil-
lary action, is able as it evaporates to precipitate salts on the surface of
the soil. Solonetz soils, however, are found where ground water is

THE ZONE OF THE SEMIDESERT 121

unable to rise, and the process is reversed— the salts arc leached down-
ward. As a result, these soils have a conspicuous structural, compact,
brown, illuvial horizon 3 to 8 cm. thick, which breaks down into com-
pact, usually columnar particles. This compact horizon (B) is almost im-
permeable to water; as a result, water accumulates on the solonetz soils
during the rainy part of the year. Extracts from the B horizon have a dis-
tinctly alkaline reaction, showing the presence of sodium, or soda, which
is injurious to most vegetation. We have discussed already the degrada-
tion of solonetz soils (p. 79).

Vegetation

The flora of the semidesert may be characterized briefly as pohjn
[Arteinisia spp.] steppe (Fig. 20). In the north the vegetation is of the
polijn-grassy type, that is, with grasses predominating. As we move south-
ward, the proportion of grasses decreases and polijns begin to predomi-
nate. In the south of the semidesert, halophytes assume considerable
importance. In the semidesert, as distinguished from the steppe zone, the
herbaceous cover is very thin. The plants are rather widely dispersed,
with small sod-forming species predominating (Fig. 21). The vegetation
is stimted and therefore less susceptible to evaporation; however, the
root systems are very well developed, and the available soil moisture
may be utilized intensively.

Of the polyns, the most important are the white and black polijn. The
slightly salinized clay loams are covered with white polijn (ak-dzhusan)
—different forms of Artemisia maritima (A. incana, A. terrae-alhae, and
others) (Fig. 22). The clayey, more salinized soils are covered with
black polyn ( kara-dzhusan ) —different forms of Artemisia paucijlora. The
black polijn straightens its leaves only after a rain, while in dry weather
its black stems, which rise 5 to 10 cm. above the soil, appear to be com-
pletely without leaves (Fig. 23). During the dry period this plant sheds
its leaves altogether. Polyn blooms in autumn, when it rapidly develops
rhachides 20 to 25 cm. high, which die with the onset of frost. Its roots
extend from the surface to a depth of 1 m. or more. Black polyn contains
large quantities of volatile oils; the odor of polyn is verv characteristic
for the semidesert zone.

In addition to polyns, perennial sod-forming grasses of the same spe-
cies as those found in the steppe zone, or species closely related to them,
play a large role. Fescue (Festucu sulcata valesiaca) (Fig. 22) is par-
ticularly abundant here, so much so that the term "iescue-polyn" would
more exactly characterize the vegetation of the semidesert. Koeleria

122 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Koeleria gracilis) and feather grasses— predominantly of the capillary
feather-grass group (Stipa capillata), but some of the pinnate group as
well— are also numerous. Another plant is the small undershrub, pros-
trate summer cypress {Kochia prostrata, Chenopodiaceae ) . In some
places saltbush {Atriplex canum) takes the place of pohjn (Fig. 21).
This squat undershrub is very characteristic of the semidesert.

Annuals ( "ephemerals" ) are very prominent. They develop in spring,
when there is relatively more precipitation, but fade quickly with the
coming of hot weather. These include tulips {Tulipa biebersteiniana,
T. schrenkii [T. gesneriana]) , buttercups {Ranunculus polyrhizus) , the
rhubarb Rheum tataricum {tyiiie-dzhaprak, or camel's grass; the camel
is supposed to eat it readily), and others. In the semidesert around
Astrakhan, the soil in the spaces between the shrubs of white polyn
is covered with mosses so black that the ground appears charred. In the
Trans-Ural region these mosses are sometimes replaced by lichens
(chiefly Parmelia vagans).

On the solonetz soils, in addition to black polyn, there grow biyurgun
{Anabasis salsa) (Fig. 24), camphor fume {Camphorosma monspeliaca) ,
saltbush, prostrate summer cypress, ebelek or sand ceratocarpus {Cerato-
carpus arenarius), the umbellifer Ferula caspia, tulips, and Siberian sea
lavender {Statice gmelini [Limonium gmelini]). During the rainy season
on the solonetz soils there appear colonies of the alga Nostoc commune;
this alga sometimes grows in the form of black, hairlike threads, over
30 cm. in length, pressed close to the ground. Lichens grow readily on
solonetz soils. Some species of the lichen Aspicilia lie freely on the sur-
face of the earth, sometimes in the form of compact lumps which at first
glance do not look like plants.

Various halophytes (among them sarsazan, Halocnemum strobilaceum)
(Fig. 25), black polyn, shrubs of tamarisk, the shrub Nitraria schoberi,
and the sea lavender Statice suffruticosa, grow on the solonchaks.

There are extensive areas of sand in the Trans-Volga in the vicinity
of Astrakhan. A large part of these sands is in motion at present; shifting
began as a result of overgrazing by the herds of the nomads. The pioneer
sand binder of the semidesert is the mammoth wild rye or kiyak { Elymus
giganteus), incorrectly called the sand oat. This is a large plant, 1.5 m.
tall (sometimes even taller), which is eaten readily by horses and cattle.
Another grass found here is the Siberian wheat grass or yerkek {Agropy-
ron sibiricum), which is an important fodder crop, particularly for
horses. In the moist depressions in the sands there often grow willow
or tal {Salix), Russian olive, and other shrubs. In the Ryn sands, in the

THE ZONE OF THE SEMlDESERT 123

depressions among the sand mounds where fresh ground water is very
close, there grow white poplar, black poplar, aspen, rosemary creeping
willow (Salix rosmarinifolia [S. repens rosmarinifolia]), Russian olive
(Elaeagnus angustifolia) , and sweetbrier rose. Poplar grows even on
the summits of the mounds, while the willow Salix cm-pica ( naryn-tal)
grows on both the slopes and summits. The stabilized sands are very
important for cattle raising: they are a constant source of fodder; besides,
an ice crust never forms on the sands ( Dubyansky ) . The rubber-yielding
Chondrilla grows in the sands aJong the desert border. In the flood plain
of the Volga there is oak (which extends as far south as the latitude of
Lake Baskunchak), elm, and black poplar, which disappear in the region
of Yenotayevsk.

Fauna

Among the fauna of the semidesert the suslik is very prominent: the
sand, or yellow suslik (Citellus fiilvus), which is found from the Volga
eastward, and the small suslik (C. pijgmaeus), which is native to the
clayey steppe. There are also jerboas, gerbils which inhabit the sands
[Meriones meridianus, M. tamaricinus, and the like), hamsters, and
others. In the sands between the Volga and the Ural there are saiga
antelope (1934); they are found also in the Trans-Ural region. The corsac
fox (Vulpes corsak), which is found also in the desert, and to some
extent in the steppes, occurs throughout the semidesert. Of the larks,
the black lark and the small lark are common. The flood plains and
deltas of the large rivers are havens for many birds. They are particu-
larly abundant in the Volga delta, where the special Astrakhan preserve
has been established. The most numerous and most characteristic bird
of the Volga delta is the European cormorant (Phalacwcorax carbo),
which nests in colonies in the willows (Salix alba) along the coast; it
feeds almost exclusively on fish. The gray sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)
is also very common. Of the geese, only the gray-lag goose (Anser anser)
nests in the delta. The white egret (Egretta alba [Casinerodius albus])
and the little egret (E. garzetta), which were common at one time, are
rare today, but both are common among the birds which nest in the
preserve. The brilliantly colored Indian gallinule {Porphyrio polio-
cephalus) of the Rallidae, and the pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) are
found occasionally in the Volga delta.

In the maritime strip of the delta the bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus)
is common; it is found here all the year round. For some species the
Volga serves as the western boundary; for example, the yellow suslik.

124 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

the reddish suslik, and the Eversmann hamster. Other species, however,
are not found east of the Volga; for example, the spotted suslik.

The Caspian Sea is inhabited by a unique fauna, some of which are
relicts from the period when the site of the Caspian was occupied by
Upper Tertiary saline basins, while some migrated from the north during
the Quaternary period by way of the rivers and lakes.^° The latter include
the Siberian whitefish (Sfenodus leucichthys) , which is closely related
to the Siberian nelma [S. leucichthys nelma]; a crustacean marine isopod
(Chiridothea entomon caspia); several mysids (for example, Mysis
caspia, very closely related to the arctic M. oculata); other crustaceans;
and, possibly, the Caspian salmon. The origin of the Caspian seal {Phoca
caspica) is obscure.

^•^ L. S. Berg, "O proiskhozhdenii severnykh elementov v faune Kaspiya" (Con-
cerning the Origin of Northern Elements in the Fauna of the Caspian), Dokl. Akad.
nauk (Report of the Academy of Sciences), 1928, pp. 107-112.

VII ■ The Desert Zone

Boundaries and Definition

THE desert zone lies to the south of the semidesert,
that is, approximately south of the line from the
northern outskirts of the Ust-Urt Plateau to a point somewhat north
of Lake Balkhash, and extending as far south as the base of the moun-
tains which border the Turanian Lowland. With certain exceptions, the
lower courses of the Kura and the Araks also may be included here.

The deserts of the middle latitudes have the following characteristics:
There is very little precipitation, usually less than 150 mm. per year
(only in the vicinity of the mountains is there more), with the maxi-
mum coming in the spring. The summers are hot and almost without
rain. In winter there are frosts, although in the south they are usually
not severe. The vegetative cover is scant and a larger proportion of the
surface is bare than is covered with vegetation. Halophytes predominate
in the latter. The soils are of the sierozem type and contain little humus.
There are many solonchaks.

Subdivisions
The desert zone of the Turanian Lowland and its northern outskirts
may be divided into the following three subzones, beginning at the north:

( 1 ) The northern Tertiary plateaus, covered with solonized gray-brown
clay loams and including: the Ust-Urt, tlie plateaulike elevations in the
parts of the Kara-Kum and Kyzyl-Kum which adjoin the Aral Sea, the
southernmost outposts of the Turgay tableland, and the Bet-Pak-Dala, or
Northern Golodnaya Steppe. This subzone constitutes the transition to the
semidesert.

(2) The subzone of sandy deserts including the lowland which ad-
joins the Caspian, the Trans-Caspian or Turkmenian Kara-Kum, the
Amu-Darya delta, the Kyzyl-Kum, the Syr-Darya Lowland, the Mu\am-

125

126

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Kum, and the Semirechye sands. This subzone is traversed by large rivers.

(3) The subzone of loessial piedmont plains from the Kopet-Dagh
on the west to the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau on the east.

The second and third subzones together constitute the Turanian Low-
land.

Climate

The climate of the desert zone is unique. Its characteristic feature is
scant precipitation, distributed very unevenly among the seasons. The
summer is almost or entirely without rain; it is cloudless and hot. The
maximum precipitation comes in spring.

The summer is hotter than in the tropics; the heat, together with the
abundant insolation, is very favorable for the cultivation of cotton,
grapes, and melons. The mean July temperature is 26° to 30° C, while
in the tropics it is 24° to 28° C. But due to the dryness of the air, the
heat in tihe desert may be endured much more easily than in the tropics.
Turkmenistan, where the mean July temperatures reach 30° C, and in
some places even higher, has the hottest summers. In the southern
Turanian Lowland the temperature on some days in summer may reach
50° C. in the shade; such temperatures have been recorded in Termez
on the Amu-Darya. Observed mean temperatures at 1:00 p.m. are as
follows :

Table 7
Temperatures in the Desert (at 1 : 00 p.m.)

Locality

Temperature (°C.)

July

October

January

Kazalinsk
Tashkent
Golodnaya Steppe
Margelan

32.2
33.3
35.4
33.9

13.7
18.6
19.8
19.0

8.1
3.2
2.1
1.9

From this table it is clear that the temperatures normally observed
at 1:00 P.M. in the desert in July are such temperatures as have been
reported in the forest zone only for exceptionally hot days. The soil
becomes very hot in summer; in Tashkent soil temperatures as high as
70° C. have been noted; while at Repetek in Turkmenistan on June 20,
1915, a temperature of 79° C. was recorded on the surface of the sand.
The diurnal range on the surface of the sand in Repetek reaches 60° C.

THE DESERT ZONE 127

The diurnal range in temperature is great. It reaches a maximum in
August and September, when cloudiness is least, as a result of which
the temperature rises sharply during the day and drops at night. In
September the mean diurnal range at Tashkent is 16' C, while in the
Golodnaya Steppe it is even greater— 19° C.

The autumn is very beautiful. It is dry (particularly the first half),
sunny, and warm.

The first frosts come in October, in the north at the beginning of the
month, in the south in the middle, and in Turkmenistan at the end.
The winters in the north of the desert zone are severe. The northern
part of the Aral Sea freezes every year for four or five months. Some-
times even in the middle of May there are still ice floes. The mean
January temperature on the lower Syr-Darya is — 12° C, that is, lower
than on the shores of the Gulf of Finland (lat. 60° N). In the southern
desert the winters are much milder and shorter. In Tashkent the winter
is wet, and the frosts do not last long; the mean January temperature is
-1.3° C, but in 1900 it was - 8.3° C. (In Kazalinsk in that year the
mean for January was — 24.3°C.) At times the temperature in Tash-
kent in winter has dropped to — 30° C, and in Kushka (lat. 35°17'N)
even to — 33° C. These low temperatures are due to cold waves from the
north, the advance of which is favored by the relief— the absence of
mountains from the Arctic Ocean to Iran. In southern Turkmenistan it
is normally very warm in winter. In Repetek there have been years when
the mean January temperature was + 7° C. Every year in January tliere
are some days in Repetek when the thermometer rises to 20° C, and in
general the mean diurnal maximimi in January is about 11° C.

The snow cover remains in Kazalinsk for an a\'erage of 70 days; in
Tashkent, 37; in Khodzhent, 18. Spring, which comes in the south at the
beginning of March or even at the end of February, is very short; hot
weather follows quickly, in the middle of May or even sooner. April is
considerably warmer than October, as is generally the case iii a con-
tinental climate.

As we move to the north, the summer temperature drops rather slowly,
while in winter, on the contrary, it drops very quickly. This condition
explains the long duration of the snow cover in the north of the desert
zone.

In summer the air is very dry. The relative humidity at 1:00 p.m. in
Kazalinsk and Tashkent averages 33 or 34 per cent. There have been
instances when the humidity in the desert dropped to 5 per cent.

Since the humidit)- is so low, evaporation from the \^'ater surfaces is

128 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

very great. Thus, from the surface of the Syr-Darya at Zaporozhye sta-
tion the evaporation is about 2 m. per year; the precipitation is one-
tenth that figure.

Because evaporation exceeds precipitation in the Turanian Lowland,
some students have advanced the view that this land is undergoing
desiccation continuously, that the rivers and lakes are decreasing in
depth, that the water resources are diminishing, and that the desert
threatens to engulf the oases. This view, however, is entirely mistaken.^
While there is indeed very little precipitation in the lowlands of the
desert zone (200 to 100 mm., and in some places even less), the rivers
which water this desert have their sources in the Pamir Mountains and
the Tian Shan, in areas which have 1000 mm. of precipitation, or more,
annually. If, in the region of Khodzhent, 2 m. of water per year are
evaporated from the Syr-Darya, this does not mean that 2 m. of moisture
per year evaporate also from the soils of the adjoining loessial desert;
there is no such supply of moisture here to start with. Moisture is pre-
served very well in the sands of the desert, as is evident from the rela-
tively rich vegetation that grows on the sands. The following paragraphs
explain this phenomenon.

The water-holding capacity of sand, as distinguished from clay, is
small. The larger the particles of which the sand is composed, the smaller
the water-holding capacity. As a result, the moisture (from the autumn
and spring rains and from the melting of the snows) which does not
run oflF the surface, descends to the lower horizons, from which evapora-
tion is negligible. In summer, when the temperature of the sand is higher,
its capacity to retain water becomes still smaller. While it is true that
capillary rising of water in sand takes place very quickly, the water rises
to only a negligible height. Because of the low water-holding capacity
and the weak capillary action of sand, there is generally little evaporation
from the surface. When the top layer of the sand dries, evaporation drops
to a minimum; the deeper the surface layer of the soil dries, the less
evaporation takes place from the sand, and the more certain is the
preservation of the supply of moisture in the deeper layers of the soil
and subsoil. As a result of the negligible content of colloidal particles,
the sandy substi-atum loses its salts (is leached) very easily. All of these
factors go to explain that phenomenon which appears so strange at first
glance, that in the desert sands, especially in sandy mounds, ground
moisture is very well preserved, particularly fresh water. For this reason

iPor details see L. S. Berg, Klimat i zhizn (Climate and Life), Moscow, 1922,
p. 160.

Fig. 15. Vegetation of the chalk clifFs. Undergrowth of Daphne sophia
grove in Voronezh oblasf. {Vegefatlonsbilder. Vol. 19; part 7, 8; plate 43

n an oak

Fig. 16. The steppe in the low Mugodzhar Moun-
tains, the southern extension of the Urals. (Bolshaya
Sovetskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 56: 183)

Fig. 17. Typical feather-grass (Stipo) steppe on
chernozem soil in Voronezh ob/asf. (Vegetof/ons-
hWder. Vol. 17; port 2; plate 9)

Fig. 18. The chernozem steppe in Western Siberia.
Solonetz patches in foreground. {fKT\aHV.ayo Ros-
s/yo. Vol. 2: 17)

Fig. 19. Feather-grass {Stipa lessingiana) steppe in Voronezh oblast. (Vegetatlons-
bilder. Vol. 17; part 2; plate 10)

Fig. 20. The po/yn (wormwood) steppe near Krasnoarmeisk (Stalingrad oblasf)
the semidesert zone. (Vegefot/onsb/'/der. Vol. 18; part 4; plate 19)

Fig 21 Saltbush (Afrip/ex canum) in the semi-
desert near Lake Baskunchak Note sparseness of
*^ vegetative cover (Vegetationsbi/c/er Vol 18;
/I part 8, plate 46)

Fig 22 White po/yn (wormwood, Arfemisio mari-
fima) and fescue {Fesiuca sulcafa) association m
the semidesert near Krasnoarmeisk Stalingrad
oblast Note patches of bare grouna (Vegetations-
bilder Vol 18 part 4 plate 20)

Fig 23 Black polyn {Arfernisia pouc/flora) in the
semidesert near Krasnoarmeisk, Stalingrad oblast
{Vegefafionsbilder Vol 18 part 4, plate 22)

It-t,- -\~' Kf*-. -"i'.Jlfc>'.'*^< ' ."V "-■'

;J^^5^f^lfe

Fig. 24. Biyurgun {Anabasis salsa) and stony solonchaks on the shores of Lake
Baskunchak. (Vegefof/'onsfai/c/er. Vol. 18; part 8; plate 46)

Fig. 25. Clumps of the halophyte sorsozon (Ho/ocnemum sirobijaceum) on the
shore of a salt lake (presumably Baskunchak). (Vegefoflonsb/'/der. Vol. 18; part 8;
plate 44)

Fig. 26. Ak-Tyube barkhan sands on Mangyshlak Peninsula. (L. S. Berg, formy
Russkikh Pusfyn. Fig. 13)

Fig. 27. The eastern shore of Lake Balkhash. {Aziafskaya Rossiya. Vol. 2: 57)

Fig. 28. Barkhan dunes in the Kara-Kum, 12 miles

east of the Amu-Darya. (Vegetafionsbilder. Vol. 3; / *

part 2; plate 7) ''>.,

Fig. 29. Surface of a fakyr in summer. (L. S. Berg, |

formy Russkikb Pusfyn. Fig. 1) ' .^^4'- 2^

J'

■^-J

Fig. 30. Sand dune stabilized by saxaul (left) and ^, / ' ' / ''^

reeds (right). Ak-Tyube sands. (L. S. Berg, Formy X ,„>>% ■-" - '' ~ '

Russkikh Pusfyn. Fig. 24)

'^^e...^.-.

Fig. 31. Clay desert on the UstUrt Plateau, north of Lake Sam. (L. S. Berg,
Formy Russk'ikh Pusfyn. Fig. 8)

Fig. 32. Boyalych {Salsola arfauscu/o) and tamarisk (Tamar/x) on stabilized sand
dunes near Farab (several miles east of the Amu-Darya). (Vegefotionsbi/der. Vol. 3;

part 2; plate 8)

THE DESERT ZONE 129

sands greatly favor the settlement of shrub and semiarboreal vegetation,
the long roots of v^hich are able to reach ground water.

In addition to the moisture which the sand receives from precipitation,
water vapor also penetrates from the atmosphere into the sand and is
condensed in the surface layer. This happens, as A. F. Lebedev''' has
pointed out, when the vapor tension is greater in the atmosphere than
in the top layer of the soil. During the cold part of the year this condi-
tion is realized. The absolute humidity of the air in Repetek from Octo-
ber to February is from 2 to 5 mm., which at temperatures of — 10° C.
to + 1° C. saturates the air. If the temperature of the surface of the sand
is lower, water vapor from the air can penetrate deeply into the sand
(B. P. Orlov). In this manner verkhovodka—Si humid layer, which at
Repetek, for example, lies in summer at a depth of 0.2 to 0.3 m.— is
formed in the sandy subsoil.

All the evidence that has been presented shows that there is no basis
for the assertion that under the present precipitation and temperature
regime the desert zone is undergoing continuous desiccation. On the
contrary, there is much historical evidence that during the past two to
three thousand years the climate of Soviet Central Asia has not only
not become drier, but appears to have become even more moist. In any
case, the rivers in this area during the past two thousand years have not
decreased in depth. In the fourth century before our era, just as today,
the Zeravshan River was lost in the sands, and did not reach the Amu-
Darya; there is evidence to tliis effect in the classical writers, Arrian and
Strabo. The latter writes: "The Politimet [Zeravshan], after watering
Sogdiana [a province of Samarkand], enters the desert country and there
is engulfed by the sands." Incidentally, in 1874, when there was abundant
precipitation, the Zeravshan ran so full tliat it forced its way through
to the Amu-Darya. Of fertile Margiana (that is, the Merv oasis), Pliny
reports that it was hard to reach, because it was surrounded on all sides
by sands. Thus, two thousand years ago, even as today, the Murgab
River, which waters this oasis, was lost in the sands. This was true also,
according to the testimony of Arabian writers, during the nintli and tenth
centuries.

Under present climatic conditions, the sandy deserts of' Central Asia,
if left alone, would not expand tlieir area. They would be o\'ergrown with
vegetation, and would be held fast.

We pass on to tlie subject of precipitation in the desert zone. There

^A. F. Lebedev, Pochvennie i gruntovie vodij (Soil and Subsoil Waters), Lenin-
grad, 1930, Cos. s.-kh. izd. (State Agricultural Publication).

130 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

are 80 to 200 mm. of precipitation annually, and only in the vicinity of
the mountains is this amount increased. In Tashkent (absolute elevation
478 m. ) precipitation is 350 mm. The distribution of precipitation among
the seasons is unusual. There is least precipitation in summer. The maxi-
mum precipitation, close to half the annual quantity, comes in springs
when vegetation comes to life for a short time in the desert. On the
northern boundary of the desert zone there is most precipitation in May;
in the middle part, in April; in the south, in March. In the north, the
precipitation is distributed more evenly among the seasons of the year
than in the middle subzone, and particularly more evenly than in the
south. In some parts of the desert the summer is entirely without rain.
Thus, at Bairam-Ali (lat. 37°40' N) in Turkmenistan, for ten years not
a single drop of rain fell during July, August, and September, while in
1903 there was no rain from June through November. In Repetek ( Turk-
menistan) in 1928 there was no rain for half a year, from June through
November. In Tashkent also, it has happened repeatedly that no rain
has fallen from the beginning of July until the end of September; nor-
mally, for these three months there is one rain per month, yielding 2 to
3 mm. of precipitation. In the Turanian Lowland there is a minimum
of precipitation in August, when precipitation is at a maximum on the
shores of the Gulf of Finland. The precipitation in spring and winter is
explained in large measure by the fact that at this time moisture-bearing
cyclonic storais pass over the southern part of Soviet Central Asia from
the west.

The desert is characterized by clear skies. While in the forest zone of
the Soviet Union the mean annual figure for cloudiness is 65 to 75 per
cent, in the Turanian Lovsdand it is only 35 to 45 per cent, and in some
places (for example, at Termez on the Amu-Darya) it is less than 30
per cent. Cloudiness is least in August and greatest in winter, usually
in January. In winter cloudiness is relatively great (50 to 60 per cent),
but the summer is practically cloudless. At Termez, according to observa-
tions over a period of twelve years, the mean cloudiness in August is
3 per cent; the number of clear days during this month is 30, and there
is not a single cloudy day. In general, there are 202 clear days per year
here, and only 37 cloudy days. Nowhere else in the Soviet Union do we
have such clear skies in summer as are found on the middle Amu-Darya
and in soutliem Turkmenistan. (The winters are less cloudy in the Trans-
Baikal region.)

In general, Soviet Central Asia is a sunny land. Insolation is much
greater here than in the forested tropics. Thus, at Bairam-Ali in August

THE DESERT ZONE

131

there is 94 per cent of the possible insolation. The summer and the month
of September in Turkmenistan have a greater number of hours of sun-
shine than has even Cairo (lat. 30°05'N)/ which lies 6' to 8"' farther
south. The great quantity of light and heat, together with the fertile
soil (and the soil is fertile because, due to the scant precipitation, it is
not leached), make the region of Soviet Central Asia very well suited
for agriculture, particularly for the cultivation of cotton. The abundant
heat promotes the accumulation of sugar in fruits. The wine and raisins,
dried apricots, and Chardzhuy melons from this region are famous for
their sweetness. The spring rains are very favorable for grains, while the
dry month of September is advantageous for the harvesting of cotton
and fruits. With the use of artificial irrigation, farmers in the desert zone
may regulate the water supply to the needs of their crops; there is no
need to fear either drought or excessive moisture. Side by side with rice,
which requires abundant water, crops which require Httle water may be
cultivated.

Winds in the desert zone generally do not reach a great velocity; calms
and very gentle winds predominate. In Dzhizak, for example, 62 per cent
of all periodic observations at the meteorological station show calm.
The diurnal range in wind velocity conforms to that which is character-
istic for all continental regions. On clear days the evenings and nights
are calm, while in the daytime there blow rather strong winds, which
reach a maximum during the afternoon. Thus, in Repetek, according to
all mean monthly figures, the wind velocity at 1:00 p.m. is considerably
greater than in the morning or in the evening, as can be seen from the
table which appears below, showing the months with the highest and
the lowest wind velocity.

Table 8
Wind Velocity in Repetek (m. per second)

Hour

Wind Velocitt

August

October

Year

7 : 00 A.M.
1 : 00 P.M.
9 : 00 P.M.

3.6
7.1

2.7

1.8
4.3
2.1

3.1
5.3

2.7

Soviet Central Asia lies southwest of the region of the Siberian anti-
cyclone, and in winter the pressure decreases to the southwest. For this
reason, cold northeast winds prevail here in winter. The low winter

* The original reads "lat. 31° 17' N." This is a manifest error.— Tr.

132 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

temperatures here are also explained by this condition. In summer, how-
ever, the isobaric gradient lies from northwest to southeast. This accounts
for the prevalence of northwest winds in summer. However, in the south,
closer to the mountains, there are some departures from this scheme.
There are exceptions also in some other places.

Mention may be made of several of the local winds. In the area from
the Dzhungarian Gates (the pass between the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau and
the Barlyk range, which leads into the basin of Lake Ebi-Nor in China)
to the eastern end of Lake Balkhash, there blows, during the cold period
of the year, a southeast or east wind called the ibe, or ebe. This wind,
analogous to the foehn, is distinguished by a relatively high temperature.
Sometimes after frosts of — 20° to — 30° C, a thaw may accompany
the ibe. Since this wind is also dry, it reduces or altogether removes the
snow cover, and thus favors stock raising.

Along the upper course of the Amu-Darya, particularly at Termez, a
very dusty southwest or west-southwest wind, called the afghanets, often
blows. In Termez the afghanets blows 40 to 70 days of the year. This
wind is associated with the intrusion of cold masses of air from the north
or northwest. The dust shroud during the period of the afghanets some-
times rises as high as 4000 m.

Relief

We shall describe the relief of the Turanian Lowland according to
subzones. But first we shall say something about that part of the low-
land adjoining the Caspian (see above, pp. 114-115) which lies within
the desert zone. We are interested now in that part of the lowland which
adjoins the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea from the northern boundary
of the Ust-Urt Plateau to tlie boundary of Iran ( the Atrek River ) .

During the epoch of the Khvalynsk transgression, the Caspian ex-
tended rather far to the east along the foot of the northern escarpment
of the Ust-Urt. Shells of Caspian mollusks have been discovered on the
slopes of the Chegan basin, the bottom of which in 1915 lay 20 m. below
the level of the Aral Sea, that is, at an absolute elevation of 32 m. The
dry basin of Lake Batyr (or Karagie) on the Mangyshlak Peninsula
reaches 130 m. below sea level.^ We have here the deepest depression on
dry land within the boundaries of the Soviet Union. The famous Lyuk-
chunsk basin near Turfan (China) reaches the same depth.

^ E. M. Murzayev, "Novie dannie po gipsometrii besstochnykh kotlovin Turanskoy
nizmennosti" ( New Data on the Hypsometry of the Landlocked Basins of the Turanian -
Lowland), Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the Geographical Society), 1936, p. 744.

THE DESERT ZONE 133

Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf of the Caspian, with an area of 18,346 sq. km.
and an average depth of 10 m., constitutes a sort of vast natural
laboratory at the bottom of which there is deposited Glauber's salt
(NaoSO^.lOHoO), as well as some sodium chloride and gypsum. About
23.5 cu. km. of water from the Caspian flow into Kara-Bogaz-GoI Gulf
annually (S. Shcherbak) and evaporate here. This bay, by extracting salts
from the Caspian Sea, makes the latter somewhat less saline.

At Krasnovodsk, on the shores of Balkhan Bay, and on the slopes of
the Great and Little Balkhan, there is a series of terraces and beaches,
traces of former levels of the Caspian Sea. The highest of these terraces,
which contain Caspian mollusks (but no Cardium edule), lie at an eleva-
tion of about 75 m. above the present surface of the Caspian (that is,
at the elevation of the surface of the Aral Sea). During the epoch of
the transgression [which produced these terraces], Caspian waters sub-
merged the lowlands of western Turkmenistan east of a line from Kizil-
Arvat to Kurtysh (on the Uzboy). Between the Great and Little Balkhan
there was a strait, by means of which the Caspian was connected with the
Uzboy valley (see below). Of the various Tertiary transgressions of the
Caspian, the one which extended farther east than any other was the
Sarmatian, which covered at least a part of the Aral Sea, and extended
along the foot of the Kopet-Dagh almost as far as the meridian of Geok-
Tepe.

The Caspian petroleum-bearing region of Turkmenistan is worth
noting; it is delimited approximately by Cheleken, Nebit-Dagh (Nefte-
dagh), and Chikishlyar.* Cheleken Island, which rises 119 m. above the
surface of the Caspian, lies at the entrance of Krasnovodsk Bay. Faults
are of fundamental importance in the relief of Cheleken Island; Andrusov
likens this island to a broken plate. According to some authorities,
Cheleken is underlain at a certain depth by a massif of young igneous
rocks, to which the faulting is attributed. Cheleken is composed of Ter-
tiary deposits, which are petroleum-bearing. On the island there are mud
volcanoes from which there is seepage of petroleum. There are manv
springs, some of which precipitate sodium chloride, others limonite. One
of the ferruginous springs has a temperature of 63° C. Many of the
springs emit gaseous hydrocarbons. The streams contain so much salt
that with the extensive evaporation here in summer, they become dammed
by deposits of sodium chloride. On the island there is a circular salt

"♦For details and bibliography, see L. S. Berg, Rehjef Turhnenii (The Relief of
Turkmenistan), Sbornik "Turkmeniya" (Collection "Turkrnenia" ) , II, 1929, izd. Akad.
nauk (publication of tlie Academy of Sciences).

134 ■ NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

lake, Porsu-Gyol, which is the crater of an ancient mud volcano. Today
there is emission of gases and seepage of petroleum in the center of the
lake. The desert characteristics of Cheleken are very conspicuous. Here
we see fine examples of wind erosion of bedrock: niches, pillars, and
"mushrooms." Kir, sand which has been cemented by petroleum, is very
resistant to wind erosion. For this reason crusts of Mr form plateaus
with steep edges. As it dries, the kir crust breaks into prisms which
resemble basaltic prisms.

On the continent opposite Cheleken, amid the flat surfaces composed
of the latest deposits, individual low hills (Nebit-Dagh [Neftedagh],
Monzhukly, Boya-Dagh, and others) appear unexpectedly; they consist
of dislocated Tertiary strata. Some authorities consider these eminences
laccoliths of a sort, that is, beds of sedimentary rocks lifted by masses
of lava which hardened at some depth, before they had time to break
through to the earth's surface. Others, however, regard these eminences
as salt domes, which appears to be more likely ( see above ) . Nebit-Dagh
(Neftedagh), with an absolute elevation of 45 m., rises sharply above
the surrounding vast solonchak, Baba-Khodzha, which will be dis-
cussed below. In this hill, which is composed of dislocated Upper Ter-
tiary deposits, there are petroleum beds, which are being exploited at
present.

In the region of Chikishlyar there are several mud volcanoes. Some,
like Zeleny hill, rise 96 m. above the level of the Caspian. A number of
them emit gases and mud. On the sea bottom in the region of Chikishlyar
there are some submerged volcanoes which emit gases.

1. Relief of the northern subzone— the Tertiary plateaus.

The Ust-Urt ^ is a plateau between the Caspian and Aral seas, bounded
on almost all sides by distinct escarpments. The eastern escarpment,
which drops to the Aral Sea, in some places reaches a relative elevation
of 190 m. The surface of the Ust-Urt, composed of Sarmatian strata, is
flat. It contains scattered depressions, occupied by sands, solonchaks, or
salt lakes. The Sam sands (absolute elevation 75 to 85 m.), which lie
next to the lake of the same name, are well known. Here, at the shallow
depth of 2 to 3 m. there is fresh ground water. However, in parts of the
Ust-Urt which are not sandy, the ground water lies very deep, at 20 to
50 m. and even 70 m., and the water is seldom fresh; it is usually more
or less brackish. There is no fresh surface water on this plateau. The

^ O. S. Vyalov, "Gidrogeologichesky ocherk Ust-Urta" ( Hydrogeological Sketch of
the Ust-Urt), Trudy Vsesoyuzn. geol.-razved. obyedin. (Proceedings of the All-Union
Geological Survey Association), No. 319, 1935, p. 66, geological map, bibliography.

THE DESERT ZONE 135

highest points of the Ust-Urt reach an absolute elevation of more than
300 m.

The Aral Sea is an enormous saline lake, second to the Caspian in size
among the lakes of the Old World. But this expansive basin is shallow;
depths of 10 to 20 m. are typical, and only near the steep western shore
does the depth reach 68 m. The water is rich in sulphates. The fauna
include Caspian elements, which point to a previously existing connec-
tion with that body of water. It is noteworthy that the mollusk Cardium
edule, which is found on the shores of the Caspian in fossil form at levels
no higher than — 21 m. absolute elevation ( or 5 m. above the surface
of the Caspian), inhabits the Aral Sea, the surface of which lies at an
absolute elevation of 52 m. (the mean figure for the years 1911-1931).
Deposits containing C. edule on the shores of the Aral Sea rise no higher
than 3 m. above the present surface of this basin. The Aral region and
the Turanian Lowland were formerly mistakenly called the Aralo-
Caspian Lowland. At the time this name was used, it was believed that
a large part of the Turanian Lowland was covered by the waters of the
Aralo-Caspian Sea during the Quaternary period. This is not the case.
As we can see, the Aral Sea could not have been connected with
Lake Balkhash during the Quaternary period; the absolute elevation
of Lake Balkhash is 3.40 m., and at its greatest extent it reached beyond
its eastern and southeastern shores no farther than several tens of kilo-
meters from the present shore line. It may be that the Aral Sea, or, more
exactly, its fresh-water arms, extended as far northeast as Lake Chalkar,*'
the surface of which lies at the same elevation. The Aral Sea cannot
have reached beyond Chalkar, since' to the north of this lake there are
hills composed of Tertiary deposits which rise more than 120 m. above
the lake.

At the time of its maximum extent, the Aral Sea was connected with
the Caspian by way of the Uzboy (see below).

The Kara-Kum sands adjoin the northeast shore of the Aral Sea. A
large part of this area of sand is covered with stabilized sandy mounds, and
there are shifting sands (barkhans) only where the vegetation has been
destroyed by man (Fig. 26). In some parts of the Kara-Kum there are
individual tablelike eminences of the same type as those found in the
Turgay tableland. The northern part of the Kara-Kum belongs to the
zone of the semidesert. West of the Kara-Kum as far as the Aral Sea lie
the Malie Barsuki sands, and still farther west, the Bolshie Barsuki sands,
a large part of which also belong to the semidesert.

^ Not to be confused >vith Lake Chelkar at the railroad station of the same name.

136 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The Bet-Pak-Dala plateau, or the Northern Golodnaya Steppe, extends
as far south as the Chu River. Here its absolute elevation is about 130 m.
It increases in elevation to the north. On the west the plateau drops to
the Sary-Su River in an escarpment 40 to 60 m. high. On the west it is
composed of horizontal layers of clay and sandstone, predominantly of
Tertiary age. On the east, however, toward Lake Balkhash, the Bet-Pak-
Dala constitutes a continuation of the area of melkosopochnik (see above,
pp. 95-96).

Lake Balkhash is an enormous landlocked basin, about 600 km. long,
but very shallow; its average depth is only 6 m. (Fig. 27).^ The level
of the lake, which lies at an elevation of about 340 m., fluctuates widely,
depending on climatic changes. It is interesting that the water of the
western part of the lake, into which the Hi River empties, is fresh, while
the water of its eastern part is slightly brackish. The presence in the
desert of such a lake, partly fresh and partly saline, constitutes a geo-
graphic paradox. It may be that Lake Balkliash came into existence rela-
tively recently and has not had time as yet to turn completely saline
(Berg).

To the north of Lake Balkliash tliere are terraces which rise to an
elevation of 130 m. above the surface of the lake, that is, up to 470 m.
in absolute elevation. At the time these terraces were formed, the lake
reached as far as the basin of Ebi-Nor in China. At Kounrad, near the
northern shore of the lake, there are rich deposits of copper ore, sprinkled
in the igneous rocks (quartz diorite-porphyries ) .

2. Relief of the stihzone of sands.

As to the origin of the desert sands, it was believed formerly (Walter)
that the sandy massifs were formed by wind erosion of desert rocks.
But Penk (1909), Neustruyev (1915), and Lichkov suggest that the
greater part of the sandy areas of the Turanian Lowland are of fluvial
origin : The Kara-Kum which adjoins the Aral Sea may have been formed
by deposition from the lakes and the river, which at one time emptied
into the Aral Sea. The Kyzyl-Kum is traversed by old river channels. Many
rivers lose themselves in the Trans-Caspian Kara-Kum; and there are old
river channels here also ( see below ) . The epoch during which the Tura-
nian rivers abounded in waters and transported large quantities of sand
must belong to the glacial period. Explorers of the Sahara ( Gautier and

'^ P. F. Domrachev, Issledovaniija ozer S.S.S.R. (Exploration of the Lakes of the
U.S.S.R.), izd. Gidrol. inst. (publication of the Hydrological Institute), No. 4, 1933,
p. 44. (This also includes a bibliography on Balkhash.)

THE DESERT ZONE 137

Chudeau, 1908-1909) believe that the sands of this desert also are the
result of the weathering of Quaternary alluvium by wind.

The Trans-Caspian Kara-Kum * is the vast area of sand which is
bounded on the east by the Amu-Darya, and which extends as far west
as the Uzboy valley, as far north as the escarpment of the Kara-Kum
(Unguz) Plateau, and as far south as the Kopet-Dagh piedmont. The
Kara-Kum contains a tremendous area of shifting sands. Thus, between
Mary and Chardzhuy (and also farther east), the railroad passes through
a sandy sea of bare, shifting sand mounds— barkhans. The height of the
barkhans reaches 9 to 10 m,, but most of them rise only 5 to 7 m. above
the depressions. These shifting sands were produced in the Kara-Kum
as a result of the grazing of cattle, the plowing of sands on the outskirts
of the oases, and the destruction of saxaul thickets and other sand-binding
agents. Fundamentally, with very few exceptions, the Kara-Kum sands
were at one time held fast. The original shifting barkhan sands exist
only along the Amu-Darya, where they were formed by wind erosion
of the sandy-clayey alluvial deposits. All of the remaining area of the
Kara-Kum is covered with sands which in their natural state would have
been covered with vegetation. The weight of opinion at present is in-
clined to attribute an alluvial origin to the sands of the Kara-Kum.

Four types of sandy landscapes are distinguished in the Kara-Kum:
barkhan sands, mound sands, ridged sands, and sandy plain.

Barkhan sands are developed along the Amu-Darya. The barkhan strip
at Chardzhuy is 40 to 50 km. wide. Individual barkhans often combine
into barkhan chains, from 3 to 4 m. to 6 to 8 m. high (Fig. 28). The
barkhan chains, like the individual barkhans, lie in a northeast-southwest
direction, showing the prevalence of N and NW winds ( in summer ) and
S and SE winds (in winter). Depending on the winds, the chains shift
their position, in summer to SE, in winter to NW. The annual range of
their movement is about 20 m. No continuous movement of the sands
in one direction (which formerly was believed to take place) has been
observed, however. This same kind of movement is found in the barkhan
chains at Repetek and throughout the Kara-Kum in general. Only the
top of the chain shifts, while the foundation remains more or less sta-
tionary. Crescent-shaped barkhans, with crests which face in the direc-
tion of the wind, are found only rarely in the Amu-Darya valley; in the
Kara-Kum they are altogether absent.

Mound sands are extensive in Turmenistan. The height of the mounds

^ See Kara-Kum, izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences), 1930 f.

138 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

may reach 8 to 10 m., but more often is 6 to 8 m. They are held fast
by shrubs, among them white saxaul (Fig. 30). Under the crown of sand
vegetation, the sand becomes compacted, cemented, and a radical change
in the water regime results. Atmospheric moisture can no longer be
absorbed into the deep layers so quickly; in large measure it remains
on the surface and evaporates. Thus, conditions favorable to the settle-
ment of the black, or solonchak saxaul are created (Dubyansky).

The ridged sands are characterized by long, parallel ridges, running
approximately north and south. In some places the ridges are connected
by cross ridges. The average height is 15 to 20 m.; in some places it
reaches 25 to 30 m. The depressions between the main ridges are usually
60 to 80 m. wide. The eastern slopes of the main ridges are more gentle
than the western slopes. Among the ridged sands there are many takyrs
(compact clayey areas) and solonchaks, which will be discussed below.
The ridged sands are held fast by vegetation. The origin of this type
of sands is obscure. They may have been formed during the Quaternary
period at the time when the large lakes in the Kara-Kum region con-
tracted their areas. In the central Kara-Kum, Quaternary lacustrine de-
posits have been found. Some authorities (B. Petrushevsky, 1937) ascribe
an aeolian origin to the ridged sands.

Sandy plains. Some areas are covered with more or less Hat or slightly
rolling sand. There are extensive sandy plains, held fast by vegetation,
between the Murgab and the Kelif Uzboy.

Takyrs, which are very widespread in the desert zone in general and
are common in the Kara-Kum, are flat clayey spaces, which lie in the
gentle depressions. In spring, during the rainy season, many of the takyrs
are turned into shallow lakes, and sometimes even into very large ones.
They dry up in summer, and dieir clayey surface cracks in the manner
of parquet floor (Fig. 29). A typical takyr is not covered with vegetation.
At some depth in the takyr, salinization by gypsum and sodium chloride
appears. Thus, a takyr is a deep solonchak. The thin surface crust
(compacted and containing some absorbed sodium), on the other hand,
according to I. Gerasimov (1931), constitutes a rudimentary solonized
horizon. According to him, the takyr results from the leaching of salinized
clayey or clay-loam soils by atmospheric waters, which in the desert
always contain alkali. The upper horizons become more dispersed, and
as they dry, give rise to a takyr crust. The takyrs often become salinized
from the surface, turning into typical solonchaks.

Shor, or sor, is a native word for solonchak. The shors which lie at the
southern boundary of the ridged sands are elongated depressions, 2 to

THK DESERT ZONE 139

5 km. long. Their banks, which are sometimes terraced, are rather high,
15 to 20 m. The bottom of a shor is swampy and covered with salts.
Some authorities regard the Kara-Kum shors as the result of karst
processes.

Turkmenistan has several dry river channels, concerning which there
exists an extensive literature. Let us consider first the Uzboy system.

By "Uzboy system" we mean the aggregate of channels and their
associated basins along which at one time the waters from the Aral basin
drained into the Caspian. Subsequently this system became a bed for
the drainage of part of the waters of the Amu-Darya into the Caspian,
The Uzboy system consists of ( 1 ) the dry channel of the Kunya-Darya,
(2) the Sarykamysh basin, and (3) the dry channel of the Uzboy.

The Kunya-Darya is the old channel (now dry) of the Amu-Darya
which flowed in the direction of the Sarykamysh basin. It is partitioned
by two large dams. When the river is at high water, a small quantity of
water enters the Kunya-Darya, but does not travel very far. However,
in 1878 the waters of the Amu-Darya broke through into the Kunya-
Darya and reached as far as the Sarykamysh lake, raising its level by
about 8 m.

The Sarykamysh basin lies southwest of the delta of the Amu-Darya.
The borders of the basin, which were the shores of the old Sarykamysh
lake, have an elevation of 3 to 4 m. above the level of the Aral Sea. The
outlet of the Uzboy from the basin also lies at this elevation. To the
north and west the basin is bounded by the escarpments of the Ust-Urt;
to the south it has extended approximately as far as the wells of the
Charyshla, where the old Sarykamysh lake joined the series of lagoons
and lakes in which the Uzboy had its source. The lowest part of the
basin is occupied by the two Sarykamysh lakes, which in dry years may
evaporate completely, turning into solonchaks, as happened, for example,
in the years 1913 and 1914. The level of the lakes in 1881 was 39 m.
below sea level; obviously, the depression in which they lie is a deep
one. On the bottom of the basin in some places there are shells of
Cardium edule, sometimes in large numbers; they occur up to a height
of 7 to 12 m. above the basin floor; that is, up to 32 to 27 m. below sea
level. In other parts of the Sarykamysh depression there are "Sary-
kamysh" deposits which contain numerous shells, but no C. edule. These
deposits belong to an earlier period than those which contain C. edule,
which penetrated into the Caspian and Aral seas during the most recent
geological period. During the epoch when the Sarykamysh strata were
deposited, the slightly brackish Sarykamysh basin was connected on the

140 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

one hand with the Aral Sea, on the other, by means of the Uzboy, with
the Caspian.

The method by which Cardiiim edule penetrated into the Sarykamysh
and Aral basins is still obscure. In the Sarykamysh basin the shells of this
mollusk are found only as far as the elevation of the present level of
the Caspian Sea ( — 26 m. ) . In the Aral basin, however, they are found
up to an absolute elevation of +55 m.

The Uzboy, as we have said above, has its source in the southern end
of the Sarykamysh basin. The total length of this channel, measured as
far as the base of the Great Balkhan Mountains, is 550 km. In this dis-
tance the floor of the channel drops 75 m.; thus, it corresponds to the
difference in elevation between the Aral Sea and the Caspian. In some
places the Uzboy has worn its channel through the Sarmatian limestones
of the Ust-Urt, which form ledges in the channel 6 and even 8 m. high.
At 3 km. below its crossing by the railroad, the channel disappears.
Here at one time the Uzboy emptied into a bay of the Caspian Sea,
which today is the vast Baba-Khodzha solonchak. From this solonchak
the Aktam channel (about 40 km. long), which empties into Balkhan
Bay, leads into the Caspian. The Aktam is therefore the terminal portion
of the Uzboy. In the Aktam channel lies the Molla-Kara salt lake, where
there is a health resort.

There are shells of Cardhnn edule in the Baba-Khodzha solonchak.
Although, as we have seen, this mollusk is absent along the entire extent
of the Uzboy channel in the Sarykamysh basin, other Caspian mollusks
are present.

Classical authors talk about the debouchment of the Amu-Darya (the
Oxus) into the Caspian Sea. It may be that at one time a part of the
waters of the Amu-Darya drained into the Caspian by way of the Uzboy.
From the middle of the thirteenth century until 1573, as Barthold pointed
out, water flowed again in the Uzboy, At that time only a part of the
waters of the Amu-Darya can have flowed here; the rest were directed
toward the Aral Sea. There is direct evidence of this in the works of the
Iranian author Kazvini ( 1339 ) .

In addition to the Uzboy, there are other dry channels west of the
Amu-Darya. The so-called Kelif Uzboy, which has its source in Afghanis-
tan, belongs to this category. In 1907 water from the rivers of Afghanistan
penetrated into this indistinct channel.

The Kara-Kum sands reach northeast as far as the edge of the Kara-
Kum Plateau, which rises 60 to 80 m. above the desert sands. To the
north the plateau, which is composed of horizontal rocks of Upper

THE DESERT ZONE 141

Tertiary age, declines gradually. At the foot of the escarpment lies the
so-called Unguz— a series of dry depressions and shors (that is, hollows
occupied by solonchaks)- which some authorities believe to be one of
the ancient channels of the Amu-Darya. Along the bottom of the Unguz
the absolute elevation fluctuates between 95 and 115 m.

In the Kara-Kum south of the edge of the plateau, there are round,
conical, and plateau-shaped hills, which have been detached from the edge
of the plateau. These hills rise 20 to 60 m. above the surrounding country.
Some of them, for example, in the region of the Shie wells, are noted
for their sulphur beds. The origin of the sulphur is obscure; it is believed
that its accumulation took place as a result of chemical processes in sedi-
mentary rocks rich in sulphates.

The delta of the Amu-Darya begins at Nukus. The position of the
branches of the delta changes continuously, partly as a result of the work
of the river itself, partly because men have dammed or diverted some of
the branches.

The Kyzyl-Kum desert borders on the eastern shores of the Aral Sea
in the area between the deltas of the Amu-Darya and the Syr-Darya.
The sands of the Kyzyl-Kum are almost completely stabilized. The north-
ern part of the desert is traversed by the dry channel of the Yany-Darya
(Dzhany-Darya), which branches off from the middle course of the Syr-
Darya and empties into the Aral Sea. Along its shores there are traces
of settlement and ancient irrigation canals {arijks). In some parts of the
Kyzyl-Kum there are elevations composed of Paleozoic rocks (on the
north, Bukan-Tau, 700 m.; Tamdinsk Ak-Tau, 1029 m.). The folds of
these elevations extend latitudinally; they form the tectonic continuation
of the Sultan-Uiz-Dagh. The Tamdinsk Ak-Tau rises 600 to 650 m. above
the Kyzyl-Kum.

The Syr-Darya Lowland, which borders both sides of the Syr-Darya
to its mouth in the Aral Sea, is bounded on the east by the Kyzyl-Kum
and the Southern Golodnaya Steppe. The lowland consists of the present
flood plain and the ancient valley of the Syr-Darya. To the north of the
Kara-Tau Mountains, the lowland reaches as far as Lake Tele-Kul, in
the lower reaches of the Chu River. From the accounts of local inhabit-
ants, Neustruyev reports that about 1898, when water was abundant,
the waters of Tele-Kul penetrated into the Syr-Darya and rushed along
the escarpment of the Kara-Kemir. This escarpment, which is only 2 to
5 m. high, and bounds the Syr-Darya valley on the east, forms the
western edge of the Bet-Pak-Dala Plateau. The floor of the ancient valley
of the Syr-Darya lies 5 to 10 m. above the present flood plain, and exten-

142 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

sive areas are occupied by solonchaks and takyrs. The present flood plain
or tugaij belt of the Syr-Darya is covered with salinized meadows, sandy
mounds, and in some places puffy solonchaks. The flood plain may be
recognized from a distance in the desert by its verdant reeds, individual
poplar trees, and spiny tliickets of Siberian salt tree, a leguminous shrub
( Halimodendron argentewn [H. halodendron argenteum] ) , in which
pheasants take shelter. The Syr-Darya deposits so much alluvium in its
channel that in its lower course the channel lies higher than the sur-
rounding country, and the river flows along the crest of a low and gently
sloping ridge.

Between the Kara-Tan range and the Chu River lie the Muyun-Kum
sands, which extend for more than 500 km. The elevation of the central
part of these sands is 300 to 380 m.

The Semirechye plain, drained by the Hi, Karatal, and other rivers,
descends to Lake Balkhash, of which we have spoken already. Vast sandy
areas stretch as far as the low southern shore of Balkhash.® Between the
Hi and the Karatal rivers these sands are traversed by dry channels
(Bakanasy) which branch from the Hi River. Along these dry channels
there are vast thickets of saxaul.

3. We come now to a description of the loessial piedmont plains, where
most of the arable land is found. These plains are covered by loess or
loesslike material.

The origin of the Central Asiatic loess is explained by the same hy-
potheses as the origin of the European loess (see above, p. 70 ff.).
The adherents of the wind hypothesis believe that the dust, so charac-
teristic for Central Asia, gives rise to the loess. But, in the first place,
this loess, as we shall see ( p. 147 ) , is not a contemporary but a geological
formation, as it is overlain by sierozem soils. In the second place the
loessial dust of Central Asia is an artificial product, a result of the plow-
ing of the soils which are developed on the loess, the wind erosion of
the sands trampled by livestock, and the erosion of soils on the public
roads. As observations at the special dust station at Osh have shown, the
Fergana dust is formed from loesses. There is no reason to believe that
aeolian loess was deposited here in the geological past as well. It is our
opinion that deposits of various origins may have served as the parent
material for the Central Asiatic loesses: glacial mud, carried onto the
plain by mountain streams during the glacial period; river ( fluvioglacial )

^S. A. Nikitin, "Peski zapadnovo Pribalkhashya" (The Sands of the Western
Balkhash Region), Trudy Pochv. inst. Akad. nauk (Proceedings of the Soils Institute
of the Academy of Sciences), XI, 1935, pp. 147-225, with a map. (This article deals
also with the sands of the southern Balkhash region. )

THE DESERT ZONE 143

deposits of the same period; and alluvial fan deposits of the postglacial
period. On the slopes of the Kopet-Dagh in Turkmenistan, the gravel on
the lower slopes gradually grades into loesslike clay loams, sometimes
alternating with beds of fine gravel, sometimes completely free from
gravel. The piedmont loesses are always interbedded with layers of
gravel, which also testifies to the large part played by alluvial fans in
the formation of these loesses. In the southeastern Kara-Kum there are
extensive areas of alluvial sands, which have changed into loesslike sands
under the influence of the processes of weathering and soil formation
in a dry climate. Similarly, the contemporary alluvium in the delta of the
Amu-Darya is assuming a loesslike appearance. The loesses of the Golod-
naya Steppe without a doubt are deposits of the ancient Syr-Darya; they
are interbedded with layers of sand and gravel. All of these facts testify
to the fluvial origin of the parent material of the loesses and loesslike
strata in this area.

Loess is a material which is easily pulverized. In summer the towns of
Central Asia may be recognized from a distance by the heavy shroud
of loessial dust which hangs over them. This dust is a characteristic
feature of all the settlements of Central Asia. Carried by winds and con-
vectional currents, the fine dust rises to a height of at least 6000 m.
Often during the dry period of the year when gales are blowing, the
whole sky is covered by a continuous turbid shroud. In general a whitish,
foggy atmospheric coloration is very characteristic for the landscape here.

On the loesses of Soviet Central Asia sierozems are developed; they
are among the most fertile soils on earth. Thus, it is easy to understand
why the loessial piedmont plains of Central Asia were the sites of very
ancient culture. The sloping loessial piedmont plain marks the first step
toward vertical zonation.

The elevation of the piedmont plain in Turkmenistan, judging from
the elevations of the railroad stations, is from 100 to 300 m. Among the
other loessial regions, the Golodnaya Steppe between Dzhizak and the
Syr-Darya, which on the north merges into the Kyzyl-Kum sands, varies
in elevation between 240 and 290 m. The Golodnaya Steppe falls away
to the Syr-Darya in a clearly defined bluft", 6 to 20 m. high. Here extensi\-e
irrigation works are under construction. Another loess plain is the vast
Fergana Lowland, which is about 300 km. long and 170 km. wide,
although its entrance at Khodzhent (absolute elevation 320 m.) is only
9 km. wide. The floor of the lowland has an elevation between 350 and
500 m. and is covered by loess and sands. The Syr-Darya nms along the
full length of the lowland.

144 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Loessial piedmont plains are developed also at the foot of the Alek-
sandrovsk range and the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau, but they are absent at the
foot of the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau.

Drainage

The Turanian Lowland is watered by several large rivers— the Amu-
Darya, the Zeravshan, the Syr-Darya, the Chu, and the Hi; but they all
lie in interior basins, and have no outlet to the ocean. These rivers have
their sources high in the Tian Shan and the Pamirs, which are covered
with snow and glaciers. As they flow through the desert, they lose a
tremendous amount of water by evaporation. Much water is taken also
for irrigation. These rivers carry a maximum amount of water in summer,
when the melting of ice and snow takes place most intensively in the
mountains. Those rivers which are fed largely by the melting of low-
lying mountain snows, reach their maximum flow at the beginning of
the summer. Thus, the Naryn River, which belongs to the category of
rivers which are fed by mixed sources (that is, by the melting of ice
and both high-mountain and low-mountain snows ) , reaches its maximum
discharge at the beginning of June.

The waters of the Amu-Dar^^a are extremely muddy. During the year
1911, at Kerki the river carried about 50 cu. km. of water and about 0.2
cu. km. of mud; of this figure, 92 per cent was recorded for the summer
half-year. In some years there is even more drift. Due to the large quan-
tity of mud, the river forms sand bars in its channel very rapidly, which
it shifts just as rapidly, because of the swift flow. The quantity of soluble
substances in the waters of the Amu-Darya is also tremendous. In Feb-
ruary, when the salt content of the water of the Amu-Darya is greatest
(as is usual for rivers in temperate latitudes), a liter of water at Kerki
contains 0.601 gram of salt. The average daily turnover of soluble sub-
stances here was 81 thousand tons* for the summer half-year of 1912,
while for the winter half-year it was 42 thousand tons. An enormous
quantity of salts was carried past Kerki for the year as a whole— almost
22.5 million tons.

The range of fluctuation in the level of the Amu-Darya along its middle
and lower course is one to three meters. This imposing river is composed
of a series of separate channels, divided one from another by shoals and
sandy islands. In these separate branches the river flows at different rates
of speed and has different gradients, and consequently, different levels.

** This is the metric ton, which equals 1000 kilograms, or 2200 pounds.— Tr.

THE DESKRT ZONE 145

The difference in the levels of the river on opposite shores may be as
great as 0.5 m.

Soils

Like the semidcsert soils, the soils oi' the desert are poorly developed,
due to the small role played by water and vegetation in the soil-torming
process (see above, pp. 119-120).

According to the character of its soils, the desert as a whole may be
divided into four categories: (1) clayey, or, more exactly, clay-loam
desert, (2) stony desert, (3) sandy desert, and (4) solonchak desert.^''
Solonchak desert is scattered in patches among the other types of desert.
We will examine the soil cover of the desert by subzones, beginning at
the north.

1. On the Tertiary plateaus of the northern subzone structural siero-
zems are developed (Fig. 31).^"^ Neustruyev formerly called these the
gray-brown solonized clay loams, or solonized sierozems. The surface of
these soils is usually strewn with rubble, or the rubble is incorporated
into the surface crust of the soil (desert pavement), or the entire soil
mantle in general is rich in skeletal elements, so that the region of the
gray-brown clay loams may be considered a part of the stony desert. In
these soils the maximum quantity of carbonates is found in the surface
horizon, a characteristic which is explained as the result of plant activity.
The quantity of carbonates decreases with the depth, which is not the
case in the so-called "desert" sierozems and the light-chestnut soils. The
surface horizon is not salinized, but not far below the surface (12 to
20 cm.) there lies a more clayey, compact (solonized) illuvial horizon,
brownish in color, sometimes with an efflorescence of carbonates. The
lower portion of this (illuvial) horizon contains accumulations of gyp-
sum, which begin at 25 cm., and sometimes at 80 to 90 cm. (On the
Ust-Urt Plateau, the thickness of the gypsum horizon may reach two
meters or more.) These soils contain little humus; the humus content in
the upper horizons usually does not exceed 1 per cent, and the humus
is distributed more or less evenly throughout the soil profile. Sometimes
these sierozems contain soluble salts all the way to the surface; that is,
they are salinized. Sometimes they contain soda from the surface down;

^^ L. S. Berg, "Formy russkikh pustyn" (Tv-pes of Russian Desert), appendix to
Walter's book, Zakomj obrazovaniya piisti/n (Principles Which Govern the Forma-
tion of Deserts), St. Petersburg, 1911, pp. 164-178.

^^ I. P. Gerasimov, "O strukturnykh serozyomakh Turkestana" ( Concerning the
Structural Sierozems of Turkestan ),'Trt/f/i/ pochv. inst. Akad. nauk (Proceedings of
the Soils Institute of the Academy of Sciences), V, 1931.

146 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R,

that is, they are distinctly solonized. On the Ust-Urt Plateau there are
found platy-columnar solonetz soils, which are generally foreign to the
desert zone.

2. In the sandy desert processes of soil formation may take place, of
course, only when the sands have been stabilized. Dubyansky describes
the stabilization of the sands in the Kara-Kum as follows: ^-

As tree vegetation develops on the sands, a change takes place in the
chemical and mechanical properties of the surface horizons of the sand.
The dying vegetation (particularly saxaul) which co\'ers the surface
enriches the soil with salts and silt, at the expense of ash substances and
the products of the more energetic decomposition of the mineral con-
stituents of the sand. These processes take place especially vigorously
in the thickets of solonchak saxaul. The sand of the bare barkhans at
Repetek contains almost no particles smaller than 0.05 mm. in diameter.
(There are only 0.1 per cent of these.) As the sand becomes overgrown
by the pioneer sand binders, three-awn and dzhiizgun {Calligonum
caput-medusae) , such particles become more numerous and the quantity
of silt increases to 0.5 per cent. Under sand saxaul the proportion of
particles smaller than 0.05 mm. reaches 9 per cent, while under solon-
chak saxaul it may reach 40 and even 50 per cent. The quantity of silt
decreases as the depth increases. As the surface layer is enriched with
silt, an increase in its soluble salt content also takes place.

Even with the naked eye, compacted, cemented sand may be seen to
appear under the crown of desert vegetation; for example, under three-
awn and Calligonum arborescens, where the thickness of the cemented
sand crust reaches 5 to 10 cm. The cementation of the sand is particularly
vigorous under saxaul. The thickness of the soil under saxaul plantations
may reach 1.5 to 2 m.

The compaction of the surface horizons of the sand brings about a
radical change in the water regime of the sands. Atmospheric moisture
can no longer be absorbed so rapidly into the deeper layers, but remains
in large measure on the surface where it evaporates. As a result, the
pioneer sand binders die out and are replaced by thickets of solonchak
saxaul.^^

^- V. A. Dubyansky, "Peschanaya pustynya yugo-vostochnykh Kara-Kum" ( The
Sandy Desert of Southeast Kara-Kum), Trudy po prikl. botan. (Works in Apphed
Botany), XIX, No. 4, 1928.

^^ However, at present there is incHnation to beheve that the solonchak, or black,
saxaul has its own associational sequence, which does not enter into the cycle of
changes which take place among the other types of \'egetation in the sands. See
M. P. Petrov, "K voprosu o proiskhozhdenii rastitelnosti peschanoy pustyni Kara-
Kumy" (On the Question of the Origin of the Vegetation of the Kara-Kum Sandy

THE DESERT ZONE 147

3. On the loessial piedmont plains and to some extent higher up, at
elevations of 300 to 500 m., typical sierozems are developed— soils which
were regarded by former investigators simply as loess, and which were
called loess and aeolian-loess soils. However, Neustruyev pointed out that
this conception was wrong. Sierozem is not a dust deposit at all, but
undisturbed zonal soil, underlain most frequently by loess, but capable
of being developed on other materials as well. There are no great differ-
ences between the typical sierozem and the above-described structural
sierozem. If the typical sierozems are of "aeolian" origin, then the same
origin should be ascribed to the structural sierozems as well; this, how-
ever, is not done.

Typical sierozems are soils of light grayish-brown color, with high
content of carbonates but containing little humus. They usually overlie
loesses and differ very little in chemical and mechanical composition from
loesses. The soil-forming process is apparent in the accumulation of some
humus in the upper loess horizons, while the carbonates are washed to
some extent into the lower horizons; thus, the maximum amount of
carbonates in the typical sierozems is found not in the surface horizon
( as in the above-described structural sierozems ) , but at some depth below
the surface. Furthermore, the upper loess horizon ( 10 to 12 cm. ) assumes
a gray coloration and a platy-laminated structure. Lower down lies a
lumpy, more compact (B) horizon. At the bottom it merges into a
layer which is thoroughly burrowed by worms and grubs, and becomes
saturated with moisture during the wet period of the year. Below this
porous horizon, and sometimes even within this horizon, the efflorescence
of carbonates begins. From a depth of 80 to 100 cm. down there is usually
unmodified loess.

The sierozems are very rich in carbonates. The content of carbonates
may be 10 to 15 per cent in the upper horizon, and as high as 25 per cent
lower down. This fact is responsible for the remarkable fertility of the
sierozems.

Since ground water in the loessial piedmont plains as a rule occurs
far below the surface, the sierozems which overlie loess are usually not
salinized, because of the physical properties of the loess— its water-
permeability and its susceptibility to leaching; water extracts from these
soils up to a depth of 1 and even 2 m. do not contain soluble salts in
noticeable quantities. The deeper horizons may be salinized, containing

Desert), Khozyaistvennmje osvoyenie piistijn Sredneij Azii i Kazakhstana (The Eco-
nomic Utilization of the Deserts of Central Asia and Kazakhstan) collected articles
edited by E. P. Korovin, Tashkent, 1934, pp. 31-40.

148 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

gypsum. Where ground water is easily accessible to their surface, the
loesses are salinized quickly and turn into salinized sierozems, and some-
times even into solonchaks.

The sierozems are extremely fertile, and vegetation develops quickly
and luxuriously when they are irrigated. Enormous poplars, half a meter
in diameter, grow within 20 to 25 years in Tashkent and Samarkand.

Having described the zonal types of desert soils, we pass on to the
intrazonal formations.

In some places, where ground water is able to reach the surface of
the earth and evaporate, solonchak soils are developed. They are very
extensive here and are particularly abundant in the valleys of contempo-
rary and ancient rivers and along lake shores.

PuflFy solonchaks, or kebirs, are of interest. They lie in the vicinit)' of
water basins, but in places not subject, or seldom subject, to inundation.
As a result of the great heat in summer, the salts (predominantly sul-
phates and sodium chloride) rise to the surface from the moist subsoil
and are precipitated here, loosening the surface horizon of the soil and
forming a friable puflFy layer. Farther down, in the sticky and wet layer,
there is an abundance of gypsum crystals. The quantity of water-soluble
salts in the upper puflFy layer may reach 36 per cent of the weight of the
air-dry soil. A solonchak covered by white salts is called a sor or shor.

There are no typical columnar solonetz soils in the desert. But platy-
columnar solonetz soils are found as far as the extreme south of the Ust-
Urt, while in northern Semirechye there are platy-lumpy solonetz soils.
Farther south the processes of leaching decrease in intensity, the car-
bonate content increases, and solonetz soils are found only under excep-
tional conditions.

In the region of the ancient valley of the Syr-Darya (and in some
other places), takijrs are very widespread. These may be considered
rudimentary soil formations (see above, p. 138).

Vegetation
The vegetation of the desert is unique. There is no continuous vege-
tation cover in summer, autumn, or winter. The plants grow far apart,
and the bare soil may be seen in the spaces between them; the area of
bare soil is larger than the area under vegetation. However, during the
spring rainy reason, the ground is covered, sometimes completely,
by a short-lived carpet of vegetation which fades quickly— the so-called
ephemera, composed of grasses, sedges, and some dicotyledons. Among
these there are many annuals. By the middle of spring all this vege-

rUE DESERT ZONE 149

tation fades and is replaced l^y typical desert xcrophytes, among which
there are many spiny plants and sometimes pulyn, as well as halophytes.

We will describe the vegetation oi the desert according to subzones:

1. The noriJiern suhzone, where structural sierozems are developed,
constitutes the transition to the semidesert, and some botanists classify
it with the semidesert. In the soils of this zone, as explained previously,
there is an accumulation of gypsum not far from the surface; therefore,
the vegetation, the roots of which penetrate into the medium which has a
high salt content, must be able to withstand such salinization. Chief
among such plants are the halophytes.

The preponderant species of this group are hoyalych ( Salsola arhuscula
[Fig. 32], which is replaced in the Bet-Pak-Dala by the Mongolian spe-
cies, S. laricifolia) and hiijurgun {Anabasis salsa) (Fig. 24). Boyalych
is an undershrub, 30 to 50 cm. high, and is characteristic for the semi-
desert and the northern part of the desert zone. The individual plants of
this species lie 0.5 to 2 m. apart. Biyurgun is a small undershrub, 10 to
15 cm. high, which covers large areas on the water divides, slopes, and
even in the valleys, but is found predominantly in shallow depressions.
In addition, there is the peculiar xerophytic halophyte tashiyurgun {Nano-
phyton erinaceum), a small procumbent undershrub with small spiny
leaves. There is also a good deal of polyn here.

The polyns are represented by white polyn {Artemisia terrae-albae) ,
which is widely distributed in this subzone, as well as in the south of
the semidesert; Turanian polyn { A. turanica ) ; and black polyn, or maikara
(A. maikara), which replaces A. pauciflora here. The polyns grow 30 to
50 cm. tall. Five to ten shrubs grow to a square meter.

In shallow depressions there is Caucasian pea shrub, the legume
Caragana grandiflora var. steveni, which grows in bushes up to 1 m.
high. On the ground, the lichen Aspicilia alpino-desertoriim grows in
abundance.

This subzone may be called the po/j/n-halophyte desert. In some places
polyn (which, as we have seen, is characteristic for the semidesert) pre-
dominates in the vegetation cover.

Because precipitation is at a maximum during the latter half of
spring, this subzone is very poor in ephemera— plants which complete
their life cycle for a given year quickly during the spring. Hot weather
here sets in very soon after the period of maximum precipitation. There
is practically no spring; winter is followed after a very short interval
by summer. Nevertheless, there are some ephemera here, for example,
tulips.

150 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

As in the semidesert, the distribution of vegetation and soils in this
subzone is complex. One type of vegetation is replaced by another
within a short distance, depending on local elevations and depressions in
the relief. Thus, on the southern Ust-Urt and in the Bet-Pak-Dala three
vegetational groupings are widespread: on sHghtly elevated portions of
the relief we find (1) polijn, or (2) boyalijch together with polyn, while
in depressions we find (3) biyurgun.

The sands in this subzone (the Barsuki and the Aral Kara-Kum;
Korovin includes also the Muyun-Kum and the Balkhash sands) have a
great deal in common with the sands of the more southern subzone, which
will be described below. But there are some differences. The saxaul Am-
modendron conollyi is replaced here by the closely related species A. kare-
lini, which the Kazakhs call kuyan-suyek ( "hare's bone" ) . The vegetation
of the northern sands includes Siberian wheat grass {Agropyron sibiri-
cwn), some feather grasses {Stipa szowitsiana and S. hohenackeriana) ,
Old World winter fat (Eurotia ceratoides), and the polyn Artemisia
terrae-albae. On the sodded sands wheat grass is abundant and some-
times covers as much as half the surface of the soil; there are also
feather grasses. In spring ephemeral vegetation develops here: vivipa-
rous bulbous blue grass, brome, and sand sedge [Carex physodes].
On still more compact, sandy-loam areas, wheat grass is replaced by the
polyn Artemisia terrae-albae. Wheat grass and polyn, which are charac-
teristic for the northern sands, are not found as a rule on the southern
sands; here the stabilized sands are covered with sand sedge. This is
easy to understand, since the northern subzone constitutes the transi-
tion from the semidesert (with its preponderance of polijn and grasses)
to the southern desert. But we must keep in mind that polyn of the A. ter-
rae-albae group is found also in the two southern subzones of the desert,
while in the ridged sands of the Trans-Caspian Kara-Kum, wheat grass
often acts as the sand binder.

2. The vegetation of the sands of the central subzone shows a distinct
adaptation to the surrounding environment. Many of the plants here are
adapted for struggle against dryness of the air and against becoming
covered by sand. Thus, some shrubs, in order to decrease evaporation,
are either entirely devoid of leaves, or have very small or narrow leaves.
Dzhuzgun, a buckwheat shrub (genus Calligonum), which is found
from the Sahara to Mongolia and is very characteristic for the sands of
the Turanian Lowland (where it is represented by almost thirty species)
(Fig. 35), has short, filiform leaves, which it sheds quickly. The twigs

THE DESEllT ZONE 151

which bear the fruit arc assimilative organs. They drop off also at the
end of June, after the fruit is ripe. In this way evaporation is reduced
to a minimum. New assimilative twigs appear the following spring,
during the rainy season. Saxaul (Arthrophytum) " has a similar struc-
ture. It is represented by two species— the white, or sand, saxaul (A. per-
sicum, or A. actififolium) and the black, or solonchak, saxaul (A. aphijl-
lum, or A. haloxijlon) (Fig. 33). The latter is entirely devoid of leaves,
while the white saxaul bears small leaflets. In autumn, when the fruit
ripens, the saxaul sheds its assimilative twigs. The leguminous sand shrub
Eremosparton is completely devoid of leaves. The desert shrub halophytes
and the sand astragali have very few leaves. Some plants have thorns in
place of leaves. Many arenaceous plants have the faculty of developing
accessory roots and shoots, which make it possible for them to withstand
becoming covered by the sand.

The first pioneer to appear on the barkhan sands of the Trans-Caspian
Kara-Kum is three-awn grass, Aristida pennata var. karelini, which some-
times grows a meter tall. When the three-awn becomes covered with sand,
long rhizomes develop from buds in the axillae of the leaves; these
rhizomes grow quickly through the sand and develop a new stem along
the ground. Three-awn is followed by the shrub dzhuzgun {Calligonum
turkestanicum) . The accessory roots of the dzhtizgitn, which grow tre-
mendously long (over 30 m.), are disposed chiefly horizontally, in the
moist subsoil horizon. The "sand acacia," Ainmodendron conoUyi (Fig.
34), which sometimes grows into small trees as tall as 7 m., has an equal
facility for developing accessory roots when coxered by the sand;
Dubvansky observed accessory roots on this plant growing at a distance
of more than 3 m. from the base of the trunk. Syir-kiiiryuk {Eremospar-
ton flaccidum) has similar properties.

On the sand mounds, in addition to the above-mentioned plants, there
grows kara-kandym {Calligonum eriopodum) , a tall shrub or small tree,
3 to 3.5 m. high; and the arborescent halophyte cherkez {SalsoJa richteri),
which also reaches 3 m. in height. The grass Aristida pennata var. karelini
is replaced on the sandy mounds by another, squat variety, var. minor,
which, so far as the struggle against the sand is concerned, does not have
the same properties as var. karelini. Between the shrubs the sand is over-
grown by the sand sedge Carex physodes {ilyak in Turkmen).

Sedge, by desiccating the sand, soon kills off the pioneers: dzhuzgun,
"sand acacia," syir kuiryuk {Eremosparton), and particularly three-awn

1^ Now it is called Haloxijlon once more.

152 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Aristida pennata var. karelini), which is the first to disappear. The dead
bushes of three-awn, which are preserved for several years, indicate
clearly the beginning of a change in the vegetation.

In the second stage of the development of plant cover on the sandy
mounds, in addition to the above shrubs, several new ones appear:
dzhuzgim, chakish (Callig07mjn setosum), the halophyte chogon (Salsola
subaphylla), the ephedra hordzhok {Ephedra strobilacea) , and the sand
or white saxaul. The latter is very widespread. Among thickets of sand
saxaul, on the bottom of the more overgrown depressions, tliere appears
solonchak, or black saxaul.

Gradually the sand pioneers die out and are replaced by thickets of
solonchak saxaul. According to Dubyansky ( 1928 ) , this is the final stage
in the development of the vegetation in the central Kara-Kum, the stage
of "sandy mounds with stands of solonchak saxaul."

Under present climatic conditions these groves of saxaul do not tend
to die out. However, as noted earlier,^^ some authors are of the opinion
that the black saxaul does not replace the white, but appears as part
of a different cycle of changes.

In areas of sandy mounds sand saxaul grows on the mounds, while in
the bottoms of the depressions, as pointed out above, solonchak saxaul
bushes are common. Sand saxaul always grows with an admixture of
shrubs— in Turkmenistan, with Calligomim setosum, kandym (C. eriopo-
dum), the arborescent halophyte cherkez {Salsola richteri), chogon
(S. subaphylla), and the astragalus singren {Astragalus ammodendron) .
The last provides excellent fodder for livestock. The herbaceous cover
consists of sand sedge ( Carex physodes ) . The level of ground water here
lies far below the surface, at 30 to 60 m.

On the ridged sands there is no such wealth of shrubs. These sands are
held fast by herbaceous vegetation— wheat grass, brome {Bromus), and
sedge. Of the shrubs, there is some dzhuzgun, white saxaul, "sand acacia,"
and others.

On the sandy plains of the Kara-Kum, where the sand layer is thin,
polyn predominates, and the spaces between the polyn bushes are occu-
pied by sand sedge [Carex physodes] and grasses. Where the sand layer
is thicker, there appear the usual sand shrubs.

In the Balkhash sands there is a great deal of ephedra {Ephedra
lomatolepis) , which promotes the stabilization of the sands, but which
is not important as fodder. Less numerous are polyn thickets, and still
less numerous, black saxaul. On the relatively stable, but at the same

^^ See footnote on pp. 146-147.

THE DESERT ZONE 153

time sparsely overgrown sands of tlie Balkhash area, the rubber-yielding
CJiondrilla is found.

In spring, during the rainy season, on all types ot more or less stable
sands there appears an ephemeral vegetation, whieh dries up by the
middle of May. It eonsists of sand sedge {Carex phtjsodes) and various
grasses— predominantly viviparous bulbous blue grass; also wheat grass,
brome, and others, as well as dieotyledons. In number of individuals,
perennials, sueh as the sedge and the blue grass, predominate in the
plant cover, but there are also many annuals— grasses, papilionaceous
plants, and others. Sedge covers not more than half the soil surface. This
plant is the only member of the group under discussion which is capable
of developing long rhizomes that bear shoots and accessory roots. While
the vegetation of the shifting sands does not include any tuber or bulb
plants, there are some plants of these types on the stable sands.

In winter among the sandy mounds on the northern slopes there may
be found thickets of mosses and lichens.

Among the sands there are some solonchaks and takyrs. A takijr, when
it is not covered with sand, does not support vegetation, but haloph)'tes
settle on the periphery. The first plant to take hold on a takijr is the small
undershrub Salsola gemmascens, a crooked, squat halophyte typical in
southern Turkestan; it is followed by S. rigida, which resembles it in ap-
pearance. In the north of the desert zone the pioneer on the takyrs is
biyiirgnn, the halophyte Anabasis salsa, which is also a small undershrub;
this plant is found from the lower \^olga region to Mongolia.

In the sands— in the Kara-Kum, the Kyzyl-Kum (along the branches
of the Dzhany-Darya and the Kuban-Darya), the valley of the Syr-
Darya at Chiili, the Muyun-Kum, and between the Hi and the Karatal
—there grow large thickets of black saxaul. They are associated not with
the sandy areas, where shrub sand saxaul grows in mixed stands, but
with the salinized sandy-loam and clayey areas. Saxaul is one of the most
peculiar woody plants of the desert. Korzhinsky has written ( 1896 ) :

Thickets of saxaul can be compared neither with forests nor with slirub vege-
tation of the temperate belt, and, in general, not one of the terms used in
literature and science may be applied to them. They constitute a completely
unique type of vegetation, so original and curious that I believe it can never
be erased from the memory of anyone who has had occasion to see it even once
in his life.

Another student (Shnitnikov, 1925) describes the thickets of black saxiial
as follows:

154 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The saxaul forest makes a strange and even an awe-inspiring impression on a
person who is not accustomed to it. First, in spite of its dense stand, it has
about it a kind of luminous quality, due to the pale bark and the arrangement
of the branches, which do not give shade. In hot weather it is hotter within
the saxaul thicket than outside it, because it cuts oflF the wind and at the
same time gives little protection against the sun. Furthermore, there is usually
silence in the saxaul forest, as the bird population is far from rich in either
species or nvmiber of individuals. An awe-inspiring effect is produced by the
mass of dead saxaul lying about, which is dark in color and has the oddest,
most fantastic shapes. A dead saxaul forest presents a particularly gloomy as-
pect: some of the trees have fallen and lie in lifeless, black heaps, while others
stand upright, stretching out their branches, which appear to be writhing in
convulsions. (See Fig. 33.)

Black saxaul often reaches a height of 4 to 6 m., and occasionally
even 8 m. The stand in such a "forest" is not dense; there are about 300
trees (more than 2 m. high) to a hectare. Sometimes individual speci-
mens may measure as much as 120 cm. in diameter near the ground.
Contrary to former opinion, saxaul grows rather rapidly; on abandoned
plowlands there may be found saxaul four years old which is 1.5 m. high.
The heavy wood of the saxaul provides an excellent fuel. The specific
gravity of black saxaul wood is 1.2 ( while that of pine is 0.5 ) . The saxaul
tree is so hard that it is difficult to chop it with an axe. But virgin saxaul
groves, as has been pointed out already, are filled with masses of wind-
falls, the total quantity of which sometimes exceeds the amount of wood
that is standing, and these windfalls can lie for decades without deteri-
orating. (White saxaul, on the contrary, may be preserved for only a
short time. ) Saxaul can survive neither strong salinization of the subsoU,
nor inundation by water. Black saxaul grows best on slightly salinized,
clay-loam soils associated with the valleys of former rivers, in places
where there is, even temporarily, an influx of ground water. In the Trans-
Caspian Kara-Kum large flocks of sheep graze all year round in the thick-
ets of black saxaul.

3. Vegetation of the Joessial piedmont plains. The vegetation on soils
which are not excessively saline, in the Golodnaya Steppe between
Dzhizak and the Syr-Darya, may serve as an example of this plant asso-
ciation. In spring, during the rainy season, a solid stand of ephemera
covers the surface, but fades as soon as the rainy season is over. The
summer and autumn vegetation has a typical desert character, or the veg-
etation may even fade completely. Ephemera are plants which have a
very short vegetative period. They begin to develop in March and drop
their seeds by the end of April. The speed with which these plants de-

THE DESERT ZONE 155

velop, as Popov points out, is due in part to the fact that they are winter
plants, which germinate in late autumn when the rains begin to fall. The
great majority of these ephemera are blue grasses and sedges. It is inter-
esting to note that these perennials, in spring, usually form a continuous
cover, denser than the cover formed by steppe vegetation.

It may be said that the plant associations of the ephemera-covered desert
develop the maximum density which may be reached by herbaceous vegetation.
The soil is completely covered with herbage; furthermore, its surface is a con-
tinuous sod, so compact that the soil is penetrated with difficulty by a spade
( Korovin ) .

Viviparous bulbous blue grass {Poa bulbosa var. vivipara) is a peren-
nial grass which usually grows 30 to 40 cm. tall, in small tufts 2 to 3 cm.
in diameter. Its stem at the base forms what appear to be small bulbs,
which are capable of surviving drought over very long periods. These
bulbs have germinated after having lain for ten years in a herbarium.
But this blue grass also has another sort of small bulb, from which it gets
the name "viviparous." In the ears, that is, in the axillae of the floral
leaves, instead of flowers there develop small bulbs, fifty in number,
which serve the plant as seeds; when they fall off, they give rise to new
plants. The grazing of livestock does not injure the blue grass, since
the stock, by loosening the sod, scatters in different directions the small
bulbs which lie at the base of the stem, and permits new sod to form. The
root system of the blue grass reaches a depth of 12 to 15 cm. According to
the observations of Spiridonov, in 1915 in the Golodnaya Steppe the blue
grass began to ear on April 5, while the small bulbs in the ears began to
develop on April 16.

The narrow-leaved sedge, Carex pachystylis (C. hostii), is also a per-
ennial plant, very closely related to the sand sedge C. phijsodes. Its up-
right stem is 15 to 20 cm. tall. In the Golodnaya Steppe in 1915 it bloomed
on March 27, while on April 12 most of the plants bore fruit. It repro-
duces chiefly vegetatively, by means of growing rhizomes.

During the early days of March the vegetation of the loessial piedmont
plains awakens. By the end of March the earth has a continuous low
cover of sedge and blue grass, among which may be distinguished the
flowers of prostrate knotweed, speedwell, and geranium. In the middle of
April poppies bloom in large numbers, in some places covering the steppe
with a continuous red carpet. The perennial buttercup {Ranunculus
severzovii), which reproduces vegetatively, and the liliaceous Ixiolirion
tataricum [I. montanum tataricum], which reproduces by small tubers

156 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

developed on a rhizome, also blossom at that time. At the end of April
the steppe begins to turn yellow, and by the middle of May it already
takes on its summer and autumn appearance: Sedge, blue grass, and
other spring plants fade, and in their place there appears the small, in-
significant, prostrate euphorbia, or taban-kok ("green sole," Euphorbia
chamaesyce var. canescens). This euphorbia does not form a close cover,
but is scattered in patches 3 to 8 cm. in diameter, with spaces 3 to 12 cm.
between. It grows until autumn. Sometimes in the interspaces there are
lichens. In 1915 young sprouts of euphorbia were observed on May 10;
flowers appeared in the middle of May. According to Spiridonov (1921),
euphorbia provides fodder for sheep.

Among the ephemera there are annuals as well as perennials. The an-
nuals include Malcomia turkestanica, a crucifer, the violet flowers of
which in some places stud the steppe in a continuous cover; also poppies,
legumes, and the curious plant Diarthron vesiculosum, which continues
to bloom even at the beginning of May, when all the other plants have
faded, and grows until autumn, while the other annuals have a total life
cycle which is only one to one-and-a-half months long.

In the Golodnaya Steppe is found the gigantic umbellifer devil's-dung
giant fennel, or sasijk-kuraij {Ferula foetida), which yields a foul-smell-
ing, resinous substance used in medicine. The resin is contained in the
vigorously developed roots. The devil's-dung giant fennel is a perennial
plant, but it dies after its seeds have ripened.

In some places in the Golodnaya Steppe grow thickets of ak-kuraij
(Psoralea drwpacea), a large papilionaceous perennial, which grows up
to 1 m. high. It blooms in the middle of May, bearing pale-violet flowers.
In some parts of the steppe there are areas covered by the po///7i Ar-
temisia scopaeformis.

The same type of vegetation is found on unplowed loessial areas in
the neighboring Tashkent raion. Levant polyn, or darmina {Artemisia
cina), is characteristic for the region of Arys station. The flower heads of
this plant yield a well known anthelmintic, santonin.

Large areas of the Golodnaya Steppe are occupied by solonchaks, on
which grow the halophytes sarsazan {Halocnemum strobilaceum), kara-
barken {Halostachys caspica), balyk-kuz {Salsola lanata), kuyandzhun
{Halocharis hispida), and the annual halophyte Gamanthus gamocarpus,
as well as tamarisk, and others. Where ground water lies rather deep ( 3 to
4 m. ), the polyn Artemisia maritima predominates. On the moist solon-
chak shores of water basins, the halophyte Salicornia herbacea appears in
large numbers.

THE DESERT ZONE 157

4. Vegetation of the river valleys. Because of the saline subsoils, the
abundance of salt in the river waters (see above, p. 144), and the intense
evaporation, the meadows in the desert zone, as a rule, are salinized.

In the tugaij belt or the contemporary flood plain of the Syr-Darya,
so-called azhrek meadows are widespread. Azhrek is the grass Aeluropus
litoralis, which belongs to the rhizome group, and is characterized by
leaves covered with grains of salt emitted by the leaf tissues. It has a
powerful root system. In some places this solonchak grass, which is
eaten readily by livestock in autumn and winter, forms a rather dense
ground cover. Azhrek is accompanied by two other grasses, the Ber-
muda grass, Cynodon dactylon (also a rhizomic plant), and Atropis dis-
tans [Puccinellia distans], which is sod-forming. In addition to the azhrek
meadows, in the flood plain we find enormous reed thickets {Phragmites
communis) (Fig. 36), in some places thickets of the spiny shrub Siberian
salt tree (Halimodendron argenteum [H. halodendron argenteum], a
legume), and individual poplars. The flood plain also contains some puffy
solonchaks with scattered bushes of dzhingyl or tamarisk (Tamarix), as
well as sands.

The ancient flood plain of the Syr-Darya, or the terrace which lies
immediately above the meadow terrace, constitutes a takyr, in the broad
sense of the word. In addition to the bare patches of takyr, there are
solonchaks; thickets of black saxaul, white polyn {Artemisia terrae-alhae) ,
and biyurgun; and sands. The southern boundary of the distribution of
bitjurgun along the Syr-Darya is the latitude of Tashkent; the southern
boundary of white polyn, Arys. Because of the predominance of these
plants, this desert is called the biytirgun-polyn desert.

The thickets of polyn are separated sharply from the patches of
biyurgun. Among the polyn is found the squat halophyte itsegek ( Anaba-
sis aphylla). In some places the latter achieves great development, and
such places may be called polyn-itsegek deserts.

Biyurgun is a plant which is characteristic for the northern zone of the
desert (and for the semidesert). Nevertheless, along the Syr-Darya val-
ley it penetrates far into the subzone of sands, bordering upon the south-
ernmost subzone.

We have referred above to the tugay belt, by which name geographers
designate the flood plain. But tugay in the language of the local population
means forest. The tree vegetation along the rivers of the Turanian Low-
land is most unique. It consists of a very small number of species.
The Euphrates poplar (Populus diversifolia [P. euphratica]) predomi-
nates; this tree has narrow and long lower leaves, like the willow, while

158 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

its upper leaves are broad. There is an admixture of another poplar, the
bloomy poplar (F. pniinosa). The maximum age of the poplars is thirty
to forty years. These trees are accompanied by a number of shrubs: wil-
low or tal, Russian olive or dzhidd ( Elaeagnus angustifolia ) , several spe-
cies of tamarisk ( Tamarix ) , whose pink and violet flowers add much to
the color of the landscape, the above-mentioned spiny shrub Siberian salt
tree, and, finally, the wolfberry (Lyciurn).

Among the herbaceous plants of the tugaij are vines which twine the
trees and shrubs. These include oriental clematis {Clematis orientalis)
with stems sometimes as thick as a man's hand, Cynanchum acutum, and
hedge glorybind (Calystegia sepium [Convolvulus sepium]). In the
tugay regions the common reed [Thragmites communis); dogbane
(Apocynum venetum), which yields a valuable fiber (in the flood plain
of the Hi River the dogbane grows taller than a man ) ; common licorice
or miya (Glycyrrhyza glabra); camel's-thorn or dzhantak {AlJiagi came-
lorum [A. pseudalhagi]); and Syrian bean caper {Zygophyllum fabago)
are common.

The thickets of tall grass in the lower courses of the Surkhan and the
Vakhsh (tributaries of the Amu-Darya) are of interest. The common
reed (Phragmites communis) and the bamboolike giant reed {Arundo
donax) sometimes grow as tall as 6 to 8 m. In addition there are also the
giant grasses Erianthus ravennae (which grows 3 m. high) and Saccharum
spontaneum. In some places these thickets spread over tens of kilometers,
and tigers and deer take shelter in them.

In the river valleys there are dense thickets of tamarisk, which some-
times form impassable brakes.

The valley forests of Semirechye have a different appearance. Here
there are no poplars. In some places in Semirechye along the river val-
leys (Chu, Talas, Hi, Karatal, and also the western shore of Lake Issyk-
Kul) there are found unique chee-grass meadows (sazy) (Fig. 37).
Chee grass {Lasiagrostis splendens or Stipa splendens) is a tall grass,
up to 1.5 m. high, which forms a sod. Its shiny, elastic stems are used
for weaving matting. It also yields excellent raw material for the manu-
facture of paper. Chee grass is found also in the mountains. The sod tufts
of the chee grass never grow entangled with each other. In the Kara-
Kum which adjoins the Aral Sea chee grass grows in the depressions
among the sands. In these depressions sofls of the meadow type are
developed; sometimes they are saline.

THE DESERT ZONE 159

Fauna

The fauna of the desert is unique. Here many of the animals are
clearly adapted to withstand dryness, high temperatures, and the pecu-
liarities of the sandy, clayey, solonchak, and stony soil. Many of them
require very little water. Some of them, during the hot season of the
year, go into a dormant state. Many which live in the sandy areas have
feet which are adapted to locomotion on the surface of shifting sands
(susliks, beetles, and others). Protective coloration is widespread: the
sand animals are yellow; the tahjr animals, gray; and the animals which
live in stony areas, variegated.

Some of the elements of the desert fauna of the Turanian Lowland are
distributed widely throughout the entire desert belt of the Old World,
from Syria to Central Asia— for example, the desert bullfinch ( Bucanetes
githagineus) . There are many such forms, which may be found from
Africa to the deserts of Central Asia. The following may serve as exam-
ples: the giant desert monitor lizard, jackal, hyena, Macqueen's bustard
(Otis macqueeni), desert nightjar (Caprimulgus aegyptius), desert lark
(Ammomanes deserti), carpet viper (Echis carinata), and the sand lo-
custs Platijpterna.

The fauna of the northern subzonc differs very little from the fauna of
the semidesert. The Mugodzhar suslik (Citellus pijgniaeus mugosaricus) ,
which is associated with the clayey soils, is found as far as the northern
shores of the Aral Sea. The typical yellow suslik {Citellus fitlvus) and its
southern brother (subsp. oxiauiis), which goes into a dormant state in
summer, are found on sandy soils. The suslik is of economic importance.
In this subzone there are also jerboas: the large jerboa, Allactaga jaculus
[A. maior], and two small jerboas, A. elater and Alactagulus acontion
[A. puniilo].

The Ust-Urt was inhabited at one time by large numbers of kiang or
wild ass (Equus hemionus), saiga antelope, and goitered gazelle; the
two latter are encountered occasionally even today. Mountain sheep
(Ovis orientalis) are found sometimes along the western and southern
escarpments.

The fauna of the subzone of sands is far more unique. Here we find
the typical long-toed sand suslik (Spermophilopsis leptodactijlus), which
inhabits the sands from Turkmenistan to Semirechye. Its long, thin toes
are beautifully adapted for running along the sand. This suslik does not
hiberate in winter. In the sandy mounds a large jerboa (Rhomhonujs
opimus) is found in great numbers; in the Tiu-kmenian Kara-Kum there

160 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

are sometimes more than a thousand of its burrows to a hectare. Where
this jerboa is abundant, it is impossible to ride across the sands on horse-
back because of the burrows. By excavating the sand, the jerboas pro-
mote its desiccation and the resulting destruction of shn.ib vegetation.
The small gerbil {Meriones meridianus) has a similar distribution. The
three-toed jerboa { Dipus sagitta ) is also very characteristic for the sands.
The brush-toed jerboa (Paradipus ctenodacttjlus) is known in Repetek
and farther east. The hare is common. The neighborhood of Repetek is
inhabited by the peculiar barkhan cat (Eremaelurus thinobius). Of the
large mammals on the stable sands there are kiang (Eqiius hemionus),
goitered gazelle ( Gazella subguttiirosa ) , and saiga antelope ( Saiga saiga
[S. tatarica]). Today tliese have almost disappeared. The Central Asi-
atic red deer, or khangul (Cervus ehphus bactrianus) is found sometimes
in the Kyzyl-Kum, in the saxaul groves as far east as the Syr-Darya.^®

Among the birds, Pander's chough-thrush, kum-tauk, or kum-sauskan
(Podoces panderi), a bird of the crow tribe, is characteristic for the sand
saxaul. The sands, particularly the sandy mounds, are its native habitat.
It is not found in the clayey desert, nor in the mountains of the desert.
It does not leave the sands even during the winter. In spring and summer
it feeds on the grubs of beetles and the seeds of grasses, while in autumn
and winter it feeds on the seeds of saxaul, dzhuzgun, and other shrubs.
Other birds in the sandy desert are the desert wheatear (Oenanthe de-
serti); the desert warbler (Sylvia nana); the tiny Trans-Caspian scrub
warbler (Scotocerca inquieta platyura), native to the Turkmenian Kara-
Kum (this species is distributed from the Sahara to Beluchistan ) ; the
desert raven (Corvus corox rvficollis) ; and the desert great gray shrike
(Lanius excubitor pallid irosfris) . The mountains of the Kyzyl-Kum are
inhabited by the rock partridge (Caccabis chiikar, or Alectoris graeca),
which is found often in the sands as well.

The sands are the realm of the reptiles. Here there are many tortoises
( Testudo horsjieldi ) and a great many lizards : the toadheads ( Phrynoce-
phalus), including the large and curious long-eared toadhead (Phrynoce-
phalus mystaceiis) and tlie sand toadhead (P. interscapularis) , which
dig themselves quickly into the sand; tlie fringe-toed gecko (Terato-
scincus scincus), that peculiar night lizard, which looks as though it were
covered with scales; another night lizard, the lobe-footed gecko (Cros-
sobamon pipiens); the Russian house agama (Agatna sanguinolenta),

^® N. A. Bobrinskoy, "Geograficheskoye rasprostrajienie oleney Sredney Azii"
(Geographic Distribution of tlie Deer of Central Asia), ZooL zhurn. (Zoological Jour-
nal), XII, p. 84.

THE DESERT ZONE 161

which can change its color; the burrowing Hzards (Scapteira), reticu-
lated and striped; and the ichkemer, a gigantic desert monitor lizard
{Varanus griseus), which reaches a length of more than 1.5 m., and can
bite fiercely. Of the snakes, the following are characteristic: the small
sand boa (Eryx miliaris), up to 0.75 m. long; the strela-zmeya ("arrow-
snake"), or ok-dzhilan {Taphromctopon lineolatum) , a long and slender
snake, which gets its name from the unusual speed of its locomotion;
and, in Turkmenistan, the poisonous carpet viper {Echis carinata), which
is found from North Africa to India.

Of the sand beetles there are many apterous carabids (Discoptera) ,
which resemble cockroaches. The following beetles are characteristic:
the chafer, Rhizotrogus, which looks as though it were covered with
flour (the grubs of the chafer feed on the roots of dzhuzgun); the trans-
lucent, reddish, sand-colored darkling beetle, Ammozoum; the large, black
and white darkling beetle (family Tenebrionidae ) , Sternodes caspia,
one of the most characteristic insects of the sands; and the saxaul longi-
corn beetle, Turcmenigenia. One of the most characteristic sand beetles
is the "sand burrower," Thinorycter, which is found in the barkhan sands
along the middle Amu-Darya near Farab. This small beetle, 3.5 mm.
long, is a dung beetle (Aphodiini), but unlike other dung beetles, it has
lost its lower wings, since it feeds not on the droppings of mammals, but
on the remains of vegetation in the sands. The feet of the sand-burrower
beetle represent an advanced stage in the development of the fossorial
foot of the typical sand burrower.^^

The fauna of the loessial piedmont plains includes the suslik, gerbil,
jerboa, mole rat {Ellobius talpinus), hedgehogs, Russian desert fox,
Macqueen's bustard {Otis macqiieeni), crested lark {Galerida cristata),
tortoise, desert monitor, toadheads, and strela-zmeya ("arrow-snake").
The suslik, Citellus fulviis oxianus, according to Kashkarov, is as much
a desert ephemeral as the plants described above. In March it emerges
from its burrow, puts on fat, reproduces, and at the end of spring, when
the vegetation fades, returns to its burrow, where it sleeps for eight to
nine months, until the following spring. In the Syr-Darya Kara-Tau this
suslik is found up to an elevation of 1000 m. The desert tortoise ( Testudo
horsfieldi) has the same life cycle as the suslik. The gerbil (Meriones
erythrourus eversrnanni) is found in large numbers as far as Semirechye;
it is a pest because of its habit of storing wheat in its burrows, sometimes
by the tens of kilograms. Lizards— for example, the Caspian sand gecko

1^ A. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, Russk. entom. obozr. ( Russian Entomological
Review), XIX, 1935, p. 83.

162 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Gymnodactylus caspius)—are found often in the houses. The large
jerboa of the northern deserts is replaced here by the closely related
species Allactaga severtsovi. Among the insects are termites, which are
common in the Golodnaya Steppe; and, among the arachnids, a phalangid.

The tugay is the habitat of the Turkestan tiger, or dzhulbars {Felts
tigris virgata); in some places this tiger occurs in large numbers (for
example, in the deltas of the Amu-Darya and the Hi), while in other
places it has been driven out (for example, in the lower course of the
Syr-Darya, where it was found as late as the middle of the nineteenth
century ) . The tiger hunts wild boar, which appear in large numbers, and
which, in the delta of the Amu-Darya do serious damage to the crops.
In the reed thickets the jungle cat {Felis chaus), which hunts pheasants,
is common. In the shrubs which grow on the river flood plains there are
many pheasants, or kargaiil, of different species. Sometimes one may see
the peculiar nests of the tit. The numerous aquatic birds include the glossy
ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) . Hares and jackals {Canis aureus [Thos
aureus] ) are numerous in the tugaif. In the tugay along the Amu-Darya,
the Turkestan red deer (Cervus elaphus bactrianus) is found occasion-
ally as far as the delta, occasionally also in the Kyzyl-Kum, in the saxaul
thickets. It is rather more numerous in the tugay along the Vakhsh and
the Pyandzh.^^

The Asiatic or migrator}' locust {Locusta migratoria) reproduces in the
reeds. Among the locusts native to the tugay, there are many subtropical
and tropical genera, particularly Indian. There are even some Indian
species. The flood plains of the rivers sei~ve as nesting places for hosts
of mosquitoes.

The aquatic fauna is very unique. Representatives of European fauna
(more exactly, Pontic-Caspian-Aral fauna), such as bream, carp, pike-
perch, catfish, pike, and minnow [Aspius aspius], mingle with represent-
atives of Central Asiatic fauna like the Old World minnow {Schizotho-
rax), a peculiar cyprinid with a poisonous black peritoneum (the rest
of it being quite edible). This minnow is peculiar to the mountains and
to the region of the loessial plains. However, it also inhabits Lake
Balkhash. But it is not found in the Aral Sea, for which the following
fish are characteristic: the ship, a small sturgeon (Acipenser nudiventris);
the cyprinid barbel {Barbus brachyccphalus) , which reaches a weight of
15 kg.; and, very rarely, the Aral brown trout {Salmo trutta aralensis),
which goes up into the Amu -Darya. The shovelnosed sturgeon, or

^® K. K. Flerov, "Turkestansky olen ili khangul" (The Turkestan DeeY or Khangiil),
Trudy Tadzhik. kompl. eksp. (Proceedings of the Tadzhikistan E.xpedition ) , X, 1935.

THE DESERT ZONE 163

skafirinkh (Pseudoscaphirhynchus) , native to the Amu-Darya and the
Syr-Darya, is interesting. It is a peculiar member of the sturgeon fam-
ily whose nearest relatives are found in the Mississippi. The unique
Balkhash perch (Perca schrenki) is found only in Lake Balkhash and
its basin, while the other species of this genus, the common perch {Perca
fiuviatilis) , is native to the basin of the Aral Sea, northern Asia, Europe,
and North America.

In those rivers of Turkmenistan which drain from the Kopet-Dagh
but which do not belong to the basin of the Caspian Sea, we find a unique
fauna of the Iranian type.

Near the town of Turkestan (and only there) is found the Turkestan
fresh-water crayfish, Astacus kessleri. Representatives of this genus gen-
erally are absent farther east ( and in Siberia ) ; they reappear in the Amur.

A few words now about the fauna of the oases. The Senegalese turtle
dove (Streptopelia senegalensis errnani) nests in the towns and villages
which lie no higher than 1600 m. in absolute elevation. The character-
istic cooing of this bird, which is heard beginning in the spring, lends
a peculiar charm to the settlements of Central Asia. It spends the winter
in Tashkent. The stork (Ciconia ciconia) is common. Sparrows, which
nest in large numbers in the oases, do great damage to the crops. They
belong to three species : the house sparrow, the Spanish or black-breasted
sparrow, and the field sparrow. Some of them build their nests in the
trees. The Indian golden oriole (Orioltis kundoo) is common. The un-
usual Indian paradise flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisea turkestanica) , which
is found also in the mountains, nests in the oases.

The deserts of the Transcaucasus will be discussed below, in the chap-
ter on the Caucasus (pp. 235-239).

VIII - Mountains of Soviet Central Asia

Rdid

IN Soviet Central Asia four mountain systems may be
distinguished, according to the period during which
the most intensive folding took place ( Berg, 1936 ) . These are ( see map ) :

(1) The Caspian system, in which the most intensive folding took
place during the Mesozoic period. This system includes the Mangyshlak
Mountains, the region of Krasnovodsk Plateau, and the Great Balkhan.

(2) The Kopet-Dagh-Pamir system, which is the youngest. This system
underwent the most intensive mountain-forming processes during the
Tertiary period. It belongs to the alpine type of mountain system (or,
at any rate, is closely related to the alpine type). This system includes
the Little Balkhan, Kopet-Dagh, Paropamiz, and the southern arcs of the
Tian Shan ( that is, the Hisar, Peter I, and Darvaza ranges ) , as well as the
Trans-Alay range and the Pamir. The Himalayas are a continuation of
this system.

(3) The central arcs of the Tian Shan, in which the most intensive
folding took place during the Upper Paleozoic period: the Alay, Turkes-
tan, Zeravshan, Karategin, Fergana, and Kokshal ranges; the ranges along
the left bank of the Naryn, the Khan-Tengri, the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau,
the Tarbagatay, and the Saur. The Kuen-Lun is a continuation of this
system.

(4) The northern arcs of the Tian Shan, in which the most intensive
folding took place during the Lower Paleozoic period: the Sultan-Uiz-
Dagh, the Kyzyl-Kum Plateau, the Nura-Tau, the Chatkal range, the
Pskem range, the Syr-Darya Kara-Tau, the Talas Ala-Tau, the Aleksan-
drovsk range, the Susamyr, the Dzhumgol, the ranges along the right
bank of the Naryn, the Terskei- Ala-Tau (?), the Kungei- Ala-Tau (?),
the Trans-Hi Ala-Tau (?), and the Chu-Ili Mountains. Our inadequate
knowledge at present makes it impossible to distinguish clearly the north-
em from the central arcs of the Tian Shan.

164

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 165

1. The Caspian system. The Mangyshlak Mountains he between Kochak
Bay on the west and the Gulf of Kaidak on the east (Fig. 38). Here the
Kara-Tau ridge, eomposcd of strongly dislocated marine Triassic strata
on which are superimposed Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments, extends
WNW to form an enormous anticline. To the north and to the south there
lie two ranges composed of Upper Cretaceous strata and known as the
Northern Ak-Tau and the Southern Ak-Tau; they are separated from the
Kara-Tau by elongated depressions. A large part of the Mangyshlak
Kara-Tau is a plateau which drops in a steep escarpment to the depres-
sion which separates it from the Northern Ak-Tau. The absolute eleva-
tion of this plateau on the west is 300 to 340 m. The highest points of
the Kara-Tau rise to 557 m.; of the Ak-Tau, to 320 m.

The Krasnovodsk Plateau lies between Krasnovodsk Bay and Balkhan
Bay on the south, and the Gulf of Kara-Bogaz-Gol on the north. To the
east it stretches as far as the Chilmamet-Kum sands. The plateau drops
to Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf in a precipice 260 to 280 m. high; the mean ele-
vation of the plateau above sea level, however, is about 200 m. The
plateau is composed of almost horizontal Tertiary strata; at the southern
edge of the plateau these strata overlie the eroded Krasnovodsk anti-
clinical fold, which is composed fundamentally of Mesozoic rocks (Juras-
sic to Cretaceous). At Krasnovodsk there is a massif of igneous rocks,
the Sha-Kadam ("shah's foot"), 185 m. in absolute elevation, composed
of porphyrite and diorite.

At its eastern end the Krasnovodsk Plateau adjoins the Great Balkhan
range ( elevation 1867 m. ) . In form the Great Balkhan, with many reser-
vations, may be considered a plateau. The Great Balkhan system con-
sists of several anticlinical folds. These mountains are composed largely
of a thick bed of limestones, which date from the Upper Jurassic to the
Lower Cretaceous.

2. The Kopet-Dagh-Paniir system. The Kopet-Dagh, or Turkmen-
Khorasan mountain range lies in southern Turkmenistan. It is possible
that this range is tectonically an eastern extension of the Elburz Moun-
tains, which overlook the basin of the Caspian Sea from the south, but
little is known on this subject as yet. On the east the Kopet-Dagh extends
as far as the Tedzhen; beyond this river, in Afghanistan, it merges into
the Paropamiz. The main body of the Kopet-Dagh lies in northern Iran;
only the outskirts of the range lie within the boundaries of the Soviet
Union. South of Firyuza there is a peak 2940 m. in elevation, while to
the south of the international boundary there are elevations of over
3300 m. Within Turkmenistan the Kopet-Dagh is composed of Creta-

166 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

ceous and Tertiary deposits. From the middle of the Miocene period
the open sea no longer penetrated into the region of the present Kopet-
Dagh; only inland seas, like the Caspian, extended into this area. Of the
deposits left by such seas, the Sarmatian, developed in the foothills,
extends not quite as far east as the meridian of Geok-Tepe. Very intensive
folding took place here between the Sarmatian and the Akchagyl (the
middle of the Pliocene). There were severe dislocations also at the end
of the Pliocene. The Kopet-Dagh, which nowhere reaches into the re-
gion of everlasting snows, in general has a desert aspect. There are no
forests growing on it; the trees on its slopes include individual specimens
of archd (juniper), and only in the deep valleys are there found maple,
elm, fig, and other trees. The Kopet-Dagh is very poor in water, espe-
cially its northern slope, which is drained by only insignificant streams
which lose themselves in the desert.

On the east, as we have said, the Paropamiz is a continuation of the
Kopet-Dagh; it constitutes the connecting link between the Kopet-Dagh
and the Hindu Kush. Only the foothills of the Paropamiz lie within the
boundaries of the Soviet Union. This is the Badkhyz country, which lies
between the Tedzhen and the Murgab; it reaches an absolute elevation
of 1255 m. The Paropamiz range, which lies within Afghanistan, is vis-
ible from the hills in the vicinity of Kushka.

Beyond the Amu-Darya, the Kopet-Dagh-Pamir system continues in
the Peter I range, near the eastern end of which, not far from the place
where it borders upon the Akademii Nauk ( Academy of Sciences ) range,
a majestic peak was discovered recently; this is Stalin Peak, the highest
point in the U.S.S.R., 7495 m. in elevation (Fig. 39).^ East of the
Akademii Nauk range, at the source of the Muk-Su River, which empties
into the Surkhob (Vakhsh), lies tlie Fedchenko Glacier, the longest
valley glacier in the world; it is 77 km. long, and descends from an ele-
vation of 5330 m. to 2900 m. A characteristic feature of the Peter I range
and of the other ranges of the Pamir- Alay is that they are convex to the
north. This is evidence that the fold-forming impulse came from the
south; there was a vigorous development of seas during the Upper
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and, finally, a very intensive folding
toward the middle or at the beginning of the Tertiary period.

Pamir is the name given to the mountainous country which stretches
from the Trans-Alay range on the north to the Hindu Kush on the south.
On the east the Sarykol range serves as its boundary; on the west, the

1 This elevation appears in the report, Tadzhiksko-pamirskaya ckspeditsiya 1933 g.
(Tadzhik-Pamir Expedition, 1933), Leningrad, 1934.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRA]. ASIA 167

Pyandzh valley. The Pamir constitutes a lofty desert upland, a minia-
ture Tibet, where the ranges reach 5000 to 5500 m. in elevation, while
the valley bottoms (in the eastern Pamir) lie at 3600 to 4000 m. (Fig.
40). Lake Kara-Kul, which has no outlet, lies at an elevation of 3954 m.'
Lake Zor-Kul, at the source of the Amu-Darya, lies at about the same
elevation. This lake is the source of the Pamir River, which, together with
the Vakhan-Darya, forms the Pyandzh (as the Amu-Darya is called above
the mouth of the Vakhsh ) .

Lake Sarez, in the Bartang or Murgab valley, is of interest. It was
formed on February 18, 1911, as a result of a colossal landslide which
dammed the course of the Bartang at Usoy village and formed a ridge
800 m. high across the valley. From that time the level of the lake has
risen, and the lake itself has grown larger in size. In October, 1913, it
was 28 km. long, 280 m. deep, and its surface lay at an elevation of
3077 m.^ In August, 1915, it was 350 m. deep. In 1934 its depth had
reached 500 m., and it was 60 km. long.^ The mountains which surround
the lake rise to an absolute elevation of almost 6000 m. The descent of
the tremendous mass of crumbled material at the time of the landslide
was accompanied by an earthquake, which some believe to have been
the cause, others (I. Preobrazhensky, 1920), the result, of the landslide.

The Pamir is divided into western and eastern parts; the former con-
stitutes a strongly dissected mountain country, while high plains pre-
dominate in the latter.

The ranges of the Pamir in general form arcs convex to the north.
They consist of intensely dislocated strata, from pre-Cambrian to Ter-
tiary. Ancient glaciation in the Pamir was very extensive. In the Murgab
valley at one time there was a glacier 240 km. long, which received more
than 55 lateral glaciers, some of which were 80 and even 90 km. long.
According to the investigations of D. V. Nalivkin, t\vo, and in some
places three phases of glaciation are distinctly apparent in the Pamir.
At present, glaciers of the hanging and cirque types predominate, but
there are also some valley glaciers.^

- Its depth reaches 236 m.— N. L. Korzhene\sky, "Oz. Kara-Kul [fiz.-geogr. ocherk]"
( Lake-Kara-Kul [Phys.-Geogr. Sketch]), Tadzhiksko-pamirskaija ek»peditsiya 1934 g.
( Tadzhik-Pamir Expedition, 1934), Trudy (Proceedmgs), XLII, 1936, p. 34).

^ G. Shpilko, Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the Russian Geographical Societv),
Vol 50, 1914, Nos. 1, 2.

* P. P. Chuyenko, "Sarezskoye ozero" (Lake Sarez), Tadzhiksko-pamirskaija
ekspeditsiija 1935 g. (Tadzhik-Pamir Expedition, 1935), Moscow, 1935, pp. 357-
370.

^ Concerning the glaciation of the Pamir, contemporary and ancient, see K. K.
Markov, "Istoriya relyefa i oledeneniya Pamira" ( History of the Relief and Glaciation
of the Pamir), Shorn. Ptjat let po Pamiru (Collection, Five Years in the Pamir) izd.
Akad. nauk (publication of tlie Academy of Sciences), Moscow, 1935, pp. 249-324.

168 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

In the western Pamir, up to an elevation of 4500 m., extensive areas
are covered by loess of diluvial origin.

The Pamir is bounded on the north by the mighty Trans-Alay range,
in the middle of which rises the high Lenin Peak* (7129 m.), discov-
ered in 1871 by A. P. Fedchenko. The mean elevation of the ridge is

MAP 9. Pamir ranges.

5000 to 6000 m. Kyzyl-Art Pass, which leads from the Alay valley to the
Pamir, has an elevation of 4082 m. The Trans-Alay range, according to
its structure, appears to be an intermediate link between the Pamir and
the southern arcs of the Tian Shan.® The most vigorous tectonic folding,
which determined the present character of the range, took place during
the Upper Tertiary period."

The Peter I, Hisar, and Darvaza ranges belong to the southern arc of
the Tian Shan. The chains of the central and northern arcs have been
enumerated already ( p. 164 ) .

* Originally named Mount Kaufman.— Ed.

^A. P. Markovsky, "O nekotoroy zakonomemosti raspredeleniya tektonicheskikh
elementov Pamiro-Alaya" (Concerning Some of the Principles of the Distribution
of Tectonic Elements in the Pamir-Alay), Tadzhikskaya kompl. eksp. 1932 g. (Tadzhik
Expedition, 1932), Trudy (Proceedings), II, Leningrad, 1934.

^ V. P. Rengarten, "Zaalaisky khrebet" ( The Trans-Alay Range ) , ibid., p. 38.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTliAL ASIA 169

The name Tian Shan is given to the aggregate of ranges of different
age, whieh he to the north of the Trans-Alay range and to the east of
the Amu-Darya. However, there is no sharp boundary between the Tian
Shan and the Pamir-Alay. The Tian Shan was regarded formerly as a
system of folded mountains which were formed during the Tertiary
period, and was considered to be of the alpine mountain type. But we
have seen already (p. 164) that this view is mistaken. Only the southern
arcs of the Tian Shan were formed during the Tertiary period; the other
ranges of this mountain system were formed by folding which took place
during the Lower and Upper Paleozoic period. In the course of the long
continental period which followed, the folds of the northern and of some
of the central arcs were denuded and turned into those peculiar flat,
bare summits (syrts) which we find south of Lake Issyk-Kul, in the
Dzhungarian Ala-Tau, and in other ranges. In the Tertiary period the
Tian Shan region closely resembled the present Kazakh Folded Country
(see above, p. 95). During that period, and, in the opinion of some
authorities, at the beginning of the Quaternary, new dislocations took
place; these gave the Tian Shan its present character. Until recently
these dislocations were supposed to have been caused by thrust faulting.
However, it may be pointed out that as a result of such movements, there
should have been found young volcanic effusions, of which there is no
trace in the Tian Shan. Consequently, at present there is inclination to
consider these dislocations as faults of tangential origin. However this
may be, the Tian Shan ranges are formed of massifs in the shape of chains.

Traces of the glacial epoch are less in evidence in the Tian Shan than
in the Alps. Some students believe there were two glacial epochs, while
others (Makhachek) believe there was only one. The snow line during
the glacial period was 600 to 800 m. lower than at present, while within
the mountains, it was as much as 400 to 500 m. lower; that is, much
lower than was the case in the Alps. As for the present glaciers, we have
spoken already of the Fedchenko Glacier. Another large glacier, the
Inylchek, which has its beginning in the region of Khan-Tengri (ele-
vation 6992 m.),^ is more than 70 km. long; its lower end lies at 2880
m. (Fig. 41).

A very characteristic feature of the glaciers of the Tian Shan is the
accumulation of moraine material in their lower extremities. A third or
a fourth of the length of some of the glaciers is so cluttered with detritus
that the surface of the ice is completely obscured by it. On tlie Inylchek

^ The elevation of Khan-Tengri is given according to the data of the mHitan'-
topographical sur\'ey of 1912 (22,940 ft.).

170 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Glacier the rock fragments form a continuous cover over the entire
lower 20 km., reaching a thickness of 100 m. The same condition exists
on the Zeravshan Glacier and on many others ( Fig. 42 ) . The explanation
lies in the fact that in the dry climate of Gentral Asia, weathering and
disintegration of rocks proceed very intensively.

Another characteristic of many glaciers of the Tian Shan (this is par-
ticularly noticeable in the Peter I range) is the absence of any neve
basin at their heads. The glaciers are fed by avalanches of snow, falling
from the steep walls which surround the glacier.

The snow line in the Tian Shan, as a result of the dryness of the cli-
mate, reaches a considerable elevation. In the northern chains it lies at
3400 to 3600 m., that is, about a thousand meters higher than in the north-
ern chains of the Alps. The snow line is lowest in one of the northernmost
ranges, in the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau, where it lies at 3200 m. To the
south, and also to the east, the snow line rises. In the central Tian
Shan, passes which lie even higher than 4000 m. are free from snow
in summer. In the western part of the Peter I range, the snow line lies
at 4300 m.; in the eastern part, at 4600 m. In "desert" Pamir it lies ex-
tremely high, at 5000 m. and even higher.

The Tian Shan has few lakes. Conspicuous among them is Issyk-Kul,
a large and brackish mountain lake which is bordered on the north and
south by the snow-clad chains of the Tian Shan (Fig. 43). Along its
northern shore stretches the Kungei- Ala-Tau, with a mean elevation of
4000 m., while the Terskei- Ala-Tau, with a mean elevation of 4000 to
5000 m., rises above its southern shore. The highest summits reach eleva-
tions of over 5000 m. The surface of the lake itself lies at 1624 m. At its
western end the Kungei-Ala-Tau is cut by the majestic long and narrow
Baum Gorge, along which the Chu River takes its tumultuous course.
This river flows within se\eral kilometers of the western end of Issyk-
Kul, but instead of emptying into the lake, cuts across the Kungei-Ala-
Tau. The lake is very deep; near the southern shore its depth reaches
702 m.'* On the slopes of the Terskei- Ala-Tau there are several hot
springs, from which the lake received its Kirghiz name (Issyk-Kul, "hot
lake"). The waters of Issyk-Kul contain 5.8 grams of salt per kilogram
of water; ^" that is, approximately half as much salt as the waters of the

^ L. S. Berg, "Gidrologicheskie issledovaniya na Issyk-Kule v 1928 g." ( Hydro-
logical Explorations on Iss)k-Kul in 1928), Izo. Gidrol. inst. (Report of the Hydro-
logical Institute), No. 28, 1930.

^**V. P. Mat\'eyev, "Gidrologiclieskie issledo\'aniya na oz. Issyk-Kul v 1932 g."
( Hydrological Explorations on Lake Issyk-Kul in 1932), Ozew Issyk-Kul (Lake
Issyk-Kul), izd. Sov. po izuch. prirodnykh resursov, Akad. nauk (publication of the
Council for the Study of Natural Resources, Academy of Sciences), 1935, p. 37.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA

171

Aral Sea. The temperature of the water in the open part of the lake
does not fall below 4° C. even in winter; " for this reason, with the ex-
ception of several bays, Issyk-Kul is not covered by ice in winter.

Climate
In the Kopet-Dagh there is a weather station at Gaudan (lat. 37° 40' N),
to the south of Ashkhabad, at an elevation of 1485 m. The temperature
and precipitation at this station for the years 1898-1914 are shown in
Table 9.

Table 9
Temperatitre and Precipitation in Gaudan, 1898-1914

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

Mav

June

July

.4uo.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Yeah

Temperature

(°C.)
Precipitation

(mm.)

-1..3
20

1.7

4.2
23

9.4
22

15.4
46

19.9
10

21.8
0

21.4
0

16.8
8

10. .5
.30

7.9

29

2.5

18

10.8
217

As compared with Ashkhabad (elevation 227 m.), the summer is con-
siderably cooler, and the annual temperature range is smaller. There is
almost as much precipitation as at lower altitudes; the maximum, how-
ever, occurs not in March, but in May. This shift in maximum rainfall
retards the development of vegetation at Gaudan. There is more precipi-
tation in autumn than in winter in Gaudan; in Ashkhabad and in the
lowlands, it is the other way around.

In Kheirabad (Kopet-Dagh, above Ashkhabad), at an elevation of
2027 m., the following amounts of precipitation were observed for the
years 1928-1931 (for comparison, the figures for Ashkhabad are given
for the same period ) : ^"

Table 10

Precipitation in Kheirabad and Ashkhabad, 1928-1931 (in mm.)

Jan. Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year

Kheirabad
Ashkhabad

21 30
34 27

46
42

67
37

60
31

28
7

35
13

16
3

I

25
16

17
11

24
24

365
244

Just as in Gaudan, the maximum precipitation comes in May. The
dryness of this locality, situated so high up in the mountains, is remark-
able.

There is far more precipitation in some parts of the western Tian Shan

11 V. P. Matveyev, Priroda (Nature), 1936, No. 4, pp. 74-77.

12 M. Pashinsky, Klimat i pogoda (Climate and Weather), 1932, p. 176.

172 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

which he at corresponding elevations. Thus, in the Hisar range, on the
southern slope, at an elevation of 1700 m., more than 1500 mm. of pre-
cipitation annually has been recorded; tlie maxima come in January and
May, v^hile the minimum comes in August (11 mm.).^^

In the mountains of Soviet Central Asia, the phenomenon of tempera-
ture inversion is very common. In winter (and at night in summer) the
temperature is higher on the mountain slopes (but not on the plateaus)
than in the valleys. Thus, in Irkeshtam (elevation 2850 m. ), it is notice-
ably cooler in summer than in Narynskoye, which lies 835 m. lower,
while in winter it is considerably warmer. Another factor which must
be taken into account is that the cold waves which spread from the
north usually do not reach above elevations even as low as 500 m. For
this reason, Tashkent (elevation 479 m.), for example, is considerably
warmer in winter than Turtkul, which lie in the same latitude, but
400 m. lower.

Sometimes, however, cold air masses affect considerably higher eleva-
tions as well.

The foehn is a very common phenomenon in the foothills of the Cen-
tral Asiatic mountains. In winter an anticyclone lies over Central Asia.
As a result, when cyclones pass over the western Tian Shan from the
west (which happens often there in winter), conditions are created
which favor the appearance of eastern foehns. Foehns, which are fre-
quent in the region of Tashkent, sweep from the mountains out of the
valley of the Chirchik. Sometimes in December when the foehns are
blowing, the temperature here rises above 22° C. Foehns are especially
frequent from November to April.

Lake Issyk-Kul has a remarkably moderating effect upon the tem-
perature of the surrounding areas. Although Karakol (which is situated
near the shore of the lake) lies 900 m. higher than Alma-Ata (775 m.),
the mean January temperature in Karakol is — 5.1° C, while in Alma-
Ata it is — 8.6° C; that is, on the shores of Issyk-Kul, which never freezes,
the temperature is 3.5° C. higher.

Very low winter temperatures are observed on the high plateaus; at
Pamir station (elevation 3650 m.) frosts as low as — 47° C. have been
recorded. The warmest month, July, has a mean temperature of about
14° C. The frost-free period here usually lasts about two montlis, in some
years even less. The diurnal temperature range in the Pamirs is very

^^ I. S. Shchukin and M. A. Gilyarova, "Kukhistan," in the publication "Tadzhi-
kistan," Trudy Tadzh.-pam. eksp. 1933 g. (Proceedings of the Tadzhik-Pamir Ex-
pedition, 1933), No. XXIII, 1936, p. 248.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 173

great; in winter a temperature of — 20'' C. may be followed in the after-
noon by a rise in temperature to several degrees above 0"^ C. The tem-
perature of the soil in summer may reaeh over 50" C. In the eastern
Pamirs there are extensive areas of permanent ground frost. Cloudi-
ness is small, the mean annual figure being only 39 per cent. It is great-
est in spring and winter, least in autumn (in October, 21 per cent),
when there is also a minimum of precipitation. There are only 45 cloudy
days on the average during the year.

The distribution of agriculture and fruit growing is a good indication
of the climate in the mountains. On the shores of Issyk-Kul, which
lies at an elevation of 1624 m., grains are grown— winter and spring
wheat, barley (which grows here as high up in the mountains as 1850 m.),
and oats. In the village of Tamga, on the southern shore, apples, water-
melon, pumpkin, cucumbers, tomatoes, and corn are raised, but grapes
and melons will not ripen. In Karakol excellent apples, apricots, and
plums are cultivated. To the south of Issyk-Kul wheat will ripen at ele-
vations of 2100 to 2400 m. In the Alay valley wheat is sown up to 2700 m.,
and barley up to 3000 m. In Shugnan (on the Gunt River) fields of
barley and peas rise to 3350 m. and wheat up to 3250 m., while apricots
are cultivated up to 2400 m. On the Shakh-Dar, a tributary of the Gunt,
the cultivation of apples and pears extends up to 2700 m., apricots up to
3000 m.. wheat up to 3000 to 3200 m., and barley and vegetables up to
3400 m. Along the Pyandzh River, grapes are cultivated up to 2000 m.
(Kala-i-vamar).

Table 11 shows the limit of cultivation for crops which grow in the
Zeravshan valley:

Table 11
Crops Cultivated i>f the Zeravshan Valley

Crop Limit of Cultivatiox

Rice 1200 m.

Corn 1300

Peaches 1400

Grapes 1800

MiUet 1950

Apricots 2100

Barley 2500

For comparison we may point out that in the Alps the boundar)' of
grain culture, and of cultivation in general, does not rise above 1900 m.;
it rises this high only on the southern slope.

In the Turanian Lowland the maximum precipitation, as we have seen

174 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(p. 130), comes in spring, the minimum in summer. In the mountains,
however, the maximum comes in summer, and the minimum in winter.
Tashkent (479 m.), Khodzhent (329 m.), and Andizhan (500 m.)
have their maximum precipitation in March; Osh (990 m.), in April;
Narynskoye (2031 m.) and Irkeshtam (2850 m.), in May; Pamir station
(3650 m. ), in June; and the upper course of the Naryn (3600 m. ), in July.
Minimum precipitation comes not at the end of the summer (in August),
as in the lowland, but in winter, in January and February. The delay in
the precipitation maximum in the mountains is related to the fact that
the higher the mountains are, the later the vegetation develops, and the
farther the precipitation of local significance advances into the months
of the warm season. However, on the Pamir Plateau, with its desert land-
scape, the vegetation has no eflFect on the precipitation. Here the maxi-
mum precipitation comes in June; this is an echo of the climate of Tibet.

The steppe and e\'en the desert extend far up into the mountains of
Central Asia. The Pamir Plateau, as we have said, is conspicuous for its
desert character, especially the eastern Pamir. At Pamir station the mean
annual precipitation is about 60 mm. During the entire month of May,
1914, there were only 2 mm. of precipitation (all in one day)." How-
ever, in the snow-clad region of the mountains, where the glaciers origi-
nate, there is probably no less than 1000 mm. of precipitation per year.

Landlocked basins in the mountains are characterized by their dryness,
since the air is carried here by descending winds, which bring no pre-
cipitation. The Issyk-Kul basin (about 1600 m. in elevation), over which
western air currents predominate, may serve as an example. The western
shore of the lake has a desert aspect; Rybachye has only 100 mm. of
precipitation per year. But at the eastern end, where, because of the
relief, the air has to ascend, there is far more precipitation; Karakol
has about 500 mm. In winter in the western part of Issyk-Kul there is
almost no snow, while in the eastern part there is an abundant snowfall.
On the northern slopes of the Terskei-Ala-Tau, forests of Schrenk's spruce
are found only in the eastern part, beginning in the vicinity of Ton Bay,
where there is abundant rainfall. Correspondingly, the snow line in the
Terskei-Ala-Tau in the western part lies at 3850 to 3950 m., while in the
eastern part it lies at 350u m. Similarly, Lake Iskander-Kul, which lies on
the northern slope of the Hisar range in the Zeravshan basin, at an ele-
vation of 2268 m., has only about 300 mm. of precipitation annually
(Fig. 44).

^* Western Pamir also has a desert character; but there is more precipitation here;
in the lower parts of the valleys tlie precipitation is about 200 mm. per year.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTHAL ASIA 175

Soil Belts

Our discussion of the vertical zonation of the mountain soils will be
restricted to certain mountain districts which have been studied thor-
oughly.

On the northern slopes of the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau, in what was for-
merly Lepsinsk tiyezd ( district ) , the soils, beginning at the lowest eleva-
tion, appear in the following order (Prasolov, 1909):

Up to 600 m. Soils of the sierozcm type, solonchaks, and desert

sands.
600 to 800 m. Chestnut soils of the dry pohjn-grassy steppes and

shrub steppes.
800 to 1200 m. Chernozem steppe. Dry-land (unirrigated) fields.
1200 to 2000 m. Chernozemlike mountain-meadow soils under tall

meadow herbage.
2000 to 3000 m. Mountain-meadow leached and peaty soils under

subalpine and alpine short meadow herbage.
3000 to 4300 m. Everlasting snows and glaciers.

In some places the steppes extend much higher up. Thus, in the moun-
tains of Chimkent raion chestnut soils extend up to 1500 m., and cher-
nozems up to 1800 m.

South of Naryn, pohjn-iescue steppes lie at 2500 to 3000 m.

As we see, there is no zone of mountain forest podzolized soils here,
since forests are represented poorly in the Tian Shan. However, in some
places, between the chernozem (steppe) and meadow zones there is
wedged a forest-steppe zone. This zone is found, for example, on the
slopes of the Fergana range, where, in Andizhan raion, the zonal se-
quence of soils is as follows ( Neustruyev ) :

1. Lowlands. (Andizhan lies at an elevation of 500 m.) Po Zj/n-halophyte
solonchak desert; solonized sierozems, solonchaks, and meadow soils.
Thanks to artificial irrigation, this is the most important agricultural
region: cotton, rice, barley, millet, and wheat are growai here.

2. Adyrs—ioothiWs. Semidesert on sierozems, which change quickly with
the elevation; up to 1100 to 1200 m., light sierozems. Pohjn-grass and
mixed-herbaceous vegetation. Region of dry farming, which suflFers often
from drought.

3. Grassy steppe with dark sierozems rich in organic matter, which
grade into soils analogous to chernozems. These soils are characterized
by a high (up to 12 per cent) content of organic matter, nutlike struc-

176 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

ture, and accumulation of carbonates not very far from the surface.
Solonchaks and solonetz soils are absent. Reliable crops without irriga-
tion. In the dells and ravines, thick-shell Persian walnut {Juglans fallax
[J. regia fallax] ) occurs. This zone extends up to 1600 m.

4. Forest zone, or, more correctly, forest steppe: strips of forest of
thick-shell Persian walnut, plum, and apple alternate with meadows and
grassy steppes. Under the forest the soUs are strongly humus (over 21
per cent ) , with a distinct nutlike structure, which is reminiscent of forest
clay loams or brown forest soils ( Pankov, 1935 ) .^^ In the unf orested sec-
tions there are chernozems.

5. Meadow steppe (dzhailyau), 1700 to 2500 to 2700 m. on the slopes
facing Fergana and up to 3000 to 3200 m. on the opposite slope of the
range. On prominent parts of the rehef, on soils which are very similar
to chernozems, there is steppe with poJyn and capillary feather grass.
Extensive meadows on chernozemlike meadow soils occur. In the upper
parts of this zone (the meadow steppe), there are small coppices of
Schrenk's spruce, thickets of juniper, and, in the valleys, maple, poplar,
and birch. The soils of this zone are chemozemlike, and, up to the zone
of mountain-solonchak soils, are characterized by high humus content
and a distinct horizon of carbonate accumulation. The meadow steppe
may be cultivated up to 2500 m. (Fig. 45).

6. The subalpine zone begins at 2700 to 3000 m. This is a zone of high-
mountain meadows. Here and there at elevations over 3000 m. there
is feather grass. In some places the soils are calcareous and resemble
chernozem; in others they are lacking in carbonates, lighter in color, and
have a brown sod horizon.

From the examples cited, it is plain that the influence of the desert
extends far up into the mountains. The air in the mountains is so dry
that we find chernozem steppes with feather grass and polyn at eleva-
tions which in the Alps are covered by everlasting snows.

Vegetation Belts

It must be kept in mind that, with such big differences in latitude as

there are, for example, between the Kopet-Dagh (lat. 38° N) and the

Dzhungarian Ala-Tau (lat. 44° to 46° N), corresponding vegetation belts

are bound to differ considerably. On the other hand, because of the pecul-

^^ Brown forest soils, reported in Tadzhikistan and apparently found also in the
mountains of Fergana, occur at elevations from 1500 to 2200 m. Thick-shell Persian
walnut grows well on them (M. A. Pankov, "Pochvennie resursy Sredney Azii"
[Soil Resources of Central Asia], Subtropicheskie kultury v Sredney Azii [Subtropical
Crops in Central Asia], Tashkent, 1935, pp. 108-110).

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 177

iar climatic conditions which obtain in certain parts of the Tian Shan,
the scheme of vertical zonation, such as we presented above for soils,
cannot be the same in all the ranges. Thus, at the very same eleva-
tion we may find in some places alpine meadows, in others, steppes
and semidesert. In the Pamirs, high-mountain desert is found at an ele-
vation at which on ranges of the Tian Shan there lie everlasting snows and
glaciers.

The absence of pine and oak in the mountains of Central Asia must
be noted. Pine is replaced by arborescent junipers. Spruce and fir have
a limited distribution; they are found only in the east. However, in the
mountain forests here, there are many wild fruit trees and shrubs:
thick-shell Persian walnut, apple, pear, wild myrobalan plum (Primus
divaricata [P. cerasifera divaricata]), apricot, almond, pistache, Russian
olive, grape, and others. The mountains of Tadzhikistan ^^ and Fergana
were among the first centers in the world where fruit plants were cul-
tivated.

The following scheme reflects roughly the vertical zonation of vege-
tation for the Tian Shan as a whole: ^^

1. On the low foothills, covered with sierozems, is found the same
desert vegetation which was described for the loessial piedmont plains
(pp. 154-156). There is somewhat more precipitation here than lower
down. In spring, in addition to desert sedge and blue grass, many bulb
plants bloom here: crocus (Crocus korolkowi), hyacinth, gagea, irises,
and tulips. Of the summer plants, the first to bloom is the peculiar umbel-
lifer Scaligeria, which blooms and bears fruit for three to four years after
germination, and then dies. About half the species are annuals. Among
the perennial herbaceous plants, more than half are tuber and bulb
plants. The perennials grow as scattered individuals, one or two to a
square meter. The spaces between them are filled with ephemera; the
species are few in number, but each of them is represented by an aston-
ishingly large number of individual plants. Thus, in Tashkent raion there
are as many as five thousand or more plants to one square meter
(Korovin, 1934, p. 273).

The species composition of the foothills vegetation diflPers somewhat
according to individual regions, but in general, the fundamental species
everywhere is desert sedge. On the mounds (bairs) in Turkmenistan
between the Tedzhen and the Murgab and farther east, among the plants

^^"Plodovie Tadzhikistana" (Fruit Plants of Tadzhikistan), Leningrad, 1935, izd.
Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences) {Tadzhik. eksp. 1932 g.
[Tadzhik Expedition, 1932]).

1^ Cf. Korovin, 1934.

178 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

which form the background of the vegetation, the desert sedge is ac-
companied by the gigantic umbelhfer Ferula hadrakema. This plant forms
pecuHar thickets; it yields resin. East of the Amu-Darya the sedge is
accompanied by different species of the labiate Phlomis, in some places
(in southern Turkmenistan, along the Zeravshan, and in Tashkent raion)
by the papilionaceous drupe scurf pea, ak-kuray {Psoralen drupacea),
and in the foothills of the Fergana and Aleksandrovsk ranges and farther
east, by pohjn.

2. Higher up, where there is more precipitation, the desert vegetation
of the low foothills gradually assumes a semidesert character. In many
places, in the Kopet-Dagh, at Samarkand, in the mountains of Tadzhikis-
tan, in Fergana, in the Tashkent-Chimkent region, and in the Aleksan-
drovsk range, it is replaced by wheat-grass semidesert. Here the wheat
grass Agropyron popovii, characteristic for this semidesert, predomi-
nates, forming a thin cover. The stems of this rhizomic grass grow half
a meter high. Another grass is the bulbous barley {Hordeinn bulbosum) ,
which grows a meter high; its sod is composed of rhizomes. Among the
dicotyledons, the inula {Inula grandis) is distinguished by its large
leaves, and the gigantic umbellifer Ferula by its height. Sometimes the
vegetation forms a rather dense cover about half a meter tall; but the
soil is not covered with sod, as in the true steppes. At the beginning of
April this semidesert is overgrown with ephemeral vegetation, among
which the viviparous bulbous blue grass is the most numerous species.
Near Tashkent at the beginning of April there are many tulips {Tulipa
greigi ) and irises. In the middle of June the wheat grass begins to bloom.
In the middle of July the vegetation of the semidesert fades. Korovin
(1934) calls this zone the ephemeral steppe, but it is really semidesert,
of course; it might be called mixed-herbaceous and wheat-grass semi-
desert. As distinguished from the semidesert of the lowlands, there is no
polyn here. This semidesert contains many endemic species and even
endemic genera.

In Semirechye this semidesert is replaced by polyn and feather-grass
semidesert.

In the semidesert and steppe zones, beginning at an elevation of
600 m., from the Kopet-Dagh on the west as far as the western shore
of Issyk-Kul there are found thickets of common pistache ( Pistacia vera ) ,
a shrub or small tree which grows in thickets with a thin canopy (Fig.
47). In southern Tadzhikistan and in some places in Fergana pistache
grows together with almond. Thickets of pistache are particularly com-
mon in Kushka raion.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 179

3. Above the semidesert belt of the foothills lies the belt of mountain
dry steppes on chestnut soils. This zone is well expressed everywhere,
from the Kopct-Dagh on the west to the Tarbagatay on the east. These
grassy steppes may be called feather-grass and fescue steppes, since capil-
lary feather grass (Stipa capillata) and fescue (Festuca sulcata var.) pre-
dominate. The soil here is covered as densely with the sod of these grasses
as in the steppes of the lowlands. In addition to these grasses we may
find koeleria (Koeleria gracilis) and the pinnate feather grass Stipa
kirghisonim. In some places, for example in the southern Kara-Tau,
there are bushes of spiraea (Spiraea hypericifolia) . In general, in the
Tian Shan these steppes are very similar in character to the steppes of
the lowlands of Kazakhstan. In the Kopet-Dagh other species of feather
grass are found.

4. At an elevation of 1200 to 1500 m., on chernozems there appear
meadows, usually accompanied by trees. Often at the same elevation
there are steppes, which occupy the southern slopes and the flat water-
shed areas, while the meadows are associated with the northern slopes.
This is a region of dry-land ( unirrigated ) agriculture.

The vegetation consists of tall herbaceous plants, 70 to 80 cm. and
up to a meter high, which form a close stand, but the surface of the soil
is not covered with sod so densely as in the flood-plain meadows. There
are extensive thickets of shrubs in this zone: sweetbrier rose, the above-
mentioned spiraea, honeysuckle, and others, which grow in a close cover.
The average height of the shrubs is 1 to 2 m. Dense thickets of different
species of sweetbrier rose, up to 1 m. high, are especially characteristic.

Two types of low-mountain meadows may be distinguished (Korovin,
1934) in the mountains of Central Asia: one is found on the northern
ranges from the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau (and even from the Tarbagatay
and the Altay ) as far as some parts of the Talas Ala-Tau and the Fergana
and Alay ranges; the other is found on the ranges which lie farther west
and south. In the part of the Kopet-Dagh within the Soviet Union, there
are generally no meadows.

The northern low-mountain meadows: The large Ligularia altaica, or
sasyk-kiiraij (Compositae), which grows up to a meter in height and
bears yellow flower clusters, is characteristic for these meadows. Another
large plant found here is the tall Eremurus ( Liliaceae ) . These meadows
bloom about the end of July, when the blue Delphinium confusum, pink
scabious (Scabiosa alpestris), geranium, and other flowers form a striking
carpet. Smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and orchard grass (Dactylis
glomerata) are found in both northern and southern meadows. Some-

180 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

times the grasses are numerous ( capillary feather grass, timothy, koeleria,
and fescue), and the meadows merge into meadow steppe, changing
into steppe on the southern slopes. In some of the meadows the capillary
feather grass yields to the pinnate feather grass Stipa kirghisorum. Pin-
nate feather-grass steppes are particularly extensive on the slopes of the
Fergana range and in the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau.

The southern meadows: The tall umbellifers, Ferula and especially
prangos {Prangos pabularia), are characteristic for these meadows.
Prangos, which grows as tall as 1 m., sometimes forms a dense cover.
It bears yellow flowers. The desert candle {Eremurus robustus) also
grows on the southern meadows. In some places (for example, on the
Alay range) the gigantic umbellifers Ferula jaeschkeana and F. ovina
are prominent. At lower elevations the meadow plants are accompanied
by many dry-steppe plants (wheat grass, inula, and others).

Many plants of the southern foothill meadows lose their leaves with
the coming of hot weather and drought. Such plants include prangos,
Eremurus, various shrubs, and others. Korovin calls these the ephemeral
meadows.

In the southern meadow zone of the Tian Shan there are patches of
deciduous forest, although they are not very extensive. Their lower
boundary in the western Tian Shan lies at an elevation of 1400 to 1500
m.; their upper boundary in Fergana reaches 2000 m.; in Tadzhikistan
it reaches 2800 m. Forests of thick-sheU Persian walnut {Juglans fallax
[J. regia fallax] ) ^^ are characteristic for the ranges which lie as far north
as the Talas Ala-Tau and as far east as Fergana ( Fig. 46 ) . There are nu-
merous apple trees (Pyrus malus and P. korshinskii) in these forests, rep-
resented by a large number of diflFerent strains. Sometimes thick-shell Per-
sian walnut forms a dense canopy in the forests. Individual walnut trees
grow in Darvaza at elevations up to 2300 m. In some walnut forests
in the Arslanbob valley in Fergana, maple (Acer turkestanicum) , apple,
wild myrobalan plum (Prunus divaricata [P. cerasifera divaricata]),
euon)Tnus, and honeysuckle grow together with the walnut. Pure stands
of maple may be found above the walnut forests in some parts of Fergana.
In the Fergana range there are wild almond and apricot. In the Ugam
Mountains ( Tashkent raion ) , the trees include thick-shell Persian walnut,
apple, maple, wild myrobalan plum, and pear (Pyrus heterophylla) ;
there is also a great deal of honeysuckle, spiraea, hawthorn, barberry, and
Celtis australis. Often the trees are twined with grape vines. In the moun-
tain forests of Tadzhikistan there is much maple. In this same zone, in

^'^ This is a form of tlie common Persian walnut, Juglans regia.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 181

addition to deciduous trees, there are thickets of arborescent juniper—
archa, Junipenis polycarpos seravschanica (kara-archa)— on the rocky
slopes. Within this zone, at an elevation of 1432 m., lies the weather
station of Chimgan, where 995 mm. of precipitation were recorded in
1922.

Stands of hawthorn (chiefly Crataegus monogyna) and apple, which
have more nearly the character of shrub thickets, are very extensive in
the Tian Shan.

In the mountains of central Tadzhikistan ^•' the forest zone occupies a
belt between 1500 and 2800 m. Turkestan maple {Acer turkestanicum)
and thick-shell Persian walnut predominate among the trees at elevations
up to 2200 m. The shrub or sapling of the Turkestan pearlbush ( Exochorda
alberti [E. korolkowii alberti], which belongs to the rose family and is
related rather closely to the spiraea) is common. In some places there is
flowering plum {Primus ulmifolia [P. triloba.]) as well. Tlie Turkestan
maple is a relict form, the closest relatives of which are found in the Medi-
terranean countries, the Caucasus, the Himalayas, and the Far East. Other
ancient types which have an interrupted distribution are the thick-shell
Persian walnut, pearlbush, and flowering plum. Higher up, between 2200
and 2800 m., tree and shrub vegetation is represented by the Turkestan
maple, juniper ( Juniperus polijcarpos seravschanica ) , Austrian brier rose
{Rosa lutea [R. foetida]), and honeysuckle.

In the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau the thick-shell Persian walnut is absent. Here
in the low-mountain meadow zone grow sparse, deciduous forests of
apple, mountain ash, white birch {Betula tianschanica) ,-'^ aspen, poplar,
maple, apricot, elm, and others. From these forests, which abound in
apples, the town of Alma-Ata got its name (from aZma— apple). In the
neighborhood of this town the cultivation of a famous variety of apple,
the Vemensk Aporta, has been developed. Wild apple grows in Semire-
chye at elevations from 800 to 1500 m., and in some places even higher.
(There are some apples on the shores of Issyk-Kul.) The upper limit of
deciduous forests here lies at 1500 to 1700 m.

5. Above the low-mountain meadows lie the siibalpine meadows. (It
is not possible to draw a clear boundary between them ever)^vhere. )
In the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau they begin at an elevation of 1500 to 1600 m.;
on the Fergana range, which is drier, a thousand meters higher, at 2500

^^ N. F. Goncharov, Odierk rastitelnosti tsentiah.ovo Tadzhikistaiw (Sketch of
tlie Vegetation of Central Tadzhikistan), Moscow, 1936, izd. Akad. nauk (pubHca-
tion of the Academy of Sciences).

2° White birch, in general, is widespread in the valleys of the Tian Shan mountain
streams.

182 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

to 2700 m.; in central Tadzhikistan, at 2700 m.; in the May valley still
higher, at 3100 to 3200 m. In this same belt, or a little above it, there
are usually coniferous forests of spruce and fir, and also juniper groves.

Although the herbaceous vegetation of the subalpine meadows is dis-
tinguished from that of the low-mountain meadows by its shorter stand,
the height of the herbage here is still considerable. The flowers are
brightly colored. They bloom simultaneously, and there are a great many
species. The soils are of the mountain-meadow type. Several species of
Trisetum are characteristic among the grasses; occasionally there is
pinnate feather grass (Stipa kirghisorum) , which in some places extends
into the alpine zone (up to 3000 m.). Among the other plants are the
composite Senecio soongoricus; the labiate Phlomis; the composite Ligu-
laria altaica; and in some places (in the mountains of Tashkent raion
and in Tadzhikistan), the umbellifer prangos.

In central Tadzhikistan the subalpine meadows lie at elevations from
2700 m. to 3000 m. The most numerous plants here are the composite
cousinia (Coiisinia stephanophora) and the spiny shrub astragalus (Astra-
galus nigricahjx) , but the large umbellifer Ferula occurs also. According
to Goncharov, in the meadow region there is less precipitation than in
the forest belt.

On the southern slopes in central Tadzhikistan the cousinia meadows
extend up to 3500 m., while on the northern slopes between 3000 and
3500 m. there are high-mountain fescue steppes. Fescue grass {Festuca
sulcata) is the dominant species in these steppes. There is also much
cousinia and polyn (Artemisia leJnnanniana) . In general the vegetation
of the high-mountain fescue steppe has a xerophytic appearance, and in
summer there is less precipitation here than in the belt of cousinia
meadows.

Spruce and fir do not extend west of long. 72° E. Only in some places
in the mountains of northern Semirechye do we find coniferous forests,
which resemble the taiga to some extent; they are on the northern slopes,
associated with ravines. Schrenk's spruce (Picea schrenkiana) is a mag-
nificent shapely tree with a narrow crown, which is found in the Dzhun-
garian and Trans-Ili Ala-Tau, in the eastern part of the Aleksandrovsk
range, in the Issyk-Kul basin, in some places in the mountains to the
south of Issyk-Kul, in the Fergana range, in the eastern part of the Trans-
Alay, and on the southern slopes of the Chatkal range and the Talas
Ala-Tau. Przhevalsky describes Schrenk's spruce as follows: In form it
"resembles a sugar loaf: the short, extremely dense branches nowhere
protrude from the general mass; the whole tree looks a great deal as

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA laS

though it had been artificially pruned." Schrenk's spruce grows as tall as
50 m., and reaches a diameter at breast height of 2 m. Students of the
spruce-forest soils in the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau classify them as slightly-
podzolized forest types. ( Perhaps they are brown forest soils. ) The spruce
forests here contain aspen, bird cherry, raspberry, and juniper. On the
northern slopes of the Tarbagatay there is Siberian spruce (Picea excelsa
ohovata [P. obovata]). Siberian fir (Abies sihirica) is found in some
places in the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau, while a closely related species, the
Turkestan fir (A. sibirica semenovi), is found in the Talas Ala-Tau and
in the Chatkal range. In all the rest of Central Asia, the only conifer is
the juniper. Spruce and spruce-fir forests nowhere occupy large areas.
In addition to spruce and fir there are the small Tian Shan mountain
ash (Sorbtis iiansclianica), several species of honeysuckle, Semenov's
euonymus [Eiionijmus semenovii?], raspberry, and sweetbrier rose. In
some places the undergrowth contains the singular shrub abelia ("Moses'
staff," Abelia cori/mbosa), 3.5 to 4 m. high; staves are made from its
solid wood. Often the soil is covered with moss. In the herbaceous cover
northern forest forms may be found— orchids, pyrola, and stone bramble.

Of the junipers in the zone of subalpine meadows, the arborescent,
so-called "semiglobular" juniper, or saur-archa (Juniperus semiglobosa)
is widespread; it grows in true forests on the slopes of the Turkestan
and Alay ranges. The ground in these juniper groves is covered with
moss.

In the dry climate of the Tian Shan, spruce and fir extend up to an
elevation at which in the Alps there is usually everlasting snow, and
first appear at an elevation at which conifers usually terminate in the
Alps. Thus, the spruce zone on the northern slope of the Dzhungarian
Ala-Tau lies between 1500 and 2300 m.; "^ in the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau, be-
tween 1800 and 2800 m.; in the Kungei- Ala-Tau, bet\veen 1850 and
2850 m.; in the Terskei-Ala-Tau, between 2100 and 2800 m.; and in the
Chatkal range, between 1800 and 2850 m. Juniper grows even higher.
The upper limit of juniper in the Peter I range is 3000 m.

6. Above the zone of subalpine meadows lie the alpine meadotcs. The
alpine herbaceous plants are distinguished from the subalpine by their
small height. Many have leaves at the base of the plant in the form of a
rosette. Small undershmbs are represented bv cushionlike forms. These
include the saxifrage (Saxifraga alberti), pricklv thrift (Acantholimon
marmoreiim), rock jasmine (Androsace villosa). and others. Masses of

-1 L. Rodin, Trudy Bof. inst. Akad. rtuuk (Proceedings of the Botanical Institute
of the Academy of Sciences) (3), No. 1, 1934. p. 274. "

184 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

flowers lend a variety of color to the alpiiie glades. Of the shrubs, the
trailing Turkestan juniper, uryuk-archa (Juniperus pseudosabina turke-
stanica), is widespread in the alpine zone. Cobresia meadows are very
characteristic for the alpine zone of the central Tian Shan; these mead-
ows are named after the sedge Cobresia, which in some places covers
the soil with a continuous sod. Sometimes the entire vegetation of the
meadow consists of one species of cobresia (for example, C. capillifolia) ;
sometimes there are also dicotyledons, for example, the common edel-
weiss, Leontopodium alpinum.

The sequence of zones for southern and central Tadzhikistan accord-
ing to N. F. Goncharov (1936) is shown in Table 12.

Table 12
Zonal Sequence of Vegetation in Southern and Central Tadzhikistan

Type of Vegetation Elevation

Desert, semidesert, and steppe vegetation up to 1800 m.

Thickets of shrubs (chiefly Rosa) 1800 to 2000

Forest belt

Maple forests with pearlbush and thick-shell Persian walnut 2000 to 2200

Maple thickets with shrubs (Rosa and others) 2200 to 2700

Subalpine meadows

Mixed-herbaceous meadows with cousinia or bent grass 2700 to 3000

High-mountain steppes with cousinia and fescue 3000 to 3500

Alpine meadows

Alpine short meadow herbage over 3500

Having examined the vegetation zones of the mountains, we should
mention several types of xerophytic plants which do not fit into the above
scheme; their appearance depends upon local conditions of relief and
climate. They are found in the Kopet-Dagh (and several other ranges),
in the Pamir, and in the sijrts to the south of Issyk-Kul.

The Kopet-Dagh. These are desert mountains which within the Soviet
Union are unforested. The desert here extends high up into the moun-
tains; thus conditions are created which lead to the appearance of a
peculiar type of plant, tlie so-called "mountain" xerophyte. We will de-
scribe briefly the zonal sequence in Ashkhabad raion:

Up to an elevation of about 350 m., on sierozems, there is desert
vegetation of the type peculiar to the loessial piedmont plain. At an eleva-
tion of 320 to 440 m. there is polyn semidesert on "desert-steppe" siero-
zems (closely related to the light-chestnut soils), with a very thin herba-

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 185

ceous cover. The polijns belong to the Arlemhia maritima group. After
the middle of June, the vegetation fades. In this zone typical spiny moun-
tain xerophytes appear, growing on scliists. These plants include Acantho-
limon (Plumbaginaceae), which grows in cushions, with spiny, awl-
shaped leaves; and Acanthophijllum (Caryophyllaceae), which is very
similar to Acantholimon in appearance and in the arrangement of the
leaves. At an elevation of 500 to 1150 m., on light-chestnut soils, there
is wheat-grass and mixed-herbaceous steppe. Here feather grasses are nu-
merous. This is a region of pastures and meadows. In some places wheat
and barley are grown here without irrigation. At an elevation of 1100 to
2200 m., on dark-chestnut soils, we find feather-grass and fescue steppes.
In the steppe zone mountain xerophytes reach an extensive distribution;
often they grow in the form of spiny, cushion-shaped undershrubs.
Acantholimon and Acanthophijlhim have been mentioned already. The
typical xerophyte, Gypsophila aretioides (Caryophyllaceae), native only
to the Kopet-Dagh, also is worth noting. It is found, for example, at
Gaudan, at an elevation of 1500 m. It grows in the form of pale gray-
green cushions, 1 to 1.5 m. in diameter, sometimes flat, sometimes semi-
globular. The cushion consists of a multitude of stems which grow so
close together that a horse may walk across them without leaving a trace;
the cushion is so compact that rain will not penetrate it. This gypsophila
blooms in a host of white sessile flowers. Sometimes other plants, which
also form cushions, settle on the gypsophila; for example, Dionysia
tapetodes. Gypsophila burns well, and is used for fuel. Other xerophytes
are the shrub tragacanth astragali. These small shrubs, which grow half
a meter high and have spiny leaves, yield a resinous substance, tragacanth
gum. Another legume found here is Onohrychis cornuta, which has spiny
leaves. Sometimes the cushions of this plant grow interwoven with
Acantholimon, forming one continuous, enormous cushion.

In the steppe zone on the northern slopes, beginning at an elevation
of 1000 to 1200 m., there may be found at first individual specimens,
and, higher up, thickets of arborescent juniper {Junipenis polycarpos
turcomanica) , growing 15 to 17 m. tall. In some places, as an admixture
with the juniper, there is maple. Beginning at an elevation of 1500 m.,
the juniper thickets are developed rather more profusely. Usually they
do not form continuous stands, nor do they extend high up into the
mountains.

Mountain-xerophytic vegetation reaches its most t^'pical de\elopment
in the Kopet-Dagh above the steppe belt, at elevations of about 2000 m.
and higher.

186 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

In the gorges of the central Kopet-Dagh, which are usually dry, grow
shrub thickets of hawthorn, sweetbrier rose, honeysuckle, barberry, my-
robalan plum {Primus cerasifera), and cotoneaster {Cotoneaster racemi-
flora). Occasionally there are blackberry and woodland European grape.
Here and there in the wetter gorges there are trees of Persian walnut
(Jiiglans regia), willow, maple {Acer monspessulanum) , poplar, ash,
elm {Ulmiis densa [U. carpinifolia], of the smoothleaf elm group) (Fig.
48), and juniper. In some places there are many wild fruit trees; in
addition to the walnut and myrobalan plum, which have been mentioned,
there are also almond, pear, plum, common fig {Ficus carica), and white
mulberry. These shrubs and trees do not extend higher than 1200 m.

The flora of the southern slope of the western Kopet-Dagh, for ex-
ample in Karakalinsk raion, contains a large number of Iranian elements,
such as the yellow jasmine ( Jasminium fruticans ) , Christ's-thorn paliurus
( Paliurus spina-christi ) , common pomegranate ( Punica granatum ) , Vitex
agnus-castus, common jujube {Zizyphus vulgaris [Z. jujuba], plane tree
{Platanus orientalis), almond, pistache, and others.

Mountain xerophytes are found in several other mountain ranges be-
sides the Kopet-Dagh— the Nura-Tau, Mogol-Tau, Kara-Tau, and others.
Among the plants found on the Kara-Tau is the rubber-yielding tau-
saghijz {Scorzonera tau-saghys), a composite undershrub.

The Pamir Plateau, with its dry and cold climate, constitutes a typical
desert with all the various attributes of deserts— soils of the sierozem
type, takyrs, solonchaks, and shifting sands. The vegetation is sparse, and
the mountain slopes, as well as the valleys, are far from covered with
verdure. Among the characteristic plants are the small squat halophytic
undershrub. Old World winter fat {Eurotia ceratoides, native to the
stony desert of the Pamirs), which is used for fuel; Acantholimon dia-
pensioides, which is flattened in the form of a cushion, and rises 3 to
5 cm. above the stony soil; the cushion-shaped legume, crazyweed
{Oxytropis); the high-mountain polyn, Artemisia skorniakovii; and the
feather grass Stipa orientalis. In the Pamirs, just as on the Kopet-Dagh,
other plants often settle on the cushion-shaped plants. Thus, on the large
cushions of Oxytropis there have been found as many as ten species of
other plants. Lichens and mosses grow on the takyrs; sometimes they
cover as much as half the surface. On the solonchaks there are very few
plants; one of them is the annual crucifer Dilophia ehracteata. In moist
places in the valleys there are cobresia meadows (see above, p. 184);
solonchak sedge meadows are common. But there are alpine meadows
as well.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 187

South of Isstjk-Kul, the normal mountain zonation of vegetation is not
observed on the stjrt^, since they have a more or less flat surface. Where
the chmate is dry, even at high elevations, steppes and high-mountain
desert predominate, while in the wetter places there are cobresia meadows.

Along the Naryn River, steppes rise to an elevation of 2800 m. Here
grasses predominate: pinnate feather grass {Stipa kirghisorum) , fescue,
koeleria, desert oat (Avena desertoriim) , timothy {Phleum boehmeri),
wheat grass {Agropijron ferganense), and capillary feather grass {Stipa
capillata).

In the upper Naryn basin the syrts are occupied by high-mountain
desert, which resembles the Pamir desert to some extent. Here we find
the familiar cushion-shaped prickly thrift, Acantholimon diapensioides.
The peculiar high-mountain squat polyn, Artemisia rhodantha, is promi-
nent; its leaves rise 2 to 3 cm. from the ground, while the rhachides rise
8 to 10 cm. The small bushes of this polyn are scattered sparsely over
the gray soil. Among them are found cushions of the above-mentioned
prickly thrift and tussocks of feather grasses. We have spoken already of
the cobresia meadows.

Fauna.

The fauna-" of the semidesert and the lower zones of the foothill
steppes does not differ greatly from that which we find in the lowland
loessial plain. The European and the bearded partridges {Perdix perdix
and P. daurica [P. barbata] ) are permanent residents here. In the desert
mountains of Tadzhikistan there are fox, wolf, hyena, and porcupine
(Hystrix hirsiitirostris [H. leucura hirsutirostris]) , while higher up in
the mountain semidesert and the mountain steppe there are mountain
sheep (Ovis vignei). In the foothills the goitered gazelle (Gazella sub-
gutturosa) is common.

The following animals are native to the deciduous forest: porcupine
(Hystrix hirsutirostris satunini [H. leucura satunini]), which does not
go high up into the mountains; wild boar, found from the tugay belts
to the source of the Naryn (3300 m.); and the Tian Shan badger {Meles
meles tianschanensis [M. leptorhynchus tianschanensis]) , which is formd
also in the desert. The Siberian roebuck ( Capreolus pygargus tianschani-
cus) is common here, although more usually it inhabits the coniferous
forests. Birds characteristic for the nut-bearing forests are: the Indian

22cf_ Kashkarov, 1931. V. N. Shnitnikov, Mlekopitayushchie Semirechija (The
Mammals of Semirechye), Leningrad, 1936, izd. Akad.' nauk (publication of the
Academy of Sciences).

188 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

paradise flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisea tiirkestanica) , which extends
as far north as the Talas Ala-Tau; the stock dove (Columba oenas tian-
schanica); and the Old World goldfinch (Acanthis caniceps [Carduelis
caniceps] ) .

In the spruce-fir forests there is Siberian roebuck, or ilik, which changes
its reddish summer coloration for gray in winter; red deer, or bogu
(Cerviis elaphus canadensis n. sibiriciis [C. elaphus sibirictis]) , in the
Dzhungarian Ala-Tau; lynx; stoat (Miistela erminea ferghanae); the
Turkestan weasel {Arctogale nivalis pallida [Mustela nivalis nivalis]);
and the mouse hare (Ochotona rutila). In addition there are bear and
manul cat (Otocolobus manul [Felis mantd]) in Semirechye. Among
the birds in the spruce groves of Semirechye are many northern types,
such as the nutcracker (Nucifraga canjocatactes rothschildi) , which
feeds on the seeds of Schrenk's spruce; the crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) ;
the bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula); several tits; and the three-toed wood-
pecker {Picoides tridactylus tianschanicus) . All of these birds except
the bullfinch are permanent residents in the spruce groves of Semirechye.
The bullfinch, and also the pine grosbeak {Pinicola enucleator) and
Siberian rose finch {Uragiis sibiricus) come here to spend the winter.
Near water in the region of the spruce forest (and also to some extent
in the deciduous forest) lives the Himalayan blue thrvish {Myophonus
coeruleus temmincki ) ; in some places this member of the thrush family
remains to spend the winter; the bird is the size of a jackdaw. In the
spruce groves the large Asiatic turtle dove (Streptopelia orientalis meena)
occurs in large numbers. Some birds nest in the spruce forest, but in
winter many of them are found in the deciduous forest also. In Semire-
chye these include the black-breasted accentor; the Tian Shan kinglet,
which resembles the warbler Leptopoecile sophiae; several creepers; a
northern taiga bird, the hawk owl (Surnia ulula tianschanica) ; and the
mountain serin {Serimis pusillus), which may be seen in winter in the
towns of Semirechye. The spruce forests of Semirechye contain black
grouse {Lyrurus tetrix), which nests also in other places.

The white-winged hawfinch ( Mycerobas carnipes ) is characteristic for
the juniper thickets. Because of its thick beak, it is called baltd-tumsuk
("ax-nose") by the Kirghiz. This variegated bird of the finch family
feeds on juniper seeds. In Semirechye it lives in the spruce forests also,
and in winter it may be found on the streets of Karakol. The rock par-
tridge (Caccabis chukar [Alectoris graeca])— without sufficient basis it
has come now to be called Alectoris kakelik [A. graeca falki]— is common
in the juniper groves.

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 189

The suhalpine and alpine zone. Here bobac are very characteristic—
the red or long-tailed Marmota caudata; the two-colored, or Altay-Tian
Shan M. haihacina centralis; and the Talas M. menzbieri, occur at eleva-
tions from 200 to 4500 m. On the high-mountain fescue steppes of Fer-
gana, in some places there is found a small relict suslik {Citellus relictus).
The high-mountain sheep Ovis polii and O. mgnei graze on the high-
mountain fescue steppes. In the alpine zone, amid the rocks and rubble,
the mouse hare ( Ochotona rutila, a rodent the size of a rat ) is common.
This animal is called the "hay stacker," because of its habit of preparing
stores of hay in the form of small ricks for the winter. It is interesting
that the bobac, suslik, mouse hare, and sheep all appear in the lowlands
—in the steppes and to some extent even in the desert (for example, the
mountain sheep Ovis orientalis, which inhabits Mangyshlak)— as well as
in the subalpine and alpine zones. Different explanations have been pro-
posed for this similarity between steppe and high-mountain fauna. Menz-
bier (1914) believes that the mountain sheep, snow pheasant {Tetra-
ogallus), and rock partridge {Caccahis [Alectoris]) first settled in the
lowlands, and subsequently turned into mountain forms as the lowlands
were uplifted and transformed into mountains. This view is maintained
by A. Semenov-Tian-Shansky for beetles, and by Uvarov for orthoptera.
However, by analogy with the vegetation, the opposite view may be
upheld— that the steppe forms are derived from mountain forms which
were forced to descend into the lowlands during the glacial period. Some
steppe forms, however, may have moved into the mountains during the
xero thermic period.

Among the other animals found in the subalpine and alpine zones
are the following: The Asiatic ibex, or kiik {Capra sibirica) does not
descend below 2500 m., and ranges as high as the boundary of ever-
lasting snows. The snow leopard, or kaplan {Leopardus uncia [Felis
uncia]), which hunts goats and sheep, ranges almost as high. The Tian
Shan bear ( Ursus arctos leucontjx [U. arctos isabellinus] ), closely related
to our brown bear, is found not only in the alpine zone, but also in the
forest zone. In the alpine zone it feeds on bobac, digging up their bur-
rows; it eats herbaceous plants, chiefly alpine fleeceflower {Polygonum
alpinum), and descends into the valleys when the berries and fruit
(myrobalan plum, apple, and apricot) ripen. In Semirechye the northern
dhole (Cuon alpinus hesperius) is found in a form which is also native
to the Altay. The common wolf and fox also enter the alpine zone.
Among the birds is the large Himalayan snow pheasant (Tetraogallus
himalayensis) , a bird which appears at very high altitudes; it is the

190 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

companion of the ibex and the mountain sheep. The alpine chough
(Pyrrhocorax graculus), which is found in great numbers in the moun-
tains of southern Europe and southern Asia, is common also in the
alpine zone of the Tian Shan, and is found in the Pamirs. A related form,
the red-beaked chough (P. pyrrJwcorax) , appears at somewhat lower
altitudes. The following birds are very characteristic: the alpine homed
lark (Eremophila alpestris [Otocoris alpestris]), water pipit {Anthus
spinoletta blackistoni) , alpine accentor (Prunella collaris rufilata), and
the finches Leucosticte nemoricola altaica [Montifringilla nemoricola
altaica] and L. hrandti [M. hrandti]. It is interesting to note that the
European martin (Chelidonaria urbica meridionalis) in Central Asia
never nests in the towns. It nests usually in the alpine zone (sometimes
close to the snow line), but also in the foothills and in the forest zone.

In the Dzhungarian Ala-Tau the zone of subalpine meadows is in-
habited by the endemic Siberian newt {Ranodon sibiricus), which does
not descend below 1800 m.

The following fish are native to the mountains of Central Asia, from
the Kopet-Dagh as far east as the Balkhash basin: the Old World minnow
(Schizothorax) , a peculiar fine-scaled cyprinid which replaces the trout
here; the cyprinid osman (Diptychus), which occurs east of the Syr-
Darya; and the loach (Nemachilus). Trout are found in Central Asia
only in some of the mountain streams of the Amu-Darya basin; for
example, in the Alay valley. The sisorid catfish, Glyptosternum stolicz-
kai, native to the mountains of the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya basins,
is unique.

In the subalpine zone of the Tian Shan appear the singular flightless
apterous locusts, Conophyma, characteristic also for other mountain
regions in the Caucasus and in Europe.

The fauna of the Pamir has much in common, on the one hand, with
Tibet, and, on the other, with the syrts of the Naryn basin, which lies
south of Issyk-Kul. The huge mountain sheep, Ovis polii, which is
native also to the syrts, is characteristic for the high-mountain desert of
the Pamir. The long-tailed marmot (Marmota caudata), red mouse hare
(Ochotona rutila), Pamir hare (Lepus europaeus tibetanus), and yak,
or kutas ( which is bred by the Kirghiz ) , also are widespread in the Tian
Shan, Tibet, and the Himalayas. The following birds nest here: the
Tibetan snow pheasant (Tetraogallus tibetanus); griffon vulture (Gyps
fulvus himalayensis) ; mountain or Indian goose (Anser indicus), which
also inhabits the syrts; Tibetan sand grouse ( Syrrhaptes tibetanus, of the
sand-grouse family); desert wheatear (Oenanthe deserti); and isabelline

MOUNTAINS OF SOVIET CKNTliAL ASIA 191

chat (O. isabellina) . Both the wheatear and the isabeHirio chat, which
appear in the syrLs, arc common in the desert of the Turanian Lowland
as well.

Of the fish on Pamir, the cyprinid genus Schizoptjgop.sis is characteris-
tic for Tibet.

While the Pamir is distinguished by the presence of eastern, Tibetan
elements, the Kopet-Dagh ^^ contains a large number of western Asiatic
forms native to Asia Minor, the Transcaucasus, Iran, and Afghanistan.
The following large mammals are found here: the wild goat {Capra
aegagrus [C. hircus aegagrus]); mountain sheep (Ovis orientalis cyclo-
ceras), which still inhabit Dushak mountain in large numbers; leopard
(Leopardus parclus [Felis pardus]); cheetah {Acinonyx jubatus [A.
venaticus raddei]), which is native to the loessial foothills; manul cat
(Otocolohus manul [Felis manul]); the very rare Syrian bear (Ursus
arctos syriacus) ; and the honey badger ( Melllvora indica ) . The reddish
mouse hare {Ochotona rufescens) , the white-footed mouse {Calomyscus
bailwardi hotsoni), and the hare Lepus europaeus tibetanus are rodents
which are found in the Kopet-Dagh and on the Great Balkhan. The
alpine meadow mouse {Microtus nivalis), which inhabits the Caucasus,
is found in the neighborhood of the snow patches. Of the birds, the
Caspian snow pheasant (TetraogaUus caspius) is native to the high
mountains. Lower down, in the belt of juniper groves, we find the white-
winged hawfinch and rock partridge, which w^ere mentioned above. The
wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) is numerous here. The beautiful
seesee partridge {Ammoperdix griseogularis), which inhabits western
Asia, is native to the Kopet-Dagh foothills. Among the snakes in the
Kopet-Dagh may be found the poisonous spectacled cobra {Naja naja
coeca), which reaches a length of 1.8 m., and the equally poisonous
blunt-nosed viper (Vipera lebetina), which grows as long as the cobra.
In some places in the foothills termites {Hodotermes turkestanicus) are
numerous. The Moroccan locust and the locust Calliptamus italicus are
insects which breed in the Kopet-Dagh.

Of the fish, the Old World minnow (Schizothorax) , a representative
of a Central Asiatic genus, is characteristic for the Kopet-Dagh. This
region is the western boundary of its distribution.

"^ S. I. Ognev and V. G. Heptner, "Mlekopitayushchie sredne\o Kopet-Daga i
prilezhashchey ravniny" (Mammals of the Cential Kopet-Dagh and the Adjoining
Plain), Trudy nmichno-issled, inst. zoologii (Proceedings of the Zoological Scientific-
Research Institute), III, No. 1, Moscow, 1929.

IX - The Soviet Humid Subtropical Regions

THE region of subtropical lowland forests is repre-
sented in the U.S.S.R. only by two unconnected
sections of the Transcaucasus: (1) the Colchian Lowland in the western
Transcaucasus and ( 2 ) the Talysh Lowland in the eastern Transcaucasus.

DeBnition
The region of subtropical forests is characterized by a hot summer.
The winter is so moderate that many plants are able to vegetate the
year round without interruption. Rainfall is heavy. The vegetation con-
sists of broad-leaved forests, which include an admixture of evergreen
species. This type of climate and vegetation is found also on the lower
slopes of the adjoining mountains.

1. THE COLCHIAN ( KOLKHmSKAYA ) LOWLAND

Boundaries
The Colchian Lowland is situated along the lower course of the Rion;
it reaches up the river about as far as Kutais. Narrowing gradually, it
extends along the Black Sea coast approximately to the mouth of the
Kodor (south of Sukhum); to the south it extends as far as Kobuleti
(north of Batum). The lowland measures approximately 90 km. from
west to east. This area slopes gently to the sea; a large part of it is
occupied by swamps.

Climate
The climate of Colchis is moist and warm. There is much precipitation,
more than 1000 mm. annually— in some places as much as 2500 mm. In
no other lowland in the U.S.S.R. is tliere so much precipitation (if Batum,
which we have classified with the mountain zone, is included here).
192

Fig. 33. Saxaul {Haloxylon ammodendron) in the Trans-Caspian sandy deseri nee
Repetek. (Lipsky, Lesnoya Rasfitelnosi v Turkesfane. Fig. 5)

-*1^.

go0titl»m0 * lfHkm»mm» f^. I)

-A ■.

Mr .

^ • '^"'

^,

Fig 35. Ce//ioe<i
mound in lK«
(lipUy, (Mnojro
(on*. FiQ. 6)

•f>noc*wm
tortvki

.\.:?"r

J

I

J. M •••<J »hi<fc«rt on '^c j^j'c of
ik« BolkKoth AttafikofO toinfo

37 Ch«« grott 'loiiogroi'ii

•o^ 'V»y»fofio»»«l)./</#r Vol. 18.
' 8, pJo«» 44

Fig. 38. The Airakli table mountains on Mangyshlak Peninsula. (L. S. Berg,
Formy Russkikh Pusfyn. Fig. 5)

Fig. 39. Stalin Peak, the highest point in
the U.S.S.R. (Bolshayo Sovetskaya Entsik-
lopedio. Vol. 44: 31)

Fig. 40. The high Pamir. (Bolshayo Sovet-
skaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 44: 31)

Fig. 41. Khan-Tengri, the highest mountain of the Tian Shan. {Aziafskaya Rossiya.
Vol. 2: 50)

Fig. 42. The detritus-covered lower end of the Zeravshan Glacier, i Aziafskaya
Rossiya. Vol. 2: 44)

fig. 43. Lake Issyk-Kul in the Tian Shan. (Aziafskaya Rossiya. Vol. 2: 53)

Fig. 44. Loke Iskander-Kul in the H!sar range (Samarkand oblast). {Aziatskaya
Rossiya. Vol. 2: 44)

*^

Fig. 46. Thick-shell Persian walnut (Juglans failax
[J. regia failax]) in Fergana oblast. {Aziatskaya
Rossiya. Vol. 2: 137)

Fig. 47. Pistache shrubs in Fergana oblast. {Aziat-
skaya Rossiya. Vol. 2: 137)

Fig. 48. Karagach (U/mus densa [U. carpinifolia])
in Samarkand oblast. (Aziatskaya Rossiya. Vol. 2:
136)

^'X<^-,

^

^'^

THE SOVIET HUMID SUBTliUPlCAL REGIONS

Tabic 13
Precipitation in Colchis (in mm.)

193

I'ltECII'ITATION

Locality

Jan.

iMCB.

Makcii

April

May

June

July

!SEi-r.

Oct.

l)K..

Veak

Kutais *
Poti t
Ozurgeti t
Batum §

1 or,
127
191
2,5C

Ill
94

186

ur,
81
11. ■}
150

04
79
92
148

80

r>7

80
87

12,3
133
12.5
172

84
163
1.08
160

87
230
167
235

104
201
2.50
303

106
1.57
210
247

131
147
272
327

139
130

193
265

12.59
1.598
2077
2465

* 31-year means. t 43-year means. I 13-year means. § 25-year means.

The precipitation is distributed (see table) more or less evenly
throughout the year, and the fact that there is no dry period has a
pronounced effect on the vegetation.

The minimum precipitation comes in May, the maximum in autumn
and winter; but at Poti and in other parts of the Colchian coast, the
greatest precipitation comes in August, which is the warmest month.
The monthly total of precipitation varies greatly. In Kutais in one year
493 mm. fell during the month of February; in other years, however,
there has been almost no precipitation (0.5 mm.) during this month.
The precipitation falls chiefly in the form of heavy showers. In Poti
207 mm. of precipitation once fell in June in one day.

Cloudiness is relatively great; in Poti the mean annual figure is 62
per cent. As one moves away from the sea, cloudiness decreases. The
annual range in cloudiness is not great; in Poti the maximum (in January
and Febmary) is 69 per cent, the minimum (in October), 55 per cent.

The winds have a monsoon character. In summer they blow moist and
cool from the sea; in winter they blow rather warm and dry from the
land. The summer winds from the sea are due to the fact that in summer
the pressure over the Black Sea is higher than the pressure over the land.
In winter the pressure over the Black Sea is low, while over the Caucasus,
particularly over the Armenian Plateau, the pressure is high.

Because of the monsoon character of the winds, tlie relative humidit}'
in the western Transcaucasus, as Voyeikov has pointed out, is greater dur-
ing the warm season than during the cold. For example, in Poti the rela-
tive humidity is 86 per cent in summer, and 77 per cent in winter, while
in areas which do not have the monsoon it is usually the other way
around.

In Kutais the summer monsoon is poorly e.xpressed, while the winter
monsoon (NE, E, SE) is quite distinct. The winter monsoon here is a
dry and warm wind. It blows in spring also, in the form of a sultry and

194

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

even drier wind. When it lasts as long as a week, the vegetation suffers
severely. From November to April in Kutais the monsoon blows an
average of at least 11 days (and as many as 15 days) a month.

The monsoon in Kutais has a foehnlike character. However, typical
foehns (warm and dry descending winds) are very frequent also. In
Kutais there are 114 days during the year when the foehn blows; that
is, two and one-half times as many as in those parts of the Alps which
are celebrated for foehns. In December in Kutais the foelin blows about
one day out of two. In summer, however, foehns are much less frequent.
In June and July there are 3 to 4 days a month with foehn. These winds
are dry and warm, like the monsoon, and they raise the winter tempera-
ture of Kutais perceptibly. Foehns result when masses of cold air descend
into the Rion valley from anticyclones in the Caucasus, and particularly
from the Armenian Plateau; they undergo compression and their tem-
perature rises as they descend. When a cyclone passes over the Black
Sea, the velocity of the foehn wind may reach the force of a tempest.
When foehns occur in winter in Kutais, the temperature rises an average
of 2° to 5° C, and sometimes even more. During the foehn of March
24-27, 1899, the temperature in Kutais reached 30° C, while the relative
humidity fell to 9 per cent.

Shore breezes arise along the coast during calm noncyclonic weather.
During the day they blow from tlie sea, at night from the land.

The Colchian Lowland, protected by mountains from the cold east
winds, and warmed by the sea, has a very mild winter. However, the
summer here is hot. In the table which appears below, the mean monthly
temperatures for Poti are given:

Table U
Meak Monthly Temperatubes in Poti (in °C.)

Jan.

Feb.

March

Apeil

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Yeab

Mean diurnal

temperature

4.9

5.2

8.8

12.0

16.1

20.2

22.8

23.3

20.2

16.7

11.6

8.2

14.3

Mean tempera-

ture at 1 ; 00

P.M.

7.3

8.7

11.6

15.0

19.4

23.2

25.7

26.1

23.6

20.4

14.9

10.7

The diurnal range, 18° C, is very small, smaller than anywhere else
in the U.S.S.R., with the possible exception of the western Murman coast.
The winter is very mOd; the mean temperature of the coldest month is
over 4" C, which permits the cultivation of a number of subtropical
plants— tangerines, lemons, and bamboo.

THE SOVIET HUMID SUBTROPICAL REGIONS 195

The warmest month is not July, but August, as in marine climates.
Autumn in the Colchian Lowland is extremely warm. (October is warmer
than April by 4° to 5° C.) This is due in part to the high temperature
of the sea along the southern part ot the Caucasian littoral. In September
the sea has a surface temperature of 22° C; in October, over 18° C; in
November, over 13° C. Also, the warm foehns begin to blow in autumn.

The absolute maxima in some years may reach over 18" C. in January,
and 39° to 40° C. in July and August. However, there are sometimes
rather severe frosts in winter. Thus, in Poti the thermometer has dropped
occasionally to — 11.5° C. On the average, however, in Poti there is only
one day annually when there is no thaw; that is, when the maximum
temperature does not rise above 0° C.

Soils
The soils of the Colchian Lowland belong to the bog and half-bog
types. Brown forest soils ^ and alluvial soils are developed in the more
elevated places. There are no red soils on the plain, but they are devel-
oped in the foothills and in the mountains.

Vegetation

The special features of the vegetation cover are related to the peculiari-
ties of the warm and humid climate of Colchis. Plant life is unusually
luxurious; there is an admixture of evergreen plants, and a profusion of
vines and ferns. Growth is extremely vigorous, and it is extraordinarily
difficult to subdue the forest here. In Guriya, along the Choloku River,
according to Medvedev, an area which has been under a cornfield may
be overgrown in the space of one or two years by a sLx-meter under-
growth of alder and Caucasian wing nut, so that only the remains of
the stalks of dry corn among the thickets of trees show that there was a
field here recently. Bracken {Pteridium aquilinum) achieves a profuse
growth here very rapidly, growing as tall as a man in the course of one
summer; this weed is difficult to destroy here.

On the sandy seacoast grow two spiny shrubs, common sea buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides) and blackberry {Rubus discolor). These
shrubs are twined with the vines of traveler's-joy (Clematis vitalba)
and sturdy greenbrier (Smilax exceZsa— Liliaceae). Beyond the coastal
vegetation lie bogs covered with a dense forest of hairy alder (Almis
barbata, a species closely related to the European alder, A. gJutinosa),

^ Concerning these soils, see below, pp. 250-251,

196 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

brittle willow {Salix fragilis), and Caucasian wing nut {Pterocarya
fraxinifolia; in Georgian, lapini). All of these trees are twined with sturdy
greenbrier vines, common hop {Humuhis hipiilus), blackberry, hedge
glorybind {Calijstegia sepiiim [Convolvulus sepiiim]), and Grecian silk
vine {Periploca graeca). Alder grows here very quickly; in 5 to 6 years
it reaches dimensions which require 25 to 30 years to achieve in other
parts of the U.S.S.R. Forests in which alder predominates spring up as
a result of lumbering and stock grazing.

On slightly elevated places there is oak (Quercus hartwissiana) ,
European hornbeam (Carpinus hetuhis), some oriental beech {Fagus
orientalis) (Figure 49), and common pear (Pyrtis communis). The
epiphytic common polypody {Pohjpodium vulgare) is found growing
on some of the trees. The trees are twined with vines; in addition to
those enumerated above, the vines found here include the evergreen
Colchis ivy (Hedera colchica), and also the European grape {Vitis vini-
fera). Among the other evergreen plants occasionally there are English
holly (Ilex aquifoliwn) and butcher's-broom {Ruscus aculeatus and
R. hijpophijllum) , and even common box {Buxus sempervirens) . Such
is the picture, for example, near Poti, In the vicinity of Lake Paleostom
on the sedge peat bogs, there is found the enormous arborescent royal
fern, Osmunda regalis, which grows also farther north, in the alder bogs
at Adler, and farther south, at Kobuleti.

Somewhat farther in the interior, the country rises a little in elevation
and becomes drier. Here we find either forests on dry soils, or cultivated
fields. Oak and hornbeam predominate, with an admixture of a great
many other trees and shrubs: zelkova {Zelkova carpinifolia) , pontic
azalea (Azalea pontica [Rhododendron luteum]), hawthorn (Crataegus
oxyacantha), European filbert (Corylus avellana), oriental hornbeam
(Carpinus orientalis), European chestnut (Castanea vesca [C. sativa]),
common pomegranate (Punica granatum), and others. Near the dwell-
ing places grow century-old thick-shell Persian walnut trees.

The Colchian forests, like the Talysh forests, contain a series of relict
Upper Tertiary forms, analogous to the flora of Ussuri kray, Japan, and
the Atlantic states of North America (N. I. Kuznetsov, 1909). Colchis,
and the western Transcaucasus in general, served during the glacial
period as a shelter where thermophilic Upper Tertiary flora were able to
survive. Among the characteristic Tertiary species of the Rion Lowland
there are first of all the Caucasian wing nut and zelkova. The Caucasian
wing nut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), an enormous tree up to 30 m. tall,
which belongs to the same family as the thick-shell Persian walnut, grows

THE SOVIET HUMID SUBTROPICAL REGIONS 197

in abundance on moist soils subject to flooding along the river shores and
on the outskirts of the bogs. This tree is associated particularly with the
lowland, and is not found in the foothills. It extends about as far east
as Kutais. The rapid growth of the Caucasian wing nut has been men-
tioned already. Its light wood, which has little durability, is put to various
incidental uses. The zelkova {Zelkova crenata [Z. carpinifolia], which
belongs to the elm family), unlike the Caucasian wing nut, grows on
the drier and more elevated portions, predominantly within oak stands,
up to an absolute elevation of 300 m. The hard and solid wood of the
zelkova serves many purposes. It provides a first-class building material,
since it can withstand the humid climate of Colchis for tens and hundreds
of years. For piles, bridges, and so forth, zelkova has no substitute; it
excels oak in durability.

Both these trees have an almost identical intermittent distribution;
they are found not only in the western Transcaucasus, but also in Talysh
and on the southern shore of the Caspian, as well as in some parts of
the eastern Transcaucasus. Species closely related to the Caucasian wing
nut and the zelkova are found also in the Far East, in China and Japan;
and on the island of Crete there grows a species very closely related to
the Caucasian zelkova. Closely related and perhaps even identical species
of both genera grew during the Tertiary period in Europe, Asia, and
North America, extending into the extreme north. Zelkova (the species
Z. carpinifolia) was discovered recently in Pliocene deposits in the
neighborhood of Sofia in Bulgaria, together with other plants which
are typical for the western Transcaucasus: box, holly, yew, and chestnut.
Of the other Tertiary types which grow in the Rion Lowland, Kuznetsov
lists the shrub evergreen pontic rhododendron (Rhododendron ponti-
cum) and the annual herb Rhamphicarpa medwedewii, which was found
first in the neighborhood of Poti and which is very typical for the Colchian
Lowland. This semiparasitic plant of the figwort family ( Scrophularia-
ceae) belongs to a genus which is found in the tropics, chiefly in Africa.
The Colchis trapa (Trapa colchica) also belongs to this group of relict
forms.

During the glacial period many European forms came down into this
area from the north. On the bogs of the Rion Lowland, the following
northern plants are found: the roundleaf sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) ,
the common bog bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), sphagnum mosses, the
beak rush Rhijnchospora alba (of the sedge family), and others.

198 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Fauna
The fauna of Colcliian, unlike the flora, is neither abundant nor unique.
Among the birds is the pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). The fish are
closely related to those found along the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor.
The Colchis cyprinids, barbel {Barbus tauricus escherichi), khramulya
(Varicorhinus sieboldi), minnow [Leiicisciis cephalus], shemaya [Chal-
calburnus chalcoides], and rechnoy rybets {Vimba vimba tenella) are
characteristic. There are many moUusks, myriapods, a kind of fresh-
water crayfish {Astacus colchicus), and a host of malarial mosquitoes.
Two scorpions are found here, the Mediterranean {Euscorpius italicus)
and the Mingrelian (£. mingrelicus) .

2. THE TALYSH LOWLAND

The Talysh, or Lenkoran, Lowland lies to the south of the Mugan
Steppe, in a narrow strip 5 to 30 km. wide and 100 km. long, between
the Caspian Sea and the Talysh Mountains. It is drained by the Vilyazh-
Chay, Lenkoran, Putasar-Chay, and Astara rivers (the last-named lies
along the boundary with Iran). The lower valleys of these rivers are
largely occupied by swamps.

Along the coast there are fresh-water and salt lakes and ponds, which
are separated from the sea by chains of dunes, 4 to 6 m. high. A small
body of water such as this is called a mortso. The longest mortso extends
from Lenkoran to the mouth of the Kumbashinka.

Climate

As in Colchis, precipitation is abundant (about 1200 mm. annually),
but here it is distributed unevenly among the months. During the first
half of the summer, in June, there is a dry period; the maximum pre-
cipitation comes in autumn, in September and October. In Lenkoran the
mean annual precipitation for the years 1847-1904 was 1252 mm., being
greatest in September (216 mm.), least in June (24 mm.). However,
sometimes there is less than 1 mm. of precipitation during the entire
summer.

The summer is hot, the winter moderate. In Lenkoran, in lat. S8%° N,
the mean July temperature is almost 26° C, the mean January tempera-
ture, + 3° C. But occasionally there are very severe winters. Thus, in
January 1925, the temperature in Lenkoran dropped to — 15° C; the

THE SOVIET HUMID SUBTROPICAL REGIONS 199

Araks River and Kizil-Agach Bay were frozen and a great number oF
aquatic birds were destroyed. (Flamingoes perished by the thousand.)
The winds in Lenkoran have a monsoon character. In summer and
spring ESE and SE winds prevail, while in winter (from November to
February) WNW winds prevail, blowing from the land. These variations
in wind direction correspond to the distribution of atmospheric pres-
sure over the southern part of the Caspian Sea and over the continent.
The winds from the land blow in the form of foehns, warm and dry
winds which descend from the mountains; sometimes they raise the win-
ter temperature to 19° C. On the coast there are marked sea breezes in
summer.

Soils
The soils on the shore itself are alluvial, while farther inland from
the coast there are red soils, which are replaced in the foothills by brown
forest soils.

Vegetation

The vegetation " in general has the same Tertiary appearance as in
Colchis, but the composition of the flora is somewhat different. The
flora of Talysh belongs to the Hyrcanian province, the boundaries of
which correspond to the northern slopes of the ranges which border
the southern coast of the Caspian. There are very few evergreen plants
in Talysh.

In the forests of the Talysh Lowland the prevailing species is the en-
demic Persian parrotia {Parrotia persica), which often grows in dense
thickets. This tree is distinguished by the unusual durability of its wood
and by its very slow growth. It does not reach a great height, standing
only 6 to 20 m. tall; its trunk begins to branch very low, almost at its
base. Usually the very characteristic chestnut-leaf oak {Quercus cas-
taneaefolia var. obtusiloba) grows together with the Persian parrotia.
This oak is a rather shapely tree, although it does not reach the mighty
stature of the typical chestnut-leaf oak, which grows higher up in the
mountains. The association usually includes European hornbeam (Car-
pinus hetulus) and zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia) . The latter, as in Col-
chis, is extensively cut over. On the forest outskirts and in the glades, vines
grow in profusion: Grecian silk vine, greenbrier, and i\y {Hedera
pastiichovii) ; the vines of traveler's-joy (Clematis vitalba), which grow so
densely in Colchis, are absent here. The naturalized American grape vine

2 A. A. Grossheim, Flora Tahjsha (The Flora of Talysh), Tifhs, 1926. p. 247.

200 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Vitis labrusca orientalis) is very common here. Flowering plants, as well
as mosses, lichens, and ferns, appear as epiphytes on the trees. Thus, bitter
cress {Cardamine hirmta), herb Robert geranium {Geranium roberti-
amtm), oxalis {Oxalis corniculata) , and others may be found blooming
on the trunks of the Persian parrotia. In the herbaceous layer society,
sedges and Mazanderan blue grass {Poa masenderana) grow in profu-
sion. Evergreen shrubs of the Talysh Lowland are the butcher's-broom,
Ruscus hyrcanus, and the Alexandria laurel (the local Russian species,
Danae racemosa ) .

"The lowland forest," writes Grossheim, "begins to develop somewhat
later than do the mountain forests; the flowering of some of the species
occurs later, and the forest itself begins to turn green and to blossom at
the time when the forests of the lower and middle mountain zone already
stand in the full adornment of their spring verdure." This condition
without any doubt is a consequence of temperature inversion. Down
below, where the cold air descends, the temperature is lower than up
above. (In the same way also, the vegetation in the river valleys of the
Soviet Union flowers later than in the interstream areas.)

Today the lowland forests have been cut down almost entirely, and
have been replaced by rice fields, gardens, and settlements.

On the waterlogged sections there grow low forests of almost pure
thickets of alder (Alniis harhata), profusely tangled with vines. These
alder groves are analogous to those found in Colchis. Among other vines,
the endemic Lenkoran blackberry {Riibus raddeanus), which bears pink
flowers in May, is characteristic. The Persian parrotia and the shrub
butcher's-broom are absent here, but individual specimens of chestnut-
leaf oak, Caucasian wing nut, zelkova, and fig are encountered some-
times. The undergrowth contains much hawthorn {Crataegus monogijna) .

The coastal dunes are covered with a herbaceous vegetation, while
the inland dunes bear shrub vegetation, with ephedra {Ephedra vul-
garis [E. distachya]) predominating in the north, and common pome-
granate {Tunica granatum), in the south. The pomegranate grows as
tall as a man, and sometimes even 3 to 4 m. high. Holy bramble {Rubus
sanctus), often growing taller than a man, is widespread throughout
the dunes; this plant, which is almost evergreen, flowers and bears fruit
up to the end of December. Sweetbrier roses grow in profusion; medlar
{Mespilus germanica) and common quince {Cydonia oblonga) are com-
mon. In some places there are Grecian silk vine and grape.

On the shores of the lakes there are reed bogs which contain vast
thickets of the tall common reed, Phra^mites communis. The surface of

THE SOVIET HUMID SUBTROPICAL REGIONS 201

the lakes is covered by a mass of trapa (Trapa hyrcana). In the bogs
between the dunes, iris (Iris pseudacorus) predominates.

The pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) feeds readily upon the berries of
the holy bramble, and the jungle cat {Fells chaua) hunts the pheasant
in the holy-bramble thickets and the reeds. The flowers of the honey
locust attract large numbers of bees, and the bees attract whole bevies
of bee-eating birds. Tigers, which hunt the numerous wild boar of the
region, are found in Talysh (most often encountered in the vicinity of
Prishib village); occasionally they penetrate into other parts of the east-
ern Transcaucasus; in 1923 a tiger was killed not far from Tiflis. In both
the mountains and the lowlands, there is leopard {Leopardus pardus
tullianus [Felis pardus tullianus]). The porcupine {Hystrix hirsutirostris
[H. leucura hirsutirostris] ) also appears occasionally. Lake Kaladagny
(south of Lenkoran) was noted at one time for its great number of swans.
On Sara Island (south of Kizil-Agach Bay) there was formerly an enor-
mous colony of Caspian herring gull (Larus cachinnans [L. argentatus
cachinnans] ) , the eggs of which were an item of economic importance.
In 1908 an area of ten hectares was covered entirely with the nests of
the herring gull. A large number of tliese gulls have been preserved in
the reservation on Kulagin Island, north of Sara. Great flocks- of birds
spend the winter on the mortso between Lenkoran and Kumbasham;
these include swans (now exterminated), ducks, coots, and shore birds.
The curious Indian gallinule {Porphyrio poUoccphalus) , a southern bird,
also nests here, and the glossy ibis and flamingo, as well as the Smyrna
kingfisher {Halcyon smyrneiisis), are encountered. One of the insects
in the Lenkoran forests is the unusual longicom beetle, Parandra caspia,
which is found along the southern coast of the Caspian from Astrabad
to Lenkoran; other species of tliis genus are native chiefly to the neo-
tropical region.

Among the domestic animals die zebu is to be noted.

X - Mountains of the Caucasus

Rehd

THE North Caucasus Foreland, in general, is a con-
tinuation of the Ukrainian and South Russian steppes,
and to some extent also of the semidesert. However, in the central part
it rises in elevation to form the Stavropol Plateau (827 m.), composed
of Tertiary strata. This plateau, which lies on the watershed between the
Kuban basin on the one hand, and the Terek and Kuma basins on the
other, separates the western North Caucasus Foreland from the eastern.
The Stavropol Plateau lies nearest to the mountains of the Caucasus in
tlie vicinity of Mineralnie Vody.

We will describe the mountains of the Caucasus under the following
four subdivisions: (1) the Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus,
(2) Daghestan, (3) the Annenian Plateau and the dry regions of the
eastern Transcaucasus, and, finally, (4) Talysh.

1. THE GLAVNY (mAIx\) K\NGE OF THE CAUCASUS

Relid

The Caucasus range "^ is a system of folded chains, which extend ESE
from Anapa on the Black Sea. Tlie town of Ilkhi-Dagh, near the point
where the Sumgait River empties into the Caspian (lat. 40/2° N) is gen-
erally considered tlie eastern end of the Caucasus range. Tectonically,
however, the range ends somewhat north of this point, in the region of
Kilyazi station, where the folds either disappear beneath the Caspian,
or are cut away by the coast line (Rengarten, 1930). The length of the
range is over 1100 km. Its width in the region of Mount Elbrus is nearly
180 km.; in tlie region of the Georgian Military Highway, 110 km.

^ Concerning the relief, see I. S. Shchukin, "Ocherld geomorfologii Ka\kaza"
(Sketches of the Geomorpholog)' of tlie Caucasus), I, BobJwtj Kavkaz (Tlie Greater
Caucasus), Moscow, 1926.
202

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 203

The Caucasus consists of the Vodorazdelny (Water Divide) range,
which is not crossed by any rivers, and the ranges which adjoin it on the
north and south, which in some places are higher than the Vodoraz-
delny. In the central part, west of Krestovy Pass and between the me-
ridians of Elbrus and Kazbek (both these peaks, as we shall see, lie in
the Peredovoy range), the Vodorazdelny range has an average elevation
of 3600 m. (Fig. 51); in this section it is covered throughout its entire
length by everlasting snows, and in spots by glaciers (Fig. 50). Many of
the peaks are higher than Mont Blanc. At the head of the Shkhar River
the Vodorazdelny range reaches an elevation of 5148 m. The core of the
range here is composed of granites and gneisses, which are pierced by
veins of greenstone. On the north and on the south the granite core is
bordered by belts of metamorphic schists. East of Krestovy Pass, the
Vodorazdelny range drops in elevation, and the granites disappear. Only
some of the peaks ( Bazar-Dyuzi, elevation 4487 m., and others) rise
as high as the snow line and are covered by glaciers.

In the region of Elbrus, the mighty Peredovoy range branches ofiF
from the central part of the Vodorazdelny range at a distance of 10 to 15
km. to the north of the water divide. The highest point of the Peredovoy
range, and also the highest point of the entire Caucasus, is Mount Elbrus
whose twin peaks reach 5629 m. and 5593 m. This mountain is an ex-
tinct volcano which was formed during the Upper Tertiary period.
Twenty-two glaciers, with a total area of 144 sq. km., descend from
Elbrus; its glaciers and snow feed the Kuban and some of the tribu-
taries of the Terek, Although Elbrus is an extinct volcano, a sulphurous
gas is emitted on its eastern border, while along the descending streams
(for example, along the Malka) there are a great many mineral springs;
in these there is a copious emission of carbonic acid, and some of them
have temperatures as high as 22° C. Elbrus and many other peaks of the
Peredovoy range are considerably higher in elevation than the peaks
of the Vodorazdelny.

The other giants of the Peredovoy range include Dykh-Tau (5198 m.),
Koshtan-Tau (5145 m.), the volcanic andesite cone of Kazbek (5043 m.),
and others.

Orographically, the Peredovoy range is not a distinct chain. In gen-
eral, it is composed of the northern spurs of the Vodorazdelny range.
In some places the Peredovoy is connected by cross ranges with the
Vodorazdelny. These connections give rise to mountain basins, which
have a relatively dry climate.

To the north of the Peredovoy range lie much lower ranges, which do

204 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

not rise as high as the snow hne. These include the SkaHsty, which
stretches from the Belaya River to the boundary of Daghestan, and
which rises over 3300 m. in elevation, and the Chemy, which is well
defined from the sources of the Kuma to the Terek; Mount Bermamyt
(elevation 2591 m.; 30 km. from Kislovodsk) in the Chemy range is
famous for its fine view of Elbrus.

The following ranges branch from the Vodorazdelny to the south:
the Gagry (3260 m.) and Bzyb (3000 m.) ranges, which are composed
predominantly of limestones; the Kodor range (over 3800 m.); the
Svanetiya range (4000 m.), which feeds a large number of glaciers
(Fig. 52); and the Lechkhumsk and Rachinsk ranges. In the longitudinal
valleys between these ranges lie the sources of the Bzyb, Kodor, Ingur,
Tskhenis-Tskhali, and Rion rivers. The Kartalinsk range (between the
Pshavsk Aragva, lora, and Kura) and the Kakhetinsk range (between
the lora and the Alazan) branch from Great Borbalo peak (elevation
3295 m.) in the eastern part of the Vodorazdelny range. Both these
ranges, composed of Tertiary deposits, have an elevation of about 3000 m.
on the north, but drop in elevation to the south.

Between Great Borbalo and Bazar-Dyuzi the main range does not ex-
ceed 3700 m. in elevation. Beyond Baba-Dagh it drops considerably in
elevation and branches into a series of chains.

The snow line on the Caucasus rises from west to east, due to the fact
that moisture comes from the west. The following figures show the ele-
vation of the snow line in selected localities ( Reinhard ) :

Table 15
Elevation of Snow Line in the Caucasus

Locality

Elevation (in m.)

Oshten-Fisht

2650 to 2750

Upper Mzymta

2950

Upper Teberda

2925

Ullu-Uzen valley

3250

Northern slope of Elbrus

3850

Southern slope of Elbrus

3575

G imarai-Khokh-Kazbek

3676

Krestovy Pass

3400

Shakh-Dagh

3635

Southern slope of Bazar-Dyuzi

3900

There are about 1400 glaciers on the Caucasus range, and they cover
a total area of 2000 sq. km. One of the largest is Dykh-Su, which de-
scends from Dykh-Tau and Shkhar peaks; it is over 15 km. long. The

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 205

glaciers on the southern slope arc smaller than those on the northern.
The largest, with a length of 13.5 km., is the Lekzyr in the Svanetiya
range, in the Ingur basin. It descends to an elevation of 1734 m., lower
than any other of the present glaciers in the Caucasus.

During the glacial period the center of glaciation in the Caucasus
was in the Elbrus region. In Daghestan, then as today, there were only
isolated centers of glaciation. On the northern slope of the Caucasus
range, the glaciers reached farthest down in the valleys of the Kuban and
the Ardon— as low as 900 m., but they did not descend into the plain.
Ancient moraines are found still lower in the western Transcaucasus. In
the Kodor valley they are found at 350 m., in the valleys of the Bzyb and
the Mzymta, at 450 m. To the east, the lower boundary of diluvial glaciers
rises abruptly, and along the Belaya Aragva it is found at 1450 m. Al-
most all the ancient moraines belong to the last glacial epoch (Wiirm).
In some places, however ( for example, along the Vaksan and the Terek ) ,
older moraines have been preserved. In the foothills and on the plain
there are several fluvioglacial terraces; for example, on the Kuban,
Vaksan, and Terek there are no less than three terraces, the lowest of
which corresponds to the last glaciation.

During the last glacial epoch the snow line in the western Caucasus
was 1200 to 1300 m. lower than at present. The distribution of winds and
of precipitation in the West and Central Caucasus during the glacial pe-
riod were about the same as they are today; at that time, according to
Reinhard, moisture was brought chiefly by west winds. The neve basins
of the large glaciers contained only sHghtly more snow than at present;
their growth took place chiefly at the lobes. Thus, the increase in the size
of the glaciers was brought about not by a greater influx of new masses
of ice from above, but by slower thawing at the lower extremities. From
this fact, Reinhard draws the fair conclusion that the glaciation of the
Caucasus, and also of the Alps, must be explained by lowered tem-
perature, rather than increased precipitation.^

On the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, between Novorossiisk and
Zugdidi, there is a series of distinct terraces, 200 and even 240 m. above
the level of the sea. In Abkhaziya six such terraces are described,^ in

- A. L. Reinhard, "K voprosu o chetvertichnoin oledenenii Kavkaza" ( Concerning
the Quaternary Ghiciation of tlie Caucasus), Doklady Akad. nauk (Reports of the
Academy of Sciences), 1927, A, pp. 319-323.

^ O. N. Mikhailovskaya, "Chetvertichnie terrasy Abkhazii" ( Quaternary Terraces in
Abkhaziya), Trudy I Vsesoyuznovo geograf. syezda 1933 (Proceedings of the First
AU-Union Geographical Convention, 1933), III, 1934, pp. 82-94, map.

206 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Other places as many as eight. On some of the terraces marine fauna have
been discovered; for this reason they are ascribed to the Quaternary
period, but it is difficult as yet to determine their age more exactly.

During the postglacial period the Caucasus experienced an interval
when the climate was drier than it is at present. Evidence of this, as
Reinhard points out, is the fact that at one time there was much more
talus than at present. In the upper valleys the glacial formations are
buried under talus, which is held in place by the vegetation cover. This
epoch-the xerothermic, as it is called by botanists-had its effect on the
flora and fauna of the Caucasus.

Earthquakes are frequent in the Caucasus. They are particularly fre-
quent in Shemakha, which experienced severe quakes in 1828, 1859,
1869, 1902, and 1920.

The first folding on the site of the present Caucasus range took place
during the pre-Cambrian period ( perhaps during the Huronian ) . There is
no clear evidence of Lower Paleozoic ( Caledonian ) dislocations, but the
possibility of such dislocations cannot be denied. Folding which took
place during the Upper Paleozoic period (Variscan)— at the end of the
Lower and the beginning of the Middle Carboniferous— is quite ob-
vious. The dislocation at the end of the Triassic and the beginning of
the Jurassic was very marked. Further dislocations took place during
the Liassic period, when a geosyncline began to form on the site of the
Caucasus range; also during the Upper Jurassic, and at the end of the
Cretaceous. Finally, a very severe dislocation occurred between the de-
position of the Sarmatian and the Meotichesk strata, which affected the
entire Caucasus (according to Rengarten). Powerful tectonic processes
continued throughout the Pliocene. They were accompanied by volcanic
eruptions in the region of Kazbek (Rengarten, 1932).

A peculiar feature of the Caucasus range, as compared with the Alps,
is the presence of volcanoes, which are found predominantly in the cen-
tral part (Elbrus, Kazbek), and which were still active relatively re-
cently ( speaking geologically ) . Elbrus was still active during the Upper
Pliocene ( post-Akchagyl ) period. In the Nalchik basin thick beds of
volcanic tuffs have been discovered, overlying Tertiary deposits. In the
vicinity of the Ceorgian Mihtar)^ Highway, Levinson-Lessing found the
moraine of a Pleistocene glacier, covered with lavas. There were erup-
tions here even after the end of the glacial epoch. Another point of
contrast with the Alps is the relatively poor development of glacial lake
basins.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 2ffl

According to Rengarten," in crossing the Caucasus by the Georgian
MiHtary Highway the following orographic units may be observed:

1. The sloping plain of North Ossetia, composed (jf gravel. The elevation
at the city of Ordzhonikidze is about 630 m.

2. RoUing foothills, composed of unconsolidated Tertiary deposits. Mount
Lysaya, elevation ]()36 m.; Tarskaya, elevation 1226 m.

3. High foothills, composed of Cretaceous deposits. Mount Fetkhus, ele-
vation 1743 m.

4. The Peredovoy range, composed of Upper Jurassic limestones. Mat-
Lam, or Mount Stolovaya, elevation 3002 m. This zone is 7 to H km. wide.
The Terek cuts across the zone in a gorge 300 m. wide.

5. A zone of Liassic argillaceous shales. Because this zone is eroded easily,
longitudinal valleys are developed along the hibutaries of the Terek.

6. The highest zone: Liassic slates, quartzites, and granites. Its width,
from the former postal station at Lars to the point at which the Gudoshaursk
Aragva empties into the Terek, is 16 m. Kazbek, elevation 5043 m.; Kuri
(near Kazbek station, on the right bank of the Terek), elevation 4090 m.
The Terek cuts across this zone by way of the Gorge of Daryal, which pierces
the granites at elevations from 1140 to 1700 m.

7. The southern zone of Liassic argillaceous shales. Here, as in the
northern zone, longitudinal valleys are developed along the tributaries of
the Terek. This zone extends as far south as Kobi.

8. Includes the watershed ridge and reaches as far south as the con-
fluence of the Belaya and the Gudomakarsk Aragva rivers. This is the south-
ern zone of Upper Jurassic calcareous strata. Krestovy Pass, elevation 2381 m.
(leading into the valley of the Belaya Aragva); Kvena-Mta Pass, elevation
2377 m. (leading into the valley of the Gudomakarsk Aragva). The highest
point of the watershed ridge is the volcanic cone of Great Khurisar, elevation
3722 m.; next to it lies Little Khurisar, an extinct volcano with a crater, eleva-
tion 3000 m. (Both lie to the west of the Georgian Military Highway.) The
width of this zone is 12 to 16 km. Little Khurisar stopped erupting during
the postglacial (post-Wiirm) period. In general, eruptions in the Kazbek
region began during the Akchagyl and ended druing the post-Wiirm period.

9. Mountains of medium elevation on the southern slope between
Pasanaur and Ananur. Lower and Upper Cretaceous. The width of this zone
is about 24 km. The elevation of the watershed varies from 2600 m. in the
north, to 1600 m. in the south. The Aragva at Pasanaur has an elevation of
1060 m.; at Zhinvan (below Ananur), 740 m.

10. Tertiary foothills with gentle relief. Ananur-Dushet zone. The width
is about 8 km. Tectonically it is very complex in structure, a region of thrusts.

11. Bazaletsk Plateau (elevation 940 m.), south of Dushet. Composed of
thick Pleistocene conglomerates, into which the Aragva has cut a gorge 280 m.
deep.

*V. P. Rengarten, "Geologicheskv ocherk raiona Voyenno-gruzinskoy dorogi"
(Geological Sketch of the Georgian Military Highway), Trudy gcol.-razved. ohtjedin.
(Proceedings of the Geological Siir\'ey Association), No. 148, 1932.

208 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

In Zheleznovodsk raion, eighteen separate volcanic domes, partly
covered with forest, rise from the flat, imforested steppe. The highest
is Beshtau ("five mountains"), which reaches an elevation of 1440 m.
Pyatigorsk is situated at the foot of Mount Mashuk (elevation 1200 m.).
To the north of Beshtau rises Mount Zheleznaya (elevation 851 m.), at
the foot of which lies Zheleznovodsk, famous for its iron springs which
have a temperature of 15° to 55° C. The cores of these mountains are
composed of igneous rock ( trachytic-liparites ) . At the foot of the moun-
tains the edges of the Tertiary strata are more or less uplifted, sometimes
at angles of 40° to 50°, instead of the 2° which is more common on the
plain. The intrusions occurred during the Upper Pliocene period.^ These
mountains belong to the laccolith type. However, on Mashuk and Lysaya
mountains outcrops of igneous rock are entirely absent.

The Little Caucasus (as the mountain country of the Transcaucasus
is called) is connected with the main range by means of the Suram or
Meskhiisk massif, which, together with the Adzharo-Akhaltsykhsk or
Imeretinsk range (elevation 2803 m.), serves as the water divide between
the Rion and the Kura basins. Through Suram Pass (elevation 1197 m.)
in the Meskhiisk range passes the tunnel (4 km. long) of the railroad
which connects Batum and Poti with Tiflis and Baku.

The mineral resources of the Greater Caucasus include coal (at
Tkvibuli east of Kutais, and Tkvarcheli in Abkhaziya) and manganese.
The very rich Chiaturi manganese bed lies in western Georgia, in the
basin of the Kvirila River, a tributary of the Rion; the ore deposits are
associated with Oligocene strata. The warm (47° C.) sulphur springs
in Tiflis are worth noting; they are regarded as the last traces of former
volcanic activity. (In the neighborhood of Tiflis there are small lac-
coliths. ) ®

^ A. P. Gerasimov, "Geologicheskoye stroyenie Mineralovodskovo raiona" ( Geo-
logical Structure of Mineralovodsk Raion), Trudy Geol.-razv. inst. (Proceedings of
the Geological Survey Institute), No. 30, 1935, p. 46.

^ A. N. Zavaritsky, Trudy Geol. inst. Akad. nauk ( Proceedings of the Geological
Institute of the Academy of Sciences), V, 1936, pp. 79-84.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS

209

VERTICAL ZONES OE THE CLAVNY (mAIn)
RANCE OF THE CAUCASUS

Steppe
On the northern slope of the range, the steppe, as pointed out earher
(p. 90), reaches south approximately as far as the line through Kras-
nodar, Pyatigorsk, and Grozny/

Forest Steppe
Above the steppe lies the forest-steppe zone. Within the forest steppe
of the western (Kuban) North Caucasus Foreland lie Krymskaya sta-
tion, Maikop, and Podgornaya; farther east the forest steppe extends
toward Kislovodsk. The following are some climatic data for this area:

Table 16

Temperattjre and Phfctpitation in the Forest-Steppe Zone in the Gla\'at
(Main) Range ok the Caucasus

Locality

Absolute

Elevation

(m.)

Temperature

(°C.)

January July

Annual

Precipitation

(mm.)

Maikop *
Kislovodsk f

230

827

-2.0 22.2
-4.5 18.1

565
55.S

Lat. 44° 36' N.

t Lat. 43° 54'N.

The maximum precipitation comes in June, the minimum in January.
Clouds hang low over the western part of the Caucasus range in winter
( lower than 800 m. ) , In winter cloudiness and humidity are less and the
number of days with precipitation and fog are fewer in Kislovodsk than
in Zheleznovodsk (elevation 637 m.), Yessentuki (elevation 616 m.),
and Pyatigorsk (elevation 519 m. ), which lie at lower elevations.

In the forest steppe of the western North Caucasus Foreland, meadow-
steppe areas alternate with forest islands of oak (Quercus pedunculafa
[Q. robur], Q. sessiliflora [Q. petraea]), hornbeam, ash, smoothleaf elm
(Ulmus campestris [U. carpmifolia]), maple, pear, and apple. The un-
dergrowth contains filbert, wild myrobalan plum (Prtinus divaricata
[P. cerasifera divaricata]), hawthorn {Crataegus monogijna) , and pontic

' More exactly, according to Bush (1933), the line is as follows: from the plavens
of the Kuban along the right bank of this river as far as the moutli of tlie Laba
River, thence through Labinskaya and Vladimirskaya, along the southern escarpment
of the first foothill ridge somewhat south of Batalpashinsk, north of Dzhegonas, to
Suvorovskaya.

210 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

azalea {Rhododendron flavum [R. hifetim]). In the meadow-steppe sec-
tions the soils are chernozems; under the forests they are chernozems,
degraded chernozems, and gray forest clay loams.

The forests of the Sta\TOpol Plateau also belong to the zone of the
forest steppe. Here, at an elevation of about 600 m., there are almost
700 mm. of precipitation; the most comes in June, the least, in February.
The temperature of the warmest month is 20° C. The central part of the
plateau is occupied by mixed-herbaceous meadow steppe growing on
rich and common chernozems. The horizon of effejvescence here is very
low— at a depth of 2 m. Of the feather grasses, there are Stipa joannis and
S. pulcherrima. On the periphery of the plateau grow oak and ash forests
with hornbeam: in the upper layer society there is oak, ash, and linden;
in the second layer society there is Scotch elm, hornbeam, and Norway
maple; the undergrowth contains euonymus, wayfaring tree viburnum,
privet, hedge maple (Acer campestre) , dogwood, and others. There is
some aspen, silver poplar, and (very rarely) birch. However, the vines
of the woodland European grape may be found here also. Under these
forests there are degraded chernozems, and sometimes gray forest soils.
On the northern slope there are hornbeam or hornbeam and beech forests
on podzolic soils. The hornbeam forests contain some mazzard cherry. It is
believed that the hornbeam forests have appeared in place of beech for-
ests ( Novopokrovsky, 1927).

In the eastern North Caucasus Foreland the forest steppe occupies a
narrow strip in the foothills. The vegetation on the Tersk and Sunzhensk
ranges is also forest steppe. The forests here consist of oak, ash, smooth-
leaf elm {Ulmus campcstris [U. carpinifolia]) , and pear. Vines are rep-
resented by woodland European grape. The shrub thickets consist of sloe
(Pruniis spinosa), Russian almond {Amygdalus nana), Scotch rose (Rosa
pimpinellifolia [R. spinosissijna] ), Christ's-thom paliurus (Paliurus spina-
christi or P. actdeatus), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), and others.
Christ's-thorn paliurus grows in almost pure thickets along the periphery
of the thickets of other shrubs. The meadow-steppe sections contain the
feather grasses Stipa capillata and S. pulcherrima.

The forest steppe in the Transcaucasus occupies elevations between
450 and 500 m., and 750 and 800 m. Here lie Gori (elevation 600 m.),
Tiflis (elevation 404 m.), Telav (elevation 738 m.), Tsinondali (eleva-
tion 602 m.), Napareuli (elevation 423 m.), Signakh (elevation 792 m.),
and Nukha (elevation 748 m.). The climate is that variety of Mediter-
ranean climate which Koeppen calls the "maize climate." Lying on the
periphery of the Mediterranean climate, it constitutes the transition to

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 211

the climate of the steppe. The annual precipitation is from 500 mm. (in
the east) to 800 mm. The maximum precipitation comes in May, the
minimum in January. In Tiflis, which lies near the boundary of the
steppe, the annual precipitation is 496 mm., the monthly maximum (in
May) being 80 mm., the monthly minimum (in January), 15 mm. In the
more elevated portions the precipitation is greater; thus, in Telav there
are 815 mm. annually. The precipitation in spring and summer often
comes in the form of heavy downpours ( sell, noted particularly in Nukha
raion), which sometimes cause severe damage in the foothills. In June
and July there are many thunderstorms, often accompanied by hail. The
summer is hot, the mean temperature being over 20° C. In Tiflis the mean
temperature for July is 24.5° C; in Napareuli, 23.8° C; and in Tsinondali,
23.4° C. Sheltered by the Caucasus range from the cold north winds, the
forest steppe of the Transcaucasus has a very moderate winter. The mean
January temperature in Tiflis is + 0.2° C; in Napareuli, + 1.6° C. Snow
falls rather often, but the snow cover does not last long— only until the
middle of February; sometimes there is no snow at all. Spring comes
early, and work in the fields begins in the middle of February or at the
beginning of March. In occasional years, some of the fruit trees ( almond )
and meadow flowers of Kakhetiya ( in the Alazan valley ) are in bloom
already at the end of January, while apricot, peach, and pear trees bloom
in FebRiary. Kakhetiya is noted for its wine production and gardens.
Grapes are cultivated here up to an elevation of 900 m. (in Tiflis raion
the best grapes grow up to 720 m. ) . Cloudiness is least in August, greatest
in February. In Tiflis foehns are frequent; there are 45 days a year here
with foehn, the greatest number coming in April; in the valley of the
Kura, mountain-valley breezes blow during the warm period of the year.

The soils in the Alazan valley are calcareous alluvial soils, while higher
up there are brown forest soils. In the Kura valley at Tiflis there are
light-chestnut soils; higher up, brown forest soils and some degraded
chernozems.

At present the forests ha\e been cut down in the lower areas, and in
their place are thickets of Christ's-thorn paliurus (Paliurus spina-christi)
and other shrubs, and, in some places, steppe covered with East Indies
bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum) . Closer to the mountains grow Ibe-
rian oak ( Quercus iherica ) ,® hornbeam, and hedge maple. In the Alazan
valley there are groves of hairy alder (Alnus barbata); these groves con-

^ This oak of the Q. sessilifiora [Q. petraea] group is found in both the western
and the eastern Transcaucasus. See V. P. Maleyev, "Obzor dubov Kaxkaza" (Sur\ev
of the Oaks of the Caucasus), Botan. zJnirn. S.S.S.R. (Botanical Journal of the
U.S.S.R.),XX, 1935, Nos. 2,3.

212 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

tain some Caucasian wing nut {Pterocarya fraxinifolia). There are many
vines here: ivy {Hedera pastuchovii) , Grecian silk vine, and greenbrier.
In the shrub thickets on the sites of cut-over forests, woodland European
grape (Vitis silvestris [V. vinifera silvestris]) , traveler's-joy {Clematis
vitalha), and blackberries are common.

Mediterranean Belt

The western Transcaucasus, from Novorossiisk to Dzhubga and some-
what farther south (but not as far as Tuapse), has a Mediterranean cli-
mate. The summer is hot and dry; the winter, in general, is moderate.
The greatest precipitation comes in January, December, and November;
the least, in August and May. In Novorossiisk the mean precipitation for
January is 89 mm.; for August, 33 mm.; for the year, 688 mm. The mean
August temperature is 24.0° C; the mean January temperature, 2.1° C.
Cloudiness is greatest in December and January, least in August.

The mountains in this region rise to elevations of 800 to 900 m.; near
Novorossiisk they are only 600 m. high.

In Novorossiisk Bay in winter there often blows a cold and strong
northeast wind, the bora, or the nordost, as it is called there. The bora
arises when a barometric minimum lies over the sea while the pressure
increases sharply over the land. In Novorossiisk this wind sometimes
reaches the force of a hurricane. Sometimes when it is blowing the
temperature drops below — 20° C, and the harbor, which is usually free
from ice, freezes over. During the bora of December 17 to 20, 1899, all
the buildings on the embankment were covered with an ice crust up to
2 m. thick. In January the mean wind velocity during the bora reaches
23 m. per second. The bora blows most frequently from November
to March; in November it occurs an average of seven days. It usually
lasts a day, often two or three days, but it has been known to last a
week.

The distribution and character of the vegetation of Novorossiisk raion ^
resemble in general those of the shores of the Mediterranean, or, more
exactly, of the shores of the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula. There
are many relict Mediterranean elements associated with the rocky cliffs,
the juniper forests, and the forests of Aleppo pine. The coastal hills, from
the sea to an elevation of 150 to 200 m., are covered with stunted woods

^V. P. Maleyev, "Rastitelnost raiona Novorossiisk-Mikhailovsky pereval" (Vege-
tation of the Region from Novorossiisk to Mikhailovskv Pass), Zap. Nikit. botan. sada
(Report of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden), XIII, No'. 2, 1931.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 213

and shrub thickets of xerophilous species which shed their leaves in win-
ter. This type of vegetation in Mediterranean countries is called shihhjak.
The shihhjak of Novorossiisk raion consists fundamentally of the dwarf
pubescent oak {Quercus piibescens), with an admixture of Oriental
hornbeam {Carpinus orientalis), and, in the drier places, of the spiny
Christ's-thorn paliurus {Paliurus spina-christi}—ai shrub which covers
large areas, and appears in abundance on the sites of cut-over oak woods.
Occasionally the Turk terebinth pistache {Phtacia mutica), native to
the southern shore of the Crimea, is found in the shiblyak association.
In the same zone, near the sea, there lie forests and more often coppices
or individual trees of Aleppo pine {Finns pitijusa [P. halepensis pityusa] ).
There are some individual specimens of arborescent prickly juniper
(Juniperus oxycedrus). On the coastal cliffs there often grow the tall,
erect stems of the characteristic endemic umbellifer, the meadow saxifrage
(Seseli ponticiim, related to the Crimean S. gtimmiferinn) . In August it
covers the cliffs and areas of talus with white patches of blooming plants.
Another plant found here is the Crimean-Balkan tragacanth astragalus
( Astragalus arnacantha ) . Colchian plants are represented at Novorossiisk
and Anapa by the greenbrier. There is also some woodland European
grape. Novorossiisk raion is noted for its vine growing and wine pro-
duction.

Above the shiblyak zone there grow juniper forests of the arborescent
junipers Juniperus excelsa and /. foetidissima; a third species, /. oxycedrus,
occurs as an admixture. These forests occupy the zone between 150 and
300 m. At present, as Maleyev points out, here ( and in the Crimea ) the
junipers (and Aleppo pine) are being displaced gradually by deciduous
species.

Above the juniper zone there grow forests of durmast oak, hornbeam,
smoothleaf elm, Scotch elm, linden {Tilia caucasica [T. dasystyla], T. cor-
data ) , ash, mazzard cherry, and in some places individual oriental beech
trees (Fagus orientalis), which extend to the north almost as far as
Anapa. Near Dzhubga there is chestnut. In the wetter sections of these
forests there are vines— greenbrier, Grecian silk vine, traveler's-joy, and
grape.

Beginning at an altitude of 400 to 450 m., the mountains are unfor-
ested, covered with mountain-steppe and mountain-meadow vegetation.
At elevations of about 500 m., feather-grass and fescue mixed-herbaceous
stands appear. The explanation for such an abrupt drop in the boundary
of forest vegetation lies in the strong winds.

The flora of Novorossiisk raion contains some elements in common

214

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

with that of the Crimea. The exchange of plants took place not across
the Taman Peninsula, where such elements are absent, but, it is believed,
by way of the "Pontic land mass," which occupied a considerable part of
the Black Sea basin until the end of the Tertiary period (Wulff, 1929;
Maleyev, 1931).

Forest Zone
In the northern Caucasus the forest zone lies above the forest steppe;
in the western Transcaucasus it lies above the Mediterranean belt in the
north, and above the subtropical belt in the south. From west to east
the amount of precipitation decreases as a rule, and in the forests the
number of hydrophytic and thermophilic species, in which the mountain
forests of Colchis are so rich, diminishes. We will begin our description
with the western Transcaucasus.

Western Transcaucasus

The western Transcaucasus includes the entire slope of the Caucasus
mountains which faces the Black Sea. Two parts of the western Trans-
caucasus—the Colchian Lowland and Novorossiisk rafon— have been de-
scribed already. We shall turn now to the region of mountain forests
of the Colchian type, which lie to the south of Dzhubga.

In Tuapse raion the mountains rise to an elevation of 1500 m.; in the
latitude of Sochi, to 3000 m.; at Sukhum, to 4000 m.; at Batum, to 2000 m.

The climate of the lower, foothill zone (to the south of Dzhubga
and as far as Batum) is the same as that of the Colchian Lowland: humid,
with abundant precipitation, a hot summer, and a relatively warm win-
ter. In summer in Sochi the temperature during the day reaches 24° to
28° C, while at night it seldom falls below 20° C. The warmest place in
the western Transcaucasus is Gagry, which has the same mean annual
temperature (15.1° C.) as Nice (15.0° C). But in Cagry the summer is
hotter and the winter colder than in Nice. Mean monthly temperatures
in Gagry (lat. 43°19'N, absolute elevation 22 m.) for the period 1903-
1915 are given in the following table.

Table 17
Temperature in Gagry, 1903-1915 (in ° C.)

Jan.

Fkb.

March

April

May .June

.July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year

7.3

7.5

9.0

12.5

17.1 21.2

23.9

24.1

20.6

16.9

12.4

9.2

15.1

MOUNTAINS or I HE CAUCASUS 215

The winter here, as we can see, is warm, permitting plants to vegetate
tlie year round. Nevertheless, there are some frosts on the coast every
year. In Sochi the mean number of days per year when the thermometer
drops below zero is 16. Snow usually lies no more than 3 to 5 days in
Sochi, but during the severe winter of 1910-1911 there were 25 days
with snowfall, and the snow cover lay on the ground for 37 days; it reached
a thickness of 80 cm. As a result of temperature inversion, the zone
which is least subject to frost in Sochi raion lies at an elevation of about
100 m.; lower down (and, of course, higher up) the incidence of frosts
is greater.

The average dates at which different wild and cultivated plants bloom
in Sukhum (lat. 43° N) are good indices of the normal character of the
winter. In the vicinity of Sukhum, the Caucasian hellebore {Helleborus
caucasicus), violet, and speedwell bloom in December; the European
filbert ( Corylus avellana ) , in January; the apricot, at the end of February;
the almond, at the beginning of March; the peach, about the middle of
March; the azalea, plum, mazzard cherry, pear, and cherry, at the begin-
ning of April. The first strawberries ripen about April 22.

The rainfall is heavy, more than 1000 mm. per year. Sochi has 1410 mm.;
Sukhum, 1371 mm.; Batum, 2465 mm.^'* Precipitation is greatest in win-
ter or autumn, least in May, and in some places in June or August; but
there is no dry period; the precipitation is distributed more or less evenly
throughout the year. Thus, at Sukhum, even in May, the driest month,
the precipitation is about 100 mm., that is, more than the average in
Moscow for tlie rainiest mouth; in Batum or Chakva the mean pre-
cipitation in August exceeds 200 mm. (an altogether tropical amount).
With so much rain, a high summer temperature, and a mild winter, the
vegetation naturally has a subtropical appearance. A whole series of
cultivated subtropical platits bloom in winter in the region from Sochi
to Sukhum (not to mention the Batum coast). These plants include the
Japanese camellia, Australian acacia, and loquat [Eriobotrya japonica].
But even the indigenous native plants, as we have seen, bloom throughout
the winter.

On the Black Sea coast the summer rains fall predominantly at night
or in the morning, and are not of very long duration. The number of
rainy days for tlie three months of July, August, and September, and the
amount of precipitation per rainy day, are as follows:

'^^ Matermly po agro-klimaticheskomu raionirovaniyu sijhfropikov S.S.S.R. (Mate-
rials on the Agro-Climatic Regional Subdix'ision of the Suhtropics of the U.S.S.R. ).
Leningrad, 1936, izd. Yedinoy gidro-meteor. sluzhby (publication of tlie Hvdro-
Meteorological Serxice), p. 274.

216

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Table 18
Phecipitation on the Black Sea Coast

Tuapse

Socui

SUKHUM

- Batum

Number of rainy days, July through Sep-
tember
Precipitation per rainy day (in mm.)

33
14

36
10

44
10

49

18

The finest season of the year on the coast is autumn, particularly
after the middle of September. The weather turns cooler, and the atmos-
pheric humidity decreases; at the same time there is abundant sunshine.
However, in autumn there are heavier showers than in summer. The
autumn in the western Transcaucasus is very warm; October in Batum
is warmer than April by 5.5° C. October in Gagry is almost as warm as
July in Moscow. The forest begins to turn yellow at the end of October,
and loses its leaves by the middle of November.

The winds have been mentioned already in the description of the Col-
chian Lowland. The eastern (winter) monsoon often assumes the char-
acter of a foehn. Thus, in Batum, such a foehn raised the temperature
on the evening of February 28, 1915, to 24° C, while the humidity
dropped to 16 per cent. In Gagry there have been occasions during
the foehn when the relative humidity at night has dropped to below 10 per
cent.

The southern plants which are cultivated here give a good indication
of the climate. Among the ornamental plants, the palms are striking. The
Chinese coir palm (Trachy carpus excclsa or Chamaerops exceha) is
abundant; it withstands frost very well, and for this reason is found even
in Dzhubga, which lies north of Tuapse. There are also the date, Wash-
ington, fan, and other palms, the sago cycas ( Cycas revoluta ) , magnolia,
Chinese wistaria (Wistaria chinensis), Lenkoran acacia, oleander, camel-
lia, many Japanese conifers (among them Cryptomeria), Japanese ba-
nana, agave, yucca, and many others. The southern plants of economic
significance include the following which are native to the climate of
Japan: the Satsuma orange (Citrus unshiu [C. nohilis unshiu]), which
is found as far north as Sochi raion, but is of economic importance only
from Gagry south; oranges; lemons; the Japanese kaki persimmon (Dios-
pyrus kaki), the fruits of which are eaten; date-plum persimmon (Dios-
pyrus lotus), which grows here in the wild form; loquat (Eriobotrya ja-
ponica), of the Rosaceae; flowering quince (Cydonia japonica [Cliae-
nomeles']); common camellia {Camellia japonica); camphor tree {Cin-
namomum camphora); bamboo, some species of which in the U.S.S.R.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 217

reach a height of 15 m. and a thickness of 15 to 18 cm.; and, finally, tea.
In Sukhum and Batum one may see gigantic specimens of eucalyptus.
The cultivated plants which are not subtropical include the garden plum
(which is grown at Sochi), tobacco, corn, peaches, grapes, and other
fruits grown in Abkha/iya.

Of the characteristic Colchian plants, the chestnut grows as far north
as Dzhubga, while the European hop hornbeam (Ostrija carpinifolia)
and the laurel cherry extend as far as the mountains at Tuapse. In the
western Transcaucasus the northern boundary of holly, box, and Cau-
casian wing nut is somewhat south of Tuapse.

The soils in the foothills are red earths, which border the Colchian Low-
land on the northeast and southeast. To the north they extend as far as the
latitude of Ochemchiri; to the south, somewhat south of Batum. At
Batum these soils were formed on thick weathered andesitic tuffs. The
red earths are rich in hydrates of ferric oxide and aluminum oxide, poor
in silicic acids and bases. While they are poor soils, they are exactly the
soils required by tea. Higher up, the red soils are replaced first by brown
soils,^^ and then by gray forest soils.

Vegetation. A peculiar feature of the forests of the western Trans-
caucasus is the presence of a series of evergreen deciduous trees and
shrubs, which we have mentioned already in the description of the Col-
chian Lowland. No less characteristic is the profusion of vines, herba-
ceous as well as woody. Greenbrier, tra\eler's-jov, Grecian silk vine,
grape, Colchis and English ivy, sweet honeysuckle {Lonicera capri-
folhnn), and blackberries are the woody vines found here; yam {Diosco-
rea caucasica), glorybind {Cahjstegia sijlvafica [Convolvulus silvaticus]) ,
and Tamils communis ( Dioscoreaceae ) are the herbaceous vines.

On the seacoast, the often swampy lowlands at the mouths of some
of the rivers are covered with a vegetation of the Colchian t^'pe. Thus,
the mouth of the Mzymta River is bordered on the south by a water-
logged area, a part of which has been cleared of forest, drained, and
turned into cornfields; an alder forest {Alnus barbata), with an admix-
ture of Caucasian wing nut, ash, hedge maple, and mulberry, covers the
unreclaimed swamp. The trees are twined with greenbrier, Grecian silk
vine, ivy, and blackberry. In the drier portions, where the soil is sandv,
the swamp is dominated by thickets of common box (Bums sempervi-
rens), among which are scattered enormous individual specimens of
yew and oriental beech. There is some arborescent royal fern ( Osmunda

^^ Concerning these soils, see below, under the description of the Crimea (pp 250-
251).

218 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

regalis). On the calcareous coastal slopes there is Aleppo (Pitsunda)
pine (Pinus pityusa [P. halepensis pityusa]), which appears in the Cau-
casus from Anapa to Pitsunda (and is found also in the Crimea, in Asia
Minor, in Syria, and near Constantinople); it is accompanied by the
Crimean rockrose {Cisttis tauricus [C. villosus tauricus]).

Up to this point we have talked about the coast. Now we will discuss
the succession of belts as we ascend into the mountains.

In the virgin forests the predominant species are oak, beech, and
chestnut. To the south, in Adzhariya, they are beech and chestnut.

In Sochi raion and in Abkhaziya, the foothills up to an elevation of
600 to 1000 m. are covered with an oak forest of typically Colchian ap-
pearance, with a mass of vines. The vines here, with the exception of ivy,
are associated only with the outskirts of the forest or with the clearings.

In Abkhaziya forests of Imeritian oak {Quercus imeretina) with an
undergrowth of azalea grow on the lower terraces. The higher terraces,
up to an elevation of 200 to 240 m., are covered with forests of Iberian
oak (Q. iberica), with an admixture of hornbeam and beech, and some-
times with an undergrowth of pontic rhododendron. At elevations from
240 to 650 m. grow oak forests with an undergrowth of oriental horn-
beam.

In addition to oak, hornbeam, beech, and oriental hornbeam, other
trees which grow here include the oak Quercus hartwissiana, elms, ash,
linden, zelkova, hornbeam, chestnut, maples, Grecian laurel {Laurus
nohilis), box, date-plum persimmon {Diospyrus lotus), and a great many
shrubs. In some places there are found the remains of Circassian and
Abkhazian gardens, abandoned by their owners during the 1860's, when
the migration into Turkey took place. These gardens contain wild myro-
balan plum (Prunus divaricata [P. cerasifera divaricata]) , plum, maz-
zard cherry, fig, thick-shell Persian walnut, apple, pear, and mulberry.
These escaped fruit trees include many excellent strains. Along the river
valleys there are forests of typically Colchian appearance, with a mass
of vines; they contain some box and English yew (Taxus baccata), both
almost exterminated ( Fig. 53 ) . ( These trees have been preserved best in
Abkhaziya, where they are found growing from sea level up. Box grows
here predominantly on calcareous soils in the hornbeam and beech-
hornbeam forests; it ascends into the mountains as high as 900 to 1000 m.
Yew is found in the mixed and beech forests along the deep, moist river
gorges and on the northern slopes, up to an elevation of 1500 m.) In
spots there is European hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) (a tree
closely related to the hornbeam ) and also zelkova. In the southern parts

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 219

an undergrowth of evergreen species is well developed: pontic rhododen-
dron (Rhododendron ponticum), common laurel cherry {Laurocerastis
officinalis [Prunus laurocerasus]), butcher's-broom {Ruscus hypophyl-
luin, R. ponticus), common box {Buxus sempervirens) , and phillyrea
(Phillyrea vilmoriniana [P. decora]). There are many epiphytes growing
on the trees; these include the fern Polypodium serratum, and also some
flowering plants. Lichens grow on the leaves of the box. The lower
horizons of the oak zone, approximately up to an elevation of 400 to
500 m., are best suited for fruit growing of the southern type.

In Abkhaziya the virgin foothill forests consist predominantly of
Iberian oak (Quercus iberica). On the shaded and moist northern slopes,
and also as the forests rise into the mountains, oak is replaced by horn-
beam-beech and chestnut-beech forests. ^^

In Adzhariya, elevations from sea level to 800 to 1200 m. are covered
with chestnut-beech forests.

In Abkhaziya, above 600 to 1000 m., and approximately as high as
1200 m., there is continuous beech forest, in which the only vines
commonly found are Colchis and English ivy (Hedera colchica and
H. helix). The most widespread type of beech forest here contains no
herbaceous cover; the undergrowth is absent also, or consists of indi-
vidual bushes of holly, azalea, and Caucasian whortleberry [Vaccinium
arctostaphylos]. But in addition there are some beech forests with a
ground cover of ostrich fern (Struthiopteris struthiopteris [S. filicastrum] )
and butterbur (Petasites hybridus), or of blackberry (Rubiis ponticus)
and wheat grass (Agropyron caninum); or with an undergrowth of pon-
tic rhododendron, or azalea, or laurel cherry, with an admixture of
butcher's-broom (Ruscus hypophyUwn), holly, Caucasian whortleberry,
and European cranberry-bush viburnum. Beech forests with an under-
growth of laurel cherry often reach as far as the upper boundary of the
forest in Abkhaziya. Such a beech forest, with an undergrowth of laurel
cherry and individual specimens of holly, butcher's-broom, azalea, and
Caucasian whortleberry, may be found at an elevation of 1800 to 1900 m.,
that is, considerably above the normal boundary of beech forest. Still
higher up lie thickets of laurel cherry with an admixture of Caucasian
rhododendron, but there is no beech. The types of beech forest which

^2 V. P. Maleyev, "Flora i rastitelnost Abkhazii" ( Flora and Vegetation of Abkha-
ziya), Abkhaziya, geobotan. i lesovodstv. ocherk (Abkhaziya, A Geobotanical and
Forestry Sketch), izd. Akad. nauk (pubHcation of the Academy of Sciences), Lenin-
grad, 1936, p. 23. Above Gagry, the slopes which face the sea are covered with a
forest of Iberian oak, which extends here only up to 1000 to 1200 m.; on the shady
slopes it is replaced by a beech forest (pp. 26, 31).

220 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

have been described, those with an evergreen undergrowth, do not occupy
large areas. The beech is sometimes accompanied by a small quantity
of chestnut, which rises here to an elevation of 1200 m/^

In some places, however, the beech descends to sea level. In general,
as Albov ( 1896 ) observed, in the subtropical part of the western Trans-
caucasus many of the herbaceous, shrub, and even tree species are dis-
tributed from sea level as far up as the alpine zone. Such species include
the pontic rhododendron, azalea, holly, Caucasian whortleberry, laurel
cherry, and filbert; in some places they grow as high as 2000 m. Beech in
the form of shrubs ascends to 2100 m.; chestnut is found often at an
elevation of 1800 m.; oak, at 1900 m. In Guriya, Albov found ivy twin-
ing about spruce trees. Albov explains this phenomenon by the great
humidity of the climate, which diminishes the effect of temperature dif-
ferences at different elevations.

In the Colchian part of South Ossetia, beech forests predominate;
there are also some forests of beech with spruce and fir. In these for-
ests an evergreen undergrowth of the Colchian type is developed. There
is some box. In places there are thickets of chestnut with an undergrowth
of either laurel cherry or azalea.

In Abkhaziya there lies a zone of fir from 1200 to 1900 m. which, unlike
the beech zone, does not form a continuous strip. Here, in addition to
Nordmann fir {Abies nordmanniana) , there are beech, maples, horn-
beam, and (in the undergrowth) dense thickets of evergreen shrubs:
laurel cherry, holly, pontic rhododendron, and a mass of Caucasian
whortleberry {Vaccinium arctostaphylos) . The trees grow in a thin
stand and reach gigantic dimensions, as much as 1.5 to 2 m. in diam-
eter (Fig. 54).

The fir in places is accompanied by oriental spruce ( Picea orientalis ) }*

Between the trees in some places there are wide glades, overgrown with
gigantic subalpine vegetation, often tall enough to conceal a rider on a horse;
mnky bellflowers (Campanula lactiflora) with stems bearing as many as a
hundred and more flowers, sumptuous Caucasian lilies, gigantic umbellifers
(Heracleum pubescens) with inflorescences as big as a platter and with stems a
vershok * thick, and the like, astonish the traveler who has never seen any-
thing of the kind before (Albov, 1896).

^^V. A. Povamitsyn, "Tipy lesov Abkhazii" (Types of Forest in Abkhaziya),
Abkhaziya (Abkhaziya), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences),
1936, p. 125fF.

^* Both these trees— the Nordmann fir and the oriental spruce— are found in the
mountains of Asia Minor. In Adzhariya, spruce forests may be found at elevations of
about 200 m., while fir-spruce forests begin at 500 m.

* One vershok = 1.75 inches, or ^ic of an arshin (28 inches).— Tr.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 221

These glades of tall herbaceous vegetation, particularly characteristic
for the succeeding, subalpine zone, begin to appear at an elevation of
1200 to 1300 m. On the dry slopes in some places there is Scotch pine
(Pinus stjlvestris liamata); it extends up to the boundary of the forest,
and down to 200 to 300 m. above sea level.

At 1700 to 2100 m. lies the subalpine zone. Here there are groves of
pubescent birch (Betula pubescens), with an admixture of redbud
maple (Acer trautvetteri) and an undergrowth of dwarf oriental beech,
Caucasian rhododendron, pontic rhododendron, azalea, laurel cherry,
holly, Caucasian whortleberry, Caucasian honeysuckle, mountain ash,
and others. In this zone there is found also the relict Medvedev's birch
{Betula medwedietvii) , as well as the Mingrelian birch (B. megrelica),
pontic oak (Querctis poiitica), and Caucasian buckthorn {Rhamnus
imeretina). In some places Caucasian rhododendron (Rhododendron
caucasicum) occupies large areas; this evergreen shrub, which covers
the earth with a dense carpet, suppresses all herbaceous vegetation; it
is associated primarily with the shadier and wetter northern and west-
ern slopes, and rises in some places to elevations of 2300 m. Large areas
in the subalpine zone are occupied by the tall herbaceous vegetation
which has been described already. Some authorities are of the opinion
that these thickets of gigantic dicotyledons are largely of a secondary
character, as they usually occupy sites which at one time were under
forest. Others regard the thickets of tall herbaceous plants as relicts of
ancient Tertiary hydrophytic vegetation. ^^

The subalpine zone is used for pasture.

The fauna of the western Transcaucasus does not include such char-
acteristic elements as does the flora. In the forests there are: bear (Ursus
arctos subsp.), distinguished from the typical brown bear by its smaller
size; lynx (Felis lynx orientalis [Lynx orientalis]) ; wild cat (Felis silves-
tris); Caucasian red deer {Certnis elaphus maral); and roebuck {Capreo-
lus pygargus and C capreolus). At one time there was some Caucasian
bison (Bos honasus caucasictis) at Krasnaya Polyana. The jackal (Canis
aureus [Thos aureus]) is found from the delta of the Kuban to Batum.
There is Transylvanian wild boar (Sus scrofa attila) throughout the
western Transcaucasus. Of the reptiles, the red viper (Vipera kaznakovi)
is characteristic. The amphibians, in addition to the river frog (Rana
ridibunda), include a series of endemic frogs and toads (Rana macro-

^^ A. A. Kolakovsky, "Rastitelnost Bz\'bskovo iz\estnyakovovo khrebta" ( Vegeta-
tion of the Bzyb Limestone Range), Trudy Inst, abkhaz. kultunj (Proceedings of
the Institute of Abkhazian Culture), XI, Sukhum, 1937, p. 22.

222 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

cneniis, Pelodytes caucasicus), the characteristic Caucasian salamander
(Salamandra caucasica), and the Caucasian striped newt {Triturus vit-
tattis ophryticus ) .

The North Caucasus Foiehnd

In the North Caucasus Foreland precipitation in the upper part of the
forest zone is 800 to 1200 mm. per year and more; in the lower part, it is
less— 800 to 500 mm. The maximum precipitation comes in May and
June. There is much snowfall in the western part of the Caucasus range;
near Klukhor Pass the depth of the snow cover reaches 2.5 m. and
more.

The forests in the western part of the North Caucasus Foreland, ap-
proximately as far east as Teberda raion, still contain a considerable ad-
mixture of Colchian elements. Precipitation is greatest in the central part
of the western North Caucasus Foreland, with which we are concerned
now, particularly in the region of the upper Belaya and Little and Great
Laba rivers, where the famous Caucasian preserve is situated. Here,
in the zone of broad-leaved forests, the annual precipitation reaches
1500 mm.; accordingly, Colchian elements are relatively numerous; they
include not only the oriental spruce and Nordmann fir, but also box,
yew, European hop hornbeam, laurel cherry, holly, English ivy, pontic
rhododendron, and Caucasian whortleberry, as well as Caucasian buck-
thorn, Colchis bladdemut (StaphyJea colchica), Colchis ivy, butcher's-
broom (Riisciis hijpophyJhim), and others. In one place there is chest-
nut. The foothills and low mountains from 800 m. to 1400 m. are covered
with deciduous forests of oak, Caucasian beech, and hornbeam, with an
admixture of ash, maple, elm, linden, apple, pear, wild myrobalan plum,
and others. Beech forests are associated with the northern slopes, oak
forests with the southern. Oak groves with an undergrowth of pontic
azalea (Rhododendron flavuni [R. luteiim]) are common.

Above the broad-leaved forests, in the belt between 1400 and 1900 m.,
lie coniferous forests of oriental spruce (Picea orientalis) and Nordmann
fir (Abies nordmanniana) . Fir forests with an undergrowth of pontic
rhododendron and holly are common. Ivy is found here also.

The fir-spruce forests of Maikop raion contain the remarkable umbel-
lifer Osmorhiza brevistylis [O. chytoni]. Other species of this genus are
found in the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau and on the Salair range, in Manchuria,
on Sakhalin, in Japan, and in the eastern states of North America.

In the higher parts of the belt of coniferous forests, on the southern
slopes, there are pine forests of hamate Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris

MOUNTAINS Ol< THE CAUCASUS 223

hamata). The forest zone ends ^" in groves of pubescent birch with an
undergrowth of Caucasian rhododendron; or in pine groves with Andorra
creeping juniper {Juniperus depressa); or in shrub beech with an under-
growth of Caucasian rhododendron or laurel cherry. Near the upper
boundary of the forests usually there are found park-land woods of
redbud maple (Acer trautvetteri) amid the tall alpine herbage. On
the boundary between the forest and the subalpine meadows there
are shrub thickets of Caucasian rhododendron, or laurel cherry, or
juniper. The Caucasian bison was characteristic at one time for the
forests of this part of the North Caucasus Foreland; by this time it has
been exterminated. The other animals include the Caucasian red deer
(Cervus elaphus maral), roebuck, leopard, wild cat {Felis silvestris),
marten, ermine, and bear.

To the east of Teberda the climate of the western North Caucasus
Foreland becomes drier, and the coniferous forests of fir and spruce gradu-
ally disappear, although individual specimens of spruce are found as
far as northern Ossetia, while fir and yew are found as far as Balkariya.
Here beech forests predominate; after felling they are replaced by horn-
beam forests with oak. In the beech forests in some places there are
Colchian plants: European hop hornbeam, holly, Caucasian whortle-
berry, and English ivy.

The longitudinal valleys between the Skalisty and Peredovoy ranges and
between the Peredovoy and the Glavny ( Main ) ranges, particularly in the
vicinity of Elbms, are especially dry. Here on the northern slopes there
are pine groves of Pinus sylvestris Jiamata ( Fig. 55 ) , while on the southern
slopes there are mountain xerophytes: thickets of European barberry
(Berberis vulgaris), sweetbrier rose, and sage (Salvia canescens, which
covers large areas) (Fig. 58), and also Thymus, spiny astragalus (As-
tragalus marschallianus) , various composite plants, and cushions of savin
juniper (Juniperus sabina).

The upper boundary of the forest here (between Elbrus and the
Georgian Military Highway), just as farther west, consists of birch
groves, but in addition to pubescent birch, there is found also another,
relict form, Radde's birch (Betula raddeana). Thickets of Caucasian rho-
dodendron are widespread.

East of the Georgian Military Highway, in the Chechen area, the char-
acter of the forest zone is about the same as in the central part of the North

^ A. I. Leskov, "Verkhny predel \esov v gorakh zapadnovo Kavkaza" (The Upper
Boundary of Forests in the Mountains of the Western Caucasus), Botan. zhurn.
S.S.S.R. (Botanical Journal of the U.S.S.R.), XVTI, 1932, pp. 227-260.

224 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Caucasus Foreland. In the foothills at one time there were oak forests.
Above them grow beech forests, with lindens, Scotch elms, maples, horn-
beam, and ash. Occasionally tlie beech forests contain yew. The upper
boundary of the forest consists of groves of pubescent birch (Fig. 56);
the undergrowth contains azalea. At an elevation of 1600 m. there is
redbud maple ( Acer trautvetteri ) . The southern slopes bear the mountain
xerophytes which were described earlier. In Tushetiya on the northern
slopes there are pine forests.

In the forest zone of the North Caucasus Foreland, the animals include
the wild cat (Felis silvestris), Transylvanian wild boar (Sus scrofa attila),
Caucasian red deer {Cervus elaphus maral), roebuck, and forest dor-
mouse (Dyromys nitedula). The mountain forests of the Kuban basin
were inhabited until recently by Caucasian bison. The frog Rana macro-
cnemis ascends as far as the subalpine meadows. There are some tree
frogs (Hyla arhorea). The tree squirrel Sciurus vulgaris is absent in the
forests of the Caucasus. The taiga birds which nest in the fir-spruce for-
ests of the North Caucasus Foreland, as well as in other parts of tlie
Caucasus, include the black woodpecker ( Dryocoptis martius ) , the spruce
crossbill {Loxia curvirostra) , and the bullfinch {Pyrrhula pyrrhula).

Eastern Transcaucasus

We have spoken already of the western Transcaucasus (p. 214ff.). Now
we will describe the forests of the eastern Transcaucasus.

In the South Ossetian autonomous ohJast, in the basin of the Liakhva
River (a tributary of the Kura), there are forests of beech, spruce-fir,
and (on the southern slopes) Scotch pine {Finns sylvestris hamata).
Here there is no pontic rhododendron or hoUy in the undergrowth, but
there is Caucasian buckthorn, Caucasian whortleberry, and laurel cherry.
In the basin of the Little Liakhva, coppices of eastern mountain oak
{Quercus macrantliera) have been discovered. There is some yew. The
upper boundary of the forest contains birch groves with Caucasian
rhododendron.

East of South Ossetia and west of tlie meridian of Tiflis, holly and
Colchis ivy are still found. But spruce-fix forests are absent.

The Trialetsk range, which is not a part of the Glavny ( Main ) Cauca-
sus range, still contains many Colchian elements, particularly on its
northern slope. Tlius, at Borzhom, in the spnice-fir forests, there is an
undergrowtli of laurel cherry, holly, butchers -broom {Ruscu.s hypophyl-
lum), pontic rhododendron, Caucasian cherry, and bladdemut (Sta-
phylea); there is some chestnut; tlie ^'ines include English and Colchis

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS

235

ivy and Tamus communis ( Dioscoreaceae ) , a perennial plant native to
the southern shore of the Crimea.

In Kakhetiya and farther east on the southern slope of the Caucasus
range, at elevations of 700 to 1800 m., there grow beech and beech-horn-
beam forests. The oaks are represented by the Iberian oak (Quercus
iberica) and the mountain oak (Q. macranthera) ; of the maples, the
Persian velvet maple, Acer insi^ne [A. velutiniim glahrescens], is wide-
spread. In the Lagodekhi Gorge there is chestnut; in the Belokansk Gorge,
laurel cherry. Fifty km. from Telav there is a forest of beech and yew.
The undergrowth contains Colchis bladdernut {Staphylea colchica) and
Caucasian whortleberry. The subalpine birch groves contain thickets of
Caucasian rhododendron, and sometimes azalea.

The Subalpine Zone

The subalpine zone in some places begins at 1400 m., in others only
at 2400 m. Along the Georgian Military Highway it occupies elevations
between 1400 m. and 2400 m.; in the Rion basin, between 1700 and
2000 m.

The following stations, which lie on the Glavny (Main) Caucasus
range, along the Georgian Military Highway, may give some idea of the
climate of this zone.

Table 19

Temperature

AND Precipitation in the Subalpine Zone in the Gl.\\'ny
(Main) Range of the Caucasus

Locality

Absolute

Elevation

(m.)

Temperature

(°C.)

Annu.al
Precipitation

January

August

(mm.)

Kobi

Kj-estovy Pass
Gudaur

1990
2390
2210

-8.4

-12.1

-7.3

13.8
11.3
13.3

1192
1693
1477

The warmest month here, as is generally the case in high mountains,
is not July, but August; however, frosts occur even in August. Because
the cold air drains downward, Gudaur, altiiough 220 m. higher in eleva-
tion, has a Januaiy temperature 1" C. \\armer than Kobi. Winter on the
Glavny Caucasus is warmer than winter on a plateau of the same eleva-
tion. Thus, in Kars (Turkey), at 1742 m., the mean January temperature
is — 12.8° C; tliat is, colder than at Kresto\y Pass, although Kars lies
farther south and lower. There is much precipitation in the western half

226 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

of the Central Caucasus, more than 1000 to 1500 mm.; farther east, the
precipitation is less, and the annual total may drop to 500 mm. Maxi-
mum precipitation occurs in the early summer or the late spring.

We have spoken already to some extent of the vegetation of the sub-
alpine zone (p. 221). In this zone forest and alpine plants intermingle.
The zone begins everywhere with birch groves, which usually con-
tain thickets of Caucasian rhododendron {Rhododendron caucasicum) ,
studded with large flowers at the end of May and the beginning of June.
This rhododendron appears in some places (in the western Transcauca-
sus) at an elevation of 1800 m., and in others rises to an elevation of
3000 m. Of the birches, Medvedev's birch {Betula medwediewii) is asso-
ciated particularly with the subalpine zone of the western Transcauca-
sus, and Radde's birch (B. raddcana) with the eastern North Caucasus
Foreland. But other birches, of the pubescent group, are found here in
addition. In this horizon redbud maple {Acer trautvetteri) and stunted
junipers are also very common.

A peculiar feature of the subalpine zone is the meadow of tall herba-
ceous plants— so-called vysokotravie (Fig. 57). These include gigantic
umbellifers, up to 3 m. high; monkshood {Aconituni orientale); colum-
bine {Aquilegia olympica [A. vulgaris olympica]); larkspur {Delphin-
ium); false hellebore {Veratrum lohelianum) ; valerian {Valeriana alli-
ariaefolia) ; inula {Inula magniflca); pink knotweed {Polygonum car-
neum); Caucasian buttercup {Ranunculus caucasicus) ; Cephalaria
tatarica (Dipsacaceae); Caucasian scabious {Scabiosa caucasica); the
composites Telekia speciosa [Buphthalmum] and Senecio; and others.
According to Medvedev (1915), the tallness of the herbage is explained
by the late thawing of the snows; the plants develop at relatively high
temperatures on moist soil. This layer society of tall herbage was men-
tioned above, in the section on the forest zone. Higher up lie the sub-
alpine meadows, distinguished from the alpine meadows by their rela-
tively tall stand (up to 1 m.). These meadows are composed funda-
mentally of grasses, with an admixture of various dicotyledons.

Bear and wild boar may be found on the subalpine meadows.

The Alpine Zone
Above the subalpine zone lies the alpine zone, which occupies elevations
from 2200 m. to 3000 m. and higher. The vegetation here consists of
stunted alpine herbaceous plants. The average height of the stand is
10 to 30 cm. The chief plants which compose the sod are various sedges,
among them cobresia {Cohresia); grasses are of secondary importance.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 23:7

On the meadows which have been manured by h'vestock, alpine blue
grass {Poa alpina) and alpine timothy {Phleum alpinum) grow in pro-
fusion. Prominent among the alpine herbaceous plants are the short bell-
flower with its large flowers, gentian, primula, forget-me-not, violet
(Viola oreades), corydalis {Cortjdalis conorrhiza), Caucasian dryad
(Dryas caucasica), and others. Many endemic plants (for example, the
Caucasian larkspur [Delphinium caucasicum [D. speciosiim]) , Owerin's
astragalus {Astragalus owerini), and others) are found among the flora
of the alpine zone of the Glavny Caucasus.

There are few bogs and lakes in the high-mountain region of the
Caucasus, In the Central Caucasus (in Balkariya and Ossetia), on the
southern slope as well as on the northern, there are bogs with sedges
predominating, often with a thin cover of sphagnum mosses. These bogs
are of recent origin ( N. Bush ) .

In the alpine meadows and rhododendron thickets, the Caucasian black
grouse (Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi) is very characteristic. The snow pheas-
ant ( Tetraogallus caucasicus ) prefers the region above the rhododendron
thickets. The tur, or Caucasian ibex, is associated particularly with the
alpine zone (in the west, Capra dinniki [C. severtzowi dinniki], C. severt-
zowi, C. caucasica; in the east, C. cylindricornis [C. caucasica cylindri-
cornis]), although it descends into the forest zone as well. The Cauca-
sian chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica), which is related very
closely to the chamois of the mountains of Europe and Asia Minor, is
found here; for the winter it descends into the forest zone. The endemic
burrowing vole {Prometheomys schaposchnikowi) , an inhabitant of the
alpine and subalpine zone, is found near Krestovy Pass and as far west
as Fisht and Oshten. Another high-mountain rodent is the alpine meadow
mouse (Microtus nivalis), native to the Kopet-Dagh, the Alps, the Pyre-
nees, and the Apennines (at Gudaur and Kazbek, M. nivalis gud). In
the subalpine meadows of the Central Caucasus there is found the small
suslik (Citellus pygmaeus musicus), native, in different forms, also to
the steppe and the semidesert.

Having described the Glavny Caucasus range, we pass on to other
regions of the Caucasus.

228 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

2. DAGHESTAN "

The name Daghestan ("mountain country") in the physical geographic
sense is given to the region between the Caucasus range on the west
and the Caspian Sea on the east. The northern boundary of Daghestan
is the Andiisk range, which Hes on the watershed between the Terek
and the Andiisk Koi-Su (one of the feeders of the Sulak). The western
extreme of the Andiisk range hes in the Liklos-Mta massif, which is
covered with everlasting snows and glaciers. Beyond the Sulak the east-
em continuation of the Andiisk range is called the Gimrinsk (elevation
2000 m. ) ; the Andiisk range is separated from the Gimrinsk by the narrow
and deep (500 m.) Sulak canyon. On the south, Daghestan is bounded
roughly by a line extending from Mount Bazar-Dyuzi (elevation 4484 m.)
in the Glavny Caucasus range to the lower course of the Samur River.

Daghestan may be divided into the following zones: (1) the Caspian
Lowland, (2) the foothills, (3) mountainous interior Daghestan, and
(4) high-mountain Daghestan.

The Caspian Lowland of Daghestan extends as far south as the delta
of the Samur River, and then merges into the Kuba Lowland. Within
Daghestan the lowland reaches a width of 25 km. only along the lower
course of the Samur; most of it is narrower, while in some places the
mountains reach to the very shore. The lowland is composed of Quater-
nary Caspian deposits. Immediately beyond the coastal dune strip lies
a belt of semidesert soils— solonized, poorly developed sierozems, light-
chestnut soils, and solonetz soils.

But to the south, in the Samur delta, in some places there are broad-
leaved forests with a profusion of vines. Along the rivers there is some
alder (Alnus barhata). The forests in the southern part of the lowland
contain hornbeam, oak, ash, maple, thick-shell Persian walnut, and a
great deal of filbert. The vines here include greenbrier, Grecian silk vine,
traveler's-joy {Clematis vitalha), ivy, grape, and blackberry (Rubus
discolor).

The northern part of the Caspian Lowland contains vegetation of the
semidesert t)^e; polyn (of the Artemisia maritima group), camel's thorn

^''B. F. Dobrynin, Geografiya Dagestanskoij A.S.S.R. (Geography of the Daghestan
A.S.S.R.), 1926, with maps, Dagest. gos. izd-vo. (Daghestan State Publication).
B. F. Dobiynin, Landshaftnie (yestestvennie) raiony i rastitelnost Dagestana (Land-
scape [Natural] Regions and Vegetation of Daghestan), Moscow, 1925 (Memuary
Geogr. otd. obshch. lyub. yest. [Memoirs of the Geographical Section of the Amateur
Naturalists' Society], No. 1).

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 229

(Alliagi camclorum [A. pseiidalliagi]), and halophytcs. There are many
solonchaks. The reed thickets in the lowland are inhabited by numerous
wild boar, and there are some jungle cats, jackals, hyenas, and pheasants.
The foothills rise to an elevation of 1000 to 1200 m. They consist of folded
Tertiary strata (in the south, Mesozoic). In the north, the climate is of
the forest type; in the south, Mediterranean. Precipitation in the south
is greatest in autumn and winter. Chestnut soils are peculiar to the lower
sections of the foothills; the upper sections have dark-chestnut soils and
chernozems (which sometimes reach a considerable thickness).

On the dry slopes of the lower sections of the Daghestan foothills,
there are numerous thickets of xerophytic shrubs which shed their leaves
in winter; Dobrynin (1925) calls this formation shihlyak, pointing out
its similarity to the corresponding formation in the eastern Mediterranean
and the Crimea. In the shiblijak of Daghestan, the spiny xerophytic shrub
Christ's-thorn paliurus {Paliurus spina-chrisii) predominates, forming,
up to elevations of 400 to 500 m., extensive and dense thickets; next in
abundance is Pallas's buckthorn [Rhamnus pallasi?]. These thickets also
contain shrub pubescent oak, small-leaved hornbeam, dogwood, pear,
barberry, juniper, sweetbrier rose, spiraea, and others. Often the climbing
blackberry {Rubtis discolor) tangles the shrubs of the shiblijak with its
shoots. In some places the shiblijak extends into mountainous and even
high-mountain Daghestan.

On dry rocky slopes with poorly developed soils there are xerophytes;
these spiny herbaceous plants and undershnibs grow in a formation
which Dobrynin calls the jrigana formation— a term also borrowed from
the eastern Mediterranean. Other authors use the term mountain or up-
land xerophytes, or mountain-steppe vegetation.

The following plants are characteristic for the jrigana of Daghestan:
capers (Capparis herbacea), viper's-bugloss (Echiuni violaceum, E. itali-
cum), thistle (Cirsiwn), the sage Salvia acthiopis, Xeranthemum,
Thymus, Centaurea, and others. There are few grasses here. Most of
the representatives of the jrigana are Mediterranean plants. In some
places on the southern slopes there are sections covered with feather
grasses (Stipa pulcherrhna) and other representatives of steppe vege-
tation (the dropwort, Filipendula hexapetala, and others).

In the higher foothills, at an elevation of 800 to 1000 m., dense forests
predominate; but these contain no vines of greenbrier, Grecian silk vine,
or ivy. They consist of Iberian oak, oriental beech, hornbeam, elms,
maples, and checker-tree mountain ash (Sorbus torminalis) . In the south,
in the upper sections of the beech zone, the xeroph\iic mountain oak

230 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Quercus macranthera) may be found. The forest glades contain a lux-
urious meadow vegetation: sage (Salvia glutinosa), monkshood (Aconi-
tum orientale), and others.

The vines in the beech forests include traveler's-joy (Clematis vitalba),
sweet honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium) , and Tamus communis.

Above 1000 m. the forests grow thin, and above 1200 m. they disappear
entirely; this region is the beginning of mountain Daghestan, The Iberian
oak ascends highest of all trees into the mountains; it forms shrub thickets
at an elevation of 1200 m. In some places above the boundary of the
broad-leaved forest there appear thickets of Caucasian rhododendron.

Mountain Daghestan includes the basins of the four Koi-Su rivers, the
mountain part of the Sulak, and the headwaters of the Samur. Here the
elevations reach 2000 to 3000 m.

Characteristic of the interior parts of Daghestan are high synclinal
plateaus, composed of Jurassic limestones, which in many places are cut
by canyonlike valleys (Fig. 59). The average elevation of the plateaus
is about 1900 m., while the level of the rivers is at about 700 m. elevation.
The Gunib Plateau (between the Avarsk Koi-Su and the Kara-Koi-Su
rivers), which reaches an elevation of 2364 m., may serve as an example
of these high plateaus. The summer is warm; the winter is dry, has little
snowfall, and is not cold. Gunib, at an elevation of 1583 m., has a mean
July temperature of 17° C, a mean January temperature of — 2° C.
Cloudiness is less in winter than in summer, as is generally true on high
mountains. In Gunib the mean cloudiness in summer is 45 per cent; in
winter, 34 per cent; cloudiness is greatest in May (55 per cent). In the
lowlands of Daghestan, however (for example, in Derbent), cloudiness
is greatest in winter, and least in summer. Furthermore, cloudiness is
greater in the lowlands than in the mountains. Although Gunib lies
700 m. higher than Kislovodsk, the winter in Gunib is warmer and con-
siderably sunnier than in Kislovodsk; January in Gunib has only one
cloudy day. For this reason Gvmib is an excellent winter health resort.^^
Precipitation in mountain Daghestan reaches 400 to 800 mm.; it is
greatest in summer and spring, least in winter. In winter there are 3 to
5 days a month with precipitation; in summer, 12 to 15 days, or more.
The snow cover is negligible; in Gunib in January, when the snow is
thickest, it amounts to an average of 4 to 5 cm. In mountain Daghestan
calm weather prevails; in Gunib the mean annual wind velocity is only
1 m. per second. Cyclones from the Atlantic Ocean apparently never

^®N. A. Korostelev, Klimat Dagestana (The Climate of Daghestan), Moscow,
1930, S.-kh. izd. (Agricultural Publication), p. 83.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 231

penetrate into Daghestan. In the southern part of mountain Daghestan
the predominant surfaee ionnations are dark, friable argillaceous shales
of Jurassic age.

The vegetation of mountain Daghestan has a xerophytic character.
There are few forests here. Only on the northern slopes, at an elevation
of 1400 to 2300 m., are there pine forests, which are replaced after fell-
ing by birch groves. In addition to pine, these forests contain oak, horn-
beam, linden, ash, aspen, mountain ash, speckled alder, and others. On
the Gunib Plateau (1500 to 2000 m.) birch (Bettila puhescens, B. rad-
deana) predominates. There are some forests of almost pure hornbeam;
for example, Tsudakharsky forest, at an elevation of 1200 to 1300 m.

At the upper boundary of the forests ( 2000 to 2400 m. ) , the first birch
groves appear; they consist of pubescent birch with an admixture of
Radde's birch. The latter is distinguished sharply from the white birches
by the shape and large size of its leaves and female catkins, and also by
its general appearance. It is related closely to the East Siberian Erman's
birch, and also to the western Transcaucasus Medvedev's birch. The bark
of Radde's birch is pinkish in color, and on the older trees it is exten-
sively peeled. This birch prefers the steep, rocky precipices, where it
forms an undergrowth among the ordinary birch. The herbaceous cover
in the subalpine birch groves is tall.

The southern slopes and the plateaus are entirely unforested. The
vegetation consists of spiny astragalus (Astragalus marschallianus) ,
spiny sainfoin (Onobrychis corniita), shrubs of Christ's-thom paliurus,
barberry, sweetbrier rose, and juniper {Jumperus isophyllos) ; there is
much sage (Salvia canescens) growing on the limestones; also Teucrium,
Capparis herhacea, and others. Thistle (Cirsiurn sinuatum), which forms
sprawling spiny bushes, is widespread; in some places it is used for fuel.
The animals in the forests along the upper course of the Avarsk Koi-Su
in mountain Daghestan include deer, bear, roebuck, and mountain
ptarmigan. On the Khunzakh Plateau (elevation 1500 m.) the hamster
(Mesocricetiis raddei) damages the grain crops.

High-mountain Daghestan is part of the Glavny (Main) Caucasus
range, which has been described already. But the Daghestan slope of
the range has a drier climate than is found in the Glavny Caucasus range
as a whole, and pine forests predominate in the forest zone here.

232 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

3. THE ARMENIAN PLATEAU AND THE DRY REGIONS
OF THE EASTERN TRANSCAUCASUS

The Armenian Plateau lies between the Trialetsk range on the north,
the Agri-Dagh (more exactly, Lake Van, in Turkey) on the south, the
Arsiansk on the west, and the Karabakh on the east. The Trialetsk range
stretches from west to east, from Borzhom to Tiflis; it forms the eastern
continuation of the Adzhar-Akhaltsykh range. On the watershed of the
Black and the Caspian seas lies the Arsiansk range (elevation 3121 m.).
The Armenian Plateau has an average elevation of 1500 m., but its eastern
part, the Karabakh Plateau, is much higher (2500 m. and more). The
Armenian Plateau is composed of young (Quaternary) volcanic rocks
of andesite-basalt composition, and contains a series of extinct volcanoes:
the Samsar-Abul group in the region of Lake Toporovan; the enormous
Alagez volcanic massif (4087 m.); Great Ararat (5156 m.), or Masis in
Armenian, which adjoins the Agri-Dagh range and lies within Turkey;
and others. Great Ararat was still erupting during the Quaternary period;
its slopes are covered with streams of hardened lava; the snow line lies at
an elevation of 4250 m.; many short glaciers descend from the summit.
There are several lakes on the Armenian Plateau. The largest is Lake
Sevan, or Gokcha,^^ which lies at an elevation of 1916 m. (Fig. 60);-°
its depth reaches 99 m.^^ Individual peaks among the mountains which
surround the lake rise to elevations of over 3600 m. At present students
are inclined to attribute the formation of the Sevan basin to subsidences.
The Zanga River flows out of the lake, and empties into the Araks. The
level of Sevan is subject to fluctuations, comparable with the fluctuations
in the level of the Aral Sea. The highest level was reached in 1912.

The ranges of the Armenian Plateau contain rich beds of copper ore
(for example, the Allaverdy). There is a bed of magnetite on the slope
of the Shakh-Dagh range near Dashkesan village.

The mountain-steppe region of the eastern Transcaucasus includes the
Armenian Plateau, as well as the Yerevan basin. There are elevations
from 1400 to 2000 m. The climate of the plateau is like that of the steppe

^^ Recendy this lake and its basin have been explored thoroughly. See Materialy
po issledovaniyu ozera Sevan i yevo basseina (Materials on the Exploration of Lake
Sevan and Its Basin), izd. Sevansk. gidrometeor. byuro (publication of the Sevan
Hydrometeorological Bureau), Leningrad, 1931. (Seventeen issues have appeared.)

^•^ B. D. Zaikov, "Gidrologichesky ocherk basseina ozera Sevan" ( Hydrological
Sketch of the Lake Sevan Basin), ibid., 1933, p. 3.

^^ I. A. Kireyev, "Gidrograficheskie raboty na ozere Sevan" ( Hydrographic Work
on Lake Sevan), ibid., 1933, p. 60, map.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 233

zone in that it is distinctly continental. However, the summers are cool
—the mean temperature of the warmest month ranges from 15" to 19" C,
and frosts occur. The winters are cold; the mean January tempera-
ture ranges from — 8° to — 15° C. The low temperatures are caused
by the persistence of a high pressure area over the plateau during the
winter and by the heavy cold air which descends onto the plateau from
the surrounding mountains; the deep snow cover is also a factor in
keeping the temperatures low. In summer the disposition of isobars on
the Armenian Plateau is cyclonic. The daily temperature range, as on
plateaus everywhere, is great; it is greatest in September: 17" C. In
summer north and northeast winds prevail; from October till May, south
and southwest winds. The annual precipitation in the north is from 500
to 700 mm.; in the south (which adjoins the dry Yerevan basin), 300 to
500 mm. Precipitation is greatest in spring and part of the summer, least
in winter. Evaporation is great, and by the end of the summer the vege-
tation begins to suffer from drought. Thundershowers and hailstorms are
frequent. The soil cover consists of typical and chestnut chernozems,
which are formed on highly calcareous products of the weathering of
igneous rocks. In some places (the Loriisk steppe, and others) there are
thick clayey chernozems (with a humus content as high as 16 per cent),
on which the vegetation is feather grass, or feather grass with scabious.
The entire plateau is an agricultural region where wheat, barley, and
other spring grains are cultivated.

In general the vegetation on the plateau is of the steppe type, with
grasses predominating. The feather grasses include capillary feather grass
(Stipa capillata) and pinnate feather grasses (S. lessingiana, S. pulcher-
rima, S. stenophylla) . In addition there are fescue {Festuca sulcata) and
a number of steppe dicotyledons: catchfly, astragali, and Nepeta. In some
places on the plateau there are forests of Armenian pine ( Pinus armena ) ,
closely related to the common pine. These forests are rich in steppe
plants— feather grasses, dropwort, and others.

On the mountains which lie within the Armenian Plateau and along
its borders, the vegetation has a xerophytic character. There are park-
like forests of xerophytic mountain oak (Quercus niacranthera) , such
as those on the southern slope of Alagez, between 1800 and 2300 m.
elevation. In these tliin, light forests, tlie herbaceous cover also consists
predominantly of xerophytic and steppe plants— feather grasses, East
Indies bluestem (Andropogon iscliaemum) , yellow bedstraw (Galium
verum), dropwort (FUipendulu hexapetala), and others. These forests
Bush (1935) calls the "wooded steppe." At an elevation of S300 m. the

234 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

forest is replaced by creeping juniper (Jwiiperus depressa) and moun-
tain xerophytes (tragacanth astragali). Mountain xerophytes are found
on the southern slope of Alagez as high as 2700 m.

In some places in the mountains of Armenia there are juniper forests
(usually of Juniperus polijcarpos) ; they appear also in the Araks valley.
Rhododendrons are absent in the subalpine meadows of Armenia; tall
herbaceous stands, so characteristic for the lower layers of the subalpine
zone in the Glavny Caucasus range, are absent also.

The following animals are characteristic of the steppes of the Arme-
nian Plateau: the Asia Minor suslik (Citellus x&nthopnjmnus) ; the Asia
Minor mountain jerboa (Allactaga williamsi) , which is found in the
Transcaucasus in general; the mountain mole rat {Spalax monticola) ;
hamsters (Mesocricetus brandti [M. auratus brandti], Cricetulus raigra-
torius); and the fox, Vidpes vulpes kiirdistanica. Among the birds, the
pheasant and francolin are absent; but in the mountains there are Cau-
casian black grouse ( Lyrurus mlokosicwiczi ) and snow pheasant ( Tetra-
ogallus caspiiis); ptarmigan and willow grouse are numerous; the sand
grouse {Pterocles arenarius) is characteristic for the upland steppe. Lake
Sevan is inhabited by the Gokcha trout (Salmo ischchan).

The semideserts and deserts along the middle course of the Araks in
Armenia have an even drier climate. Here the precipitation is 150 to
300 mm.; the maximum comes in spring. The driest locality is Aralykh
( elevation 790 m. ) , which lies within Turkey, at the foot of Mount Ararat;
here the average precipitation recorded for the years 1849-1853 was only
158 mm.

Yerevan (elevation 996 m.) has an annual total of 322 mm.; precipita-
tion is greatest in May, least in August. The summer is hot; in Yerevan
the mean temperature in July is 25.0^ C; in Januarv, — 5.8° C. There is
little cloudiness; the mean annual figure here is 45 per cent (least in
August— 20 per cent, most in January— 69 per cent). Where there is irri-
gation, wheat, rice, cotton, grapes, peaches, and so forth, can be raised
successfully. The soils at the bottom are of the chernozem tvpe.

The vegetation is that of the desert: spiny astragali, prickly thrift,
camel's thorn (AJhagi camelorum [A. pseudalhagi]), the buckwheat
shrub Atraphaxis spinosa, the Syrian bean caper (ZygophijUum fabago),
and Peganwn harmala (also of the Zygophyllaceae ) . On the sands at
the foot of Mount Ararat, in Turkey, there is CalUgonum. On these sands
the fauna also is of a Central Asiatic type: the small jerboa (Allactaga
elater), Persian gerbil (Meriones persicus), gray hamster (Cricettdus
migratorius) , and two hedgehogs (Hemiechinus calligoni, Erinaceus

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 235

transcaucasicus [E. rumanicus transcaucasicus]); there is some hyena
(Hyaena hyaena), and at one time there was goitered gazelle (Gazella
subgutturosa) . Among the characteristic lizards are the toadhead
(Phrynocephalus helioscopus) and the long-legged gold skink (Eumeces
schneideri).

The high steppes along the middle course of the Kura, between Tiflis
and Yevlakh, have an elevation of 700 to 800 m. in the north, but they
drop in elevation to the south. They are composed largely of folded
Tertiary deposits. These steppes have a climate transitional between
that of the Mediterranean and that of the steppe. The Shirak (between
the Alazan and the lora rivers), Karayazy, and other steppes are part
of this region. Karayazy (lat. 4VA° N, elevation 305 m.) may serve to
exemplify the climate: January, 0.5° C; July, 25.3° C; annual precipita-
tion, 388 mm.; maximum, in May— 65 mm., minimum, in January— 12 mm.
In general the precipitation ranges from 400 to 500 mm. The soils are
light-chestnut clay loams, which merge into chestnut soils near the
mountains.

On the light-chestnut soils the vegetation -" is of the semidesert type.
In spring there are many dicotyledons and ephemeral grasses, which fade
by the middle of the summer. In summer the pohjn Artemisia hanseniana
predominates in some places, the halophyte kargan (SalsoJa verrucosa)
in others. Sometimes (for example, in the Milsk steppe) polyn and
kargan are found growing together. Pohjn appears in the alluvial valleys
of the Kura and the Araks, as well as on the mountain slopes. The soils
under polyn and kargan are extremely fertile; cotton is cultivated readily
on them. Higher up, on chestnut soils, steppes predominate; on these
steppes the perennial East Indies bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum)
is characteristic. Soils on which the bluestem has grown are suitable for
cultivation of grains. The valleys of the Kura, lora, and Alazan are bor-
dered in the dry sections by thickets of Turk terebinth pistache (Pistacia
mutica), which never grow in a close stand; here among the scattered
individual trees grow kargan and polyn.

Below these steppes lies the Kura-Araks desert, which includes the
lower courses of the Kura (below Yevlakli) and the Araks, and which
is composed of the alluvial deposits of these rivers.

The climate of this desert, a part of which lies below sea level, is char-

^^A. A. Grossheim, "Ocherk rastitelnosti Kuro-Araksinskoy nizmennosti" (A
Sketch of the Vegetation of the Kura-Araks Lowland), Mat. k obshchey skheme
ispolzovaniya vodnykh resursov Kuro-Araksinskovo basseina (Materials for the Gen-
eral Plan for the Exploitation of the Water Resources of the Kura-Araks Basin), No.
4, Tiflis, 1932, pp. 57-125.

236 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

acterized by mild winters; the January temperature is about 2° C. There
is almost no snow cover, and on the Mugan steppe, vegetation begins to
turn green in January. The mildness of the winter makes it possible to
keep stock in pasture all winter long. The summer is very hot; the mean
July temperature in Salyany is over 27° C, and in Kyurdamir over
28° C. The autumn is sunny and warm. In the Shirvan steppe, from May
until October there is an area of thermal maximum, delineated by closed
isotherms. The atmospheric precipitation is less tlian 300 mm. The
summer is dry; the maximum precipitation comes in spring. The hot
summers favor the cultivation of cotton, grapes, and sesame.

The soils "" are of a desert type: sierozems, often solonized, and chest-
nut-brown soils, also solonized; the presence of solonetz soils is unusual
for the desert. There are many solonchaks. The chief vegetative period
comes in spring and early summer. In the lower course of the Kura the
spring vegetation, which develops completely by April, consists of small
annuals; it is replaced temporarily by a grass cover; in the Shirvan steppe
this herbaceous cover is short-lived. In May perennials become pre-
dominant; among them polijn prevails, sometimes constituting the entire
cover. The small pohjn bushes do not form a continuous cover; there
are spaces of bare soil between them. On the moist solonchaks, thickets
of the halophyte sarsazan (Halocnemwn strohilaceum) are characteristic;
usually as the sarsazan bush becomes covered with solonchak dust, it
gives rise to a mound, on which this chenopod continues to grow. The
mound may reach several meters in height, and a peculiar hillocky solon-
chak results. Large areas are covered by almost pure thickets, 1.5 to 2 m.
high, of the halophyte halostachys {Halostachys caspica), which grows
on dry as well as on wet solonchaks.

Along the lower course of the Araks, and also south of Kyurdamir
station, there is Hindu lotus (Nelumbo nucijera [Neliimbium nelumbo] ).

The animals of the lower Kura include the goitered gazelle (Gazella
subgutturosa) , jackal, hyena, and, along the rivers, jungle cat (Felis
chaus); in the swamps, among the reeds there is wild boar; the Asia Minor
jerboa (AUactaga williamsi), the small jerboa (A. elater), and the hare
(Lepus europaeus cyrensis) are characteristic."* The birds include the

-^ S. A. Zakharov, "Pochvy nizmennosti Kury-Araksa" ( Soils of the Kura-Araks
Lowland), Mat. k ohshchey skheme ispohovaniya vodnykh resursov Kuro-Araksin-
skovo basseina (Materials for the General Plan for the Exploitation of the Water
Resources of the Kura-Araks Basin), No. 4, Tiflis, 1932, pp. 1-56.

-* K. A. Satunin, "O zoogeograficheskikh okrugakh Kavkaza" ( Concerning the
Zoogeographical Districts of the Caucasus), Izv. Kavkazskovo muzeya (Report of tlie
Caucasus Museum), VII, 1912, with a map.

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 237

flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus); the glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) ,
of the ibis family; two bee-eaters (Merops apiaster and M. persicus); the
francolin (Francolinus orientalis) ,-•' of the ptarmigan subfamily; the
pheasant (Phasianus colchicus); and the bustard. There are many snakes,
lizards, and tortoises. The domestic animals include the buffalo and the
camel.

The Apsheron Peninsula ^'^ is famous for its oil beds. By some students
it is considered the direct continuation of the folds of the Glavny Cau-
casus range. Others (Rengarten, 1930) deny this connection, holding that
the peninsula is a part of the fold system of the Transcaucasus.

In the northwest of the peninsula the elevations reach 340 to 350 m.
The eastern part is low, and the highest points recorded here do not
exceed + 38 m. in absolute elevation. Prominent in the structure of the
peninsula are mud volcanoes which often lie in a line along the axes
of the anticlinal folds; the largest of these volcanoes are Boz-Dagh
(elevation 290 m.) and Atashkya (elevation 274 m.). The peninsula is
composed of strongly dislocated Tertiary deposits, beginning with the
Eocene, and also Quaternary deposits. The oil deposits occur chiefly in
the Middle Pliocene sandy-clayey "productive" horizon, which lies below
the Akchagyl layer and above the Pontic layer. The thickness of this
strongly dislocated bed reaches 1300 m. The principal oil fields are the
Balakhany, Sabunchi, Ramany, Bibi-eibat, Surakhany, and Binagady.

The Tertiary deposits of the peninsula are intricately dislocated. At
present students are inclined to ascribe the Baku deposits, also strongly
dislocated, to the Lower post-Pliocene.

Post-Tertiary formations consist of ancient Caspian deposits: (1) the
lower strata (which contain the mollusk Didacna crassa), only slightly
dislocated, and rising to elevations from 20 to 160 m. above the level
of the Caspian, and (2) the upper strata (which contain D. trigonoides) ,
hardly dislocated at all, and lying at elevations from 9 to 35 m. Still
younger terraces (which contain Cardium edule) border all the shores
of the peninsula; as a rule, they do not rise higher than 5 m. above the
level of the Caspian (in exceptional cases, almost up to 10 m.).

-^This Mediterranean bird of a genus distributed predominantly in tropical
and South Africa is extinct in Europe. It is found in western Asia and in the Soviet
Union in the lower course of tlie Atrek, as well as in the valleys of the Kura and the
Araks.

^^"Obzor prirody Apsheronskovo poluostrova" (Survey of the Natural Emiron-
ment of the Apsheron Peninsula), wTitten by a group of specialists; see Trudy
Azerbaidzh. otd. Zakavkaz. filiala Akad. nauk (Proceedings of tlie Azerbaidzhan
Section of the Transcaucasus Branch of the Academy of Sciences), VI, Bak-u, 1934,
p. 256, maps, bibliography.

238 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The Apsheron Peninsula has a desert climate of a unique type. It has
mild winters (as does the Kura-Araks desert), attributable to the mod-
erating influence of the southern Caspian. In Baku (absolute elevation
+ 2 m.) the mean January temperature is + 3.5° C. As compared with
parts of the Kura Lowland which are farther from the sea, the summer
is relatively cool; the mean July temperature is 25.7° C. In Baku there
are 181 mm. of precipitation per year; the maximum comes in autumn
(November, 28 mm.), and the minimum in summer (July, 5 mm.).
The snow cover lasts an average of ten days a year. There is little cloud-
iness; in Baku February is the cloudiest month (78 per cent), August,
the least cloudy (26 per cent). The peninsula has strong winds: in Baku
the mean wind velocity is 6.0 m. per second; the north wind (nord)
prevails, often reaching the strength of a tempest; the south wind is the
next most prevalent. In Baku dry fogs are numerous (there are an aver-
age of 145 days a year with dry fog); they are caused by the dust which
fills the atmosphere. Ordinary ("wet") fogs occur most often in winter
and spring ( Mikhailevskv, 1934).

The vegetation is unique; it has a more northern appearance than
might be expected here from the climate. "One gains the impression
that local vegetation is typical of a higher vertical zone which spreads
down to sea level here, thus invading a country which lies below the
normal vertical limit of this zone" (Grossheim, 1934). Grossheim ex-
plains this condition by the fact that the peninsula is like an island;
marine climate impinges upon desert climate. The Apsheron plant asso-
ciation approximates that of the next vertical zone of the Caucasus, by
virtue of the profuse development of feather grasses (Stipa szowitziana)
and the presence of a number of plants native to the foothill regions of
the Transcaucasus; these include several legumes {Astragalus humilis,
Onobrychis vaginalis) and other plants. The polijns are poorly devel-
oped, perhaps because man has destroyed this type of vegetation. Nor
are the halophytes so widespread here as one might expect. Where the
vegetation has not been disturbed by man, ephemera such as blue grass
(Poa hulhosa) and Colpodium hiimile predominate. Toward the end of
May the blue grass fades; it comes to life again in October and Novem-
ber after the first autumn rains, and continues to grow all winter long
until spring. On the slopes the blue grass is replaced by the goat grass
Aegilops, closely related to wheat, and also by oats (Avena). In addi-
tion there are vast sandy areas. A large part of the peninsula is occupied
by dry-land ( unirrigated ) winter grain crops.

The soils of the peninsula are also unique. One would expect to find

MOUNTAINS OF THE CAUCASUS 239

sierozems here, but according to soil scientists, the soils of the peninsula
belong to the brown and chestnut-brown types.

4. MOUNTAIN TALYSH

South of the lower Araks, and separated from it by the Mugan steppe,
lies mountain Talysh, reaching 2582 m. in elevation. The Talysh range
appears to be a continuation of the Elburz, on the southern shore of the
Caspian in Iran.

There are yellow soils in the foothills, and brown forest soils higher up.

In Talysh there are no conifers except yew and juniper, and there is no
rhododendron. The forests of the foothills (up to an elevation of 600
to 700 m. ) resemble the forests of the lowland, which have been described
above (pp. 199-200). Here, too, the Persian parrotia is the basic species,
and hornbeam is common. The chestnut-leaf oak (which occurs here in the
typical form) becomes more numerous as the altitude increases; it gradu-
ally replaces the parrotia. Small stands of date-plum persimmon {Dios-
pyrus lotus) grow in the shady places. The Lenkoran or silk-tree albiz-
zia {Albizzia julibrissin) is very characteristic for the forests south of
Lenkoran; it does not grow above 400 to 500 m. This magnificent orna-
mental tree is cultivated in great numbers in the Crimea and in the west-
ern Transcaucasus. There is some zelkova {Zelkova carpinifolia) . The
undergrowth contains much medlar {Mespihis germanica). In the for-
est, vines are not uncommon, particularly greenbrier and blackberry,
although they are fewer here than in the lowland.

Along the stream valleys in the foothills there are stands of Caucasian
alder {Alnus subcordata) ; it is accompanied everywhere by wing nut
(Pterocarya carpinifolia). The presence in these forests of the endemic
Caspian honey locust {Gleditschia caspica) is characteristic; in winter
its large pods yield fodder for livestock. In some places the common fig
(Ficus carica) grows in great abundance. In the remote gorges of the
foothills one may find the majestic Persian velvet maple {Acer insigne
[A. velutinum gJabresceiis]) . It does not form continuous thickets, but
grows as individual trees, which occasionally are colossal in size. It is
readily grown as an ornamental tree, for example, in the streets of Len-
koran. In this zone (and in the central zone), under a canopy of Per-
sian parrotia and hornbeam, thickets of box are found. There is a weU
developed evergreen undergrowth of butcher's-broom ( Rusciis hyrcaniis).

In the central mountain zone (600 to 1200 m.) there are no parrotia

240 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(which does not grow above 600 to 700 m.), butcher's-broom, or vines
(with the exception of the ivy Hedera pastuchovii) . Instead of the par-
rotia, on the northern slopes there appears oriental beech, which reaches
colossal dimensions. The chestnut-leaf oak (Quercus castaneaefolia) is
a mighty and shapely tree. The undergrowth contains holly, and occa-
sionally English yew ( Taxtis haccata ) .

The forests of the upper mountain zone, at elevations from 1200 to
1800 m., have a different appearance. They consist chiefly of the xero-
phytic mountain oak (Quercus macranthera) and the small Hyrcanian
hornbeam (Carpinus schuschaensis) ; beech, hornbeam, and chestnut-
leaf oak are less important. The evergreen undergrowth in some places
consists of holly. There is much medlar. Much of the forest here has been
cleared and turned into wheat fields.

There is no alpine vegetation in Talysh. In the west, particularly in
the Dibrar basin, there are mountain xerophytes. At elevations of 1300
to 1800 m. dense cushions (1.5 m. in diameter) of shrublike prickly
thrift ( AcanfholimGn hohenackeri ) are characteristic; there are also some
spiny tragacanth astragaU (Astragalus aureus and others) and sweet-
brier rose. On the gentle slopes the soil is covered with a rather dense
sod of fescue and other grasses, especially at elevations between 1800
and 2500 m. (Grossheim, 1926).

The animals in the mountain forests of Talysh include deer, roebuck,
lynx (Felix lynx orientalis [Lijnx orientalis] ), leopard, and bear.

XI ■ Mountain Crimea

THE boundary between the steppe and mountainous
parts of the Crimea may be drawn somewhat north
of Sevastopol, Bakhchisaray, Simferopol, Karasubazar, and Feodosia.

Rdid '

The mountains of the Crimea consist of three parallel ridges in the
west, and two in the east. The southernmost of these, which is also the
highest, is the coastal ridge; it bears the name Yaila. {Yaild in Tatar means
"summer pasture.")

The Yaila range extends from Cape Fiolent and Balaklava in the west,
to Mount Agarmysh near Stary Krym in the east. The southern slope
is steep, in some places (especially in the west) precipitous; the north-
ern slope is gentle. The summit is not a crest, but a rolling plain, partly
covered by meadows, partly rocky ( Fig. 61 ) . The range is not very wide,
not more than 3 to 4 km.; only the Karabi- Yaila Plateau is wider, about
7 km. On the summit of the Yaila (which is composed of limestones),
there are marked funnels, depressions, furrows, caves (in some places
containing stalactites), deep cavelike abysses (sometimes more than
100 m. deep), underground rivers, and other karst formations, caused
by the decomposition and leaching of the limestones, not as a result of
sinks, as is commonly believed.

In the west, near Balaklava, the Yaila descends into the sea in vertical
precipices over 300 m. high. Balaklava Bay cuts deep into the Yaila
ridge, evidence that the sea has encroached upon the land; the bavs
at Sevastopol are further evidence of marine invasion ( Dobrvnin, 1922 ) .
Near Cape Sarych, the southern tip of the Crimea, lies Foros— one of the
warmest places in the Crimea, with a mean January temperature of about
+ 5° C. Behind Foros the limestones of the Yaila are cut by an enormous

^ See the excellent map of the southern Crimea, 1:200,000, Leningrad, 1936, pub-
lished by I. I. Babkov.

241

242 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

fault, the so-called Baidar "gate" (elevation 498 m.). Through this de-
pression a paved highway leads from Sevastopol to Yalta. East of the
Baidar gate and as far as Ai-Petri ( elevation 1233 m. ) , the Yaila recedes
1 to 4 km. from the shore, dropping toward the south in precipices 300
to 600 m. high. East of the Baidar gate, the Yaila rises gradually in ele-
vation, reaching 1000 m. above Simeiz, over 1200 m. above Alupka, and
1300 m. above Yalta. The highest point of the Yaila, Roman-Kosh ( eleva-
tion 1543 m.), lies in the Babugan-Yaila, northeast of Yalta. In the east,
approximately in the region of Alushta, deep depressions divide tlie Yaila
into a series of individual plateaus; these plateaus include Chatyr-Dagh
(elevation 1525 m.), Demerdzhi-Yaila, and Karabi-Yaila. The Salgir has
its source on the slopes of Chatyr-Dagh, and empties into the Sivash
arm of the Sea of Azov. Beyond Alushta the range recedes from the sea
6 to 8 km. and loses the character of a plateau. At Sudak the mountains
again approach the sea.

The surface of the Yaila is composed of light, compact, sometimes
marblelike Upper Jurassic limestones, which form abrupt precipices fac-
ing the sea. The lower part of the southern slope (that is, the south coast)
consists of black, argillaceous, watertight schists, which belong to the
Upper Triassic and to the Lower and Middle Jurassic. The fissures in the
Jurassic limestones of the Yaila result in landslides. Above Alupka there
is an enormous crumbled block of limestone about 300 m. high. On the
southern shore there are many rough piles of detritus composed of
broken fragments of limestone (so-called "chaoses"). All the strata of
the Yaila are strongly dislocated. Occasionally there are dome-shaped
outcrops of igneous rocks which constitute laccoliths. One of these, for
example, is Ayu-Dagh (at Gurzuf), which is composed of diorite. The
igneous rocks, because of their compactness, resist weathering, and con-
sequently are preserved along the shore in the form of capes (Fiolent,
Ayu-Dagh, Kastel, and others). The extrusion of these rocks took place
during the Jurassic or (in a few cases) during the Lower Cretaceous
period. The Crimea contains one long-extinct volcano. This is Kara-Dagh
(elevation 574 m.), which lies west of Feodosia. There is reason to be-
lieve that it was active during the Jurassic period. At a later date the
rocks of which Kara-Dagh is composed were folded, and, finally, a large
part of the volcano was submerged below the surface of the Black Sea.

The second ridge, north of the Yaila, the so-called Melovaya, is con-
siderably lower. Its elevation is 450 to 595 m. It is separated from the
Yaila by a depression 15 to 20 km. wide, and extends roughly from Inker-
man to Feodosia. On the northern, gentle slope lies Simferopol. The

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 243

ridge is composed chiefly of Cretaceous deposits, in part of Eocene num-
inulitic limestones. The latter form the upper part of the precipices and
the northern slope of the second ridge and are 50 to 60 m. thick. In
some places, for example, at Bakhchisaray, they form picturesque crags.
The dip of the layers in the second ridge is toward the north and north-
west. This ridge, like the third, is actually the southern edge of a series
of strata which slope gently to the north. Thus, these ridges are not
"mountains," but monoclinal ridges formed by erosion.

The third, or northern, ridge is still lower, only 150 to 250 m. in abso-
lute elevation. It is separated from the preceding ridge by a depression
3 to 5 km. wide, along which passes the railroad from Simferopol to
Belbek. This ridge, composed of Upper Tertiary limestones, which slope
gently to the north, extends from the mouth of the Belbek ( or even from
Cape Fiolent) to the town of Stary Krym.

The dissection of the Crimean mountains into three ridges is due,
as we have said, to erosion. The southern slope of the Yaila ridge con-
sists of a series of longitudinal faults. In the relief of the Crimean
mountains, there is a striking contrast between the long gentle north-
em slopes and the abrupt southern slopes. Correspondingly, in the central
part the principal valleys of the northern slopes are long, while those of the
southern slopes are short. The streams of the northern slope of the Yaila
cut across both the second and third ridges, instead of following the
longitudinal depressions between the ridges. Apparently these valleys
were cut in the original surface of the slope before the second and third
ridges were formed in their present state (N. Sokolov, 1929). The sharp
turn which the Salgir makes to tlie northeast, in the direction of the Sea
of Azov, is very curious. The dry valley which runs toward Yevpatoriya
is oriented in the original direction of the river— to the northwest. Ap-
parently at one time the Salgir emptied into the Black Sea; subsequently
it became a tributary of the river which flows in the direction of the
Sivash (N. Sokolov).

The most intensive folding in the Crimean mountains took place dur-
ing the Mesozoic period; it began at the end of the Lower Jurassic and
the beginning of the Middle Jurassic.- By the end of the Upper Jurassic
the Crimean mountains had been formed. During the Upper Cretaceous
period the entire Crimea, both mountain and steppe, underwent a marked
submergence, at times so extreme that perhaps only the highest points

2 A. S. Moiseyev, "Gidrogeologichesky ocherk glavnoy gryady Kninskikh gor"
( Hydrogeological Sketch of the Main Ridge of tlie Crimean NIountains), Trudy
Glavn. geol.-razved. upr. (Proceedings of the Central Geological Survey Board), No.
30, 1931, p. 14.

244 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

of the mountains extended above the water. At the end of the Cretaceous,
upHfts began again and became considerably stronger during the Lower
Miocene. This last epoch was the period of the most powerful Tertiary
dislocations in the mountains of the Crimea. During the Lower Miocene
period the principal faults, dislocations, and thrusts developed. Accord-
ing to Muratov, none of these faults which mark displacements of the
older formations affect any deposits younger than the Oligocene (that
is, the Mediterranean deposits); therefore there is no basis for ascribing
a younger age to these faults. During the Quaternary period slight up-
lifts took place in the eastern Crimea; the elevation of the marine ter-
races in the region from Sudak to Feodosia is evidence of these uplifts;
however, the form of the coast line at Sevastopol indicates that some
subsidence took place along this shore during the Quaternary period.^

Dobrynin (1922) regards the Crimean mountains as a single arched
anticline, the axis of which extends from WSW to ENE. Its southern
border is broken by the fault mentioned above, while the dome is split
by a system of longitudinal and meridional faults and thrusts which
occurred, as we have seen, during the Lower Miocene period.

Since the Lower Pliocene (Upper Pontic) period, the Crimea has
been tied closely to the mainland which adjoins it on the north. At
the end of the Pliocene a connection was formed between the Crimea
and the northern Caucasus (probably along the line from Feodosia to
Anapa), while at the beginning of the Quaternary period they were
separated again (Andrusov).

During the Tertiary period mountain Crimea was connected with the
Dobrudzha.

On the south coast in June and September, 1927, there were rather
severe earthquakes, the epicenter of which lay in the sea near Yalta.
According to Arkhangelsky, the sea bottom off the south shore of the
Crimea is undergoing a gradual subsidence, accompanied from time to
time by dislocations which result in earthquakes.

Climate

ClimatologicaUy, mountain Crimea may be diWded into three parts:

(1) the south coast, which extends from Foros to Alushta, and which

has a Mediterranean climate; (2) the Yaila, and (3) the rest of mountain

Crimea, the climate of which may be called steppe or forest-steppe.

^M. V. Muratov, "Osnovnie cherty tektoniki Krymskovo poluostrova" (Basic
Features of the Tectonics of the Crimean Peninsula), Bijull. Mosk. obshch. isptjt. prir.
(Bulletin of the Moscow Society for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geological
Section), XV, 1937, pp. 215-239, map, bibliography.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 245

(1) The south coast of the Crimea h'es on the northern outskirts of the
region of Mediterranean cHmate. In the typical Mediterranean cHmate
(for example, along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea) trade winds
—dry, northeast winds— prevail in summer. In winter the trade winds
do not reach the Mediterranean, and moisture-bearing cyclonic storms
and west winds prevail instead. On the south shore of the Crimea the sea-
sonal distribution of winds is no longer typically Mediterranean. In sum-
mer the pressure is greater over the Black Sea than over the continent;
for this reason southwest winds prevail in the Crimea at this time of the
year. In winter the opposite is true; the pressure is greater over the conti-
nent than over the sea. During this period of the year a spur of the
Asiatic high-pressure area extends westward along the northern boundary
of the steppes; as a result, northeast winds usually blow over the Crimea
in winter. However, in some years the spur of the Inner Asiatic high-
pressure area does not appear, with the result that the West European
and Central Mediterranean high-pressure area dominates; during such
winters, west and southwest winds prevail in the Crimea, and it is rela-
tively warm.

In any case, on the soutli coast the seasonal distribution of precipita-
tion is more or less Mediterranean in character. The most precipitation
falls in winter, the least in August. However, the spring here, as in the con-
tinental part of the Crimea, is dry (the secondary minimum occurs in
May), and there is a secondary maximum of precipitation in June and
July, a sort of reflection of the summer maximum which is characteris-
tic of the hinterland of the Crimea. With a hot summer and strong evapo-
ration, there is not enough rainfall on the south coast in summer for
agriculture, and the problem of irrigation arises. Sometimes in summer
there are long droughts. On the other hand, during the rainy season
there are occasionally heavy downpours; thus, in Yalta on December 7,
1892, 154 mm. of precipitation fell during the course of 24 hours.

Sheltered by the Yaila massif from the cold north winds, the south
coast has a very mild winter, as is indicated bv the fact that the vege-
tative period continues without interruption the year around. "The last
of the autumn flowers are followed without interruption by spring flow-
ers." In December and January the Crimean snowdrop {Galanthus pli-
catiis), evergreen euphorbia (Euphorbia biglandulosa), and (of the
woody plants) filbert (Corijhts aveUana) begin to bloom in profusion
everywhere. Even during snowy winters, in the thawed patches and on
the southern slopes, snowdrops, violets ( Viola odorata ) , and crocus ( Cro-

246

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

cus susianus) may be seen in bloom. Many of the herbaceous plants
begin their secondary blooming in October and November.

The number of days in the year with a mean diurnal temperature above
15° C. is about 150 on the south coast; in the latitude of Moscow there
are half as many; on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, a third as many;
and on the shores of the White Sea, almost none. The warmest part of
the Crimea lies between Foros and Ayu-Dagh.

Indicative of the character of the climate in these places are the fol-
lowing data for Yalta (lat. 44°30' N, absolute elevation 4m.):

Table 20

Climate of Yalta

Jan.

Feb.

Makch

April

May

June

JULY

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Yeab

Precipitation

(mm.)

82

56

47

34

28

49

56

27

41

45

63

69

599

1890-1915

Mean tempera-

ture (°C.)

3.7

4.0

6.3

10.4

16.1

20.5

24.1

23.8

19.0

14.2

8.8

6.1

13.1

Mean minimum

temperature

(°C.)

0.2

1.4

2.1

5.3

10.7

14.8

18.2

18.5

13.3

10.3

4.0

1.8

1891-1900

Absolute mini-

mum tem-

perature (°C.)

-13.5

-12.7

-7.6

-0.9

3.5

7.8

11.4

11.6

6.0

-1.9

-8.4

-9.2

1900-1911

Cloudiness

(per cent of

61

66

56

50

46

35

26

22

32

44

56

60

46

sky covered)

As we can see from this table, there are frosts even on the south coast.
January in Yalta (1899-1910) averages 14 days with frost; February, 8
days; in Foros (absolute elevation 26 m.), the figures are, respectively,
7 and 10. The annual number of days with frost in Yalta is 43, in Foros,
30. Foros has the warmest winter in the Crimea: December, 7.4° C,
January, 4.8° C, February, 4.3° C; the annual mean, 13.3° C. Magarach
( absolute elevation 70 m. ) , near Yalta, has a warmer summer than Foros,
but a colder winter. The average number of days without thaw on the
south coast is 7. But there are some winters in Yalta when the mean
January temperature is as high as + 8.9° C. (1915). No frosts lower than
— 14.5° C. have been observed in Yalta. The summer and autumn have
many hours of insolation.

The finest season in the Crimea is autumn— September and October.
September in Yalta is warmer than July in Moscow, and October is much
warmer than May in Moscow. Furthermore, in Yalta the autumn is calm
and there is much sunshine; even in October the mean diurnal duration
of sunshine in Yalta is 6 hours. Summer on the south coast is hot, but 300

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 247

meters above the sea it is about three degrees eooler. The diurnal
temperature range is small, a condition which is especially important
for lung patients. The temperature of the sea at Yalta reaches a maximum
in September (mean, 21.8° C.) and a minimum in February (8.2'" C).
In Sevastopol the summer is warmer but the winter is somewhat colder
than in Yalta. There is bathing in the Crimea up to the end of Septem-
ber. On the south coast (particularly in summer), there are breezes—
during the day from the sea, at night from the land. Foehns— warm and
dry winds which descend from the Yaila range— are frequent. For exam-
ple, in the Nikitsky Botanical Garden on April 17, 1928, the temperature
rose 10° C. within half an hour, while the relative humidity fell 40 per
cent. The relative humidity on the south coast is considerable; in
Magarach the maximum occurs in December (75 per cent), the mini-
mum in August (57 per cent). There is much sunshine on the south
coast, as pointed out above; in Gurzuf (according to observations over a
periods of five years ) , in July the sun shines 69 per cent of the number of
hours possible.

(2) The Yaila has a peculiar climate, transitional between the Mediter-
ranean and the climate of deciduous forests of the middle latitudes. At
an elevation of 1500 m. the mean July temperature is about 13/2° C. The
rainfall is rather heavy; tlie average is 500 to 1000 mm., but during some
years it exceeds 1500 mm. The maximum usually comes in winter, but
on the eastern Yaila, for example, on Karabi-Yaila (elevation 974 m.).
it comes in summer. The minimum precipitation usually comes in
August, and the secondary minimum, which is almost as low as the Au-
gust minimum, comes in spring; but on the eastern Yaila ridge the
minimum comes in February. In short, tlie western Yaila has the same
type of seasonal distribution of precipitation as the south coast, while
the eastern Yaila (Demerdzhi, Karabi, Dolgorukovskaya ) has a cHmate
of the same type as the Crimean steppes. The mean monthly temperature
and precipitation for Ai-Petri, 1180 m. above Yalta and slightly to the west,
are given in Table 21, on page 248.

As we can see, the number of days with precipitation on the Yaila is
considerable; one out of three days in summer, and two out of three
in winter, have precipitation. There are about 60 days a year with snow.
The snow cover on the Yaila melts slowly in spring and summer and
feeds a great number of springs which irrigate the south coast. Some-
times there are exceptionally heaw showers on the Yaila. Thus, once in
November on Ai-Petri, 161 mm. of rain fell during the course of 24 hours.
Fogs are frequent; more than 100 days a year are foggy. In autumn, winter,

248

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Table 21
Climate of Ai-Petri

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Yeah

Temperature *

(°C.)

-4.2

-3.2

-0.6

3.3

9.4

12.8

15.7

15.6

11.4

7.8

1.6

-1.1

5.7

Precipitation t

(mm.)

163

102

95

45

57

82

77

34

70

82

105

119

1031

Number of days

■ with precipi-

tation i

23

18

17

12

13

12

10

8

11

13

18

21

176

Duration of in-

solation (per

cent of possi-

ble number

of hours) §

40

30

.53

58

65

73

76

85

81

60

47

36

62

* 1895-1915. adjusted to 1881-1915.
t 1901-1920.

11901-1921.
5 1902.

and at the beginning of spring, during the anticyclone period which pre-
vails over the entire Crimea, it is sometimes warmer on the Yaila than
on the northern and even the southern slope; the sky is clear, and the
humidity is very low ( this happens during the so-called "foehns" ) . Thus,
on October 18, 1906, at 9:00 p.m., the following observations were made:

Table 22
Climatic Observations at Ai-Petri axd Yalta on October 18, 1906, at 9:00 p.m.

Temperature

rc.)

Relativt:

HtTMIDITY

(per cent)

Wind

(direction and

velocity in m.

per second)

Cloudini

Ai-Petri (1180 m.)
Yalta (4 m.)

15.3
11.8

EISTES

N2

When the center of an anticyclone lies directly over Yalta, the foehn may
blow simutaneously on both the northern and southern slopes (E. Shcher-
bakova).

At Ai-Petri, as on the western Yaila in general, northwest and south-
east winds prevail in winter and summer. On the Yaila the wind every-
where reaches considerable force, but nowhere so great as at Ai-Petri,
where the mean annual velocity is 6.2 m. per second. (At Yalta it is
only 2.1 m. per second.) Tlie number of days with gale winds (that is,
when the wind velocity exceeds 15 m. per second) at Ai-Petri is tre-
mendous—81.5 (at Yalta, only 8.5). Instances are on record of enormous
wind velocities at Ai-Petri— up to 42 m. per second.*

*A. V. Penyugalov, "Klimat Kryma" (The Climate of the Crimea), Trudy syezda
po izuchenUju proizvodit. sil Kryma (Proceedings of tlie Congress for the Study of
tlie Productive Forces of the Crimea), II, Simferopol, 1930, p. 91.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 249

(3) On the south coast eastward from Alnshta and on the northern
slope of the Crimean mountains down to about 500 m. elevation, the
prevailing climate may be called the climate of deciduous forests, while
at lower elevations on the slope there is a steppe or forest-steppe cli-
mate. Precipitation ranges from 300 mm. to 500 mm., with the maximum
coming in June and July and the minimum in spring or at the end of
the winter; there is a secondary minimum in autumn and a secondary
maximum at the beginning of autumn or during the first part of winter.

The Crimean game preserve, which lies on the northern slope of
Babugan-Yaila, in the upper course of the Alma River, at an elevation
of approximately 670 m., is surrounded by beech forests. Here 786 mm.
of precipitation fall annually, with the maximum in July (82 mm.) and
the minimum in February (48 mm.). Stary Krym, at an elevation of 500
m., has 466 mm. of precipitation annually, the maximum coming in June
( 67 mm. ) and the minimum in October ( 18 mm. ) . The mean February
temperature is — 0.8° C; the mean July temperature, 21.9° C. At Feodo-
sia, and particularly at Sudak, there is even less precipitation; at Sudak,
only 296 mm. annually.

Drainage
The surface of the Yaila is almost without water. The Jurassic lime-
stones, which compose the plateau, quickly absorb the rainfall and soak
up the moisture from melting snows and the moisture which forms on
the limestone beds from condensation of atmospheric water vapor. The
thick beds of impervious argillaceous shales which underlie the lime-
stones prevent further penetration, hence the precipitation which falls
on the Yaila karst is preserved in caverns in the limestone and the Jurassic
sandstones and conglomerates which in some places underlie the lime-
stones. The water which accumulates here emerges onto the surface in
the form of numerous (over 2000) springs, which feed the brooks and
rivers of mountain Crimea with excellent water. These waters also soften
the argillaceous shales, and cause creep of the clayey masses; this process
results in landslides which cause great damage on the south coast of the
Crimea (especially at Yalta and Alupka). The melting of snows and
the occurrence of showers often bring about floods in the basins of the
mountain streams. A basic factor in the water regime of the Crimea
is the considerable fluctuation in tlie stream flow; in summer it is slight,
while in winter it is relatively great.

250 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Soils

On both the southern and the northern slopes of the Crimean moun-
tains, soils of the brown forest type predominate.^ These soils are de-
veloped under deciduous forests in the warm temperate regions of west-
em Europe, the Crimea, and the Caucasus. They resemble podzoUc
soils in that soluble salts are leached out of their upper horizons; but
they differ in that ferric oxides, alumina, and phosphates are not re-
moved from these horizons at all, or only in moderate quantity. The
brown forest soils contain little humus, because organic substances are
decomposed more thoroughly than in the podzols and chernozems. Under
the beech forests in the central zone on the slopes of the Yaila these
soils have the following profile: They are generally yellow brovm. Only
the uppermost horizon ( A^ ) , directly under the leaf mat and about 3 cm.
thick, is colored grayish by the humus. Lower down there lies a bright
yellow horizon (Ao), which has a lumpy structure and which changes
gradually into a more compact reddish-brown horizon (B). The A^
and Ao horizons, which are leached, correspond to the eluvial horizon
of the northern, podzolic soils, from which they are distinguished by
their lumpy structure and yellow-brown coloring, which is due to the
presence of hydrate of iron oxide. Podzolization is found only on the
northern slopes, on the clayey products of weathered limestones. It is
worth noting, according to Prasolov, that on whatever rock the brown
forest soils occur, they are always lacking in carbonates and are gener-
ally leached. However, under vineyard cultivation these soils usually
become mixed with limestone rubble and become calcareous.

The brown forest soils ascend as far as the boundary of the forest;
they descend as far as sea level. But in the lower zone, that is, up to an
elevation of 300 to 400 m., they are poorly developed and acquire certain
characteristics of a type transitional to red-soil weathering. Above 900 m.,
on the boundary between the brown forest soils of the slopes and the
chemozemlike and mountain-meadow soils of the Yaila, lies a narrow
strip of transitional soils with a dark humus horizon, which, according to

^ L. I. Prasolov, "Burozyomy Kryma i Kavkaza" ( Brown Soils of the Crimea and
the Caucasus), Priroda (Nature), 1929, No. 5; I. N. Antipov-Karatayev, "Pochvy
Nikitskovo sada" (Soils of the Nikitsky Garden), Soobshch. otd. pochvoved. Gos.
inst. opyt. agron. (Report of the Soil Science Section of the State Institute for Ex-
perimental Agriculture), 1929, No. 4; I. N. Antipov-Karatayev and L. I. Prasolov,
"Pochvy Krymskovo Gos. lesnovo zapovednika i prilegayushchikh oblastey" (Soils of
the Crimean State Forest Preserve and Adjoining Regions), Trudy Pochv. inst.
Akad. nauk (Proceedings of the Soils Institute of the Academy of Sciences), VII,
1932.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 251

Prasolov, resemble some of the soils of the northern forest steppe. This
strip, which extends for a width of only 100 to 150 m., lies above the zone
of beech forests. The soils on the lower Chatyr-Dagh Plateau are related
rather closely to the soils of this transitional strip.

On the lower Chatyr-Dagh Plateau, which is occupied by mountain steppe
(analogous to Karabi-Yaila), there are mountain chernozems— both on Lime-
stones and particularly on other rocks (conglomerates, shales). Still higher, on
the upper Chatyr-Dagh Plateau, chernozemlike mountain-meadow soils are de-
veloped (Prasolov).

In general, mountain chernozems and chernozemlike mountain-meadow
soils predominate on the unforested areas of the Yaila (Prasolov). This
circumstance indicates that these areas of the Yaila have never been for-
ested.

As Prasolov points out, on the northern slope of the Yaila the brown
forest soils grade into chernozems, which lie both below and above them
( at the lower elevation lie the leached chernozems of the forest steppe ) .
On the southern slope, however, the brown forest soils extend downward
almost to sea level; they grade into chernozems only along their upper
boundary. On the northern slope, above the leached chernozems and up
to an elevation of 800 to 900 m., the slopes which face S, SW, and W are
covered with dark-gray humus brown forest soils, transitional to cher-
nozems; on the gentle northern slopes there are normal, more or less
podzolized, brown forest soils. The latter are of a type transitional to the
subtropical red soils.

In the eastern part of mountain Crimea (at Karasubazar, for exam-
ple), under beech and oak forests there are brown forest soils which,
in the dense beech forests, have a brighter, yellow coloring. On the
southern slopes, nearer the sea, there are darker brown forest soils, and
also soils closely related to the chernozems and even to the chestnut
soils (for example, at Kara-Dagh and Sudak).

Vegetation

The flora on the south coast of the Crimea is very rich. While about
3500 species are known in the entire area of the European part of the
U.S.S.R., about 1400 species grow in the narrow confines of the Crimean
southern coast. Among these, only thirteen species are native to the
Crimea alone, that is, endemic ( Wulff , 1927 ) ; these include the so-called
Crimean "edelweiss" (Cerastium [7jeZ?er5^emij'— Caryophyllaceae), pecu-
liar to the Yaila. However, there are many native subspecies in the Crimea.

252 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

A variety of imported plants and trees are grown on the lower slopes
of the mountains.*^ Many Mediterranean, Japanese, and Chinese plants
have become well acclimatized here. Among them are: the Italian cy-
press (Cupressus sempervirens) ; laurel; laurel cherry; magnolia; Chi-
nese wistaria (Wistaria chinensis); myrtle; Chinese coir palm (Cha-
maerops excelsa [Trachycarpiis excelsa]), which withstands frosts of
— 14° C. in the Nikitsky Botanical Garden, and grows readily in the
village of Nikita; silk-tree albizzia, or mimosa (Albizzia julibrissin) ;
oleander; cork oak; plane tree; Judas tree (Cercis siliquastrum) , which
has escaped; golden-chain laburnum (Laburnum vtilgare [L. anagy-
roides]), also escaped; English holly (Ilex aquifoUum); common box
(Buxus sempervirens); Italian stone pine; strawberry madrone (Arbutus
unedo); and others. The Mediterranean dwarf pine cannot survive the
winter unless it is sheltered; it blooms in May and June. The fruit trees
grown here include the olive, almond, chestnut, fig, common pistache
(Pistacia vera), pomegranate, thick-shell Persian walnut, medlar, per-
simmon, and peach. There are many vineyards and tobacco plantations
(Fig. 62).

The vegetation of the south coast" has Mediterranean features. The
presence of evergreen woody plants is characteristic for the Mediter-
ranean region, with its mild winters. This feature, however, is expressed
very poorly in the Crimea, as we shall see, due to the fact that the south
coast lies on the northernmost outskirts of the Mediterranean region. On
the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the west, there grow
peculiar shrub thickets (so-called maquis) of evergreen species— myrtle,
laurel, rockrose, buckthorn, oak, and others. This type of vegetation is
not found in the Crimea. Although there are some evergreen woody
plants in the Crimea, they do not grow in maquis-\ike formations, but
are found in associations of different types.

The evergreen plants of the Crimea include the following: butchers-
broom ( Ruscus aculeatus ) , an undershrub of the lily family, whose stems
are flattened into leaflike shape; madrone (Arbutus andrachne), of the

^ G. V. Voinov, "Parkovaya rastitelnost Kr\Tna" ( Park-Land Vegetation of the
Crimea), Zap. Nikit. botan. sada (Report of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden), XIII,
No. 1, Yalta, 1930, pp. 1-68.

^Of the most recent literature, see S. S. Stankov, "Osnovnie cherty v raspredelenii
rastitelnosti Yuzhnovo Kryma (Sevastopol-Feodosiva)" (Basic Features of the Dis-
tribution of Vegetation in the Southern Crimea [Se\'astopol to Feodosia]), Botan.
zhurn. S.S.S.R. (Botanical Journal of the U.S.S.R.), XVIII, 1933, pp. 66-91 (bibliog-
raphy). See also the excellent book by the same author, Yuzhntj bereg Krtjma (The
South Shore of the Crimea ) , Botanicheskie ekskursii ( Botanical Excursions ) , Nizhny-
Novgorod, 1926, p. 149.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 253

heath family; the low shrub rockrose {Cistus tauricus [C. villosus tauri-
cus]); and, finally, English ivy (Hedera helix). Butcher's-broom and rock-
rose usually grow in the form of undergrowth in the light forests of
arborescent juniper and oak. Individual rnadrone plants settle along the
rocky precipices, while ivy prefers to twine about the trunks of the large
trees; it is found also on the northern slope of the Crimean mountains.
But not one of these plants in the Crimea forms maquis thickets, so char-
acteristic for Mediterranean countries. "Butcher's-broom and rockrose,"
says Stankov (1926), "in some places (Gurzuf and others) still grow
in rather large continuous stands, but always as an undergrowth in the
forests, and never in the open; the madrone, however, is found seldom,
while ivy cannot be regarded as a shrub species at all." It must be noted
that during very cold winters, the rockrose in the Crimea sheds its
leaves.

The Mediterranean vegetation on the south coast of the Crimea does
not extend very far up the mountains, only up to 300 to 320 m., and
usually not so high. It grows along the coast, its range beginning at
Cape Aiya and extending somewhat east of Alushta. The madrone does
not reach even as far as Alushta. East of Alushta the amount of precipi-
tation decreases, and the vegetation gradually assumes a steppe, xero-
phytic appearance. Here are found polyn (Artemisia maritima taurica),
harmel peganum (Pegamim harmala), thick-leaved nitraria (Nitraria
schoberi), a buckwheat shrub (Atraphaxis spinosa), and many species
of feather grass, among them capillary feather grass, which is found in
large numbers. The vegetation in the region between Sudak and Feodosia
has a distinct steppe character.

On the south coast the following four vertical zones of vegetation may
be distinguished:

(1) Open, xerophytic juniper-oak forests are characteristic for the
lowest belt, up to elevations of 250 to 300 m. The arborescent juniper
(Juniperus excelsa), the tall trees of which have a brown-red bark that
peels in ribbonlike strips, constitutes the basic species of this zone (Fig.
63). But the arborescent juniper has been undergoing destruction for a
long time. The pubescent oak (Qtiercns puhescens) grows here in the
form of an insignificant-looking, crooked, low tree. Finally, the third
element in this forest, the Turk terebinth pistache (Pistacia miitica), is
a tree which grows to a height of 18 m. and has a dense rounded cro\\Ti;
it is found from Sevastopol to Kara-Dagh, and also at Bakhchisaray; it
always grows on open dry slopes with a rocky, calcareous subsoil. This
tree yields turpentine, which, however, is not extracted in the Crimea.

254 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The fruit is not used for food. In the Nikitsky Botanical Garden there is a
Turk terebinth pistache close to a thousand years old.

In these juniper forests the second layer society and the undergrowth
also contain ash, smoke tree [Cotinus coggijgria], wild jasmine {Jos-
minium fruticans), oriental hornbeam {Carpinus orientalis), Crimean
pine, another arborescent juniper {Juniperus oxycedrus rufescens), rock-
rose, butcher's-broom, Christ's-thorn paliurus (Paliurus spina-christi) ,
madrone, sumac, and a tree of the elm family— the hackberry (Celtis
glahrata); the climbing plants include traveler's-joy, ivy, and sweetbrier
rose. The juniper forest between Yalta and Gurzuf (near the Nikitsky
Botanical Garden) has been well preserved.

In this belt also there are found shrub thickets of sumac (Rhus cori-
aria), common smoke tree (Cotinus coggijgria), shrub pubescent oak,
and oriental hornbeam, or combinations of these species.

In some places, in isolated localities, as far east as Sudak, there is found
a Crimean form of the Aleppo pine (Pinus pityusa stankewitschi [P. hale-
pensis pityusa stankewitschi] Fig. 64 ) .

(2) Above this first zone, beginning at about 250 m., on the south
coast (for example, at Yalta), Crimean pine (Pinus nigra pallasiana
[P. nigra caramanica])^ predominates (Fig. 65); sometimes this tree
descends as far as sea level, while at Ai-Petri it reaches into the Yaila
region. It extends as far east as Otuzi raion, and is found also at Sevasto-
pol and Bakhchisaray and occasionally on the northern slope (in the
forest preserve ) . This pine is distinguished by its gray-black trunk, long
needles, and large cones. In some places it grows in pure stands ( Fig. 65 ) .
This is a typical Mediterranean mountain species, found in closely re-
lated forms from the Pyrenees to the Crimea and in some measure as far
as the Novorossiisk coast of the Caucasus.^ Without a doubt this pine
(as an admixture with other species) was at one time widespread also
in the lower zone of the Crimea, but it has been destroyed since then.
When the Crimean pine grows on calcareous rocks, it forms an easily
recognizable horizontal crown. At an elevation of 300 to 450 m. the pine
forests have a continuous undergrowth of rockrose. The second layer
society usually contains pubescent oak (Quercus puhescens). In some
places the Crimean pine has been destroyed even in its own proper zone
of distribution ( above 200 to 250 m. ) , and in its place grow durmast oak

^Usually it is known as Pinus laricio pallasiana [P. nigra poiretiana],
"The Crimean pine (P. nigra pallasiana [P. nigra caramanica]) grows in Novoros-
siisk raion (at Arkhipo-Osipovka), and in Asia Minor and Greece, as well as in the
Crimea.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 255

(<^. sessiliflora [Q. petraea]), European hornbeam (Carpinus hetulus),
dogwood, and other trees.

(3) Still higher lies a belt of beech forests with an admixture of pine
(Crimean and Scotch), maple {Acer hyrcanum) , hornbeam, and euony-
mus (Eiionymus latifolius). The characteristic species of this zone are
Scotch pine and beech. Crimean pine does not predominate here. The
Scotch pine belongs to the Caucasian form {Finns sijlvestris hamata),
while the beech represents a form intermediate between the European
{Fagus sijlvatica) and the Caucasian (F. orientalis) .^^ In the upper parts
of the beech belt there are individual ancient yew trees {Taxus hoc-
cata). The beech forests extend into the Yaila region (1000 m. and
higher) and end abruptly at the edge of the unforested plateau. On
the boundary between the beech forests of the slopes and the moun-
tain meadows of the Yaila there lie thickets of creeping juniper {Juniperus
depressa).

(4) The summit of the Yaila is almost unforested. Only occasionally,
under the shelter of crags, are there found thickets of beech, maple
{Acer campcstre and others), ash, mountain ash, hornbeam, and others,
as well as individual Scotch pines ^^ and yew. However, in some parts of
the Yaila there are beech forests; for example, near the summit of Ai-
Petri, at an elevation of 1240 m.; on the summit of Karabi-Yaila (at
1255 m.); on the southeast part of Demerdzhi-Yaila (at 1280 m.); and on
the lower plateau of Chatyr-Dagh (at 1280 m.). The beech is accom-
panied by an admixture of hornbeam, maples, ash, and mountain ash.
A characteristic feature of the Yaila forests is the complete absence of
young trees; these have been destroyed by livestock. There is almost
no undergrowth, except for indi\idual bushes of filbert and hawthorn.
The slope connecting the upper and lower plateaus of Chatyr-Dagh is
covered almost continuously with diickets of creeping juniper {Juniperus
depressa ) , among which there grows another creeping juniper, the savin
juniper {Juniperus sahina). These thickets are found also on the lower
plateau.

On the drier sections of the Yaila, meadow-steppe vegetation predomi-
nates. Grasses are the most numerous: fescue {Festuca sulcata), koeleria

^"E. V. WulfiF ("Kavkazsky buk, yevo rasprostranenie i sistematicheskoye polo-
zhenie" [The Oriental Beech, Its Distribution and Systematic Position], Botan. zhurn.
S.S.S.R. [Botanical Journal of the U.S.S.R.], XX, 1935, p. 534) holds tliat both the
European and the Caucasian beech are found in tlie Crimea, as weU as transitional
or hybrid fonns between these two.

^^Wulff (1925, p. 94; fuU title appears in the following footnote) says tliat on
Babugan- Yaila at an elevation of 1450 m. in 1914 he saw two Scotch pines, the trunks
of which measured two arms'-lengths in circumference.

256

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

(Koeleria gracilis), and brome (Bromus). This vegetation may be recog-
nized from a distance by its dull, gray-green color. In the moister depres-
sions in the relief, rich, bright-green meadows and, to some extent,
subalpine vegetation prevail (Babugan, Chatyr-Dagh ) ; dicotyledons
predominate: lady's-mantle (Alcheinilla) , kura clover {Trifolium ambi-
guum), and dropwort (Filipendula hexapetala) ; the Crimean "edelweiss"
(Cerastium hiebersteinii—Caryo])hy\\a.cea.e) and the sedge Carex humilis
(which is characteristic for the steppes of the forest-steppe zone— see
above, pp. 84-86) are numerous; on the Yaila, Carex humilis settles in the
sunny rocky places. The pubescent rock jasmine (Androsace villosa),
draba (Draba cuspidata), and Altay violet {Viola altaica, which grows
in two varieties, which bear lilac-colored and yellow flowers, respectively)
are among the characteristic alpine plants of the Yaila. As Wulff rightly
points out, these few alpine plants are relicts of a former colder climate.
It would be a mistake to classify the Yaila with the alpine belt because
of the presence of these plants. On the Yaila, chemozemlike mountain-
meadow soils predominate; sometimes they contain much humus ( as high
as 18 per cent ) . The numerous herds of sheep which have grazed on the
Yaila for many hundreds of years have disturbed greatly the natural
character of die vegetation here.

A vast literature exists concerning the absence of forests on the Yaila.
Some students believe that the Yaila was covered by forests at one
time, and that man cut down the forests. Wulff ( 1925 ) , who holds this
view, develops the following argument:^" One may speak only of the
scarcity, rather than of the absence of forests on the Yaila, because, as we
have noted above, forests are found up to an elevation of 1280 m. on the
Yaila plateau, and even up to elevations of 1400 m., if the thickets of
light-loving creeping juniper on the slope from the upper to the lower
plateau of Chatyr-Dagh may be regarded as evidence of forests which
formerly existed in these parts. On the slopes of Chat)T-Dagh the bound-
ary of the forest in some places extends even higher, up to 1500 m.
Amid the herbaceous vegetation of the Yaila tliere are species character-
istic of the beech forests of the Crimea. The transition from the beech
forests of the slopes of the Yaila to the unforested summit is abrupt;
the shrub forms of beech which in western Europe are characteristic of
the natural upper boundary of beech are absent. For these reasons Wulff
behevcs tliat the upper boundary of beech in the Crimea has been de-
termined by human agency.

^E. V. Wulff, Rastitehnost vostochnykh Yail Kryma (Vegetation of the Eastern
Yailas of the Crimea), Moscow, 1925, izd. "Nov. derev-nya" (publication of "The
New Village").

Fig. 49. Beech forest with undergrowth of R/ioc/odenc/ron pontkum near the Black
Sea coast south of Gagry in the Colchlan Lowland. (Vegefofionsbi/der. Vol. Im-
part 6/7; plate 31)

Fig. 50. The Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus, from the glaciers of Mt. Elbrus.

(Sovfoto)

Fig. 51. Crossing the Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus at 10,500 feet.
(Sovfoto)

Fig. 52. A mountain meadow in the Svanetiya range, Kabardino-Balkarian
A.S.S.R. (Sovfoto)

Fig. 53. A yew forest in the mountains of the Caucasus. (Sovfoto)

"^i !^%'i

Fig. 54. Nordmann fir (Abies
nordmanniana) in the mountain
forest above Gqgry. In foreground
toll meadow herbage. (Vegefat/ons-
bilder. Vol. 11; part 6 7; plate 37)

Fig. 55. Pine forest {Pinus sylvesfris)
on the northern slope of the Caucasus
near Klukhor-Kazarma. Elevation 2100
m. (Vegeiafionsbilder. Vol. 11; part 6/7;

plate 35)

Fig. 56. Grove of birch (Befula pufaes-
cens) at the timber line above Kazbek
station on the Georgian Military High-
way. In the foreground shrubs of false
hellebore (Veratrum album) and thistle
(Cirsium ohvallafum). (Vegefatiomhil-
der. Vol. 11; part 6/7; plate 40;

Fig. 57. A subalpine tall-herbaceous
meadow in Kabardino-Balkaria. (Vege-
fof/onsbi/der. Vol. 20; part 3/4; plate
16)

W^":^'

Fig. 58. Alpine rock vegetation in the mountains of Kobardino Balkaria (a) Cam-
panula anomala and Gypsophila teriLifo /a (b) Astragalus aureus (c) Salvia
conescens. (Vegefaf/onsb/'/der. Vol. 20, part 3/4, plate 20)

JfiSt^

i^\

M

1^

Fig. 60. Lake Sevan on the Armenian Plateau. (Bolshaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopedia.
Vol. 30: 459)

Fig. 61. The flat summit of the Yoila, the main range of the Crimean mountains.
(Vegefafionsbi/der. Vol. 17; part 1; plate 4)

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 257

However, on the northern slope of Babugan-Yaila, at an elevation
of 1250 to 1350 m., Poplavskaya (1925) discovered a peculiar, crooked,
"subalpine" form of beech— evidence that this is the upper boundary of
its distribution/^ In the western Transcaucasus, north of Abkhaziya,
beech is found from the seacoast to an elevation of 1400 m., where it
is replaced by fir; in the form of a shmb, however, beech extends into
the subalpine meadows, up to an elevation of 2100 m. It would be pos-
sible for fir or spruce to grow on the Yaila also, but they are not found
here. Scotch pine may have had a wide distribution on the Yaila at one
time. But the Yaila cannot have been covered with continuous forest,
because, as we have pointed out, on the unforested areas of the Yaila
the soils are mountain chernozems and chernozemlike mountain-meadow
soils, which do not develop under forest.

The upper northern slope of the Yaila is covered by beech and horn-
beam forests (Fig. 66), in which there are stands of Scotch and Crimean
pine. The thoroughly investigated forests of the Crimean game preser\'e
(which lies on the northern slope of Babugan-Yaila) occupy a belt be-
tween 550 and 1250 to 1350 m. above sea level. Beech grows here pre-
dominantly in pure stands; sometimes there is a small admixture of horn-
beam, ash, linden, Scotch elm, and individual yew trees. There are many
beeches, centuries old, which measure several arms'-lengths in circumfer-
ence. The pure beech forest contains no undergrowth; during the first half
of May there blooms here a plant which is characteristic of the Crimean
beech forest— tlie five-leaved toothwort (Dentaria quinquefolia) . In the
vicinity of the game preserve an aborescent juniper (Juniperus foetidis-
sima) grows in small quantity; this species is almost nonexistent on the
south coast.

But most remarkable of all is the presence in the preserve of the Euro-
pean white birch (Betula verrucosa) ,^^ which is not consistent with the
general appearance of the flora of the Crimean mountains.^^ It grows here
on the northern, steep slopes, at an elevation of 1000 to 1200 m., forming
the second layer society in the Scotch pine stands. Individual aspens
{Populus tremula) are found here also occasionally. The herbaceous

^^ According to WulflF, tlie appearance of tlie beecli here in the form of a bush
is due to the grazing of stock.

^* G. I. Poplavskaya, "O bereze v Krymu" (The Birch iu tlie Crimea), Zhurn.
Russk. botan. obshch. (Journal of tlie Russian Botanical Society), XIII, 1928, pp. 65-
92.

^^ This circumstance astonished the observant Puslikin. In a letter to Delwig from
Mikhailovsk in December, 1824, tlie great poet \\Tites: "We rode across tlie mountains
(at Kitreneiz), and the first object which astonished me was tlie birch, northern
birch. My heart contracted; I beggn to yearn for my beloved nortli, although I was
still in tlie Taurida, still among poplars and grapevines."

258 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

plants in these pine forests, which also contain birch, include a series
of northern forest plants, such as the side-bells pyrola ( Pyrola secunda ) ,
creeping rattlesnake plantain {Goodyera repens), and stone bramble
(Rtibus saxatilis); but there are also some plants peculiar to the Yaila,
such as the above-mentioned Crimean "edelweiss," the Altay violet, and
the sedge Carex humilis. The birch appears to be a relict of the same cold
period to which the Yaila subalpine plants which we have mentioned
belong. At Bakhchisaray, in the Paleolithic site which apparently belongs
to the epoch of the last glaciation, birch charcoal is found in large quan-
tity.

Below the beech zone the terrain drops sharply in elevation, begin-
ning approximately at the boundary between the Jurassic and the Creta-
ceous deposits. On the northern slope there lie forests of oak (Quercus
of the sessiliflora [petraea] group) and oriental hornbeam {Carpinus
orientalis), among which grow filbert, aspen, pear, maple, ash, euony-
mus, and others. In the west, beginning from about Bakhchisaray, there
is Crimean pine.

Below the zone of oak forests lies forest steppe, which extends to the
north somewhat beyond a line from Simferopol to Karasubazar; that is,
up to the third ridge. Here there grow, chiefly, oak, pear, smoothleaf elm
{Ulmus campestris or U. foliacea [U. carpinifolia]) , and shrubs; these
small woods are called dubki. At one time they were well developed in
the neighborhood of Simferopol, where their remains are still preserved.^^
Here dubki lie along the southern slope of the third ridge and the north-
ern slope of the second ridge. The soils under the dubki are poor cal-
careous chernozems which have been subjected to slight degradation,
or forest soils, also calcareous, due to the calcareous character of the
parent materials. The vegetation consists of the more southern oaks
(Quercus pubescens, Q. sessiliflora [Q. petraea]) and the English oak
(Q. pedunculata {Q. robur]), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), sloe
(Prunus spinosa), pear (Pyrus communis, P. eJaeagnifolia) , checker-
tree mountain ash (P. torminalis [Sorbus torminalis]), filbert, smooth-
leaf elm, common smoke tree (Rhus cotinus [Cotinus coggygria]), dog-
wood, and sweetbrier rose. The herbaceous vegetation of the dubki
belongs partly to the forest steppe, partly to the steppe. In spring the f em-
leaf peony (Paeonia tenuifolia) and spring adonis (Adonis vernalis)
predominate; they form an almost continuous cover in the glades.

^®T. Tsyrina, "Livenskie dubki" (The Lh^en Dubki), Zap. Knjm. obshch. yest.
(Report of the Crimean Nature Societ>0, VIII (1925), Simferopol, 1926. S. A.
Dzevanovsky, "Osminskie dubki" (The Osminsk Dubki), ibid. (22 km. northeast of
Simferopol ) .

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 259

Sevastopol raion also has a forest-steppe character. The soils of this
region constitute a transition from forest soils with a dark humus hori-
zon to chestnut soils. In Sevastopol raion there are found, in addition,
red-brown clays overlying limestones (for example, at Khersonese), on
which are formed soils of the steppe chestnut type (Prasolov).

Fauna
The fauna of mountain Crimea, and particularly of the south coast,
contains many unique features, and, like the vegetation, includes a series
of Mediterranean forms. There are no endemic mammalian forms
( neither species, nor subspecies ) in the Crimea, but the absence of a series
of forest forms, like the squirrel, bear, wild cat, dormouse, and wild boar,
is conspicuous. During the Paleolithic period, however, the bear and
the wild boar inhabited the Crimea. In the Crimean preserve there are
red deer (Cervus elaphus)— the same form as in the Carpathians— and
roebuck ( Capreolus capreolus ) . The hypothesis has been advanced that
the deer may have been introduced here by man; however, remains
of the deer (and also of the roebuck) have been discovered by Byalynit-
sky-Birulya in the Crimean Paleolithic beds. In the mountains there are
wolf (now almost exterminated), fox, badger, Crimean weasel {Mustela
nivalis nikolskii) ,^'^ and beech marten {Mustela foina [Martes foina]).
The hare [Lepus europaeiis] inhabits both the mountains and the
steppe.^^ The Crimea is poor in birds. The absence of black grouse, rock
partridge, and most woodpeckers is striking. Many common species of
birds occur in the Crimea in special Crimean forms; such, for example,
are the jay (Garrulus glandarius iphigenia)—yeYy characteristic for the
mountain forest— goldfinch, rock bunting, azure tit, and others. The
presence in mountain Crimea of several forest birds should be noted;
these include the crossbill (Loxia curvirostra caucasica) and the siskin
(Spinus spinus). There are some bird subspecies which are found also in
the Caucasus. The Crimean starling (Sturnus vulgaris purpurascens) ,
native to the northern foothills and steppes, is found also in Asia Minor.
The lizards on the south coast include the endemic Crimean sand gecko
(Gymnodactylus danilewskii) , closely related to the Balkan G. kotschiji,
and also several Mediterranean forms (among them the mountain lizard
Lacerta saxicola ) . The Crimean lizard ( L. taurica ) is found on the Bal-
kan Peninsula, as well as in the Crimea. The green lizard (L. viridis)

^^ It is found also in the Crimean steppe, as well as in the adjoining steppes of the
continent.

1^ In the caves at Simferopol, in the Quaternary deposits, bones of the hare Lepus
timidus have been found.

260 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

and the slowworm (Anguis fragilis) are absent in the Crimea. The large
apod hzard, or glass snake, Opimaurus apus, is also found on the south
coast. In the mountains, the leopard snake (Elaphe situla) and the smooth
snake (Coronella austriaca) are common. The large but entirely harm-
less yellow-bellied European whip snake {Coluber jugularis caspius)
is found both in the mountains and on the steppe. The amphibians in-
clude the crested newt, tree frog {Hyla arborea), river frog {Rana ridi-
bunda), and green toad. But the grass frog (R. temporaria) and moor
frog (R. arvalis), toad [Bombinator], and small common newt are absent
here. There are few fresh-water fish; these include river trout, minnows
[Phoxinus phoxinus and Leuciscus cephalus], and the cyprinid barbel.

Among the invertebrates of the Crimea there are many unique forms.
The streams ( for example, the Uchan-Su ) are inhabited by a fresh-water
crab {Telphusa fliwiatilis [Potamon (potamon) edulis]). Under the
rocks may be found the large dark-green centipede (Scolopendra cingu-
lata); there are some chilopods (Scutigera coleoptrata) , solpugids, and
the Crimean scorpion (Euscorpius tauricus), which is found from Sevas-
topol to Sudak and is common under the rocks; in the forests are found
the oriental cockroach (Stijlopijga orientalis spontanea [Blatta orien-
talis]) and some endemic cockroaches {Aphlebia adusta, and others).
The praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) and the empusa (Empusa tricor-
nis) may be mentioned also. The vineyards are ravaged by grasshoppers
—Crimean apterous locusts (Isophya taurica). Embioptera {Embia
taurica) are peculiar; they are small insects which have spinning-glands
on their front legs. The cicada (Cicada plebeia, a Mediterranean form
characteristic of the south coast); the mimetic butterfly, Libtjthaea celtis;
the satyrid butterfly, Satyrus euxinus, endemic in Ai-Petri; and the blue-
violet carabid beetle. Procerus scabrosus tauricus (related to the P. sca-
brosus of the Balkans and Asia Minor, and often found in gardens), are
among the other insects. The longicorn beetle, Rosalia alpina, appears
occasionally in the beech forests. Of the land mollusks of mountain
Crimea, many are endemic; the closest relatives of the Crimean mollusks
are found among Mediterranean forms, particularly those of Asia Minor.^^

In caves, in the Quaternary deposits ^° which belong to the Paleolithic

^^ I. Puzanov, "Materialy k poznaniyu nazemnykh mollyuskov Kryma" ( Materials
Concerning the Land Mollusks of the Crimea), Byull. Mosk. obshch. ispyt. prir.
(Bulletin of the Moscow Society for Natural Research), otd. biol. (Biological Sec-
tion), 1928.

2** A. A. Byalynitsky-Birulya, Priroda (Natme), 1928, No. 11. Byull. Kom. po
izuchen. chetvertichnovo perioda (Bulletin of the Committee for the Study of the
Quaternary Period), No. 1, 1929, table on p. 34.

MOUNTAIN CRIMEA 261

period, a numerous extinct mammalian fauna has been found: wcx)lly
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus); mammoth (Elephas priinigeniufi),
cave hyena (Hyaena spelaea); cave bear (Ursus spelaeus); brown bear
(U. arctos); Hon (Felis Ico); wild cat (F. silvestris ) ; lynx (F. lynx [Lynx
lynx] ) ; wolf; dog; arctic fox ( Alopex lagopus ) ; corsac fox ( Vulpes
corsak ) ; common fox ( V. vulpes ) ; reindeer; saiga antelope ( Saiga saiga
[S. tatarica]); wild boar; ox (Bos sp.); gigantic deer; red deer; a large
sheep which resembles the mountain sheep [Ovis ammon], in a cave on
a summit of the Yaila; a small sheep which resembles the mountain sheep
[O. vignei], in the same place, and also in Simferopol and Sevastopol
raions; a goat (Capra), found in a cave on a summit of the Yaila; "^
beaver; wild ass (Equus hemionus?); horse; hamster (Cricetus cricetus);
jerboa (Allactaga jaculus [A. maior]); suslik (Citellus rufescens?) ; and
others. From an examination of this fauna, Byalynitsky-Birulya (1929)
reached the conclusion that during the Paleolithic period the Crimea was
connected with the continent by a wide strip of dry land. The combination
of forest and steppe forms is worth noting. Thus, in the layer which
belongs to the Lower Aurignacian epoch, there are found the remains of
arctic fox, reindeer, and beaver, side by side with the remains of suslik,
jerboa, corsac fox, saiga antelope, and horse. Here also are found the
remains of red deer, ox, wild boar, hyena, and others. Of the birds in
the Paleolithic strata of the Crimea, A. Ya. Tugarinov found the willow
ptarmigan, black grouse, and chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) .

The origin of the flora and fauna of the Crimea. The flora and fauna
of mountain Crimea are characterized by the following features : ( 1 ) the
absence of the usual series of forest forms, (2) the presence of species
foreign to the Black Sea steppes and native to the Balkan Peninsula and
Asia Minor, (3) the presence of a series of endemic species (that is,
species native only to mountain Crimea), and (4) the presence of Medi-
terranean forms.

In order to explain these features, we must recall the geological history
of mountain Crimea. The Crimean mountains were dry land even during
the Cretaceous period. During the Lower Tertiary period, the land mass
grew considerably larger. There is reason to believe that during the
Upper Tertiary period, and perhaps even during the Quatemar)', the
Crimea constituted a land mass connected with Asia Minor and the
Balkan Peninsula, and probably with the northern part of the western
Transcaucasus along the line from Feodosia to Anapa. This land mass

-^ V. Gromova, Doklady Akad. nauk (Reports of the Academy of Sciences),
1935, IV, No. 1-2.

262 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

was inhabited by a Mediterranean fauna and covered with a Mediter-
ranean flora." On the other hand, during the Quaternary period, as we
have seen, this land mass was connected with the present region of the
Black Sea steppes. In this manner, during the glacial period, northern
forms were able to penetrate into the Crimea from the north.

22 Concerning the origin of the flora of the Crimea, see E. V. Wulff, in Zap.
Krym. obshch. yest. (Report of the Crimean Nature Society), IX (1926).

XII ■ The Ural Range

ReUd

THE Ural range is divided provisionally as follows:
(1) The North Ural range, from Konstantinov
Kamen (elevation 450 m., lat. 68°29'N) to Mount Isherim (elevation
980 m., lat. 61°04'N), which lies south ot the upper course of the
Pechora. The highest point of the North Urals (and also of the entire
Ural range) is Mount Narodnaya, in lat. 65° N, which rises 1885 m.
in elevation.^ Formerly Mount Telpos-Iz was considered the highest
point; this peak, which reaches an elevation of only 1685 m., lies
farther south, in the upper course of the Shchugor River (a tributary
of the Pechora), in lat. 63°55' N. To the south of Mount Sablya (eleva-
tion 1650 m., south of lat. 65° N), the range consists of two chains, of
which the eastern serves as the divide. In the North Urals, remains of the
old peneplain are well represented at elevations of about 800 m. and
about 1000 m.^ During recent years, on Mount Sablya ( Fig. 67) and Mount
Narodnaya, and in some other places, small glaciers have been found. The
largest of these, Hoffman's Glacier, on Mount Sablya, is only 1 km. long.
Some authorities consider that the Ural glaciers are remains of the
Quaternary ice sheet. However, according to S. V. Kalesnik,^ they are
contemporary formations. Except for Hoffman's Glacier, all of the gla-
ciers consist of neve ice, and persist because of the orographic conditions
—the presence of deep cirque basins. Traces of ancient glaciation are,
however, very distinct in the North Urals; they may be found approxi-

^A. N. AlesTikov, "Ural" (The Urals), Trudy lednik. eksf. (Proceedings of the
Glacial Expedition), IV, 1935, p. 13.

- V. A. Varsonofyeva, "Geomorfologicheskie nablyudeniya na Sev. Urale" ( Geo-
morphological Observations in the North Urals), Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the
Geographical Society), Vol. 64, 1932.

^ S. V. Kalesnik, Gornie lednikovie raiomj S.S.S.R. (Glacial Mountain Regions
of the U.S.S.R.), Leningrad, 1937, Gidromet. izd-vo. (Hydrometric Publication),
pp. 13-14.

263

264 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

mately as far south as lat. 60° N. During the glacial period the ice sheet
descended from the Urals both to the west into the Pechora basin, and
to the east into the Ob basin.

The Pai-Khoy ridge extends southeast from Yugorsky Strait, in the direc-
tion of the Ural range; it is composed of crystalline schists and sedimen-
tary strata from the Silurian to the Artinsk, but predominantly Devonian.
While its mean elevation is about 300 m., individual peaks reach an eleva-
tion of 450 m. Vaigach Island (composed of Devonian deposits) and
Novaya Zemlya are a continuation of the Pai-Khoy ridge to the northwest,
beyond Yugorsky Strait. Although the Pai-Khoy is separated from the
northern end of the Urals by 50 km. of tundra, geologically it is an integral
part of this range.

(2) The Central Ural range extends from Mount Isherim (lat.
61°04'N) to Mount Yurma (lat. 55°25'N; that is, north of the parallel
of Zlatoust), and reaches an elevation of 1045 m. In the southern part
of the North Urals, the range divides into several chains. The watear-divide
ridge of the Central Urals is called Poyasovoy Kamen; on this ridge lies
the highest point of the Central Urals, Konzhakovsk Kamen (elevation
1595 m.). In the southern part of the Central Urals the passes are very
low; the railroad from Perm to Sverdlovsk crosses the Urals at an eleva-
tion of only 410 m.; near Sverdlovsk the Urals drop still lower, to 300 m.
Here, opposite the Ufa Plateau, the arc of the Urals is convex to the east.
Farther south, the Urals rise in elevation again.

(3) The South Ural range extends from Mount Yurma to the middle
course of the Ural River, where it lies roughly along lat. 52° N. The
highest point of the South Urals is Yaman-Tau, which reaches an eleva-
tion of 1646 m. The water-divide range of the South Urals is called the
Ural-Tau; it lies to the east, and reaches only 950 m. in elevation, while
the Yurma chain and its prolongations, the Taganay ( elevation 1220 m. )
and Urenga (elevation 1275 m.), which lie farther west, are higher in
elevation. Remains of an old peneplain are found in the South as well
as in the Central and North Urals. South of the Belaya River the Urals
lose the characteristics of a range and become a high plain ( 640 to 420 m. ) ,
composed of dislocated Devonian and some Carboniferous strata dis-
sected by deep valleys. The water-divide chain of the Urals is lower in
elevation than the chains which adjoin it to the west and east. In the
Central Urals the water-divide chain is transected by the Chusovaya River,
which has its source on the eastern slope.

The Ural range does not rise as high as the snow line except at the
few points mentioned above. In some years, however, the snow does not

THE VliAL RANGE 265

melt in the sheltered valleys of the Yaman-Tau and Ircmel (elevation
1600 m.).

There is a great difterence between the western and eastern slopes
of the Urals. While the western slope, which has foothills, is gentle, the
eastern slope drops abruptly to the West Siberian Lowland.

A so-called "rolling" (uvalistaija) strip, composed chiefly of igneous
rocks (porphyrites and others) and fragments of strongly dislocated
Paleozoic deposits, adjoins the eastern slope of the Ural range approxi-
mately south of lat. 62° N. The eastern edge of this strip lies at an absolute
elevation of 180 to 190 m.; east of this line the West Siberian Lowland
begins. The uvalistaija strip has a sharply rolling relief; the hills do not
lie in straight ridges, but are scattered at random. A good view of this
type of relief may be had from Kachkanar peak (elevation 881 m.).
Absolute elevations here vary between 210 and 250 m., and only a few
isolated peaks slightly exceed 400 m.

The valleys of many of the rivers on the western slope of the South
Ural range follow a very characteristic pattern: the Inzer (a tributary
of the Belaya), the Belaya (a tributary of the Kama), the Sakmara (a
tributary of the Ural), the Ural— all flow at first in longitudinal valleys
from north to south, and then turn sharply to the west, to cut across
the ranges. Chernyshev held that in the case of these rivers erosion
took place simultaneously with mountain-forming processes; the rivers
are older than the mountains, and as the mountains have been uplifted,
the rivers have cut deeper and deeper into them. But now students take
into account the fact that at the points where tlie rivers turn to the
west, there is a drop in the axes of the folds; the folds are broken into
a series of beadlike sections, and the rivers flow along the depressions
between these sections.

The eastern slope of the Central Ural range abounds in lakes. They
are particularly numerous bet\veen Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk; these
lakes include Itkul, Irtyash, Uvildy ( depth, 28 m. ) , Argazi, and Turgoyak
(depth, 34 m.).

The Urals are composed of Paleozoic, predominantly marine, deposits,
from the Cambrian to the Permian.^ The region of the central axis is
built of various metamorphic rocks, related partly to the pre-Cambrian,
partly to the Lower Paleozoic period. The Ural-Tau water-divide range is
composed of tliese rocks. On tlie east tlie Urals are bordered by marine
Tei'tiary deposits (Eocene and Oligocene), under which may be traced
the Ural folds which were abraded during the transgressions of Mesozoic

* Geological map of tlie Urals, 1:1,000,000, Leningrad, 1931.

266 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

and Tertiar)' seas. On the west the Urals are bordered by Permian-
Carboniferous and Permian deposits.

The Ural range is asymmetrical. In its structure six north-south belts
may be distinguished. From west to east, these belts are composed of:
(1) sedimentary Paleozoic strata (Permian, Carboniferous, and De-
vonian) and quartzites (possibly of Silurian age); (2) crystalline schists,
which were mentioned above; (3) thick intrusive basic rocks— a zone of
gabbro, underlain by platinum-bearing sections of dunite; this strip is
characteristic of the northern half of the Urals; the South Urals contain
no gabbro zone, and here, of the deep-lying basic rocks, serpentines pre-
dominate; (4) igneous rocks and their tuffs, and also schists, which date
from Upper Silurian to Lower Carboniferous; (5) granites and gneisses
on the eastern slope; (6) metamorphic Paleozoic deposits, transected by
igneous rocks (diabases, porphyrites, and porphyries), and partly cov-
ered by the horizontal Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary sediments
of the West Siberian Lowland.

The most intensive folding took place in the Urals at the end of the
Carboniferous period (Nalivkin, 1933). The formation of the Urals basi-
cally came to an end at the close of the Paleozoic, and all the periods
which followed have been periods of denudation. According to Nalivkin,
at the end of the Tertiary period and during the Quaternary, the Urals,
which had become a peneplain, were uplifted. No traces of alpine folding
appear in the Urals. Thrusts, which took place during the Mesozoic
period, are very important in the structure ( Arkhangelsky, 1934).

Like other ancient mountains, the Urals abound in mineral resources.
These include iron ores (magnetite and limonite), copper, vein and
alluvial gold, platinum, aluminium (bau-xite), chromite, nickel and man-
ganese ores, precious stones, rock salt and deposits of other salts, coal,
and asbestos.

Climate
Because of the vast north-south extent of the Ural range (over 2500
km.), its climates are extremely varied. On the north the range extends
almost to the coast of the Arctic Ocean and is covered with tundra; on
the south, along the middle course of the Ural River, the steppe extends
into the range. The Urals have a noticeable effect upon the climates of
the slopes which adjoin them to die west and to the east. Since
moisture-bearing west winds prevail in the Urals, precipitation is much
more abundant on tlie western than on the eastern slope, particularly in
autumn and winter; as a result, the depth of the snow cover in the West

THE URAL RANGE 2ffJ

Urals Foreland is much greater than in the Trans-Urals. Precipitation is
150 mm. greater on the western than on the eastern side of the central
part of the range. In the central part of the range the annual precipitation
is 600 mm., or even more (Biser, in lat. 58/2° N, at an elevation of 471 m.,
has 683 mm.). North of lat. 61° N, the amount of precipitation decreases;
a similar decrease appears also south of Zlatoust (55° N). Relative hu-
midity and cloudiness are greater to the west of the range than to the
east of it.

At the Ivanovsk mine (elevation 856 m., in lat. 55° N), temperature
inversion is observed in winter; that is, the temperature increases with
elevation; from December to March it is warmer (or no colder) here
than in Zlatoust, which lies 400 m. lower. The mean July temperature at
the Ivanovsk mine, however, is 14.7° C, while in Zlatoust it is 16.0° C.
In general, temperature inversion is very common in the South Urals,
and, as we shall see, it has an effect on the distribution of vegetation.

Vegetation '

The North Urals. The northern extreme of the Urals is covered with
tundra, from the foot of the mountains to the summit. At the source of
the Kara in lat. 68° N, Hoffman found feeble small larch trees growing.
In lat. 67° N, the upper limit of the forest on the eastern slope lies at
300 m. It is interesting that in the region of the Sob River (opposite
Salegard, formerly Obdorsk), the base of the Urals and the foothills are
only lightly forested, while in the central range, according to Gorodkov,
the forests are well developed; Siberian larch, which grows at the upper
boundary of the forest, reaches 20 m. in height; Siberian spruce {Picea
excelsa ohovata [P. obovata]) and birch {Betula tortuosa) are common.
The upper boundary of the forest is composed of thickets of scrub Man-
churian alder {AInus jruticosa) , which form a subalpine belt. In the Sob
valley the elevation of more or less continuous larch forests on the
southern slopes is 210 m., but stunted larches among the alder thickets
occur as high as 310 m., while individual specimens of much deformed
larch, together with alder bushes, are found along the southern slopes
up to an elevation of 400 m. Thus, on the North Ural range the zones
of vegetation are reversed; there is tundra below, and forest higher up
—apparently a result of the temperature inversion.

Above the subalpine belt in the arctic Urals ( in the Sob River basin ) ,
moss tundras predominate on the gentle slopes covered with sUt, while

^ B. N. Gorodkov, M. M. Ilin, I. M. Krasheninnikov in the publication, Priroda
Urala ( Natural Features of the Urals ) , S\ erdlovsk, 1936.

268 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

on the rocky and sandy areas there are Hchen tundras (with reindeer
moss and other Hchens).

On the flat passes and water divides near the Arctic Circle, forests dis-
appear at 260 m.; tree vegetation is absent on the western slope of the
Urals in these places, and in general the spring reawakening of plant life
is delayed on this slope by about two weeks.

In the northern part of the North Urals, larch predominates among
the tree species. According to Sochava, the larch grows here on very
diverse substrata and under widely divergent geographic conditions: on
granites, on crystalline schists, and on gabbro; on sandy loams, on peaty
soils, and so forth. It grows both in the river valleys and at the upper
boundary of the forest. But in the southern part of the North Urals the
larch begins to gravitate toward the boundary of the forest.

In the region of the upper course of the Shchugor and Telpos ridge
(lat. 63°-64° N),* four vertical zones may be distinguished in the vege-
tation of the North Ural range. Beginning at the bottom, these are:

( 1 ) A zone of mossy coniferous forest, which extends up to an eleva-
tion of 400 to 450 m. Here Siberian spruce predominates. In addition
there is always fir, Siberian stone pine, and birch. Neither pine nor aspen
occurs. Spruce-bilberry groves are most widespread; on rich and moist
soils they are replaced by fir-bilberry groves. The spruce does not
grow tall, usually 12 to 15 m., and the density of the stand in the spruce
forests is not very great.

(2) At an elevation of 500 to 700 m. lies a meadow-forest zone. Open
herbaceous coppices of birch {Betula tortuosa), with an admixture of
fir, sometimes spruce, and in a few places Siberian larch, alternate with
small glades. These coppices form the upper boundary of the forest. In
the more northern parts of the Urals this zone is represented by a strip
of subalpine larch forests.

(3) Above the meadow-forest zone lies a zone of dwarf arctic birch
(Betula nana). The moss cover of the birch groves consists of either
hypnum or sphagnum mosses, or of haircap moss ( Polytrichum ) .

(4) Finally, still higher lie mountain tundras which contain moss,
moss with lichen, and lichen growing among stones. Sometimes dryad
(Dryas octopetala) grows here in great numbers. In some places there
are alpine glades, on which European bistort (Polygonum bistorta),

^V. B. Sochava, "V istokakh rek Shchugora i Sevemoy Sosvy" (In the Sources
of the Shchugor and the Northern Sosva Rivers), Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the
Geographical Society), LXV, No. 6, 1933, pp. 56S-583.

Uoltted pacchei of alptr
•nd tubalptr

Fir-«pruc« uiga on the

»lope« in the
northern part of the
central UraU

Fir-«pruce tajga on the

^lope» in the
southern part of the
central Urals

Fir-spruce taiga in the
central sections of the
southern Urals

Fir-spruce taiga on the

> west-Siberian plain and

in the West UraU Rare

Pine and pine-larch fore
on the eastern slopes of
the central Urals

Pine, pine-larch and birch
forest on the eastern
slopesof the central Urals

Pine and pine-larch forest
on the western slopesof
the southern Urals

Fir-spruce taiga in the
West Urals Foreland, with
an admixture of broad-
leaved species
Broad-leaved forest on
the western slopes and in
the West Urals Foreland

MAP 10. Vegetation of the central and southern Urals and the West
Urals Foreland (1. M. Krasheninnikov, 1936).

269

270 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

false hellebore (Veratrumlobelianum), geranium {Geraniu?n albiflorum) ,
and grasses predominate.

In lat. 62° N, according to N. I. Kuznetsov ( 1887), the boundary of the
forest consists of birch. Here, and somewhat south (in the upper course
of the Lozva), the alpine zone begins at 730 m. and occupies the water-
divide heights in an almost uninterrupted belt.

The Central Urah. On Konzhakovsk Kamen (south of lat. 60° N),^
the alpine zone begins at 950 to 1000 m. There are very few mountain
forms among the flowering plants of this zone. Arctic forms predominate,
such as alpine meadow rue (Thalictrwn alpinum), snowy buttercup
(Ranunculus nivalis), and arctic diapensia {Diapensia lapponica). The
dryad is common here also; however, it extends below the upper bound-
ary of the forest as well. The upper boundary of the subalpine zone
consists of stunted groves of spruce and fir. Below these stunted groves
lies a narrow strip of birch groves (Betula tortuosa); the low birches,
5 to 6 m. tall, form coppices which alternate with meadows; here and
there are found patches of larch forest. Still lower, at an elevation of
about 800 m., lies a strip of stunted coniferous woods of spruce and fir,
with an admixture of birch and occasionally of Siberian stone pine.

In the Central Urals the alpine zone is represented by islands on the
summits of the high mountains; the rest of the range, foothills, and low-
land are covered with a fir-spruce forest, with spruce predominating, and
with an admixture of birch, aspen, and pine (Fig. 68). On the dry
water-divide plateaus and on the summits of the slopes there grow green-
moss spruce groves, which locally are called parma. After fires and fell-
ing, the coniferous forests are replaced by birch groves and aspen groves.

Beginning in the latitude of Sverdlovsk (56°50'N, elevation 292 m.),
the Ural range constitutes an island of forest rising amid forest
steppe.

The South Urals.^ As far south as lat. 52° N (that is, north of the lati-
tude of Orenburg), the South Ural range is covered with forest, begin-
ning at an elevation of 700 m. and rising up to 1600 m. South of lat.

"^ K. N. Igoshina, "Vysokogornaya rastitelnost Srednevo Urala" ( The High-Moun-
tain Vegetation of the Central Urals), Zhurn. Russk. botan. obshch. (Journal of the
Russian Botanical Society), XVI, 1931, pp. 3-62.

^ I. M. Krasheninnikov and M. M. Ilin, GeobotanicJiesky ocherk gornoy chasti
Sterlitamakskovo kantona Bashkirskoy resp. ( Geobotanical Sketch of the Mountainous
Part of the Sterlitamak Canton of the Baslikir Republic), Leningrad, 1926, p. 56,
Bashk. kom, zeml. (Bashkir Agriculhiral Committee); I. M. Krasheninnikov, Iz
istorii razvitiya landshaftov Yuzhnovo Urala (The History of the Development of
the Landscapes of the South Urals), Leningrad, 1927, p. 28, with a diagram, izd.
Bashk. kom. zeml. (publication of the Bashkir Agricultural Committee).

THE URAL RANGE 271

52° N, however, forest steppe predominates on the South Urals. TTie
highest peaks— Iremel, Zigalga, Yainan-Taii— are unforested.

In the South Urals fir-spruce forests appear only in the northern part;
farther south, pine-larch forests predominate.

The vertical zonation of vegetation in the South Urals is as follows:
The low foothills of the western slope are covered with broad-leaved
forests, which grow on more or less degraded chernozems. Scotch-elm and
linden forests predominate; sometimes the Scotch elm ( Vlmus scahra or U.
montana [U. glabra] ) predominates; there is some maple; less frequently,
Russian elm and oak; and occasionally, birch and aspen. The following
plants are characteristic for the herbaceous cover of these relatively
moist forests: male fern {Drijopteris filix-mas), sweet woodruff (Asperula
odorata), European wild ginger {Asarum europaeum), Easter-bell star-
wort (Stellaria holostea), bishop's-goutweed {Aegopodium podagraria) ,
and others. The soils of the high foothills (up to 1100 m. in elevation)
are predominantly of a podzolic type; as Krasheninnikov points out, the
valleys here, as a result of temperature inversion, have a more con-
tinental climate, and contain pine groves with birch, while the slopes,
which have a milder climate, are covered with linden forests of the type
described above. On the summits of the higher ranges ( of the foothills )
lie park-land pine and larch groves surrounded by glades.

The highest principal ranges of the South Urals are covered with pine-
larch forests or fir-spruce taiga, in some places with an admixture of
larch, pine, and birch, and a few specimens of broad-leaved species.
There are occasional broad-leaved forests.

A few of the highest points of the South Urals rise above the limits of
forest vegetation. Such is Iremel ( elevation 1600 m. ) ; here the subalpine
zone is represented by park-land spruce groves, in which the spruce
grows in scattered coppices amid tall meadow herbage.'' At the upper
boundary of its distribution, the spruce grows in stunted groves; occa-
sionally among the spruces there are clumps of fir. The table-flat summit
of Iremel is covered with spotty mountain "tundra," developed on areas
thickly covered with rock fragments; clayey patches, barren of vegeta-
tion, occupy about a third of the surface.

The Ural-Tau water-divide range, only 950 m. in elevation, is covered

with pine-larch forests, in which individual specimens of broad-leaved

species are found.

^ L. Tyulina, Iz vysokogornoy ohlasti yuzlxnovo Urala, Ocherki po fitosotsiologii i
fitogeografii (The High-Mountain Region of tlie Southern Urals, Sketches on Phvio-
sociology and Phytogeography ) , izd. "Novaya Derevnya" (pubhcation of "The New
Village"), Moscow, 1929, pp. 345-^59.

272 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Larch extends south beyond the Belaya River almost as far as the
Sakmara River (lat. 52° N).

The eastern slope of the Ural range, which faces Asia, is distinguished
sharply from the western slope. On the eastern slope broad-leaved species
are absent, and birch forest steppe, which is peculiar to western Siberia
(see above, pp. 81-82), characterizes the landscape.

Fauna

The fauna of the Ural range is varied; tundra animals appear in the
north, steppe animals in the south. In the taiga on the eastern slope of
the Ural range, along the Lozva and beyond the Sosva, there is sable;
it appears also on the western slope, in the upper course of the Shchugor.
North of the Tagilsk Urals, the marten is of economic importance. A
hundred years ago the red deer still ranged as far south as the upper
reaches of the Sakmara River, that is, approximately as far as lat. 53° N.
Today the reindeer ranges about to this same latitude; in winter it may
be found occasionally in the pine groves. Other animals include the
roebuck, elk, bear, squirrel, flying squirrel, chipmunk, capercaillie, black
grouse, and hazel grouse.^"

The roebuck is common in the South and Central Urals. In the Central
Urals there is lynx, and in the northern part of the Central Urals, glutton.
Bear and squirrel are numerous. Reindeer are raised only north of lat.
60° N in the Urals.

The birds include the Ural capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus uralensis),
which inhabits the forests of the South Urals; in the Central Urals it is
replaced by the common capercaillie ( T. urogallus ) . The presence in the
South Urals of the willow ptarmigan ( Lagopus lagopus ) is worth noting;
this bird, like the Ural capercaillie, is native also to the pine-grove islands
of southwestern Siberia. Pallas (1769) foimd this bird in the Guberlinsk
Mountains.

Characteristic of the birch groves of the subalpine zone are accentors
—the black-throated accentor {Prunella atrogularis) and the mountain
accentor (P. montanella) ; the latter is native also to the Altay and the
Tian Shan. In the same birch groves the willow ptarmigan {Lagopus
lagopus) nests also.

The following birds are native to the alpine zone: the North Ural

^^ S. V. Kirikov, "Ekologiya fauny pozvonochnykh Preduralya i Zauralya na yikh
yuzhnoy razgranichitelnoy linii" ( Ecology of the Vertebrate Fauna of the West Urals
Foreland and the Trans-Urals along Their Southern Line of Demarcation), Zool.
zhurn. (Zoological Journal), XIV, 1935; XV, 1936.

THE URAL RANGE 273

tundra ptarmigan {Lagopus mutus komensis), the Lapland longspur
{Calcarius lapponicns) , and the golden plover (Phicialis apricarius) —
all typical representatives of the tundra."

In the spmce and Siberian-stone-pine forests of the North Urals, Si-
berian passerines are common: the bluetail {Janthia cijanura [Tarsiger
cyanurus], of the thrush family), Eversmann's warbler (Phylloscopus
horealis), and the black-throated thrush ( Turdus atrogularis) . The caper-
caillie also is native to these forests.

The Siberian four-toed salamander {Hynobius keyserlingi ) inhabits
the vicinity of Sverdlovsk; it extends as far north as lat. 60" N.

The following salmonids are characteristic among the fish of the Ural
range: the grayling; brown trout (Hucho taimen), native to the basins
of the Kama and the Ural, and also the Ob; the Siberian whitefish
(Stenodtis leucichthys), which comes up from the Caspian Sea to the
basin of the Ufa River ( on the eastern slope, a closely related form, the
nelma [S. leucichthys nelma], is represented); in the upper course of
the Pechora, the true or Atlantic salmon {Salmo solar) is found; at one
time numerous Caspian brown trout (S. trutta caspius) used to enter
the Kama from the Caspian Sea, but today they are found only very
seldom in the Ufa basin. A coregonid, the sig, breeds in Lake Turgoyak.

It was formerly believed that the Ural range constituted a sharp zoo-
geographical and phytogeographical boundary. More detailed investiga-
tions have shown that this is not the case. Nevertheless, it must be noted
that there is indeed a whole series of species which do not cross the
Urals. Thus, a number of Siberian birds, which inhabit the North Urals,
are distributed no farther west than the Ural range; these include, for
example, the black-throated thrush (Turdus atrogularis), the pin-tailed
snipe (Capella stenura), some accentors, and others.^" Of the fish, the
minnows [Leuciscus cephalus and Aspius aspius], roach, catfish, pike-
perch, and many others are not found east of the Ural range.

^^ L. A. Portenko, Fauna ptits vnepoh/arnoi/ chasti Severnovo Urala (Bird Fauna of
the Nonpolar Part of the North Urals), Leningrad, 1937, izd. Akad. nauk (publication
of the Academy of Sciences ) .

12 Ibid.

XIII ■ The Altay

Relief

THE mountain system of the Altay may be divided
provisionally into four main water-divide ranges: (1)
the South Altay, (2) the Inner Altay, (3) the East Altay, and (4) the Mon-
golian Altay. The last, which lies between the Black Irtysh and Kobdo
rivers, falls within Mongolia. On the north the Altay is separated from
the Biya steppe by a declivity several hundred meters in elevation. This
boundary has a tectonic significance (see below),

(1) The South, or Great Altay, the western end of which is called
the Narym range, separates the waters of the Black Irtysh and Lake
Zaisan from the Bukhtarma River system; it branches oflF from the Tabyn-
Bogdo-Ola massif, which reaches an elevation of 4500 m. in Kiityn peak.
The highest point of the South Altay, Mount Kirey, has an elevation of
3790 m. The Ukok Plateau, which lies at an elevation of 2200 to 2300 m.,
adjoins the Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola massif. The elevation of the Narym range
drops from 3200 to 3000 m. in the east, to 1500 to 1200 m. in the west.
On the southern slope lies Lake Marka-Kul, 27 m. deep; its elevation is
1484 m.

(2) The Inner Altaij. The highest ranges of the Inner Altay are the
Katun belki (snow-capped mountains) and their direct continuation to
the east, the Chuya belki; they are separated by the Argut River ( a right
tributary of the Katun ) . The mean elevation of the Katun belki is about
3000 m.; they are covered throughout by everlasting snows (Fig. 69);
almost in the middle of the range lies its highest point ( and that of the
entire Russian Altay), Mount Belukha, 4540 m. in elevation (Fig. 70).
The transverse valley of the Katun River ( Fig. 71 ) separates the western
end of the Katini belki from the Kholzun range, which serves as the
divide between the Bukhtarma and the Katun basin; the Kholzun range
reaches elevations of 2200 to 2400 m.

274

THE ALTAY

2ns

(3) The East Altai/ is composed of a system of ranges whicli lie on
the water divide between the Ob and the Yenisey river systems. It begins
in the south with tlic Sailyugem range, which hes on the boundary with
China (Mongoha) and serves as the water divide between the river sys-

MAP n. Altay ranges.

terns of the Ob (Argut, Chuya, Bashkaus, Chulyshman) and the Kobdo.
The Sailyugem range, like the South Altay, originates in the Kiityn massif,
and its highest elevation exceeds 3600 m. Shapshal (Chapchal) Pass,
3177 m. in elevation, near the peak of the same name, may be regarded
as the northern end of this range.^ The Gorbu range, which lies along
the eastern shore of picturesque and deep Lake Teletsk ( elevation about

^V. Obnichev (1915, p. 36) proposes that tlie name Saihaigem be retained for
the southern part of the range, which extends latitudinally, and that the range from
Tashanty Pass to the plateau of Lake Dzhuvlu-Kul be called the Chikhachev range.

276 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

450 m.; depth, 325 m. ) ,- belongs to the Sailyugem system. On maps, moun-
tains which reach 2438 m. in the south usually appear to the northeast
of Lake Teletsk, along the left bank of the Abakan River. However, the
most recent investigations of Bazhenov ( 1930 ) show that no independent
range does exist here. Actually, situated along the upper course of
the Abakan River, these mountains constitute a connection between the
southern end of the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, on the one hand, and the western
end of the West Sayans, on the other.

The Altay is composed of Cambrian rocks and metamorphic schists
of the Cambrian-Silurian, Silurian, and Devonian periods. Marine Lower
Carboniferous deposits are found only in the southwestern, or so-called
Rudny (Ore) Altay, which borders upon the Irtysh. There are extensive
intrusions of granite. Following the Lower Carboniferous in the Rudny
Altay, and the Upper Devonian (and in some places the Middle De-
vonian) in the remaining Altay, a continental period set in.^ Meta-
morphic schists, predominantly green and intensely dislocated, occupy
tremendous areas in the Altay proper (that is, not in the Rudny Altay).
The principal ranges of the Altay (the Katun, Chuya, and others) are
composed of these rocks. The metamorphic series of the Altay apparently
belongs to the Lower Silurian.

The Altay is a mountain system in which folding took place during
two different epochs: the Rudny Altay, and also the Kalbinsky range
and the Tarbagatay, were formed by folding which took place during
the Upper Paleozoic ( Variscan ) period, while the Altay proper was sub-
jected to the most intense folding during the Lower Paleozoic (Cale-
donian) period. Folding in the Rudny Altay ended presumably at the
end of the Paleozoic and the beginning of the Mesozoic; the orientation of
this folding is northwest. It was accompanied by t\vo large faults which
are also oriented northwest; these faults form the boundaries of the
Rudny Altay.

The long duration of the continental period which existed throughout
the Altay following the Lower Carboniferous (and in many places from

- Concerning Lake Teletsk, see Issledovaniya ozer S.S.S.R. (Survey of the Lakes of
the U.S.S.R.), izd. Gidrol. inst. (publication of the Hydrological Institute), No. 3,
1933, with a map of the lake, No. 7, 1934.

^V. P. Nekhoroshev, "Materialy dlya geologii Gomovo Altaya" (Materials on the
Geology of Mountain Altay), Trudy Geol. razved. Obyed. (Proceedings of the
Geological Survey Society), No. 177, 1932, p. Ill, with a map. "Geologichesky ocherk
Altaya" (Geological Sketch of the Altay), Ocherki pe geologii Sibiri (Sketches on
the Geology of Siberia), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences),
1932, p. 46, wath a map, bibliography.

THE ALTAY STT

an even earlier date), led to the peneplanation of the Altay, wliich did
not exist as a mountain system during the Tertiary period. At the end of
the Tertiary and the beginning of tlie Quaternary, extensive faulting took
place, forming the Altay as it exists today ( Nekhoroshev, 1932). This
faulting broke the foundations of the ancient Altay once more, but this
time in new directions. The Altay became a mountain country again, but
now it was composed of ranges in the form of plateaus of varying eleva-
tion. The disruptive tectonic lines which created the present Altay have,
in general, an east-west orientation (on Lake Teletsk, also north-south).
The tectonic line which forms the northern boundary of the Altay in the
Ob steppe south of Biisk, is very distinct; this line, which appears in
sharp relief, is marked by the presence of the Belokurikhinsk hot springs.
Nekhoroshev is inclined to attribute the formation of this line, and also
of Lake Teletsk, to disruptive dislocations which took place during the
interglacial period.

In the contemporary relief of the Altay, the predominance of more or
less wide plateaus, sometimes half worn away by erosion, is characteristic.
But the previously existing flat surfaces of the plateaus may be discerned
even in the highest and narrowest surfaces, those most intensely dissected
by erosion (such as the Katun and South-Chuya and North-Chuya belki).
Many of these watershed plateaus are so flat that bogs appear on their
surfaces. From such watersheds the streams drain at first with a barely
perceptible gradient; then, as they draw farther away from the water
divides, the flow becomes more rapid, and the rivers cut deep gorges;
near the points where the streams empty into the main rivers, they flow
along narrow gorges, or precipitate themselves over waterfalls. Sometimes
the difference between the purely erosional valleys and the valleys which
lie in grabens is very sharp. The latter are wide and sometimes have a
rather dry climate (for example, the Kan "steppe," the Chuya "steppe,"
and others ) . Most erosional valleys, on the other hand, are narrow, some-
times having the appearance of gorges, such, for example, as the com-
pletely impassable gorge of the lower Argut. The Katun belki drop
steeply to the valley of the middle Katun River. The ascent along the
gorges of the lateral ranges leads to a high, rolling plateau, 1800 to
2500 m. in elevation. The eastern part of this range (or the South-Chuya
range), viewed from the north, from the Chuya steppe (ele\ation
1700 m.), reveals even more sharply the characteristics of a plateau. We
see before us a level or gently rolling plateau, dissected by se\eral river
valleys, and reaching 2400 to 2600 m. in elevation; peaks (liktu and

278 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Others), which He in a straight hne and reach 3000 to 4200 m. in elevation,
rise above the plateau. Apparently, states Obnichev,^ this was formerly a
higher surface, such as is found in the Katun belki; it is now much worn
down by erosion.

Deep in the mountains lie the famous Rakhmanovsk hot springs. They
are situated on the southern slope of the Katun belki, in the basin of the
Bukhtarma, at an elevation of 1725 m. Their temperature is about 40° G.
(Fig. 72).

The snow line in the South Altay lies at an elevation of 2600 to 3000 m.;
in the dry East Altay, at 3000 m. In the Katun and Chuya belki, on the
southern side of the main chain, it lies at 2600 to 3000 m.; on the northern
side, at 2400 to 2600 m.

The most intense contemporary glaciation of the Central Altay is
found in the Katun and Chuya belki. Six large glaciers descend from
Belukha (Fig. 70); of these the Berelsk, 8.5 km. long, reaches down to
an elevation of 1950 m. In the South Altay, according to Reznichenko,
there are about a hundred glaciers, chiefly of the cirque type; the longest,
Bas-Bukhtarminsk, from which the Bukhtarma River takes its source, is
6 km. in length and descends to an elevation of 2450 m. The total area
of glaciation in the Russian Altay is only 450 sq. km,, a much smaller
area than in the Tian Shan. But in the Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola massif, on the
side which faces Mongolia, Sapozhnikov discovered extensive glaciation;
one glacier, the Potanin, is 20 km. long.

During the glacial period the glaciers reached their greatest develop-
ment in the same places as they do today. The Altay was subjected to at
least two glaciations, of which the first was the more intense. At that
time the glaciers descended far down along the valleys, as far as the
country at the foot of the Altay. The ancient Bukhtarma glacier reached
150 km. in length, and descended to an elevation of 730 m. The Ukok
Plateau at one time was covered by a continuous ice sheet.

In the Rudny Altay there are many polymetallic deposits, which con-
tain zinc, lead, copper, silver, and gold.

Climate

In the Altay dry south and southwest winds prevail in winter, moist

northwest and west winds in summer. For this reason the maximum

precipitation in the Altay comes in summer, in July and August. (In

some places a secondary maximum is observed in the latter half of

*V. A. Obruchev, "Altaiskie etyudy, 11" (Studies on the Altay, II), Zemlevedenie
(Agriculture), 1915, Bk. 3.

THE ALTAY 279

autiimn.) The greatest annual precipitation recorded at average eleva-
tions in the Altay is about 1000 mm.-' The western Altay has relatively
abundant precipitation, more than 500 mm. per year at Zmeinogorsk, but
its westeni outskirts are subject to the drying influence of the surround-
ing steppes, and have less than 400 mm. at Loktevskoye. The fault basins
of the central Altay, such as the Uimonsk (on the Katun) and Chuya
steppes, are distinguished by extreme dryness. The southern Altay is also
dry; Altaiskaya stanitsa, which lies at an elevation of 1000 m., receives
only 378 mm. of precipitation per year; the Ukok Plateau (elevation
2400 m. ) , only 280 mm. On the plateau there are found traces of ancient
irrigation canals.

The high steppe plateaus surrounded by mountains undergo very low
temperatures in winter. Thus, in the Chuya steppe (at Kosh-Agach, eleva-
tion 1700 m.) temperatures as low as - 48° C. are recorded, while the
mean January temperature is - 31° C. The snow cover here is very thin,
reaching only 7 cm.; as a result, permanent ground frost appears even
at a depth of 1 m. Winter temperature inversion is widespread in the
Altay; at the Zyryanovsk mine in the Bukhtarma basin ( elevation 450 m.,
lat. 491° N) the mean February temperature is - 22.3° C, while in
Altaiskaya stanitsa, which lies 550 m. higher, February is almost 10° C,
warmer (- 12.5° C). One explanation for this condition is that the cold
waves which invade from the north do not penetrate beyond the out-
skirts of the mountains. The Altay in winter constitutes a kind of warm
island between the cold regions of Siberia and Central Asia. Cloudiness
in the Altay is greatest in autumn, least at the end of winter and the
beginning of spring.

Soils
As one ascends into the mountains from the lowlands behveen Barnaul
and Semipalatinsk, the following soils appear in succession: chernozems,
rich chernozems, gray forest soils, podzolic soils, and, finally, mountain-
meadow soils. Ascending from the Zaisan basin, light-chestnut soils ap-
pear first; somewhat higher, stony dark-chestnut soils; then mountain
chernozems; still higher, podzolic soils; and, finally, mountain-meadow
soils. On the north and northwest the Altay is bordered by degraded
chernozems. In the southern Altay, south of lat. 44° N, there are

^ There is evidence tliat in the mountains in the region of tlie Ridder mine, at an
elevation of about 2000 m., the annual precipitation is greater tlian 2000 mm., while
in the \'alley of the Ulba Ri^'er (a tributary of the Irtj^sh at Ustkamennogorsk ) , at
an elevation of 600 m., tlie annual precipitation is only 600 to 800 mm.

280 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

chestnut soils in the lower zone (for example, at Onguday on the
Ursula, a tributary of the Katun ) ; often they are slightly solonized. Along
the Bukhtarma and the Naryn, chernozems and chemozemlike soils are
developed. North of lat. 51° N, chernozemlike, or, more exactly, meadow-
steppe soils, are widespread. Under the forests are found podzolic soils
and degraded clay loams. At the upper limit of vegetation lies mountain
tundra— tundra which contains lichen, moss, or lichen among stones, and
which is studded profusely with dryad.

Vegetation

"In the Altay," states Sapozhnikov,® "we find typical steppes, often
rising to a considerable elevation; expanses of taiga, peculiar to a more
northern section of Siberia; light larch forest; and, finally, vast alpine
meadows, similar to the meadows of the Caucasus and Switzerland, with
a slight suggestion of tundra." As distinguished from the Caucasus and
the Tian Shan, broad-leaved species are absent in the Altay. Linden is
found only in the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau.

In the Altay the following vertical zones may be distinguished:

Steppes adjoin the Altay to the northwest, west, and south. They are
perfectly suitable for agriculture, which extends up into the mountains
somewhat above 1000 m. Along the borders of the mountains the steppe
reaches up to elevations of 350 to 600 m., where it is replaced by forest.
Prominent in the steppes of the foothills, in addition to grasses, are shrubs:
spiraea, honeysuckle, sweetbrier rose, pea shrub [Caragana sp.], and
Russian almond (Amygdalus nana). Closer to the mountains the vegeta-
tion takes on a meadow character.

A somewhat different type of mountain steppe is developed, often at
elevations of 1000 meters and more, along the broad, open valleys. The
high steppes of the eastern Altay (the Chuya steppe, at an elevation of
1700 to 1800 m., and the Kuray steppe, which lies along the course of
the Chuya River below the Chuya steppe, at an elevation of 1500 m.)
are more like the stony steppes of neighboring Mongolia. Astragali
(Astragalus brevifoliiis and A. diltitus) and other stunted legumes,
grasses, polyns, and halophytes are particularly characteristic for these
steppes. On the Ukok Plateau ( elevation 2400 m. ) , where skeletal chestnut
soils are developed, the vegetation cover consists of polyns and cinque-
foil (Potentilla) , crested wheat grass (Agropyron cristattim), and others,
while closer to the mountains, side by side with steppe plants, there

^V. V. Sapozliniko\-, Katun i yeyo istoki (The Katun and Its Sources), Tomsk,
1901.

7 HE ALT AY 281

appear alpine plants: common edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum),'
alpine poppy (Papaver alpinum), and others. Several glaciers descend to
the plateau along its border; the glaciers end at 2.500 to 2600 m., appear-
ing ill close proximity to the dry steppe.

The forest zone oi the Altay on the side of the western and southern
steppes begins at an elevation of 350 ni. in the northeast, however, beyond
the Kuznetsk chern (fir forests), the forest zone adjoins the Siberian
taiga. The upper boundary of this zone lies at 2000 to 2400 m. Deciduous
species (birch, aspen, mountain ash, and bird cherry) are of secondary
importance. The conifers in the Altay include Siberian larch, which
appears as the predominant species; Siberian stone pine, fir, and spruce.
Pine appears up to an elevation of 700 m.; in the mountains it does not
form the pure stands which are characteristic of this tree. Usually it
grows here in admixture with birch, aspen, and, higher up, with larch.
In this pine zone there appears one mountain shrub— the Dahurian
rhododendron (Rhododendron dauricum), a very beautiful plant with
a multitude of pink-violet flowers. Sometimes it grows quite tall; thus,
on the shore of Lake Teletsk, Sapozhnikov saw Dahurian rhododendrons
up to 4 m. tall, with stems as thick as a man's hand. This shrub grows at
elevations up to 1800 m. The herbaceous vegetation in the pine zone
is like that in the forest glades of the Siberian taiga: anemone (Anemone
altaica and A. caerulea [A. nemorosa caendea]), spreading pasqueflower
(Ptdsatilla patens [A. patens]), peony (Paeonia anomala), Ifly (Lilium
martagon), iris (7m riithenica), and others.

Larch begins to appear before the upper boundary of pine is reached,
above 700 m.; it grows in pure stands (Fig. 73). This most character-
istic tree in the mountain forest of the Altay, prefers not too steep,
moderately moist slopes in the open valleys. In the open country which
is referred to as steppe, the larch settles only along the mountain slopes
and in narrow belts along the rivers. It grows up to an elevation of
2000 m. and higher, and often forms the upper limit of the forest.

The north-facing slopes are much more extensively forested than
those which face south; all the valleys of the Katun belki which face
north are heavily forested, while on the south-facing slopes there are
coppices only in the shadier places. Among other factors which bring
about this condition are the prevailing south and southwest winds: "In
addition to their drying eflFect, they also promote the accumulation of
winter snows on the northern side, which is protected from winds"

^ However, in the Alps the edelweiss is not associated exclusively with the alpine
zone.

2a2 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

( Sapozhnikov ) . On the south-facing slopes even when tree vegetation
does appear, it is represented by the less hydrophytic larches.

"The mountain larch forest characteristically seldom forms dense thick-
ets; more often it resembles a light park with glades, usually filled with
shrubs and herbaceous plants" ( Sapozhnikov ) . Of the shrubs in the larch
forest, various species of spiraea ( Spiraea ) form dense, almost impassable
thickets; they grow in admixture with raspberry, elder, European cran-
berry-bush viburnum, sweetbrier rose, honeysuckle, currant, hawthorn,
barberry, and pea shrub [Caragana sp.]. "The forest glades among the
larches are richly covered with meadows which contain bright flowers;
Iris ruthenica blooms here in such numbers that the air is saturated with
the odor of violets; gold-beard iris (7. fiavissima) is found less frequently;
globeflowers (TroUius asiaticus and T. altaicus), which replace the
golden-yellow adonis {Adonis sibiricus), produce red blooms every-
where; whole glades of forget-me-nots {Myosotis sylvatica), yellow pea
vine (Orobus luteus [Lathyrus hiteus]), blue gentian, and a great many
others add their colors to this carpet. And the trees are twined with alpine
clematis (Atragene sibirica [Clematis alpina sibirica]), with its pendant
masses of white flowers" (Sapozhnikov).

In the narrower and more moist valleys, larch grows in admixture with
chern species (Siberian stone pine, fir, and spruce). Here herbaceous
plants reach gigantic dimensions, forming a tall stand which in some
places rises as high as the head of a man on horseback. Here are found
the enormous Japanese bee larkspur {Delphinium elatum), monkshood
{Aconitum excelsum and A. krylovii), bumet {Sanguisorba alpina),
fireweed {Epilobium angiistifolium, Ptarmica alpina), pedicularis {Pe-
dicularis proboscidea) , two large umbellifers {Btipleurum aureiim. Arch-
angelica decurrens [Angelica']), and others. At an elevation of 1400 m.
birch disappears; higher up, aspen; still higher, about a hundred meters
below the timber line, fir and spruce. The upper limit of the forest on the
wetter slopes consists of Siberian stone pine; on the drier slopes, of larch.
In the Chuya belki this boundary reaches elevations of 2200 to 2465 m.

The upper limit of the forest lies at a somewhat higher elevation as one
moves from north to south and from west to east. In the west it reaches
2000 m.; in the east, 2400 m. Forest grows reluctantly on the high pla-
teaus. Thus, the Ukok Plateau (elevation 2400 m.) is unforested, while
in the adjoining valleys there is forest at elevations 100 to 180 m. higher.
The explanation lies in the cold and almost snowless winters on the
plateaus. The transitional zone between the forest and the alpine mead-
ows is occupied by a belt of stunted shrubs; it consists of dwarf arctic

THE ALTAY 283

birch (Betula nana) and various dwarf willows. The dwarf arctic birch,
which usually grows half as tall as a man, is very characteristic for the
Altay. In addition there are cotoneastcr {Cotoneaster uniflora), honey-
suckle {Lonicera hispida) with bright red berries, currant (Rihes fra-
grans var. infracanum) with brownish-black berries and strongly scented
leaves, black crowberry, and juniper.

From 2000 to 2400 m. to 2800 to 3000 m. lies the region of alpine mead-
ows, variegated by a mass of flowers. Here there is an abundance of
Altay columbine {Aquilegia glandulosa) ; Altay violet {Viola altaica),
with large yellow and blue flowers of diflerent shades; white narcissus
anemone {Anemone narcissifora) and white Callianthemum rutaefolium
(also of the buttercup family); pink and yellow pedicularis; blue gen-
tian; and golden-yellow buttercup {Ranunculus altaicus), which raises
its stems from under the snow.

The alpine meadows, as they ascend, tend to resemble the alpine
tundra. In the Terektin range (which reaches as far as the left bank of
the Katun), lichens predominate at elevations of 2000 to 2500 m. There
are thickets of shrub ground birch {Betula rotundifolia) and dryad.
Under the small birches, mosses prevail. In the vicinity of the snowy
patches there are herbaceous glades, which merge in some places into
bogs with peat mosses, sheathed cotton sedge, and sedges.

Fauna

Judging by its fauna, the southeastern Altay ( the Ukok Plateau, Chuya
steppe, Chulyshman Plateau ) is a continuation of northwestern Mongolia.
The northeastern Altay (the basin of the Abakan and to some extent
Lake Teletsk) is inhabited by fauna of the East Siberian taiga.

The mammals include the bear; sable; Trans-Baikal polecat [Putorius
eversmanni michnoi]; badger; lynx; along the Argut and the Chuya,
snow leopard {Leopardus uncia [Felis uncia]); northern dhole; Mongo-
lian seren {Gazella gutturosa [G. {Procapra) gutturosa]); in the Chuya
steppe, ibex (Fig. 74); in the Chuya belki, along the Chuya River,
in the Chuya steppe, and along the upper Chulyshman, mountain
sheep {Ovis ammon); red deer {Cervus elaphus canadensis n. sibiricus
[C. elaphus sibiricus]); occasionally, reindeer; musk deer; alpine and
Mongolian mouse hare {Ochotona alpina, O. pricei [O. pallasii pricei]);
varying hare; on the Chuya steppe, Altay and Tian Shan bobac and
Mongolian bobac {Marmota baibacitia and M. sibirica); suslik {Citellus
eversmanni); Altay mole; and others.

The birds include the Altay snow pheasant {TctraogaUiis altaicus);

284 T^ATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

grouse— the willow ptarmigan (Lagoptis lagopus), tundra ptarmigan
(L. muttis riipestris), European partridge (Perdix perdix), and bearded
partridge (P. daurica [P. barbata]); in the Chuya steppe, the Chinese
goose {Cygnopsis cygnoides) and Indian goose (Eulabeia indica [Eulabes
indica]); black grouse; capercaillie; Swinhoe's snipe {Capella megala);
pin-tailed snipe (C. stenura); solitary snipe (C. solitaria); the common
daw (northwestern Altay) and Dahurian jackdaw {Colaeus dahuricus,
Chuya steppe); Siberian jay (Perisoreus infaustus); nutcracker {Nuci-
fraga caryocatacies macrorhynca) , which feeds on the seeds of the Sibe-
rian stone pine and spruce; chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) ; alpine
chough (P. graculus); Altay finch (Fringillauda altaica); and the black-
throated and redheaded thrushes.

Among the birds as among the mammals, there are Mongolian ele-
ments. Thus, the Chuya steppe contains the Mongolian brambling
(Montifringilla davidiana potanini), wheatear (Saxicola insignis), Mon-
golian rock sparrow (Petronia petronia mongolica), and others.

As for the fish, the mountain streams abound in salmonids: brown trout
(Hucho taimen); lenok trout, or uskuch (Brachymystax lenok); arctic
grayling (ThymaUus arcticus); and, in the Chuya, the Mongolian cypri-
nid, osman (Oreoleuciscus) . In Lake Teletsk a fish of economic impor-
tance is the sig (a form of Coregonus lavaretus), there mistakenly called
herring.

Kuznetsk Ah-Tau

In all likelihood the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau is the northern continuation
of the Gorbu range. It extends from NW to SE, and is bordered on the
east by the Minusinsk basin, and on the west by the Kuznetsk coal-
bearing basin, noted for its huge reserves of coal. The central, highest
part of the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau reaches absolute elevations of 1000 to
2100 m. Along the line of the Siberian railroad, the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau
merges gradually into rolling plains. The range is not a single mountain
chain with clearly defined orientation, but "consists of irregular remnant
massifs ('horsts') of ancient folded mountain systems, bordered on all
sides by large faults." ** On the east the outlying spurs of the Kuznetsk
Ala-Tau are rooted deep in the Minusinsk basin.

The Kuznetsk Ala-Tau is composed of a thick series of crystalline
limestones, chiefly of the Cambrian period, overlain by a series of green-

®Ya. S. Edelstein, "Gidrogeologichesky ocherk Minusinskovo kraya" (Hydro-
geological Sketch of Minusinsk Kray), Trudy Geol.-razved. obyed. (Proceedings
of the Geological Survey Society), No. 145, 1931.

THE ALTAY 285

ish or greenish-gray sandstones, shales, Hmestones, and tuffs, no younger
than Lower Silurian. Botli these series, which underwent powerful fold-
ing during the Lower Paleozoic (Caledonian) period, are cut by vol-
canic intrusives. The above-mentioned strata are overlain unconform-
ably by Devonian strata (Edelstein).

The present configuration of the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau is not related at
all to the bearing of the Paleozoic folds. The Kuznetsk Ala-Tau owes its
present form to dislocations caused by faulting. Today there are no gla-
ciers in the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, but the southern mountain summits are
covered with snow almost throughout the summer. During the glacial
period there were many glaciers here.

As for the vegetative cover of the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, the following
zones may be distinguished; ^ (1) mountain-fir and Siberian-stone-pine
and spruce taiga in the north, (2) mixed fir and aspen forests in the
south, and (3) an alpine region of bald summits. In the taiga region
there is a strongly developed moss cover, which is absent or poorly
represented in the fir-aspen forests. In the latter, on bumed-over sites,
tall herbaceous meadows develop. In some places in the region of fir-
aspen forests, entire slopes are occupied by lindens, which reach great
dimensions. The herbaceous cover of these linden forests contains many
relict forms; some of these are peculiar to the broad-leaved forests of
Europe, while others are found in similar forests in the Far East. The
linden forests of the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau are regarded as relicts of the
Upper Tertiary or interglacial periods.

The Kuznetsk basin lies between the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau and the Salair
ridge (elevation 600 m.). Throughout the entire length of the basin
flows the Tom River, which together with its tributaries gives the basin
a well developed river network. Although the basin has an undulating
relief, the local differences in elevation between the ri\ er bottoms and
the interfluves between them seldom exceed 100 m. The formation of
the Kuznetsk basin is related to the formation of the mountain ranges
along its edges during the Lower Paleozoic period; folding in these ridges
was accompanied by a simultaneous subsidence of the area which lay
between them. At the beginning of the Devonian, both the Kuznetsk
Ala-Tau and the Salair existed in the form of islands and peninsulas in
the vast Ural-Siberian sea. Along the edges of this sea volcanic eruptions
took place. From the Lower Carboniferous on, the connection between
the Kuznetsk basin and the open sea became weaker, and the basin

°V. V. Reverdatto, Trudy Obshchestva izuchenitja Tomskovo kraija (Proceedings
of the Society for the Study of Tomsk Kray), I, 1927.

286 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

changed gradually into a lake. Conditions on the shores of this lake be-
came favorable for the development of a sumptuous vegetation. Enor-
mous vi^aterlogged forests of arborescent ierns—Sigillaria, Lepidodendron,
Calamites, Araucarites, and others— grew here; these forests provided the
material for the formation of thick deposits of coal. In the south, in the
basin of the Telbes River lies the Telbes iron-ore region.^"

Both the interstream areas and the ancient river terraces of the Kuznetsk
basin are covered in many places by material v^hich has the character-
istics of loesslike clay loams. At a depth of 80 to 100 cm. from the surface
these clay loams become calcareous. On these materials are developed
more or less typical chernozems, degraded chernozems, and forest soils.
Near the mountains the soils merge into podzolic soils. In vegetation the
Kuznetsk basin is birch forest steppe, although at present few forests
remain. Mixed-herbaceous meadow steppe predominates.

^"V. I. Yavorsky and P. I. Butov, "Kuznetsky kamennougolny bassein" (The
Kuznetsk Coal Basin), Trudy (Proceedings), Geol. kom. (Geological Committee),
No. 177, 1927, p. 222, witli map.

XIV ■ The Sayans

THE Sayan system forms a rough arc, convex on the
north. On the west it borders on the Altay, while on
the east, between the southern end of Lake Baikal and Lake Kosogol in
Mongolia, it adjoins the Khamar-Daban system of the Trans-Baikal re-
gion.

Rdiei

The Sayan Mountains are divided into the western and eastern ranges.
As we shall see, at one time a distinct geological history was attributed
to each. The West and East Sayans meet in the mountain knot which
lies at the northernmost point of the above-mentioned arc; here, in long.
96° E, lie the sources of the Kazyr River, which flows west and is part
of the Yenisey basin, and the Uda River, which is part of the upper
Tunguska basin and flows in tlie opposite direction. At the point where
the West and East Sayans meet, the elevations reach 3000 m. The West
Sayan ranges lie SW-NE and WSW-ENE, the East Sayan ranges,
SE-NW.

The West Sayans^ begin east of Lake Teletsk, at the sources of the
Bolshoy Abakan (a left tributary of the Yenisey), where the Sayans join
the Altay. From here the maiji Sayan range extends northeast toward
the Bolshoy rapids of the Yenisey, which lie betv^'een the mouths of the
Kemchik and the Kantigir (left tributaries of the Yenisey). Almost
throughout its entire extent the main Sayan range is composed of gran-
ite. In the western, or Abakan section, individual peaks reach 2800 to
2900 m. in elevation, extending above the limits of tree growth. East of
the Yenisey the main range has not been investigated thoroughly. In
the basin of the upper Us River (a right tributary of the Yenisey) the

^ I. K. Bazhenov, "Zapadny Sayan" (The West Sayans), OcJierki po geologii
Sibiri (Sketches on the Geology of Siberia), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of me
Academy of Sciences), 1934, p. 137, ^^'ith map, bibliography.

287

288 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE [/.b.b.K.

range is called the Yergaki; farther up, as far as the upper reaches of
the Kazyr River, it is called the Yergak-Targok-Taiga. East of the Yenisey
the range decreases in elevation, descending generally to 1800 to 1600 m.,
in some places below the timber line; but in other places it reaches
2100 m. (in the Yergaki range). A series of ranges which run almost
north and south branch from the western part of the main range to
the north; these ranges are not very long, but sometimes reach a con-
siderable elevation (2920 m.), no lower than the main range.

At one time the axial (main) range of the West Sayans was consid-
ered the range which lies along the boundary of the Tuva People's Re-
public, that is, the Sabinsky range, across which lies the border pass of
Shabin-Daban (elevation 2060 m.). The Sabinsky range hes north of
the Sayan range, along the left side of the upper Kantigir (a left tribu-
tary of the Yenisey ) . According to Bazhenov, the Sabinsky range is part
of the Dzhebash range, which extends from tlie upper reaches of the
streams of the basin of the Dzhebash River (a right tributary of the
Abakan), northeast toward the Yenisey, but not reaching as far as the
Yenisey. The main Sayan range has been drawn also along the Kemchik
range, which branches from the Sayan range proper and extends south-
east to the Yenisey, crossing it at the natural boundary of the Kem-
chik-Bom. Beyond the Yenisey, to the east, the Kemchik range is called
the Kurtushibinsk range; this frontier range, formerly regarded as the
main Sayan range, adjoins the Yergak-Targok-Taiga range in the upper
reaches of the Us River, and here reaches 2100 m. in elevation. Much is
still obscure regarding the orography of the West Sayans.

The crest of tlie Sayans usually does not have the form of a ridge.
Seen from an elevation, it appears to be a dissected plateau from which
there usually protrude rounded, domelike, bald summits, that is, summits
which rise above the timber line ( Fig. 75 ) .- Postoyev states ( 1932 ) , de-
scribing the western end of the West Sayans,

In some places, when the river valleys are out of sight, one seems to be in a
rather gently rolling country, and only when one stands before a deep valley
gorge does one get a conception of the degree to which the relief is dissected.
This impression is promoted by the remains of the old peneplain in the form
of flat, plateaulike areas, which lie at an elevation of about 2000 m.

All of these features suggest that the Sayans were formed on the site
of a peneplain, which subsequently was lifted to a considerable eleva-
tion by mountain-forming processes. At present tliis peneplain has been

^ But where the bare summits and ranges are cut by cirques, tliey have pointed
peaks and ridges.

Fig. 63. Juniper (Jun/perus exce/sa) on
the south coast of the Crimea. (Vegefo-
fionsbilder. Vol. 17; part 1; plate 1)

Fig. 64. Crimean form of the Aleppo
pine {Pinus pifyusa sfankewifschi \P.
halepensis piiyusa sfankewifschi]) and
juniper {Juniperus exce/so) on the south
coast of the Crimea at Sudak. (Vege-
fafionsbilder. Vol. 17; part 1; plate 3)

Fig. 65. Crimean pine {Pinus laricio pal-
lasiana [P. nigra poiretiana]) on the south-
ern slopes of the Yaila. (Vege/af/onsbi/der.
Vol. 17; part 1; plate 2)

Fig. 66. Beech forest on the northern
slope of the Yaila. (Vegefafionsb//der.
Vol. 17; part 1; plate 3)

Fig. 68. Coniferous forest on the slopes of Mt. Kvasya in Sverdlovsk oblast. vSovfoto)

Fig. 69. The Inner Altay. Lake Verkhne-Multinsk and the Katun beiki (snow-capped
mountains). (Sovetskayo Sibirskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 1: 63)

Fig. 70. Mt. Belukha, the highest peak in the Soviet Altay. View from the east
with Men-su Glacier in the foreground. (Sovetskayo Sibirskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol.
1: 63)

Fig. 71. The Katun River near Toguz-Kan in the Inner Altay. (Sovetskaya Sibirskayo
Entsiklopedia. Vol. 1: 63)

Fig. 72. Lake Rakhmanovsk in the Altoy. Near the lake are hot springs of the same
name. (Aziatskaya Rossiya. Vol. 1: 401)

4

Fig. 73. Larch stand and reindeer on a state farm in the Altay (Oirot autonomous
oblast). (Sovfoto)

Fig. 74. Altay ibex. The park-like character of the valley bottom is characteristic
of the dry valleys of the Altay. (Sovfoto)

THE SAYANS 289

preserved in only a low places. As in the case ol tlic Altay, the formation
of a peneplain on the site o( tlie West Sayans took place during the
Mesozoic and Tertiary periods. In the middle or at the end of the Ter-
tiary period, faulting and uplifts took place here; they gave rise to the
contemporary West Sayans.

The West Sayans are composed fundamentally of a thick series of
greenish or green-gray crystalline schists. This series, which until re-
cently was considered pre-Cambrian, is classified now as definitely Lower
Silurian, because of the nature of the fauna remains that are found here.
The crystalline schists are intensely dislocated; the folding took place
between the Devonian and the Silurian (that is, during the Caledonian
period, particularly during the Epiisk phase). During the Lower Devo-
nian period the sea apparently covered part of the West Sayans. (Indi-
cations of marine deposits have been found, for example, in the Us
basin.) Opinions differ regarding what took place during the Middle
Devonian, but, in any case, after the Middle Devonian the sea retreated
from the West Sayans. Following this retreat, a long continental period
ensued.

There are no glaciers at present in the West Sayans, but traces of
Quaternary glaeiation are very numerous, in the form of moraines,
cirques, glacial lakes, U-shaped valleys, and so forth. The snow line
during the glacial period lay approximately at the present timber line.
Some authorities acknowledge two glaciations in the West Sayans,
others only one.

Areas strewn with talus— /cum;?2S— are very characteristic for the Sayans
(especially the East Sayans) and the Kuznetsk Ala-Tau. In some places
the kurums cover the flat ranges and summits; sometimes they descend
in wide rock flows into the upper reaches of the valleys. These "rivers"
of rock are often covered with taiga, while under the rocks, which creep
slowly downward, streams of water may flow. Kurums are products of
the mechanical weathering of the bedi-ock under the influence of tempera-
ture fluctuation. According to Edelstein, the formation of kurums took
place predominantly during the first half of the Quaternary period, when
the climate was more severe and the forest vegetation did not rise so
high into the mountains as it does today. It is difficult to believe that
the kurums could have been formed under taiga, with which they are
often covered today.

The Yenisey cuts through tlie West Sayans in a deep and narrow val-
ley with numerous rapids. In the region of tlie Bolshoy rapids the Yen-
isey is only 55 m. wide. Often the sides of the \'alley rise hundreds of

290 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

meters above the river; sometimes bald summits approach very close
to the river. The tributaries which enter the main river in this section
often flow in deep gorges.

The Minusinsk basin} BetM^een the northern slope of the West Sayans
on the south and southeast, the Abakan range and the southern Kuz-
netsk Ala-Tau on the west, and the outlying spurs of the East Sayans
on the northeast, lies the Minusinsk basin, crossed approximately in the
middle by the Yenisey. Its lower portions, along the Yenisey, lie at 250
to 300 m.; its borders lie at 400 to 600 m., and, in some places, even
higher. A part of the basin, between the Yenisey, the Abakan, and the
foot of the West Sayans, bears the name Koihalsk steppe. On the north
the Minusinsk basin is enclosed by mountain ridges, which are tran-
sected by the Yenisey and which form the uniting link between the
Kuznetsk Ala-Tau and the East Sayans; the Bateni range, which crosses
the Yenisey at Bateni village, is such a ridge ( Edelstein, 1931 ) .

In the literature, the name Minusinsk basin often designates the entire
territory of the former Minusinsk uijezd (district). But this conception,
as Edelstein (1931) has pointed out, is mistaken. Within this area there
are several isolated sections of undisturbed sedimentary Paleozoic depos-
its, which are separated from one another by strips of metamorphic and
igneous rocks. Only the southernmost area, within which lies Minusinsk,
has the form of a basin, and Edelstein suggests that the name "Minusinsk
basin" be restricted to that area.

The floor of this basin is composed of Devonian and some terrestrial
Lower Carboniferous and Permian deposits, which occur in the central
part of the basin in relatively undisturbed condition, in some places
horizontally. Along the periphery, closer to the West Sayans and the
Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, they are more noticeably dislocated; the dislocations
here are chiefly of the thrust type. But even in the bottom of the basin
there are some areas where the Devonian and Carboniferous strata were
subjected to violent dislocations which gave rise to folds having a north-
west trend."*

Within the Minusinsk basin, loesses and loesslike clay loams, usually
associated with the river valleys, are rather widespread. Thus, more or

•'Ya. S. Edelstein, "Gidrogeologichesky ocherk Minusinskovo kraya" (Hydro-
geological Sketch of Minusinsk Kraij), Trudy Geol.-razved. obijed. (Proceedings of
the Geological Survey Society), No. 145, 1931; "Geomorfologichesky ocherk Minu-
sinskovo kraya" ( Geomorphological Sketch of Minusinsk Kray), Trudy Inst. fiz.
geogr. (Proceedings of tiie Institute of Ph)sical Crcography), No. 22, 1936.

*Ya. S. Edelstein, "Geologichesky ocherk Minusinskoy kotloviny" (Geological
Sketch of the Minusinsk Basin), Ocherki po geologii Sibiri (Sketches on tlie Geology
of Siberia), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences), 1932.

THE SAYANS 291

less typical loesses are developed on the terraces which lie above the
flood plain of the Yenisey and its tributaries, the Abakan, the Tuba, and
others. But in the region ol Minusinsk these strata occupy the interstrearn
spaces as well.

The East Sayan system ' begins on the left bank of the Yenisey above
Krasnoyarsk, near the mouth of the Mana River ( a right-bank tributary ; ,
and extends southeast from there, to the area between lakes Baikal and
Kosogol. There, in the region of the Tunka graben, which is occupied
by the Irkut valley, the East Sayans join the mountain system of the
Trans-Baikal.

The East Sayans are higher than the West, and contain several gla-
ciers. The East Sayans reach their highest point north of Kosogol, at
the sources of the left tributaries of the Angara (the Oka and the Irkut),
where Mount Munku-Sardyk rises to an elevation of 3490 m. Several
glaciers come down from this peak (Fig. 76). The valley of the Irkut
River separates the main East Sayan range from the Tunka belki which
lie to the north and have an elevation of up to 2400 m. North of the
Tunka belki and parallel with them lie the higher Kitoy belki (eleva-
tion 2900 m.).

In the region where the East Sayans meet the West Sayans, in the
longitude of the Biryusa and the Kazyr (tributaries of the Uda), the
elevations reach 3000 m. From this mountain knot, at the juncture with
the West Sayans, a chain extends WNW toward the Yenisey; this chain
serves as the .water divide between the basins of the Kan and the Mana
on the one hand, and the Tuba on the other. It consists of a series of
massifs: in the upper reaches of the Kan River, the Kan belki (elevation
2162 m.); west of the upper Mana River, the Mana belki (mean eleva-
tion 1500 to 1550 m.; some elevations up to 1800 m.). Part of the East
Sayan system is the Kizir-Kazyr range, which forms the water divide be-
tween the Kizir and the Kazyr rivers, tributaries of the Tuba River, itself
a right-bank tributary of the Yenisey which empties into that river in
the Minusinsk basin. This range reaches an elevation of 2676 m. in Mount
Edelstein; on the slopes of the range, traces of two glaciations appear
very distinctly.®

The relief of the East Sayans consists of mountain massifs with flat
summits above which low domelike bald peaks rise in some places. As

^ I. A. Molchanov, "Vostochny Sayan" (The East Sayans), Ocherki po geologii
Sibiri (Sketches on the Geology of Siberia), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the
Academy of Sciences), 1934, p. 83, with map, bibliography.

^A. G. Vologdin, "Kizir-Kazyrsky raion" (Kizir-Kazyr Raion), Trudy Geol-
razved. upr. (Proceedings of the Geological Survey Board), No. 92, 1931.

292 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Molchanov points out, the elevation of the original peneplain decreases
from the center of the Sayans to the periphery; in the center the pene-
plain lies at 2300 to 2400 m. and even 3000 m., while on the periphery
it is lower. The summits of the bald peaks are sometimes flat; the ranges,
therefore, have the character of plateaus. The peneplain surfaces have
been preserved much better in the East Sayans than in the West. In
places where the East Sayans were subjected to more intense glaciation
(as in the Tunka and Kitoy belki, and in the Kizir-Kazyr range), they
assume an alpine relief: pointed peaks with jagged ridges.

The East Sayans are composed of crystalline schists and crystalline
limestones of unknown age, and extensive Cambrian strata. Marine
Devonian strata have a limited extent in the East Sayans. In the greater
part of the East Sayans a continental period followed the Devonian.
On terrestrial Tertiary deposits may be found basalt crusts, sometimes
lying on the summits of the bald peaks ( for example, on Mount Ospinsk,
elevation 2900 m.); this indicates that the East Sayans were uplifted
relatively recently. The basalt flows, in any case, took place after the
surface of the peneplain had been formed. The flatness of the Sayans,
thus, has no relation to the lava crusts.

Suess attributed the formation of the East Sayans to the original uplift
of Asia. He argued that folding took place here during the pre-Cambrian
period, and that since the beginning of the Paleozoic the region of the
East Sayans has not been covered by sea. But we have seen already that
the East Sayans were submerged by a sea during the Cambrian period,
while intensive folding took place here during the Lower Paleozoic
(Caledonian) period. Toward the middle of the Tertiary period the re-
gion of the East Sayans constituted a peneplain. During the second half
of the Tertiary period, dislocations caused by faulting took place, which
gave rise to the contemporary relief of the East Sayans. Even before the
uplifting of the Sayans, mighty basalt flows began; they continued, ac-
cording to I. A. Molchanov, even into the glacial period.

The Sayans were subjected to glaciation repeatedly. In the Irkut valley
traces of two glaciations may be seen; during the epoch of the more in-
tense glaciation, an ice sheet descended here to an elevation of 815 m.;
this glacier left a terminal moraine. Traces of ancient glaciation are
found also in many other places. At present, glaciation in the East Sayans
is very slight. In addition to Munku-Sardyk, small glaciers are found
in a few places, some of them in the Kizir-Kazyr range. In the Kizir val-
ley there are very distinct evidences of two glaciations, which may be
traced down to an elevation of 450 m.

THE SAYANS 203

The following mineral resources are found in the Sayans: gold (par-
ticularly in the East Sayans), iron ores, and others. Graphite has been
discovered in Mount Botogol (elevation 2308 m.) in the East Sayans
north of Lake Kosogol; the graphite was formed here as a result of the
action of syenite magma on richly carbonated sedimentary strata, which
are thought to be of pre-Cambrian age. The only beds of nephrite in
the Soviet Union are found in the Kitoy and Tunka belki.

Climate

The Minusinsk basin has hot summers and cold winters. In summer
the temperature reaches 40° C; in winter, there are frosts of — 50 '" C.
The hot summer permits the cultivation of watermelons and melons in
the Minusinsk forest steppe.

Little is known about the climate of the Sayans. Southwest and west
winds prevail, which is shown by the shape of the trees. In describing
the West Sayans, Tugarinov ( 1925 ) writes :

The Siberian stone pine rises highest of all into the mountains, losing, how-
ever, the characteristics of a tree and turning into a crooked creeping shrub. Its
recumbent branches and trunk find shelter behind rocks and crags, on the sides
away from the prevailing winds. Wherever we may go on the mountain peaks
throughout the high-mountain region, we can be certain always from the ap-
pearance of the trees that the prevailing winds here are south and southwest.
The last of the erect Siberian stone pines are completely devoid of branches on
the side toward the prevailing winds; only those branches on the leeward side
survive; often on the windward side even the bark is absent.

Precipitation in the Sayans comes predominantly in the summer; it is
at a minimum in winter. In the lowlands, for example, at Minusinsk
(elevation 250 m.), in the Minusinsk basin, or at Usinskoye village (ele-
vation 666 m.) in the Us River basin, the mean annual precipitation is
less than 300 mm. On the southern slope of the West Sayans, which rise
from the Us basin, 1220 mm. fell during one year at Buiba (elevation
1111 m.).^ So little snow falls in the Minusinsk basin that often it is
possible to ride in wheeled vehicles all winter long, and stock may be
kept on pasture throughout the winter. In the mountains, however, the
thickness of the snow cover is considerable, in some places as much as
2.5 m. In the East Sayans, as one goes south and southeast, the total

'^ S. P. Suslov, "Materialy po fiz.-geogr. landshaftam Zap. Sayana i yevo predgory"
(Materials Concerning the Physical-Geographical Landscapes of the West Sayans
and Their Foothills), Trudy Inst. fiz. geogr. Akad. nauk (Proceedings of tlie In-
stitute of Physical Geography of the Academy of Sciences), XVIII, 1936, pp. 49, 50.

294 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

annual precipitation decreases; the amount of winter precipitation de-
creases particularly rapidly; the percentage of summer precipitation,
however, increases. In these trends the climate approaches that of Mon-
golia. At Mondy station (elevation 1310 m., lat. 51°42'N), which lies
on the upper course of the Irkut River, the mean temperature for July
is 15.7° C, for January, — 20.9° C; precipitation amounts to about 300
mm. annually, with 70 per cent coming in summer. Cloudiness decreases
southward (toward Mongolia): in the north the mean annual figure is
60 to 55 per cent; in the south, 45 per cent. Cloudiness decreases south-
ward particularly rapidly in winter. In the west cloudiness is distributed
almost evenly throughout the seasons; in the east the winter is distin-
guished by clear skies, while the summer is cloudy (Mondy: cloudiness
in February, 20 per cent; in July, 62 per cent).

Vegetation

In the Minusinsk basin, west of the Yenisey, there is grassy steppe
vegetation consisting predominantly of capillary feather grass, the fes-
cue grass Diplachne squarrosa, and koeleria. On the slopes the grasses
grow in admixture with polyn. Dark-chestnut soils and southern cher-
nozems predominate. In the steppe east of the Yenisey there are occa-
sional pine groves growing on sands, and birch groves growing on de-
graded chernozems and podzolic soils. The steppe sections are occupied
by chernozems, developed on deep, calcareous, loesslike clay loams. In
general the part of the basin east of the Yenisey is forest steppe. On the
salinized soils thickets of iris (Iris biglumis [I. ensata]) are common.

In the West Sayans the foothills are covered with chernozem steppes,
which on the south-facing slopes extend as high as 400 m. On the north-
facing slopes the chernozems are degraded and there are many forests.
Above 600 m. the soils are podzolic. In the foothills there are pine groves
and birch groves; this vegetation is supposed to have appeared as a result
of the destruction of the taiga by man.

Higher up lies continuous taiga of Siberian stone pine, fir, spruce, larch,
pine, and birch (European white birch and pubescent birch). In some
places Siberian stone pine predominates; in others, fir. The undergrowth
contains mountain ash, bird cherry, alder, honeysuckle, and juniper.
Occasionally (for example, along the Ana River, a tributary of the
Abakan), almost pure larch forests are found. At 1600 to 2000 m. forest
vegetation disappears; the boundary of the forest consists of Siberian
stone pine. In the subalpine zone the presence of Manchurian alder
(Alnus fruticosa) is characteristic. The alpine zone contains meadows

THE SAYANS 295

developed partly on meadow soils, partly on peat-bog soils. Here, as
in the taiga, rhododendron (Rfiododendron clirysanllium) and bergenia
may be found. On areas covered with talus, there are many lichens
and mosses.

The Us basin, drained by the Us River (a tributary of the Yenisey),
is bounded on the north by the Mirsk range. The floor of this basin lies
at an elevation of about 700 m. Here soils of a podzolic type alternate
with chernozemlike soils; in appearance the basin belongs to the moun-
tain forest steppe. The north-facing slopes are covered with spruce-
larch and larch forests; the south-facing slopes are steppes, on which
pinnate feather grass is common.^ Winter in the Us River basin is very
severe (the mean January temperature is — 29° C); the summer is warm
( the mean July temperature is 17° C. ) , so that the sowing of grains is
possible.

The vegetation of the East Sayans, in general, has the same appear-
ance as that of the West Sayans. In the foothills, up to an elevation
of 1000 m., pines and larches grow; higher up, taiga of fir with Siberian
stone pine, or of Siberian stone pine, fir, and spruce, predominates. The
deciduous trees include the birch, Mongolian poplar (Populiis suave-
olens), and aspen. At the timber line the forest consists of Siberian stone
pine and sometimes larch. In the Belaya River basin, the upper limit of
Siberian stone pine lies at 1800 m.^ In the lower sections of the moun-
tains, there are moss-grown Siberian-stone-pine groves with a continu-
ous moss carpet; at an elevation of about 1200 m. the moss is replaced
by a dense undergrowth of rhododendron {Rhododendron chnjsanthum) ,
or kashkara, as it is called here. In other places (such as Oka kraij) Sibe-
rian-stone-pine and larch forests with a dense reindeer-moss cover lie
below the Siberian-stone-pine zone; here the Soyot reindeer breeders
graze their herds; sometimes Siberian stone pine predominates, some-
times larch. On the north-facing slopes, particularly near regions of per-
manent ground frost, there is larch taiga with a continuous reindeer-
moss cover. Here there is much tundra rhododendron (Rhododendron
parvifolium) , black crowberry, and bog bilberry. There is no pine at all
in Oka kraij.^°

^ Suslov, op. cit.

^V. A. Povamitsyn, "Lesa i lesovozobnovlenie v basseine r. Beloy v Vostochnykh
Sayanakh" (Forests and Forest Renewal in the Basin of the Belava River in the East
Sayans), Trudy Sov. po izuch. proizv. sil, Akad. rmuk (Proceedings of the Council for
the Study of Productive Forces, Academy of Sciences), 1934, p. 43.

^^ M. I. Nazarov, "Ocherk rastitelnosti Okinskovo kraya v Vostochnom Sayane"
(Sketch of the Vegetation of Oka Kraij in the East Sayans), Izv. Gos. geogr. obshch.
(Report of the State Geographical Society), 1935, pp.'54-86.

296 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

In the region of the Tunka mountains there are only 300 to 400 mm.
of precipitation. For this reason the vegetation has a xerophytic char-
acter. Pure stands of pine and Siberian larch are common.

On the banks of the Irkut there are tall spruce stands in some places,
clumps of poplars in others, and willows and Siberian pea shrub {Cara-
gana arborescens) in still others. The north-facing slopes of the range
are covered either with larch or spruce-fir forest, while in the gorges
there are pure stands of Siberian stone pine. Pine forests in the Irkut
valley extend no higher than 800 m.; at higher elevations larch pre-
dominates. In addition, in the undergrowth of the larch forest on the
dry slopes, there is Dahurian rhododendron, while on the moist slopes
there is a carpet of sphagnum and hypnum mosses, with occasional
thickets of ledum. The timber line lies at 1800 to 2000 m.; here the for-
est consists usually of larch and occasionally of Siberian stone pine;
however, individual trees are found as high as 2100 to 2300 m. Higher
up (2000 to 2400 m.) lies a belt of shrubs composed of ground birch
(Betula rottindifolia) , rhododendron, willow (Salix vestita), shag-spine
pea shrub (Caragana jubata), Manchurian alder {Ahius fruticosa), cur-
rant {Ribes graveolens) , and alpine spiraea (Spiraea alpina) (V. Koma-
rov). Subalpine tall herbaceous meadows and alpine meadows are
poorly represented. High-mountain "tundra," chiefly of lichen, predomi-
nates. Near the region of everlasting snows may be found leather ber-
genia (Bergenia crassifolia) , Altay violet (Viola altaica), Altay gen-
tian (Gentiana altaica), and others.

Fauna

In the foothills of the Sayans, extensive areas are covered with birch
groves. Here are found black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), willow ptarmigan,
varying hare (Lepus timidus), fox, wolf, European polecat (Putorius
eversmanni), ermine, weasel, and roebuck. Steppe forms are found in
the Minusinsk basin; for example, the Dzhungarian hamster (Phodoptis
songorus), short-tailed vole (Lagunis lagurus), sheld duck (Tadorna
tadorna), ruddy sheldrake (T. ferruginea [Casarca ferruginea]), Sibe-
rian bustard (Otis tarda dijboivskii) , bearded partridge (Perdix daurica
{P. barbata]), and others.

In the Siberian-stone-pine taiga of the West Sayan range live ermine,
weasel, kolinsky, varying hare, Sayan forest lemming (Mijopus schisti-
color saianicus), elk, red deer (Cervus elaphus canadensis sibiricus
[C. elaphus sibiricus]), reindeer (Rangifcr tarandus), bear, glutton,

THE SAYANS 297

sable, lynx, iniisk dcvr, srjiiirrcl, alpinr moiisf liaro (OrJmfoua alpina),
chipmunk {Kulamias asiaticns [E. .sihiricu.s]). Hying sfjuirrei (Pteromys
volans), mole, and others. In winter the hazel grouse, capercaillie, wood-
pecker, linin't, bullfinch, coal tit, tit, nuthatch, jay, nutcracker, Siberian
jay, waxwing, rough-legged buzzard (Archihiiteo pallidum- [Butco lagnpus
palUdus]), snowy owl (Nyciea nyctea), and goshawk are found in the
taiga.

The alpine zone lies at 2100 m. and higher. In summer this zone con-
tains many ungulates: reindeer, musk deer, Asiatic ibex (Capra sihirica),
and sometimes elk and red deer. In summer there are also bear and
northern dhole. The ungulates descend into the forest zone for the winter,
and only the musk deer remains somewhat above the edge of the forest.

The birds of the alpine zone in summer include the tundra ptarmigan
(Lagopus muttis), water pipit (Anthus spinoletta blackistoni) , willow
warbler { Acanthopneuste horealis), black-throated diver (Colymbus
arcticus [Gavia arcticas]), Altay snow pheasant {Tetraogallus altaicus),
and others. In winter they include the snowy owl, rough-legged Siberian
buzzard, and Ural owl.^^

The Sayans are rich in economically valuable animals. Sable is still
rather numerous in the Siberian-stone-pine groves.^^ In the mountain
taiga the Manchurian reed deer (izyubr, or maral) is very widespread;
it is hunted for its horns and skins. Elk is found predominantly in the
East Sayans. Roebuck is widespread. The musk deer is very common,
and is hunted chiefly for musk. Above the boundary of the forest and
even above the alpine meadows, along the rocky plateaulike belki, cov-
ered with mosses and lichens (such, for example, as the Kan or Mana
helki), there is wild reindeer. In fall, with the coming of snow, it de-
scends into the forest zone; the reindeer is hunted by the northern dhole
(chikalka), common wolf, lynx, and glutton, as well as by man. On the
southern slopes of the West Sayans there is some ibex. In the taiga
there are many bears. Squii-rels, which ai-e of great economic importance,
are very widespread. There is considerable ermine, which follows the
sable, squirrel, and Manchurian red deer in importance. The domestic
form of the reindeer is found in the Sayans among tlie Karagasses and
the forest Soyots. The region inhabited by the reindeer in the Sayans
is isolated completely from the more northern regions of its distribution.

^^ Sayansky promt/shvo-okJwtnichy raion (The Sayan Commercial-Hunting Region),
Petrograd, 1921, Chap. III.
12 Ibid., p. 145

298 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

The Sayan deer is used exclusively as a riding and pack animal, and is
never used in harness."

The birds, in addition to those mentioned above, include the follow-
ing: Swinhoe's snipe {Capella megala); solitary snipe (C. solitaria);
pin-tailed snipe (C. stenura); bearded partridge; needle-tailed swift
(Chaetura caudacuta), the tail feathers of which terminate in spines;
Siberian swift {Apus pacificus) ; and the red-throated and black-throated
thrushes (Turdus ruficollis and T. atrogidaris) .

The caterpillar of the Siberian or Siberian-stone-pine dendrolimus
(Dendrolimus sibiricus) does great damage to the pine groves of the
East Sayans, while the fir forests suffer severely from the larvae of the
taiga longicorn beetle, Monochamus urusovi.

13 Ibid., p. 145.

XV - Lake Baikal and the Trans-Baikal Region

Relief

IN its relief the Trans-Baikal region is a continuation
of the East Sayans. Neither the East Sayans nor the
Trans-Baikal mountains consist of elevations in the form of ranges with
clearly expressed crests; instead, these mountains have the appearance
of flat and wide watershed plateaus, dissected by erosion into dome-
shaped peaks and rounded ridges. There are few peaks which stand out
individually. The view from any of the passes is a series of flat massifs,
overgrown with forests, separated from one another by wide and deep
valleys. Topographic maps lead one to expect to find folded mountain
ridges in the Trans-Baikal region. But actually the picture is quite dif-
ferent. The ranges of this region, composed predominantly of dislo-
cated massive crystalline strata and crystalline schists, have a generally
ENE-WSW orientation; but the dip of the strata which compose them
is often different. This is explained by the fact that after the folding
processes (which took place during the Lower Paleozoic period) had
ended, the mountain country was vigorously eroded, becoming a pene-
plain; subsequently, as Obruchev has explained, differential vertical
movements formed alternating zones of subsidence (grabens) and up-
lift ( horsts ) ; it is the latter which constitute the present ranges.

Of the ranges of the Trans-Baikal, the Yablonovy is well known;
roughly speaking, it forms the water divide between the Arctic Ocean
and the Amur. This is strictly true only of its southwestern part, where
the range serves as the water divide between the Khilok ( a tributary of the
Selenga) and the Ingoda (which, together with the Onon, forms the
Shilka); but where it extends as far as the upper course of the Chita
River, the Yablonovy range lies on the water divide between the Vitim
River and its tributary, the Karenga; in this region it no longer consti-
tutes the water divide between the basins of the Lena and the Amur. The

299

300 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

highest point of the Yablono\y range is Mount Saranakan (elevation
1610 m.), 65 km. NNE of the city of Chita. Obmchev (1914) describes
the southwestern part of the range as follows:

As seen from the valley of the Khilok River, the Yablonovy range appears to
be of very inconsiderable elevation. The gentle northwestern slope rises quite
imperceptibly to the main water divide, which appears from a distance to be
either an almost completely flat divide, or a chain of flattened hills. . . . The
water-divide ridge constitutes a plain of varying width, covered with dense
forest, and slightly dissected by wide saddles which are occupied by bogs. The
tributaries of both the Khilok (Baikal basin) and the Ingoda (Amur basin)
often have their sources in these bogs.

At the point where the railroad crosses the Yablonovy range, the pass
is 1050 to 1070 m. in elevation. The heights on either side of the Khilok
rise only 105 to 125 m. above the river; those along the Ingoda, 305 to
325 m.; thus, the eastern slope is steeper. On the pass there is found a
bed of post-Tertiary lacustrine deposits.

The highest point of the entire Trans-Baikal region, Mount Sokhondo,
is composed of dacite,^ and reaches an elevation of 2540 m. The main
peak of Sokhondo is completely flat, covered with large fragments of
dacite, and has terracelike slopes. Tree vegetation in the form of
sparse stands of Japanese stone pine and larch rises up to 2000 m. On
Sokhondo there are distinct traces of ancient glaciation in the form of
moraines and cirques. This bald summit in the upper reaches of the
Ingoda River lies not far from the Mongolian border, in the Borshcho-
vochny range, which extends northeast from here. The passes across
this range lie at an average elevation of 950 m., while the peaks reach
1100 m. Beyond the point where the Onon River crosses it, the Bor-
shchovochny range lies along the right bank of the Shilka.

Northwest from the Yablonovy range spreads the gently rolling Vitim
Plateau, covered with bogs and a continuous larch forest, and drained
by the Vitim River. It is composed chiefly of granites, granite-gneisses,
and gneiss-granites. In the center of the plateau there are basalts and
basalt lavas up to 20 m. in thickness; these igneous products came from
several small volcanoes, now extinct, as high as 160 m. in relative elevation.
The rivers have worn canyon-shaped courses through the igneous rocks.
The absolute elevation of the plateau is 850 to 1450 m.; elevations of
1000 to 1350 m. predominate.

In the basin of the Patom River (which empties into the Lena from

^ Dacite is an igneous rock of porphyritic structure.

LAKE BAIKAL AND THE TRANS-BAIKAL REGION 301

the right, above Olekminsk) lies a mountain country, which Kropotkin
calls the Patom Upland. In structure this land is a continuation of the
northern Trans-Baikal region; it is composed of granites and metamorphic
rocks. The mean elevation of the upland is 850 to 1050 m. On the north,
toward the Lena, the upland descends to the Central Siberian Plateau
in a 400 to 500 m. escarpment. The boundary of the upland, in general
outline, reflects the arc of the Lena River between the mouths of the
Vitim and the Patom. The Patom Upland is characterized by the absence
of clearly defined ranges and the relatively uniform height of all the more
important individual peaks. The highest point of the upland is Mount
Longdor (elevation 1956 m.).

The country between the Vitim and the Olekma is rich in gold.

Western Trans-Baikal, the Vitim Plateau, and the Patom Upland, ac-
cording to Suess, are part of the system which he believes comprises
the original uplift of Asia; all of these regions are composed of archean
strata which were folded during the pre-Cambrian period; they have
not been covered by sea since the Cambrian period. However, at pres-
ent there is reason to believe that a sea did exist here during the Lower
Paleozoic period, and that intensive folding took place here during the
Caledonian (Lower Paleozoic) period.

Eastern Trans-Baikal belongs to the region of Mesozoic folding. Here
folded marine deposits— Paleozoic, Triassic, and Jurassic— have been
found. The general trend of the folds of the Mesozoic deposits is to
the northeast, while the folds are inclined to the northwest. Less intense
folding took place here during the Tertiary period as well.

The water-filled basins include Lake Baikal, the most remarkable lake
in the world. If Baikal were placed in its latitude on the map of Europe,
it would extend approximately from Moscow to Kursk, but the climate
of its shores, as will be seen below, is much more severe than in corre-
sponding latitudes in Europe. Baikal is the deepest lake on earth, the
deepest depression on any continent. Its greatest depth is 1741 m.; its
average depth, about 700 m. Since the mean elevation of the surface of
Baikal is 453 m., the bottom of the deepest part of this lake is almost
1300 m. below sea level. When we consider that the mountains on the
shores of Baikal reach about 2000 m. in absolute elevation ( for example,
the Barguzinsk Mountains), the contrast in tlie relief of the earth's crust
in this region is even more remarkable. From what has been said, it is
clear that the Baikal basin can have originated only by tectonic means.
After the Silurian, the region occupied by Baikal today was no longer
covered by sea. The Baikal depression was formed by subsidences,

302 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

analogous to the subsidences (grabens) in which the Trans-Baikal re-
gion is so rich. These subsidences took place no later than the middle
of the Tertiary period. Corroborative evidence is found in the character
of the contemporary fauna of Baikal, which includes many ancient forms,
as well as in the presence on the southern shore of Baikal of Middle Ter-
tiary lacustrine deposits which contain remains of fresh-water mollusks;
among the latter there are gastropods, which resemble the contempo-
rary Baikal Baicalia ( see below ) .

The temperature of the water in the open lake in summer is very low;
the mean temperature of the water in August, which is the warmest
month, is 9° C. Along the shores in summer, the temperature of the
water rises to 15° C, and in some places even to 19° C. Baikal freezes
very late, not until the beginning of January (Fig. 77); this late freezing
is explained by the slow rate at which very large masses of water are
cooled; the violent storms which take place in autumn also have an
eflFect. Up to the middle of May, Baikal is covered by a deep layer of
ice, the thickness of which reaches 1.25 m. At great depths the tempera-
ture of the water in Baikal is constant, slightly over 3° C.

The character of the temperature regime of the surface waters of
Baikal exerts a tremendous influence on the climate of its shores. Sum-
mer in the Baikal area is cool, while the winter is milder than in the
interior of the country, at a distance from the lake. In short, Lake
Baikal has the effect of making the climate less continental; in July the
mean temperature is 5° C. cooler on the shores of the lake than at a
distance from the lake; in December, on the other hand, it is 10° C.
warmer on the lake than at a distance from it (see Table 24, p. 306).

The water in Lake Baikal is as clear as ocean water; transparency
up to 40 m. has been observed. In Baikal, in addition to stationary waves,
or "seiches," which are typical in all lakes, there are also tides, although
these are of negligible amplitude.

The fauna of Baikal is extremely rich and abounds in endemic forms.
It is ancient and unique. The basins which surround Baikal contain the
usual Siberian fauna, which is found even in the bays (sors) of Baikal.
But as soon as we move into Baikal itself, it is as though a new world
opens before us, in the form of a fauna so unique that I have designated
it (1916) as belonging to a separate (Baikal) subregion of the circum-
polar region. The fauna of Baikal includes the Baikal hair seal (nerpa,
Phoca sibirica), which is related closely, on the one hand, to the ringed
seal of the Arctic Ocean (P. hispida), and, on the other, to the Caspian
hair seal. The fish include the viviparous Baikal "oilfish" (Comephorus),

LAKE BAIKAL AND THE T liANS-BAl KAL HECION 303

a representative of a family native onlv to Baikal; anotlier closely re-
lated family, Cottocomephoridae, the Baikal representatives of which
are called hijchki, is also endemic in this lake. The Baikal whitefish
{Coregonus autumnalis migratorius) is of great economic importance.
Mollusks are represented in Baikal by more than eighty species; there
are two endemic families of gastropods (Benedictiidae and Baicaliidae ) ,
which, like the two above-mentioned fish families, are typical fresh-
water families. The Baikal mollusks bear some resemblance to the mol-
lusks of the Upper Tertiary salt-water deposits of southeastern Europe,
and also to the mollusks living at present in Lake Okhrid ( on the Balkan
Peninsula) and in some parts of the Caspian. It is worth noting that the
mollusk genus Baicalia appears in the Lower Cretaceous fresh-water
deposits of the Trans-Baikal region.

Baikal is particularly rich in amphipods (Gammaridae), of which
more than two hundred species are known here. The worms include a
small, many-bristled worm of the genus Manayimkia, representatives of
which are distributed extensively in the fresh and salt waters of the
Northern Hemisphere. Some of the invertebrates found in Baikal have
very close relatives in the tropics and subtropics (for example, the leech
Torix haicalensis, the bryozoan Hislopia baicalensis, and the fresh-water
copepod Harpacticella inopinata).

In the Tertiary deposits on the shores of Baikal, fresh-water bivalve
mollusks have been discovered; they are found today in the Amur and
in China (E. Rammelmeyer). As for the origin of the Baikal fauna,
the hypothesis has been advanced that it had its beginnings in the sea,
but I maintain the view that the fauna of this lake is of ancient fresh-
water origin." The endemic fauna of Baikal consists of two elements:

( 1 ) Ancient forms, developed in Baikal itself, from roots of which noth-
ing more is known, during the course of its long geological existence (for
example, sponges of the Baikal family Lubomirskiidae, several sparsely
bristled worms, several mollusks, fish of the two above-mentioned en-
demic families, and others ) . Relatives of these forms are found nowhere
among present-day fresh-water or marine fauna; but some of them are
found in fossil condition, for example, the above-mentioned Baicalia.

( 2 ) Remains ( relicts ) of Upper Tertiary fresh-water fauna, which inhab-

2 For details and bibliography see L. S. Berg, Klimat i zhizn (Climate and Life),
Moscow, 1922, pp. 28-53; also "O predpolaga)'em\kh morskikh elementakh v faune i
flore Baikala" ( Concerning the Supposed Marine Elements in the Fauna and Flora of
Baikal), Izv. Akad. nauk (Report of tlie Academy of Sciences), 1934; "Yuzhnie ele-
menty v faune Baikala" (Southern Elements in the Fauna of Baikal), Uchen. zap.
Lgr. univ. (Scientific Report of Leningrad University), No. 17, 1937.

304

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

ited Siberia and possibly adjoining parts of Central Asia (as well as
North America and eastern Europe). Finally, we must note that several
genera which at one time were considered endemic in Baikal, have been
discovered subsequently in the fresh waters of Siberia and even Europe.

Climate
The climate of the Baikal and Trans-Baikal regions is unique, and is
affected by a number of different factors. The climate of the Siberian
taiga is found here, adjacent to the climate of the Mongolian steppe; in
addition, Lake Baikal exercises a strong influence. The climate of Mon-
golia is distinguished by sharp differences in the quantity of summer

Table 23
Climate of the Baik^vl and Trans-Baik_vl Regions

Meteorological
Station

Latitude

(°N)

Elevation
Abo\'e

Sea Level
(m.)

Precipitation
PER Year

(mm.)

Temperature

rc.)

July

January

Barguzin
Ulan-Ude (formerly

Verkhneudinsk)
Selenginsk
Troitskosavsk
Nerchinsk

531 2

51
52

490

509
570

758
485

204
162

280
283

19.0

20.0
20.0
19.9

20.7

-26.6

-20.0
-25.9
-23.1
-32.5

and winter precipitation; as much as 75 per cent of the total annual pre-
cipitation may occur in summer, while in winter there is only 2 to 3 per
cent, or even less. This type of rainfall distribution is found also in the
southern Trans-Baikal. There is not much precipitation in the Trans-
Baikal and the Baikal regions, the average being about 300 mm. per year,
and in some places even less. On Olkhon Island (in Baikal) there are only
169 mm., so that the Buryats (the inhabitants of Olkhon) have to irrigate
their meadows; irrigation is used also in the valley of the Barguzin River.
A large part of the shore of Baikal southwest of Olkhon is covered by
dry steppe; here and there lie salt lakes, surrounded by solonchaks which
bear halophytic vegetation. But in the southwestern part of the region
there is considerable precipitation; in Mysovaya there are 515 mm.,
while in Pereyemnaya there are over 600 mm.

The southern Trans-Baikal lies in the same latitude as Kiev and Khar-
kov and even farther south, and the summer is generally warm, in spite
of the relatively high elevation above sea level (500 to 800 m.). The
winter, however, is severe.

LAKE BAIKAL AND THE TRANS-BAIKAL REGION 305

The maximum precipitation comes in July; the minimum, in Febru-
ary. At Selenginsk three-fourths (74 per cent) of the total annual pre-
cipitation comes in summer, only 3 per cent in winter. There is very little
snow; at its greatest depth, the snow cover in winter at Ulan-Ude reaches
only 17 cm.; at Troitskosavsk, 13 cm.; and at Olovyannaya, only 2 cm.
As a result of the negligible snow cover, the subsoils freeze hard, and
permanent ground frost is extensive; near Mogzon station (lat. 51''43' N)
the depth of the permanently frozen layer reaches 67 m.; this depth, of
course, is the extreme. In summer the subsoil thaws to an average depth
of 3 m. Because of the negligible snow cover in this region, there is
almost no high water in spring.

Winter in the Trans-Baikal (as also in Yakutiya) is characterized by
clear skies and calm. The cloudiest month is July; the clearest months,
January and February. In general, however, there is little cloudiness;
the mean annual figure for Ulan-Ude is 53 per cent; for Troitskosavsk,
47 per cent; and for Nerchinsk, 39 per cent ( July and August there have
53 per cent; January, 19 per cent). In general no part of the U.S.S.R.,
nor even of Central Asia, has such clear winter skies as the Trans-Baikal.
The duration of insolation is very great; in Akatuy it is 72 per cent of the
duration possible annually. In March the sun shines here 85 per cent
of the number of hours possible; in July, 59 per cent; there are only 23
days during the year when the sky is covered with clouds all day long.

A region of very high pressure covers the Trans-Baikal in winter. The
isobars (in January, atmospheric pressures— converted to sea level— are
775 to 773 mm.), which generally extend from north to south, are dis-
posed so that the pressure decreases from west to east and from south
to north. (Over the Okhotsk and Bering seas the pressure is low.) For
this reason winds with a western component prevail in winter; they
range from northwest to west. In summer, on the other hand, the pres-
sure is low over the Trans-Baikal, and the isobars are disposed so that
in July, for example, north and northeast winds prevail; in June and
August, northwest winds.

Baikal, as we have said, exerts a pronounced influence on the climate
of the surrounding area, not only in summer and autumn, but also in
the latter half of the winter, when the lake is covered with ice. For
illustration we present the annual course of atmospheric temperature at
Listvenichnoye, which lies on the shore of Baikal, and at Ulan-Ude
(formerly Verkhneudinsk), which lies in the same latitude (51^50' N),
but at some distance from the eastern shore. ( The data are for the period
1896-1905.)

306

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Table 24
Temperattjres at Listvenichxote and Ul.\n-Ude (°C.)

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

Mav

June

JUI.V

A DO.

Sept. Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year

Listvenieh-
noye

Ulan-Ude

-15.4
-25.7

-15.7
-21.2

-10.1
-11.8

-1.0
0.5

5.0
8.0

10.1
17.0

12.7
19.7

13.9
16.9

8.7
8.8

1.5
-0.6

-5.3
-12.5

-11.9
-22.3

-0.6
-1.9

In January and December at Listvenichnoye it is 10° C. warmer than
at Ulan-Ude; but in June and July on the shore of the lake it is 7° C.
cooler than at a distance from the shore. The highest temperatures at
Listvenichnoye occur not in July, but in August; the lowest tempera-
tures, not in January, but in February; this lag in temperature maximum
and minimum is found generally in a marine climate. The annual tem-
perature range at Listvenichnoye is only 29.6° C, while at Ulan-Ude
it is 45.4° C.

Vegetation

The Trans-Baikal is unique in that here the Siberian taiga lies adja-
cent to the Mongolian steppes. In the depressions the steppe extends far
to the north— as far as Baikal (Olkhon Island and neighboring places),
the Upper Angara, and the Barguzin. In the mountains the taiga stretches
from Siberia far to the south, as far as the upper reaches of the Onon
and the Ingoda, where it protrudes into the dry steppes of Mongolia.
This intermixture of two elements may be traced in the climate, the soils,
the vegetation, and the fauna.

In the Trans-Baikal there are two large zones of steppe and forest
steppe; these are the Selenginsk on the west, and the Nerchinsk on the
east. At elevations of approximately 500 to 900 to 1000 m. there are
steppes; from 900 to 1000 m. up to 1200 m. there is forest steppe; higher
up there is mountain taiga, which rises in the south to elevations of
1700 to 1900 m. The steppe and forest, naturally, extend higher up into
the mountains in the southern Trans-Baikal than in the north; in the
north the forest ends in some places at 1200 m. The subalpine zone ex-
tends up to 1900 to 2200 m., where it is replaced by the alpine zone.
Agriculture does not extend beyond 900 to 1100 m.

The steppe and forest-steppe zones. In addition to the two large steppe
zones mentioned above, steppe elements may be found still farther to
the north, in the basin of the upper Angara. Here, in some places on the
southern slopes, soils are developed which resemble steppe soils and
which are covered with steppe vegetation— fescue, koeleria, feather grass,
steppe sedge, and others; on the north-facing slopes there are larch and
pine-larch forests; on the wetter slopes and in the valley bottoms, grow-

LAKE BAIKAL AND THE TRANS-BAIKAL REGION 307

mg on podzolic soils, there are numerous Japanese-stone-pine stands,
some pure, some with an admixture of fir and larch.

In the basin of the Barguzin there are chestnut soils, on wliich are
found polyn and feather-grass steppes; of the feather grasses, the capil-
lary feather grass predominates. There are some solonetz soils also. The
mountains, however, are covered with forest— on the northern slopes,
larch, on the southern slopes, pine. Between latitudes 52^2° N and 53)2° N,
at an elevation of about 950 m., lie the Yeravinsk steppes, which have
shghtly podzolic, dark soils.

Farther south, at a lower elevation, lie the Nerchinsk steppes, or, more
exactly, forest steppes; they lie at an elevation of 620 to 690 m. (The
mountains here reach 850 m. in elevation.) The steppe areas are cov-
ered with meadow-steppe soils with sharply distinct carbonate horizons
beginning at a depth of 30 cm. and extending to 1.5 to 2.5 m. Several
types of steppe may be distinguished here, according to vegetation: steppe
covered chiefly by wheat grass (Agropyron pscudagropyron) , which is
a very valuable fodder crop; mixed-herbaceous steppe, on which nar-
rowleaf clematis (Clematis angustifolia) predominates; steppe on which
the day lily (Hemerocallis graminea [H. minor]— Liliaceae) is most
prominent; and other types. In the Nerchinsk steppes columnar solonetz
soils are widespread. The floors of the deep valleys contain solonchaks.
In some places there are thickets of birches and willows.

In the southeastern corner of the Trans-Baikal, through which the
railroad passes into Manchuria, typical polyn steppes are developed on
chestnut soils. They stretch, from the land-locked Tarey lakes on the west
to the Argun River on the east. This is one of the northernmost outposts
of the Mongolian steppes. Farther north, 50 to 70 km. from the border,
and also westward, along the Onon and the Selenga, steppe is found
only in separate islands, which are part of the forest-steppe complex,
while in the western Trans-Baikal, steppe sections are found only in
the depressions. Between the Tarey lakes and the Argun River the steppe
rises also into the low ranges which are found here; the lowlands, or pads,
however, are covered with solonchak meadows.

Grassy steppes on chestnut and forest-steppe soils are widespread in
the western Trans-Baikal, in the basin of the Selenga and its tributaries,
the Khilok, Chikoy, and Dzhida. In this region the elevations are distrib-
uted as follows: ^

^L. I. Prasolov, Yuzhnoye Zabaikalye, "Pochvenno-geografichesky ocherk" (The
Southern Trans-Baikal Region: a Sketch of the Soil-Geography), Mat. KotJi. po issled.
resp. (Materials of the Commission for tlie Study of the Republics), izd. Akad. nauk
(publication of the Academy of Sciences), No. 12, 1927, p. 131.

308 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Table 25
Elevations in the Western Trans-Baikal Region

Orographic Elements

Elevations
(m.)

Main valleys 500 to 600

Secondary valleys 600 to 800

Passes across the ranges 900 to 1000

Summits of the ranges 1000 to 1200

The Burin-Khan hills (elevation 1640 m.), which lie between the
Dzhida and the Temnik,* are covered, up to an elevation of 800 to 900 m.,
with dry grassy steppe on dark-chestnut soils and southern chernozems.
The summits of the hillocks in this steppe stand out because of the pre-
dominance on them of Siberian tansy {Tanacetum sibiricum). Higher
up, on the shady slopes, coppices of larch appear; this forest steppe
lies at 900 to 1200 m. At an elevation of 1200 to 1300 m. there is a birch-
larch forest. The flat summit of the Burin-Khan is covered with a mossy
taiga of larch, spruce, and Japanese stone pine.

Considerable tracts in the region between Selenginsk and Troitskosavsk
are covered by sands which represent alluvial post-Tertiary deposits,
sorted during the dry postglacial epoch. Loesslike sandy loams are found
here also. The sands are covered (or were covered until recently) with
pine groves, which in some places alternate with sections of steppe cov-
ered with sandy-loam chestnut soils. Therefore, this region must be class-
ified with the forest steppe, which descends very low here, below 600 m.
in absolute elevation. Trans-Baikal pine groves are distinguished from
European pine groves by the abundant undergrowth of Dahurian rho-
dodendron and the profusion of orchids.

Besides pine groves in the Trans-Baikal forest steppe, there are small
birch woods and also larch and birch-larch woods.

The mountain taiga. As one ascends, the pine groves, as well as the
birch and aspen, disappear gradually, and larch begins to predominate,
in some places together with Japanese stone pine; on the high ranges,
Japanese stone pine occasionally predominates. On Sokhondo, Japanese
stone pine ascends to an elevation of 2000 m.

As we have said, the taiga in the southern Trans-Baikal begins at

1200 m. But this is true only in general; there are exceptions. Thus,

around Lake Baikal the taiga usually extends down to the elevation

of the lake; for example, on the northwest slopes of Khamar-Daban,

* One branch of the Temnik River empties into the Selenga, the other into Lake
Gusinove.

LAKE BAIKAL AND THE TRANS-BAIKAL REGION 309

Japanese stone pine grows on the shore of the lake its(;ll falthougli there
are steppes on Baikal also, for example, on Olkhon Island).

But in the northern Trans-Baikal the taiga often ends at 1200 m. Thus,
in the basin of the Tungir River (a right tributary of the Olekma, lat.
54° to 55° N), according to Sukachev/' forests of Dahurian larch pre-
dominate, with an undergrowth of Dahurian rhododendron, which
reaches 2.5 m. in height; sometimes the undergrowth contains the
shrubby Middendorff's birch {Betiila middendorffii) , which grows 2 m.
tall. The herbaceous cover consists mostly of cowberry and crystal tea
ledum {Ledum palustre). On the sandy soils and clay loams there is
pine; very rarely there is Siberian spruce. The Asiatic white birch
{Betula platyphylla) is not numerous, nor does it extend far up the
slopes; occasionally there are Erman's birch (B. ermani), aspen, Mongo-
lian poplar, and bird cherry; mountain ash extends as far as the timber
line. At an elevation of 1200 to 1300 m. the taiga ends; it is replaced by
Japanese stone pine {Pinus pumila), characteristic for the subalpine
strip; this pine grows 2 to 3 m. tall here, and forms almost impassable
thickets. The above-mentioned shrubby Middendorff's birch appears here
also, together with the Japanese stone pine. Two other plants which
grow here are the characteristic East Siberian ericaceous alpine plant,
Cassiope ericoides, and the alpine ptarmiganberry {Arctostaphylos al-
pina [Arctous alpinus] ) . Above the zone of Japanese-stone-pine groves
lies the alpine zone of bald summits, with many lichens, as well as some
of the higher plants; alpine ptarmiganberry, ledum, cowberry, black
crowberry, an arctic species of diapensia ( Diapensiaceae ) , severny zldk
( "northern grass" ) , alpine sweet grass ( Hierochloe alpina ) , rhododendron
(Rhododendron chrysanthuni) , Japanese stone pine, and shrub birch.
Here, as is usually true throughout the Trans-Baikal ( but not, for example,
in the Altay), there is no belt of wet meadows in the alpine zone.

In the region of Mount Sokhondo, in the southern Trans-Baikal, there
are larch forests with Japanese stone pine at lower elevations; there are
also some pine, birch, and aspen. Tree vegetation extends up to 2000
m. Under the taiga the soils are slightly podzolic. Higher up lies a sub-
alpine shrub belt of Japanese stone pine. East Siberian dwarf birch
(Betula exilis), rhododendron (Rhododendron chrysanthuni), and juni-

^ V. N. Sukachev, "Rastitelnost verkhney chasti basseina r. Tungira Olekminskovo
okr. Yakutskoy obi." (Vegetation of the Upper Part of the Tuiigir River Basin in
Olekminsk Oknig of Yakutsk Oblast), Trudy Amursk. eksp. (Proceedings of the
Amur Expedition), No. 16, botan. issled. (Botanical Survey), 1910 g., Vol. 1, St.
Petersburg, 1912, p. 286. Formerly these localities did not belong to the administrative
unit of the Trans-Baikal.

310 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

per {Juniperus davurica). Below the rock-strewn summits there are
glades, which bear a variegated carpet of dicotyledons; such glades
are rare in the Trans-Baikal.

Fauna

The fauna of the Trans-Baikal displays the same intermixture of
steppe and taiga forms as does the vegetation. In the steppe and forest-
steppe areas the suslik {Citellus eversmanni and C. dauricus), Mongolian
bobac (the marmot Marmota sibirica), jerboa {Allactaga saltator mon-
golica [A. sibirica mongolica]), Dahurian hamster {Cricetulus furuncu-
lus [C. barabensis]) , Siberian red-backed mouse {Evotomys rutilus
[Clethrionoinys rutilus]), various species of meadow mice of the genus
Microtus, Dahurian burrowing rat (Myospalax dybowski), and hare
(Lepus tolai) are common. Many Mongolian birds nest here: the sheld
duck (Tadorna tadorna), ruddy sheldrake (T. jerruginea [Casarca fer-
ruginea]), Indian goose {Anser indicus)^ saker falcon {Falco cherrug),
demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo), Siberian bustard {Otis tarda
dybowskii), avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta), Mongolian lark {Melaiio-
corypha mongolica), and others.

The Trans-Baikal taiga contains bear, sable, glutton, wolf, northern
dhole, lynx, squirrel, flying squirrel {Pteromys volans), birch mouse
(Sicista montana [S, betulina montana]), mountain sheep, roebuck,
Manchurian red deer, elk, and reindeer {Rangifer angustirostris [R. ta-
randus angustirostris] ) . There are many East Siberian taiga birds.

The rose finch (Carpodacus roseus) and the pine grosbeak {Pinicola
enucleator) are characteristic of the Japanese-stone-pine thickets in the
Trans-Baikal; in fact, they are characteristic of eastern Siberia in gen-
eral.

The tundra ptarmigan {Lagopus mutus), dotterel (Eudromias mori-
nellus), and homed lark {Eremophila alpestris jiava [Otocoris alpestris
flava] ) , nest in the alpine zone. A remarkable shore bird, the Polynesian
tattler (Heteractites incana brevipes [Heteroscelus brevipes]), nests in
the Baikal area; the nearest relative of this bird nests in Alaska. The
rock thrush {Monticola saxatilis turkestanica) nests on the rocky preci-
pices of the northern Baikal area; this bird, which is native to dry and
warm countries (for example, the Crimea), is undoubtedly a relict of
the xerothermic period.

The amphibians of the Trans-Baikal (Nerchinsk, Troitskosavsk) in-
clude the Asiatic tree frog {Hyla stepheni).

XVI ■ Mountains of Northeastern Siberia

THIS region includes the Verkhoyansk, Chersky, and
Kolyma ( Gydan ) ranges, and the heights of Chukotsk
National okrug.

Rdid

During recent years considerable changes have taken place in our con-
ceptions of the Verkhoyansk system, which lies east of the middle and
lower course of the Lena. Suess, in agreement with Maidel, held that the
Verkhoyansk range merges on the southeast into the Kolyma range,
which lies along the northern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk. But the most
recent investigations have shown ^ that to the east of Okhotsk ( village )
there is no continuous latitudinal range. (Maidel continued the Kolyma
Mountains far to the west, while in fact they do not extend west of the
Yama River, which empties into the Sea of Okhotsk at Yamsk. )

Tectonically the Verkhoyansk range appears to be a continuation of
the Dzhugdzhur (Aldan) range, which lies along the western shore of
the Sea of Okhotsk.

The Verkhoyansk system includes tlie Verkhoyansk range; the Tas-
Kystabyt range, which lies west of the Chersky range; the Chersky range;
and several otlier elevations in Northeast Asia. The development of dis-
located Triassic marine sediments is common to all of these ranges. The
folding took place roughly from east to west.

The Verkhoyansk range lies on the water di\'ide between the Lena, tlie
Yana, and a part of the Indigirka. To the north it extends as far as the
Arctic Ocean, and to the south as far as the Suantar River, which lies in
the basin of the upper reaches of the Indigirka.

^ S. Obruchev, "Kolymsko-indigirsky kray, Geograf. i geolog. ocherk" (Kohma-
Indigirka Kray, Geographical and Geological' Sketch ) , Trudy Soveta po izuch. proizv.
sUy ser. yakut ( Proceedings of the Council for the Study of Productive Forces, Yaku-
tian Series), No. 1, 1931, with map. U. A. BiUbin, "O khrebtakli severo-vostoka Azii"
(Concerning the Ranges of Northeastern Asia), Froblemy sov. geoJcgii (Problems in
Soviet Geology), 1935, No. 12, pp. 1079-1085.

311

312 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Bilibin (1935) draws the Verkhoyansk range as far south as the lower
course of the Yudoma River (a tributary of the Maya). Here, to the east
of that part of the Aldan which flows from south to north, lie mountain
chains with individual peaks up to 1800 m. in elevation; these chains
are composed of Lower Paleozoic limestones, and, like the strata of which
they are composed, are oriented in a northeast direction. Bilibin calls
these chains the Setta-Daban.

In the south, in the region of the upper Indigirka, the elevations of the
range reach 2500 m.; in the region of the road from Yakutsk to Verkho-
yansk, 2000 m.; the range decreases in elevation to the north. The Ver-
khoyansk range belongs to the category of folded ranges; it is composed
predominantly of a thick series of shales and sandstones ("the Verkho-
yansk complex" ) of Upper Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic
age. There are no extensive Lower Paleozoic deposits in the Verkhoyansk
range. The last of the folding movements which gave rise to the range
took place at the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Jurassic.^
During the Middle Jurassic the sea withdrew from the region of the
range. The presence of terraces 300 to 350 m. above the valley bottoms
(A. Grigor)'ev, 1926) indicates that an uplift took place during the post-
Tertiary period.

Vanyushin ( 1937 ) points out that the Verkhoyansk range, in tlie region
between the Vilyuy and the Aldan rivers, must be considered not as a
folded range, but as an uplifted peneplain, that is, a range of the massif
type. The summits of many of the mountains have the character of a
plain, so that they present the appearance of table mountains; in general,
long chains are absent, but there are many large elevations which consist
of flat, undissected plateaus.

Looking down at the district from the high mountains, a picture typical for
the Verkhoyansk region unfolds before the observer: as far as the eye can
reach, there lie numerous separate, chaoticaUy disposed, sandstone-shale moun-
tains of the table type, approximately of the same height; they have gentle con-
tours in the basin of the Yana River, and sharper relief in the direction of the
Lena basin.

According to this observer, S. S. Vanyushin, the region of the Verklioy-
ansk range constituted a peneplain, which was uplifted during the
Upper Tertiary period, and then dissected by river erosion.^

2 N. P. Kherasko^^ "Skliema tektoniki Verkliovanskoy skladchatoy zony" (Scheme
of the Tectonics of the Verkhoyansk Folded Region), Pwbleniy sou. geohgii (Prob-
lems in Soviet Geology), 193.5, No. 4, pp. 388-^82.

^ S. S. Van\-ushin, "Fiziko-geograficheslcy ocberk zapaduo-verkhoyanskovo rudnovo
raiona" (Physical-Geographical Sketcli of the West-Verkhoyajask Mining Region),
Izv. Geogr. obshch. (Report of the Geographical Society), Vol. 69, 1937, pp. 783-788.

MOUNTAINS OF NOliT II EAST KHN SlhLRIA 313

The range bears traces of no less than two glaciations. On the Aldan
slope glaciers ol the alpine type descended at one time as far as the
Aldan valley.

In the upper Indigirka region lies the Oimekon Plateau, which does
not exceed 1500 m. in elevation. It is noted for its low winter tempera-
tures, which rival those of Verkhoyansk.

The Chersky range (or Ulakhan-Chistay), which consists of several
parallel chains, cuts across the upper course of the Indigirka and the
Kolyma. The Chersky range is little known, and Bilibin doubts even that
it exists as a separate orographic entity, maintaining that, at least in the
southern part, it is not a folded range, but a "vast upland consisting of
elevations of approximately uniform height, composed of sedimentary
rocks, among which rise individual granite massifs." In any case, in the
region where it crosses the Indigirka, the range, or upland, or plateau-
whatever it may be called in this place— reaches elevations of 2000 to
2500 m., and perhaps even higher. Both the Kolyma and the Indigirka
cut the range at right angles in narrow gorges, or "rift" valleys. The rift
valley of the Indigirka, which passes through the highest part of the
range, is particularly majestic; here the valley floor lies 1500 to 2000 m.
below the summit of the range. Part of the range extends beyond the
Kolyma onto the Pacific slope, in the direction of the Sea of Okhotsk.
Along the Pacific the mountain ranges usually lie parallel to the contour
of the shore, but in this place the Triassic folds lie SSE-NNW, while the
shore trends east and west.

The Chersky range consists fundamentally of the same thick folded
series of rocks (the Verkhoyansk complex) as the Verkhoyansk range;
on the north it joins chains which consist predominantly of Paleozoic
deposits; in both formations granite intrusions, which compose the high-
est parts of the chains, are very common.

Bilibin is inclined to call these Paleozoic chains a range, pointing out

that they are equivalent to the Tomus-Khay, or Garmvchan range,

which lies in the basins of the rivers Moma (a right tributary of the

Indigirka) and Yasachnaya (a left tributary of the Kolyma). The Garmy-

chan range continues west across the Moma basin along the left bank

of the Indigirka, and merges into the Tas-Khayakhtakh range,* which

lies on the watershed between the Indigirka and the Yana. At any rate,

the geological structure of the Tas-Khayakhtakh range is related very

closely to the structure of the Paleozoic chains of the Cherskv range;

granites are very extensive in both formations.

* Concerning this range, see V. A. Fedortsev, Izv. Gos. geogr. obshch. (Report of
the State Geographical Societ}'), 1935, No. 5, p. 592.

314 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

During the glacial period a tremendous ice sheet covered the Chersky
range. In the region where the Indigirka cuts through the range, glaciers
descended to an elevation of 400 m., as is evident from the presence of
moraines at this elevation. Some of the glaciers were over 150 km. long.

Between the Kolyma (Fig. 78) and its right tributary, the Omolon,
lies the Yukagirsk Plateau, which has an elevation of 300 to 800 m. It
is composed chiefly of horizontal Triassic deposits.

Along the shore of the Sea of Okhotsk, northeast from the Yama River
(which empties into the Sea of Okhotsk at Yamsk), lies the Kolyma,
or Gydan range, which has an average elevation of 1500 to 1600 m. in
the upper course of the Omolon River. The Kolyma (Gydan) range does
not reach as far north as the basin of the Bolshoy Anyuy River, a right
tributary of the Kol)Tna. Traces of former glaciation have been discov-
ered in this range.

On the watershed between the Anadyr and the rivers of the Arctic
Ocean basin lies the Anadyr range, with elevations over 2000 m.^ On the
northern shore of Kresta Bay lies Mount Matachingay (elevation about
2800 m.),*' the highest point in Chukotsk National okrug; it rises sharply
above the surrounding heights, which do not exceed 450 to 600 m.
Matachingay may be a volcano— andesites and liparites have been found
at its foot. In the vicinity of Matachingay traces of former glaciation are
very distinct.

From the Parapolsky Dol (which divides Kamchatka from the con-
tinent) the Koryak range extends to the northeast. The elevations do not
exceed 1500 m.

We must keep in mind that traces of ancient glaciation in north-
eastern Siberia are found only in the mountains. As in Alaska, there were
no glaciers in the lowlands. This fact is corroborated not only by geo-
morphological data, but also by evidence from the fields of botanical
and zoological geography.

Climate

Very little is known of the climate of the mountains of Northeast

Siberia, because there are no meteorological stations in the mountains.

However, the following data deserve mention. In the southern foothills

of the Verkhoyansk range, at an elevation of 1020 m., in lat. 64° N, lies

^ S. Obruchev, "Orografichesky ocherk Chukotskovo okruga" (Orographic Sketch
of Chukotsk Okrug), Trudy Arktich. inst. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute), LIV,
1936.

•^According to Litke (1828), the elevation of Matachingay is 2625 m.

MOUNTAINS Ol' NOliTH EASTERN SIBERIA 315

the Mangazeisk silver-lead deposit ( formerly the Semenov.sk mine ) ,
where meteorological observations, conducted during the course of one
year (1917-1918)/ showed that a large-scale inversion of temperature
takes place in winter. In January it is comparatively warm, the mean
temperature being — 29° C, while in Verkhoyansk it is — 50° C, and
in Yakutsk, — 43° C. The mean July temperature is only 8.3° C. There
was very little precipitation during that year, only 163 mm. (a maximum
in August, 44 mm. ) . In the upper reaches of the Indigirka, on the Oime-
kon Plateau, very low winter temperatures (lower than — 60'^ C.) have
been recorded during recent years.

Vegetation

In the Verkhoyansk range the Dahurian larch predominates. In the
foothill river valleys it is accompanied by Mongolian poplar; in some
places on sandy soils there grow small pine woods. In the mountains on
the southern slope, the larch is accompanied sporadically by birch; and
in the valleys, on the podzolic soils which lie above the flood plain, by
Siberian spruce. Along the streams and brooks there are small woods of
Mongolian poplar, willow, larch, and individual spruces. The larch forest
along the road from Yakutsk to Verkhoyansk rises to an elevation of
950 m., while individual larches occur even 100 m. higher. Above this
lies wooded tundra of recumbent birches {Betula middendorffii and
B. subtilis), recumbent Japanese stone pine, and a series of flowering
herbaceous plants. The pass lies here at an elevation of 1420 m.^ On the
northern slope of the Verkhoyansk range there is no spruce. To the east,
along the passes in the Indigirka basin, larch forests occur up to an eleva-
tion of 1400 m.** In the Chersky range near the Arctic Circle, on the Indi-
girka River, the timber line lies at an elevation of 650 m. As in the Ver-
khoyansk range, there is some Erman's birch {Betula crmani) in the
Chersky range.

East of the Kolyma basin the mountains are unforested, with this ex-

■^V. B. Shostakovich, "Materialy po klimahi Yakutskoy A.S.S.R." (Materials Con-
cerning tlie Climate of the Yakutsk A.S.S.R.), Mat. Yakut, kom. (Materials of the
Yakutian Commission), VI, 1927.

^ A. Birkenhof, in the publication Lesnic resurst/ Yakutii (Forest Resources of
Yakutiya), "Yakutskaya A.S.S.R." (The Yakutian A.S.S.R.), No. 3, izd. Akad. nauk
(publication of the Academy of Sciences), 1932, p. 14.

" S. N. Nedrigailo\-, Mat. Kom. po izuclienit/u Yakutii (Materials of tlie Commission
for the Study of Yakutiya), XII, 1928, pp. 356-361. According to Chersky ( 1893), on
the nortlieastern slope of the Verkhoyansk range, in lat. 63° N, the forest extends up
to 1730 m.; I have pointed out the improbability of this figure in Osnovtj klima-
tologii (Principles of Climatology), 1927, p. 255.

316 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

ception: along the upper course of the Anadyr and the middle course
of its tributary, the Main, there are larch forests.

The northernmost outposts of forest in northeastern Siberia are along
the right (northern) tributaries of the Maly Anyuy (a tributary of the
Kolyma); here Dahurian larch is found in lat. 69° N. In the upper reaches
of the Bolshoy and Maly Anyuy rivers, the larch, as has been pointed out,
extends into the basin of the Anadyr, but it has spread only along the
upper course, as far south as lat. 65° N.

Along the river valleys of Anadyr kraij, beyond the boundary of con-
tinuous forests, are scattered small woods of Mongolian poplar {Populus
suaveolens) and the relict Korean willow (Salix macrolepis) ; here and
there on the elevated portions of the valleys there are small islands of
white birch (Betiila cajanderi). In the valley of the Anadyr, Japanese
stone pine {Pinus ptimila) is widespread; there is Japanese stone pine
lower down also, next to the flood plain, as well as on the hills and on
the mountain slopes; in some places it forms vast impassable thickets
(L. Portenko).

At one time, apparently during the xerothermic period, forests occu-
pied a greater extent in Anadyr kroij, but today they have been replaced
by tundra or wooded tundra.

In the Verkhoyansk and Kolyma (Gydan) ranges, as in the adjoining
lowlands, forests of Dahurian larch, with an undergrowth of Japanese
stone pine, predominate. Poplar and willows grow in the valleys. In the
mountains of the Anadyr and Penzhina basins, a subalpine type of vege-
tation is widespread; it takes the form of Japanese-stone-pine groves with
Manchurian alder (Ahnis fruticosa) and shrubby MiddendorfFs birch
(Betula middendorffii) , and with a great many lichens. On the Chukotsk
Peninsula and in the Anadyr range, lichen tundras and areas covered
with talus predominate.

Fauna
The fauna of the mountains of northeastern Siberia has been little
studied. The mammals include the mountain sheep (Ovis nivicola),
which is found as far as Chukotsk National okrug; ^^ musk deer; black-
capped bobac {Marmota camtschatica bungei) , which is associated with
the high-mountain timdra; and Kolyma suslik (Citellus eversmanni hux-
toni), which does not ascend high into the mountains and is not found
in the Verkhoyansk range. Another animal found here is the lemminglike

^" According to the Luoravetlans, at one time the mountain sheep extended as far
as Cape Dezhnev.

MOUNTAINS OF NORTH EAST KHN SIBERIA 317

mountain vole {Arvicola Icnimina [Aschizonujs lemminus]). The suslik
and bobac go into hibernation during the cold period of the year, which
lasts eight to nine months, and sleep in the permanently frozen subsoil.
The presence of steppe rodents (suslik and bobac) so far north and up
in the mountains is curious. The squirrel, fox, and ermine are very
common in the mountain forests. In the Verkhoyansk range the Amur
lemming {Lemmus amurensis) has been found; apparently, it descended
from the mountains of eastern Siberia into the Amur basin during the
glacial period. Among the birds of economic importance, the capercaillie
(Tetrao parvirostris) and the hazel grouse {Tetrastes bonasia) axe
common. Other typical birds which nest in the mountains include the
harlequin duck, mountain-tundra ptarmigan, Polynesian tattler {Heter-
actitis incana brevipes [Hetcroscelus brevipes]), and Mongolian plover
(Aegialitis mongolus [Charadriiis mongolus]). The nutcracker {Nuci-
jraga caryocatactes inacrorhijnca ) is common in the thickets of Japanese
stone pine, where it feeds on the pine nuts. The tundra ptarmigan
(Lagopiis mutus) inhabits the rock-strewn areas overgrown with lichens.
The great knot (Erolia tenuirostris)^^ nests in the alpine zone of the
mountains of Anadyr kraij, at an elevation of 500 to 600 m.

^^ L. A. Portenko, "Omitogeograficheskie sootnosheniya na krainem severo-vostoke
Palearktiki v svyazi s osobennostyami landshafta" ( Omithogeographical correlations
in the Extreme Northeast of the Palearctic, in Relation to the Landscape Features),
Pamyati M. A. Menzbira (In Honor of M. A. Menzbier), Moscow, 1937, izd. Akad.
nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences), p. 395.

XVII ■ Mountains of the Far East

(THE AMUR BASIN)

THIS CHAPTER DEALS with the Amur basin,
except for the Shilka and Argun basins, which
are described in Chapter XV.

Relief
Geographers at one time pictured the Stanovoy range, which they
drew from the Trans-Baikal to Bering Strait, as lying on the watershed
between the Arctic and the Pacific oceans. This conception originated
in the first half of the seventeenth century, when the Cossacks from
Yakutsk penetrated across the mountains to the Sea of Okhotsk in one
direction, and in the other, into the Amur basin, at the point where the
Zeya empties into the Amur and where Blagoveshchensk stands today
(Poyarkov in 1644). But this conception is inadmissible, first of all,
because the outlying spurs of the Chersky range (pp. 313-314), which
extend as far as the northern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk, cross the expanse
of the conjectural Stanovoy range at a right angle. Furthermore, as Kropot-
kin wrote, back in 1875, "there does not exist any single range— either
high or low, either steep or flat— which lies along the watershed between
the waters of the Pacific and the Arctic oceans." Kropotkin referred to
the region of the upper Olekma. The most recent investigations confirm
anew Kropotkin's conception, concerning not only the upper reaches of
the Olekma, but also, to the best of our knowledge, the region as far as
the upper reaches of the Zeya, as well. The rivers of the Lena and Amur
basins do not have their source in a water-divide range, but originate on
a rather high plateau bordered on the north and south by ranges across
which rivers force their way either toward the Lena or toward the Amur.
The border range which faces the Lena basin is usually called the Stano-
voy, but it does not have any significance as a water divide.
318

MOUNTAINS OF THE FAR EAST

319

The Stanovoy range in the upper roaches ol tlie Zeya was explored
by Prokhorov in 1911. The watershed between the Zeya and the Lena
basins is a plateau, lying at an absolute elevation of 1300 to 1450 m. and
covered with lakes and low ridges. On the north and on the south this
plateau is bordered by mountain chains. The highest chain, which, as
we have said, may be called the Stanovoy range, lies on the north. It is
interesting to note that the rivers of the Lena basin have their source
not on the northern slope of this chain (that is, not in the Stanovoy
range), but at the foot of its southern slope; they cut across the chain
transversely. The elevations of the main chain of the Stanovoy range,
which drops sharply to the north, reach 2000 to 2500 m. The southern,
secondary chain is much lower; the peaks here do not exceed 1400 m.
in elevation.

Today the name Stanovoy is given to the system of ranges which lie
between the upper reaches of the Aldan River and its tributary the Maya.
The structure and tectonic history of the Stanovoy range are the same
as those of the northern Trans-Baikal and the Olekma-Vitim mountain
country, and the principal folding in all of these regions is attributed
to the Lower Paleozoic.

To the west the Stanovoy merges into the system of chains which are
known as the Olekma-Baikal system.^ This system, which extends from the
upper reaches of the Aldan to the northern end of Lake Baikal, is com-
posed of two ranges: the eastern, which hes between the big rapids on
the Olekma in lat. 57° N and the region in which the Muya empties into
the Vitim, is the Udokan range; west of the Vitim lies the other range-
the South-Muya. The Olekma-Baikal system lies approximately east-
northeast. Tlie elevations in this system reach 2000 m.; elevations of
2800 m. and more have been reported in the Udokan range, but these
figures are not reliable. In the Udokan and neighboring ranges there are
distinct traces of glaciation.- At the eastern end of tlie Udokan range, in
the region where it approaches the Olekma River, it joins the north-
eastern end of the Yablonovy range; this mountain country is strongly
dissected.

According to V. Obruchev, the Olekma-Baikal range is part of tlie
Stanovoy system, but I do not agree. The Stanovoy range was under-

1 For details see L. S. Berg, Uclienie zap. Mosk. univ. ( Scientific Report of Mos-
cow University), (Geography), 1938, p. 62.

2 A. A. Arsenyev, "K geomorfologii Olekmo-Vitimskoy gomoy strany" ( Concerning
the Geomorphology of tSe Olekma-Vitim Mountain Country), BvuU. Mosk. obshch.
isp. prir. (Bulletin of the Moscow Society for Natural Research), otd. geol. (Geo-
logical Section), XV, 1937, pp. 42^-431.

320 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

stood originally to be a range lying at least approximately in the region
of the watershed between the Lena and the Aninr; the Olekma-Baikal
range, however, belongs entirely to the Lena system.^

The Bureya range, or the Little Khingan, begins in the upper reaches
of the Selemdzha, crosses the upper course of the Bureya, and then
extends toward the Amur, with the Bureya on its right side. In the north
this range reaches elevations over 2000 m.* In addition to deep-lying
igneous and metamorphic rocks, it contains undisturbed Paleozoic, as
well as Mesozoic rocks. Where the Bureya Mountains cross the Amur,
the river flows through a narrow gorge, which has sheer cliffs in some
places.

Between the Ussuri River and the lower Amur on the west, and the
Sea of Japan and Tatar Strait on the east, lies the Sikhote-Alin mountain
system, consisting of a series of ranges extending in a northeast-southwest
direction. In the south the Sikhote-Alin extends as far as Vladivostok. It
does not follow that the highest range of the Sikhote-Alin lies on the
water divide between the Sea of Japan, on the one hand, and the Ussuri
and tlie Amur, on the other; the sources of the rivers of both these basins
often extend to the opposite slope.

According to the character of the seacoast, the eastern slope of the
Sikhote-Alin may be divided into two strikingly different sections. The
southern, from Peter the Great Bay to Olga Bay, is strongly dissected,
and has many indentations. The northern, from Olga Bay to DeCastries
Bay, has undissected shores; here, with the exception of Sovetskaya
Gavan, there is not one bay. The explanation for these differences in
the coast line lies in the fact that to the north of Olga Bay the shore lies
parallel to the chains of the Sikhote-Alin, while to the south tlie shore
line cuts across the mountain chains at a right angle, to form Posyet,
Amur, Ussuri, and other bays, as well as a number of islands (Putyatin,
Askold, Russky, and others).

Individual peaks almost reach (in tlie south, northeast of Suchan)
or somewhat exceed (in the north, in lat. 48/2° N) 1900 m.^ The mean
elevation of the peaks is 650 to 850 m.

At the extreme soutli, in Suchan raion, the highest peaks only slightly

^ See Berg, op. cit.

* S. L. Kushe\% "K geomorfologii Bureinskovo klirebta" ( Concerning tlie Geomor-
phology of tlie Bureya Range), Am^uii-Srlrtndzhinskwja eksp. ( Amgun-Selemdzha
Expedition), T, 1934, izd. Akad. uauk (^publication of the Academy of Sciences).

^ The highest point is Moiont Komaro\- (elevation 1940 m.), in the upper reaches
of the Kopi River (A. YemelyanoA , Izt. Dalne-Vostochtwvo filiala Akad. nauk
[Report of the Far Eastern Branch of tlie Academy of Sciences], 1937).

' V.'<fW-^ . >^^ti^it,

Fig. 76. Munku-Sardyk Glacier and Mt. Munku-Sardyk in the Eastern Sayans.
(Sovetskaya Sibirskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 1; 200)

Fig. 77. Lake Baikal in November. The steep shore at Malie Koty. (Sovetskaya
Sibirskaya Entsiklopedia. Vol. 1: 200)

P

%vr

^>

Fig. 80. Primeval stand of birch (Befu/o ermani) in Kamchatlca. (Vegefat'ionsbilder.
Vol. 23; port 1/2; plate 8)

Fig. 81. Angelica ursina in a well drained valley meadow in Kamchatka. (Vege-
tationsb/Mer. Vol. 23; part 1/2; plate 5)

MOUNTAINS OF THE I' AH EAST 321

exceed 1300 in. The range is built ol igneous, metamorphic, and sedi-
mentary Paleozoic rocks. There are also basalt fields which form table
mountains. The extrusion of these basalts took place at different periods;
there are some pre-Tertiary basalts, but there are also some which were
extruded during the Quaternary period. Along the borders Carbonifer-
ous, Triassic, and Jurassic deposits have been found; these, however, are
not a part of the structure of the range itself. The Sikhote-Alin is a folded
range, formed by folding which began during the Lower Cretaceous
period. In Suchan rich deposits of coal are being worked; they underlie
the Nikansk series (Upper Cretaceous to Lower Jurassic). At Tetyukhe
(north of Olga Bay) there is a lead-zinc deposit, which lies in the form
of a lens along the boundary between the porphyry and the limestones
(probably Triassic). Terraces containing the shells of mollusks which
still inhabit the Sea of Japan are found on the shore of that sea; they
indicate that a shifting of the coast line has taken place.

Climate
Little is known about the climate of the mountains of the Far East.
The monsoon type of climate is clearly in evidence ( see above, pp. 60-62 ) .
Moist and cool winds from the sea prevail in summer and dry and cold
winds from the land in winter. Thus, at Vladivostok, in summer, SE and
S winds prevail; in winter, N, NW, and NE winds. The temperature is
lowered severely when the ice melts in the Sea of Okhotsk. At Ayan,
which lies on the shore of the Sea of Okhotsk only slightly north of the
parallel of Moscow, the warmest month, August, has a mean temperature
of only 12.6° C. (that is, 6° C. cooler than the warmest month in Mos-
cow). As a result of the cool summer and the proximity to the ocean,
forest vegetation does not rise high up into the mountains of the Far
East; on the side of the Sikhote-Alin which faces the ocean, north of lat.
44° N, elevations over 1200 to 1300 m. are usually unforested. On the
other hand, because of the sparsity of winter precipitation, there are no
glaciers in the mountains of the Far East (with the exception of Kam-
chatka, which will be discussed below).

Soils
Slightly podzolic stony soils predominate, with patches of peat-bog
soils among the crags and in the areas covered with talus. In the north
of Amur oblast, on the above-mentioned (pp. 318-319) watershed plateau
of the Stanovoy range, at an elevation of 1300 to 1500 m., bog and half-
bog soils predominate; on these there grow thickets of rough bluejoint

322 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

reed grass {Calamagrostis langsdorjii [C. canadensis scabra]). Here also
in some places there are half-bog podzolic soils, covered with forests of
Dahurian larch, with an undergrowth of Japanese stone pine and shrubby
Middendorff's birch {Betula middendorffii) .

Under the broad-leaved forests of Ussuri kraij, the podzolic horizon
has a gray-yellow color, as do the podzolic soils of the warm-temperate
regions of Europe.

Vegetation

The forest vegetation of the Far East consists of three types : ( 1 ) The
East Siberian vegetation consists predominantly of Dahurian larch.
( 2 ) The arctic, or so-called Okhotsk vegetation is characterized by Yeddo
spruce, Erman's birch, Khingan fir, and some Dahurian larch; .the shores
of the Sea of Okhotsk and the lower reaches of the Amur are part of
the region in which this vegetation is developed. (3) Finally, along the
middle course of the Amur, in the Ussuri basin, and in the southern
Sikhote-Alin there is found a third t)'pe of vegetation, the Manchurian,
which is characterized by a profusion of broad-leaved species (oak,
maples, ash, lindens, and others), a great many southern shrubs, Korean
pine, and a number of vines.

In the southern Sikhote-Alin all three types of vegetation are found:
at lower elevations, the Manchurian type, which in the extreme south
on the south-facing slopes extends no higher than 750 to 1000 m.; higher
up, the Okhotsk type; and still higher, the Siberian taiga of Dahurian
larch.

While tlie Manchurian element, particularly oak, makes it appearance,
as we have said earlier (pp. 63-64), even east of the confluence of the
Shilka and the Argun, it reaches considerable development only to the
east of the Bureya River.

In the Bureya range the Okhotsk type of forest predominates in the
north; the Manchurian t)^e in the south. In the northern part of the
range, forests of Dahurian larch and Yeddo spruce predominate; the
latter is found in the river valleys and also at the timber line, where it
grows in the subalpine coppices together with Japanese stone pine and
rhododendron; there is also some Erman's birch (Betula ermani). The
Asiatic white birch (B. platyphyUa) is found throughout. Yeddo spruce
(Picea jezoensis) is an ancient type, related to one of the spruces found
on the Balkan Peninsula; it grows in northern Japan, Korea, Manchuria,
in the Amur basin, on the Okhotsk coast, on Sakhalin, and in Kamchatka.

MOUNTAINS OF THE FAR EAST 323

At not very high elevations in the mountains, along the banks of streams,
there is Khingan fir (Abies nephrolepifi) (Sochava, 1934).

In the southern part of the Bureya range, the forests have an entirely
different appearance. Here on the eastern slope the following vegetation
may be seen: ^ At lower elevations, at the foot of the range, lie mixed-
herbaceous and shrub meadows, on which there are individual Mongolian
oak and Dahurian birch trees; the shrubs are lespedeza and Siberian
filbert. Higher up, on the southern slopes, there is park-land forest of
Mongolian oak [Quercus mongolica], Amur linden, and Dahurian birch,
with an undergrowth of the two shrubs mentioned above, together with
Dahurian rose (Rosa davurica). There is also some Amur grape (Viti.s
amurensis ) . In the lower and middle belts of the mountains grow Korean-
pine and broad-leaved forests composed of a great variety of trees and
shrubs. The following species are found here: Korean pine (Pinus
koraiensis) ; Amur linden (Tilia cordata amurensis [T. amurensis]);
Manchurian ash (Fraxinus 7nandshurica) ; Khingan fir; Mongolian oak
[Quercus mongolica]; mono maple (Acer mono), very closely related to
the European Norway maple; maackia (Maackia amurensis), a papili-
onaceous shrub; Amur lilac (Syringa amurensis); and Amur cork tree
(Phellodendron amurense—Y{uta.cea.e). The undergrowth is very profuse,
consisting of Manchurian filbert, honeysuckle, euonymus, aralia (Aralia
mandshurica) , "wild pepper" (Eleutherococcus senticosus [Acanihopanax
senticosus]—Ara\ia.ceae), and many other species. The trees and shrubs
are twined with vines, which include Amur grape, Chinese magnolia
vine (Schizandra chinensis), and kolomikta actinidia (Actinidia kolo-
mikta). The Chinese magnolia vine, which belongs to the magnolia
family, got its Russian name, limmonik, from the lemon odor emitted
by its bark; this plant is a Japanese-Chinese form, which extends about
as far north as the grape. The actinidia, which bears the local name of
kishmish, or "raisin," is also a vine ( Dilleniaceae ) ; A. kolomikta rises
rather high up into the mountains; its fruits are used for making com-
pote or jam.

Somewhat farther north, these Korean-pine and broad-leaved forests
of the Bureya range contain Yeddo spruce and Khingan fir. At elevations
of 600 to 900 m. lie spruce-fir forests of the Okhotsk type.

It is interesting to note that the river valleys, into which the cold au-

°V. P. Bayanova, "Medonosnie rasteniya Birobidzhana" (Melliferous Plants of
Birobidzhan), Trudy Dalne-Vostochnovo fiUala Akad. nauk (Proceedings of tlie Far
Eastern Branch of the Academy of Sciences), I, 1935, pp. 411-417.

324 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

descends, contain larch forests, vvliich extend into this area from the
northern part of the Bureya range.

The flood plains have forests which differ little in composition from
the Korean-pine and broad-leaved forests. Here the Manchurian walnut
(Juglans mandshurica) begins to appear.

Along the Amur the Korean-pine and broad-leaved forests extend
approximately as far as lat. 50° N; they reach up to 300 m. in elevation.
The Korean pine, however, extends somewhat farther north, as far as
the basin of the Garin River.

In the southern part of the Sikhote-Alin,^ Manchurian vegetation is
well represented; however, it does not ascend high up in the mountains.
At the extreme south, in Suchan raion, the vertical limits of the distribu-
tion of some representatives of the Manchurian flora are as follows
(I. Shishkin, 1923):

Table 26

DiSTHIBUTION OF MaNCHUHIAN FlOBA IN THE SOUTHERN SiKHOTE-AlIN

Species

Limits oi'

Distribution

M.)

Northern
Slopes

Southern
Slopes

Korean pine (Pinus koraien.'iis)
Oak {Quercus mongolica)
Maple {Acer pseudo-sieboldianum)
Filbert (Corylus mmidshurica [C sieholdiana mand-
shurica])
Grape {Vitis amurensi^)
Maackia {Maackia amuren^s)
Chinese magnolia vine (Schimndra chinensis)

930
450
530

585
415

1160
970
970

840
840
690
605

As a result of felling and fires, the mixed forests which contain Korean
pine turn into deciduous forests, often with spiny aralia (Aralia mand-
shurica ) predominating.

The vertical vegetation belts of the Sikhote-Alin, beginning at the
bottom, are as follows:

(1) In the southern Sikhote-Alin there are three types of Korean-pine
and broad-leaved forests:

a) Oak and Korean-pine and broad-leaved forests. The fundamental
forest-forming species here are the Mongolian oak [Quercus mongolica],

"^ D. P. Vorobyev, "Rastitelny pokrov yiizhnovo Sikhote-Alinya" (The Vegetation
Cover of the Southern Sikhote-Alin), Trudy Dalne-Vostochnovo filiala Akad. nauk
(Proceedings of the Far Eastern Branch of the Academy of Sciences), I, 1935,
pp. 287-372.

MOUNTAINS OF THE FAR EAST 325

Dahiirian birch (Betula davurica), and Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis ) ,
which reaches tremendous dimensions. As a result of felling and fires,
this type of forest turns into oak groves and shrub thickets, chiefly of
Siberian filbert and lespedeza; the latter shrub is one of the chief melli-
fers of this area.

b) Along the mountain slopes grow Korean-pine and broad-leaved
forests. The first layer society contains the gigantic Manchurian fir (Abies
holophtjlla) , which grows as tall as the Korean pine. This fir, native to
South Ussuri kray, Manchuria, and Korea, is not found in the moun-
tains above 300 to 400 m. In addition to Korean pine and fir, the first
layer society contains birch (Betula costata), Scotch elm (Ulmus mon-
tana heterophylla [U. glabra]), kalopanax (Kalopanax ricinifolia) , Amur
linden, mono maple (Acer mono), and, occasionally, cork tree and
enormous Mongolian oak trees. The second layer society consists of
Manchurian linden, hornbeam, maples, mazzard cherry, and Amur
lilac; sometimes there is Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata), related very
closely to the European species. The undergrowth is very rich in shrubs
—Manchurian filbert, "wild pepper," jasmine, various species of honey-
suckle, euonymus, currant, and others. This forest contains many grape-
vines, Chinese magnolia vine, and actinidia. In addition to the above-
mentioned actinidia ( Actinidia kolomikta ) , another species is found here
which grows only in South Ussuri kray; this is A. arguta, the largest of
the Ussuri vines, which has stems up to 16 cm. in diameter; its fruits are
eaten. The herbaceous cover contains many ferns. An epiphytic fern, the
linear polypody (Polypodiiim lineare), which is distributed from Japan
and China to the Tian Shan, is often found growing on the tree trunks.

c) Korean-pine and broad-leaved forests with an admixture of Yeddo
spruce, and with birch [Betula costata], Amur linden, maple (Acer
mono), Manchurian linden, and Scotch elm (Ulmus montana hete-
rophylla [ U. glabra] ) predominating, are found in the first layer society.
The second layer society contains maples, hornbeam, Miyama cherry
(Cerasus maximowiczi [Prunus maximowiczi]), maackia (Maackia
amurensis), and Khingan fir; among the vines, actinidia is common, and
there is some Chinese magnolia vine and grape; the undergrowth con-
tains Manchurian filbert, "wild pepper" (Eleutherococcus senticosus
[Acanthopanax senticosus]), aralia (Aralia mandshurica) , currant, and
jasmine. In the upper parts of the valleys, Yeddo spruce and Khingan fir
assume a great significance; Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense)
and Manchurian walnut (Juglans mandshurica) appear. These forests
rise to about 600 m. in the south. Farther north, in addition to Yeddo

326 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

spruce this type of forest also contains Siberian spruce, and there is a
great deal of Manchurian ash {Fraxinus mandshurica) .

In the extreme south of the Sikhote-Alin, in the Korean-pine and broad-
leaved forests, there is Korean Siberian spruce {Picea excelsa obovata n.
koraiensis [P. obovata koraiensis] ), closely related to the Siberian spruce.

(2) Higher up in the mountains, the Manchurian type of vegetation
(broad-leaved forests with Korean pine) is replaced by Okhotsk fir and
spruce forests of Yeddo spruce, accompanied in the second layer society
by Khingan fir (Abies nephrolepis) and Erman's birch (Betula ermani).
In the southern Sikhote-Alin Yeddo spruce and Khingan fir grow as far
as the upper limit of forest vegetation, but are found also in the valleys
along the middle courses of the rivers; in the north, however, they descend
as far as the seacoast. As distinguished from the Manchurian forest, the
Okhotsk type contains a vigorous moss cover. Although forests of this
type are found even in the extreme south of the Sikhote-Alin, they pre-
dominate in the northern part, north of the Samarga River, and also in
the lower reaches of the Amur. In this type of forest vines are either
completely absent or (as in the south) rare.

(3) Still higher appears the East Siberian type of vegetation— high-
mountain forest of Dahurian larch. It is represented by the same types
as are found in the Trans-Baikal: (a) with an undergrowth of Japanese
stone pine, (b) with an undergrowth of shrubby Middendorff's birch,
and (c) with an undergrowth of ericaceous undershrubs, among which
the chief element is not the common crystal tea ledum, as in the Trans-
Baikal, but the silvery ledum {Ledum hypoleucum) . After fires, the
larch is replaced by Japanese white birch (Betula japonica [B. platy-
phylla japonica] ) .

(4) In the subalpine zone there are stunted groves of creeping Japa-
nese stone pine and golden rhododendron. There are occasional coppices
of Erman's birch.

(5) On the bald summits and in areas covered with talus, lichens
(reindeer moss) predominate, among which grow many ericaceous
plants: ledum, cowberry, cassiope, rhododendron, and others. There are
also dryads, and stunted groves which contain the same species as the
subalpine strip. Finally, there is microbiota, the coniferous Microbiota
decussata [Thuja orientalis?], which resembles the juniper; this shrub or
small tree, which grows up to 5 m. tall, is native to the upper zones of
the mountains— above 500 m. and as high as 1550 m.; it belongs to a
genus which is endemic in the Sikhote-Alin.

It is worth noting that in the valleys of the Sikhote-Alin the broad-

MOUNTAINS OF THE FAR EAST 327

leaved Manchurian forest contains an admixture of Yeddo and Siberian
spruce, species which are native to the zone which lies above the broad-
leaved forests. The valleys of the rivers which empty into the sea contain
characteristic park-land Hood-plain forests of Japanese poplar {Populus
maximowiczi) , which grows tremendously tall— as tall as 45 m. In these
forests there are a great many species of deciduous trees and shrubs. In
some places, lying along the border of the flood plain, there are long
and narrow thickets of the singular Korean willow, Salix (Chosenia)
macrolepis.

On the eastern slope of the Sikhote-Alin, between lat. 43° and 4432° N,
and from the seacoast up to an elevation of 1100 m., there grows the
peculiar Korean Dahurian larch (Larix olgensis [L. gmelini olgensis]),
which does not extend as far as the timber line.

Fauna

The southern Sikhote-Alin contains a number of Manchurian animal
forms which do not ascend high into the mountains. These include the
Japanese deer (Cervus nippon [Sika nippon]), which is found between
Olga Bay, the Iman River, and Lake Khanka, as well as in the adjoining
parts of Manchuria and Korea; in the southern part of the Primorye this
deer is bred for its antlers, which are sold in China. Among the other
animals are the Himalayan black bear {Selenarctos tibetanus ussuricus),
native also to the Bureya range and Japan; Ussuri elk; Amur goral
(Nemorhaedus goral); yellow-throated marten {Martes flavigula [M.
(Lamprogale) flavigula borealis]); and Amur badger {Meles amurensis
[M. leptorhynchus amurensis]); the sable and musk deer are Siberian
forms found here.

The Siberian spruce grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis) , a member of
the grouse family, closely related to the North American Canace cana-
densis [Canachites canadensis canace], is associated with the region of
Okhotsk flora, and particularly with the forests of Yeddo spruce.

Siberian forms predominate in the northern ranges.

XVIII -Sakhalin'

THE island of Sakhalin, over 950 km. in length, lies
approximately between the latitudes of Tula and
Odessa. Only the northern half of the island, from lat. 50° N, belongs
to the U.S.S.R.*

It will be recalled that during the first half of the last century, Sakhalin
was considered a peninsula, connected with the continent south of the
mouth of the Amur River. However, two hundred years before that
time, it was known to Russians that Sakhalin was an island. Thus, in the
curious "Account of the Great River Amur, Which Divides the Russian
Settlement from the Chinese," a document drawn up during the last
half of the seventeenth century (before 1689), we find the following
statement:

One of the mouths of the famous great river Amur, which is mountainous
and forested, empties into the ocean, and opposite that mouth there is a great
island; and on that island live many foreigners, the Gilijak peoples. Their yurts
are of hewn wood, and they wear clothes made of sable and fox and animal
skins, and ride on dog-drawn sledges in winter, and in summer on the water in
boats, and they keep from 500 to 1000 dogs in tiieir settlements; they subsist on
all kinds of animals and fish.-

Without any doubt it was Sakhalin which was being described.

Opposite Cape Lazareva, Sakhalin is separated from the continent by
a strait only 7.5 km. wide. This strait is named after Nevelsky, who dis-
covered it in 1849.

^ D. V. Sokolov and N. N. Tikhonovich, Sakhalin (priroda, naselenie, hogatstva)
(Sakhalin [Natural Features, Population, Resources]), Moscow, 1925, p. 126, with
map.

* Tlie entire island is, of course, now Soviet, the southern half having been oc-
cupied by Soviet forces in August, 1945. Berg describes the northern half of the
island only.— Tr.

2 See A. Titov, Sihir v XVII veke (Siberia in the Seventeenth Century), Moscow,
1890, p. 110.

328

SAKHALIN 329

Rchd

From the Japanese Ijoundary almost as far as lat. 51'' N, mountain
ranges lie along each coast; from lat. 51" to 51)2'* N, the ranges decrease
in elevation and recede somewhat from the shore; finally, still farther
north, there are areas of lowland up to 30 km. wide along the shore, and
the height of the mountains diminishes still further, exposing this part
of the island to cold winds from the Sea of Okhotsk. The eastern range,
which is higher in elevation, in the south (lat. 50>r N) reaches 2013 m.
in Mount Nevelsky; this is the highest elevation on Sakhalin. The west-
em range is called the Kamyshevy range, after the thickets of bamboo
(locally known as kamysh); in the south it reaches elevations of 1022 m.
The northern tip of Sakhalin, which is called Schmidt Peninsula ( in honor
of the scholar F. B. Schmidt, who explored Sakhalin), reaches elevations
of 708 m.

South of lat. 52° N, in the middle of the island (as also in the middle
of Kamchatka), lies a lowland, drained by the Tym River in the north
and the Poronay in the south. This lowland, bordered on the east and
west by mountains, is from 5 to 30 km. wide, and up to 150 m. in eleva-
tion. As it is sheltered from winds, it has a relatively more continental
climate than the coasts, and is better suited for agriculture than any
other part of the region.

Wide lagoons, separated from the ocean by long and narrow sand
spits, and kept fresh by the rivers which empty into them, are very
characteristic of the eastern coast. These lagoons are comparable to the
Frisches HaflF, Kurisches Haff, and other lagoons of the Baltic Sea. They
afford easy and safe communication for tens of kilometers. Steamers
are able to enter some of them.

The structure of Sakhalin includes igneous rocks (s\^enites, diabases,
andesites, porphyries, and basalts, but no granites); metamorphic rocks
of Paleozoic age; and, finally. Cretaceous, Tertiary, and post-Pliocene
sedimentary deposits. Among the Cretaceous deposits, black or dark-
gray argillaceous shales predominate. The Tertiary deposits are devel-
oped predominantly in tlie western range, in the northern part of tlie
eastern range, and on Schmidt Peninsula.

The deposits of the Tertiar\^ and to some e.xtent also of the Cretaceous
system, are very rich in coal of excellent quality. The greatest coal-bearing
regions are the we-stem coast, tlie central lowland, and, finall\-, the eastern
strip ( west of the region of oil-bearing deposits ) . In some places in the

330 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Tertiary deposits on the eastern coast there are oil beds; these are found
occasionally also on the western coast.

Post-Tertiary marine deposits, developed up to elevations of 60 to
120 m., and in some places, on the western coast, up to 275 m. (Krish-
tofovich), form distinct terraces (usually four) along the shores.

All of the Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of Sakhalin are strongly
dislocated; folding was accompanied by radial displacements. The chief
epoch of mountain-formation was during the period between the PHo-
cene and the beginning of the post-Tertiary marine transgression, the
deposits of which lie horizontally or nearly so. Before the post-Tertiary
transgression, Sakhalin was connected with the continent in the region
of Nevelsky Strait. No traces of glaciation have been discovered on
Sakhalin.

Climate

The climate of Sakhalin is more severe than might be expected from
the position of the island. The summer is cool and the winter cold; the
explanation lies in the cold winds— in summer, south, southeast, and east,
blowing from the cold sea; in winter, northwest, that is, from the region
of the Siberian anticyclone. The eastern coast has a more severe climate
than the western. The climate is milder in the central lowland. Although
frosts of almost — 50° C. occur here in winter, in summer the temperature
rises to over 30° C. In spring there is a period of drought, while in
summer and autumn there are monsoon rains. At the beginning of June,
the summer is in full swing in the central lowland, while along the
eastern and northwestern coast tliere is snow until July, when the scant
vegetation is just beginning to come to life on the permanently frozen
soil (Krasyuk, 1927).

Winter on Sakhalin is long, bitter, and windy. All of these factors are
adverse to the cultivation of winter grains, but spring wheat yields an
excellent harvest in the central lowland.

The climate in the interior of the island and along the coast may be
compared by examination of the mean monthly temperatures for Alek-
sandrovsk and Kirovskoye, which lie in the same latitude (Table 27,
p. 331). The data show that the summer temperature is almost the same
in both localities, while the winter is somewhat milder on the coast. Pre-
cipitation is greatest in summer and autumn, when the moist sea monsoon
blows, and least in winter. The number of days with precipitation is great.
Snow remains m the mountains until the middle of August, but there
are no everlasting snows. The mean annual figure for cloudiness on

SAKHALIN

331

Table 27
Climate of Aleksandrovhk and Kirovskote, on Sakhaun

,Ja.n.

Fkb.

MAiirii

Al'ItIL

Mav

Ju.Nt

JCLV

.\L<J.

.-Kfl.

Oct.

.Nov.

Dfx. 1 YtAK

Aleksuii-

drov.sk *

temperature

(°C.)

— Ii).l

-15.0

-'.(.0

-0.2

.').2

10.8

ir>..'>

10.2

12.0

4.1

-.0.6

-Vi.'.i

0.0

Kirovskoye

village t

temperature

(°C.)

-23.4

-18.4

-11.1.'

-0.9

.^..3

11.4

10.2

1.0.7

10.0

2.0

-8.8

-ISA

-1.0

Precipitation

(mm.)

17

14

-•'

31

3.".

46

70

87

88

81

41

33

o66

* On the west coast, hit. 50° 54' N, absohite elevation 16 ra., 1881-1915.
fOn the Tym River, lat. 50° 44' N, absolute elevation 125 m.; temperature, 1881-1915;
precipitation, 1886-1904.

Sakhalin is about the same as on the shores of the Gulf of Finland,
60 to 65 per cent, but its seasonal distribution is entirely different. On
Sakhalin cloudiness is greatest in summer, least in winter and spring;
cloudy days are most numerous in summer, clear days, in winter; this
distribution is a result of the monsoon climate.

The Sakhalin coast is famous for its fogs, which often last for weeks
at a time. As one ascends into the mountains, the fogs disappear; fogs are
few also in the central part of the island. On the eastern coast the most
persistent fogs occur in May, June, and July; fogs are uncommon in
winter.

Permanent ground frost is very widespread, although not continuous.
The rivers on Sakhalin are covered with ice from the beginning of Decem-
ber to the middle of April. The open sea does not freeze along the eastern
coast or in the southern part of Tatar Strait; but near the shores and in
the bays along the eastern coast there is ice. The Amur estuary and the
Gulf of Sakhalin also freeze annually.

High water in the rivers occurs three times a year— in spring, due to
the melting of snows in the valleys; somewhat later, due to the melting
of mountain snows; and, finally, in the latter half of the summer, due to
rains.

Soils

The soils of Sakhalin belong to the podzolic, bog, and alluvial t^'pes.
Alluvial soils developed in the central lowland are very fertile. They
have a clay-loam texture and granular structure, and contain 6 to 8 per
cent humus and a great deal of phosphorus. "Apparently," says Krasyuk,
"annually over a long period of time masses of salmonid species died

332 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

along the river banks and were covered with silt; as they decayed, they
enriched the soil with humus, phosphorus, and nitrogen, thereby con-
tributing to the richness of the alluvial soils." ^ These soils yield an
excellent wheat haivest. On the alluvial soils in the Tym valley there
are tall herbaceous meadows ( with scattered clumps of birch ) or spruce-
fir forests.

Vegetation

The flora of Sakhalin belongs, in general, to the Okhotsk type, but
includes also a certain admixture of Manchurian elements, which in-
crease in number as one moves south. But even in the northern part of
the island, we find in the west such plants as the Mongolian oak [Quer-
cus mongolica], ukurundu maple [Acer caudatum ukurunduense?],
Manchurian ash, elm, "wild pepper" [Acanthopanax senticosus], and
others. The presence of bamboo, which grows only in the western range,
is very characteristic.

Like the opposite shore of Tatar Strait, Sakhalin lies in the taiga zone.
Spruce-fir forest predominates, often with an admixture of birch. All of
the foothills and mountains are covered with these forests, which grow
on podzolized clays or clay loams. The spruce belongs to two species—
Yeddo (Picea jezoensis) and Sakhalin (P. glehni); the latter, native also
to Hokkaido and the southern Kurile Islands, has a bark which resem-
bles the bark of the fir. The Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinensis) , which
has the same distribution as the Sakhalin spruce, is related rather closely
to the Khingan fir. Spruce predominates in the first layer of the forests;
fir, in the second. In localities which have more favorable climatic con-
ditions, spruce and fir are accompanied by aspen, birch, elm, ash, maple,
willow, poplar, and even oak. Japanese white birch (Betula pponica
[B. platyphylla japonica]) grows in the lowlands and in the foothills,
while in the mountains there Is Erman's birch, which will be discussed
below.

On poor soils and on peat bogs there is Dahurian larch ( Larix dahurica
[L. gmelini]), which takes the place of pine here. In the valley of the
Poronay, on sandy ridges, grow larch forests of the pine-grove type;
they have a ground cover of reindeer moss. In addition to larch, these
groves contain birch, and also Japanese stone pine (Pinus pumila). Deer

^ A. A. Krasyuk, "Selskokhozyaistvenny promysel na Sakhaline v svyazi s pochven-
nymi usloviyami" (Agriculture on Sakhalin and Its Relation to Soil Conditions),
Soobshch. Otd. pochvoved. (Report of the Soil Science Section), No. 2, Leningrad,
1927, p. 56, with map.

SAKHALIN 333

often graze in these larch groves. I.arch forests ar(; widespread along
both the western and eastern shores, below the zone of the spruce-fir
taiga. There are many larch forests on Schmidt Peninsula. In some places,
where the seacoast is higher in elevation, the larch forest extends down
to the very sea, but on low-lying shores the larch forest merges grad-
ually into "tundra," passing through a stage of puny dwarf larches. "Tun-
dras" are developed both on the eastern coast and in the region of the
Amur estuary, as well as along the upper course of the Poronay River.
On the sandy coasts there is dry "tundra," covered with lichens and
bushes of birch, alder, Japanese stone pine, sweetbrier rose, and others.
In the north, on mossy peat bogs with permanently frozen subsoil, there
lies a tundra covered with peat mounds and very similar to the typi-
cal tundras of northern latitudes; here grow ledum, leather leaf, bog
bilberry, cranberry, cloudberry, sundew, sheathed cotton sedge, and
sedges.

In the flood plains the herbaceous plants reach a tremendous height—
3 to 4 m. Such tall herbaceous stands consist of the groundsel Senecio
cannabifolia, which is called nettle here, because of its resemblance to
that plant; Kamchatka meadowsweet; Japanese butterbur, or lopukha
(Petasites japoniciis) ; Sakhalin knotweed {Poliigonum sachalinense);
reed grass; fern; and others. In the river flood plains, tjelans are numerous
—plantations of willow, poplar, Mongolian poplar ( Populus suaveolens ) ,
Asiatic smoothleaf elm (Ulmus foliacea propinqua [U. carpinifolia]) ,
and Manchurian ash; among the willows the Korean willow ( Salix rnacro-
lepis) is distinguished for its size. The river valleys contain, in addition,
Manchurian alder {Ahms hirsufa), hawthorn, elder, bird cherry, and
mountain ash. The older flood plains, which are not subject to inunda-
tion, are covered with mixed forests.

On the cut-over or burned-over areas grow Japanese-white-birch groves
(Betula japonica [B. plafyphijUa japonica]) containing alder or larch.
With the passage of time these forests change into spruce-fir or larch
forests.

As one ascends into the mountains on the western coast, Erman's birch
(Betula ermani) and Kurile bamboo {Sasa kurilensis, locallv called
kamysh) appear in the spruce-fir forests. Western Sakhalin is the onh'
place in the U.S.S.R. where bamboo grows in its wfld form. In some
places the bamboo forms dense and tall thickets which are diflScult to
penetrate. Both bamboo and Erman's birch are absent in the eastern
range. Still higher lies a belt of Japanese stone pine (Pinus pumila), and,
finally, an alpine belt. The Japanese stone pine is widespread not onlv

334 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

in the mountains, but also along the coasts, where it forms thickets
sometimes impassable except with the aid of an ax..

Fauna

The fauna, like the flora, is an admixture of Manchurian, Siberian,
and Okhotsk elements. Of the mammals, there is an abundance of bear,
glutton, lynx, sable, squirrel, chipmunk, flying squirrel, fox, wolf, and
hare. The reindeer belongs to the Okhotsk-Kamchatka form. The birds
include the Siberian spruce grouse {Falcipennis falcipennis), a member
of the grouse famfly; this bird is a representative of the Okhotsk fauna;
it has been mentioned previously (p. 327).

Of the lizards there is the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara). The
frogs include the Siberian Rana amtirensis, native to the mound bogs
which contain ledum and cloudberry. In the rivers pink salmon and
chum are numerous. The Sakhalin pike belongs to the Amur form {Esox
reicherti). Among the fresh-water mussels on Sakhalin are (according
to V. I. Zhadin ) : cristaria ( Cristaria plicata ) , a large Manchurian form,
native also to the Amur basin, Japan, and China; the Sakhalin fresh-
water pearl mussel Margaritana sachalinensis; and Bering's anodonta
{Anodonta beringiana) ; the last two forms belong to the category of
Okhotsk fauna.

XIX • Kamchatka

KAMCHATKA lies between lats. 60° and 51° N, that
is, approximately between the latitudes of Leningrad
and Kiev; but its natural features are entirely different. Kamchatka is the
only place in the U.S.S.R. where there are active volcanoes at the present
time.

Relief

In the middle of the peninsula, there lie two parallel ranges extending
SSW-NNE, and separated by a depression in which flows the Kam-
chatka River. The same type of structure— two ranges with a depression
between them— is found also farther north in Anadyr kray, as well as in
Sakhalin, in Alaska, and along the western coast of North America. The
western range of Kamchatka, sometimes called the central range, reaches
an elevation of 3660 m. in the Belaya or Ichinsk volcano. This is the only
volcano active today in the central range; its crater always smokes. The
central range is composed of phyllites and crystalline schists, which are
overlain by sandstones and shales, perhaps of Paleozoic age; higher up
there are volcanic rocks, apparently of Mesozoic age; the western bound-
ary of this series is overlain by dislocated Tertiary strata.

Between the central range and the Sea of Okhotsk lies an unforested
region (in the literature it is often called a tundra), which rises to an
elevation of 600 to 750 m. Its structure includes dislocated marine Plio-
cene and some Upper Cretaceous deposits.

On the western side of the peninsula there is not a single active
volcano, but there are some fifteen old extinct volcanoes and andesitic
laccoliths.

Between the eastern range and the coast of the Bering Sea, there are
eighteen volcanoes active at the present time, of which the most inter-
esting will be mentioned here. Beginning at the south, 30 km. northeast
of Petropavlovsk, there is the Avacha volcano ( elevation 2725 m. ) , which

335

336 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

erupted last in 1926. In 1927 this volcano emitted ash, and in subsequent
years it has emitted vapors and gases, chiefly sulphurous gas and hydrogen
sulphide, but also some hydrogen chloride. Avacha has a structure like
Vesuvius, but is twice as high. The lavas of Avacha belong chiefly to
the andesitic type.^

The Kronotsk volcano, 3730 m. in elevation, situated on the shore of
a deep lake ( depth, 128 m. ) of the same name, has been considered ex-
tinct; but in 1922 a blackish smoke was observed near the summit (Fig.
79).

Klyuchevsk volcano, 4860 m. in elevation, in the lower reaches of
the Kamchatka River, is the highest point on the entire peninsula and
one of the most grandiose volcanoes on earth; it surpasses Mont Blanc
in elevation. It has erupted repeatedly, the last time in 1931. According
to legend, somewhat before the coming of the Russians ( 1696 ) a violent
eruption took place, in the course of which the lava reached as far as
the Kamchatka River at Klyuchi village, 32 km. away from the crater.
Usually above the summit smoke billows in the form of gigantic cabbage
heads, sometimes rising two or more kilometers above the crater; from
within these clouds of smoke, ashes and stones often rain down on the
slopes of the volcano. The crater, into which investigators descended in
1935, has a diameter of 250 to 300 m. and a depth of 50 m. As the party
descended into the crater, they saw

clouds of ash and stones, many of them a bright iridescent red color, which
rose in a fan 200 to 300 m. high and fell back with a crash. Dark gray smoke
enveloped the crater continually. The strong odor of the sulphurous gas and
hydrogen chloride irritated the nose and throat. Within the crater reigned twi-
light gloom and darkness, which made the bright color of the incandescent
rocks stand out more sharply and brightly. Crashing and rumbling shook the
whole basin of the crater. At about 4:00 p.m., while we were inside the crater,
a particularly powerful explosion took place: a gigantic cloud rose and began
to inundate the whole basin of the crater with a hail of incandescent rocks .-

Finally, the northernmost active volcano of Kamchatka is Shiveluch
(elevation 3300 m., lat. 56°39'N), of which the most recent eruption
took place in 1928; there are six glaciers on Shiveluch.

Where the peninsula joins the mainland, from Korf Bay in the Bering
Sea (in lat. 60° N), to Penzhinskaya Bay in the Sea of Okhotsk, there
lies a low plateau, the Parapolsky Dol, 155 m. in elevation. This plateau

^A. N. Zavaritsky, Problemy sov. geologii (Problems in Soviet Geology), 1935,
No. 12.

~Izv. Geogr. ohshch. (Report of the Geographical Society), Vol. 69, 1937, p. 973.

KAMCHATKA

VOLCANOES

MAP 12. Volcanoes of Kamchatka.

337

338 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

is covered with timdra. At the eastern edge, 40 km. from the coast of
the Bering Sea, hes a low unforested range, 940 m. in elevation, com-
posed of andesites; it is a continuation of the central range of Kam-
chatka. Farther to the northeast, it rises in elevation and merges into the
Koryak range.

As in other volcanic regions, there are many hot springs on Kamchatka,
for example, the Paratunsk at Petropavlovsk. The Nalychevsk hot springs,
which lie between the Avacha and Zhupanovsk volcanoes, are noteworthy.
The water in these springs has a temperature of 72° C. The springs,
which emerge from andesitic lava beds, are very rich in boron and
arsenic; they deposit large quantities of arsenious travertine ( Zavaritsky ) .

There are some deep lakes. For example. Lake Kurilsk, which lies in
the south, is 306 m. deep; it is surrounded on all sides by extinct vol-
canoes.

During the Quaternary period, mountain glaciers had a somewhat
greater development than today, but the ice cover was not continuous.

Climate "

Because of the length of Kamchatka from north to south, its climate
naturally varies. The southern tip, Cape Lopatka (lat. 50°57'N) lies
approximately in the same latitude as Saratov.

In winter a low-pressure area prevails over Kamchatka; the pressure
decreases from the western coast of the Sea of Okhotsk to the western
coast of the Bering Sea, and from north to south. Accordingly, northwest
and north winds prevail in winter at Petropavlovsk. In summer, however,
a high-pressure area lies over Kamchatka, and the pressure increases
from the western coast of the Sea of Okhotsk to the western coast of
the Bering Sea, and from north to south. For this reason, southeast, east,
and south winds prevail in summer at Petropavlovsk. In short, a shift
of winds of monsoon character occurs. In the interior of the peninsula
the climate is much more continental than along its coasts. The west
coast, which is under the influence of the cold Sea of Okhotsk, is char-
acterized by a much more severe climate than the east coast. Petropav-
lovsk, which lies in the same latitude as Orel (lat. 53° N), has a marine
climate: a cool summer and a rather mild winter; the mean temperature
of the warmest month, August, is 12.5° C; the mean temperature of the
coldest month, February, is — 10.2° C; thus, the annual range is only

^ V. A. Vlasov, O klimate Kamchatki, Kamchatskaya ekspeditsiya Ryabushinskovo
(The Climate of Kamchatka, Ryabushinsky Expedition into Kamchatka), met. otd.
(Meteorological Section), No. 1, Moscow, 1916.

KAMCHATKA 339

about 23° C, which is relatively small. In the interior of the peninsula
the summer is warmer and the winter eolder; in Klyuchi, which lies 3/2'^
farther north than Petropavlovsk, the annual range is greater than 31''' C.
(The warmest month is July, and the coldest month, January, as in con-
tinental climates. ) During the day, in August, the thermometer in Petro-
pavlovsk rises to about 16° C, (the mean daily maximum); in Klyuchi,
in July, it reaches 18° C. Absolute maxima in the valley of the Kam-
chatka River reach higher than 30° C; absolute minima, — 50'" C. The
vegetative period, during which the mean diurnal temperature is greater
than 5° C, generally lasts from the end of May or the first days of June
to the first days of October; in the central part of the peninsula it begins
earlier, in the middle of May. The central part of Kamchatka is rela-
tively better suited for agriculture." Cloudiness on the coast, particularly
on the western coast, is great, and reaches its maximum (as is generally
true in monsoon regions) in summer; its minimum comes in winter. In
the interior of the country, there is less cloudiness. The annual cloudiness
at Petropavlovsk is 60 per cent; in July, 73 per cent; in December, 53
per cent. In summer along the coasts there are many fogs; in Petro-
pavlovsk one out of every two days in July has fog; in Bolsheretsk fogs
are even more frequent. In winter, however, there are almost no fogs
along the coasts. In the interior of the country, it is the other way around;
in Klyuchi (absolute elevation 30 m.) and in Milkovo (absolute eleva-
tion 150 m.), there are almost no fogs in summer.

Fogs and cloudiness prevail up to elevations of 1500 m., at least along
the west coast. Higher up, the climate is drier; there is evidence of this
fact in the presence here of the suslik and bobac.

At Petropavlovsk, on the east coast, there is much precipitation; the
annual total is 821 mm. Most of it comes from August to October, the
least in January. In winter there is much snowfall; often it accounts for
more than half the total annual precipitation. On the west coast, how-
ever, where dry west winds blow in winter from the region of the Siberian
maximum, the winters have little snow; in Bolsheretsk (lat. 521° N),
in 1910, only 17 per cent of the total annual precipitation (450 mm.)
fell in the form of snow. There is also relatively little precipitation in
the valley of the Kamchatka River; at Milkovo the precipitation totals
about 350 mm. per year. Thunderstorms are a rare phenomenon on Kam-

*S. U. Lipshits and U. A. Liverovsky, Pochvenno-botanicheskie issledovaniya i
problema selskovo khozyaistva v tsentralnoy chasti dolimj r. Kamchatkl (Studies of
Soils and Flora and tlie Problem of Agriculture in. the Central Part of the Kamchatka
River Valley), Moscow, 1937, p. 220, witli a map of Kamchatka, izd. Akad. nauk
(publication of the Academy of Sciences).

340 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

chatka. At Petropavlovsk 189 mm. of precipitation fell in one day in
October;' showers of such magnitude have not been recorded in other
parts of Kamchatka.

In northern Kamchatka there is permanent ground frost.

Soils

The soils of Kamchatka belong to the podzolic, sodded-meadow, and
bog types. The sodded-meadow soils, which are developed on the old
alluvium of the second and third terraces of the Kamchatka River, are
the most fertile; these soils are covered with meadows and thin forests of
white birch.

Vegetation ^

The flora of Kamchatka is poor. There are only 800 to 850 species.
The reason for this paucity is believed to be the lack of contact between
the peninsula and neighboring districts. On Kamchatka there are rela-
tively few composite and papilionaceous plants (with the exception of
the genera Oxytropis and Astragalus).

With the exception of the valley of the middle Kamchatka River and
the poorly drained western coast, Kamchatka is covered with mountain
vegetation of the Okhotsk type. There are no forests here like those of
the Siberian taiga. The characteristic tree is Erman's or mountain birch
(Betiila ermani), which has a gray or reddish bark and a thick bushy
crown; it grows in thin, parklike stands (Fig. 80). Birch coppices alter-
nate with glades of tall herbage. Along the eastern coast the shore is
covered with Erman's birch, together with groves of Japanese stone pine,
alder, and mountain ash, typical of the subalpine zone. In the central
part of the peninsula, Erman's birch rises into the mountains to an eleva-
tion of 600 to 750 m., but along the coast, only to 300 m. or lower.

Amid the undergrowth in the Erman's-birch forests (and in other
places, as well), sweetberry honeysuckle {Lonicera ediilis) is common;
its dark-blue edible fruits are gathered in large quantities by the local
population at the end of July and in August.

At lower elevations in the valley of the Kamchatka River there is no

^ P. I. Koloskov, "Klimatichesky ocherk poluostrova Kamchatki" ( Climatic Sketch
of the Kamchatka Peninsula), Izv. Dalnevostochnovo geofiz. inst. (Report of the Far
Eastern Geophysical Institute) No. II (IX), 1932, p. 138.

^V. L. Komarov, Puteshestvie po Kamchatke v 1908-1909 gg., Kamchatskaya
eksp. Rijabushinskovo (Journey Along the Kamchatka in the Years 1908-1909,
Ryabushinsky Expedition into Kamchatka), botan. otd. (Botanical Section), No. 1,
Moscow, 1912.

KAMCHATKA 341

Ermaii's birch; here grow forests of Dahurian larch, and coppices of
Yeddo spruce and Japanese white birch (BcHula japonica [B. platyphi/lla
japonica]). As one ascends into tlie mountains, the first tree to disappear
is the spruce, and then the larch and white birch; then there appears
Erman's birch, which rises, as we have said, to an elevation of 600 to
750 m. Above the Erman's birch in the mountains of Central Kamchatka,
lies a vigorously developed belt of shrub thickets, sometimes completely
impassable, of Japanese stone pine (Pinus piimila), alder (Alnus kam-
tschatica), and Siberian mountain ash (Sorhiis- samhucifolia) . These
thickets are very characteristic for Kamchatka in general. At an elevation
of 1000 m. alpine tundras and meadows begin; the presence of ericaceous
plants is characteristic for the tundras. Alpine plants are found even
along the coast in Kamchatka.

In the river valleys there grow forests of willow and Mongolian poplar.
The willows include the Korean willow, Salix (Chosenia) macrolepis.
Of the true willows, the Sakhalin willow (Salix sachalinensis) predomi-
nates.'' In the valley forests Manchurian alder (Alnus hirsuta) is common.
The riparian meadows are covered chiefly with rough bluejoint reed
grass (Calamagrostis langsdorffii [C. canadensis scabra]), sedges, and
meadow pea vine (Lathyrus pratensis).

A typical plant in the dry meadows among the coppices of Erman's
birch is the umbellifer Angelica ursina, which grows to a considerable
height (Fig. 81). Another large umbellifer is the cow parsnip (Heracleum
lanatum or H. dulce), up to 4.5 m. high and 12 cm. in diameter; the
Itelmen people (Kamchadals) used it for sweetening, and the Russians
formerly distilled vodka out of it. In the valleys on fertile arable soOs,
there are large thickets of Kamchatka meadowsweet {Filipendula kam-
tschatica), a herbaceous plant which grows 2 m. high in one month; at
one time its roots were stored for the winter. The Kamchatka fritillary
(Fritillaria kamtschatcensis) , with large purple flowers, is widespread
in the birch forests, on the meadows, and among the shrubs, as far as
the alpine belt. The bulbs of this plant, which are rich in starch and
sugar, are cooked and eaten by the local population; in taste, the bulbs
resemble chestnuts. Mice accumulate stores of Kamchatka fritillary bulbs
for the winter. On fertile soils in the flood-plain forests, there is Kam-
chatka nettle (Urtica plattjphylh) , which sometimes grows as tall as a
man; at one time fishnets and fabrics were made from its fiber.

"^ N. V. Pavlov and P. N. Chizhikov, Prirodnie uslovhja i problemy zemledeJiija
na yuge Bolsheretskovo raiona Kamchatki (Natural Conditions and Problems of
Agriculture in the South Part of Bolsheretsk Raton of Kamchatka), Moscow, 1937,
p. 125, izd. Akad. nauk (pubhcation of the Academy of Sciences).

342 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Near the hot springs there is found a whole series of reUct, more
characteristically southern plants, native to Sakhalin, Japan, Korea, and
Manchuria. Often in March, while snow lies all around, the bog violet
(Viola repens) bursts into bloom.

On the eastern coast of Kamchatka, near the mouth of the Semyachik
River, there is a grove of fir {Abies gracilis) related very closely to the
Sakhalin fir. On the slopes of Shiveluch volcano grow groves of Kam-
chatka spruce, related very closely to the Yeddo spruce.

In conclusion we present the vertical sequence of vegetation on the
western coast (according to N. V. Pavlov):

Forest belt, 0 to 550 m.

Sphagnum bogs

Thickets of black crowberry (Empetriim nigrum)

Mixed-herbaceous meadows

Tall-herbaceous meadows (ushkha)

Forests of Erman's birch
Shrub belt, 500 to 800 m.

Japanese stone pine

Alder groves {Almis kamtschaiica)
Alpine belt, 800 to 1400 m.

Dry mountain tundras

Alpine meadows

Alpine glades

Fauna

The fauna of Kamchatka is not rich; it has a rather insular character.
In the mountains up to 1000 m., there are mountain sheep {Ovis nivicola),
which are found all the way to the extreme south of the peninsula. There
are many bear and fox, and some black-capped bobac (Mannota cam-
tschatica) and Kamchatka suslik (Citellus eversmanni stejnegeri). Wild
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus phylarchus) , of the same form as is found
on Sakhalin and on the Amur, are encountered. There is a large sable,
but its fur is of little value. Elk is absent. The tree squirrel {Scitirus
vulgaris) has appeared only recently on Kamchatka, particularly in Tigil
raion, where there were none in 1910.®

There are few birds on Kamchatka, fewer than 200 species. Only
aquatic birds are well represented: ducks, which are found in great
numbers, geese, shore birds, gulls, cormorants, and guillemots. Starlings,
creepers, kingfishers, pigeons, water rails, cranes, and others are com-

^ Otchet Kamchatskovo okr. revol. kom. I. Kamchatskomu syezdu sovetov ( Report
of the Kamchatka Okrug Revolutionary Committee to the First Kamchatka Congress
of Soviets), Petropavlovsk, 1928, pp. 43-44.

KAMCHATKA 343

pletely absent; there are no blaek grouse, ha/.el grouse, or Siberian jays.
Some eommon Sil:)erian forest l)irds form special subspecies on Kam-
cliatka; for example, the capercailhe, the pied and the three-toed wood-
peckers, and tlie bullfinch.

The amphibians include the Siberian four-toed salamander {Ilijnabius
l<eyserlin(!^i ) .

Kamchatka is very poor in true fresh-water fish; the Amur grayling is
the only one known. However, there are many anadromous salmonids,
which belong to the North Pacific genus Oncorhijnchus, an Okhotsk
form, analogous to Erman's birch and Yeddo spruce. To this genus belong
the king salmon, red salmon, chum, pink salmon, and silver salmon,
which are of great economic importance in Kamchatka. Here is found
also the true salmon (Salmo), which is not found in Siberia and which
reappears in the North Pacific, in Kamchatka, and in North America, after
an interval. Together with the salmonids, seal penetrates into the Kam-
chatka River; it goes as far as Kozyrevka, 200 km. up the river from its
mouth.

The fresh-water mollusks include the fresh-water pearl mussel Mar-
garitana middendorffii, from which the inhabitants of Golygin village
used to obtain a fairly good pearl. The pearl mussel is not found in
Siberia except in Kamchatka, the Amur basin, and Sakhalin.

The Commander Islands *

The Commander Islands, which lie east of Kamchatka, approximately
in lat. 55° N, consist of two islands, Bering and Medny. The former was
discovered on November 4, 1741, by the famous navigator Bering; the
latter, in the same year, by Steller, a companion of Bering. The islands
are separated from Kamchatka by tremendous depths (about 5000 m.),
and from the Aleutians by considerable, but lesser depths. In some places
the coast descends to the sea in vertical precipices. The islands are com-
posed of volcanic rocks (andesitie tuffs, basalts, and others). Bering
Island rises to an elevation of 670 m.; Medny to an elevation of 590 m.
The age of the tuffs is Upper Oligocene or Lower Miocene. Medny Island
was named for the copper contained in the igneous rocks.**

The climate of the islands is marine, humid, cool, and foggy. The

®E. K. Suvorov, Komandorskie ostrova i pushnotj promysel na nikh (The Com-
mander Islands and the Fur Industry on Them), St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 324. L. S.
Berg, Otknjtie Kamchatki i ekspeditsn Beringa (The Disco\'er\- of Kamchatka and
Bering's Expeditions), Leningrad, 1935, izd. Arkt. inst. (publication of the Arctic
Institute), pp. 278-308.

* The Russian word for copper is tncd.—TB..

344 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

winter is mild; the coldest month, February or March, has a mean tem-
perature of — 3° or — 4° C. The summer is cool; the warmest month,
August, has a mean temperature of 10° to 11° C .— this in a latitude south
of that of Moscow. Storms are very frequent on the islands. "At times
there are such bitterly strong winds on this island [Bering Island] that
a man can hardly remain standing on his feet," wrote Khitrov, a com-
panion of Bering. Precipitation amounts to about 500 mm. per year.

The islands are unforested and covered with tundra— the southernmost
outpost of this type of vegetation in the Northern Hemisphere. In some
places in the valleys there are thickets of willow, mountain ash, and
Erman's birch ( Betiila ermani ) , which grow as tall as a man, or a little
taller.

The islands are inhabited by arctic fox, while on the coast there are
marine animals: the sea otter (Enhydra lutris), incorrectly called sea
beaver; Steller's sea lion {Eumetopias jubatus), a member of the eared
seal family; and northern fur seal (Arctocephalus ursinus [CaUorhinus
iirsinus] ) , of the same family. During the time of Bering the sea around
the islands abounded in Steller's sea cow {Rhijtina stelleri [Hijdrodamalis
stelleri] ) , which was exterminated completely by about 1770.

XX ■ Mountains of the Arctic

IN this chapter we will examine that part of the Arctic
which belongs to the region which I have called ( 1930 )
the ice region; in this region the mean temperature of the warmest month
is approximately 0° C. Precipitation as a rule falls in the form of snow.
To this region belong Franz Josef Land, the northern part of Novaya
Zemlya, Sevemaya Zemlya (North Land), and Bennett Island. That part
of the Arctic which is occupied by tundra has been described already
(p. 2ff.).

Franz Josd Land ^

This archipelago, which was discovered in 1873 by the Austrian expe-
dition of Payer and Weyprecht, and became a part of the U.S.S.R. in
1926, lies approximately between lat. 80° and 82° N. It is thus the
northernmost territory of the U.S.S.R. The area of Franz Josef Land,
including 800 islands, is about one-third the size of Spitzbergen. The
largest two islands lie on the western border of the archipelago. Aleksan-
dra Land, the westernmost of the two, is low-lying. In 1928 a geophysical
station was built on Hooker Island (one of the southern islands) by the
Institute for the Study of the North (now the Arctic Institute).

Almost all the islands consist of low plateaus covered by continental
glaciers. Approximately 97 per cent of the archipelago is covered with
ice. The highest elevations rise over 900 m.

The islands are composed of Middle and Upper Jurassic marine de-
posits, and are covered with basalt cnists up to 20 m. thick. In some

■^"Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa" (Franz Josef Land), Tnidi/ Inst, po izucJi. Severa
( Proceedings of the Institute for tlie Study of the Nortli ) , No. 47, 1930 ( articles by
V. U. Wiese and R. L. Samoilovich). V. K. Esipov, Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa (Franz
Josef Land), Archangel, 1935, p. 74 (bibUograpliv). T. N. Spizharskv, "Oledenenie i
geomorfologiya" (Glaciation and Geomorphology ) , Trudy Arkt. inst. (Proceedings of
the Arctic Institute), XLI, 1936. "Geologicheskoye strovenie Zemh Frantsa-Iosifa"
(Geological Structure of Franz Josef Land), Trudy Arkt. inst. (Proceedings of the
Arctic Institute), LXXVI, 1937.

345

346

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

places the lavas are overlain by terrestrial Lower Cretaceous deposits
v^hich contain remains of vegetation; here and there they contain beds
of lignite; these deposits also are covered with basalt crusts. After the
Upper Jurassic sea retreated, the archipelago became a land mass. The
basalt extrusions took place during the Lower Cretaceous period; there
were several of them, which explains the alternation of basalt crusts
with sedimentary deposits which contain flora.

During the Quaternary period, powerful faulting took place in the
region of Franz Josef Land; these dislocations divided the land mass
which existed on the site of the archipelago into numerous islands. Evi-
dence of the subsidences which took place here is found in the fact that
the straits which divide the islands are very deep in some places, some-
times as much as 500 m. deeper than surrounding parts of the Barents
Sea (Spizharsky). Along the shores, at elevations up to 30 m., as many
as four levels of terraces are well developed.

Lying so high in the Arctic, the archipelago naturally has a very severe
climate. The annual course of temperatures during the years 1932-1936
at Tikhy Bay in lat. 80°20' N, was as follows :2

Table 28
Temperature in Tikhy Bay, 1932-1936 (in °C.)

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

-18.7

-19.3 -22.3

-16.9

-7.9 -1.0

1.3

0.8

-2.6

-8.9

-14.0

-16.9

The annual course of temperatures on Franz Josef Land, as in the high
Arctic in general, is characterized by a rather even temperature through-
out the winter, although in some years a sharp rise in December and
January may be observed (for example, in 1929, December was 5.5° C.
warmer than November). At one time this phenomenon was explained
as the effect of the relatively warm ocean water, which raises the tem-
perature of the air through the ice cover. But a more correct explanation
may be that it is due to warm air currents from the south.^ It is true that
at Tikhy Bay in December, 1929, SE, S, and E winds prevailed, while
in November the winds were E, N, and SE, and in March 1930, N, E,
and NE. In general, however, the winter is relatively mild, as compared

- Z. A. Ryazantseva, "Novaya Zemlya i Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa" ( Novaya Zemlya
and Franz Josef Land), Trudy Arkt. inst. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute), Vol.
79, 1937, p. 37.

^E. Lir, "K voprosu o prichine 'bezyademykh' zim" (Concerning the Reason for
Mild Winters), Met. vestn. (Meteorological Herald), 1934, Nos. 4-7, pp. 107-117.

MOUNTAINS OF THE ARCTIC 847

with the winter on the mainland of northeastern Asia, which hes much
farther south. However, the wind velocity in winter may reach 40 m.
per second. During some years the number of stormy days (when the
wind velocity exceeded 20 m. per second) has been as high as 10 in
January/

On individual days in summer the temperature in the south of the
archipelago may reach 12° C. (for example, in 1904). The number of
days without frost in July at Tikhy Bay is only 8; the annual total is 19.
Cloudiness is very great, being least in March, and greatest in August
and September.

The measurement of precipitation in the Arctic is very unreliable, but
on the basis of data from snow surveys, the approximate annual total of
precipitation on Hooker Island is estimated at 300 mm. Fogs, as in gen-
eral in the Arctic, predominate in summer.

The vegetation of the archipelago, which is covered in considerable
part by an ice sheet, is naturally very poor. Only about forty species of
arctic flowering plants are known: buttercup, saxifrages, arctic poppy,
scurvy weed, Draha, Cerastium, and several grasses. In the south in some
places there is polar willow {Salix polaris). Lichens are far more nu-
merous; there are about a hundred species.

On the islands there are as many as thirty species of birds. The dovekie,
or little auk (Alle alle), the most numerous of the birds here; Mandt's
guillemot {Cepphus mandti); the large glaucous gull (Lams hijper-
boreus); the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla); Briinnich's murre {Uria lom-
via); the fulmar {Fulmarus glacialis); and the ivory gull {Pagophila
eburnea) nest in tremendous colonies ("bazaars") on the steep shores.
There are some tundra ptarmigan (Lagopus miitus). The kittiwake and
murre nest only in the south of the archipelago. The ivory gull some-
times forms bazaars on the rocks, sometimes nests on flat surfaces. The
mammals include the polar bear, and, occasionally, the arctic fox, which
feeds on birds and their eggs. Of the marine mammals, the walrus,
bearded seal [Erignathiis barbatiis barbatus?], and seal are of economic
importance.

To the west of Franz Josef archipelago, in lat. 80° N and long. 37° E,
lies the small island of Victoria, the western boundary of the arctic
possessions of the U.S.S.R. It is about 7 km. long, and is covered com-
pletely with a layer of ice about 100 m. thick. Judging from the pebbles,
which consist of Upper Carboniferous limestone, this island, in structure,
is related closely to the Northeast Land of Spitzbergen.'

*E. Shishakova, Klimat i pogoda (Climate and Weather), 1932, pp. 143-144.
■"^M. V. Kleno\'a, "Ostrov Viktoriva" (\''ictoria Island), Arctica, III, 1935.

348

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

NoTthern Novaya Zemlya
Novaya Zemlya has been discussed to some extent already (p. 10).
The northern island, approximately north of lat. 75° N, is part of the ice
region. The northern tip of the island lies in lat. 77° N. The sparse
vegetation and fauna are concentrated along the shores. The island was
crossed in 1913, in lat. 76° N (from Pankratyev Peninsula). The surface
of the ice sheet here reaches 913 m. above sea level; on April 4, on the
highest point, the temperature was — 18° C; a light NNW wind was
blowing, the sun was shining, and in general the weather was excellent;
throughout the day, hoarfrost was deposited on the surface of the ice
in tremendous quantity: the layer of freshly deposited hoarfrost was 3 cm.
deep. On the return journey, on April 22, it was calm, rain was falling,
and there was a dense fog; the temperature was + 1° C.*' Meteorological
observations at the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya (Cape Zhelaniya,
1931-1936) show the following mean temperatures: ^

Table 29
Temperatube at Cape Zhelaniya, 1931-1936 (ix °C.)

Jan.

Feb.

March April

Mat

June

JULT

Arc.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

-18.4

-17.8

-21.4 -15.3

-7.3

-1.2

1.7

2.1

-0.1

-4.2

-12.1

-17.1

Here, as on Franz Josef Land, there are equable temperatures in the
middle of winter, and February is warmer than either January or March.

In January temperatures of — 50° C. have been recorded here.

Polygonal soils are widespread.

On the shore of Russkaya Gavan, in lat. 76°14'N, only 25 flowering
plants have been enumerated. They include the arctic draba, saxifrages,
poppy, buttercup, and dwarf polar willow {Salix polaris). The first to
appear in the spring of 1933 was the twinleaf saxifrage {Saxifraga op-
positifolia ) ; its green leaflets were visible at the end of May. At the end
of June, the vegetation began to blossom; some species (Cerastium
alpinum) continued to bloom until the last days of September, when
the soil had become frozen already.^

In lat. 76° N on the western coast, 70 species of flowering plants and
over 200 lichens have been collected. The vegetation is particularly rich
in places which are fertilized by birds."

6V. U. Wiese, Zap. po gidrogr. ( Hydrographic Report), XLIX, 1925, pp. 63-74.

^ S. E. Ryazantseva, op. cit.

« L. I. Zubkov, Arctica, III, 1935.

'^ North of latitude 75° N, there are only 80 species of flowering plants. See
A. I. Tolmachev, "Obzor flory Novoy Zemli" (Sur\'ey of the Flora of Novaya Zemlya),
Arctica, IV, 1936, pp. 143-174.

MOUNTAINS OF THE ARCTIC 349

The shores of Novaya Zemlya, to the extreme north, contain many bird
bazaars. The bird which appears here in largest numbers is Briinnich's
murre (Uria lomvia); but north ot lat. 75" N, there are also bazaars
where the guillemot {Cepphus inandti), kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla),
dovekie (Alle alle), and fulmar (Fulmanis glacialis) nest. Reindeer are
found as far as the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya.'"

Severnaya Zemlya (North Land)

Severnaya Zemlya was discovered in 1913 by Captain Vilkitsky. But
as early as 1869 Tretyakov had written as follows concerning the vicinity
of Cape Chelyuskin: "We have heard often that in the sea there is
another land, from which the arctic fox and polar bear come. Perhaps
there are islands which stretch, in the form of an archipelago, from
Novaya Zemlya to Severo-Vostochny ( North-East) Cape."" In the years
1930-1932 Severnaya Zemlya was charted and explored by the geologist
Urvantsev.^"

The Severnaya Zemlya archipelago, which lies approximately between
lats. 78° and 81° N, is situated opposite Cape Chelyuskin, from which it
is separated by Vilkitsky Strait. Bordering the Kara Sea on the east, the
archipelago consists of four large islands and many small ones, with a
total area of 36,712 sq. km. The largest island, October Revolution Island,
has rocky, steep eastern shores and low western shores, indented by bays.
The highest elevation on the island (and in the whole archipelago) is
675 m. A considerable part of the area of the archipelago (about 42 per
cent) is covered with ice, which does not exceed 200 to 250 m. in thick-
ness. According to Urvantsev, the present glaciation is a vestige of an
ancient, much thicker ice sheet. There are traces of tAA'O phases of gla-
ciation, separated by the boreal marine transgression. Judging from the
shells which have been found, this transgression reached an absolute
elevation of 70 m.; judging from the elevation of the terraces, it reached
90 to 100 m. During the postglacial period another transgression took
place, up to an elevation of 15 to 25 m. At present an uplift of the land
mass is taking place. The archipelago is composed of metamorphic schists,
igneous rocks, and Paleozoic Quaternary deposits. All of the pre-Quater-

^•^L. I. Zubkov, "Dikie oleni Novoy Zemli" (Wild Deer of Novaya Zemlya),
Trudy Arkt. inst. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute), XXII, 1935, pp. 55-60.

^^ Zap. Geograf. obshch. po obsJich. geogr. ( Report of the Geographical Society
Concerned with Social Geography), II, 1869, p. 231.

^- N. N. Urvantsev, Severnaya Zemlya (North Land), Leningrad, 1933, p. 29,
with map, izd. Arkt. inst. (publication of the Arctic Institute), Dca goda na
Sevemoy Zemle (Two Years on Seveniaya Zemlya), Leningrad, 1935, izd. Gla\n.
upr. Sevmorputi (publication of the Board of the Northern Sea Route), p. 364,
with map.

350

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

nary deposits have been intricately dislocated. Sevemaya Zemlya attained
its present features as a result of faulting which took place during the
Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Until recently Sevemaya Zemlya was
connected with Taim)T, from which it became separated as a result of
subsidences, which probably took place during the postglacial epoch
(Urvantsev).

The climate of the archipelago is very severe. Data on the temperature
of the islands which lie to the west of October Revolution Island ( in lat.
79/2° N), and, for comparison, observations on Cape Chelyuskin (lat.
77°43'N), are illustrative of the climate of the southern part of the
archipelago:

Table 30

Temperatxjre in

THE Se\'ernata Zemlya

Archipelago (in

°C.)

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aua.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Islands which He
west of October
Revolution Island*

Cape Chelyuskin t

-26.4
-25.5

-23.7
-22.6

-27.3
-25.7

-21.8
-20.9

-9.7

-1.,

0.8

0.4
0.1

-2.4
-5.3

-10.4
-10.0

-19.8
-25.0

-26.4
-30.8

* October, 1930, to August, 1934. I. L. Rusinova and M. A. Davydova, "Meteor-
ologicheskie nablyudeniya Severozemelskoy ekspeditsii 1930-1932 gg." (Meteoro-
logical Observations of the Sevemaya Zemlya Expedition, 1930-1932), Trudy Arkt.
inst. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute), LV, 1936, p. 28.

f October, 1932, to August, 1934. B. Richter, Sovetshj Sever (The Soviet Arctic),
Moscow, 1935, No. 3-4, p. 126.

Here, as on Franz Josef Land, a rise in temperature is observed in the
middle of winter, in February.

The lowest temperature recorded on Sevemaya Zemlya for the period
indicated is — 47°C.; the highest, less than 5° C. Cloudiness is greatest
in August, least in March. The annual precipitation must be about
150 mm. The snow cover disappears at the end of June or the begin-
ning of July. The wind velocity is relatively small; it is greatest in Sep-
tember (7.4 m. per second), least in April and December (4.9 m. per
second). In general, this area has an arctic and marine variety of East
Siberian climate.

Bennett Island, discovered in 1881 by the American Lieutenant De
Long on the yacht Jeannette, lies north of New Siberia Island in the
New Siberian archipelago. It is composed of the same horizontal Cam-
brian deposits and basalts as the Central Siberian Plateau, and reaches
450 m. in elevation. There is a glacier in the interior of the island.

Wrangel Island is part of the region of arctic tundras. In climate, the
island approaches that of the ice region; the mean temperature in July
is 2.4° C. There are no glaciers, even though the elevation on the island
reaches 755 m.

200 £00

MAP 13. Landscape zones of the European part of the U.S.S.R.

351

£iJ

^ ^'Sl"^ ^0-1 t'tyl -"^bSiiH^

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ceo ^.c ^^ ,

^ to c'^-aas

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IMI

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t4UJO(«P5WH^i!Hw«HUiHc^mSf-'>-JUi-5>'^i5Hm>-^c^>Dc5?fc<JOCM

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I s

^ IE

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353

354

355

856

357

358

359

361

MAP 23. Mountain ranges of Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

I—Tas-Khavakhtakh range; 2— Poluosny range; 3— Moma (Garmychan) range ;_ 4— Kyun-Tas
rangi; S-cSk'JJak^an^eT 6-Balaginsk^ange; 7-^ '^f.X' Ja""ran "e' 1 f-^'an^

Q_TTj.j.3„ ranee- 10— Kalar range; 1 1— Tas-Kvstabyt range; 12— ^Dzhagda range, IJ— \arn-Aun
Lnge it^Tsfgan-Daban rangel 15-Malkhansk range; 16-Khudunsk range; 17--Tsagan,
Zhurz'hey Tl^ge- 18— Dahurian range; 19— Nerchinsk range; 20— Delyun-Uransk range; 21— North-
Muvrrange 2^— South-I^Iuya ran|e 23— Barguzin range; 24— Ulan-Burgasy . range; 25— Lpper-
^ra ralger26-0 otsk range; 27-Kropotkin range; 28-Pnmorsk (Maritime) range.

Bibliography

Only the most important works are cited below— the more recent and inclusive
works, which contain maps and bibliographic lists, and which deal with all or
with several regions of the U.S.S.R.

Arkhangelsky, A. D., Geologicheskoye stroienie S.S.S.R. (Geological Structure
of the U.S.S.R.), Zapadnaya chast (The Western Part), 2 vols., 2nd ed.,
Leningrad, 1933-1934,

— , Shatsky, N. S., Menner, V. V., et al., Kratkij ocherk geologicheskoy struk-
tury i geologicheskoy istorii S.S.S.R. (Brief Sketch of the Geological Struc-
ture and Geological History of the U.S.S.R.), izd. Akad. nauk (pubHcation
of the Academy of Sciences), with an atlas of paleogeographic diagrams,
Moscow, 1937.

Berg, L. S., Ustroistvo poverkhnosti (Aziatskoy Rossii) (Surface Structure [of
Asiatic Russia]), Aziatskaya Rossiya (Asiatic Russia), II, III (bibliog-
raphy), izd. Peresel. upr, (publication of the Board of Immigration), with
map, 1914.

— , Klimat i zhizn (Climate and Life), Gos. izd. (State Publication), Moscow,
1922.

, "Klimaticheskie poyasa zemli" (Climatic Belts of tlie World), Izv. geogr.

inst. (Report of the Geographical Institute), V, 1925.

, Osnovy klimatologii (Principles of Climatology), Gos. izd. (State Publica-
tion), Leningrad, 1927; 2nd ed., Uchpedgiz, 1938.

, Ocherk istorii russkoy geograficJieskoy nauki (vplot do 1923 g.) (Sketch

of the History of Russian Geographic Science [to the year 1923]), izd.
Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences), Leningrad, 1929.

, Fiziko-geograficheskie {landshaftnie) zony S.S.S.R. (Physical-Geographi-
cal [Landscape] Zones of the U.S.S.R.), Part I, Introduction, Tundra,
Forest Zone, Forest Steppe, izd. Leningrad univ. (pubhcation of Lenin-
grad University), Leningrad, 1936.

— , Rehjef Sibiri, Turkestana i Kavkaza (ReUef of Siberia, Turkestan, and the
Caucasus), Uch. zap. Mosk. univ. (Scientific Report of Moscow Univer-
sity), V, geografiya (Geography), with map, 1936.

Bush, N. A., Botaniko-geografichesky ocherk Yevropeiskoy chastl S.S.S.R. (Bo-
tanical-Geographical Sketch of the Emopean Part of the U.S.S.R.), izd.
Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy of Sciences), Leningrad, 1935.

— , Botaniko-geografichesky ocherk Kavkaza ( Botanical-Geograploical Sketch
of the Caucasus), izd. Akad. nauk (pubhcation of the Academy of Sci-
ences), Leningrad, 1935.

863

364 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Bush, N. A., Botaniko-geograficheskij ocherk Yevropeiskoy chasti S.S.S.R. i
Kavkaza (Botanical-Geographical Sketch of the European part of the
U.S.S.R. and the Caucasus), izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the Academy
of Sciences), Leningrad, 1936.

I. Dokembry i drevny paleozoy (I. The Pre-Cambrian and the Ancient Paleo-
zoic) and II. Sredny i verkhny paleozoy (11. The Middle and Upper
Paleozoic), izd. Akad. nauk (pubHcation of the Academy of Sciences),
Leningrad, 1935.

Dokturovsky, V. S., Toiiijanie bolota (Peat Bogs), 2nd ed., Moscow, 1935.

Geologiya i poleznie iskopayemie Severa S.S.S.R., I, Geologiya (Geology and
Mineral Resources of the Northern U.S.S.R., I, Geology), izd. Glavn. upr.
Sevmorputi (pubHcation of the Board of the Northern Sea Route), Lenin-
grad, 1935.

Glinka, K. D., Pochvy Rossii i prilegayushchikh stran (Soils of Russia and the
Adjoining Countries), Cos. izd. (State Publication), II, 1923.

, Pochvovedenie (Soil Science), 3rd ed., Moscow, 1927.

Gorodkov, B. N., and Neustruyev, S. S., "Pochvennie raiony Uralskoy oblasti"
(Soil Regions of Ural Ohlast), Ural (The Urals), No. 5, Ekaterinburg,
1923.

Kaminsky, A. A., "Klimaticheskie oblasti Vostochnoy Yevropy" (Climatic Prov-
inces of Eastern Europe), Trudy po lesn. opytn. delu (Proceedings on
Forestry Experimentation), LXIV, 1924.

, Davlenie vozdukha i veter v S.S.S.R. (Atmospheric Pressure and Wind in

the U.S.S.R.), izd. Gl. Geofiz. observatorii (publication of the Central
Geophysical Observatory), Leningrad, 1932.

Kashkarov, D. N., Zhivotnie Turkestana (Animals of Turkestan), Cos. izd. Uzb.
(Uzbek State Publication), Tashkent, 1931.

Katz, N. Ya., "Tipy bolot i yikh razmeshchenie na territorii Yevropeiskoy chasti
S.S.S.R." (Types of Bog and Their Distribution in the European Part of
the U.S.S.R.), Zemlevedenie (Geography), XXXIX, 1937.

Korovin, E. P., Rastitelnost Sredney Azii i yuzhnovo Kazakstana (The Vegeta-
tion of Central Asia and Southern Kazakstan), izd. Akad. nauk (publica-
tion of the Academy of Sciences), with map, Tashkent, 1934.

Lyaister, A. F., and Chursin, G. F., Geografiya Zakavkazya (Geography of the
Transcaucasus ) , Tiflis, 1929.

Morozov, G. F., Uchenie o lese (Forests), 4th ed., Cos. izd. (State Publica-
tion), Leningrad, 1928.

, Uchenie o tipakh nasazhdeny (Types of Vegetational Stands), Cos. izd.

(State Publication), Leningrad, 1930.

Neustruyev, S. S., Elementy geografii pocJ^v (Elements of Soil Geography),
Cos. izd. (State Publication), Leningrad, 1930.

Obruchev, V. A., Geologichesky obzor Sihiri (Geological Survey of Siberia),
Gos. izd. (State Publication), 2nd ed., Moscow, 1927.

"ObyasniteLnaya zapiska k geologicheskoy karte severnoy chasti S.S.S.R." (mas-
shtab 1:2,500,000) (Explanatory Note Accompanying the Geological Map
of the Northern Part of the U.S.S.R. [Scale 1:2,500,000]), Trudy Arktich.
in-ta. (Proceedings of the Arctic Institute), Vol. 87, Part I, 1937.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 365

Reverdatto, V. V., Ra.^iitelno.'it Sihmkovo kraya (The Vegetation of Siberia),
Novosibirsk, 1931.

Rubinstein, E., Srednie memjachnie temperatury vozdukha v Yevropelskoy chasti
S.S.S.R. (Mean Monthly Atmospheric Temperatures in the European Part
of the U.S.S.R.), with atlas, izd. Glavn. Geofiz. observat. (publication of
the Central Geophysical Observatory), Leningrad, 1926. Also for the
Asiatic part of the U.S.S.R., 1931.

Semenov-Tian-Shansky, V. P. (ed.), Rossiya (Russia), izd. Devriena (publica-
tion of Devriena), 11 vols., 1899-1914.

Sukachev, V. N., Bolota (Bogs), Leningrad, 1926.

, Rasiitelnie soobshchesiva (Vegetational Associations), 4th ed., Leningrad,

1928.

, Kratkoye rukovodstvo k issiedovaniyu tipov lesov (Brief Manual for the

Study of Different Types of Forest), Gos. izd. (State Publication), 2nd
ed., Leningrad, 1930.

Stegman, B, K., Osnovy ornito-geograficheskovo razdeleniya Palearktiki; Fauna
S.S.S.R.; Ptitsy (Principles of the Ornitho-Geographical Subdivision of the
Palearctic; Fauna of the U.S.S.R.; Birds), I, izd. Akad. nauk (pubhcation
of the Academy of Sciences ) .

Tanfilyev, G. L, Glavneishie cherty rastitelnosti Rossii (The Principal Features
of the Vegetation of Russia), St. Petersburg, 1902.

, Geografiya Rossii, Ukrainy i primykayushchikh k nim s zapada territory

(The Geography of Russia, the Ukraine, and the Territories Which Adjoin
Them to the West), II, Nos. 1-3, Odessa, 1922-1924.

Voznesensky, A. V., Karta klimatov S.S.S.R. (Map of the Glimates of the
U.S.S.R.), Trudy po selskokhozyaistvennoy meteor. (Proceedings on Agri-
cultural Meteorology), XXI, 1930.

Walter, G., and Alekhin, V., Osnovy botanicheskoy geografii (Principles of Bo-
tanical Geography), Moscow, 1936.

Zhivotny mir S.S.S.R. (Fauna of the U.S.S.R.), I, izd. Akad. nauk (publication
of the Academy of Sciences), 1936.

Maps and Atlases

Climatological Atlas of the U.S.S.R., izd. Cos. plan. kom. (publication of the
Central Planning Commission), Leningrad, 1933.

Soil Map of the European Part of the U.S.S.R., izd. Akad. nauk (pubHcation of
the Academy of Sciences).

Soil Map of the Asiatic Part of the U.S.S.R., izd. Akad. nauk (publication of the
Academy of Sciences), 1927.

Geological Map of the European Part of the U.S.S.R., izd. Tsentr. Geolog.-razv.
inst. (publication of the Central Geological Survey Institute), 1937.

Geological Map of the U.S.S.R., 1:5,000,000, izd. Tsentr. Geolog.-razv. inst.
(publication of the Central Geological Survey Institute), 1937.

Map of Quaternary Deposits in the European Part of the U.S.S.R., izd. Tsentr.
Geolog.-razv. inst. (publication of the Central Geological Survey Institute),
1932.

Geobotanical Map of the European Part of the U.S.S.R., izd. Gl. Botan. sada
(publication of the Central Botanical Garden), 5-7, 9, 10, 14-15; 1928-
1929.

Geological Map of the Northern Part of the U.S.S.R., 1:2,500,000, izd. Arkt.
inst. (publication of the Arctic Institute), 1937.

Industrial Atlas of the U.S.S.R., No. V, Part 1, Natural Conditions in the
U.S.S.R., izd. Prezidiuma VSNKh (publication of the Presidium of the
Supreme Council on National Economy), Leningrad, 1931.

Atlas of Leningrad Ohlast and Karelia, Leningrad, 1937, izd. Geogr.-ekon. inst.
(publication of the Geographical-Economics Institute), with text (Lenin-
grad Ohlast and the Karelian A.S.S.R.), p. 341, Leningrad, 1935.

Atlas of Tadzhikistan, izd. Akad. nauk (pubHcation of the Academy of Sci-
ences).

367

Glossary

Absolute Elevation. Elevation above sea level.

Alluvial Soils. Azonal group of soils, developed from transported and
relatively recently deposited material (alluvium) characterized by a weak
modification (or none) of the original material by soil-forming processes.

Alluvium. Fine material, such as sand, mud, or other sediments deposited
on land by streams.

Anticline. An upfold or arch of stratified rock in which the beds or layers
dip in opposite directions from the crest.

Anticyclone. The system of winds that belongs to and encircles a region
of maximum barometric pressure. The winds circulate around the center clock-
wise.

Awn, a bristlelike appendage of plants, especially occurring on the glumes
of grasses.

Barkhan. Isolated sand dune in the form of a lunar crescent. The wind-
ward slope is convex; the horns point down-wind.

Basic Rocks. Rocks poor in silica; opposed to acid.

Bedrock. The solid rock underlying soils and other superficial formations.

Belki (Russian), Snow-capped mountains.

Bobac. a marmot of eastern Europe and Asia.

Bog Soils. An intrazonal group of soils with a mucky or peaty surface
soil underlain by peat, developed under swamp or marsh types of vegetation,
mostly in a humid or subhumid climate.

BoR (Russian), A pine grove growing on sandy soil.

Caryopsis. a one-celled, one-seeded, superior fruit, with pericarp imited
to the seed; the fruit of cereals.

Chernozem Soils. Azonal group of soils having a deep, dark-colored to
nearly black surface horizon, rich in organic matter, which grades below into
lighter-colored soil and finally into a layer of lime accumulation; developed un-
der tall and mixed grasses in a temperate to cool subhumid climate. From
the Russian for "black earth."

Cirque. A deep, steep-walled, amphitheatral recess in a mountain, caused
by glacial erosion. The glacial cirque is so distinctive a geomorphic form that
it is identified by a specific word in many languages, thus i./cflr, corrie, cwm,
botn, caldare, oule, zanoga. These foreign terms are occasionally used in Eng-
lish when the reference is to the occurrence of glacial cirques in the places
where these words are used.

369

370 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Cyclone. The system of winds that accompanies and surrounds any con-
siderable region of minimum barometric pressure. The winds circulate around
the center counterclockwise.

Degradation. Change of one soil type to a more highly leached one.

Degraded Chernozem. A zonal group of soils having a very dark brown
to black surface horizon underlain by a dark- to light-gray leached horizon
which rests upon a brown horizon; developed in the region between chernozem
and podzolic soils, where the forest vegetation has encroached upon grassland.

Detritus. A heterogeneous mass of fragments of stone or earth.

Dhole. A fierce wild dog of Asia, of houndlike form, of a deep bay color,
with small erect ears and a bushy tail. It hunts in packs and will attack even
the tiger.

Dicotyledon. Plant of the class denoted by their possession of two cotyle-
dons, or seed lobes.

Diluvium. Material of any sort deposited in one place after having been
moved from another; drift.

Drumlin. An oval hill of glacial drift, normally compact and unstratified,
usually with its longer axis parallel to the movement of the ice responsible for
its deposition.

Eluvial. See "eluviation."

Eluviation. The movement of soil material from one place to another
wdthin the soil, in solution or in suspension, when there is an excess of rain-
fall over evaporation. Horizons that have lost material through eluviation are
referred to as eluvial and those that have received material as illuvial. The
term refers especially to the movement of colloids, whereas leaching refers
to the complete removal of material in solution.

Endemic. Indigenous or native to a restricted locality; confined naturally
to a certain limited area or region; opposed to exotic.

Epeirogenic. Of, pertaining to, or designating, continent-making move-
ments of the earth's crust, or the rising or sinking of vast areas.

Epiphytes. Plants which germinate on other plants and grow without
obtaining nourishment at the cost of the substance of the host.

Escape. A cultivated plant found growing as though wild, dispersed by
any agency.

EsKER. A sinuous ridge of glacial sand and gravel, deposited by a stream
flowing beneath, in, or upon the glacier, and left as a ridge after the melting
of the enclosing ice; serpentine kame, os.

Extrusive Rocks. Igneous rocks produced from lavas which reach the sur-
face of the earth before they consolidate.

Fault. A fracture in the earth's crust accompanied by a displacement of
one side of the fracture with respect to the other and in a direction parallel to
the fracture.

Flood Plain. The nearly flat surface subject to overflow along stream
courses.

Fluvioglacial. Deposited or accomplished by streams from glacier ice.

FoEHN. A warm, dry wind blowing down a mountain side onto the valleys

GLOSSARY 8^1

and plains beyond; the chinook is a warm, dry foehnlikc wind that descends
the Rocky Mountains.

FossoRiAL. Fitted for digging or burrowing, as the legs of certain insects.

Geosyncline. a great downward flexure of the earth's crust.

Glavny (Russian). Main.

Gleization. a general term for the process of soil formation leading to
the development, under the influence of excessive moistening, of a glei (gley)
horizon in the lower part of the solum. A soil horizon in which the material
ordinarily is bluish gray or olive gray, more or less sticky, compact, and often
structureless, is called a glei (gley) horizon and is developed under the in-
fluence of excessive moistening.

Gley. See "gleization."

Glint (Russian). An escarpment in the Baltic region.

Glume. The chaffy two-ranked members of the inflorescence of grasses
and similar plants.

Graben. a block of the earth's surface that is depressed in relation to the
surrounding rock units. The topographic basin that results from graben faulting
is a rift, or rift valley.

Grasses. Annual or perennial, mostly herbaceous plants, family Gramineae.

Half-bog Soils. An intrazonal group of soils with mucky or peaty surface
soil underlain by gray mineral soil; developed largely imder swamp-forest type
of vegetation, mostly in a humid or subhumid chmate.

Halophyte. a plant which grows on saline soil. Halo is from the Greek
for "salt."

Hamate. Hooked at the tip.

Herb. A plant that dies to the ground each year, or at least that does not
become woody. It may be annual, biennial, or perennial.

HoRST. A block of the earth's surface bounded by faults and lifted above
its surroundings; opposed to graben.

Humus. The well decomposed, more or less stable part of the organic mat-
ter of the soil.

Hydrophyte. A plant which grows in water or in saturated soil.

Igneous Rock. A rock produced through the cooling of melted mineral
material.

Illuvial. See "eluviation."

Interfluve. The higher land separating adjacent stream valleys.

Intrazonal Soil. Any of the great groups of soils with more or less well
developed soil characteristics that reflect the dominating influence of some
local factor of relief, parent material, or age over the normal effect of the
climate and vegetation.

Intrusive Rocks. Igneous rocks produced from magmas that have con-
solidated below the earth's surface; plutonic rocks.

Kame. a short irregular ridge, hill, or hillock of stratified glacial drift.

Karst. a limestone plateau on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, marked
by sinks, or karst holes, interspersed with abrupt ridges and irregular protu-
berant rocks, and by caverns and underground streams; any region character-
ized by similar topography.

S72 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

KiANG. A large Tibetan wild ass {Equtis hemionus), somewhat resembling
a horse.

Kray (Russian). An administrative unit in the R.S.F.S.R. and the Ukraine,
formed along Unes of economic characteristics, which supersedes both the
raion congresses of Soviets of the rural districts and the Soviets of the small
cities. See "oblust."

Kurgan ( Russian ) . An accumulation of earth, of rounded, generally sym-
metrical form, often more or less elliptical in horizontal section; tumulus, or
barrow.

Laccolith. An intrusive mass of igneous rock completely surrounded by
strata which it has upheaved to form an arch or domical bulging.

Lacustrine Deposits. Materials deposited by lake waters.

Layer Society. A plant community within an association which results
from the tendency of various species of smaller size than the dominant hfe
form to display their foliage at more or less definite levels. Thus, horizontal
vegetative strata, the product of a process of adaptation and selection in which
light is a dominant factor.

Leaching. Removal of materials in solution.

Legume. A simple, usually dry pod, splitting along the back into two
valves or parts; the fruit of any leguminous plant.

Loess. An unstratified deposit of loam, ranging to clay at the one extreme
and to fine sand at the other, usually of a buflF or yellowish-brown color.

Maquis. Evergreen transition zone between steppe and forest in the Medi-
terranean region, the species being characteristic of the adjoining forest; mostly
of taller scrubs.

Massif. The dominant, central mass of a mountain ridge more or less de-
fined by longitudinal or transverse valleys; a diastrophic block, or any isolated
central independent mass; a thickly-wooded hillside or a cluster of trees such
as obscures all view beyond it.

Melkosopochnik (Russian). Region of low hillocks and declivities with
gentle slopes, believed to have been formed as a result of erosion under con-
tinental conditions.

Metamorphic Rock. A rock the constitution of which has undergone pro-
nounced alteration. Such changes are generally effected by the combined action
of pressure, heat, and water, frequently resulting in a more compact and more
highly crystalline condition of the rock. Gneiss, schist, and marble are common
examples.

Mineral Soil. A general term used in reference to any soil composed
chiefly of mineral matter.

MoNOCLiNAL. Having a single oblique inclination.

Monsoon. A wind that blows steadily along the Asiatic coast of the Pacific
over an extent of about 40° lat., in winter from the northeast (dry monsoon),
in summer more violently from the southwest (wet monsoon). Hence, any
wind that alternates annually in direction and force; a trade-wind.

Moraine. An accumulation of earth, stones, and so forth, carried and
finally deposited by a glacier.

Mouse Hare. A pika.

GLOSSARY 373

Mud Volcano. An orifice in the earth from which gas or vapor issues,
either through a pool ol: mud, or with the ejecti(jn of mud, which accumulates
in a conical mound.

"Mu.simooM" Rocks. Rock formations, characteristic of desert landscapes,
which have been shaped by the cutting away of all projecting masses near
their bases, due to the restriction of the more effective tools of erosion to the
layer of air just above the ground.

Mycotropiiic. Obtaining food by association with a fungus.

Neve. The partially compacted granular snow forming the surface part of
the upper end of a glacier; firn.

Niche. A faintly etched amphitheater on the slope of a mountain, some-
times produced by the hollowing action of snowdrifts.

Oblast (Russian). The terms ohlasi and kray are applied indiscriminately,
according to local usage. But strictly speaking, an oblast is a newly established
administrative district containing no autonomous area. Where an autonomous
area peopled mainly by a national minority exists as an enclave within the
district, the proper term is kray. The North Caucasian kray, for example, con-
tains as many as seven autonomous areas.

Okrug (Russian). In the early days of the Soviet Union there was a tier
of councils, in addition to the divisions of obla^st or kray and raion, termed the
okrug soviet, for an area roughly corresponding to that of the old volost (rioral
district), in which both village Soviets and city Soviets were represented. This
division was found inconvenient. It was decided by the Central Committee of
the Communist Party by a decree of July 6, 1930, to "liquidate" the okrugs
and to conclude by October 1, 1930. The decision was ratified by the Six-
teenth Party Congress. But, in the vast area of the U.S.S.R., such changes take
time to become universal. In 1934 there were still functioning twenty-two
okrugs.

Organic Soil. A general term used in reference to any soil the solid part
of which is predominantly organic matter.

Panicle. A loose flower cluster.

Parent Materials. The unconsohdated mass from which the soil profile
develops.

Parent Rock. The rock from which parent materials of soils are formed.

Peat. Unconsolidated soil material consisting largely of undecomposed or
slightly decomposed organic matter accumulated under conditions of excessive
moisture.

Petiole. The footstalk of a leaf.

Pinnate. With leaflets arranged along each side of a common petiole.

PoDZOL Soils. A zonal group of soils having an organic mat and a ver)' thin
organic-mineral layer above a gray leached layer, which rests upon an alluvial
dark-brown horizon, developed under coniferous or mixed forest, or under
heath vegetation in a temperate to cold moist climate. Iron oxide and alumina,
and sometimes organic matter, have been removed from the A and deposited
in the B horizon. From the Russian for "like ash" or "near ash."

Podolization. a general term referring to that process (or those proc-
esses) by which soils are depleted of bases, become acid, and have developed

374 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

eluvial A horizons (surface layers of removal) and illuvial B horizons (lower
horizons of accumulation). Specifically the term refers to the process by which
a podzol is developed, including the more rapid removal of iron and alumina
than of siUca, from the surface horizons, but it is also used to include similar
processes operative in the formation of certain other soils of humid regions.

PoLYN (Russian). Species of Artemisia. In Standardized Plant Names (see
Translator's Bibliography), species of Artemisia growing in the western United
States are called "sagebrush," while those growing in the Old World are called
"wormwood." However, this usage is not accepted by all authorities in this
country. For this reason it was decided to retain the Russian word polyn
throughout this translation.

Raion (Russian). An area, formed mainly on Hues of economic produc-
tion, comprising a number of adjacent villages and hamlets, together with such
small cities and urban settlements as are found in the area. The geographical
extent and population of the raion differ from place to place according to local
circumstances, and may be varied from time to time by decrees of any supe-
rior authority. It may thus comprise any number of villages, from a few dozen
to many score, with half a dozen times as many dependent hamlets, with or
without one or more cities and virban settlements.

Relative Elevation. Elevation in local relief.

Relict, adj. Left behind in a process of change; n. a living remnant of an
otherwise extinct t^'pe of plants or animals.

Rhachis. The axis of an inflorescence or compound leaf or frond.

Rhizome. Rootstock or dorsiventral stem, of rootlike appearance, prostrate
on or under grotmd, sending off rootlets, the apex progressively sending up
stems or leaves.

Rift Valley. See "graben."

Roche Moutonnee. A knob of rock produced by the erosive action of
glaciers; it has a gently inclined, striated and grooved, smoothed, or even pol-
ished slope on the end against which the glacier impinged; the long axis is
oriented in the direction of the ice motion; the lee end is steep, and has a
rough, hackly surface.

Saxaul. a singular tree (Anabasis ammodendron and other species) with-
out leaves, its thin boughs without branches, the stem growing in zigzag curves
to the height of fifteen feet or more. It is common in western Asia.

Sedimentary Rock. A rock composed of particles deposited from suspen-
sion in water. The chief groups of sedimentary rocks are (1) conglomerates
(from gravels), (2) sandstones (from sands), (3) shales (from clays), and
(4) Hmestones (from calcium carbonate deposits); but there are many inter-
mediate types.

Seiche. An oscillation of the surface of a lake or landlocked sea, varying
in period from a few minutes to several hours. It is thought to be initiated
chiefly by local variations in atmospheric pressure, and perpetuated by the
oscillations of the water surface, after the inequalities of atmospheric pressure
have disappeared.

Sessile. Without a stem or stalk.

Sesquioxide. a binary compound of oxygen and a metal in the proportion

GLOSSARY 375

of three to two. The two oxides, alumina (Al/),) and iron oxide (FcjOa)
are the only two oxides in soils, in any considerable quantity, in which the
elements are present in the ratio of two to three, or one to one-and-a-half;
hence the term "sesquioxide,"

Shiblyak (Russian). Transition community between steppe and forest;
such communities have arisen on the deforested soil of the Balkan Peninsula;
they arc composed of species which are not characteristic of forest; .sihljak.

SiEROZEM Soils. A zonal group of soils having a brownish-gray surface
horizon that grades through lighter-colored material into a layer of carbonate
accumulation and frequently into a hardpan layer, developed under mixed
shrub vegetation in a temperate to cool arid climate. From the Russian for
"gray earth."

Sinks. Funnel-shaped depressions dissolved from the surface of rock about
the caverns of limestone formations.

Skeletal Soils. An azonal group of soils having no clearly expressed soil
morphology and consisting of a freshly and imperfectly weathered mass of
rock fragments; largely confined to steeply sloping land; lithosols.

Soil. The natural medium for the growth of land plants on the surface
of the earth. A natural body on the surface of the earth in which plants grow,
composed of organic and mineral materials.

SoLOD Soils. An intrazonal group of soils having a thin surface layer of
brown friable soil above a gray leached horizon which rests upon a bro^vn or
dark-brown horizon; developed under shrubs, grasses, or mixed grasses and
trees, usually in a semiarid or subhumid cUmate. From the Russian for "salt."

SoLONCHAK Soils. An intrazonal group of soils having a high concentration
of soluble salts; usually light colored; without characteristic structural form;
de\'eloped under salt-loving grass or shrub vegetation mostly in arid, semiarid,
or subhumid climate. From the Russian for "salt."

SoLONETZ Soils. An intrazonal group of soils having a variable surface
horizon of friable soil miderlain by dark hard soil, ordinarily with columnar
structure; usually highly alkaline; developed under grass or shrub vegetation,
mostly in a subhumid or semiarid climate. From the Russian for "salt."

SoLONiZED Soil. A soil ^\'hich is affected by a process which ultimately
leads to the formation of a solonetz. According to the extent of modification
of the original material by such a process, one may recognize a weakly
solonized, a moderately solonized, and a strongly solonized soil. The highest
degree of solonization is represented by the fully developed or "mature" solo-
netz. The most conspicuous characteristic of solonization is the development
of a dark-colored impervious clayey B horizon or layer immediately below
the surface soil. Thus, a solonized soil is a weakly or imperfectly developed
solonetz.

Solum. The upper part of the soil profile, above the parent material, in
which the processes of soil formation are taking place.

Stanitsa. a Cossack village or commune.

Subsoil. Roughly, that part of the solum below plow depth.

Suslik. A gi'ound squirrel (Citdlm) of northeastern Europe and north-
western Asia.

376 NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Syncline. a downward flexure in folded rocks, formed by strata dipping
toward a common line or plane; a trough.

Takyr ( Russian ) . The flat-floored bottom of an undrained desert basin,
becoming at times a shallow lake, which, on evaporation, may leave a deposit
of salt or gypsum; playa, salt pan.

Talus. Fragments of rock and soil material collected at the foot of cliffs
or steep slopes, chiefly as a result of gravitational forces.

Tarpan (Russian). A small feral horse {Equus gmelini) of the steppes of
Russia and Central Asia, dun-colored and with a short mane.

Tectonic. Designating the rock structures and external forms resulting
from the deformation of the earth's crust.

Thermophile. An organism growing at a high temperature.

Thrust. A compressive tangential stress in the earth's crust or the effect
of such stress. Thrust faults are faults produced by horizontal compression,
in which the vertical displacement of one block relative to the other is inci-
dental to the horizontal shortening of the mass as a whole.

Trap. Any of various dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rocks. Gabbro
and diabase are often called trap rock.

Tuff (Tufa). A rock composed of the finer kinds of volcanic detritus,
usually more or less stratified and in various states of consohdation. There are
many varieties. Tufa applies to similar rocks, but more especially to a kind
of porous rock formed as a deposit from springs or streams; usually applied
to calcareous deposits (travertine) in the phrase, "calcareous tufa."

Undershrub. a low shrub; a low woody plant, whether growing beneath
trees or in open ground; a subshi-ub.

Urman (Russian). A dense coniferous forest with fir predominating.

VoDORAZDELNY (Russian). adj. Watershed.

Xerophilous. Drought-resistant or drought-tolerant; able to withstand the
absence or scarcity of moisture, as a desert plant.

Xerophyte. a plant which can subsist with a small amount of moisture,
as a desert plant.

Zonal Soil. Any one of the great groups of soils having well developed
soil characteristics that reflect the influence of the active factors of soil genesis
—climate and living organisms, chiefly vegetation.

Russian Transliteration Table

(Based on the new Russian orthography)

This scheme is designed for the convenience of readers who do not
know Russian. It is intended primarily for the rendering of personal and
place names— mostly nouns in the nominative case.

The aim is to produce words as "normal" in appearance as possible,
without the use of diacritical marks, superscripts or apostrophes, but at
the same time to approximate the sounds of the Russian words, so that
if spoken by an educated American they would easily be identified by
a Russian.

Names which are a part of English cultural tradition, such as Moscow,
Archangel, Tolstoy, Tchaikovsky, are given in their customary English
spelling.

Extended phrases or entire sentences involving verb forms and case
endings, which occur in footnotes for the convenience of students who
know Russian, are given in a somewhat more complex transliteration
which is reversible.

Russian English

( except in genitive singular where it is v,
\ as in Tolstovo.

j when initial, and after h, %, and aU vowels,
( except hi, h: Yekaterina, Izdanie, Nikolayev.

elsewhere, as in Lenin, Vera, Pero.
but after :k and m = o.

but after b = yi, as in Ilyich.
5 in terminal diphthongs, but i medially, as in
( May, Kochubey, Kiy, Tolstoy, but Khozi/oistvo.

877

A

a

a

B

6

h

B

B

V

r

r

9

A

A

d

r(i)

ye

E

e

((2)

€

E

e

yo

m

JK

zh

3

3

z

II

H

i

fl

ii

y

K

K

k

JI

JI

I

378

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE U.S.S.R.

Russian

English

M

M

m

H

H

n

0

O

0

n

n

V

p

P

r

c

c

s

T

T

t

y

y

u

o

*

f

X

X

kh as in Kharkov.

^

^

ts

Tsargrad.

^

^

ch

Chapayev, Vaigach.

m

m

sh

Shakhta.

lA

lA

shch

Shchedrin.

ly

t

Omit

LI

LI

y

Mys, Tsaritsyn.

L

b

Omit

9

a

e

Ermitazh.

K)

lO

yu

il

H

ya

Adjectival Endings

Singular LIH, HH bih, nfi ] ""^^^J^^^^^ ^' ^' ^^ Dostoyevsky,

Plural LIE, HE tie, iie both simply ie.

The English letter y serves both as vowel and as consonant (as it does
in English): (1) as a vowel within words, as in Mys, Tsaritsyn, and also
(2) as an adjectival terminal vowel, as in Khoroshy, Razumovsky, May,
Kochubey, Tolstoy, and (3) with consonantal force to soften vowels,
as in Istoriya, Bratya, Yug.

Index of Plants

Abelia (Abelia conjmhosa), 183
Abelia corymbosa (abelia), 183
Abies (fir)

A. gracilis, 342

A. holophylla (Manchurian fir), 65, 325
A. nephrolepis (Khingan fir), 323, 326
A. nordmanniana ( Nordmann fir ) , 220,

222
A. sachalinensis (Sakhalin fir), 332
A. sibirica ( Siberian fir ) , 35, 37, 58,

183
A. sibirica semenovi ( Turkestan fir ) ,
183
Acacia

Australian, 215
Lenkoran, 216

"sand" (saxaul, Ammodendron conol-
lyi), 151, 152
Acantholimon (prickly thrift), 185
A. diapensioides, 186, 187
A. hohenackeri, 240
A. marmoreum, 183
Acanthophyllum, 185
Acanthopanax senticosus ("wild pep-
per"), 323, 325, 332
Acer (maple)

A.campestre (hedge maple), 80, 210,

255
A. caudatum ukurunduense ( ukurundu

maple), 332
A. ginnala (Amur maple), 64
A. hyrcanum, 255
A, insigne [A. velutinum glabrescens]

(Persian velvet maple), 225, 239
A. mono (mono maple), 323, 325
A. monspessulanum, 186
A. platanoides (Norway maple), 54,

56, 80
A. pseudo-sieboldianum, 324
A. tataricum (Tatarian maple), 80, 103
A. trautvetteri (redbud maple), 221,

223, 224, 226
A. turkestanicum ( Turkestan maple ) ,

180, 181
A. velutinum glabrescens ( Persian vel-
vet maple), 225, 239
Aconite, Siberian, 47
Aconitum ( monkshood )

A. excelsum, 282
A. krylovii, 282
A. orientuh, 226, 230
Actinidia ( Actinidia )

kolomikta (A. kolomikta), 323, 325
Actinidia (actinidia)
A. arguta, 325

A. kolomikta {kolomikta actinidia),
323, 325
Adonis (Adonis), 85, 99, 282

spring (A. vernalis), 85, 99, 258
Adonis (adonis)
A. sibiricus, 282
A. vernalis (spring adonis), 85, 99,

258
A. volgensis, 99
Aegilops (goat grass), 238
Aegopodium podagraria ( bishop's-gout-

weed), 80, 271
Aeluropus litoralis (azlirek), 157
Agave, 216
Agropyron

A. caninum (wheat grass), 219

A. cristatwn (crested wheat grass),

101, 280
A.ferganense (wheat grass), 187
A. popovii (wheat grass), 178
A. pseudagropyron (wheat grass), 307
A. repens (quack grass), 105
A. sibiricum ( Siberian wheat grass ) ,
122, 150
Agrostis canina (veK'et bent grass), 84,

85
Ak-dzhusan (white polyn), 121
Ak-kuray ( dmpe scurf pea, Psoralea dru-

pacea), 156, 178
Albizzia

Lenkoran, or silk-tree (Albizzia juli-
brissin), 239, 252
Albizzia julibrissin (Lenkoran, or silk-
tree albizzia), 239, 252
Alchemilla (lady's-mantle), 256
Alder (Alnus), 17, 23, 39, 44, 50, 83,
103, 195, 196, 294, 333, 340, 341,
342
Caucasian (A. subcordata), 239
European (A. glutinosa), 40, 47, 55,
103, 104, 195

379

380

Alder (Continued)

hairy (A. barbata), 195, 200, 211, 217,

228
Manchurian (A. fruticosa), 267, 294,

296, 316
Manchurian (A. hirsuta), 333, 341
speckled (A. incana), 47^, 231
Alectoria (Alectoria), 15
Alectoria (alectoria)
A. ochroleuca, 15
Alfalfa, 63
Algae, 100

blue-green (Nostoc commune), 99, 122
calcareous, 74
Alhagi ( camel's-thom )

A. camelorum [A. pseudalhagi], 158,

229, 234
A. pseudalliagi, 158, 229, 234
AZttic (apple), 181

Ahnond, 177, 178, 186, 211, 215, 252
Russian (Amijgdalus nana), 86, 95,

210, 280
wild, 180
Alnus (alder)

A. barbata (hairy alder), 195, 200, 211,

217, 228
A. fruticosa (Manchurian alder), 17,

267, 294, 296, 316
A. glutinosa (European alder), 47, 55,

103, 104, 195
A. hirsuta (Manchurian alder), 333,

341
A. incana (speckled alder), 47
A. kamtschatica, 341, 342
A.subcordata (Caucasian alder), 239
Ammodendron ( saxaul )
A. conollyi, 150, 151
A. karelini, 150
Amijgdalus nana (Russian almond), 86,

210, 280
Anabasis

A.aphylla (itsegek), 157
A. salsa (biyurgun), 122, 149, 153
Andromeda, 21, 44, 45
Andromeda polifolia, 44
Andropogon iscJiaemum (East Indies

bluestem), 211, 233, 235
Androsace villosa (rock jasmine), 86, 183,

256
Anemone (Anemone), 99, 281
narcissus (A. narcissifiora) , 283
snowdrop (A. sylvestris), 85
Anemone (anemone)
A. altaica, 281
A. caerulea [A. nemorosa caerulea],

281
A. narcissifiora (narcissus anemone),
283

INDEX OF PLANTS

A. nemorosa caerulea, 281

A. nigricans, 99

A. patens (spreading pasqueflower), 85,

99, 281
A. sylvestris (snowdrop anemone), 85
Angelica, 282

A. ursina, 341
Apocijnum venetum (dogbane), 158
Apple (Pyrus), 103, 176, 177, 180, 181,
189, 209, 218, 222
Vemensk Aporta, 181
\vild, 181
Apricot, 177, 180, 181, 189, 211, 215
Aquilegia ( columbine )

A. gkindulosa ( Altay columbine ) , 283
A. olympica [A. vulgaris olympica], 226
A. vulgaris olympica, 226
Aralia, spiny (Aralia mandshurica) , 323,

324, 325
Aralia mandshurica (spiny aralia), 323,

324, 325
Araliaceae, 323
Araucarites, 286
Arbutus (madrone)
A. andrachne, 252

A.unedo (strawberry madrone), 252
Archd (juniper), 166, 181
Archangelica decurrens [Angelica], 282
Arctostaphylos alpina [Arctous alpinus]

(alpine ptarmiganberry ) , 15, 309
Arctous alpinus ( alpine ptarmiganberry ) ,

15, 309
Aristida (three-awn)

A. pennata var. karelini, 151, 152
A. pennata var. minor, 151
Artemisia (polyn), 98, 121
A.cina (Levant polyn), 156
A. hanseniana, 235
A. incana (white polyn), 121
A. lehmanniana, 182
A.maikara (black polyn), 149
A.maritima (white polyn), 121, 156,

185, 228
A. maritima taurica, 253
A.pauciflora (black polyn), 121, 149
A. rhodantha ( high-mountain polyn ) ,

187
A. scopaeformis, 156
A. skorniakovii (high-mountain polyn),

186
A. terrae-albae (white polyn), 121, 149,

150, 157
A.turanica (Turanian polyn), 149
Arthrophytum (saxaul), 151

A. acutifolium (white, or sand saxaul),

151
A.aphyllum (black, or solonchak sax-
aul), 151

INDEX OF PLANTS

A. haloxijlon ( black, or solonchak sax-

aul), 151
A. persicum ( white, or sand saxaul ) ,
151
Arum {Arum orientale), 87
Arum orientale (arum), 87
Arundo donax (giant reed), 158
Asurum europaeum (European wild gin-
ger), 58, 80, 271
Ash (Fraxinus), 54, 56, 60, 64, 65, 80,
82, 103, 104, 186, 209, 210, 213,
217, 218, 222, 224, 228, 231, 254,
255, 257, 258, 322, 332
Manchurian (F. mandshurica) , 64,
323, 326, 332, 333
Aspen (Populus), 23, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47,
50, 54, 64, 65, 73, 80, 81, 82, 83,
95, 103, 104, 123, 181, 183, 210,
231, 257, 258, 268, 270, 271, 281,
282, 285, 295, 308, 309, 332
"Aspen bushes," 73, 80, 81, 82
Asperula odorata (sweet woodruff), 58,

271
Aspicilia (a lichen), 122

A. alpino-desertorum, 149
Aster, Italian (Aster amellus), 89
Aster amellus ( Italian aster ) , 89
Astragalus (Astragalus), 101, 152, 233,
280
Crimean-Balkan tragacanth (A. arna-

cantha), 213
Owerin's (A. owerini), 227
sand, 151
spiny, 234

spiny (A. marschalliamis) , 223, 231
spiny (A. nigricalyx) , 182
spiny tragacanth (A. aureus), 240
tragacanth, 185, 234
Astragalus (astragalus), 20, 340
A. ammodendron, 152
A. arnacantha ( Crimean-Balkan traga-
canth astragalus), 213
A. aureus ( spiny tragacanth astragalus),

240
A. brevif alius, 280
A.dilutus, 280
A.humilis, 238
A. marschallianus (spiny astragalus),

223, 231
A. nigricalyx, 182

A. owerini (Owerin's astragalus), 227
Atragene sibirica [Clematis alpina sibi-

rica] (alpine clematis), 282
Atraphaxis spinosa (a buckwheat shrub),

234, 253
Atriplex canum (saltbush), 122
Atropis distans [Puccinellia disians], 87,
157

381

Avena (oats), 238

A. desertorum (desert oat), 187
A. puhescens (hairy oat), 84
Azalea (Azalea), 215, 218, 219, 220, 221.
224, 225
pontic (A. pontica or Rhododendron
flavum [R. luteum]), 58, 196, 210,
222
Azalea (azalea)

A. pontica [Rhododendron luteum]
(pontic azalea), 58, 196
Azhrek (Aeluropus litoralis), 157

Balyk-kuz (Salsola lanata), 156
Bamboo, 194, 216, 329, 332

Kurile (Sasa kurilensis), 333
Banana, Japanese, 216
Barberry, 180, 186, 229, 231, 282

European (Berberis vulgaris), 223
Barley, 25, 175, 185, 233

bulbous (Hordeum bulbosum), 178
Bean, common bog (Menyanthes trifoli-

ata), 197
Bedstraw, yellow (Galium verum), 46-

47, 233
Beech (Fagus), 55, 58, 80, 81, 210, 218,
219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229,
230, 240, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256,
257, 258, 260
Caucasian, 222, 255
European (F. sylvatica), 255
oriental (F. orientalis), 196, 213, 217,
221, 229, 240, 255
Bellflower

milky (Campanula lactifiora), 220
short, 227
Bent grass, 184

velvet (Agrostis canina), 84, 85
Berberis vulgaris (European barberry),

223
Bergenia, 295

leather (Bergenia crassifolia) , 296
Bergenia crassifolia (leather bergenia),

296
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), 157
Betula (birch)

B.cajanderi (white birch), 15, 316
B. costata, 65, 325

B. davurica (Dahurian birch), 63, 325
B.ermani (Erman's birch), 309, 315,

322, 326, 333, 340, 344
B.exilis (East Siberian dwarf birch),

14, 309
B. japonica [B. platyphylla japonica]
(Japanese white birch), 326, 332,
333, 341
B.kusmisscheffii (Lapland birch), 17

882

Betula (Continued)

B.medivedietvii (Medvedev's birch),

221, 226
B.megrelica (Mingrelian birch), 221
B. middendorffii ( MiddendorfF's birch),

309, 315, 316, 322
B.nana (dwarf arctic birch), 14, 20,

268, 283
B.plaUjphylla (Asiatic white birch),

64, 309, 322
B. platijphylla japonica (Japanese white

birch), 326, 332, 333, 341
B. pubescens (pubescent birch), 81, 221,

231
B. pubescens var. glabra, 104
B. raddeana (Radde's birch), 223, 226,

231
B.rotundifolia (ground birch), 283,

296
B.subtilis, 315

B.tianschanica (white birch), 181
B.toituosa (crooked birch), 17, 267,

268, 270
B. verrucosa (European white birch),
81, 257
Bilberry, 17, 40, 41, 42, 45, 82, 268
bog (Vaccinium idiginosum), 14, 15,
17, 40, 45, 295, 333
Birch (Betula), 3, 12, 15, 16, 17, 23, 39,
40, 41, 44, 65, 69, 73, 80, 81, 82,
83, 88, 95, 104, 176, 210, 223, 224,
225, 226, 231, 257, 258, 268, 269,
270, 271, 272, 281, 282, 286, 294,
295, 296, 307, 308, 309, 315, 325,
332, 333, 340
Asiatic white (B. platijphijlla) , 63, 64,

65, 309, 322
crooked (B. tortuosa), 17, 267, 268,

270
Dahurian (B. davurica), 63, 64, 65,

323, 325
dwarf, 3, 45
dwarf arctic (B. nana), 14, 15, 17, 20,

268, 283
East Siberian dwarf (B. exilis), 309
Erman's (B. ermani), 231, 309, 315,
322, 326, 332, 333, 340, 341, 342,
343, 344
European white (B. verrucosa), 42, 81,

83, 257, 294
ground (B. rotundifolia) , 283, 296
Japanese white (B. japonica [B. platy-
phylla japonica] ), 326, 332, 333, 341
Lapland (B. kusmisscheffii) , 17
Medvedev's (B. medwediewii) , 221,

226, 231
Middendorff's (B. middendorffii), 309,
315, 316, 322, 326

INDEX OF PLANTS

Mingrelian (B. megrelica), 221
pubescent (B. pubescens), 17, 42, 81,

221, 223, 224, 226, 231, 294
Radde's (B. raddeana), 223, 226, 231
shrub, 4, 309
white, 181, 231, 340, 341
white (B. cajanderi), 316
white (B. tianschanica) , 181
Bird cherry, 40, 46, 63, 65, 87, 95, 183,

281, 294, 309, 333
Bishop's-goutweed ( Aegopodium poda-

graria), 80, 271
Bistort, European (Polygonum bistorta),

268
Biyurgun (Anabasis salsa), 122, 149,

150, 153, 157
Blackberry (Rubus), 46, 186, 195, 196,
212, 217, 219, 228, 229, 239
Lenkoran (R. raddeanus), 200
Bladdernut (Staphylea), 224

Colchis (S. colchica), 222, 225
Blue grass (Poa), 46, 107, 155, 156,
177, 238
alpine (P. alpina), 227
Mazanderan (P. masenderana) , 200
viviparous bulbous (P. bulbosa var.
vivipara), 101, 105, 150, 153, 155,
178
Bluestem, East Indies (Andropogon is-

chaemum), 211, 233, 235
Bordzhok (ephedra. Ephedra strobila-

cea), 152
Box, common (Buxus sempervirens) ,
196, 197, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222,
239, 252
Boyalych (Salsola arbuscula), 149, 150
Mongolian species of (S. laricifolia),
149
Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), 195
Bramble (Rubus)

holy (R. sanctus), 200, 201
stone (R. saxatilis), 183, 258
Brasenia purpurea ( watershield ) , 65
Bristle thistle, steppe (Carduus uncina-

tus), 101
Brome (Bromus), 150, 152, 153, 256
meadow (B. erectus), 84, 85
smooth (B. inermis), 46, 105, 179
Bromus (brome), 152, 256

B. erectus (meadow brome), 84, 85
B. inermis (smooth brome), 105, 179
B. squarrosus, 106
Broom (Cytisus ruthenicus), 82, 86
Buckthorn, 46, 103, 252

Caucasian (Rhamnus imeretina), 221,

222, 224
common sea {Hippophae rhamnoides),
195

INDEX OF PLANTS

Palhis's [Rhamnus pallasi?], 229
Buckwheat slirub, 150

Atraphaxis spinosa, 234, 253
Bulrush, 44
Buphthalmum, 226
Bupleurum (an umbellifer)

B. aureum, 282

B. ranunculoides, 86

Burnet (Sanguisorba alpina), 282
Buteher's-broom (Ruscus), 196, 200,
219, 222, 224, 239, 240, 252, 253,
254
Butterbur (Petasites), 20, 46, 219

Japanese (P. iaponicus), 333
Buttercup (Ranunculus), 101, 122, 155,
283, 347, 348
Caucasian (R. caucasicus), 226
snowy (R. nivalis), 270
Buttercup family, 283
Buxus sempervirens (common box), 196,
217, 219, 252

Calamagrostis (rough bluejoint reed
grass )

C. canadensis scahra, 64, 322, 341

C. langsdorffii [C. canadensis scabra],
64, 322, 341
Calamites, 286

Callianthemu7n rutaefolium, 283
Calligonum, 150, 234
C arborescens, 146
C. caput-medusae ( dzhuzgun ) , 146
C.eriopodum (kara-kandym), 151,

152
C. setosum (chakish), 152
C.turkestanicum (dzhuzgun), 151
Calluna vulgaris (Scotch heather), 45
Cahjstegia ( glorybind )

C. sepium [Convolvulus sepium]

(hedge glorybind), 158, 196
C. stjlvatica [Convolvulus silvaticus],
217
Camellia, 216

common (Camellia japonica), 216
Japanese, 215
Camellia japonica (common camellia),

216
Camel's grass (rhubarb), 122
Camel's thorn (Alhagi camelonim [A.

pseudalhagi]), 158, 228, 234
Campanula lacUflora (milky bellflower),

220
Camphor fume (Camphorosma mou-

speliaca), 122
Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora),

216
Camphorosma monspeliaca ( camphor
fume), 122

Campion

Siberian (Lychnis sihirica), 20
Canary grass, 46, 47
Caper (Cuppuris herhacea), 229

Syrian bean (Zygophyllum fahago),
158, 234
Capparis herbacea (caper), 229, 231
Caragana (pea shrub), 95, 280, 282
C . arborescens (Siberian pea shrub),

296
C.frutex (Russian pea shrub), 86
C. grandiflora var. steveni ( Caucasian

pea shrub), 149
C.jubata (shag-spine pea shrub), 296
Cardamine hirsuta (bitter cress), 200
Carduus uncinatus (steppe bristle thistle),

101
Carex (sedge)
C. fllifornm, 44

C.hostii (narrow-leaved sedge), 155
C.humilis (low sedge), 85, 256, 258
C. pachysiylis [C. hostii] ( narrow-
leaved sedge), 155
C.physodes (sand sedge), 150, 151,

152, 153, 155
C.pilosa (hairy sedge), 80
C. rigida, 14

C . stenophylla (needleleaf sedge), 101
Carpinus ( hornbeam )

C.betulus (European hornbeam), 54,

56, 196, 199, 255
C.orientalis (oriental hornbeam), 196,

213, 254, 258
C. schuschaerisis ( Hyrcanian horn-
beam), 240
Caryophyllaceae, 185, 251, 256
Cassandra calycidata (leatlaer leaf), 44
Cassiope, 326
Cassiope (cassiope)
C. ericoides, 309
Castanea (chestnut)

C.sativa (European chestnut), 196
C.vesca [C. sativa] (European chest-
nut), 196
CatcMy, 233
Celtis

C.australis, 180
C.glabrata (hackberry), 254
Centaurea, 229
Cephalaria tatarica, 226
Cerastium, 347
C. alpinum, 348

C . biebersteinii (Crimean "edel-
weiss"), 251, 256
Cerasus maximowiczi [Prunus maximo-

wiczi] (Mi\-ama cherr\-), 325
Ceratocarpus, sand (Ceratocarpus arena-
rius), 122

384

Ceratocarpus arenarius (sand ceratocar-

pus), 122
Cercis siliquastruin (Judas tree), 252
Cetraria (Iceland moss), 41
Cliaenomeles (flowering quince), 216
Chakish {Calligoniim setosum), 152
Chamaedaphne cahjculata (leather leaf),

44
Chamaerops excelsa (Chinese coir palm),

216, 252
Chee grass { Lasiagrostis splendens, or

Stipa splendens), 158
Chenopod, 236
Chenopodiaceae, 122
Cherkez {Salsola richteri), 151, 152
Cherry, 215
Caucasian, 224

ground (Prtimis fniticosa), 86
mazzard, 210, 213, 215, 218, 325
Miyama (Cerasus maximowiczi [Pru-

nus maximowiczi]), 325
wild, 95
Chestnut (Castanea), 197, 213, 217,
218, 219, 220, 222, 224, 225, 252,
341
European (C. vesca [C. sativa]), 196
Chogon (Salsola subaphylla) , 152
Chondrilla, 123, 153
Chosenia macrolepis (Korean willow),

15, 327, 341
Cinnamomum. camphora (camphor tree),

216
Cinquefoil (Potentilla), 280
Cirsium (thistle), 229

C. sinuatum, 231
Cistus (rockrose)

C.tauricus [C. villosiis tauricus] (Cri-
mean rockrose), 218, 253
C. villosus tauricus (Crimean rockrose),
218, 253
Citrus (orange)

C.nobilis unshiu (Satsuma orange),

216
C. unshiu [C. nobilis unshiu] ( Satsuma
orange), 216
Chdonia (reindeer "moss"), 15, 16, 41
C. rangiferina, 13
C. sylvatica, 104
Clematis

alpine (Atragenc sibirica [Clematis

alpina sibirica]), 282
narrowleaf (Clematis angustifolia) , 307
oriental (C orientalis) , 158
Clematis

C.alpina sibirica (alpine clematis),

282
C. angustifolia ( narrowleaf clematis ) ,
307

INDEX OF PLANTS

C. orientalis (oriental clematis), 158
C.vitalba ( traveler's-joy ) , 195, 199,
212, 228, 230
Cloudberry (Rubus cliamaemorus) , 14,

40, 45, 333, 334
Clover

kura (Trifolium ambiguum), 256
mountain (T. m,ontanum), 85
red, 46
Cobresia (Cobresia), 184, 186, 187, 226
Cobresia (cobresia), 184, 226

C. capillifolia, 184
Colcliicum montanum (autumn crocus),

100
Colewort (Crambe tatarica), 99
Colpodium humile, 238
Columbine (AquUegia), 226
Altay (A. glanduhsa), 283
Compositae ( composite plants ) , 179, 182,

223, 226, 340
Con volvulus ( glorybind )

C.sepium (hedge glorybind), 158, 196
C. silvaticus, 217
Cork tree, 325

Amur (Phellodendron amurense), 64,
65, 323, 325
Corn, 195, 217
Cornus ( dogwood )

C.alba sibirica (Siberian dogwood),

46
C. sibirica [C. alba sibirica] ( Siberian
dogwood), 46
Corydalis (Conjdalis conorrhiza) , 227
Conjdalis conorrhiza (corydalis), 227
Corylus (filbert)

C.avellana (European filbert), 54, 67,

80, 196, 215, 245
C . heterophylla (Siberian filbert), 64,

67
C. mandshurica [C. sieboldiana mand-

shurica] (Manchurian filbert), 324
C . sieboldiana mandshurica (Man-
churian filbert), 324
Cotinus coggygria (common smoke

tree), 254, 258
Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster), 186, 283
Cotoneaster (cotoneaster)
C. racemiflora, 186
C. unifora, 283
Cotton, 175, 234, 235, 236
Cousinia (Cousinia), 182, 184
Cou-sinia stephanophora (cousinia), 182
Cowbem.- iVaccimum vitis-idaea) , 14,
15, 17, 40, 42, 45, 82, 104, 809, 326
Crabgpple (Mains)

Manchurian [M. baccata mandshur-
ica?], 65
Crambe tatarica (colewort), 99

INDEX OF PLANTS

Cranberry, 21, 22, 45, 82, 87, 333

small (Vaccinium oxycoccos), 44
Crataegus (hawthorn)

C. nwnogyna, 103, 181, 200, 209, 210,
258

C. oxyacantha, 196
Crazyweed (Oxytropis), 186
Cress, bitter (Cardamine hirsuta), 200
Crocus, 100, 177, 245

autumn {Colchicum montanum) , 100
Crocus (crocus)

C. korolkowi, 177

C. reticulatus, 100

C. susianus, 246
Crowberry

black (EmpetruTn nigrum), 14, 15, 17,
20, 21, 45, 283, 295, 309, 342
Crucifers, 86, 99, 156, 186
Cryptomeria, 216
Crysanthemum leucantliemum ( oxeye

daisy), 85
Cupressus sempervirens ( Italian cypress ) ,

252
Current (Ribes), 17, 282, 283, 296, 325

black, 40, 46

red, 40, 46
Cycas, sago (Cycas revoluta), 216
Cycas revoluta (sago cycas), 216
Cydonia (quince)

C. japonica Chaenomeles ( flowering
quince), 216

C. oblonga (common quince), 200
Cynanchum acutum, 158
Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), 157
Cypress

Italian (Cupressus sempervirens), 252

prostrate summer {Kochta prostrata),
122
Cytisus ruthenicus (broom), 82, 86

Dactylis glomerata (orchard grass), 179
Daisy, oxeye (Leucantliemum vulgare
[Crysanthemum leucanthemum]) , 85
Danae racemosa (Alexandria laurel), 200
Daphne

D. altaica sophia, 86
D. cneorum julia, 86
Darmina (Levant polyn, Artemisia cina),

156
Delphinium (larkspur), 226

D. caucasicum [D. speciosum] (Cau-
casian larkspur), 227
D. confusum, 179

D. elatum (Japanese bee larkspur), 282
D. litwinowi, 85

D. speciosum (Caucasian larkspur),
227

385

Dentaria quinquefolia (five-leaved tooth-
wort), 2.57
Deschampsia caespitosa (tufted hair

grass), 47
Desert candle (Eremurus robui4us), 180
Dewberry, European (Rubus caesius),

81
Diapensia (Diapensia), 309

arctic ( D. lapponica), 270
Diapensia (diapensia)

D. lapponica (arctic diapensia), 270
Diapensiaceae, 309
Diarthron vesiculosum, 156
Dicotyledons, 46, 84, 98, 101, 102, 148,
153, 178, 184, 221, 226, 233, 235,
256, 310
Dilleniaceae, 32-3
Dilophia ebracteata, 186
Dionysia tapetodes, 185
Dioscorea caucasica (yam), 217
Dioscoreaceae, 217, 225
Diospyrus ( persimmon )

D.kaki (Japanese kaki persimmon),

216
D. lotus (date-plum persimmon), 216,
218, 239
Diplachne squarrosa (fescue grass), 294
Dipsacaceae, 226

Dogbane (Apocynum venetum), 158
Dogwood (Camus), 210, 229, 255,
258
Siberian (C. sibirica [C. alba sibir-
ica]), 46
Draba (Draha), 13, 86, 256
arctic, 348

spring (D. verna, or Erophila verna),
100
Draba (draba), 347
D. cuspidata, 256
D. macrocarpa, 13
D. verna (spring draba), 100
Dropwort (FUipendula hexapetala), 85,

89, 229, 233, 256
Drosera rotundifolia ( roundleaf sundew ) ,

104, 197
Dryad (Dryas), 20, 268, 270, 280, 283,
326
Caucasian (D. caucasica), 227
Dryas (dryad), 20

D. caucasica (Caucasian dryad), 227
D. octopetala, 12, 268
D. punctata, 12
Dryopteris jilix-mas (male fern), 271
Dzhantak ( camel's-thom, Alhagi camel-

orum [A. pseudalhagi]), 158
Dzhidd (Russian olive, Elaeagnus an-

gustifolia), 158
Dzhingyl (tamarisk, Tamarix), 157

386

Dzhuzgun (Calligonum), 146, 150, 151,
152, 160, 161

Ebelek (sand ceratocarpus), 122
Echium ( viper's-bugloss )
E.italicum, 229
E. violaceum, 229
Edelweiss

common ( Leontopodium alpinum ) ,

184, 281
Crimean (Cerastium biebersteinii) ,
251, 256, 258
Elaeagnus angustifolid (Russian olive),

123, 158
Elder, 42, 282, 333

Eleutherococcus senticosus [Acantho-

panax senticosus] ("wild pepper"),

323 325

Elm (uimus), 64, 81, 83, 123, 166, 181,

186, 218, 222, 229, 332

Asiatic smoothleaf ( U. foliacea pro-

pinqua [U. carpinifolia] ) , 333
Japanese [U. japonica?], 65
Russian (U. pedunculata [17. laevis]),

54, 103, 271
Scotch ( U. montane heterophylla [U.

glabra]), 325
Scotch (U. scabra, or U. montana [U.
glabra]), 54, 60, 63, 65, 210, 213,
224, 257, 271
smoothleaf (U. campestris, or U. fo-
liacea [U. carpinifolia]), 80, 82,
103, 104, 209, 210, 213, 258
Elm family, 197, 254
Elymus giganteus (mammoth wild rye),

122
Empetrum nigrum (black crowberry),

14, 342
Ephedra (Ephedra), 152, 200
Ephedra (ephedra)
E.distachya, 200
E. lomatolepis, 152
E. strobilaceOi 152
E. vulgaris [E. distachya], 200
Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed), 282
Epiphyte, 196, 200, 219
Equisetum (horsetail)

E.arvense (field horsetail), 46
E.majus (West European horsetail),

87
E. sUvaticum (sylvan horsetail), 40
Eremosparton, 151

E. flaccidum (svir-kuiryuk), 151
Eremurus, 179, 180

E. robustus (desert candle), 180
Erianthus ravennae, 158
Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), 215, 216

INDEX OF PLANTS

Erioplwrum faginatum (sheathed Cotton

sedge), 14, 15, 44, 45
Erophila verna (spring draba), 100
Eucalyptus, 217

Euonvmus (Euonymus), 64, 103, 180,
210, 255, 258, 323, 325
Semenov's [E. semenovii?], 183
wartybark [£. verrucosus?], 82
Euonymus (euonymus)
E.latifolius, 255
E. semenovii (Semenov's euonymus),

183
E. verrucosus (wartybark euonymus),
82
Euphorbia (Euphorbia), 156

evergreen (E. biglandulosa) , 245
prostrate (£. clmmaesyce var. canes-

cens), 156
steppe (E. gerardiana), 102
Euphorbia (euphorbia)

E. biglandulosa (evergreen euphorbia),

245
E. chamaesyce var. canescens (pros-
trate euphorbia), 156
E. gerardiana (steppe euphorbia), 102
Eurotia ceratoides (Old World vidnter

fat), 150, 186
Euryale, Gordon (Euryale ferox), 65
Euryale ferox (Gordon euryale), 65
Exochorda ( pearlbush )

E.alberti [E. korolkowii alberti] (Tur-
kestan pearlbush), 181
E. korolkowii alberti ( Turkestan pearl-
bush), 181

Fagus (beech), 55

F.orientalis (oriental beech), 196,

213, 255
F.sylvatica (European beech), 255
Feather grass (Stipa), 84, 98, 99, 101,

102, 104, 105, 107, 111, 114, 122,

150, 176, 178, 179, 180, 185, 186,

187, 210, 213, 233, 238, 253, 269,

295, 306, 307
broad-leaved (S. joannis), 84, 85, 89,

210
capillary (S. capillata), 35, 64, 98, lOO,

102,^22, 176, 179, 187, 210, 233,

253, 294, 307
Lessing's (S. lessinglana) , 98, 101, 233
narrow-leaved (S. stenophylla) , 84, 85,

98, 233
pinnate (S. kirghisorum) , 179, 180,

182, 187
pinnate (S. pennata), 84
pinnate (S. vulcherrima) , 210, 229,

233

INDEX OF PLANTS

Fennel, devil's-dung giant (Ferula foe-

tida), 156
Fern, 39, 195, 200, 325, 333

arborescent, 196, 217, 286

epiphytic (Polypodium linearc), 65,
325

epiphytie (P. vulgare)

male ( Dnjo])lcris filix-nws ) , 27 1

ostrich (Slntlliiopteris struthiopleris [S.
filicaslrutit]), 219

Polypodium serratuin, 219

royal (Osmunda regalis), 196, 217
Ferula, 178, 180, 182

F. hadrakema, 178

F. caspia, 122

F. foetida ( devil's-dung giant fennel ) ,
156

F. jaeschkeana, 180

F. ovina, 180
Fescue (Festuca), 14, 35, 46, 84, 98, 100,

104, 114, 121, 179, 180, 182, 184,
185, 187, 189, 213, 240, 269, 306

giant (F. gigantea), 80

red, 46

reed (F. sylvatica), 80

steppe (F. sulcata), 84, 98, 101, 102,

105, 179, 182, 233, 255

Fescue grass (Diplachne squarrosa), 294
Festuca (fescue)

F. gigantea (giant fescue), 80

F. lenensis, 35

F. sulcata (steppe fescue), 84, 98, 101,

105, 179, 182, 233, 255
F. sulcata valesiaca, 121
F. supina, 14

F. sylvatica (reed fescue), 80
Ftcus carica (fig), 186, 239
Fig (Ficus carica), 166, 186, 200, 218,

239, 252
Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae), 197
Filbert (Corylus), 64, 65, 103, 209, 220,
228, 255, 258
European (C. aveUana), 54, 67, 80,

196, 215, 245
Manchurian (C. mandshurica [C. sie-
boldiana mandshurica] ), 323, 324,
325
Siberian (C. heterophylla) , 64, 67, 323,
325
Filipendula hexapetala (dropwort), 85,
89, 229, 233, 256
F. kamtschatica (Kamchatka meadow-
sweet), 341
Fir (Abies), 16, 17, 23, 35, 40, 42, 54,
58, 65, 83, 177, 182, 183, 188, 220,
222, 223, 224, 257, 268, 269, 270,
271, 281, 282, 285, 294, 295, 296,
298, 307, 323, 325, 332, 333, 342

387

European, 58

Kliingaii (A. nephrolepis ) , 322, 323,

325, 326, 332
Manchurian (A. holophylla), 65, 325
Nordmann (A. nordmunniana) , 220,

222
Okhotsk, 326

Sakhalin (A. sachalinensis) , 332, 342
Siberian (A. sihirica), 35, 37, 39, 58,

183
Turkestan (A. sihirica semenuvi) 183
Firewced (Epilohium angustifolium, Ptar-

mica alpina), 282
Fleeceflower, alpine (Polygonum alpi-

num), 189
Forget-me-not, 227

woodland (Myosotis sylvatica), 85, 282
Foxtail, meadow, 46
Fraxinus (ash)
F. excelsior, 56

F. mandshurica (Manchurian ash), 323
Fritillaria kamtschatcensis ( Kamchatka

fritillary), 341

Fritillary, Kamchatka (Fritillaria kam-
tschatcensis), 341

Fungi, 44, 46

Gagea (Gagea), 100, 177
Gagea (gagea)

G. hulbifera, 100
G.pusilla, 100

Galanthus plicatus (Crimean snowdrop),

245
Galeobdolon luteum [Lamium galeoh^
dolon] (Archangel dead nettle), 80
Galium verum (yellow bedstraw), 233
Gamanthus gamocarpus, 156
Genista tinctoria (common woadwaxen),

82
Gentian (Gentiana), 227, 283
Altay (G. altaica), 296
blue, 282

spring ( G. verna ) , 20
Gentiana ( gentian )

G. altaica (Altay gentian), 296
G. verna (spring gentian), 20
Geranium (Geranium), 155, 179, 270
herb Robert (G. robertianum) , 200
meadow, 46
Geranium ( geranium )
G. albiflorum, 270

G. robertianum (herb Robert geraniimi),
200
Ginger, European wild (Asarum euro-

paeum), 58, 80, 271
Gleditschia caspica (Caspian honev lo-
cust), 239
Globeflower (Trollius), 282

888

Glorybind {Calystegia [Convolvulus]),
217
hedge (C. sepium [Convolvulus sep-
ium]), 158, 196
Glycyrrhyza glabra (common licorice),

158
Goat grass (Aegilops), 238
Goodyera repens (creeping rattlesnake

plantain), 258
Grape (Vitis), 177, 180, 200, 211, 213,
217, 228, 234, 236, 325
American (V. labrusca OTientalis), 199
Amur (V. amurensis), 64, 323, 324
European (V. vinifera), 196
wild, 65

woodland European (V. silvestris [V.
vinifera silvestris]), 103, 104, 186,
210, 212, 213
"Green sole" (prostrate euphorbia, Eu-
phorbia chamaesyce var. canescens),
156
Greenbrier, 199, 212, 213, 217, 228, 229
239
sturdy (Smilax excelsa), 195, 196
Groundsel (Senecio), 333

steppe (S. campester), 85
Gypsophila {Gypsophila aretioides), 185
Gypsophila aretioides (gypsophila), 185

Hackberry {Celtis sjabrata), 254

Hair grass, tufted {Desdiampsia caespi-

tosa), 47
Halimodendron (salt tree)

H. argenteum [H. halodendron argen-

teum] (Siberian salt tree), 142, 157
H. halodendron argenteum ( Siberian

salt tree), 142, 157
Halocharis hispida (kuyandzhun), 156
Halocnemum strobilaceum (sarsazan),

122, 156, 236
Halophytes, 121, 122, 125, 149, 151, 152,

153, 156, 157, 186, 229, 235, 236,

238, 280, 304
Halostachys (Halostachys caspica), 236
Halostachys caspica (kara-barken), 156,

236
Haloxylon (saxaid), 151
"Hare's bone" (saxaul, Ammodendron

karelini), 150
Hawthorn (Crataegus), 65, 103, 180,

181, 186, 196, 200, 209, 210, 255,

258, 282, 333
Heath family, 253
Heather, 82

Scotch (Calluna vulgaris), 45
Hedera (ivy)

H.colchica (Colchis ivy), 196, 219

INDEX OF PLANTS

HJielix (English ivy), 81, 219, 253
H. pastuchovii, 199, 212, 240
Hellebore

black false (Veratrum nigrum), 85
Caucasian (Helleborus caucasicus), 215
false (Veratrum lobelianum), 226, 270
Helleborus caucasicus (Caucasian helle-
bore), 215
Hemerocallis (day lily)

H. graminea [H. minor], 307
H. minor, 307
Heracleum (cow parsnip)
H. dulce, 341
H. lanatum, 341
H. pubescens, 220
Hierochloe (sweet grass)

H.alpina (alpine sweet grass), 309
H.paucifiora (tundra sweet grass), 13
Hippophae rhamnoides (common sea

buckthorn), 195
Holly (Ilex), 197, 217, 219, 220, 221,
222, 223, 224, 240
English (I. aquifolium), 196, 252
Honeysuckle (Lonicera), 40, 179, 180,
181, 183, 186, 280, 282, 283, 294,
323, 325
Caucasian, 221

sweet (L. caprifolium) , 217, 230
sweetberry (L. edulis), 340
Hop, common (Humulus lupulus), 196
Hop hornbeam, European (Ostrya car-

pinifolia), 217, 218, 222, 223

Horaeum bulbosum (bulbous barley), 178

Hornbeam (Carpinus), 54, 60, 80, 81,

87, 196, 209, 210, 211, 213, 218,

219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228,

229, 231, 239, 240, 255, 257, 325

European (C. betulus), 54, 56, 196,

199, 255
Hyrcanian (C. schuschaensis) , 240
oriental (C. orientalis), 196, 213, 218,

254, 258
small-leaved, 229
Horsetail (Equisetum), 44
field (E. arvense), 46
sylvan (E. silvaticum), 40
West European (E. majus), 87
Humulus lupulus (common hop), 196
Hyacinth, 101, 177

starch grape ( Muscari racemosum), 100
Hyacinthus sarmaticus, 101
Hyacinthus sarmaticus (hyacinth), 101
Hylocomium ("shiny" moss), 39, 40
Hypnum ("shiny" moss), 17, 39, 40, 44

Ilex (holly)

/. aquifolium (English holly), 196, 252
Ilyak (sand sedge, Carex physodes), 151

INDEX OF PLANTS

Inula (Inula), 178, 180, 226
Inula (imild)

I. grandis, 178

/. magnifica, 226
Iris {Iris), 177, 178, 201, 281., 294

dwarf (/. vumila), 99, 101

gold-beard (/. flavissima) , 282

stool (Z. aphylla), 85
Iris (iris)

I. aphylla (stool iris), 85

/. biglumis [I. ensata], 294

I. ensata, 294

I.flavissima (gold-beard iris), 282

/. pseudacorus, 201

I.pumila (dwarf iris), 99, 101

7. ruthenica, 281, 282
Itsegek {Anabasis aphiflla), 157
Ivy (Hedera), 199, 212, 217, 218, 220,
222, 228, 229, 240, 253, 254

Colchis (H. colchica), 196, 217, 219,

222, 224, 225

English (H. helix), 80, 217, 219, 222,

223, 225, 253
Ixiolirion

I. montanum tataricum, 155
/. tataricum [I. montanum tataricum],
155

Jasmine, 325

rock (Androsace vilhsa), 86, 183, 256
wild {Jasminium fruticans), 254
yellow (/. fruticans), 186
Jasminium fruticans (wild, or yellow jas-
mine), 186, 254
Judas tree {Cercis siliquastriim), 252
Juglans (walnut)

/. fallax [J. regia fallax] ( tliick-shell

Persian walnut), 176, 180
J . mandshurica (Manchurian walnut),

64, 65, 324, 325
J. regia (Persian wahiut), 180, 186
/. regia fallax { thick-shell Persian wal-
nut), 176, 180
Jujube, common (Zizyphus vulgaris [Z.

jujuba]), 186
Juniper {Juniperus), 40, 166, 176, 182,
183, 185, 186, 188, 191, 212, 223,
226, 229, 231, 234, 239, 253, 254,
256, 283, 294, 310, 326
Andorra creeping (/. depressa), 223,

2.34, 255
arborescent, 177, 183, 253
arborescent (/. excelsa), 213, 253
arborescent (/. foetidisslma) , 213, 257
arborescent (/. oxycedrus rufescens),

254
arborescent (/. pohjcarpos seravschan-
ica), 181

389

arborescent (/. pohjcarpos turcoman-
ica), 185

prickly (/. oxycedrus), 213

savin (/. sahina), 223, 255

savin (/. sahina var. radicans), 104

"semiglobular" (/. semiglohosa) , 183

Turkestan (/. pseudosabina turkeaian-
ica), 184
Juniperus { juniper )

/. davurica, 310

/. depressa (Andorra creeping juniper),
223, 234, 255

J. excelsa (arborescent juniper), 213,
253

J . fnetidissima (arborescent juniper),
213, 257

/. isophyllos, 231

J. oxycedrus (prickly juniper), 213

/. oxycedrus rufescens (arborescent juni-
per), 254

/. polycarpos, 234

/. polycarpos seravschanica { arbores-
cent juniper, kara-archa), 181

/. polycarpos turcomanica { arborescent
juniper), 185

/. pseudosabina turkestanica (Turkestan
juniper), 184

J. sahina (savin juniper), 223, 255

J. sahina var. radicans (savin jimiper),
104

/. semiglohosa { "semiglobular" juni-
per), 183

Kalopanax (Kalopanax ricinifolia) , 325
Kalopanax ricinifolia (kalopanax), 325
Kamysh (bamboo), 329, 333
Kandym (Calligonum eriopodum), 152
Kara-archa (the arborescent juniper, Juni-
perus polycarpos seravschanica), 181
Kara-barken {Halostachys caspica), 156
Kara-dzhusan (black polyn), 121
Kara-kandym {Calligonum eriopodum),

151
Kargan {Salsola verrucosa), 235
Kashkara (rhododendron, RJwdodendron

chrysanthum) , 295
Kishmish ("raisin," kolomikta actinidia,

Actinidia kolomikta) , 323
KiyaJc (mammotli wHd rye), 122
Knotweed

pink (Polygonum cameum), 226
prostrate, 155

Sakhalin (P. sachalinense) , 333
KocJ-da prostrata (prostrate summer cy-
press), 122
Koeleria (Koelerla gracilis), 35, 84, 98,
100, 101, 121, 179, 180, 187, 255,
294, 806

390

Koeleria gracilis (koeleria), 35, 84, 98,

101, 122, 179, 256
Kuyandzhun {Halocham hispida), 156
Kuijan-snyek (saxaul, Ammodendron kare-

lini), 150

Labiates, 86, 178, 182

Laburnum, golden-chain (Laburnum vul-

gare [L. anagyroides]), 252
Laburnum (laburnum)

L. anagyroides ( golden-chain labur-
num), 252
L. vulgare [L. anagyroides] (golden-
chain laburnum), 252
Lady's-mantle (Alchemilla), 256
Lamium galeobdolon (Archangel dead

nettle), 80
Lapini (Caucasian wing nut, Pterocarya

fraxinifolia), 196
Larch (Larix), 3, 16, 17, 23, 39, 41, 42,
48, 83, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272,
280, 281, 282, 294, 295, 296, 300,
306, 307, 308, 309, 315, 316, 324,
332, 333, 341
Dahurian (L. dahurica [L. gmelini]),
15, 26, 35, 37, 42, 63, 309, 315, 316,
322, 326, 332, 341
Korean Dahurian (L. olgensis [L.

gmelini olgensis]), 327
Siberian (L. sibirica), 15, 17, 35, 37,
42, 82, 267, 268, 281, 296
Larix (larch)

L. dahurica [L. gmelini] (Dahurian

larch), 37, &3, 332
L. gmelini (Dahurian larch), 37, 63,

332
L. gmelini olgensis (Korean Dahurian

larch), 327
L. olgensis [L. gmelini olgensis] (Ko-
rean Dahurian larch), 327
L. sibirica ( Siberian larch ) , 35, 37
Larkspur (Delphinium), 85, 226

Caucasian (D. caucasicum [D. specio-

sum]), 227
Japanese bee (D. elntum), 282
Lasiagrostis splendens (chee grass), 158
Lathyrus (pea vine)

L. luteus ( yellow pea vine ) , 282
L.pratensis (meadow pea vine), 341
L, vernus, 85
Laurel, 252

Alexandria {Dance racemosa), 200
Grecian (Laurus nobilis), 218
Laurel cherry, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222,
223, 224, 225, 252
common ( Laurocerasus officinalis [Pru-
nus laurocerasus]), 219

INDEX OF PLANTS

Laurocerasus officinalis Prumis lauro-cera-

sus (common laurel cherry), 219
Laurus nobilis (Grecian laurel), 218
Leather leaf (Cassandra or Lyonia cah/-
culata [Chamaedaphne calyculata]),
44, 45, 333
Ledum (Ledum), 3, 15, 21, 40, 42, 45,
296, 309, 326, 333, 334
crystal tea (L. palustre), 14, 44, 309,

326
silvery (L. hypoleucum), 326
Ledum (ledum), 15

L. hypoleucum (silvery ledum), 326
L. palustre (crystal tea ledum), 14, 44,
309
Legume, 20, 46, 47, 142, 149, 151, 156,

157, 185, 186, 238, 280
Lemon, 194, 216
Leontice altaica (lion's-leaf ), 100
Leontopodium alpinum (common edel-
weiss), 184, 281
Lepidodendron, 286

Lespedeza (Lespedeza), 63, 64, 323, 325
Lespedeza hicolor (lespedeza), 63
Leucanthemum vulgare [Crysanthemum

leucanthemum] (oxeye daisy), 85
Lichens, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 41,
104, 122, 149, 153, 156, 186, 200,
219, 268, 280, 283, 295, 296, 297,
309, 316, 317, 326, 333, 347, 348
Licorice, common (Glycyrrhyza glabra),

158
Ligularia altaica (sasyk-kuray), 179, 182
Lilac (St/ringa), 104

Amur "(S. amurensis), 65, 323, 325
Liliaceous plants (LiHaceae), 100, 101,

155, 179, 195, 307
Lilium martagon (lily), 281
Lily

Caucasian, 220

day (Hemerocallis graminea [H.

minor]), 307
Lilium martagon, 281
water (Nymphaea), 71
Lily family, 252
Limmonik (Chinese magnolia vine, Schi-

zandra chinensis), 323
Limonium gmelini (Siberian sea laven-
der), 122
Linden (Tilia), 38, 39. 40, 42, 54, 57, 60,
64, 65, 80, 81, 89, 210, 213, 218,
222, 224, 231, 257, 271, 280, 285,
322
Amur (T. cordata amurensis [T. amu-
rensis]), 64, 65, 323, 325
European, 64
Manchurian, 325
sih'er ( T. argentea \T. tomentosa]), 81

INDEX OF PLANTS

Lion's-leaf (Leontice altaica), 100
Locust

Caspian honey (Cleditschia ca,sj)ica),

239
honey, 201
Lonicera ( honeysuckle )

L. caprifolium (sweet honeysuckle),

217, 230
L. edulis (sweetberry honeysuckle),

340
L. hispida, 283
Lopukha (Japanese butterbur, Petasites

japonicus), 333
Loquat {Eriobotrya japonica), 215, 216
Lotus, Hindu (Nelumbo [Nelumbium]),

65, 117, 236
Lungwort, common {Pulmonaria offici-
nalis), 58, 80
Lychnis sibirica (Siberian campion), 20
Lycium (wolfberry), 158
Lycopodium (club moss)
L. clavatum, 104
L. inundatum, 104
Lyonia calyculata (leather leaf), 44

Maackia (Maackia amurensis), 323, 324,

325
Maackia amurensis (maackia), 323, 324,

325
Madrone (Arbutus), 252, 253, 254

strawberry (A. unedo), 252
Magnoha, 216, 252
Magnolia family, 323
Magnolia vine, Chinese (Schizandra chi-

nensis), 323, 324, 325
Maikara (black polyn, Artemisia mai-

kara), 149
Malcomia turkestanica, 156
Malus baccata mandshurica ( Manchurian

crabapple), 65
Maple (Acer), 60, 65, 166, 176, 180,
181, 184, 185, 186, 209, 218, 220,
222, 224, 225, 228, 229, 255, 258,
271, 322, 324, 325, 332
Amur (A. ginnala), 64
hedge (A. campestre), 80, 81, 103,

210, 211, 217
Manchurian, 65
mono (A. mono), 323, 325
Norway (A. platanoides) , 54, 56, 80,

81, 210, 323
Persian velvet (A. insigne [A. veluti-

num glabrescens]), 225, 239
redbud (A. trautvetteri) , 221, 223, 224,

226
Tatarian (A. tataricum), 80, 87, 103
Turkestan (A. turkestanicum) , 180, 181

391

ukurundu [A. caudatum ukurun-

duense?], 332
Maquis, 252, 253
Meadow rue, alpine ( Thalictrurn alpi-

num), 270
Meadowsweet, Kamchatka ( Filipendula

kamtscliatica), 333, .341
Medlar (Mes-pilus germanica), 200, 239,

240, 252
Mellifers, 323, 325
Melon, 25, 293

Chardzhuy, 131
Memjanthes trifoliata (common bog bean),

197
Mercurialis perennis (mercury), 80
Mercury (Mercurialis perennis), 80
Mespilus germanica (medlar), 200, 239
Microbiota (Microbiota decussata [Thuja

orientali.s?]), 326
Microbiota decussata [Thuja orientalis?]

(microbiota), 326
Millet, 175
Mimosa (silk-tree albizzia, Albizzia juli-

brissiJi), 252
Miya (common licorice, Glycyrrhyza

glabra), 158
Monkshood (Aconitum), 226, 230, 282
"Moses' staff" (abelia, Abelia corymbosa),

183
Moss, 15, 17, 18, 39, 40, 41, 42, 80, 100,

122, 153, 183, 186, 200, 267, 268,

280, 283, 285, 295, 297, 308, 326,
333

brown, 14, 15, 45

club (Lycopodium clavatum, L. inun-
datum), 39, 104

common haircap (Polytrichum com-
mune), 40, 41, 43

green, 14, 15, 17, 39, 40, 42, 43, 85,
99, 270

haircap (Polytrichum), 40, 41, 268

hydrophytic, 43

hypnum, 17, 44, 268, 296

Iceland (Cetraria), 41

peat, 21, 283

red, 45

reindeer (Cladonia), 13, 15, 18, 41,
82, 104, 268, 295, 326, 332

"shiny" (Hylocomium, Hypnum), 39

sphagnum, 13, 14, 15, 22, 31, 40, 41,
42, 43, 44, 45, 58, 87, 104, 268, 296,
342

Thuidium abietinnm, 84, 85

white, 41, 82
Mother-of-thvme (Thymus serpyUum),

35
Mountain ash, 42, 181, 221, 231, 255,

281, 294. 309, 333, 340, 344

392

Mountain Ash (Continued)

checker-tree (Pyrus torminalis [Sorbus

torminalis]), 229, 258
Siberian (Sorbus sambucifolia) , 341
Tian Shan (S. timisclianica), 183
Mulberry, 217, 218

white, 186
Muscari racemosum (starch grape hya-
cinth), 100
Mycotrophic plants, 44, 46
Myosotis sylvatica (woodland forget-me-
not), 85, 282
Myrtle, 252

Nanophyton erinaceum ( tasbiyurgun ) ,

149
Naryn-tal (the willow Salix caspica), 123
Nelumbium nelumbo (Hindu lotus), 65,

117
Nelumbo (lotus)

N. nucifera [Nelumbium nelumbo]

(Hindu lotus), 117
N. speciosa [Nelumbium nelumbo]
(Hindu lotus), 65
Nepeta (Nepeta), 89, 233
Nepeta (nepeta)

N. nuda, 89
Nettle, 333

Archangel dead (Galeobdolon luteum

[Lamium galeobdolon] ), 80
Kamchatka (Urtica platyphylla) , 341
Nitraria, thick-leaved (Nitraria scho-
beri), 253
Nitraria schoberi (thick-leaved nitraria),

122, 253
Nostoc (blue-green alga), 100

N. commune, 99, 122
Nymphaea (water lily), 71

Oak (Quercus), 23, 47, 53, 54, 58, 60,
64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 80, 81, 82, 83,
86, 87, 88, 89, 103, 104, 123, 177,
196, 197, 209, 210, 213, 218, 219,
220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 231,
251, 252, 253, 258, 271, 322, 324,
332

chestnut-leaf (Q. castaneaefolia) , 199,
200, 239, 240

chestnut-leaf (Q. castaneaefolia var.
obtusiloba), 199

cork, 252

durmast (Q. sessiliflora [Q. petraea]),
60, 81, 209, 211, 213, 254, 258

English (Q. pedunculata [Q. robur]),
57, 80, 81, 209, 258

European, 60, 66

Iberian (Q. iberica), 211, 218, 219,
225, 229, 230

INDEX OF PLANTS

Imeritian (Q. imeretina), 218

Manchurian, 60

Mongolian (Q. mongolica), 60, 63, 64,
66, 67, 323, 324, 325, 332

mountain (Q. macranthera), 224, 225,
229, 233, 240

pontic (Q. pontica), 221

pubescent (Q. pubescens), 213, 229,
253, 254, 258
Oats (Avena), 25, 238

desert (A. desertorum), 187

hairy (A. pubescens), 84

sand, 122
Oleander, 216, 252
Olive, 252

Russian (Elaeagnus angustifolia) , 122,
123, 158, 177
Olkha (alder), 104
Onobrychis (sainfoin)

O.arenaria (Hungarian sainfoin), 85

O. cornuta (spiny sainfoin), 185, 231

O. vaginalis, 238
Orange, 216

Satsuma (Citrus unshiu [C. nobilis «n-
shiu]), 216
Orchard grass (Dactijlis glomerata), 179
Orchids, 39, 81, 87, 183, 308
Ornithogalum tenuifolium, 101
Orobus (pea vine)

O.albus (bitter pea -vine), 85

O. luteus [Lathyrus luteus] (yellow
pea vine), 282
Osmorhiza

O. brevistylis [O. claytoni], 222

O. claytoni, 222
Osmunda regalis (royal fern), 196, 217
Osirya carpinifolia (European hop horn-
beam), 217, 218
Oxalis (Oxalis), 40, 42, 200

wood sorrel (O. acetosella), 39
Oxalis (oxalis)

O. acetosella (wood sorrel oxalis), 39

O. corniculata, 200
Oxytropis (crazyweed), 20, 186, 340

Paeonia (peony)
P. anomala, 281

P.tenuifolia (fernleaf peony), 99, 258
Paliurus (Paliurus)

Christ's-thorn (P. spina-christi) , 186,
210, 211, 213, 229, 231, 254
Paliurus (paliurus)
P.aculeatus, 210

P. spina-christi ( Christ's-thorn paliu-
rus), 186, 210, 211, 213, 229, 254
Pahn, 216

Chinese coir (Trachycarpus excelsa, or
Chamaerops excelsa), 216, 252

INDEX OF PLANTS

date, 216
fan, 216

Washington, 216
Papaver (poppy)

P. alpinum (alpine poppy), 281
Papilionaceous plants, 153, 156, 178,

323, 340
Parmelia vagans (a lichen), 122
Parrotia, Persian (Parrotia persica), 199,

200, 239, 240
Parrotia persica (Persian parrotia), 199
Parsnip (Heracleum), 341
Pasqueflower, . spreading ( Pulsatilla pa-
tens [Anemone patens]), 84, 99,
281
Pea shrub (Caragana), 95, 280, 282
Caucasian (C. grandiflora var. steveni),

149
Russia (C. frutex), 86
shag-spine (C. jubata), 296
Siberian (C. arborescens), 296
Pea vine

bitter {Orobus albus), 85
meadow (Lathyrus pratensis), 46, 341
yellow (Orobus luteus [Lathyrus lu-
teus]), 282
Peach, 211, 215, 217, 234, 252
Pear (Pyrus), 103, 104, 177, 180, 186,
209, 210, 211, 215, 218, 222, 229,
258
common (P. communis), 196, 258
Ussurian [P. ussnriensis?], 65
Pearlbush, Turkestan (Exochorda alherti

[E. korolkowii alherti]), 181, 184
Pedicularis {Pedictdaris), 282, 283
Pedicularis (pedicularis)

P. proboscidea, 282
Peganum, harmel {Peganum harmala),

253
Peganum harmala (hannel peganum),

234, 253
Peony (Paeonia), 281

femleaf (P. tenuifolia), 99, 258
"Pepper," wild ( Eleutherococcus senti-
cosus [Acanthopanax senticosus]),
323, 325, 332
Periploca graeca (Grecian silk vine), 196
Persimmon (Diosptjrus), 252

date-plum (D. lotus), 216, 218, 239
Japanese kaki (D. kaki), 216
Petasites (butterbur)
P. hybridus, 219

P. japonicus ( Japanese butterbur ) , 333
P. tomentosus, 46
Phellodendron amurense (Amur cork

tree), 64, 323, 325
Phillyrea (Phillyrea), 219
Phillyrea (phillyrea)

393

P. decora, 219

P.vilnujriniatia [P. decora], 219
Phleum (timotliy)

P. alpinum (alpine timotliy), 227
P. hoehmeri, 187
PIdomus; 178, 182
Phragmites communis (common reed),

157, 158, 200
Picea (spruce)

P. abies ( Norway spruce ) , 35, 36
P.ajanensLs (Yeddo spruce), 65
P.exceha [P. abies] (Norway spruce),

35, 36
P.exceha obovata [P. obovata] (Si-
berian spruce), 35, 36, 64, 183, 267
P. excelsa obovata n. koraiensis [P.

obovata koraiensis] (Korean Siberian

spruce), 326
P. glehni (Sakhalin spruce), 332
P. jezoensis ( Yeddo spruce ) , 65, 322,

332
P. obovata (Siberian spruce), 35, 36,

64, 183, 267
P. obovata koraiensis ( Korean Siberian

spruce), 326
P. orientalis (oriental spruce), 220, 222
P. schrenkiana (Schrenk's spruce), 182
Pine (Pinus), 16, 23, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42,

43, 44, 45, 53, 54, 58, 63, 64, 74,

75, 80, 82, 83, 95, 104, 177, 222,

224, 231, 233, 258, 268, 269, 270,

271, 272, 281, 294, 295, 296, 298,

306, 307, 308, 309, 315, 332
Aleppo (P. pityusa [P. halepensis

pityusa]), 212, 213, 218
Armenian (P. artnena), 233
Crimean (P. nigra pallasiana [P. nigra

caramanica]) , 254, 255, 257, 258
Crimean Aleppo (P. pityusa stanke-

witschi [P. halepensis pityusa stan-

kewitschi] ), 254
dwarf, 45
dwarf Scotch (P. sylvestris f. lit-

winou'i), 44
hamate Scotch (P. sylvestris hamata),

221, 222, 223, 224, 255
Italian stone, 252
Japanese stone (P. pumila), 38, 65,

300, 307, 308, 309, 310, 315, 316,

317, 322, 326, 332, 333, 340, 341,

342
Korean (P. koraiensis), 65, 322, 323,

324, 325, 326
Mediterranean dwarf, 252
Pitsunda (P. pityusa [P. halepensis

pityusa]), 218
Scotch (P. sylvestris), 35, 36, 44, 64,

255, 257

394

Pine (Pinm) (Continued)

Siberian stone (P. sihirica [P. cembra
sibirica]), 23, 35, 38, 39, 41, 42, 48,
55, 83, 268, 270, 273, 281, 282,
284, 285, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297
Pinus (pine)

P. armena ( Armenian pine ) , 233

P. cembra sibirica {Siberian stone pine),
23, 35, 38, 55

P. halepensis pityusa ( Aleppo pine, or
Pitsunda pine), 213, 218

P. halepensis pityusa stankewitschi
(Crimean Aleppo pine), 254

P. koraiensis ( Korean pine ) , 65, 323,
324, 325

P. laricio pallasiana [P. nigra poireti-
anu], 254

P. nigra caramanica (Crimean pine),
254

P. nigra paUnsiana [P. nigra carama-
nica] (Crimean pine), 254

P. nigra poiretiana, 254

P. pityusa [P. halepensis pityusa]
(Aleppo pine, or Pitsmida pine),
213, 218

P. pityusa stankewitschi [P. halepensis
pityusa stankeuntschi] ( Crimean
Aleppo pine), 254

P.pumila (Japanese stone pine), 38,
309, 316, 332, 333, 341

P. sibirica [P. cembra sibirica] ( Si-
berian stone pine), 23, 35, 38, 55

P.sylvestris (Scotch pine), 35, 36, 64

P. stjlvestris f. litwinowi (dwarf
Scotch pine), 44

P. sylvestris hamata ( hamate Scotch
pine), 221, 222, 223, 224, 255
Pistache {Pistacia), 111, 186

common (P. vera), 178, 252

Turk terebinth (P. mutica), 213, 235,
253, 254
Pistacia (pistache)

P. mutica (Turk terebinth pistache),
213, 235, 253

P. vera (common pistache), 178, 252
Plane tree (Platanus orientalis), 186, 252
Plantain, creeping rattlesnake {Goodyera

repens), 258
Platanus orientalis (plane tree), 186
Plum, 176, 186, 215, 218

flowering (Prunus ulmifolia [P. tri-
loba]), 181

garden, 217

myrobalan (P. cerasifera), 186, 189

wild myrobalan (Prunus divaricata [P.
cerasifera divaricata]), 177, 180,
209, 218, 222
Plumbaginaceae, 185

INDEX OF PLANTS

Poa (blue grass)

P.alpina (alpine blue grass), 227

P. bulbosa, 238

P.bulbosa var. vivipara (viviparous

bulbous blue grass), 101, 105, 155
P. masenderana ( Mazanderan blue

grass), 200
Polygonatum officinale (drug Solomon's-

seal), 104
Polygonum alpinum (alpine fleeceflower),

189
P.bistorta (European bistort), 268
P.carneum (pink knotw.eed), 226
P. sachalinense (Sakhalin knotweed),

333
Polyn (Artemisia), 98, 111, 121, 122,

149, 150, 152, 156, 175, 176, 178,

182, 184, 185, 228, 235, 236, 238,

253, 280, 294, 307
black (A. maikara), 149
black (A. pauciflora), 121
high-mountain (A. rJiodantha), 187
high-mountain (A. skorniakovii) , 186
Levant (A. cina), 156
Turanian (A. turanica), 149
white (A. incana), 121
white (A. maritima), 121, 156, 185,

228
white (A. terrae-albae), 121, 149, 150,

157
Pohjpodium (polypody)

P.lineare (linear polypody), 65, 325
P. serratum, 219

P.vulgare (common polypody), 196
Polypody (Pohjpodium)
common (P. vulgare), 196
linear (P. lineare), 325
Polytrichum (haircap moss), 40, 41, 268
P. commune (common haircap moss),

40, 43
Pomegranate, common (Punica grana-

tum), 47, 186, 196, 200, 252
Poplar (Populus), 103, 123, 142, 148,

157, 176, 181, 186, 296, 316, 332,

333
black, 50, 103, 104, 123
bloomy (P. pruinosa), 158
Euphrates (P. diversifolia [P. eti^

phratica]), 157
Japanese (P. maximowiczi) , 327
Mongolian (P. suaveolens), 15, 64,

295, 309, 315, 316, 333, 341
silver, 103, 210
white, 123
Poppy (Papaver), 155, 156, 348
alpine (P. alpinum), 281
arctic, 347
Populus (aspen, poplar)

INDEX OF FLANTS

F.diversifolia [P. euphratica] (Eu-
phrates poplar), 157
?. euphratica (Euphrates pophir), 157
P. maximowiczi (Japanese pophir), 327
P.pruinosa (bloomy poplar), 158
P. suaveloens (Mongolian poplar), 15,

64, 295, 316, 333
P.tremula (aspen), 257
Potentilla (cinquefoil), 280
Prangos (Frangos pabularia), 180, 182
Frangos pabularia (prangos), 180
Prickly thrift { Acantholimon) , 183, 187,

234, 240
Primrose family, 86
Primula, 227
Privet, 210
Frunus

P. cerasifera (myrobalan plum), 186
P. cerasifera divaricata ( wild myro-
balan plum), 177, 180, 209, 218
P. divaricata [P. cerasifera divaricata^
(wild myrobalan plum), 177, 180,
209, 218
F.fruticosa (ground cherry), 86
P. laurocerams (common laurel cherry),

219
P . maximowiczi (Miyama cherry), 325
F.spinosa (sloe), 86, 103, 210, 258
P. triloba (flowering plum), 181
P.ulmifolia [P. triloba] (flowering
plum), 181
Psoralea drupacea (drupe scurf pea, ak-

kuray), 156, 178
Ftarmica alpina (fireweed), 282
Ptarmiganberry ( Arctostaphijlos \_Arc-

tous]), 15, 17, 20, 309
Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), 195
Pterocanja (wing nut)
P. carpinifolia, 239

P . fraxinifolia (Caucasian wing nut),
196, 212
Puccinellia distar\s, 87, 157
Pulmonaria officinalis (common lung-
wort), 58, 80
Pulsatilla [Anemone]

P. patens [A. patens] ( spreading

pasqueflower), 85, 99, 281
F. nigricans [A. nigricans] (anemone),
99
Funica granatum (common pomegranate),

186, 196, 200
Pyrola {Pijrola), 81, 82, 183

side-bells (P. secunda), 258
Pyrola secunda (side-bells pyrola), 258
Pyrus

P. communis (common pear), 196, 258
P. elaeagnifolia ( pear ) , 258
F.heterophylla (pear), 180

395

P.korshinskii (apple), 180

P.malus (applet 180

P. tormiruilis [Sorhus torminalis]

(checker-free mountain ash), 258
F.ussuriensis ( Ussurian pear), 65

Quack grass {Agropyron repent), 105
Quercus (oak)

Q. castaneae folia (chestnut-leaf oak),

240
Q. castaneaefolia var. ohtusiloba

(chestnut-leaf oak), 199
Q. hartwvisianu, 196, 218
Q.iberica (Iberian oak), 211, 218.

219, 225
Q. imeretina (Imeritian oak), 218
Q . macranthera (mountain oak), 224,

225, 230, 233, 240
Q. mongolica (Mongolian oak), 60, 63,

66, 323, 324, 332
Q. pedunculata [Q. robur] (English

oak), 54, 57, 80, 209, 258
Q. petraea (durmast oak), 60, 81, 209,

211, 255, 258
Q.pontica (pontic oak), 221
Q,pubescens (pubescent oak), 213,

253, 254, 258
Q. robur (English oak), 54, 57, 80,

209, 258
Q. sessilifiora [Q. petraea] ( durmast

oak), 60, 81, 209, 211, 255, 258
Quince (Cydonia)

common (C. oblonga), 200
flowering (C. faponica [Chaenomeles]),

216

Ranunculus (buttercup)
B.. altaicus, 283
R. caucasicus (Caucasian buttercup),

226
R. nivalis (snowy buttercup), 270
R. oxyspermus, 101
R. polyrhizus, 122
JR. severzovii, 155
Raspberry, 183, 282
Redtop, 46

Reed, 44, 108, 142, 162, 200, 201, 229,
236
common {Phragmites communis), 157,

158, 200
giant (Arundo donax), 158
Reed grass, 44, 46, 333

rough blue joint (Calamagrostis langs-
dorffii [C. canadensis scabra]), 64,
322, 341
Reindeer "moss" (Cladonia), 13, 15, 18,
41, 82, 104, 268, 295, 326, 332

396

Rhamnus (buckthorn)

R. imeretina ( Caucasian buckthorn ) ,

221
R.pallasi (Pallas's buckthorn), 229
Rhamphicarpa medwedewii, 197
Rheum tataricum (rhubarb), 122
Rhodendron (Rhododendron), 227, 234,
239, 295, 296, 309, 322, 326
Caucasian (R. caucasicum) , 219, 221,

223, 224, 225, 226, 230
Dahurian (R. dauricum), 281, 296,

308, 309
golden, 326
pontic (R. pontictim), 197, 218, 219,

220, 221, 222, 224
tundra ( R. parvifolium) , 295
Rhododendron (rhododendron, azalea)
R. caucasicum ( Caucasian rhododen-
dron), 221, 226
R. chnjsanthum, 295, 309
R. dauricum (Dahurian rhododendron),

281
R. jlavum [R. luteum] ( pontic aza-
lea), 58, 210, 222
R. luteum (pontic azalea), 58, 196,

210, 222
R. parvifolium (tundra rhododendron),

295
R. ponticum ( pontic rhododendron ) ,
197, 219
Rhubarb (Rheum tataricum), 122
Rhus

R. coriaria (sumac), 254
R. cotinus [Cotinus coggygria] ( com-
mon smoke tree), 258
Rhynchospora alba (beak rush), 197
Ribes (currant)

R. fragrans var. infracanum, 283
R. graveolens, 296
Rice, 175, 200, 234
Rockrose (Cistus), 252, 253, 254

Crimean (C. t amicus [C. villosus
tauricus]), 218, 253
Rosa (rose), 184

R. davurica (Dahurian rose), 323
R.foetida (Austrian brier rose), 181
R.lutea [R. foetida] (Austrian brier

rose), 181
R. pimpinellifolia [R. spinosissima]

(Scotch rose), 210
R. spinosissima (Scotch rose), 210
Rosaceae, 216

Austrian brier (R. lutea [R. foetida]),

181
Dahurian (R. davurica), 323
Scotch (R. pimpinellifolia [R. spino-
sissima] ), 210
sweetbrier, 17, 40, 46, 123, 179, 183,

INDEX OF PLANTS

186, 200, 223, 229, 231, 240, 254,
258, 280, 282, 333

Rose family, 181

Ruhus

R. caesius (European dewberry), 81
R. chamaemonis ( cloudberry ) , 14, 45
R. discolor (blackberry), 195, 228, 229
R. ponticus (blackberry), 219
R.raddeanus (Lenkoran blackberry),

200
R. sanctus (holy bramble), 200
R. saxatilis (stone bramble), 258

Ruscus ( butcher's-broom )
R. actdeatus, 196, 252
R. hypophyllum, 196, 219, 222, 224
R. hyrcanus, 200, 239
R. ponticus, 219

Rush, beak (RhijncJwspora alba), 197

Rutaceae, 323

Rye

mammoth wild (Ehjmus giganteus),

122
spring, 25
Saccharum spontaneum, 158

Sage (Salvia), 99, 223, 229, 230, 231
meadow (S. pratensis), 85, 89

Sagebrush, 98

Sainfoin ( Onohrychis )

Hungarian (O. arenaria), 85
spiny (O. cornuta), 231

Salicornia herbacea, 156

Salix (willow), 122
S.alba, 123

S. amygdalina (almond-leaf willow), 46
S. caspica, 123
S. cinerea (gray willow), 81
S.fragilis (brittle willow), 196
S.glauca (shrvib willow), 14
S. gmelini (basket willow), 46
S.(Chosenia) macrolepis (Korean

willow), 15, 316, 327, 333, 341
S.polaris (polar willow), 347, 348
S.pulchra (shrub willow), 14
S.repens rosmarinifolia (rosemary

creeping willow), 123
S. rosmarinifolia [S. repens rosmarini-
folia] (rosemary creeping willow),
123
S . sachalinensis (Sakhalin willow), 341
S.triandra [S. amygdalina] (almond-
leaf willow), 46
S. vestita, 296
S.viminalis (basket willow), 46

Salsola

S. arbuscula (boyalych), 149

S. gemmascens, 153

S.kali (common Russian thistle), 106

INDEX OF PLANTS

S.lanata (halyk-kuz), 156

S. laricifolia { Mongolian species of

hoyalt/ch), 149
S.richteri (cherkez), 151, 152
S. rigida, 153

S . suhapht/lla ( chogon ), 152
S. verrucosa (kargan), 235
Salt tree, Siberian ( Haliniodendron ar-
gentetim [II. halodendruii argen-
teum]), 142, 157, 158
Saltbush {Atriplex canum), 122
Salvia (sage)
S.aethiopis, 229
S. canescens, 223, 231
S.gltitinosa, 230
S. nutans, 99

S.pratensis (meadow sage), 85, 89
Sanguisorba alpina (bumet), 282
Sarsazan {Halocnemwn sirobilaceum),

122, 156, 236
Sasa kurilensis (Kurile bamboo), 333
Sasyk-kuraij

Ferula foetida ( devil's-dung giant

fennel), 156
Ligularia altaica, 179
Saur-archa ( "semiglobular" juniper, Juni-

perus serniglobosa), 183
Saxaul, 138, 142, 146, 150, 151, 152,
153, 154, 157, 160, 162
black, or solonchak { Arthrophytum

aphyllum), 151
black, or solonchak (A. lialoxylon),

151
white, or sand (A. acutifolium) , 151
white, or sand (A. persicum), 151
Saxifraga (saxifrage)
S.alberti, 183
S. cernua, 13

S.oppositifolia (twinleaf saxifrage),
348
Saxifrage, 13, 183, 347, 348

Crimean (Seseli gummifenim), 213
meadow (S. ponticum), 213
twinleaf (Saxifraga oppositifolia), 348
Scabiosa (scabious)
S. alpestris, 179

S.caucasica (Caucasian scabious), 226
Scabious (Scabiosa), 179, 233

Caucasian (S. caucasica), 226
Scaligeria, 177
Scheuchzeria (Scheuchzeria palnsiris),

44
Scheuchzeria palustris (scheuchzeria), 44
Schivereckia podolica, 86
Schizandra chinensis (Chinese magnolia

vine), 323, 324
Scilla (squill)

S.bifolia (twinleaf squill), 100

397

S. cernua [S. nonscripta] (common

blue squill), 80
S. nonscripta (common blue squill), 80
Scorzonera tau-saghys (tau-saghyz), 186
Scrophulariaceae (figwort family ;, 197
Scurf pea, drupe (Psoralea drupacea),

178
Scurvy weed, 347
Scutelleria alpina var. lupulina (yellow

alpine skullcap j, 86
Sea lavender (Statice), 122

Siberian (S. gmelini [Limonium gme-
lini]), 122
Sedge, 14, 15, 40, 43, 44, 47, 85, 148, 155,
156, 184, 186, 196, 200, 226, 227,
283, 333, 341
cotton, 87
desert, 177, 178
hairy (Carex pilosa), 80
low (C. humilis), 85, 256, 258
narrow-leaved (C. pachystylis [C. hos-

tii]), 155
needleleaf (C. stenophylla), 101
sand (C. physodes), 150, 151, 152,

153, 155
sheathed cotton (Eriophorum vagi-

natum), 14, 15, 44, 45, 283, 333
steppe, 306
Sedge family, 197
Senecio (groundsel), 226

S. campester (steppe groundsel), 85
S. cannabifolia, 333
S. soongoricus, 182
Sesame, 236
Seseli (saxifrage)

S. gummiferum ( Crimean saxifrage ) ,

213
S. ponticum (meadow saxifrage), 213
Severny zlak ("northern grass"), 309
Sigillaria, 286
Silaus (Silaus besseri), 87
Silaus besseri (silaus), 87
Silk vine, Grecian (Periploca graeca),
196, 199, 200, 212, 213, 217, 228,
229
Singren (astragalus. Astragalus am-

modendron), 152
Sisvmbrium (Sisymbrium pannonicum),

106
Sisymbrium pannonicum ( sis\Tnbrium ) ,

106
Skullcap, yellow alpine (Scutelleria al-
pina var. lupulina), 86
Sloe (Prunus spinosa), 86, 103, 210,

258
Smilax excelsa (sturdy greenbrier), 195
Smoke tree, common (Rhus cotinus
[Cotinus coggygria] ) , 254, 258

Snowdrop, 245

Crimean (Galanthus pJicatus), 245
Solomon's-seal, drug {Polygonatum of-
ficinale), 104
Sorbus (mountain ash)

S. sambucifoUa ( Siberian mountain
ash), 341

S.tianschanica (Tian Shan mountain
ash), 183

S.torminalis (checker-tree mountain
ash), 229, 258
Sorrel, 46

Speedwell (Veronica), 87, 155, 215
Sphagnum (Sphagnum)

red (S. medium), 44, 45

red or browTi (S. fusciim, S. acuti-
folium), 45
Sphagnum (sphagnum)

S. acutifolium, 45

S. fuscum, 45

S. medium (red sphagnum), 44, 45
Spiraea (Spiraea), 86, 95, 103, 179, 180,

181, 229, 280, 282
alpine (S. alpina), 296

Spiraea (spiraea), 282

S. alpina (alpina spiraea), 296

S. crenifolia, 86

S. htjpericifolia, 179
Spruce (Picea), 3, 22, 23, 35, 39, 40,
41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 53, 54, 58, 65,
81, 82, 83, 177, 182, 183, 188, 220,
222, 223, 224, 257, 268, 269, 270,
271, 273, 281, 282, 284, 285, 294,
295, 296, 308, 315, 322, 323, 326,
332, 333, 341

Kamchatka, 342

Korean Siberian (P. excelsa obovata
n. koraiensis [P. obovata koraien-
sis]), 326

Norway (P. excelsa [P. abies]), 35,
36

oriental (P. orientalis), 220, 222

Sakhalin (P. glehni), 332

Schrenk's (P. schrenkiana), 174, 176,

182, 183, 188

Siberian (P. excelsa obovata [P. obo-
vata]), 15, 35, 36, 64, 183, 267,
268, 309, 315, 326, 327

Yeddo (P. jezoensis, or P. ajanensis),
65, 67, 322, 323, 325, 326. 327,
332, 341, 342, 343
Squill (SciUa)

common blue (S. cernua [S. non-
scripta]), 80

twinleaf (S. bifolia), 100
Staphylea (bladdernut), 224

S. colchica (Colchis bladdernut), 222,
225

INDEX OF PLANTS

Starwort, Easter-bell (Stellaria holostea),

271
Statice (sea lavender)

S. gmelini [Limonium gmelini] (Si-
berian sea lavender), 122
S. suffruticosa, 122
Stellaria liolostea (Easter-bell starwort),

271
Stipa (feather grass, chee grass)

S . capillata ( capillary feather grass ) ,
35, 64, 98, 100, 105, 179, 187, 210,
233
S. dastjphijlla, 105
S. hohenackeriana, 150
S. joannis (broad-leaved feather grass),

84, 85, 89, 210
S.kirghisorum (pinnate feather grass),

179, 180, 182, 187
S. lessingiana (Lessing's feather grass),

98, 101, 105, 233
S. orientalis, 186

S.pennata (pinnate feather grass), 84
S. pulcherrima (pinnate feather grass),

210, 229, 233
S. splendens (chee grass), 158
S. sienophylla (narrow-leaved feather

grass), 84, 85, 98, 105, 233
S. szowitsiana, 150, 238
S. tirsa, 98
Strawberry, 215
Struthiopteris (ostrich fern)
S. filicastrmn, 219

S. struthiopteris [S. filicastrum], 219
Sumac (Rhus coriaria), 254
Sundew, 87, 333

roundleaf (Drosera rotundifolic) , 104,
197
Sweet grass (Hierochloe), 13
alpine (H. alpina), 309
tundra (H. pauciflora), 13
Sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), 58,

271
Syir-kuiryuk ( Eremosparton flaccidum ) ,

151
Syringa (lilac)

S. amurensis (Amur lilac), 65, 323

Taban-kok (prostrate euphorbia. Eu-
phorbia chamaes-yce var. canescens) ,
156

Tal (willow), 122, 158

Tamarisk (Tamarix), 122, 156, 157, 158

Tamarix (tamarisk), 157, 158

Tamus communis, 217, 225, 230

Tanacetum s-ibiricum (Siberian tansy),
308

Tangerine, 194

INDEX OF PLANTS

Tansy, Siberian {Tanacetum sihirlcum),

308
Tasbii/urgun ( Nanophytnn erinaceurn ) ,

149
Tan-saghtjz (Scorzonera tau-saghjs), 186
Taxiis (yew)

T.baccata (English yew), 218, 240,
255

T.cuspidata (Japanese yew), 325
Tea, 217

Telekia speciosa [Buphthalmum], 226
Teucrium, 231
Thalictrum alpinum (alpine meadow

rue), 270
Thistle

Cirsium, 229, 231

Russian (Salsola kali), 106
Three-awn (Aristida), 146, 151, 152
Thuidium abietinum (green moss), 84,

85
Thuja orientalis (microbiota), 326
Thymus, 223, 229

T. serpijllum ( mother-of-thyme ) , 35
Tilia (linden)

T. amurensis ( Amur linden ) , 64, 323

T.argentea [T. tomentosa] (silver lin-
den), 81

T. caucasica [T. dasysttjla], 213

T. cordata, 38, 57, 213

T. cordata amurensis [T. amurensis]
(Amur linden), 64, 323

T.dastjstyla, 213

T. tomentosa (silver linden), 81
Timothy (Phleum), 46, 180, 187

alpine (P. alpinum), 227
Tobacco, 217, 252
Toothwort, five-leaved (Dentaria quin-

quefolia), 257
Tortula (moss), 100

T. ruralis, 99
Trachycarpus excelsa (Chinese coir

palm), 216, 252
Tragacanth astragali, 185, 234
Trapa (Trapa), 65, 201

Colchis (T. colchica), 197
Trapa (trapa)

T. colchica (Colchis trapa), 197

T. hyrcana, 201

T. incisa, 65
Traveler's-joy (Clematis vitalba), 195,
199, 212, 213, 217, 228, 230, 254
Trifolium ( clover )

T.ambiguuni (kura clover), 256

T.montanum (mountain clover), 85
Trisetum, 182
Trollius (globeflower)

r. altaicus, 282

T. asiaticus, 282

Tulip (TuUpa), 101, 122, 149, 177, 178
common (T. schrenkii [T. gesneri-

ana]), 90, 101, 122
garden, 99
Tulipa ( tulip )

T . hiehersteiniana, 101, 122

T. gesneriana (common tulip), 99, 101,

122
T.greigi, 178

T.schrenkii [T. gesneriana] (common
tulip), 99, 101, 122
Tyrsa (capillary feather grass, Stipa

capillata), 98
Tyuie dzhaprak (rhubarb), 122

Ulmus (elm), 81

U. campesiris [U. carpinifnlia] (smooth-
leaf elm), 80, 103, 209, 210, 258

U . carpinifnlia (smoothleaf elm), 80,
103, 186, 209, 210, 258, 333

U.densa [U. carpinifolia] (smoothleaf
elm), 186

U.foliacea [U. carpinifolia] (smooth-
leaf elm), 80, 103, 258

U.foliacea propinqua [U. carpinifolia]
( Asiatic smoothleaf elm ) , 333

U. glabra (Scotch elm), 271, 325

U. japonica ( Japanese elm ) , 65

U.laevis (Russian elm), 103

U.montana [U. glabra] (Scotch elm),
271

U. montana heterophylla [U. glabra]
(Scotch elm), 325

U . pedunculata [U. laevis] (Russian
elm), 103

U. scabra, 271
Umbellifer, 86, 87, 122, 156, 177, 178,
180, 182, 213, 220, 222, 226, 282, 341
Urtica platyphylla (Kamchatka nettle),

341
Uryuk-archa (Turkestan juniper, Juni-
perus pseudosabina turkestanica) ,
184

Vaccinium

V. arctostaphylos ( Caucasian whortle-
berry), 219, 220

V.oxycoccos (small cranberry), 44

V. uliginosum (bog bilberrv), 14

V. vitis-idaea (cowberry), 14, 15
\^\lerian (Valeriana), 226

steppe (V. tuberosa), 101
Valeriana ( \'alerian )

V. alliariaefolia, 226

V. tuberosa (steppe valerian), 101
Veratrum (false hellebore)

V. lobelianum, 226, 270

V. nigrum (black false hellebore), 85

400

Veronica umbrosa (speedwell), 87
Viburnvim

European cranberry-bush, 219, 282

wayfaring tree, 210
Viola (violet)

V. altaica ( Altay violet), 256, 283, 296

V.odvrata, 245

V. oreades, 227

V.repens (bog violet), 342
Violet (Viola), 215, 227, 245, 282

Altay (V. altaica), 256, 258, 283, 296

bog (V. repens), 342
Viper 's-bugloss (Echium), 229
Vitex agnus-castus, 186
Vitis (grape)

V.amurensis (Amur grape), 64, 323,
324

V. labrusca orientali^ (American grape),
200

V. silvestris [V. vinifera silvestris]
(woodland European grape), 103,
212

V. vinifera ( European grape ) , 196

V. vinifera silvestris ( woodland Euro-
pean grape), 103, 212

Walnut (Juglans), 180, 186

Mancburian (/. mandshurica) , 64, 65,

324, 325
Persian (/. regia), 180, 186
thick-shell Persian (/. fallax [/. regia
fallax]), 176, 177, 180, 181, 184,
196, 218, 228, 252
Water lily (Nymphaea), 71
Watermelon, 25, 293
Watershield (Brasenia purpurea), 65
Wheat, 175, 185, 233, 234, 238, 240, 332

spring, 25, 330
Wheat grass (Agroptjron), 46, 150, 152,
153, 178, 180, 185, 187, 219, 307
crested (A. cristatum), 101, 280
Siberian (A. sihiricwn), 122, 150
Whortleberrv, Caucasian ( Vaccinium arc-
tostaphylos), 219, 220, 221, 222,
223, 224, 225
Willow (Salix), 4, 7, 15, 17, 40, 46, 50,
73, 81, 82, 83, 95, 103, 104, 122,
123, 157, 158, 186, 296, 307, 315,
316, 332, 333, 341, 344
almond-leaf (S. triandra [S. amygda-

lina]), 46
arctic, 12
basket (S. viminalis, S. gmelini), 46

INDEX OF PLANTS

brittle (S. fragilis), 196

dwarf, 3, 15, 283

gray (S. cinerea), 81

Korean (S. [Clwsenia] macrolepis), 15,

316, 327, 333, 341
polar (S. polaris), 347, 348
rosemary creeping (S. rosmarinifolia

[S. repens rosmarinifolia]), 123
Sakhalin (S. sachalinensis) , 341
shrub (S. glauca, S. pulchra), 14
Wing nut (Pterocarya), 239

Caucasian (P. fraxinifolia), 195, 196,
197, 200, 212, 217
Winter fat. Old World (Eurotia cera-

toides), 150, 186
Wistaria, Chinese (Wistaria chinensis),

216, 252
Wistaria chinensis (Chinese wistaria),

216, 252
Woadwaxen (Genista tinctoria), 82
Wolfberry (Lycium), 158
Woodruff, sweet (Asperula odorata), 58,

271
Wormwood, 98

Xeranthemum, 229

Xerophytes, 86, 149, 182, 184, 185, 229,

233, 253, 296
mountain, 184, 185, 186, 223, 224, 229,

231, 234, 240

Yam (Dioscorea caucasica), 217

Yarrow, 46

Yerkek (Siberian wheat grass), 122

Yew (Taxus), 197, 217, 218, 222, 223,
224, 225, 239, 257
English (r. baccata), 218, 240, 255
Japanese (T. cuspidata), 325

Yucca, 216

Zelkova (Zelkova), 196, 197, 199, 200,

218, 239
Zelkova (zelkova)

Z. carpinifolia, 196, 197, 199, 239
Z. crenata [Z. carpinifolia], 197
Zizyphus (jujube)

Z.jujuba (common jujube), 186
Z. vulgaris [Z. fujuba] ( common ju-
jube), 186
Zygophyllaceae, 234

Zygophyllum fabago (Syrian bean caper),
158, 234

Index of Animals

Acanthis canlceps [Carduells caniceps]

(Old World goldfinch), 188
Acanthopneuste borealis (willow warbler),

297
Accentor (Prunella), 272, 273
alpine (P. collaris rufilata), 190
black-breasted, 188
black-throated (P. atrogularis) , 272
mountain (P. montanella) , 272
Acinonyx (cheetah)

A.jubatus [A. venaticus raddei], 191
A. venaticus raddei, 191
Acipenser ( sturgeon )

A. huso ( beluga sturgeon ) , 66

A. nudiventris ( ship, a small sturgeon ) ,

162
A. schrencki ( Amur sturgeon ) , 66
Aegialitis mongolus [Charadrius mongo-

lus] (Mongolian plover), 317
Agama, Russian house (Agama sanguino-

lenta), 160
Agama sanguinolenta (Russian house

agama), 160
Aix galericulata (mandarin duck), 66
Alactagulus ( jerboa )

A. acontion [A. pumilio] ( small jerboa),

159
A. pumilio (small jerboa), 159
Alectoris (rock partridge), 189
A.graeca, 160, 188
A. graeca falki, 188
A. kakelik [A. graeca falki], 188
Allactaga (jerboa)

A.elater (small jerboa), 159, 234, 236
A.jaculus [A. major] (large jerboa),

89, 107, 159, 261
A. major (large jerboa), 89, 107, 159,

261
A. saltator mongolica [A. sibirica mon-

golica], 310
A.severtsovi (large jerboa), 162
A, sibirica mongolica, 310
A. williamsi ( Asia Minor mountain jer-
boa), 234, 236
Alle alle (dovekie, or little auk), 347, 349
Alopex lagopus (arctic fox), 18, 261
Ammomanes deserti (desert lark), 159
Ammoperdix griseogularis (seesee par-
tridge), 191

Arnmozoum (darkling beetle), 161

Amphipods, 303

Amijda sinensis (Chinese soft-shelled tur-
tle), 66

Anguis fragilis (slowworm), 260

Anodonta, Bering's (Anodonta beringi-
ana), 334

Anodonta beringiana ( Bering's anodonta),
334

Anser (goose)

A. albifrons (white-fronted goose), 19
A. anser (gray-lag goose), 123
A. indicus (mountain, or Indian goose),
190, 310

Antelope, saiga {Saiga saiga [S. tatarica]),
21, 88, 105, 106, 107, 123, 159, 160,
261

Anthropoides virgo (demoiselle crane),
107, 310

Anthus spinoletta blackistoni (water pipit),
190, 297

Aphlebia adusta ( Crimean endemic cock-
roach), 260

Aphodiini (dung beetle), 161

Apus pacificus (Siberian swift), 298

Aquila (eagle)

A.heliaca (imperial eagle), 88
A.nipalensis orientalis (steppe eagle),
107

Arachnid, 108, 162

Archibuteo pallidus [Buteo lagopus pal-
lidus] (rough-legged buzzard), 297

Arctocephalus ursinus [Callorhinus ursi-
nus] (northern fur seal), 344

Arctogale nivalis pallida [Mustela nivalis
nivalis] (Turkestan weasel), 188

"Arrow-snake" ( Taphrometopon lineola-
tum), 161

Arvicola lemmina [Aschizomijs lemminus]
(mountain vole), 317

Aschizomys lemminus (mountain vole),
317

Aspius aspius (minnow), 162, 273

Ass, wild (Equus hemionus), 159, 261

Astacus (fresh-water crayfish)
A. colchicus, 198

A. kessleri ( Turkestan fresh-water cray-
fish), 163

Auk, little {Alle alle), 347
401

402

Aurochs {Bos primigenius) , 88, 107
Avocet, 107

Recurvirostra avocetta, 310

Badger, 58, 259, 283

Amur ( Meles amurensis [M. leptorhtjn-

chus amurensis] ) , 327
honey (Mellivora indica), 191
Tian Shan ( Meles meles tianschanensis
[M. leptorhynchus tianschanensis]),
187
Baicalia (fresh-water mollusk), 302, 303
Baicahidae, 303
Balta-tumsuk ( white-winged hawfinch,

Mijcerobas carnipes), 188
Barbel (Barbus), 162, 198, 260
Barbus (barbel)

B. brachycephalus, 162
B. tauricus escherichi, 198
Bear, 47, 58, 87, 188, 223, 226, 231, 240,
259, 272, 283, 296, 297, 310, 334,
342
brown {Ursus arctos), 189, 221, 261
cave {U. spelaeus), 261
Himalayan black ( Selenarctos tibetanus

ussuricus), 327
polar, 18, 19, 347, 349
Syrian {Ursus arctos syriacus), 191
Tian Shan {U. arctos leuconyx [U.
arctos isabellinus]), 189
Beaver {Castor fiber), 47, 58, 88, 106,
261
sea, 344
Bee-eater {Merops), 237
Bee-eating birds, 201
Bees, 201
Beet webworm {Loxostege sticticalis) ,

108
Beetle, 159, 160, 161, 189

carabid {Procerus scabrosus), 260
carabid (P. scabrosus tauricus), 260
darkling {Ammozoum), 161
darkling {Sternodes caspia), 161
darkling {Tenebrionidae), 161
dung { Aphodiini) , 161
longicom {Callipogon relictus), 66
longicom {Tarandra caspia), 201
longicorn {Rosalia alpina), 260
"sand burrower" {Thinorycter), 161
sand carabid {Procerus scabrosus), 260
saxaul longicom {Turcmenigenia), 161
taiga longicom {Monochamus urusovi),
298
Benedictiidae, 303
Bison, 107

Caucasian {Bos bonas-us caucasic~ns) ,
221, 223, 224

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Blackbird, 59

Blackcap, 59

Blatta orientalis (oriental cockroach), 260

Bluetail {Janthia cyanura {Tarsiger cya-

nurus]), 273
Boa, sand {Eryx miliaris), 161
Boar

Transylvanian wild {Sus scrofa attila),

106, 221, 224
\vild, 65, 162, 187, 201, 226, 229, 236,
259 261
Bobac {Marmota), 87, 88, 106, 189, 317,
339
Altay-Tian Shan (M. baibacina, M.

baibacina centralis), 189, 283
black-capped (M. camtschatica, M.

camtschatica bungei), 316, 342
long-tailed (M. caudata), 189
Mongolian (M. sibirica), 283, 310
red (M. caudata), 189
Talas (M. menzbieri), 189
two-colored (M. baibacina centralis),
189
Bogu ( red deer, Cervus elaphus canaden-
sis sibiricus [C. elaphus sibiricus]),
188
Bombinator (toad), 66, 260
Bomby cilia garrulus (waxwing), 48
Bos

B.bonasus caucasicus (Caucasian bi-
son), 221
B. primigenius (aurochs, a wild ox),

88
B. sp. (ox), 261
Brachymystax lenok {lenok trout, or us-

kuch), 284
Brambling {Fringilla montifringilla) , 48
Mongolian ( Montifringilla davidiana
potanini), 284
Brant {Branta bernicla), 19
Branta

B. bernicla (brant), 19
B.ruficollis (red-breasted goose), 19
Bream, 162
Bryozoa, 74

Bryozoan {Hislopia haicalensis) , 303
Bucanetes githagineus (desert bullfinch),

159
Buffalo, 237

Bufo bufo (common gray toad), 48
Bull, 12, 71
Bullfinch, 297, 343

desert {Bucanetes githagineus), 159
Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 48, 188, 224
Bunting

chestnut {Emberiza nitila), 48

rock, 259

snow {Plectrophenax nivalis), 19

INDEX Of ANIMALS

Bustard (Otui), 237

great (O. tarda), J 07

little (C). tetrax), 107

Macqueen's (O. niacqueeni), 159, 161

Siberian (O. farc/a dyhowskii), 64, 296,
310
Bi/feo lagopus ( rougli-leggcd hawk), 20

B. lagopus pallidus (rough-legged buz-
zard), 297

Butterfly, 5

mimetic (Libythaea celtis), 260
satyrid (Satyrus euxinus), 260

Buzzard, rough-legged (Archihuten pal-
lidus [Buteo lagopus pallidus]), 297

Bychki, 303

Caccahis {Alectoris\ (rock partridge), 189

C. chukar [A. graeca], 160, 188
Calcarius lapponicus (Lapland longspur),

273
Callipogon relictus ( longicorn beetle ) , 66
Calliptamus italicus (locust), 108, 191
Callorhinus ursinus (northern fur seal),

344
Calomyscus bailwardi hotsoni (white-
footed mouse), 191
Camel, 21, 237

Canace canadensis [Canachites canaden-
sis canace] (North American grouse),
327
Canachites canadensis canace ( North

American grouse), 327
Canis aureus [Thos aureus] (jackal), 162,

221
CapcUa (snipe)

C. megala (Swinhoe's snipe), 284, 298
C. soUtaria (sohtary snipe), 284, 298
C. stenura (pin-taUed snipe), 273, 284,
298
Capercaillie (Tetrao), 48, 272, 273, 284,
297, 317, 343
common (T. urogallus), 48, 272
Ural (T. urogallus uralensis), 272
Capra (goat, ibex), 261

C. aegagrus [C. hlrcus aegagrus] (wild

goat), 191
C. caucasica ( Caucasian ibex ) , 227
C. caucasica cylindricornis ( CaucasiaTi

ibex), 227
C. cylindricornis [C. caucasica cylindri-
cornis] (Caucasian ibex). 227
C. dinniki [C. severtzowi dinniki] (Cau-
casian ibex), 227
C.hircus aegagrus (\v-ild goat), 191
C. severtzowi (Caucasian ibex ) , 227
C.severtzotoi dinniki (Caucasian ibex),

227
C.sibirica (Asiatic ibex), 189, 297

403

Capreolus (roebuck), 106

C.capreolus (European roebutk), 106,

221, 259
C.pygargus (Siberian rcjrbnck), 106,

221
C. pygargus liansrhanicus (Siberian roc-
buck), J 87
Caprimulgus aegyptius (desert nightjar),

J 59
Carabids, apterous ( Discnptera), 161
Cardium edule (a Mediterranean mollusk),
97, 113, 115, 117, 133, 135, 139,
140, 237
Carduelis caniceps (Old World grjld-

finch), 188
Carp, 67, 162

Carpodacus roseus (rose finch), 310
Casarca ferruginea (ruddy sheldrake),

107, 296, 310
Casmerodius albus (white egret), 123
Castor fiber (beaver), 58
Cat, 12

barkhan { Eremaelurus thinobius), 160
jungle {Felis chaus), 162, 201, 229,

236
nianul (Otocolobus manul [Felis

rnanul]), 188, 191
wild (Felis silvestris), 221, 223, 224,
259, 261
Catfish, 67, 162, 273

Glyptosternum stoliczkai, 190
Centipede (Scolopendra cingulata), 260
Cepphus mandti (Mandt's guillemot),

347, 349
Cervus (deer)

C.elaphus (red deer), 106, 259

C. elaphus bactrianus ( Central Asiatic

red deer), 160, 162
C. elaphus canadensis sibiricus [C. ela-
phus sibiricus] (red deer), 88, 188,
283, 296
C. elaphus maral (Caucasian red deer),

221, 223, 224
C.elaphus sibiricus (red deer), 88,

188, 283, 296
C. nippon [Sika riippon] (Japanese
deer), 65, 327
Chaetura caudacuta (needle-tailed swift),

298
Chafer (Rhizotrogus), 161
Chalcalburnus chalcoides [shemaya) , 198
Chamois, 227

Caucasian (Rupicapra rupicapra cau-
casica), 227
Charadrius mongolus ( Mongolian plo^•er),

317
Charr (Salvdinus), IS

404

Chat, isabelline {Oenanthc isaheUina),

191
Cheetah (Acinomjx jubatus [A. venaticus

raddei]), 191
Chelidonnria urbica meridionalis (Euro-
pean martin), 190
Chikalka (northern dhole, Cuon alpinus

hesperius), 297
Chilopods, 260

Scutigera coleoptrata, 260
Chipmunk, 272, 334

Eutamias asiaticus [E. sibiricus], 47,
297
Chiridothea entomon caspia (an isopod),

124
Chough (Pyrrhocorax)

alpine (P. graculus), 190, 284
red-beaked (P. pyrrhocorax), 190, 261,
284
Chough-thrush, Pander's {Podoces pan-

deri), 160
Chum (Oncorhtjnchus), 19, 66, 334, 343
Cicada (Cicada plebeia), 260
Cicada plebeia (cicada), 260
Ciconia ciconia (stork), 163
Citellus (suslik)
C dauriciis, 310
C. eversmaimi, 283, 310
C. eversmanni buxtoni (Kol\Tna sus-
lik), 21, 316
C. eversmanni jaciitensis (Yakutsk sus-
lik), 35, 64
C. eversmanni stejnegeri ( Kamchatka

suslik), 342
C.fulvus (yellow suslik), 123, 159
C. fulvus subsp. oxianus, 159, 161
C.pygmueus, 100, 123
C. pygmaeus brauneri (gray suslik),

107
C. pygmaeus mugosaricus ( Mugodzhar

suslik), 159
C. pygmaeus musicus, 227
C.relictus (relict suslik), 189'
C. rufescens, 261
C. suslicus, 107
C. suslicus guttatus ( spotted suslik ) ,

89, 107
C. xanthoprymnus ( Asia Minor suslik ) ,
234
Clethrionomys rutilus (Siberian red-
backed mouse), 310
Cobra, spectacled (Naja naja coeca), 191
Cockroaches, 161, 260
Aphlebia adusta, 260
oriental ( Stylopyga orientalis spontanea
[Bhtta orientalis]), 260
Colaeus dahuricus (Dahurian jackdaw),
284

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Coluber jugularis ( European whip snake),
198
C. jugularis caspius, 260
Columba

C. oenas (stock dove), 88
C. oenas tianschanica (stock dove), 188
C.palumbus (wood pigeon), 88, 191
Colymbus arcticus [Gavia arcticus] (black-
throated diver), 297
Comephorus (Baikal "oilfish"), 302
Conophyma (flightless, apterous locusts),

190
Coot, 201
Copepod, fresh-water (Harpacticella ino-

pinata), 303
Coregonid, 273
Coregonus (whitefish), 18

C autumnalis migratorius ( Baikal

whitefish), 303
C.lavaretus (sig), 284
Cormorant, 342

European (Phalacrocorax carbo), 123
CoroneUa austriaca (smooth snake), 260
Corvus corax ruficolUs (desert raven),

160
Cnttncomephoridae, 303
Crab, fresb-\^'ater (Telphusa jluviatilis
[Potamon (potamon) edulis]), 260
Crane (Grus), 342

demoiselle ( G. virgo [Anthropoides

Virgo]), 107, 310
Ussuri (G. japonensis), 66
Cravfish, fresh-water, 66, 67
Asiacus, 198

Turkestan (A. kessleri), 163
Creepers, 188, 342
Cricetulus (hamster)

C. barabensis (Dahurian hamster), 310
C. furuneulus [C. barabensis] ( Dahu-
rian hamster), 310
C. migratorius (gray hamster), 107,
234
Cricetus (hamster)

C. cricetus (common hamster), 107,
261
Cristaria (Cristaria), 334
Cristaria (cristaria, a fresh-water pearl
mussel)
C. plicata, 66, 334
Crossbill (Loxia), 2.59

spruce (L. curvirostra) , 188, 224
white-\^'inged (L. leucoptera bifasciata),
48
Crossobamon pipiens ( lobe-footed gecko),

160
Crow tribe, 160
Crustacean, 124

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Cuckoo, South Chinese {Cuculus mi-

cropterus), 66
Cuculus micropterus (South Chinese

cuckoo), 66
Cuon alpinus hesperius (northern dhole),

189
Curlew, stone, 107
Cutworm moth (Feltia segetum), 49
Cyanopica cyanus (azure-winged mag-
pie), 66
Cygnopsis cygnoides (Chinese goose),

284
Cygnus bewicki (Bewick's swan), 19
Cyprinid, 162, 190, 191, 260
Chinese, 66
Colchian, 198
Mongolian, 284

Daw, common, 284

Deer, 12, 65, 87, 105, 106, 107, 158, 160,
231, 240, 298, 332, 349
Caucasian red (Cervus elaphus maral),

221, 223, 224
Central Asiatic red (C. elapfius hac-

trianus), 160, 162
gigantic, 261
Japanese (C. nippon [Sika nippon]),

65, 327
Manchurian red (izyuhr, or maral),

297, 310
musk, 283, 297, 316, 327
red (C. elaphus), 106, 259, 261, 272,

297
red (C. elaphus canadensis sihiricus
[C. elaphus sibiricus] ), 88, 188, 283,
296
Turkestan red ( C. elaphus bactrianus ) ,
162
Dendrolimus ( Dendrolimus )
pine (D. pirn), 49
Siberian (D. sibiricus), 298
Dendrolimus ( dendrolimus )

D. pini (pine dendrolimus), 49
D. sihiricus (Siberian dendrolimus),
298
Dhole, northern {Cuon alpinus hesperius),

189, 283, 297, 310
Dicrostonyx (lemming), 18, 19
Didacna ( mollusk )
D. crassa, 237
D. trigonoides, 237
Diptychus (osman), 190
Dipus sagitta (three-toed jerboa), 160
Discoptera (apterous carabids), 161
Diver, black-throated ( Colymbus arcticus

[Gavia arcticus]), 297
Dog, 261, 328

405

domestic, 18

Eskimo, 18
Dormouse, 88, 259

forest [Dyromys nitedula), 224
Dotterel (Kudromias morinellus), 310
Dove

Asiatic turtle (Streptopelia orientalis
rneena), 188

Senegalese turtle (S. senegalemvi er-
mani), 163

stock (Columha oenas), 88

stock (C oenas tianschanica) , 188

turtle (Streptopelia turtur), 88
Dovekie ( little auk, Alle alle ) , 347, 349
Dryocopus martius (black woodpecker),

224
Duck, 201, 342

eider, 19

harlequin, 317

mandarin (Aix galericulata) , 66

sheld (Tadorna tadorna), 107, 296,
310
Dyromys nitedula (forest dormouse), 224
Dzhulbars (Turkestan tiger, Felis tigris
virgata), 162

Eagle

gray sea {Haliaeetus albicilla), 123

imperial (Aquila heliaca), 88

steppe (A. nipalensis orientalis), 107
Echis carinata (carpet viper), 159, 161
Egret (Egretta)

little (£. garzetta), 123

white (E. alba [Casn^erodius albus]),
123
Egretta (egret)

E.alba [Casmerodius albus] (white
egret), 123

E. garzetta (little egret), 123
Eider

king (Somateria spectabilis) , 19, 20

Steller's (S. stelleri [Polysticta stel-
leri]), 19
Elaphe (snake)

E. quatuorlineata sauromates (four-
striped snake), 108

E. situla ( leopard snake ) , 260
Elephas primigenius (mammoth), 261
Elk, 47, 58, 87, 272, 296, 297, 310, 342

Ussuri, 327
Ellobius talpinus (mole rat), 107, 161
Emberiza rtitila (chestnut bunting), 48
Embia taurica (embioptera), 260
Embioptera (Embia taurica), 260
Empusa (Empusa tricornis), 260
Empusa tricornis (Empusa), 260
Enhydra lutris (sea otter), 344

406

Equus

E. gmelini (wild horse, or tarpan), 87,

106
E. hemionus (wild ass, or kiang), 159,
160, 261
Eremaelurus thinobius (barkhan cat),

160
Eremias arguta (steppe lizard), 108
EremophiJa [Otocoris] (horned lark)
E. alpestris [O. alpestris] (alpine homed

lark), 190
E. alpestris flava [O. alpestris fava],
310
Erignathus barbatus barbatus (bearded

seal), 347
Erinaceus ( hedgehog )

E. rumanicus transcaucasicus, 235
E. transcaucasicus [E. rumanicus trans-
caucasicus], 234
Erithacus rubecula (robin), 88
Ermine, 19, 47, 58, 223, 296, 297, 317
Erolia tenuirostris (great knot), 317
Erijx miliaris (small sand boa), 161
Esox reicherti (Amur pike), 334
Eudromias morinellus (dotterel), 310
Eulabeia indica [Eulabes indica] ( Indian

goose), 284
Eulabes indica (Indian goose), 284
Eumeces schneideri (long-legged gold

skink), 235
Eumetopias jubatus (Steller's sea lion),

344
Euscorpius (scorpion)

E.italicus (Mediterranean scorpion),

198
E.mingrelicus (Mingrelian scorpion),

198
E.tauricus (Crimean scorpion), 260
Eutamias (chipmunk)

E. asiaticus {E. sibiricus], 47, 297
E. sibiricus, 47
Evotomys rutilus [Clethrionomys rutilus]
(Siberian red-backed mouse), 310

Falcipennis falcipennis (Siberian spruce

grouse), 327, 334
Falco cherrug (saker falcon), 310
Falcon

red-footed, 59

saker {Falco cherrug), 310
Felts

F. chaus (jungle cat), 162, 201, 236

F.leo (lion), 261

F.lynx [Lynx lynx] (lynx), 261

F. /i/nx orientalis [Lynx orientalh]
(Ivnx), 221, 240

F.nianul (manul cat), 188, 191

INDEX OF ANIMALS

F.pardus (leopard), 191
F.pardus tullianus (leopard), 201
F.silvestris (wild cat), 221, 223, 224,

261
F. spelaea (cat), 12
F.tigris virgata (Turkestan tiger), 162
F. uncia (snow leopard), 189, 283

Feltia segetum (cutworm moth), 49

Finch

Altay (Fringillauda altaica), 284
Leucosticte [Montifringilla], 190
rose (Carpodacus roseus), 310
Siberian rose {Uragus sibiricus), 188

Finch family, 188

Flamingo, 199, 201

Phoenicopterus roseus, 237

Flycatcher

Indian paradise {Tchitrea paradisea

turkestanica), 163, 188
pied, 59

Fox, 47, 58, 187, 189, 259, 296, 317,
328, 334, 342
arctic (Alopex lagopus), 18, 19, 261,

344, 347, 349
common (Vulpes vulpes), 261
corsac (V. corsak), 123, 261
Russian desert, 161
V. vulpes kurdistanica, 234

Francolin {Francolinits orientalis), 234,
237

Francolinus orientalis (francolin), 237

Fringilla montifringilla (brambling), 48

Fringillauda altaica (Altay finch), 284

Frog, 221, 224, 334

Amur (Rana amurensis), 48, 334
Asiatic tree {Htjla stepheni), 310
black-spotted (Rana nigromaculata) ,

66
edible (R. esculenta), 49, 66, 67
European tree (Hyla), 66
grass {R. temporaria), 48, 260
green, 67

moor (R. arvalis), 260
river (R. ridibunda), 221, 260
tree (Hyla arborea), 224, 260

Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), 347, 349

Fulmarus glacialis (fulmar), 347, 349

Galeodes araneoides (a solpugid), 108
Calerida cristata (crested lark), 161
CallLnule, Indian {Porphijrio poliocepha-

lus), 123, 201
Gammaridae, 303

Garrtdus glandarius iphigenia (jay), 259
Gastropods, 302, 303
Gavia arcticus (black-throated diver),

297

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Gazella

G. gutturosa [Pwcapra gutturosa]

(Mongolian seren), 283
G. sub gutturosa (goitered gazelle),
160, 187, 235, 236
Gazelle, goitered (Gazella subguUurosa),

159, 160, 187, 235, 236
Gecko

Balkan sand (Gymnodactylus kotschyi),

259
Caspian sand (G. caspius), 161
Crimean sand (G. danilewskii) , 259
fringe-toed (Teratoscincus sclncus),

160
lobe-footed (Crossobamon pipiens),
160
Gerbil (Meriones), 123, 160, 161

Persian (M. persicus), 234
Glass snake (Ophisaurus apus), 260
Glutton, 272, 296, 297, 310, 334
Glyptosternum stoliczkai (catfish), 190
Goat {Capra), 189, 261

wild (C. aegagrus [C. hircus aega-
grus]), 191
Goldfinch, 59, 259

Old World (Acanthis caniceps [Car-
duelis caniceps] ), 188
Goose, 342

Chinese (Cygnopsis cygnoides), 284
gray-lag (Anser anser), 123
Indian (A. indicus), 190, 310
Indian (Eidabeia indica [Eulabes in-

dica]), 284
mountain (Anser indicus), 190
red-breasted (Branta ruficollis), 19
white-fronted (Anser albifrons), 18,

19
wild, 18
Coral, Amur (Nemorhaedus goral), 327
Goshawk, 297
Grasshoppers, 260
Grayling, 66, 273
Amur, 343

arctic (Thymallus arcticus), 284
Grosbeak, pine (Pinicola enucleator) , 48,

188, 310
Ground squirrel (suslik), 21
Grouse, 284

black (Lyrurus tetrix), 48, 88, 188,

259, 261, 272, 284, 296, 343
Caucasian black (L. mlokosiewiczi) ,

227, 234
hazel (Tetrastes honasia), 48, 272,

297, 317, 343
North American (Canace canadensis
[Candchites canadensis canace]),
327
sand (Pterocles arenarius), 234

407

Siberian spruce (Falcipennis falcipen-

nus), 327, 334
Tibf'taii sand (Syrrhaptes tihetanus),

190
willow, 234
Grouse family, 327, 334
Grus (crane)

G.japonensis (Ussuri crane), 66
G. Virgo [Anthropoides virgo] ( de-
moiselle crane), 107
Guillemot, 342

Mandt's (Cepphus mdndti), 347, 349
Gull, 342

Caspian herring (Larus cachinnans

[L. argentatus cachinnans]), 201
glaucous (L. hyperboreus), 20, 347
ivory (Pagophila eburnea), 347
Rosa's (Rhodostethia rosea), 19
Gymnodactylus (sand gecko)

G. caspius (Caspian sand gecko), 162
G. danilewskii (Crimean sand gecko),

259
G. kotschyi (Balkan sand gecko), 259
Gyps fulvus himalayensis (griffon vul-
ture), 190

Halcyon smyrnensis (Smyrna kingfisher),

201
Haliaeetus albicilla (gray sea eagle), 123
Hamster, 123

common (Cricetus cricetus), 107, 261
Dahurian (Cricetulus furunculus [C.

barabensis] ), 310
Dzhungarian (Phodopus songorus),

296
Eversmann, 124
gray (Cricettdus migratorius) , 107,

234
Mesocricetus, 231, 234
Hare (Lepus), 19, 160, 162, 236, 310,
334
common (L. europaeus), 47, 48, 259
Pamir (L. europaeus tibetanus), 190,

191
varying (L. timidus or L. variabilis),
18, 47, 259, 283, 296
Harpacticella inopinata (fresh-water co-

pepod), 303
Hawfinch, white-winged ( Mycerobas

carnipes), 188, 191
Hawk

rough-legged (Buteo lagopus), 20
"Hay stacker" (mouse hare, Ochotona

rutila), 189
Hedgehog, 161

Erinaceus transcaucasicus [E. ruma'

nicus transcaucasicus], 234
Hemiechinus calligoni, 234

408

Hemiechinus calligoni (hedgehog), 234
Heron, 107
Herring, 284

Heteractites incana brevipes [Heterosce-
lus brevipes] (Polynesian tattler),
310, 317
Heteroscelus brevipes (Polynesian tat-
tler), 310, 317
Hislopia baicalensis (bryozoan), 303
Hodotermes turkestanicus (termites), 191
Hoopoe, 59
Horse, 12, 71, 261

wild {Equus gmelini), 21, 87, 105,
106
Hucho taimen (brown trout), 273, 284
Huso dauricus (long-snouted sturgeon),

66
Hyaena (hyena)
H. hyaena, 235
H.spelaea (cave hyena), 261
Hydrodamalis stelleri (Steller's sea cow),

344
Hyena {Hyaena), 159, 187, 229, 235,
236, 261
cave (H. spelaea), 261
Hyla (tree frog), 66
H.arhorea, 224, 260
H.stepheni (Asiatic tree frog), 310
Hynohius keyserlingi (Siberian four-toed

salamander), 273, 343
Hystrix (porcupine)

H. hirsutirostris [H. leucura hirsutiros-

tris], 187, 201
H. hirsutirostris satunini [H. leucura

satunini], 187
H. leucura hirsutirostris, 187, 201
H. leucura satunini, 187

Ibex (Capra), 190, 283, 297
Asiatic (C. sibirica), 189, 297
Caucasian (C. caucasica), 227
Caucasian (C. cylindricornis [C. cau-
casica cylindricornis] ) , 227
Caucasian (C. dinniki [C. severtzowi

dinniki]), 227
Caucasian (C. severtzowi), 227
Ibis

glossy {Plegadis falcinellus), 107, 162,

201, 237
Japanese (Nipponia nippon), 66
Ibis family, 237
Ichkemer (desert monitor lizard, Varanus

griseus), 161
Ilik (Siberian roebuck), 188
Insect pests, 108
Insects, 5, 49, 162, 201
Isophya taurica (Crimean locust), 260

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Isopod (Chiridothea entomon caspia),

124
Izyubr (Manchurian red deer), 297

Jackal (Canis aureus [Thos aureus]),

159, 162, 221, 229, 236
Jackdaw, 188

Dahurian ( Colaeus dahuricus ) , 284
Janthia cyanura [Tarsiger cyanurus]

(bluetail), 273
Jay, 297

Garrulus glandarius iphigenia, 259
Siberian {Perisoreus infaustus), 48,

284 297 343
Jerboa, 87, 123, 159, 160, 161, 162, 261,

310
Asia Minor mountain {Allactaga wil-

liamsi), 234, 236
brush-toed {Paradipus ctenodactylus) ,

160
large ( Allactaga jaculus [A. major] ) ,

89, 107, 159, 261
large (A. severtsovi), 162
large (Rhombomys opimus), 159
small {Alactagulus acontion [A. pu-

milio]), 159
small (Allactaga elater), 159, 234, 236
three-toed (Dipus sagitta), 160
three-toed sand (Scirtopoda telum),

107

Kaplan (snow leopard, Leopardus uncia

[Felis undo]), 189
Kargaul (pheasants), 162
Khangul (Central Asiatic red deer, Cer-

vus elaphus hactrianus), 160, 162
Khramulya (Varicorhinus sieboldi), 198
Kiang (wild ass, Equus hemionus), 159,

160
Kiik (Asiatic ibex, Capra sibirica), 189
Kingfisher, 342

Smyrna (Halcyon smyrnensis), 201
Kinglet, Tian Shan, 188
Kite (Milvus milvus), 88
Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), 347, 349
Knot, great (Erolia tenuirostris) , 317
Kolinsky, 296
Kum-sauskan ( Pander's chough-thrush,

Podoces panderi), 160
Kum-tauk (Pander's chough-thrush), 160
Kutas (yak), 190

Lacerta (lizard)

L.agilis exigua (sand lizard), 108
L.saxicola (mountain lizard), 259
L. taurica (Crimean lizard), 259

INDEX OF ANIMALS

L.viridi.s (green lizard), 259
L.vivipara (common lizard), 48, 108,
334
Lagopus ( ptarmigan )

L.lagopus (willow ptarmigan), 18, 19,

48, 272, 284
L.mutus (tundra ptarmigan), 19, 20,

297, 310, 317, 347
L. mutus komensis ( North Ural tundra

ptarmigan), 273
L. mutus rupestris (tundra ptarmigan),
284
Lagurus lagurus (short-tailed steppe

vole), 107, 296
Lamprey, 66

Lamprogale flavigula horealis (yellow-
throated marten), 327
Lanius excubitor pallidirostris (desert

great gray shrike), 160
Lark, 123

alpine horned (Eremophila dlpestris

[Otocoris alpestris]) , 190
arctic horned {Octocoris alpestris), 21
black, 123
Calandra {Melanocortjpha calandra),

107
crested (Galerida cristata), 161
desert { Arnmomanes deserti), 159
homed (Eremophila alpestris jlava

[Otocoris alpestris flava]), 310
Mongolian ( Melanocorypha morigo-

lica), 310
small, 123
Larus (gull)

L. argentatus cachinnans (Caspian her-
ring gull), 201
L. cachinnans [L. argentatus cachin-

nans] (Caspian herring gull), 201
L. hyperboreus (glaucous gull), 347
Leech (Torix baicalensis) , 303
Lemming, 18, 19, 65

Amur (Lemmu^ amurensis), 317
Sayan forest (Myopus schisticolor
saianicus), 296
Lemmus (lemming), 18, 19

L. amurensis (Amur lemming), 317
Lenok trout (Brachymystax lenok), 284
Leopard (Leopardus [Felis]), 65, 191,
201. 22.3, 240
snow (L. uncia [F. uticia]). 189, 283
Leopardus [Pel is] (leopard)
L. pardus [F. pardus], 191
L. pardus tuRinnus [F. pardus tuUi-

anus], 201
L. uncia [F. uncia] (snow leopard),
189, 283
Lepidoptera, 49
Leptopoecih sophiae (warbler), 188

409

Lepus (hare)

L. europaeus (common hare), 47, 250

L. europaeus cyrensis, 236

L. europaeus tihetanus (Pamir hare),

190, 191
L. timidus (varying hare), 47, 259,

296
L.tolai, 310

L. variabilis (varying hare), 47
Leuciscus cephalus (minnow), 198, 260,

273
Leucosticte [Montifringilla] (finch)
L.brandti [M. brandti], 190
L. nemoricola altaica [M. nemoricola
altaica], 190
Libythaea celtis (mimetic butterfly), 260
Linnit, 297
Lion (Felis), 12, 261

cave, 12
Lizard, 160, 161, 235, 237, 259, 334
apod (Ophisaurus apus), 260
burrowing (Scapteira), 161
common (Lacerta vivipara), 48, 108,

334
Crimean (L. taurica), 259
giant desert monitor (Varanus griseus),

159, 161
green (Lacerta viridls), 259
mountain (L. saxicola), 259
night, 160

sand (L. agilis exigua), 108
steppe (Eremias arguta), 108
Loach (Nemachilus), 66, 190
Locust

Asiatic (Locusta migratoria) , 162
blue-winged (Oedipoda coerulescens) ,

108
Calliptamus italicus, 108, 191
Crimean (Isophya taurica), 260
flightless, apterous (Conophyma), 190
migratory (Locusta migratoria), 108,

162
Moroccan, 191
sand ( Platypterna) , 159
striped (Pachytylus nigrofasciatus) ,
108
Locusta migratoria (migratory locust),

108. 162
Locust genera, 162
Longspur, Lapland (Calcarius lapponi-

cus), 273
Loon, re^throated, 20
Loxia (crossbill)

L. curvirostra ( spruce crossbill "> . 188,

224
L. curvirostra caucasica, 259
L.leucopt^ra hifasciata ( white- winged
crossbill), 48

410

Loxostege sticticalis (beet webworm),

108
Lubomirskiidae (a sponge family), 303
Luscinia luscinia (tlirust nightingale),

OQ

Lynx (Felis [Lynx]), 47, 58, 188, 221,
240, 261, 272, 283, 297, 310, 334
Lynx (lynx)
L.lynx, 261
L. orientalis, 221, 240
Lyrurus (black grouse)

L. mlokosiewiczi ( Caucasian black

grouse), 227, 234
L.tetrix, 88, 188, 296

Magpie, azure-winged {Cyanopica cy-

anus), 66, 67
Mammoth (Eleplias pri7nigenius) , 12,

71, 261
Manayunkia (a genus of worms), 303
Mantis, praying (Mantis religiosa), 260
Mantis religiosa (praying mantis), 260
Maral (Manchurian red deer), 297
Margaritana (fresh- water pearl mussel)
M.dahurica, 66, 67
M. middendorffii, 343
M. sachalinensis, 334
Marmot (Marmota), 88, 106, 190, 310
Marmota (marmot, or bobac)

M. baibacina (Altay-Tian Shan bobac),

283
M. baibacina centralis ( two-colored, or

Altav-Tian Shan bobac), 189
M. bobak, 88, 106
M. camtschatica (black-capped bobac),

342
M . camtschatica bungei (black-capped

bobac), 316
]\f. caudata (red, or long-tailed bobac),

189, 190
M.menzbieri (Talas bobac), 189
M. sibirica ( Mongolian, or Siberian
bobac), 283, 310
Marten, 47, 87, 223, 272

beech (Mustela foina [Martes foina]),

259
yellow-throated (Maries fiavigula [M.
(Lamprogale) flavigula borealis]),
327
Ma rtes ( m arten )

M.favigula [M. (Lamprogale) fa-
vigula borealis] (yellow-throated
marten), 327
M. (Lamprogale) flavigula borealis

( yellow-tluoated marten), 327
M. foina (beech marten), 259
Martin, European ( Chelidonaria urbica
meridionalis) y 190

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Melanocorypha (lark)

M.calandra (Calandra lark), 107

M.mongoUca (Mongolian lark), 310
Meles (badger)

M. amurensis [M. leptorhynchus amu-
rensls] (Amur badger), 327

M . leptorhynchus amurensis (Amur
badger), 327

M. leptorhynchus tianschanensis ( Tian
Shan badger), 187

M. meles tianschanensis [M. lepto-
rhynchus tianschanensis] (Tian Shan
badger), 187
Mellivora indica (honey badger), 191
Meriones (gerbil)

M. erythrcmrus eversmanni, 161

M. meridianus, 123, 160

M.persicus (Persian gerbil), 234

M. tamaricinus, 123
Merops (bee-eater)

M. apiaster, 237

M. persicus, 237
Mesocricetus ( hamster )

M. auratus brandti, 234

M. brandti [M. auratus brandti], 234

M. raddei, 231
Microtus (meadow mouse), 310

M. nivalis (alpine meadow mouse),
191

M. nivalis gud (alpine meadow mouse),
227

M.socialis (social meadow mouse),
107
Milvus milvus (kite), 88
Minnow

Aspius as^rius, 162, 273

Lcuciscus ccphalus, 198, 260, 273

Old World (Schizothorax), 162, 190,
191

Fhoximis phoxinus, 260
Mole, 297

Altay, 283
Mole rat

EUobius talpinus, 107

mountain ( Spalax monticola ) , 234

Spalax micropJitlialnius, 107
Mollusk, 71, 74, 97, 198, 260, 303, 321

Baikal, 303

bivalve, 67, 303

Cardium edule, 97, 113, 115, 117, 133,
135, 139, 140, 237

Caspian, 132, 133, 135, 140

Crimean, 260

Didacnja, 237

fresh-water, 302, 303, 343

Mediterranean, 260

Mijtilaster, 97

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Saxicava arctica, 11
Sijndesmia ovata, 97
Monochamus urusovi (taiga longicom

beetle), 298
Monticola saxatilis (rock thrush), 108

M. saxatilis turkestanica, 310
Montifringilla

M.bmmlti (finch), 190

M. davidiana potaniiii ( Mongolian

brambling), 284
M.nemoricola altaica (finch), 190
Mosquitoes, 5, 18, 19, 162

malarial, 198
Moth

cutworm (Feltia segetum), 49
mm {Porthetria monacha), 49
Mouse, 341

alpine meadow {Microtus nivalis),

191, 227
alpine meadow (M. nivalis gud), 227
birch (Sicista montana [S. betulina

montana]), 310
meadow (genus Microtus), 310
Siberian red-backed (Evotomijs rutilus

[Clethrionomijs rutilus]), 310
social meadow {Microtus socialis),

107
white-footed ( Calomijscus bailwardi
hotsoni), 191
Mouse hare (Ochotona)

alpine (O. alpina), 283, 297
Mongolian (O. pricei [O. pallasii

pricei]), 283
red (O. rutila), 188, 189, 190
reddish (O. rufescens), 191
Murre, Briinnich's (Uria lomvia), 347,

349
Muscardinidae family, 88
Musk deer, 283, 297, 316, 327
Musk ox, 12
Mussel, fresh-water pearl, 334

Bering's anodonta (Anodonta berin-

giana), 334
cristaria (Cristaria plicata), 66, 334
Margaritana dahurica, 66, 67
M. middendorffii, 343
Sakhalin (M. sachalinensis) , 334
Unio, 67
Mustela

M.erminea ferghanae (stoat), 188
M.foina [Martes foina] (beech mar-
ten), 259
M. nivalis nikolskii (Crimean weasel),

259
M. nivalis nivalis ( Turkestan weasel ) ,
188
Mycerobas carnipes (white-winged haw-
finch), 188

411

Mtjophonus coeruleus temmincki (Hi-
malayan blue tlirusli), 188

Mtjopus schisiiculor saianicus (Sayan
forest lemming), 296

Myospalax dybowski (Dahurian burrow-
ing rat), 310

Myoxocephalus quadricomis ( four-
horned sculpin), 29

Myriapods, 198

Mysid (My sis), 124

Mysis (mysid)
M. caspia, 124
M. oculata, 124

Mytilaster (a Mediterranean mollusk),
97

Naja naja coeca (spectacled cobra), 191
Nelma {Stenodus [S. leucichthys nelma]),

18, 124, 273
Nemachilus (loach), 190
Nemorhaedus goral (Amur goral), 327
Nerpa (Baikal hair seal, Phoca sibirica),

302
Newt

Caucasian striped (Triturus vittatus

ophryticus), 222
common, 260
crested, 260

Siberian (Ranodon sibiricus), 190
Nightingale, thrush (Luscinia luscinia),

88
Nightjar, desert (Caprimulgus aegyp-

tius), 159
Nipponia nippon (Japanese ibis), 66
Nucifraga (nutcracker)
iV. caryocatactes, 48
N. caryocatactes macrorhynca, 284,

317
N. caryocatactes rothschildi, 188
Nun moth {Porthetria monacha), 49
Nutcracker {Nucifraga), 48, 188, 284,

297, 317
Nuthatch, 297
Nijctea nyctea (snowy owl), 19, 297

Ochotona (mouse hare)

O. alpina (alpine mouse hare), 283,
297

O. pallasii pricei { Mongolian mouse
hare), 283

O. pricei [O. pallasii pricei] { Mongo-
lian mouse hare), 283

O. rufescens (reddish mouse hare),
191

O. rutila (red mouse hare), 188, 189,
190
Oedipoda coerulescens ( blue-Nvinged lo-
cust), 108

412

Oenanthe

O.deserti (desert wheatear), 160, 190

O.isahellina (isabelline chat), 191
"Oilfish," Baikal (Comepharus), 302
Ok-dzhilan (Taphrometopon lineolatum),

161
Oncorhynchus (genus of Pacific salmon),

19, 66, 67, 343
Omjchodactylus fischeri (Ussuri sala-
mander), 66
Ophiocephalus (snakehead), 66
Ophisaurus apus (glass snake), 260
Oreoleuciscus (osman, a Mongolian cy-

prinid), 284
Oriole ( Oriolus )

golden (O. oriolus), 88

Indian golden (O. kundoo), 163

Siberian golden (O. indicus), 66
Oriolus (oriole)

O. indicus (Siberian golden oriole), 66

O. kundoo (Indian golden oriole), 163

O. oriolus (golden oriole), 88
Orthoptera, 189
Osman (Diptychus), 190
Osman {Oreoleuciscus), 284
Otis (bustard)

O. macqueeni ( Macqueen's bustard ) ,
159, 161

O. tarda (great bustard), 107

O. tarda dybowskii (Siberian bustard),
64, 296, 310

O.tetrax (little bustard), 107
Otocolobus Tnanul [Felis manul] (manul

cat), 188, 191
Otocoris (homed lark)

O. alpestris ( alpine or arctic homed
lark), 21, 190

O. alpestris flava, 310
Otter, sea (Enhydra lutris), 344
Ovis (mountain sheep)

O. ammon, 261, 283

O. nivicola, 316, 342

O.orientalis, 159, 189

O. orientalis cycloceras, 191

O.polii, 189, 190

O. vignei, 187, 189, 261
Owl

hawk (Surnia ulula tianschanica) , 188

snowy {Nyctea nyctea), 18, 19, 20,
297

Ural, 297
Ox (Bos), 261

domestic, 88

wild (B. primigenius) , 88

Pachytylus nigrofasciatus (striped lo-
cust), 108
Pagophila eburnea (ivory gull), 347

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Palaemonidae, 66

Panurus biarmicus (bearded tit), 123
Paradipus ctenodactylus (bmsh-toed jer-
boa), 160
Parandra caspia (longicorn beetle), 201
Partridge

bearded {Perdix daurica [P. barbata]),

187, 284, 296, 298
European (P. perdix), 107, 187, 284
rock {Caccabis chukar, or Alectoris

graeca), 160, 188, 189, 191, 259
seesee {Ammoperdix griseogularis),
191
Passerines, 48, 273
Pelican, 107

Pelodytes caucasicus (toad), 222
Perca (perch)

P.fiuviatilis (common perch), 163
P.schrenki (Balkhash perch), 163
Perch ( Perca )

Balkhash (P. schrenki), 163
common (P. ftuviatilis) , 163
Perdix (partridge)

P. barbata (Isearded partridge), 187,

284, 296
P. daurica [P. barbata] (bearded par-
tridge), 187, 284, 296
P. perdix (European partridge), 107,
187, 284
Perisoreus infaustus (Siberian jay), 48,

284
Petronia petronia mongolica (Mongolian

rock sparrow), 284
Phalacrocorax carbo (European cormo-
rant), 123
Phalangid, 162
Phalarope, 20
Phasianus (pheasant)

P.colchicus, 123, 198, 201, 237
P. torquatus alpherakii ( ringnecked
pheasant), 66
Pheasant, 123, 142, 162, 198, 201, 229,
234
Altay snow (Tetraogallus altaicus),

283, 297
Caspian snow (T. caspius), 191
Himalayan snow (T. himalayensis) ,

189
Pliasianus colchicus, 237
ringnecked (P. torquatus alpherakii),

66
snow (Tetraogallus), 189
snow (T. caucasicus), 227, 234
Tibetan snow (T. tibetanus), 190
Phoca (seal)

P.caspica (Caspian seal), 124

P. hispida ( arctic ringed seal ) , 302

P.hispida ladogensis (ringed seal), 49

INDEX OF ANIMALS

P.Hibirica (Baikal hair sfsal, f)r ncrpa),
302
Phodopuf! songorus ( Dzhungarian liam-

ster), 296
Phoenicopterus roseus (flamingo), 237
Phoxinus phoxinus (a minnow), 260
Phrijnocephalus (toadhead), 160
P. caudivolvolus, 108
P. helioscopus, 235

P. interscapularis (sand toadhead), 160
P.mystaceus (long-eared toadhead),
160
Phtjlloscopiis hnrealis (Eversmann's war-
bler), 273
Picoides tridactijlus (three-toed wood-
pecker), 48
P. tridactylus tianschanicus, 188
Picus viridis (green woodpecker), 88
Pigeon, 342

wood (Columba palumbus), 88, 191
Pika. See "Mouse hare"
Pike, 162

Amur (Esox reicherti), 334
Sakhalin, 334
Pike-perch, 162, 273
Pine dendrolimus {Dendrolimus pint),

49
Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator), 48,

188, 310
Pinicola enucleator (pine grosbeak), 48,

188, 310
Pipit, water (Anthus spinoletta blacki-

stoni), 190, 297
Platalea leucorodia (spoonbill), 107
Plattjpterna (sand locusts), 159
Plectrophenax nivalis (snow bunting),

19
Plegadis falcinellus (glossy ibis), 107,

162, 237
Plover

black-bellied (Squatarola squatarola),

19
golden {Pluvialis apricarius), 273
Mongolian (Aegialitis mongolus [Cha-
radrius mongolus]), 317
Pluvialis apricarius (golden plover), 273
Podoces panderi (Pander's chough-
thrush), 160
Polecat (Putorius)

European (Putorius eversnmnni), 107,

296
Trans-Baikal [Putorius eversmanni
michnoi), 283
Pohjsticta stelleri (Steller's eider), 19
Porcupine (Hystrix), 187, 201
Porphyrio poliocephalus (Indian galli-

mile), 123, 201
Porthetria monacha (nun moth), 49

413

Pntarrum (pntamnn) cdulls (fresh-water

crab), 260
Procapra gutturnsa (Mongolian seren),

283
Procerus scahrosus (carabid beetle), 260

P. scabrosus tauricus, 260
Prometheomys schaposchnikowi ( bur-
rowing vole), 227
Prunella (accentor)

P . atrogularis (black-throated accen-
tor), 272
P. collaris rufilata (alpine accentor),

190
P.montanella (mountain accentor),
272
PseudoscaphirhyncJius (shovelnosed stur-
geon), 163
Ptarmigan (Lagopus), 234
mountain, 231
mountain-tundra, 317
Nortli Ural tundra (L. mutus komen-

sis), 273
tundra (L. mutus), 19, 20, 297, 310,

317, 347
tundra (L. mutus rupestris), 284
willow (L. lagopus), 18, 19, 48, 261,
272, 284, 296
Ptarmigan subfamily, 237
Pterocles arenarius (sand grouse), 234
Pteromys volans (flying squirrel), 47,

297, 310
Putorius (polecat)

P. eversmanni (European polecat),

107, 296
P. eversmanni michnoi (Trans-Baikal
polecat), 283
Pyrrhocorax ( chough )

P. graculus (alpine chough), 190, 284
P. pyrrhocorax ( red-beaked chough ) ,
190, 261, 284
Pyrrhula pyrrhula (bullfinch), 48, 188,
224

Raccoon dog, 65
Rails, water, 342
Rallidae, 123
Rana (frog)

R.amurensis (Amur frog), 48, 334

R.arvalis (moor frog), 260

R.e^culenta (edible frog), 49, 66

R. macrocnemis, 221, 224

R. nigromacidata (black-spotted frog),
66

R.ridibunda (river frog), 221, 260

R.temporaria (grass frog), 48, 260
Rangifer (reindeer)

jR. angtistirostris [R. tarandus angus-
tirostris], 310

414

Rangifer (reindeer) (Continued)

R. tarandus (wild reindeer), 18, 296
R. tarandus angustirostris, 310
R. tarandus phijlarchus ( wild rein-
deer), 342
Ranodon sibiricus (Siberian newt), 190
Rat

Dahurian burrowing (Myospalax dij-

bowski), 310
mole (Ellobius talpinus), 161
Raven, desert {Corvus corax ruficollis),

160
Rechnoy rybets (Vimba vimba tenella),

198
Recurvirostra avocetta (avocet), 310
Reindeer (Rangifer), 17, 19, 47, 58, 261,
272, 283, 295, 297, 310, 334, 349
domestic, 17, 18
Okhotsk-Kamchatka, 334
wdld (R. tarandus), 18, 296, 297
wild (R. tarandus phylarchus), 342
Rhinoceros, woolly (Rhinoceros tich-

orhinus), 12, 261
Rhinoceros tichorhinus (woolly rhinoc-
eros), 261
Rhizotrogus (chafer), 161
Rhodostethia rosea (Rosa's gull), 19
Rhombomys opimus (large jerboa), 159
Rhytina steUeri [Hydrodamalis stelleri]

(Steller's sea cow), 344
Rissa tridactyla (kittiwake), 347, 349
Roach, 273

Robin (Erithactts rubecula), 88
Roebuck (Capreolus), 47, 58, 65, 87, 88,
105, 106, 107, 223, 224, 231, 240,
259, 272, 296, 297, 310
European (C. capreolus), 106, 221
Siberian (C. pygargus), 106, 188, 221
Siberian (C. pygargus tianschanicus) ,
187
Roller, 59

Rosalia alpina (longicom beetle), 260
Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica (Cauca-
sian chamois), 227

Sable, 47, 65, 272, 283, 297, 310, 327,

328, 334, 342
Saiga (Saiga antelope)

S. saiga [S. tatarica], 106, 160, 261
S.tatarica, 106, 160, 261
Salamander

Caucasian (Salamandra caucasica),

222
Siberian four-toed (Hynobius keyser-

lingi), 273, 343
Ussuri (Onychodactylus fischeri), 66
Salamandra caucasica (Caucasian sala-
mander), 222

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Salmo (salmon, trout), 343

S.ischchmi (Gokcha trout), 234
S.salar (Atlantic salmon), 18, 273
S.trutta aralensis (Aral brown trout),

162
S.trutta caspius (Caspian brown
trout), 273
Salmon

Atlantic (Salmo solar), 18, 273

Caspian, 124

king, 343

Pacific (Oncorhynchus), 19

pink (Oncorhynchus sp.), 19, 66, 334,

343
red, 343
silver, 343

true (Salmo), 273, 343
Salmonids, 18, 273, 284, 343
anadromous, 343
Pacific, 67
Salvelinus (charr), 19
"Sand burrower" (Thinorycter), 161
Sand-grouse family, 190
Satyrus euxinus (sat^rid butterfly), 260
Saxicava arctica (a mollusk), 11
Saxicola insignis (wheatear), 284
Scapteira (burrowing lizard), 161
Schizopygopsis (a cyprinid genus), 191
Schizothorax (Old World minnow), 162,

190, 191
Scirtopoda telum (three-toed sand jer-
boa), 107
Sciuropterus russicus (flying squirrel), 47
Sciurus vulgaris (tree squirrel), 224

342
Scolopendra cingulata (centipede), 260
Scorpion (Euscorpius)

Crimean (E. tauricus), 260
Mediterranean (£. italicus), 198
Mingrelian (E. mingrelicus) , 198
Scotocerca inquieta platyura (Trans-
Caspian scrub warbler), 160
Sculpin, four-homed ( Myoxocephalus

quadricornis), 29
Scutigera coleoptrata (chilopod), 260
Sea cow, Steller's (Rhytina stelleri [Hy-

drodamalis stelleri]), 344
Sea lion, Steller's (Eumetopias jubatus),

344
Sea urchins, 97
Seal, 343, 347

arctic ringed (Phoca hispida), 302
Baikal hair (P. sihirica), 302
bearded [Erignathus barbatus barba-

tus?], 347
Caspian hair (Phoca caspica), 124,

302
eared, 344

INDEX OF ANIMALS

northern fur (Arctoceplialus ursimis

[(Jallorhinus tir.vi/iuvj ), 344
ringed (Phoca hi.spida ladngc.nsis) , 49
Selenarctos tibeianus ussuricus (Jliniala-

yaii black bear), 327
Seren, Mongolian (Gazella gutturosa

[G. (Procapra) gutturosa]), 283
Serin, mountain (Serinus pusillus), 188
Serinus pusillus (mountain serin), 188
Sheep, 154, 156, 189, 256, 261

mountain (Ovis) 159, 187, 189, 190,

191, 261, 283, 310, 316, 342

Sheldrake, ruddy (Tadorna ferruginea

[Casarca ferruginea] ), 107, 296, 310

Shemaya [Chalcalhurnus chalcoides], 198

Ship (sturgeon, Acipenser nudiventris),

162
Shore birds, 107, 201, 310, 342
Shrike, desert great gray (Lanius ex-

cubitor pallid irostris), 160
Shrimp, 66
Sicista (birch mouse)
S. betulina montana, 310
S. montana [S. betulina montana], 310
Sig (Coregonus lavaretus), 273, 284
Sika nippon (Japanese deer), 65, 327
Silurids, Chinese, 66
Siskin {Spinus spinus), 259
Sisorid, 190
Skafirinkh (shovelnosed sturgeon, Pseudo-

scaphirhynchus) , 163
Skink, long-legged gold (Eumeces

schneideri) , 235
Slowworm (Anguis fragilis), 260
Snake, 237

European whip (Coluber jugtdaris),

108
European whip (C. jugularis caspius),

260
four-striped (Elaphe quatuorlineata

sauromates), 108
glass (Ophisaurus apus), 260
leopard (Elaphe situla), 260
smooth (Coronella austriaca), 260
Snakehead (Ophiocephalus), 66
Snipe (Capella)

pin-tailed (C. stenura), 273, 284, 298
solitary (C. solitaria), 284, 298
Swinhoe's (C. megala), 284, 298
Solpugid, 260

Galeodes araneoides, 108
Somateria (eider duck)

S. spectabilis (king eider), 19
S.stelleri [Polysticta stelleri] (Stel-
ler's eider), 19
Spalax (mole rat)

S. microphthalmus, 107

S.monticola (mountain mole rat), 234

415

Sparrow, 163

Mongolian rock ( Petronia petrouia
viofigolica ) , 284
Spermophilopsis leptodactylus ( loug-

toed sand suslik), 159
Spinus spinus (siskin), 259 .
Sponge (Luhomirskiidae), 303
Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), 107
Squatarola squatarola (black-bellied

plover), 19
Squirrel, 47, 58, 65, 87, 259, 272, 297,
310, 317, 334
flying (Pterornys volans or Sciurop-
terus russicus), Al, Til, %fl, 310,
334
ground (suslik), 21
tree (Sciurus vulgaris), 224, 342
Stariing, 342

Crimean (Sturnus vulgaris purpura-
scens), 259
Stenodus (whitefish), 18

S.leucichthys (Siberian whitefish),

124, 273
S.leucichthys nelma (nelma), 18, 124,
273
Sternodes caspia (darkling beetle), 161
Stilt, black-winged, 107
Stoat (Mustela erminea ferghanae), 188
Stork

Ciconia ciconia, 163
white, 67
Strela-zmeya (Taphrometopon lineola-

tum), 161
Streptopelia (turtle dove)

S.orientalis meena (Asiatic turtle

dove), 188
S. senegalensis ermani ( Senegalese tur-
tle dove), 163
S. turtur, 88
Sturgeon, 162

Amur (Acipenser schrencki), 66
beluga (A. huso), 66, 67
long-snouted (Huso dauricus), 66
ship (Acipenser nudiventris), 162
sho\'elnosed ( Pseudoscaphirhunchus ) ,
162
Sturnus vulgaris purpurascens (Crimean

starling), 259
Stylopyga orientalis spontanea [Blatta ori-

entalis] (oriental cockroach), 260
Surnia ulula tianschanica (hawk owl),

188
Sus scrofa attila (Transvlvanian \vild

boar), 106, 221, 224 '
Suslik (Citellus, Spennophilopsis) , 64,
87, 106, 159, 161, 189, 261, 283,
310, 317, 339
Asia Minor (C. xanthoprymnus) , 234

416

Suslik (Continued)

gray (C. pygmaeus brauneri), 107
Kamchatka (C. eversmanni stejnegeri),

342
Kolyma (C, eversmanni buxtoni), 21,

316
long-toed sand (S. leptodactylus) , 159
Mugodzhar (C. pygmaeus mugosari-

cus), 159
reddish, 124
rehct (C. relictus), 189
sand, 123

small (C. pygmaeus), 100, 123
small (C. pygmaeus musicus), 227
spotted (C. suslicus guttatus), 89, 106,

107, 124
Yakutsk (C. eversmanni jacutemis), 35,

64
yellow (C. /uZuus), 123, 159
Swan, 18, 201

Bewick's (Cygnus bewicki), 19
Swift, needle-tailed {Chaetura caudacuta),
298
Siberian (Apus pacificus), 298
Sylvia nana (desert warbler), 160
Syndesmia ovata (a Mediterranean mol-

lusk), 97
Syrrhaptes tibetanus (Tibetan sand
grouse), 190

Tadorna

T. ferruginea [Casarca ferruginea]
(ruddy sheldrake), 107, 296, 310
T. tadorna (sheld duck), 107, 296, 310
Taphrometopon lineolatum ( "arrow-
snake," strela-zmeya) , 161
Tarpan (Equus gmelini), 87, 88, 105,

106, 107
Tarsiger cyanurus (bluetail), 273
Tattler, Polynesian (Heteractites incana
brevipes [Heteroscelus brevipes]),
310, 317
Tchitrea paradisea turkestanica (Indian

paradise flycatcher), 163, 188
Telphusa jiuviatilis [Potamon (potamon)

edulis] (a fresh- water crab), 260
Tenebrionidae (family of darkling bee-
tles), 161
Teratoscincus scincus (fringe-toed gecko),

160
Termites, 162

Hodotermes turkestanicus, 191
Testudo (tortoise)

T.horsfieldi, 160, 161
T.ibera, 108
Tetrao ( capercaillie )
T. parvirostris, 48, 317

INDEX OF ANIMALS

T. urogallus ( common capercaillie), 48,

272
T. urogallus uralensis (Ural capercail-
lie), 272
Tetraogallus (snow pheasant), 189

T. altaicus ( Altay snow pheasant), 283,

297
T. caspius ( Caspian snow pheasant ) ,

191, 234
T. caucasicus, 227

T. himalayensis (Himalayan snow pheas-
ant), 189
T. tibetanus (Tibetan snow pheasant),
190
Tetrastes bonasia (hazel grouse), 48, 317
Thinorycter ("sand burrower"), 161
Thos aureus (jackal), 162, 221
Thrush, 48

black-throated ( Turdus atrogularis ) ,

273, 284, 298
Himalayan blue (Myophonus coeru-

leus temmincki), 188
redheaded, 284

red-throated (Turdus ruficollis), 298
rock (Monticola saxatilis), 108
rock (M. saxatilis turkestanica), 310
Thrush family, 188, 273
Thymallus arcticus (Arctic grayling), 284
Tiger, 12, 158, 201
Manchurian, 65

Turkestan (Felis tigris virgata), 162
Tit, 162, 188, 297
azure, 59, 259

bearded (Panurus biarmicus), 123
coal, 297
Toad, 221

Bombinator, 66, 260
common gray (Bufo bufo), 48
green, 260

Pelodytes caucasicus, 222
Toadhead (Phrynocephalus), 108, 160,
161, 235
long-eared (P. mystaceus), 160
sand (P. interscapularis) , 160
Torix baicalensis (leech), 303
Tortoise (Testudo), 108, 160, 161, 237

desert (T. horsfieldi), 161
Tree frog (Hyla), 66, 224, 260
Asiatic (H. stepheni), 310
European, 66
Triturus vittatus ophryticus (Caucasian

striped newt), 222
Trout, 190

Aral brown (Salmo trutta aralensis),

162
brown (Hucho taimen), 273, 284
Caspian brown (Salmo trutta caspius),
273

INDEX OF ANIMALS

Gokcha (S. ischchan), 234
lenok ( Brachijmy.stax lenok), 284
river, 260
Tur (Caucasian ibex), 227
Turcmenigenia (saxaul longicom beetle),

161
Turdus (thrush)

T. atrogularvi ( black-throated thrush ) ,

273, 298
T.ruficnllis (red-throated thrush), 298
Turtle, Chinese soft-shelled (Amyda si-
nensis), 66

Ungulates, 297

Unio (fresh-water pearl mussel), 67

Uragus sibiricus (Siberian rose finch),

188
Uria lomvia (Briinnich's murre), 347,

349
Ursus (bear)

U.arctos (brown bear), 221, 261
U.arctos isabellinus (Tian Shan bear),

189
17. arctos leuconyx [U. arctos isabel-
linus] (Tian Shan bear), 189
U.arctos syriacus (Syrian bear), 191
U.spelaeus (cave bear), 261
Uskuch (lenok trout, Brachijmystax lenok),
284

Varanus griseus (giant desert monitor

lizard), 161
Varicorhinus sieboldi (khramulya), 198
Vimba vimba tenella (rechnoy rybets),

198
Viper

bluntnosed (Vipera lebetina), 191
carpet (Echis carinata), 159, 161
common (Vipera berus), 48
red (V. kaznakovi), 221
steppe (V. renardi), 108
Vipera (viper)

V. berus (common viper), 48
V. kaznakovi (red viper), 221
V. lebetina (bluntnosed viper), 191
V. renardi (steppe viper), 108
Vole

burrowing (Prometheomys scJiaposchni-

kowi), 227
mountain (Arvicola lemmina [Aschi-

zomys lemminus] ), 317
short-tailed steppe (Lagurus lagurus),
107, 296
Vulpes (fox)

417

V.cnrsak (corsac fox), 123, 261
V.iyulpes (cf)mmon fox), 261
V. vulpes kurdistanica, 234
Vulture, griffon (Gyps fulvus hilamayen-
sis), 190

Walrus, 347
Warbler

desert (Sylvia nana), 160
Eversmann's (Phylloscopus horealis),

273
icterine, 59

Leptopoecile sophiae, 188
Trans-Caspian scrub (Scotocerca in-

quieta platyura), 160
willow ( Acanthopneuste borealis), 297
Waxwing, 297

Bombi/cilla garrulus, 48
Weasel, 296

Crimean (Mustela nivalis nikohkii),

259
Turkestan (Arctogale nivalis pallida
[Mustela nivalis nivalis]), 188
Webworm, beet (Loxostege sticticalis) ,

108
Wheatear

desert (Oenanthe deserti), 160, 190,

191
Saxicola insignis, 284
Whitefish, 18, 66

Baikal (Coregonus autumnalis migra-

torius), 303
Caspian-Volgan, 18
Siberian (Stenodus leucichthys) , 124,
273
Wildcat, Amur, 65

Wolf, 19, 58, 187, 189, 259, 261, 296,
297, 310, 334
white, 18
Woodpecker, 259, 297

black (Dryocopus martins), 224
green (Picus viridis), 59, 88
pied, 343
three-toed, 343

tliree-toed (Picoides tridactylus), 48
tliree-toed (P. tridactylus tianschani-
cus), 188
Worms, 303
WrjTieck, 59

Yak, 190

Zebu, 201

General Index

Abakan range, 290

Abakan River, 276, 283, 287, 288, 290,
291, 294

Bolshoy, 287
Abkhaziya, 205, 208, 217, 218, 219, 220,

257
Achinsk, 30
Achinsk raion, 68
Adler, 196

Admiralteistva Peninsula, 10
Adzhar-Akhaltsykh range, 232
Adzhariya, 218, 219, 220
Adzharo-Akhaltsykhsk range, 208
Afghanistan, 140, 165, 166, 191
Africa, 159, 161, 197, 237
Agaimany pod, 96, 107
Agarmysh, Mount, 241
Agri-Dagh range, 232
Ai-Petri, 242, 247, 248, 254, 255, 260
Aiya, Cape, 253
Akademii Nauk (Academy of Sciences)

range, 166
Akatuy, 305

Akchagyl, 116, 118, 166, 207, 237
Akhtuba, 112, 114
AkmoHnsk, 90, 91
Aktam channel, 140
Ak-Tau, 165

Alagez volcanic massif, 232, 233, 234
Alaska, 11, 21, 310, 314, 335
Ala-Tau

Dzhungarian, 164, 169, 170, 175, 176,
179, 180, 182, 183, 188, 190

Kungei-, 164, 170, 183

Kuznetsk, 222, 276, 280, 284-286, 289,
290

Talas, 164, 179, 180, 182, 183, 188

Terskei-, 164, 170, 174, 183

Trans-Ili, 126, 144, 164, 181, 182, 183
Alay range, 164, 179, 180, 183
Alay River, 168, 173, 182, 190
Alazan River, 204, 211, 235
Albazin, 60, 63
Aldan range, 311

Aldan River, 31, 32, 33, 312, 313, 319
Aleksandra Land, 345
Aleksandrovsk, 330, 331
Aleksandrovsk range, 144, 164, 178, 182
418

Aleshki, 104

Aleutian Islands, 24, 343

Allaverdy copper bed, 232

Alma River, 249

Alma-Ata, 172, 181

Alps, 20, 86, 169, 170, 173, 176, 183,

194, 205, 206, 227, 281
Altaiskaya stanitsa, 279
Altay Mountain zone, 1, 274-286

Climate, 278-279

Fauna, 283-284

Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, 284-286

Relief, 274-278

Soils, 279-280

Vegetation, 280-283
Altay Mountains, 13, 20, 68, 95, 179,
189, 272, 287, 289, 309

Central, 278

East, 274, 275, 278

Inner, 274

Mongolian, 274

Rudnv (Ore), 276,278

Russian, 274, 278

Soutli (Great), 274, 275, 278
Alupka, 242, 249
Alushta, 242, 244, 249, 253
Amderma, 7, 10
America, 13, 17, 21

Nortli, 11, 20, 39, 163, 196, 197, 222,
304, 335, 343

tropical, 66
Amu-Darya basin, 190
Amu-Darya River, 125, 126, 129, 130,
132, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144,
158, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 169,
178
Amur basin, 60, 66, 67, 300, 317, 318-
327, 334, 343

Climate, 321

Fauna, 327

Relief, 3ia-321

Soils, 321-322

Vegetation, 322-327
Amur Bay, 320
Amur estuary, 331, 333
Amur kray, 67
Amur Lowland, 62, 63
Amur oblast, 321

GENERAL INDEX

Amur region, 63, 64

Amur RiVer, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 163, 299,

303, 318, 320, 322, 324, 326, 328,

342
Ana River, 294
Anabar River, 32, 33
Anadyr kraij, 316, 317, 335
Anadyr range, 314, 316
Anadyr River, 4, 15, 19, 314, 316
Ananur, 207
Ananyev, 68

Anapa, 202, 213, 218, 244, 261
Ancylus, Lake, 51
Andiisk Koi-Su, 228
Andiisk range, 228
Andizhan, 174, 175
Andizhan raion, 175
Angara River, 31, 32, 291, 306
Angara series, 32
Apennines, 227
Apsheron, 116

Apsheron Peninsula, 237, 238
Aragva River, 207
Araks River, 125, 199, 232, 234, 235,

236, 237, 239
Aral basin, 139, 140
Aral fauna, 162
Aral Kara-Kum, 150
Aral region, 135
Aral Sea, 31, 111, 119, 125, 127, 132,

133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141,

158, 159, 162, 163, 171, 232
Aralo-Caspian Lowland, 135
Aralo-Caspian Sea, 135
Aralykh, 234
Ararat, 232, 234
Archangel, 8
Archeda River, 104

Arctic, mountains of the, 1, 3, 345-350
Franz Josef Land, 345-347
Northern Novaya Zemlya, 348-349
Sevemaya Zemlya ( North Land ) , 349-

350
Arctic Circle, 4, 10, 268, 315
Arctic Ocean, 4, 6, 9, 10, 24, 30, 32, 127,

266, 299, 311, 314, 318
Arctic seas, 49

Arctic zone, 3, 7, 8, 10, 20, 21
Ardon River, 205
Argazi, Lake, 265
Argun basin, 318
Argun River, 307, 322
Argut River, 274, 275, 277, 283
Arkhipo-Osipovka, 254
Armenia, 234

Armenian Plateau, 193, 194
Armenian Plateau and dry regions of the

eastern Transcaucasus, 232-239

419

Arsiansk range, 232

Arslanbob. J 80

Artinsk, 264

Arys, 157

Arys station, 156

Ashkhabad, 171

Ashkhabad raion, 184

Asia Minor, 58, 191, 198, 218, 220, 227,

254, 259, 260, 261
Askaniya-Nova (Ghapli) preserve, 96,

100, 107
Askold Island, 320
Astara River, 198
Astrabad, 201

Astrakhan, 112, 114, 116, 122
Astrakhan layer, 116
Astrakhan preserve, 123
Atashkya, 237
Atelsk, 116

Atlantic Ocean, 24, 69, 230
Atrek River, 132, 237
Avacha volcano, 335, 336, 338
Avarsk Koi-Su River, 230, 231
Ayan, 321
Ayem River, 76
Ayu-Dagh, 242, 246
Azov, Sea of, 74, 91, 92, 93, 96, 99, 103,

113, 242, 243
Azov crystalline massifs, 92, 93, 96
Azov heights, 87

Baba-Dagh, 204

Baba-Khodzha solonchak, 134, 140

Babugan, 256

Babugan-Yaila, 242, 249, 255, 257

Badkhyz country, 166

Baidar "gate," 242

Baikal, Lake, 1, 49, 69, 115, 287, 291,

299-310, 319
Baikal, Lake, and the Trans-Baikal re-
gion, 299-310

Climate, 304-306

Fauna, 310

Relief, 299-304

Vegetation, 306-310
Baikal basin, 300, 301
Bairam-Ali, 130

Bakhchisarav, 241, 243, 253, 254, 258
Bak-u, 208, 238
Baku deposits, 116, 237
Baku Lake, 97
Balakhany oil field, 237
Balaklava, 241
Balaklava Bay, 241
Balkan Peninsula, 87, 212, 259, 260, 261,

303, 322
Balkariya, 223, 227

420

Balkhan Mountains

Great, 133, 140, 164, 165, 191

Little, 133, 164
Balkhan Bay, 133, 140, 165
Balkhash, Lake, 95, 111, 125, 132, 135,

136, 142, 162, 163
Balkhash area, 142, 153, 190
Balkhash sands, 150, 152
Balta, 73, 81

Baltic Sea, 29, 30, 49, 51, 54, 329
Baltiisky Port, 50
Baraba steppe, 73, 77
Barents Sea, 8, 346
Barguzin, 304
Barguzin basin, 307
Barguzin River, 304, 306
Barguzinsk Mountains, 301
Barkalovka, 86
Barlyk range, 132
Barnaul, 68, 279
Barsuki, 150

Bolshie, 111, 135

Malie, 135
Bartang River, 167
Bas-Bukhtamiinsk Glacier, 278
Bashkaus River, 275
Bashkir Republic, 270
Baskunchak, 112
Baskunchak, Lake, 114, 117, 123
Batalpashinsk, 209
Bateni range, 290
Bateni village, 290
Batum, 192, 193, 208, 214, 215, 216, 217,

221
Batyr, Lake, 132
Baum Gorge, 170
Bayan-Aul granite massif, 91, 95
Bazaletsk Plateau, 207
Bazar-Dyuzi, 203, 204, 228
Belaya Aragva River, 205, 207
Belaya basin, 295
Belaya River, 22, 76, 204, 222, 264, 265,

272
Belaya volcano, 335
Belbek, 243
Belbek River, 243
Belebey, 69, 76
Belebey heights, 76
Beletsk steppe, 68
Belmakh-mogila, 93
Belokansk Gorge, 225
Belokurikhinsk hot springs, 277
Beloye, Lake, 35
Baluchistan, 160
Belukha, Mount, 274, 278
Bennett Island, 345, 350
Berdyansk, 93
Berelsk Glacier, 278

GENERAL INDEX

Berezina River, 50

Berezov, 26, 41

Bering Island, 343, 344

Bering Sea, 305, 335, 336,. 338

Bering Sea region, 21

Bering Strait, 11, 318

Bermamyt, Mount, 204

Beshtau, 208

Bessarabia, 54, 68, 69, 80, 96

Bet-Pak-Dala, 125, 149, 150

Bet-Pak-Dala Plateau, 136, 141

Bezhetsk, 23

Bibi-eibat oil field, 237

Bidzhan River, 63

Biisk, 277

Binagady oil field, 237

Bira River, 63

Birobidzhan, 323

Birsk, 22

Biryuchya spit, 114

Biryusa River, 291

Biser, 267

Bityug, 88

Biya, 68

Biya steppe, 274

Black forest, 81

Black Irt>'sh River, 274

Black Sea, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 109, 113,

115, 116, 193, 194, 202, 214, 232,

242, 243, 245
Quaternary history of the, 96
Black Sea coast, 5, 91, 96, 192, 198, 205,

215, 216
Black Sea depression, 97
Black Sea fauna, 97
Black Sea Lowland, 73
Black Sea plain, 96
Black Sea region, 90
Black Sea steppes, 96, 261, 262
Blagoveshchensk, 26, 60, 61, 63, 64, 318
Bobrov, 106
Boguchar, 92, 98
Bolen-Odzhal, Lake, 62
Bolsheretsk, 339
Bolsheretsk raion, 341
Bolshezemelskaya tundra, 9, 18, 39
Bolshoy Abakan River, 287
Bolshoy Anyuy River, 314, 316
Bolshoy Liman (Lake), 113
Bolshoy Lyakhovskv Island, 12
Bolshoy rapids, 287, 289
Bolshoy Yugan River, 30
Bolshoye Bogdo hill, 117
Borisoglebsk, 68
Borisov, 52
Borovoy, Lake, 83
Borshchovochny range, 300
Borzhom, 224, 232

GENERAL INDEX

Borzna, 75
Bothnia, Gulf of, 28
Botogol, Mount, 293
Boya-Dagh, 134
Boz-Dagh, 237

Broad-leaved forests of the Far East, 60-
67

Boundaries, 60

Climate, 60-62

Fauna, 65-67

General characteristics, 60

Relief, 62-63

Soils, 63

Vegetation, 63-65
Bug River, 96, 104

Southern, 73
Buiba, 293
Bukan-Tau, 141
Bukhtarma basin, 279
Bukhtarma glacier, 278
Bukhtarma River, 274, 278, 280
Bulgaria, 197
Bureya range (Little Khingan), 320, 322,

323, 324, 327
Bureya River, 62, 64, 320, 322
Burin-Khan hills, 308
Buryats, 304

Buzuluk pine woods, 68, 82
Bykhov, 54
Byrranga range, 3, 11
Bzyb range, 204, 221
Bzyb River, 204, 205

Cairo, 131

Caledonian, 95, 206, 276, 285, 289, 292,
301

Cambrian, 32, 33, 50, 51, 265, 276, 284,
292, 301, 350

Cambrian-Silurian, 276

Carboniferous, 33, 76, 96, 264, 266, 290,
321

Carpathians, 73, 259

Caspian deposits, 117, 120, 228, 237

Caspian depression, 97

Caspian fauna, 97, 117, 124, 162

Caspian Lowland, 113, 114, 115, 117,
118, 120, 228

Caspian mountain system, 164, 165

Caspian Sea, 49, 97, 111, 112, 113, 114,
115, 116, 117, 124, 132, 133, 134,
135, 139, 140, 163, 165, 166, 197,
198, 199, 201, 202, 228, 232, 237,
238, 239, 273, 303; lowland which
adjoins the, 125; Quaternary history
of the, 97, 116

Caspian transgression, 115, 116

Caucasian preserve, 222

Caucasus, 1, 5, 47, 48, 54, 58, 60, 67, 87,

421

94, 163, 181, 190, 191, 103, 194,
244, 250, 254, 259, 280
Caucasus, mountains of the, 202-240

Armenian Plateau and dry regions of
the eastern Transcaucasus, 232-2-39

Daghestan, 228-231

Glavny ( Main ) range of the Caucasus,
202-227

Mountain Talysh, 239-240

Relief, 202

Subdivisions, 202
Caucasus range, 202, 206, 209, 211, 214,

222, 225, 228
Cenozoic, 166
Central Asia, 129, 142, 143, 159, 160,

163, 170, 279, 304, 305
Central Asia, Mountains of Soviet, 164-
191

Climate, 171-174

Fauna, 187-191

Relief, 164-171

Soil belts, 17.5-176

Vegetation belts, 176-187
Central Chernozem region, 84
Central Russian heights, 74
Central Siberian Plateau, 4, 11, 31, 32,

33, 301, 350
Chakva, 215
Chalkar, Lake, 135
Chanov, 68
Chany, Lake, 77
Chapchal Pass, 275
Chapchal peak, 275
Chapli preserve, 96, 100, 107
Chardzhuy, 131, 137
Charyshla, 139
Chatkal range, 164, 182, 183
Chatyr-Dagh Plateau, 242, 251, 255, 256
Chaudinsk lake, 97
Cheboksary, 58
Chechen area, 223
Chegan basin, 132
Cheleken Island, 133, 134
Chelkar, 111
Chelkar, Lake, 135
Chelyabinsk, 265
Chelyuskin, Cape, 11, 349, 350
Chernigov, 74
Chernigov oblast, 53, 72
Chernigov region, 87
Chemy (Black) forest, 81
Chemy range, 204
Chemy Yar, 114

Chersky range, 311, 313, 314, 315, 318
Cheshs'kaya Bay, 9
Chiaturi manganese bed, 208
Chiili, 153
Chikhachev range, 275

422

Chikishlyar, 133, 134

Chikoy River, 307

Chilmamet-Kum sands, 165

Chimgan, 181

Chimkent raion, 175

China, 66, 132, 136, 197, 275, 303, 325,

327, 334
Chingiz range, 91
Chingiz-Tau, 95
Chirchik River, 172
Chita, 300
Chita River, 299
Choloku River, 195
Chu River, 95, 136, 141, 142, 144, 158,

170
Chu-IH Mountains, 164
Chukotsk National okrug, 12, 314, 316;

mountains of the, 311
Chukotsk Peninsula, 316
Chukotsk-Anadyr mountains, 3
Chulyshman Plateau, 283
Chulyshman River, 275, 283
Chusovaya River, 264
Chuya belki, 274, 276, 277, 278, 282,

283
Chuya River, 275, 280, 283, 284
Chuya steppe, 277, 279, 280, 283, 284
Colchian Lowland ( Kolkhidskaya Low^-
land), 192-198, 214, 216, 217

Boundaries, 192

Climate, 192-195

Fauna, 198

Soils, 195

Vegetation, 195-197
Colchis, 198, 199, 200, 214
Commander Islands, 343-344
Constantinople, 218

Cretaceous, 30, 73, 117, 118, 165, 206,
207, 243, 244, 258, 261, 329, 330
Crete, 197

Crimea, 1, 48, 54, 60, 87, 93, 103, 106,
115, 213, 214, 217, 218, 225, 229,
239, 310; mountains of the, 93, 106
Crimea, mountain, 241-262

Climate, 244-249

Drainage, 249

Fauna, 259

Relief, 241-244

Soils, 250-251

Vegetation, 251-259
Crimean forest preserve, 250
Crimean game preserve, 249, 257, 259

Daghestan, 204, 205, 228-231
Dardanelles strait, 97
Darvaza, 180
Darvaza range, 164, 168
Daryal, Gorge of, 207

GENERAL INDEX

Dashkesan village, 232

Debaltsevo, 76

DeCastries Bay, 320

Demerdzhi, 247

Demerdzhi-Yaila Plateau, 242, 255

Derbent, 230

Desert zone, 1, 125-163

Boundaries and definition, 125

Climate, 126-132

Drainage, 144—145

Fauna, 159-163

Relief, 132-144

Soils, 145-148

Subdivisions, 125-126

Vegetation, 148-158
Desna River, 72
Devonian, 86, 94, 264, 266, 276, 285,

289, 290, 292
Dibrar basin, 240
Dmitrov raion, 52
Dnepropetrovsk, 74, 92, 104
Dnieper estuary, 93
Dnieper Lowland, 74
Dnieper rapids, 92

Dnieper River, 28, 52, 53, 54, 68, 70,
73, 74, 75, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 92,
93, 96, 98, 100, 103, 104, 106, 107,
108, 110
Dniester River, 73, 74, 96, 103, 106
Dobrudzha, 108, 244
Dolgorukovskaya, 247
Don River, 28, 72, 73, 74, 81, 86, 90,

92, 94, 103, 104, 108, 113, 114
Don sands, 105
Donets oblast, 99

Donets ridge, 54, 68, 70, 76, 81, 87
Donets River, Northern, 76
Dossor, 118
Dubovka, 90, 116
Duderhof Plateau, 51
Dudinka, 4, 33
Dushak mountain, 191
Dushet, 207
Dvina River

Northern, 8, 20

Western, 52
Dykh-Su Glacier, 204
Dykh-Tau, 203, 204
Dzhaman-Tau range, 119
Dzhany-Darya River, 141, 153
Dzhebash range, 288
Dzhebash River, 288
Dzhegonas, 209
Dzhida River, 307, 308
Dzhizak, 131, 143, 154
Dzhubga, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217
Dzhugdzhur (Aldan) range, 311
Dzhumgol range, 164

GENERAL INDEX

Dzhungarian Ala-Tau, 132, 144, 164,
169, 170, 175, 176, 179, 180, 182,
183, 188, 190

Dzhungarian Gates, 132

Dzhuvlu-Kul, Lake, 275

East Siberian Sea, 32

Ebi-Nor, Lake, 132, 136

Edelstein, Mount, 291

Elbrus, Mount, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,

223
Elburz Mountains, 165, 239
Elton (salt lake), 114, 117
Emba, 112
Emba Plateau, 118
Emba raion, 118
Emba River, 114, 117, 118, 120
Eoeene, 237, 243, 265
Epiisk, 289
Estonia, 50

Far East, mountains of the, 318-327, 362

Climate, 321

Fauna, 327

Relief, 318-321

Soils, 321-322

Vegetation, 322-327
Far East, 1, 23, 58, 181, 197, 285
Far East, broad-leaved forests of the,
60-67

Boundaries, 60

Climate, 60-62

Fauna, 65-67

General characteristics, 60

Relief, 62-63

Soils, 63

Vegetation, 63-65
Farab, 161
Fatezh, 75

Fedchenko Glacier, 166, 169
Feodosia, 241, 242, 244, 249, 253, 261
Fergana, 142, 176, 177, 178, 180, 189
Fergana Lowland, 143
Fergana range, 164, 175, 178, 179, 180,

181, 182
Fetkhus, Mount, 207
Finland, 23

Gulf of, 29, 47, 50, 51, 54, 61, 112,
127, 130, 246, 331
Fiolent, Cape, 241, 242, 243
Firyuza, 165
Fisht, 204, 227
Forest steppe zone, 1, 68-89

Climate, 69-70

Definition and boundaries, 68-69

Fauna, 87-89

Relief, 70-77

423

Soils, 77-80

Subdivisions, 69

Vegetation, 80-87
Forest zone, 2, 5, 13, 22-59, 70, 74

Boundaries, 22

Climate, 2.3-26, 49-50

Fauna, 47-49, 58-59

General characteristics, 22

Relief, 26-33, 50-53

Soils, 34-35, 53

Subdivisions, 23

Subzone of mixed forests, 49-59

Taiga subzone, 23-49

Vegetation, 3.5-47, 5.3-58
Foros, 241, 244, 246
Franz Josef Land, 345, .346, 347, 348,

3.50
Frisches Haff, 329

Gagry, 214, 216, 219

Gagry range, 204

Gaiduk sands, 113

Galichya hill, 86

Garin River, 64, 324

Garmychan range, 313

Gaudan, 171, 185

Geok-Tepe, 133, 166

Georgia, 208

Georgian Military Highway, 202, 206,
207, 223, 225

Gimarai-Khokh, 204

Gimrinsk range, 228

Gizhiga, 4

Gizhiga River, 4

Glavny (Main) range of the Caucasus,
202-227, 231, 234, 237
Relief, 202-208

Vertical zones, 209-227; Alpine zone,
226-227; Eastern Transcaucasus,
224-225; Forest steppe, 209-212;
Forest zone, 214; Mediterranean
belt, 212-214; North Caucasus Fore-
land, 222-224; Steppe, 209; Sub-
alpine zone, 225-226; Western
Transcaucasus, 214-222

Gokcha (Lake Sevan), 232

Golodnava Steppe, 125, 126, 127, 136,
141', 143, 154, 1.55, 156, 162

Golubinsk forest, 104, 108

Golygin village, 343

Gorbu range, 275, 284

Gori, 210

Gorky, 22, 23

Gradizhsk, 75

Great Borbalo peak, 204

Great Khurisar, 207

Greece, 254

Greenland, 11

424

Grozny, 90, 209

Gryazi, 86

Gryazovets, 52

Guberlinsk Mountains, 272

Gudaur, 225, 227

Gudilo (Lake), 113

Gudomakarsk Aragva River, 207

Gudoshaursk Aragva River, 207

Gunib, 230

Gunib Plateau, 230, 231

Gunt River, 173

Giinz, 75, 116

Giinz-Mindel, 116

Guriya, 195, 220

Gurovsk, 116

Guryev, 112

Gurzuf, 242, 247, 253, 254

Gusinoye, Lake, 308

Gydan range, 311, 314, 316

Himalayas, 164, 181, 190

Hindu Kush, 166

Hisar range, 164, 168, 172, 174

Hoffman's Glacier, 263

Hokkaido, 332

Hooker Island, 345, 347

Huronian, 206

Ichinsk volcano, 335

liktu, 277

Hi River, 136, 142, 144, 153, 158, 162

Ilkhi-Dagh, 202

Ilmen, Lake, 30, 45, 52, 54

Ilmen Lowland, 51

Iknen-Volkhovsk Lovt'land, 52

Ilovlya River, 94

Iman, 65

Iman River, 327

Imandra, Lake, 28

Imankara hills, 118

Imeretinsk range, 208

Inder, Lake, 117, 118

Inder hills, 117, 118

Inder uplift, 117

India, 161

Indigirka basin, 315

Indigirka River, 4, 5, 311, 312, 313, 314,

315
Ingoda River, 299, 300, 306
Ingul River, 68
Ingulets River, 92
Ingur basin, 205
Ingur River, 204
Inkerman, 242
Inylchek Glacier, 169
Inzer River, 265
lora River, 204, 235

GENERAL INDEX

Iran, 127, 132, 165, 191, 198, 239

Irbit, 22, 41

Iremel, 265, 271

Irena River, 23

Irgiz, 112

Irkeshtam, 172, 174

Irkut River, 291, 292, 294, 296

Irkutsk, 32

Irkutsk raion, 68-69

Irtyash, Lake, 265

Irtysh River, 10, 31, 68, 77, 90, 91, 95,

103, 276, 279
Black, 274
Isachovsky hill, 75
Isherim, Mount, 263, 264
Ishim, 22
Ishim Ri\'er, 22
Ishim steppe, 73, 95
Iskander-Kul, Lake, 174
Issyk-Kul, Lake, 158, 169, 170, 171, 172,

173, 174, 178, 181, 182, 184, 187,

190
Issyk-Kul basin, 174, 182
Itkul, Lake, 265
Ivanovo, 23
Ivanovsk mine, 267

Japan, 61, 65, 66, 67, 196, 197, 216, 222,
322, 325, 327, 329, 334, 342

Japan, Sea of, 320, 321

Jurassic, 30, 33, 117, 118, 165, 206,
230, 231, 242, 249, 258, 301, 312,
321

Kachkanar peak, 265
Kaidak, Gulf of, 165
Kakhetinsk range, 204
Kakhetiya, 211, 225
Kakhovka, 93, 104
Kaladagny, Lake, 201
Kala-i-vamar, 173
Kalaus River, 113
Kalbinsky range, 276
Kalmius River, 93
Kalmykov, 114
Kaluga, 22, 53

Kama River, 22, 24, 68, 76, 265, 273
Kamchatka, 1, 4, 26, 66, 314, 321, 322,
329, 335-344

Climate, 338-340

Commander Islands, 343-344

Fauna, 342-343

Relief, 335-338

Soils, 340

Vegetation, 340-342
Kamchatka River, 335, 336, 339, 340,
343

GENERAL INDEX

Kamenets-Podolsk, 74

Kamennik, 51

Kamenny Yar, 115

Kamyshevy range, 329

Kamyshin, 94, 103, 114, 116

Kan belki, 291, 297

Kan River, 31, 291

Kan "steppe," 277

Kanin, Cape, 7, 9

Kanin Kamen range, 9

Kanin Nos, 9

Kanin Peninsula, 4, 7, 9, 15, 17, 39

Kansk raion, 68

Kantigir River, 287, 288

Kara River, 10, 267

Kara Sea, 6, 11, 349

Karabakh Plateau, 232

Karabakh range, 232

Karabi, 247

Karabi-Yaila Plateau, 241, 242, 247, 251,

255
Kara-Bogaz-Gol Gulf, 133, 165
Karachev, 22
Kara-Dagh, 242, 251, 253
Karaganda, 96
Karagie, 132
Karakalinsk raion, 186
Kara-Kemir, 141
Kara-Koi-Su River, 230
Karakol, 172, 173, 174, 188
Kara-Kul, Lake, 167
Kara-Kum, 111, 125, 135, 136, 137, 138,
139, 140, 141, 143, 146, 152, 153,
158

Trans-Caspian, 125, 136, 137, 150,
151, 154

Turkmenian, 125, 159, 160
Kara-Kum Plateau, 137, 140
Karangatsk, 97
Karasubazar, 241, 251, 258
Karatal River, 142, 153, 158
Kara-Tau, 165, 179, 186

Mangyshlak, 165

Syr-Darya, 161, 164
Kara-Tau Mountains, 141, 142
Kara-Tau ridge, 165
Karategin range, 164
Karayazy, 235
Karayazy steppe, 235
Karelia, 28, 29, 39
Karelian Isthmus, 23, 29, 51
Karenga River, 299
Karkaralinsk, 95
Kars, 225

Kartalinsk range, 204
Kashira, 89
Kastel, 242
Katun basin, 274

425

Katun helki, 274, 276, 277, 278, 281

Katun River, 274, 277, 279, 280, 283

Kaufman, Mount, 168

Kazakh Folded Country {Kazakhskaya
skladchataya sirana), 30, 95, 119,
169

KazakJiskaya skladchataya strana (Ka-
zakh Folded Country), 30

Kazakhstan, 96, 103, 179

Kazalinsk, 126, 127

Kazan, 22, 58

Kazbek, 227

Kazbek, Mount, 203, 204, 206, 207

Kazyr River, 287, 288, 291

Kelif Uzboy River, 138, 140

Kemchik range, 288

Kemchik River, 287

Kemchik-Bom, 288

Kerch, 93

Kerch Peninsula, 93, 94

Kerki, 144

Kerzhents, 35

Khabarovsk, 62, 63

Khamar-Daban, 287, 308

Khanka, Lake, 63, 66, 327

Khanka Lowland, 63

Khantaika River, 4

Khan-Tengri, 169

Khan-Tengri range, 164

Kharkov, 69, 86, 304

Kharkov raion, 87

Khatanga basin, 17, 33

Khatanga Gulf, 12

Khatanga region, 12

Khatanga River, 4, 10, 11, 32

Khazarsk, 115, 116

Kheirabad, 171

Kherson, 106

Kherson Gubemiya, 100

Khersonese, 259

Khibin apatite reserves, 28

Khibin massifs, 28

Khilok River, 299, 300, 307

Khingan Mountains, Little, 62

Khodzhent, 127, 128, 143, 174

Kholzun range, 274

Khoper, 88

Khorol, 74, 75

Khorol River, 75

Khotinsk heights, 80

Khunzakh Plateau, 231

KhvalyTisk, 114, 115, 116, 117, 132

Kichkas village, 92

Kiev, 22, 74, 75, 304, 335

Kiityn massif, 275

Kiityn peak, 274

Kildin Island, 9

Kilyazi station, 202

426

Kimmeriisk, 94

Kinel River, 68

Kirey, Mount, 274

Kirovskoye, 330, 331

Kislovodsk, 204, 209, 230

Kitoy belki, 291, 292, 293

Kitskansk forest, 103

Kivach waterfall, 29

Kizil-Agach Bay, 199, 201

Kizil-Arvat, 133

Kizir River, 291, 292

Kizir-Kazyr raion, 291

Kizir-Kazyr range, 291, 292

Klin, 52

Klin raion, 52

Klin-Dmitrov ridge, 52

Klukhor Pass, 222

Klyuchevsk volcano, 336

Klyuchi village, 336, 339

Kobdo River, 274, 275

Kobi, 207, 225

Kobuleti, 192, 196

Kochak Bay, 165

Kodor range, 204

Kodor River, 192, 204, 205

Kodry, 96

Koibalsk steppe, 290

Koi-Kara hills, 118

Koi-Su rivers, 230

Kokchetav, 95

Kokchetav heights, 77, 82, 83, 88

Kokshal range, 164

Kola, 4, 5

Kola Inlet, 4, 8

Kola Peninsula, 3, 7, 8, 9, 15, 17, 28, 29,
39, 48

Kolguyev Island, 9

Kolkhidskaya Lowland (Colchian Low-
land), 192-198

Kolyma basin, 315

Kolyma Mountains, 311

Kolyma (Gydan) range, 311, 314, 316

Kolyma River, 5, 47, 313, 314, 316

Kolyma-Indigirka, kratj, 311

Kolyvan, 22, 41

Komarov, Mount, 320

Konotop, 54

Konstantinov Kamen, 263

Konzhakovsk Kamen, 264, 270

Kopet-Dagh, 126, 133, 137, 143, 163,
164, 165, 166, 171, 176, 178, 179.
184, 185, 186, 190, 191, 227

Kopi River, 320

Kopora Gulf, 51

Kopora station, 50

Korea, 322, 325, 327, 342

Korf Bay, 4, 336

Koryak range, 3, 314, 338

GENERAL INDEX

Kosh-Agach, 279

Koshtan-Tau, 203

Kosogol, Lake, 287, 291, 293

Kostin Strait, 10

Kotelny Island, 5

Kounrad, 136

Kozmodemyansk, 23

Kozyrevka, 343

Krasnaya Polyana, 221

Krasnodar, 90, 209

Krasnoufimsk forest steppe, 69, 269

Krasnovodsk, 133, 165

Krasnovodsk anticlinal fold, 165

Krasnovodsk Bay, 133, 165

Krasnovodsk Plateau, 164, 165

Krasnoyarsk, 31, 39, 291

Krasnoyarsk raion, 68

Kremenchug, 68, 75

Krements, 73

Kresta Bay, 314

Krestovy Pass, 203, 204, 207, 225, 227

Krivoy Rog, 92

Kronotsk, Lake, 336

Kronotsk volcano, 336

Krymskaya station, 209

Kuba Lowland, 228

Kuban basin, 202, 224

Kuban River, 90, 203, 205, 209, 221

Kuban-Darya River, 153

Kuen-Lun, 164

Kuibyshev, 83

Kulagin Island, 201

Kulundinsk forest steppe, 83

Kulundinsk steppe, 31, 90, 103

Kuma basin, 202

Kuma River, 103, 113, 114, 117, 204

Kuma-Manych depression, 113

Kumara, 66

Kumbasham, 201

Kumbashinka River, 198

Kungei-Ala-Tau, 164, 170, 183

Kungur forest steppe, 23, 68, 69, 81,

269
Kunya-Darya channel, 139
Kupyansk raion, 87
Kura basin, 208
Kura Lowland, 238
Kura River, 125, 204, 211, 224, 235,

236, 237
Kura-Araks desert, 235, 238
Kura-Araks Lowland, 235, 236
Kuraldzhin-Dengiz, Lake, 90
Kuray steppe, 280
Kureika River, 33
Kuri, 207

Kurile Islands, 332
Kurilsk, Lake, 338
Kurisches HafiF, 329

GENERAL INDEX

Kursk, 84, 86, 301

Kursk magnetic anomaly, 75

Kursk ohlast, 86

Kurtushibinsk range, 288

Kurtysh, 133

Kushka, 127, 166

Kuslika raion, 178

Kustanay, 30

Kutais, 192, 193, 194, 197, 208

Kuznetsk Ala-Tau, 222, 276, 280, 284-

286, 289, 290
Kuznetsk basin, 285-286
Kuznetsk chern, 281
Kuznetsk coal-bearing basin, 284, 286
Kuznetsk steppe, 68
Kvena-Mta Pass, 207
Kvirila River, 208
Kyurdamir, 236
Kyurdamir station, 236
Kyzyl- Art Pass, 168
Kyzyl-Kum, 125, 136, 160, 162
Kyzyl-Kum desert, 141, 143, 153
Kyzyl-Kum Plateau, 164
Kyzyl-Ray, 91, 95

Laba River, 90, 209, 222

Labinskaya, 90, 209

Ladoga, Lake, 24, 29, 49, 50, 51

Lagodekhi Gorge, 225

Lama, Lake, 32, 33

Laptev Sea, 32

Lars postal station, 207

Latvia, 54

Lazareva, Cape, 328

Lechkhumsk range, 204

Lekzyr Glacier, 205

Lena basin, 312, 318, 319

Lena River, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 14, 15, 21,

25, 31, 32, 33, 35, 48, 299, 300,

301, 311, 320
Lenin Peak, 168
Leningrad, 50, 51, 335
Lenkoran, 198, 199, 201, 239
Lenkoran Lowland, 198
Lenkoran River, 198
Lepsinsk uyezd (district), 175
Liakhva River, 224
Liassic, 206, 207
Libau, 54
Ligovo, 51

Liklos-Mta massif, 228
Listvenichnoye, 305, 306
Little Khingan Mountains, 62, 320
Little Khurisar, 207
Littorina, 51
Liven, 74, 258
Loktevskoye, 279

427

Longdor, Mount, 301

Lopatka, Capf, 338

LoriJsk steppe, 233

Lovat River, 30

Lovozersk tundras, 28

Lower Amur Lowland, 62, 63

Lower Aurignacian, 261

Lower Carboniferous, 51, 206, 266, 276,

285, 290
Lower Cretaceous, 75, 94, 165, 207,

242, 303, 321, 346
Lower Devonian, 289
Lower Jurassic, 242, 243, 321
Lower Miocene, 244, 343
Lower Oligocene, 95
Lower Paleozoic, 10, 33, 95, 164, 169,

206, 265, 276, 285, 292, 299, 301,

312, 319
Lower Permian, 118
Lower Pliocene, 96, 244
Lower post-Pliocene, 237
Lower Silurian, 9, 31, 276, 285, 289
Lower Tertiary, 95, 261, 266
Lower Tunguska River, 26, 32, 33
Lower Wiirm, 75
Lozva River, 270, 272
Lubny, 75
Lutsk, 22

Lysaya, Mount, 207, 208
Lyukchunsk basin, 132

Magarach, 246, 247

Maikop, 209

Maikop raion, 222

Main River, 316

Malka River, 203

Malozemelskaya tundra, 14

Maly Anyuy River, 316

Mana belki, 291, 297

Mana River, 291

Manchuria, 67, 222, 307, 322, 325, 327,

342
Manchurian fauna, 327, 334
Manchurian "steppe," 64
Manchurian vegetation, 322, 324, 326,

327, 332
Mangazeisk silver-lead deposit, 315
Mangyshlak, 189
Mangyshlak Kara-Tau, 165
Mangyshlak Mountains, 164, 165
Mangyshlak Peninsula, 132
Manych Canal, 113
Manych depression, 97, 114
Manych rivers, 113
Manych stanitsa, 113
Manych strait, 97
Manych valley, 94
Margelan, 126

428

Margiana, 129

Mariupol, 92, 108

Marka-Kul, Lake, 274

Marv, 137

Mashuk, Mount, 208

Masis (Great Ararat), 232

Matachingay, Mount, 314

Mat-Lam, 207

Matochkin Shar, 10

Maya River, 31, 32, 312, 319

Mechetnaya Mogila, 76

Mediterranean fauna, 97, 259, 261, 262

Mediterranean Sea, 97, 212, 245, 252

Mediterranean vegetation, 87, 229, 253,

254, 261, 262
Medny Island, 343
Medveditsa River, 94, 104
Melovaya, 242
Meotichesk, 206
Merv oasis, 129
Meshchorsk Lowland, 53
Meskhiisk range, 208
Mesozoic, 11, 76, 164, 165, 166, 229,
243, 265, 266, 276, 289, 301, 320,
335

Mezen, 7, 8, 26
Gulf of, 9

Middle Amur Lowland, 62

Middle Cambrian, 31

Middle Carboniferous, 206

Middle Devonian, 276, 289

Middle Jurassic, 242, 243, 312, 345

Middle Pliocene, 237

Middle Tertiary, 67, 302

Middle Tunguska, 31

Mikhailovsky Pass, 212

Milkovo, 339

Milsk steppe, 235

Mindel, 75, 116

Mindel-Riss, 116

Mineralnie Vody, 202

Mineralovodsk raion, 208

Minsk, 54

Minusinsk, 290, 291, 293

Minusinsk basin, 96, 284, 290-291, 293,
294, 296

Minusinsk forest steppe, 293

Minusinsk raion, 68

Minusinsk region, 91, 103, 290

Minusinsk uyezd (district), 290

Miocene, 74, 93, 166

Mirsk range, 295

Mississippi, 163

Mius River, 81

Mogilev, 54

Mogol-Tau, 186

Mogzon station, 305

Moldavia, 81

GENERAL INDEX

Molla-Kara salt lake, 140

Molochnaya River, 92, 100

Mologa River, 47

Moma basin, 313

Moma River, 313

Mondy station, 294

Mongolia, 26, 150, 153, 274, 275, 278,

280, 283, 287, 294, 300, 304, 306, 307
Mont Blanc, 203, 336
Monzhuklv, 134
Moscow, 49, 50, 52, 115, 215, 216, 246,

301, 321, 344
Moscow oblast, 47, 50, 52, 54
Moskva River, 50
Motovsky Gulf, 9
Mozyr okrug, 54
Msta River, 30
Mugan steppe, 198, 236, 239
Mugodzhar Mountains, 94, 95, 108, 118,

119, 269
Muk-Su River, 166
Munku-Sardvk, Mount, 291, 292
Murgab River, 129, 138, 166, 167, 177
Murman coast, 5, 18, 194
Murman region, 5, 8
Muya River, 319
Muyun-Kum, 125, 142, 150, 153
Mysovaya, 304
Mzymta River, 204, 205, 217

Nalchik basin, 206
Nalychevsk hot springs, 338
Napareuli, 210, 211
Narodnaya, Mount, 263
Naro\'a (Narva) River, 50
Narva River, 50
Narym, 41
Narym kray, 30
Narym range, 274
Naryn, 175
Narvn basin, 190

Naryn River, 144, 164, 174, 187, 280
Naryn sands, 117
Nar>Tiskoye, 172, 174
Nebit-Dagh, 133, 134
Neftedagh, 133, 134
Neo-Euxine, 97
Neogene, 116

Nerchinsk, 304, 305, 306, 310
Nerchinsk steppes, 307
Neva depression, 51
Neva region, 51
Neva River, 29, 50, 51
Nevelsky, Mount, 329
Nex'elsky Strait, 328, 330
New Siberia Island, 350
New Siberian Islands, 3, 5, 12, 19, 21,
350

GENERAL INDEX

Nice, 214

Nikansk, 321

Nikita, 252

Nikitsky Botanical Garden, 247, 250,

252, 254
Nizhnecliirskaya, 90
Nizhne-Kolymsk, 4
Nordvik Bay, 12
Norilsk copper-nickel bed, 33
Norilsk lake region, 32
Norilsk plateau, 33
Norilsk raion, 32
North Caucasus Foreland, 90, 99, 202,

209, 210, 222-224, 226
North Land, 345, 349, 350
North Ossetia, 207
North Siberian Lowland, 11, 31
North-Chuya belki, 277
North-East Cape, 349
Northeast Land of Spitzbergen, 347
Northeastern Siberia, mountains of, 1,
311-317

Climate, 314-315

Fauna, 316-317

Relief, 311-314

Vegetation, 315-316
Northern Donets River, 76
Northern hills (Sevemie Uvaly), 30
Novaya Aleksandriya-on-the-Vistula, 22
Novaya Zemlya, 3, 10, 12, 13, 19, 264,

345, 346, 348, 349
Novgorod, 23
Novomoskovsk raion, 104
Novorossiisk, 205, 212, 213
Novorossiisk Bay, 212
Novorossiisk coast of tlie Caucasus, 254
Novorossiisk raion, 212, 213, 214, 254
Novouzensk raion, 94
Novouzensk steppes, 106
Novy Oskol, 75
Nukha, 210
Nukha raion, 211
Nukus, 141
Nura-Tau, 164, 186

Ob, Gulf of, 4, 10, 17, 31

Ob River, 10, 11, 26, 30, 41, 68, 71, 77,

83, 264, 273, 275
Ob steppe, 277
Obdorsk, 267
Obsha River, 52
Obshchy Syrt heights, 94, 118
Ob-Yenisey Peninsula, 3
Ochakov, 91, 106
Ochemchiri, 217

October Revolution Island, 349, 350
Odessa, 97, 100, 105, 328
Oimekon Plateau, 313, 315

Oka kray, 295

Oka River, 22, 53, 54, 74, 89, 291

Okhotsk, Sea of, 305, 311, 313, 314,

318, 321, 322, 329, 335, 336, 338
Okhotsk fauna, 21, 66, 334, 343
Okliotsk vegetation, 21, 322, 323, 327,

a32, 340
Okhotsk village, 311
Oklu-id, Lake, 303

Olekma River, 32, 301, 309, 318, 319
Olekma-Baikal range, 319, 320
Olekma-Baikal system, 319
Olekma- Vitim mountain country, 319
Olekminsk, 24, 301
Olekminsk, okrug, 309
Olenek River, 11, 32, 33
Oleshki, 104

Olga Bay, 320, 321, 327
Oligocene, 31, 76, 93, 208, 244, 265
Olkhon Island, 304, 306, 309
Olovyannaya, 305
Omolon River, 314
Omsk lakes, 102
Onega, Lake, 24, 28, 29
Onega Bay, 35
Onega River, 20, 28
Onguday, 280

Onon River, 299, 300, 306, 307
Ordzhonikidze, 207
Orel, 86, 103, 338
Orenburg, 83, 270
Osh, 142, 174
Oshten, 204, 227
Osinovsky rapids, 31
Oskol, 86
Osminsk, 258
Ospinsk, Mount, 292
Ossetia, 207, 220, 223, 224, 227
Otuzi raion, 254
Ovruch, 53
Ovruch ridge, 53
Oxus, 140
Ozurgeti, 193

Pacific Ocean, 5, 24, 60, 67, 313, 318,
343

Pai-Khoy range, 9, 264

Palearctic, 21, 48, 317

Paleocene, 94

Paleo-Euxine, 97

Paleolitliic, 258, 259, 260, 261

Paleostom, Lake, 196

Paleozoic, 9, 10, 11, 32, 93, 94, 95, 141,
265, 266, 276, 285, 290, 292, 301,
313, 320, 321, 329, 335, 349

Pamir Mountains, 128, 144, 164, 165,
166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 173, 174,
177, 184, 186, 187, 190, 191

430

Pamir Plateau, 174, 186

Pamir River, 167

Pamir station, 172, 174

Pamir-Alay, 166. 168, 169

Pankratyev Peninsula, 348

Parapolsky Dol, 4, 314, 336

Paratunsk hot springs, 338

Paropamiz, 164, 165, 166

Parpachsk ridge, 93

Pasanaur, 207

Patom River, 300, 301

Patom Upland, 301

Pavlovsk, 75, 92

Pechora River, 4, 7, 9, 10, 17, 30, 263,

264, 273
Penzhina basin, 316
Penzhinskaya Bay, 336
Peredovoy range, 203, 207, 223
Perekop, 106
Pereyemnaya, 304
Perm, 264
Permian, 30, 32, 76, 117, 120, 265, 266,

290, 312
Permian-Carboniferous, 266
Peter I range, 164, 166, 168, 170, 183
Peter the Great Bay, 320
Peterhof, 51

Petropavlovsk, 68, 335, 338, 339, 340
Petrovsko-Razumovsk, 49
Pinsk, 58
Piryatin, 74, 75
Pitsunda, 218
Pivikha hill, 75
Pleistocene, 206, 207
Pliocene, 21, 86, 93, 116, 166, 197, 206,

244, 330, 335
Podgomaya, 209
Podkamennaya (Middle) Tunguska, 31,

32
Podolia, 80
Pokrovka, 52
Poland, 54, 58, 73, 88
Polesye, 52, 53, 58, 73, 74, 92
Politimet, 129
Poltava, 54, 68
Poltava raion, 73
Ponoy River, 3, 4
Pontic, 162, 214, 237
Pontic Sea, 96

Poronay River, 329, 332, 333
Porsu-Gyol, 134
Post-Akchagyl, 206
Post-Littorina, 51
Post-Pliocene, 9, 329
Post-Tertiar>s 116, 237, 300, 308, 312,

330
Post-Wurm, 207
Posyet Bay, 320

GENERAL INDEX

Potanin Glacier, 278

Poti, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 208

Poyasovoy Kamen, 264

Pre-Cambrian, 9, 28, 33, 75, 93, 167,

206, 265, 289, 292, 293, 301
Pre-Cambrian mountains, 74
Pre-Jurassic, 30, 33
Pre-Quatemary, 349
Pre-Tertiary, 321
Priluki, 74, 75
Primrorye, 48, 62, 327
Pripyat River, 50, 52, 58
Prishib village, 201
Pshavsk Aragva River, 204
Pskem range, 164
Pskov, Lake, 54
Psyol River, 75
Pulavy, 22
Pushkino, 51
Pustozersk, 4
Putasar-Chay River, 198
Putyatin Island, 320
Pyandzh River, 162, 167, 173
Pyasina River, 11, 15, 32, 33
Pyatigorsk, 90, 208, 209
Pyavo, Lake, 28
Pyono, Lake, 52
Pyrenees, 20, 48, 227, 254

Quaternary, 9, 10, 11, 12, 21, 28, 29,
31, 33, 51, 65, 96, 110, 113, 116,
124, 135, 137, 138, 169, 205, 206,
228, 232, 237, 244, 259, 260, 261,
262, 263, 266, 277, 289, 321, 338,
346, 349, 350

Rachinsk range, 204

Rakhmanovsk hot springs, 278

Ramany oil field, 237

Repetek, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 137,

146, 160
Ridder mine, 279
Rion basin, 208, 225
Rion Lowland, 196, 197
Rion River, 192, 194, 204, 208
Riss, 75, 115, 116
Riss-Wurm, 116
Roman-Kosh, 242
Ros River, 87
Rovnoye, 114
Russkava Gavan, 348
Russky Island, 320
Ryazan, 22
Ryazan raion, 47
Rybachy Peninsula, 9
Rybachye, 174
Ryn sands, 117, 122

GENERAL INDEX

Sahlnsky range, 288
Sahlya, Mount, 203
Sabuiichi oil field, 237
Saghyz River, 118, J 20
Saguny village, 91
Sahara, 136, 150, 160
Sailyugem range, 275, 276
Sakhalin, 1, 47, 48, 64, 66, 222, 322,
328-334, 335, 342, 343

Climate, 330-331

Fauna, 334

Relief, 329-330

Soils, 331-332

Vegetation, 332-334
Sakhalin, Gulf of, 331
Sakmara River, 265, 272
Salair range, 222
Salair ridge, 68, 285
Salegard, 4, 267
Salgir River, 242, 243
Salyany, 236
Sam, Lake, 134
Sam sands, 134
Samara bend, 76, 114
Samara River, 68, 76, 82, 104, 106
Samarga River, 326
Samarkand, 129, 148, 178
Samsar-Abul volcanoes, 232
Samur River, 228, 230
Sana River, 73
Sanchursk, 23
Sara Island, 201
Saranakan, Mount, 300
Sarapul, 23

Saratov, 68, 90, 94, 114, 115, 116, 338
Sarez, Lalce, 167

Sarmatian, 118, 133, 134, 140, 166, 206
Sarvch, Cape, 241
Sarykamysh, 139, 140
Sarykol range, 166
Sary-Su River, 136
Saur range, 164
Sayan Mountains, 1, 96, 287-298

Climate, 293-294

East, 287, 289, 290, 291-292, 293,
295, 297, 298, 299

Fauna, 296-298

Relief, 287-293

Vegetation, 294-296

West, 276, 287-290, 291, 292, 293,
294, 295, 296, 297
Scandinavia, 43
Schmidt Peninsula, 329, 333
Segozero, Lake, 28
Selemdzha River, 320
Selenga River, 299, 307, 308
Selenginsk, 304, 305, 306, 308
Selety-Dengiz, Lake, 103

431

Seliger, Lake, 51
Semenovsk mine, 315
Semidesert zone, 1, 103, 111-124

Boundaries and subdivisions, 111

Climate, 112-113

Fauna, 12.3-124

General characteristics, 111

Relief, 11.3-119

Soils, 119-121

Vegetation, 121-123
Semipalatinsk, .30, 90, 279
Semirechye, 126, 142, 148, 1.58, 1.59,
161, ]78, 181, 182, 187, 188, 189
Semyachik River, 342
Setta-Daban, 312
Sevan, Lake, 232, 2.34
Sevan basin, 232
Sevastopol, 241, 242, 244, 247, 253, 254,

260
Sevastopol raion, 259, 261
Sevemaya Zemlya (North Land), 34.5,

349, 350
Sevemie Uvaly (Northern hills), 30
Severo-Vostochny (North-East) Cape,

349
Shabin-Daban Pass, 288
Sha-Kadam ("shah's foot"), 165
Shakh-Dagh range, 204, 232
Shakh-Dar River, 173
Shapshal Pass, 275
Shapshal peak, 275
Shichigry, 75

Shchugor River, 263, 268, 272
Shelon River, 30
Shemakha, 206
Shie wells, 141
Sliilka basin, 318
Shilka River, 299, 300, 822
Shirak steppe, 235
Shirvan steppe, 236
Shi\eluch volcano, 336, 342
Shkhar peak, 204
Shkhar Ri\er, 203
Shugnan, 173
Signakh, 210
Sikhote-Alin, 320, 321, 322, 824, 326,

327
Silurian, 32, 50, 51, 264, 266, 276, 289,

301
Simeiz, 242

Simferopol, 241, 242, 243, 258, 259
Simferopol raion, 261
Sivash, 96, 242, 243
Skalisty range, 204, 223
Smolensk ohJast, 52
Smolensk-Moscow ridge, 52
Sob Ri\er, 267
Sochi, 214, 215, 217

432

Sochi raion, 215, 216, 218

Sofia, 197

Sogdiana, 129

Sokhondo, Mount, 300, 308, 309

Solikamsk, 30

Sosva River, 272

Northern, 268
South Ossetia, 220, 224
South Russian steppe, 202
South Ussuri kray, 65, 66, 325
South-Chuya belki, 277
Southern Bug River, 73
Sovetskaya Gavan, 320
Soviet Central Asia, 129, 130, 131
Soviet Central Asia, mountains of, 1,
164-191

Climate, 171-174

Fauna, 187-191

Relief, 164-171

Soil belts, 175-176

Vegetation belts, 176-187
Spitzbergen, 345, 347
Stalin Peak, 166

Stanovoy range, 318, 319, 321
Starobelsk raion, 99
Starobelsk steppe, 99, 100, 101
Starodub, 54
Starodub raion, 54
Stary Krvm, 241, 243, 249
Sta\Topol Plateau, 202, 210
Steppe zone, 70, 74, 76, 77, 81, 84, 90-
110

Absence of forests in the, 108-110

Climate, 91-92

Definition and boundaries, 90-91

Fauna, 105-108

Relief, 92-98

Soils and vegetation, 98-105
Sterlitamak, 68
Sterlitamak canton, 270
Sterlitamak raion, 94
Stolo\'aya, Mount, 207
Streletsk steppe, 84, 85
Suantar River, 311
Sub-Atlantic, 80
Sub-boreal, 80
Subtropical regions, 192-201

Colchian ( KoUchidskaya ) Lowland,
192-198

Definition, 192

Talysh Lowland, 198-201
Suchan, 320, 321
Suchan raion, 320, 324
Sudak, 242, 244, 249. 251, 253, 254,

260
Sukhona, 30

Sukhum. 192, 214, 215, 217
Sula River, 75

GENERAL INDEX

Sulak canyon, 228

Sulak River, 111, 114, 228, 230

Sultan-Uiz-Dagh, 141, 164

Sumgait River, 202

Suna River, 29

Sunzhensk range, 210

Sura River, 82, 87

Surakhany oil field, 237

Suram massif, 208

Suram Pass, 208

Surgut, 41

Surkhan River, 158

Surkliob River, 166

Susamyr range, 164

Suvorovskaya, 209

Svanetiya range, 204, 205

Sxerdlovsk, 264, 265, 270, 273

S\ir River, 28

Switzerland, 280

Syas River, 50

Syr-Darya basin, 190

Syr-Darya Kara-Tau, 161, 164

Syr-Darya Lowland, 125, 141

Svr-Darva River, 127, 128, 141, 142,

143, 144, 148, 153, 154, 157, 160,

162, 163, 190
S\Tia, 159, 218
Syzran, 116

Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola massif, 274, 278
Tadzhikistan, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181,

182, 184, 187
Taganay, 264
Taganrog, 92
Tagil, 22

Tagilsk Urals, 272
Taiga subzone, 23-49, 68

Climate, 23-26

Fauna, 47-49

Relief, 26-33

Soils, 34-35

Vegetation, 35-47
Taimyr, Lake, 13
TaimvT Peninsula, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 19,

350
Taimyr region, 31
Taimyr River, 11
Taimyr tundra, 11
Talas' Ala-Tau, 164, 179, 180, 182, 183,

188
Talas River. 158
Talysh, 196. 197
Talysh-, mountain, 239-240
tal)-sh Lowland, 198-201

Climate, 198-199

Fauna, 201

Soils, 199

Vegetation, 199-201

GENERAL INDEX

Talysh Mountains, 198, 239

Taman Peninsula, 93, 214

'J'ambov, 84, 103

Tambov raion, 87

Tamdinsk Ak-Tau, 141

Tamga, 173

Tara, 22, 41

Tarbagatay range, 164, 179, 183, 276

Tarey lakes, 307

Tarskaya, 207

Tashanty Pass, 275

Tashkent, 126, 127, 130, 148, 157, 163,
172, 174, 178

Tashkent raion, 156, 177, 178, 180, 182

Tashkent-Chimkent region, 178

Tas-Khayakhtakh range, 313

Tas-Kystabyt range, 311

Tatar Strait, 320, 331, 332

Taz Bay, 4

Taz River, 4, 10

Teberda, 223

Teberda raion, 222

Teberda River, 204

Tedzhen River, 165, 166, 177

Telav, 210, 211, 225

Telbes iron-ore region, 286

Telbes River, 286

Tele-Kul, Lake, 141

Teletsk, Lake, 275, 276, 277, 281, 283,
284, 287

Telpos ridge, 268

Telpos-Iz, Mount, 263

Temir, 90

Temnik River, 308

Terek basin, 202

Terek River, 203, 204, 205, 207, 228

Terektin range, 283

Termez, 126, 130, 132

Tersk range, 210

Terskei-Ala-Tau, 164, 170, 174, 183

Tertiary, 9, 21, 31, 73, 95, 96, 111, 118,
119, 125, 134, 135, 136, 145, 164,
165, 166, 167, 169, 196, 197, 199,
202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 214, 221,
229, 235, 237, 244, 265, 266, 277,
289, 292, 301, 302, 303, 329, 330,
335, 350

Tetyukhe, 321

Tetyukhe River, 65

Tian Shan, 67, 95, 128, 144, 164, 168,
169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 177, 179,
180, 181, 183, 184, 190, 272, 278,
280, 325

Tibet, 167, 174, 190, 191

Tiflis, 201, 208, 210, 211, 224, 232, 235

Tiflis raion, 211

Tigil raion, 342

Tikhvin, 51

433

Tikhvin Canal, 23

Tikhy Bay, 346, 347

Timan Kryazh (ridge), 9, 30

Timan tundra, 39

Tiraspol, 103

Tkvarcheli, 208

Tkvibuli, 208

Tobol River, 31

Tobolsk, 41

Tokmak-mogila, 93

Toksovo, 23

Tom River, 68, 71, 285

Tomsk, 22, 41

Tomsk kraij, 285

Tomus-Khay (Garmychan) range, 313

Ton Bay, 174

Toporovan, Lake, 232

Trans-Alay range, 164, 166, 168, 169,

182
Trans-Baikal, mountains of the, 291, 299-
310, 319

Climate, 304-306

Fauna, 310

Relief, 299-304

Vegetation, 306-310
Trans-Baikal region, 1, 26, 47, 63, 69,

130, 287, 299-310, 318, 326
Trans-Caspian Kara-Kum, 125, 136, 137,

150, 151, 154
Transcaucasus, 163, 191, 192, 208, 210,
211, 224-225, 234, 237, 238

eastern, 192, 197, 201, 232

western, 58, 60, 192, 193, 196, 197,
205, 212, 214-222, 226, 231, 239,
257, 261
Trans-Ili Ala-Tau, 126, 144, 164, 181,

1^2, 183
Trans-Ural region, 122, 123
Trans-Urals, 267, 272
Trans-Volga, 53, 78, 82, 83, 94, 103,

118, 122
Trialetsk range, 224, 232
Triassic, 117, 165, 206, 301, 311, 312,

313, 314, 321
Troitsk, 68

Troitskosavsk, 304, 305, 308, 310
Tsinondali, 210, 211
Tskhenis-Tskhali River, 204
Tsudakharsky forest, 231
Tuapse, 212, 216, 217
Tuapse raion, 214
Tuba River, 291
Tula, 328
Tulun raion, 68
Tundra zone, 2-21

Boundaries, 4

Climate, 4-8

Fauna, 17-20

434

Tundra zone (Continued)

General characteristics, 2

Relief, 8-12

Subdivisions, 2-4

Vegetation, 12-17
Tungir basin, 309
Tungir River, 309
Tunguska basin, 33, 287
Tunguska Mountains, 33
Tunguska River, 63

Lower, 32, 33

Podkamennaya (Middle), 31, 32
Tunka belki, 291, 292, 293
Tunka graben, 291
Tunka mountains, 296
Turanian Lowland, 25, 119, 125, 126,
128, 130, 132, 135, 136, 144, 150,
157, 159, 173, 191
Turfan, 132
Turgay, 90, 112

Turgay tableland, 118, 119, 125, 135
Turgoyak, Lake, 265, 273
Turkestan, 145, 153, 163
Turkestan range, 164, 183
Turkey, 218, 225, 232, 234
Turkmenia, 87

Turkmenian Kara-Kum, 125, 159, 160
Turkmenistan, 126, 127, 130, 131, 133,
137, 139, 143, 152, 159, 161, 163,
165, 177, 178
Turkmen-Khorasan range, 165
Turtkul, 172
Turukhansk, 41
Tushetiya, 224
Tuva People's Republic, 288
Tym River, 329, 331, 332
Tyumen, 22, 41

Uchan-Su, 260

Uda River, 287, 291

Udokan range, 319

Ufa Plateau, 76, 264

Ufa River, 22, 76, 273

Ugam Mountains, 180

Uimonsk steppe, 279

Ukok Plateau, 274, 278, 279, 280, 282,

283
Ukraine, 70, 80, 81, 93, 106, 107, 110
Ukrainian crystalline massif, 73
Ukrainian steppe, 106, 202
Ulakhan-Chistay, 313
Ulan-Ude, 304, 305, 306
Ulba River, 279 •
Ullu-Uzen, 204
Ulu-Tau Mountains, 95, 119
Unguz, 141
Unguz Plateau, 137

GENERAL INDEX

Upper Angara River, 306

Upper Carboniferous, 32, 76, 312, 347

Upper Cretaceous, 94, 165, 207, 243,

266, 321, 325
Upper Devonian, 276
Upper Jurassic, 165, 206, 207, 242, 243,

345, 346
Upper Miocene, 96
Upper Oligocene, 343
Upper Paleozoic, 95, 164, 166, 169, 206,

276
Upper Pliocene, 76, 94, 206, 208
Upper Pontic, 244
Upper Silurian, 266

Upper Tertiary, 21, 67, 86, 87, 118, 124,
134, 141, 168, 196, 203, 243, 261,
285, 303, 312
Upper Triassic, 242
Upper Wiirm, 75
Ural range, 26.3-273

Climate, 266-267

Fauna, 272-273

Relief, 263-266

Vegetation, 267-272
Ural River, 111, 114, 117, 118, 120, 123,

264, 265, 266, 273
Ural uplift, 76
Ural-Emba region, 118
Urals, 1, 3, 8, 15, 22, 24, 30, 31, 39, 60,
66, 68, 69, 77, 80, 94, 107

Central, 69, 264, 265, 269, 270, 272

North, 263, 264, 267, 268-270, 273

South, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270-
272

Tagilsk, 272
Ural-Siberian sea, 285
Uralsk, 69, 90, 114
Ural-Tau, 264, 265, 271
Urenga, 264
Ursula River, 280
Urzhum, 23

Us basin, 289, 293, 295
Us River, 287, 288, 295
Usa River, 9
Usinskoye village, 293
Usoy village, 167
Ussuri basin, 58, 66, 322
Ussuri Bay, 320
Ussuri kray, 60, 61, 65, 196, 322

South, 65, 66, 325
Ussuri River, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 320
Ustkamennogorsk, 279
Ust-Urt Plateau, 111, 125, 132, 134, 135,
139, 140, 145, 146, 148, 150, 159
Uvildy, Lake, 265
Uzboy River, 133, 135, 137, 139, 140

Kelif, 138, 140
Uzunlar, 97

GENERAL INDEX

Vaigach Island, 6, 7, 9, 10, 264

Vakh River, 10

Vakhan-Darya River, 167

Vakhsh River, 158, 162, 166, 167

Vaksan River, 205

Valday, 51

Valday, Lake, 52

Valday heights, 51, 52, 54

Valday ridge, 51

Valuiki, 68

Van, Lake, 232

Varanger fiord, 4

Variscan, 95, 206, 276

Vasyugansk swamp, 31

Ver-Chogur peak, 94

Verkhneudinsk, 304, 305

Verkhny Tokinak station, 93

Verkholensk raion, 68

Verkhoyansk, 5, 21, 25, 312, 313, 315

Verkhoyansk complex, 312, 313

Verkhoyansk range, 3, 32, 33, 311, 312,

313, 314, 315, 316, 317
Verkhoyansk region, 312
Vesuvius, 336
Vetluga region, 58
Vetluga River, 39, 54, 58
Victoria Island, 347
Vilkitsky Strait, 349
Vilna, 54

Vilyazh-Chay River, 198
Vilyuy River, 32, 33, 312
Vilyuy table mountains, 33
Vistula River, 58
Vitebsk, 51

Vitim Plateau, 300, 301
Vitim River, 299, 300, 301, 319
Vladimir raion, 47
Vladimirskaya, 209
Vladivostok, 61, 62, 320, 321
Vodorazdelny (Water Divide) range,

203, 204
Volga heights, 76, 94, 113
Volga region, 23, 58, 94, 111, 115, 116,

153
Volga River, 30, 51, 52, 53, 58, 68, 69,

73, 76, 80, 88, 90, 94, 103, 106, 113,

114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 123,

124
Volnovakha River, 93
Vologda oblast, 52
Volyno-Azov crystalline massif, 73, 75,

92,93
Volyno-Podolsk Plateau, 52, 73, 74, 96
Vorona River, 8
Voronezh, 84, 88, 108
Voronezh ohlast, 81, 82, 86, 91, 92
Voronezh region, 88
Voronezh River, 82, 88

435

Vyatka River, 22, 24
Vychegda River, 9, 30

West Siberian Lowland, 30, 31, 95, 119,

265, 266
West Siberian plain, 26, 30, 31, 269
West Siberian taiga, 42
West Urals Foreland, 70, 267, 269, 272
Western ohlast, 53
White Russia, 47, 50, 52, 54, 58
White Sea, 9, 15, 28, 29, 35, 246
Wrangel Island, 3, 350
Wiirm, 75, 114, 116, 205

Xerothermic period, 16, 53, 64, 89, 120,
189, 206, 310, 316

Yablonovy range, 299, 300, 319

Yaila range, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247,

248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256,
257, 258, 261

Yakutiya, 25, 26, 35, 42, 48, 305, 315

Yakutsk, 24, 25, 26, 35, 312, 315, 318

Yakutsk A.S.S.R., 315

Yakutsk ohlast, 309

Yalta, 61, 242, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248,

249, 254
Yama River, 311, 314
Yamal Peninsula, 3
Yaman-Tau, 264, 265, 271
Yamsk, 311, 314

Yana River, 5, 311, 312, 313

Yany-Darya River, 141

Yaransk, 23

Yaroslavl, 23

Yasachnaya River, 313

Yelets, 86

Yenashiminsky Polkan, 31

Yeniseisk, 30

Yenisey, Gulf of tlie, 6, 17, 31

Yenisey basin, 287

Yenisey ridge, 31

Yenisey River, 4, 6, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18,
24, 25, 30, 33, 41, 42, 43, 91, 103,
275, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 294,
295

Yenotayevsk, 114, 117, 123

Yeravinsk steppes, 307

Yerevan, 234

Yerevan basin, 232, 233

Yergaki range, 288

Yergak-Targok-Taiga range, 288

Yergeni Plateau, 113, 114, 117

Yeruslan River, 114

Yessentuki, 209

Yevlakh, 235

Ye\-patoriya, 91, 243

Yokanga Ri\-er, 3

436

Yoldian, 29, 51
Yoldian Sea, 29, 51
Yudoma River, 312
Yug, 30

Yugorsky Shar (strait), 9, 264
Yukagirsk Plateau, 314
Yurma, Mount, 264
Yurma chain, 264

Zaisan, Lake, 274

Zaisan basin, 279

Zanga River, 232

Zaporozhye, 73, 92, 106

Zaporozhye station, 128

Zavidovo, 52

Zbruch River, 73

Zeleny hiU, 134

Zeravshan Glacier, 170

Zeravshan range, 164

Zeravshan River, 129, 144, 173, 174, 178

GENERAL INDEX

Zeya basin, 319

Zeya River, 62, 64, 318, 319

Zeya-Bureya Lowland, 62, 63, 64

Zharkova, 83

Zhelaniya, Cape, 348

Zheleznaya, Mount, 208

Zheleznovodsk, 208, 209

Zheleznovodsk raion, 208

Zhigulevsk hills, 76, 82

Zhinvan, 207

Zhitomir, 22

Zhupanovsk volcano, 338

Zigalga, 271

Zlatoust, 264, 267

Zmeinogorsk, 279

Zmiev raion, 87

Znamenka station, 81

Zor-Kul, Lake, 167

Zugdidi, 205

Zverevo, 76

Zyryanovsk mine, 279

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