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Nature
June 8, 1605
A WEEKLY
ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
WO, U Malgae x XI
NOVEMBER, 1904, to APRIL, 1905
“To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH
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VAG Mb L AN “AND CO, LimirTep,
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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Nature,
une 8, 1905
Nature,
June 8 1905
LINGO EX .
Aspe (Pror. Ernst), Death of, 278; Obituary Notice of,
or
Abbot (C. G.), Astrophysical Work at the Smithsonian
Institution, 592
Abegg (Mr.), Determination of Proportion of Free Chromic
Acid in Dichromate Solutions, 281
Abel (Dr. O.), the Fossil Sirenians of the Mediterranean
Formation of Austria, 351
Aberdeen University, Proceedings of the Anatomical and
Anthropological Society of, 186
Abney (Sir William, K.C.B., F.R.S.),
State, Lecture at Society of Arts, 90
Abnormal Tides of January 7, the, 258
Abraham (Henri), a Synchronising Electromagnetic Brake,
383
Abrahams (B.), a German-English Dictionary of Terms
used in Medicine and the Allied Sciences, 533
Accumulator, the Theory of the Lead, F. Dolezalek, 1
Acoustics: Experiment for showing the Pressure due to
Sound Waves, Prof. R. W. Wood, 280; the Basic Law
of Vocal Utterance, Emil Sutro, 317; Duality of Voice
and Speech, Emil Sutro, 317; Duality of Thought and
Language, Emil Sutro, 317; Application of the Vowel
Siren to the Study of Deafness, M. Marage, 456; Sub-
marine Signalling by Sound, J. B. Millet, 595
Acquired Characteristics, Inheritance of, D. E. Hutchins,
83
Actinium, a New Radio-active Product from, Dr. T. God-
lewski, 294
Adams (G. I.),
Arkansas, 450
Adeney (Dr. W. E.), Unrecognised Factors in the Trans-
mission of Gases through Water, 334
Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to Physi-
ology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion,
G. Stanley Hall, 3
Aéronautics : Kite Observations on the Lake of Constance,
Dr. H. Hergesell, 87; Scientific Experiments in Italy
with Unmanned Balloons, Dr. L. Palazzo, 113; the Air-
ship Lebaudy II., 207; Death of Rev. J. M. Bacon, 207;
Voyage in a Balloon from London to Paris, Jacques
Faure, 372; Aéronautical Monthly Ascents of 1904, Prof.
H. Hergesell, 447; the Future of Air-ships, A. Santos-
Dumont, 447; Progress in Aérial Navigation, Prof. G. H.
Bryan, F.R.S., 463; Preliminary Results of the Kite
Ascents made on the Yacht of the Prince of Monaco in
the Summer of 1904, Prof. H. Hergesell, 467; Death of
Colonel Renard, 588
Aflalo (F. G.), the Sea-fishing Industry of England and
Wales, 153; Fishing at Night, 221
Africa: Variations of Level of Lake Victoria Nyanza,
Captain H. G. Lyons, 15; Iron Manufacture in Lagos,
C. V. Bellamy, 40; Trypanosomiasis in French West
Africa, A. Laveran, 47; Trypanosomiasis and the Tsetse-
fly in French Guinea, A. Laveran, 287; Geological
Survey of the Transvaal, Report for the Year 1903,
H. Kynaston, E. T. Mellor, A. L. Hall, Dr. G. A. F.
Science and the
Zinc and Lead Deposits of Northern
|
|
Molengraaff, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 55; Sleeping
Sickness in the Congo, 60; Sleeping Sickness in Congo
Free State, Messrs. Dutton, Todd, and Christy, 499;
Relationship of Human Trypanosomiasis to Congo Sleep-
ing Sickness, Messrs. Dutton, Todd, and Christy, 499;
Identity of Various Trypanosomes of Man, Dr. Thomas
and Mr. Linton, 499; the Congo Floor Maggot, Messrs.
Dutton, Todd, and Christy, 499; a New South African
Cypress, Callistris schwarzii, Dr. R. Marloth, 168; the
Glacial Conglomerate in the Table Mountain Series near
Clanwilliam, A. W. Rogers, 168; Meeting of the British
Association in South Africa, 323; Indian and South
African Rainfalls, 1892-1902, D. E. Hutchins, 342;
Community of Type between South African and Euro-
pean Marine Annelids generally, Prof. McIntosh, 492;
Petrography of the Witwatersrand Conglomerates, with
Special Reference to the Origin of Gold, Dr. F. H.
Hatch and Dr. G. S. Corstorphine, 471; Intrusive
Granites in the Transvaal, the Orange River Colony, and
in Swaziland, E. Jorissen, 471; Die Kalahari, Dr. Sieg-
fried Passarge, 481; North African Petroglyphs, E. F.
Gautier, 570; the Mammals and Birds of Liberia, Sir
Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 574; Existence of
Schists with Graptoliths at Haci-el-Khenig, Central
Sahara, G. B. M. Flamand, 576; the Fort and Stone-
lined Pits at Inyanga contrasted with the Great Zim-
babwe, R. N. Hall, 598; New Indiarubber Euphorbia,
Henri Jumelle, 600; the Nile Flood in Relation to the
Variations of Atmospheric Pressure in North-East Africa,
Captain H. G. Lyons, 616; the Physical History of the
Victoria Falls, A. J. C. Molyneux, 619
Agriculture: Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture,
Prof. S. Lemstrém, 1; Para Rubber Plantation at
Mergui, Burma, 14; Swede Disease in Ireland, Prof. T.
Johnson, 167; Death of Major Henry F. Alvord, 181;
on the Constitution of Arable Earth, A. Delage and H.-
Lagatu, 191; Possibility of Manufacturing Starch from
Cassava on a Large Scale, H. H. Cousins, 184; a
Bibliography of Agricultural Science, 188; Cotton-plant-
ing in West Indies, 209 ; ** Bastard ’’ Logwood, S. N. C.,
222; Agricultural Education and Research, Prof. T. H.
Middleton, 236; Sugar Cane Cultivation in Barbadoes,
Prof. d’Albuquerque and Mr. Bovell, 304; Sugar-planting
Experiments in the Leeward Islands in 1903-4, Dr. F
Watts, 615; Agriculture in the West Indies, Sir Daniel
Morris, 350; Agricultural Notes, 3<5 ; Experiments in the
Manuring of Fruit Crops, Duke of Bedford and Spencer
Pickering, F.R.S., 356; Production of Calcium Cyan-
amide and its Employment as Fertiliser, Prof. Frank,
374; the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 558;
the Agricultural Changes required by These Times and
Laying Down Land to Grass, R. H. Elliot, 604
Air-pollution, Bacterial Test for Estimation of, Dr. Mervyn
Gordon, 237
Air Spectrum, the Third Band of the, H. Deslandres and
A. Kannapell, 17
! Aitken (Prof. R. G.), Systematic Survey of Double Stars,
a
iv Index
[ Nature,
June 8, 1905
354; Observations on Comets, 449; Discovery of Jupiter’s | Andersson (Dr. Joh. Gunnar), Antarctica, or Two Years
>ixth Satellite, 494; Orbit of the Binary Star Ceti 82,
519; Comet 1905 a (Giacobini), 544
Albrecht (Prof. fh.), Discussion of Central European
Longitudes, 424
Albuminoide, Studien tuber die,
sichtigung des Spongen und der Keratine,
Strauss, 174
d’Albuquerque (Prof.), Sugar Cane Cultivation in Barba-
does, 304
Alcock (Major A., F.R.S.), a Large Indian Sea-perch, 415
Alcohol in industry, 584
Alexander (T.), Graphic Statics, 507
Alexander (Dr. W.), Absence or Marked Diminution of
Free Hydrochloric Acid in the Gastric Contents in
Malignant Disease of Organs other than the Stomach,
596
Algz, a Treatise on the British Fresh-water, Prof. G. S.
West, 194
Algebra: Elementary Algebra, W. M. Baker and A. A.
Bourne, 507; the Algebra of Invariants, J. H. Grace
and A. Young, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601
Algen, Morphologie und Biologie der, Dr. Friedrich Olt-
manns, George Murray, F.R.S., 362
Algol Type, a Probable Variable of the, J. E. Gore, 55
Algué (Rev. José, S.J.), the Cyclones of the Far East, 198
Alippi (Prof.), Device for Overcoming the Tendency to
Adherence in the Electric Contacts of Delicate Seismo-
scopes, 309; Mist-poeffers, 309
Alkali Metals, Arc Spectra of the, F. A. Saunders, 133
Allan (Dr. G. E.), on a Property of Lenses, 47
Allbutt (Prof. T. Clifford, F.R.S.), the Question of Diet
in Physical Education, 111; Blood Pressures in Man,
mit besonderer Beriick-
Dr. Eduard
375
Allcock (C. H.), Theoretical Geometry for Beginners, 75
ie (A. Taylor), New Streets, Laying Out and Making
P, 437
Allen (Dr. F. J.), the Origin of Life, 54; Blue-stained
Flints, 83; Intelligence of Animals, 222
Allen (Dr. G. M.), the ‘‘ Spout ’’ of Whales, 38
Allen (H. S.), Radio-active Water and Mud, 543
Alloy, Mass Analysis of Muntz’s Metal by Electrolysis
and the Electric Properties of this, J. G. A. Rhodin, 381
Alternating Variability of Martian Canals, Mr. Lowell, 494
Alvord (Major Henry F.), Death of, 181
Amann (M.), Secondary Shadow on the Rings of Saturn,
359; Secondary Shadow on Saturn’s Rings, 401
Ambronn (Prof.), Observations of Comets 1904 d and
1904 e, 281
America: the Land and Sea Mammals of Middle America
and the West Indies, D. G. Elliot, 212; American
Cytology, 218; an American Text-book of Geology,
Thomas C. Chamberlin and Rollin D. Salisbury, 267;
Destructive Floods in the United States in T9035 B.C.
Murphy, 308; American Hydroids, Part ii., Sertularide,
C. C. Nutting, 331; Folk-tales of Plains Indians, Dr.
G. A. Dorsey and Dr. A. L. Kroeber, 417; P. E.
Goddard, 418; the Magnetic Survey of the United States,
449; the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 519
Ampferer (Dr.), Examination of the Terraces along the
Valley of Inn, 236
Anzsthesia, Conditions which Determine the Penetration
of Chloroform into Blood during, J. Tissot, 480
Anzsthesia, Physical Chemistry of, Prof. Moore and Mr.
Roaf, 499
Analysis, Chemical, for Beginners, F. Southerden, 54
Anatomy: the Anatomy of Corals, Prof. Sydney J. Hick-
son, F.R.S., 18; a Treatise on Applied Anatomy, Edward
H. Taylor, Dr. A. Keith, 145; the Human Sternum,
Andrew Melville Patterson, Dr. A. Keith, 145; Der
Gang des Menschen, Otto Fischer, Dr. A. Keith, 145;
the People of the North-east of Scotland, 186; Obituary
Notice of Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S., 419; Studies from
the Anthropological Laboratory, the Anatomy School,
Cambridge, W. L. H. Duckworth, 433 7
Anceaux (Emile), Planetary Tides in the Solar Atmosphere,
424
Anderson (Dr. Tempest), Recent Changes in the Crater of
Stromboli, 503
Anderson (W. C.), the Formation of Magnesia from Mag-
nesium Carbonate by Heat, 358
amongst the Ice of the South Pole, 560
Andromedids, Shower of, from Biela’s Comet (?), W. F.
Denning, 139
Anglicus (Bartholomew),
Steele, 559
Anglo-Saxon Institutions, Studies on, H. M. Chadwick, 385
Animal Life, J. R. A. Davis, 369
Animal Photography, 483
Animals: Intelligence in Animals, J. E. A. T., 102; F. C.
Constable, 102; Rev. Joseph Meehan, 176; T. S. Patter-
son, 201; F. J. Allen, 222; the Animals of New Zealand :
an Account of the Colony’s Air-breathing Vertebrates,
F. W. Hutton -and J. Drummond, 199; Superstitions
about Animals, Frank Gibson, 510; Variation in Animals
and Plants, H. M. Vernon, 243
Annandale (N.), the Lizards of the Andamans, 288; an
Aquatic Glow-worm in India, 288
Année Technique, 1’, A. Da Cunha, 1
Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society, Medal Awards,
105
Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, the, 234
Medieval Lore from, Robert
Antarctica: the National Antarctic Expedition, Captain
Scott, 41; Meteorological Results of the National
Antarctic Expedition, W. Krebs, 131; Geographical
Results of the National Antarctic Expedition, Captain
R. F. Scott, 421; Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the
Ice of the South Pole, Dr. N. Otto G. Nordenskjéld and
Dr. Joh. Gunnar Andersson, 560; the Limit of an
Antarctic Phytogeographical Zone, C. Skottsberg, 326;
Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898,
1899, sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de
Gomery, 337; the Second Antarctic Voyage of the Scotta,
J. H. Harvey Pirie and R. N. Rudmose Brown, 425;
Meteorological Conditions of the Antarctic, Discovery
Expedition, C. W. R. Royds, 568
Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen,
Keimes- und Stammes-geschichte, Ernst Haeckel, 265
Anthropoid Apes, Craniology of Man and the, A. T.
Mundy, 125; N. C. Macnamara, 125
Anthropology: Anthropological Institute, 21, 165, 430,
478, 527, 598; the Racial Elements in the Present Popu-
lation of Europe, Huxley Memorial Lecture, Dr. J.
Deniker at Anthropological Institute, 21; Obituary
Notice of Prof. Giustiniano Nicolucci, 39; Anthropo-
logical Notes, 68, 452; North Queensland Ethnography,
the Manufacture of Stone Implements, Dr. Walter E.
Roth, 68; Recent Archzological Discoveries in Crete,
Proposed Chronology of Cretan Civilisation, S. Reinach,
69; the Practical Value of Anthropology, Sir Richard
Temple, 130; Magic Origin of Moorish Designs, Dr.
Ed. Westermarck, 165; Difficulties of the Ethnographic
Survey in the Mysore, E. Thurston, 182; the People of
the North-east of Scotland, 186; the Native Tribes of
South-east Australia, A. W. Howitt, A. Ernest Crawley,
225; Group Marriage, with Especial Reference to
Australia, N. W. Thomas, 478; Folk-tales of Plains
Indians, Dr. G. A. Dorsey and Dr. A. L. Kroeber, 417;
P. E. Goddard, 418; Death of Prof. Adolf Bastian, 421;
Dog-motive in Bornean Design, E. B. Haddon, 430;
Morphology and Anthropology, W. L. H. Duckworth,
433; Studies from the Anthropological Laboratory, the
Anatomy School, Cambridge, W. L. H. Duckworth,
433; Indian Culture in California, A. L. Kroeber, 452;
Hair Follicles of Negroes, Dr. A. Bloch and Dr. P.
Vigier, 452; Stone Implements in Darjeeling District,
E. H. C. Walsh, 453; ‘‘ Negroid’’ Characters in Euro-
pean Skulls, Prof. Manouvrier, 453; Comparative Study
of the Skeletal Variations of the Foot in Primates and
in Man, Th. Volkov, 453; a Great Oxford Discovery,
Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., 510; the Ancient Races of
the Thebaid, Prof. Arthur Thomson, 583; Prof. Karl
Pearson, F.R.S., 583; the Maoris of North New Zealand,
Prof. J. Macmillan Brown, 565
Anticipations, H. G. Wells, 193
Anticyclones, Inversions of Temperature and Humidity in,
Dr. A. Lawrence Rotch, 510
Ants: Ants and some other Insects, an Inquiry into the
Psychic Powers of these Animals, Dr. August Forel,
Prof. William Morton Wheeler, 29; the Lubbock Formi-
carium, 181
ieee ] Index V
Apes, Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid, A. T.
Mundy, 125;.N. C. Macnamara, 125
5 Aquile, New Variable Stars in the Region about, Prof.
Wolf, 519
Arachnidz : a Note on the Coloration of Spiders, Oswald
H. Latter, 6
Arber (E. A. Newell), Paleozoic Seed Plants, 68;
Sporangium-like Organs of Glossopteris Browniana, 382
Arc Spectra of the Alkali Metals, F. A. Saunders, 133
Arc Spectra, the Appearance of Spark Lines in, Dr. Henry
Crew, 159
Archzology: Recent Archzological Discoveries in Crete,
Proposed Chronology of Cretan Civilisation, S. Reinach,
69; ‘‘ Find’’ of Royal Statues at Thebes, G. Legrain,
126; on an Ossiferous Cave of Pleistocene Age at Hoe
Grange Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington (Derbyshire),
H. H. Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S., 165,
488; Herculaneum and the Proposed International Ex-
cavation, Dr. Charles Waldstein, 182; Worked Flints
Discovered at Culmore, 208; Records of the Reign of
Tukulti-Ninib I., King of Assyria about B.c. 1275, L. W.
King, F.S.A., 222; Types of Stone Implements found in
Taaibosch Spruit, J. P. Johnson, 236; Notes on Stone-
henge, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 297, 345,
367, 391, 535; Question of Free Access to Stonehenge,
613; the Tombs of Minoan Knossos, A. J. Evans, 303;
Man and the Mammoth at the Quaternary Period in the
Soil of the Rue de Rennes, M. Capitan, 312; Remains
of the Prehistoric Age in England, Bertram C. A.
Windle, F.R.S., 322; Exploration at the Ancient British
Lake Village at Glastonbury, Prebendary Grant, 422;
Archeological Researches in Costa Rica, C. V. Hart-
man, Colonel George Earl Church, 461; Stone Imple-
ments in Darjeeling District, E. H. C. Walsh, 453;
Phaistos and Hagia Triada, Crete, 465; Discovery at
Boiron of a Tomb of the Bronze Age, F. A. Forel, 493;
North African Petroglyphs, E. F. Gautier, 570;
Stanton Drew, A. L. Lewis, 584; the Fort and Stone-
lined Pits at Inyanga Contrasted with the Great Zim-
babwe, R. N. Hall, 598; Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-
ways, A. J. Hubbard and G. Hubbard, 611
Archebiosis and Heterogenesis, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian,
F.R.S., 30
Archer (Mr.), the Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales,
18
Architects, the Institution of Naval, 594
Arctica: Fate of Baron Toll’s Expedition, 467; State of
the Ice in the Arctic Seas during 1904, 567
Argon, the Discovery of, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.,
83; the Translator, 102
Ariés (E.), la Statique chimique basée sur les deux Prin-
cipes fondamentaux de la Thermodynamique, 247
Arithmetic: New School Arithmetic, Charles Pendlebury
and F. E. Robinson, 75 ; New School Examples in Arith-
metic, Charles Pendlebury and F. E. Robinson, 75;
Clive’s Shilling Arithmetic, 507
Arkansas, Zinc and Lead Deposits of Northern, G. I.
Adams, 450
Arnett (B.), the Elements of Geometry, Theoretical and
Practical, 507
Arnold (Prof. J. O.), on the Occurrence of Widmann-
statten’s Figures in Steel Castings, 32; Report of the
Commission appointed by Clifford Sifton, Minister of
the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to investigate the
Different Electrothermic Processes for the smelting of
Iron Ores and the making of Steel in Europe, 258
Arnold (Robert Brandon), Scientific Fact and Metaphysical
Reality, 485
Arnold-Bemrose (H. H.), an Ossiferous Pleistocene Cavern
at Hoe Grange Quarry, 165, 488
Arris and Gale Lectures on the Neurology of Vision, J.
Herbert Parsons, 340
eo cKs Production of Rubies by Fusion, A. Verneuil,
180
Artom (Alessandro), Wireless Telegraphy with Circular
Waves, 517
Ascensions of 2120 Southern Stars, Right, Prof. W.
Doberck, 545
Asia, the Species of Dalbergia of South-Eastern, Dr. D.
Prain, 363
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 288, 336, 551
Assyriology: Records of the Reign of Tukulti-Ninib I.,
King of Assyria about B.c. 1275, L. W. King, F.S.A., 222
Astronomy: Our Astronomical Column, 16, 39, 63, 89, 114,
133, 158, 185, 211, 233, 256, 281, 306, 328, 353, 374, 400,
424, 449, 469, 494, 518, 544, 569, 592, 617; Astronomical
Occurrences in November, 16; in December, 114; in
January, 1905, 211; in February, 328; in March, 424; in
April, 518; in May, 617; Encke’s Comet 1904 b, M.
Kaminsky, 16, 114; Prof. Max Wolf, 63, 89; Prof-
Millosevich, 89, 114; Prof. E. Hartwig, 89; Herr Mos-
chick, 114; Dr. Smart, 114; Herr van d Bilt, 185;
Brightness of Encke’s Comet, J. Holetschek, 469; Simul-
taneous Occurrence of Solar and Magnetic Disturbances,
A. Nippoldt, 16; the Third Band of the Air Spectrum,
H. Deslandres and A. Kannapell, 17; the Coming Shower
of Leonids, W. F. Denning, 30; John R. Henry, 30;
Observations of the Leonid Meteors, 1904, W. H. Mil-
ligan, 83; Alphonso King, 102; John R. Henry, 126;
Mr. Denning, 353; Observations of Leonids at Harvard,
1904, 233; on the Occurrence of Widmannstatten’s
Figures in Steel Castings, Prof. J. O. Arnold and A.
McWilliam, 32; Death of Dr. Frank McClean, F.R.S.,
36; Obituary Notice of, 58; Apparatus for Measuring the
Velocity of the Earth’s Rotation, Prof. A. Foppl, 39;
the Perseid Shower, A. King, 40; Observations of
Perseids, M. Chrétien, 89; M. Perrotin, 89; G. A.
Quignon, 89; Prof. S. Zammarchi, 133; V- Fournier,
A. Chaudot, and G. Fournier, 167; the Dumb-Bell
Nebula, Louis Rabourdin, 40; Harvard College Ob-
servatory : Plan for the Endowment of Astronomical Re-
search, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 40; the Rotation of
Venus, P. Lowell, 47; the Rotation of Mars, P. Lowell,
47; Longitude Observations of Points on Mars, Mr.
Lowell, 449; Forthcoming Opposition of Mars, R. Bu-
chanan, 494; Reality of Various Features on Mars, V.
Cerulli, 592; Changes on Mars, Mr. Lowell, 618; Mr.
Lampland, 618; Prof. W. H. Pickering, 618; Seasonal
Development of Martian Canals, Mr. Lowell, 282; the
Alternating Variability of, Mr. Lowell, 494; a Probable
Variable of the Algol Type, J. E. Gore, 55; Deslandres’s
Formula for the Lines in the Oxygen Band Series, Prof.
Deslandres, 63; Annual Report of the Cape Observatory,
Sir David Gill, 63; the Transition from Primary to
Secondary Spectra, P. G. Nutting, 63; the Temperature
of Meteorites, H. E. Wimperis, 81; Heights of Meteors,
Mr. Denning, 89; the Photographic Spectrum of Jupiter,
G. Millochau, 89; the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, Mr.
Denning and Rey. T. E. Phillips, 211; Stanley Williams,
211; Changes on the Surface of Jupiter, Prof. G. W.
Hough, 306; Discovery of a Sixth Satellite to Jupiter,
Prof. Perrine, 256, 282; the Reported Sixth Satellite of
Jupiter, Prof. Wolf, 306; Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite, Prof.
Perrine, 329; Prof. C. A. Young, 364; Profs. Perrine and
Aitken, 494; Visual Observations of, Mr. Hammond, 569 ;
Reported Discovery of a Seventh Satellite to Jupiter, 424;
Jupiter’s Seventh Satellite, Prof. Campbell, 449; Prof.
Perrine, 449; Rotation of Jupiter’s Satellites I. and II.,
Dr. P. Guthnick, 469; the November Meteors of 1904,
W. F. Denning, 93; Variations on the Moon’s. Surface,
Prof. W. H. Pickering, 114; a Possible Explanation of
the Formation of the Moon, George Romanes, 143;
Changes Upon the Moon’s Surface, Prof. William H.
Pickering, 226; Origin of Lunar Formation, G. Romanes,
256; Dr. Johnston-Lavis, 256; Dr. G. K. Gilbert, 256;
Geology of the Moon, Sir Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 348;
Observations of the Recent Eclipse of the Moon, M.
Puiseux, 518; Celestial Photography at High Altitudes,
Prof. Payne and Dr. H. C. Wilson, 114; Distribution of
Stellar Spectra, Mrs. Fleming, 115; Absorption by Water
Vapour in the Infra-red Solar Spectrum, F. E. Fowle,
jun., 115: Royal Astronomical Society, 118, 190, 311,
502, 622; Magnetic Disturbances, 1882 to 1903, and their
Association with Sun-spots, E. W. Maunder, 118; Re-
discovery of Tempel’s Second Comet, M. Gavelle, 133;
J. Coniel, 133; Tempel’s Comet (1904 c), M. St. Javelle,
185; M. Coniel, 185; Ephemeris for, J. Coniel, 282;
Search-Ephemeris for Tempel’s First Periodic Comet
(1867 II.), A. Gautier, 545; Parallax of a Low Meteor,
P. G6tz, 133; Date of the Most Recent Sun-spot Mini-
mum, E. Tringali, 133; Sun-spot Spectra, Father Cortie,
158; Magnetic Storms and Associated Sun-spots, Rev.
Vi Index Nature,
A. L. Cortie, 311; Prof. Schuster, 311; the Large Solar
Spot of February, 1905, Th. Moureux, 431; Nature of
Sun-spots, Th. Moreux, 592; Relations between Solar
and Terrestrial Phenomena, H. I. Jensen, 158; the Sun’s
Rotation, Prof. N. C. Dunér, 401; Solar Radiation and
its possible Variability, 494; Instructions to Solar Ob-
servers, 592; Photography of the Solar Corona at the
Summit of Mont Blanc, A. Hansky, 527; the Orbit of
Sirius, Prof. Doberck, 133; Variable Radial Velocity of
Sirius, Prof. Campbell, 494; Harvard Observations of
Variable Stars, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 133; Correction
of the Longer Term in the Polar Motion, Mr. Kimura,
133; Arc Spectra of the Alkali Metals, F. A. Saunders,
13353 Shower of Andromedids from Biela’s Comet (?),
W. F. Denning, 139; Characteristics of Nova Aurigze
(1892) and Nova Persei (1902), Dr. J. Halm, 142; the
Eleventh Eros Circular, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.,
154; Eclipse Observations, Prof. Kobold, 159; C. W.
Wirtz, 159; the Appearance of Spark Lines in Arc
Spectra, Dr. Henry Crew, 159; the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, 159; Discovery of a New Comet
(1904 d), M. Giacobini, 185; Comet 1904 d (Giacobini),
233; M. Ebell, 256; Elements and Ephemeris of, M.
Ebell, 211; M. Giacobini, 211; Observations of Comet
1904 d, Prof. Hartwig, 281; Prof. Nijland, 281; Prof.
Ambronn, 281; M. Borrelly, 281; M. Ebell, 281;
Ephemeris for, M. Ebell, 353; Herr Pechiile, 353;
Observations of Occultations by Planets, Dr. T. J. J.
See, 185; Relative Drift of the Hyades Stars, Dr. Down-
ing, F.R.S., 185; Designations of the Variable Stars
discovered during 1904, 185; the Companion to the
Observatory, 186; on a very Sensitive Method of
determining the Irregularities of a Pivot, Dr. Rambaut,
190; Dark Nebulosities, W. S. Franks, 190; Studies in
Astronomy, J. Ellard Gore, 199; Radiation Pressure,
Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., 200; Observations of
Bright Meteors, Dr. J. MGller, 211; Report of the United
States Naval Observatory, Rear-Admiral Chester, 211;
Another New Comet (1904 e), M. Borrelly, 233; Dr.
Cohn, 233; Elements and Ephemeris for Comet 1904 e,
Dr. Elis Stromgren, 256; Observations of, Prof. Hartwig,
281; Prof. Nijland, 281; Prof. Ambronn, 281; M. Bor-
relly, 281; M. Ebell, 281; Observations on the Borrelly
Comet (December 28, 1904), G. Rayet, 287; Elliptical
Character of the New Borrelly Comet (e 1904), G. Fayet,
335; Ephemeris for Comet 1904 e, M. Ebell, 329; Dr.
E. Stromgren, 353, 400; Orbit of, M. Fayet, 353; Re-
vised Elements for, M. Fayet, 400; Comet 1904 e (Bor-
relly), Dr. E. Stromgren, 518; Light-Curve of 5 Cephei,
Dr. B. Meyerman, 234; Structure of the Third Cyanogen
Band, Franz Jungbluth, 234; New Refraction Tables, Dr.
L. de Ball, 234; the Annuaire du Bureau des Longi-
tudes, 234; Eclipse Results and Problems, M. le Comte
de la Baume Pluvinel, 234; Bibliography of Contemporary
Astronomical Works, Prof. Ernest Lebon, 234; the
Mathematical Theory of Eclipses according to Chau-
venet’s Transformation of Bessel’s Method, Roberdeau
Buchanan, 244; Colours of Stars in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, Dr. J. Moller, 256; the Heavens at a Glance,
256; Astronomical ‘‘ Annuario’’ of the Turin Observa-
tory, 256; Death of Paul Henry, 278; Obituary Notice
of, 302; Variable Stars and Nebulous Areas in Scorpio,
Miss H. S. Leavitt, 282; Report of the Natal Observa-
tory, E. Nevill, 282; the Jesuit Observatory at Belen,
Havana, 282; the Isochronism of the Pendulum in the
Astronomical Clock, Ch. Féry, 288; Fireside Astronomy,
D. W. Horner, 292; Recently Observed Satellites, Sir
Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 295; Prof. W. H. Pickering, 390;
Notes on Stonehenge, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., 297, 345, 367, 391, 535; Periodical Comets due
to Return in 1905, W. T. Lynn, 306; Additional Periodical
Comets due this Year, Mr. Denning, 374; Stars having
Peculiar Spectra, Mrs. Fleming, 306; Real Paths,
Heights, and Velocities of Leonids, Mr. Denning, 306;
New Method for Measuring Radial-Velocity Spectro-
grams, Prof. J. Hartmann, 306; the Eclipse of Aga-
thocles in the year —309, Prof. Newcomb, 311; Death
and Obituary Notice of E. Crossley, 325; Solar Eclipse
Problems, Prof. Perrine, 329; the Conditions in the
Solar Atmosphere during 1900-1, N. Donitch, 329; Tri-
angulation of the Pleiades Stars, Dr. Elkin, 329; a Bright
J ine 8, 1905
Meteor, J. Ryan, 329; Improvements in Equatorial
Telescope Mountings, Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S., 334;
Temperature of Certain Stars, W. E. Wilson, 334;
Résultats du Voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898,
1899, sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de
Gomery, 337; Spectra of y Cygni, a Canis Minoris and
e Leonis, E. Haschek and K. Kostersitz, 354; Systematic
Survey of Double Stars, Prof. R. G. Aitken, 354; Report
of the Yale Observatory, 1900-4, Dr. Elkin, 354;
Secondary Shadow on the Rings of Saturn, M. Amann
and Cl. Rozet, 359, 401; Observations of Saturn’s Satel-
ites, Prof. Hussey, 449; a Lunar Rainbow, J. McCrae,
366; Death of F. J. P. Folie, 371; Ephemeris for
Brooks’s Comet 1904 I., 374; Observations of Comets,
M. Quenisset, 374; Dr. R. G. Aitken, 449; Mr. Maddrill,
449; Castor a Quadruple Star, Prof. Campbell, 375; the
Approaching Total Solar Eclipse of August 30, Dr.
William J. S. Lockyer, 393 ; Observations of the Zodiacal
Light, A. Hansky, 401; Permanent Numbers for the
Minor Planets discovered during 1904, 401; Astronomical
Discovery, Herbert Hall Turner, F.R.S., 410; Planetary
Tides in the Solar Atmosphere, Emile Anceaux, 424; the
Bruce Photographic Telescope, Prof. Barnard, 424;
Physical Conditions of the Planets, Prof. T. J. J. See,
424; Discussion of Central European Longitudes, Prof.
Th. Albrecht, 424; a Popular Guide to the Heavens, Sir
Robert S. Ball, F.R.S., 437; the Government Observa-
tory at Victoria, P. Baracchi, 449; Bright Meteors, R. L.
Jones, 449; Application of the Iris Diaphragm in Astro-
nomy, M. Salet, 455; the Iris Diaphragm in Astronomy,
M. Salet, 545; the Planet Fortuna, W. T., 461, 511;
W. E. P., 461; Spencer Pickering, F.R.S., 486;
Structure of the Corona, Dr. Ch. Nordmann, 469;
Radiant Point of the Bielid Meteors, K. Bohlin, 469;
January Fireballs, Mr. Denning, 469; Orbits of Minor
Planets, Prof. J. Bauschinger, 469; Popular Star Maps,
Comte de Miremont, 484; Galileo’s Tower, 492 ; Constant
Errors in Meridian Observations, J. G. Porter, 495;
Further Researches on the Temperature Classification of
Stars, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 501; the
Spectroheliograph of the Solar Physics Observatory, Dr.
W. J. S. Lockyer, 502; New Theory to Account for the
Duplication of Lines in the Spectra of Variable Stars,
Prof. Garbasso, 516; Discovery of a New Comet, 1905 a,
M. Giacobini, 518; Comet 1905 a (Giacobini), Prof.
Aitken, 544; Dr. Strémgren, 569: Prof. Hartwig, 569;
G. Bigourdan, 575; Elements and Ephemeris for, General
Bassot, 617; Dr. Palisa, 618; New Variable Stars in the
Region about 5 Aquila, Prof. Wolf, 519; Orbit of the
Binary Star Ceti 82, Prof. Aitken, 519; Radial Velo-
cities of Certain Stars, Prof. Campbell and Dr. H. D.
Curtis, 519; Star Places in the Vulpecula Cluster, Dr.
H. Meyer, 519; Death of Prof. Pietro Tacchini, 540;
Obituary Notice of, 564; the late Prof. Tacchini, Prof.
R. Meldola, F.R.S., 583; Photography of the Corona
without a Total Eclipse, A. Hansky, 544; Right As-
censions of 2120 Southern Stars, Prof. W. Doberck, 545 ;
Constancy of Spark Wave-lengths, G. W. Middlekauff,
545; the Physical Cause of the Earth’s Rigidity, Prof.
T. J. J. See, 559; the Lyrid Meteors, John R. Henry,
560; Variability of a Minor Planet, Prof. Wendell, 569;
Real Path of a Bright Meteor, H. Rosenberg, 569; a
New 24-inch Reflector at Harvard, Prof. E. C. Picker-
ing, 569; Stars with Variable Radial Velocities, 569;
Stonyhurst College Observatory, Father Sidgreaves, 592 ;
Stanton Drew, A. L. Lewis, 584; Astrophysical Work at
the Smithsonian Institution, C. G. Abbot, 592: Value of
the Astronomical Refraction Constant, L. Courvoisier,
592; a Little Known Property of the Gyroscope, Prof.
William H. Pickering, 608; Protography of Planetary
Nebulz, W. S. Franks, 618; Radial Velocities of
“* Standard-Velocity Stars,’’ Prof. Belopolsky, 618; Mag-
nitude Equation in the Right Ascensions of the Eros
Stars, Prof. R. H. Tucker, 618
Astruc (A.), the Glycerophosphates of Piperazine, 504
Atlas of Microscopical Petrography, Twentieth Century, 341
Atmosphere, the Absorption of Light by the, Dr. A.
Bemporod, 402
Atmosphere, the Circulation of the, James Thomson, 365
Atmosphere, the Conditions in the Solar, during 1900-1,
N. Donitch, 329
Nature,
June 8, 1905
| Atmospheric and Oceanic Carbon Dioxide, Dr. A. Harden,
{ 283; Dr. A. Krogh, 283
Atomic Weights, International, Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin, 461
Attractions of Teneriffe, Hugh Richardson, 415
Auger (V.), New Method for Preparing Organic Derivatives
of Phosphorus, 24; Action of Halogen Derivatives of the
Metalloids on Halogen Alkyl Compounds, 47; Thioformic
Acid, 96; Acetyl-lactic Acid, 576
Austin (Sarah), the Story without an End, 76
Australia, the Native Tribes of South-East, A. W. Howitt,
A. Ernest Crawley, 225
Australian Minerals, Radio-activity and Radium in, D.
Mawson and T. H. Laby, 168
Avebury (Lord), F.R.S., on the Shape of the Stems of
Plants, 142; Experiment in Mountain Building, 575
Ayrton (Prof. W. E.), Experiments to show the Retardation
of the Signalling Current of the Pacific Cable, 190
Azambuja (M. d’), Variation of the Band Spectra of Carbon
with the Pressure and some new Band Spectra of Carbon,
575
Babes (A.), Physiological Effects of Ovariotomy in the
Goat, 312
Babylonia, the Devils and Evil Spirits of, R. Campbell
Thompson, 249
Bacon (Rey. J. M.), Death of, 207
Bacteriology : Archebiosis and Heterogenesis, Dr. H. Charl-
ton Bastian, F.R.S., 30; on the Origin of Flagellate
Monads and of Fungus-germs from Minute Masses of
Zoogleea, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 77; Hetero-
genetic Fungus-germs, George Massee, 175; Hetero-
genetic Origin of Fungus Germs, Dr. H. Charlton Bas-
tian, 272; Occurrence of certain Ciliated Infusoria
within the Eggs of a Rotifer, considered from the Point
of View of Heterogenesis, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian,
F.R.S., 548; on the Action Exerted upon the Staphylo-
coccus pyogenes by the Human Blood Fluids, and on the
Elaboration of Protective Elements in the Human Organ-
ism in Response to Inoculations of a Staphylococcus Vac-
cine, Dr. A. E. Wright and Captain Stewart R. Douglas,
67; on the Action Exerted upon the Tubercle Bacillus
by the Human Blood Fluids, and on the Elaboration of
Protective Elements in the Human Organism in Response
to Inoculations of a Tubercle Vaccine, Dr. A. E.
Wright and Captain Stewart R. Douglas, 67;
Water-purification by Blue Vitriol, G. H. Grosvenor,
156; Bacteriological Diagnosis of Plague, Dr. Klein,
237; Bacteria of Proteus vulgaris, Dr. Sidney Martin,
237; Bacterial Test for Estimation of Air-Pollution, Dr.
Mervyn Gordon, 237; a Yellow Race of Bacillus pseud-
avabinus from the Quince, Dr. R. Greig Smith, 263 ;
Hydrogen Peroxide in the Nascent State, and its Bac-
tericidal Activity on Organisms in Water, Ed. Bonjean,
263; Hyphoids and Bacteroids, Paul Vuillemin, 263; the
Bacterial Origin of Macrozamia Gum, Dr. R. Greig
Smith, 264; Bacteria in Sewage, Messrs. Winslow and
Belcher, 325; Intimate Connection between the Con-
figuration of Chemical Substances and their Suscepti-
bility to Fermentation, C. Ulpiani and M. Cingolani,
352; Bacteriology and the Public Health, Dr. George
Newman, Dr. A. C. Houston, 388; Vitality of the
Typhoid Bacillus in Shell-fish, Dr. Klein, F.R.S., 421
Baker (Dr. H. F.), Alternants and Continuous Groups, 311
Baker (J. G., F.R.S.), Revised Classification of Roses, 430
Baker (W. M.), Elementary Algebra, 507
Bakerian Lecture at Royal Society, the Reception and
Utilisation of Energy by a Green Leaf, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, F.R.S., 522
Balfour (Dr. Andrew), First Report of the Wellcome Re-
search Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College,
Khartoum, 605
Ball (Dr. L. de), New Refraction Tables, 234
Ball (Sir Robert S.), a Popular Guide to the Heavens, 437
Balland (M.), the Bleaching of Flour by Electricity, 96
Ballistics: Exterior Ballistics, Prof. Geo. Forbes, F.R.S.,
380
Baly (E. C. C.), Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of certain
Enol-keto-tautomerides, 549
Baracchi (P.), the Government Observatory at Victoria, 449
Barker (Prof. Aldred F.), Spinning and Twisting of Long
L[ndex
vil
Vegetable Fibres (Flax, Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie),
Herbert R. Carter, 579
Barker (T. V.), Regular. Growth of Crystals of one Sub-
stance upon those of Another, 382
Barkla (Dr. Charles G.), Secondary Réntgen Radiation,
440; Polarised Rontgen Radiation, 477
Barnard (Prof.), the Bruce Photographic Telescope, 424
Barnard (S.), a New Geometry for Senior Forms, 174
Barnes (Rev. E. W.), Asymptotic Expansion of Integral
Functions of Finite Non-zero Order, 382
Barnes (Prof. H. T.), the Heating Effect of the y Rays
from Radium, 151
Barnes (Dr. H. T.), the Flow of Water through Pipes—
Experiments on Stream-line Motion and the Measure-
ment of Critical Velocity, 357
Barnett (S. J.), Elements of Electromagnetic Theory, 409
Barometer, the Moon and, Alex. B. MacDowall, 320
Barometer, Remarkable Temperature Inversion and the
Recent High, W. H. Dines, 365
Barrett (C. G.), Death of, 181; Obituary Notice of, 208
Barrett (Prof. W. F., F.R.S.), Physical Properties of a
Series of Alloys of Iron, 132; Method of Protecting the
Hands of the Operator from X-Ray Burns, 167
Basset (A. B., F.R.S.), Misuse of Words and Phrases, 30;
Compound Singularities of Curves, 101; Compulsory
Greek at Cambridge, 318
Basset (Henry), Heat of Formation of Calcium Hydride
and Nitride, 551
Bassot (General), Elements and Ephemeris
1905 a (Giacobini), 617
“ Bastard " Logwood, S. N. C., 222
Bastian (Prof. Adolf), Death of, 421
Bastian (Dr. H. Charlton, F.R.S.), Archebiosis and
Heterogenesis, 30; on the Origin of Flagellate Monads
and of Fungus-germs from Minute Masses of Zooglcea,
77; the Heterogenetic Origin of Fungus-germs, 272;
Occurrence of Certain Ciliated Infusoria within the Eggs
of a Rotifer, considered from the Point of View of
Heterogenesis, 548
Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy, Prize Sub-
jects of the, 354
Bateman (H.), the Weddle Quartic Surface, 478
Bateson (W., F.R.S.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge,
for Comet
390
Bauer (Dr. L. A.), a Contemplated Magnetic Survey of the
North Pacific Ocean by the Carnegie Institution, 389
Baumann (Mr.), the Nature of the Hydrosulphites, 374
Bausch and Lomb’s B.B.P. Portable Microscope, 568
Bauschinger (Prof. J.), Orbits of Minor Planets, 469
Baxandall (F. E.), Enhanced Lines of Titanium, Iron, and
Chromium in the Fraunhoferic Spectrum, 94; on the
Group iv. Lines of Silicium, 189; the Stellar Line near
A 4686, 475; the Spectrum of mw Centauri, 476; the Arc
Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Celestial
Spectra, 476
Bay (Isidore), Diphenylamine Reaction with Nitric Acid,
527,
Beavan (Arthur H.), Birds I have Known, 581
Beazley (C. Raymond), the First True Maps, 159
Beccari (O.), Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo,
Travels and Researches of a Naturalist in Sarawak, 203
Beck (Messrs. R. and J.), New Lambex System of Day-
light Loading and Film and Plate Changing, 352
Beckmann (Ernst), the Differential Mercury Thermometer,
518
Becquerel (Prof. Henri), some Scientific Centres, vi., the
Physical Laboratory at the Museum d'Histoire naturelle,
177
Becquerel (Paul), Plant Radio-activity, 263 ;
Ether and Chloroform on Dried Seeds, 600
Becquerel Rays and the Properties of Radium, Hon. R. J.
Strutt, Dr. O. W. Richardson, 172
Bedford (Duke of), Experiments in the Manuring of Fruit
Crops, 356
Bees, Attractions offered to, by
492
Behrens (Dr. T. H.), Death of, 325, 420
Beilby (G. T.), Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and
Gamma Rays of Radium, 476
Belcher (Mr.), Bacteria in Sewage, 325
Beldam (George W.), Great Lawn Tennis Players, 436
Action of
Flowers, Miss J. Wery,
vill
Index
[ Nature,
June 8, 1905
Belen, Havana, Jesuit Observatory at, 282
Belgica, Résultats du Voyage du S.Y., en 1897, 1898,
1899, sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de
Gomery, 337
Bell (C. A.), Determination of Young’s Modulus (Adi-
abatic) for Glass, 359
Bell (Sir Lowthian, Bart.,
Obituary Notice of, 230
Bell (Dr. Robert), the Cancer Problem in a Nutshell, 7
Bell (Ruby G.), Studies of Variation in Insects, 545
Bell Rock, Notes on the Natural History of the, J. M.
Campbell, 221
Bellamy (C. V.), Iron Manufacture in Lagos, 40; Geology
of Cyprus, 310; Geological Map of Cyprus, 471
Bellars (A. E.), Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbo-
hydrates in Presence of Ferrous Sulphate, 478; Com-
pounds of Guanidine with Sugars, 479
Belopolsky (Prof.), Radial Velocities of ‘‘ Standard-velocity
Stars,’’ 618
Beltrami (Eugenio), Opere matematiche di, 293
Bemporod (Dr. A.), zur Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes
in der Erdatmosphire, 402
Bemrose (H. H. Arnold), on an Ossiferous Cave of
Pleistocene Age at Hoe Grange Quarry, Longcliffe, near
Brassington (Derbyshire), 165, 488
Ben Bulben District, the, 91
Ben Nevis, Inversions of Temperature on, Andrew Watt,
583
Benham (Charles E.),
ERS S.)s0 Weath. i0f, erste
Reversal in Influence Machines,
320
Bennett (H. G.), Chlorination of the Isomeric Chloronitro-
benzenes, 478
Bennett (Henry W.), Intensification and Reduction, 341
Bentley (Richard), the Growth of Instrumental Meteor-
ology, 503
Bentley (W. A.), Method of Studying Raindrops, 399
Berbels (Prof. Max), Death of, 181
Berget (A.), a Method of Reading Large Surfaces of
Mercury, 287
Bernard (Ch.), Assimilation Outside the Organism, 431
Berridge (Douglas), Importance of including both Latin
and Science in a Scheme of General Education, 284
Bertelli (Father Timoteo), Death of, 420
Berthelot (M.), the Desiccation of Plants and Vegetable
Tissues, 71; Changes in Stems of Plants under ‘Influence
of Desiccation, 119; Thermochemical Researches on
Brucine and Strychnine, 527; Use of Quartz Vessels
Limited, 544; Use of ‘‘ Hot and Cold Tube ”’ in Proving
the Existence of Chemical Reactions at High Tempera-
tures, Experiments in Hermetically Sealed Quartz Tubes,
68
Bertrand (Gabriel), a New Sugar from the Berries of the
Mountain Ash, 96; Sorbierite, 167; Mountain Ash
Berries and Sorbierite, 210
Besson (Louis), Extraordinary Halo Observed at Paris on
March 26, 576
Beth (Dr. Karl), die orientalische Christenheit der Mittel-
meerlande, 53
Bibliography of Agricultural Science, a, 188
Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1902, a Select,
Bolton, 317
Bibliography of Contemporary Astronomical Works, Prof.
Ernest Lebon, 234
Biela’s Comet (?), Shower of Andromedids from, W. F.
Denning, 139
Bielid Meteors, Radiant Point of the, K. Bohlin, 469
Bigourdan (G.), New Giacobini Comet, 575
Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten vom Stand-
punkte der geometrischen Optik, die, Prof. G. H. Bryan,
BRIS.) 207
Billiards Mathematically Treated, G. W. Hemming, S. H.
Burbury, F.R.S., 362
Billy (M.), Production of the Hyposulphites, 575
Binary Star Ceti 82, Orbit of the, Prof. Aitken, 519
Biology : Lord Kelvin on the Living Cell, 13; Archebiosis
and Heterogenesis, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S.,
30; on the Origin of Flagellate Monads and of Fungus-
germs from Minute Masses of Zoogleea, Dr. H. Charlton
Bastian, F.R.S., 77; Heterogenetic Fungus-germs,
George Massee, 175; Heterogenetic Origin of Fungus-
germs, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 272; Occur-
EG:
rence of Certain Ciliated Infusoria within the Eggs of
a Rotifer, considered from the Point of View of Hetero-
genesis, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 548; the Origin
of Life, Dr. F. J. Allen, 54; George Hookham, tor;
Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle, Dr. Alexander
Gurwitsch, 174; Naturbegriffe und Natururteile, Hans
Driesch, 270; les Heliozoaires d’Eau Douce, E. Penard,
289; the Fresh-water Plankton of the Scottish Lochs, —
W. and G. S. West, 623; the Sarcodina of Loch Ness,
Dr. E. Penard, 623; the Rhizopods and Heliozoa of
Loch Ness, J. Murray, 623; the Wonders of Life, a
Popular Study of Biological Philosophy, Ernst Haeckel,
313; Morphologie und Biologie der Algen, Dr. Friedrich
Oltmanns, George Murray, F.R.S., 362; Mutation, Prof.
T. D. A. Cockerell, 366; Death of Prof. G. B. Howes,
F.R.S., 350; Obituary Notice of, 419; Attractions offered
to Bees by Flowers, Miss J. Wery, 492; Darwin’s Theory
of Female Sexual Selection, Prof. A. Lamcere, 492;
Morphological Superiority of the Male Sex in Animals,
Dr. T. H. Montgomery, 542; Origin of the Markings of
Organisms, Prof. Packard, 542; Alternation of Gener-
ations in Animals, C. H. Chamberlain, 590; Colour-
physiology of the Higher Crustacea, F. Keeble and Dr.
F. W. Gamble, 621; Marine Biology: Report to the
Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of
the Gulf of Manaar, W. A. Herdman, F.R-S., 395;
Larva and Spat of the Canadian Oyster, J. Stafford,
468; Eumedon convictor, a Crustacean accompanying a
Sea-urchin, E. L. Bouvier and G. Seurat, 479; Com-
munity of Type between South African and European
Marine Annelids generally, Prof. McIntosh, 492;
Ecology and Deposits of the Cape Verde Marine Fauna,
C. Crossland, 502; a New British Marine Expedition,
562; Distinct Second Family Type of Lancelets (Cephalo-
chordata), Dr. R. Goldschmidt, 590; Memoirs on Marine
Biology, 618
Bionomics of Exotic Flowers, the, Prof. Percy Groom, 26
Birds: Bird Notes from the Nile, Lady William Cecil, 150;
Birds by Land and Sea, the Record of a Year’s Work
with Field Glass and Camera, J. M. Boraston, 179; a
New British Bird! W. P. Pycraft, 201; Can Birds
Smell? Dr. Alex. Hill, 318; Game, Shore, and Water
Birds of India, with Additional References to their
Allied Species in other Parts of the World, Colonel A.
Le Messurier, 363; the Birds of Calcutta, F. Finn, 438;
Birds I have Known, Arthur H. Beavan, 581
Bischoff (C. A.), Materialien der Stereochemie, 386
Black (F. A.), Tertestrial Magnetism and its Causes, 557
Blackie’s Handy Book of Logarithms, 271
Blaise (E. E.), Quadrivalent Oxygen, 240, 480; the Migra-
tion of Ethylene Linkage in Unsaturated Acyclic Acids,
311; Direct Fixation of Ethero-organo-magnesium
Derivatives on the Ethylene Linkage of Unsaturated
Esters, 383; Characterisation of Lactones by Means of
Hydrazine, 527 j
Blakeslee (A. F.), Sexual Reproduction of the Mucorinex,
61
Blanc (G.), the Reduction of the Anhydrides of the Dibasic
Acids, 240; Methylcamphenylol, 287
Bleekrode (Dr. L.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 540
Bloch (Dr. A.), Hair Follicles of Negroes, 452
Bloch (Eugéne), the Conductivity of Gases from a Flame,
96
Blood Pressures in Man, Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S.,
375
Blue Flints at Bournemouth, J. W. Sharpe, 176
Blue-stained Flints, Dr. F. J. Allen, 83; Thomas L. D.
Porter, 126
Bliitenbiologie, Handbuch der, Prof. Percy Groom, 26
Bodlaender (Dr. Guido), Death of, 325
Bodroux (F.), Mode of Formation of some Monosubstituted
Derivatives of Urethane, 624
Bog-slide in Roscommon, 207
Bohlin (K.), Radiant Point of the Bielid Meteors, 469
Boldt (Dr. J.), Trachoma, 108
Bolton (H. C.), a Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-
1902, 317
Boltwood (Bertram B.), Radio-activity of Natural Waters,
233
Bombay, the Flora of the Presidency of, T. Cooke, 124
Bone (W. A.), the Combustion of Ethylene, 70
Nature,
June §, 1905
Lndex ix
Bonjean (Ed.), Hydrogen Peroxide in the Nascent State,
and its Bactericidal Activity on Organisms in Waters, 263
Books, Dates of Publication of Scientific, R. P. Paraiypye,
320; B. Hobson, 440
Books of Science, Forthcoming, 473
Boole (M. E.), the Preparation of the Child for Science,
16
Booth (Wm. H.), Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy,
Becaston (J. M.), Birds by Land and Sea, the Record of
a Year’s Work with Field Glass and Camera, 179
Bordier’s (M.) Supposed Demonstration of n-Rays by
Photographic Methods, M. Chanoz and M. Perrigot, 287
Borneo, Wanderings in the Great Forests of, Travels and
Researches of a Naturalist in Sarawak, O. Beccari, 203
Borrelly (M.), Another New Comet (1904 e), 233, 281;
Observations of Comet 1904 d, 281
Borrelly Comet 1904 e, Dr. E. Strémgren, 518; Revised
Elements for, M. Fayet, 400; see also Astronomy
Botany: the Bionomics of Exotic Flowers, Prof. Percy
Groom, 26; the Pollination of Exotic Flowers, Ella M.
Bryant, 249; the Direction of the Spiral in the Petals of
Selenipedium, George Wherry, 31; the Available Plant
Food in Soils, H. Ingle, 70; the Desiccation of Plants
and Vegetable Tissues, M. Berthelot, 71; Changes in
Stems of Plants under Influence of Desiccation, M.
Berthelot, 119; the Pine-apple Gall of the Spruce, E. R.
Burdon, 71; Linnean Society, 70, 239, 430, 550, 599;
New South Wales Linnean Society, 72, 263; Sexual
Reproduction of the Mucorineze, A. F. Blakeslee, 61;
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, Camillo Karl Schneider,
Prof. Percy Groom, 76; Method of Preparing Clayed
Cocoa in Trinidad, 87; Trehalase in Fungi, Em. Bour-
quelot and H. Heérissey, 119; Law of Variation of
Weight of Penicillium glaucum as a Function of its
Age, Mlle. W. Stefanowska, 120; Vegetation in Atmo-
spheres Rich in Carbon Dioxide, E. Demoussy, 120;
die Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen, G. Haberlandt, 123; the
Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, T. Cooke, 124; on
the Shape of the Stems of Plants, Lord Avebury, 142;
Formation and Distribution of the Essential Oil in an
Annual Plant, Eug. Charabot and G. Laloue, 144; Floral
Abnormalities produced by Parasites acting at a Dis-
tance, Marin Molliard, 144; Plants and Spore-infection,
E. S. Salmon, 157; the Mistaken Idea that Birds are
Seed-carriers, F. Nicholson, 167; the Dissemination
of Seeds by Birds, C. Oldham, 334; a New South African
Cypress, Callistric schwarzii, Dr. R. Marloth, 168;
the Plant Associations of the Auckland Isles, Dr.
Cockayne, 183; the Flowering of the Bamboo, A. Tingle,
183; Proteid Digestion in Animals and Plants, Prof.
S. H. Vines, F.R.S., 189; some Peculiar Features in
Seedlings of Peperomia, A. W. Hill, 191; the Resist-
ance to Desiccation of some Fungi, Madame Z. Gatin-
Gruzewska, 191; on the Native Flora of New South
Wales, part ii., R. H. Cambage, 192; a Treatise on
the British Fresh-water Algz, Prof. G. S. West, 194;
a Monograph of the British Desmidiacee, W. West and
Prof. G. S. West, 194; Morphologie und Biologie der
Algen, Dr. Friedrich Oltmanns, George Murray, F.R.S.,
362; the Morphological Nature of the Ovary in the
Genus Cannabis, Dr. Prain, 209; Mountain Ash Berries
and Sorbierite, M. Bertrand, 210; Mimicry among
Plants, Dr. R. Marloth, 232; Flora of Hampshire, in-
cluding the Isle of Wight, Frederick Townsend, 245;
Plant Associations in Moorland Districts, Francis J.
Lewis, 257: the Ascent of Water in Trees, Dr. Alfred
J. Ewart, 261; a Yellow Race of Bacillus pseudarabinus
from the Quince, Dr. R. Greig Smith, 263; Plant Radio-
activity, Paul Becquerel, 263: the Bacterial Origin of
Macrozamia Gum, Dr. R. Greig Smith, 264; Death and
Obituary Notice of J. G. Luehmann, 279; Trees, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, 290; Cassava Poisoning, Sir Daniel
Morris, 305; Chlorophyll Assimilation in the Absence of
Oxygen, Jean Friedel, 312; the Culture of Fruit Trees
in Pots, Josh Brace, 314; Hints on Collecting and Pre-
serving Plants, S. Guiton, 317; the Fertilisation of
Jasminum nudiflorum, Prof. John G. McKendrick,
F.R.S., 319; the Cultivation and Preparation of Para
Rubber, W. H. Johnson, 321, 352; C. Simmonds, 321;
New Indiarubber Euphorbia, Henri Jumelle, 600; Tea
and Rubber Cankers, J. B. Carruthers, 615; the Limit
of an Antarctic Phytogeographical Zone, C. Skottsberg,
326; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897,
1898, 1899, sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache
de Gomery, 337; Abbildungen der in Deutschland und
den angrenzenden Gebieten Vorkommenden Grundformen
der Orchideen-arten, Dr. F. Kranzlin, 341; Chemical
Composition of Aleurone Grains, S. Posternak, 359-60;
the Species of Dalbergia of South-eastern Asia, Dr. D.
Prain, 363; Action on Plants of Réntgen and Radium
Rays, Dr. M. Koernicke, 373; Botanical Collecting,
Dr. A. Henry, 380; some New Species and other Chinese
Plants, W. J. Tutcher, 381; use of Leucine and Tyro-
sine as Sources of Nitrogen for Plants, L. Lutz, 383;
Utilisation of the Essential Oils in the Etiolated Plant,
Eug. Charabot and Alex. Hébert, 408; Relations between
Bougainvillia fruticosa and Bougainvillia ramosa, Paul
Hallez, 408; the Genus Eucalyptus, J. H. Maiden, 422;
Central Nucleus in the Cells of the Cyanophyceze, Dr.
O. P. Phillips, 422; Revised Classification of Roses,
J. G. Baker, F.R.S., 430; Assimilation outside the
Organism, Ch. Bernard, 431; Effect of Low Tempera-
tures on the Zoospores of the Alge, E. C. Teodoresco,
432; Praktikum fiir morphologische und systematische
Botanik, Dr. Karl Schumann, 436; Comparative
Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, Prof. E. C.
Jeffery, 447; ‘‘ Biologic Forms” of Erysiphe graminis,
E. S. Salmon, 468; Endophytic Adaptation shown by
Erysiphe graminis, D.C., under Cultural Conditions,
E. S. Salmon, 598; the Giant Trees of Victoria, N. J.
Caire, 468; Comparative Assimilability of Ammonia
Salts, Amines, Amides, and Nitriles, L. Lutz, 480; the
Uses and Wonders of Plant-hairs, Kate E. Styan, 486;
Place-constants for Aster prenanthoides, G. H. Shull,
493; Fungi, Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., at the
Royal Institution, 496; Unsere Pflanzen, F. Soéhns, 510;
Children’s Wild Flowers, Mrs. J. M. Maxwell, 510;
Burbank’s Fruit-hybrids, W. S. Harwood, 516; Sweet
Potatoes, H. H. Cousins, 542; Citrus Parasitic Fungus,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, P. H. Rolfs, 542; Origin
and Composition of the Essence of Herb-Bennet Root,
Em. Bourquelot and H. Hérissey, 551; Varieties of
Cacao Trees existing in Ceylon, R. H. Lock, 567; Index
Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum, W. T. Thiselton-
Dyer, 581; Geotropism in Plants, Dr. Linsbauer, 590;
Pelomyxa palustris, Mrs. L. J. Veley, 599; Axillary
Scales of Aquatic Monocotyledons, Prof. R. J. Harvey
Gibson, 599; Action of Ether and Chloroform on Dried
Seeds, Paul Becquerel, 600; Function of Fatty Material
in Fungi, A. Perrier, 600; Flora of the Calcutta District,
Dr. Prain, 615
Bouchonnet (A.), Fluorides of Indium and Rubidium, 287
Boudouard (O.), Influence of Steam on the Reduction of
the Oxides of Iron by Carbon Monoxide and Dioxide, 263
Bougault (J.), Action of Iodine and Yellow Oxide of Mer-
cury on Unsaturated Acids, 119
Boule (Prof. Marcellin), Recent Exploration in the Men-
tone Caves, 276
Boulud (M.), Modifications of Glycolysis in the Capillaries
caused by Local Modification of the Temperature, 23;
the Reduction of Oxyhzmoglobin, 599
Bourne (A. A.), Elementary Algebra, 507
Bournemouth, Blue Flints at, J. W. Sharpe, 176
Bourquelot (Em.), Trehalase in Fungi, 119; Origin and
Composition of the Essence of Herb-Bennet Root, 551
Bousfield (W. R.), Electrical Conductivity and other Pro-
perties of Sodium Hydroxide in Aqueous Solution, 141
Bouveault (L.), Methylcamphenylol, 287
Bouvier (E. L.), Euwmedon convictor, a Crustacean accom-
panying a Sea-urchin, 479
Bovell (Mr.), Sugar Cane Cultivation in Barbadoes, 304
Brace (Josh.), the Culture of Fruit Trees in Pots, 314
Bradley (O. C.), Trapezium of the Carpus of the Horse, 326
Brake, a Synchronising Electromagnetic, Henri Abraham,
383
Brame (J. S. S.), Action of Acetylene on Aqueous and
Hydrochloric Acid Solutions of Mercuric Chloride, 598
Brandy? What is, 11; Dr. V. H. Veley, F.R.S., 53; Dr. S.
Arch. Vasey, 53
Brewing Students, Laboratory Studies for, A. J. Brown, 173
Bright Meteor, a, J. Ryan, 329
x ‘ Index
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Bright Meteor, Real Path of a, H. Rosenberg, 569
Bright Meteors, R. L. Jones, 449
Brightness of Encke’s Comet, J. Holetschek, 469
Brioschi (Francesco), Opere matematiche di, 293
British Association: Sir J. Eliot’s Address at Cambridge,
J. R. Sutton, 6; Sir John Eliot, F.R.S., 7
British Association Geological Photographs, 538
British Association in South Africa, Forthcoming Meeting
of the, 323
British Bird! A New, W. P. Pycraft, 201
British Desmidiacee, a Monograph of the, W. West and
Prof. G. S. West, 194
British Freshwater Algz, a Treatise on the, Prof. G. S.
West, 194
British India, the Topography of,
Holdich, C.B., 268
British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1905, the, 221
British Marine Expedition, a New, 562
British Museum: the History of the Collections contained
in the Natural History Departments of the British
Museum, 485; Second Report on Economic Zoology,
Fred V. Theobald, 272
Broca (André), Variation of the Specific Induction Power
of Glass with the Frequency, 527
Brochet (André), Influence of the Nature of the Anode on
the Electrolytic Oxidation of Potassium Ferrocyanide,
119; Electrolysis of Organic Acids by means of the
Alternating Current, 407; Electrolytic Solution of
Platinum in Sulphuric Acid, 479
Brodie (F. J.), Decrease of Fog in London, 119
Brooks (W. J.), Patent Flexible Curves and a Parabolic
Curve, 15
Brooks’s Comet 1904 I., Ephemeris for, 374
Broom (Dr. R.), the Fossil Reptiles of South Africa, 232;
the Affinity of the Endothiodont Reptiles, 399; Affinities
of Procolophon, 575
Brough (Bennett H.), Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal
Trade, R. L. Galloway, 361
Brown (A. J.), Laboratory Studies for Brewing Students, 173
Brown (Dr. Horace T., F.R.S.). the Reception and Utilisa-
tion of Energy by a Green Leaf, Bakerian Lecture at
Royal Society, 522
Brown (Prof. J. Macmillan), the Maoris of North New
Zealand, 565
Brown (R. N. Rudmose), the Second Antarctic Voyage of
the Scotia, 425
Brown (W.), Physical Properties of a Series of Alloys of
Iron, 132
Browne (Frank Balfour), the Salmon Fisheries of England
and Wales, 18; the Fisheries of Scotland, 213
Colonel Sir Thomas
Brownell (L. W.), Photography for the Sportsman
Naturalist, 483
Browning (Carl H.), Chemical Combination and Toxic
Action as exemplified in Hzemolytic Sera, 238
Bruce Photographic Telescope, the, Prof. Barnard, 424
Brith! (M.), Attempts to Decide by Physical Methods the
Nature of Isodynamic Substances, 113
Brunel (Léon), New Derivatives of Tetrahydrobenzene,
Igt
Bruni (G.), Nitroso-group in Organic Substances Iso-
morphous with the Nitro-radical, 113
Brunton (Sir Lauder), the Proposed National League for
Physical Education and Improvement, 252; Report of the
Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Degeneration,
252
Bryan (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), Average Number of Kinsfolk
in Each Degree, 9, 101; the Definition of Entropy, 31,
125; die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, vom
Standpunkte der Geometrischen Optik, 217; Grundziige
der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, Dr.
Siegfried Czapski, 217; a History of European Thought
in the Nineteenth Century, John Theodore Merz, 241;
the Form of the Surface of a Fowl’s Egg, 254; a
National University Library, 366; Progress in Aérial
Navigation, 463; the Algebra of Invariants, J. H. Grace
and A. Young, 601; the Dynamical Theory of Gases,
J. H. Jeans, 601; a Treatise on the Dynamics of
Particles and Rigid Bodies, E. T. Whittaker, 601
Bryant (Ella M.), the Pollination of Exotic Flowers, 249
Buchanan (Roberdeau), the Mathematical Theory of
Eclipses according to Chauvenet’s Transformation of
Bessel’s Method, 244; Forthcoming Opposition of Mars,
494
Buddhism, Progressive, 428
Buddon (E.), Elementary Pure Geometry with Mensuration,
5097
Bull (L.), on the Registration of the n-Rays, 191
Buller (Prof. A. H. R.), Electrical Effects of Dryness of
Atmosphere at Winnipeg, 448
Bumstead (Prof.), are Metals made Radio-active by the
Influence of Radium Radiation? 430
Burbank’s Fruit-Hybrids, W. S. Harwood, 516
Burbury (S. H., F.R.S.), Billiards Mathematically Treated,
G. W. Hemming, 362
Burdon (E. R.), the Pine-apple Gall of the Spruce, 71
Burge (C. O.), Connection between Engineering and
Science, 384
Burgerstein (Dr. Alfred), die Transpiration der Pflanzen, 51
Burgess (C. H.), Alkaline Borates, 71; Physical Characters
of the Sodium Borates with a New Method for the De-
termination of Melting Points, 189; Cause of the Period
of Chemical Induction in the Union of Hydrogen and
Chlorine, 380
Burgess (G. K.), Measurements by Photometric Methods of
the Temperature of the Electric Arc, 132
Burke (John Butler), Some Scientific Centres, vi., the
Physical Laboratory at the Museum d'Histoire natur-
elle, Prof. Henri Becquerel, 177
Burke (J. B.), Fluorescence and Absorption, 597
Burma, Para Rubber Plantation at Mergui, 14
Burnside (Prof. W.), Groups of Order #298, 166
Burrard (Major S. G., F.R.S.), Report on the Identifica-
tion and Nomenclature of Himalayan Peaks, Captain H.
Wood, R.E., 42
Burrows (H.), Pinene Isonitrosocyanide and its Derivatives,
550
Butt (Drinkwater), Practical Retouching, 317
Byk (Dr. A.), the Primary Formation of Optically Active
Substances in Nature, 210
Cain (J. C.), the Diazo-reaction in the Diphenyl Series,
part ii., Ethoxybenzidine, 239
Caire (N. J.), the Giant Trees of Victoria, 468
Calcium Metal, R. S. Hutton, 180;
Calcutta, the Birds of, F. Finn, 438
Calderwood (Mr.), Life-history of the Salmon, 214
Caldwell (R. J.), Hydrolysis of Cane Sugar by d- and I-
Camphor-8-Sulphonic Acids, 94
Callegari (A.), Nitroso-group in Organic Substances Iso-
morphous with the Nitro-radical, 113
Cambage (R. H.), on the Native Flora of New South
Wales, part ii., 192
Cambridge: Sir J. Eliot’s Address at Cambridge, J. R.
Sutton, 6; Sir John Eliot, F.R.S., 7; the Previous Ex-
amination at Cambridge, 55; Cambridge Philosophical
Society, 71, 166, 191, 430, 479, 550; Compulsory Greek at
Cambridge, 273, 416; John C. Willis, 273; Edward T.
Dixon, 295; A. B. Basset, F.R.S., 318; Prof. J. Wer-
theimer, 344; R. Vere Laurence, H. Rackham, and
A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 390; W. Bateson, F.R.S., 390;
X., 414; Prof. A. G. Tansley, 414; Edward T. Dixon,
414; Studies from the Anthropological Laboratory, the
Anatomy School, Cambridge, W. L. H. Duckworth, 433
Cameron (A. T.), Variations in the Crystallisation of
Potassium Hydrogen Succinate, 383; Derivatives of the
Sesquioxides, 623
Cameron (Dr. John), Ontogeny of the Neuron in Verte-
brates, 431
Camichel (C.), Fluorescence, 311
Campbell (Dr. A. W.), Cerebral Localisation—the Brains of
Felis, Canis, and Sus compared with that of Homo. 357
Campbell (John Edward), Introductory Treatise on Lie’s
Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups, 49
Campbell (J. M.), Notes on the Natural History of the
Bell Rock, 221
Campbell (Prof.), Castor a Quadruple Star, 375; Jupiter’s
Seventh Satellite, 449; Variable Radial Velocity of
Sirius, 494; Radial Velocities of certain Stars, 519
Canada: the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 159;
Geological Survey of Canada, 276; the Mineral Resources
of Canada, 571
>
Spee Index xi
r |
-Canals, Seasonal Development of Martian, Mr. Lowell, | Chapman (H. W.), the Projection of Two Triangles on
282; Alternating Variability of Martian, Mr. Lowell, 494 to the same Triangle, 475
Cancer: the Cancer Problem in a Nutshell, Dr. Robert | Charabot (Eug.), Formation and Distribution of the Es-
Bell, 76; the Treatment of Cancer, Major Robson, 130;
the Treatment of Cancer with Radium, 588; ‘‘ Cancer
Research ’’ Tumour in an Oyster, Harbert Hamilton, 37
a Canis Minoris, Spectra of, E. Haschek and K. Kostersitz,
354
-Cantin (G.), Destruction of Phylloxera by Lysol, 240
- Cape Observatory,
Annual Report of the, Sir David Gill, 63
Capitan (M.), Man and the Mammoth at the Quaternary
Period in the Soil of the Rue de Rennes, 312
Carbon Compounds, a Scheme for the Detection of the
more Common Classes of, Frank E. Weston, 175
Carbon Dioxide, Atmospheric and Oceanic, Dr. A.
283; Dr. A. Krogh, 283
Carboniferous Flora, the Early History of Seed-bearing
Plants as recorded in the, Wilde Lecture at Manchester
Bay and Philosophical Society, Dr. D. H. Scott,
SS
Carey (A. E.), Coast Erosion and Protection, Paper read at
the Institution of Civil Engineers, 92
Carnegie Institution, a Contemplated Magnetic Survey of
the North Pacific Ocean by the, Dr. L. A. Bauer, 389;
Report of the Carnegie Institution, 1904, 521
Harden,
_Carré (P.), a New Anhydride of Dulcite, 24
Carruthers (J. B.), Tea and Rubber Cankers, 615
Carter (Herbert R.), Spinning and Twisting of Long Vege-
table Fibres (Flax, Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie), 579
Cartography: the First True Maps, C. Raymond Beazley,
159
Carus-Wilson (Cecil), Super-cooled Rain Drops, 3
Castor a Quadruple Star, Prof. Campbell, 375
Cats, Thinking, J. N., 9; R. Langton Cole, 31
Cattle-disease : Temperature of Healthy Dairy Cattle and
of Tuberculous Cattle, Prof. G. H. Wooldridge, 623
Cattle-ways, Neolithic Dew-ponds and, A. J. Hubbard and
G. Hubbard, 611
Cave of Pleistocene Age, on an Ossiferous, at Hoe Grange
Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington (Derbyshire), H. H.
Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S., 165, 488
Cave-Browne-Cave (F. E.), Influence of the Time Factor on
the Correlation between the Barometric Heights at
Stations more than 1000 Miles Apart, 379
Cecil (Lady William), Bird Notes from the Nile, 150
Celestial Photography at High Altitudes, Prof. Payne and
Dr. H. C. Wilson, 114
20
Central European Longitudes, Discussion of, Prof. Th.
Albrecht, 424
& Cephei, Light-curve of, Dr. B. Meyermann, 234
Cerulli (V.), Reality of Various Features on Mars, 592
Cetacea: Pinnipedia a Sub-order of Cetacea! 125;
Measurements of Whales at Balena, Newfoundland, F. A.
Lucas, 326
Ceti 82, Orbit of the Binary Star, Prof. Aitken, 519
Ceylon, Report to the Government of, on the Pearl Oyster
ace of the Gulf of Manaar, W. A. Herdman,
R.S
Chabrie icy? Fluorides of Indium and Rubidium, 287
Chadwick (H. M.), Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions:
385
Challenger Society, 381
Challinor (R. W.), Approximate Colorimetric Estimation
of Nickel and Cobalt in Presence of One Another, 384
Chalmers (S. D.), the Theory of Symmetrical Optical
Objectives, part ii., 380
Chamberlain (C. H.), Alternation of Generations in Animals,
590
Chamberlin (Thomas C.), Geology, 267
Chaney (H. J.), Construction and Verification of a New
Copy of the Imperial Standard Yard, 543
Change in the Colour of Moss Agates, C.
A. Hutchinson, 101
Changes upon the Moon’s Surface,
Pickering, 226
Chanoz (M.), on M. Bordier’s Supposed Demonstration of
n-Rays by Photographic Methods, 287
Chapman (D. L.), Cause of the Period of Chemical In-
duction in the Union of Hydrogen and Chlorine, 380
Chapman (F. M.), a Flamingo City, Breeding-places of the
American Flamingo in the Bahamas, 156
Simmonds, 54;
Prof. William H.
sential Oil in an Annual Plant, 144; Utilisation of the
Essential Oils in the Etiolated Plant, 408
Characteristics, Inheritance of Acquired, D. E.. Hutchins, 83
Chassevant (Prof. Allyre), Précis de Chimie physiologique,
509
Chaudot (A.), the Perseids for 1904, 167
Chaudron (Joseph), Death of, 325
Chauveau (A.), Conflict between the Primary and Acci-
dental Images, Applied to the Theory of Inevitable Vari-
ability of Retinal Impressions, 599
Chavanne (M.), Physical Properties of Metallic Calcium,
327; Determinations of the Physical Constants of Pure
Marsh Gas, 400; Liquefaction of Allene and Allylene, 600
Chemistry : Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Prof.
A. Liversidge, F.R.S., 4; What is Brandy? 11; Dr.
V. H. Veley, F-R.S., 53; Dr. S. Arch. Vasey, 53; Ex-
traction of Vanadium from the Natural, Lead Vanadate,
H. Herrenschmidt, 24; a New Anhydride of Dulcite, P.
Carré, 24; New Method for preparing Organic Deriva-
tives of Phosphorus, V. Auger, 24; Action of the
Chlorides of Phosphorus on the Organomagnesium Com-
pounds of the Aromatic Series, R. Sauvage, 47; Mono-
graphieen aus der Geschichte der Chemie, viii. Heft.,
Justus von Liebig und Friedrich Mohr in ihren Briefen
von 1834-1870, 25; Elementary Manual for the Chemical
Laboratory, Dr. Louis Warner Riggs, 28; Trend of
Invention in Chemical Industry, J. Fletcher Moulton,
F.R.S., 36; Studies on Enzyme Action, George Senter,
46; the Tetraoxycyclohexane-rosanilines, Jules Schmidlin,
47; Atomic W eight of Aluminium, M. Kohn-Abrest,
Suggested New Source of Aluminium, Miss B. Pool, 88;
Action of Methylene Chloride upon Toluene in the Pre-
sence of Aluminium Chloride, James Lavaux, 167; the
Power of Aluminium to Absorb the Vapour of Mercury,
N. Tarugi, 352; Compounds of Aluminium Chloride with
Hydrocarbons and Hydrogen Chloride, G. Gustavson,
576; Action of Halogen Derivatives of the Metalloids on
Halogen Alkyl Compounds, V. Auger, 47; the Tetra-
hydride and Decahydride of Naphthalene, Henri Leroux,
47; the Density of Nitrous Oxide and the Atomic Weight
of Nitrogen, Philippe A. Guye and Alexandre Pintza,
47; Constitution of Nitrogen Iodide, O. Silberrad, 70;
Atomic Weight of Iodine and Nitrogen, 374; Metallic
Derivatives of Nitrogen Iodide, O. Silberrad, 166; Op-
tically Active Nitrogen Compounds, Miss M. B. Thomas
and H. O. Jones, 166; the Trioxide of Nitrogen, M.
Wittorfi, 281; the Atomic Weights of Hydrogen and
Nitrogen, A. Leduc, 503; the Oxidation of Ethyl and
Methyl Alcohols at their Boiling Points, René Duchemin
and Jacques Dourien, 48; the Industrial and Artistic
Technology of Paint and Varnish, A. H. Sabin, C. Sim-
monds, 50; Food Inspection and Analysis, Albert E.
Leach, C. Simmonds, 50; Chemical Analysis for Be-
ginners, F. Southerden, 54; Prof. Mendeléeff on the
Chemical Elements, 65; Dynamic Isomerism of a- and
B-Crotonic Acids, R. S. Morrell and E. K. Hanson, 70;
the Available Plant Food in Soils, H. Ingle, 70; Basic
Properties of Oxygen, J. B. Cohen and J. Gatecliff, 70;
Influence of Potassium Persulphate on the Estimation of
Hydrogen Peroxide, J. A. N. Friend, 70; Hydrogen
Peroxide in the Nascent State and its Bactericidal Ac-
tivity on Organisms in Water, Ed. Bonjean, 263 ; Action
of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates in Presence of
Ferrous Sulphate, R. S. Morrell and A. E. Bellars, 478;
Réle of Diffusion in the Catalysis of Hydrogen Peroxide
by Colloidal Platinum, Dr. ‘George Senter, 574; the
Combustion of Ethylene, W. A. Bone and R. V. Wheeler,
70; Chemical Society, 70, 110, 165, 239, 358, 382, 455,
478, 549, 598; the Future of Science in England, R. B.
Haldane at the Chemical Society, 5890; Alkaline Borates,
C. H. Burgess and A. Holt, jun., 71; Boron Trifluoride
and Silicon Tetrafluoride, Henri Moissan, 71; Action of
Low Temperatures on Colouring Matters, Jules Schmid-
lin, 71; Preparation of Iodide of Gold by the Action of
Iodine on Gold, Fernand Meyer, 72; Cyaniding Gold and
Silver Ores, H. Forbes Julian and Edgar Smart, 292;
B-Bromobutyric Acid, M. Lespieau, 72; Formation of
Formaldehyde during the Combustion of Tobacco, A.
b
ur
Xii Index
} if Nature,
June 8, 1905
i
Trillat, 72; the Discovery of Argon, Prof. G. H. Darwin,
F.R.S., 83; the Translator, 102; Death of Dr. Karl H.
Huppert, 86; Electrolysis of Acid Solutions of Aniline,
L. Gilchrist, 88; Hydrolysis of Cane Sugar by d- and
l-Camphor-f-Sulphonic Acids, R. J. Caldwell, 94; the
Absorption of Hydrogen by Rhodium, L. Quennessen,
96; Action of Boric Acid on the Alkaline Peroxides and
the Formation of Perborates, George F. Jaubert, 96;
Thioformic Acid, V. Auger, 96; a New Sugar from the
Berries of the Mountain Ash, Gabriel Bertrand, 96;
Sorbierite, Gabriel Bertrand, 167; Mountain Ash Berries
and Sorbierite, M. Bertrand, 210; the Bleaching of Flour
by Electricity, M. Balland, 96; Practical Chemistry, a
Second Year Course, G. H. Martin, 100; Nitroso-group
in Organic Substances Isomorphous with the Nitro-
radical, G. Bruni and A. Callegari, 113; Attempts to
decide by Physical Methods the Nature of Isodynamic
Substances, M. Brith], 113; Dr. W. H. Perkin, 113;
F. Giolitti, 113; Constitution of Ricinine, L. Maquenne
and L. Philippe, 119; Action of Iodine and Yellow
Oxide of Mercury on Unsaturated Acids, J. Bougault,
119; New Method of Synthesis of Aromatic Hydro-
carbons, Georges Darzens, 119; Trehalase in Fungi, Em.
Bourquelot and H. Heérissey, 119; Complexity of Dis-
solved Sulphates, Albert Colson, 119; Isomerism of the
Amidines of the Naphthalene Series, R. Meldola and
J. H. Lane, 118; Theory of the production of Mer-
curous Nitrite, P. C. Ray, 119; Amidechloroiodides,
G. D. Lander and H. E. Laws, 119; New Synthesis of
Isocaprolactone, D. T. Jones and G. ‘Tattersall, 119;
Fire and Explosion Risks, Dr. von Schwartz, 122;
Death of Dr. T. M. Drown, 130; Obituary Notice of,
303; on the Possibility of Chemical Reactions, M. de
Forerand, 143; on the Prediction of Chemical Reactions,
M. de Forcrand, 143; a New Class of Ions, G. Moureau,
143; on Wood Spirit from Thuya articulata, Emilien
Grimal, 143; the Nobel Prize for Chemistry awarded
to Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 155; Helium
in Pitchblende, Richard J. Moss, 158; on the State in
which Helium exists in Minerals, Prof. Morris W.
Travers, F.R.S., 248; the Refractive Indices of the
Elements, Clive Cuthbertson, 164; Certain Properties. of
the Alloys of Silver and Cadmium, Dr. T. K. Rose,
164; Tyrosinases in Skins of Pigmented Vertebrates,
Florence M. Durham, 165; Nitrites of the Alkali and
Alkaline Earth Metals, and their Decomposition by
Heat, P. C. Ray, 165; Affinity Constants of Aniline
and its Derivatives, R. C. Farmer and F. J. Warth,
166; Grignard Reaction applied to the Esters of
Hydroxy-acids, P. F. Frankland and D. F. Twiss, 166;
Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide to Unsaturated Com-
pounds, A. Lapworth, 166; the Composition of Colloidal
Granules, Victor Henri and André Mayer, 167; the
Retrogradation of Cyclic Secondary Amines, P. Lemoult,
167; the Chemical Synthesis of Vital Products, and the
Inter-relations between Organic Compounds, Prof.
Raphael Meldola, F.R.S., 170; Studien iiber die Albumin-
cide mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung des Spongin und
der Keratine, Dr. Eduard Strauss, 174; a Scheme for
the Detection of the more Common Classes of Carbon
Compounds, Frank E. Weston, 175; Memoire sur la
Réproduction artificielle du Rubis par Fusion, A.
Verneuil, 180; Calcium Metal, R. S. Hutton, 180;
Production of Calcium Cyanamide and its Employment
as Fertiliser, Prof. Frank, 374; Heat of Formation of
Calcium Hydride and Nitride, A. Guntz and Henry
Basset, 551; Death of Prof. Clemens A. Winckler, 181;
Death of Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S., 181;
Obituary Notice of, 230; Physical Characters of the
Sodium Borates with a New Method for the Determin-
ation of Melting Points, C. H. Burgess and A. Holt,
jun., 189; New Derivatives of Tetrahydrobenzene, Léon
Brunel, 191; Cyclic Substituted Thio-hydantoins, Emm.
Pozzi-Escot, 191; Salts and their Reactions, Dr. L.
Dobbie and H. Marshall, 200; Oils for Motor-cars,
C. Simmonds, 205; the Primary Formation of Optically
Active Substances in Nature, Dr. A. Byk, 210; Manual
of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks, H. S. Washington,
219; Applications of some General Reactions to Investi-
gations in Organic Chemistry, Dr. Lassar-Cohn, 220;
the Cost of Chemical Synthesis, R. J. Friswell, 222;
Chemical Combination and Toxic Action as Exemplified
in Hemolytic Sera, Prof. Robert Muir and Carl H..
Browning, 238; Hydrolysis of Ammonium Salts, V. |
Veley, 239; the Diazo-reaction in the Diphenyl Series,
part ii., Ethoxybenzidine, J. C. Cain, 239; the Sulphate |
and the Phosphate of the Dimercurammonium Series,
P. C. Ray, 239; Method for the Direct Production of
Certain Aminoazo-compounds, R. Meldola and L.-
Eynon, 239; Studies in Optical Superposition, T. S.}}
Patterson and F. Taylor, 239; Constitution of the —
Sodium Salts of Certain Methenic and Methinic Acids, 1
A. Haller and P. Th. Muller, 239; New Boride of |
Manganese, Binet du Jassonneix, 239; Electrolytic —
Analysis of Cobalt and Nickel, Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin ©
and W. C. Prebble, 239; Quadrivalent Oxygen, E. E.
Blaise, 240, 480; the Reduction: of the Anhydrides of
the Dibasic Acids, G. Blanc, 240; General Method for
the Synthesis of Aldehydes, Georges Darzens, 240; the
Diastatic Coagulation of Starch, A. Fernbach and J.
Wolff, 240; Combustion of Sulphur in the Calorimetric
Bomb, H. Giran, 240; la Statique chimique basée sur
les deux Principes fondamentaux de la Thermo-
dynamique, E. Ariés, 247; die heterogenen Gleich-
gewichte vom Standpunkte der Phasenlehre, H. W.-
Bakhuis Roozeboom, 247; Inks, their Composition and
Manufacture, C. Ainsworth Mitchell and T. C. Hep-
worth, C. Simmonds, 269; Death and Obituary Notice
of Dr. Thomas Woods, 278; Determination of Propor-
tion of Free Chromic Acid in Dichromate Solutions,
Messrs. Abegg and Cox, 281; Atmospheric and Oceanic
Carbon Dioxide, Dr. A. Harden, 283; Dr. A. Krogh,
283; Fluorides of Indium and Rubidium, C. Chabrié
and A. Bouchonnet, 287; Limit of the Reaction between
Diazobenzene and Aniline, Léo Vignon, 287; Methyl-
camphenylol, L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, 287; Estim-
ation of Carbon Monoxide in Confined Atmospheres,
Albert Lévy and A. Pécoul, 287; the Rational Estim-
ation of Gluten in Wheaten Flour, E. Fleurent, 288;
Death of Dr. Carl Otto Weber, 303; Combinations of
Samarium Chloride with Ammonia, C. Matignon and
R. Trannoy, 311; a Colloidal Hydrate of Iron obtained
by Electrodialysis, J. Tribot and H. Chrétien, 311; an
Isomeride of Trichloracetone, G. Perrier and E. Prost,
311; the Migration of the Ethylene Linkage in Un-
saturated Acyclic Acids, E. E. Blaise and A. Luttringer,
311; a New Method of Synthesising Saturated Ketones
by the Method of Catalytic Reduction, M. Darzens,
311; a Synthesis of Menthone and Menthol, A. Haller
and C. Martine, 311; the §-Methyl-e-alkylcyclo-
hexanones, A. Haller, 311; the Spring at Hammara
Moussa, near Tor, Sinai, R. Fourtau and N.
Georgiadés, 312; a Select Bibliography of Chemistry,
1492-1902, H. C. Bolton, 317; Death of Dr. Guido
Bodlaender, 325; Physical Properties of Metallic
Calcium, H. Moissan and M. Chavanne, 327; Cesium
Methylamide, E. Rengade, 335; Trattato di Chimica
Inorganica Generale e Applicato all’Industria, Dr. E.
Molinari, 339; Death of Prof. Valdemar Stein, 350;
Intimate Connection between the Configuration of
Chemical Substances and their Susceptibility to Fer-
mentation, C. Ulpiani and M. Cingolani, 352; Electro-
lytic Oxidation of the Aliphatic Aldehydes, H. D. Law,
358; the Molecular Condition in Solution of Ferrous
Potassium Oxalate, S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K.
Mees, 358; a Further Analogy between the Asymmetric
Nitrogen and Carbon Atoms, H. O. Jones, 358; the
Formation of Magnesia from Magnesium Carbonate by
Heat, W. C. Anderson, 358; the Reduction Products
of Anisic Acid, J. S. Lumsden, 358; Chemical Com-
position of Aleurone Grains, S. Posternak, 359-60;
Chlorination of Methyl-ethyl-ketone, André Kling, 359;
Action of Dilute Nitric Acid upon Vegetable Fibres,
M. Jardin, 359; the Preparation of the Diamond, Henri
Moissan, 359; Synthesis in the Anthracene Series, MM.
Haller and A. Guyot, 359; the Condition of Chemical
Industries in France, Jean Jaubert, 369; the Nature of
the Hydrosulphites, Messrs. Baumann, Thesmar, and
Frossard, 374; Cause of the Period of Chemical In-
duction in the Union of Hydrogen and Chlorine, D. L.
Chapman and C. H. Burgess, 380; Mass Analysis of
Muntz’s Metal by Electrolysis, and the Electric Proper-
Nature,
June 8, 1905 J
Index Xiil
ties of this Alloy, J. G. A. Rhodin, 381; Equilibrium
between Sodium Sulphate and Magnesium Sulphate,
R. B. Denison, 381; Epidote from Inverness-shire,
H. H. Thomas, 381; Configuration of Isonitrosocamphor,
M. O. Forster, 382; §8-NH-Ethenyldiaminonaphthalene,
R. Meldola and J. H. Lane, 382; Direct Fixation of
Ethero-organo-magnesium Derivatives on the Ethylene
Linkage of Unsaturated Esters, E. E. Blaise and A.
Courtot, 383; New Method of Testing for Ammonia,
Application to the Examination of Water for Sanitary
Purposes, MM. Trillat and Turchet, 383; Comparative
Assimilability of Ammonia Salts, Amines, Amides, and
Nitriles, L. Lutz, 480; Oxidation of Metals in the Cold
in Presence of Ammonia, C. Matignon and G. Des-
plantes, 551; Direct Synthesis of Ammonia, Dr. E. P.
Perman, 597; Action of Carbon Monoxide on Ammonia,
H. Jackson and D. Northall-Laurie, 598; Variations
in the Crystallisation of Potassium Hydrogen Succinate,
A. T. Cameron, 383; the Three Methylcyclohexanones
and the Corresponding Methylcyclohexanols, Paul
Sabatier and A. Mailhe, 383; Approximate Colorimetric
Estimation of Nickel and Cobalt in Presence of One
Another, R. W. Challinor, 384; Materialien der Stereo-
chemie, C. A. Bischoff, 386; the Principles of Inorganic
Chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald, 388; Determinations of
the Physical Constants of Pure Marsh Gas, Prof.
Moissan and M. Chavanne, 400; Study of the Silicide
of Carbon from the Canon Diablo Meteorite, Henri
Moissan, 407; a New Reaction of Aldehydes, A.
Conduché, 407; Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Epi-
ethyline, M. Lespieau, 407; Practical Exercises in
Chemical Physiology and Histology, H. B. Lacey and
C. A. Pannett, 412; Exercises in Practical Physiological
Chemistry, Sydney W. Cole, 412; Catalytic Power of
Reduced Nickel, Paul Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, 423 ;
Reduction of Nitriles to Amines, Paul Sabatier and
J. B. Senderens, 423; New Method of Synthesis of Alkyl
Derivatives of Cyclic Saturated Alcohols, A. Haller and
F. March, 431; Direct Determination of the Atomic
Weight of Chlorine, Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., and
E. C. Edgar, 431; Carbimide of Natural Leucine,
MM. Hugouneng and Morel, 431; Assimilation outside
the Organism, Ch. Bernard, 431; die Schule der Chemie,
W. Ostwald, 435; Radio-active Muds from the Thermal
Springs of Nauheim and Baden, Messrs. Elster and
Geitel, 448; Radio-active Sediments of Thermal Springs,
Prof. G. Vicentini and Levi de Zara, 448; the Theory of
Photographic Processes, on the Chemical Dynamics of
Development, S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees, 454;
Estimation of Saccharin, C. Proctor, 455; Photographic
Radiation of some Mercury Compounds, R. de J. F.
Struthers and J. E. March, 455; Purification of Gadolina,
and on the Atomic Weight of Gadolinium, G. Urbain,
455; B-Decahydronaphthol, Henri Leroux, 455; Manual
of Chemical Analysis, E. Prost, 458; Techno-chemical
Analysis, Dr. G. Lunge, 458; Percentage Tables for
Elementary Analysis, Leo F. Guttmann, 460; Inter-
national Atomic Weights, Dr. F. Mollwo. Perkin, 461;
Death of Prof. Albert B. Prescott, 466; Chlorination of
the Isomeric Chloronitrobenzenes, J. B. Cohen and H. G.
Bennett, 478; Reduction of Isophthalic Acid, W. H.
Perkin, jun., and S. S. Pickles, 478; Relation between
Natural and Synthetical Glycerylphosphoric Acids, F. B.
Power and F. Tutin, 478; Transmutation of Geometrical
Isomerides, A. W. Stewart, 478; Linin, J. S. Hills and
W. P. Wynne, 478; Constitution’ of Phenylmethylacridol,
J. J. Dobbie, 478 ; Electrolytic Solution of Platinum in Sul-
phuric Acid, André Brochet and Joseph Petit, 479; Com-
parison of ‘the Physical Properties of Pure Nickel and
Cobalt, H. Copaux, 479; Soluble Forms of Metallic
Dihydroxytartrates, H. J. H. Fenton, F.R.S., 479; Com-
pounds of Guanidine with Sugars, R. S. Morrell and
A. E. Bellars, 479; 1-Methyl-4-benzylcyclahexanol and
1-Methyl-4-dibenzylcyclohexanol, A. Haller and F. March,
479; the Law of the Conservation of Mass in Chemical
Action, Antonino Lo Surdo, 494; Physical Chemistry of
Anesthesia, Prof. Moore and Mr. Roaf, 499; on Dextro-
rotatory Lactic Acid, E. Jungfleisch and M. Godchot,
503; the Action of Magnesium Amalgam upon _ Di-
methylketone, E. Couturier and L. Meunier, 503 ; a Method
for the Volumetric Estimation of Hydroxylamine, L. J.
Simon, 504; the Glycerophosphates of Piperazine, A.
Astruc, 504; zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerung,
J. H. van ’t Hoff, 508; Précis de Chimie physiologique,
Prof. Allyre Chassevant, 509; Monobromoacetal, P.
Freundler and M. Ledru, 527; Diphenylamine Reaction
with Nitric Acid, Isidore Bay, 527; Thermochemical
Researches on Brucine and Strychnine, MM. Berthelot
and Gaudechon, 527; Valency of the Atom of Hydrogen,
M. de Forerand, 527; Characterisation of Lactones by
Means of Hydrazine, M. Blaise and A. Luttringer, 527;
Antiseptic Properties of Smoke, A. Trillat, 528; Chemical
Statics and Dynamics, J. W. Mellor, Dr. H. M. Dawson,
532; Cryoscopic Behaviour of Hydrocyanic Acid, M.
Lespieau, 544; Use of Quartz Vessels Limited, M.
Berthelot, 544; Use of ‘* Hot and Cold Tube ”’ in Proving
the Existence of Chemical Reactions at High Tempera-
tures, Experiments in Hermetically Sealed Quartz Tubes,
M. Berthelot, 568; Velocity of Oxime Formation in
certain Ketones, A. W. Stewart, 540; Esterification Con-
stants of Substituted Acrylic Acids, J. J. Sudborough and
D. J. Roberts, 550; Simple Method for the Estimation of
Acetyl Groups, J. J. Sudborough and W. Thomas, 550;
Gynocardin, a New Cyanogenetic Glucoside, F. B. Power
and F. H. Lees, 550; an Asymmetric Synthesis of Quad-
rivalent Sulphur, S. Smiles, 550; Action of a-Halogen
Ketones on Alkyl Sulphides, S. Smiles, 550; Pinene Iso-
nitrosocyanide and its Derivatives, W. A. Tilden and H.
Burrows, 550; Ferric Ethylate, Paul Nicolardot, 551;
Substituted Ureas from Natural Leucine, MM. Hugouneng
and Morel, 551; Origin and Composition of the Essence
of Herb-bennet Root, Em. Bourquelot and H. Hérissey,
551; Monochloro-derivatives of Methylcyclohexane, Paul
Sabatier and Alp. Mailhe, 551; Composition of the Oil
from Bir Bahoti or the ‘‘ Rains Insect’’ (Bucella
carniola), E. G. Hill, 551-2; the Properties of Tungstic
Anhydride as a Colouring Material for Porcelain, Albert
Granger, 575; Production of the Hyposulpiites; M.
Billy, 575 ; Acetyl-lactic Acid, V. Auger, 576; the Elements
of Chemistry, M. M. Pattison Muir, 582; ‘Alcohol in In-
dustry, 584; Death of Prof. A. Piccini, 588; New Method
for the Preparation of Paraftins from their Monohalogen
Derivatives, Paul Lebeau, 592; Absence or Marked Dim-
inution of Free Hydrochloric Acid in the Gastric Contents
in Malignant Disease of Organs other than the Stomach,
Prof. Benjamin Moore, Dr. W. Alexander, R. E. Kelly
and H. E. Roaf, 596; Action of Acetylene on Aqueous
and Hydrochloric Acid Solutions of Mercuric Chloride,
J. S. S. Brame, 598; Chemical Dynamics of the. Re-
actions between Sodium Thiosulphate and Organic
Halogen Compounds, part ii., Halogen Substituted
Acetates, A. Slator, 598; Physical Chemistry of the
Toxin-antitoxin Reaction, J. A. Craw, 598; Alloys of
Copper and Bismuth, A. H. Hiorns, 598; New Forma-
tion of Acetylecamphor, M. O. Forster and Miss H. M.
Judd, 598; Bromomethyl Heptyl Ketone, H. A. D.
Jowett, 598; a Carbide of Magnesium, J. T. Nance, 599;
Isomeric Forms of d-Bromo- and d-Chloro-camphor-
sulphonic Acids, F. S. Kipping, 599; Influence of the
Hydroxyl and Alkoxyl Groups on the Velocity of Saponi-
fication, A. Findlay and W. E. S. Turner, 599; the
Reduction of Oxyhzmoglobin, R. Lepine and M. Boulud,
509; Liquefaction of Allene and Allylene, MM. Lespieau
and Chavanne, 600; Hydrogenation of Benzonitrile and
Paratoluonitrile, A. Frébault, 600; a Short Introduction
to the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, J. C. Gregory,
606; Have Chemical Compounds a Definite Critical
Temperature and Pressure of Decomposition? Geoffrey
Martin, 609; Tantalum, Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin, 610;
Coagulation of Dilute Solutions of Silicic Acid under the
Influence of Various Substances, Nicola Pappadd, 616;
Derivatives of the Sesquioxides, A. T. Cameron, 623;
Construction of Fume-chambers with Effective Ventila-
tion, Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., 623; Production of
Alcohol and Acetone by Muscles, F. Maignan, 624; the
Crystalloluminescence of Arsenious Acid, M. Guinchant,
624; Mode of Formation of some Monosubstituted De-
rivatives of Urethane, F. Bodroux, 624
Chester (Rear-Admiral), Report of the United States Naval
Observatory, 211
Chicago, Astronomical Lectures at, 410
Child (J. M.), a New Geometry for Senior Forms, 174
XIV
Nature,
r
Index L June 8, 1y05°
Children, Lectures on the Diseases of, Dr. Robert Hut-
chison, 28
Chizzoni (Dr. Francesco), Death of, 36, 350
Cholera, Protective Inoculation against Asiatic, Dr. Strong,
2
Gis (Dr. Charles, F.R.S.), Analysis of the Results from
the Falmouth Magnetographs on “‘ Quiet ’’ Days during
18g1-1902, 261; Determination of Young’s Modulus
(Adiabatic) for Glass, 359
Chrétien (H.), a Colloidal Hydrate of Iron obtained by
Electrodialysis, 311
Chrétien (M.), Observations of Perseids, 89
Christenheit der Mittelmeerlande, die orientalische, Dr.
Karl Beth, 53
Christian Century in Japan, the, Dr. J. Haas, F. Victor
Dickens, 27
Christy (Mr.), Sleeping Sickness in Congo Free State, 490;
Relationship of Human Trypanosomiasis to Congo Sleep-
ing Sickness, 499; the Congo Floor Maggot, 499
Church (Colonel George Earl), Archzological Researches in
Costa Rica, C. V. Hartman, 461
Cingolani (M.), Intimate Connection between the Configura-
tion of Chemical Substances and their Susceptibility to
Fermentation, 352
Circulation of the Atmosphere, the, James Thomson, 365
City Development, a Study of Parks, Gardens, and Culture
Institutes, P. Geddes, 511
Classifications of the Sciences, Philosophy as
Scientiarum and a History of, Robert Flint, 505
Claxton (Mr.), Investigation of Accuracy of Self-registering
Thermometers, 62
Cleaves (Dr. Margaret A.), Light Energy: its Physics,
Physiological Action, and Therapeutics, 269
Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System, Sir
William R. Gowers, F.R.S., 6
Clinton (W. C.), Voltage Ratios of an Inverted Rotary
Converter, 550
Clive’s Shilling Arithmetic, 507
Scientia
Clock, the Isochronism of the Pendulum in the Astro-
nomical, Ch. Féry, 288
Clouds, the General Motion of, Prof. H. H. Hilde-
brandsson, 329
Cluzet (M.), Duration of Minimum Excitation of Nerves,
62
eaak Gas Poisoning: Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiation in
Dublin, Dr. E. J. McWeeney, 88
Coal Supplies, the Royal Commission on, 324
Coal-mining, an Elementary Class-book of Practical, T. H.
Cockin, 150; Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade,
R. L. Galloway, Bennett H. Brough, 361
Coast Erosion and Protection, A. E. Carey,
Matthews, at Institution of Civil Engineers, 92
Cock Robin and His Mate, the Adventure of, R. Kearton,
Digs 1h85
152
Cockayne (Dr.), the Plant Associations of the Auckland
Isles, 183
Cockerell (Prof. T. D. A.), Mutation, 366
Cockin (T. H.), an Elementary Class-book of Practical
Coal-mining, 150
Coffey (George), Neolithic Deposits in the North-east of
Ireland, 444
Cohen (J. B.), Basic Properties of Oxygen, 70; Chlorin-
ation of the Isomeric Chloronitrobenzenes, 478
Cohn (Dr.), Another New Comet (1904 e), 233
Coker (Prof.), Laboratory Apparatus for Measuring the
Lateral Strains in Tension and Compression Members,
143
Coker (Dr. E. G.), the Flow of Water through Pipes—
Experiments on Stream-line Motion and the Measure-
ment of Critical Velocity, 357
Cole (Prof. Grenville A. J.), the Pre-Glacial Raised Beach
of the South Coast of Ireland, W. B. Wright and H. B.
Muff, 17; Geological Survey of the Transvaal, Report
for the Year 1903, H. Kynaston, E. T. Mellor, A. L.
Hall, Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff, 55
Cole (R. Langton), Thinking Cats, 31; Reversal of Charge
in Induction Machines, 249
Cole (Sydney W.), Exercises
Chemistry, 412
Colgan (Nathaniel), Flora of the County Dublin, 412
Coloration of Spiders, a Note on the, Oswald H. Latter, 6
in Practical Physiological
Colour of Moss Agates, Change in the, W. A. Whitton,
31; C. Simmonds, 54; A. Hutchinson, tor
Colour Photography, Dr. Koenig’s Method of, 83
Colour-blindness: Two Cases of Trichromic Vision, Dr.
F. W. Edridge-Green, 573
Colour-physiology of the Higher Crustacea, F. Keeble and
Dr. F. W. Gamble, 621
Colours of Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, Dr. J.
Moller, 256
Colson (Albert), Complexity of Dissolved Sulphates, 119
Comets: Encke’s Comet 1904 b, M. Kaminsky, 16, 114;
Prof. Max Wolf, 63, 89; Prof. Millosevich, 89, 114; Prof.
E. Hartwig, 89; Herr Moschick, 114; Dr. Smart, 114;
Herr van d Bilt, 185; Brightness of Encke’s Comet, J.
Holetschek, 469; Re-discovery of Tempel’s Second
Comet, M. Gavelle, 133; J. Coniel, 133; Tempel’s Comet
(1904 c), M. St. Javelle, 185; M. Coniel, 185; Ephemeris
for, J. Coniel, 282; Search-ephemeris for Tempel’s First
Periodic Comet (1867 II.), A. Gautier, 545; Shower of
Andromedids from Biela’s Comet (?), W. F. Denning,
139; Discovery of a New Comet (1904 d), M. Giacobini,
185; Comet 1904 d (Giacobini), 211, 233; M. Ebell, 256;
Elements and Ephemeris of, M. Ebell, 211; M. Giaco-
bini, 211; Ephemeris for, M. Ebell, 353; Herr
Pechiile, 353; Observations of Comet 1904 d, Prof.
Hartwig, 281; Prof. Nijland, 281; Prof. Ambronn, 281;
M. Borrelly, 281; M. Ebell, 281; Another New Comet
(1904 e), M. Borrelly, 233; Dr. Cohn, 233; Elements
and Ephemeris for, Dr. Elis Stromgren, 256; Observ-
ations of, Prof. Hartwig, 281; Prof. Nijland, 281; Prof.
Ambronn, 281; M. Borrelly, 281; M. Ebell, 281; Observ-
ations of the Borrelly Comet, December 28, 1904, G.
Rayet, 287; Elliptical Character of the New Borrelly
Comet (e 1904), G. Fayet, 335; Ephemeris for Comet
1904 e, M. Ebell, 329; Dr. E. Stromgren, 353, 400;
Orbit of, M. Fayet, 353; Revised Elements for, M.
Fayet, 400; Comet 1904 e (Borrelly), Dr. E. Strémgren,
518; Periodical Comets due to Return in 1905, W. T.
Lynn, 306; Additional Periodical Comets due this Year,
Mr. Denning, 374; LEphemeris for Brooks’s Comet
1904 I., 374; Observations of Comets, M. Quenisset,
374; Dr. R. G. Aitken, 449: Mr. Maddrill, 449; Dis-
covery of a New Comet 1905 a, M. Giacobini, 518;
Comet 1905 a@ (Giacobini), Prof. Aitken, 544; Dr.
Stromgren, 569; Prof. Hartwig, 569; G. Bigourdan,
<7; Elements and Ephemeris for, General Bassot, 617;
Dr. Palisa, 618
Companion to the Observatory, the, 186
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge, 414, 416; A. B. Basset,
F.R.S., 318; R. Vere Laurence, H. Rackham, and A. C.
Seward, F.R.S., 390; W. Bateson, F.R.S., 390; Prof.
A. G. Tansley, 414; Edward T. Dixon, 414
Conchology: a New Rhabdosphere, George Murray,
F.R.S., 501; the Loxonematide, with Descriptions of
Two New Species, Miss J. Donald, 549; Relation in Size
between the Megalosphere and the Microspheric and
Megalospheric Tests in the Nummulites, J. J. Lister,
55
Conduché (A.), a New Reaction of Aldehydes, 407
Conference astrophotographique internationale de Juillet
1900, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., 154
Congo, Reports of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to the,
1903-4, 498
Congress at St. Louis, the International Electrical, 41
Coniel (J.), Re-discovery of Tempel’s Second Comet, 133;
Tempel’s Comet (1904 c), 185; Ephemeris for Comet
Tempel, 1904 c, 282
Conrady (Mr.), Experiment to Prove Phase-reversal in
Second Spectrum from a Grating of Broad Slits, 262
Constable (F. C.), Intelligence in Animals, 102
Constant Errors in Meridian Observations, J. G. Porter,
495
Continuous Transformation Groups, Introductory Treatise
of Lie’s Theory of Finite, John Edward Campbell, 49
Conwentz (H.), die Gefahrdung der Naturdenkmaler und
Vorschlage zu ihrer Erhaltung, 73
Cooke (T.), the Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, 124
Cooke (W. E.), Highest Maximum Temperatures Recorded
in the British Empire, 542; Earthquakes at Perth,
Western Australia, 613
Cooke (W. Ternent), Note on Radio-activity, 176
|
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Index
XV
Ccpaux (H.). Compariscn of the Physical Properties of
Pure Nickel and Cobalt, 479 .
Copper Deposits of the Encampment District, Wyoming,
A. C. Spencer, 450
Corals: the Anatomy of, Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S.,
18; Morphology of Corals and Sea-anemones, Dr. J. E.
Duerden, 232
Cork: le Liége, ses Produits et ses Sous-produits, M.
Martignat, 413 ;
Cornu (A.), Notices sur !Electricité, 1
Corona, Photography of the, without a Total Eclipse, A.
Hansky, 544
Corona, Structure of the, Dr. Ch. Nordmann, 469
Corstorphine (Dr. G. S.), Petrography of the Witwaters-
rand Conglomerates, with Special Reference to the
Origin of Gold, 471 !
Cortie (Rev. A. L.), Sun-spot Spectra, 158; Magnetic
Storms and Associated Sun-spots, 311
Cost of Chemical Synthesis, the, R. J. Friswell, 222
Costa Rica, Archzological Researches in, C. V. Hart-
man, Colonel George Earl Church, 461
Countries of the King’s Award, the, Sir Thomas Holdich,
K.C.M.G., 102
Country Day by Day, the, E. K. Robinson, 418
Country Diary, Pages from a, P. Somers, 175
Courmelles (Foveau de), Glandular Atrophic Action of the
X-Rays, 456
Courtot (A.), Direct Fixation of Ethero-organo-magnesium
Derivatives on the Ethylene Linkage of Unsaturated
Esters, 383
Courvoisier (L.), Value of the Astronomical
Constant, 592
Cousins (H. H.), Possibility of Manufacturing Starch from
Cassava on a Large Scale, 184; Sweet Potatoes, 542
Couturier (E.), Action of Magnesium Amalgam upon
Dimethylketone, 503
Coward (T. A.), Natterer’s Bat, 446
Cox (Mr.), Determination of Proportion of Free Chromic
Acid in Dichromate Solutions, 281
Craniology : Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid Apes,
A. T. Mundy, 125; N. C. Macnamara, 125; Difficulties
of the Ethnographic Survey in the Mysore, E. Thurston,
182-3 ; ‘‘ Negroid ’’ Characters in European Skulls, Prof.
Manouvrier, 453; a Great Oxford Discovery, Prof. Karl
Pearson, F.R.S., 510; the Ancient Races of the Thebaid,
Prof. Arthur Thomson, 583; Prof. Karl Pearson,
F.R.S., 583
Crater of Stromboli, Recent Changes in the, Dr. Tempest
Anderson, 593
Craw (J. A.), Physical Chemistry of the Toxin-antitoxin
Reaction, 598
Crawley (A. Ernest), the Native Tribes of South-east
Australia, 225; Studies in National Eugenics, 402
Crémieu (V.), Researches on Dielectric Solids, 167; At-
traction between Liquid Drops suspended in a Liquid
of the Same Density, 287
Crete, Phaistos and Hagia Triada, 465
Crete, Recent Archzological- Discoveries in, Proposed
Chronology of Cretan Civilisation, S. Reinach, 69
Crew (Dr. Henry), the Appearance of Spark Lines in Arc
Spectra, 159
Crompton (Colonel R. E.), Unsolved Problems in Electrical
Engineering, “‘ James Forrest’? Lecture at the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, 595
Crookes (Sir William, F.R.S.), Europium and its Ultra-
violet Spectrum, 476
Crossland (C.), CEcclogy and Deposits of the Cape Verde
Marine Fauna, 502
Crossley (E.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 32
Crosthwaite (Captain H. L.), Magnetic and Meteorological
Observatory on New Year Island, 515; Tierra del Fuego,
S15
Crustacea: a Small Crustacean (Paracartia grani) dis-
covered in the Oyster-beds of Norway, Prof. G. O. Sars,
61; Life-histories of the Edible Crab and other Decapod
Crustacea, Dr. Williamson, 214; Penella, a Crustacean
Parasitic on the Finner Whale, Sir William Turner, 431
Crystallography: Grundziige der Kristallographie, Prof.
C. M. Viola, Harold Hilton, 340
Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber, W. H. John-
son, 321, 352; C. Simmonds, 321
Refraction
mn
Culture of Fruit Trees in Pots, the, Josh Brace, 314
Cunha (A. Da), 1’Année Technique, 1
Cunningham (Lieut.-Colonel Allan), Quadratic Partitions,
124
Cunningham (E.), Extension of Borel’s Exponential Method
of Summation of Divergent Series applied to Linear
Differential Equations, 166
Cunningham (Prof. Robert O.), Occurrence of a Tropical
Form of Stick-Insect in Devonshire, 55
Curtis (Dr. H. D.), Radial Velocities of Certain Stars, 519
Curves, Compound Singularities of, A. B. Basset, F.R.S.,
IOI
Curves, Singularities of, T. B. S., 152
Cuthbertson (Clive), the Refractive Indices of the Elements,
164
Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores, H. Forbes Julian and
Edgar Smart, 292
Cyanogen Band, Structure of the Third, Franz Jungbluth,
234;
Cyclones of the Far East, the, Rev. José Algué, S.J., 198
y Cygni, a Canis Minoris, and e Leonis, Spectra of, E.
Haschek and K. Kostersitz, 354
Cytology: Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle, Dr. Alex-
ander Gurwitsch, 174; Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben,
Prof. Dr. Rhumbler, 199; Fecundation in Plants, David
M. Mottier, 218; Contributions to the Knowledge of the
Life-history of Pinus, with Special Reference to Sporo-
genesis, the Development of the Gametophytes and Fer-
tilisation, Margaret C. Ferguson, 218; Ergebnisse und
Probleme der Zeugungs- und Vererbungs-lehre, Prof. Oscar
Hertwig, 559
Czapski’ (Dr. Siegfried), Grundziige der ‘Theorie der op-
tischen Instrumente nach Abbe, 217
d Bilt (Herr van), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 185
Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a Study in National
Evolution, Henry Dyer, 97
Dalbergia of South-eastern Asia, the Species of, Dr. D-
Prain, 363
Danne (J.), a New Mineral containing Radium,
Plumbiferous Earths of Issy-l7Evéque contain Radium
Darwin (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), the Discovery of Argon, $
Darzens (Georges), New Method of Synthesis of Aromatic
Hydrocarbons, 119; General Method for the Synthesis of
Aldehydes, 240; a New Method of Synthesising Saturated
Ketones by the Method of Catalytic Reduction, 311
Date of Easter in 1905, the, Dr. A. M. W. Downing,
F.R.S., 201
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books, R. P. Paraiypye,
320; Henry Frowde, 365; B. Hobson, 440
Davies (J. H.), Determination of Wapour-pressure by Air-
bubbling, 597
Davis (A. S.), the ‘‘ Piesmic ’’ Barometer, 232
Davis (J. R. A.), the Natural History of Animals, the
Animal Life of the World in its Various Aspects and
Relations, 369
Davison (Dr. C.), the Leicester Earthquakes of August 4,
1893, and June 21, 1904, 262; the Derby Earthquakes
of July 3, 1904, 262; Twin-earthquakes, 262; a Study of
Recent Earthquakes, 532; Detailed Record of the Indian
Earthquake by Horizontal Pendulum at Birmingham, 589
Dawson (Dr. H. M.), Chemical Statics and Dynamics,
J. W. Mellor, 532 ;
Deafness, Application of the Vowel Siren to the Study of,
M. Marage, 456
Decomposition? Have Chemical Compounds a_ Definite
Critical Temperature and Pressure of, Geoffrey Martin,
609
Definition of Entropy, the, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 31;
J. Swinburne, 125; Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 125
Deineka (D.), the Swim-bladder of Fishes, r12
Delage (A.), on the Constitution of Arable Earth, 191
Demoussy (E.), Vegetation in Atmospheres Rich in Carbon
Dioxide, 120
Deniker (Dr. J.), the Racial Elements in the Present
Population of Europe, Huxley Memorial Lecture at An-
thropological Institute, 21
Denison (R. B.), Equilibrium between Sodium Sulphate
and Magnesium Sulphate, 381
Denning (W. F.), the Coming Shower of Leonids, 30;
335>
,
iS
Uh
3
Xvi
Index
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Heights of Meteors, 89; the November Meteors of 1904,
93; Shower of Andromedids from Biela’s Comet, 139;
the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, 211; Real Paths, Heighis,
and Velocities of Leonids, 306; Observations of the
Leonid Shower of 1904, 353 ; Additional Periodical Comets
due this Year, 374; January Fireballs, 469
Desch (C. H.), Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of certain
Enol-keto-tautomerides, 549
Deslandres (H.), the Third Band of the Air Spectrum, 17;
Deslandres's Formula for the Lines in the Oxygen Band
Series, 63; Groups of Negative Bands in the Air
Spectrum with a Strong Dispersion, 239; Variation of
the Band Spectra of Carbon with the Pressure and some
new Band Spectra of Carbon, 575
Desmidiacez, a Monograph of the British, W. West and
Prof. G. S. West, 194
Desplantes (G.), Oxidation of Metals in the Cold in Pre-
sence of Ammonia, 551
Destructors for Institutional and Trade Waste, Small,
Francis Goodrich, 246
Deventer (Dr. C. M. van),
Ww.
Law of the Permanent Level,
303
Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia,
Thompson, 249
Devonshire, Occurrence of a Tropical Form of Stick-insect
in, Prof. Robert O. Cunningham, 55
Dew-ponds and Cattle-ways, Neolithic, A. J. Hubbard and
G. Hubbard, 611
Dewar (George A. B.), the Glamour of the Earth, 53
Diamond, the ‘* Cullinan,’’ Dr. F. H. Hatch, 549
Diamond, Enormous Transvaal, 372
Diary, Pages from a Country, P. Somers, 175
Dickins (F. Victor), Geschichte des Christentums in Japan,
Dr. J. Haas, 27
Dictionary, a German-English, of Terms used in Medicine
and the Allied Sciences, Hugo Lang and B. Abrahams,
533
Dictionary, the Optical, 248
Dielectric, Electromagnetics in a Moving, Oliver Heaviside,
F.R.S., 606
Diet: the Question of, in Physical Education, Prof. T.
Clifford Allbutt, 111; Food of the Maine Lumbermen,
Messrs. Woods and Mansfield, 254
Dines (W. H.), the Study of the Minor Fluctuations of
Atmospheric Pressure, 216; Remarkable Temperature in-
version and the Recent High Barometer, 365; Observa-
tions at Crinan in 1904, 622
Discovery Expedition, Meteorological
Antarctic, C. W. R. Royds, 568
Discovery of Argon, the, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 83;
the Translator, 102
Discussion of Central
Albrecht, 424
Diseases of Children, Lectures on the,
the, R. Campbell
Conditions of the
European Longitudes, Prof. Th.
Robert Hutchison,
28
Dixon (Edward T.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge, 295,
aia
Dixon (Prof. H. B.), Direct Determination of the Atomic
Weight of Chlorine, 431
Dobbie (J. J.), Constitution of Phenylmethylacridol, 478
Dobbie (Dr. L.), Salts and their Reactions, 200
Doberck (Prof.), the Orbit of Sirius, 133; Right Ascensions
of 2120 Southern Stars, 545
Doctor’s View of the East, a, 553
Dogs, Reason in, Arthur J. Hawkes, 54
Dolezalek (F.), the Theory of the Lead Accumulator, 1
Donald (Miss J.), the Loxonematidz, with Descriptions of
Two New Species, 549; Gasteropoda from the Silurian
Rocks of Llangadock, 549
Doncaster (L.), the Inheritance of Tortoiseshell and Related
Colours in Cats, 191; Maturation of the Egg and Early
Development in certain Sawflies, 550
Donitch (N.), the Conditions in the
during 1900-1, 329
Dorsey (Dr. G. ay Folk-tales of Plains Indians, 417
Double Stars, Systematic Survey of, Prof. R. G. Aitken,
Solar Atmosphere
Degles (Captain Stewart R.), on the Action Exerted upon
the Staphylococcus pyogenes by the Human Blood Fluids,
and on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in the
Human Organism in Response to Inoculations of a
Staphylococcus Vaccine, 67; on the Action Exerted upon
the Tubercle Bacillus by the Human Blood Fluids, and
on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in the Human
Organism in Response to Inoculations of a Tubercle
Vaccine, 67
Dourien (Jacques), the Oxidation of Ethyl and Methyl
Alcohols at their Boiling Points, 48
Downing (Dr., F.R.S.), Relative Drift of the Hyades Stars,
185
Downing (Dr. A. M. W., F.R.S.), the Date of Easter in
1905, 201 ;
Doyen’s (Dr.), Conclusions of the Committee on, Treatment
of Cancer, 208
Drawing, Machine, Alfred P. Hill, 149
Drawing, Mathematical, an Elementary Treatise on Graphs.
George A. Gibson, Prof. George M. Minchin, F.R.S., 211
Dreyer (M.), Effect of the Radium Emanations on certain
Protozoa and on the Blood, 279
Driesch (Hans), Naturbegriffe und Natururteile, 270
Drown (Dr. T. M.), Death of, 130; Obituary Notice of, 303
Drummond (J.), the Animals of New Zealand, an Account of
the Colony’s Air-breathing Vertebrates, 199
Drysdale (Dr. C. V.), Apparatus for Direct Determination
of the Curvatures of Small Lenses, 142
du Jassonneix (Binet), New Boride of Manganese, 239
Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 71, 431, 503; Royal Dublin
Society, 167, 334, 503, 623; Flora of the County Dublin,
Nathaniel Colgan, 412
Duchemin (René), the Oxidation of Ethyl and Methyl
Alcohols at their Boiling Points, 48
Duckworth (W. L. H.), Morphology and Anthropology, 433
Studies from the Anthropological Laboratory, the
Anatomy School, Cambridge, 433
Duddell (W.), a High Frequency Alternator, 190
Dudfield (Dr. Orme), Sanatoria for Consumptives, 37
Duerden (Dr. J. E.), West Indian Madreporarian Polyps
18; Morphology of Corals and Sea-anemones, 232
Dugast (J.), l’Industrie oléicole (Fabrication de 1’Huile
d’Olive), 6
Dumb-bell Nebula, the, Louis Rabourdin, 4o
Dunér (Prof. N. C.), the Sun’s Rotation, 4o1
Durham (Florence M.), Tyrosinases in Skins of Pigmented
Vertebrates, 165
Dirre (Dr. Ernst F.), Death of, 420
Dust, Electrification, and Heat, Historical
Oliver Lodge, F. RS. , 582
Dutton (Clarence Edward), Earthquakes, 147
Dutton (Mr.), Sleeping Sickness in Congo Free State, 499 ;
Relationship of Human Trypanosomiasis to Congo Sleep-
ing Sickness, 499; the Congo Floor Maggot, 499
Dyer (Henry), Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a
Study in National Evolution, 97; Education and National
Efficiency in Japan, 150; Japan nach Reisen und Studien.
J. J. Rein, 603
Dyke (G. -B.), Practical Determination of the Mean
Spherical Candle-power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps.
Note on, Sir
95
Dynamics : Chemical Statics. and Dynamics,
J. W.
Dr. H. M. Dawson, 532
Mellor.
the Dynamical Theory oz
Gases, Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S., 559; J. H. Jeans.
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601; J. H. Jeans, 607; a
Treatise on the Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies,
E. T. Whittaker, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 601
Eakle (Arthur S.), Mineral Tables for the Identification of
Minerals by their Physical Properties,
Earth’s Heat: Presence of Radium throughout the Earth’s
Volume as Compensating for the Loss of Heat by Con-
123
duction, C. Liebenow, 113
Earth’s Rigidity, the Physical Cause of the, Prof. T. J. J.
See, 559
Earth’s Rotation, Apparatus for Measuring the Velocity
of the, Prof. A. Féppl, 39
Earthquakes: Clarence Edward Dutton, 147; Earthquake
in Transbaikalia on September 28,
Gibraltar,
Davison, 532
231; Earthquake at
253; a Study of Recent Earthquakes, Charles
; Propagation of Earthquake Waves, M. P.
Rudzki, 53 34: Rev. O. Fisher, 583; Earthquake at
Lahore, 540; the Indian Earthquake of April 4, 563;
Detailed Record of the Indian Earthquake by Horizontal
a
Nature, ip +
spt Index XVil
Pendulum at Birmingham, Dr. Davison, 589; Earth- Practical Determination of the Mean Spherical Candle~
quakes at Perth, Western Australia, W. E. Cooke, 613;
Earthquake in North England, 614
East, a Doctor’s View of the, 553
East Coast Naturalist, Notes of an, Arthur H. Patterson, 4
Easter in 1905, the Date of, Dr. A. M. W. Downing,
F.R.S., 201
Ebell (M.), Comet 1904 d (Giacobini), 256; Elements and
Ephemeris of, 211; Observations of, 281; Ephemeris for,
353; Ephemeris for Comet 1904 e, 281, 329
Eclipses: Eclipse Observations, Prof. Kobold, 159; C. W.
Wirtz, 159; Eclipse Results and Problems, M. le Comte
de la Baume Pluvinel, 234; Solar Eclipse Problems, Prof.
Perrine, 329; the Mathematical Theory of Eclipses ac-
cording to Chauvenet’s Transformation of Bessel’s
Method, Roberdeau Buchanan, 244; the Approaching
Total Solar Eclipse of August 30, Dr. William J. S.
Lockyer, 393; Observations of the Recent Eclipse of the
Moon, M. Puiseux, 518; Photography of the Corona
without a Total Eclipse, A. Hansky, 544
Economic Resources of the North Black Hills, J. D. Irving
and S. E. Emmons, 450; T. A. Jaggar, jun., 450
Economic Zoology, Second Report on, British Museum
(Natural History), Fred V. Theobald, 272
Edgar (E. C.), Direct Determination of the
of Chlorine, 431
Edinburgh : Edinburgh Royal Society, 142,
623; Prize Awards of the, 285
Atomic Weight
263, 382, 431,
Edridge-Green (Dr. F. W.), Two Cases of Trichromic
Vision, 573 4 .
Education: Annual Report of the Technical Education
Board of the London County Council, 1903-4, 34;
the Previous Examination at Cambridge, 55; Com-
pulsory Greek at Oxford and Cambridge, 128; Com-
pulsory Greek at Cambridge, A. B. Basset, F. R. Si, 3185
R. Vere Laurence, H. Rackham and A. C. Seward,
F.R.S., 390; W. Bateson, F.R.S., 390; Welsh Confer-
ence on the Training of Teachers, 66; Lord Kelvin and
Glasgow University, 104; the Question of Diet in
Physical Education, Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, 111; Edu-
cation and National Efficiency in Japan, Dr. Henry Dyer,
150; Darwin and Greek, 231; Agricultural Education and
Research, Prof. T. E. Middleton, 236; the Proposed
National League for Physical Education and Improve-
ment, Sir Lauder Brunton, 252; Report of the Inter-
departmental Committee on Physical Degeneration, Sir
Lauder Brunton, 252; Importance of Including both
Latin and Science in a Scheme of General Education,
Douglas Berridge, 284; Use and Misuse of Terms in
Science Teaching, T. L. Humberstone, 284; the Pre-
paration of the Child for Science, M. E. Boole, 316;
Special Method in Elementary Science for the Common
School, Charles A. McMurry, 316; London Conference
on School Hygiene, Sir Arthur Riicker, 377; Death of
Prof. Ludwig von Tetmeyer, 420; State Aid for Higher
Education, 487; German Educational Exhibits at St.
Louis, 513
Efficiency in Japan,
Dyer, 150
Egoroff (N.), Dichroism produced by Radium in Colour-
Tess Quartz, and a Thermoelectric Phenomenon in Striated
Smoky Quartz, 600
Egypt: ‘‘ Find’’ of Royal Statues at Thebes, G. Legrain,
126; Medical Research in Egypt,. 307; Bilharzia, Dr.
Symmers, 307; the Venom of Egyptian Scorpions, Dr.
Wilson, 307; Second Pyramid of Ghizeh Struck by
Lightning, 565 ;
Eichhorn (Dr. Gustav), die Drahtlose Telegraphie, 220
Electricity: Wireless Telegraphy, C. H. Sewall, 1; Elec-
tricity in Agriculture and Horticulture, Prof. S. Lem-
strém, 1; Modern Electric Practice, 1; the Theory of the
Lead Accumulator, F. Dolezalek, 1; Electric Motors,
H. M. Hobart, 1; Notices sur 1'Electricité, A. Cornu, 1;
lV’Année Technique (1902-1903), A. Da Cunha, 1; the
International Electrical Congress at St. Louis, 41; a New
Safety Arrangement for Electrical Mains at High Ten-
sion, L. Neu, 47; Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitit und
Elektronik, 53; Electrolytic Preparation of Titanous Sul-
phate, W. H. Evans, 71; Map showing the Long Dis-
tance Power Transmission Lines in California, 88; Corr.,
Education and National, Dr. Henry
113; Electrolysis of Acid Solutions of Aniline, L. Gil-
christ, 88; New Electrical Instruments, R. W. Paul, 95;
Power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps, G. B. Dyke, 95 ;
the Bleaching of Flour by Electricity, M. Balland, 96;
Influence of the Nature of the Anode on the Electrolytic
Oxidation of Potassium Ferrocyanide, André Brochet and
Joseph Petit, 119; Electricity in the Service of Man,
R. M. Walmsley, 124; Obituary Notice of Prof. Karl
Selim Lemstré6m, Prof. Arthur Rindell, 129; Measure-
ments by Photometric Methods of the Temperature of the
Electric Arc, C. W. Waidner and G. K. Burgess, 132;
Electrical Conductivity and other Properties of Sodium
Hydroxide in Aqueous Solution, W. R. Bousfield and
T. M. Lowry, 141; Pollak-Virag High-speed Writing
Telegraph, 156; the Charge of the a Rays from Polonium,
Prof. Thomson, F.R.S., 166; Researches on Dielectric
Solids, V. Crémieu and L. Malclés, 167; the Becquerel
Rays and the Properties of Radium, Hon. R. J. Strutt,
Dr. O. W. Richardson, 172; Calcium Metal, R. S.
Hutton, 180; Direct Communication Established betweer
Liverpool and Teheran, 181; a High Frequency Al-
ternator, W. Duddell, 190; Experiments to show the
Retardation of the Signalling Current of the Pacific
Cable, Prof. W.-E. Ayrton, 190; on a Rapid Method of
Approximate Harmonic Analysis, Prof. S. P. Thompson,
190; Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction
Machines, George W. Walker, 221; R. Langton Cole,
249; Theory of Amphoteric Electrolytes, Prof. James
Walker, F.R.S., 238; Electrolytic Analysis of Cobalt
and Nickel, Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin and W. C. Prebble
239; Electrolysis of Tin, F. Gelstharp, 239; Electrical
Conductivity of Colloidal Solutions, G. Malfitano, 240;
Report of the Commission appointed by Clifford Sifton,
Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to Investigate
the Different Electrothermic Processes for the Smelting
of Iron Ores and the Making of Steel in Europe, Prof.
J. O. Arnold, 258; Effect of Temperature on the Thermal
Conductivities of some Electrical Insulators, Dr. Charles
H. Lees, 262; Measurement of the Conductivity of Di-
electrics by Means of Ionised Gases, Charles Nordmann,
263; Higher-Text-book of Magnetism and Electricity,
Dr. R. Wallace Stewart, 270; Reversal of Charge from
Electrical® Induction Machines, V. Schaffers, 274; the
Construction of Simple Electroscopes for Experiments on
Radio-activity, Ur. O. W. Richardson, 274; Reversal in
Influence Machines, Charles E. Benham, 320; Death and
Obituary Notice of Victor Serrin, 325; Galvanic Cells
produced by the Action of Light, Dr. M. Wilderman,
222
333; Electrical Pendulum with Free Escapement, Ch.
Féry, 335; Action of Radium on the Electric Spark, Dr.
R. S. Willows and J. Peck, 358; Simplified Deduction
of the Field and the Forces of an Electron moving in
any given Way, Prof. Sommerfeld, 373; Mass Analysis
of Muntz’s Metal by Electrolysis, and the Electric Pro-
perties of this Alloy, J. G. A. Rhodin, 381; a Syn-
chronising Electromagnetic Brake, Henri Abraham, 383 ;
Drift produced in Ions by Electromagnetic Disturbances,
and a Theory of Radio-activity, George W. Walker, 406;
Automatic Registration of “Atmospheric lonisation,
Charles Nordmann, 407; Electrolysis of Organic Acids
by Means of the Alternating Current, André Brochet and
Joseph Petit, 4o7; Elements of Electromagnetic Theory,
S. J. Barnett, G. F. C. Searle, 409; Non-electrification
of y Rays, Prof. Thomson, F.R.S., 430; Electrical Effects
of Dryness of Atmosphere at Winnipeg, Prof. A. H. R.
Buller, 448; Surface Tension of a Dielectric in the
Electric Field, Ch. Fortin, 455; Influence of Strong
Electromagnetic Fields on the Spark Spectra of some
Metals, J. ES Purvis, 479; Electrolytic Solution of Plat-
inum in Sulphuric Acid, André Brochet and Joseph Petit,
479; Action of Radium Bromide on the Electrical Re-
sistance of Metals, Bronislas Sabat, 479; Study of Ion-
isation in Flames, Pierre Massoulier, 479; Recent De-
velopments in Electric Smelting in connection with Iron
and Steel, F. W. Harbord, 502; Wireless Telegraphy with
Circular Waves, Alessandro Artom, 517; Variation of the
Specific Inductive Power of Glass with the Frequency,
André Broca and M. Turchini, 527; Death and Obituary
Notice of Dr. L. Bleekrode, 540; Interrupters for In-
duction Coils, 546; Voltage Ratios of an Inverted Rotary
Converter, W. C. Clinton, 550; Electrometer with Sex-
tants and a Neutral Needle, M. Guinchant, 551; Moderm
Theory of Physical Phenomena, Radio-activity, Ions,
XViil
L[ndex
Nature, :
June 8, 1905
Electrons, Augusto Righi, 558; Atmospheric Electricity
in High Latitudes, George C. Simpson, 573; Historical
Note on Dust, Electrification, and Heat, Sir Oliver
Lodge, F.R.S., 582; Unsolved Problems in Electrical En-
gineering, ‘‘ James Forrest ’’ Lecture at the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Colonel R. E. Crompton, 595; Ionisa-
tion in Flames, Pierre Massoulier, 600; a Short Intro-
duction to the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, J. C.
Gregory, 606; Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric,
Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 606; Tantalum, Dr. F.
Mollwo Perkin, 610
Electrometallurgy : Calcium Metal, R. S. Hutton, 180
Elements, Prof. Mendeléeff on the Chemical, 65
Elements of Chemistry, the, M. M. Pattison Muir, 582
Elements and Ephemeris of Comet 1904 d, M. Ebell, 211;
M. Giacobini, 211; see also Astronomy
Elements and Ephemeris for Comet 1905 a (Giacobini),
General Bassot, 617; Dr. Palisa, 618; see also Astronomy
Eliot’s (Sir J.) Address at Cambridge, J. R. Sutton, 6;
Sir John Eliot, F.R.S., 7
Elkin (Dr.), Triangulation of the Pleiades Stars, 329;
Report of the Yale Observatory, 1900-4, 354
Elliot (D. G.), the Land and Sea Mammals of Middle
America and the West Indies, 212
Elliot (R. H.), the Agricultural Changes required by these
Times and Laying Down Land to Grass, 604
Elmore (Senor), Water-supply of the Rimac Valley, 236
Elster (Mr.), the Human Breath as a Source of the Ionisa-
tion of the Atmosphere, 157; Radio-active Muds from the
Thermal Springs of Nauheim and Baden, 448
Ely (Prof. Achsah M.), Death of, 350
Emerson (Miss), Anatomy of Typhlomolge rathbuni, the
Blind Salamander, 515
Emmons (S. F.), Economic Resources of the Northern
Black Hills, 450; Refractory Siliceous Ores of South
Dakota, 452
Encke’s Comet 1904 b, M. Kaminsky, 16; Prof. Max Wolf,
63, 89; Prof. Millosevich, 89, 114; Prof. E. Hartwig, 89;
Herr Moschick, 114; M. Kaminsky, 114; Dr. Smart,
114; Herr van d Bilt, 185; Brightness of Encke’s Comet,
J. Holetschek, 469
Energy, Life and, Four Addresses, Walter Hfbbert, 271
Energy, the Reception and Utilisation of, by a Green Leaf,
Bakerian Lecture at the Royal Society, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, F.R.S., 522
Engineering : Modern Electric Practice, 1; Electric Motors,
H. M. Hobart, 1; Notices sur 1’Electricité, A. Cornu, 1;
V’Année Technique (1902-1903), A. Da Cunha, 1; Public
Works in India during the Last Fifty Years, Sir
Guilford L. Molesworth, 13; Patent Flexible Curves
and a Parabolic Curve, W. J. Brooks, 15; the
Definition of Entropy, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F-.R.S.,
31; 125; J. Swinburne, 125; Possibilities of Gas
Turbines from a Scientific Standpoint, R. M. Neil-
son, 87; British Standard Specification and Sections
for Bull Headed Railway Rails, 88; Coast Erosion and
Protection, A. E. Carey, E. R. Matthews, at the In-
stitution of Civil Engineers, 92; Need of Testing
Materials to be Subjected to Rapidly Repeated or to
Alternating Loads otherwise than by Determining the
Tensile Strength and Elastic Limit, A. E. Seaton and
A. Jude, 184; Small Destructors for Institutional and
Trade Waste, W. Francis Goodrich, 246; Death and
Obituary Notice of Beauchamp Tower, 253; Recent Visit
of the Institution of Civil Engineers to the United States
and Canada, Sir William White, K.C.B., 254; Death of
Joseph Chaudron, 325; Death of William Sellers, 372;
Connection between Engineering and Science, C. O.
Burge, 384; Piercing of the Simplon Tunnel Completed,
420; Unsolved Problems in Electrical Engineering,
*‘James Forrest ’’ Lecture at the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Colonel R. E. Crompton, 595
England: Remains of the Prehistoric Age in, Bertram
C. A. Windle, F.R.S., 322; Social England, 385; an
Introductory History of England, C. R. L. Fletcher,
385 ; Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions, H. M. Chad-
wick, 385
England and Wales, the Sea-fishing Industry of, F. G.
Aflalo, 153 ‘
English Estate Forestry, A. C. Forbes, 580
English Field-botany, 245
Entomology: Entomological Society, 23, 117, 142, 190,
334, 429, 501, 527, 621; Tyrosinase of the Fly, C.
Gessard, 24; Ants and some other Insects, an Inquiry
into the Psychic Powers of these Animals, Dr. August
Forel, Prof. William Morton Wheeler, 29; Occurrence
of a Tropical Form of Stick-insect in Devonshire, Prof.
Robert O. Cunningham, 55; the Pine-apple Gall of the
Spruce, E. R. Burdon, 71; the Australian Cicadidz,
Dr. F. W. Goding and W. W. Froggatt, 72; Death of
C. G. Barrett, 181; Obituary Notice of, 208; Death
and Obituary Notice of F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 397;
Function of the Antennz in Insects, M. Yearsley, 430;
a Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, W. F. Kirby,
459; Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. A. S. Packard,
4606; the Congo Floor Maggot, Messrs. Dutton, Todd,
and Christy, 499; Protective Resemblance, Mark L.
Sykes, 520; Studies of Variation in Insects, Vernon L. —
Kellogg and Ruby G. Bell, 545; Maturation of the Egg ©
and Early Development in Certain Sawflies, L. Don-
caster, 550; ‘‘ Fungus-gardens’’ of South American —
Ants, Prof. D. H. Forel, 567
Entropy, the Definition of, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
31, 125; J. Swinburne, 125
Eocene Whales, F. A. Lucas, 102
Ephemeris for Brooks’s Comet 1904 I., 374
Ephemeris of Comet 1904 d, M. Ebell,
Giacobini, 211; Herr Pechiile, 353
Ephemeris for Comet 1904 e, Dr. E.
also Astronomy
Eros Circular, the Eleventh, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.,
353; M.
200,
Strémgren, 353; see
15
Be Stars, Magnitude Equation in the Right Ascensions
of the, Prof. R. H. Tucker, 618
Erosion, Coast, and Protection, A. E. Carey, E. R.
Matthews, at the Institution of Civil Engineers, 92
Etheridge (R.), an Opalised Plesiosaurian Reptile of the
Genus Cimoliosaurus from White Cliffs, New South
Wales, 399
Ethnography: Difficulties of the Ethnographic Survey in
the Mysore, E. Thurston, 182
Ethnology: Death of Prof. Max Berbels, 181; Archzo-
logical Researches in Costa Rica, C. V. Hartman,
Colonel George Earl Church, 461; Tales from Old Fiji,
Lorimer Fison, 490
Eugenics: Studies in, Meeting at the Sociological Society,
401; Restrictions in Marriage, Francis Galton, 401;
Studies in National Eugenics, Francis Galton, 401; Dr.
Haddon, 402; Dr. F. W. Mott, 402; Ernest Crawley,
402; Dr. E. Westermarck, 402
Europe, the Racial Elements in the Present Population of,
Huxley Memorial Lecture, Dr. J. Deniker at Antropo-
logical Institute, 21 ;
European Longitudes,
Albrecht, 424
European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, a History
of, John Theodore Merz, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
241
Evans (A. J.), the Tombs of Minoan Knossos, 303
Evans (W. H.), Electrolytic Preparation of Titanous
Sulphate, 71
Eve (A. S.), the Infection of Laboratories by Radium, 460
Evolution: the Origin of Life, George Hookham, 9;
Geologist, 31; Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a
Study in National Evolution, Henry Dyer, 97; the In-
heritance of Tortoiseshell and Related Colours in Cats,
L. Doncaster, 191; Mankind in the Making, H. G.
Wells; Anticipations, H. G. Wells; the Food of the
Gods, H. G. Wells, 193; Variation in Animals and
Plants, H. M. Vernon, 243; Trapezium of the Carpus
of the Horse, O. C. Bradley, 326; an Outline of the
Theory of Organic Evolution, with a Description of
some of the Phenomena which it Explains, Dr. Maynard
M. Metcalf, 500 3
Ewart (Dr. Alfred J.), the Ascent of Water in Trees, 261
Examination at Cambridge, the Previous, 55
Exotic Flowers, the Bionomics of, Prof. Perey Groom, 26
Exotic Flowers, the Pollination of, Ella M. Bryant, 249
Exploration of Lake Tanganyika, Scientific, 277
Exploration in the Mentone Caves, Recent, Prof. Marcellin
Boule, 276
Explosion Risks, Fire and, Dr. von Schwartz, 122
Discussion of Central, Prof. Th.
Nature,
June 8, 1905,
Index
X1X
Explosives: Gellignite, a Safety Explosive, 61; Calcium
Carbide as an Explosive in Mining Work, Marcel P. S.
Guédras, 240
Eynon (L.), Method for the Direct Production of Certain
Aminoazo-compounds, 239
Fabry (Ch.), New Arrangement for the Use of the Methods
of Interferential Spectroscopy, 551
Fact in Sociology, 366
Faraday Society, 239, 381, 502, 598
Farmer (R. C.), Affinity Constants of Aniline and its
Derivatives, 166
Farrington (Dr. O. C.), Geology of Durango (Mexico),
235
Fauna of the North-west Highlands and Skye, A. J. A.
Harvie-Brown and H. A. MacPherson, 202
Faure (Jacques), Voyage in a Balloon from London to
Paris, 372
Fayet (G.), Elliptical Character of the New Borrelly Comet
(1904 e), 335; Orbit of Comet 1904 e (Borrelly), 353;
Revised Elements for Borrelly’s Comet (1904 e), 400
Fecundation in Plants, David M. Mottier, 218
Fenton (H. J. H., F.R.S.), Soluble Forms of Metallic
Dihydroxytartrates, 479
Ferguson (Margaret C.), Contributions to the Knowledge
of the Life-history of Pinus, with Special Reference to
Sporogenesis, the Development of the (Gametophytes,
and Fertilisation, 218
Fernbach (A.), the Diastatic Coagulation of Starch, 240
Ferrar (H. T.), the Old Moraines of South Victoria Land,
550
Fertilisation of Jasminum
McKendrick, F.R.S., 319
Féry (Ch.), Isochronism of the Pendulum in the Astro-
nomical Clock, 288; Electrical Pendulum with Free
Escapement, 335
Fielde (Miss A. M.), Curious Traits Displayed by Ants,
112
Fiji, Tales from Old, Lorimer Fison, 490
Films, how to Photograph with Roll and Cut, John A.
Hodges, 460
Filon (Dr. L. N. G.), the Projection of Two Triangles on
to the same Triangle, 478
“Find ’’ of Royal Statues at Thebes, G. Legrain, 126
Findlay (A.), Influence of the Hydroxyl and Alkoxyl
Groups on the Velocity of Saponification, 599
Finlayson (D.), the Ashe-Finlayson ‘‘ Comparascope,”’
Finn (F.), the Birds of Calcutta, 438
Fire and Explosion Risks, Dr. von Schwartz, 122
Fireballs, January, Mr. Denning, 469
Fireside Astronomy, D. W. Horner, 292
Fisher (Rev. Osmond), on the Occurrence of Elephas
meridionalis at Dewlish, Dorset, 118; Propagation of
Earthquake Waves, 583
Fisheries : Fish-passes and Fish-ponds, Howietoun Fishery
Co., 9; the Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales,
Messrs. Archer and Fryer and Dr. Masterman, Frank
Balfour Browne, 18; the New Whale Fisheries, 84; the
Sea-fishing Industry of England and Wales, F. G.
Aflalo, 153; the Fisheries of Scotland, Frank Balfour
Browne, 213; Whaling for 1904, Mr. Southwell, 351;
Decrease in Flat Fish in Cambois Bay, Northumber-
land, 567; Report to the Government of Ceylon on the
Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, W. A.
Herdman, F.R.S., 395
Fishes: a Large Indian Sea-perch, Major A. Alcock,
F.R.S., 415; the Nest of the Fighting Fish, E. H.
Waite, 450
Fishing at Night, S. W., 201; F. G. Aflalo,
Fison (Lorimer), Tales from Old Fiji, 490
Flamand (G. B. M.), Existence of Schists with Grapto-
liths at Haci-el-Khenig, Central Sahara, 576
Flames, Study of Ionisation in, Pierre Massoulier, 479
Fleming (Mrs.), Stars having Peculiar Spectra, 306; Dis-
tribution of Stellar Spectra, 115
Boruc (C. R. L.), an Introductory History of England,
395
Fleurent (E.), the Rational
Wheaten Flour, 288
Flint (Robert), Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum, and a
History of Classifications of the Sciences, 505
nudiflorum, Prof. John G.
478
221
Estimation of Gluten in
Flints: Blue-stained, Dr. F. J. Allen, 83; Thomas L. D.
Porter, 126; Blue Flints at Bournemouth, J. W. Sharpe,
176
Floating Ice, the Melting of, Heat, 366
Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the Mississippi Watershed,
H.C. Frankenfeld, 10
Floods of 1902 and 1903, the Passaic, 11
Floods in the United States in 1903, Destructive, E. C-
Murphy, 308
Flora of the County Dublin, Nathaniel Colgan, 412
Flora of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight, Frederick
Townsend, 245
Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, the, T. Cooke, 124
Floral Morphology, 436
Flowers, Attractions Offered to Bees by, Miss J. Wery, 492
Flowers, Children’s Wild, Mrs. J. M. Maxwell, 510
Flowers, the Pollination of Exotic, Ella M. Bryant, 249
Fluid, Theory of Rapid Motion in a Compressible, 196
Fog Inquiry, 1901-3, London, 259
Folie (F. J. P.), Death of, 371
Folklore: the Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia, R.
Campbell Thompson, 249; Folk-tales of Plains Indians,
Drs. G. A. Dorsey and A. L. Kroeber, 417; P. E.
Goddard, 418; Fijian Folk-tales, Lorimer Fison, 490
Food : Food Inspection and Analysis, Albert E. Leach, C.
Simmonds, 50; the Nutritive Value of Sterilised Cows’
Milk, G. Variot, 167
Food of the Gods, the, H. G. Wells, 193
Fopp! (Prof. A.), Apparatus for Measuring the Velocity of
the Earth’s Rotation, 39
Forbes (A. C.), English Estate Forestry, 580
Forbes (Prof. Geo., F.R.S.), Exterior Ballistics, 380
Forcrand (M. de), on the Possibility of Chemical Reactions,
143; on the Prediction of Chemical Reactions, 143 ;
Valency of the Atom of Hydrogen, 527
Forel (Dr. August), Ants and some other Insects, an
Inquiry into the Psychic Powers of these Animals, 29
Forel (Prof. D. H.), ‘* Fungus-gardens ”’ of South American
Ants, 567
Forel (F. A.), Discovery at Boiron of a Tomb of the
Bronze Age, 493; Occurrence of Bishop’s Ring, Mar-
tinique, 591
Forestry: Forestry in the United States, 32; Death of
Forstmeister Schering, 36; the Spread of the Mesquite
Prosopis glandulosa, 61; ‘‘ Bastard ’’ Logwood, S.N.C.,
222; the Timbers of Commerce and their Identification,
H. Stone, 247; Trees, Prof. H. Marshall Ward, 290; the
Strength of Structural Timber, Dr. W. K. Hatt, 399;
the Basket Willow, William F. Hubbard, 427; Forest
Planting in Western Kansas, Royal R. Kellogg, 427;
the Chestnut in Southern Maryland, Raphael Zon, 427;
Forestry in the United States, 427; English Estate
Forestry, A. C. Forbes, 580
‘* Forrest (James) ’’ Lecture at the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Unsolved Problems in Electrical Engineering,
Colonel R. E. Crompton, 595
Forster (M. O.), Configuration of isonitrosocamphor, 382 ;
New Formation of Acetyleamphor, 598
Fortin (Ch.), Surface Tension of a Dielectric in the Electric
Field, 455
Fortuna, the Planet, W. T., 461, 511; W.
Spencer Pickering, F.R.S., 486
Foster (Sir M., K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Monte Rosa and
Col d’Olen International Laboratories, Prof. Mosso, 443
Fournier (G.), the Perseids for 1904, 167
Fournier (V.), the Perseids for 1904, 167
Fourtau (R.), the Spring at Hammam Moussa, near Tor,
Sinai, 312
Fowle (F. E., jun.), Absorption by Water Vapour in the
Infra-red Solar Spectrum, 115
France, the Condition of Chemical
Jaubert, 369
Frank (Prof.), Production of Calcium Cyanamide and its
Employment as Fertiliser, 374
Frankenfeld (H. C.), Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the
Mississippi Watershed, 10
Frankland (P. F.), Grignard Reaction Applied to the Esters
of Hydroxy-acids, 166
Franks (W. S.), Dark Nebulosities, 190; Photography of
Planetary Nebulz, 618
Frazier (Prof. Benjamin W.), Death of, 325
E>) Pee4ons
Industries in, Jean
XX
Index
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Frébaut (A.), Hydrogenation of Benzonitrile and Paratoluo-
nitrile, 600
Frederico (L.), the Glacial Fauna and Flora of the Plateau
of Baraque-Michel, Ardennes, 468
Freeman (W. G.), Nature Teaching, 5
Frémont (Ch.), on the Possibility of Producing a Non-
brittle Steel Tempered Blue, 191
Freshfield (Douglas W.), Mount Everest, the Story of a
Controversy, 82
Freshwater Alge, a Treatise on the British, Prof. G. S.
West, 194
Freundler (P.), Monobromoacetal, 527
Friedel (Jean), Chlorophyll Assimilation in the Absence of
Oxygen, 312
Friend (J. A. N.), Influence of Potassium Persulphate on
the Estimation of Hydrogen Peroxide, 70
Friswell (R. J.), the Cost of Chemical Synthesis, 222
Froggatt (W. W.), the Australian Cicadide, 72
Frossard (Mr.), the Nature of the Hydrosulphites, 374
Froude (R. E.), Hollow versus Straight Lines, 595
Frowde (Henry), Dates of Publication of Scientific Books,
3605
Fruit Trees in Pots, the Culture of, Josh Brace, 314
Fryer (Mr.), the Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales, 18
Fuel Economy, Smoke Prevention and, Wm. H. Booth and
John B. C. Kershaw, 74
Fuel, Oil, its Supply, Composition, and Application, S. H.
North, 531
Fungi: Sexual Reproduction of the Mucorinee, A. F.
Blakeslee, 61; on the Origin of Flagellate Monads and
of Fungus-germs from Minute Masses of Zoogloea, Dr.
H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 77; Heterogenetic Origin of
Fungus-germs, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, 272; Hetero-
genetic Fungus-germs, George Massee, 175; Fungi, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., at the Royal Institution, 496
Furs, the Supply of Valuable, R. Lydekker, F.R.S., 115
Fusion, Memoire sur la Reproduction Artificielle du Rubis
par, A. Verneuil, 180
Gallenkamp (A., and Co.), New Spectrum Tubes, 445
Galloway (R. L.), Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal
Trade, 361
Galton (Dr. Francis, F.R.S.), Average Number of Kinsfolk
in Each Degree, 30, 248; Restrictions in Marriage, 401 ;
Studies in National Eugenics, 401
Gamble (Dr. F. W.), Colour-physiology of the Higher
Crustacea, 621
Game, Shore, and Water Birds of India, with Additional
References to their Allied Species in other parts of the
World, Colonel A. Le Messurier, 363
Gang des Menschen, der, Otto Fischer, Dr. A. Keith, 145
Garbasso (Prof.), New Theory to Account for the Dupli-
cation of Lines in the Spectra of Variable Stars, 516
Garbowski (Tad.), Morphologische Studien, als Beitrag zur
Methodologie zoologischer Probleme, 265
Garcia (Don Manuel), Centenary of, 491
Gas, Production of Natural, in the United States in 1903, 491
Gases: the Dynamical Theory of, Lord Rayleigh, O.M.,
F.R.S., 559; J. H. Jeans, 601, 607; Prof. G. H. Bryan,
F.R.S., 601
Gatecliff (J.), Basic Properties of Oxygen, 70
Gatin-Gruzewska (Madame Z.), the Resistance to Desicca-
tion of some Fungi, 191
Gaudechon (M.), Thermochemical Researches on Brucene
and Strychnine, 527
Gautier (A.), Search-ephemeris for Tempel’s First Periodic
Comet (1867 II.), 545
Gautier (E. F.), North African Petroglyphs, 570
Gavelle (M.), Re-discovery of Tempel’s Second Comet, 133
Gayley (James), on the Application of Dry Air Blast to the
Manufacture of Iron, 40; Method of Drying the Air for
the Blast, 327
Geddes (P.), City Development, a
Gardens, and Culture Institutes, 511
Gefahrdung der Naturdenkmaler und Vorschlage zu ihrer
Erhaltung, die, H. Conwentz, 73
Geikie (Sir Arch., F.R.S.), Geology of the Moon, 348;
Samuel Pepys and the Royal Society, 415; Landscape
in History and other Essays, 577
Geitel (Mr.), the Human Breath as a Source of the
Ionisation of the Atmosphere, 157; Radio-active Muds
Study of Parks,
from the Thermal Springs of Nauheim and Baden,
448
Gelstharp (F.), Electrolysis of Tin, 239
Gemmellaro (Gaetano Giorgio), Obituary Notice of, 39
Geodesy: Determination of the Difference in Longitude
between Greenwich and Paris made in 1902, M. Lowy,
191; the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 519
Geography: the National Antarctic Expedition, Captain
Scott, 41; Report on the Identification and Nomen-
clature of Himalayan Peaks, Captain H. Wood, R.E.,
Major S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., 42; Mount Everest, the
Story of a Controversy, Douglas W. Freshfield, 82; the
Countries of the King’s Award, Sir Thomas Holdich,
K.C.M.G., 102; Death and Obituary Notice of Admiral
Sir Erasmus Ommanney, K.C.B., F.R.S., 207; Russian
Geographical Society Medal Awards, 231; India, Sir
Thomas Holdich, C.B., 268; Glossary of Geographical
and Topographical Terms, Alexander Knox, 271; Geo-
graphical Society, Geographical Results of the Tibet
Mission, Sir Frank Younghusband, 377; Geographical
Society's Medal Awards, 541; Geographical Results of
the National Antarctic Expedition, Captain R. F. Scott,
421; the Second Antarctic Voyage of the Scotia, J. H.
Harvey Pirie and R. N. Rudmose Brown, 425; die
Kalahari, Dr. Siegfried Passarge, 481; Tierra del
Fuego, Captain H. L. Crosthwaite, 515; Antarctica, or
Two Years amongst the Ice of the South Pole, Dr. N.
Otto G. Nordenskjéld and Dr. Joh. Gunnar Andersson,
560; Lhasa, an Account of the Country and People of
Central Tibet, Perceval Landon, 585; Japan nach Reisen
:
und Studien, J. J. Rein, Dr. Henry Dyer, 603; Physical ~
Geography: Variations of Level of Lake Victoria
Nyanza, Captain H. G. Lyons, 15; Study of the
Sea Bottom of the North Atlantic, M. Thoulet, 24; the
Rocks of Tristan d’Acunha, E. H, L. Schwarz, 168;
Water-supply of the Rimac Valley, Senor Elmore, 236;
the Physical History of the Victoria Falls, A. J. C.
Molyneux, 619
Geology: the pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South Coast
of Ireland, W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff, Prof. Gren-
ville A. J. Cole, 17; Neolithic Deposits in the North-
east of Ireland, George Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger,
444; the Homotaxial Equivalents of the Beds which
Immediately Succeed the Carboniferous Limestone in
the West of Ireland, Dr. Wheelton Hind, 503; Appli-
cation of Earthquake Observations to the Investigation
of the Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, Prof.
Laska, 19; Gravitational Anomalies Detected under
Mount Etna, Prof. Ricco, 20; the Origin of Life,
Geologist, 31; Obituary Notice of Gaetano Giorgio
Gemmellaro, 39; Geological Survey of the Transvaal,
Report for the Year 1903, H. Kynaston, E. T. Mellor,
A. L. Hall, Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff, Prof. Grenville
A. J. Cole, 55; Petrography of the Witwatersrand Con-
glomerates, with Special Reference to the Origin of
Gold, Dr. F. H. Hatch and Dr. G. S. Corstorphine,
471; Intrusive Granites in the Transvaal, the Orange
River Colony, and in Swaziland, E. Jorissen, 471;
Naples Volcanic Formations, Dr. de Lorenzo, 62; Geo-
logical Society, 118, 165, 190, 262, 310, 358, 382, 477,
549, 575, 622; Geological Society’s Awards, 253; Geo-
logical Notes, 161, 235, 471; Study of Sands and Sedi-
ments, T. Mellard Reade and Philip Holland, 161;
Geology of Spiti, H. H. Hayden, 161; the Geology of
Spiti, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu, H. H.
Hayden, 251; on an Ossiferous Cave of Pleistocene Age
at Hoe Grange Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington
(Derbyshire), H. H. Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton,
F.R.S., 165, 488; the Nepheline Rocks of Tahiti, M.
Lacroix, 167; the Glacial Conglomerate in the Table
Mountain Series near Clanwilliam, A. W. Rogers, 168;
the Rocks of Tristan d’Acunha, E. H. L. Schwarz, 168;
the Glacial Geology of New Jersey, Rollin D. Salisbury,
186; Origin of the Dolomites of Southern Tyrol, Prof.
E. W. Skeats, 190; the Coal-measures in French Lor-
raine, Francis Laur, 192; Geology of Durango (Mexico),
Dr. O. C. Farrington, 235; Geology of Baraboo Iron-
bearing District of Wisconsin, Dr. Samuel Weidman,
235; Geology of German South-West Africa, F. W.
Voit, 236: Examination of the Terraces along the Valley
of Inn, Dr. Ampferer, 236; Death of Robert Harris
Nature, |
June 8, 1905,
Index
Xxl
Valpy, 253; Geology, Thomas C. Chamberlin and
Rollin D. Salisbury, 267; Recent Exploration in the
Mentone Caves, Prof. Marcellin Boule, 276; Geological
Survey of Canada, 276; Death of T. W. Shore, 278;
the Marine Beds in the Coal-measures of North Stafford-
shire, J. T. Stobbs, 310; Geology of Cyprus, C. V.
Bellamy and A. J. Jukes-Browne, 310; Geological Map
of Cyprus, C. V. Bellamy, 471; Stanford’s Geological
Atlas of Great Britain (Based on Reynold’s Geological
Atlas), Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S., 315; Death of
Dr. Albert von Reinach, 325; Geology of the Moon,
Sir Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 348; Classification of Igneous
Rocks, H. Stanley Jevons, 335; Eruptive Basic Rocks
of French Guinea, A. Lacroix, 407; the Hauraki Gold-
fields of New Zealand, W. Lindgren, 421; Zinc and Lead
Deposits of Northern Arkansas, G. I. Adams, 450; the
Copper Deposits of the Encampment District, Wyoming,
A. C. Spencer, 450; Economic Resources of the
Northern Black Hills, J. D. Irving and S. F. Emmons,
450; T. A. Jaggar, jun., 450; a Geological Recon-
naissance Across the Bitterroot Range and Clearwater
Mountains in Montana and Idaho, W. Lindgren, 450;
Refractory Siliceous Ores of South Dakota, J. D. Irving
and S. F. Emmon, 452; the Jammu Coal-fields, India,
R. R. Simpson, 471; the Submarine Great Canyon of
the Hudson River, Dr. J. W. Spencer, 472; Climatic
Features in the Land Surface, Dr. Albrecht Penck, 472;
the Joess of Natchez and of the Lower Mississippi
Valley, Prof. B. Shimek, 472; the Kansas Oil-fields,
W. H. Heydrick, 472; Exploration of the Potter Creek
Cave in California, W. J. Sinclair, 472; Classification
of the Sedimentary Rocks, Dr. J. E. Marr, 477; die
Kalahari, Dr. Siegfried Passarge, 481; Death of
Jeremiah Slade, 491; British Association Geological
Photographs, 538; the Old Moraines of South Victoria
Land, H. T. Ferrar, 550; Death of H. B. Medlicott,
F.R.S., 565; Obituary Notice of, 612; Experiment in
Mountain Building, Lord Avebury, P.C., F.R.S., 575;
Existence of Schists with Graptoliths at Haci-El-
Khenig, Central Sahara, G. B. M. Flamand, 576; Land-
scape in History and Other Essays, Sir Archibald Geikie,
F.R.S., 577; the Fishes of the Two Sides of the Isthmus
of Panama, Messrs. Gilbert and Starks, 590; Death of
Prof. A. A. Wright, 614; the pre-Glacial Valleys of
Northumberland and Durham, Dr. D. Woolacott, 616;
the Physical History of the Victoria Falls, A. J. C.
Molyneux, 619; Proposed Classification of the Coal-
measures, R. Kidston, 622; Age and Relations of the
Phosphatic Chalk of Taplow, H. J. O. White and L.
Treacher, 622; Graptolite-bearing Rocks of the South
Orkney Islands, Dr. J. Harvey Pirie, 623
Geometry: Death of Dr. Francesco Chizzoni, 36, 350
sal
School Geometry, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 75;
Theoretical Geometry for Beginners, C. H. Allcock, 75
Elementary Plane Geometry, V. M. Turnbull, 75; a
New Geometry for Senior Forms, S. Barnard and J. M.
Child, 174; Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and
Siddons’s Elementary Geometry, E. A. Price, 248;
Elementary Pure Geometry, with Mensuration, E.
Buddon, 507; Lessons in Experimental and Practical
Geometry, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 507; the
Elements of Geometry, Theoretical and Practical, B.
Arnett, 507
Georgiadés (N.), the Spring at Hammam Moussa, near
Tor, Sinai, 312
German Educational Exhibits at St. Louis, 513
German-English Dictionary of Terms used in Medicine
and the Allied Sciences, a, Hugo Lang and B. Abra-
hams, 533
Gessard (C.), Tyrosinase of the Fly, 24
Giacobini (M.), Discovery of a New Comet (1904 d), 185;
Elements and Ephemeris of Comet 1904 d, 211; Dis-
covery of a New Comet, 1905 a, 518
Giacobini, Comet 1904 d, 233; M. Ebell, 256; Giacobini
Comet 1905 a, Prof. Aitken, 544; Dr. Strémgren, 569;
Prof. Hartwig, 569; G. Bigourdan, 575 ,
Gibbons (Kenrick), Mosquitoes Destroyed by Fish, 446
Gibson (Frank), Superstitions about Animals, 510
Gibson (George A.), an Elementary Treatise on Graphs, 211
Gibson (Prof. R. J. Harvey), Axillary Scales of Aquatic
Monocotyledans, 599
Gilbert (Dr. G. K.), Origin of Lunar Formation, 256
Gilbert (Mr.), the Fishes of the Two Sides of the Isthmus
of Panama, 590
Gilchrist (L.), Electrolysis of Acid Solutions of Aniline, 88
Gill (Sir David), Annual Report of the Cape Observatory,
63
Giolitti (F.), Attempts to Decide by Physical Methods the
Nature of Isodynamic Substances, 113
Giran (H.), Combustion of Sulphur in the Calorimetric
Bomb, 240
Girard (P.), Weight of the Brain as a Function of the
Body Weight in Birds, 600
Glacial Geology of New Jersey, the, Rollin D. Salisbury,
186
Glaciers, the Melting of, in Winter,
denfeld, 62
Glamour of the Earth, the, George A. B. Dewar, 53
Glasgow (Lord), Spread of the Steam Turbine for Marine
Propulsion, 594 .
Glasgow University, Lord Kelvin and, 104
Gledhill (J. M.), Development and Rise of High-speed Tool
Steel, 40
Glossary of Geographical
Alexander Knox, 271
Glow-worm in India, an Aquatic, N. Annandale, 285
Gnesotto (Dr. Tullio), Superfusion Phenomena, 305
Godchot (M.), on Dextrorotatory Lactic Acid, 503
Goddard (P. E.), Folk-tales of Plains Indians, 418
Godfrey and Siddons’s Elementary Geometry, Solutions of
the Exercises in, E. A. Price, 248
Goding (Dr. F.), the Australian Cicadide, 72
Godlewski (Dr. T.), a New Radio-active Product from
Actinium, 294
Gods, the Food of the, H. G. Wells, 193
Gold Mining in France, 445
Gold and Silver Ores, Cyaniding, H. Forbes Julian and
Edgar Smart, 292
Goldschmidt (Dr. R.), Distinct Second Family Type of
Lancelets (Cephalochordata), 590
Gomery (A. de Gerlache de), Résultats du Voyage du
S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898, 1899, sous le Commandemant
de, 337
Goodall (Dr.), Experiments on the Simultaneous Removal
of Spleen and Thymus, 263
Goodrich (W. Francis), Small Destructors for Institutional
and Trade Waste, 246
Gordon (Dr. Mervyn),
Air-pollution, 237
Gore (J. E.), a Probable Variable of the Algol Type, 55;
Studies in Astronomy, 199
Géttingen Royal Society of Sciences, 192, 600
Gotz (P.), Parallax of a Low Meteor, 133
Government Observatory at Victoria, the, P. Baracchi, 449
Gowers (Sir William R., F.R.S.), Clinical Lectures on
Diseases of the Nervous System, 6
Graber’s Leitfaden der Zoologie fiir héhere Lehranstalten,
25 :
Grahiovite (Prof.), Nature of Wave Motion in Third Phase
of Record of Distant Earthquake, 20
Grace (J. H.), the Algebra of Invariants, 601
Grand’Eury (M.), the Grains Found attached
topteris Pluckeneti, 575
Granger (Albert), the Properties of Tungstic Anhydride as a
Colouring Material for Porcelain, 575
Grant (Prebendary), Exploration at the Ancient British
Lake Village at Glastonbury, 422
Graphic, Statics, T. Alexander and A. W. Thompson, 507
Graphs, an Elementary Treatise on, George A. Gibson,
Prof. George M. Minchin, F.R.S., 211
Grass-snake, Tenacity to Life of a, E. V. Windsor, 390
Gray (Dr. A. A.), the Membranous Labyrinth of the In-
ternal Ear of Man and the Seal, 615
Great Britain and Ireland, the Mammals of, J. G. Millais,
121
Great Britain, Stanford’s Geological Atlas of (Based on
Reynolds’s Geological Atlas), Horace B. Woodward,
E-ReS S305 hs
Greek at Cambridge, Compulsory, 414, 416; John C. Willis,
273; Edward T. Dixon, 295; A. B. Basset, F.R.S., 318;
Prof. J. Wertheimer, 344; R. Vere Laurence. H. Rack-
ham, and A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 390; W. Bateson,
Dr. R. von Len-
and Topographical Terms,
Bacterial Test for Estimation of
to Pec-
XXIl
Index
[ Nature,
June 8, 1905
F.R.S., 390; Prof. A. G. Tansley, 414; Edward T. Dixon,
414
Greek at Oxford and Cambridge, Compulsory, 128
Gregory (J. C.), a Short Introduction to the Theory of
Electrolytic Dissociation, 606
Griffin (Messrs. J. J. and Sons), Vitro-Ink, 256
Grimal (Emilien), on Wood Spirit from Thuya articulata,
143
Grindon (Maurice), Till the Sun Grows Cold, 606
Groom (Prof. Percy), Handbuch der Bliitenbiologie, 26;
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, Camillo Karl Schneider, 76
Grosvenor (G. H.), Water-purification by Blue Vitriol, 156
Group-velocity, Growth of a Wave-group when the,
Negative, Dr. H. C. Pocklington, 607
Grubb (Sir Howard, F.R.S.), Improvements in Equatorial
Telescope Mountings, 334
Grundziige der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach
Abbe, Dr. Siegfried Czapski, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
ai7
Guédras (Marcel P. S.), Calcium Carbide as an Explosive
in Mining Work, 240
Guide to India, including Kashmir, Burma, and Ceylon,
the Imperial, 387
Guillaume (Dr. Ch. Ed.), Invar and its Applications, 134;
Corr., 158
Guiliet (L.), Special Brasses for Naval Construction, 616
Guinchant (M.), Electrometer with Sextants and a Neutral
Needle, 551; the Crystalloluminescence of Arsenious Acid,
624
Guinée (1855-1900), Observations océanographiques
météorologiques dans la Région du Courant de, 293
Guiton (S.), Hints on Collecting and Preserving Plants, 317
Guntz (A.), Heat of Formation of Calcium Hydride and
Nitride, 551
Gurwitsch (Dr. Alexander), Morphologie und Biologie der
Zelle, 174
Gustavson (G.), Compounds of Aluminium Chloride with
Hydrocarbons and Hydrogen Chloride, 576
Guthnick (Dr. P.), Rotation of Jupiter’s Satellites I. and
II., 469
Guttmann (Leo F.),
Analysis, 460
Gutton (C.), Intensity of Photographic Impressions pro-
duced by Feeble Illuminations, 455
Guye (Philippe A.), the Density of Nitrous Oxide and the
Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 47
Guyot (A.), Synthesis in the Anthracene Series, 359
Gwyer (A. G. C.), Comparison of the Platinum Scale of
Temperature with the Normal Scale, 429
Gymnosperms, Lepidocarpon and the, Dr. D. H. Scott,
Bee oe 200
Gyroscope, a Little Known Property of the, Prof. William
H. Pickering, 608
is
et
Percentage Tables for Elementary
Haas (Dr. J.), Geschichte des Christentums in Japan, 27
Haberlandt (G:), die Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen, 123
Habich (Eduardo de), Nickeliferous Veins at La Mar, 236
Hadamard (Jacques), Lecons sur la Propagation des Ondes
et les Equations de 1’Hydrodynamique, 196
Haddon (Dr.), Studies in National Eugenics, 402
Haddon (E. B.), Dog-motive in Bornean Design, 430
Hadfield (R. A.), Physical Properties of a Series of Alloys
of Iron, 132
Haeckel (Ernst), Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsges-
chichte des Menschen, Keimes- und Stammes-geschichte,
265; the Wonders of Life, a Popular Study of Biological
Philosophy, 313
Hagia Triada, Crete, Phaistos and, 465
Hahn (Dr. O.), New Radio-active Element which Evolves
Thorium Emanation, 574
Haldane (Dr.), Destruction of Rats and Disinfection on
Shipboard with Special Reference to Plague, 209
Haldane (R. B.), the Future of Science in England, 589
Hall (A. L.), Geological Survey of the Transvaal, Report
for the Year 1903, 55
Hall (G. Stanley), Adolescence, its Psychology and its Re-
lations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex,
Crime, Religion, 3
Hall (H. S.), a School Geometry, 75; Lessons in Experi-
mental and Practical Geometry, 507
Hall (R. N.), the Fort and Stone-lined Pits at Inyanga
contrasted with the Great Zimbabwe, 598
Haller (A.), Constitution of the Sodium Salts of certain
Methenic and Methinic Acids, 239; the B-Methyl-e-alkyl-
cyclohexanones, 311; a Synthesis of Menthone and
Menthol, 311; Synthesis in the Anthracene Series, 359;
New Method of Synthesis of Alkyl Derivatives of Cyclic
Saturated Alcohols, 431; 1-Methyl-4-benzylcyclohexanol
and 1-Methyl-4-dibenzylcyclohexanol, 479
Hallez (Paul), Relations between Bougainvillia fruticosa
and Bougainvillia ramosa, 408
Hallows (KK. A. K.), Apparatus for Determining the Density
of Small Grains, 382 :
Halm (Dr. J.), Characteristics of Nova Auriga (1892) and
Nova Persei (1902), 142
Hamilton (C. H.), Renewed Activity of Kilauea, 589
Hamilton (Harbert), Tumour in an Oyster, 37 ;
Hammond (Mr.), Visual Observations of Jupiter’s Sixth
Satellite, 569
Hampshire, Flora of, Including
Frederick townsend, 245
Hampson (Dr. W.), Radium Explained, 530
Hand-camera Work, Advanced, Walter Kilbey, 124
Hann (Prof. Julius), Mean Temperatures of High Southern
Latitudes, 221
Hansky (A.), Observations of the Zodiacal Light, 4o1;
Photography of the Solar Corona at the Summit of
Mont Blane, 527; Photography of the Corona without
a Total Eclipse, 544
Hanson (E. K.), Dynamic Isomerism of a- and B-Crotonic
Acids, 70
Harbord (F. W.), Recent Developments in Electric Smelt-
ing in Connection with Iron and Steel, 502
Harden (Dr. <A.), Atmospheric and Oceanic
Dioxide, 283
Hardy (G. H.), the Zeros of Certain Classes of Integral
Taylor’s Series, 70
Hartley (Prof. W. N., F.R.S.), Construction of Fume-
chambers with Effective Ventilation, 623
Hartman (C. V.), Archzological Researches in Costa Rica,
461
Hartniaen (Prof. J.), New Method for Measuring Radial-
Velocity Spectrograms, 306
Hartog (Prof. Marcus), the Dual Force of the Dividing
Cell, part i., the Achromatic Spindle-figure, elucidated
by Magnetic Chains of Force, 333
Hartog (W. G.), Lectures scientifiques, 6
Hartwig (Prof. E.), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 89; Obsery-
ations of Comets 1904 d and 1904 e, 281; Comet 1905 a
(Giacobini), 569
Harvard College Observatory: Plan for the Endowment
of Astronomical Research, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 40;
Harvard Observations of Variable Stars, Prof. E. C.
Pickering, 133; Observations of Leonids at Harvard,
1904, 233; a New 24-inch Reflector at Harvard, Prof.
E. C. Pickering, 569
Harvie-Brown (J. A.), a Fauna of the North-west High-
lands and Skye, 202
Harwood (W. S.), Burbank’s Fruit-hybrids, 516
Haschek (E.), Spectra of y Cygni, a Canis Minoris, and
e Leonis, 354
Hashberger (Dr.. J. W.), Comparative Age of Flora of
Eastern North America, 61
Hatch (Dr. F. H.), Petrography of the Witwatersrand
Conglomerates with Special Reference to the Origin of
Gold, 471; the ‘* Cullinan’? Diamond, 549
Hatfield (W. H.), Acid Open-hearth Manipulation, 40
Hatt (Dr. W. K.), the Strength of Structural Timber, 399
Hauck (Dr. Guido), Death of, 420
Hawkes (Arthur J.), Reason in Dogs, 54
Hayden (H. H.), Geology of Spiti, 161; the Geology of
Spiti, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu, 251
Health, Bacteriology and the Public, Dr. George Newman,
Dr. A. C. Houston, 388
Heat: the Use of Helium as a Thermometric Substance
and its Diffusion through Silica, Adrien Jaquerod and
F. Louis Perrot, 95; Measurements by Photometric
Methods of the Temperature of the Electric Arc, C. W.
Waidner and G. K. Burgess, 132; the Heating Effect
of the y Rays from Radium, Prof. E. Rutherford,
F.R.S., and Prof. H. T. Barnes, 151; Physical
the Isle of Wight,
Carbon
Vature,
June 8, 1905
Index
XXIil
Characters of the Sodium Borates, with a New Method
for the Determination of Melting Points, C. H. Burgess
and A. Holt, jun., 189; Effect of Temperature on the
Thermal Conductivities of some Electrical Insulators,
Dr. Charles H. Lees, 262; Superfusion Phenomena,
Drs. Tullio Gnesotto and Gino Zanetti, 305; Melting
Point of Dissociating Substances and the Degree of
Dissociation during Melting, R. Kremann, 400; Com-
parison of the Platinum Scale of Temperature with the
Normal Scale, Prof. Morris W. Travers, F.R.S., and
A. G. C. Gwyer, 429; Effect .of Temperature on the
Magnetisation of Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt, Prof. H.
Nagaoka and S. Kusakabe, 448; Accurate Measure-
ment of Coefficients of Expansion, H. McAllister
Randall, 469; the Differential Mercury Thermometer,
Ernst Beckmann, 518; Thermochemical Researches on
Brucine and Strychnine, MM. Berthelot and Gaudechon,
527; Historical Note on Dust, Electrification, and Heat,
Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 582; Have Chemical Com-
pounds a Definite Critical Temperature and Pressure of
Decomposition? Geoffrey Martin, 609
Heavens at a Glance, the, 256
Heavens, a Popular Guide to the, Sir Robert S. Ball,
F.R.S., 437
Heaviside (Oliver, F.R.S.), the Pressure of Radiation, 439 ;
Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric, 606
Hébert (Alex.), Utilisation of the Essential Oils in the
Etiolated Plant, 408
Heights of Meteors, Mr. Denning, 89
Heliozoaires d’Eau Douce, les, E. Penard, 289
Helium Exists in Minerals, on the State in which, Prof.
Morris W. Travers, F.R.S., 248
Hemming (G. W.), Death of, 253
Hemming (G. W.), Billiards Mathematically Treated, 362
Henri (Victor), the Composition of Colloidal Granules, 167
Henry (Dr. A.), Botanical Collecting, 380
Henry (Charles), Measurement of Disposable Energy by
a Self-registering Integrating Dynamometer, 528
Henry (John R.), the Coming Shower of Leonids, 30;
the Leonid Meteors of 1904, 126; the Lyrid Meteors, 560
Henry (Paul), Death of, 278; Obituary Notice of, 302
Hepworth (T. C.), Inks, their Composition and Manv-
facture, 269 :
Herdman (W. A., F.R.S.), Report to the Government of
Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of
Manaar, 395
Heredity : Average Number of Kinsfolk in Each Degree,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 9, 101; Dr. Francis Galton,
F.R.S., 30, 248; Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics,
D. E. Hutchins, 83
Hergesell (Dr. H.), Kite Observations on the Lake of
Constance, 87; Aéronautical Monthly Ascents of 1904,
447; Preliminary Results of the Kite Ascents made on
the Yacht of the Prince of Monaco in the Summer of
1904, 467
Hérissey (H.), Trehalase in Fungi, 119; Origin and Com-
position of the Essence of Herb-Bennet Root, 551
Herrenschmidt (H.), Extraction of Vanadium from the
Natural Lead Vanadate, 24
Hertwig (Prof. Oscar), Ergebnisse und Probleme
Zeugungs- und Vererbungs-lehre, 559
Heterogenesis, Archebiosis and, Dr. H.
Bek-9., 30
Heterogenesis, Occurrence of Certain Ciliated Infusoria
within the Eggs of a Rotifer, considered from the Point
of View of, H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 548
Heterogenetic Fungus-germs, Origin of, George Massee,
175; Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 272
Heurteau (M.), Removal of Moisture from the Air Blown
into Blast Furnace by Freezing, Economy of Fuel, 119
Hewitt (C. H.), Practical Professional Photography, 248
Hewlett (Prof. R. T.), Scientific Research in the Philip-
pine Islands, 162; Scientific Reports of the Local Govern-
ment Board, 237; Trypanosomiasis and Experimental
Medicine, 498; First Report of the Wellcome Research
Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College, Khar-
toum, Dr. Andrew Balfour, 605
Heydrick (W. H.), the Kansas Oil-fields, 472
Hibbert (Walter), Life and Energy, Four Addresses, 271
Hickson (Prof. Sydney J., F.R.S.), West Indian Madre-
porarian Polyps, J. E. Duerden, 18
der
Charlton Bastian,
Highlands and Skye, a Fauna of the North-west, J. A.
Harvie-Brown and H. A. MacPherson, 202
Hildebrandsson (Prof. H. H.), the General Motion of
Clouds, 329
Hill (Dr. Alex.), Can Birds Smell? 318
Hill (Alfred P.), Machine Drawing, 149
Hill (A. W.), some Peculiar Features
Peperomia, 191
Hill (E. G.), Composition of the Oil from Bir Bahoti or
the ‘* Rains Insect ’’ (Bucella carniola), 551-2
Hill (Prof. M. J. M.), the Projection of Two Triangles on
to the same Triangle, 478
Hills (J. S.), Linin, 478
in Seedlings of
Hilton (Harold), Grundziige der Kristallographie, Prof.
C. M. Viola, 340
Himalayan Peaks, Report on the Identification and
Nomenclature of, Captain H. Wood, R.E., Major S. G.
Burrard, F.R.S., 42
Hind (Dr. Wheelton), the Homotaxial Equivalents of the
Beds which Immediately Succeed the Carboniferous
Limestone in the West of Ireland, 503
Hinton (M. A. C.), Abnormal Remains of the Red Deer
(Cervus elaphus), 575
Hiorns (A. H.), Alloys of Copper and Bismuth, 598
Hiscox (Gardner D.), Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical
Movements, and Novelties of Construction, 557
Histology, Practical Exercises in Chemical Physiology and,
H. B. Lacey and C. A. Pannett, 412
History: Social England, 385; an Introductory History
of England, C. R. L. Fletcher, 385; Studies on Anglo-
Saxon Institutions, H. M. Chadwick, 385; Landscape
in History and Other Essays, Sir Archibald Geikie,
F.R.S., 577
Hobart (H. M.), Electric Motors, 1
Hobson (B.), Dates of Publication of Scientific Books,
440
Hobson (Dr. E. W.), Failure of Convergence of Fourier’s
Series, 166; General Theory of Transfinite Numbers and
Order Types, 382
Hodges (John A.),
Films, 460
Hodgson (W. E.), Problems connected with Salmon Fishing,
How to Photograph with Roll and Cut
492
Hoff (J. H. van ’t), zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salz-
ablagerung, 508
Hoffmann (J. C. V.), Death of, 420
Holdich (Colonel Sir Thomas, K.C.M.G., C.B.), the
Countries of the King’s Award, 102; India, the Regions
of the World, 268
Holetschek (J.), Brightness of Encke’s Comet, 469
Holland (Philip), Study of Sands and Sediments, 161
Holland (Dr. W. J.), the Dinosaur Diplodocus carnegit, 565
Holt (A., jun.), Alkaline Borates, 71; Physical Characters
of the Sodium Borates, with a New Method for the De-
termination of Melting Points, 189
Holt (George), Physics Laboratory, 63
Honda (K.), a Simple Model for illustrating Wave-motion,
295; Daily Periodic Changes of Level in Artesian Wells,
621
Hookham (George), the Origin of Life, 9, 1o1
Hooper (D.), Perfumes during the Moghul Period, 304
Hopkinson (Prof. Bertram), Effects of Momentary Stresses
in Metals, 501
Horner (D. W.), Fireside Astronomy, 292
Horse, the Intelligent, ‘* Clever Hans,’’ Prof. Stumpf, 156
Horticulture: Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture,
Prof. S. Lemstrém, 1; the Culture of Fruit Trees in Pots,
Josh Brace, 314; the Royal Horticultural Society, 571
Horton (Dr. Frank), Modulus of Torsional Rigidity of
Quartz Fibres and its Temperature Coefficient, 380
Hough (Prof. G. W.), Changes on the Surface of Jupiter,
306
Houllevigue (L.), Thickness of Transparent Sheets of Iron,
407 p
House, Garden, and Field: a Collection of Short Nature
Studies, L. C. Miall, 52
Houston (Dr. A. C.), Bacteriology and the Public Health,
Dr. George Newman, 388
Howes (Prof. G. B., F.R.S.), Death of, 350; Obituary
Notice of, 419
Howietoun Fishery Company, Fish-passes and Fish-ponds, 9
XXIV
Index
Howitt (A. W.), the Native Tribes of South-East Australia,
225
Hubbard (A. J. and G.), Neolithic Dew-ponds and Cattle-
ways, 611
Hubbard (William F.), the Basket Willow, 427
Hugounenq (M.), Carbimide of Natural Leucine, 431; Sub-
stituted Ureas from Natural Leucine, 551
Human Anatomy, Dr. A. Keith, 145
Human Sternum, the, Andrew Melville Patterson, Dr. A.
Keith, 145
Humberstone (T. L.), Use and Misuse of Terms in Science
Teaching, 284 ’
Hunter (John) and his Influence on Scientific Progress,
Hunterian Oration at Royal College of Surgeons, John
Tweedy, 403
Huppert (Dr. Karl H.), Death of, 86
Hussey (Prof.), Observations of Saturn’s Satellites, 449
Hutchins (D. E.), Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics,
83; Indian and South African Rainfalls 18g2-1902, 342
Hutchinson (A.), Change in Colour of Moss Agates, 101
Hutchison (Dr. Robert), Lectures on the Diseases
Children, 28
Hutton (F. W.), the Animals of New Zealand: an Account
of the Colony’s Air-breathing Vertebrates, 199
Hutton (R. S.), Calcium Metal, 180; Electrically Heated
Carbon Tube Furnaces, 598 :
Huxley Memorial Lecture, the Racial Elements in the
Present Population of Europe, Dr. J. Deniker at An-
thropological Institute, 21
Hyades Stars, Relative Drift of the, Dr. Downing, F.R.S.,
185
Hydraulics : the Distribution of Velocity in a Viscous Fluid
over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and the Action at the
Critical Velocity, J. Morrow, 621
Hydrodynamics: Lecgons sur la Propagation des Ondes et
les Equations de 1’Hydrodynamique, Jacques Hadamard,
196
Hydrography : Comparison of the Lakes of Denmark and
Scotland, Dr. Wesenberg-Lund, 383; a New British
Marine Expedition, 562
Hydroids, American, part ii., Sertularide, C. C. Nutting,
of
331
Hydrology in the United States, 187
Hygiene: Sanatoria for Consumptives, Dr. Orme Dudfield,
37; London Conference on School Hygiene, Sir Arthur
Ricker, 377; New Method of Testing for Ammonia, Ap-
plication to the Examination of Water for Sanitary Pur-
poses, MM. Trillat and Turchet, 383 y
Ichthyology: Fish-passes and Fish-ponds, Howietoun
Fishery Company, 9; Anatomy of Fishes of the Genus
Orestias, Jacques Pellegrin, 48; the Swim-bladder of
Fishes, D. Deineka, 112; the Degree of Saline Concen-
tration of the Blood Serum of the Eel in Sea Water and
in Fresh Water, René Quinton, 144; Life-history of the
Salmon, Mr. Calderwood, 214; Problems Connected with
Salmon Fishing, W. E. Hodgson, 492; Variation in
Spinax niger, Mr. Punnett, 492; Oral and Pharyngeal
Denticles of Elasmobranchs, A. D. Imms, 333; a Large
Indian Sea-perch, Major A. Alcock, F.R.S., 415; the
Nest of the Fighting Fish, E. H. Waite, 450 ‘
Idaho, a Geological Reconnaissance across the Bitterroot
Range and Clearwater Mountains in Montana and, W.
Lindgren, 450
Ideals of Science and Faith, 52
Imamura (Prof.), Level of Maximum Rate of Propagation,
20; the Synodic Monthly Variation in Frequency, 620
Imms (A. D.), Oral and Pharyngeal Denticles of Elasmo-
branchs, 333
Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum, W. T. Thisel-
ton-Dyer, 581
Index of Spectra, W. Marshall Watts, 486
India: Public Works in India during the last Fifty Years,
Sir Guilford L. Moiesworth, 13; Report of the Survey of
India, 22; Report on the Identification and Nomenclature
of Himalayan Peaks, Captain H. Wood, R.E.; Major
S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., 42; Mount Everest, the Story of a
Controversy, Douglas W. Freshfield, 82: Geological
Notes, 161; Difficulties of the Ethnographic Survey in the
Mysore, E. Thurston, 182: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 192.
288, 336, 551; Meteorology in Mysore for 1903, 210; the
Geology of Spiti with parts of Bashahr and Rupee
H. H. Hayden, 251; India, Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich,
C.B., the Regions of the World, 268; Perfumes during
the Moghul Period, D. Hooper, 304; Fevers in the
Dinajpur District, Dr. L. Rogers, 336; Indian and South
African Rainfalls 1892-1902, D. E. Hutchins, 342; Game,
Shore and Water Birds of India, with Additional Refer-
ences to their Allied Species in other parts of the World,
Colonel A. Le Messurier, 363; the Imperial Guide to
India, including Kashmir, Burma, and Ceylon, 387; a
Large Indian Sea-perch, Major A. Alcock, F.R.S., 415;
the Birds of Calcutta, F. Finn, 438; the Jammu Coal-
fields, R. R. Simpson, 471; the Indian Earthquake of
April 4, 540, 563, 589; Flora of the Calcutta District,
Dr. Prain, 615
Indians, Plains, Folk-tales of, Drs. G. A. Dorsey and A. L.
Kroeber, 417; P. E. Goddard, 418 :
Induction Coils, Interrupters for, 546
Induction Machines, Reversal of Charge from Electrical,
George W. Walker, 221; R. Langton Cole, 249
Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish,
the, A. H. Sabin, C. Simmonds, 50
Industry, Alcohol in, 584
Infection of Laboratories by Radium, the, A. S. Eve, 460 ~
Influence Machines, Reversal in, Charles E. Benham, 320 _
Infra-red Solar Spectrum, Absorption by Water Vapour in
the, F. E. Fowle, jun., 115
Infusoria: New Species of Hydrachnidz, Polyxo placo-
phora, R. Monti, 543; Occurrence of certain Ciliated In-
fusoria within the Eggs of a Rotifer, Considered from the
Point of View of Heterogenesis, H. Charlton Bastian,
F.R.S., 548
Ingle (H.), the Available Plant Food in Soils, 7o
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, D. E. Hutchins, 83
Ink: Vitro-ink, Messrs. J. J. Griffin and Sons, 256
Inks, their Composition and Manufacture, C. Ainsworth
Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, C. Simmonds, 269
Inoculation : on the Action exerted upon the Staphylococcus
pyogenes by the Ifluman Blood Fluids, and on the Elabor-
ation of Protective Elements in the Human Organism in
Response to Inoculation of a Staphylococcus Vaccine, Dr.
A. E. Wright and Captain Stewart R. Douglas, 67; on
the Action Exerted upon the Tubercle Bacillus by the
Human Blood Fluids, and on the Elaboration of Pro-
tective Elements in the Human Organism in Response
to Inoculations of a Tubercle Vaccine, Dr. A. E. Wright
and Captain Stewart R. Douglas, 67
Insects, Ants and some Other, an Inquiry into the Psychic
Powers of these Animals, Dr. August Forel, Prof.
William Morton Wheeler, 29; Studies of Variation in,
Vernon L. Kellogg and Ruby G. Bell, 545
Institution of Civil Engineers: Coast Erosion and Pro-
tection, A. E. Carey, E. R. Matthews, 92; Recent Visit
of the Institution of Civil Engineers to United States
and Canada, Sir William White, K.C.B., 254; ‘‘ James
Forrest ’’ Lecture at, Unsolved Problems in Electrical
Engineering, Colonel R. E. Crompton, 595
Institution of Naval Architects, the, 594
Intelligence in Animals, J. E. A. T., 102; F. C. Constable,
102; Rev. Joseph Meehan, 176; T. S. Patterson, 201;
F. J: Allen, 222
Intensification and Reduction, Henry W. Bennett, 341
International Electrical Congress at St. Louis, 41
Interrupters for Induction Coils, 546
Invar and its Applications, Dr. Ch. Ed. Guillaume, 134;
Corr., 158
Invariants, the Algebra of, J. H. Grace and A. Young,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601
Inversions of Temperature on Ben Nevis, Andrew Watt,
583
Ionisation and Absorption, Hon. R. J. Strutt, Dr. O. W.
Richardson, 172
Ireland, the pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South Coast
of, W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff, Prof. Grenville
A. J. Cole, 17; the Ben Bulben District, 91; the
Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland, J. G. Millais,
121; Neolithic Deposits in the North-east of, George
Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger, 444
Iris Diaphragm in Astronomy, the, M. Salet, 545
Iron: Report of the Commission appointed by Clifford
Sifton, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to
Nature,
June 8, 1905.
Lndex
XXV
investigate the Different Electrothermic Processes for
the smelting of Iron Ores and the making of Steel in
Europe, Prof. J. O. Arnold, 258
Iron and Steel Institute, 40
Irving (J. D.), Economic Resources of the Northern Black
Hills, 450; Refractory Siliceous Ores of South Dakota,
452 ,
‘Italy: Trattato di Chimica Inorganica Generale e Appli-
cato all’Industria, Dr. E. Molinari, 339
Jackson (Rev. F. H.), Application of Basic Numbers to
Bessel’s and Legendre’s Functions, 166
Jackson (H.), Action of Carbon Monoxide on Ammonia,
598
Jacquet (J. B.), Severe Explosion of Rock in the New
Hillgrove Mine, New South Wales, 616
Jaggar (T. A., jun.), Economic Resources of the Northern
Black Hills, 450
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitét und Elektronik, 53
James (Captain), Wireless Telegraphy in War, 307
January Fireballs, Mr. Denning, 469
Japan: Geschichte des Christentums in Japan, Dr. J.
Haas, F. Victor Dickins, 27; Dai Nippon, the Britain
of the East, a Study in National Evolution, Henry Dyer,
97; Education and National Efficiency in, Dr. Henry
Dyer, 150; Seismology in, Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, 224;
' a Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch
| 1895-0 and the Sea Level, A. Tanakadate, Prof. Arthur
Schuster, F.R.S., 578; Japan nach Reisen und Studien,
J. J. Rein, Dr. Henry Dyer, 603
| Jaquerod (Adrien), the Use of Helium as a Thermometric
Substance and its Diffusion through Silica, 95
Jardin (M.), Action of Dilute Nitric Acid upon Vegetable
| Fibres, 359
_ Jaubert (Georges F.), Action of Boric Acid on the Alka-
| line Peroxides and the Formation of Perborates, 96
Jaubert (Jean), the Condition of Chemical Industries in
France, 369
Jeans (J. H.), Kinematics and Dynamics of a Granular
Medium in Normal Piling, 310; the Dynamical Theory
of Gases, 601, 607
Jefferies (Richard), his Life and Ideals, H. S. Salt, 582
Jeffery (Prof. E. C.) Comparative Anatomy and Phylo-
geny of the Coniferales, 447
Jensen (H. I.), Relations between Solar and Terrestrial
Phenomena, 158
Jesuit Observatory at Belen, Havana, 282
Jeunet (M.), Death of, 181
Jevons (H. Stanley), Classification of Igneous Rocks, 335
Johnson (J. P.), Types of Stone Implements Found in
Taaibosch Spruit, 236
Johnson (Prof. T.), Swede Disease in Ireland, 167
Johnson (W. H.), the Cultivation and Preparation of Para
Rubber, 321, 352
Johnston (Sir Harry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.), the Mammals
and Birds of Liberia, 574
Johnston-Lavis (Dr.), Origin of Lunar Formation, 256
Jones (Chapman), the Science and Practice of Photography,
29
Jones (D. T.), New Synthesis of Isocaprolactone, 119
Jones (H. O.), Optically Active Nitrogen Compounds, 166;
a Further Analogy between the Asymmetric Nitrogen
and Carbon Atoms, 358
Jones (R. L.), Bright Meteors, 449
Jorissen (E.), Intrusive Granites in the Transvaal, the
Orange River Colony, and in Swaziland, 471
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, the, 558
Jowett (H. A. D.), Bromomethyl Heptyl Ketone, 598
Judd (Miss H. M.), New Formation of Acetylcamphor, 508
Jude (A.), Need of Testing Materials to be Subjected to
Rapidly Repeated or to Alternating Loads Otherwise
than by Determining the Tensile Strength and Elastic
Limit, 184
Jukes-Browne (A. J.), Geology of Cyprus, 310
Julian (H. Forbes), Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores, 292
Jumelle (Henri), New Indiarubber Euphorbia, 600
Jungbluth (Franz), Structure of the Third Cyanogen Band,
234
Jungfleisch (E.), Phosphorescence of Phosphorus, 407; on
Dextrorotatory Lactic Acid, 503
Jupiter: the Photographic Spectrum of, G. Millochau, 89; |
the Great Red Spot on, Mr. Denning and Rey. T. E.
Phillips, 211; Stanley Williams, 211; Changes on the
Surface of, Prof. G. W. Hough, 306; Discovery of a
Sixth Satellite to, Prof. Perrine, 256, 282, 329, 4094;
Prof. Aitken, 494; the Reported Sixth Satellite of, Prof.
Wolf, 306; the Sixth Satellite of, Prof. C. A. Young,
364; Visual Observations of Jupiter’s Sixth Stellite, Mr.
Hammond, 569; Reported Discovery of a Seventh
Satellite to Jupiter, 424; Jupiter’s Seventh Satellite,
Prof. Campbell, a4q; Prof. Perrine, 449; Jupiter’s
Satellites I. and II., Rotation of, Dr. P. Guthnick, 469
Kahlbaum (Dr. Georg W. A.), Monographieen aus der
Geschichte der Chemie, viii. Heft., Justus von Liebig
und Friedrich Mohr, 25
Kalahari, die, Dr. Siegfried Passarge, 481
KXalecsinszky (Dr. von), the Warming of Different Layers
of Liquid by the Sun’s Rays, 255
Kaminsky (M.), Encke’s Comet, 1904 b, 16, 114
Kannapell (A.), the Third Band of the Air Spectrum, 17
Kearton (R.), the Adventure of Cock Robin and his Mate,
152
Keeble (F.), Colour-physiology of the Higher Crustacea,
(Dr. A.), a Treatise on Applied Anatomy, Edward
H. Taylor, 145; the Human Sternum, Andrew Melville
Patterson, 145; Der Gang des Menschen, 145; the Mam-
malian Diaphragm and Pleural Cavity, 615
Kellogg (Royal R.), Forest Planting in Western Kansas,
427
Kellogg (Vernon L.), Studies of Variation in Insects, 545
Kelly (R. E.), Absence or Marked Diminution of Free
Hydrochloric Acid in the Gastric Contents in Malignant
Disease of Organs other than the Stomach, 596
Kelvin (Lord, O.M., G.C.V.O., F.R.S.), on the Living
Cell, 13; Lord Kelvin and Glasgow University, 104; on
Deep Water Ship Waves, 382
Keratine, Studien tiber die Albuminoide mit besonderer
Berticksichtigung des Spongin und der, Dr. Eduard
Strauss, 174
Kerl (Prof. Bruno), Death and Obituary Notice of, 540
Kershaw (John B. C.), Smoke Prevention and Fuel
Economy, 74
Khartoum, First Report of the Wellcome Research Labor-
atories at the Gordon Memorial College, Dr. Andrew
Balfour, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 605
Kidston (R.), Proposed Classification of the Coal-measures,
622
Kikuchi (Baron Dairoku), Seismology in Japan, 22
Kilbey (Walter), Advanced Hand-camera Work, 124
Kimura (Mr.), Correction of the Longer Term in the Polar
Motion, 133
King (A.), the Perseid Shower, 40; the Leonids, 1904, 102
King (L. W., F.S.A.), Records of the Reign of Tukulti-
Ninib I., King of Assyria about B.c. 1275, 222
Kinsfolk, Average Number of, in Each Degree, Prof.
GH. Bryan) F.R-S., 9, 101; Dr. Francis Galton,
F.R.S., 30, 248
Kipping (F. S.), Isomeric Forms of d-Bromo- and
d-Chloro-camphorsulphonic Acids, 599
Kirby (W. F.), a Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, 459
Klein (Dr., F.R.S.), Bacteriological Diagnosis of Plague,
237; Vitality of the Typhoid Bacillus in Shell-fish, 421
Klem (Mary J.), the Palzeozoic Palazechinoidea, 162
Kling (André), Chlorination of Methyl-ethyl-ketone, 359
Knott (Dr. C. G.), Polar Plotting Paper, 296
Knox (Alexander), Glossary of Geographical and Topo-
graphical Terms, 271
Kobold (Prof.), Eclipse Observations, 159
Koch (Prof. Robert), Trypanosome Diseases, 112
Koenig’s (Dr.) Method of Colour Photography, 83
Koernicke (Dr. M.), Action on Plants of Rontgen and
Radium Rays, 373
Kohler (Dr. A.), Photomicrography by Ultra-violet Light, 517
Kohn-Abrest (M.), Atomic Weight of Aluminium, 47
Korté (Dr. W. E. de), the Parasites of Small-pox and
Vaccinia, 112
Kostersitz (K.), Spectra of y Cygni, a Canis Minoris, and
e Leonis, 354
Kovesligethy (Dr. R.
quakes, 20
von), Work Done by Great Earth-
XXVi
Kranzlin (Dr. F.), Abbildungen der in Deutschland und den
angrenzenden Gebieten vorkommenden Grundformen der
Orchideen-arten, 341
Krebs (Wilhelm), Distribution of Submarine Earthquakes,
21; Meteorological Results of the National Antarctic Ex-
pedition, 131
Kremann (R.), Melting Point of Dissociating Substances,
and the Degree of Dissociation during Melting, 400
Kroeber (Dr. A. L.), Folk-tales of Plains Indians, 417;
Indian Culture in California, 452
Krogh (Dr. August), Tension of Carbonic Acid in the Sea,
and on the Reciprocal Influence of Carbonic Acid of the
Sea and that of the Atmosphere, 120; Atmospheric and
and Oceanic Carbon Dioxide, 283
Kuntze (Dr. Otto), Present Condition of Kilauea, 20
Kusakabe (S.), Modulus of Elasticity of Rocks, 20; Effect
of Temperature on the Magnetisation of Steel, Nickel,
and Cobalt, 448
Kynaston (H.), Geological Survey of the Transvaal, Report
for the Year 1903, 55
Labergerie (M.), New Damp Soil Potato, 192
Laboratories: the George Holt Physics Laboratory, 63;
Report of the Superintendant of the Government Labora-
tories in the Philippine Islands for the Year ended
September 1, 1903, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 162; Laboratory
Studies for Brewing Students, A. J. Brown, 173; Het
Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Ryks-Universiteit te
Leiden in de Jaren 1882-1904, 218; Laboratory Notes on
Practical Metallurgy, Walter Macfarlane, 413; Some
Scientific Centres : the Physiological Research Laboratory
of the University of London, Dr. Augustus D. Waller,
F.R.S., 441; the Monte Rosa and Col d’Olen Inter-
national Laboratories, Prof. Mosso, Sir M. Foster,
KCABe buReoe 443; the Infection of Laboratories by
Radium, A. S. Eve, 460; National Physical Laboratory,
495; the Thompson-Yates and Johnston Laboratories
Report, 498; First Report of the Wellcome Research
Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum,
Dr. Andrew Balfour, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 605
Laby (T. H.), Radio-activity and Radium in Australian
Minerals, 168
Lacey (H. B.), Practical Exercises in Chemical Physiology
and Histology, 412 ‘
Lacroix (A.), the Nepheline Rocks of Tahiti, 167; Alkaline
Micro-granites of the Zinder Territory, 263; Eruptive
Basic Rocks of French Guinea, 407
Lagatu (H.), on the Constitution of Arable Earth, 191
Lakes: Variations of Level of Lake Victoria Nyanza.
Captain H. G. Lyons, 15; Scientific Exploration of Lake
Tanganyika, 277; Comparison of the lakes of Denmark
and Scotland, Dr. Wesenberg-Lund, 383; the Fresh-
water Plankton of the Scottish Lochs, W. and G. S.
West, 623; the Sarcodina of Loch Ness, Dr. E. Penard,
623; the Rhizopods and Heliozoa of Loch Ness, ie
Murray, 623
Laloue (G.), Formation and Distribution of the Essential
Oil in an Annual Plant, 144
Lamb (Prof.), Deep-water Waves, 70
Lamcere (Prof. A.), Darwin's Theory of Female Sexual
Selection, 492
Lampland (Mr.), Changes on Mars, 618
Land and Sea, Birds by, the Record of a Year's Work with
Field Glass and Camera, J. M. Boraston, 179
Lander (G. D.), Amidechloroiodides, 119
Landois (Prof. H.), Death of, 371
Landon (Perceval), Lhasa, an Account of the Country and
People of Central Tibet, 585 :
Landscape in History and Other Essays, Sir Archibald
Geikie, F.R.S., 577 ;
Landslip on January 10 at St. Margaret’s Bay, Dover,
253, 279
Landslip, Loenvand Lake, Norway, 278
Lane (J. H.), Isomerism of the Amidines of the Naph-
thalene Series, 118; B-N H-ethenyldiaminonaphthalene,
28>
382
Lang (Hugo), a German-English Dictionary of Terms used
in Medicine and the Allied Sciences, 533
Langevin (Paul), the Conductivity of Gases from a Flame,
96; a Fundamental Formula in the Kinetic Theory of
Gases, 263 ;
Index
[ Nature,
June 8, 1905
Lantern, the Other Side of the, Sir Frederick Treves,
Bart., 553
Lapicque (L.), Weight of the Brain as a Function of the ;
Body Weight in Birds, 600 .
Lapworth (A.), Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide to Un-
saturated Compounds, 166
Laryngology : Don Garcia’s Centenary, 491
Laska (Prof.), Application of Earthquake Observations to
the Investigation of the Constitution of the Interior of the
Earth, 19
Lassar-Cohn (Dr.), Applications of some General Reactions
to Investigations in Organic Chemistry, 220
Latter (Oswald H.), a Note on Coloration of Spiders, 6
Laubholzkunde, Handbuch der, Camillo Karl Schneider,
Prof. Percy Groom, 76
Laur (Francis), the Coal-measures in French Lorraine, 192
Laurence (R. Vere), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge, 390
Lavaux (James), Action of Methylene Chloride upon Toluene
in the Presence of Aluminium Chloride, 167
Laveran (A.), Trypanosomiasis in French West Africa, 47;
Trypanosomiasis and the Tsetse-fly in French Guinea,
287; the Mixed Treatment of Trypanosomiasis by Ar-
senious Acid and Trypan Red, 359; on Surra and the
Differentiation of Trypanosomes, 551
Law (H. D.), Electrolytic Oxidation of the Aliphatic Alde-
hydes, 358
Lawn Tennis, J. Parmley Paret, 436
Lawn Tennis Players, Great, George W. Beldam and P. A.
Vaile, 436
Laws (H. E.), Amidechloroiodides, 119
Le Chatelier (H.), Photographic Method of Recording the
Temperature of Pieces of Steel during Cooling, 88; on
the Use of Dry Air in Blast Furnaces, 143
Le Dantec (Félix), les Lois naturelles, 5 .
Le Messurier (Colonel A.), Game, Shore and Water Birds
of India, with Additional References to their Allied
Species in Other Parts of the World, 363
Le Roux (F. P.), Action of Very Low Temperatures on the
Phosphorescence of Certain Sulphides, 287
Leach (Albert E.), Food Inspection and Analysis, so
Lead Accumulator, the Theory of the, F. Dolezalek, 1
Leaf, the Reception and Utilisation of Energy by a Green,
Bakerian Lecture at the Royal Society, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, F.R.S., 522
Leavitt (Miss H. S.), Variable Stars and Nebulous Areas in
Scorpio, 282
Lebeau (Paul), New Method for the Preparation of Paraffins
from their Monohalogen Derivatives, 592
Lebon (Prof. Ernest), Bibliography of Contemporary As-
tronomical Works, 234
Lectures on the Diseases of Children, Dr. Robert Hutchi-
son, 28
Lectures scientifiques, W. G. Hartog, 6
Ledru (M.), Monobromoacetal, 527
Leduc (A.), the Atomic Weights of Hydrogen and Nitrogen,
503; the Diamagnetism of Bismuth, 599
Lees (Dr. Charles H.), Effect of Temperature on the
Thermal Conductivities of some Electrical Insulators, 262
Lees (F. H.), Gynocardin, a new Cyanogenetic Glucoside,
550
Legendary Suicide of the Scorpion, the, Prof. Edward B.
Poulton, F.R.S., 534
Legrain (G.), *‘ Find ’’ of Royal Statues at Thebes, 126
Lemoult (P.), the Retrogradation of Cyclic Secondary
Amines, 167
Lempfert (R. G. K.), Report of the Meteorological Council
upon an Inquiry into the Occurrence and Distribution of
Fogs in the London Area, during the Winters of 1901-2
and 1902-3, with Reference to Forecasts of the Incidence
and Duration of Fogs in Special Localities, to which is
Appended the Report by, on the Observations of the
Winter 1902-3, 259
Lemstr6m (Prof. Karl Selim), Obituary- Notice of, Prof.
Arthur Rindell, 129
Lemstrom (Prof. S.), Electricity in Agriculture and Horti-
culture, 1
Lendenfeld (Dr. R. von), the Melting of Glaciers in Winter,
62
Leonard (J. H.), a Further Course of Practical Science. 220
Leonids : the Coming Shower of, W. F. Denning, 30; John
R. Henry, 30; Leonid Meteors, 1904, Alphonso King,
Nature,
June 8, 1905,
Index
XXVil
102; John R. Henry, 126; Observations of the, W. H.
Milligan, 83; W. F. Denning, 353; Observations of
Leonids at Harvard, 1904, 233; Real Paths, Heights,
and Velocities of Leonids, Mr. Denning, 306
« Leonis, Spectra of, E. Haschek and K. Kostersitz, 354
Lepidocarpon and the Gymnosperms, Dr. D. H. Scott,
Beke.s-, 201
Lépinay (Prof. Macé de), Death of, 181
Lepine (R.), Modifications of Glycolysis in the Capillaries
Caused by Local Modification of the Temperature, 23 ;
the Reduction of Oxyhzemoglobin, 599
Leroux (Henri), the Tetrahydride and Decahydride of Naph-
thalene, 47; 8-Decahydronaphthol, 455
Lespiault (Prof.), Death of, 181
Lespieau (M.), 8-Bromobutyric Acid, 72; Action of Hydro-
eyanic Acid Epiethyline, 407; Cryoscopic Behaviour of
Hydrocyanic Acid, 544; Liquefaction of Allene and Ally-
lene, 600
Lévy (Albert), Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in Confined
Atmospheres, 287
Lewis (A. L.), Stanton Drew, 584
Lewis (Francis J.), Plant Associations
Districts, 257
Leyden, Physical Research at, 218
Lhasa: an Account of the Country and People of Central
Tibet, Perceval Landon, 585
Library, a National University, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
366
Lie’s Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups,
Introductory Treatise of, John Edward Campbell, 49
Liebenow (C.), Presence of Radium throughout the Earth’s
Volume as Compensating for the Loss of Heat by Con-
duction, 113
Liebig (Justus von) und Friedrich Mohr, Dr. Georg W.
A. Kahlbaum, 25
Liége, le, ses Produits et ses Sous-produits, M. Martignat,
eS)
Life, the Origin of, George Hookham, 9, 101; Geologist,
31; Dr. F. J. Allen, 54
Life and Energy—Four Addresses, Walter Hibbert, 271
Light: Observations of the Zodiacal, A. Hansky, 401; zur
Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes in der Erdatmo-
sphare, Dr. A. Bemporod, 402
Light-curve of 6 Cephei, Dr. B. Meyermann, 234
Light Energy, its Physics, Physiological Action, and Thera-
peutics, Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, Dr. Reginald Morton,
269
Lighthouse, New Light at St. Catherine’s, 231
Lighting : Practical Determination of the Mean Spherical
Candle-power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps, G. B.
Dyke, 95
Lightning, Second Pyramid of Ghizeh Struck by, 565
Lindgren (\W.), the Hauraki Goldfields of New Zealand,
421; a Geological Reconnaissance across the Bitterroot
Range and Clearwater Mountains in Montana and Idaho,
450
Linnean Society, 70, 142, 189, 239, 380, 430, 478, 550, 599
Linnean Society, New South Wales, 192, 263
Linsbauer (Dr.), Geotropism in Plants, 590
Linton (Mr.), Identity of Various Trypanosomes of Man,
499
Lippmann (G.), Measurements of the Velocity of Propaga-
tion of Earthquakes, 95; the Inscription of Seismic
Movemenis, 95; Interference Fringes Produced by a
System of Two Perpendicular Mirrors, 263
Lissajous’s Figures by Tank Oscillation, T. Terada, 296
Lisson (C. I.), Annelid Remains and Ammonites in the
Salto del Fraile and Morro Solar Districts, 541
Lister (J. J., F.R.S.), Dimorphism of the English Species
of Nummulites, 71; Relation in Size between the Megalo-
sphere and the Microspheric and Megalospheric Tests in
the Nummulites, 550
Liverpool: New Buildings of the University of Liverpool,
The George Holt Physics Laboratory, New Medical
Buildings of the University of Liverpool, 63
Liversidge (Prof. A., F.R.S.), Tables for
Chemical Analysis, 4
Lo Surdo (Antonino), the Law of the Conservation of Mass
in Chemical Action, 494
Local Government Board, Scientific Reports of the, Prof.
R. T. Hewlett, 237
in’ Moorland
Qualitative
Lock (R. H.), Varieties of Cacao Trees Existing in Ceylon,
567
Lockyer (Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Enhanced Lines
of Titanium, Iron, and Chromium in the Fraunhoferic
Spectrum, 94; on the Group IV. Lines of Silicium, 189 ;
Notes on Stonehenge, 297, 345, 367, 391, 535; the Stellar
Line near A 4686, 475; the Spectrum of » Centauri, 476;
the Are Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to
Celestial Spectra, 476; Further Researches on the Tem-
perature Classification of Stars, 5or
Lockyer (Dr. William J. S.), the
Eclipse of August 30, 393; the
Solar Physics Observatory, 502
Lodge (Sir Oliver, F.R.S.), Recently Observed Satellites,
295; Historical Note on Dust, Electrification, and Heat,
582
Lodin (A.), Influence Exerted by the Removal of the Moisture
from the Air Supplied to the Blast Furnace, 143
Loewy (M.), Determination of the Difference in Longitude
between Greenwich and Paris made in 1902, 191; Pre-
cautions Necessary in Execution of Researches Requiring
High Precision, 455
Logarithms, Blackie’s Handy Book of,
fiinfstellige Logarithmentafeln, 271
Logwood, ‘‘ Bastard,”’ S. N. C., 222
Lohse (Dr.), Photographic Spark Spectra
Other Metals, 373
Lois naturelles, les, Félix le Dantec, 5
Loisel (Gustave), Sterility and Alopecy
Previously Submitted to the Influence
tracts of the Frog, 504
Loisel (J.), Climatology of the Past Year, 493
London: Annual Report of the Technical Education Board
of the London County Council, 1903-1904, 34; London
Fog Inquiry, 1901-3, 259; the London Conference on
School Hygiene, Sir Arthur Rticker, 377; Some Scientific
Centres, the Physiological Research Laboratory of the
University of London, Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S.,
441; the Society of Arts and the London Institution,
Approaching Total Solar
Spectroheliograph of the
271; Vier- und
of Titanium and
in
of
Guinea-pigs
Ovarian Ex-
539
Lee (S. L.), the Elements of Trigonometry, 507
Longer Term in the Polar Motion, Correction of the, Mr.
Kimura, 133
Longitude Observations of Points on Mars, Mr. Lowell, 449
Longitudes, the ‘‘ Annuaire ’’ du Bureau des, 234
Longitudes, Discussion of Central European,
Albrecht, 424
Lorenzo (Dr. de) Naples Volcanic Formations, 62
Lowell (P.), the Rotation of Venus, 47; the Rotation of
Mars, 47; Seasonal Development of Martian Canals, 282 ;
Alternating Variability of Martian Canals, 494; Long-
itude Observations of Points on Mars, 449; Changes on
Mars, 618
Lowry (I. M.), Electrical Conductivity and Other Pro-
perties of Sodium Hydroxide in Aqueous Solution, 141
Loyalty Islands, Zoological Results based on Material from,
Dr. Arthur Willey, 411
Lucas (F. <A.), Eocene Whales, 102:
Whales at Balena, Newfoundland, 326
Luehmann (J. G.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 279
Lumsden (J. S.), the Reduction Products of Anisic Acid, 3
Lunar Formation, Origin of, G. Romanes, 256; Dr. Joh
ston-Lavis, 256; Dr. G. K. Gilbert, 256
Lunar Rainbow, a, J. McCrae, 366 ;
Lunge (Dr. G.), Techno-chemical Analysis, 458 ee e.
Luttringer (A.), the Migration of Ethylene Linkage in Un-
saturated Acyclic Acids, 311; Characterisation of Lac-
tones by Means of Hydrazine, 527
Lutz (L.), Use of Leucine and Tyrosine as Sources of
Nitrogen for Plants, 383; Comparative Assimilability of
Ammonia Salts, Amines, Amides, and Nitriles, 480
Lydekker (R., F.R.S.), the Supply of Valuable Furs, 115 ;
the Transposition of Zoological Names, 608
Lyle (Prof. T. R.), Investigation of the Variations of Mag-
‘netic Hysteresis with Frequency, 95
Lynn (W. T.), Periodical Comets due to Return in 1905, 306
Lyons (Captain H. G.), Variations of Level of Lake
‘Victoria Nyanza, 15; the Nile. Flood in Relation to the
Variations of Atmospheric Pressure in North-East Africa,
616
Lyrid Meteors, the, John R. Henry, 560
Prof. Dh:
Measurements of
=i
Phe
n-
XXViil
McClean (Dr. Frank, F.R.S.), Death of, 36; Obituary
Notice of, 58
McClelland (Prof. J. A.), Secondary Radiation, 390;
Secondary Radiation and Atomic Structure, 503 ; Second-
ary Radiation produced when the 8 and y Rays of
Radium Impinge on Metallic Plates, 543
Maccoll (Norman), Death of, 181
McCrae (J.), a Lunar Rainbow, 366
MacDowall (Alex. B.), the Moon and Barometer, 320
Macfarlane (Walter), Laboratory Notes on Practical Metal-
lurgy,-413
Machine Drawing, Alfred P. Hill, 149
McIntosh (Prof.), Community of Type between South
African and European Marine Annelids Generally, 492
McKendrick (Prof. John G., F.R.S.), Uber das Studium
der Sprach Kurven, E. W. Scripture, 250; Fertilisation
of Jasminum nudiflorum, 319
Maclaren (J. Malcolm), Gold at Chota Nagpur, Bengal, 161
MacMahon (Major P. A., F.R.S.), Orthogonal and other
Special Systems of Invariants, 430
McMurry (Charles A.), Special Method
Science for the Common School, 316
Macnamara (N. C.), Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid
Apes, 125
MED Rerson (H. A.), a Fauna of the North-west Highlands
and Skye, 202
Macqueen (Mr.), Methods of Dealing with Dust in the Air
in a Cornish Mine, 209
McWeeney (Dr. E. J.), Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiation in
Dublin, 88
~~ MeWilliam (A.), on the Occurrence of Widmannstatten’s
Figures in Steel Castings, 32; Acid Open-hearth Manipu-
lation, 40
Maddrill (Mr.), Observations on Comets, 449
Madreporarian Polyps, West Indian, J. E. Duerden, Prof.
Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S., 18
Magic Origin of Moorish Designs, Dr. Ed. Westermarck,
165
Magnetism: Simultaneous Occurrence of Solar and Mag-
netic Disturbances, A. Nippoldt, 16; Magnetic Dis-
turbances 1882 to 1903 and their Association with Sun-
spots, E. W. Maunder, 118; Magnetic Storms and As-
sociated Sun-spots, Rev. A. L. Cortie, 311; Prof.
Schuster, 311; Investigation of the Variations of Mag-
netic Hysteresis with Frequency, Prof. T. R. Lyle, 95;
an Ingenious Method of Constructing Magnetic Charts,
Prof. N. Umow, 184; Analysis of the Results from the
Falmouth Magnetographs on Quiet Days during 1891-
1902, Dr. Charles Chree, 261; Higher Text-book of
Magnetism and Electricity, Dr. R. Wallace Stewart, 270 ;
Action of a Magnetic Field on the Discharge through a
Gas, Dr. R. S. Willows, 358; a Contemplated Magnetic
Survey of the North Pacific Ocean by the Carnegie
Institution, Dr. L. A. Bauer, 389; Drift Produced in
Ions by Electromagnetic Disturbances, and a Theory of
Radio-activity, George W. Walker, 406; Elements of
Electromagnetic Theory, S. J. Barnett, G. F. C. Searle,
409; Coefficient of Magnetisation of Bismuth, Georges
Meslin, 431; Effect of Temperature on the Magnetisation
of Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt, Prof. H. Nagaoka and S.
Kusakabe, 448; the Magnetic Survey of the United
States, 449; Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory,
New Year Island, Captain H. L. Crosthwaite, 515;
Terrestrial Magnetism and its Causes, F. A. Black, 557;
a Magnetic Survey of Japan Reduced to the Epoch 1895-0
and the Sea Level, A. Tanakadate, Prof. Arthur Schuster,
F.R.S., 578; the Diamagnetism of Bismuth, A. Leduc,
599; Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric, Oliver
Heaviside, F.R.S., 606; Determination of the Moment of
Inertia of the Magnets Used in the Measurement of the
Horizontal Component of the Earth’s Field, Dr. W.
Watson, 622
Magnitude Equation in the Right Ascensions of the Eros
Stars, Prof. R. H. Tucker, 618
in Elementary
Maiden (J. H.), the Commercial Timbers of New South
Wales, 157; the Genus Eucalyptus, 422
Maignan (F.), Production of Alcohol and Acetone by
Muscles, 624
Mailhe (A.), the Three Methylcyclohexanones and the Cor-
responding Methyl-cyclohexanols, 383; Monochloro-de-
rivatives of Methylcyclohexane, 551
Index
Nature,
June 8, 1505
Malaria, Mosquitoes and, Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S., 590
Malclés (L.), Researches on Dielectric Solids, 167
Malfitano (G.), the Colloidal State of Matter, 143 ; Electrical
Conductivity of Colloidal Solutions, 240
Mammalia: the Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland,
J. G. Millais, 121; the Land and Sea Mammals of
Middle America and the West Indies, D. G. Elliot, 212
Man, Blood Pressures in, Prof. J. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S.,
375
Man, Craniology of, and the Anthropoid Apes, A. T.
Mundy, 125; N. C. Macnamara, 125
Man, Electricity in the Service of, R. M. Walmsley, 124
Man, the Origin of, 433
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 23, 71, 167,
191, 334, 383, 431, 575; Wilde Lecture at, the Early
History of Seed-bearing Plants as Recorded in the
Carboniferous Flora, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., 426
Mankind in the Making, H. G. Wells, 193
Manouvrier (Prof.), ‘‘ Negroid’’ Characters in European
Skulls, 453
Mansfield (Mr.), Food of the Maine Lumbermen, 254
Maps, the First True, C. Raymond Beazley, 159
Maps, Popular Star, Comte de Miremont, 484
Maquenne (L.), Constitution of Ricinine, 119
Marage (M.), Application of the Vowel Siren to the Study
of Deafness, 456
Marcet (Mrs.), Rediviva, Chemistry for Youths, 435
March (F.), New Method of Synthesis of Alkyl Derivatives
of Cyclic Saturated Alcohols, 431; 1-Methyl-q-benzylcyclo-
hexanol and 1-Methyl-4-dibenzylcyclohexanol, 479
Marine Biology : GEcology and Deposits of the Cape Verde
Marine Fauna, C. Crossland, 502; on a Method of Using
the Tow-net as an Opening and Closing Tow-net, George
Murray, F.R.S., 364; Report of the Government of
Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of
Manaar, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., 395; Larva and Spat
of the Canadian Oyster, J. Stafford, 468; Eumedon con-
victor, a Crustacean accompanying a Sea-urchin, E. L.
Bouvier and G. Seurat, 479; Community of Type between
South African and European Marine Annelids ‘Generally,
Prof. McIntosh, 492; Distinct Second Family Type of
Lancelets (Cephalochordata), Dr. R. Goldschmidt, 590;
Memoirs on Marine Biology, 618; see also Biology
Marine Expedition, a New British, 562
Mark (Edward Laurens), Anniversary Volume, 169
Marloth (Dr. R.), a New South African Cypress (Callistris
schwarst), 168; Mimicry among Plants, 232
Marr (Dr. J. E.), Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks,
477
Mars: Seasonal Development of Martian Canals, Mr.
Lowell, 282; the Alternating Variability of Martian
Canals, Mr. Lowell, 494; Longitude Observations of
Points on Mars, Mr. Lowell, 449; Forthcoming Op-
position of, R. Buchanan, 494; Reality of Various
Features on, V. Cerulli, 592; Changes on, Mr. Lowell,
618; Mr. Lampland, 618; Prof. W. H. Pickering, 618;
see also Astronomy
Marsh (J. E.), Photographic Radiation of some Mercury
Compounds, 455
Marshall (H.), Salts and their Reactions, 200
Martignat (M.), Le Liége, ses Produits et ses Sous-pro-
duits, 413
Martin (Geoffrey), Have Chemical Compounds a Definite
Critical Temperature and Pressure of Decomposition? 609
Martin (G. H.), Practical Chemistry, a Second Year Course,
100
Martin (Dr. Sidney), Bacteria of Proteus vulgaris, 237
Martine (C.), a Synthesis of Menthone and Menthol, 311
Martini (Antonio de), Obituary Notice of, 38
Mason (Prof. J. W.), Death of, 325
Massee (George), Heterogenetic Fungus-germs, 175
Massoulier (Pierre), Study of Ionisation in Flames, 479;
Ionisation in Flames, 600
Masterman (Dr.), the Salmon Fisheries of England and
Wales, 18
Mathematics: Patent Flexible Curves and a_ Parabolic
Curve, W. J. Brooks, 15; a New General Theory of
Errors, William Edward Story, 15; a Simple Differ-
entiating Machine, Dr. J. Erskine Murray, 38; Intro-
ductory Treatise of Lie’s Theory of Finite Continuous
Transformation Groups, John Edward Campbell, 49; the
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Index
Zeros of Certain Classes of Integral Taylor’s Series,
G. H. Hardy, 70; Reducibility of Covariants of Binary
Quantics of Infinite Order, P. W. Wood, 70; Mathe-
matical Society, 70, 166, 310, 382, 478; New School
Arithmetic, Charles Pendlebury and F. E. Robinson, 75;
New School Examples in Arithmetic, Charles Pendlebury
and F. E. Robinson, 75; a School Geometry, H. S. Hall
and F. H. Stevens, 75; Theoretical Geometry for Be-
ginners, C. H. Allcock, 75; Elementary Plane Geometry,
V. M. Turnbull, 75; Mathematical Problem Papers, Rev.
E. M. Radford, 75; the Collected Mathematical Papers of
James Joseph Sylvester, 98; Compound Singularities of
Curves, A. B. Bassett, F.R.S., 101; Singularities of
Curves, T. B. S., 152; Quadratic Partitions, Lieut.-Col.
Allan Cunningham, 124; Application of Basic Numbers
to Bessel’s and Legendre’s Functions, Rev. F. H. Jack-
son, 166; Groups of Order peg8, Prof. W. Burnside,
166; Failure of Convergence of Fournier’s Series, Dr.
E. W. Hobson, 166; Extension of Borel’s Exponential
Method of Summation of Divergent Series Applied to
Linear Differential Equations, E. Cunningham, 166; a
New Geometry for Senior Forms, S. Barnard and J. M.
Child, 174; on a Rapid Method of Approximate Harmonic
Analysis, Prof. S. P. Thompson, 190; Lecons sur la Pro-
pagation des Ondes et les Equations de 1’Hydrody-
namique, Jacques Hadamard, 196; an _ Elementary
Treatise on Graphs, George A. Gibson, Prof. George M.
Minchin, F.R.S., 211; Die Bilderzeugung in optischen
Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 217; Grundziige der Theorie
der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, Dr. Siegfried
Czapski, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 217; the Mathe-
matical Theory of Eclipses according to Chauvenet’s
Transformation of Bessel’s Method, Roberdeau Buchanan,
244; Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and Siddon’s
Elementary Geometry, E. A. Price, 248; Death of G. W.
Hemming, 253; the Form of the Surface of a Fowl’s
Egg, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 254; Blackie’s Handy Book
of Logarithms, 271; Vier- und fiinfstellige Logarith-
mentafeln, 271; Polyhedral Soap-films, W. F. Warth,
273; Opere mathematiche di Francesco Brioschi, 293;
Opere mathematiche di Eugenio Beltrami, 293; Polar
Plotting Paper, Dr. C. G. Knott, 295; Alternants and
Continuous Groups, Dr. H. F. Baker, 311; Death of
Prof. J. W. Mason, 325; Death of Prof. Achsah M.
Ely, 350; Billiards Mathematically Treated, G. W. Hem-
ming, S. H. Burbury, F.R.S., 362; Death of - Robert
Tucker, 371; Obituary Notice of, 398; General
Theory of Transfinite Numbers and Order Types,
Dr. E. W. Hobson, 382; Asymptotic Expansion
of Integral Functions of Finite Non-zero Order,
Rev. E. W. Barnes, 382; Death of Dr. Guido Hauck,
420; Death of J. C. V. Hoffmann, 420; Orthogonal and
other Special Systems of Invariants, Major P. A. Mac-
Mahon, F.R.S., 430; Verb Functions or Explicit Opera-
tions, Major Ronald Ross, C.B., F.R.S., 431; the Pro-
jection of Two Triangles on to the Same Triangle, Prof.
M. J. M. Hill, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, and H. W. Chapman,
478; the Weddle Quartic Surface, H. Bateman, 478;
Elementary Pure Geometry, with Mensuration, E.
Buddon, 507; Lessons in Experimental and Practical
Geometry, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 507; the
Elements of Geometry, Theoretical and Practical, B.
Arnett, 507; the Elements of Trigonometry, S. L. Loney,
507; Elementary Algebra, W. M. Baker and A. A.
Bourne, 507; Clive’s Shilling Arithmetic, 507; Graphic
Statics, T. Alexander and A. W. Thompson, 507; the
Algebra of Invariants, J. H. Grace and A. Young, Prof.
G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601; the Dynamical Theory of
Gases, J. H. Jeans, Prof. G. H. Bryan, FE.R.S., 601; a
Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and
Rigid Bodies, E. T. Whittaker, Prof. G. H. Bryan,
F.R.S., 601
wena la, 1’Ether et les Forces physiques, Lucien Mottez,
486
Matignon (C.), Combinations of Samarium Chloride with
Ammonia, 311; Oxidation of Metals in the Cold in Pre-
sence of Ammonia, 551
Matthew (W. D.), Arboreal Ancestry of Mammals, 351
Matthews (E. R.), Coast Erosion and Protection, Paper
read at Institution of Civil Engineers, 92
XXiX
Maunder (E. W.), Magnetic Disturbances 1882 to 1903 and
their Association with Sun-spots, 118
Mawley (E.), Phenological Observations for the Year 1904,
430
Mawson (D.),
Minerals, 168
Maxwell (Mrs. J. M.), Children’s Wild Flowers, 510
Mayer (André), the Composition of Colloidal Granules, 167
Measurements, an Introduction to the Theory of Mental
and Social, Edward L. Thorndike, 99
Measures: Construction and Verification of a New Copy of
the Imperial Standard Yard, H. J. Chaney, 543
Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novel-
ties of Construction, Gardner D. Hiscox, 557
Mechanics: Laboratory Apparatus for Measuring the
Lateral Strains in Tension and Compression Members,
Prof. Coker, 143; Die technische Mechanik: elementares
Lehrbuch fiir mittlere maschienentechnische Fachschulen
und Hilfsbuch fiir studierende hodherer technischer
Lehranstalten, P. Stephan, Prof. George M. Minchin,
148; a Simple Model for illustrating Wave-motion, K.
Honda, 295; the Slow Stretch in Indiarubber, Glass, and
Metal Wires Subjected to a Constant Pull, P. Phillips,
359; Effects of Momentary Stresses in Metals, Prof.
Bertram Hopkinson, 501
Medizval Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus, Robert Steele,
Radio-activity and Radium in Australian
559
Medical Buildings of the University of Liverpool, 63
Medicine: Obituary Notice of Antonio de Martini, 38;
Abstention from Vaccination diminishing, 237; Medical
Research in Egypt, 307; Bacteriology and the Public
Health, Dr. George Newman, Dr. A. C. Houston, 388;
Relations between Arterial Pressure and the Amounts
of Chloroform Absorbed, J. Tissot, 408; Trypanosomiasis
and Experimental Medicine, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 498;
Physical Chemistry of Anzesthesia, Prof. Moore and Mr.
Roaf, 499; a German-English Dictionary of Terms Used
in Medicine and the Allied Sciences, Hugo Lang and B.
Abrahams, 533; Composition of the Oil from Bir Bahoti
or the ‘‘ Rains Insect ’’ (Bucella carniola), E. G. Hill,
551-2
Medlicott (H. B., F.R.S.), Death of, 565; Obituary Notice
of, 612
Meehan (Rev. Joseph), Intelligence of Animals, 176
Mees (C. E. Kenneth), the Science and Practice of Photo-
graphy, Chapman Jones, 29; the Molecular Condition in
Solution of Ferrous Potassium Oxalate, 358; the Theory
of Photographic Processes on the Chemical Dynamics
of Development, 454
Meldola (Prof. R., F.R.S.), Isomerism of the Amidines of
the Naphthalene Series, 118; the Chemical Synthesis of
Vital Products, and the Inter-relation between Organic
Compounds, 170; Method for the Direct Production of
Certain Amino-azo-compounds, 239; , B-NH-ethenyldi-
aminonaphthalene, 382; the late Prof. Tacchini, 583
Mellor (E. T.), Geological Survey of the Transvaal, Report
for the Year 1903, 55
Mellor (J. W.), Chemical Statics and Dynamics, 532
Melting of Floating Ice, the, Heat, 366
Mendeléeff (Prof.) on the Chemical Elements, 65
Menschen, der Gang des, Otto Fischer, Dr. A.
Tae
Mancheaviont Elementary Pure Geometry, with, E. Buddon,
Keith,
507
Mental and Social Measurements, an Introduction to the
Theory of, Edward L. Thorndike, 99
Mentone Caves, Recent Exploration in the, Prof. Marcellin
Boule, 276
Meridian Observations, Constant Errors in, J. G. Porter,
95
Merritt (Ernest), Absorptive Power of Fluorescent Sub-
stances during Active Fluorescence, 423
Merz (John Theodore), a History of European Thought in
the Nineteenth Century, 241
Meslin (George), Coefficient of Magnetisation of Bismuth,
31
Mecnil (F.), on Surra and the Differentiation of Trypano-
somes, 551
Metallurgy: Extraction of Vanadium from the Natural
Lead Vanadate, H. Herrenschmidt, 24; on the Occur-
rence of Widmannstatten’s Figures in Steel Castings,
Xxx l[ndex Nature,
Prof. J. O. Arnold and A. McWilliam, 32; on the
Application of Dry Air Blast to the Manufacture of Iron, |
James Gayley, 40; Removal of Moisture from the Air
Blown into Blast Furnace by Freezing, Economy of Fuel,
Alfred Picard and M. Heurteau, 119; Influence Exerted
by the Removal of the Moisture from the Air Supplied to
the Blast Furnace, A. Lodin, 143; on the Use of Dry Air
in Blast Furnaces, Henri Le Chatelier, 143; Method of
Drying the Air for the Blast, Mr. Gayley, 327; Iron
Manufacture in Lagos, C. V. Bellamy, 40; Development
and Rise of High-speed Tool Steel, J. M. Gledhill, 40;
Acid Open-hearth Manipulation, A. McWilliam and
W. H. Hatfield, 40; Photographic Method of Recording
the Temperature of Pieces of Steel during Cooling, H. Le
Chatelier, 88; the Use of Helium as a Thermometric Sub- |
stance and its Diffusion through Silica, Adrien Jaquerod
and F. Louis Perrot, 95; Invar and its Applications,
Dr. Ch. Ed. Guillaume, 134; Corr., 158; Calcium Metal,
R. S. Hutton, 180; Death of Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
F.R.S., 181; Obituary Notice of, 230; Need of Testing
Materials to be Subjected to Rapidly Repeated or to
Alternating Loads Otherwise than by determining the
Tensile Strength and Elastic Limit, A. E. Seaton and A.
Jude, 184; on the Possibility of Producing a Non-brittle
Steel Tempered Blue, Ch. Frémont, 191; Report of the
Commission appointed by Clifford Sifton, Minister of
the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to investigate the Different
Electrothermic Processes for the smelting of Iron Ores
and the making of Steel in Europe, Prof. J. O. Arnold,
258; Influence of Steam on the Reduction of the Oxides
of Iron by Carbon Monoxide and Dioxide, O. Boudouard, |
263 ; Chrome-vanadium Steels, Captain Riall Sankey and
J. Kent Smith, 305; Increase of Volume of Molten Cast |
Iron, Saturated with Carbon in the Electric Furnace, at
the Moment of Solidification, Henri Moissan, 335;
Laboratory Notes on Practical Metallurgy, Walter Mac-
farlane, 413; Death of Dr. Ernest F. Diirre, 420; Recent
Developments in Electric Smelting in Connection with
Iron and Steel, F. W. Harbord, 502; Death and Obituary
Notice of Prof. Bruno Kerl, 540; Electrically Heated
Carbon Tube Furnaces, R. S. Hutton and W. H. Pat-
terson, 598; Special Brasses for Naval Construction, L.
Guillet, 616
Metals : Arc Spectra of the Alkali Metals, F. A. Saunders,
133; Further Observations on Slip-Bands, Novel Method
of investigating the Micro-structure of Metals, Walter
Rosenhain, 500; Effects of Momentary Stresses in
Metals, Prof. Bertram Hopkinson, 501
Metaphysical Reality, Scientific Fact and, Robert Brandon
Arnold, 485
Metcalfe (Dr. Maynard M.), an Outline of the Theory of
Organic Evolution, with a Description of some of the
Phenomena which it Explains, 509
Meteorology: Sir J. Eliot’s Address at Cambridge, J. R.
Sutton, 6; Sir John Eliot, F.R.S., 7; the Floods of the
Spring of 1903 in the Mississippi Watershed, H. C.
Frankenfeld, 10; the Passaic Floéds of 1902 and 1903, 11;
Rainfall for 1903 in Mauritius, 14; United States
Meteorological Chart of the Great Lakes for the Winter
of 1903-4, 15; a Sensitive Hygrometer, Dr. W. M. Thorn-
ton, 47; Investigation of Accuracy of Self-registering
Thermometers, Mr. Claxton, 62; the Melting of Glaciers
in Winter, Dr. R. von Lendenfeld, 62; Kite Observations
on the Lake of Constance, Dr. H. Hergesell, 87; Scien-
tific Experiments in Italy with Unmanned Balloons, Dr.
L. Palazzo, 113; Royal Meteorological Society, 119, 216,
334, 430, 503, 622; Decrease of Fog in London, 119, 542;
T. J. Brodie, 119; London Fogs, 132; Report of the
Meteorological Council upon an Inquiry into the Occur-
rence and Distribution of Fogs in the London Area,
during the Winters of tq01-2 and 1902-3, with Reference
to Forecasts of the Incidence and Duration of Fogs in
Special Localities, to which is Appended the Report by
R. G. Kk. Lempfert on the Observations of the Winter
1902-3, 259; Meteorological Results of the National
Antarctic Expedition, W. Krebs, 131; the Storm of
December 6, 157; Monthly Wind Charts for the South
Atlantic Ocean, 157; the Cyclones of the Far East, Rev.
José Algué, S.J., 198; the Climate of Shanghai, Rev. J.
de Moidrey, S.J., 209; Meteorology in Mysore for 1903,
210; Smoke Problem, F. J. Rowan, 210; the Study of
June 8, 1905
the Minor Fluctuations of Atmospheric Pressure, Dr.
W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and W. H. Dines, 216; Mean?
Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes, Prof. Julius —
Hann, 221; the ‘‘ Piesmic ’? Barometer, A. S. Davis, 232;
Observations at Odessa for 1901-3, 255; the Abnormal |
Tides of January 7, 258; a Method of Reading Large
Surfaces of Mercury, A. Berget, 287; Observations
océanographiques et météorologiques dans la Région du
Courant de Guinée (1855-1900), 293; Super-cooled Rain ~
Drops, Edward E. Robinson, 295; Cecil Carus-Wilson,
320; Method of Studying Raindrops, W. A. Bentley, 399;
Climatological Records of the British Empire for 1903,
305; the Duration of Rainfall, T. Okada, 305; the Moon —
and Barometer, Alex. B. MacDowall, 320; Rainfall of
the British Isles for 1904, Dr. H. R. Mill, 326; the
General Motion of Clouds, Prof. H. H. Hildebrandsson, ©
329; Connection of Meteorology with Other Sciences, |
Captain D. Wilson-Barker, 334; Résultats du Voyage du —
S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898, 1899, sous le Commandemant
de A. de Gerlache de Gomery, 337; Indian and South
African Rainfalls 1892-1902, D. E. Hutchins, 342 ; High
Barometric Readings over the British Isles during the
Latter Part of January last, 351; Remarkable Tempera-
ture Inversion and the Recent High Barometer, W. H.
Dines, 365; the Circulation of the Atmosphere, James
Thomson, 365; Influence of the Time Factor on the Cor-
relation between the Barometric Heights at Stations more
than 1ooo Miles Apart, F. E. Cave-Browne-Cave, 379;
the Action of Hail Cannons, J. Violle, 383; Automatic
Registration of Atmospheric JIonisation, Charles Nord-
mann, 407; Fall of Dust at Santa Cruz (Canaries) on
January 29 and 30, 422; Present Problems of Meteor-
ology, A. L. Rotch, 423; Phenological Observations for
the Year 1904, E. Mawley, 430; Denkmaler mittelalter-
licher Meteorologie, 438; Aéronautical Monthly Ascents
of 1904, Prof. H. Hergesell, 447; Electrical Effects of
Dryness of Atmosphere at Winnipeg, Prof. A. H. R.
Buller, 448; Rainfall from the Beginning of the Year,
467; on a Relation between Autumnal Rainfall and the
Yield of Wheat of the Following Year, Dr. W. N. Shaw,
F.R.S., at Royal Society, 470; Preliminary Results of the
Kite Ascents made on the Yacht of the Prince of Monaco
in the Summer of 1904, Prof. H. Hergesell, 467; Cli-
matic Features in the Land Surface, Dr. Albrecht Penck,
472; Climatology of the Past Year, J. Loisel, 493; the
Growth of Instrumental Meteorology, Richard Bentley,
503; Inversions of Temperatures and Humidity in Anti-
cyclones, Dr. A. Lawrence Rotch, 510; Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatory, New Year Island, Captain
H. L. Crosthwaite, 515; Observations at Hong Kong
Observatory in 1903, 516; Rainfall of Six Months Sep-
tember, 1904, to February, 1905, 516; Highest Maximum
Temperatures Recorded in the British Empire, W. E.
Cooke, 542; State of the Ice in the Arctic Seas during
1904, 567; Meteorological Conditions of the Antarctic,
Discovery Expedition, C. W. R. Royds, 568; Atmospheric
Electricity in High Latitudes, George C. Simpson, 573;
Extraordinary Halo Observed at Paris on March 26,
Louis Besson, 576; Inversions of Temperature on Ben
Nevis, Andrew Watt, 583; the Nile Flood in Relation to
the Variations of Atmospheric Pressure in North-east
Africa, Captain H. G. Lyons, 616; Observations at
Crinan in 1904, W. H. Dines, 622; Rate of Fall of Rain
at Seathwaite, Dr. H. R. Mill, 622
Meteors: the Perseid Shower, A. King, 40; Observations
of Perseids, M. Chrétien, 89; M., Perrotin, 89; G. A.
Quignon, 89; Observations of Perseids, 1904, Prof. S.
Zammarchi, 133; the Perseids for 1904, V. Fournier, A.
Chaudot, and G. Fournier, 167; Observations of the
Leonid Meteors, 1904, W. H. Milligan, 83; the Leonids,
1904, Alphonso King, 102; John R. Henry, 126; Ob-
servations of Leonids at Harvard, 1904, 233; Real Paths,
Heights, and Velocities of Leonids, Mr. Denning, 306;
Heights of Meteors, Mr. Denning, 89; the November
Meteors of 1904, W. F. Denning, 93; Observations of
Bright Meteors, Dr. J. Moller, 211; Parallax of a Low
Meteor, P. G6étz, 133; a Bright Meteor, J. Ryan, 329;
Bright Meteors, R. L. Jones, 449; the Lyrid Meteors,
John R. Henry, 560; Real Path of a Bright Meteor,
H. Rosenberg, 569; Radiant Point of the Bielid Meteors,
K. Bohlin, 469
Nature,
June 8, 1605
Meteorites: the Temperature of, H. E. Wimperis, 81; the
Cafion Diablo Meteorite, Henri Moissan, 95, 287
Mettam (Prof. A. E.), (1) on the Transmissibility of Tuber-
culosis of the Monkey to the Ox and Goat; (2) on the
Use of Tuberculin in the Detection of Tuberculosis, 503
Meunier (L.), Action of Magnesium Amalgam upon Di-
methylketone, 503
Meyer (Fernand), Preparation of Iodide of Gold by the
Action of Iodine on Gold,
Meyer (Dr. H.), Star Places in the Vulpecula Cluster, 519
Meyermann (Dr. B.), Light-curve of 5 Cephei, 234
Miall (L. C.), House, Garden, and Field, a Collection of
Short Nature Studies, 52
Micheli (F. J.), the Genesis of Temporary Radio-activity,
143
Microchemistry : Death of Dr. T. H. Behrens, 325, 420
Microscopy : Royal Microscopical Society, 47, 142, 262, 358,
455, 550; on the Reconstruction of a Fossil Plant Lygino-
dendron oldhamium, Dr. Dukinfield H. Scott, F.R.S., 47;
Death of Prof. Ernst Abbe, 278; Obituary Notice of,
301; the Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical Petro-
graphy, 341; Practical Micrometallography, J. E. Stead,
F.R.S., 455; Further Observations on Slip-bands, Novel
Method of investigating the Micro-structure of Metals,
Walter Rosenhain, 500; Bausch and Lomb’s B.B.P.
Portable Microscope, 568
Microseismography : Sound Waves of a Cannon have no
Appreciable Effect on a Building, Prof. Vicentini, 621
Middlekauff (G. W.), Constancy of ‘* Spark ’’ Wave-lengths,
545
Middleton (Prof. T. E.),
search, 236
Mill (Dr. H. R.), Rainfall of the British Isles for 1904, 326;
Rate of Fall of Rain at Seathwaite, 622
Millais (J. G.), the Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland,
121
Millet (J. B.), Submarine Signalling by Sound, 595
Milligan (W. H.), Observations of the Leonid Meteors, 1904,
83
Millochau (G.), the Photographic Spectrum of Jupiter, 89
Millosevich (Prof.), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 89, 114
Mimicry among Plants, Dr. R. Marloth, 232
Minchin (Prof. George M.), die technische Mechanik, ele-
mentares Lehrbuch fir mittlere maschienentechnische
Fachschulen und Hilfsbuch fiir studierende hoherer tech-
nischer Lehranstalten, P. Stephan, 148; an Elementary
Treatise on Graphs, George A. Gibson, 211
Mineralogy: on the Occurrence of Widmannstatten’s
Figures in Steel Castings, Prof. J. O. Arnold and A.
McWilliam, 32; Change in the Colour of Moss Agates,
C. Simmonds, 54; A. Hutchinson, 101; Blue-stained
Flints, F. J. Allen, 83; Thomas L. D. Porter, 126; Blue
Flints at Bournemouth, J. W. Sharpe, 176; the Cafion
Diablo Meteorite, Henri Moissan, 95; the Micrographical
Study of the Meteorite of the Diablo Canyon, H. Moissan
and F. Osmond, 287; Mineralogical Society, 118, 381, 574;
Mineral Tables for the Identification of Minerals by their
Physical Properties, Arthur S. Eakle, 123; Tin-ore in
Ross-shire, 161; on the Constitution of Arable Earth, A.
Delage and H. Lagatu, 191; Hematite Deposits of Peru,
Sefor Venturo, 236; Nickeliferous Veins of La Mar,
Eduardo de Habich, 236; Alkaline Micro-granites of the
Zinder Territory, A. Lacroix, 263; Death of Prof. Ben-
jamin W. Frazier, 325; a New Mineral Containing
Radium, J. Danne, 335; Fiedlerite, A. de Schulten, 359;
the Preparation of the Diamond, Henri Moissan, 3509;
Enormous Transvaal Diamond, 372 ; Plumbiferous Earths
of Issy-l’ .véque contain Radium, M. Danne, 373; Epidote
from Inverness-shire, H. H. Thomas, 381; Regular
Growth of Crystals of One Substance upon those of
Another, T. V. Barker, 382; Zinc and Lead Deposits
of Northern Arkansas, G. I. Adams, 450; the Copper
Deposits of the Encampment District, Wyoming, A. C.
Spencer, 450; Economic Resources of the Northern Black
Agricultural Education and Re-
Hills, J. D. Irving and S. F. Emmons, 450; T. A.
Jaggar, jun., 450; Refractory Siliceous Ores of South
Dakota, J. D. Irving and S. F. Emmons, 452; Petro-
graphy of the Witwatersrand Conglomerates, with Special
Reference to the Origin of Gold, Dr. F. H. Hatch and
Dr. G. S. Corstorphine, 471; the ‘* Cullinan ’’ Diamond,
Dr. F. H. Hatch, 549; New Oxychloride of Copper
Index
XXX1
from Sierra Gorda, Chili, G. T. Prior and G. F. Herbert
Smith, 574; Dundasite from North Wales, G. T. Prior,
574; Three New Minerals from the Binnenthal, Smithite,
Hutchinsonite, and Trechmannite, R. H. Solly, 574
Minerals: Minerals from the Lengenbach Quarry Binnen-
thal, R. H. Solly, 118; Radio-activity and Radium in
Australian Minerals, D. Mawson and T. H. Laby, 168;
on the State in which Helium Exists in Minerals, Prof.
Morris W. Travers, F.R.S., 248; Beckelite, Prof. J.
Morozewicz, 305; a New Thallium Mineral, G. T. Prior,
534; the Mineral Resources of Canada, 571
| Mining : an Elementary Class-book of Practical Coal-
mining, 1. H. Cockin, 150; the Royal Commission on
Coal Supplies, 324; Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal
Trade, R. L. Galloway, Bennett H. Brough, 361; Gold
at Chota Nagpur, Bengal, J. Malcolm Maclaren, 161;
Gold Mining in France, 445; Copper in the United
States, W. H. Weed, 162; Methods of Dealing with
Dust in the Air in a Cornish Mine, Messrs. Thomas and
Macqueen, 209; Interim Report of British Association
Committee on Ankylostomiasis in Britain, 209; Calcium
Carbide as an Explosive in Mining Work, Marcel P. S.
Guedras, 240; Cyaniding Gold ‘and. Silver Ores, H.
Forbes Julian and Edgar Smart, 292; Cerro de Pasco
Silver Mines, 542; Severe Explosion of Rock in the New
Hillgrove Mine, New South Wales, J. B. Jaquet, 616
Minor Planet, Variability of a, Prof. Wendell, 569
Minor Planets discovered during 1904, Permanent Numbers
for the, 401
Minor Planets, Orbits of, Prof. J. Bauschinger, 469
Miremont (Comte de), Popular Star Maps, 484
Mississippi Watershed, Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the,
H. C. Frankenfeld, 10
Misuse of Words and Phrases,
Basset, F.R.S., 30
Mitchell (C. Ainsworth),
Manufacture, 269
Pe 18}s Sin, Gh GYR Palo 1335
Inks: their Composition and
Mittelmeerlande, die orientalische Christenheit der, Dr.
Karl Beth, 53
Modern Electric Practice, 1
Mohr (Friedrich) und Justus von Liebig, Dr. Georg W.
A. Kahlbaum, 25
Moidrey (Rev. J. de, S.J.), the Climate of Shanghai, 209
Moissan (Henri), Boron Trifluoride and Silicon Tetraflu-
oride, 71; the Cafon Diablo Meteorite, 95; the Micro-
graphical Study of the Meteorite of the Diablo Canyon,
287; Physical Properties of Metallic Calcium, 327; In-
crease of Volume of Molten Cast Iron, Saturated with
Carbon in the Electric Furnace at the Moment of Solidi-
fication, 335; the Preparation of the Diamond, 359;
Determinations of the Physical Constants of Pure Marsh
Gas, 400; Study of the Silicide of Carbon from the
Canon Diablo Meteorite, 407
Molengraaff (Dr. G. A. F.),
Geology of the Transvaal,
55
Molesworth (Sir Guilford L.), Public Works in India
during the last Fifty Years, 13
Molinari (Dr. E.), Trattato di Chimica Inorganica Gene-
rale e Applicato all’ Industria, 339
Moller (Dr. J.), Observations of Bright Meteors,
Colours of Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, 256
Molliard (Marin), Floral Abnormalities produced by Para-
sities acting at a Distance, 144
Molyneux (A. J. C.), the Physical History of the Victoria
Falls, 619
Montana and Idaho, a Geological Reconnaissance across
the Bitterroot Range and Clearwater Mountains in, W.
Lindgren, 450
Monte Rosa and
the, Prof. Mosso, 443; Sir M.
201;
Col d’Olen International Laboratories,
Basterork.G.5. ibe S.5
Moni goriery (Dr. T. H.), Morphological Superiority of
‘ie Male Sex in Animals, 542
Monti (R.), New Species of Hydrachnide, Polyxo placo-
phora, 543
Moon: Variations on the Moon's Surface, Prof. W. H.
Pickering, 114; Changes upon the Moon’s Surface, Prof.
William H. Pickering, 226; a Possible Explanation of
the Formation of the Moon, George Romanes,
Origin of Lunar Formation, G. Romanes, 256;
Johnston-Lavis, 256; Dr. G. K. Gilbert, 256; Geology of
XXXil
the Moon, Sir Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 348; Observations of
the Recent Eclipse of the, M. Puiseux, 518
Moon and Barometer, the, Alex. B. MacDowall, 320
Moore (Prof. B.), Physical Chemistry of Anzsthesia, 4099;
a Primer of Physiology, Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.,
556; Elementary Practical Physiology, John Thornton,
550; Absence or Marked Diminution of Free Hydrochloric
Acid in the Gastric Contents in Malignant Disease of
Organs other than the Stomach, 596
Moorish Designs, Magic Origin of, Dr. Ed. Westermarck,
165
Moorland Districts, Plant-associations in, Francis J. Lewis,
257
Morbology: Lectures on the Diseases of Children, Dr.
Robert Hutchison, 28; Tumour in an Oyster, Harbert
Hamilton, 37; Trypanosomiasis in French West Africa,
A. Laveran, 47; Trypanosome Diseases, Prof. Robert
Koch, 112; Trypanosomiasis and the Tsetse-fly in
French Guinea, A. Laveran, 287; Comparative Effects
of the Trypanosomata of Gambia Fever and Sleeping
Sickness upon Rats, H. G. Plimmer, 379; on Surra and
the Differentiation of Trypanosomes, A. Laveran and
F. Mesnil, 551; Sleeping Sickness in the Congo, 60;
Sleeping Sickness in Congo Free State, Messrs. Dutton,
Todd, and Christy, 499; Relationship of Human Try-
panosomiasis to Congo Sleeping Sickness, Messrs. Dutton,
Todd, and Christy, 499; Identity of Various Trypano-
somes of Man, Dr. Thomas and Mr. Linton, 499; the
Congo Floor Maggot, Messrs. Dutton, Todd, and Christy,
499; the Parasites of Small-pox and Vaccinia, Dr. W. E.
de WKorté, 112; the Cancer Problem in a Nutshell, Dr.
Robert Bell, 76; the Treatment of Cancer with Radium,
588 ; Absence or Marked Diminution of Free Hydrochloric
Acid in the Gastric Contents in Malignant Disease of
Organs other than the Stomach, Prof. Benjamin Moore,
Dr. W. Alexander, R. E. Kelly, and H. E. Roaf, 596;
Conclusions of the Committee on Dr. Doyen’s Treatment
of Cancer, 208; Two Distinct Forms of Tubercle Bacilli,
Human and Bovine, 130; (1) Transmissibility of Tuber-
culosis of the Monkey to the Ox and Goat; (2) on the
Use of Tuberculin in the Detection of Tuberculosis, Prof.
A. E. Mettam, 503; Interim Report of British Association
Committee on Ankylostomiasis in Britain, 209; Destruc-
tion of Rats and Disinfection on Shipboard, with Special
Reference to Plague, Drs. Haldane and Wade, 2009;
Bacteriological Diagnosis of Plague, Dr. Klein, 237;
Plague at Sydney in 1903, Dr. Ashburton Thompson,
542; Bacteria of Proteus vulgaris, Dr. Sidney Martin,
237; Bilharzia, Dr. Symmers, 307; Fevers in the Dinaj-
pur District, Dr. L. Rogers, 336; Vitality of the Typhoid
Bacillus in Shell-fish, Dr. Klein, F.R.S., 421; Epidemic
of Typhoid at Lincoln, 421; Mosquitoes and Malaria,
Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S., 590
Morel (M.), Carbimide of Natural Leucine, 431; - Sub-
stituted Ureas from Natural Leucine, 551
Moreux (Th.), Nature of Sun-spots, 592
Morozewicz (Prof. J.), Beckelite, 305
Morphology: Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle, Dr.
Alexander Gurwitsch, 174; Morphologische Studien, als
Beitrag zur Methodologie zoologischer Probleme, Tad.
Garbowski, 265; Morphologie und Biologie der Algen,
Dr. Friedrich Oltmanns, George Murray, F.R.S., 362;
Morphology, Prof. A. Giard, 422; Ontogeny of the
Neuron in Vertebrates, Dr. John Cameron, 431;
Morphology and Anthropology, W. L. H. Duckworth,
433; Praktikum fiir morphologische und systematische
Botanik, Dr. Karl Schumann, 436; Morphological
Superiority of the Male Sex in Animals,
Montgomery, 542
Morrell (R. S.), Dynamic Isomerism of a- and B-Crotonic
Acids, 70; Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates
in Presence of Ferrous Sulphate, 478; Compounds of
Guanidine with Sugars, 479
Morris (Sir Daniel), Cassava Poisoning, 305; Agriculture
in the West Indies, 350 3
Morris-Airey (H.), Determination of Wave-length in the
Extreme Ultra-violet Part of the Spectrum, 191
Morrow (J.), an Interference Apparatus for the Calibration
of Extensometers, 47; the Distribution of Velocity in a
Viscous Fluid over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and the
Action at the Critical Velocity, 621
Dye, ih 1a
Index
Nature,
June 8, 1905 :
Morton (Dr. Reginald), Light-energy, its Physics, Physio-
logical Action, and Therapeutics, Dr. Margaret A.
Cleaves, 269
Moschick (Herr), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 114
Mosquitoes destroyed by Fish, Kenrick Gibbons, 446
Mosquitoes and Malaria, Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S., 590
Moss Agates, Change in the Colour of, W. A. Whitton, 31;
C. Simmonds, 54; A. Hutchinson, 101
Moss (Richard J.), Helium in Pitchblende, 158 :
Mosso (Prof.), the Monte Rosa and Col d’Olen Inter-
national Laboratories, 443
Motion of Clouds, the General,
son, 329
Motion in a Compressible Fluid, Theory of Rapid, 196
Motor-cars, Oils for, C. Simmonds, 205 :
Motors, Electric, H. M. Hobart, 1
Mott (Dr. F. W.), Studies in National Eugenics, 402 :
Mottez (Lucien), la Matiére, 1l’Ether et les Forces
physiques, 486 '
Mottier (David M.), Fecundation in Plants, 218
Moulton (J. Fletcher, F.R.S.), Trend of Invention in
Chemical Industry, 36
Mount Everest: the Story of a Long Controversy, Captain
H. Wood, R.E., Major S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., 42;
Douglas W. Freshfield, 82
Moureau (G.), a New Class of Ions, 143
Moureux (Th.), the Large Solar Spot of February, 1905, 431
Muff (H. B.), the Pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South
Coast of Ireland, 17
Muir (M. M. Pattison), the Elements of Chemistry, 582
Muir (Prof. Robert), Chemical Combination and Toxic
Action as Exemplified in Hzmolytic Sera, 238
Muller (P. Th.), Constitution’ of the Sodium Salts of certain
Methenic and Methinic Acids, 239
Mundy (A. T.), Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid
Apes, 125
Murphy (E. C.), Destructive Floods in the United States in
1903, 308
Murray (D.), Museums, their History and their Use, with
a Bibliography and List of Museums in the United
Kingdom, 554
Murray (George, F.R.S.), Morphologie und Biologie der
Algen, Dr. Friedrich Oltmanns, 362; on a Method of
Using the Tow-net as an Opening and Closing Tow-net,
364; a New Rhabdosphere, 501
Murray (Sir John), Relation of Oceanography to other
Sciences, 381
Murray (J.), New Family and Twelve New Species of
Rotifera of the Order Bdelloida, 383; the Rhizopods and
Heliozoa of Loch Ness, 623
Murray (Dr. J. Erskine), a Simple Differentiating Machine,
3
Museum History, a Contribution to, 485
Museums, their History and their Use, with a Bibliography
and List of Museums in the United Kingdom, D.
Murray, 554
Museums’ Journal, the, 57
Mutation, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 366
Muttrich (Dr. Anton), Death of, 278
Prof. H. H. Hildebrands-
Nagaoka (Prof. H.), Effect of Temperature on the Mag-
netisation of Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt, 448
Nance (J. T.), a Carbide of Magnesium, 599
Natal Observatory, Report of the, E. Nevill, 282
National Antarctic Expedition, Captain Scott, 41
National Efficiency in Japan, Education and, Dr. Henry
Dyer, 150
National Physical Laboratory, 495
National University Library, a, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
3606
Native Tribes of South-east Australia, the, A. W. Howitt,
A. Ernest Crawley, 225
Natural History: Notes of an East Coast Naturalist,
Arthur H. Patterson, 4; Nature Teaching, F. Watts and
W. G. Freeman, 5; Thinking Cats, Y. N., 9; R.
Langton Cole, 31; Reason in Dogs, Arthur J. Hawkes,
54; Intelligence in Animals, J. E. A. T., 102 ; Rev. Joseph
Meehan, 176; T. S. Patterson, 201; F. J. Allen, 222;
F. C. Constable, 102; the ‘‘ Spout *’ of Whales, Dr. G. M.
Allen, 38; House, Garden, and Field, a Collection of
June 8, 1905
Short Nature Studies, L. C. Miall, 52; the Glamour of
the Earth, George A. B. Dewar, 53; Linnean Society,
70, 239, 430, 550, 599; New South Wales Linnean
Society, 72, 192, 263; the Story without an End, Sarah
Austin, 76; the Ben Bulben District, 91; Curious Traits
displayed by Ants, Miss A. M. Fielde, 112; the Ad-
venture of Cock Robin and his Mate, R. Kearton, 152;
the Intelligent Horse ‘‘ Clever Hans,’’ Prof. Stumpf,
156; the ‘‘ Nature-study ’’ of Birds, J. M. Boraston, 179;
the Lubbocix Formicarium, 181; Across the Great St.
Bernard, the Modes of Nature and the Manners of Men,
A. R. Sennett, 197; a Fauna of the North-west High-
lands and Skye, J. A. Harvie-Brown and H. A. Mac-
Pherson, 202; Wanderings in the Great Forests of
Borneo, Travels and Researches of a Naturalist in
Sarawak, O. Beccari, 203; Notes on the Natural History
of the Bell Rock, J. M. Campbell, 221; Second Report
on Economic Zoology, British Museum (Natural History),
Fred V. Theobold, 272; Stories from Natural History,
Richard Wagner, 317; Can Birds Smell? Dr. Alex. Hill,
318; on a Method of Using the Tow-net as an Opening
and Closing Tow-net, George Murray, F.R.S., 364; the
Natural History of Animals, the Animal Life of the
World in its Various Aspects and Relations, J. R. A.
Davis, 369; the Imperial Guide to India, including
Kashmir, Burma, and Ceylon, 387; Tenacity to Life of
a Grass-snake, E. V. Windsor, 390; the Country Day
by Day, E. K. Robinson, 418; a Naturalist’s Journal,
E. K. Robinson, 418; the Glacial Fauna and Flora of the
Plateau of Baraque-Michel, Ardennes, L. Frederico, 468;
Photography for the Sportsman Naturalist, L. W.
Brownell, 483; the History of the Collections contained
| in the Natural History Departments of the British
; Museum, 485; Superstitions about Animals, Frank
_ Gibson, 510; Peeps into Nature’s Ways, being Chapters
| on Insect, Plant, and Minute Life, J. J. Ward, 512; the
Legendary Suicide of the Scorpion, Prof. Edward B.
{ Poulton, F.R.S., 534; the Mammals and Birds of Liberia,
| Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 574; Richard
| Jefferies, his Life and Ideals, H. S. Salt, 582
| Naturbegriffe und Natururteile, Hans Driesch, 270
{Naturdenkmaéler und Vorschlage zur ihrer erhaltung, die
Gefahrdung der, H. Conwentz, 73
Naturwissenschaft, Religion und, eine Antwort an Prof.
| Ladenburg, Prof. Arthur Titius, 27
Naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage, Philosophische Propi-
,__deutik auf, August Schulte-Tigges, 27
Naval Architecture: the Institution of Naval Architects,
594; Report of the Council, 594; Spread of the Steam
Turbine for Marine Propulsion, Lord Glasgow, 504;
Design of the Antarctic Exploration Vessel Discovery,
W. E. Smith, 594; Hollow versus Straight Lines, R. E.
Froude, 595; Special Brasses for Naval Construction, L.
Guillet, 616
Naval Engineering, Death and Obituary Notice of Beau-
champ Tower, 253
Naval Observatory, Report of the United States, Rear-
__ Admiral Chester, 211
Navigation: New Dover-Ostend Mail Boat a Turbine
Steamer, 111; Submarine Signalling by Sound, J. B.
| Millet, 595
Navigation, Progress in Aérial, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
463
Nebula, the Dumb-bell, Louis Rabourdin, 40
Nebula, Photography of Planetary, W. S. Franks, 618
Nebulous Areas in Scorpio, Variable Stars and, Miss H. S.
Leavitt, 282
Neilson (R. M.), Possibilities of Gas Turbines from a
Scientific Standpoint, 87
Neolithic Deposits in the North-east of Ireland, George
Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger, 444
Neolithic Dew-ponds and Cattle-ways, A. J. Hubbard and
G. Hubbard, 611
Nest of the Fighting Fish, the, E. H. Waite, 450
Neu (L.), a New Safety Arrangement for Electrical Mains
at High Tension, 47
Neurology : Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous
System, Sir William R. Gowers, F.R.S., 6; Arris and
Gale Lectures on the Neurology of Vision, J. Herbert
Parsons, 340
Nevill (E.), Report of the Natal Observatory, 282
NT L[ndex XXXill
New Britain, Zoological Results based on Material from,
Dr. Arthur Willey, 411
New Guinea, Zoological Results based on Material from,
Dr. Arthur Willey, 411
New Jersey, the Glacial Geology of, Rollin D. Salisbury,
186
New South Wales, the Commercial Timbers of, J. H.
Maiden, 157
New South Wales Linnean Society, 72, 192, 263
New South Wales Royal Society, 72, 168, 335, 384
New Zealand, the Animals of, an Account of the Colony’s
Air-breathing Vertebrates, F. W. Hutton and J. Drum-
mond, 199
Newcomb (Prof.), the Eclipse of Agathocles in the Year
—309, 31I
Newman (Dr. George), Bacteriology and the Public Health,
388
Newton (E. T., F.R.S.), an Ossiferous Pleistocene Cavern
at Hoe Grange Quarry, 165; on an Ossiferous Cave of
Pleistocene Age at Hoe Grange Quarry, Longcliffe, near
Brassington (Derbyshire), 488
Nichols (E. L.), Absorptive Power of Fluorescent Sub-
stances during Active Fluorescence, 423
Nicholson (F.), the Mistaken Idea that Birds are Seed-
carriers, 167 ‘
Nicolardot (Paul), Ferric Ethylate, 551
Nicolucci (Prof. Giustiniano), Obituary Notice of, 39
Night, Fishing at, S. W., 201; F. G. Aflalo, 221
Nijland (Prof.), Observations of Comets 1904 d and 1904 e,
281
Nile, Bird Notes from the, Lady William Cecil, 150
Nippoldt (A.), Simultaneous Occurrence of Solar and Mag-
netic Disturbances, 16
Nolan (Thomas), the Telescope, 460
Nordenskjéld (Dr. N. Otto G.), Antarctica, or Two Years
amongst the Ice of the South Pole, 560
Nordmann (Charles), Measurements of the Conductivity
of Dielectrics by Means of Ionised Gases, 263 ; Automatic
Registration of Atmospheric Ionisation, 407; Structure
of the Corona, 469
North (S. H.), Oil Fuel, its Supply, Composition, and
Application, 531
North African Petroglyphs, E. F. Gautier, 570
North America, Glaciation in, Rollin D. Salisbury, 186
Northall-Laurie (D.), Action of Carbon Monoxide on
Ammonia, £98
Notices sur |’Electricité, A. Cornu, 1
November Meteors of 1904, the, W. F. Denning, 93
Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree, Average, Dr. Francis
Galton, F.R.S., 30, 248; Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 101
Nutting (C. C.), American Hydroids, part ii., Sertularide,
31
Noting (P. G.), the Transition from Primary to Secondary
Spectra, 63
Observations of Occultations by Planets, Dr. T. J. J. See,
185
Gneeryatorics = Harvard College Observatory, Plan for the
Endowment of Astronomical Research, Prof. E. C.
Pickering, 40; Annual Report of the Cape Observatory,
Sir David Gill, 63; the Companion to the Observatory,
186; Report of the United States Naval Observatory,
Rear-Admiral Chester, 211; Astronomical ‘‘ Annuario ”’
of the Turin Observatory, 256; Report of the Natal
Observatory, E. Nevill, 282; the Jesuit Observatory at
Belen, Havana, 282; Report of the Yale Observatory,
1goo-4, Dr. Elkin, 354; the Pic du Midi Observatory,
M. L. Rudaux, 354; the Government Observatory at
Victoria, P. Baracchi, 449; Magnetic and Meteorological
Observatory, New Year Island, Captain H. L. Cros-
thwaite, 515 ; Observations at Hong Kong Observatory in
1903, 516; Stonyhurst College Observatory, Father Sid-
greaves, 592
Oceanic Carbon Dioxide, Atmospheric and, Dr. A. Harden,
283; Dr. A. Krogh, 283
Oceanography: Observations océanographiques et météor-
ologiques dans la Région du Courant de Guinée (1855-
1900), 293; Relation of Oceanography to other Sciences,
Sir. John Murray, 381; zur Bildung der czeanischen
Salzablagerung, J. H. van ’t Hoff, 508
: Nature,
XXXIV Index EP eercce :
Oceanu (P.), Physiological Effects of Ovariotomy in the
Goat, 312
Occultations by Planets, Observations of, Dr. T. J. J.
See, 185
Oil: l’Industrie oléicole (Fabrication de 1’Huile d’Olive),
J. Dugast, 6
Oil Fuel, its Supply, Composition, and Application, S. H.
North, 531
Oils for Motor-cars, C. Simmonds, 205
Okada (T.), the Duration of Rainfall, 305
Oldham (C.), the Dissemination of Seeds by Birds, 334
Olive, Fabrication de l’Huile d’, 1’Industrie oléicole, J.
Dugast, 6
Oltmanns (Dr. Friedrich), Morphologie und Biologie der
Algen, 362
Ommanney (Admiral Sir Erasmus, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Death
and Obituary Notice of, 207
.Omori (Prof.), Variations of Sea Level on the East Coast
of Japan, 20; Relation between the Variations in Lati-
tude at Tokio and the Occurrence of Earthquakes in
Japan, 309
Ophthalmology: Trachoma, Dr. J. Boldt, 198; Arris and
Gale Lectures on the Neurology of Vision, J. Herbert
Parsons, 340
Opposition of Mars, Forthcoming, R. Buchanan, 494
Optics: Stereoscopy without a Stereoscope, J. Violle, 23;
on a Property of Lenses, Dr. G. E. Allan, 47; Appa-
ratus for Direct Determination of the Curvatures of
Small Lenses, Dr. C. V. Drysdale, 142; Crystals Show-
ing the Phenomenon of Luminous Rings, Prof. S. P.
Thompson, 142; Optically Active Nitrogen Compounds,
Miss M. B. Thomas and H. O. Jones, 166; Death of
Prof. Macé de Lépinay, 181; the Primary Formation of
Optically Active Substances in Nature, Dr. A. Byk, 210;
die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, vom
Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik, Prof. G. H.
Bryan, F.R.S., 217; Grundziige der Theorie der
optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, Dr. Siegfried Czapski,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 217; the Optical Dictionary,
248; Interference Fringes produced by a System of Two
Perpendicular Mirrors, G. Lippmann, 263; Death of
Prof. Ernst Abbe, 278; Obituary Notice of, 307; a
Method of Reading Large Surfaces of Mercury, A.
Berget, 287; ‘‘ Verant’’ Lens for Stereoscopic Effect
with Monocular Vision, Walter Stahlberg, 305; Theory
of Symmetrical Optical Objectives, part ii., S. D.
Chalmers, 380; Phosphorescence of Phosphorus, E. Jung-
fleisch, 407; Absorptive Power of Fluorescent Substances
during Active Fluorescence, E. L. Nichols and Ernest
Merritt, 423; Application of the Iris Diaphragm in
Astronomy, M. Salet, 455; an Introduction to the Theory
of Optics, Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S., 457; the Telescope,
Thomas Nolan, 460; the Ashe-Finlayson ““ Compara-
scope,”” D. Finlayson, 478; Photomicrography by Ultra-
violet Light, Dr. A. Kohler, 517; Two Cases of Tri-
chromic Vision, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 573; Fluor-
escence and Absorption, J. B. Burke, 507; Conflict
between the Primary and Accidental Images applied to
the Theory of Inevitable Variability of Retinal Im-
pressions, A. Chauveau, 599; Dichroism produced by
Radium in Colourless Quartz, and a Thermoelectric
Phenomenon in Striated Smoky Quartz, N. Egoroff,
600; Photograph of a Lightning Flash showing the Air
in Incandescence, Em. Touchet, 600; Ellipsoidal Lenses
R. J. Sowter, 622
Orbit of the Binary Star Ceti 82, Prof. Aitken, 519
Orbit of Sirius, the, Prof. Doberck, 133 ‘
Orbits of Minor Planets, Prof. J. Bauschinger, 469
Orchideen-arten, Abbildungen der in Deutschland und den
angrenzenden Gebieten Vorkommenden Grundformen der
Dr. F. Kranzlin, 341 :
Organic Chemistry, Applications of some General
Reactions to Investigations in, Dr. Lassar-Cohn,
220
Organic Compounds, the Chemical Synthesis of Vital Pro-
ucts and the Inter-relation betwe 2
Meldola, F.RS., (rye between, Prof. Raphael
Oa epolution, an Outline of the Theory of, with a
escription of sonje of the Phenomena which j <plains
Dyn mie rerdMsUneeele eon which it Explains,
Organisation, Imperial, Sir Frederick Pollock, 589
Origin of Life, the, George Hookham, 9, 101; Geologist,
31; Dr. F. J. Allen, 54 :
Origin of Lunar Formation, G. Romanes, 256; Dr.
Johnston-Lavis, 256; Dr. G. K. Gilbert, 256
Origin of Radium, the, W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., 319
Ornithology: Bird Notes from the Nile, Lady William
Cecil, 150; the Adventure of Cock Robin and his Mate,
R. Kearton, 152; a Flamingo City, Breeding-places of
the American Flamingo in the Bahamas, F. M. Chap-
man, 156; the Mistaken Idea that Birds are Seed-
carriers, F. Nicholson, 167; Birds by Land and Sea,
the Record of a Year’s Work with Field Glass and
Camera, J. M. Boraston, 179; a New British Bird!
W. P. Pycraft, 201; Can Birds Smell? Dr. Alex. Hill, |
318; Game, Shore, and Water Birds of India, with
Additional References to their Allied Species in other
Parts of the World, Colonel A. Le Messurier, 363; the
Birds of Calcutta, F. Finn, 438; Birds I have Known,
Arthur H. Beavan, 581; Weight of the Brain as a Func-
tion of the Body Weight in Birds, L. Lapicque and P.
Girard, 600
Orthoptera, a Synonymic Catalogue of, W. F. Kirby, 459
Osborn (Prof. H. F.), Evolution of the Horse in America,
61; Ichthyosaurs, 279; Sauropod Dinosaurs, 615;
Armadillos from the Bridger Eocene, 615
Oscillation, Lissajous’s Figures by Tank, T. Terada, 296
Osmond (F.), the Micrographical Study of the Meteorite
of the Diablo Canyon, 287
Ossiferous Cave of Pleistocene Age, on an, at Hoe Grange
Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington, Derbyshire, H. H.
Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S., 165, 488
Ostwald (Wilhelm), the Principles of Inorganic Chemistry,
388 ; die Schule der Chemie, 435
Other Side of the Lantern, the, Sir Frederick Treves,
Bart, 553
Otsuki (C.), Photographic Activity of Hydrogen Peroxide,
408
Oxford Discovery, a Great, Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S.,
510
Oxygen Band Series, Deslandres’s Formula for the Lines
in the, Prof. Deslandres, 63
Oyster, Larva and Spat of the Canadian, J. Stafford, 468
Pacific Ocean, a Contemplated Magnetic Survey of the
North, by the Carnegie Institution, Dr. L. A. Bauer,
389
Packard (Dr. A. S.), Death of, 420; Obituary Notice of,
66
Packard (Prof.), Origin of the Markings of Organisms,
542
Pages from a Country Diary, P. Somers, 175
Paint and Varnish, the Industrial and Artistic Technology
of, A. H. Sabin, C. Simmonds, 50
Palzobotany: on the Reconstruction of a Fossil Plant,
Lyginodendron Oldhamium, Dr. Dukinfield H. Scott,
F.R.S., 47; Comparative Age of Flora of Eastern North
America, Dr. J. W. Hashberger, 61; Paleozoic Seed
Plants, E. A. N. Arber, 68; Models of Palaeozoic Seeds
and Cones, H. E. H. Smedley, 183; Fossil Plants from
the Paleozoic Rocks, v., New Sphenophyllaceous Cone
from the Lower Coal-measures, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.,
164; Lepidocarpon and the Gymnosperms, Dr. D. H.
Scott, F.R.S., 201; Sporangium-like Organs of Glosso-
pteris Browniana, E. A. Newell Arber, 382; the Early
History of Seed-bearing Plants as Recorded in the
Carboniferous Flora, Wilde Lecture at Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Dr. D. H. Scott,
F.R.S., 426; Plants from the Coal-measures Found in
the Borings at Eply, Lesménils, and Pont-a-Mousson,
R. Zeiler, 551; the Grains Found Attached to Pecto
pteris Pluckeneti, M. Grand’Eury, 575
Palzoichthyology: the Fishes of the Two Sides of the
Isthmus of Panama, Messrs. Gilbert and Starks, 590
Paleontology: .Dimorphism of the English Species of
Nummulites, J. J. Lister, F.R.S., 71; Extinct Mammalia
in a Carboniferous Cavern near Doneraile, R. J. Ussher,
71; Eocene Whales, F. A. Lucas, 102; on the Occurrence
of Elephas meridionalis at Dewlish, Dorset, Rev.
Osmond Fisher; 118; the Rhetic Bone-beds, W. H.
Wickes, 161; the Ammonite Fauna of the Spiti Shales,
Dr. Victor Uhlig, 161; the Palaozoic Palzechinoidea,
Wature.
June 8, 1905
Index
XXXV
Mary J. Klem, 162; an Ossiferous Pleistocene Cavern at
Hoe Grange Quarry, H. H. Arnold-Bemrose and E. T.
Newton, F.R.S., 165, 488; the Fossil Reptiles of South
Africa, Dr. R. Broom, 232; Ichthyosaurs, Prof. H. \F.
Osborn, 279; Man and the Mammoth at the Quaternary
Period in the Soil of the Rue de Rennes, M. Capitan,
312; the Fossil Sirenians of the Mediterranean Formation
of Austria, Dr. O. Abel, 351; Skeleton of the Dinosaur
Brontosaurus from Bone Cabin Quarry, 372; Cranial
Osteology of the Fishes of the Families Osteoglossidz,
Pantodontide, and Phractoleamide, Dr. W. G. Ride-
wood, 381; an Opalised Plesiosaurian Reptile of the
Genus Cimoliosaurus from White Cliffs, New South
Wales, R. Etheridge, 399; Exploration of the Potter
Creek Cave in California, W. J. Sinclair, 472; the
Opisthoceelian Dinosaurs, E. S. Riggs, 515; Annelid
Remains and Ammonites in the Salto del Fraile and
Morro Solar Districts, C. I. Lisson, 541; Gasteropoda
from the Silurian Rocks of Llangadock, Miss J. Donald,
49; the Dinosaur Diplodocus carnegti, Dr. W. J.
olland, 565; Abnormal Remains of the Red Deer
(Cervus elaphus), M. A. C. Hinton, 575; Affinities of
Procolophon, Dr. R. Broom, 575; Sauropod Dinosaurs,
Prof. H. F. Osborn, 615; Armadillos from the Bridger
_ Eocene, Prof. H. F. Osborn, 615; Palzontology of the
| Upper Old Red Sandstone of the Moray Firth Area, Dr.
|-R. H. Traquair, 623
Palaeozoic Seed Plants, E. A. N. Arber, 68
Palazzo (Dr. L.), Scientific Experiments in Italy with Un-
manned Balloons, 113
Palisa (Dr.), Elements and Ephemeris for Comet 1905 a
| (Giacobini), 617
Pannett (C. A.), Practical Exercises in Chemical Physi-
ology and Histology, 412
Pappad4 (Nicola), Coagulation of Dilute Solutions of Silicic
{ Acid under the Influence of Various Substances, 616
Para Rubber, the Cultivation and Preparation of, W. H.
| Johnson, 321, 352; C. Simmonds, 321
(Paraiypye (R. P.), Dates of Publication of Scientific Books,
| 320; Henry Frowde, 365
arallax of a Low Meteor, P. Gotz, 133
aret (J. Parmly), Lawn Tennis, 436
aris Academy of Sciences, 23, 47, 71, 95, 119, 143, 167,
191, 239, 263, 287, 311, 335, 359, 383, 407, 431, 455,
! 479, 503, 527, 551, 575, 599, 623; Prize Awards of the,
214; Prizes Proposed by the Paris Academy of Sciences
Pars 1905, 234
arsons (J. Herbert), Arris and Gale Lectures on the
Neurology of Vision, 340
ies and Rigid Bodies, a Treatise on the Dynamics
of, E. T. Whittaker, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601
Partitions, Quadratic, Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cunningham,
124
Basen Floods of 1902 and 1903, the, 11
assarge (Dr. Siegfried), die Kalahari, 481
asture, Making a, 604
atagonia, Sir Thomas Holdich, K.C.M.G., 102
ath of a Bright Meteor, Real, H. Rosenberg, 569
aton (Dr. Noel), Experiments on the Simultaneous Re-
moval of Spleen and Thymus, 263
atterson (Andrew Melville), the Human Sternum, 145
atterson (Arthur H.), Notes of an East Coast Naturalist, 4
atterson (T. S.), Intelligence of Animals, 201; Studies in
Optical Superposition, 239
atterson (W. H.), Electrically
Furnaces, 598
aul (R. W.), New Electrical Instruments, 95
ayne (Prof.), Celestial Photography at High Altitudes, 114
earl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, Report to
the Government of Ceylon on the, W. A. Herdman,
F-R.S., 395
[Pearson (Prof. Karl, F.R.S.), a Great Oxford Discovery,
510; the Ancient Races of the Thebaid, 583
Pechiile (Herr), Ephemeris for Comet 1904 d, 353
Peck (J.), Action of Radium on the Electric Spark, 358
ie (A.), Estimation of Carbon Monoxide in Confined
Heated Carbon Tube
Atmospheres, 287
ellegrin (Jacques),
Orestias, 48
enard (Dr. E.), les Heliozoaires d’Eau Douce, 289; the
Sarcodina of Loch Ness, 623
Anatomy of Fishes of the Genus
Penck (Dr. Albrecht), Climatic Features in the Land Sur-
face, 472
Pendlebury (Charles), New School Arithmetic, 75; New
School Examples in Arithmetic, 75
Pendulum, Method of illustrating the Laws of the Simple,
J. Schofield, 455
Penrose’s Pictorial. Annual, 1904-5, the Process Year-book,
364
People of the North-east of Scotland, 186
Pepys (Samuel) and the Royal Society, Sir Arch. Geikie,
B:R.S., 415
Percentage Tables for Elementary Analysis, Leo F. Gutt-
mann, 460
Perch, a Large Indian Sea, Major A. Alcock, F.R.S., 415
Periodical Comets due to Return in 1905, W. T. Lynn,
306
Perkin (Dr. F. Mollwo), Electrolytic Analysis of Cobalt
and Nickel, 239; International Atomic Weights, 461;
Tantalum, 610
Perkin (Dr. W. H.), Attempts to decide by Physical
Methods the Nature of Isodynamic Substances, 113
Perkin (W. H., jun.), Reduction of Isophthalic Acid, 478
Perman (Dr. E. P.), Determination of Vapour-pressure by
Air-bubbling, 597; Direct Synthesis of Ammonia, 597
Perrier (A.), Function of Fatty Material in Fungi, 600
Perrier (G.), an Isomeride of Trichloroacetone, 311
Perrigot (M.), on M. Bordier’s Supposed Demonstration of
n-Rays by Photographic Methods, 287
Perrine (Prof.), Discovery of a Sixth Satellite to Jupiter,
256, 282; Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite, 329; Solar Eclipse
Problems, 329; Jupiter’s Seventh Satellite, 449; Dis-
covery of Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite, 494
Perrot (F. Louis), the Use of Helium as a Thermometric
Substance and its Diffusion through Silica, 95
Perrotin (M.), Observations of Perseids, 89
Perseid Shower, the, A. King, 40
Perseids, Observations of, M. Chrétien, 89; M. Perrotin,
89; G. A. Quignon, 89; Prof. S. Zammarchi, 133
Peru: Hematite Deposits of Peru, Senor Venturo, 236;
Nickeliferous Veins of La Mar, Eduardo de Habich,
236; Water-supply of the Rimac Valley, Senor Elmore,
2360
Petals of Selenipedium, the Direction of the Spiral in the,
George Wherry, 31
Petit (Joseph), Influence of the Nature of the Anode on
the Electrolytic Oxidation of Potassium Ferrocyanide,
119; Electrolysis of Organic Acids by Means of the
Alternating Current, 407; Electrolytic Solution of
Platinum in Sulphuric Acid, 479
Petroglyphs, North African, E. F. Gautier, 570
Petrography, the Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical,
341
Petrology: Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks,
H. S. Washington, 219
Pflanzen, die Sinnesorgane der, G. Haberlandt, 123
Pflanzen, die Transpiration der, Dr. Alfred Burgerstein, 51
Pflanzen, Unsere, F. Séhns, 510
Phaistos and Hagia Triada, Crete, 465
Philippe (L.), Constitution of Ricinine, 119
Philippine Islands, Scientific Research in the, Prof. R. T.
Hewlett, 162
Phillips (Dr. O. P.), Central Nucleus in the Cells of the
Cyanophycez, 422
Phillips (P.), the Slow Stretch in Indiarubber, Glass, and
Metal Wires Subjected to a Constant Pull, 359
Phillips (Rev. T. E.), the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, 211
Philology : Misuse of Words and Phrases, T. B. S., 9, 543
A. B: Basset, F.R.S., 30
Philosophy : Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,
23, 71, 167, 191,. 334, 383, 431,575; a Primer of Philo-
sophy, A. S. Rappoport, 27; Religion und Naturwissen-
schaft, eine Antwort an Professor Ladenburg, Arthur
Titius, 27; Philosophische Propddeutik auf Naturwissen-
schaftlicher Grundlage, August Schulte-Tigges, 27; der
Skeptizismus in der Philosophie, Raoul Richter, 2s
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 71, 166, 191, 430, 479,
550; Death of Paul Tannery, 130; South African Philo-
sophical Society, 168; the Wonders of Life, a Popular
Study of Biological Philosophy, Ernst Haeckel, 313:
Prize Subjects of the Batavian Society of Experimental
Philosophy, 354; Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum, and
XXXVI Index Nature,
a History of Classifications of the Sciences, Robert
Flint, 505
Phisalix (C.), Influence of the Radium Emanation on the
Toxic Power of Snake Poison, 456
Phonetics: Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven, E. W.
Scripture, Prof. John G. McKendrick, F.R.S., 250
Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and Gamma Rays of
Radium, G. T. Beilby, 47
Photograms of the Year 1904,
Photography + the Science and Practice of, Chapman Jones,
C. E. Kenneth Mees, 29; a Problem Concerning Wood
and Lignified Cell-walls, Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.,
71; Photography on Tour, 76; Dr. Koenig’s Method of
Colour Photography, 83; Photographic Method of Re-
cording the Temperature of Pieces of Steel during Cool-
ing, H. Le Chatelier, 88; Dr. Schleussner’s Dry Plates,
88; the Photographic Spectrum of Jupiter, G. Millochau,
89; Retouching, Arthur Whiting, 100; Practical Re-
touching, Drinkwater Butt, 317; Celestial Photography
at High Altitudes, Prof. Payne and Dr. H. C. Wilson,
114; Advanced Hand-Camera Work, Walter Kilbey, 124;
Photograms of the Year 1904, 175; the British Journal
Photographic Almanac, 1905, 221; Practical Professional
Photography, C. H. Hewitt, 248; on M. Bordier’s Sup-
posed Demonstration of n-Rays by Photographic Methods,
M. Chanoz and M. Perrigot, 287; Intensification and
Reduction, Henry W. Bennett, 341; New Lambex System
of Daylight Loading and Film and Plate Changing,
Messrs. R. and J. Beck, 352; Photographic Spark
Spectra of Titanium and other Metals, Dr. Lohse, 373;
the Bruce Photographic Telescope, Prof. Barnard, 424;
Toning Bromide Plates, R. E. Blake Smith, 438; the
Theory of Photographic Processes, on the Chemical
Dynamics of Development, S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K.
Mees, 454; Intensity of Photographic Impressions pro-
duced by Feeble Illuminations, C. Gutton, 455; Photo-
graphic Radiation of some Mercury Compounds, R. de
J. F. Struthers and J. E. Marsh, 455; How to Photo-
graph with Roll and Cut Films, John A. Hodges, 460;
Photographic Activity of Hydrogen Peroxide, J. Precht
and C. Otsuki, 468; Photography for the Sportsman
Naturalist, L. W. Brownell, 483; Photography of the
Solar Corona at the Summit of Mont Blanc, A. Hansky,
527; Photography of the Corona without a Total Eclipse,
A. Hansky, 544; British Association Geological Photo-
graphs, 538; Photograph of a Lightning Flash showing
the Air in Incandescence, Em. Touchet, 600; Photo-
graphy of Planetary Nebulae, W. S. Franks, 618
Photometry : zur Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes in der
Erdatmosphare, Dr. A. Bemporod, 402
Photomicrography by Ultra-violet Light, Dr. A. Kohler, 517
Phototropismus der Tiere, Untersuchungen iiber den, Dr.
Em. Radl, 265
Physical Conditions of the Planets, Prof. T. J. J. See, 424
Physical Degeneration, Report of the Inter-departmental
Committee on, Sir Lauder Brunton, 252
Physical Education and Improvement, the Proposed National
League for, Sir Lauder Brunton, 252
Physical History of the Victoria Falls, the, A. J. C.
Molyneux, 619
Physics: les Lois naturelles, Félix Le Dantec, 5; Physical
Society, 47, 95, 142, 190, 358, 455, 502, 550, 622;
Radiation Pressure, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.,
at Physical Society, 376; Radiation Pressure, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., 200; the Pressure of
Radiation, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 439; an Inter-
ference Apparatus for the Calibration of Extenso-
meters, J. Morrow and E. L. Watkin, 47; New Build-
ings of the University of Liverpool, the George Holt
Physics Laboratory, 63; Deep-water Waves, Prof. Lamb,
70; on Deep Water Ship Waves, Lord Kelvin, 382; the
Conductivity of Gases from a Flame, Paul Langevin and
Eugéne Bloch, 95; Attempts to Decide by Physical
Methods the Nature of Isodynamic Substances, M. Briihl,
M3 7 Or iW. Eiaherkiny 003) 0b, Giolitti, sgh; Presence
of Radium throughout the Earth’s Volume as Com-
pensating’ for the Loss of Heat by Conduction, C.
Liebenow, 113; Tension of Carbonic Acid in the Sea, and
on the Reciprocal Influence of Carbonic Acid of the Sea
and that of the Atmosphere, August Krogh, 120;
Obituary Notice of Prof. Karl Selim Lemstrém, Prof.
June 8, 1905
Arthur Rindell, 129; Physical Properties of a Series of
Alloys of Iron, W. F. Barrett, W. Brown, and R. A.
Hadfield, 132; Electrical Conductivity and other Pro-
perties of Sodium Hydroxide in Aqueous Solution, W. R.
Bousfield and T. M. Lowry, 141; the Colloidal State of
Matter, G. E. Malfitano, 143; the Nobel Prize for Physics.
awarded to Lord Rayleigh, 155; the Human Breath as a
Source of the Ionisation of the Atmosphere, Messrs.
Elster and Geitel, 157; the Charge of the a Rays from
Polonium, Prof. Thomson, F.R.S., 166; Some Scientific
Centres, vi., the Physical Laboratory at the Museum
d’Histoire naturelle, Prof. Henri Becquerel, John Butler
Burke, 177; Death of M. Jeunet, 181; Physical Char-
acters of the Sodium Borates, with a New Method for
the Determination of Melting Points, C. H. Burgess and
A. Holt, jun., 189; Lecons sur la Propagation des Ondes
et les Equations de l’Hydrodynamigque, Jacques Hada-
mard, 196; het Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Ryks-
Universiteit te Leiden in de Jaren 1882-1904, 218; Im-
provements in Mercury Air-pumps of Sprengel Type,
Josef Rosenthal, 233; the Warming of Different Layers
of Liquid by the Sun’s Rays, Dr. von Kalecsinszky, 255 ;
a Fundamental Formula in the Kinetic Theory of Gases,
P. Langevin, 263; Light Energy, its Physics, Physio-
logical Action and Therapeutics, Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves,
Dr. Reginald Morton, 269; Naturbegriffe und Naturur-
teile) Hans Driesch, 270; Death of Dr. Anton Miittrich,
278; Experiment for Showi ng the Pressure due to Sound
Waves, Prof. R. W. W ood, 280; Attraction between
Liquid Drops suspended in a Liquid of the same Density,
V. Crémieu, 287; the Recent Development of Physical
Science, W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., 291; a Simple
Model for illustrating Wave-motion, K. Honda, 295;
Lissajous’s Figures by Tank Oscillation, T. Terada, 296 ;
Law of the Permanent Level, Dr. C. M. van Deventer, 303 ;
the Melting of Floating Ice, 366; Superfusion Phenomena,
Drs. Tullio Gnesotto and Gino Zanetti, 305; Kinematics
and Dynamics of a Granular Medium in Normal Piling,
J. H. Jeans, 310; the Anomalous Dispersion of Sodiunt
Vapour, Prof. R. W. Wood, 327; the Dual Force of the
Dividing Cell, part i., the Achromatic Spindle-figure,
Elucidated by Magnetic Chains of Force, Prof. Marcus
Hartog, 333; the Réle of Diffusion during Catalysis by
Colloidal Metals, Dr. Henry J. S. Sand, 333; Réle of
Diffusion in the Catalysis of Hydrogen Peroxide by Col-
loidal Platinum, Dr. George Senter, 574; Unrecognised
Factors in the Transmission of Gases through Water,
Dr. W. E. Adeney, 334; the Flow of Water through
Pipes, Experiments on Stream-line Motion and the
Measurement of Critical Velocity, Dr. H. T. Barnes and
Dr. E. G. Coker, 357; the Distribution of Velocity in a
Viscous Fluid over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and the
Action at the Critical Velocity, J. Morrow, 621; Com-
pressibility of Gases between One Atmosphere and Half
an Atmosphere of Pressure, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 358;
Determination of Young’s Modulus (Adiabatic) for Glass,
C. A. Bell, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 359; Simplified De-
duction of the Field and the Forces of an Electron
moving in any given way, Prof. Sommerfeld, 373; Modu-
lus of Torsional Rigidity of Quartz Fibres and its Tem-
perature Coefficient, Dr. Frank Horton, 380; Apparatus
for determining the Density of Small Grains, K. A. K.
Hallowes, 382; die bisherige Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-
technischen Reichsanstalt, 388; die Tatigkeit der Physik-
alisch-technischen Reichsanstalt im Jahre 1903, 388;
Melting Point of Dissociating Substances, and the Degree
of Dissociation during Melting, R. Kremann, 400; zur
Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes in der Erdatmo-
sphare, Dr. A. Bemporod, 402; Thickness of Transparent
Sheets of Iron, L. Houllevigue, 407; Death of Father
Timoteo Bertelli, 420; Absorptive Power of Fluorescent
Substances during Active Fluorescence, E. L. Nichols and
Ernest Merritt, 423; Obituary Notice of Prof. Emilio
Villari, Prof. A. Roiti, 446; Method of Illustrating the
Laws of the Simple Pendulum, J. Schofield, 455; Pre-
cautions Necessary in Execution of Researches Requiring
High Precision, M. Loewy, 455; Accurate Measurement
of Coefficients of Expansion, H. McAllister Randall,
469 ; Sut of Ionisation in Flames, Pierre Massoulier,
479; la Matiére, 1’ Ether, et les Forces physiques, Lucien
Mottez, 486; National Physical Laboratory, 495; Use of
oe
Nature, f Index XXXVil
June 8, 1905
Quartz Vessels Limited, M. Berthelot, 544; Use of
Hot and Cold Tube in proving the Existence of
Chemical Reactions at High Temperatures, Experiments
in Hermetically Sealed Quartz Tubes, M. Berthelot, 568 ;
Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena, Radio-activity,
Ions, Electrons, Augusto Righi, 558; the Dynamical
Theory of Gases, Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S., 559; the
Physical Cause of the Earth’s Rigidity, Prof. T. J. J.
See, 559; Determination of Vapour-pressure by Air-
bubbling, Dr. E. P. Perman and J. H. Davies, 597;
Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric, Oliver Heavi-
side, F.R.S., 606; Growth of a Wave-group when the
Group-velocity is Negative, Dr. H. C. Pocklington, 607;
a Little Known Property of the Gyroscope, Prof. William
H. Pickering, 608; Experiments on Pressure due to
Waves, Sidney Skinner, 609
Physiology : Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to
Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Re-
ligion, G. Stanley Hall, 3; Clinical Lectures on Diseases
of the Nervous System, Sir William R. Gowers, F.R.S.,
6; Modifications of Glycolysis in the Capillaries caused
by Local Modification of the Temperature, R. Lepine and
M. Boulud, 23; Tyrosinase of the Fly, C. Gessard, 24;
Arsenic Rapidly Eliminated from the System by Kidney
Secretion, W. Thomson, 88; Studien tiber die Albumin-
oide mit besonderer Berticksichtigung des Spongin und
der Keratine, Dr. Eduard Strauss, 174; Proteid Digestion
in Animals and Plants, Prof. S. H. Vines, F.R.S., 189;
Chemical Combination and Toxic Action as exemplified
in Hemolytic Sera, Prof. Robert Muir and Carl H.
Browning, 238; Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven,
E. W. Scripture, Prof. John G. McKendrick, F.R.S.,
250; Light Energy, its Physics, Physiological Action, and
Therapeutics, Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, Dr. Reginald
Morton, 269; Effect of the Radium Emanations on certain
Protozoa and on the Blood, MM. Salomonsen and Dreyer,
279; Physiological Effects of Ovariotomy in the Goat,
P. Oceanu and A. Babes, 312; Cerebral Localisation,
the Brains of Felis, Canisy;and Sus compared with that
of Homo, Dr. A. W. Campbell, 357; Blood Pressures in
Man, Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S., 375; Relations
between Arterial Pressure and the Amounts of Chloro-
form Absorbed, J. Tissot, 408; Practical Exercises in
Chemical Physiology and Histology, H. B. Lacey and
C. A. Pannett, 412; Exercises in Practical Physiological
Chemistry, Sydney W. Cole, 412; ‘‘ Blaze-currents ’’ of
the Gall Bladder of the Frog, Alice M. Waller, 429;
Some Scientific Centres, the Physiological Research
Laboratory of the University of London, Dr. Augustus
D. Waller, F.R.S., 441; the Monte Rosa and Col d’Olen
International Laboratories, Prof. Mosso, Sir M. Foster,
K.C.B., F.R.S., 443; Glandular Atrophic Action of the
X-Rays, Foveau de Courmelles, 456; Conditions which
Determine the Penetration of Chloroform into Blood
during Anesthesia, J. Tissot, 480; Sterility and Alopecy
in Guinea-pigs previously Submitted to the Influence of
Ovarian Extracts of the Frog, Gustave Loisel, 504; Précis
de Chimie physiologique, Prof. Allyre Chassevant, 5009 ;
Measurement of Disposable Energy by a Self-registering
Integrating Dynamometer, Charles Henry, 528; Grund-
zuge der physiologischen Psychologie, Wilhelm Wundt,
529; Principles of Physiological Psychology, Wilhelm
Wundt, 529; Cause of the Variations in the Length of the
Intestine in the Larve of Rana esculenta, Emile Yung,
551; a Primer of Physiology, Prof. E. H. Starling,
F.R.S., Prof. B. Moore, 556; Elementary Practical Physi-
ology, John Thornton, Prof. B. Moore, 556; the Re-
duction of Oxyhzmoglobin, R. Lepine and M. Boulud,
599; Spectroscopy of the Blood and of Oxyhaemoglobin,
M. Piettre and A. Vila, 600; the Mammalian Diaphragm
and Pleural Cavity, Dr. A. Keith, 615; the Membranous
Labyrinth of the Internal Ear of Man and the Seal,
Dr. A. A. Gray, 615; Colour-physiology of the Higher
Crustacea, F. Keeble and Dr. F. W. Gamble, 621;
Duration of Minimum Excitation of Nerves, M. Cluzet,
624; Production of Alcohol and Acetone by Muscles,
F. Maignan, 624; Plant Physiology, die Transpiration
der Pflanzen, Dr. Alfred Burgerstein, 51; the Reception
and Utilisation of Energy by a Green Leaf, Bakerian
Lecture at the Royal Society, Dr. Horace T. Brown,
F.R.S., 522
Pic du Midi Observatory, the, M. L. Rudaux, 354
Picard (Alfred), Removal of Moisture from the Air blown
into Blast Furnace by Freezing, Economy of Fuel, 119
Piccini (Prof. A.), Death of, 588
Pickard-Cambridge (F. O.), Death and Obituary Notice of,
397
Pickering (Prof. E. C.),° Plan for the Endowment of Astro-
nomical Research, 40; Harvard Observations of Variable
Stars, 133; a New 24-inch Reflector at Harvard, 569
Pickering (Spencer, F.R.S.), Experiments in the Manuring
of Fruit Crops, 356; the Planet Fortuna, 486
Pickering (Prof. W. H.), Variations on the Moon's Surface,
114; Changes upon the Moon’s Surface, 226; Recently
Observed Satellites, 390; a Little Known Property of
the Gyroscope, 608; Changes on Mars, 618 ;
Pickles (S. S.), Reduction of Isophthalic Acid, 478
Piettre (M.), Spectroscopy of the Blood and of Oxyhzmo-
globin, 600
Pinnipedia a Sub-order of Cetacea! 125
Pintza (Alexandre), Density of Nitrous Oxide and the
Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 47
Pinus, Contributions to the Knowledge of the Life-history
of, with Special Reference to Sporogenesis, the Develop-
ment of the Gametophytes and Fertilisation, Margaret
C. Ferguson, 218
Pirie (Dr. J. H. Harvey), the Second Antarctic Voyage of
the Scotia, 425; Graptolite-bearing Rocks of the South
Orkney Islands, 623
Pisciculture: Fish-hatching at the Port Erin Biological
Station, 613
Plague, Destruction of Rats and Disinfection on Shipboard
with Special Reference to, Drs. Haldane and Wade, 209
Plains Indians, Folk-tales of, Drs. G. A. Dorsey and A. L.
Kroeber, 417; P. E. Goddard, 418
Plane Geometry, Elementary, V. M. Turnbull, 75
Planets: Rotation of Mars, P. Lowell, 47; Seasonal De-
velopment of Martian Canals, Mr. Lowell, 282; the
Alternating Variability of Martian Canals, Mr. Lowell,
494; Longitude Observations of Points on Mars, Mr.
Lowell, 449; Forthcoming Oppositions of Mars, R.
Buchanan, 494; Reality of Various Features on Mars,
V. Cerulli, 592; Changes on Mars, Mr. Lowell, 618; Mr.
Lampland, 618; Prof. W. H. Pickering, 618; the Photo-
graphic Spectrum of Jupiter, G. Millochau, 89; the Great
Red Spot on Jupiter, Mr. Denning and Rev. T. E.
Phillips, 211; Stanley Williams, 211; Changes on the
Surface of Jupiter, Prof. G. W. Hough, 306; Discovery
of a Sixth Satellite to Jupiter, Prof. Perrine, 256, 282;
the Reported Sixth’ Satellite of Jupiter, Prof. Wolf, 306;
Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite, Prof. Perrine, 329; Prof. C. A.
Young, 364; Profs. Perrine and Aitken, 494; Visual Ob-
servations of Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite, Mr. Hammond,
569 ; Reported Discovery of a Seventh Satellite to Jupiter,
424; Jupiter’s Seventh Satellite, Prof. Campbell, 449;
Prof. Perrine, 449; Rotation of Jupiter’s Satellites I.
and II., Dr. P. Guthnick, 469; the Eleventh Eros
Circular, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., 154; Observations
of Occultations by Planets, Dr. T. J. J. Se 185 ;
Recently Observed Satellites, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.,
295; Prof. William H. Pickering, 390; Permanent
Numbers for the Minor Planets discovered during 1904.
401; Secondary Shadow on Saturn’s Rings, M. Amann
and Cl. Rozet, 401; Observations of Saturn’s Satellites
Prof. Hussey, 449; Physical Conditions of the Planets, Prot
T. J. J., See, 424; Planetary Tides in the Solar Atma
sphere, Emile Anceaux, 424; the Planet Fortuna, W. 1,
461, 511; W. E. P., 461; Spencer Pickering, F.R.S.,
486; Orbits of Minor Planets, Prof. J. Bauschinger, 469;
Variability of a Minor Planet, Prof. Wendell, 569; Photo.
graphy of Planetary Nebula, W. S. Franks, 618
Plankton of the Scottish Lochs, the Freshwater, W. and
G. S. West, 623
Plant Associations in Moorland Districts, Francis J. Lewis,
257
Plant Physiology: die Transpiration der Pflanzen, Dr.
Alfred Burgerstein, 51; the Reception and Utilisation of
Energy by a Green Leaf, Bakerian Lecture at the Royal
Society, Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S., 522
Plant-hairs, the Uses and Wonders of, Kate E. Styan, 486
Plants: Palzozoic Seed Plants, E. A. N. Arber, 68;
Fecundation in Plants, David M. Mottier, 218; Variation
XXXViii Index pies
i -
in Animals and Plants, H. M. Vernon, 243; Hints on | Prost (E.), an Isomeride of Trichloroacetone, 311;
Collecting and Preserving Plants, S. Guiton, 317; the
Early History of Seed-bearing Plants as Recorded in the
Carboniferous Flora, Wilde Lecture at Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Dr. D. H. Scott,
F.R.S., 426
Pleiades Stars, Triangulation of the, Dr. Elkin, 329
Pleistocene Age, on an Ossiferous Cave of, at Hoe Grange
Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington, Derbyshire, H. H
Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S., 165, 488
Plimmer (H. G.), Comparative Effects of the Trypano-
somata of Gambia Fever and Sleeping Sickness upon
Rats, 379
Pluvinel “AI. le Comte de la Baume),
Problems, 234
Pocklington (Dr. H. C.), Growth of a Wave-group when
Group-velocity is Negative, 607
Pocock (R. I.), Greater Kudu of Somaliland, 478
Polar Motion, Correction of the Longer Term in the, Mr.
Kimura, 133
Polar Plotting Paper, Dr. C. G. Knott, 296
Pollination of Exotic Flowers, the, Ella M. Bryant, 249
Pollock (Sir Frederick), Imperial Organisation, 589
Polonium and Radium, Charge on the a Particles of, Prof.
J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., 438; Frederick Soddy, 438
Polyhedral Soap- films, W. F. Warth, 273
Pool (Miss B.), Suggested New Source of Aluminium, 88
Porter (J. G.), Constant Errors in Meridian Observations,
495
Porter (Thomas L. D.), Blue-stained Flints, 126
Posternak (S.), Chemical Composition of Aleurone Grains,
359-60
Potato, New Damp _ Soil,
Labergerie, 192
Poulton (Prof. Edward B., F.R.S.), the Legendary Suicide
of the Scorpion, 534
Powell (Mr.), Process for Treating Timber with a Solution
of Sugar, 37
Power (F. B.), Relation between Natural and Synthetical
Glycerylphosphoric Acids, 478; Gynocardin, a New
Cyanogenetic Glucoside, 550
Poynting (Prof. J. H., F.R.S.), Radiation Pressure,
376
Pozzi-Escot (Emm.),
Eclipse Results and
Solanum Commersoni, M.
200,
Cyclic Substituted Thio-hydantoins,
IgI
Praeger (R. Lloyd),
of Ireland, 444
Prain (Dr. D.), the Morphological Nature of the Ovary in
the Genus Cannabis, 209; the Species of Dalbergia of
South-eastern Asia, 363; Flora of the Calcutta District,
615
Pre- Glacial Raised Beach of the South Coast of Ireland,
the, W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff, Prof. Grenville
A. J. Cole, 17
Prebble (W. C), Electrolytic Analysis of Cobalt and Nickel,
Neolithic Deposits in the North-east
239
Precht (J.), Photographic Activity of Hydrogen Peroxide,
468
Prehistoric Age in England, Remains of the, Bertram C. A.
Windle, F.R.S., 322
Prescott (Prof. Albert B.), Death of, 466
Pressure, Radiation, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., 200,
376
Pressure of Radiation, the, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 439
Pressure due to Waves, Experiment on, Sidney Skinner,
609
Price (E. A.), Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and
Siddons’s Elementary Geometry, 248
Prior (G. T.), a New Thallium Mineral, 534; Dundasite
from North Wales, 574; New Oxychloride of Copper
from Sierra Gorda, Chili, 574
Prize Awards of the Paris Academy of Sciences,
Prizes Proposed by the Paris Academy
1905, 234
214
of Sciences for
Prize Awards of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 285
Process Year-book, the, Penrose’s Pictorial Annual,
1904-5, 364
Proctor (C.), Estimation of Saccharin, 455
Progressive Buddhism, 428
Propagation of Earthquake Waves, M. P. Rudzki, 534;
Rev. O. Fisher, 583
Manual of Chemical Analysis, 458
Protective Resemblance, Mark L. Sykes, 520
Psychology : Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations
to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime,
Religion, G. Stanley Hall, 3; Ants and some other
Insects, an Inquiry into the Psychic Powers of these
Animals, Dr. August Forel, Prof. William Morton
Wheeler, 29; an Introduction to the Theory of Mental
and Social Measurements, Edward L. Thorndike, 99;
Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven, E. W. Scripture,
Prof. John G. McKendrick, F.R.S., 250; Grundziige der
physiologischen Psychologie, Wilhelm Wundt, 529; Prin-
ciples of Physiological Psychology, Wilhelm Wundt, 529
Public School Science Masters, Conference of, Wilfred
Mark Webb, 28.
Puiseux (M.), Observations of the Recent Eclipse of the
Moon, 518
Punnett (Mr.), Variation in Spinax niger, 492
Purvis (J. E.), Influence of Strong Electromagnetic Fields
on the Rae Spectra of some Metals, 479
Pycraft (W. P.), a New British Bird! 201
Pyramid of Ghizeh Struck by Lightning, Second, 565
Quadratic Partitions,
12
Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Tables for, Prof.
sidge, F.R.S., 4
Quenisset (M.), Observations of Comets, 374
Quennessen (L.), the Absorption of Hydrogen by Rhodium,
96
Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cunningham,
A. Liver-
Quignon (G. A.), Observations of Perseids, 89
Quinton (René), the Degree of Saline Concentration of the
Blood Serum of the Eel in Sea Water and in Fresh
Water, 144
Rabourdin (Louis), the Dumb-bell Nebula, 40
Racial Elements in the Present Population of Europe, the,
Huxley Memorial Lecture, Dr. J. Deniker at Anthropo-
logical Institute, 21
Rackham (H.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge, 390
Radford (Rev. E. M.), Mathematical Problem Papers, 75
Radial Velocities of Certain Stars, Prof. Campbell and Dr.
H. D. Curtis, 519
Radial Velocities of ‘* Standard-velocity Stars,
polsky, 618
Radial Velocities, Stars with Variable, 569
Radial Velocity of Sirius, Variable, Prof. Campbell, 494
Radial-velocity Spectrograms, New Method for Measuring,
Prof. J. Hartmann, 306
Radiant Point of the Bielid Meteors, K. Bohlin, 469
Radiation Pressure, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., 200, 376
Radiation, the Pressure of, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 439
Radiography : Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat und Elektronik,
53; Experiments with Radium Salts, Prof. Orazio Re-
buffat, 62; NRadio-activity and Radium in Australian
Minerals, D. Mawson and T. H. Laby, 168; Effect of
the Radium Emanations on Certain Protozoa and on the
Blood, MM. Salomonsen and Dreyer, 279; the Origin of
Radium, Frederick Soddy, 294; W. C. D. Whetham,
F.R.S., 319; Slow Transformation Products of Radium,
Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., 341; Action on Plants of
Réntgen and Radium Rays, Dr. M. Koernicke, 373;
Plumbiferous Earths of Issy-l’Evéque contain Radium,
M. Danne, 373; are Metals made Radio-active by the
Influence of Radium Radiation? Prof. Thomson, F.R.S.,
430: Prof. Bumstead, 430; Influence of the Radium
Emanation on the Toxic Power of Snake Poison, C.
Phisalix, 456; the Infection of Laboratories by Radium,
A. S. Eve, 460; Phosphorescence caused by the Beta
and Gamma Rays of Radium, G. T. Beilby, 476; Radium
Explained, Dr. W. Hampson, 530; the Heating Effect
of the y Rays from Radium, Prof. E. Rutherford,
F.R.S., and Prof. H. T. Barnes, 151; Non-electrification
of Rays, Prof. Thomson, E.RS., 430; Secondary
Radiation produced when the B and y Rays of Radium
Impinge on Metallic Plates, Prof. J. A. McClelland, 543;
the Genesis of Temporary Radio-activity, Ed. Sarasin,
Th. Tommasina, and F. J. Micheli, 143; the Existence
of the n-Rays, 157; on the Registration of the n-Rays,
O. Weiss and L. Bull, 191; on M. Bordier’s Supposed
”* Prof. Belo-
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Lndtex
XXXIX
Demonstration of n-Rays by Photographic Methods, M. | Rayleigh (Lord, O.M., F.R.S.), the Nobel Prize for Physics
Chanoz and M. Perrigot, 287; the Charge of the a Rays
from Polonium, Prof. Thomson, F.R.S., 166; Charge
Carried by the a Rays from Radium, Prof. E. Ruther-
ford, F.R.S., 413 ; Charge on the a Particles of Polonium
and Radium, Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., 438;
Frederick Soddy, 438; Method of Protecting the Hands
of the Operator from X-Ray Burns, Prof. W. F. Barrett,
F.R.S., 167; Secondary Rontgen Radiation, Dr. Charles
G. Barkla, 440; Glandular Atrophic Action of the
X-Rays, Foveau de Courmelles, 456; Polarised Rontgen
Radiation, Dr. Charles G. Barkla, 477; Note on Radio-
activity, W. Ternent Cooke, 176; NRadio-activity of
Natural Waters, Bertram B. Boltwood, 233; Plant Radio-
activity, Paul Becquerel, 263; the Construction of Simple
Electroscopes for Experiments on Radio-activity, Dr.
O. W. Richardson, 274; Photogenic Radio-active Proper-
ties of Calcined Coral placed in a Radiant Vacuum and
submitted to the Influence of the Kathode Rays, Gaston
Séguy, 287; Action of very low Temperatures on the
Phosphorescence of Certain Sulphides, F. P. Le Roux,
287; a New Radio-active Product from Actinium, Dr.
T. Godlewski, 294; Fluorescence, C. Camichel, 311;
Secondary Radiation, Prof. J. A. McClelland, 390; Drift
Produced in Ions by Electromagnetic Disturbances, and
a, Theory of Radio-activity, George W. Walker, 406;
Radio-active Muds from the Thermal Springs of Nauheim
and Baden, Messrs. Elster and Geitel, 448; Radio-active
Sediments of Thermal Springs, Prof. G. Vicentini and
Levi de Zara, 448 ; Radio-active Muds, Prof. G. Vicentini,
543; Radio-active Water and Mud, H. S. Allen, 543;
Secondary Radiation and Atomic Structure, Prof. J. A.
McClelland, 503 ; Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena,
Radio-activity, Ions, Electrons, Augusto Righi, 558; New
Radio-active Element which Evolves Thorium Emana-
tion, Dr. O. Hahn, 574
Radium: Presence of Radium throughout the Earth’s
Volume as Compensating for the Loss of Heat by Con-
duction, C. Liebenow, 113; the Heating Effect of the
y Rays from Radium, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., and
Prof. H. T. Barnes, 151; the Becquerel Rays and the
Properties of Radium, Hon. R. J. Strutt, Dr. O. W.
Richardson, 172; the Origin of Radium, Frederick Soddy,
294; W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., 319; a New Mineral
containing Radium, J. Danne, 335; Slow Transformation
Products of Radium, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., 341;
Action of Radium on the Electric Spark, Dr. R. S.
Willows and J. Peck, 358; Plumbiferous Earths of Issy-
PEvéque contain Radium, M. Danne, 373; Charge
Carried by the a Rays from Radium, Prof. E. Ruther-
ford, F.R.S., 413; Charge on the a Particles of Polonium
and Radium, Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., 438;
Frederick Soddy, 438; the Infection of Laboratories by
Radium, A. S. Eve, 460; Radium Explained, Dr. W.
Hampson, 530; the Treatment of Cancer with Radium,
588; see also Radiography
Radi (Dr. Em.), Untersuchungen iiber den Phototropismus
der Tiere, 265
Rain Drops, Super-cooled, Edward E. Robinson, 295; Cecil
Carus-Wilson, 320
Rainbow, a Lunar, J. McCrae, 366
Rainfall, on a Relation between Autumnal, and the Yield
of Wheat of the Following Year, Dr. W. N. Shaw,
F.R.S., at Royal Society, 470
Rambaut (Dr.), on a Very Sensitive Method of Determining
the Irregularities of a Pivot, 190
Ramsay (Sir William, K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry Awarded to, 155
Randall (H. McAllister), Accurate Measurement of Co-
efficients of Expansion, 469
Rappoport (Dr. A. S.), a Primer of Philosophy, 27
Rats, Destruction of, and Disinfection on Shipboard with
Special Reference to Plague, Drs. Haldane and Wade,
209
Ray (P. C.), Theory of the Production of Mercurous
Nitrite, 119; Nitrites of the Alkali and Alkaline Earth
Metals and their Decomposition by Heat, 165; the
Sulphate and the Phosphate of the Dimercurammonium
Series, 239
Rayet (G.), Observations on the Borrelly Comet (December
28, 1904), 287
Awarded to, 155; Compressibility of Gases between One
Atmosphere and Half an Atmosphere of Pressure, 358;
the Dynamical Theory of Gases, 559
Reade (I. Mellard), Study of Sands and Sediments, 161
Reason in Dogs, Arthur J. Hawkes, 54
Rebuffat (Prof. Orazio), Experiments with Radium Salts, 62
Red Spot on Jupiter, the Great, Mr. Denning and Rev.
T. E. Phillips, 211; Stanley Williams, 211
Reflector at Harvard, a New 24-inch, Prof. E. C. Pickering,
569
Refraction Constant, Value of the Astronomical, L. Cour-
voisier, 592
Refraction Tables, New, Dr. L. de Ball, 234
Régles internationales de la Nomenclature zoologique, 534
Reichsanstalt, die bisherige Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-
technischen, 388
Reichsanstalt, die Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-technischen,
im Jahre 1903, 388
Rein (J. J.), Japan nach Reisen und Studien, 603
Reinach (Dr. Albert von), Death of, 325
Reinach (S.), Recent Archeological Discoveries in Crete,
Proposed Chronology of Cretan Civilisation, 69
Relative Drift of the Hyades Stars, Dr. Downing, F.R.S.,
185
Religion : Religion und Naturwissenschaft eine Antwort an
Professor Ladenburg, Prof. Arthur Titius, 27; Ideals of
Science and Faith, 52; die orientalische Christenheit der
Mittelmeerlande, Dr. Karl Beth, 53
Renard (Colonel), Death of, 588
Rengade (E.), Casium Methylamide, 335
Resemblance, Protective, Mark L. Sykes, 520
Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898, 1899,
sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de Gomery, 337
Retouching, Arthur Whiting, 100
Retouching, Practical, Drinkwater Butt, 317
Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction Machines,
George W. Walker, 221; R. Langton Cole, 249;
V. Schaffers, 274
Reversal in Influence Machines, Charles E. Benham, 320
REVIEWS AND Our BOOKSHELF.
Wireless Telegraphy, C. H. Sewall, 1
Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture, Prof. S.
strom, 1
Modern Electric Practice, 1
The Theory of the Lead Accumulator, F. Dolezalek, 1
Electric Motors, H. M. Hobart, 1
Notices sur l’Electricité, A. Cornu, 1
L’Année Technique (1902—1903), A. Da Cunha, 1
Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology,
Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, G. Stanley
Hall, 3
Notes of an East Coast Naturalist, Arthur H. Patterson, 4
Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Prof. A. Liver-
sidge, F.R.S., 4
Les Lois naturelles, Félix Le Dantec, 5
Nature Teaching, F. Watts and W. G. Freeman, 5
Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System, Sir
William R. Gowers, F.R.S., 6
Lectures Scientifiques, W. G. Hartog, 6
L’Industrie oléicole (Fabrication de 1’Huile d’Olive), J.
Dugast, 6
The Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the Mississippi Water-
shed, H. C. Frankenfeld, 10
The Passaic Flood of 1902 and 1903, Water Supply and
Irrigation Paper, 11
The Pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South Coast of Ireland,
W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff, Prof. Grenville A. J.
Cole, 17
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Annual Report of Pro-
ceedings under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries
Acts, &c., for the Year 1903, Frank Balfour Browne, 18
West Indian Madreporarian Polyps, J. E. Duerden, Prof.
Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S., 18
Monographieen aus der Geschichte der Chemie, Justus von
Liebig und Friedrich Mohr, 25
Handbuch der Blitenbiologie, Prof. Percy Groom, 26
A Primer of Philosophy, A. S. Rappoport, 27
Religion und Naturwissenschaft, Eine Antwort an Professor
Ladenburg, Arthur Titius, 27
Lem-
xl Index
if Nature,
June 8, 1905
Philosophische Propadeutik auf Naturwissenschaftlicher
Grundlage, August Schulte-Tigges, 27
Der Skeptizismus in der Philosophie, Raoul Richter, 27
Geschichte des Christentums in Japan, Dr. J. Haas, F.
Victor Dickins, 27
Lectures on the Diseases of Children, Robert Hutchinson,
28
Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory,
Warner Riggs, 28
Die Einheit der Naturkrafte in
Richard Wegner, 29
The Science and Practice of Photography,
C. E. Kenneth Mees, 29
Ants and some other Insects, an Inquiry into the Psychic
Powers of these Animals, Dr. August Forel, 29
Annual Report of the Technical Education Board of the
London County Council, 34
Report on the Identification and Nomenclature of Hima-
layan Peaks, Captain H. Wood, Major S. G. Burrard,
BERGS.:
Introductory Treatise on Lie’s Theory of Finite Continuous
Transformation Groups, John Edward Campbell, 49
The Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint
Varnish, A. H. Sabin, C. Simmonds, 50
Food Inspection and Analysis, Albert E.
monds, 50
Die Transpiration der Pflanzen, Dr. Alfred Burgerstein, 51
House, Garden, and Field, a Collection of Short Nature
Studies, L. C. Miall, 52
Ideals of Science and Faith, 52
Die orientalische Christenheit der
Karl Beth, 53
Tales of Sutton Town and Chase,
some Sketches, 53
The Glamour of the Earth, George A. B. Dewar, 53
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat und ‘Elektronik, 53
Geological Survey of the Transvaal, Report for the Year
1903, 55
The Museums’ Journal, 57
Die Gefahrdung der Naturdenkmiler und Vorschlage zu
ihre Erhaltung, H. Conwentz, 73
Louis
der Thermodynamik,
Chapman Jones,
and
Leach, C. Sim-
Mittelmeerlande, Dr.
with other Tales and
’ Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy, Wm. H. Booth and
John B. C. Kershaw, 74
New School Arithmetic, Charles Pendlebury and F. E.
Robinson, 75
New School Examples in Arithmetic,
F. E. Robinson, 75
A School Geometry, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 7
Theoretical Geometry for Beginners, C. H. Allcock, 75
Elementary Plane Geometry, V. M. Turnbull, 75
Mathematical Problem Papers, Rev. E. M. Radford, a5
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, Camillo Karl Schneider,
Prof. Percy Groom, 76
The Cancer Problem in a Nutshell,
Photography on Tour, 76
The Story without an End, Sarah Austin, 76
The Whalebone Whales of the Western North
Frederick W. True, 84
Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a Study in National
Evolution, Henry Dyer, 97
C. Pendlebury and
Robert Bell, 76
Atlantic,
The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph
Sylvester, 98
An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social
Measurements, Edward L. Thorndike, 99
Practical Chemistry, a Second Year Course, G. H. Martin,
100
Retouching, Arthur Whiting, roo
The Countries of the King’s Award, Sir Thomas Holdich,
K.C.M.G., 102
The Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland, J. G. Millais,
121
Fire and Explosion Risks, Dr. yon Schwartz, 122
Mineral Tables—for the Identification of Minerals by their
Physical Properties, Arthur S. Eakle, 12
Die Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen, G. Hatedede 123
Electricity in the Service of Man, R. M. W almsley, 124
The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, T. Cooke, 124
Quadratic Partitions, Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cunningham, 124
Advanced Hand-camera Work, Walter Kilbey, 124
A Treatise on Applied Anatomy, Edward H. Taylor, Dr. A.
Keith, 145 j
The Ae Sternum, Andrew Melville Paterson, Dr. A.
Keit
Der Gang aus Menschen, Otto Fischer, Dr. A. Keith, 145
Earthquakes, Clarence Edward Dutton, 147
Die technische Mechanik, elementares Lehrbuch fiir mittlere
maschienentechnische Fachschulen und Hilfsbuch fiir
studierende hoéherer technischer Lehranstalten, P. Stephan,
Prof. George M. Minchin, 148
Machine Drawing, Alfred P. Hill, 149
An Elementary Class-book of Practical Coal- -mining, T. H.
Cockin, 150
Bird Notes from the Nile, Lady William Cecil,
The Adventure of Cock Robin and his Mate, R. aeeetant 152
The Sea-fishing Industry of England and Wales, i (G-
Aflalo, 153
Conference Astrophotographique internationale de Juillet,
1900, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., 1
Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories
in the Philippine Islands for the Year ended September 1,
1903, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 162
Mark Anniversary Volume, 169
The Chemical Synthesis of Vital Products and the Inter-
relations between Organic Compounds, Prof. Raphael
Meldola, F.R.S., 170
The Becquerel Rays and the Properties of Radium,
Hon. R. J. Strutt, Dr. O. W. Richardson,
Laboratory Studies for Brewing Students, A. J. Brown, 173
Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle, Dr. Alexander Gur-
witsch, 174
A New Geometry for Senior Forms,
Child, 174
the
172
S. Barnard and J. M.
Studien tiber die Albuminoide mit besonderer Bertick
sichtigung des Spongin und der Keratine, Dr. Eduare
Strauss, 174
Pages from a Country Diary, P. Somers, 175
A Scheme for the Detection of the more Common Classes
of Carbon Compounds, Frank E. Weston, 175
Photograms of the Year 1904, 175
Birds by Land and Sea, the Record of a Year’s
Field Glass and Camera, J. M. Boraston, 179
Memoire sur la Réproduction artificielle du Rubis_ par
Fusion, A. Verneuil, 150
The Glacial Geology of New Jersey,
186
Proceedings of the Anatomical and Anthropological Society
of Aberdeen, 186
Proceedings of the First Conference of Engineers of the
Reclamation Service, with accompanying Papers, 187
Hydrographic Manual of the U.S. Geological Survey, 187
On Destructive Floods in the United States in 1903, 187
On the Progress of Stream Measurements for 1903, 187
Underground Waters in Southern Louisiana, 187
Contributions to the Hydrology of the Eastern United
States in 1903, 187
The Underground Waters of Arizona, 187
Water Resources of the Salinas Valley, California, 187
Geology and Water Resources of the Lower James River
Valley, 187
The Natural Features and Economic Development of the
Sandusky, Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami Drainage
Areas in Ohio, 187
Destructive Floods in the United States in
Murphy, 187
Report on the Progress of Stream Measurements for the
Calendar Year 1903, J. C. Hayt, 187
Underground Waters of Southern Louisiana, G. D. Harris,
187
Contribuiads to the Hydrology of Eastern United States,
M. L. Fuller, 187
The Underground Waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, W. T.
Lee, 187
General Index to Experiment Station Record, 188
Work with
Rollin D. Salisbury,
1903, E. (GC.
Mankind in the Making, H. G. Wells, 193
Anticipations, H. G. Wells, 193
The Food of the Gods, H. G. Wells, 193
A Treatise on the British Fresh-water Algz, Prof. G. S.
West, 194
A Monagaa of the British Desmidiacee, W.
Prof. G. S. West, 104
Lecons sur la Propagation des Ondes et les Equations de
V’Hydrodynamique, Jacques Hadamard, 196
West and
Nature, | e
June 8, 1905
Across the Great St. Bernard, the Modes of Nature and the
Manners of Man, A. R. Sennett, 197
Trachoma, Dr. J. Boldt, 198
The Cyclones of the Far East, Rev. José Algué, 198 ’
The Animals of New Zealand, an Account of the Colony’s
Air-breathing Vertebrates, F. W. Hutton and J.
Drummond, 199
Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben, Prof. Dr. Rhumbler, 199
Studies in Astronomy, J. Ellard Gore, 199
Salts and their Reactions, Dr. L. Dobbie and H. Marshall,
200
A Fauna of the North-west Highlands and Skye, J. A.
Harvie Brown and H. A. MacPherson, 202 .
Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo, Travels and
Researches of a Naturalist in Sarawak, O. Beccari, 203
An Elementary Treatise on Graphs, George A. Gibson,
Prof. George Minchin, F.R.S., 211 :
The Land and Sea Mammals of Middle America and th
West Indies, D. G. Elliot, 212
Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, vom Stand-
punkte der geometrischen Optik, Prof. G. H. Bryan,
Bie S502 07
Grundziige der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach
Abbe, Dr. Siegfried Czapski, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.,
207 p
peeandetion in Plants, David M. Mottier, 218
Contributions to the Knowledge of the Life-history of
Pinus, with Special Reference to Sporogenesis, the
Development of the Gametophytes, and Fertilisation,
Margaret C. Ferguson, 218
Het Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Ryks-Universiteit te
Leiden in de Jaren 1882-1904, 218
Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks, H. S. Wash-
ington, 219 > ;
Application of some General Reactions to Investigations in
Organic Chemistry, Dr. Lassar-Cohn, 220
A Further Course of Practical Science, J. H. Leonard and
W. H. Salmon, 220
Die Drahtlose Telegraphie, Dr. Gustay Eichhorn, 220
Notes on the Natural History of the Bell Rock, J. M.
Campbell, 221
The British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1905, 221
Records of the Reign of Tukulti-Ninib I., King of Assyria
about B.c. 1275, L. W. King, F.S.A., 222
The Native Tribes of South-east Australia, A. W. Howitt,
A. Ernest Crawley, 225
Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer
for 1902-3, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 237
A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century,
John Theodore Merz, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 241
Variation in Animals and Plants, H. M. Vernon, 243
The Mathematical Theory of Eclipses, according to Chau-
venet’s Transformation of Bessel’s Method, Roberdeau
Buchanan, 244
Flora of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight, Frederick
Townsend, 245
Small Destructors for Institutional and Trade Waste, W.
Francis Goodrich, 246
La Statique chimique basée sur les deux Principes fonda-
mentaux de la Thermodynamique, E. Ariés, 247
Die heterogenen Gleichgewichte vom Standpunkte
Phasenlehre, H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, 247
The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification, H.
Stone, 247
Verhandlungen der deutschen zoologischen Gesellschaft for
1904, 247
The Optical Dictionary, 248
Practical Professional Photography, C. H. Hewitt, 248
Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and Siddons’s Elemen-
tary Geometry, E. A. Price, 248
The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia, R. Campbell
.. Thompson, 249
Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven, E. W. Scripture,
Prof. John G. McKendrick, F.R.S., 250
The Geology of Spiti, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu,
H. H. Hayden, 251
Geographical Distributions of the Vegetation of the Basins
of the Rivers Eden, Tees, Wear, and Tyne, Francis aE
Lewis, 257
Report of the Commission appointed by Mr. Clifford
Sifton, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to
der
Lndex
xli
Investigate the Different Electrothermic Processes for
the Smelting of Iron Ores and the Making of Steel in
Europe, Prof. J. O. Arnold, 258
Report of the Meteorological Council upon an Inquiry into
the Occurrence and Distribution of Fogs in the London
Area during the Winters of 1901-2 and 1902-3, with
Reference to Forecasts of the Incidence and Duration of
Fogs in Special Localities, to which is Appended the
Report by R. G. K. Lempfert on the Observations of
the Winter 1902-3, 295
Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Men-
schen, Keimes- und Stammes-geschichte, Ernst Haeckel,
205
Morphologische Studien, als Beitrag zur
zoologischer Probleme, Tad. Garbowski, 265
Untersuchungen tiber den Phototropismus der Tiere, Dr.
Em. Radl, 265
Graber’s Leitfaden der Zoologie fiir héhere Lehranstalten,
205
Geology, Thomas C. Chamberlin and Rollin D. Salisbury,
267
India, Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich, K.C.M.G., G.B., 268
Light Energy, its Physics, Physiological Action, and
Therapeutics, Margaret A. Cleaves, Dr. Reginald
Morton, 269
Inks, their Composition and Manufacture, C. Ainsworth
Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, C. Simmonds, 269
Naturbegriffe und Natururteile, Hans Driesch, 270
Higher Text-book of Magnetism and Electricity, R.
Wallace Stewart, 270
Life and Energy—Four Addresses, Walter Hibbert, 271
Glossary of Geographical and Topographical Terms,
Alexander Knox, 271
Blackie’s Handy Book of Logarithms, 271
Vier- und fiinfstellige Logarithmentafeln, 271
Second Report on Economic Zoology, British Museum
(Natural History), Fred V. Theobald, 272
Les Heliozoaires d’Eau Douce, E. Penard, 289
Trees, Prof. H. Marshall Ward, 290
The Recent Development of Physical Science, W. C. D.
Whetham, 201
Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores, H. Forbes Julian and
Edgar Smart, 292
Fireside Astronomy, D. W. Horner, 292
Observations océanographiques et météorologiques dans la
Région du Courant de Guinée (1855-1900), 293
Opere matematiche di Francesco Brioschi, 203°
Opere matematiche di Eugenio Beltrami, 293
The Science Year Book for 1905, 293
Records of the Egyptian Government School of Medicine,
307
Destructive Floods in the United States in sieyori, 15 (Cr
Murphy, 308 ;
The Wonders of Life, a Popular Study of Biological Philo-
sophy, Ernst Haeckel, 313
The Culture of Fruit Trees in Pots, Josh Brace, 314
Stanford’s Geological Atlas of Great Britain (Based on
Reynolds’s Geological Atlas), Horace B. Woodward,
Raley Sans
The Preparation of the Child for Science, M. E. Boole,
316
Methodologie
Special Method in Elementary Science for the Common
School, Charles A. MeMurry, 316
The Basic Law of Vocal Utterance, Emil Sutro, 317
Duality of Voice and Speech, Emil Sutro, 317
Duality of Thought and Language, Emil Sutro, 31
A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1902,
Bolton, 317
Hints on Collecting and Preserving Plants, S. Guiton, 317
Practical Retouching, Drinkwater Butt, 317
Stories from Natural History, Richard Wagner, 317
The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber, W. H.
Johnson, C. Simmonds, 321
Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England, Bertram C. A.
Windle, F.R.S., 322
American Hydroids, Sertularide, C. C. Nutting, 331
Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1808, 1899,
sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de Gomery,
7
EL G:
337
Trattato di®Chimica Inorganica Generale e Applicato
all’Industria, Dr. E. Molinari, 339
xlii
Grundziige der Kristallographie, Prof. C. M. Viola, Harold
Hilton, 340
The Arris and Gale Lectures on the Neurology of Vision,
J. Herbert Parsons, 340
The Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical Petrography,
341
Abbildungen der in Deutschland und den angrenzenden
Gebieten vorkommenden Grundformen der Orchideen-
arten, Dr. F. Kranzlin, 341
Intensification and Reduction, Henry W. Bennett, 341
Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, R. L. Gallo-
way, Bennett H. Brough, 361
Billiards Mathematically Treated, G. W. Hemming, S. H.
Burbury, F.R.S., 362
Morphologie und Biologie der Algen, Dr. Friedrich Olt-
manns, George Murray, F.R.S., 362
Game, Shore, and Water Birds of India, with Additional
References to their Allied Species in other Parts of the
World, Colonel A. Le Messurier, 363
The Species of Dalbergia of South-eastern Asia, Dr. D.
Prain, 363
The Process Year Book, Penrose’s Pictorial Annual, 364
The Natural History of Animals, the Animal Life of the
World in its Various Aspects and Relations, J. R. A.
Davis, 369
Social England, 385
An Introductory History of England, C. R. L. Fletcher,
28c
Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions, H. M.
28c
Materiatien der Stereochemie, C. A. Bischoff, 386
The Imperial Guide to India, including Kashmir, Burma,
and Ceylon, 387
Bacteriology and the Public Health; Dr. George Newman,
Dr. A. C. Houston, 388
Die Bisherige Tatigkeit
Reichsanstalt, 388
Die Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-technischen Reichsanstalt
im Jahre 1903, 388
The Principles of Inorganic Chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald,
388
Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster
Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.,
395
Zur Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes in der Erdatmo-
sphare, Dr. A. Bemporod, 402
Elements of Electromagnetic
G. F. C. Searle, 409
Astronomical Discovery, Herbert Hall Turner, 410
Zoological Results Based on Material from New Britain,
New Guinea, Loyalty Islands, and Elsewhere, collected
during the Years 1895, 1896, and 1897 by Arthur Willey,
Chadwick,
der Physikalisch-technischen
Theory, 5S. J. Barnett}
II
rice of the County Dublin, Nathaniel Colgan, 412
Exercises in Practical Physiological Chemistry, Sydney W.
Cole, 412
Practical Exercises in Chemical Physiology and Histology,
H. B. Lacey and C. A. Pannett, 412
Laboratory Notes on Practical Metallurgy, being a Gradu-
ated Series of Exercises, Walter Macfarlane, 413
Le Liége, ses Produits et ses Sous-produits, M. Martignat,
413
The Country Day by Day, E. K. Robinson, 418
Morphology and Anthropology, a Handbook for Students,
W. L. H. Duckworth, 433
Studies from the Anthropological Laboratory, the Anatomy
School, Cambridge, W. L. H. Duckworth, 433
Die Schule der Chemie, W. Ostwald, 435
Praktikum fiir morphologische und systematische Botanik,
Dr. Karl Schumann, 436
Lawn Tennis, J. Parmly Paret, 436
Great Lawn Tennis Players, their Methods Illustrated,
George W. Beldam and P. A. Vaile, 436
New Streets, Laying Out and Making up, A. Tayler Allen,
437
A Popular Guide to the Heavens, Sir Robert S. Ball,
BRR ES 55 1437
Denkmialer mittelalterlicher Meteorologie, 438
The Birds of Calcutta, F. Finn, 438
Toning Bromide Prints, E. R. Blake Smith, 438
Laboratoire Scientifique International du “Monte Rosa,
L[ndex
m
Nature,
June 8, 1505
Travaux de 1’Année 1903, A. Mosso, Sir M. Foster,
KCB. b.Rs so: 443 f
Zinc and Lead Deposits of Northern Arkansas, G. I.
Adams, 450
The Copper Deposits of the
Wyoming, A. C. Spencer, 450
Economic Resources of the Northern Black Hills, J. D-~
Irving, 450
A Geological Reconnaissance Across the Bitterroot Range
and Clearwater Mountains in Montana and Idaho, W.
Lindgren, 450
An Introduction to the Theory of Optics, Prof. A. Schuster,
BIR S457
Manual of Chemical Analysis, E. Prost, 458
Techno-chemical Analysis, Dr. G. Lunge, 458
The Zoological Record, Volume the Fortieth, Relating
_ Chiefly to the Year 1903, 459
A Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, W. F. Kirby, 459
Percentage Tables for Elementary Analysis, Leo F. Gutt-
mann, 460
How to Photograph with Roll and Cut Films, John A.
Hodges, 460
The Telescope, Thomas Nolan, 460
Archzological Researches in Costa Rica, C. V. Hartman,
Colonel George Earl Church, 461
Die Kalahari, Dr. Siegfried Passarge, 481
Photography for the Sportsman Naturalist, L. W.
Brownell, 483 é
Popular Star Maps, Comte de Miremont, 484
The History of the Collections Contained in the Natural
History Departments of the British Museum, 485
Scientific Fact and Metaphysical Reality, Robert Brandon
Arnold, 485
Index of Spectra (Appendix O.), W. Marshall Watts, 486
La Matiére, I’Ether et les Forces physiques, Lucien
Mottez, 486
The Uses and Wonders of Plant-hairs, Kate E. Styan, 486
On an Ossiferous Cave of Pleistocene Age at Hoe Grange
Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington (Derbyshire),
H. H. Arnold Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S., 488
Tales from Old Fiji, Lorimer Fison, 490
Reports of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to the Congo,
1903-1904, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Prof.
R. T. Hewlett, 498
The Thompson-Yates and Johnston Laboratories Report,
Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 498
Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum and a History of
Classifications of the Sciences, Robert Flint, 505
Elementary Pure Geometry, with Mensuration, E. Buddon,
597
Lessons in Experimental and Practical Geometry, H. S.
Hall and F. H. Stevens, 507
The Elements of Geometry, Theoretical and Practical, B.
Arnett, 507
The Elements of Trigonometry, S. L. Loney, 507
Elementary Algebra, W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, 507
Clive’s Shilling Arithmetic, 507
Graphic Statics, T. Alexander and A. W. Thompson, 507
Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, J. H.
van ‘t Hoff, 508
An Outline of the Theory of Organic Evolution, with a
Description of some of the Phenomena which it Explains,
Dr. Maynard M. Metcalf, 509
Précis de Chimie physiologique, Prof. Allyre Chassevant,
599
Unsere Pflanzen, F. Séhns, 510
Children’s Wild Flowers, Mrs. J. M. Maxwell, 510
Superstitions about Animals, Frank Gibson, 510
City Development, a Study of Parks, Gardens, and Culture
Institutes, P. Geddes, 511
Peeps into Nature’s Ways, being Chapters on Insect,
Plant, and Minute Life, J. J. Ward, 512
Grundziige der physiologischen Psychologie,
Wundt, 529
Principles of Physiological Psychology,
529
Radium Explained, Dr. W. Hampson, 530
Oil Fuel, its Supply, Composition, and Application, S. H.
North, 531
Chemical Statics and Dynamics, J. W. Mellor, Dr. H. M.
Dawson, 532
Encampment District,
Wilhelm
Wilhelm Wundt,
,
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Lndex
xiii
A Study of Recent Earthquakes, Charles Davison, 532 _
A German-English Dictionary of Terms used in Medicine
and the Allied Sciences, Hugo Lang and B. Abrahams,
533
Régles internationales de la Nomenclature zoologique, 534
Studies of Variation in Insects, Vernon L. Kellogg and
Ruby G. Bell, 545
The Other Side of the Lantern, Sir Frederick Treves, Bart.,
Miceeums, their History and their Use, with a Biblio-
graphy and List of Museums in the United Kingdom,
D. Murray, 554
A Primer of Physiology, Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.,
Prof. B. Moore, 556
Elementary Practical Physiology, John Thornton, Prof. B.
Moore, 556
Terrestrial Magnetism and its Causes, F. A. Black, 557
Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novel-
ties of Construction, Gardner D. Hiscox, 557
Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena, Radio-activity,
Ions, Electrons, Augusto Righi, 558
The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 558
Mediztal Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus, ‘Robert Steele,
559 =
Ergebnisse und Probleme der Zeugungs- und Vererbungs-
lehre, Prof. Oscar Hertwig, 559
Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the Ice of the South
Pole, Dr. N. Otto G. Nordenskjéld and Dr. Joh. Gunnar
Andersson, 560
Landscape in History and Other Essays, Sir Archibald
Geikie, F.R.S., 577
A Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch 1895-0
and the Sea Level, A. Tanakadate, Prof. Arthur Schuster,
BoR S205 79
The Spinning and Twisting of Long Vegetable Fibres
(Flax, Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie), Herbert R. Carter,
Prof. Aldred F. Barker, 579
English Estate Forestry, A. C. Forbes, 580
Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum,
Thiselton-Dyer, 581
Birds I have Known, Arthur H. Beavan, 581
The Elements of Chemistry, M. M. Pattison Muir, 582
Richard Jefferies, his Life and Ideals, H. S. Salt, 582
Lhasa, an Account of the Country and People of Central
Tibet, Perceval Landon, 585
The Algebra of Invariants, J. H. Grace and A. Young,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 601
The Dynamical Theory of Gases, J. H. Jeans, Prof. G. H.
Bryan, F.R.S., 601
A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and
We wis
Rigid Bodies, E. T. Whittaker, Prof. G. H. Bryan,
F.R.S., 601
Japan nach Reisen und Studien, J. J. Rein, Dr. Henry
Dyer, 603
The Agricultural Changes required by these Times and Lay-
ing Down Land to Grass, R. H. Elliot, 604
gy acieattal Papers Published for the Sociological Society,
05
First Report of the Wellcome Research Laboratories at
the Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum, Andrew
Balfour, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 606
Till the Sun Grows Cold, Maurice Grindon, 606
A Short Introduction to the Theory of Electrolytic Dis-
sociation, J. C. Gregory, 606 ;
Neolithic Dew-ponds and Cattle-ways, A. J. Hubbard and
G. Hubbard, 611
Reynolds’s Geological Atlas, Stanford’s Geological Atlas of
Great Britain based on, Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S.,
315
Rhodin (J. G. A.), Mass Analysis of Muntz’s Metal by
Electrolysis and the Electric Properties of this Alloy, 38r
Rhumbler (Prof. Dr.), Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben,
199 :
Ricco (Prof.), Gravitational Anomalies detected under
Mount Etna, 20
Richardson (Hugh), Attractions of Teneriffe, 415
Richardson (Dr. O. W.). the Becquerel Rays and the
Properties of Radium, Hon. R. J. Strutt, 172; the Con-
struction of Simple Electroscopes for Experiments on
Radio-activity, 274
Richter (Raoul), der Skeptizismus in der Philosophie, 27
Ridewood (Dr. W. G.), Cranial Osteology of the Fishes of
the Families Osteoglosside, Pantodontide, and Phracto-
leemidze, 381
Riggs (E. S.), the Opisthoccelian Dinosaurs, 515
Riggs (Dr. Louis Warner), Elementary Manual for the
Chemical Laboratory, 28
Righi (Augusto), Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena,
Radio-activity, Ions, Electrons, 558
Rindell (Prof. Arthur), Obituary Notice of Prof. Karl
Selim Lemstrém, 129
Risks, Fire and Explosion, Dr. von Schwartz, 122
Roaf (H. E.), Physical Chemistry of Anzsthesia, 499;
Absence or Marked Diminution of Free Hydrochloric
Acid in the Gastric Contents in Malignant Disease of
Organs other than the Stomach, 596
Roberts (D. J.), Esterification Constants
Acrylic Acids, 550
Robinson (Edward E.), Super-cooled Rain Drops, 295
Robinson (E. K.), the Country Day by Day, 418
Robinson (F. E.), New School Arithmetic, 75; New School
Examples in Arithmetic, 75
Robson (Mayo), the Treatment of Cancer, 130
Rock-carvings : North African Petroglyphs, E. F. Gautier,
of Substituted
57°
Rocks, Manual of the Chemical Analysis of, H. S. Wash-
ington, 219
Rogers (A. W.), the Glacial Conglomerate in the Table
Mountain Series near Clanwilliam, 168
Rogers (Dr. L.), Fevers in the Dinajpur District, 336
Roiti (Prof. A.), Obituary Notice of Prof. Emilio Villari,
446
Rolfs (P. H.), Citrus
gloeosporioides, 542
Romanes (George), a Possible Explanation of the Form-
ation of the Moon, 143; Origin of Lunar Formation, 256
R6ntgen Radiation, Secondary, Dr. Charles G. Barkla, 440
Roéntgen Rays, Action on Plants of, and Radium Rays,
Dr. M. Koernicke, 373; see also Radiography
Roozeboom (H. W. Bakhuis), die heterogenen Gleich-
gewichte vom Standpunkte der Phasenlehre, 247
Rose (Dr. T. K.), Certain Properties of the Alloys of
Silver and Cadmium, 164
Rosenberg (H.), Real Path of a Bright Meteor, 569
Rosenhain (Walter), Further Observations on Slip-bands,
Novel Method of Investigating the Micro-structure of
Metals, 500
Rosenthal (Josef), Improvements in Mercury Air-pumps of
Sprengel Type, 233
Ross (Major Ronald, C.B., F.R.S.), Verb Functions or
Explicit Operations, 431; Mosquitoes and Malaria, 590
Rotation, Apparatus for Measuring the Velocity of the
Earth’s, Prof. A. Foéppl, 39
Rotch (A. L.), Present Problems of Meteorology, 423
Rotch (Dr. A. Lawrence), Inversions of Temperature and
Humidity in Anticyclones, 510
Roth (Dr. Walter E.), North Queensland Ethnography, the
Manufacture of Stone Implements, 68
Rotifera, New Family and Twelve New Species of, of the
Order Bdelloida, J. Murray, 383
Rowan (F. J.), Smoke Problem, 210
Royal Agricultural Society, the Journal of the, 558
Royal Astronomical Society, 118, 190, 311, 502, 622
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, the, 159
Royal College of Surgeons, Hunterian Oration at, John
Hunter and his Influence on Scientific Progress, John
Tweedy, 403
Royal Commission on Coal Supplies, the, 324
Royal Dublin Society, 167, 334, 503, 623
Royal Geographical Society, Geographical Results of the
Tibet Mission, Sir Frank Younghusband, 377
Royal Horticultural Society, the, 571
Royal Institution, Blood Pressures in Man, Prof. T.
Clifford Allbutt at the, 375; Fungi, Prof. H. Marshall
Ward, F.R.S., 496
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 71, 431, 503
Royal Lombardy Institution, Prize Awards of, 446
Royal Meteorological Society, 119, 216, 334, 430, 503, 622
Royal Microscopical Society, 47, 142, 262, 358, 455, 550
Royal Sanitary Institute, London Conference on School
Hygiene, Sir Arthur Riicker, 377
Parasitic Fungus Colletotrichum
xliv
Index
Nature,
June 8, 1905
Royal Society, 46, 94, 141, 164, 189, 238, 261, 333, 357,
379, 406, 420, 454, 475, 500, 548, 573, 596, 621; Medal
Awards, 35, 105; Anniversary Meeting of the Royal
Society, 105; Samuel Pepys and the Royal Society, Sir
Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 415; on a Relation between
Autumnal Rainfall and the Yield of Wheat of the Follow-
ing Year, Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., 470; Bakerian
Lecture at Royal Society, the Reception and Utilisation
of Energy by a Green Leaf, Dr. Horace T. Brown,
F.R.S., 522 ;
Royal Society,
Awards, 285
Royal Society, New South Wales, 72, 168, 335, 384
Royds (C. W. R.), Meteorological Conditions of
Antarctic Discovery Expedition, 568
Rozet (Cl.), Secondary Shadow on the Rings of Saturn,
359; Secondary Shadow on Saturn’s Rings, 4o1
Rubber, the Cultivation and Preparation of Para, W. H.
Johnson, 321, 352; C. Simmonds, 321
Rubies: Memoire sur la Réproduction artificielle du Rubis
par Fusion, A. Verneuil, 180
Ricker (Sir Arthur), London
Hygiene, 377
Rudaux (M. L.), the Pic du Midi Observatory, 354
Rudzki (M. P.), Propagation of Earthquake Waves, 534
Russian Geographical Society Medal Awards, 231
Rutherford (Prof. E., F.R.S.), the Heating Effect of the
y Rays from Radium, 151; Slow Transformation Pro-
ducts of Radium, 341; Charge Carried by the a Rays
from Radium, 413
Ryan (J.), a Bright Meteor, 329
Edinburgh, 263, 382, 431, 623; Prize
the
Conference on School
Sabat (Bronislas), Action of Radium
Electrical Resistance of Metals, 479
Sabatier (Paul), the Three Methylcyclohexanones and the
corresponding Methyl-cyclohexanols, 383 ; Catalytic Power
of Reduced Nickel, 423 ; Reduction of Nitriles to Amines,
423 ; Monochloro-derivatives of Methylcyclohexane, 551
Sabin (A. H.), the Industrial and Artistic Technology of
Paint and Varnish, 50
St. Bernard, Across the Great, the Modes of Nature and
the Manners of Men, A. R. Sennett, 197
St. Javelle (M.), Tempel’s Comet (1904 c), 185
St. Louis International Exhibition List of Awards, 36; the
International Electrical Congress at St. Louis, 41;
German Educational Exhibits at St. Louis, 513
St. Margaret’s Bay, Dover, Landslip on January 1o at,
253> 279
Salet (M.), Application of the Iris Diaphragm in As-
tronomy, 455; the Iris Diaphragm in Astronomy, 545
Salisbury (Rollin D.), the Glacial Geology of New Jersey,
186; Geology, 267
Salmon (E. S.), Plants and Spore-infection, 157; ‘‘ Biologic
Forms ”’ of Erysibhe graminis, 468; Endophytic Adapta-
tion shown by Erysiphe graminis, DC., under Cultural
Conditions, 598
Salmon (W. H.), a Further Course of Practical Science, 220
Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales, the, Messrs.
Archer and Fryer and Dr. Masterman, Frank Balfour
Browne, 18
Salomonsen (M.), Effect of the Radium
certain Protozoa and on the Blood, 279
Salt (H. S.), Richard Jefferies, his Life and Ideals, 582
Salt-beds and Oceans, 508
Salts and their Reactions, Dr. L. Dobbie and H. Marshall,
200
Salzablagerung, zur Bildung der ozeanischen, J. H. van ’t
Hoff, 508
Sand (Dr. Henry J. S.), the Réle of Diffusion during Cata-
lysis by Colloidal Metals, 333
Sanitary Engineering, Small Destructors for Institutional
and Trade Waste, W. Francis Goodrich, 246
Sankey (Captain Riall), Chrome-vanadium Steels, 305
Santos-Dumont (A.), the Future of Air-ships, 447
Sarasin (Ed.), the Genesis of Temporary Radio-activity, 143
Sarawak, Travels and Researches of a Naturalist in,
Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo, O. Beccari,
203
Sars (Prof. G. O.), a Small Crustacean (Paracartia grant)
discovered in the Oyster-beds of Norway, 61
Bromide on the
Emanations on
Satellite to Jupiter, Discovery of a Sixth, Prof. Perrine,
256, 329
Satellite of Jupiter, the Reported Sixth, Prof. Wolf, 306
Satellite, Visual Observations of Jupiter’s Sixth, Mr.
Hammond, 569
Satellites I. and IJ., Rotation of Jupiter’s, Dr. P. Guth-
nick, 469
Satellites, Recently Observed, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.,
295; Prof. William H. Pickering, 390
Saturn’s Rings, Secondary Shadow on, M. Amann and
Cl. Rozet, 359, 401
Saturn’s Satellites, Observations of, Prof. Hussey, 449;
see also Astronomy
Saunders (F. A.), Arc Spectra of the Alkali Metals, 133
Sauvage (R.), Action of the Chlorides of Phosphorus on
the Organomagnesium Compounds of the Aromatic Series,
47
Schaffers (V.), Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction
Machines, 274
Schering (Forstmeister), Death of, 36
Schleussner’s (Dr.) Dry Plates, 88
Schmidlin (Jules), the Tetraoxycyclohexane-rosanilines, 47 ;
Action of Low Temperatures on Colouring Matters, 71
Schneider (Camillo Karl), Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, 76
Schofield (J.), Method of Illustrating the Laws of the
Simple Pendulum, 455
School Arithmetic, New, Charles Pendlebury and F. E.
Robinson, 75
School Geometry, a, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 75
School Hygiene, London Conference on, Sir Arthur Riicker,
377
Schulte-Tigges (August), Philosophische Propddeutik auf
Naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage, 27
Schulten (A. de), Fiedlerite, 359
Schumann (Dr. Karl), Praktikum fiir morphologische und
systematische Botanik, 436
Schuster (Prof. Arthur, F.R.S.), Magnetic Storms and As-
sociated Sun-spots, 311; an Introduction to the Theory of
Optics, 457; a Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to
the Epoch 1895-0 and the Sea Level, A. Tanakadate,
578
Schwartz (Dr. von), Fire and Explosion Risks, 122
Schwarz (E. H. L.), the Rocks of Tristan d’Acunha, 168
Science: Lectures scientifiques, W. G. Hartog, 6; Ideals
of Science and Faith, 52; the Museums’ Journal, 57;
Science and the State, Sir William Abney, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., at the Society of Arts, 90; Scientific Research in
the Philippine Islands, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 162; a
Further Course of Practical Science, J. H. Leonard and
W. H. Salmon, 220; Scientific Reports of the Local
Government Board, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 237; a History
of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, John
Theodore Merz, Prof. G. H. Brvan, F.R.S., 241;
Scientific Exploration of Lake Tanganyika, 277: Con-
ference of Public School Science Masters, Wilfred Mark
Webb, 284; the Recent Development of Physical Science,
W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., 291; the Science Year Book
for 1905, 293; the Preparation of the Child for Science,
M. E. Boole, 316; Special Method in Elementary Science
for the Common School, Charles A. McMurry, 316; Dates
of Publication of Scientific Books, R. P. Paraiypye, 320;
Henry Frowde, 365; B. Hobson, 440; John Hunter and
his Influence on Scientific Progress, Hunterian Oration
at Royal College of Surgeons, John Tweedy, 403; Scien-
tific Fact and Metaphysical Reality, Robert Brandon
Arnold, 485; Forthcoming Books of Science, 473; Philo-
sophy as Scientia Scientiarum, and a _ History of
Classifications of the Sciences, Robert Flint, 505; the
Future of Science in England, R. B. Haldane, 589
Scientific Centres, vi., the Physical Laboratory at
Museum d’Histoire naturelle, Prof. Henri
John Butler Burke, 177
Scientific Centres, Some, vii., the Physiological Research
Laboratory of the University of London, Dr. Augustus
D. Waller, F.R.S., 441
Scorpio, Variable Stars and Nebulous Areas in, Miss H. S.
Leavitt, 282
Scorpion, the Legendary Suicide of the, Prof. Edward B.
Poulton, F.R.S., 534
Scotland: the People of the North-east of Scotland, 186;
the Fisheries of Scotland, Frank Balfour Browne, 213
the
Becquerel,
a a ee
Nature,
yaameiet 1905, Index xlv
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, J. H. Harvey Pirie | Serotherapy: Prof. A. E. Wright’s System of Anti-
and R. N. Rudmose Brown, 425
Scott (Dr. Dukinfield H., F.R.S.), on the Reconstruction of
a Fossil Plant Lyginodendron Oldhamium, 47; Fossil
Plants from the Palaeozoic Rocks, v., New Sphenophyll-
aceous Cone from the Lower Coal-measures, 164;
Lepidocarpon and the Gymmnosperms, 201; the Early
History of Seed-bearing Plants as recorded in the Car-
boniferous Flora, Wilde Lecture at Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 426
Scott (Dr. J.), Influence of Cobra-Venom on the Proteid
Metabolism, 621
Scott (Captain R. F.), the National Antarctic Expedition,
41; Geographical Results of the National Antarctic Ex-
pedition, 421 4
Scripture (E. W.), Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven,
250
Sea-fishing Industry of England and Wales, the, F. G.
Aflalo, 153
Sea-perch, a Large Indian, Major A. Alcock, F.R.S., 415
Searle (G. F. C.), Elements of Electromagnetic Theory,
S. J. Barnett, 409
Seaton (A. E.), Need of Testing Materials to be subjected
to Rapidly. Repeated or to Alternating Loads otherwise
than by Determining the Tensile Strength and Elastic
Limit, 184
Secondary Radiation, Prof. J. A. McClelland, 390
See (Dr. T. J. J.), Observations of Occultations by Planets,
185 ; Physical Conditions of the Planets, 424; the Physical
Cause of the Earth’s Rigidity, 559
Seed Plants, Palzozoic, E. A. N. Arber, 68
Séguy (Gaston), Photogenic Radio-active Properties of Cal-
cined Coral placed in a Radiant Vacuum and submitted
to the influence of the Kathode Rays, 287
Seismology : Seismological Notes, 19, 308, 620; Application
of Earthquake Observations to the Investigation of the
Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, Prof. Laska,
19; Gravitational Anomalies detected under Mount Etna,
Prof. Ricco, 20; Nature of Wave Motion in Third Phase
of Record of Distant Earthquake, Prof. Grablovitz, 20;
Work done by Great Earthquakes, Dr. R. von Kéoves-
ligethy, 20; Variations of Sea Level on the East Coast
of Japan, Prof. Omori, 20; Present Condition of Kilauea,
Dr. Otto Kuntze, 20; Modulus of Elasticity of Rocks,
S. Kusakabe, 20; Level of Maximum Rate of Propaga-
tion, Prof. Imamura, 20; Distribution of Submarine
Earthquakes, Wilhelm Krebs, 21; Measurements of the
Velocity of Propagation of Earthquakes, G. Lippmann,
95; the Inscription of Seismic Movements, G. Lippmann,
95; Earthquakes, Clarence Edward Dutton, 147;
Seismology in Japan, Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, 224; the
Earthquake in Transbaikalia on September 28, 231; the
Leicester Earthquakes of August 4, 1893, and June 21,
1904, Dr. C. Davison, 262; the Derby Earthquakes of
July 3, 1904, Dr. C. Davison, 262; Twin-earthquakes,
Dr. C. Davison, 262; Device for Overcoming the Ten-
dency to Adherence in the Electric Contacts of Delicate
Seismoscopes, Prof Alippi, 309; Mist-poeffers, Prof.
Alippi, 309; Relation between the Variations in Lati-
tude at Tokio and the Occurrence of Earthquakes in
Japan, Prof. Omori, 309; a Study of Recent Earth-
quakes, Charles Davison, 532; Propagation of Earth-
quake Waves, M. P. Rudzki, 534; Propagation of
Earthquake Waves, Rev. O. Fisher, 583; the Indian
Earthquake of April 4, 563; Detailed Record of the
Indian Earthquake by Horizontal Pendulum at Birming-
ham, Dr. Davison, 589; the Synodic Monthly Variation
in Frequency, Dr. Imamura, 620; Daily Periodic
Changes of Level in Artesian Wells, K. Honda, 621;
Sound Waves of a Cannon have no Appreciable Effect
on a Building, Prof. Vicentini, 621
Selenipedium, the Direction of the Spiral in the Petals of,
George Wherry, 31
Sellers (William), Death of, 372
Senderens (J. B.), Catalytic Power of Reduced Nickel,
423; Reduction of Nitriles to Amines, 423
Sennett (A. R.), Across the Great St. Bernard, the Modes
of Nature and the Manners of Men, 197
Senter (George), Studies on Enzyme Action, 46
Senter (Dr. George), Réle of Diffusion in the Catalysis of
Hydrogen Peroxide by Colloidal Platinum, 574
typhoid Inoculation in the Army, 14; Abstention from
Vaccination Diminishing, 237; Protective Inoculation
against Asiatic Cholera, Dr. Strong, 352; Physical
Chemistry of the Toxin-antitoxin Reaction, J. A. Craw,
598
Serrin (Victor), Death and Obituary Notice of, 325
Sertularide, American Hydroids, part ii., C. C. Nutting,
332
Seurat (G.), Eumedon convictor, a Crustacean accompany-
ing a Sea-urchin, 479
Sewall (C. H.), Wireless Telegraphy, 1
Seward (A. C., F.R.S.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge,
390
Sharpe (J. W.), Blue Flints at Bournemouth, 176
Shaw (Dr. W. N., F.R.S.), the Study of the Minor Fluctu-
ations of Atmospheric Pressure, 216
Sheppard (S. E.), the Molecular Condition in Solution of
Ferrous Potassium Oxalate, 358; the Theory of Photo-
graphic Processes, on the Chemical Dynamics of Develop-
ment, 454
Shimek (Prof. B.), the Joess of Natchez and of the Lower
Mississippi Valley, 472
Shore (T. W.), Death of, 278
Shull (G. H.), Place-constants for Aster prenanthoides, 493
Sidgreaves (Father), Stonyhurst College Observatory, 592
Sifton \(Clftord), Report of the Commission appointed by,
Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to Investigate
the Different Electrothermic Processes for the Smelting
of Iron Ores and the Making of Steel in Europe, 258
Signalling by Sound, Submarine, J. B. Millet, 595
Silberrad (O.), Constitution of Nitrogen Iodide, 70; Metallic
Derivatives of Nitrogen Iodide, 166
Silicate Analysis, Practical, 219
Silk-raising in Ceylon, 468
Silver (A. P.), the Wild Horses of Sable Island, 615
Silver Ores, Cyaniding Gold and, H. Forbes Julian and
Edgar Smart, 292
Simmonds (C.), the Industrial and Artistic Technology of
Paint and Varnish, A. H. Sabin, 50; Food Inspection
and Analysis, Albert E. Leach, 50; Oils for Motor-cars,
205; Inks, their Composition and Manufacture, C. Ains-
worth Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, 269; the Cultivation
and Preparation of Para Rubber, W. H. Johnson, 321;
Change in the Colour of Moss Agates, 54
Simon (L. J.), a Method for the Volumetric Estimation of
Hydroxylamine, 504
Simpson (George C.),
Latitudes, 573
Simpson (R. R.), the Jammu Coal-fields, 471
Sinclair (W. J.), Exploration of the Potter Creek Cave in
California, 472
Singularities of Curves, T. B. S., 152
Singularities of Curves, Compound, A. B. Basset, F.R.S.,
101
Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen, die, G: Haberlandt, 123
Sirius, the Orbit of, Prof. Doberck, 133
Sirius, Variable Radial Velocity of, Prof. Campbell, 494
Skeats (Prof. E. W.), Origin of the Dolomites of Southern
Tyrol, 190
Skeptizismus, der, in der Philosophie, Raoul Richter, 27
Skinner (Sidney), Experiment on Pressure due to Waves, 609
Skottsberg (C.), the Limit of an Antarctic Phytogeo-
graphical Zone, 326
Skye, a Fauna of the North-west Highlands and, J. A.
Harvie Brown and H. A. MacPherson, 202
Slade (Jeremiah), Death of, 491
Slator (A.), Chemical Dynamics of the Reactions between
Sodium Thiosulphate and Organic Halogen Compounds,
part ii., Halogen Substituted Acetates, 5098
Slow Transformation Products of Radium, Prof. E. Ruther-
ford, F.R.S., 341
Smart (Dr.), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 114
Smart (Edgar), Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores, 292
Smedley (H. E. H.), Models of Palaozoic Seeds and Cones,
183
Smell? can Birds, Dr. Alex. Hill, 318
Smiles (S.), an Asymmetric Synthesis of Quadrivalent
Sulphur, 550; Action of a-Halogen Ketones on Alkyl
Sulphides, 550
Smith (Assheton), the Late, Prof. Philip J. White, 125
Atmospheric Electricity in High
xlvi
Index
[ Nature,
June 3, 1905
Smith (G. F.
Sierra Gorda, Chili, 574
Smith (J. Kent), Chrome-vanadium Steels, 305
Smith (R. E. Blake), Toning Bromide Prints, 438
Smith (Dr. R. Greig), a Yellow Race of Bacillus pseud-
arabinus from the Quince, 263; the Bacterial Origin of |
Macrozamia Gum, 264
Smith (W. E.), Design of the Antarctic Exploration Vessel
Discovery, 594
Smithsonian Institution, Astrophysical Work at the, C. G.
Abbot, 592
Smithsonian Institution Report, 494
Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy, Wm. H. Booth and
John B. C. Kershaw, 74
Smoke Problem, F. J. Rowan, 210
Snakes : Tenacity to Life of a Grass-snake, E. V. Windsor,
390
Soap-films, Polyhedral, W. F. Warth, 273
Social England, 385
Social Measurements, an Introduction to
Mental and, Edward L. Thorndike, 99
Society of Arts, Lecture at, Science and
William Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S., 90; the
and the London Institution, 539
Sociology: Fact in Sociology, 366; H. G. Wells, 319;
Studies in Eugenics, Meeting at the Sociological Society,
401; Restrictions in Marriage, Francis Galton, 401;
Studies in National Eugenics, Francis Galton, 4o1; Dr.
Haddon, 402; Dr. F. W. Mott, 402; Ernest Crawley,
402; Dr. E. Westermarck, 402; Sociological Papers
Published for the Sociological Society, 605
Soddy (Frederick), the Origin of Radium, 294; Charge on
the a Particles of Polonium and Radium, 438
Sohns (F.), Unsere Pflanzen, 510
Solar Atmosphere during 1900-1,
N. Donitch, 329
the State, Sir
Society of Arts
the Conditions in the,
Herbert), New Oxychloride of Copper from |
the Theory of
Solar Atmosphere, Planetary Tides in the, Emile Anceaux,
ar
Solar Eclipse Problems, Prof. Perrine, 329
Solar Eclipse of August 30, the Approaching Total, Dr. |
William J. S. Lockyer, 393
Solar and Magnetic Disturbances, Simultaneous Occurrence
of, A. Nippoldt, 16
Solar Observers, Instructions to, 592
Solar Spectrum, Absorption by Water Vapour in the Infra-
red, F. E. Fowle, jun., 115
Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena, Relations between, H. J.
Jensen, 158
Solly (R. H.), Minerals from the Lengenbach Quarry
Binnenthal, 118; Three New Minerals from the Binnen-
thal, Smithite, Hutchinsonite, and Trechmannite, 574
Somers (P.), Pages from a Country Diary, 175
Sommerfeld (Prof.), Simplified Deduction of the Field and
the Forces of an Electron moving in any Given Way, 373
South African Philosophical Society, 168
South Atlantic Ocean, Monthly Wind Charts for the, 157
South Pole, Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the Ice of
the, Dr. N. Otto G. Nordenskjéld and Dr. Joh. Gunnar
Andersson, 560
Southerden (F.), Chemical Analysis for Beginners, 54
Southern Hemisphere, Colours of Stars in the Dr J):
Moller, 256
Southern Latitudes, Mean Temperatures of High, Prof.
Julius Hann, 221
Southwell (Mr.), Whaling for 1904, 351
Sowter (R. J.), Ellipsoidal Lenses, 622
Spark Lines in Arc Spectra, the Appearance of, Dr. Henry
Crew, 159 ,
“Spark ’’ Wave-lengths, Constancy of, G. W. Middlekauff,
545
Spectrum Analysis: the Third Band of the Air Spectrum,
H. Deslandres and A. Kannapell, 17; Deslandres’s
Formula for the Lines in the Oxygen Band Series, Prof.
Deslandres, 63; the Transition from Primary to.Secondary
Spectra, P. G. Nutting, 63; the Photographic Spectrum
of Jupiter, G. Millochau, 89 ; Enhanced Lines of Titanium,
Iron, and Chromium in the Fraunhoferic Spectrum, Sir
J. Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F. E. Bax-
andall, 94; Photographic Spark Spectra of Titanium and
other Metals, Dr. Lohse, 373;
) Distribution of Stellar |
Spectra, Mrs. Fleming, 115 ; Stars having Peculiar Spectra, |
Mrs. Fleming, 306; Absorption by Water Vapour in the
Infra-red Solar Spectrum, F. E. Fowle, jun., 115; Arc
Spectra of the Alkali Metals, F. A. Saunders, 133;
Characteristics of Nova Aurigze (1892) and Nova Persei
(1902), Dr. J. Halm, 142; Sun-spot Spectra, Father
Cortie, 158; the Appearance of Spark Lines in Are
Spectra, Dr. Henry Crew, 159; on the Group IV. Lines
of Silicium, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and
F. E. Baxandall, 189; Determination of Wave-lengths in
the Extreme Ultra-violet Part of the Spectrum, H. Morris-
Airey, 191; Structure of the Third Cyanogen Band, Franz
Jungbluth, 234; Groups of Negative Bands in the Air
Spectrum with a Strong Dispersion, H. Deslandres, 239;
Experiment to prove Phase-reversal in Second Spectrum
from a Grating of Broad Slits, Mr. Conrady, 262; New
Method for Measuring Radial-velocity Spectrograms, Prof.
J. Hartmann, 306; the Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium
Vapour, Prof. R. W. Wood, 327; Spectra of y Cygni,
a Canis Minoris and e Leonis, E. Haschek and K.
Kostersitz, 354; a Research on ‘* Enhanced Lines,’’ Jacob
Steinhausen, 400; New Direct-vision Spectroscope, T.
Thorp, 431; New Spectrum Tubes, A. Gallenkamp and
Co., 448; the Stellar Line near A 4686, Sir Norman
Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F. E. Baxandall, 475;
the Spectrum of gs Centauri, Sir Norman Lockyer,
K.C.B., F.R.S., and F. E. Baxandall, 476; the Arc
Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Celestial
Spectra, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F- E.
Baxandall, 476; Europium and its Ultra-violet Spectrum,
Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., 476; Influence of Strong
Electromagnetic Fields on the Spark Spectra of some
Metals, J. E. Purvis, 479; Index of Spectra, W. Marshall
Watts, 486; Further Researches on the Temperature
Classification of Stars, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., 501; New Theory to account for the Duplication
of Lines in the Spectra of Variable Stars, Prof. Garbasso,
516; Distribution of Light (Monochromatic) in the Differ-
ent Orders of a Typical Grating, Prof. Wood, 543; Con-
stancy of ‘‘ Spark’? Wave-lengths, G. W. Middlekauff,
545; Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of certain Enol-keto-
tautomerides, E. C. C. Baly and C. H. Desch, 549;
New Arrangement for the Use of the Methods of Inter-
ferential Spectroscopy, Ch. Fabry, 551; Variation of the
Band Spectra of Carbon with the Pressure, and some new
Band Spectra of Carbon, H. Deslandres and M. d’Azam-
buja, 575
Speech Curves, E. W. Scripture, Prof. John G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S., 250
Spencer (A. C.), Copper Deposits of
District, Wyoming, 450
Spencer (Dr. J. W.), the Submarine Great Canyon of the
Hudson River, 472
Spiders, a Note on the Coloration of, Oswald H. Latter, 6
Spinning and Twisting of Long Vegetable Fibres (Flax,
Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie), Herbert R. Carter, Prof.
Aldred F. Barker, 579
Spiral in the Petals of Selenipedium, the Direction of the,
George Wherry, 31
Spiti, the Geology of, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu,
H. H. Hayden, 251
Spongin und der Keratine, Studien uber die Albuminoide
the Encampment
mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung des, Dr. Eduard
Strauss, 174
Sportsman Naturalist, Photography for the, L. W.
Brownell, 483
Spot on Jupiter, the Great Red, Mr. Denning and Rev. T.
E. Phillips, 211; Stanley Williams, 211
Stafford (J.), Larva and Spat of the Canadian Oyster, 468
Stahlberg (Walter), ‘‘ Verant ’’ Lens for Stereoscopic Effect
with Monocular Vision, 305
Stanford’s Geological Atlas of Great Britain (based on
Reynolds’s Geological Atlas), Horace B. Woodward,
ORES agile
Stanton Drew, A. L. Lewis, 584
Starks (Mr.), the Fishes of the Two Sides of the Isthmus
of Panama, 590
Starling (Prof. E. H.), a Primer of Physiology, 556
Stars: Distribution of Stellar Spectra, Mrs. Fleming, 115;
Stars having Peculiar Spectra, Mrs. Fleming, 306; Har-
vard Observations of Variable Stars, Prof. E. C. Picker-
ing, 133; Designations of the Variable Stars discovered
J dee tea | Index xvii
during 1904, 185; Variable Stars and Nebulous Areas | Strong (Dr.), Protective Inoculation against Asiatic
in Scorpio, Miss H. S. Leavitt, 282; Relative Drift of
the Hyades Stars, Dr. Downing, F.R.S., 185; Light-
curve of 8 Cephei, Dr. B. Meyermann, 234; Colours of
Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, Dr. J. Moller, 256;
New Method for Measuring Radial-velocity Spectrograms,
Prof. J. Hartmann, 306; Triangulation of the Pleiades
Stars, Dr. Elkin, 329; Temperature of certain Stars,
W. E. Wilson, 334; Systematic Survey of Double Stars,
Prof. R. G. Aitken, 354; Castor a Quadruple Star, Prof.
Campbell, 375; Popular Star Maps, Comte de Miremont,
484; New Variable Stars in the Region about 6 Aquilz,
Prof. Wolf, 519; Radial Velocities of certain Stars, Prof.
Campbell and Dr. H. D. Curtis, 519; Orbit of the
Binary Star Ceti 82, Prof. Aitken, 519; Star Places in
the Vulpecula Cluster, Dr. H. Meyer, 519; Right As-
censions of 2120 Southern Stars, Prof. W. Doberck, 545;
Magnitude Equation in the Right Ascensions of the Eros
Stars, Prof. R. H. Tucker, 618; Stars with Variable |
Radial Velocities, 569; Radial Velocities of ‘* Standard-
velocity Stars,’’ Prof. Belopolsky, 618
State Aid for Higher Education, 487
State, Science and the, Sir William Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S.,
at the Society of Arts, 90
Statics, Graphic, T. Alexander and A. W. Thompson, 507
Statics and Dynamics, Chemical, J. W. Mellor, Dr. H. M.
Dawson, 532
Statistics of Variation, 545
Statues at Thebes, ‘‘ Find ** of Royal, G. Legrain, 126
Stead (J. E., F.R.S.), Practical Micrometallography, 455
Stebbing (Rev. T. R. R.), Zoological Nomenclature, 478
Steel: on the Occurrence of Widmannstatten’s Figures in
Steel Castings, Prof. J. O. Arnold and A. Mc-
William, 32; Report of the Commission appointed by
Clifford Sifton, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada,
to investigate the different Electrothermic Processes for
the smelting of Iron Ores and the making of Steel in
Europe, Prof. J. O. Arnold, 258
Steele (Robert), Medizval.Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus,
559
Stefanowska (Mile. W.), Law of Variation of Weight of
Penicillium glaucum as a Function of its Age, 120
Stein (Prof. Valdemar), Death of, 350
Steinhausen (Jacob), a Research on ‘‘ Enhanced Lines,’’ 400
Stephan (P.), die technische Mechanik, elementares Lehr-
buch fiir mittlere maschienentechnische Fachschulen und
Hilfsbuch fiir studierende hdherer technischer Lehran-
stalten, 148
Stereochemie, Materialien der, C. A. Bischoff, 386
Sternum, the Human, Andrew Melville Patterson, Dr. A.
Keith, 145
Stevens (F. H.), a School Geometry, 75; Lessons in Ex-
perimental and Practical Geometry, 507
Stewart (A. W.), Transmutation of Geometrical Isomerides,
478; Velocity of Oxime Formation in certain Ketones,
549
Stewart (Dr. R. Wallace), Higher Text-book of Magnetism
and Electricity, 270
Stick-insect in Devonshire, Occurrence of a Tropical Form
of, Prof. Robert O. Cunningham, 55
Stobbs (J. T.), the Marine Beds in the Coal-measures of
North Staffordshire, 310
Stone (H.), the Timbers of Commerce and their Identifi-
cation, 247
Stonehenge, Notes on, Sir Norman Lockyer,
F.R.S., 297, 345, 367, 391, 535
Stonyhurst College Observatory, Father Sidgreaves, 592
Story (William Edward), a New General Theory of Errors,
15
Story without an End, the, Sarah Austin, 76
Strauss (Dr. Eduard), Studien iiber die Albuminoide mit
besonderer Berucksichtigung des Spongen und der
Keratine, 174
Streets, New, Laying Out and Making up, A. Taylor
Allen, 437
Cholera, 352
Structure of the Third Cyanogen Band, Franz Jungbluth,
234
Struthers (R. de J. F.), Photographic Radiation of some
Mercury Compounds, 455
Strutt (Hon. R. J.), the Becquerel Rays and the Properties
of Radium, 172
Stumpf (Prof.), the Intelligent Horse ‘‘ Clever Hans,’’ 156
Styan (Kate E.), the Uses and Wonders of Plant-hairs, 486
Submarine Signalling by Sound, J. B. Millet, 595
Sudborough (J. J.), Esterification Constants of Substituted
Acrylic Acids, 550; Simple Method for the Estimation of
Acetyl Groups, 550
Sugar-planting Experiments in the Leeward Islands in
1903-4, Dr. F. Watts, 615
Sun: Structure of the Corona, Dr. Ch. Nordmann, 469;
Photography “of the Corona without a Total Eclipse, A-
Hansky, 544
Sun’s Rotation, the, Prof. N. C. Dunér, 4o1
Sun-spectra, Father Cortie, 158
Sun-spot Minimum, Date of the most Recent, E. Tringali,
133
Sun-spots, Nature of, Th. Moreux, 592
Super-cooled Rain Drops, Edward E. Robinson, 295; Cecil
Carus-Wilson, 320
Superstitions about Animals, Frank Gibson, 510
Surgery: the Treatment of Cancer, Mayo Robson, 130;
Method of Protecting the Hands of the Operator from
X-Ray Burns, Prof. W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., 167; John
Hunter and his Influence on Scientific Progress, Hun-
terian Oration at Royal College of Surgeons, John
Tweedy, 403
Survey of India, Report of the, 22
Surveying: New Streets, Laying Out and Making Up,
A. Taylor Allen, 437 ;
Sutro (Emil), the Basic Law of Vocal Utterance, 317;
Duality of Voice and Speech, 317; Duality of Thought
and Language, 317
Sutton (J. R.), Sir J. Eliot’s Address at Cambridge, 6
Sutton Town and Chase, Tales of, with other Tales and
some Sketches, 53
| Swinburne (J.), the Definition of Entropy, 125
Sykes (Mark L.), Protective Resemblance, 520
Sylvester (James Joseph), the Collected Mathematical
Papers of, 98
Symmers (Dr.), Bilharzia, 307
| Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, a, W. F. Kirby, 459
K-C-B:, |
Stromboli, Recent Changes in the Crater of, Dr. Tempest |
| Technology of the Vegetable Fibres, the, Prof. Aldred F.
Anderson, 593
Strémgren (Dr. Elis), Elements and Ephemeris for Comet
1904 €, 256; Ephemeris for Comet 1904 e, 353, 400;
am 1904 e (Borrelly), 518; Comet 1905 a (Giacobini),
=
Tacchini (Prof. Pietro), Death of, 540; Obituary Notice
of, 564; the late Prof. Tacchini, Prof. R. Meldola,
F.R.S., 583
Tales from Old Fiji, Lorimer Fison, 490
Tales of Sutton Town and Chase, with other Tales and
some Sketches, 53
Tanakadate (A.), a Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to
the Epoch 1895-0 and the Sea Level, 578
Tanganyika, Lake, Scientific Exploration of, 277
Tank Oscillation, Lissajous’s Figures by, T. Terada, 296
Tannery (Paul), Death of, 130
Tansley (Prof. A. G.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge,
414
Tantalum, Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin, 610
Tarugi (N.), the Power of Aluminium to
Vapour of Mercury, 352
Tattersall (G.), New Synthesis of Isocaprolactone, 119
Taylor (Edward H.), a Treatise on Applied Anatomy, 145
Taylor (F.), Studies in Optical Superposition, 2390
Technical Education Board of the London County Council,
1903-1904, Annual Report of the, 34
Technical Mechanics, Prof. George M. Minchin, 148
Techno-chemical Analysis, Dr. G. Lunge, 458
Technological Chemistry: the Industrial and Artistic
Technology of Paint and Varnish, A. H. Sabin,
C. Simmonds, 50; Food Inspection and Analysis, Albert
E. Leach, C. Simmonds, 50
Absorb the
Barker, 579
Telegraphy : Wireless Telegraphy, C. H. Sewall, 1; Wire-
less Telegraphy from Poldhu, Cornwall, to Ancona, Italy,
111; die Drahtlose Telegraphie, Dr. Gustav Eichhorn.
xlvili
220; Wireless Telegraphy in War, Captain James, 307;
Wireless Telegraphy between Diamond Island and the
Andamans, 445; Wireless Telegraphy with Circular
Waves, Alessandro Artom, 517; Pollak-Virag High-speed
Writing Telegraph, 156; Direct Telegraphic Communica-
tion established between Liverpool and Teheran, 181;
Experiments to Show the Retardation of the Signalling
Current of the Pacific Cable, Prof. W. E. Ayrton, 190;
Time Signals sent from Washington to Sydney, 303;
Telegraphic Time Signals from the United States Naval
Observatory, 613
Telescope, the, Thomas Nolan, 460
Telescope, the Bruce Photographic, Prof. Barnard, 424
Tempel’s Second Comet, Re-discovery of, M. Gavelle, 133;
J. Coniel, 133; Ephemeris for, J. Coniel, 282; Tempel’s
Comet (1904 c), M. St. Javelle, 185; M. Coniel, 185
Tempel’s First Periodic Comet (1867 II.), Search-ephemeris
for, A. Gautier, 545
Temperature on Ben Nevis, Inversions of, Andrew Watt,
583
Temperature Inversion, Remarkable, and the Recent High
Barometer, W. H. Dines, 365
Temperature of Meteorites, the, H. E. Wimperis, 81
Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes, Mean, Prof.
Julius Hann, 221
, Temperatures and Humidity in Anticyclones, Inversions of,
Dr. A. Lawrence Rotch, 510
Temple (Sir Richard), the Practical Value of Anthropology,
130
Tenacity to Life of a Grass-snake, E. V. Windsor, 390
Teneriffe, Attractions of, Hugh Richardson, 415
Tennis: Lawn Tennis, J. Parmly Paret, 436; Great Lawn
Tennis Players, George W. Beldam and P. A. Vaile, 436
Teodoresco (E. C.), Effect of Low Temperatures on the
Zoospores of the Alga, 432
Terada (T.), Lissajous’s Figures by Tank Oscillation,
296
Terrestrial Magnetism: a Contemplated Magnetic Survey
of the North Pacific Ocean by the Carnegie Institution, |
Dr. L. A. Bauer, 389; Terrestrial Magnetism and its
Causes, F.. A. Black, 557
Terrestrial Phenomena, Relations between Solar and, H. I.
Jensen, 158
Tetmeyer (Prof. Ludwig von), Death of, 420
Thallium Mineral, a New, G. T. Prior, 534
Thebaid, the Ancient Races of the, Prof. Arthur Thomson,
583; Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., 583
Thebes, ‘‘ Find ”’ of Royal Statues at, G. Legrain, 126
Theobald (Fred V.), Second Report on Economic Zoology,
British Museum (Natural History), 272
Theoretical Geometry for Beginners, C. H. Allcock, 75
Therapeutics: on the Action Exerted upon the Staphylo-
coccus pyogenes by the Human Blood Fluids and on the
Elaboration of Protective Elements in the Human
Organism in Response to Inoculations of a Staphylo-
coccus Vaccine, Dr. A. E. Wright and Captain Stewart
R. Douglas, 67; on the Action Exerted upon the Tubercle
Bacillus by the Human Blood Fluids and on the Elabor-
ation of Protective Elements in the Human Organism in
Response to Inoculations of a Tubercle Vaccine, Dr.
A. E. Wright and Captain Stewart R. Douglas, 67;
Light Energy, its Physics, Physiological Action and
Therapeutics, Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, Dr. Reginald
Morton, 269; the Mixed Treatment of Trypanosomiasis
by Arsenious Acid and Trypan-red, A. Laveran, 359
Thermodynamics: die Einheit der Naturkrafte in der
Thermodynamik, Richard Wegner, 29; la Statique
Chimique basée sur les deux Principes fondamentaux de
la Thermodynamique, E. Ariés, 247; die heterogenen
Gleichgewichte vom Standpunkte der Phasenlehre, H. W.
Bakhuis Roozeboom, 247
Thesmar (Mr.), the Nature of the Hydrosulphites, 374
Thimont (Prof. Joseph), Death of, 181
Thinking Cats, Y. N., 9; R. Langton Cole, 31
Thiselton-Dyer (W. T.), Index Kewensis Plantarum Phan-
erogamarum, 581
Thomas (Dr.), Identity of various Trypanosomes of Man,
499
Thomas (H. H.), Epidote from Inverness-shire, 381
Thomas (Miss M. B.), Optically Active Nitrogen Com-
pounds, 166
L[ndex
Nature,
June 8, 1905
_ Thomas (Mr.), Methods of Dealing with Dust in the Air
in a Cornish Mine, 209
Thomas (N. W.), Group Marriage with especial Reference
to Australia, 478
Thomas (W.), Simple Method for the Estimation of Acetyl
Groups, 550
Thompson (Dr. Ashburton), Plague at Sydney in 1903, 542
Thompson (A. W.), Graphic Statics, 507
Thompson (R. Campbell), the Devils and Evil Spirit of
Babylonia, 249
Thompson (Prof. S. P.), on a Rapid Method of Approximate
Harmonic Analysis, 190; Crystals showing the Pheno-
menon of Luminous Rings, 142
Thompson-Yates and Johnston Laboratories Report, the,
498
Thomson (Prof. Arthur), the Ancient Races of the Thebaid,
583
Thomson (James), the Circulation of the Atmosphere, 365
Thomson (Prof. J. J., F.R.S.), the Charge of the a Rays
from Polonium, 166; Charge on the a@ Particles of
Polonium and Radium, 438; Non-electrification of y Rays,
430; Are Metals made Radio-active by the Influence of
Radium Radiation? 430
Thomson (W.), Arsenic Rapidly Eliminated from
System by Kidney Secretion, 88
Thorndike (Edward L.), an Introduction to the Theory of
Mental and Social Measurements, 99
Thornton (John), Elementary Practical Physiology, 556
Thornton (Dr. W. M.), a Sensitive Hygrometer, 47
Thorp (T.), New Direct-vision Spectroscope, 431
Thought, a History of European, in the Nineteenth
Century, John Theodore Merz, Prof. G. H. Bryan,
F.R-S., 241
Thoulet (M.),
Atlantic, 24
Thurston (E.), Difficulties of the Ethnographic Survey in
the Mysore, 182
Tibet, Lhasa, an Account of the Country and People of
Central, Perceval Landon, 585
Tibet Mission, Geographical Results of the, Sir Frank
Younghusband, 377
Tides of January 7, the Abnormal, 258
Tilden (W. A.), Pinene Jsonitrosocyanide and its Deriva-
tives, 550
Till the Sun Grows Cold, Maurice Grindon, 606
Timber, Process for Treating, with a Solution of Sugar,
Mr. Powell, 37
Timbers of Commerce and their Identification,
Stone, 247
Timbers of New South Wales,
Maiden, 157
Tingle (A.), the Flowering of the Bamboo, 183
Tissot (J.), Relations between Arterial Pressure and the
Amounts of Chloroform Absorbed, 408; Conditions which
Determine the Penetration of Chloroform into Blood
during Anzsthesia, 480
Titius (Prof. Arthur), Religion und Naturwissenschaft eine
Antwort an Prof. Ladenburg, 27
Todd (Mr.), Sleeping Sickness in Congo Free State, 40:
Relationship of Human Trypanosomiasis to Congo Sleep-
ing Sickness, 499; the Congo Floor Maggot, 499
Toll’s (Baron) Expedition, Fate of, 467
Tommasina (Th.), the Genesis of Temporary Radio-activity,
I
Toning Bromide Prints, R. E. Blake Smith, 438
Topography: the Pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South
Coast of Ireland, W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff, Prof.
Grenville A. J. Cole, 17; Topography of British India,
Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich, C.B., 268; Glossary of
Geographical and Topographical Terms, Alexander Knox,
the
Study of the Sea Bottom of the North
the, H.
the Commercial, J. H.
271
pouches (Em.), Photograph of a Lightning Flash showing
the Air in Incandescence, 600
Tow-net, on a Method of Using the, as an Opening and
Closing Tow-net, George Murray, F.R.S., 364
Tower (Beauchamp), Death and Obituary Notice of, 253
Townsend (Frederick), Flora of Hampshire, including the
Isle of Wight, 245
Toxic Action as exemplified in Haemolytic Sera, Chemical
Combination and, Prof. Robert Muir and Carl H. Brown-
{ ing, 235
Nature, ]
June 8, 1905
Toxicology : the Venom of Egyptian Scorpions, Dr. Wilson,
307; Influence of the Radium Emanation on the Toxic
Power of Snake Poison, C. Phisalix, 456; Sterility and
Alopecy in Guinea-pigs previously submitted to the influ-
ence of Ovarian Extracts, Gustave Loisel, 504; the Anti-
dote to Nicotine, C. Zalackas, 504; Influence of Cobra-
venom on the Proteid Metabolism, Dr. J. Scott, 621
Trachoma, Dr. J. Boldt, 198
Training of Teachers, Welsh Conference on the, 66
Trannoy (R.), Combinations of Samarium Chloride with
Ammonia, 311
Transition from Primary to Secondary Spectra, the, P. G.
Nutting, 63
Transpiration der Pflanzen, die, Dr. Alfred Burgerstein, 51
Transposition of Zoological Names, the, R. Lydekker,
F.R.S., 608
Transvaal, Geological Survey of the, Report for the Year
1903, H. Kynaston, E. T. Mellor, A. L. Hall, Dr.
G. A. F. Molengraaff, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 55
Traquair (Dr. R. H.), Paleontology of the Upper Old Red
Sandstone of the Moray Firth Area, 623 ©
Travers (Prof. Morris W., F.R.S.), on the State in which
Helium Exists in Minerals, 248; Comparison of the
Platinum Scale of Temperature with the Normal Scale,
429
Treacher (L.), Age and Relations of the Phosphatic Chalk
of Taplow, 622
Trees, Prof. H. Marshall Ward, 290
Treves (Sir Frederick, Bart.), the Other
Lantern, 553
Triangulation of the Pleiades Stars, Dr. Elkin, 329
Tribot (J.), a Colloidal Hydrate of Iron obtained by
Electrodialysis, 311
Trigonometry, the Elements of, S. L. Loney, 507
Trillat (A.), Formation of Formaldehyde during the Com-
bustion of Tobacco, 72; Antiseptic Properties of Smoke,
528; New Method of Testing for Ammonia, Application
to the Examination of Water for Sanitary Purposes, 383
Tringali (E.), Date of the most Recent Sun-spot Minimum,
133
Tropical Form of Stick-insect in Devonshire, Occurrence of
a, Prof. Robert O. Cunningham, 5
Side of the
5
True (Frederick W.), the Whalebone Whales of the Western |-
North Atlantic, 84
Trypanosomiasis and Experimental Medicine, Prof. R. T.
Hewlett, 498
Tuberculosis: Two Distinct Forms of Tubercle Bacilli,
Human and Bovine, 130
Tucker (Robert), Death of, 371; Obituary Notice of, 398
Tucker (Prof. R. H.), Magnitude Equation in the Right
Ascensions of the Eros Stars, 618
Tukulti-Ninib I., King of Assyria, Records of the Reign
of, about B.c. 1275, L. W. King, F.S.A., 222
Turbine, Spread of the Steam, for Marine Propulsion,
Lord Glasgow, 594
Turchet (M.), New Method of Testing for Ammonia, Ap-
plication to the Examination of Water for Sanitary
Purposes, 383
Turchini (M.), Variation of the Specific Induction Power of
Glass with the Frequency, 527
Turin Observatory, Astronomical ‘‘ Annuario ’’ of the, 256
Turnbull (V. M.), Elementary Plane Geometry, 75
Turner (Prof. H. H., F.R.S.), the Eleventh Eros Circular,
154; Astronomical Discovery, 410
Turner (Sir William), Penalla, a Crustacean Parasitic on
the Finner Whale, 431
Turner (W. E. S.), Influence of the Hydroxyl and Alkoxyl
Groups on the Velocity of Saponification, 599
Tutcher (W. J.), Some New Species and other Chinese
Plants, 381
Tutin (F.), Relation between Natural
Glycerylphosphoric Acids, 478
Tweedy (John), John Hunter and his Influence on Scientific
Progress, Hunterian Oration at Royal College of
Surgeons, 403
Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical Petrography,
and Synthetical
341
Twiss (D. F.), Grignard Reaction applied to the Esters of
Hydroxy-acids, 166
Typhoid Bacillus in Shell-fish, Vitality of the, Dr. Klein,
PR se42n
Index
xlix
Uhlig (Dr. Victor),
Shales, 161
Ulpiani (C.), Intimate Connection between the Configura-
tion of Chemical Substances and their Susceptibility to
Fermentation, 352
Umow (Prof. N.), an Ingenious Method of Constructing
Magnetic Charts, 184
United Kingdom, Museums, their History and their Use,
with a Bibliography and List of Museums in the, D.
Murray, 554
United States: Forestry in the United States, 32; Hydro-
logy in the, 187; U.S. Department of Agriculture, General
Index to Experiment Station Record, 188; Report of
the United States Naval Observatory, Rear-Admiral
Chester, 211; Destructive Floods in the, in 1903, E. C.
Murphy, 308; Forestry in the, 427; the Magnetic Survey
of the, 449; some Recent Work of the United States
Geological Survey in the Western States, 450; the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 519
Universities : University and Educational Intelligence, 22,
46, 69, 94, 117, 139, 162, 188, 215, 238, 260, 285, 309,
331, 350, 379, 400, 428, 453, 475, 499, 526, 547, 572,
596; New Buildings of the University of Liverpool, the
George Holt Physics Laboratory, New Medical Buildings
of the University of Liverpool, 63; Lord Kelvin and
Glasgow University, 104; a National University Library,
Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 366
Urbain (G.), Purification of Gadolina and on the Atomic
Weight of Gadolinium, 455
Ussher (R. J.), Extinct Mammalia
Cavern near Doneraile, 71
the Ammonite Fauna of the Spiti
in a Carboniferous
Vaile (P. A.), Great Lawn Tennis Players, 436
Valpy (Robert Harris), Death of, 253
Valuable Furs, the Supply of, R. Lydekker, F.R.S., 115
Variability of a Minor Planet, Prof. Wendell, 569
Variable of the Algol Type, a Probable, J. E. Gore, 55
Variable Radial Velocity of Sirius, Prof. Campbell, 494
Variable Radial Velocities, Stars with, 569
Variable Stars: Harvard Observations of Variable Stars,
Prof. E. C. Pickering, 133; Designations of the Variable
Stars Discovered during 1904, 185; Variable Stars and
Nebulous Areas in Scorpio, Miss H. S. Leavitt, 282;
New Variable Stars in the Region about 6 Aquilz, Prof.
Wolf, 519
Variation in Animals and Plants, H. M. Vernon, 243
Variation in Insects, Studies of, Vernon L. Kellogg and
Ruby G. Bell, 545
Variations on the Moon’s Surface, Prof. W. H. Pickering,
II
Variot (G.), the Nutritive Value of Sterilised Cows’ Milk,
167
Vasey (Dr. S. Arch.), What is Brandy? 53
Vegetable Fibres, Spinning and Twisting of Long (Flax,
Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie), Herbert R. Carter, Prof.
Aldred F. Barker, 579
Veley (Mrs. L. J.), Pelomyxa palustris, 599
Veley (Dr. V. H., F.R.S.), What is Brandy? 53; Hydro-
lysis of Ammonium Salts, 239
Velocities of Certain Stars, Radial, Prof. Campbell and
Dr. H. D. Curtis, 519
Velocities, Stars with Variable Radial, 569
Velocity of the Earth’s Rotation, Apparatus for Measuring
the, Prof. A. Féppl, 39
Velocity of Sirius, Variable Radial, Prof. Campbell, 494
Venturo (Sefior), Hzmatite Deposits of Peru, 236
Vererbungs-lehre, Ergebnisse und Probleme der Zeugungs-
und, Prof. Oscar Hertwig, 559
Verne (Jules), Death of, 514
Verneuil (A.), Memoire sur la Réproduction artificielle du
Rubis par Fusion, 180
Vernon (H. M.), Variation in Animals and Plants, 243
Vertebrates, the Animals of New Zealand, an Account of
the Colony’s Air-breathing, F. W. Hutton and J.
Drummond, 199
Vicentini (Prof. G.), Radio-active Sediments of Thermal
Springs, 448; Radio-active Muds, 543
Vicentini (Prof.), Sound -Waves of a
Appreciable Effect on a Building, 621
Victoria, the Government Observatory at,
449
Cannon have no
P. Baracchi,
| Lndex
Victoria Falls, the Physical History of the, A. J. C.
Molyneux, 619
Vier- und fiinfstellige Logarithmentafeln, 271
Vigier (Dr. P.), Hair Follicles of Negroes, 452
Vignon (Léo), Limit of the Reaction between Diazobenzene
and Aniline, 287
Vila (A.), Spectroscopy of the Blood and of Oxyhzmo-
globin, 600
Villari (Prof. Emilio), Obituary Notice of, Prof. A. Roiti,
446
Vines (Prof. S. H., F.R.S.), Proteid Digestion in Animals
and Plants, 189 :
Viola (Prof. C. M.), Grundziige der Kristallographie, 340
Violle (J.), Stereoscopy without a Stereoscope, 23; the
Action of Hail Cannons, 383
Vision, Arris and Gale Lectures on the Neurology of,
J. Herbert Parsons, 340
Vital Products, the Chemical Synthesis of, and the Inter-
relations between Organic Compounds, Prof. Raphael
Meldola, F.R.S., 170
Viticulture : Destruction of Phylloxera by Lysol, G. Cantin,
240
Vivisection : Experiments on the Simultaneous Removal of
Spleen and Thymus, Drs. Noel Paton and Goodall, 263
Voice: the Basic Law of Vocal Utterance, Emil Sutro,
317; Duality of Voice and Speech, Emil Sutro, 317;
Duality of Thought and Language, Emil Sutro, 317
Voit (F. W.), Geology of German South-West Africa, 236
Volcanoes: the Present Condition of Kilauea, Dr. Otto
Kuntze, 20; Renewed Activity of Kilauea, C. H. Hamil-
ton, 589; Activity of Mont Pelée, 588; Occurrence of
Bishop’s Ring, Martinique, F. A. Forel, 591; Recent
Changes in the Crater of Stromboli, Dr. Tempest Ander-
son, 593; Vesuvius again in Full Eruption, 614
Volkov (Th.), Comparative Study of the Skeletal Variations
of the Foot in Primates and in Man, 453
Vuillemin (Paul), Hyphoids and Bacteroids, 263
Vulpecula Cluster, Star Places in the, Dr. H. Meyer, 519
Wade (Dr.), Destruction of Rats and Disinfection on Ship-
board with Special Reference to Plague, 209
Wagner (Richard), Stories from Natural History, 317
Waidner (C. W.), Measurements by Photometric Methods of
the Temperature of the Electric Arc, 132
Waite (E. H.), the Nest of the Fighting Fish, 450
Waldstein (Dr. Charles), Herculaneum and the Proposed
International Excavation, 182
Walker (Prof. James, F.R-S:),
Electrolytes, 238
Walker (George W.), Reversal of Charge from Electrical
Induction Machines, 221; Drift produced in Ions by
Electromagnetic Disturbances and a Theory of Radio-
activity, 406
Waller (Alice M.), ‘‘ Blaze-currents”’ of the Gall Bladder
of the Frog, 429
Waller (Dr. Augustus D., F.R.S.), some Scientific Centres,
the Physiological Research Laboratory of the University
of London, 441 ’
Walmsley (R. M.), Electricity in the Service of Man,
Walsh (E. H. C.),
trict, 453
War, Wireless Telegraphy in, Captain James, 307
Ward (J. J.), Peeps into Nature’s Ways, being Chapters on
Insect, Plant, and Minute Life, 512
Ward (Prof. Marshall, F.R.S.), a Problem Concerning
Wood and Lignified Cell-walls, 71; Trees, 290; Fungi,
Discourse at the Royal Institution, 496
Warth (F. J.), Affinity Constants of
Derivatives, 166
Warth (W. F.), Polyhedral Soap-films, 273
Washington (H. S.), Manual of the Chemical Analysis of
Rocks, 219
Watkin (E. L.), an Interference Apparatus for the Cali-
bration of Extensometers, 47
Watson (Dr. W.), Determination of the Moment of Inertia
of the Magnets used in the Measurement of the Hori-
zontal Component of the Earth’s Field, 622
Watt (Andrew), Inversions of Temperature on Ben Nevis,
583
Watts (F.), Nature Teaching, 5
Theory of Ampnoteric
124
Stone Implements in Darjeeling Dis-
Aniline and _ its
[ Nature,
June 8, 1905
Watts (Dr. F.), Sugar-planting Experiments in the Leeward :
Islands in 1903-4, 615
Watts (W. Marshall), Index of Spectra, 486 :
Wave-group, Growth of a, when the Group-velocity is
Negative, Dr. H. C. Pocklington, 607
Wave-motion, a Simple Model for Illustrating, K. Honda,
295
Waves, Experiment on Pressure due to, Sidney Skinner,
609
Waves, on Deep Water Ship, Lord Kelvin, 382
Webb (Wilfred Mark), Conference of Public School Science
Masters, 284
Weber (Dr. Carl Otto), Death of, 303
Weed (W. H.), Copper in the United States, 162
Wegner (Richard), die Einheit der Naturkrafte in der
Thermodynamik, 29
Weidman (Dr. Samuel), Geology of Baraboo Iron-bearing
District of Wisconsin, 235
Weiss (O.), on the Registration of the n-Rays, 191
Wellcome Research Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial
College, Khartoum, First Report of the, Dr. Andrew
Balfour, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 605
Wells (H. G.), Mankind in the Making, Anticipations, the
Food of the Gods, 193; Fact in Sociology, 319
Welsh Conference on the Training of Teachers, 66
Wendell (Prof.), Variability of a Minor Planet, 569
Wertheimer (Prof. J.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge,
344
Wery (Miss J.), Attractions offered to Bees by Flowers, 492
Wesenberg-Lund (Dr.), Comparison of the Lakes of Den-
mark and Scotland, 383
West (Prof. G. S.), a Treatise on the British Fresh-water
Algz, 194; a Monograph of the British Desmidiacez,
194; the Fresh-water Plankton of the Scottish Lochs,
623
West (W.), a Monograph of the British Desmidiaceze, 194;
the Fresh-water Plankton of the Scottish Lochs, 623
West Indian Madreporarian Polyps, J. E. Duerden, Prof.
Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S., 18
Westermarck (Dr. Ed.), Magic Origin of Moorish Designs,
165; Studies in National Eugenics, 402
Weston (Frank E.), a Scheme for the Detection of the
more Common Classes of Carbon Compounds, 75
Whales: the Whalebone Whales of the Western
Atlantic, Frederick W. True, 84; Eocene Whales,
Lucas, 102; Measurements of Whales at Balena, New-
foundland, F. A. Lucas, 326
Wheat, on a Relation between Autumnal Rainfall and the
Yield of, of the Following Year, Dr. W. N. Shaw,
F.R.S., at Royal Society, 470
Wheeler (R. V.), the Combustion of Ethylene, 7
Wheeler (Prof. William Morton), Ants and some other
Insects, an Inquiry into the Psychic Powers of these
Animals, Dr. August Forel, 24
Wherry (George), the Direction of the Spiral in the Petals
of Selenipedium, 31
Whetham (W. C. D., F.R.S.), the Recent Development of
Physical Science, 291 ; the Origin of Radium, 319 }
White (H. J. O.), Age and Relations of the Phosphatic
Chalk of Taplow, 622 ;
White (Prof. Philip J.), the late Mr. Assheton Smith, 125
White (Sir William, K.C.B.), Recent Visit of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers to the United States and Canada,
Az
Whiting (Arthur), Retouching, 100 : i
Whittaker (E. T.), a Treatise on the Dynamics of Particles
and Rigid Bodies, 601
Whitton (W. A.), Change in the Colour of Moss Agate, 31
Wickes (W. H.), the Rhatic Bone-beds, 161
Widmannstatten’s Figures in Steel Castings, on the Occur-
rence of, Prof. J. O. Arnold and A. McWilliam, 32
Wilde Lecture at Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, the Early History of Seed-bearing Plants as
Recorded in the Carboniferous Flora, Dr. D. H. Scott,
F.R.S., 426 4
Wilderman (Dr. M.), Galvanic Cells produced by the Action
of Light, 333
Willey (Dr. Arthur), Zoological Results based on Material
from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands, and
Elsewhere, collected during the Years 1895, 1896, and
1897, 411
7 Nature, ]
fr June 8, 1905
:
L[ndex hi
P .
Williams (Stanley), the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, 211
Williamson (Dr.), Life-histories of the Edible Crab and
other Decapod Crustacea, 214
Willis (John C.), Compulsory Greek at Cambridge, 273 _
Willows (Dr. R. S.), Action of Radium on the Electric
Spark, 358; Action of a Magnetic Field on the Discharge
through a Gas, 358 :
Wilson (Dr.), the Venom of Egyptian Scorpions, 307 ;
Wilson (Dr. H. C.), Celestial Photography at High Alti-
_ tudes, 114
Wilson (W. E.), Temperature of Certain Stars, 334
Wilson-Barker (Captain D.), Connection of Meteorology
with other Sciences, 334
Wimperis (H. E.), the Temperature of Meteorites, 81
Winckler (Prof. Clemens A.), Death of, 181
Wind Charts for the South Atlantic Ocean, Monthly, 157
Windle (Bertram C. A., F.R.S.), Remains of the Prehistoric
Age in England, 322
Windsor (E. V.), Tenacity to Life of a Grass-snake, 390
Winkler (Clemens Alexander), Death of, 36
Winslow (Mr.), Bacteria in Sewage, 325
Wireless Telegraphy: C. H. Sewall, 1; Wireless Tele-
graphy from Poldhu, Cornwall, to Ancona, Italy, 111;
die Drahtlose -Telegraphie, Dr. Gustav Eichhorn, 220;
Wireless Telegraphy in War, Captain James, 307; Wire-
less Telegraphy between Diamond Island and the Anda-
mans, 445; Wireless Telegraphy with Circular Waves,
Alessandro Artom, 517
Wirtz (C. W.), Eclipse Observations, 159
Wittorff (M.), the Trioxide of Nitrogen, 281
Wolf (Prof. Max), Encke’s Comet (1904 b), 63, 89; the
Reported Sixth Satellite of Jupiter, 306; New Variable
Stars in the Region about 6 Aquila, 519
Wolff (J.), the Diastatic Coagulation of Starch, 240
Wonders of Life, the, a Popular Study of Biological Philo-
sophy, Ernst Haeckel, 313
Wood (Captain H., R.E.), Report on the Identification and
Nomenclature of Himalayan Peaks, 42
Wood (P. W.), Reducibility of Covariants of
Quantics of Infinite Order, 70
Wood (Prof. R. W.), Experiment for Showing the Pressure
due to Sound Waves, 280; the Anomalous Dispersion of
Sodium Vapour, 327
Wood (Prof.), Distribution of Light (Monochromatic) in
the Different Orders of a Typical Grating, 543
Woods (Mr.), Food of the Maine Lumbermen, 254
Woods (Dr. Thomas), Death and Obituary Notice of, 278
Woodward, (Horace B.), Stanford’s Geological Atlas of
Great Britain (Based on Reynolds’s Geological Atlas),
Binary
315
Woolacott (Dr. D.), the Pre-Glacial Valleys of Northumber-
land and Durham, 616
Wooldridge (Prof. G. H.), Temperature of Healthy Dairy
Cattle and of Tuberculous Cattle, 623
Words and Phrases, Misuse of, T. B. S., 9, 54; A. B.
Basset, F.R.S., 30
Wright (Dr. A. A.), Death of, 614
Wright (Prof. A. E.), System of Anti-typhoid Inoculation
in the Army, 14; on the Action Exerted upon the
Staphylococcus pyogenes by the Human Blood Fluids,
and on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in the
Human Organism in Response to Inoculations of a
Staphylococcus Vaccine, 67; on the Action Exerted upon
the Tubercle Bacillus by the Human Blood Fluids, and
on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in the Human
Organism in Response to Inoculations of a Tubercle
Vaccine, 67
Wright (W. B.), the Pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South
Coast of Ireland, 17
Wundt (Wilhelm), Grundziige der physiologischen Psycho-
logie, 529; Principles of Physiological Psychology, 529
Wynne (W. P.), Linin, 478
Wyoming, Copper Deposits of the Encampment District,
A. C. Spencer, 450
Yale Observatory, Report of the, 1900-4, Dr. Elkin, 354
Yearsley (M.), Function of the Antennz in Insects, 430
Young (A.), the Algebra of Invariants, 601
Young (Prof. C. A.), the Sixth Satellite of Jupiter, 364
Younghusband (Sir Frank), Geographical Results of the
Tibet Mission, 377
Yung (Emil), Cause of the Variations in the Length of
the Intestine in the Larva of Rana esculenta, 551
Zalackas (C.), the Antidote to Nicotine, 504
Zammarchi (Prof. S.), Observations of Perseids, 1904, 133
Zanetti (Gino), Superfusion Phenomena, 305
Zara (Levi de), Radio-active Sediments of Thermal Springs,
448
Deer (R.), Plants from the Coal-measures Found in the
Borings at Eply, Lesménils, and Pont-d-Mousson, 551
Zelle, Morphologie und Biologie der, Dr. Alexander Gur-
witsch, 174
Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben, Prof. Dr. Rhumbler, 199
Zeugungs- und Vererbungs-lehre, Ergebnisse und Probleme
der, Prof. Oscar Hertwig, 559
Zinc and Lead Deposits of Northern
Adams, 450
Zodiacal Light, Observations of the, A. Hansky, 4o1
Zon (Raphael), the Chestnut in Southern Maryland, 427°
Zooglcea, on the Origin of Flagellate Monads and of
Fungus-germs from Minute Masses of, Dr. H. Charlton
Bastian, F.R.S., 77; the Heterogenetic Origin of Fungus
Germs, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, 272
Zoology: West Indian Madreporarian Polyps, J. E.
Duerden, Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S., 18; Evolution
of the Horse in America, Prof. H. F. Osborn, 61; a
White Raccoon-dog from Japan, Nycterewtes albus, 61;
the Whalebone Whales of the Western North Atlantic,
Frederick W. True, 84; Measurements of Whales at
Balena, Newfoundland, F. A. Lucas, 326; the Supply of
Valuable Furs, R. Lydekker, F.R.S., 115; Zoological
Society, 118, 165, 190, 333, 420, 477, 502, 574; the
Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland, J. G. Millais,
121; Death of the Old Indian Rhinoceros ‘‘ Jim,’’ 156;
Mark Anniversary Volume, 169; Pinnipedia a Suborder
of Cetacea! 125; the late Mr. Assheton Smith, Prof.
Philip J. White, 125; the Chartley Herd of White Cattle,
129; the Animals of New Zealand, an Account of the
Colony’s Air-breathing Vertebrates, F. W. Hutton and
J. Drummond, 199; the Land and Sea Mammals of
Middle America and the West Indies, D. G. Elliot, 212;
Verhandlung der deutschen zoologischen Gesellschaft for
1904, 247; Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Menschen, Keimes- und Stammes-geschichte, Ernst
Haeckel, 265; Morphologische Studien, als Beitrag zur
Methodologie zoologischer Probleme, Tad. Garbowski,
265 ; Untersuchungen tiber den Phototropismus der Tiere,
Dr. Em. Radl, 265; Graber’s Leitfaden der Zoologie fiir
hohere Lehranstalten, 265; Second Report on Economic
Zoology, British Museum (Natural History), Fred V.
Theobald, 272; the Lizards of the Andamans, N. Annan-
dale, 288; an Aquatic Glow-worm in India, 288; Ameri-
can Hydroids, part ii., Sertularide, C. C. Nutting, 331;
Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898, 1899,
sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de Gomery,
337; Arboreal Ancestry of Mammals, W. D. Matthew,
351; Death of Prof. H. Landois, 371; New Family and
Twelve New Species of Rotifera of the Order Bdelloida,
J. Murray, 383; the Affinity of the Endothiodont
Reptiles, Dr. R. Broom, 399; Zoological Results based
on Material from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty
Islands, and Elsewhere, collected during the Years 1895,
1896, and 1897, Dr. Arthur Willey, 411; Obituary Notice
of Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S., 419; Death of Dr. A. S.
Packard, 420; Natterer’s Bat, T. A. Coward, 446; the
Zoological Record, Volume the Fortieth, Relating Chiefly
to the Year 1903, 459; Zoological Nomenclature, Rev.
T. R. R. Stebbing, 478; Greater Kudu of Somaliland,
R. I. Pocock, 478; Anatomy of Typhlomolge rathbuni,
the Blind Salamander, Miss Emerson, 515; Régles inter-
nationales de la Nomenclature zoologique, 534; the
Transposition of Zoological Names, R. Lydekker,
F.R.S., 608; the Wild Horses of Sable Istand, A. P.
Silver, 615
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A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
“To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—WoRDSWORTH.
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 1904.
APPLIED ELECTRICITY.
(1) Wireless Telegraphy. By C. H. Sewall. Pp. 229.
(London : Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1903.) Price
ros. 6d. net.
(2) Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture. By
Prof. S. Lemstrém. Pp. iv+72. (London: The
Electrician Printing and Publishing Co., Ltd., 1904.)
(3) Modern Electric Practice. Vol. iv. Edited by
Magnus Maclean. Pp. vili+ 304. (London: The
Gresham Publishing Co., 1904.)
(4) The Theory of the Lead Accumulator. By F.
Dolezalek. Translated by C. L. von Ende. Pp.
xii+241. (New York: John Wiley and Sons;
London: Chapman and Hall, stds 1904.) Price
tos. 6d. net.
(5) Electric Motors. By H. M. Hobart. Pp. x+458. |
(London : Whittaker and Co., 1904.) Price 12s. 6d.
net.
(6) Notices sur V’Electricité. By A. Cornu. Pp. viit+
274. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1904.) Price 5
francs.
(7) L’Année Technique (1902-1903). By A. Da Cunha.
Pp. 303. (Paris: Librairie Gauthier-Villars, 1903.)
Price 3.50 francs.
(1) YN ei wireless telegraphy is of such
recent development, it is apparently regarded
by many as a legitimate subject for historical writing.
The first volume before us is one of several which have
appeared in the last three or four years in which the
historical progress of wireless telegraphy is dealt with
rather than its scientific principles. The book possesses
to our mind the same faults which characterise all the
other similar publications which we have read; there
is a lack of discrimination in the selection of material
which is likely to leave the untechnical reader in a
state of considerable confusion. Wireless telegraphy
as we know it to-day is wholly concerned with Hertzian
wave telegraphy, and even if accounts of the experi-
ments of Lindsay and others in telegraphy by earth or
water conduction should be regarded as legitimate, we
NO. 1827, VOL. 71 |
cannot see by what possible stretch of the imagination
the achievements of, say, Marconi can be traced back
to the prophecies of Galileo in 1632.
Mr. Sewall’s method of compiling history appears
to consist chiefly in making extracts from patents.
Page after page of the book before us contains nothing
more than reprints from the patents of Lodge, Marconi,
Fessenden, and others, sometimes verbatim in inverted
commas, at others with slightly altered context
as original matter. We imagine it must be easier
to write books in this way than it is interesting to read
them. Mr. Sewall would have been much _ better
advised, we think, to digest his material properly and
present it to his readers in some more acceptable form.
He could then have given a connected account of the
remarkable developments that have followed the dis-
coveries of Maxwell and Hertz which would have been
of great practical use to students of the subject. At
present we doubt if his book is intelligible to the
| amateur or useful to the expert.
(2) The late Prof. S. Lemstrém occupied himself for
many years with experiments on the effect of electricity
on growing plants, and this little book contains the
results of his work. If the conclusions at which the
author arrives are confirmed by the work of other in-
vestigators, the subject is one which merits the most
careful consideration by all agriculturists. Practically
only one type of experiment was tried; an influence
machine was connected with one pole to earth and the
other to a wire network over a field in which the crops
were being grown. A discharge current could thus be
passed either from the network to earth or vice versd
for any desired number of hours a day. The experi-
ments were tried on a comparatively large scale in
several different localities. The effect produced by
this treatment was remarkable. There was an
average excess of the crop of the experimental field
over that of a control field of 45 per cent.; the
excess varies considerably with the nature of
the crop and the conditions, soil, weather, &c. Not
only is this increase in quantity produced, but there is
also often an improvement in quality and a diminution
in the time taken for the plants to mature. This last
is a factor often of great importance to the grower,
LB
to
who can realise much higher prices by selling early in
the season. Prof. Lemstrém calculated that in the case
of wheat the outlay on a field of 25 acres will be repaid
in two or three years, and that afterwards a net profit
of 4ol. a year or more can be realised. We cannot here
enter into the details of the working, such as the best
time of electrification, the effect of wet and dry weather,
and so forth, but we should strongly advise those
interested in the subject to study this book carefully;
they will find it full of valuable suggestions, and the
time spent in reading it will be amply repaid.
(3) We have already reviewed the first three volumes
of this publication, so that it is only necessary here to
refer briefly to the matter contained in the present
volume. This is devoted to electric tramways, and
is divided into seven chapters, dealing with overhead
construction, feeders, surface contact systems, con-
duit systems, rolling stock, electric boats and motor
cars, and electric traction on railways. The defects
to which we alluded in our previous review are not
so noticeable in this volume, which furnishes a good
description of a very important branch of electrical
engineering. The excellence of the illustrations is a
characteristic of the whole production, and is a par-
ticularly valuable feature in the present instance, as the
subjects are such that they cannot be effectually de-
scribed without numerous photographs and diagrams.
(4) This exceedingly interesting monograph on the
much debated theory of the chemical reactions taking
place in the lead accumulator is probably already well
known in the original German to those who have con-
cerned themselves specially with this subject. Since
the book first appeared the discussion has progressed
a stage further, so that the English translation may
be said to be out of date to a certain extent. This is,
however, the penalty that the average English student
has to pay for the neglect of his schoolmasters to
teach him German, and he will probably therefore
welcome the appearance of an English translation.
Herr Dolezalek treats the subject from the standpoint of
Nernst’s osmotic theory, and shows that thermo-
chemical considerations all point to the validity of the
sulphate theory originally advanced by Gladstone and
Tribe. Whether the author will succeed in satisfying
others to the same extent as he has apparently satisfied
himself may be regarded as open to question, but in
any case the book is one which cannot be neglected by
anyone wishing to study this complicated but fascin-
ating problem.
(5) The design and construction of electric motors
is becoming daily a matter of more importance to
electrical engineers on account of the very rapid
extension of the use of electricity for power purposes.
When one considers the enormous number of tramcars,
lifts, factories, &c., which are driven by electricity, it
is easy to see not only how important the subject is, but
also how very varied is the work which the electric
motor is called upon to perform. If the development
now is great, in a few years’ time, when some of the
numerous power schemes are more matured, it will be
much greater still. The student of electrical engineer-
ing may find here ample scope for his abilities, and he
cannot consult a better guide than the volume before us.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
NATORE,
| in many cases excellent.
[NOVEMBER 3, 1904
The book is divided into two parts, the first dealing
with continuous and the second with alternating
current motors. The relative advantages of different
types are considered in detail, and there are numerous
calculations of motors of different types and capacities.
In addition, there are a large number of curves,
diagrams, and photographs.
(6) The essays which are comprised in M. Cornu’s
little book were written with a special and rather
peculiar object, the author having been requested by
some of his old pupils, who had been unable to keep
touch with the rapid development of electrical engineer-
ing, to write for them something which would enable
them to appreciate better the technical or semi-technical
literature of to-day. These ‘‘ Notices’? are conse-
quently of a somewhat elementary character, nor can
the book be regarded in any sense as a text-book of
electricity. But M. Cornu has succeeded in writing a
book which should appeal to a very much larger
audience than that for which it was originally in-
tended; one cannot look through its pages without
realising at every point that it is the work of a master,
and such works repay study by all—the most advanced
as well as the most elementary students. The be-
ginner will find here ideas expressed clearly and
concisely, and cannot fail to derive great benefit from
the book as an introduction to more detailed treatises.
The engineer will see well known facts expressed in
new and suggestive language, and will doubtless have
his own views enlarged in consequence. The subjects
dealt with are the correlation of the phenomena of
static and dynamic electricity, generators, transmission
of power and polyphase currents, and we would
strongly recommend anyone interested in any of these
matters to spend a few hours reading M. Cornu’s
admirable booklet.
(7) We cannot help being conscious that the end of
1904 is rather late in the day to review a book which
contains a résumé of the technical achievements of
1903. Still, as we gather that this publication is
intended to appear annually, this notice may be of
some service in directing readers’ attention to the
volume dealing with this year’s progress, which we
imagine will appear very soon; in addition, it may be
pleaded that the lapse of time enables one to see matters
more in the right perspective, and so to form a better
estimate of the value of M. Da Cunha’s work. The
book ranges over a great variety of subjects. Thus
we find at one place a mathematical calculation of the
mechanical problems involved in ‘‘ looping the loop,’’
and in another a discussion of alcoholism and temper-
ance worthy of the columns of a daily paper in the
silly season. Between these extremes lie such subjects
as the progress in wireless telegraphy, automobilism,
aérial navigation, and the hundred and one other
technical developments which are taking place in all
branches of applied science. To the engineer the book
can serve no other purpose than to while away an idle
hour or so. The general reader who is interested in
scientific and technical progress may read it with both
profit and pleasure. He will find the descriptions clear,
the style agreeable, and the illustrations and diagrams
1 M. S.
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
NALORL
2
o
ADOLESCENCE.
Adolescence: its Psychology and its Relations to
Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime,
Religion. By G. Stanley Hall, Ph.D., LL.D.,
President of Clark University and Professor of
Psychology and Pedagogy. Vol. i., pp. xx+589;
vol. ii., pp. vit784. (New York: D. Appleton and
Co., 1904.) Price 31s. 6d. net.
HIS work is one of wide-reaching scope and
interest. The subject of human growth has
already been studied in relation to the earlier years
and in its special features. The period intervening
between childhood and adult life, which has been com-
paratively neglected, is the one to which Dr. Hall has
directed his investigation. The work is thus of interest
in focussing attention on an important section of
human life; it is of value also in that the results of
biology and anthropology are freely used in supple-
menting and interpreting the data which are gained
from physiological and psychological investigation.
The first three chapters deal mainly with physical
growth, taking up in order the increase in height and
weight, the growth of parts and organs, and the
growth in muscular power. The next two chapters
deal with the physical and mental disorders of
adolescence, and with juvenile faults and immorality.
Sex is taken up in three chapters, one relating to boys
and two to girls; of these two chapters one deals with
the physiology of sex, the other with its bearing on
education. Dr. Hall insists with great earnestness on
the necessity of ceasing to mould woman’s education
on that of man, and of finding an education which
shall be adapted to her nature, physical and mental.
The volume closes with an account of adolescence in
literature, biography, and history.
In the second volume, after a preliminary survey of
changes in the senses and in voice, the emotional
phenomena of adolescence are treated under the head-
ings of adolescent love and adolescent feeling towards
nature. Several chapters deal with social and
historical relations; initiations in savage and classical
times, confirmation as their correlative in modern
religion, the social instincts and institutions of youth,
ethnic psychology, and the treatment of uncivilised
races, form the subject of successive discussions. In
treating the subject of religious conversion, Dr. Hall
points out that it is peculiarly a phenomenon of
adolescence, and that it has close relations to the sexual
life. ‘‘It is thus,’? he says, ‘“‘no accidental syn-
chronism of unrelated events that the age of religion
and that of sexual maturity coincide.’’ In the chapter
on intellectual development and education there is a
careful review of education in school and college, and
a discussion of its value in the light of the results
presented in preceding sections. Dr. Hall does not
hesitate to condemn vigorously and comprehensively
the studies and methods of schools for their aridity
and want of vital relation to the developing individual,
and though his criticisms are directed to American
schools, they have a wider application.
It will thus be seen that we have in these volumes
a text-book of adolescence in which scientific and
NO. 1827, VOL 71]
practical interests are closely blended. Underlying the
scientific treatment there may be said to be two lead-
ing principles. One principle is that of the intimate
union, or rather the identity, of physiological and
psychological processes.
“* More summarily, then,’’ he says, ‘‘ the idea of
soul we hold to is in its lower stages indistinguishable
from that of life, and so far in a sense we revert to
Aristotle, in holding that any truly scientific psycho-
logy must be first of all biological. . . . The first
chapter of a scientific psychology, then, is metabolic
and nutritive, and the first function of the soul is in
food getting, assimilation, and dissimilation.”’
The other principle, of greater novelty and interest,
is the application of the recapitulation theory to the
mental as well as the bodily life of childhood and youth.
“ Realising the limitations and qualifications of the
recapitulation theory in the biologic field, I am now
convinced that its psychogenetic applications have a
method of their own, and although the time has not
yet come when any formulation of these can have much
value, I have done the best with each instance as it
arose.’
In his application of this theory Dr. Hall is un-
doubtedly original, but it is strange that among the
many references to the literature of the subject there
should be no mention of the work of Baldwin on
““ Mental Development in the Child and the Race,”’ im
which the same theory is applied in detail.
That the work took its origin in courses of lectures
may perhaps explain in part the diffuseness and repeti-
tion which appear in these pages. There is an un-
necessarily frequent use of strange words; one is at a
loss to understand, for example, what is meant by the
““solipsistic hopo’’ and by minds that are ‘‘ rily.”’
One meets with long lists of objects and with masses
of facts which are not adequately correlated.
It is impossible to enter on a discussion of the many
theoretical and practical questions which are raised.
The treatment of the material, gathered from the most
varied sources, is original and suggestive in a high
degree; but among the wealth of new material and
new conceptions one misses an exact discussion of the
method by which the processes of psychogenesis are to
be ascertained. Prominent among the data in the
book are the results of the questionnaires which have
been so much used by Dr. Hall and his pupils. We
have, however, no presentation of the difficulties
inherent in such a method of investigation, and of the
precautions to be adopted in utilising its results.
Apart from this special point there is the difficulty,
which does not receive adequate attention, of dis-
tinguishing in any stage of adolescent development
what is to be regarded as ‘‘ paleopsychic,’’ what is
due to traditions and customs handed down from
generation to generation of boys and girls, and lastly,
what is conditioned primarily by the awakening mental
and physical activity of the individual as he reacts on
his experience. There is not sufficient treatment
of the idea of individual growth in completeness and
complexity, and of its relation to factors of de-
velopment, the meaning of which is to be sought in
past organic history; and one feels that some of the
suggestions of racial influences are little more than.
4
NATURE
[NovEMBER 3, 1904
interesting fancies. We may illustrate these points by
reference to the author’s interpretation of the child’s
attitude towards water. Human infants, we are told
in one passage, have an untaught horror of water, and
man must learn to swim. This is part of the evidence
that there are ‘‘ psychic vestiges in man which are
suggestive of former arboreal life.’’ Again, we learn
that ‘‘ children are phyletically older than women, and
after the first shock and fright most of them take the
greatest delight in water.’’ This, among other pheno-
mena, may be interpreted as a ‘‘ pelagic vestige.’ Do
we need arboreal or pelagic vestiges to account for the
fact that, while some children dislike water at first
and others delight in it, most of them in the end find
it an excellent plaything? We iG. S:
A NATURALIST ON THE EAST COAST.
Notes of an East Coast Naturalist. By Arthur H.
Patterson. Illustrated in colour by F. Southgate.
Pp. xiv+304. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.)
Price 6s.
HE author of these notes, who has been in the
habit of spending his spare time in a house-boat
moored on Breydon Water and other East Anglian
lagoons, has naturally enjoyed opportunities of making
observations which are given to few people; for
Breydon is a locality probably more famous than any
other in the annals of British ornithology as a place
where rare birds are in the habit of ‘‘ dropping in.”
Moreover, as all field naturalists know, early morning
and nightfall, ay, even night itself, are the times when
the good things of their lives come to them. Hence
the advantage of living on the field. In the latter part
of the quarter of a century which these notes cover the
author discarded the gun in favour of the field-glass,
and could thus give undivided attention to observation
without being distracted by the hopes and fears
attendant on the wildfowler’s efforts to obtain ‘‘a
shot.”’
Breydon is a very carefully protected breeding area.
A watcher has been stationed there for several years
during the close season; but it will perhaps be dis-
appointing (although we hope it may prove instructive)
to ardent advocates of county council ‘‘ orders’ to
find that Mr. Patterson writes, ‘‘I must, however,
state that since stricter preservation has obtained, not
nearly so many birds are to be seen on Breydon.”’
It is impossible to deny the fact that no amount of
preservation will bring back the breeding birds which
left us with the spread of population and buildings, and
the alterations in the system of agriculture. The
spoonbills come and go in safety, but the late date at
which they arrive shows that nesting is not the object
of their visits. As a former east coast naturalist, re-
markable for his common-sense views of such subjects,
wrote years ago, ‘“‘ Unless England becomes dis-
peopled and uncultivated, nothing can ever bring back
in numbers or variety the wealth of the ancient avi-
fauna.’’ But for all that the naturalist still ‘‘ has his
delights ’’ on Breydon; as, for instance, on May 15,
1893, when the author, paddling up stream, saw on
the ‘‘ lumps ’’ still uncovered by water ‘‘ a congrega-
NO. 1827, VOL. 71
tion of no less than eighteen Black Terns, more than
fifty Turnstones, several Common and Arctic Terns,
a number of Dunlins, Grey Plovers, Whimbrel and
Godwits, and not least worthy of a glance, three
Spoonbills.”’
To one who is learned in the fishes of our
seas, ready access to Yarmouth Market, and an
extensive acquaintance among the fishermen have
been a great advantage, and many a rare fish
has the author rescued from oblivion and added
to the east coast catalogue of fishes. Not the least
valuable part of the book is that containing the fish
notes, although the bulk of the volume deals with
birds, their migrations and habits. Among the
various interesting scraps of information here collected
we find a record of the value of birds and the prices
realised by the wildfowler and at the sales of noted
collections; accounts of wildfowl brought into the
market in hard winters, and incidents related by old-
time wildfowlers, whose habits and customs, as well
as their recollections of the hard winters and wildfowl
of the ‘‘ old days,’’? are most amusing. Whales, crabs,
lobsters, toads, insects, and rats all find a place in
these very readable notes. Indeed, some of the most
valuable paragraphs relate to the old English black
rat, now extinct in most parts of the country, but so
abundant in the malthouses and sail lofts of Yarmouth
that Mr. Patterson can write of ‘“‘a plague of Black
Rats.’’ This and many other of the records are well
worth preserving as of permanent value, and the
author is quite justified in thinking that some value
may attach to these notes and observations ‘‘ owing
to their dealing with a period during which great
changes have taken place in the habitat of the local
fauna.’’
The twelve plates of bird-life reproduced in colours
are among the most pleasing things of the kind we
have seen, and these alone make the book one which
all field naturalists will like to put on their shelves.
OF VAL
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR BEGINNERS.
Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By Prof.
A. Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (London:
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 4s. 6d. net.
HE introductory chapter of Prof. Liversidge’s
book makes it clear that it is only when
analytical methods are used intelligently that the time
devoted to qualitative analysis is well spent, and to
that end the student must have some preliminary
training in other kinds of simple practical work (not
described in the book), and be frequently supervised,
lectured to, and examined as his work progresses.
All this is very right and proper, and quite as it
should be, but leaving out the excellent counsel of
perfection set forth in the introduction, the book is
very much like other books on this subject. That
is to say, it describes a series of qualitative tests in
which inorganic and organic bases and acids, rare
metals, and alkaloids are treated individually, and
then collectively in tables after the old-established
manner and with the old-established purpose.
a
NOVEMBER 3, 1904]
NATURE 5
It should be stated, however, that some attempt is
made to introduce quantitative notions into the
qualitative methods by using roughly weighed
amounts of the substances; but the effect is somewhat
discounted by the frequent omission of the quantity
and strength of the reagents. I refer more particu-
larly to the use of ‘ drops,’? which may vary con-
siderably in bull, and to the omission of the strength
of the acids.
Prof. Liversidge attaches great importance to
the study of qualitative analysis as a means as well
as an end of chemical education. It is an opinion
very widely held, and is well worth discussing.
The fact is sometimes lost sight of that chemistry
is a handicraft as well as a science, and that its
science is as yet not exact.
Perhaps there is no branch of chemistry wherein
the skill of the craftsman is in greater demand, or
the inexactness of the science more clearly emphasised,
than in chemical analysis.
A student may study intelligently the reactions for
individual elements, and so learn their properties; but
he finds that when they are mixed they behave
differently, and the more observant and careful he is
the more will these subtle influences, which conform
to no equation, become apparent.
No substance is insoluble; mass action is a power-
ful factor; a precipitate will carry down a substance
which should, for all he knows, remain in solution,
and a substance will retain another in solution
which, for equally occult reasons, should form a
precipitate.
Tables for the analysis of mixtures, which are
based on the behaviour of single substances by a
process of simple logic, become artificial and illusory,
and give a sense of false security which subsequent
experience alone can dispel.
Is this a subject for extended study on the part of
a beginner in chemistry? In the opinion of the
writer the preparation of simple substances and a
careful study of their properties, into which the
general principles of qualitative and quantitative
analysis are introduced, is his proper sphere of work.
The host of reactions and elaborate tables of separa-
tions, and still more the countless precautions,
Kunstgriffe, and manipulative details of practical
analysis are a part of the handicraft of the specialist
in chemistry. To thrust this work upon a beginner
who is not to be a specialist is almost equivalent to
expecting a student of mechanics, who is not to be
an engineer, to work a lathe or use a planing
machine.
The crux of the whole question lies in this, that
qualitative analysis is a branch of practical work, call-
ing itself chemistry, which can be easily adapted to the
process of examination. Were the practical examin-
ation banished from the syllabus and replaced by note-
books supervised, signed and submitted by the
responsible demonstrator or teacher of recognised
standing, the mass of ill-digested analytical tests and
tables would soon vanish from the curricula of
schools and colleges, and its place supplied by a series
of rational exercises. Ha BMC
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Les Lois naturelles. By Félix Le Dantec. Pp.
XVi+ 308. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1904.) Price
6 francs.
Just as “‘ anyone can play the piano ”’ with a piano-
player, so anyone can write a book on the philosophy
of science. The result gives satisfaction and pleasure
to the performer in one case and to the writer in the
other, but whether his particular interpretation is
equally satisfying to an outsider is another question.
The effects are, however, more lasting in the case
of the author, for we are getting such an enormous
accumulation of books on space, matter, force, the
ether, and laws of nature that it is becoming a
wonder who finds time to read them or even to cut
their pages, if the publisher has failed to attend to his
proper duties in this respect.
Let us examine how M. Le Dantec deals with
thermodynamical considerations. In commencing
he supposes bodies to have definite thermic masses,
and he defines quantities of heat by the products of
these masses into the changes of temperature. He
also enunciates the principle of conservation of heat
according to which the heat gained by one body is
equal to that lost by another. But in the first place
the quantities which he calls thermic masses are not
constant for the same body between the same limits
of temperature, but they also depend on whether the
changes take place at constant pressure or constant
volume; and, in the second place, his equation of con-
servation of heat is contrary to common experience
of what happens when two rough bodies rub against
each other. In the next chapter the author goes on
a different tack, and speaks of the equivalence of
quantities of work and quantities of heat, quite
regardless (to all outside appearances) of the fact
that the term ‘‘ quantity of heat’’ is meaningless
except in the case of passage of heat from one body
to another. In the next chapter the author condemns
the use of the term ‘‘ quantity of heat ’’ altogether.
What ideas can a reader form of the nature of
physical laws after perusing such a series of chapters
as this?
Nature Teaching. By F. Watts and W. G. Freeman.
Pp. xi+i193. (London: Murray, 1904.) Price
3s. 6d.
Tuts little book forms a welcome change from the
many appearing under similar titles in that it is
avowedly based upon experiments, and treats of
things about which the writers really know and have
not merely read up. Dealing in the main with the life
of the plant, it describes a simple series of experiments
within the capacity of an elementary school or an even-
ing continuation class, illustrating the function of seed,
root, stem, leaf, &c., and amplifying the knowledge
thus obtained with further examples drawn from the
practice of the garden or the farm. A certain lack of
definiteness in the description of experiments militates
at times against the spirit in which the book has been
conceived ; in a subject where everything depends upon
the cultivation of accurate observation and rigorous
scientific method the authors should not allow them-
selves to fall into the slipshod generalised accounts of
things which are the bane of so much of the current
teaching of this nature. For instance, in their account
of striking cuttings, the authors do not direct attention
to the differences in the management of herbaceous
and woody cuttings, the time of year at which they
should be struck, and so forth, so that the teacher with-
out experience would be apt to fumble over the matter
at first, and would in real life be discouraged from try-
ing any experiments in this particular direction unless.
6 NATURE
[ NOVEMBER 3, 1904
he got hold of a gardener to give him some practical
advice. However, with this slight drawback, the book
is admirably designed for the teacher who wishes to
work out an elementary course of instruction for a
country school, either as an introduction to practical
life or to a more special study of agriculture and horti-
culture.
Diseases of the Nervous
System. Pp. 279; price 7s. 6d. II. Lectures on
Diseases of the Nervous System. Second _ series.
Pp. 250; price 6s. net. By Sir William R. Gowers,
M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. (London: J. and A.
Churchill, 1895 and 1904.)
In these two volumes Sir William Gowers has collected
in revised form a number of clinical lectures which
have appeared in various medical journals. In the
latter volume he has also printed the Bowman lecture
on subjective visual sensations delivered to the
Ophthalmological Society, and the Bradshaw lecture
on the subjective sensations of sound. The clinical
lectures deal with many subjects in neurology; some
are mainly descriptive, some speculative. In reading
them one not only appreciates the original and
suggestive way in which the facts are presented, but
also the finished literary style. In a short notice it is
impossible to deal with them in detail. The two
lectures on the subjective sensations of vision and hear-
ing are perhaps of wider scientific interest than the
clinical lectures. In the first the visual phenomena
experienced by sufferers from migraine are described
and figured, and there is an admirable résumé of
physiological teaching with reference to vision. In
the second lecture the phenomena of tinnitus, of
auditory vertigo, and other labyrinthine sensations are
discussed in a luminous and attractive way. Both
neurologists and physiologists will find much in these
volumes to assist and to stimulate them in researches
into nervous phenomena.
Lectures Scientifiques. A French Reader for Science
Students containing Extracts from Modern French
Scientific works in Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics,
Physiology and Botany, with a Glossary of Technical
Terms. By W. G. Hartog, B.A. Pp. vii+371.
(London: Rivingtons, 1904.) Price 5s.
“Tue University of London now insists that candidates
for a degree in science shall be able to read and under-
stand accounts in the original of French and German
scientific work. In compiling this book Mr. Hartog
has had the needs of such students in mind so far as
French is concerned, and he has succeeded in bring-
ing together a varied and representative collection of
extracts from French scientific works and scientific
periodicals. Among the latter the Revue générale des
Sciences takes a very prominent position, contributing
to Mr. Hartog’s collection as many as fifteen extracts.
The book should be of service not only to the under-
graduates referred to, but also to students of science
everywhere, for it is now more than ever necessary that
the man of science should be able to acquaint himself
at first hand with the results of fellow-workers abroad.
L’Industrie oléicole (Fabrication de l’Huile d’Olive).
By J. Dugast. Pp. 176. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars
and Masson et Cie., n.d.) Price 3 francs.
~Tuis little volume, which belongs to the Aide-Mémoire
series, is a practical account of the manufacture of
olive oil, and indicates several directions in which the
results of scientific research have been utilised to im-
prove technical processes. The formation and compo-
sition of olives are first explained, then the methods of
extracting the oil are described and an account given
of the appliances necessary for the purpose. The
properties and methods of preservation of olive oil and
the utilisation of the oil-cake are also considered.
NO. 1827, VoL. 71]
I. Clinical Lectures on
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
A Note on the Coloration of Spiders.
Ir is well known that in a large number of animals, both
vertebrate and invertebrate, the colour of the flanks and
ventral side of the body differs from that of the dorsal. In
the majority of cases the dorsal surface is most darkly
tinted, the ventral palest, and the flanks intermediate in
depth of tone between these two. This gradation of colour-
ing has the effect of neutralising the shadows that are cast
by the upper upon the lower portions of the body. Thus the
animal does not stand out in prominent relief, but is, so to
speak, artistically flattened, and thereby rendered less
conspicuous.
To this general rule I have recently observed an interest-
ing exception which affords strong evidence in favour of
the truth of the above interpretation. The spiders belong-
ing to the genus Linyphia are, almost without exception,
darkly coloured upon the ventral surface; their flanks are
variously slashed with oblique white bars and stripes, while
their dorsal surface is yet more freely speckled with white
or pale spots and lines. In these spiders, then, the scheme
of coloration is the exact opposite to that which prevails
elsewhere. Now the Linyphiide spin horizontal webs, in
the centre of which they rest inverted, clinging to the lower
side. Thus it is the ventral side of a Linyphia that is ex-
posed to the strongest light, the dorsal side being in the
deepest shadow. The inversion of attitude at once fully
explains the inverted shading of the body.
Oswatp H. LATTER.
Charterhouse, Godalming, October 30.
Sir J. Eliot’s Address at Cambridge.
AGAINST some of the main conclusions of Sir J. Eliot’s
opening address before Section A (subsection: cosmical
physics) may be set the facts that south-east winds are rare
on the south-east coast of South Africa, and that the rain
of the greater part of the tableland and south-east coast
comes mostly from some northerly direction.
My concern, however, is chiefly with the following re-
marks, reported in Nature of August 25 last :—
““The chief features of the rainfall of the period 1895—
1902, in the Indo-oceanic region were as follows:—... .
There was a marked tendency in each year for late com-
mencement and early withdrawal of the monsoon currents,
and for deficient rainfall throughout the whole season over *
the greater part of India. These features were very pro-
nounced in the years 1896, 1899, and 1901. The most re-
markable feature of the period was that the region to the
south of the equator, including South and East Africa,
Mauritius, and Australia, was similarly affected. . . . Mr.
Hutchins, Conservator of Forests, Cape Town, states that
drought prevailed more or less persistently over the Karroo
region in South Africa from 1896 to 1903, and that cattle
and sheep perished by millions. He also states that the
drought extended to British Central Africa from 1898 to
1903. The previous statements evidence the continuity,
extension, and intensity of the drought. . . . The preceding
statements have shown that variations of rainfall for pro-
longed periods similar in character have occurred, and may
hence occur again, over the very large area including the
Southern Asian peninsulas, East and South Africa
Australia, and perhaps the Indian Ocean. The abnormal
actions or conditions giving rise to these large and prolonged
variations must hence be persistent for long periods, and
be effective over the whole of that extensive area.’’
Now the question is, what is a drought? From one
point of view there is nothing but drought over a very large
area of South Africa. But I gather from the table you
print, showing the variation of the mean actual rainfall
from the normal in India, that by drought is meant unusual
and prolonged general dryness setting up marked economic
results such as “‘large loss of cattle and great loss of
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
NATURE
7
capital,’’ and so forth. If that interpretation is correct,
then there has been no such drought in South Africa in
the years stated.
This is proved by the accompanying table. It shows the
average rainfall over each of the twenty rainfall districts
of South Africa, during each year, in percentages of the
means. These means have been computed for 160 stations
having long records of twenty years, more or less, and are
fully given and explained in my “ Introduction to the Study
of South African Rainfall.’’ The information from which
they are derived is open to all who take the trouble to look
for it in the annual reports of the Cape Meteorological
Commission.
The great mortality among cattle and stock can be ex-
plained without assuming that there has been a prolonged
drought. In farming matters we live from hand to mouth.
Farmers of the Karroo prefer to pray for rain rather than
take the trouble to store it up when it comes. Therefore, if
the rain is short in the late summer, and late in coming
in the next spring, they have no reserve to fall back upon,
and their cattle die. One year’s drought kills off the stock
almost as surely as fifty years’ would. For instance, there
was great loss of stock in 1897. Yet what were the facts
of rainfall? At my station, where the annual mean is about
18-5 inches, the fall in December, 1896, was 8-42 inches ;
in the whole of 1897 it was 8-85 inches, and in January,
Percentages of Rainfall in the Various Districts of South Africa during the Years 1891 to 1902.
Sections 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
F al ae
I. Cape Peninsula 101 135 87 82 92 So 97 118 106 86 98 142
II. South-West 85 137 107 93 105 69 89 | 117 IIO 106 108 149
III. West Coast 97 139 103 94 86 57 84 | 122 128 122 99 | 122
IV. South Coast, W. 104 131 104 | 95 82 100 81 80 68 105 116 142
a * is fares 133 112 116 | 89 88 104 III 95 64 87 103 125
V. Southern Karroo, W. 98 104 | (105) | 110 78 99 80 79 80 118 123 144
oP Ah ote ‘ope 138 103 116 85 74 IO1 86 65 55 93 104 130
VI. West-Central Karroo, W. 73 122 92 94 87 72 92 84 66 125 123 128
VI. West-Central Karroo, E. | 135 112 114 | 147 98 IOI 82 | 86 87 131 93 87
VII. East-Central Karroo | 134 97 115 99 95 97 74 gI 64 105 103 97
VIII. Northern Karroo, W. III 91 T20e e023 92 81 60 Sie lPDI6. 135 107 66
an re 135 | 163 107 10 Oa © Con Imp (oy) 98 55 104 95 97 105 82
IX. Northern Border, W. 130 104 97 | 153 83 83 43 78 173 132 95 53
” ” E. 162 93 GON ESS 97 83 51 105 106 89 | III 94
X. South-East 138 103 12 93 94 103 83 95 75 82 92 96
XI. North-East 162 112 128 99 94 105 55 110 98 838 97 82
XII. Kaffraria ... 136 1c8 150 98 99 107 80 107 72 69 9I 94.
XIII. Basutoland Re da | 125 104 12 92 104 106 68 107 98 83 105 101
XIV. Orange River Colony 143 III 108 | 101 108 83 70 | 105 104 94 92 87
XV. Natal... wis ae 114 96 153 98 120 107 go 119 87 74 112 97
Summary—
Area of Winter Rains... ... 0... ... 94 137 99 90 94 69 go | 119 115 105 102 138
», Spring and Autumn Rains ... | 109 114 107 95 82 95 90 81 67 106 114 134
>» Summer, Rains | 138 103 I2I | 114 99 96 68 100 98 98 100 86
South Africa 124 Ill | 114 | 105 94 | 92 77 98 93 101 104 106
} |
It is pretty plain that the area of winter rains, including
the west coast and Cape Peninsula, was short of rain in
1896; that 1897 was a dry year over the area of summer
rains, which comprises the greater part of South Africa;
and that the south coast and adjacent districts, where the
rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year, had a dry
year in 1899, and one not very wet in 1895. ‘The area of
summer rains, being so much greater than the rest, of
course sets the tone of the mean rainfall of the whole
country, making 1897 a dry year on the whole, and 1891 a
very wet year.
There seem to be dry areas somewhere or other in pretty
well every year. For example, the rainfall was short in the
western part of the area of summer rains in 1902, although
the fall was good enough further east. It was short over
the east-central Karroo and south-east in 1899 in sympathy
with the dryness of the south in that year. Even in 1891
there was a short fall over an extensive region.
I fancy that the impression of unusual dryness over South
Africa. in recent years arises from the misleading mean
values used by the Meteorological Commission for com-
parative purposes. These are taken from Buchan’s rather
futile “* Rainfall of South Africa,’’ and average fully two
inches (equal to perhaps 1o per cent.) too great. Buchan
used only the rainfall of the ten years 1885-94 in construct-
ing his results, and therefore got inflated averages in con-
sequence of the heavy rainfall of 1891 ; whence the rainfalls
of recent years are made to appear minus as compared with
what is called the mean, whereas, as compared with the
better means of longer periods, they would be often plus.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
1898, it was 8-43 inches. Thus there was a drought during
1897, many cattle died, and there was much praying for
rain. The year 1903 was probably almost the same as
1897, the fall at Kimberley being only some 65 per cent.
of the mean, whereas the fall during the last half of 1902
was good, and during the first half of 1904 excellent. But
with the exception of these years there has been nothing
that can properly be called drought, in the sense of Sir J.
Eliot’s address, over any extended region of South Africa
within the past fifteen years at least. Thus there is nothing
to justify the statement that we have been under the same
influence as that which set up the prolonged drought in
Australia and the dry years in India. J. R. Sutton.
I TRUST to your courtesy to give my reply to Mr. Sutton’s
criticisms on certain portions of my address at the recent
British Association meeting.
My address was in part based on an investigation I have
had on hand for nearly two years, and which will be shortly
published as a paper in the Indian Meteorological Memoirs.
In that will be found a statement of the chief features of
the meteorology of South Africa during the period 1892-1902.
| It is confessedly based upon very imperfect information—
partly derived from newspaper reports, partly from data in
certain meteorological reports received from Cape Town by
the Calcutta Meteorological Office, and partly from data
obtained from Mr. Hutchins, Conservator of Forests,
Cape Colony, with whom I have been in correspondence
for many years on the meteorology of South Africa and
8 NATURE
its relation to that of India. Mr. Hutchins was for some
years in the Madras Forest Department before he went to
the Cape some fifteen or twenty years ago. He has made
a special study of the rainfall of South Africa, and is a
careful and enthusiastic investigator in rainfall problems.
He is, from his double experience in India and South Africa
and his present official work and position, eminently qualified
to form a judgment on the abnormal features of rainfall
distribution in either area, and on their economic effect.
It is hence, as I hope to show later, very satisfactory that
Mr. Sutton’s figures confirm the general inferences I made
about South African rainfall, based chiefly on Mr.
Hutchins’s information, in my address.
Before discussing Mr. Sutton’s data and_ inferences,
perhaps I may be permitted to deal with two or three im-
portant issues raised in Mr. Sutton’s letter.
The first is contained in the opening paragraph, in which
he says ** south-east winds are rare on the south-east coast
of South Africa, and the rain of the greater part of the
tableland and north-east coast comes mostly from some
northerly direction.’’ If these casual remarks have any
point at all, I think I am correct in assuming that they
imply that Mr. Sutton considers the rainfall in the areas
mentioned is not due to humid currents from the Indian
Ocean, but from the dry interior to the north of the table-
land. I have examined the rainfall charts of South Africa
given in Bartholomew’s ‘‘ Meteorological Atlas,’ and they
certainly indicate to me that the aqueous vapour, the con-
densation of which gives rainfall in the eastern half of South
Africa, is brought up by air movement from the Indian
Ocean, and occurs as a summer precipitation. Hence, so
far as I can reasonably judge, that area forms a part of
what I have termed the Indo-oceanic region. I might add,
in further reply, that rain in certain parts of India during
the south-west monsoon chiefly occurs with easterly and
north-easterly, and even with northerly winds. But these
facts have not yet been utilised by anyone to prove that the
rainfall is not brought up from the adjacent seas and oceans
by the south-west monsoon circulation.
Mr. Sutton in a later paragraph says he fancies that
“the impression of unusual dryness over South Africa in
recent years arises from the misleading mean values used
by the Meteorological Commission for comparative purposes
which are taken from Buchan’s rather futile ‘ Rainfall of
South Africa,’ and average fully two inches (equal to
perhaps 10 per cent.) too great.’ There is an air of
certainty about this statement which I am unable to share
without further proof. Buchan’s means are based on ten
years’ data, Mr. Sutton’s on twenty years’ data. It does
not necessarily follow that twenty years’ means are better
representatives of normal or average conditions than ten
years means. It depends entirely upon whether the ten
years may or may not be accepted as representing the normal
conditions, and whether the additional ten years’ data are for
an abnormal period or not. The fact that the two sets of
means differ on the average of the whole area by 10 per
cent. indicates to an outsider on South African meteorology
like myself that it is quite as probable the ten years’
additional data erred in defect as that the ten years’ data
employed by Dr. Buchan erred in excess. There hence
appears to be (in the absence of any proof) an element of
doubt in his means, just as he asserts to be the case in the
“rather futile’? means of Dr. Buchan.
Again, if I read Mr. Sutton’s letter rightly, he considers
that the question as to whether the crops have failed over
large areas being due to drought is settled by a consideration
of percentage variations. It is certainly not the case in
India. A percentage variation gives no certain indication
unless considered in relation to the normal fall, and also to
its time-distribution. A deficiency of 25 per cent. is of abso-
lutely no economic importance in such areas as Sind (with
an average rainfall of about four inches) or such as Arakan
(with an average of more than 200 inches). The former
area depends solely on irrigation for cultivation, and the
latter is so abundantly supplied for the rice crop that it
bears a loss of fifty inches lightly. On the other hand, in
the regions termed the dry zones in India, where the mean
rainfall ranges between fifteen inches and thirty inches, a
deficiency of 20 per cent. is usually a serious matter, more
especially if it accompanies more irregular distribution than
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
[NOVEMBER 3, 1904
usual unsuited to the staple crops. Local knowledge of
the agricultural and economic conditions is hence of the
greatest importance in estimating the probable effect of a
given variation of rainfall in any area. Mr. Hutchins, I
have every reason to suppose, possesses such knowledge for
South Africa, and hence I attach the highest value to his
information on such matters.
The evidence I have collected, a small portion of which
was given in my address, appears to me to have established
that during the period 1895-1902 there was a marked
tendency to more or less continuous deficiency of rainfall
over the Indo-oceanic area, most pronounced in dry inland
districts, and which in India intensified into severe droughts
in the years 1896, 1899, and 1901, diminishing the crop
returns over large areas to such an extent that it was
necessary to resort to famine relief on a large scale during
the twelve months succeeding each period of crop failure.
I was unable to make as precise statements for either
Australia or South Africa, but the scanty facts and inform-
ation at my disposal appeared to justify the statement that
these areas were similarly affected. I also pointed out that
this period stood in marked contrast to a preceding period
of three years, 1892-4, when the precipitation was apparently
in general excess over the same large area.
I give in the following table a comparison between the
rainfall variations of India, and the area of spring,
summer, and autumn rains in South Africa, which, so far
as I can judge, is mainly dependent on the Indian Ocean
supplies of aqueous vapour. I give, in the absence of the
number of stations for each area, the arithmetic means of
the second and third horizontal rows of figures in Mr.
Sutton’s summary of his data :—
(Period of general excess of rain | Period of general deficiency of rain
Percentage variation Percentage variation
Year India S. Africa | Year India S. Africa
1892 ... +12 SOM | LSO5 zm — Sylar wn)
1893 ... +22 +14 1896 ... —I2 = 5
1894 ... +16 + 4 1897 ... normal —21
| 1898 ... + I - 9
1899 ... —27 - 18
1900 ... — I + 2
I90I ... —10 +7
TQO2) en — a5 +10
These figures show that the eastern half of South Africa
had heavier rain than usual during the same period (1892-4)
as India, that it was steadily in defect during the first
five years of the period of persistent deficiency of rain in
India, and was especially deficient in the years 1897 and
1899, the former being the year and rainfall season following
the first severe drought year of the period in India, and the
latter the same year as that of the greatest drought experi-
enced in India during the past 100 years at least. The
parallelism between the two sets of figures is, indeed, more
complete than I anticipated, and hence I consider not only
that Mr. Sutton’s conclusion to the effect that ‘‘ there is
nothing to justify the statement that South Africa has
been under the same influence as that which set up the
prolonged drought in Australia and the dry years in India ”’
is neither in accordance with what I hold to be the general
meteorological conditions and relations of the whole Indo-
oceanic area nor even with the data which Mr. Sutton
furnishes. The probability, so far as I can judge, is at
least twenty to one that there is some relation such as I
have suggested. The chief object of my address was, I
may add, to urge the necessity for the coordination and inter-
comparison of the meteorological observations of the whole
Indo-oceanic area and their discussion as a whole by an
efficient scientific staff in London. The question at issue
between Mr. Sutton and myself, for example, could be
authoritatively settled by such an investigating office.
In conclusion, I hope that my remarks may not be inter-
preted as in any way depreciating the value of Mr. Sutton’s
work in collecting and discussing as a whole the rainfall
data of South Africa, and in utilising the data to obtain
normal means for purposes of comparison. His work will,
I am confident, be appreciated by all interested in African
meteorology from any point of view. Joun Extor.
Bon Porto, Cavalaire, Var, France.
“being open), mewing and clawing him,
NOVEMBER 3, 1904]
NATURE 9
The Origin of Life.
ALTHOUGH to the evolutionist it must necessarily appear
more than probable that at some time or other non-living
matter has by evolution acquired the properties of life, and
to him the only question is as to how this has come about,
yet, for all that, he has been in the habit of admitting that
the complete failure of all experiment in this direction makes
the negative evidence very strong indeed. My present object
is to suggest that the negative evidence, so far from being
strong, is so weak that perhaps it can hardly be said to
exist.
In the experiments the first step has always been, and, so
far as one can see, must always be, to destroy all existing
life and all existing germs of life. Suppose the agent to
be heat. How does the experimenter know that the very
means he employs to destroy in living matter the property
of life are not equally efficacious in destroying the peculiar
property or properties of matter that is just on the point
of transmutation? For all that we certainly know to the
contrary, dead matter may be changing into living every
day in every pool, especially every warm pool, on the face
of the earth. If so, the difference between the last state
of the non-living and the first state of the living must, by
the evolutionist’s hypothesis, be extremely small; and it is
probable—to my mind most probable—that both would be
similarly affected by an unusual degree of heat, or what-
ever other agent is calculated to destroy life; the precaution
eliminating life and its potentiality at one stroke. But the
value of the negative evidence is precisely in inverse pro-
portion to this probability. If the probability is thought
great, the negative evidence will necessarily be thought
small. I submit that the probability is very great indeed,
and consequently that we are pretty much in the same posi-
tion as to the possible evolution of life from non-living
matter as we should have been if no experiments had been
made. Certainly, so far as the logic of the matter is con-
cerned, there is no need yet to consider the hypothesis of
life having been imported here from another planet.
Birmingham, October 25. GEORGE HooxuamM.
Thinking Cats.
I HAVE known three cats which behaved as if they thought.
The first, a large, sleek tabby, belonged to a private family
living in the City. Between 1846 and 1858 the owner,
Mr. I. S., was surprised by his manservant coming to his
office at the back of the house in business hours and asking,
““Did you ring, sir?’’ ‘‘ No, I have not been into the
house,’’ was his answer. This occurred repeatedly. At
last the man watched, and observed that, the family being
in other rooms, the dining room bell rang, and when he
answered it the cat ran out of the door. He then purposely
shut her into the room. A leather easy chair was so placed
that by getting on the seat, and then standing on the
arm, she could reach the knob with her front paw; and she
continued to practise this accomplishment as often as she
was shut up in the room.
The second cat, also a large tabby, lived at Blackheath.
Her master often sat up late writing. The cook, a ‘‘ good
old servant,’’ also now and then sat late, sewing or read-
ing, in the kitchen. One night after twelve Mr. H. F.
was interrupted by the cat running into the library (the door
then running
towards the door, and repeating these acts. He got up
and followed the cat, which now ran into the kitchen. The
cook was sitting asleep close to the fender, a piece of coal
had fallen on her dress, and it was burning. No harm
happened, thanks to the cat.
The third was a very small, slight cat, white and tabby,
a good mouser and bird catcher, and not at all afraid of
a rat. On one occasion the servant, exasperated by the
trouble caused by the cat’s selection of a birthplace for
kittens, drowned them all, for which she was duly rebuked.
The next family arrived in a suitable corner, but, when two
or three days old, disappeared, as well as their mother.
As the cat was never allowed to go upstairs, it was supposed
that, like another cat once before, she had made a lair in
the garden, where she spent most of her time. At dusk the
mistress of the house went up to dress for dinner. As soon
as she entered her room she heard something fall, and it
NO. 1827, VoL. 71]
struck her that the noise was like a cat’s jump from a
height. Procuring light she found the cat standing by the
door. She then saw that the curtains, where folded on the
bed, had been a little disturbed, put in her hand, and found
three soft warm kittens! They were immediately put into
a basket with flannel, and set by the kitchen fire; but as
soon as the lady had gone downstairs she met the cat, with
a kitten in her mouth, on her way back to the bedroom.
Why did she select that room? She was not petted by the
lady, nor friendly to her. The housemaid was safe, busy
waiting at table.
Debarred from this resource, she hid the kittens again
while the family were at dinner, and apparently felt so sure
that they were safe, that she went and sat by the kitchen
fire, awaiting the usual scraps. Of course a search was
made in all likely hiding places and corners frequented by
the young people, who were very fond of this cat, and
thought she was fond of them. A piteous, faint squealing
betrayed the poor little creatures on the floor behind the
largest folios in the library. The space above the books
was so small that it is difficult to think how the cat got in
with a kitten in her mouth, or even without it. This was
the one room into which the housemaid seldom came,
especially in the evening, as the master sat there. He did
not pet the cat at any time, and she took no notice of him.
But though securely hidden, the kittens could hardly have
lived in that cold place; their mother seemed to have over-
looked their need of warmth. After this failure she sub-
mitted to have them kept in the basket in the kitchen.
Ye N.
Fish-passes and Fish-ponds.
In your issue of August 18, in an article dealing with
fish-passes and fish-ponds, the following statement is
made :—
““Much of the information as to the construction of
ponds and their inlets and overflows is, of course, ancient,
and can be found in such books as the ‘ History of Howie-
toun’’’ (by the late Sir James Ramsay Gibson Maitland,
Bart.).
The above statement may easily cause the incorrect in-
ference that the information in Sir James Ramsay Gibson
Maitland’s work is now obsolete. Perhaps you may care to
make it known that this is, of course, not the case, although
no doubt with lapse of time improvements and modifications
are introduced. Howietoun FIsHEeRy Co.
Howietoun Fishery, Stirling, N.B., October 24.
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree.
I THANK Dr. Galton for his explanation (p. 626), which
only shows how easy it is to make mistakes in things which
appear perfectly trivial. The discrepancy can be accounted
for, however, more simply still by the fact that families
containing boys only have to be left out of account, and
therefore in the families which contain at least one girl
there are on an average more girls than boys altogether.
G. H. Bryan.
Misuse of Words and Phrases.
Ir is quite true, as Mr. Basset says, that ‘“‘in English
considerable care is often required in the arrangement of
a sentence, so as to avoid ambiguity ’’; but he seems to go
too far when he says that ‘‘ brevity ought always to be
aimed at.’’ ‘Too much brevity will often, as we are warned
by Horace, lead to obscurity: ‘* brevis esse laboro:
obscurus fio’’; and the absence of inflections and genders
renders it impossible to write English in the brief, epigram-
matic style that is common in Latin.
To Mr. Basset’s rules the following may be advantage-
ously added: that new words of foreign origin should not
be employed when English words will suit the purpose as
well or better. For instance, autotomic and anautotomic,
as applied to curves, are objectionable, because self-cutting
and non-self-cutting express precisely the same ideas in
simpler and more familiar words. I am at a loss to know
on what ground Mr. Basset objects to the phrase ‘‘ non-
singular cubic curve ’’; does he think the epithet is ‘‘ un-
couth ’’ er “‘ inelegant ’’ or ‘‘ inaccurate ’’?
October 31. ik Base
cc
10
FLOODS IN THE MISSISSIPPI,
WE have on previous occasions directed attention
to the reports issued by the Department of
Agriculture of the United States, and to the valuable
information they afford to the officers engaged in the
different departments. We have now been favoured
with a copy of a report issued by the Weather Bureau
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 3, 1904
Missouri and Kansas remained no longer rivers, but
became merged into an inland sea. When the flood
subsided there was revealed a condition of general ruin
and desolation. Holes had been gouged in the streets
some 30 feet deep; railroad tracks had been torn to
pieces ; an oil tank, 50 feet in diameter and 30 feet high,
made of iron plates, had been torn from its foundations
and tossed about like a frail shanty; freight cars
had been broken up and carried
away down the river; heavy loco-
Fic. 1.—Kansas City, Missouri.
Railway after subsidence of the flood.
on the floods in the Mississippi watershed in the spring
of 1903,1 which gives an interesting and detailed
account of the most disastrous floods in this district of
which there is any record.
These floods are described as marking a new epoch
in the economic history of the country. When previous
floods occurred they ran harmlessly over unbroken
forests, and bottoms tenanted only
by the beasts of the field, except
over a limited area where there
were small farms tenanted by
French colonists. The floods of
1903 descended upon fertile and
highly cultivated fields, and upon
rich valleys filled to overflowing
with vast industries devoted with
never ceasing energy to the fulfil-
ment of the insatiable demands of
commerce. The resulting ruin and
desolation were beyond descrip-
tion. Along the lower Mississippi
6820 square miles of country were
inundated. In Kansas City five
square miles of territory were over-
flowed ; large portions of the manu-
facturing towns of Venice and
Madison were flooded to a con-
siderable depth; more than 3000
square miles of territory, one-half of
which was under cultivation, were
overflowed and the crops ruined.
The towns of Armourdale, Argentine, and Harlem
were covered from 8 feet to 12 feet with water, and had
to be abandoned. Twenty thousand people in this
district were made homeless. All public utilities were
put out of service; sixteen out of seventeen bridges
over the river Kaw were washed away. The
1 us The Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the Mississippi Watershed.’ By
H. C. Frankenfeld. (Washington: Weather Bureau, 1904.)
NO. 1827, VOL 71]
Scene in the freight yard of the St. Louis and San Francisco
motive engines had been rolled
over and were discovered lying in
mud banks; and mud from 2 feet
to 4 feet deep covered everything.
An approximate estimate of the loss
in this district was put at 3} million
pounds. In the vicinity of Kansas
City the losses were placed at up-
wards of three million pounds,
while the value of the bridges
destroyed was more than 150,0001.
In previous floods the losses have
fallen principally on the agri-
cultural districts, but this time the
loss to the farmers was less than
one-third of the total, and about the
same proportion was borne by the
railroads.
But great as the losses were, they
would have been far greater but
for the property saved owing to
timely warnings issued by the
Weather Bureau. Owing to the
careful records kept of previous
floods the department was enabled
to forecast the time at which the
flow would reach the various towns situated on the
river, and the height to which it would probably rise,
and so could send out timely warnings. In the lower
district alone the value of the property saved by re-
moval to places of safety was estimated at 5 million
pounds. The forecasts as to the probable height of
the flood were issued in the higher districts at least
Fic. 2.—Repairing levee at Lagrange, Mississippi.
four days in advance, and in the lower part, at New
Orleans, twenty-eight days in advance. By these
warnings the people were kept well informed of what
they might expect in the way of high water. The
work of the River and Flood Service in furnishing
information regarding this flood was complete and
satisfactory. By the use of the Post Office, telegraph
and telephone lines, and the daily Press, and with the
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
NATLORE
II
cooperation of the various railway companies, every
intelligent person in the district was made aware of |
the impending danger in ample time to make such |
preparations as they were able.
The floods of 1903 owed their inception to a series
of heavy rainfalls caused by a succession of storms
of the south-western type, the best rain-producing
quarter, coming on the top of the water derived
from the melting of the snow on the mountains in the
upper reaches.
In the February flood in the lower Mississippi the
water rose in one long swell from Cairo to the Gulf of
Mexico from 17.5 feet on the gauge on January 28,
passing the danger point of 45 feet thirty-nine days
later, and 503 feet, or 53 feet above the top of the
banks, eight days afterwards. It remained above the
danger line for another twelve days, and then began
to fall. It will thus be seen that the water in the
river during the flood rose 33 feet.
Although excessive rainfall was the original cause
of these floods, the effect was greatly increased by
works that had been carried out for the improvement
of the river and for providing means of inland trans-
port, necessitating the frequent crossing of the river by
railway bridges. Formerly a certain amount of relief
to the floods was afforded by the water flowing through
the numerous crevasses or breaches of the banks that
occurred, but during recent years the banks have been
systematically raised and strengthened. For example,
in the St. Francis system the levees have been extended
and raised 2 feet over a length of 173 miles, and the
area originally subject to being submerged reduced
4000 square miles. The same operations have been
carried on in other districts, so that the flooded area
which previous to 1897 extended over 30,000 square
miles in 1903 barely reached 7ooo square miles. The
fight against this flood was also the most extensive
and persistent ever attempted in the history of levee
engineering. When a breach was likely to occur all
the help and material available was concentrated at
the point of greatest weakness. At one place a force
of more than 1000 men was employed both day and
night, in spite of which the bank gave way for more
than a mile. j
At another part of the river, about 36 miles below
New Orleans, a crevasse occurred at a place where
the river is 120 feet deep. The bank was all washed
away, and where it formerly stood a hole was scoured
out 60 feet deep. Owing to the precautions taken,
due to the warnings of the Weather Bureau, provision
had been made to meet such a catastrophe, and work-
men were at once concentrated on the spot, and train-
loads of material which had been provided in readi-
ness for such an emergency were brought to the place.
By this means the breach was successfully closed, and
the flooding of some of the finest sugar plantations in
“ Louisiana averted.
Other causes that contributed to the greater rise of
the flood were the numerous railway bridges that had
‘been carried across the river without leaving sufficient
waterway for floods. In one place, where the natural
width of the river is g00 feet, the waterway had been
‘contracted to 400 feet by a railway bridge, the velocity
‘o the water through which rose to twelve miles an
our.
Encroachments by reclamation have also materially
interfered with the free flow of the river, the original
width of the channel in some places having been re-
duced one-half.
The report of these floods contains numerous illus-
trations which give a very graphic idea of the ruin
caused in the flooded areas, and also of the works
carried on in repairing the levees. There is also a
map of the watershed of the Mississippi and of the
No. 1827, VOL. 71]
flooded areas, and of the rainfall in the different
districts.
Two other volumes issued by the Geological Depart-
ment relate to the floods of the river Passaic in 1902
and 1903, when the loss to the inhabitants of the
district was estimated for the two floods at about 3
million pounds. These two volumes also contain
numerous very telling illustrations of the flooded areas
and of the damage done to houses and factories.*
WHAT IS BRANDY?
ne question, which a few months ago greatly
exercised analytical chemists in this country in
consequence of the action of certain local authorities
under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, has recently
engaged the attention of the Technical Committee of
GEnology, instituted by the French Minister of Com-
merce by decree of March 22, 1904, and the committee
have adopted the conclusions of M. Rocques, the re-
porter of the subcommittee charged with the consider-
ation of the matter, whose report is published in extenso
in the Moniteur Officiel du Commerce of June 30. In
view of the importance of the subject, it may be de-
sirable to give a short summary of the facts and argu-
ments which led the technical committee to adopt the
conclusions of the special subcommittee.
In the first place the committee, for reasons which
it is unnecessary to explain, object to the term
coefficient of impurities, hitherto employed by French
chemists, in conformity with a decree of the Minister
of Commerce of May 26, 1903, to designate the aggre-
gate proportion of the substances other than ethylic
alcohol in brandy, and prefer to denote it by the term
coefficient non-alcohol, or more simply non-alcohol, by
which is to be understood the sum of the different
volatile substances, other than ethylic alcohol, ex-
pressed in grams per hectolitre of absolute alcohol.
These substances are the acids, aldehydes, ethers, the
alcohols higher in the homologous series than ethyl
alcohol, and the furfurol.
The causes which influence this coefficient are many,
but in the main they may be said to depend upon
(1) the nature of the wine, (2) the method of distil-
lation, and (3) age.
As regards the first cause, it is found that the pro-
portion, as well as the character, of the volatile matters
vary according to the origin of the wine, the conditions
under which its fermentation has been effected, the
manner in which it has been kept, &c. The proportion
of acids and ethers is considerably augmented if the
wine becomes sour, and, speaking generally, the pro-
portion of aldehydes is higher in white than in red
wines.
But it is mainly in the method of distillation that we
are to seek for the cause of the wide variations in this
coefficient. This is readily understood if we examine
the manner in which the various substances, which
together constitute non-alcohol, behave during distil-
lation. It is known that these substances pass over
in very different proportion in the course of the distil-
lation. Thus the aldehyde and the more volatile ethers
are found mainly in the first runnings (produits de
téte), whereas the taillings (produits de queue) contain
in largest quantity the higher alcohols and the furfurol.
The separation of these various products—the pro-
duits de téte, the alcohol itself (de coeur), and the
produits de queue—is effected in a manner more or
less complete, depending upon the apparatus employed.
In the larger distilleries this apparatus 1s of a very
high order of perfection. But without further labour-
1 The Passaic Flood of 1902, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper
No. 88, and of 1903, Paper g2. (Washington : Government Printing Office.
12 NATURE
[| NOVEMBER 3, 1904
ing this point, it is obvious that the aggregate amount
and relative proportion of these products must depend
very largely upon the means made use of, and hence
perfectly genuine brandies must necessarily show wide
differences in the coefficient non-alcohol.
In addition, it must be remembered that in the manu-
facture of brandy from wines of repute, the elimination
of the substances constituting non-alcohol must be
made with the greatest circumspection, since it is
upon their bouquet that the value of these brandies
depends, and this bouquet resides wholly in the non-
alcohol.
On the other hand, if the brandy is being made from
damaged wine the rectification must be most carefully
conducted, and may have to be pushed to a point that
the alcohol is obtained almost pure, that is to say,
almost free from non-alcohol.
As regards the influence of age, it is observed that
in those brandies which are found to improve on keep-
ing there is an increase in non-alcohol due (1) to the
formation of products of oxidation (acids and alde-
hydes), and (2) to concentration due to a loss of alcohol
and water.
Brandies
manner :—
(1) The brandies of the two Charentes, which are
habitually designated by the name of Cognac.
(2) The brandies of Armagnac.
(3) The brandies de vin du Midi and of Algeria
(trois-six de Montpellier, &c.).
(4) Marc brandies.
The brandies of the Charentes are obtained by
distillation of the wines of the district, and as the
reputation of these brandies depends upon their
bouquet they are submitted to a slight rectification
only in order to preserve that bouquet.
The same may be said of the Armagnac brandies.
As to brandies made in other viticultural regions,
and in particular in the middle of France, their nature
is much more variable. These brandies require to be
rectified in a manner, more or less complete, depend-
ing upon the nature of the wine or of the marc from
which they are derived, and varying, too, with the
quality of the brandy it is desired to produce. Certain
wines require, in fact, to be most carefully rectified in
order to produce merchantable brandy. Marc brandy
is made in all viticultural regions, and that of
Burgundy enjoys a special reputation.
As regards the value of the coefficient in different
brandies, it is found that in those of Charente and
Armagnac the coefficient is very high. Thus, as
minima, a brandy of Clunis (1879, good, but not
guaranteed) gave 259 (Girard and Cuniasse). A
Cognac of 1892 gave 287 (Rocques). As maxima may
be cited a Bois brandy of 1817, which gave 1174
(Lusson). This last number is exceptionally high. It
may be said that, ordinarily, the value of the coefficient
in Cognacs and fine champagne ranges between 275
and 450.
But little analytical evidence has been published re-
specting the Armagnac brandies, but, such as it is,
it indicates that the coefficients in their case are less
than are generally found in Cognacs.
The brandies obtained from the wines of the Midi
and Algeria show much wider variations, ranging from
may be classified in the following
25 to 500.
Marc brandies have almost invariably a high
coefficient. The numbers range from 555 to 1487, and
it is interesting to note that the aldehydes frequently
form a large proportion of the whole. Thus a
Burgundy mare brandy was found to contain as much
as 519 of aldehyde, and one from the Midi as high as
730 of aldehyde.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
The question whether it is possible to fix minimum
and maximum limits to this coefficient naturally re-
ceived much consideration from the committee. The
fixation of these presents a certain interest, and that
from two different points of view. The fixation of a
minimum limit has interest for the analyst, as guiding
him in his inference as to the genuineness of the brandy
or as to the amount of “ silent’? spirit with which it
may have been mixed. The fixation of a maximum
limit has an interest from the hygienic point of view,
since it may become necessary if regulations are to be
established in this sense.
The committee, however, are unable to recommend
that any such limits should be fixed, owing mainly to
the extremely variable character of brandy. Even in
the case of brandies of a definite character, as, for
example, Cognac, the non-alcohol coefficient is not the
only element of value, and any conclusions as to
character cannot be based solely upon it. Regard must
be had to the proportions of the different volatile sub-
stances and their relations among themselves. Expert
tasting (dégustation) must be considered as an indis-
pensable complement of chemical analysis.
The hygienic point of view, involving the fixation
of a maximum value for the non-alcohol coefficient,
was brought to the notice of the International Congress
of Chemistry in Paris in 1900, but the problem, as then
stated, received no definite solution. To base con-
clusions on the value of the coefficient alone, with no
regard to the factors which it comprises, seems
illogical. For example, the acids, and in particular
acetic acid, frequently make up a large proportion of
this value, but it cannot be contended that these sub-
stances, at least in the proportion in which they are
present in brandy, have any detrimental influence.
Far more important are the aldehydes, ethers, the
higher alcohols, and furfurol.
As regards the higher alcohols, the attempt has been
made to establish a higher limit. Thus in Belgium, by
a Royal decree of December 31, 1902, the sale is pro-
hibited of spirituous liquors containing more than
1 gram of the higher alcohols and essences per litre
of absolute alcohol when these liquors have an alcoholic
content higher than 90°, and 3 grams when the
alcoholic richness does not exceed 90°.
The committee remark that the effect of this regula-
tion would be to exclude some of the most famous, and
notably the oldest, brandies of the Charente, many of
which exceed the maximum Belgian limit, which, ex-
pressed as a non-alcohol coefficient, is 300. Thus :—
Higher alcohols
per hectolitre of
abs. alcohol
Bois Brandy, 1817 (Lusson)... a ST OT2
Saintonge, Cazes, 1896 (Lusson) 372
Gemozac, or de Fesson, 1893 (Lusson) 345
Clunis, 1875 (Lusson) 38 see 345
Cognac, 1873 (Rocques) 304
From the hygienic point of view the ethers, furfurol,
and especially the aldehydes, are undoubtedly of much
greater importance than the higher alcohols, since
admittedly the action of these substances on the
organism is far more deleterious than that of the higher
alcohols. From this point of view the attention of
hygienists should be directed to the Mare brandies,
which, as already stated, frequently contain consider-
able quantities of aldehydes. 5
Interesting and, no doubt, valuable as the report is,
it is hardly calculated to facilitate the work of the un-
fortunate public analysts who may be called upon to
express an opinion as to the genuineness of a sample
of brandy. The question, What is brandy? analytically
speaking, still awaits solution.
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
WPITURE 13
NOTES.
SPEAKING at St. George’s Hospital Medical School on
Friday last, Lord Kelvin remarked :—The modern medical
man must be a scientific man, and, what is more, he must
be a philosopher. The fundamental studies of medicine are
of a strictly materialistic kind, but they belong to a different
world from the world which constitutes their main subject
—the world of life. Let it not be imagined that any hocus-
pocus of electricity or viscous fluids will make a living
cell. Splendid and interesting work has recently been done
in what was formerly called organic chemistry, a great
French chemist taking the lead. This is not the occasion
for a lecture on the borderland between what is called
organic and what is called inorganic; but it is interesting
to know that materials belonging to the general class of
foodstuffs, such as sugar, and what might be also called
a foodstuff, alcohol, can be made out of the chemical
elements. But let not youthful minds be dazzled by the
imaginings of the daily newspapers that because Berthelot
and others have thus made foodstuffs they can make living
things, or that there is any prospect of a process being found
in any laboratory for making a living thing, whether the
minutest germ of bacteriology or anything smaller or
greater. There is an absolute distinction between crystals
and cells. Anything that crystallises may be made by the
chemist. Nothing approaching to the cell of a living
creature has ever yet been made. ‘The general result of an
enormous amount of exceedingly intricate and thorough-
going investigation by Huxley and Hooker and others of
the present age, and by some of their predecessors in both
the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries, is that no artificial
process whatever can make living matter out of dead. This
is vastly beyond the subject of the chemical laboratory,
vastly beyond my own subject of physics or of electricity—
beyond it in depth of scientific significance and in human
interest.
Mr. H. H. Jerrcotr has been appointed assistant in the
metrological department of the National Physical Labor-
atory.
By permission of His Majesty the King, the Sanitary
Institute will henceforth be known as the Royal Sanitary
Institute.
An International Gas Exhibition will be held at Earl’s
Court from November 19 to December 17 inclusive, under
the auspices of the Institution of Gas Engineers.
An exhibition of water colours, photographs, and other
articles of interest belonging to the National Antarctic Ex-
pedition will be opened at the Bruton Galleries, Bond Street,
on Friday by Sir Clements Markham.
A SKETCH of some of the results of the public works policy
in India during the last fifty years was given at the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers on Tuesday, in the address of the
president, Sir Guilford L. Molesworth, K.C.I.E. In the
course of the address, it was pointed out that there are avail-
able in India millions of potential horse-power, in the form
of water flowing from the mountain ranges, capable of being
converted into electrical energy at generating stations in
the hills, and conveyed, with slight loss in efficiency, to
centres even at a distance, where it can be utilised for
industrial purposes. A generating station has been erected
at the Cauveri Falls, with a head of 380 feet. The turbines
drive six generators, each of 1000 electrical horse-power,
and the current is transmitted, at a pressure of 30,000 volts,
for a distance of ninety-one miles, to the Kolar goldfields,
with an efficiency of nearly 80 per cent. At the cordite
NO. 1827, vol. 71]
factory, Wellington, in the Nilgiri Hills, an effective fall of
660 feet is employed to work a turbine and alternators,
generating about 1000 horse-power at a pressure of 5000
volts. As to irrigation, the amount of land irrigated in
British India is about 44 million acres. Of these 17 million
are irrigated by canals, 8 million from tanks, and 19 million
from wells and other sources. In conclusion, the president
remarked that although much has been done, far more yet
remains to be done—in opening up the country, in the pre-
vention of famines, in the regulation of the water supply,
in the installation of works and factories, in the transmission
of power generated by the hill falls to those centres where
it can be profitably utilised, and in the general development
of the resources of the Empire.
Tue three articles in the October number of the Zoologist
deal exclusively with local bird-faunas, namely, those of
Oxfordshire, Donegal, and Jersey. The capture of a white-
beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) off Aberdeen
is recorded.
Tue director (Captain S. S. Flower) of the Giza Zoo-
logical Gardens, Cairo, has sent us a copy of a list of rare
animals recently received from the Sudan, among which
reference may be made to a female of the Niam-niam race
of the chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus troglodytes schwein-
furtht).
‘“ Gammarus,’’ otherwise the freshwater-shrimp (a name
which, by the way, appears to be omitted from the text),
forms the subject of the twelfth number of the L.M.B.C.
Memoirs. Miss M. Cussans, the author, seems to have
treated her subject in the same thorough manner which has
been the rule in the earlier issues of this excellent series,
and the four plates, although diagrammatic, are all that
can be desired from the point of view of the student.
Tue greater bulk of parts i. and ii. of vol. xxv. of Notes
from the Leyden Museum is taken up by an article on the
beetles of the family Paussidee by Mr. E. Wasmann. These
beetles, which are now definitely known to live in com-
panionship with ants, are regarded by the author as the
most interesting of all living creatures, since they show
better than any other group the interdependence of
morphology and biology. They are remarkable for the
enormous size of their antennz, and are believed to be the
descendants of pre-Tertiary Carabide.
Tue first of three lectures on the fossil vertebrates of
Egypt was delivered at University College, Gower Street,
British Museum,
by Dr. C. W. Andrews, of the
at 4.30 on October 31. This lecture was devoted to the
Proboscidea. On November 7, at the same hour, the
lecturer will discourse on Arsinoitherium and the Hyra-
coidea, while on November 14 he will take into consider-
ation the sirenians and reptiles. Free cards of admission
to these lectures may be obtained on application to the
registrar at University College.
Accorp1nG to the report of the Government biologist for
1903, the Government of the Cape of Good Hope is making
every effort to develop the local fisheries. During the year
four large steam-trawlers arrived from Europe; two of
these were unfortunately wrecked, but the others have been
doing good work, as have also certain vessels belonging to
private owners. A new fishing-ground, much nearer to
Cape Town than any of the old ones, has been discovered,
and has been the chief attraction for the new trawlers. The
report contains reprints (without the plates) of various
memoirs by specialists on different sections of the South
African marine fauna.
14
NATURE
[NovemBer’3. 1904
“Tur Animals of Africa’’ forms the title of an article
by Mr. Lydekker in the October issue of the Quarterly ;
Review. While admitting the African origin of the masto-
dons, the author does not consider that there are sufficient
grounds for rejecting Huxley’s theory that the bulk of the
modern mammalian fauna of Africa came from the north.
In an article on fatigue, Sir W. R. Gowers points out that
the study it has received has been chiefly at the hands of
Italians. The facts known relating to both muscular and
brain fatigue are passed in review, and the methods of pre-
vention are considered in turn. Mr. D. G. Hogarth de-
scribes the palace of Knossos, and his account of recent
researches is accompanied by a large plan. Two other
articles also are of special interest to men of science—one
dealing with the Panama Canal and maritime commerce,
the other summarising what has been accomplished in
Wales in the provision of higher education. Referring to
Sir Norman Lockyer’s calculation, that to place the Welsh
universities on a footing of equal efficiency with the best
universities of Germany and America a capital sum of four
millions is required, the writer says it is clear that Wales
herself cannot raise a tithe of this large sum, and emphasises
the fact that it is to the State that Wales must look for
the bulk of the money needed.
In a brief Bulletin issued by the Michigan State Agri-
cultural’ Experiment Station (No. 218) Mr. Fred Edwards
reviews in popular language our present knowledge of soil
bacteria in their relation to agriculture.
Tue October number of Climate contains articles on
malaria by Dr. Harford, the climate of Uganda and of
Lovaleland by Mr. Cook and Mr. Fisher respectively, and
medical articles, notes, and reviews.
THE Journal of the Royal Statistical Society for September
(vol. Ixvii., part iii.) contains the second and third reports
of the committee appointed to inquire into the production
and consumption of meat and dairy products in the United
Kingdom, with remarks thereon by Mr. Rew, from which
it appears that we are well ahead of other European nations
in meat consumption (122 lb. per head as against Germany's
99 lb.), but appreciably behind our American cousins (150 Ib.
per head), and much less carnivorous than our Australian
kinsmen (262 lb. per head). Mr. Thompson contributes a
paper on local expenditure and indebtedness in England and
Wales, and Mr. Adam a newly calculated life-table for
Scotland.
Pror. A. E. WriGut’s system of anti-typhoid inoculation,
introduced by him in 1896, after being applied to the British
Army in India was forbidden by an army order in con-
sequence of certain objections raised against it. During
the South African War the inoculation of troops proceeding
there was officially sanctioned, and Prof. Wright and his
assistants injected some 100,000 men without the slightest
mishap. At the termination of the war the advisory board
of the reorganised Army Medical Department recommended
that the practice of anti-typhoid inoculation should be
suspended. Prof. Wright demurred to this decision, and in
consequence Mr. Brodrick referred the matter to the Royal
Society, and at their suggestion a special committee of the
Royal College of Physicians was appointed to examine and
report. This committee was composed of Dr. Rose Brad-
ford, Dr. Gee, Dr. Howard Tooth, Prof. Simpson, and Dr.
Caiger, and reported unanimously that, ‘‘ after careful
scrutiny of the statistics from both official and private
sources which have been made available, we are of opinion
that not only is a lessened susceptibility to the disease
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
brought about as a result of the inoculations, but the case
mortality is largely reduced. We are further of opinion
that with due care the process of inoculation is devoid of
direct danger, but that under special circumstances there
may possibly be some temporary increase of susceptibility
to infection immediately following inoculation; and it is
therefore desirable that the preparation of the vaccine and
the inoculations should be carried out under specially skilled
supervision.”’ In spite of this favourable
advisory board still maintained its opposition, and Mr.
Arnold-Forster therefore appointed another committee to
advise him, consisting of Colonel Bruce and Dr. James
Galloway, of the advisory board, together with Dr. C. J.
Martin and Dr. A. Macfadyen, Lister Institute, Dr. Bulloch,
London Hospital, Dr. Bruce Low, Local Government Board,
Major Leishman, R.A.M.C., and Prof. Wright. This com-
mittee has reported unanimously ‘‘ that the anti-typhoid
inoculation has resulted in a substantial diminution in the
incidence and case mortality from typhoid fever, and re-
commend that, the system introduced by Prof. Wright
should be resumed in the Army.’’, The Army Council has
adopted this recommendation, and is proceeding to carry
out inoculations and to conduct investigations, by the agency
of Major Leishman, on volunteers from the 2nd Battalion
of Royal Fusiliers now proceeding to India.
A ist of fresh-water algz, collected by Mr. A. Howard
in Barbados, Dominica and Trinidad, and described by Mr.
G. S. West, appears in the Journal of Botany (October).
This contains’ species, some new, which are additional to
those recorded in papers previously published by the same
author. A species of Glceotenium, a green alga, is
figured, which is distinguished by the presence of a peculiar
opaque cruciform zone. Biographical notes culled from Sir
M. Grant Duff’s ‘‘ Notes from a Diary ”’ and other sources
include references to Sir James Paget, Brodrick, and John
Ball.
THE success obtained with Para rubber in Ceylon has led
to the experimental plantation of the tree in other countries.
In India planters are wisely hesitating before they embark
upon a venture which yields no return for five years or
longer. It is obviously the duty of the superintendents of
experimental gardens to investigate the possibilities, and in
the Tennasserim circle, Burma, the scheme instituted by Mr.
Manson for developing a large Para rubber plantation at
Mergui is progressing. Up to the present serious de-
predations have been caused by deer and pigs which attack
the seedlings, but by planting out two-year-old plants it is
hoped that this may be to a great extent obviated. The
experiment, which was started in 1901, will be followed
with considerable interest by planters.
Tue annual report of the Royal Alfred Observatory,
Mauritius, for the year 1903, states that the rainfall of the
island for the year (mean of fifty-one stations) was 68-8 inches,
the average being 77-3 inches. The greatest falls in twenty-
four hours were 9 inches at Constance d’Arifat on April 23,
and 8.5 inches at Britannia on January 14. The number of
ships which visited the island was 274, against 686 in 1882.
From the observations contained in their logs, daily synoptic
weather charts were prepared and tracks of cyclones laid
down. Photographs of the sun were taken daily when the
weather permitted; 173 negatives were sent to the Solar
Physics Committee. During the year 117 earthquakes were
recorded, particulars of which will be published in the annual
volume of observations. Mr. Claxton states that much
damage has been done to the library by white ants, and that
it has been necessary to remove the books to another
position.
verdict the
NOVEMBER 3, 1904]
NATURE 15
Tue U.S. Weather Bureau has issued its meteorological
chart of the Great Lakes for the winter of 1903-4. This
was the coldest winter in the lake region that has been
experienced since the beginning of the Weather Bureau
observations in 1871. Freezing temperatures commenced
about the middle of November. The climax was reached
in February, when the mean monthly temperature ranged
about 10° below the normal in all districts. On Lake
Superior the ice-fields did not disappear from the eastern
portion until the last week in May, 1904. Several interest-
ing photographs are given of vessels and ferries forcing their
way through apparently impassable masses of ice as soon
as a thaw set in. When navigation is practicable storm
warnings are displayed by day and night, and at almost all
stations a chart is issued showing the weather conditions at
Sh. a.m. daily (except Sunday); masters of vessels are
invited to obtain these charts, or any other information in
connection with the weather, at any of the Weather Bureau
offices.
APPENDIX iii. of a report upon the basin of the Upper
Nile, with proposals for the improvement of that river by
Sir William Garstin, contains an interesting account of the
variations of level of Lake Victoria Nyanza contributed by
‘Captain H. G. Lyons, the director of the Survey Department
of Egypt. This lake has a water surface of about 68,000
square kilometres, and is situated about 1129 metres above
sea-level. It is believed to be of shallow depth, and lies
for the most part of the year in the region of the equatorial
rain and cloud belt, the excess water draining off at the
Ripon Falls by the Victoria Nile. After reference to the
geology and climate of the region, a brief historical sum-
mary is given of the early lake levels as observed by
travellers and others visiting or residing by it; this is
followed by a detailed study and discussion of the various
gauges. Some of the results obtained are as follows :—
The annual oscillation of the lake is from 0-30 metre to
0-90 metre. Between 1896 and 1902 there was a fall
of 76 cm. in the average level, since followed by a
rise of 56 cm. The epochs of high and low levels are given
as :—1878, high level; 1880-90, falling level; 1892-95,
temporary high level ; 1896-1902, falling level ;:1903, rising
level. ;
WE have received from Mr. W. J. Brooks, 33 Fitzroy
Street, W., some of his patent flexible curves and a para-
bolic curve. One of the former is a strip of celluloid with
tags at intervals along its length; when placed on paper
it can be bent to any desired curve, the fingers being placed
on the tags to keep the strip in position; the strip does
not yield under the pen. A second form (pattern B) has a
steel strip and is self-clamping and reversible; this in-
genious device maintains the steel strip in any position by
means of stiff-hinged linkwork attached to metal tabs. The
shape of any curve thus formed by this strip can be trans-
ferred from one drawing to another, a desirable advantage
to many workers. A third and longer form (pattern C),
also self-clamping and reversible, has been designed for
such special purposes as are required by ship and boat
builders, but it will have a much wider field of adaptation,
such as, for instance, in the construction of interpolation
curves for wave-lengths in spectroscopic work, &c. This
pattern, which can be obtained from one foot up to any
length, consists of light wooden cross-bars hinged to tabs
fixed to a steel strip. The strips slide through brass spring-
clamps, and are thus held tight against a stout wooden
bar running the length of the curve. Several patterns and
sizes for all the curves are obtainable, and they may be
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
usefully employed for a great number of manipulations,
such as curve drawing, transferring outlines of mouldings,
&c. The parabola is of celluloid and is accurately cut, and
its axis, focus and latus rectum neatly engraved on it. In
addition to its use for draughtsmen, teachers of mathe-
matics will find it serviceable for the study of that curve.
A NEW general theory of errors has been contributed to
the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, xi., 3 (August), by Mr. William Edward Story.
The author’s object has been to develop the theory in such
a way as to avoid the usual assumptions, the legitimacy
of which, as approximations, may be questioned. It is
claimed that the present theory is based upon such simple
principles as will be generally admitted to be necessary for
the mathematical treatment of any theory. The funda-
mental assumptions are as follows :—Possible errors form a
practically continuous sequence from a certain lower limit
to a certain upper limit. The probability that the error of
an observation lies between x and x+dx, where dz is
infinitesimal, is ¢(x)dx, where $(x) is an analytical function
of x, developable by Taylor’s theorem throughout the whole
range of possible error. The probability that the error lies
between given limits is independent of the unit of measure-
ment.
ATTENTION has already been directed in these columns to
the important innovation introduced into this country by the
Drapers’ Company in granting a sum of 1o0ol. to University
College, London, for the furtherance of research in applied
mathematics. No better testimony to the value of this grant
could be adduced than is afforded by a reference to the
pages of Nos. 1 and 2 of the technical series of the Drapers’
Company Research Memoirs, edited by Prof. Karl Pearson.
In the first of these Mr. E. S. Andrews discusses the stresses
in crane and coupling hooks by means of the theory of
elasticity, and describes experimental tests in verification of
his theory. The present investigation shows not only that
the existing theory is unsatisfactory, both theoretically and
practically, but that improvements can well be made in
existing types of hooks by following lines laid down in the
paper. In the second paper Mr. L. W. Atcherley directs
attention to certain very serious defects in the theory of
masonry dams. It is shown that the stresses across vertical
sections of a dam are far more important than those across
horizontal sections, and that in many existing dams not
only do shearing stresses exist in the vertical sections which
are far in excess of any considered safe by engineers, but
considerable tensile stresses also occur, which form a serious
source of danger. These two papers are fitting illustrations
of the many important practical problems now awaiting
solution, which could be solved at a very small cost by
the provision of further endowments for mathematical
research.
Tue third revised edition of ‘‘ The Scope and Method of
Political Economy,’’ by Dr. J. N. Keynes, has been pub-
lished by Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., at 7s. 6d. net.
Messrs. RouTLEDGE AND Sons, Ltp., have added to their
series of ‘‘ Country Books’’ a profusely illustrated edition
of Charles Kingsley’s ‘‘ Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Sea-
shore.’’ The volume is published at 3s. 6d.
Since the advent of the Nernst lamp, every physicist has
recognised that it would ultimately be very serviceable for
lantern purposes. Any lecturer interested in the matter
may see a well designed lantern provided with Nernst fila-
ments, in actual use, at Mr. R. W. Paul’s, High Holborn.
16 NA LOR
[ NovEMBER 3, 1904
Mr. H. G. WELLS returns to the more serious side of his
work in ‘“‘ A Modern Utopia,’’ which is being published
month by month in the Fortnightly Review. As in
“‘ Anticipations ’? and ‘‘ Mankind in the Making,’’ Mr.
Wells concerns himself with sociological problems, and
pictures the probable manners and customs of society in
a Utopia, situated on a distant planet, which is the natural
outcome of continued development on modern lines.
A REVISED edition of Mr. H. N. Chute’s ‘‘ Physical
Laboratory Manual ’’ has been published by Messrs. D. C.
Heath and Co. In this edition sound and light have been
made to follow mechanics, because, the author says, “* there
seems to be a consensus of opinion among teachers that
- the grade is less steep than it is where these subjects
follow electricity.” A few of the problems of the first
edition have been omitted, and new ones added.
THE first number of the Journal of Agricultural Science,
edited by Messrs. 1. H. Middleton, ‘I. B. Wood, R. -..
Biffen, and A. D. Hall, in consultation with other gentle-
men, will be published in January next by the Cambridge
University Press. The journal will publish only definitely
scientific work in agricultural science, and will not include
the results of the ordinary trials of manures and varieties
for demonstration or commercial purposes. Papers for
publication should be sent to Mr. T. B. Wood, University
Department of Agriculture, Cambridge.
THE seventh edition of Dr. J. Frick’s “ Physikalische
Technik,” enlarged and completely revised by Prof. O.
Lehmann, is in course of publication by Messrs. F. Vieweg
and Son, Brunswick. The first half of vol. i. has been
received, and the second half is promised shortly. The
second volume will be published in a year or two, and will
complete the work. In the part before us there are 629
pages and 2003 illustrations of lecture and laboratory
apparatus for demonstrations and experiments in various
branches of mechanics and physics.
A cuEap edition (1s, net) of Mr. G. F. Chambers’s
“Astronomy for General Readers’? has just been published
by Messrs. Whittaker and Co. The book contains 268
pages and 134 illustrations, most of which represent the
pictorial efforts of bygone days. As instances of the worst
of these figures, reference may be made to Figs. 29, 104,
105, 106, 109, and 112. Before issuing this cheap edition
an attempt should have been made to bring the text and
the illustrations in line with the present position of astro-
nomy, instead of leaving them as they were in the original
volume.
THE Journal of Anatomy and Physiology for October
(xxxix., part i.) contains a number of valuable papers, but
of purely anatomical interest. The principal contribution
is by Dr. Huntington on the derivation and significance of
certain supernumerary muscles of the pectoral region, illus-
trated with fourteen excellent coloured plates.
THE new illustrated catalogue of physical apparatus just
issued by Messrs. F. E. Becker and Co. (Messrs. W. and J.
George, Ltd.) is likely to prove indispensable in the physical
laboratories of all our schools and colleges. It runs to 628
large pages, and is strongly bound in cloth. Full particulars
are provided, not only respecting the apparatus required in
elementary and advanced physical teaching, but also con-
cerning that necessary to the physicist in his research work.
All branches of physics are included, and the instruments
throughout are explained by excellent illustrations and
concise descriptions, and, what is of prime importance, the
figure and its appropriate text are close together.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN NOVEMBER :—
Nov. 5. Saturn. Outer major axis of outer ring = 39” "42.
ae oF Outer minor axis of outer ring=11'’‘or.
Ith, 50m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei). ma
9. 13h. om. Venus in conjunction with Moon (Venus,
6° 30’ S.). :
8h. 39m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
3- 2th. om. Juno in conjunction with Moon (Juno,
o 8’ N.)
14. Oh. om. Saturn in conjunction with Moon (Saturn,
* bey Sa)
5 si a Miia of Algol (8 Persei). ; /
», 16h. Epoch of November meteors (Leonids, radiant
150° + 22°). L
15. Venus. Illuminated portion of disc=0°832, of Mars
=0'936.
16. 15h. Venus and Uranus in conjunction (Venus,
1° 28’S.).
Un Ills Girls Transit of Jupiter’s Sat. III. (Ganymede),
egress. , i
19. Ith. Jupiter in conjunction with Moon (Jupiter,
teste.) : ‘
20. 10h. 24m. to 1th. 44m. Moon occults é’ Ceti
(mag. 4°5). ;
23. 5h. 20m. Near approach of Moon to a Tauri (mag.
17):
24. 6h. 39m. to 8h. 34m. Transit of Jupiter’s Sat. III.
(Ganymede).
25. Vesta in opposition to Sun (Vesta, mag. 6°5).
ENCKE’s Comet 1904 b.—In No. 3973 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten M. M. Kaminsky gives a further ephemeris for
Encke’s comet, which he has corrected in accordance with
the observation made at Heidelberg on September 11. The
ephemeris gives the daily positions of _the comet from
October 14 to December 5, and the following is an abstract
therefrom :—
Ephemeris oh. (M.T. Berlin).
1904 ae app. 6 app. log. x log. A
BNO RETICon (Ss ae ary
Nov. 3 23 10 34 +24 9 O'1510 9°7380
ap = 5 2507t . 3 +23 21 O°1424 9°7305
op 7 22 51 37 +22 29 0°1335 9°7237
» 9 22 42 19 +21 33 071243 9°7178
ap, uit 22 33 II +20 36 O°1147 9°7125
eas 22 24 17 +19 35 0°1048 9°7080
9 15 22 15 34 +18 33 0°0946 9°7040
oy one PR PS +17 29 00840 9°7008
LOM MEZTESS AQt-) 400024! -2.480:0750 9°6978
The accompanying chart shows, approximately, the
apparent path of the comet through the constellation
Pegasus into Equuelus from now until December 5.
EQUULEUS
SIMULTANEOUS OCCURRENCE ‘OF SOLAR AND Macnetic Dis-
TURBANCES.—Writing in No. 3, vol. xx., of the Astrophysical
Journal, Herr A. Nippoldt, of the Potsdam Magnetic Observ-
atory, disagrees with Father Cortie’s conclusion (published
in Astrophysical Journal, pp. 287-293, vol. xviii., 1903) re-
NOVEMBER 3, 1904]
INGZIT AO TS,
17
garding the absence of any allied magnetic disturbances
during the appearance of a vigorous sun-spot from May 19
to June 26, 1901.
Herr Nippoldt questions the advisability of introducing
statistical gradations of the magnetic disturbances, and con- |
tends that the magnetic effect at any one place or at a |
number of places in approximately the same latitude is, |
possibly, not a measure of the solar cause. That is to say,
an instrument near the poles might register a “‘ great ’’
when the Potsdam or Stonyhurst recorders only registered
a “‘ small ”’ disturbance. Consequently, he would urge that |
when the magnetograph trace shows any marked Civer- |
gence from the normal one might consider that a disturbance |
had taken place, and he shows, by a reproduction of the
‘“ horizontal-intensity ’’ curve obtained at Potsdam on |
May 30-31, 1901, that a disturbance did take place during |
the time that the spot which Father Cortie especially dis-
cussed was on the sun.
Finally, he confirms M. Deslandres’s opinion that in the
future the solar observations should be continuous, and
thereby become more strictly comparable with the magnetic |
records. |
(
|
|
|
|
Tue Turd BaNnp or THE Arr SPEcTRUM.—In No. 16 (1904) |
of the Comptes rendus MM. H. Deslandres and A. Kannapell |
publish the results of a study of the third air band, which
occurs in the more refrangible part
of the ultra-violet end of the spec-
trum (A 3000 to A 2000), under a large
dispersion.
The apparatus used consisted of a
capillary vacuum tube closed with a
plate of quartz under a pressure of
less than 1 mm. of mercury, and a
spectrograph containing two calcite
prisms of 60° and two quartz lenses
of 1-3 metres focal length. The
latter produced a dispersion which,
in the neighbourhood of N=42,189
(A 2370), gave a separation of
0-005 mm. for a difference of 0-06 N.
The wave-lengths of the lines were
obtained by reference to a spectrum
of iron, using Kayser’s fundamental
values for the wave-lengths of the
latter, and the authors state that in
the individual values obtained for N
the first six figures are correct.
In the results it is seen that,
although the lines of the band may
be separated into four series of
doublets according to Deslandres’s
law, so that the difference of wave-
lengths in each series advances in
arithmetical progression, yet the
variations from the computed values
are greater than may be accounted
for by errors of measurement, and,
what is more remarkable, the sign
of these variations for series i. and ii. is opposite to that
obtained for series iii. and iv.
PRE-GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY.'
HE beautifully illustrated memoir by Messrs. Wright
and Muff, recently issued by the Royal Dublin Society,
directs attention to an ancient rock-platform on which
Glacial deposits were laid down in southern Ireland. The
importance of such observations is clear when we consider
the possibility of the preservation of a pre-Glacial, and
perhaps Pliocene, fauna in favoured localities beneath
the drift. At Courtmacsherry Bay, for example, south-
west of Cork Harbour, a well marked rock-shelf occurs
about 5 feet above high-water mark. On this rests a
raised beach, with ferruginous sand and rows of pebbles,
succeeded by the blown sand that accumulated when the
1 “The Pre-Glacial Raised Beach of the South Coast of Ireland.” By
W. B. Wright and H. B. Muff. Scientific Proceedings of the Royal
| pereclating water.
Dublin Society, vol. x. part ii. (Dublin: University Press, 1904) Price 3s.
NO. 1827. VOL. 71]
uplift first occurred. Blocks from the adjacent cliff slipped
down over the sand, and the series was then preserved by
the Boulder-clay of the Glacial epoch. The wide stretch
| of coast, from Carnsore Point in co. Wexford to Baltimore
in the west of co. Cork, over which this raised platform
has been traced, affords ample opportunities for comparing
the modern with the ancient features. The authors show
that the pre-Glacial sea worked against a cliff about 100 feet
in height, and consequently advanced slowly, leaving a
denuded surface remarkably free from stacks and irregulari-
ties. This surface commonly lies about 12 feet above the
modern beach. Unfortunately, no trace of fossils has yet
appeared in the old beach-deposits, and the authors believe
that even pebbles of limestone have been removed by
The Boulder-clay above contains the
usual icolluscs, including northern species.
The pre-Glacial beach is traced into the estuaries of the
rivers of southern Ireland; consequently these inlets are
still older. Since they have arisen from the submergence
of river-valleys, the river-system and the submergence are
of pre-Glacial age. This simple but important observation
seems effectually to negative the views of the late Prof.
Carvill Lewis and Mr. James Porter (Irish Naturalist, 1902,
p. 153), who argued that deposits cf glacial drift might
have turned the lower portions of these rivers into their
present north-and-south direction.
We are thrown back,
Fic. 1.—Section in Courtmacsherry Bay, co. Cork, showing beach-gravel and sand resting on shore-
platform, and overlain by Boulder-clay.
then, upon the view of Jukes in accounting for the courses
of the Blackwater and the Lee, and may see, as the drift
is slowly washed away, further and further developments
of the pre-Glacial topography of Ireland. We have been
apt to assume that the western fjords and rias originated
when the glaciers retreated from them and the land sank
upon the Atlantic side. It now becomes possible that the
tongues of ice spread into pre-existing inlets, banking out
the sea, and again admitting it in warmer times. Messrs.
Wright and Muff even conclude, from British as well as
Irish indications, that ‘‘ a considerable portion of the coast-
line of Southern Britain is of pre-glacial age. The approxi-
mation over so wide an area of the sea-level in pre-glacial
times to that of the present day renders it very probable
that Ireland was already insulated before the Glacial
Period.”’
This only increases the difficulty of assuming an extinc-
tion of the fauna and flora of Ireland during the maximum
extension of the ice. Many points of cheerful controversy
lurk behind this straightforward and descriptive paper.
GRENVILLE A. J. COLE.
18
NATURE
[NovEMBER 3, 1904
THE SALMON FISHERIES OF ENGLAND
AND WALES.
THs report, although the first issued by the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries, is on the same lines as the
forty-three previous annual reports of the Inspectors of
Fisheries of England and Wales issued by the Board of
Trade. It embodies the reports of the three Inspectors of
Fisheries of England and Wales, Messrs. Archer and Fryer
and Dr. Masterman. Besides these reports there are twelve
appendices.
It is pleasing to learn from Mr. Archer’s report that the
salmon and trout season of 1903 was on the whole a good
one. Mr. Archer refers to the long-standing difficulty of
getting accurate statistics, and has made inquiries of the
various boards of conservators as to the possible methods
of obtaining them. The answers from these boards are not
encouraging, and it is apparent that legislation is necessary
in order to compel the recording of fish caught.
As usual, the want of funds by the boards of con-
servators, and the impossibility of their carrying out their
proper work without such funds, is discussed. The present
system by which the boards derive their revenue solely
from the net and rod licences granted annually is obviously
inadequate, and Mr. Archer quotes a resolution adopted
unanimously by the Wye Board of Conservators, which is
as follows :—
“That _as the present system, by which the income of
Fishery Boards in England and Wales depends entirely
upon the amount realised from licences paid for nets and
rods, has proved inadequate for the proper protection of the
Fisheries, this Board is of opinion that legislation is urgently
required to enable any Fishery Board, with the consent and
subject to conditions formulated by the Board of Agriculture
and Fisheries, to assess the annual value of all the Fisheries
in its district and to levy a rate upon each Fishery for the
purpose of providing the Board with a sufficient income
for the proper protection and management of the Fisheries
in the district under its charge.”’
We quote this, not because it is new, for the suggestion
that some form of assessment of fisheries was probably un-
avoidable was made by the Salmon Fisheries Commission
in their report in 1902, but because this move on the part
of the Wye Board is worthy of commendation, and seems to
us to be a move in the right direction. Too often our Royal
Commissions make valuable reports which are pigeon-
holed, and perhaps if the various boards of conservators
pass similar resolutions to that passed by the Wye Board,
and thus show some common agreement in the matter, it
will go some way towards making those in authority take
the matter up seriously. We have heard rumours of new
salmon legislation, and let us hope that the financial side
of the question will have full consideration.
Mr. Archer discusses further evidence brought forward
by those who believe in the advantages of artificial pro-
pagation of salmon to show the success of the experiments
upon the Weser in Germany, and he shows quite clearly
that “‘ not proven ’’ must still be the verdict on the question
of their success.
We are very glad to see from Mr. Fryer’s report that
salmon-marking experiments, which have now been carried
on for some years in Scotland and Ireland and in Norway,
have been undertaken in England. The percentage of
returns of marked salmon is not very high, and the more
the experiment is extended the better chance there is of
gathering data which will throw some light upon the
migratory habits of the species.
At last steps are being taken to alter the anomalous
state of the law as to the English and Scottish sides of the
Solway, as recommended by the Royal Commission on
Tweed and Solway Fisheries, which sent in its report eight
years ago.
There is a résumé of the various local questions with
which Mr. Fryer has had to deal, and it is in reading this
that one sees the futility of our present fishery laws. While
inspectors or boards of conservators are corresponding with
this manufacturer or that company or corporation as to the
steps to be taken to mitigate some nuisance, the seasons slip
by and nothing is done, often because there is insufficient
1 Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Annual Report of Proceedings
under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, &c., for the Year 1903.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
power given under existing Acts to enforce those Acts being
carried out.
Dr. Masterman, who was appointed only just before the
end of the period with which the reports are required to
deal, submits a short but interesting paper upon fish scales
‘and upon the method of distinguishing the species of
Salmonide. He refers to the work so far done upon fish
scales as a means of recording the age of fishes, and in
this connection we are glad to learn that the salmon scale
is being studied at the present time by Mr. H. W. Johnston.
The salmon scale is particularly interesting, as a number
of rings—roughly about thirty—immediately surrounding
the nucleus of the scale, and occupying roughly about
0-5 mm. or 0-6 mm., are much finer, and are situated much
closer together, than the rings outside this area, perhaps
representing the fresh-water life period of the individual.
We notice that the gross revenue returned during 1903
was 7504l., as against 66061. in 1902. There were more rod
licences issued than in any previous years since the com-
mencement of the statistics, although the revenue there-
from, amounting to 32941., was not equal to that realised
in 1892, when it was 3386]. Revenue from nets was also
slightly better than in 1902, being 3994l. as against 3905/.,
but in 1902 these licences realised less than in any year
since 1867, the first year of the statistics, when only 3851.
was obtained. ; k
Trout licences produced more in 1903 than in any previous
year. ‘ ; ;
The report is published at His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
and is obtainable from Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode, or
through any bookseller, price 8d.
FRANK BALFOUR BROWNE.
THE ANATOMY OF CORALS?
‘THE classification of corals based upon the structure of
the hard or skeletal parts alone, such as has been
used by zoologists in general since the publication of Milne-
Edwards and Haime’s “ Histoire Naturelle des Coralli-
aires ’’ (1857-1860), is clearly not satisfactory. Some con-
sideration in the system of the general anatomy of the soft
tissues of the living coral polyps is clearly necessary if our
classification is intended to indicate at all the natural group-
ing of the genera and species. ‘
The startling discoveries made by Moseley during the
voyage of the Challenger, that the coral Heliopora and the
corals of the family Stylasteridze do not belong even to the
same order as the Madrepores, was an important, if not
the principal, stimulus to the investigations of the anatomy
of these zoophytes that have been published in recent years.
Moseley himself, and his pupils Bourne, Fowler, and
Sclater, and abroad von Heider and von Koch, contributed
valuable memoirs on the anatomy of different species of
Madreporaria, and slowly but without any further startling
effects our knowledge grew. The result of these investi-
gations was to confirm the belief in the close relationship
of the Madrepores to the sea anemones, and to show that
in the structure of the mesenteries, tentacles, and other
organs there are differences between the genera of great
systematic importance. But still our knowledge remained
insufficient to suggest any permanent improvement on the
Edwardsian system.
Some years ago Mr. Duerden, when stationed in the
island of Jamaica, commenced a series of investigations
upon the living corals of Kingston harbour and its neigh-
bourhood. He took advantage of his opportunities for
observing them alive on the reef and in his aquarium; he
was equipped with a profound knowledge of the structure
of the Actiniaria and of the modern methods of anatomical
investigation. A series of papers and notes-marked the
period of his residence in Jamaica; but he reserved for
this magnificent memoir of 200 quarto pages a general and
detailed account of his work.
To say that the memoir is brilliant is to express an
opinion, but to say that it is important is but to state a fact.
Zoologists who are interested in the structure of corals
must refer to this memoir as a great store of first-hand
1 “West Indian Madreporarian Polyps.” By J. E. Duerden. Memoirs
of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. viii. (Washington, 1902.)
aan sano
a
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
facts, and whoever attempts in the future to classify the
Zoantharia must base his conclusions upon many of the
anatomical details which are here for the first time
adequately recorded.
No tre than twenty-six species of corals, distributed
among twenty genera, formed the materials of Mr.
Duerden’s investigations, and, although the descriptions are
not exhaustive, there is a very full and interesting account
of the general structure of all these forms. : .
The brilliancy of the colours of many corals in the living
state has excited the interest and admiration of the
naturalists and travellers who have visited coral reefs.
These colours appear to be due to a variety of causes. In
many cases the cavities of the polyps and the adjacent
canals bear large numbers of the symbiotic alge called
Zooxanthella. The colour of these cells accounts for most
of the prevailing brown and yellow-brown tints. In some
few instances, such as Astrangia solitaria and Phyllangia
americana, the Zooxanthellze are nearly or wholly absent,
and the polyps then are remarkably transparent and almost
colourless. But there are in many cases definite pigment
cells, both in the ectoderm and endoderm, which may add
to or give the only colour effect of the expanded polyps. A
third cause of colour is to be found in the boring filamentous
red and bright green algz with which many corals are
infested.
The chapter dealing with the structure and arrangement
of the tentacles is one of exceptional interest. To investi-
gators in this country the tentacles have always offered
difficulties
the
carefully
and uncertainties. | However
L v
z r:
va iva a m1 OL £.
ic. 1.—Diagrammatic figures showing the arrangement of the first six
pairs of mesenteries in (2) Madrepora ; (4) most other species of Madre-
poraria. The upper side of each is the side turned towards the axis
(axial), and the lower is away from the axis (abaxial). The axial side
i i h ies it is dorsal. (The | a wane :
of Madrepora is ventral, whereas in most other species it is dorsal. (The | and in the majority of Zoantharia the dorsal Depece ofthe
upper cf the bilateral pairs marked v, v in @ should have been v1, v1).
material they can obtain is preserved, it is impossible to
prevent a great deal of retraction and shrinkage. Mr.
Duerden’s careful observations, therefore, of the fully ex-
panded tentacles of his living corals form a particularly
welcome addition to our knowledge.
The most elaborate, and perhaps we may say the most
important, part of the author’s work deals with the number
and arrangement of the mesenteries. This is not the place
to relate or to criticise details which are necessarily highly
technical and somewhat intricate; but it may be said that
it is upon the results of this part of his investigations that
the suggestions he has to offer for the classification of the
order very largely depend.
If we regard the Madreporaria as an order, we may
divide it into two suborders :—(1) the Entocnemaria, (2) the
Cyclocnemaria. In the former the mesenteries always arise
in bilateral pairs, and beyond the protocnemic stage the
increase takes place within one or both of the directive
entocceles. In the latter the mesenteries, beyond the proto-
enemic stage, arise in isocnemic unilateral pairs within the
primary ‘exocceles. The Entocnemaria are represented only
by the single section Perforata, the Cyclocnemaria by the
two sections Aporosa and Fungacea. The arrangement of
the families of the Aporosa into two groups, the Gemmantes
and the Fissiparantes, based upon the method of asexual re-
production—by gemmation or by stomodzal fission—sup-
ported as it is by Mr. Duerden’s later researches, can be
regarded as only tentative and suggestive at present; but
the facts upon which it is based are among the most interest-
ing and important of his many results.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
NATURE
we]
It is a matter for regret, which many will share with
the reviewer, that in the introduction to the systematic part
of the memoir Mr. Duerden has not given us his views as
to the relation of the Actiniaria to the Madreporaria, a
difficult matter upon which no one is more competent to
express an opinion.
There are some points in the terminology employed by
Mr. Duerden that appear to me to be open to some objec-
tion. “‘ By universal acceptation,’’ he says, ‘‘ Coenen-
chyme is the calcareous deposit originating from the
coenosare.’’ This is most unfortunate. The word was
introduced by Milne-Edwards and Haime to signify the
common tissue which precedes the existence of the polyps
and plays a considerable part in their constitution. In a
similar sense Kolliker uses the expression as the tissue that
gives rise to the axis of the precious coral. It was for the
soft, not the hard, parts of the ‘‘ common tissue ’”’ that the
word was introduced. But to say that by ‘“ universal
acceptation ’’ the word is used for the calcareous deposit is
not accurate, for the writers on Alcyonarians invariably
use the word to signify both hard and soft parts, other than
the axis, which lie between the neighbouring zooids.
Again, the use of the word “‘ gastro-ceelom’”’ for the
general body-cavity of the Coelenterate, suggesting as it does
a compromise with the old-fashioned gastro-vascular cavity,
is to be regretted. Either of the words “‘ enteroccel’’ or
““ccelenteron ’’ is preferable.
On the other hand, the discussion (pp. 443-4) on the use
of terms referring to the aspects of the ccelenterate body
is excellent. The aspect of the body towards which the faces
bearing the musculature of the two complete bilateral pairs
of mesenteries, i, ii, are turned was called by Haddon the
““sulcar ’’ aspect, and the opposite the ‘‘ sulcular ”’ aspect.
This terminology was adopted by Bourne in his ‘*‘ Anthozoa ”’
of lLankester’s ‘‘ Treatise on Zoology.’’ Marshall, in
writing upon certain Alcyonarians, had previously used the
terms “‘ abaxial’’ and ‘‘ axial’’ respectively, and these
terms were introduced to supersede the ‘‘ ventral’’ and
‘“‘ dorsal ’’ of Moseley, Kolliker, and others. It is quite
clear now from Mr. Duerden’s remarks that the use of the
| newer sets of terms can lead to nothing but confusion.
Anything that can be called a ‘‘ sulcus”? occurs only in
Alcyonaria and a few Zoantharia; the ‘‘ sulculus”’ is a
myth.
But of more importance is the fact that, as shown by
Carlgren, the ‘* sulcus ’’ is dorsal in Cerianthus and ventral
in the- other forms where it occurs. The axial-abaxial re-
lationship, moreover, is not constant. In the Alcyonaria
polyp is turned towards the axis of the colony, and the
ventral aspect away from the axis; but in Madrepora this
arrangement is reversed. In the solitary Anthozoa the use
of the terms “ axial’ and “ abaxial’? has no meaning.
The conclusion is then that, although they are open to
some objections, the use of the terms ‘‘ dorsal’’ and
“ventral ’’ for the two aspects of the bilateral anthozoon
must be retained.
In conclusion, Mr. Duerden may be congratulated on the
production of a really great work which marks an im-
portant step forward in the history of our knowledge of the
Ccelenterata. Sypney J. Hickson.
SEISMOLOGICAL NOTES.
N No. 10, vol. ix., of the Boll. Soc. Sismol. Italiana, Dr.
Agamennone records the fact that his idea of taking
photographs, at intervals, from fixed points, in regions
suspected of bradiseismic movements, was independently
suggested by F. Salmojraghi. The object is to detect slow
or rapid changes of relative level in the interior of a con-
tinent, where there is no such convenient datum level as
is afforded by the sea, and the paper is specially devoted to
showing that the effects of refraction, being irregular, would
not prevent the detection of a bradiseismic change of relative
level in a regular series of photographic records.
No. 23 of the Mittheilungen of the Austrian Earthquake
Commission is a paper by Prof. Laska on the application
of earthquake observations to the investigation of the con-
stitution of the interior of the earth. From a consideration
of the observations of the Caraccas earthquake of
20
October 29, 1900, in Europe and Japan, he arrives at the
conclusion that if the earth consists of a central core and
an outer shell, each of uniform composition, the outer shell
must have a thickness of not more than 500 km. This
result would fall in with Milne’s hypothesis, but as this is
considered to be inconsistent with the facts of astronomy, he
adopts the conclusion that there is a continuous increase in
the rate of propagation from the surface to the centre of
the earth, this increase being much more rapid near the
surface than at greater depths; this condition would result
in the wave motion being propagated along curvilinear
paths, and give rise to a small apparent rate of propagation
near the origin as compared with that found at greater
distances. The value of Prof. Laska’s conclusion is
diminished by the fact that it is based on the consideration
of only a single earthquake, the time of origin of which
is not known by direct observation.
In the Boll. dell Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali in
Catania of February, 1904, Prof. Ricco returns to the con-
sideration of the gravitational anomalies he has detected
under Mount Etna, and shows that they are accompanied by
corresponding irregularities in the course of the lines of equal
magnetic force. Prof. Ricco merely records the fact of these
magnetic irregularities, but the observation is important in
its bearing on the explanation of the gravitational anomaly,
which is equivalent to the removal of more than 1000 metres
in thickness of rock, at sea level, from under the summit of
the mountain. It is inconceivable that this can be due to
the existence of huge cavities in the earth; more probably
the effect is due to the existence of a ‘‘ root ’’ of the moun-
tain, depressed into a denser magma, by the buoyancy of
which the visible mountain is supported. There is indepen-
dent geological evidence that Mount Etna lies over a region
of special subsidence, the basis of sedimentary rock on which
it was heaped up having been depressed during its form-
ation, and if we suppose this depression to have caused the
displacement of denser by less dense rocks to a considerable
depth, we get an explanation of both gravitational and
magnetic anomalies. A rough calculation shows that the
buoyancy of the downward protuberance would, on the most
favourable supposition, be inadequate to support the whole
weight of the mountain, and it must be concluded that
Mount Etna is not in a condition of complete isostacy, but
partially supported by an upward force.
In No. 1 of the tenth volume of the Bolletino of the
Italian Seismological Society Prof. Grablovitz discusses the
vexed question of the nature of the wave motion in the
third phase of the record of a distant earthquake. The
occasion is the series of earthquakes which originated in the
Balkan peninsula on April 4, 1904; as registered at Ischia,
the great waves had a period of about 8 seconds, and, if the
records of the horizontal pendula are interpreted as due to
tilting, they indicate angular movements of as much as
roo seconds of arc, and this means a vertical movement of
more than 2 metres; in the same earthquakes the instru-
ment for recording the vertical component of the movement
gave only negative results. From this Prof. Grablovitz
concludes that the records obtained from the horizontal
pendula and the vasca sismica are not due to tilting; he
admits that there may have been a small amount of vertical
movement which the instrument failed to record, but this
must have been much smaller than that obtained by calcu-
lation in the ordinary way.
The same number contains a description, by Dr.
Agamennone, of a new form of very delicate seismoscope,
adapted for the detection of both near and distant earth-
quakes; and an account, by D. Vassalo, illustrated by a
sketch plan, of the condition of Stromboli in June, 1904.
Dr. R. von Kd6vesligethy, of Budapest, has made an
ingenious calculation of the work done by great earth-
quakes. Regarding the observed irregularities in the dis-
placement of the poles as compounded of a regular epicycloid
movement, and an irregular movement, which has been
shown by. Prof. Milne to vary with the frequency of great
earthquakes, he calculates that each of the 200 great earth-
quakes registered during the eight years 1895-1902 caused
an average displacement of the pole through —o".00275 ;
the negative sign is interesting, as showing that the tendency
of great earthquakes is to diminish the departure of the
instantaneous from the mean axis of revolution. The work
done by this displacement is calculated as equivalent to that
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(NOVEMBER 3, 1904
which would be required to raise a mass equal to that of
the earth through 1.2 mm. at its surface (Die Erdbeben-
warte, ili., 1904, pp. 196-202).
Prof. Omori contributes a note on the variations of sea
level on the east coast of Japan to part xiii. of vol. ii. of
the reports of the Tokio Physico-Mathematical Society.
The curves of barometric pressure and sea level are very
similar, and approximately reversed ; the maximum sea level
is in September and the minimum in February, while the
minimum barometric pressure is in July and the maximum
in November. The range of barometric pressure is 93 m.,
corresponding to 126 mm. of sea level, while the range of
sea level amounts to 276 mm. at Misaki and 219 mm. at
Ayukaua; these figures show that while the local variations
of barometric pressure doubtless influence the level of the
sea, this is also dependent on the variations of barometric
pressure over the Pacific Ocean. The net result is that the
variations of pressure on the bed of the sea are the opposite
of those on the adjoining land, and Prof. Omori correlates
this fact with the observed variations in frequency of earth-
quakes originating off the east coast of Japan.
The Deutschen Rundschau, vol. xxvii., part i., contains
an interesting note, originally printed in the Honolulu
Evening Bulletin of June 21, 1904, by Dr. Otto Kuntze on
the present condition of Kilauea, which he describes as
being now dormant or extinct. There are no longer any
“lakes of fire’’; the old lake of lava has cooled, and is
covered by a sheet of rock, and though steam issues from
some of the cracks in this, no molten, or even red-hot, rock
is now visible. A remarkable statement in the note is that
the lava lake, formerly visible, did not mark an active vent,
but was merely a reservoir of slowly cooling lava, which
had flowed from the crater of Halemaumau and accumulated
in the lowest part of the caldera of Kilauea. There is no
authentic record of this crater, which rises from the floor
of the caldera, having been in eruption since June 24, 1897,
and the paper contains some strongly worded comments on
the mis-statements regarding the present condition of the
crater, printed in the guide books issued by the tourist
agencies, mis-statements which are unnecessary, as Kilauea,
even in its existing condition, is nevertheless one of the most
interesting sights in the world, of which Dr. Kuntz claims
that few have seen more than himself.
In No. 17 of the Publications of the Earthquake Investi-
gation Committee in Foreign Languages, Mr. 5. Kusakabe
continues his investigations of the modulus of elasticity of
rocks, and publishes some interesting results. He finds that
all rocks show a marked hysteresis, that is to say, when
exposed to a stress they go on yielding, apparently to an
indefinite extent, though after a while the effect is masked
by that due to changes of temperature, and when released
from the stress the recovery takes place at a continuously
decreasing rate, but apparently is never complete. Rocks
in a state of strain have a higher modulus of elasticity than
in the unstrained condition, and if exposed to a series of
alternating stresses, increasing and decreasing in opposite
directions, the mean modulus for the whole cycle is dis-
tinctly greater than that obtained by the usual method of
determination. The mean modulus of elasticity decreases
with the increase in amplitude of the cycle, from which it
is concluded that the rate of transmission of earthquake
waves is a function of their amplitude, and is less for a
larger than for a smaller amplitude. The modulus of
elasticity was found to have a maximum value at about
9° C., and to decrease by about half per cent. of its value
for each rise of one degree of temperature; from this it
is inferred that there is a tendency towards a decrease in
the rate of transmission as the depth of the wave path
increases. On the other hand, the average rate of trans-
mission is higher in Archazan and Paleozoic than in the
newer rocks, and from these two considerations the deduc-
tion is drawn that there is a level of maximum velocity of
transmission. We may point out that in arriving at this
conclusion no account is taken of the increase in pressure
with depth, and the consequent increase in compression of
the rocks.
Prof. Imamura, in the Tokio Sugaku-Butsurigakkwai
(Tokio Physico-Mathematical Society), vol. ii., No. 13,
adopts the same notion that there is a level of maximum
rate of propagation, and places this level at a depth of a
few hundred kilometres. The estimate is based on the
NovEMBER 3, 1904]
NATORE
21
high rate of transmission, as much as 16 km. per second,
obtained for near earthquakes by a calculation from the
observed duration of the preliminary tremors, on the
assumption that their rate of propagation is uniform. In
another part of the paper he gives the results of direct calcu-
lation in the case of ten earthquakes the time of origin of
which was known; for Tokio, at a mean epicentral distance
of 665 km., the rates were 7-5 km. per second for the first,
and 5-5 km. per second for the second, phase of the pre-
liminary tremors, while Osaka, at a mean epicentral
distance of 856 km., gave 8.2 km. and 5-8 km. per second
respectively. These values may be accepted as more trust-
worthy than those obtained by the other method.
Globus of September 15 contains a note by Wilhelm Krebs
on the distribution of submarine earthquakes, illustrated
by a map of the world, on which all the recorded instances
are plotted. Many of these are submarine volcanic erup-
tions, and their great concentration in the middle of the
narrowest part of the Atlantic Ocean, between Africa and
South America, is very striking. The utility of charts of
this description would be much increased if they bore on
their face indications of the principal trade routes of the
oceans; as it is, some doubt may be felt as to whether the
much greater frequency of recorded seismic phenomena in
the Atlantic Ocean may not be due to a very large extent
to the fact that this ocean is, proportionately, much more
frequented than the Pacific. The other centres of activity,
according to the map, are the West Indian islands, the
west coast of South America, the south of the Bay of Bengal,
the Malay Archipelago, the east coast of Japan, and the
Mediterranean.
THE RACIAL ELEMENTS IN THE PRESENT
POPULATION OF EUROPE.)
HE lecturer opened his discourse with a_ graceful
acknowledgment of the honour conferred upon him
by the Anthropological Institute, and paid a respectful
tribute to the memory of Huxléy, who was the first to make
the two-fold division of the peoples of Europe into xantho-
chroid and melanochroid races. With the name of Huxley
he coupled the names of Beddoe and Broca as pioneers in
European ethnographical research. To the two races
mentioned above a third was soon added—the Mediterranean
race—and the lecturer himself had in 1897 made a further
step by dividing the population of Europe into six main
races. He then dealt with criticisms which had been passed
upon his own theories, chiefly by the American ethnologist
Ripley, and stated that the further researches upon which
he had continually been engaged since that date, and of
which he was about to lay the results before the audience,
had confirmed him in his first opinion. During a consider-
able number of years he had been diligently collecting
statistics concerning the stature, colour of eyes and hair,
and head measurements of the various nationalities, and
now, in spite of certain lacunae, some of which he regretted
to observe occurred in Britain, he was able to say that he
possessed data covering the whole of Europe.
In no part of the world does there exist such a blending
of races, such an intermixture of somatic characters, as
amongst the ethnic groups which constitute the present
populations of Europe, even when we make abstraction of
the ‘‘national’’ groupings, such as Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, for instance, and consider only the properly
called ethnic or linguistic groups, like Slavic, Roman,
Germanic, &c.
In an anthropological study of the European populations
it is impossible to proceed in the same way as in the case
of the majority of the so-called uncivilised peoples, where
the measurements of a small series of individuals (often
twenty or fifty) suffices to give an idea of the whole
population,
Another method is required for the study of complicated
ethnic groups. It is the combination of the statistical and
the cartographical methods, in which the observations taken
on many thousands of individuals permit the investigator,
to exclude the influence of accidental variations, ani
1 Summary of the Fifth Huxley Memorial Lecture, delivered before the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, on October 7, by
Dr. J. Deniker, president of the Anthropological Society of Paris, to whom
was presented the Huxley Memorial medal.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
deduce one or several racial types in the population of a
given region.
Such measurements concerning the principal racial
characters, for instance, the stature, the colours of the hair
and the eyes, the shape of the head (expressed principally
by the cephalic index, i.e. the centesimal relation between
the length and the breadth of the head), &c., have been made
in nearly all the parts of Europe—especially by the examin-
ation of conscripts for the military service.
he only countries in which such measurements are now
absent are Montenegro, some provinces of European Turkey
and of Caucasus. Some other countries, and not of the
least civilised, have not yet furnished sufficient information.
For instance, there is no data concerning the cephalic index
and the stature for Prussia and some other States of
northern Germany ; concerning cephalic index and pigment-
ation for Hungary, Roumania, and Servia; concerning the
cephalic index for some parts of Switzerland, of Holland,
of Russia, and, the lecturer regretted to have to mention
that, for some parts of the United Kingdom.
The lecturer expressed then the hope that in a short time
all these lacunae would disappear; considering this fact,
that many serious efforts are made now for studying the
populations in Germany, Roumania, Russia, and Great
Britain. In every case this lacunae represent only a small
part of Europe. For the rest, the details are sufficient, and
furnish a basis for general deductions.
Taking the whole mass of these results (about 20,000,
expressing the observations on more than 3,000,000 of
individuals), and correcting them as to be comparable with
each other, the lecturer explained how he put on the maps
of Europe, of a comparatively large scale (1/ 10,000,000),
district by district, this different data, and obtained in this
way the distribution of every one of the principal somatic
characters throughout the different regions of Europe.
Concernine the cephalic index, Europe can be divided
into four regions :—
(1) A region of long-headed people with medium-headed
areas in the north-west (Scandinavia, north of Germany,
Holland, Great Britain).
(2) A region in the south-west (Portugal, Spain, south of
Italy, east of Balkan Peninsula), characterised by even
greater length of head. ™
(3) A very short-headed region in western Central Europe
(south-eastern France, southern Germany, northern Italy,
Switzerland) and in the immediate west of the Balkan
Peninsula.
(4) A region comprising Russia and Poland subdivided
into three, moderately long-headed in the centre, and
medium-headed on the east and west.
After discussing these regions in detail, he proceeded to the
subject of stature. He remarked that the great mass of his
data was compiled from measurements taken on conscripts,
and explained an ingenious method by which these measure-
ments could be modified so that they represented fairly the
typical stature of the full-grown male population. In Europe
there are no people of very short stature according to the
classification invented by Topinard (under 1,600 mm., or
63 inches) ; on the other hand, this continent is distinguished
by the tallest race known, the Highlanders of Scotland.
Hence, for the purpose of this lecture, he would speak of
statures ranging between 1650 and 1675 mm. (65 inches to
66 inches) as medium, those below these measurements as
short, and those above as tall. ‘Tall statures are, with a
very few exceptions, particularly well represented in the
north-west; the rest of the population of Europe is, again
with certain exceptions, chiefly in the Balkan Peninsula,
of medium or short stature. People of medium stature are
found grouped round the regions where the tall peoples
occur, and connect the tall races of the north-west with
those of the south-east. Short statures he divided into three
groups, eastern (Russia), western (France), and southern
(Spain and Italy), and showed how the eastern zone com-
municated by narrow “‘ channels *’ with other centres of
tature.
groupigy the peoples of Europe with regard to colour
, eyes and hair, he had taken as the basis of
peoples among whom are found from 17 per cent. to 30 per
cent. of brunettes may be called intermediate. Where less
22
NATURE
[ NOVEMBER 3, 1904
than 17 per cent. occur the population is termed blond,
where more than 30 per cent. dark.
According to this grouping the two extremes are the
Swedish (3 per cent. brunettes) and southern Italy (70 per
cent.). From this point of view the map showed that north
Europe was mainly blond, South Europe dark, and Central
Europe intermediate. He traced the southern limit of the
blond races through the various countries, showing that it
nowhere reached below the soth parallel in Central Europe,
and below 55th parallel in Britain and Russia. The northern
limit of the dark peoples is more irregular. In the inter-
mediate zone blond areas are rare (one of these occur in
south England, i.e. Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire,
Sussex and Middlesex), dark areas fairly numerous, but
individually very small. Intermediate areas in the blond
zone are only found in the British Isles, but in the dark
zone are fairly frequent in western Europe.
From these data and certain other considerations relating
to shape of face and nose, character of hair, &c., Dr.
Deniker had been confirmed in his theory that the present
population of Europe is composed of six main races. These
he proceeded to enumerate, giving their typical character-
istics, tracing their positions throughout the map, and
indicating the proportions in which they had intermingled
to form the existing populations of the various countries.
The following is an abbreviated sketch of his classifi-
cation :—
(1) A race, blond, wavy-haired, long-headed, very tall,
with long face, a straight prominent nose; the northern
race, so called because its representatives are confined almost
exclusively to North Europe. this is the Cymric race of
Broca, the Germanic or Reihengraber race of German
_ authors, the Teutonic race of Ripley, or the Homo Euro-
paeus of Lapouge.
With this race is connected a subrace, blond or inter-
mediate, straight-haired, medium-headed, of tall or medium
stature, angular face, and retroussé nose, the subnorthern
race, found in the neighbourhood of the northern.
(2) A race blond, straight-haired, moderately short-
headed, and of short stature, broad square face, nose often
retroussé; the Eastern race, so named since its principal
home is in eastern Europe.
Connected with this is a subrace, blond or intermediate,
medium-headed, of very short stature, named the Vistulian
vace, occurring in Poland, parts of Prussia, and probably
Saxony and Silesia.
(3) A race dark, hair sometimes curly, long-headed, of
very short stature, straight or retroussé nose; the Ibero-
tnsular race. This is the Mediterranean race, or Homo
Mediterraniensis of certain authors, found chiefly in the
Iberian Peninsula and the islands of the western
Mediterranean.
(4) A race dark, very short and round headed, of short
stature, round face, broad nose, and thick-set body; the
Cevenole or western race. ‘This type occurs in its greatest
purity in the extreme west of Europe, though found
sporadically elsewhere. This is the race called variously
by other authors Celtic, Celto-Ligurian, Celto-Slavonic,
Sarmatian, Rhetian, Ligurian, or Homo Alpinus.
(5) A race very dark, moderately long-headed, and fairly
tall; the Littoral, or Atlanto-Mediterranean race, situated
on the coast of the Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to the
Tiber, and in occasional groups on the Atlantic Littoral,
but never more than 150 miles from the sea.
(6) A race dark, short-headed, tall, nose slender and
straight or arched; the Adriatic or Dinaric race, which is
found grouped round the northern Adriatic, particularly in
Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and the centre of the Balkan
Peninsula, but found also sporadically and with somewhat
modified characteristics in Central Europe.
With the Jast two races are connected two secondary
races, which are perhaps no more than types, produced by
the admixture of the two former with each other or with
the northern, subnorthern, and western races.
(a) The north-western, long- or medium-headed, situated
between the northern and Atlanto-Mediterranean races,
spread chiefly in Ireland.
(b) The sub-Adriatic, moderately short-headed, more
rarely short-headed, of medium stature, found in many
parts of Central Europe, probably the result of admixture
between the Adriatic and subnorthern and western races.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71].
REPORT OF THE SURVEY OF INDIA.
HE Indian Survey report is a full record of useful
work and widespread progress, but it lacks some of
the interest which used to attach formerly to the very varied
character of the work undertaken by the Survey department-
The scientific section of the report is included within the
limits of a few pages; and the narratives of individual
surveyors (which always formed a most interesting chapter
or two) have entirely disappeared.
The main work of the department, now, is the revision of
old mapping in districts which have been sorely in need of
such revision for many years. The plains of India, in fact,
are being re-surveyed, and, on the whole, the work of the
department is increasing, rather than diminishing, on purely
utilitarian lines.
Indian geodetic triangulation, which once took such a sttong
lead amongst the scientific triangulations of the world,
were numbered. Only one first-class series is in progress
at present, and this is to connect the great meridional
Mandalay series of Burma with a future extension follow-
ing the Salwin valley. It is, however, satisfactory that the
practice and training necessary for surveyors in this class
of work is well maintained so far, for it is impossible to
say what the future may demand in the way of similar
extensions in Persia, Tibet, or even in China.
One subject of special interest dealt with in the report is
the deflection of gravity. In 1901 a theory was advanced
by Major Burrard that deflections of gravity in India could
be classified by regions. Astronomical determinations of
latitude have therefore been carried systematically through
considerable arcs to prove whether this theory were sound.
The results undoubtedly support Major Burrard’s predic-
tion, and it is expected that the substitution of this regional
law for the old theory of local attraction will exercise a pro-
found influence on future investigations.
The report on geographical or reconnaissance surveys (on
the scale of 1/500,000) includes an out-turn of 38,000 square
miles of survey of this class by one native assistant in
western Tibet. This seems a remarkably large out-turn for
one surveyor to secure during the progress of a ‘‘ shooting
expedition ’’; but it is only one instance amongst many of the
remarkable capacity of well trained native explorers for
work of this nature. In reasonably easy country there seems
to be hardly any limit to their power of producing fairly
accurate geographical maps so long as they have a few
fixed points to work upon.
In this connection it is well to note the remarks of the
Surveyor-General (Colonel St. G. Gore) on the difficulty
that constantly faces him of finding qualified native
assistants to meet the demands of military or political
missions or geographical expeditions. He most justly
observes that in the first place it is difficult to find the men
who possess the necessary qualifications, and in the second
that, having found them, it is impossible to train them
efficiently in country which is unsuitable for instruction.
It is due to a combination of natural aptitude with perfect
educational environment that the native explorer of the
Indian Survey becomes so extraordinarily efficient as a topo-
grapher. If these men are wanted (and they aré wanted)
for Imperial duty over half of the continents of Africa and
Asia, it seems but fair that the Imperial Treasury should
contribute something towards maintaining a sufficient staff
to meet all demands. T. Ho He
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CamBRiIpGE.—The State Medicine Syndicate reports that
during the current year there were 57 candidates for the
diploma in public health, of whom 34 were successful. For
the diploma in tropical medicine and hygiene there were
12 candidates, of whom 8 were successful. The syndicate
has resolved to hold two examinations for the latter
diploma in 1905, the first beginning on January 10, the
second on August 8.
Applications for the vacant readership in botany (annual
stipend 3001.) are to be sent to the Vice-Chancellor by
Tuesday, November 15.
Mr. R. H. Lock, late Frank Smart student in botany,
has been elected to a Drosier fellowship at Gonville and
It would almost seem as if the days of ©
NOVEMBER 3, 1904]
Caius College. Dr. A. C. Haddon, university lecturer in
ethnology, has been elected to a senior fellowship at Christ’s
College.
A DEPARTMENT of experimental psychology has been estab-
lished, says Science, in the Western University of Penn-
sylvania, under the charge of Dr. Edmund B. Huey.
THE new medical buildings of the University of Liverpool
will be opened by the Chancellor, Lord Derby, on Saturday,
November 12, and on the same day Lord Kelvin will formally
open the new George Holt Physics Laboratory.
Tue council of the University of Liverpool has just
appointed Dr. J. H. Grindley lecturer in engineering, Mr.
A. Leitch assistant lecturer in engineering, and Mr. G. E.
Piper demonstrator in applied mechanics and engineering
design and drawing.
WE regret to learn of the death of Prof. D. W. Fiske on
September 17. The bulk of his estate, including the great
book collections, has been left to Cornell University. It is
stated in Science that the bequest amounts to between
100,0001. and 200,000l.
Dr. E. G. Coker, of the McGill University, Montreal,
has been appointed to the professorship of mechanical
engineering and applied mathematics at the City and Guilds
Technical College, Finsbury, vacated by the appointment of
Prof. Dalby to the professorship of engineering at the
institute’s Central Technical College.
Mr. Francis Gatton, F.R.S., has endowed a research
fellowship in the University of London for the promotion of
the study of ‘* national eugenics,’’ defined as ‘‘ the study of
the agencies under social control that may improve or impair
the racial qualities of future generations either physically
or mentally.’’ The fellowship is of the annual value of
25ol., is tenable for one year in the first instance, and is
renewable for two subsequent years. The person appointed
to the fellowship will be required to devote the whole of his
time to the study of the subject, and in particular to carry
out investigations into the history of classes and families,
and to deliver lectures and publish memoirs on the subject
of his investigations.
TuE report on the work of the department of technology
of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the session
1903-4 has now been published. The general introduction
to the report points out that the encouragement now offered
by the Board of Education to the teaching of technology
is among the causes contributing to the increase in the
number of students in the institute’s registered classes.
Compared with the figures given in last year’s report, those
for the past session show a decided improvement. In the
different branches of technology, the number of students
in November last attending classes in the United Kingdom
was 41,089 as compared with 38,638 in the previous year,
and the number of examinees was 20,051 as against 17,989.
The closer connection of the work of the department ,with
that of the Board of Education is shown, also, not only by
the recognition of the City and Guilds of London Institute
as an organisation for the inspection of classes in
technology, manual training, and domestic economy, but
also by the stamping by the Board of Education of full
certificates granted by the institute to students who pass
in technology and have “‘ qualified in the cognate science
or art subjects required by the institute.’’ It is interesting
to find that the question of arranging courses of instruction
adapted to the requiremehts of operatives engaged in ship-
building is under consideration ; it is intended to extend the
syllabus in ship carpentry and joinery so as to make it
suitable for artisans engaged in other branches of the
industry. Care is to be taken not to overlap the syllabus
in naval architecture of the Board of Education, and it is
expected that the new examination will appeal to a different
class of candidates from those who have hitherto presented
themselves for examination. It should be noted that the
department of technology of the institute occupies an inter-
mediate position between the central and local education
authorities and the several trade societies. The latter
bodies have shown a growing interest in technical instruc-
tion, and year by year the department has grown into more
intimate relationship with these trade organisations.
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
NATURE
23
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Entomological Society, October 19.—Prof. E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. T. A.
Chapman exhibited a series of Lozopera deaurana,
Peyr., bred last spring at Hyéres, a species regarded
as lost, or mythical, until he re-discovered it three years
ago at Ile Ste. Marguerite, Cannes. He also exhibited
on behalf of Mr. Hugh Main a_ specimen of
Pieris brassicae, the anterior and posterior wings of
which had been symmetrically injured, probably by the
girdle when in the pupal stage.—Mr. G. C. Champion ex-
hibited specimens of Nothorrhina muricata, Dalm., from
Las Navas, Spain, found trapped in the earthenware cups
used to collect the exuding resin on the trunks of pines.—
Mr. H. St. J. Donisthorpe exhibited specimens of the
rare beetle, Cis bilamellatus, Wood, taken at Shirley on
October 10 last.—Mr. W. J. Lucas exhibited a Q speci-
men of the rare dragonfly Agrion armatum. He said that
a d and a 9 were taken in the Broads by Mr. F. B.
Browne last year, and this year about ten more, probably
all 9 9, were taken in the same district. Besides these
there are possibly no other examples in Britain. It is quite
distinct from our other six blue Agrionines in form and
colouring.—Mr. W. J. Kaye exhibited five specimens of
Dianthoecia luteago, var. ficklini, from North Cornwall,
taken during the first week of July, 1901, and remarked
that while the typical D. luteago of the Continent was toler-
ably constant, wherever it occurred in Britain it assumed
a special local form.—Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., ex-
hibited a number of specimens of the genus Sphecodes, five
species in all, and of Ocyptera brevicornis, a Tachinid, their
mimetic fly, illustrative of Mr. Edward Saunders’s recent
paper on the aculeate Hymenoptera from the Balearic
Islands and Spain.—Mr. C. A. J. Rothney sent for ex-
hibition a series of the Indian ant Myrmicaria fodiens, from
a colony established thirty-two years in the big banyan tree
in Barrackpore Park; and specimens of Monomorium
salomonis, Lin., and Solenopsis geminata, Fab., success-
fully encouraged in Madras as a protection against white
ants—termites.—Mr. E. E. Green exhibited a spider from
Ceylon mimetic of some coccinellid beetle, at present un-
identified.—Colonel J. W. Yerbury exhibited specimens, and
read notes upon, deer gadflies taken by him this year in
Scotland.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, October 18.—Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr.
W. A. Bone read a paper entitled ‘‘ The Mode of Com-
bustion of Hydrocarbons,”’ in which he gave an account of
researches carried out by Messrs. R. V. Wheeler and W. E.
Stockings and himself, at the Owens College, on the slow
combustion of hydrocarbons below their ignition points.—
Dr. Charles H. Lees exhibited a modification of the
U-tube used in electrolysis which he had devised, and which
diminishes to about one-half the correction for pressure due
to the coiumn of liquid in the unsealed limb of the tube.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, October 24.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—Stereoscopy without a stereoscope: J. Violle. In a
camera, furnished with two objectives, directly in front of
the plate is placed a grating, ruled with 100 black lines to
the inch. The negative from this contains the two sets
of images, each crossed with a set of fine bands. When
this is looked at through a similar ruled plate the picture
appears in relief—On the modifications of glycolysis in the
capillaries caused by local modification of the temperature :
R. Lepine and M. Boulud. The experiments were made
on dogs. Relatively to the arterial blood, the venous blood
of the warmer part always contains a little more sugar.
In the case of the paw kept cool, this difference is in-
creased to about double, and is in the same direction.—
On integral functions of finite order : L. Leau.—On certain
partial differential equations of the second order:
S. Bernstein.—On the period of antennz of different
forms: C. Tissot. On account of the high value of the
deadening, the rotating mirror method does not give
accurate figures for the period, and the author describes
another method which is free from this objection. It is
24
DAT LO,
{ NOVEMBER 3, 1904
shown that, independently of the principal period, the
antennz give rise to oscillations of a higher order, the laws
for which have been experimentally worked out.—Study of
the sea bottom of the North Atlantic; the Henderson and
Chaucer Banks: M. Thoulet. The examination of the
deposits obtained from the bed of the North Atlantic by the
Prince of Monaco renders the existence of the Henderson
and Chaucer Banks improbable. The proportion of lime
found was remarkably uniform, whilst the amount of sand
was very variable. It results that the usual method of
classification by sand, although very useful near the coasts,
is useless for the study of great depths.—Remarks on a
recent series of calorimetric determinations: P. Lemoult.
Some recent calorimetric determinations with the Kroeker
bomb by E. Fischer and F. Wrede are re-calculated to con-
stant pressure, and the results compared with the original
figures of Berthelot and some later unpublished ones of
Landrieu. The numbers given by the formulz of the author
are also tabulated in parallel column.—The extraction of
vanadium from the natural lead vanadate and the manu-
facture of some alloys of this metal: H. Herrenschmidt.
The mineral is treated in a reverberatory furnace with
carbonate of soda and carbon, and a slag obtained contain-
ing the vanadate, aluminate, and silicate of soda along
with oxide of iron. This is again melted, and air blown
through until the vanadium is completely oxidised, and the
sodium vanadate lixiviated—On a new anhydride of
dulcite: P. Carré. The new anhydride is obtained by
heating dulcite with phosphoric acid at 135° C. It is
isomeric with mannide, and is named dulcide.—A new
method for preparing organic derivatives of phosphorus :
V. Auger. The solution obtained by dissolving granu-
lated phosphorus in alcoholic soda is heated with an alkyl]
iodide or bromide. An alkylphosphine is formed, recognised
after its oxidation to the corresponding alkylphosphinic acid.
—The influence of the products of the breaking down of
albuminoid materials on the saponification of oils by cyto-
plasma: Ed. Urbain, L. Perruchon, and J. Lancon.
On the tyrosinase of the fly: C. Gessard. In Lucilia
Caesar, in both stages in the life of the insect, the coloration
of the integument is due.to the reaction of the tyrosinase.
--On a parasite of Audouinia tentaculata, Angeiocystis
audouiniae: Louis Brasil.—Oscillations of coast-line
animals synchronous with the tide: Georges Bohn.—On
the geology of the Lower Engadine: Pierre Termier.—On
the toxicity of the chlorohydrate of amyleine : L. Launoy.
DIARY OF SOCIFTIES.
THURSDAY, November 3.
CHEMICAL Socigty, at 8.—Note on the Action of Nitric Acid on the
Ethers: J. B. Cohen and J. Gatecliff.—The Condensation of Form-
aldehyde with Acetone (Preliminary Note): E. A. Werner.—Union
of Hydrogen and Chlorine. Rate of Decay of Activity of Chlorine:
J. W. Mellor.—The Action of Phthalic Anhydride on a-Naphthyl-
magnesium-bromide: S. S. Pickles and C. Weizmann.—The Con-
stitution of Nitrogen Iodide: O. Silberrad.—The Available Plant
Food in Soils: H. Ingle-—The Combustion of Ethylene: W. A.
Bone and R. V. Wheeler.—The Decomposition of Methylurea: C. E.
Fawsitt.—The Influence of Certain Salts and Organic Bodies on the
Oxidation of Guaiacum: Miss E. G. Willcock.—The Influence of Potass-
ium Persulphate on the Estimation of Hydrogen Peroxide: J. A. N.
Friend.—The Dynamic Isomerism of a- and B-Crotonic Acids (Preliminary
Note): R. S. Morrell and E. K. Hanson.—The Influence of Sunlight on
the Dissolving of Gold in an Aqueous Solution of Potassium Cyanide:
W. A. Caldecott: (1) The Fractional Hydrolysis of Amygdalinic Acid;
(2) lsoamygdaline: H. D. Dakin. i
RONTGEN SocietTy, at 8.15.—The Presidential Address :
Holland.
Civit AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SocieETY, at
Address, The Effect of Patent Law on Modern Civilisation :
Hanssen.
C. Thurston
8.—Presidential
(Ot
FRIDAY, NovemMBeER 4.
GgoLoaists' AssocIATION, at 8.—Conversazione.
MONDAY, NovemMser 7.
Royal, GEoGrRApPHICAL Society (Albert Hall), at 8.3o>—The Work of the
National Antarctic Expedition : Captain R. F. Scott, R.N.
Society oF CueEmicaL INpusTRY, at 8.—The Trend of Invention in
Chemical Industry : J. Fletcher Moulton, F.R.S.
TUESDAY, NovEMBER 8.
INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Coast Erosion: A. E. Carey.—
Erosion on the Holderness Coast of Yorkshire: E. R. Matthews.
WEDNESDAY, NovembeER 9.
GEOLOGICAL SocieEry, at 8.—On the Occurrence of Elephas meridionalis
at Dewlish, Dorset. No. II. Human Agency Suggested : Rev. O-mond
NO. 1827, VOL. 71]
Fisher.—Notes on Upper Jurassic Ammonites, with Special Reference to
Specimens in the University Museum, Oxford. No, Il.: Miss Maud
Healey.—Sarsen-Stones in a Clay-Pit : Rev. E. C. Spicer.
THURSDAY, NovemMBeER ro.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The premiums awarded
for papers read or published during the session 1903-4 will be presented,
and the president, Mr. Alexander Siemens, will deliver his inaugural
address.
MATHEMATICAL Society, at 5.30.—Annual General Meeting.—Presi-
dential Address on the Theory of Waves on Liquids: Prof. H. Lamb.—
Note on the Application of the Method of Images to Problems of Vibra-
tions: Prof. V. Volterra.—On the Zeros of Certain Classes of Integral
Taylor's Series: G. H. Hardy.—The Linear Difference Equation of
the First Order: Rev. E. W. Barnes.—Curves on a Conicoid: H.
Hilton.—Remarks on Alternants and Continuous Groups: Dr. H. F.
Baker.—On the Expansion of the Elliptic and Zeta Functions of §K in
Powers of g: Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher.—Examples of Perpetuants:
J. E. Wright.—Two Simple Results in the Attraction of Uniform Wires
obtained by Quaternions, with, for comparison, their Verification by
the Geometry of the Complex: Prof. R. W. Genese.—On the Reduci-
bility of Covariants of Binary Quantics of Infinite Order: P. W,
Wood.—On some Properties of Groups of Odd Order: Prof. W. Burn-
side.
FRIDAY, NovEMBER 11.
Rovat. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. ’
MatacocosicaL Scctety, at 8.—Descriptions of Three New Species of
Opisthostoma from Borneo : E. A. Smith, 1.8.0.—Two Apparently New
Species of Planispira from the Islands of Java and Gisser: Rev. R. Ash-
ington Bullen.—The Anatomy of Siligua patula, Dixon: H. Howard
Bloomer.—On the Genus Tomigerus, with Descriptions of New Species:
H. von Ihering.—Notes on Some New Zealand Pleurotomidz: Henry
eae Se on Some Species of Chione from New Zealand: Henry
uter.
SocroLocicaL Society, at 4.—Relation between Sociology and Ethics:
Prof. Hiffding.
CONTENTS.
Applied Electricity. ByM.S.....
Adolescence, By W.G.S.. .
A Naturalist on the East Coast.
Chemical Analysis for Beginners.
Our Book Shelf :—
Le Dantec : ** Les Lois naturelles ” hee:
Watts and Freeman: ‘‘ Nature Teaching”. . ...
Gowers: ‘ Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous
Sain. 55 RARE Gg duce co
Hartog : “ Lectures Scientifiques” . . . ac
Dugast : ** L’Industrie oléicole (Fabrication de |’ Huile
GiObive)iir aes. <) coe scene
Letters to the Editor :—
A Note on the Coloration of Spiders.—Oswald H.
Tattergemeucets : <-> is semennenes : .
Sir John.Eliot’s Address at Cambridge.—J. R. Sutton ;
Sir John Eliot, K.C.1.E., F.R.S. . . ath
The Origin of Life. —George Hookham . ee
Thinkinsi@ats:——Y. IN... 32s ee ee
Fish-passes and Fish-ponds.—Howietoun Fishery Co.
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree.—Prof.
GyHebryanyrR.S.- . 4 peteaeeeee 2 one
Misuse of Words and Phrases.—T. B.S... . . 3
Floods in the Mississippi. (///ustyated.) Se AAs
Wrhatis;Brandyseman >. .:... <3. iene
INO€ES 1). eRe 6's; 9, “x pout meee
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrences in November... .. . 16
Encke’s Comet 1904 6. (L/lustrated.) . 3 aes
Simultaneous Occurrence of Solar and Magnetic Dis-
turbanceSmemmaemiet ys) c+) <3: a) oe eMnCeet., Sams
The Third Band of the Air Spectrum
PAGE
By O. V. A.
By J. B.C.
fF RW eH
fon) DADO mur
: 7)
Pre-Glacial Topography. (///ustrated.) By tf rof.
GrenvillevAiypcole) .). . . 3 oe ay mgs
The Salmon Fisheries of England and Wales. By
Frank) Baltourerowne) =). 0... ane - 18
The Anatomy of Corals. (///ustrated.) By Prof. Sydney
J. Hickson teieRssaa is. <\ cea. 2)
SeismologicalgNptesiqy-s.s 05+) eee) «San
The Racial Elements in the Present Population of
Europes By: DrajeDeniker -) 09a ye... cee
Report of the Survey of India. By T.H.H. .... 22
University and Educational Intelligence ... . . 22
Societies and Academies ........ . as
Diary'of Societiesmnng-)-1-uuear- entire eer | ee
INEM RL! 25
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER io, 1904.
JUSTUS VON LIEBIG AND FRIEDRICH
MOHR. ;
Monographieen aus der Geschichte der Chemie.
Herausgegeben von Dr. Georg W. A. Kahlbaum.
viii. Heft. Justus von Liebig und Friedrich Mohr
in ihren Briefen von 1834—1870. Pp. vilit+274.
(Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1904.) Price
8 marks.
R. KAHLBAUM continues to put those chemists
who are interested in the personal history of their
science under an obligation to him by reason of the
care and assiduity which he devotes to the editing of
the letters of the great leaders of chemical inquiry
such as Berzelius, Liebig, Wohler, and others, as these
from time to time come into his keeping. The volume
before us deals with the correspondence of Liebig and
Friedrich Mohr.
Of Liebig it is unnecessary at this date to say any-
thing. His name and personal characteristics are
well known to all who are interested in science, and his
position in the history of science is assured for. all
time. Whilst his correspondence with Mohr adds but
little to our knowledge of him as a man, it throws
many sidelights on incidents which occurred during
the most interesting and active periods of his
career. Thus, for example, we learn for the first time
of the relative share of Liebig and Wohler in the work
which resulted in the classical memoir on bitter almond
oil. Most of the experimental work was due to
Wohler; the interpretation of the facts and the com-
pilation of the memoir was made by Liebig. It would
appear, in fact, that Wohler never saw the memoir
until the proof of it was sent to him.
Indeed, the chief interest of the correspondence, so
far as it relates to Liebig, is concerned with his work
as editor of the famous periodical—the Annalen der
Chemie und Pharmacie—which is now permanently
associated with his name.
The name of Friedrich Mohr is much less familiar,
at all events to the chemists of this generation; and
yet the author of the ‘‘ Titrier-methode ’’—the practical
founder of the art of volumetric analysis—deserves to
be had in remembrance. He was a representative of
a type of man of which few examples, at least in this
country, are left to-day, viz. that of the scientific
apothecary. He was by instinct, training, and practice
a man of science, and he brought his knowledge, ex-
perience, and aptitudes as a man of science to the
exercise of his calling. In this respect he resembled
many of those who laid the foundations of modern
chemical science. In the early part of the last century
the occupation of the apothecary was practically the
only one open to the man who had his living to make,
and who at the same time wished to exercise his passion
for chemical inquiry. Teaching appointments were
few, and even where chemistry was taught the
opportunities for experimental work were very meagre.
Mohr was born in Coblenz at about the time that
Dalton gave the New Philosophy to the world. His
father, Karl Mohr, apothecary, town councillor and
NO. 1828, VOL. 71]
member of the Rhenish Medical College, was a person
of some importance in the city, and it was probably
in his house that the authors of this correspondence
first made each other’s acquaintance.
Coblenz, from its proximity to the French frontier,
was the scene of many stirring episodes during the
early years of the nineteenth century, and Mohr him-
self lived through the time of, and was personally
witness to, the rise and collapse of French military
power during the interval between Moscow and Sedan.
As a little boy he might have seen the passage of
the Rhine by the French troops on the occasion of
Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, and have spelled out
the magniloquent inscription on the fountain before
St. Castor which commemorates that event, as well as
the caustic words which St. Priest, the Russian com-
mander following on the heels of the retreating French,
caused to be added:—‘‘ Vu et approuvé par nous,
Commandant Russe de la Ville de Coblence: Janvier
tery 1814.’’ As an old man he saw, after the debdcle
of Sedan, the spectacle of a ruined and discredited
War Minister skulking about in the twilight under the
shade of the chestnuts in the Poppelsdorfer Allée in
Bonn in just fear of the taunts and insults of the un-
fortunate soldiery whom he had betrayed.
In 1829 Mohr went to Heidelberg, where he came in
contact with Leopold Gmelin. He had already
acquired a considerable knowledge of operative
chemistry and of pharmacology under his father’s
tuition. In those far-off days the laboratory of an
apothecary was a reality, and those who practised the
calling were not merely chemists by prescription, but
were such in fact. They were for the most part well
skilled in chemical processes, and actually made the
greater number of the substances in which they dealt.
The influence of this early training is to be seen in
the character and scope of Mohr’s subsequent work.
He was essentially a practical chemist, and _ his
services to the science consisted mainly in the improve-
ments he effected in operative chemistry. Many of
these humble but useful inventions were not calculated
to bring their author much fame, but if his connection
with them is well-nigh forgotten they at least secured
for him the gratitude of his contemporaries. How
many of the present generation of workers, it may be
asked, associate his name with that commonest of
laboratory appliances—the cork-borer ?
Mohr remained at Heidelberg two years, and then
repaired to Berlin to listen to Heinrich Rose’s lectures.
In 1832 he returned to Heidelberg and took his degree
—summa cum laude. What a summa cum laude
meant in 1832, so far as regards chemistry, may be
inferred from the fact that the ‘‘ hoch berthmten
Fiihrer,’? Gmelin, recorded that ‘‘ the Herr Kandidat
answered his questions on the chemical relations of
iodine, the preparation of potassium iodide, the dis-
covery of arsenic and on the preparation and com-
position of ether to his complete satisfaction.”’
Creuzer found that he displayed considerable know-
ledge of what the old Greeks and Romans knew of
botany and materia medica, and that he had a com-
petent acquaintance with their languages; Muncke
was satisfied with his answers concerning the balance,
(G
26
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 10, 1904
the pyrometer, and the electrical relations of bodies;
Leonhard with those on mineralogy and geology; and
Schweins recorded that the ‘‘ Kandidat als Pharmazeut
ungewohnliche Kenntnisse in der Mathematik besitzt ”’
—whatever that might imply.
The subjects in which Mohr took his degree con-
tinued to interest him to the end of his days. In
chemistry he was no theorist; indeed, the speculative
side of this science seemed to have little or no attrac-
tions for him; and this is the more remarkable when
it is remembered that in other departments of human
thought he let his imagination have the fullest play,
as may be seen in his “ History of the Earth.”
Further, Mohr has some claim to be regarded as an
independent discoverer of the law of the conservation
of energy, as his tombstone in the old ‘* Friedhof ”’
in Bonn testifies.
To the historian of chemistry these letters have a
special interest. If, as has been said, they add little
to our knowledge of Liebig as a man and as a leader
in science, they nevertheless afford much valuable in-
formation concerning matters which agitated the
chemical world during some of the most stirring periods
of the last century. They have been most carefully
annotated by the editor and his assistants, as the
mumerous foot-notes indicate. Many passages and
allusions which might have been obscure have been
elucidated by their patient research. We can heartily
commend the book to all who are interested in the
personal and biographical history of chemistry.
Abs ds 18S
THE BIONOMICS OF EXOTIC FLOWERS.
Handbuch der Bliitenbiologie. Begriindet von Dr.
Paul Knuth. iii. Band. Die bisher in ausser-
europdischen Gebieten gemachten _ bliiten-biolo-
gischen Beobachtungen unter Mitwirkung von
Dr. Otto Appel. Bearbeitet und herausgegeben von
Dr. Ernst Loew. i. Theil. Cycadacee bis
Cornacee. Pp. 570; mit 141 Abbildungen im Text.
(Leipzig: Engelmann, 1904.) Price 17s. net.
HIS valuable summary of available information
concerning the pollination of exotic flowers main-
tains the high standard of the preceding volumes,
though it naturally deals with knowledge essentially
fragmentary and only rarely founded on a statistical
basis. The work does not limit itself to imparting
information upon actual observations on pollination,
but in some cases includes accounts of the forms and
colours of flowers, the arrangement of their nectaries,
and even the microscopical details of fertilisation. As
examples of the various matters dealt with, the follow-
ing may be cited:—Freycinetia and its suggested
pollination by bats, the remarkable synchronous
blossoming habits of Dendrobium crumenatum,
parthenogenesis in Ficus, Kooders’s work on tropical
geocarpous plants, the fertilisation of Rhopalocnemis,
the peculiar flowers of the commelinaceous Cochlio-
stema and their morphology, species of Yucca and
their relations with Pronuba.
Among the many interesting features of the work
«ve may note that in bringing together in one work
No. 1828, voL. 71]
the scattered observations on ornithophilous pollin- |
ation it renders possible a survey of existing know-
ledge concerning the inter-relations of birds and —
flowers. Yet the facts recorded show the rudimentary
stage of our knowledge as to the significance of birds
in the shaping of flowers. Scattered through the pre-
sent work we find evidence of actual or possible orni-
thophilous flowers belonging to a considerable number
of natural orders, including the Bromeliacez, Liliacez
(Alée), Scitaminez, Orchidacez, Proteaceze, Lor-
anthaceze, Ranunculacee (Aquilegia), Capparidacez,
Rosacez (almond, peach, quince), Caricacez, Legu-
minosz, Melianthaceez, Balsaminaceze (Impatiens),
Malvacez, Cactacee, Rhizophoracez, Myrtacee,
Marcgraviacez, and Passifloraceee. Included among
these are flowers, such as the peach and almond,
obviously not originally ornithophilous, and others,
such as Passifloraceze and Aquilegia canadensis, the
pollination of which by birds is dubious. Still others
there are, such as Carica Papaya, the structure and
creamy tint of the flowers of which scarcely suggest
ornithophily. Other observations show that in
different parts of the earth the same species of flower
is visited by different animals. For example, the
entomophilous Japanese Eviobotrya japonica is visited
by humming-~-birds in South America, and by honey-
birds in South Africa. On the other hand, certain
natural orders, such as the Loranthaceez and Mimos-
acez, markedly show pollination, or at least regular
visitation, by honey-birds in the Old World and by
humming-birds in the New World; and some flowers
of remarkable structure, such as those of Amherstia
nobilis and Hibiscus schizopetalus, visited by birds
seem to demand correspondingly remarkable methods
of pollination.
The fragmentary nature of our knowledge in regard
to pollination is shown by the lack of published in-
formation in regard to some of the commonest plants.
For instance, Bombax malabaricum is not mentioned
in this work, yet it is very widely distributed, and even
common in some regions; and in southern China I
know that its large red flowers are visited by small
birds. In some cases the omission of information is
due to oversight on the part of the authors; for
example, there is no reference to the Vallisneria-like
pollination of the submarine Enhalus. The work also
shows that additional observations are required in re-
gard to some of the commonest tropical plants. As a
case in point, it may be said that few of those who have
scented Pandanus odoratissimus at distances of a
quarter of a mile will accept without further examin-
ation the view that littoral species of Pandanus are
anemophilous. Or, again, Knuth found that the
flowers Cassytha filiformis were mostly cleistogamous
on the coral islands of the Java Sea; but unpublished
observations of my own on Dane’s Island, near Canton
(China), sufficiently showed that this is not the case
everywhere.
In regard to the printing of the work, it must be con-
fessed that misprints are too numerous, a brief examin-
ation showing the following :—Kleistoam, Magro-
glossa, Abitulon, Spahtiphyllum, and Bromeli-
aceenhliiten. Percy GROOM.
NOVEMBER 10, 1904}
NATURE
27
RECENT PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS.
(1) A Primer of Philosophy. By A. S. Rappoport,
Ph.D. Pp. 118. (London: John Murray, 1904.)
Price 1s. net.
(2) Religion und Naturwissenschaft. Eine Antwort
an Professor Ladenburg. By Arthur Titius. Pp.
114. (Tiibingen und Leipzig: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul
Siebeck), 1904.) Price 1.80 marks.
(3) Philosophische Propddeutik auf Naturwissenschaft-
licher Grundlage. By August Schulte-Tigges.
Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Pp.
xvi+221. (Berlin: Georg Reimer.) Price 3 marks.
(4) Der Skeptizismus in der Philosophie. By Raoul
Richter. Erster Band. Pp. xxiv+364. (Leipzig:
Dirr’sche Buchhandlung, 1904.) Price 6 marks,
(1) R. RAPPOPORT?’S book, which appears in
Mr. Murray’s new series of primers, is on the
whole a very satisfactory introduction to the study of
philosophy. The statement is always accurate, interest-
ing and suggestive, and the terminology is carefully
chosen. There are many interesting quotations;
perhaps those from the German will not always be
understood without a translation by the average
reader of a primer. On p. 2 the statement “it was
astonishment that first made man philosophize’’ is
attributed to Aristotle. No doubt Aristotle said so,
but Plato had the same idea before him. On p. 45 the
term sociology is said to be derived from the Latin
word socius, society (sic).
(2) ‘ Religion und Naturwissenschaft ’’ is a counter-
blast to a lecture given by Prof. Ladenburg of Breslau,
on the influence of the natural sciences on the
Weltanschauung. Prof. Ladenburg, as represented
by the quotations from his work, appears to believe
that experiment, observation, induction, are the key
of all knowledge, and that all the progress of the last
centuries has been caused chiefly by the enlightenment
due to the natural sciences. This rather extreme posi-
tion Prof. Titius assails with some success, and then
proceeds to vindicate the spiritual life of man,
individualisation, Wertbestimmung, Christianity, even
miracles, on lines that are not altogether novel. But
the author is no obscurantist, and the argument is
probably as convincing as any popular discussion can
make it.
(3) The third work on our list is intended to introduce
pupils of the highest classes in Realgymnasien to the
philosophic principles that underlie scientific method
and the general scientific thought of our time. The
first part deals with Methodenlehre, and discusses
observation and experiment, induction, causal law and
hypothesis, deduction. In the second part, entitled
‘“The Mechanical View of the Universe, and the
Limits of Knowledge,”’ there is an adequate account
of such things as atomism, teleology, the Darwinian
theory, and the relations of psychical events and their
physiological accompaniments. On this last head
the author declares himself for a theory of parallelism,
not as being the solution of the problem, but the
problem itself. The book is excellent both in form and
statement, and all the arguments both for and against
a particular view are most fully and impartially stated.
The quotations show a wide range of reading; but it
NO. 1828, VOL. 71 |
would perhaps be well if the author’s name and the
title of the work in question were added in every case.
(4) The first volume of ‘‘ Der Skeptizismus in der
Philosophie ’’ contains an account only of Greek
scepticism, that is to say, of Pyrrhonism and of the
scepticism of the Later Academy. But as many of the
chief problems raised by scepticism in all ages are dis-
cussed here at considerable length, this first volume
cannot safely be neglected even by those who are chiefly
interested in Hume, the ‘‘ partial”? scepticism of Kant,
or modern positivism. The author shows himself a
most competent guide. He is always fair minded; even
where it is most difficult to be patient with certain well-
known quibbles of the Pyrrhonists he labours seriously
to discover the grain of truth amid the heap of chaff.
Almost a hundred pages are given to a discussion of
“sensual scepticism,’’ i.e. the scepticism which bases
itself upon the contradictory perceptions of the same
object experienced by different living creatures, by
different human beings, by the same human being
at different times, and the like. These arguments,
according to this work, have weight only as against
extreme realists, and both (extreme) idealism and
moderate realism (e.g. the realism of Locke) are re-
presented as able to face the situation. With which
of the two last named the author’s sympathies ulti-
mately lie is not apparent from this first instalment ;
it will doubtless become evident in the second (and
concluding) volume. It is to be hoped for every reason
that so excellent a work will soon reach completion.
THE CHRISTIAN CENTURY IN JAPAN.
Geschichte des Christentums in Japan. By Dr. J.
Haas. Band ii. Pp. xxvii+383. (Tokio: 1904.)
N this second volume Dr. Haas—whom we con-
gratulate on the well merited doctorate in theology
recently conferred upon him by the University of
Strassburg—pursues the history of the Christian
missions in Japan from the departure of Xavier in 1549
to the year 1570 under the leadership of the Jesuit
superior Cosmo de Torres, of Valencia. During that
period, and, indeed, almost up to the close of the
sixteenth century, the task of conversion lay entirely
in the hands of the Jesuits, while the increasing trade
with Japan was monopolised by the Portuguese. The
sources of Dr. Haas’s history are almost wholly
European, and above all the famous letters of the Jesuit
missionaries from Japan, of which the volume is largely
a précis. These authorities are not, however,
sufficient, and with the progress of the work it becomes
more and more evident that the true history of the
Christian century in Japan can only be written in the
Peninsula, where, as Father Cros’s great book on
‘St. Francois de Navier ”’ tells us, in the inexhaustible
archives and libraries of Lisbon and Madrid, and in
those of Simancas, Coimbra, Evora, and Ajuda, are to
be found the original documents in vast numbers from
which alone an adequate account of that most interest-
ing chapter in the world’s history can be gathered.
In the score of years covered by the present volume
the faith was preached over the whole of Kiushiu and
most of Central Japan, the northern and eastern
Daimiates and the whole of the great island of Shikoku
28
being untouched. This work was accomplished by
eleven Jesuit fathers, assisted by four converts. In
1564 the Daimio of Omura, the first Christian Daimio,
known as Sumitada, or Omura Risen (Risen was his
Buddhist name), was baptised, and adhered to the
faith until his death in 1587. It is of this convert that
Crasset writes :—
“He went to the chase of the bonzes as to that of
wild beasts, and made it his singular pleasure to
exterminate them from his states’’ (‘‘ Murdoch,”
p. 238).
It would, however, be merely special pleading to take
this language literally, otherwise than as expressing
the worthy father’s admiration of the vigour with which
the newly made convert promulgated Christianity
within his petty domain. Up to 1570, out of the fifteen
or sixteen millions of Japanese, some twenty thousand
had been baptised. This seems a small proportion,
but the true measure would be the ratio of the baptised
to the population of those parts of Japan where the
gospel had been, with some adequacy, preached. As
to the quality of their Christianity it is difficult to form
a judgment. The steadfastness of large numbers
under persecution is some guarantee of the reality of
their belief; on the other hand many in becoming
Christians followed the example or obeyed the com-
mands of their feudal superiors.
Another much debated point, not easy to determine,
is to what extent the native converts ‘‘ provoked ”’ the
immense majority who still adhered to the Way of the
Gods and the Way of Buddha. It is certain that the
Buddhists were ‘‘ provoked,”’ but there is little evidence
that they had any real cause of complaint during the
period now considered—the provocation was of a
passive, not of an aggressive character. On the
whole, the fathers were far from unpopular with the
common folk. They were looked upon as superior
beings, and Froez says of his reception at Yoko-
seura :—
“All the Christian inhabitants came to meet us and
were so delighted at our arrival that they would
willingly have taken us on their shoulders and borne
us off.”’
It was not until 1587 that persecution began, the
result of a fit of policy of the cruel, crafty, but capable
Taiko, Hideyoshi.
Dr. Haas writes lucidly, and his pages are full of
interesting details; but the narrative is obscured by
an over-abundance of matter that might well be rele-
gated to notes or appendices. The Germans seem
unable to distinguish between books and note-books.
F. Vicror Dickins.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Lectures on the Diseases of Children.
Hutchison, M.D., F.R.C.P.
Arnold.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
Ir is difficult to praise this little volume too highly. It
deals with one of the most attractive and satisfactory
subjects in medicine, the treatment of children’s dis-
eases; the style is excellent, and the illustrations,
which, with one or two exceptions, are taken from
By Robert
(London: Edward
NATURE
[ NOVEMBER 10, 1904
In some three hundred pages Dr. Hutchison de-
scribes aspects of some of the more common diseases
of childhood which, as he says, ‘‘ are not usually dealt
with in systematic lectures.’’ In the first instance,
the lectures were given at the London Hospital; sub-
sequently they were published serially in the Clinical
Journal, while their present appearance in book form
is in response to the request of a number of readers who
wanted them in a convenient form for reference.
The early chapters deal with the problems of infant
feeding, and the subject, which unfortunately is closely
allied, of the various digestive disturbances which occur
in hand-fed babies. Upon questions of diet Dr.
Hutchison speaks with special authority, and his re-
marks on the difficult subject of artificial feeding are
concise and practical.
In the space of a short lecture it is not possible or
desirable to deal with all the conceivable methods by
which children might be, or have been, fed, but it
seems an omission not to mention ‘‘ laboratory ’’ milk,
which, whatever its objections, certainly offers the
physician a method of wonderful precision in pre-
scribing the exact percentage of fat, proteid, and lactose
which he requires for any individual patient. The
establishment in London of the Walker Gordon
Laboratory, at which this milk can be obtained, and
the existence of a farm in connection with it at which
every precaution is taken to procure germ-free milk
with scientific accuracy, certainly deserve mention in
any book which deals with the subject of substitute
feeding. The expense of ‘‘ laboratory ’’ millx puts it
beyond the reach of many babies, but it is less expensive
than a wet nurse, and avoids all the disadvantages
inseparable from employing one.
In succeeding chapters Dr. Hutchison deals with
various common diseases of childhood. They are all
delightful reading, full of common sense and helpful
suggestion as to diagnosis and treatment. One would
like to quote extensively, but the book is one that
every student of the subject, whether he be qualified
or not, should possess.
Special interest attaches to the lecture on mental
deficiency in childhood, often a subject of great diffi-
culty in practice, and one with which the ordinary text-
book scarcely deals. The photographs illustrating this
chapter are particularly good.
The concluding chapters are devoted to the diagnostic
significance of some common symptoms, such as
wasting, cough, fever, &c. It is impossible to do full
justice to this delightful book in a short notice. The
work forms a valuable adjunct to the good text-books
already written on the subject, and it shows to the full
the clinical knowledge and the literary ability of the
author, whose reputation, already high, will no doubt
be increased by it.
Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory. By
Louis Warner Riggs, Ph.D., Instructor in Chemistry
in Cornell University. Pp. vi+138. (New York :
John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 5s. 6d. net.
Tuts volume embodies the author’s idea of what should
be taught during a one-year course of chemistry, the
time available being not less than a hundred and
twenty hours for laboratory practice, and sixty for
“recitation ’? work. It is arranged in short numbered
paragraphs, each containing a direction to the student
or an explanation of some point or process, and is in-
tended to be used, under the guidance of an instructor,
in conjunction with some general text-book of
chemistry and physics.
About one-third of the work is devoted to pre-
liminary experiments in general chemistry. The
student is then introduced to simple volumetric
photographs of the author’s cases, are unusually good. | analysis, the principles of which are very well explained
NO. 1828, VOL. 71]
NOVEMBER 10, 1904]
NII OOK a
29
—this forming, perhaps, the best portion of the book.
After three experiments in gravimetric work the learner
passes on to systematic qualitative analysis, treated
from the standpoint of electrolytic dissociation. The
author recognises that, ‘‘ logically,’’ the quantitative
work should follow rather than precede the qualitative ;
but after repeated trials he prefers the order indicated.
In the present connection, however, the matter is more
one of convenience than of logic.
Accepting the author’s system, the experiments
themselves are judiciously selected, and well fitted for
their purpose. But there are educationists who would
by no means agree that “‘ theoretical explanations
should be reserved for the recitation-room,’’ and not
given in the laboratory. Still less would they say that
the students should ‘‘ study thoroughly all the details
of an experiment before attempting to perform it,’’ and
that ‘‘ this should be done outside the laboratory.”
Whether such a system would tend to produce a hod-
man or an architect would depend, as it seems to the
writer, less upon its own merits than upon the
personality of the instructor. ,
Die Einheit der Naturkrafte in der Thermodynamik.
By ‘Richard Wegner. Pp. viiit+132. (Leipzig:
Von Veit and Co., 1904.)
As described in the secondary title, this pamphlet is
an attempt to deduce from the kinetic energy of non-
elastic atoms, corporeal and ethereal, all known
physical forces, chemical, electrical, and mechanical,
including gravity. Nothing Boschovichian is assumed;
only the kinetic energy of moving atoms of different
sizes. It is not easy to follow an argument which
provisionally assumes that the atoms are held together
to form molecules with regular vibration frequencies
capable of propagating through the surrounding swarm
of ether-atoms waves of condensation and rarefaction,
by means of the reactions and interference of which
(when there are two or more molecules) attractions
are brought into being; and which then, in terms of
this general outlook, gives reasons why the reaction
of the ether atoms may be found sufficient to hold the |
corporeal atoms together. A necessary consequence
of the investigation is that gravity is propagated in
time, and should be a function of the temperature.
The author has tested the latter point by experiment,
and finds some evidence in favour of its truth. The
source of the chemical elements is found in the different
magnitudes of the atoms, with the corresponding
differences in their energetic combinations. The
temperature of a body is proportional to the mean
molecular weight, multiplied by the square of the mean
translational velocity of the molecule; divided by the
relative number of molecules in unit volume ; multiplied
by the relative mean path of the molecule. Since,
according to the theory elaborated, the kinetic energy
of the elementary particles implies attraction, all bodies
will be surrounded by a layer of condensed gas and
ether particles. In the waves in the ether sheath is
found the source of the electrical current. Electro-
static action, on the other hand, depends on chemical
actions in the ether sheath. The applications to
chemical and electrical phenomena are admittedly
crude and imperfectly worked out; but the author
claims to have proved the possibility of deducing all
the recognised forces of nature from the kinetic energy
of non-elastic Lucretian atoms.
The Science and Practice of Photography.
man Jones, F.I.C., &c. Fourth edition. Pp. 569.
(London : Iliffe and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 5s. net.
Tuts volume, which is the fourth edition of the work,
By Chap-
having been increased from fifty-five to sixty-eight.
It may be considered as forming a most excellent guide
to the practice of photography, and a perfect reference
for those who so continually question one as to ‘‘ the
best book on photography, for a beginner, you know ”’;
and it will doubtless prove useful as a reference book
to many who have long passed the beginner stage.
There is a decision of tone and clearness of exposition,
combined with an intelligent anticipation of the many
questions which arise at every step of the path, which
render it especially suitable for this purpose.
At the same time, the scientific reader who hopes
to gain from it some account of the work which has
been done of late years, with a view to the clearing
up in some measure of the chemical and physical
problems in which photography abounds, will probably
be greatly disappointed. The two most noteworthy
features of this, as of almost all English works on
photographic science, are found in the method in which
contemporary German literature is ignored, and in
which the whole of modern physical chemistry is dis-
regarded. The fact, for instance, that development
may be regarded as a reversible heterogeneous re-
action occurring between ionised salts, in accordance
with the mass law, seems to be entirely beyond the idea
of this or any other book on the subject. Development
with ferrous oxalate is here represented by the
equation :—
3AgBr+3FeC,O,=FeBr, + Fe,(C,0,), + 3Ag,
which, involving as it does the existence of ferric ions
in the developer after use, gives a sufficiently distorted
view of the reaction. While we find the chemical
theory of the book to be of this type, the information
as to the progress of sensitometry is of the slightest,
no mention whatever being made of the notable re-
searches by Dr. Eder. A most original suggestion as
to the nature of the developable condition is to be
found at the close of the chapter devoted to that sub-
ject. In brief, this book is a most delightful manual
of the practice of photography, but can scarcely claim
to represent the scientific side of the subject in any
sense whatever. C. E. KennetH MEEs.
Ants and Some Other Insects. An Inquiry into the
Psychic Powers of these Animals. With an Appen-
dix on the Peculiarities of their Olfactory Sense.
By Dr. August Forel. Translated from the German
by Prof. William Morton Wheeler. Pp. 49; figures.
(Chicago, 1904.) Price 2s. 6d.
AN elaborate treatise on the senses of insects, especially
ants, illustrated by numerous experiments. The book
deserves the most serious attention of students of
psychology and animal intelligence; but it would
occupy too much space, nor would any useful object
be gained, by attempting to epitomise either the body
of the work or even the author’s deductions. We may,
however, quote the following conclusions :—
“Even to-day I am compelled to uphold the seventh
thesis which I established in 1877 in my habilitation as
privat-docent in the University of Munich :
“* All the properties of the human mind may be
derived from the properties of the animal mind.’
“*T would merely add to this:
“And all the mental attributes of higher animals
may be derived from those of lower animals. In other
words, the doctrine of evolution is quite as valid in
the province of psychology as it is in all the other
provinces of organic life. Notwithstanding all the
differences presented by animal organisms and the con-
ditions of their existence, the psychic functions of the
nerve-elements seem nevertheless everywhere to be in
accord with certain fundamental laws, even in the
has been very greatly enlarged and rewritten since the | cases where this would be least expected on account of
appearance of the third edition, the number of chapters |
No. 1828. VOL. 71]
”
the magnitude of the differences.
30 NATURE
[ NovEMBER 10, 1904
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
{The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Archebiosis and Heterogenesis.
ThE columns of the daily papers have during the last two
weeks contained many references to the question of the
origin of life. One of the most recent utterances has been
that of Lord Kelvin, who has roundly declared himself an
unbeliever in the natural origin of living matter either in
the present or in the past. We must suppose, therefore,
that in reference to this question he is content to believe
in miracles.
Prof. Ray Lankester and Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, how-
ever, proclaim themselves, as followers of Huxley, believers
in evolution generally, and in the natural origin of living
matter in the past. They, like many others, refuse to
believe that it takes place at the present time, because un-
doubted proof of its occurrence cannot be produced by
laboratory experiments. The uniformity of natural pheno-
mena would certainly lead us to believe, as Sir Oliver Lodge
has intimated, that if such a process occurred in the past, it
should have been continually occurring ever since—so long
as there is no evidence to show cause for a break in the
great law of Continuity. Certainly no such evidence has
ever been produced, and if the origin of living matter takes
place by the generation in suitable fluids of the minutest
particles gradually appearing from the region of the in-
visible, such a process may be occurring everywhere in
nature’s laboratories, though altogether beyond the ken
of man.
My point may be illustrated thus. Bacteriologists all
over Europe and elsewhere have been working for the last
thirty years by strict laboratory methods, and notwithstand-
ing all that they have made out and the good that has
thereby accrued to suffering humanity, they have apparently
never yet seen the development from Zoogloea aggregates
of Fungus-germs, of flagellate Monads, or of Amcebz. Ibi
however, they would only examine what goes on in nature’s
laboratory when a mixed bacterial scum forms on suitable
fluids, they would have no difficulty in satisfying themselves
as to the reality of these processes. I described such pro-
cesses in your columns in 1870, more fully in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society in 1872, and finally in my ‘‘ Studies
in Heterogenesis ’”’ (pp. 65-84, pls. vi. and vii., Figs. 53-71).
Even during the last week I have again obtained photo-
micrographs demonstrating the origin of flagellate Monads
from Zoogloea aggregates forming in a bacterial scum, and
if you will admit an illustrated communication on this sub-
ject to your columns, proving by such a test case my position
as (0 the reality of heterogenesis, I shall be happy to present
it, and to show that something beyond the recognised strict
laboratory methods of the day is needed if we are to fathom
some of nature’s deepest secrets.
The councils of the Royal and Linnean Societies are
guided in the acceptance of papers by referees who are
wedded, on biological questions, to laboratory methods. It
is useless for me, therefore, again to attempt to submit
such a communication to them. Their referees (probably not
having worked at such subjects themselves) would not advise
the acceptance of the paper, and my communication might
simply be consigned to their archives. The Royal Society
“for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge’? on two
occasions would not even allow me to submit my views to
the consideration of, and discussion by, its fellows. In these
circumstances, Sir, I appeal to you, in the interests of
science, to allow me to send you an illustrated paper proving,
so far as such proof can go, the heterogenetic origin of
flagellate Monads and of Fungus-germs.
H, CHARLTON Bastian.
Manchester Square, October 31.
[Ix reply to Dr. Bastian’s appeal we will print his com-
munication, and also any important replies from competent
workers on the subject which may be sent to us.—Ep.]
NO. 1828, VOL. 71]
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree.
I was glad to read the first paragraph of the reply by
Prof. G. H. Bryan to my letter, in which he acknowledges
his mistake, but I cannot allow the second paragraph to
pass without protest, in which he says ‘‘ the discrepancy
can be accounted for more simply still’? in a way he de-
scribes. I do not wholly understand his present view, but
only enough of it to be assured that it is vitiated by some
fundamental misconception. In these circumstances it is
best to re-state my original argument in different words.
We agree to start on the assumptions that boys and girls
are on the average equally numerous, and that all other
conditions are to be ignored. Then, if an individual be-
taken out of a family of 2d children, 2d—1 children will be
left, of whom d—32 will, on the average of many experiences,
be girls and d—4 will be boys. The sex of the individual
who was taken out in the first instance is quite unimportant ;
the result will be the same whether that individual be a
boy or a girl.
Prof. G. H. Bryan thinks, if I understand him rightly,
that the sex of the individual in question is of importance.
Some persecuting demon must have again caused my pen to
write and my eye to overlook an absurdly erroneous figure
in my last letter. The faulty passage runs “‘... is 80
(=23%X16, as it should be) ’’; the 16 ought to be replaced
by 32. It is intended to be quoted from the right hand
column of line (5) in the table which accompanies that letter.
Francis Gatton.
Misuse of Words and Phrases.
In the preface to my book on ‘‘ Cubic and Quartic
Curves’? I have stated my views on the matters referred
to in the last paragraph of T. B. S.’s letter. JI am a strong
advocate of the use and, if necessary, the invention of
words of classical origin to express new ideas, and I consider
the phrase self-cutting inelegant.
My objection to the phrase non-singular cubic or quartic
curve is that no such curves exist, since Pliicker has shown
that all algebraic curves, except proper conics, possess a
determinate number of singularities. Thus anautotomic
quartics possess 52 simple singularities, viz. 28 double and
24 stationary tangents. It is also possible for such curves
to possess compound singularities, formed by the union of
one double and two stationary tangents.
With regard to the use of an, the rule is that before a
word beginning with a vowel an is to be used instead of a
for the sake of euphony, but when a word beginning with
a vowel is pronounced as if it commenced with a consonant,
a must be used instead of an. The phrases such an one, an
uniform rod, an wonderful sunset, an yew tree, are all
equally incorrect. A. B. Basser.
November 4.
The Coming Shower of Leonids.
THE pretty abundant shower of Leonids witnessed last
year ‘encourages the hope that a fairly rich return may be
observed this year. There will be no moonlight to interfere
with the brillianey of the display should it occur, and the
most probable time of its apparition will be before sunrise
on November 15.
In 1903 the maximum occurred between 5 and 6 a.m.
on November 16, and, allowing for leap year, the ensuing
maximum should take place on November 15 at about noon.
The shower seems likely to be observed to the best advantage
at American stations, as in 1901, but it should be carefully
watched everywhere, and with a special view to ascertain
the hour of greatest abundance.
It is to be hoped that some further attempts will be made
to determine the place of the radiant by photography. We
have already a sufficient number of eye observations of the
position, and the work of ordinary observers will be better
directed to counting the number of meteors visible at regular
intervals during the night, and registering the most brilliant
objects. The meteors from other showers should also be
noted, and especially any conspicuous Taurids that may
appear. The latter by their slow long flights and yellow
trains are readily to be distinguished from the swiftly moving
Leonids with their green streaks. W. F. DENNING.
Owine to the large numbers of shooting stars visible on
the night of November 15, 1903, the expectation of witness-
)
NOVEMBER 10, 1904]
NATURE 31
ing a meteoric spectacle on perhaps a more extensive scale
will probably be revived on the near approach of the Leonid
epoch of 1904. Reasons have already been given for sup-
posing that last year’s display was connected by the nine-
teen years’ period with a very similar phenomenon observed
on November 13, 1865, the interval between the two events
representing two complete revolutions of the meteoric cycle.
The present epoch, therefore, which is thus associated with
the historic meteor shower of November 14, 1866, will be
liable to reproduce its brilliant prototype, though only to a
limited extent.
. The anticipated shower, however, if it takes place, will
not occur on the night of November 14, as it might naturally
have been expected to do, owing to 1904 being a leap year.
The meteor-swarm, according to calculations made by the
present writer, has undergone considerable retardation since
1903, and as a result of this perturbation the Leonid meteor
shower becomes due in 1904 on the night of November 15.
It is on the latter night, therefore, that the maximum will
take place, whether it culminate in a shower or not. There
will occur, however, on November 14, 15h., an interesting
miniature meteor display. The shower on the night of
November 15, though not so intense, will be more extensive
than that of 1866, as maxima fall due at gh., 12h. to 15h.,
and 17h. 30m. G.M.T. Joun R. Henry.
The Definition of Entropy.
From time to time controversies have appeared in various
journals regarding that most difficult of all physical con-
ceptions—entropy. I have purposely avoided passing any
opinions as to the merits of the views of different writers, as
I have considered the question far too large a one to be
dealt with satisfactorily by destructive criticism directed
towards particular points. I have, however, now found a
definition of entropy which certainly appears to meet most
of the objections to the conventional treatment. That
definition may be stated somewhat as follows :—
Let the available energy of any system at any instant
relative to a refrigerator of temperature T, be defined by
the condition that it is the maximum amount of energy
that could be obtained from the system at that instant by
reversible thermodynamic engines working between the
system and the refrigerator T,, the remaining portion of
the energy being, of course, called non-available energy.
Then in any change of the system the increase of entropy
is the quantity obtained by dividing the increase of non-
available energy by the temperature T, of the refrigerator.
I hope to publish a detailed treatment shortly, but in the
meantime I would mention that this definition overcomes
all the difficulties inherent in the conventional treatment of
at least the more ordinary irreversible phenomena, such as
friction, impact, gas rushing into a vacuum.
If we adopt the principle of degradation of energy as the
fundamental second law of thermodynamics (as I suggested
in the Boltzmann Festschrift), Clausius’s statement that the
entropy of the universe tends to a maximum now follows
at once. So, too, do his inequalities. For every irreversible
transformation in the interior of a system produces loss of
available energy, and therefore (since it does not affect the
total energy) increase of non-available energy, and there-
fore increase of entropy. We may say that entropy can be
generated, but never destroyed. It follows that the total
increase of entropy in the system is greater than the quantity
of entropy entering from without. This is Clausius’s in-
equality for an irreversible non-cyclic process. If the process
is cyclic the total gain of entropy is zero, and therefore the
entropy generated in the system must be exported during
the cycle. This is Clausius’s inequality for a cyclic process.
The introduction of the refrigerator presents no real
difficulty. If non-available energy, instead of being given
to the refrigerator T,, is worked down reversibly to a re-
frigerator at a lower temperature T,, its amount will be
decreased in the ratio T, : T,. G. H. Bryan.
The Direction of the Spiral in the Petals of
Selenipedium.
In Selenipedium grande, S. longifolium, and S. conchi-
ferum, the twisted petals are so arranged that the direction
of the spiral is right-handed on each side.
They are not heteronymous, i.e. the right petal with a
left twist and the left petal with a right twist, as in all
NO. 1828, VOL. 71]
antelopes’ horns, nor are they arranged homonymously, as
in most sheep’s horns,* but the twisted petals have the same
direction on each side, and in the cases above mentioned
the right-handed spiral is always present. In trying to
find a cause for the direction, I expected it to appear that
before and. during the unfolding of the flower the petals
were twisted when lying together, and thus took the bias,
which continued during growth. If two strips of paper
be laid together and twisted into a pipe-lighter, each, when
separated, would exhibit the same spiral twist.
Examination of the still-folded flower proves that this
simple explanation is not the true one, and, at least in
S. grande, the petals are straight when they show at first
(two inches or more in length), and become afterwards
spirally twisted during growth and elongation.
The necessary bias to determine the direction of the spiral
evidently acts after the unfolding of the flower, and is a
slight force acting continuously during growth, such as
would be made by the circulation if there were a difference
in the circulation of the sap in the two edges of each petal.
This difference would act alike in each, and would make
each petal twist in the same way; but, of course, this is a
mere conjectural suggestion. GEORGE WHERRY-
Cambridge, October 30.
Thinking Cats.
Tue story of the cat that saved the cook, in your last issue,
is certainly remarkable, but surely it is not unusual for
cats to find out how to direct attention when they want to
get into or out of a house, or for them to conceal their
kittens in curious places.
Two instances of the former occur to me among many.
A cat in my father’s house used to rattle the letter-plate at
the front door (it was in a window near the door) whenever
it was shut out, and another, in my own house, would come
to any lighted window, even on the top storey, and tap at
the glass if it was shut out at night... In the same house a
cat hid its kittens, after one family had been destroyed,
under the boards of a lead flat, so that, as they grew, it could
not get them out, and directed our attention to them by
running backwards and forwards. They were released by
taking up the boards.
From cats to birds seems a natural transition. I have a
curious instance, at this moment, of a pair of robins mis-
taking their own importance. Last spring they built, and
reared their family, in a hole in the wall of an old country
mansion, which was being rebuilt under my supervision.
The wall was inside the house, in the great hall, and the
female sat on her nest, looking out at the workmen, amid
all the noise and disturbance of building. They disappeared
in the summer, but now that the house is finished and
occupied, the pair have returned, and flit about the same
hall and the adjoining drawing-room, evidently under the
impression that the house was built for them.
R. Lancton Cote.
Change in the Colour of Moss Agate.
A FRIEND of mine possesses a penholder the handle of
which is made of moss agate. Originally the colour of the
handle was bluish throughout, but recently the upper part
of the handle has become very much lighter in colour and
much more transparent.
I thought perhaps some of your readers could tell me
whether it is usual for moss agates to undergo changes of
this kind after having been cut and polished, and, if it is
usual, to what agent or agents the change is ascribed.
W. A. WHITTON.
County School, Bridgend, November 7.
The Origin of Life.
Mr. Hooknam ingeniously argues that experiments to
evolve living out of non-living matter are inconclusive and
must probably always fail because the sterilising agent
used, which is commonly heat, “* eliminates not only life,
but its potentiality at one stroke.”
Most of us believe that the earth was at one time an in-
candescent globe. Neither life nor the potentiality of life
could have existed in such circumstances. How would Mr.
Hookham, on the theory of evolution, explain their first
introduction ? GEOLOGIST.
1 Nature, December 12, rgo1 ; Lavcet, January 1, 1808.
32
NATURE
[NOVEMBER I0, 1904
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF WIDMANN-
STATTEN’S FIGURES IN STEEL CASTINGS.
OME little time ago, during his inspection of the
metallurgical laboratories at the University
College of Sheffield, Sir Norman Lockyer exhibited
considerable interest in the fact then communicated
to him that almost invariably small steel castings ex-
hibited in the first stage of their manufacture the
Widmannstatten figures, provided that the carbon was
near the semi-saturation point of steel, namely, 0.45 per
cent. The authors communicated the following brief
note in the hope that it would be interesting to
mineralogists and astronomers.
For many years an exhaustive research into the
properties of steel castings has been proceeding at the
Sheffield College. This research necessarily involves
a close investigation of the influence of mass; hence
the weight of the experimental castings varies from
about 28 Ib. to 2 tons. In such heavy castings as those
last named the Widmannstiatten figures are seldom
found, the slow cooling of the mass exerting an in-
fluence similar to that of annealing, an operation
which, as will presently be seen, causes a change in
structure so profound as almost always to destroy the
figures. The authors therefore selected for purposes
of demonstration research casting No. 541, weighing
about 30 Ib. The mean analysis of drillings from this
metal, taken from a portion of the casting 13 inches in
diameter, registered the following figures :—
Per cent.
Carhon 0°39
Silicon 008
Manganese 003
Sulphur BOE
Phosphorus 0°02
Aluminium : 0°03
Iron by difference 99°42
The structure of the metal as cast is shown in the
upper half-section of Fig. 1. As usual, it exhibits two
Fic.
1.—Research casting 41.
22 diameters.
Reduced from micrograph. Magnified
constituents, the magnification being too low to reveal
its third and fourth constituents, namely, the sulphides
of manganese and iron also present in minute quanti-
ties. The dark etching constituent is pearlite
(21Fe+Fe,C), its colour being due to the liberation
during etching of an automatic stain composed of that
dark, carbonaceous colouring matter upon which the
well-known carbon colour test depends. The pale con- |
NO. 1828, voL. 71]
stituent is, of course, ferrite, in this case nearly pure
iron, and has obviously assumed that crystalline struc-
ture characteristic of the Widmannstatten figures.
The lower half-section of Fig. 1 delineates the struc-
ture of the metal after the operation of annealing.
The two stages of annealing were carried out as
follows :—first, the steel, protected so far as possible
as cast. 43° BROKE.
180° UNBROKEN.
AFTER ANNEALING,
3” diam. ; bending radius, 2”.
Fic. 2.—Dimensions of test-pieces :—10" x
from the air, was maintained for about seventy hours
at a temperature of about 950° C.; secondly, it was
allowed to cool very slowly, occupying, perhaps,
another seventy hours in falling to a temperature at
which it could be comfortably handled. The result
was a total re-arrangement of the pattern presented by
the ferrite and pearlite, and a consequent elimination
of the figures. This change in structure was accom-
panied by a profound change also in the mechanical
properties of the steel.
Fig. 2 reproduces, before and after annealing, bend-
ing tests made on bars to inches long and 3 inch in
diameter. The metal as cast snapped sharply after
bending through an angle of 43° over a radius of
g inch. The annealed steel bent through an angle of
180° without exhibiting any signs of fracture. At the
request of Prof. Lewis, of Cambridge University, the
authors have submitted to him duplicate sections of
the steels figured in this paper. Prof. Lewis considers
that an interesting point raised is as to whether the
occurrence of the Widmannstitten figures in pieces of
metallic iron dug out of the earth necessarily proves
them to be of meteoric origin.
The authors have to thank their colleague Mr. J. H.
Wreaks, demonstrator of metallography at the Sheffield
College, for his patient and precise reproduction of the
structures figured in this note. J. O. ARNOLD.
A. McWILiiaM.
FORESTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.
MONG tthe professional papers of the United
= States Geological Survey we have already noticed
the first six reports dealing with the various forest
reserves in the States of Oregon, Washington, and
California. The two latest reports, Nos. 7 and 8, now
to hand, deal with the forest conditions in the San
Francisco Mountains Forest Reserve and the Black
Mesa Forest Reserve in the State of Arizona. The
former report is by John B. Leiberg, Theodore F.
Rickson, and Arthur Dodwell, with an introduction
by F. G. Plummer; while the latter report was pre-
pared by F. G. Plummer from notes by Theodore F.
Rickson and Arthur Dodwell. Both forest reserves
were first created by proclamation of President
M’Kinley, dated August 17, 1898. The region in
which the San Francisco Mountains Forest Reserve
NovEMBER 10, 1904]
NATURE 33
is situated forms a kind of plateau, traversed by
numerous deep canons and dotted by several hundred
Fic. 1.—Fire Scars on Yellow Pine.
volcanic cones, which vary in height from too feet to
tooo feet. The soil is various, but gravelly loam is
the prevailing type. On the ; ;
slopes of the volcanic cones and
ridges in their neighbourhood
scoriaceous soils prevail. The
water-retaining capacity of the
latter class of soil is not very
great. The loamy soils are best
adapted for forest growth. As
regards drainage, the visible run
of permanent surface flow is
small. Most of the precipitation
sinks either within the reserve or
in the desert or semi-desert tracks
which border it.
Electric storms do considerable
damage to the standing crop in
the reserves, and it is estimated
that in some places as many as
5 per cent. of the trees have been
struck and killed by lightning.
There are twelve coniferous
species in the reserve, but the
yellow pine predominates, pro-
ducing more than 99 per cent. of
the merchantable timber, and
forming go per cent. of the total
forest. | About the same number
of broad-leaved species occur, but
a complete list of them is not
available. All over the reserve the stands of yellow
This unsatisfactory condition is attributable to the
numerous fires which have occurred in this region
within the last 200 years. In addition to the destruc-
tion caused by fire, careless cutting and grazing have
done much damage in the reserve.
The reproductive capacity of the yellow pine in. the
reserve is extremely small—there being a great deficit
in seedling and sapling growth. There has.apparently
been a complete cessation of reproduction over large
areas during the past twenty or twenty-five years.
This low reproductive capacity is attributed to various
causes—some depending on the operation of natural
agencies, others on human intervention. The grazing
value of the reserve was at one time very great. As
the gramineous flora of the region is a rich one, there
was formerly a luxuriant growth of grass, but owing
to the persistent and excessive pasturing, especially
by sheep, the turf-forming grasses were reduced in
size and vegetative activity, which led to various
changes in the character of the subsequent vegetation.
What was formerly pasture land is now covered by
exuberant growths of various low desert shrubs and
herbaceous Composite, particularly species of sun-
flowers.
The agricultural value of the region is not great,
there being only some 2500 acres under the plough,
and these occur in the now dry beds of what were
formerly Stone-man and Mormon lakes, or at the foot
of ridges where local areas of seepage exist. The crops
consist of oats, wheat, and potatoes. There is no fruit
culture in this region. This reserve, like the others,
is subdivided into townships and ranges, the detailed
descriptions of which are included in the report. At
the end we have a very useful summary, showing in
tabular form a classification of lands in the reserve by
townships. The maps and photographic illustrations
are of the same high standard as those which
accompany the other reports of this series.
The Black Mesa Forest Reserve comprises an area
of 2786 square miles, made up as follows :—
Square miles.
Square mil
Timbered area . 2248°5 Burmedyareay ee. pec.et 595
Woodland ... ... 391 Logged area I'O
Timberless area ... 140
Fic. 2.—Large Growth of Alligator Juniper.
A very striking feature of the report is the de-
crease in the water supply due to successive seasons
pine do not carry an average crop of more than 40 per i
of drought, which have practically destroyed the value
cent. of the timber they are capable of producing.
No. 1828, VoL. 71]
NATURE
[ NOVEMBER I0, 1904.
of the grazing and agricultural areas in the reserve.
Three years ago the wheat crop yielded 5000 bushels.
The following year it fell to 2500 bushels, and last
season the yield was only 800 bushels. A cattle ranche
in the range, which used to graze more than 100,000
head, will now support not more than go0o0 head. As
a remedy it is suggested to adopt stringent rules,
regulating the number of stock and the areas on which
they shall be grazed on each permit. Very little
lumbering has been carried out within the reserve,
which is apparently due to the difficulties and expense
of transport. The timber species, coniferous and
broad-leaved, number fifteen, the yellow pine being the
principal timber tree. It is distributed uniformly
throughout the extent of the reserve. In some ranges
it forms a pure forest. Its average height is 125 feet,
with 24 feet of clear trunk with a diameter of 18 inches
at breast height. It varies.in age from 125 to 150
years.
The Engelmann’s spruce occupies the moister areas
above an altitude of gooo feet. It averages 70 feet in
height and ro inches in diameter. Its age varies from
50 to 75 years. Its growth is extremely rapid, but the
tree is usually clothed with branches to the ground.
A variety of the Engelmann’s spruce, Picea engel-
mannii, var. Franciscana, known as the Arizona
spruce, gives much better results, averaging 100 feet
in height with 20 feet of clear trunk and a diameter
of 18 inches. Red fir, white fir, western white pine,
alligator juniper, and Arizona cypress also occur
within the area. The deciduous trees are confined to
the borders of streams and marshy areas. The repro-
ductive capacity of the various species is exceptionally
good, especially where the young growth is afforded
shelter by the larger trees. The underbrush through-
out the areas in which the yellow pine predominates
is very small, and consequently this region has not
suffered much injury from forest fires. The report also
embodies detailed descriptions of the various sub-
divisions of the range, together with carefully prepared
maps and beautiful photographic plates. Of the latter
we have reproduced two as an example of the interest-
ing way in which these papers are illustrated.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN LONDON.
ele last report of the Technical Education Board
of the London County Council, dealing with the
year 1903-4, directs special attention to the progress
made in the provision of technical, secondary, and
higher education in London during the past eleven
years. Under the recent Education Act (London),
1903, the administration of the whole of the education
of London passed into the hands of the new Education
Committee, and the Technical Education Board ceased
to exist. The present report is consequently opportune,
and serves to record the great services which have been
rendered to education in London by the late Board.
The most striking features of the report are the
evidences provided of the increase and rapid develop-
ment of polytechnic institutions, the establishment and
success of London County Council schools and
technical institutes, and the improvement in the equip-
ment and staffing of secondary schools. The extent of
the advances made can be estimated satisfactorily by
comparing the number of educational institutions pro-
viding good scientific and technical education at the
time of the supersession of the Technical Board with
the number in existence in 1893, when Mr. Llewellyn
Smith reported on the provision made for technical
1 **Annual Report of the Technical Education Board of the London
County Council, 1903-1904.’’ (Westminster: P. S. King and Son, 1904.)
Price 2s. 6d.
No. 1828, VOL. 71 |
instruction at that time. ‘To take the case of the labor
atory accommodation for the teaching of chemistry.
In 1893 there appear to have been about fourteen
chemical laboratories in London open in the evening
for instruction; since that time well equipped depart-
ments for teaching practical chemistry have been
opened in eleven new polytechnic institutions. The
total volume of instruction in evening classes in
chemistry in 1893 was only about 38,000 student-hours
per session, and in polytechnics under 15,000 student-
hours. In 1893, after omitting the attendances of
students who did not attend for more than twenty
hours during the session, the amount of time devoted
to evening work in theoretical and practical chemistry
amounted to 64,554 student-hours in the polytechnics
alone.
The result obtained by comparing the advance made
in the teaching of electricity and electrical technology
is just as striking as in the case of chemistry. In 1893.
there were five electrical laboratories open for evening
instruction, while in 1903 there were twenty-three in-
stitutions giving evening instruction in electricity or
electrical technology, or both. In practical electrical
engineering there were only four centres in 1893 avail-
able for evening instruction, and only one applied for
aid from the Board, and at this institution there were
thirty-eight students. During the session 1902-3 there
were, in polytechnics aided by the Board, a large and
increasing number of students for electrical engineer-
ing, and the volume of instruction, omitting students
who attended for less than twenty hours during the
session, amounted to 43,909 student-hours. In addition
to these, a large number attended classes in electricity
and magnetism in the physics departments of the
institutions. The volume of instruction here reached
2,872 student-hours.
Ten years ago there was scarcely any provision in
London for pure technological teaching. From the list
of evening classes for 1903 it appears that technological
instruction is now available in a great variety of sub-
jects, of which the most important are :—bricklaying
and brick-cutting in twelve institutions, cabinet-
making in nine, carpentry and joinery in twenty, furni-
ture design in nine, masonry in nine, metal-plate work
in eight, painting and decorating in twelve, photo-
process work in four, plastering in nine, plumbing in
fifteen, printing in four, smithing in six, tailors’
cutting in seven, and upholstery in six. This rapid
increase in the number of polytechnics and technical
institutes in which adequate provision is made for
practical instruction in trade subjects has had a re-
markable effect in producing an interest in the scientific
principles underlying the various trades concerned.
As an example, the report quotes the case of the
Northampton Institute in Clerkenwell, in which district
there is a very large number of special trades. In
order to meet the demands of the neighbourhood,
classes were started in subjects in which no organised
technical instruction had previously been given in
London. Some of these have been remarkably
successful, and in several cases it has been found
necessary to increase the number of evenings of
instruction in order to provide for the large number of
students in attendance.
There has been also, says the report, a natural
tendency during the past few years for sporadic
classes in trade subjects to disappear in consequence
of the increasing popularity of the polytechnics and
larger technical institutes, in. which are found
thoroughly well equipped laboratories and workshops.
The number of distinct trades in which practical in-
struction is provided, and also the number of centres
where such courses of instruction can be obtained,
; have more than doubled during the past nine years,
NOVEMBER 10, 1904]
NATURE
35
and the number of apprentices and young workmen
attending them has increased four-fold.
The great success which the rapid growth of poly-
technics in different parts of London, since the form-
ation of the Technical Education Board in 1893, has
had in the development of evening instruction has
not, the report points out, been achieved at the expense
of other institutions; it represents a new growth, not
the transference of instruction from old to new institu-
tions. Many changes have taken place in the older
polytechnics to bring them more into touch with
modern requirements, and this has been accompanied
in nearly every case by an increase in the volume of
instruction. Statistics have been compiled, with re-
gard to the attendances which have been made, from
1893 for a period extending over eight years. It has
been impossible to give particulars with regard to all
the 4000 classes in the numerous subjects of instruction
aided by the London County Council, but mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, carpentry and
joinery, plumbing, other building trade classes, experi-
mental physics, chemistry, and mathematics have been
selected. The total volume of instruction in these sub-
jects, taken together, shows an increase from 118,732
student-hours in 1893 to 454,363 student-hours for
1go0-1. Since then the number of artisan students
has been increasing steadily. The increase in the
amount of work done by the students, speaking
generally, appears to have been even greater than the
growth in numbers. A growing proportion of the
students are now, it is satisfactory to find, taking
advantage of the systematic courses which have been
arranged, involving attendance on several evenings a
week; and it is not surprising to find the Board re-
cording its belief that the educational value of the
work done in polytechnics, especially as regards the
young mechanic, has been in this way greatly
increased.
As has been frequently pointed out, it was from the
first the policy of the Board to avail itself of the oppor-
tunity of aiding the supply of technical instruction
rather than of creating*a direct supply, wherever public
institutions have existed capable of responding to the
Board’s aid by such developments of efficient technical
instruction as might be expected to meet the require-
ments of the district. It has been necessary, however,
to provide two classes of institution, for the conduct of
which the London County Council is wholly re-
sponsible, viz. :—
(a) Institutions which provide instruction of such a
highly specialised character that it is necessary
for them to draw their students from the whole of
London ; for it has been impossible for any institution
with the ordinary sources of income to provide the
equipment and the highly specialised teachers
necessary.
(b) Local institutions, providing instruction of a more
ordinary character in districts in which no public in-
stitutions under a responsible governing body existed
which could be utilised for the Council’s requirements.
There are many other subjects of interest included
in the report, and some of them have already been dealt
with from time to time in these columns. It must
suffice here, by way of conclusion, to mention briefly
the work the Board has accomplished in aiding and
extending satisfactory instruction in science in the
public secondary schools of London. Seventeen
chemical laboratories have been equipped in new build-
ings, generally in wings added to existing school
premises, and three rooms used for class purposes have
been converted into chemical laboratories. Four large
rooms have been fitted up for practical worl: in physics
and chemistry. Sixteen physical laboratories have
been equipped in new buildings, and ten large class-
NO. 1828, VoL. 71]
rooms have been adapted for practical work in physics,
in addition to the four mentioned above, in which
practical work in chemistry is also carried on. Thus
fifty laboratories have been equipped in secondary
schools for boys, with bench accommodation for more
than 1200 pupils working simultaneously, or for 6000
pupils working one day a week. Twenty-five science
lecture-rooms have been provided, sixteen of these
being specially constructed for the purpose in new
buildings. A large number of additional science
masters have been appointed as a result of the Board’s
maintenance grants. In secondary schools for girls,
laboratories have in some cases been provided for
practical worl: in physics, chemistry, and botany, and
some of those in existence have been equipped suitably
to meet modern requirements. ACHES S 3
NOTES.
Tue list of appointments on the occasion of His Majesty's
birthday includes the following honours conferred upon men
of science:—Mr. W. H. M. Christie, C.B., F.R.S., has
been promoted to the rank of Knight Commander of the
Order of the Bath (K.C.B. Civil Division). Dr. J. W.
Swan, F-.R.S., has received the honour of Knighthood.
The Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S., has been appointed a
Companion of the Order of the Bath (C.B.). Mr. Francis
Watts, Director of Agriculture in the Island of Antigua, and
analytical and agricultural chemist for the colony of the
Leeward Islands, has been made a Companion of the Order
of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.).
Tue council of the Royal Society has made the following
award of medals for this year :—The Copley medal to Sir
William Crookes, F.R.S., for his long-continued researches
in spectroscopic chemistry, on electrical and mechanical
phenomena in highly rarefied gases, on radio-active pheno-
mena, and other subjects. The Rumford medal to Prof.
Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S., for his researches on radio-
activity, particularly for his discovery of the existence and
properties of the gaseous emanations from radio-active
bodies. A Royal medal to Colonel David Bruce, R.A.M.C.,
F.R.S., for his researches in the pathology of Malta fever,
nagana, and sleeping sickness, and especially for his dis-
coveries as regards the exact causes of these diseases. A
Royal medal to Prof. William Burnside, F.R.S., for his
researches in mathematics, particularly in the theory of
groups. The Davy medal to Prof. William Henry Perkin,
jun., F.R.S., for his discoveries in organic chemistry. The
Darwin medal to Mr. William Bateson, F.R.S., for his
contribution to the theory of organic evolution by his re-
searches on variation and heredity. The Sylvester medal
to Prof. Georg Cantor for his researches in the theories of
aggregates and of sets of points of the arithmetic con-
tinuum, of transfinite numbers, and Fourier’s series. The
Hughes medal to Dr. Joseph Wilson Swan for his invention
of the electric incandescent lamp and various improvements
in practical applications of electricity.
Tue following is a list of fellows who have been recom-
mended by the president and council of the Royal Society
for election into the council for the year the
anniversary meeting to be held on November 30 :—president,
Sir William Huggins, K.C.B., O.M.; treasurer, Mr. A. B.
Kempe; secretaries, Prof. J. Larmor, Sir Archibald Geikie ;
foreign secretary, Mr. F. Darwin. Other members of the
council:—Dr. Shelford Bidwell, Mr. G. A. Boulenger,
Colonel D. Bruce, R.A.M.C., Mr. F. W. Dyson, Prof. Percy
F. Frankland, Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. E. W. Hobson, Prof.
1905, at
36
J. N. Langley, Mr. J. E. Marr, Sir William D. Niven,
K.C.B., Prof. W. H. Perkin, jun., Prof. J. Perry, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, Dr. W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. A. Tilden, Rear-
Admiral Sir William Wharton, K.C.B.
WE announce with deep regret that Dr. Frank McClean,
F.R.S., died at Brussels on Tuesday morning in his sixty-
seventh year.
Mr. James Cosmo MELvitt has presented his general
herbarium to the Manchester Museum of the Victoria Uni-
versity. The herbarium has taken nearly forty years to
collect, and it was formally opened in its new quarters by
Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., on October 31.
THE portraits of Prof. Osborne Reynolds and Prof. A. S.
Wilkins, by the Hon. John Collier, will be formally presented
to the Victoria University of Manchester on Friday,
November 18. Dr. A.. W. Ward, the master of Peterhouse,
Cambridge, formerly principal of the Owens College, and
Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University, will make the
presentation on behalf of the subscribers.
A CurIsTMAS course of lectures, adapted to a juvenile
auditory, will be delivered by Mr. Henry Cunynghame,
C.B., at the Royal Institution, on ‘‘ Ancient and Modern
Methods of Measuring Time.”’
AN inaugural dinner of Royal School of Mines men resi-
dent in South Africa was held at Johannesburg on Saturday,
October 8. The chair was taken by Mr. A. R. Sawyer,
president of the Geological Society of South Africa, and
many old students of the school were present.
Tue Times correspondent at Tokio reports that a serious
earthquake occurred in Formosa at 4.30 a.m. on Sunday,
November 6. The centre of the disturbance was at Kia-yih,
where 150 houses were overthrown and 33 damaged, 78
persons killed, and 23 injured.
Tue deaths are announced of Forstmeister Schering,
formerly professor of mathematics and geodesy in the School
of Forestry at Munich; Clemens Alexander Winkler, pro-
fessor at Freiberg; and Dr. Francesco Chizzoni, professor
of geometry at Modena.
Tue Society of Arts will commence its fourth half-century
on November 16, when Sir William Abney, as chairman of
the society’s council, will open the rsrst session with an
address. The subjects on which papers will be read at the
meetings before Christmas include British trade, canals,
the St. Louis Exhibition, patent law, Burma, and street
architecture. There will also be a course of lectures on wind
instruments, with musical illustrations.
Tue Times correspondent at Copenhagen announces that
Mr. Mylius-Erichsen’s expedition returned there from
Greenland on November 6, having been absent two years
and a half. Mr. Mylius-Erichsen was accompanied by Mr.
Knud Rasmussen and Count Harald de Moltke, a well
known painter. The expedition travelled along the west
coast, and drove round Melville Bay on sledges. During
the whole time the explorers lived with the natives, learning
their language, and studying their mafners and customs of
life.
It was decided early last year, soon after the death of |
Mr. F. C. Penrose, to commemorate his work in Athens by
building on to the Students’ Hostel of the British School
in Athens a library to bear his name. Mr. Penrose was the
first director of the school in Athens, and was called on
more than once by the Athenian authorities to advise as to
the preservation of the Parthenon. The total cost of the
NO. 1828, von. 71]
NATURE
[ NOVEMBER 10, 1904
building and fittings will be about 1150l., and so far 4ool.
has been received in subscriptions toward this object. The
school can, if necessary, afford out of its own resources the
sum of 6oo0l., but no more, so it seems that at least r5ol.
should be raised by subscription if the building is to be
opened free of debt during the archzological congress in
Athens next spring. The committee will have, it is to be
hoped, no difficulty in securing this further sum of money.
Subscriptions may be sent to Mr. George Macmillan, St.
Martin’s Street, London, or may be paid into the account
of the Penrose Memorial Fund at the London and County
Banking Company, Ltd., Henrietta Street, Covent Garden,
W.C.
Mr. J. FLetcHer Moutton, F.R.S., gave an address on
the ‘‘ Trend of Invention in Chemical Industry ”’ before the
Society of Chemical Industry on Monday. In the course of
his remarks he said that there are two departments of great
interest at the moment from the inventive development they
are manifesting in their products. The first is that of
pharmaceutical products. Physiologists are beginning to
associate specific effects on the human organism with
specific chemical groups. These groups appear in count-
less combinations, and their effect may be masked or
hindered by the setting in which they are placed. It may
thus be that many of the forms in which these effective
groups have up to now been administered have influenced
and distorted their normal action, and a line of genuine
research and invention is now being pressed forward seek-
ing practical solutions of the problem of the best way to
use these operative groups. The second department concerns
food-stuffs. A vast waste of nutritious matter is going on
all round us. A substantial part of the ability now devoted
to the practical solution of difficult chemical questions in
existing industries could be usefully applied to the pre-
servation of food-stuffs. The main trend of invention
in chemical industry is rendering certain and com-
plete in their action processes formerly unmanageable or
unprofitable by reason of the uncertainty of the reactions
that actually and locally took place. The realisation of the
necessity of uniformity of conditions in order to obtain full
yield manifests itself not only in the efforts to improve old
processes, but also in the choice of new ones; that process
is a good one which permits the necessary conditions to be
secured at every point and at every moment.
A .ist of awards to exhibitors from Great Britain and
Ireland at the St. Louis International Exhibition has been
received from the secretary of the Royal Commission
appointed for the exhibition. The number of grand prizes
gained by Great Britain is 121, while 238 gold medals, 162
silver medals, and 132 bronze medals have been awarded
to British exhibitors, making a total of 653. It is therefore
only possible here to mention a few of the awards to men
of science and scientific bodies. Among these awards are
the following :—Department of Liberal Arts: photography,
grand prize, Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S.; the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich; the Royal Photographic
Society ; the Solar Physics Observatory; and Sir Benjamin
Stone; gold medal, the Geological Photographs Committee
of the British Association; the Cretan Exploration Fund ;
and the Survey of India. Maps and apparatus for geography,
grand prize, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries; Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal Geographical
Society; Admiralty (Hydrographical Department); the
Survey of India; Palestine Exploration Fund. Chemical
and pharmaceutical arts, grand prize, low temperature re-
search exhibit of the British Royal Commission; Sir
os a rial
NovEMBER I0, 1904]
ATT IE.
37
William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.; gold medal, Dr. Ludwig
Mond, F.R.S.; the Owens College; Royal College of
Science, London. Awards to collaborators, gold medal,
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S. (low temperature research
exhibit); Mr. T. Wilton, and Dr. A. R. Garrick. Various
applications of electricity: awards to collaborators, grand
prize, Lord Kelvin (for important contributions to electrical
engineering); gold medal, Prof. Hugh Langbourne
Callendar, F.R.S., Mr. W. du Bois Duddell. Theory of
' agriculture: grand prize, the Rothamsted Experimental
Station (Lawes Agricultural Trust); gold medal, Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries; Royal Agricultural Society.
Department of Horticulture: appliances and methods of
pomology, grand prize, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries ;
Royal Horticultural Society ; the British Royal Commission ;
gold medal, Dr. Henry. Department of Forestry: appli-
ances and processes used in forestry, gold medal, Forest
Department, India; silver medal, the Royal Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society. Department of Mines and Metallurgy : ores
and minerals, grand prize, Home Office (Mining Depart-
ment) ; Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland. Geological maps and plans of mines, grand
prize, Geological Survey of India. Mining literature, grand
prize, the Iron and Steel Institute; the Geological Survey
of India; gold medal, the Institution of Mining Engineers.
Fishing equipment and products: grand prize, Marine Bio-
logical Association of the United Kingdom, for an exhibit
prepared at their Plymouth laboratory illustrating the life-
history and the food of fishes, and a gold medal for publi-
cations. Department of Anthropology : ethnography, grand
prize, Cretan Exploration Fund; Egypt Exploration Fund;
Palestine Exploration Fund.
A CONFERENCE on the teaching of hygiene and temperance
in relation to physical deterioration was held at Caxton Hall,
Westminster, on November 2, under the auspices of the
National Temperance. League, Sir John Gorst presiding.
The various speakers dealt with the evils of intemperance,
and attention was directed to the petition prepared by the
British Medical Association in which the medical profession
urged that the teaching of the elements of the laws of health
should be made compulsory in the elementary schools.
Tue American Bar Association has passed a resolution in
favour of establishing in the Department of Justice,
Washington, a laboratory for the study of the criminal,
pauper, and defective classes. In the Bureau of Education,
Washington, Mr. MacDonald has for some years been carry-
ing on work of this kind under many difficulties, and it is
mainly owing to his initiative that the foregoing resolution
was framed.
IN connection with the review on ‘‘ Cancer Research ”’
(Nature, vol. Ixx. p. 279), an American correspondent, Mr.
Harbert Hamilton, has directed our attention to the reported
occurrence of a tumour in an oyster. The original paper
(Prof. J. A. Ryder in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila-
delphia, 1887, p. 25) records that the tumour was growing
in the pericardial cavity; it consisted of alveoli containing
numbers of round nucleated cells resembling the colourless
blood and lymph cells of the oyster. The opinion is ex-
pressed that the growth was of mesodermal origin, and prob-
ably benign.
Wirth regard to the note on anti-typhoid vaccination which
appeared in these columns last week (p. 14), it may be of
interest to direct attention to a statistical inquiry on the
same subject contributed by Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., to
the British Medical Journal (November 5, p. 1243). Prof.
Pearson analyses mathematically certain statistics submitted
No. 1828, voL. 71]
to-him by Lieut.-Colonel Simpson, R.A.M.C., and concludes
that while most of the correlations both for immunity and
recovery are distinctly sensible, having regard to their prob-
able errors, yet they are so irregular that little reliance can
be placed upon them as representing any definite uniform
effect. He considers that the data suggest that a more
effective method of inoculation must be found before it should
become a routine practice in the Army.
Ar a special meeting of the Charity Organisation Society
on October 31, Dr. Orme Dudfield, medical officer of health
for Kensington, contributed a paper on the need for sana-
toria for persons suffering from consumption. He pointed
out that more than one-tenth of the total mortality from all
causes was due to tuberculous diseases, and that consump-
tion accounted for nearly three-quarters of the tuberculous
mortality. He suggested that the Metropolitan Asylums
Board, which, on an order by the Local Government Board,
has the power to do so under the various Health Acts,
should take the matter in hand and equip sanatoria, the
present Gore Farm Asylum being a very suitable building
and site. With regard to the expense of such institutions,
Dr. Dudfield remarked that the loss caused to London by
tuberculosis could not be less than 43 millions per annum,
and he contended that the expense incurred would be amply
recouped by the money saved to the community. On the
motion of Sir W. Broadbent, it was resolved ** That it be
referred to the Administrative Committee to consider Dr.
T. Orme Dudfield’s paper and the discussion upon it, and
to report to the Council of the Charity Organisation Society
at some subsequent meeting.”’
Durine last week a demonstration was given at Strat-
ford, in connection with the process invented by Mr. Powell
for treating timber with a solution of sugar. The result
is that all kinds of wood are made tougher, heavier, and
more lasting, while the softer varieties become more useful
and more ornamental when worked. Besides this it is
possible to put fresh and unseasoned timber through the
process without delay, and after treatment the ‘‘ powellised ”
wood is ready for immediaté use, as there is no danger of
its shrinking or warping. The timber is placed in cages
which are wheeled into a boiler, and after this has been
closed, a solution of beet sugar is pumped in, though
apparently an open tank can be utilised. The solution
takes the place of the air in the timber, and is absorbed
by the individual fibres, for microscopical examination fails
to demonstrate the presence of sugar crystals between them.
It is therefore difficult to remove the sugar, and wood blocks
which have been treated are no longer porous, SO that
pavements made from them should be more sanitary
than those in present use. After being taken from the
receiver the wood is dried in ovens by artificial heat, the
temperature varying with the kind of wood. When sub-
jected to a breaking strain, ~ powellised ’’ timber recovers
itself to a greater extent than untreated wood, and is able,
even when broken, to support a greater weight without
collapsing. It is also claimed that timber so treated is not
subject to “dry rot,’’ and by the addition of some poison
to the sugar it is hoped to make it withstand the attacks
of termites in tropical countries.
AccorpING to the report of the Natural History Society
of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne for
1903-4, the “‘ museum talks ”’ given once a month in winter
by the curator have been continued. They were fairly well
attended, although most of the audience contented them-
selves with listening to the discourse, only a few taking the
opportunity of inspecting the museum.
38 NATURE
Some excellent photographs of rorquals ‘‘ spouting ’
illustrate a paper on these cetaceans by Dr. G. M. Allen
in the September issue of the American Naturalist. In
height and volume the “ spout ’’ of all the species is much
less than was supposed to be the case by the older observers,
even that of the huge “ sulphur-bottom ’’ averaging only
about 14 feet in height, although it may occasionally reach
20 feet. In the same number Dr. C. R. Eastman has an
article on fossil plumage, in which it is pointed out how
extremely seldom are birds’ feathers preserved in marine
deposits ; indeed, the only formations of this nature from
which they have been recorded appear to be the Solenhofen
limestones, the Cretaceous of Kansas, and the Monte Bolca
Eocene.
THE practice of planting trees and shrubs by stockmen
around their ranch-houses is advocated in a Bulletin of the
New Mexico Experimental Station, in which the author,
Mr. Wooton, describes the native ornamental plants.
Poplars Gr cottonwood trees are recommended for shade,
also the hackberry, and a maple known as box-elder. The
indigenous flora contains many climbers, including species
of Ipomcea, Maurandia, and clematis, while for the gardens
on the Mesa native yuccas, the sotol, Dasylirion, and the
ocotillo are suitable.
THE latest number of the West Indian Bulletin, vol. v.,
No. 2, contains an article on the cold storage of fruit, in
which it is pointed out that previous to storage it is
necessary to have the fruit cool before and while it is being
packed. Reference is made to the installation of Hall’s
system for cooling the fruit chambers on board the West
Indian Royal Mail Steamers Tagus and Trent. A review
of the cacao industry indicates that Trinidad and Grenada
continue to show a satisfactory increase in their exports,
and Trinidad stands fourth in the list of cacao-producing
countries.
ContinuinG the ‘‘ Materials for a Flora of the Malay
Peninsula,’’ Sir George King, F.R.S., with the cooperation
of Mr. J. S. Gamble, F.R.S., has worked out in the latest
part (No. 15) the uniovulate series of the Rubiacew. This
coincides with the subdivision Coffeoideze adopted by
Schumann in Engler’s ‘‘ Pflanzenfamilien.’’ The authors
retain Cephzlis as a generic name, and include under
Webera only a portion of the genus as understood by Hooker
in the ‘‘ Flora of British India.”’ The most important
genera are Ixora and Lasianthus, for the latter of which
no fewer than twenty-five new species are given. No species
of the Indo-Malayan genus Myrmecodia is recorded, and
only one species of Hydnophytum.
WE have received from Messrs. J. R. Gregory and Co.,
of Kelso Place, London, W., the prospectus and first part
of the ‘‘ Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical Petro-
graphy.”’ This elaborate work is intended to supply draw-
ings, descriptions, and microscopic slides of typical rocks
to its subscribers; while, for an additional guinea, chips of
the same rocks, mounted by a smooth face on glass plates,
are issued to complete the materials for study. There are
inany good points about the idea, and we do not know why
so capable a draughtsman as the author should veil his
identity under the not very attractive title of ‘fa senior
medallist and first-class honoursman in Natural Science of
the University of Edinburgh.’’ The subject is not treated
systematically, and we note that, while the plates can be
arranged in a portfolio according to the owner’s taste, the
text is paged continuously, and cannot be cut up. There
are many students, especially those forced to work alone,
NO. 1828, VoL. 71]
[NOVEMBER I0, 1904
who will welcome a book of this kind, accompanied as it
is by the actual specimens that are described.
Tue Royal Society has published its second annual issue
of that part of the ‘* International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature ’’ dealing with meteorology, including terrestrial
magnetism. Our readers generally will know that this
catalogue is an outgrowth of the catalogue of scientific
papers published by the Royal Society. This second issue
comprises mainly the literature of 1902, but includes some
works published in 1901. Not only the titles of papers
appearing in periodicals or as independent works are given,
but their subject-matter has been indexed. The referee of
this valuable contribution is Mr. T. D. Bell (librarian of the
Meteorological Office), which, we consider, is sufficient
guarantee of the care that has been taken in the preparation
of the work. We note that a very important addition has
been made by including the contents of the Meteorologische
Zeitschrift for 1902 as well as for 190s which were omitted
in the first issue. But we also note some important
omissions which will probably be remedied in a future issue,
e.g. the valuable papers which appear in the U.S. Monthly
Weather Review. The Royal Society appears to receive
notification of very few daily weather reports, as only those
of four countries are included out of some twenty-five that
are actually published.
Mr. Joun W. Butters, writing in the Edinburgh Mathe-
matical Society’s Proceedings, advocates a much more ex-
tensive use of the principle of symmetry in teaching
geometry, a proposal with which many mathematicians will
no doubt agree.
AN amusing anecdote about Linnea borealis is told by
M. V. Brandicourt in Cosmos for October 1. This rare
plant was reported to have been discovered in 1810 by the
Empress Josephine when on a visit to the Montanvert at
Chamounix. But it transpired later that the specimens
were planted there by a certain Bonjeau, who was
pharmacist to Her Majesty, and the secret was let out by
the man who planted them in a letter to her asking for help
when he was incapacitated by an accident. As M. Brandi-
court remarks, no one will ever again find Linnea borealis at
the Montanvert or anywhere near—the Empress took them
all! i
In the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
xxv., 4, Dr. J. Erskine Murray describes a simple differenti-
ating machine. In it the differential coefficient of a function
the graph of which has been drawn is obtained by recording
the slope of the tangent at each point, and to give this the
machine is guided so that two near dots on a piece of
celluloid shall at each instant lie along the curve, while
a tracing point on a second sheet describes the required
graph of the first derived function as thus obtained approxi-
mately. This method, rough as it sounds in description,
is said to give valuable information in many statistical
problems where existing methods would prove too laborious.
WE have received parts i. to vii. of the Rendtconto of
the Naples Academy (January to July), and in them notice
obituary accounts of three members of the academy. Antonio
de Martini studied medicine at Naples and Paris. In 1839
and 1840 he published with Salvatore Tommasi two papers
on the organism of reptiles and one on the lamprey, and
these were soon followed by many other papers. In 1847 he
was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology at the
veterinary college. The new morphology emanatirg from
Germany at that period attracted Martini’s attention, and
NOVEMBER I0, 1904]
he published a valuable work on embryology. About 1860
he was nominated professor of physiology, and two years
later he was appointed to a newly founded chair of pathology.
He was also appointed consulting physician to Princess
Margherita, mother of the present King. Throughout his
career he worked hand in hand with his colleague Tommasi.
Gaetano Giorgio Gemmellaro was born at Catania in 1832.
At the age of twenty he produced his first paper on certain
volcanic minerals from Patagonia, and from then onwards
published papers almost continuously for fifty years. The
geological history of Sicily was almost made by him. He
was professor of geology and mineralogy at Palermo, a
member of the Accademia dei Lincei and of many other
academies of different countries, one of the ‘‘ Forty’”’ of
the Italian Society of Science, a Senator, and Knight of the
Order of Savoy. Prof. Giustiniano Nicolucci was born in
the island of Liri, and graduated in medicine at Naples in
1843. Under Stefano delle Chiaje he developed a taste for
biological science, and in 1842 published his first paper on
the structure and functions of the human cerebral nerves.
During the political disturbances he left his country, and
three years later returned to practise medicine.
NATURE
39
an eighth edition. This little volume of 83 pages has been
completely re-written, and now contains a practical account
of the results of recent researches in sporting gunnery.
The actions of guns and gunpowder are based on the laws
of physics and chemistry, and the results which have
followed the application of the scientific method to the
problems in connection with this branch of technology have
been incorporated in the book. The volume provides
| evidence that manufacturers are coming to realise that sub-
| stantial advantages in their work follow an acquaintance
with results arrived at by the man of science. The six
chapters into which the book is divided deal with smokeless
| powders and the methods of testing them, with patterns on
The various
types of humanity with which he came in contact in his |
profession attracted his attention to the study of anthro-
pology, which he continued to his last day.
dealt with both historic and prehistoric anthropology, his
favourite theme being the prehistoric anthropology of Italy,
and especially of southern Italy.
A NEw and revised edition of ‘‘ Object Lessons in Elemen-
tary Science,’’ by Mr. Vincent T. Murché, has been published
by Messrs. Macmillan and Co.,_Ltd., in two parts at 2s.
each.
Tue ‘‘ London University Guide and University Corre-
spondence College Calendar ’’ for 1905 contains in a con-
venient form the kind of information required by a private
student desirous of taking a degree at the University of
London.
Mr. Hemmine’s book entitled ‘‘ Billiards Mathematically
Treated ’’ has reached a second edition, which has just been
published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd. In
appendix iii. of the new edition Mr. Hemming institutes a
comparison of strokes played through and fine, and of the
margin of error in each case.
Messrs. WHITTAKER AND Co. have published a third edition
of ‘‘ The Optics of Photography and Photographic Lenses,”’
by the late Mr. J. Traill Taylor. The short chapter on
lenses of Jena glass which was included in the last issue
of the book has been omitted, and one on anastigmatic
lenses, written by Mr. P. F. Everitt, inserted in its place.
Aw authorised translation, by Dr. M. Ernst, of the presi-
dential address delivered by Mr. Balfour at the Cambridge
meeting of the British Association has been published by
Herr J. M. Barth, Leipzig, under the title ‘‘ Unsere heutige
Weltansschauung.’’ Dr. Ernst has rendered the address
into fluent German, and has added a few short descriptive
notes—mainly of a biographical character—which will be
of interest to readers unfamiliar with the names of Newton,
Cavendish, Stokes, Maxwell, Kelvin, Rayleigh, and other
natural philosophers to which reference is made.
first note, on the foundation and objects of the British
Association, the list of sections should have included the
section of educational science.
Tue ‘‘ Notes on Shooting, with Instructions Concerning
the Use of Nitro-Powders,’’ written by ‘‘ An Expert,’’ and
published by Messrs. Curtis’s and Harvey, Ltd., has reached
No. 1828, voL. 71 |
His researches |
In the |
| for
the distribution of pellets on the target, with cartridge
shooting, and aiming at moving objects.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF THE EARTH'S
Roration.—Prof. A. Féppl, of the Munich Technical High
School, has devised a new gyroscopic apparatus for measur-
ing the angular velocity of the earth’s rotation.
As shown in the accompanying figure, the apparatus con-
sists of a large top carrying at each end of a horizontal
spindle an iron wheel 50 cm. (19-7 inches) in diameter and
30 kilograms (66-1 Ib.) in weight. This spindle is the axle
of a small electro-motor which is capable of turning the
wheels 2400 revolutions per minute. The whole framework
is suspended by three fine, strong steel wires to the ceiling
of the room in which the experiment is performed, and a
cross piece immediately under the centre of the axle dips
into a bath of oil, thereby deadening the subsidiary inter-
fering oscillations. The angle through which the whole
apparatus turns about its vertical axis is read off, on the
two scales shown in the figure, to about the tenth of a
degree. ‘
To perform the experiment the current is disconnected
from the motor, and the latter run as a generator for a
short period, when a reading of a voltmeter placed in circuit
enables the angular velocity of the revolving wheels to be
found. Knowing this, one deduces the moments of inertia
of the turning masses, and then by an equation which takes
its arguments the combined moment, the constant
angular velocity of the wheels, the torsion of the trifilar
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 10, 1904
suspension, &c., one may calculate from the observed read-
ings, taken from the scales each minute of the quarter or
half an hour that the wheels continue to revolve at a con-
stant rate, the angular velocity of the earth’s rotation.
For this quantity Prof. Foppl has obtained a value within
2 per cent. of that obtained from astronomical phenomena, |
and hopes, with the assistance of M. O. Schlick, the maker
of the apparatus, to obtain a still more accordant value by
further modifying and perfecting his device (Revue général
des Sctences, No. 19, October 15). :
Tue PerRseip SHOwWER.—Mr. A. King sends an account ot
his observations of Perseid meteors during July and August.
The observations were divided into two periods, namely,
(1) July 12 to 18 inclusive at Sheffield, (2) August 3 to 18
inclusive at Leicester.
The total time spent in watching was twenty-one hours.
Considerably more than 200 shooting stars were seen, of |
which nearly 130 were Perseids; 152 meteors were noted,
about 80 being Perseids. The maximum of the shower
seems to have occurred on August 11, or in the daylight
hours of the morning of August 12. By August 14 the
strength of the shower had much decreased, but on the
following night there was a recrudescence of Perseid activity,
for within the first fifteen minutes of a watch from 1oh.
to 11h. two beautiful Perseid fireballs, both nearly equalling |
' to September 9 the daily production of pig iron averaged
Jupiter in brilliance, appeared, and altogether the hourly
rate of Perseids was higher than on August 14. Mr. King
considers that the display was scarcely so strong as of late
years, but still was a fairly rich one. The following posi-
tions were obtained :—August 6, a 38, 5 +563 (10 meteors) ; |
August 11, @ 453, 8 +574 (35 meteors); August 12,
a 463, 6 +573 (13 meteors); August 14, a 503, 5 +583 (7
meteors).
The movement of the radiant is thus well shown. In
conclusion, Mr. King says :—‘‘ All the brilliant Perseids
had pear-shaped heads. Of 47 Perseids the colours of which
were recorded 31 were yellow, a few of these having a
greenish tinge. The tints of the streaks usually eluded
observation, but the streak of a bright Perseid which
appeared on August 13 was muddy.”’
Tur Dump-sett NesuLta.—From a special study of the
various forms of nebulaze which he has photographed with
the Meudon reflector, M. Louis Rabourdin has arrived at
the conclusion that the dumb-bell nebula may be correctly |
classified as elliptical, and that the ring nebula in Lyra
should also be placed in the same category.
On comparing a number of photographs of these two |
objects he found that they have the same elliptical form, and
that the stars enclosed in each are, generally speaking,
similarly arranged. Consequently, he believes them to be
objects which started with the same primal form, but
have arrived at different stages in the order of their
evolution.
Several other well known objects are placed by him in
the same class, and he suggests that the nebulze generally
may be of two general types only, viz. elliptical and spiral
(Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France, October,
1903).
Harvarp CoLLteGE OpsEeRvATORY.—In a small brochure
published by the Harvard College authorities (Cambridge,
Mass., 1904) the establishment, growth, and work of the
college observatory is briefly recorded. The various stations
and the instruments located in each are named and de-
scribed, and the work already performed, the publications of
the observatory, and the officers employed are mentioned
in chronological order. Two reproductions of photographs
show the stations at Cambridge and Arequipa respectively.
In a second similar publication Prof, E. C. Pickering out-
lines the second part of his ‘‘ Plan for the Endowment of
Astronomical Research,’? in which he suggests several
methods of usefully spending the money he is seeking to
raise for this purpose. Among other things he discusses
solar eclipse expeditions, and states that the English method
of organisation by means of a central permanent eclipse
committee is one which might be usefully copied in other
countries, where much money has been ‘‘ wasted”? by send-
ing out a number of mutually independent expeditions, often
in charge of incompetent persons, to attempt to obtain
results which are but seldom adequately
published. ;
NO. 1828, VOL. 71]
discussed or |
IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.
THe opening meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute was
held on October 24 in New York under the presidency
of Mr. Andrew Carnegie. Addresses of welcome were de-
livered by the Mayor, by Mr. John Fritz, chairman of the
reception committee, and by Mr. James Gayley, president
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. On behalf
of the council Sir James Kitson presented to Mr. Carnegie
the Bessemer gold medal in recognition of his great services
to the iron and steel industries of the world. On October 26
a seleciicn of papers was read and discussed.
The first and most important read was that by Mr. James
Gayley (New York) on the application of dry air blast to
the manufacture of iron. The variable moisture in the
atmosphere has long been recognised as a barrier to further
progress in blast furnace practice. The problem of extract-
ing the moisture has been solved by Mr. Gayley by the
adoption of refrigeration by means of anhydrous ammonia.
A plant was put in operation at the Isabella furnaces of
the Carnegie Steel Company at Pittsburg on August 11,
and remarkable results have been obtained. Prior to its
adoption, the furnace from August 1 to August 11 produced
on an average 358 tons of pig iron daily with a coke con-
sumption of 2147 lb. Using dry air blast from August 25
447 tons with a coke consumption of 1726 lb. Similar
advantages would doubtless be effected in the Bessemer con-
verter, in the open-hearth steel process, in copper smelting,
and in other processes where air in large quantities is used.
The next paper read was on the influence of carbon and
phosphorus on the strength of iron and steel, by Mr. H. H.
Campbell, .of Steelton, Pennsylvania.
The paper by Mr. C. V. Bellamy, Director of Public
Works, Lagos, was of great ethnological interest. He de-
scribed the process of iron manufacture in the hinterland of
the British colony of Lagos, within twenty days of
London, where the methods are the same as_ those
practised by the earliest workers in the metal. The
smelting works are near Oyo, the capital of the Yoruba
country, and it is only recently that they have been visited
by a white man for the first time. Analyses given by Mr.
I’. W. Harbord, in an appendix to the paper, show that
the metal is a pig iron partially decarburised by an oxidising
flux. It is really a puddled steel, low in sulphur and phos-
phorus, its purity accounting for its good qualities.
Mr. J. M. Gledhill read a paper describing the develop-
ment and rise of high-speed tool steel. Since the initiation
of high-speed cutting at the Bethlehem Steel Works, great
developments have been made, and results in cutting powers
far beyond expectation have been attained. An analysis of
one of the best qualities of rapid steels produced by Sir
W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Ltd., showed 0-55
per cent. of carbon, 3-5 per cent. of chromium, and 13-5 per
cent. of tungsten.
The results of different analysts when operating on the
same sample of iron or steel are far from concordant, and
attempts have been made at various times to investigate
the causes of difference. A further attempt has now been
made to ascertain the most trustworthy methods for the
determination of carbon and phosphorus in steel by a com-
mittee consisting of Mr. J. E. Stead, F.R.S., Baron H.
von Jiiptner (Austria), Mr. A. A. Blair (Philadelphia), and
Mr. Gunnar Dillner (Stockholm), who presented an interim
report covering fifty-two printed pages.
A paper on acid open-hearth manipulation was submitted
by Mr. A. McWilliam and Mr. W. H. Hatfield (Sheffield), in
which experimental results were recorded proving that, at
about the temperatures occurring in Siemens steel-making
practice, the chemical composition of the slag, particularly
with regard to its acidity, is the factor which determines
whether the percentage of silicon in the molten steel shall
increase or decrease.
Mr. E. Demenge (Paris) submitted a paper on the
utilisation of exhaust steam, from engines acting inter-
mittently, by means of regenerative steam accumulators and
of low-pressure turbines of the Rateau type. The process
has been applied with conspicuous success at the Donetz
Steel Works in Russia, at the Poensgen Steel Works at
Diisseldorf, and at several French collieries.
The meeting concluded with the customary votes of thanks
NOVEMBER I0, 1904]
to the reception committee, proposed by Mr. E. Windsor
Richards and seconded by the secretary, Mr. Bennett H.
Brough. The meeting was attended by more than 300
members, and an attractive programme of visits to metal-
lurgical works in various parts of America was arranged.
THE INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL
CONGRESS AZ ST. LOUIS.
INCE the article on the proceedings of the International
Electrical Congress at St. Louis appeared in our issue
of October 27, we have received the subjoined report to the
congress of the chamber of Government delegates referred
to on p. 639.
It will be noticed that the resolutions ask for the appoint-
ment by Governments of one international commission, at
first of a temporary character, but which, it is hoped, may
become permanent, to deal with electric units.
Report of the Chamber of Delegates.
At the meeting on September 13, after discussion in the
chamber, two subcommittees were appointed to deal with
the questions of international electromagnetic units and of
international Standardisation respectively.
At the meeting on September 15 the following report of
the committee on international electromagnetic units was
accepted and unanimously adopted :—
Committee on International Electromagnetic Units.
The subcommittee appointed September 13 begs leave to
suggest that the chamber of delegates should adopt the
following report :—
It appears from papers laid before the International
Electrical Congress and from the discussion that there are
considerable discrepancies between the laws relating to
electric units, or their interpretations, in the various
countries represented, which, in the opinion of the chamber,
require consideration with a view to securing practical
uniformity.
Other questions bearing on nomenclature and the deter-
mination of units and standards have also been raised, on
which, in the opinion of the chamber, it is desirable to have
international agreement.
The chamber of delegates considers that these and similar
questions could best be dealt with by an international com-
mission representing the Governments concerned. Such a
commission might in the first inStance be appointed by those
countries in which legislation on electric units has been
adopted, and consist of (say) two members from each country.
Provision should be made for securing the adhesion of
other countries prepared to adopt the conclusions of the
commission.
The chamber of delegates*approves such a plan, and re-
quests its members to bring this report before their respective
‘Governments.
It is hoped that if the recommendation of the chamber of
‘delegates be adopted by the Governments represented, the
commission may eventually become a permanent one,
The following report was also received and unanimously
adopted from the committee on international standard-
isation :— :
Committee of the Chamber of Delegates on International
Standardisation.
The committee of the chamber of delegates on the
standardisation of machinery begs to report as follows :—
That steps should be taken to secufe the cooperation of
the technical societies of the world by the appointment of
a representative commission to consider the question of the
standardisation of the nomenclature and ratings of electrical
apparatus and machinery.
If the above recommendation meets the approval of the
chamber of delegates, it is suggested by your committee
that much of the work could be accomplished by corre-
spondence in the first instance, and by the appointment of
a general secretary to preserve the records and crystallise
the points of disagreement, if any, which may arise between
the methods in vogue in the different countries interested.
It is hoped that if the recommendation of the chamber of
delegates be adopted, the commission may eventually be-
come a permanent one.
No. 1828, VoL. 71]
NATURE
41
At the meeting on September 16 the following resolutions
Were unanimously adopted :—
“ That the delegates report the resolution of the chamber
as to electrical units to their respective Governments, and
that they be invited to communicate with Dr. S. W. Stratton
(Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.) and Dr Re LT:
Glazebrook (National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House,
Teddington, Middlesex, England) as to the results of their
report, or as to other questions arising out of the resolution.”
*““ That the delegates report the resolution of the chamber
as to the international standardisation to their respective
technical societies, with the request that the societies take
such action as they may deem best to give effect to the
resolution, and that the delegates be requested to com-
municate the result of such action to Colonel R. E. B.
Crompton, Chelmsford, England, and to the president of
ae American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York
ity.
THE NATIONAL ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
HE narrative of the National Antarctic Expedition, re-
lated by Captain Scott to an audience of about seven
thousand people at the Albert Hall on Monday, was the first
account of the work of the expedition given to the Royal
Geographical Society since the Discovery returned home.
Captain Scott made a general statement of the work of the
expedition, referring particularly to the various sledging
journeys—nine of which were made in the first season and
six in the second season—for exploration to the south, west,
and east; but his remarks were chiefly of the nature of
descriptions of a magnificent collection of photographs of
scenes and incidents in the areas visited. These pictures
themselves constitute a unique record of Antarctic conditions,
and with the results of meteorological, magnetic, hydro-
graphic, biological, and geological observations make the
expedition most notable in the history of polar exploration.
An exhibition of the photographs taken by Lieut. Skelton,
water colour sketches and coloured drawings by Dr. E. A.
Wilson, and other objects of interest connected with the
voyage of the Discovery, is now open at the Bruton Galleries,
13 Bruton Street, Bond Street, W.
At the end of the lecture the chairman, Sir Clements
Markham, K.C.B., on behalf of the Royal Geographical
Society, presented a gold medal to Captain Scott and silver
medals to the officers and men. The gold medal of the
Geographical Society of Philadelphia for 1904 was presented
to Captain Scott by the United States Ambassador in the
name of that society. The medal bears on one side a
medallion of Dr. Elisha Kane, their own discoverer, in whose
honour the society was organised, and on the reverse this
inscription :—‘‘ For eminent geographical research. Per
mare et terram. The Philadelphia Geographical Society.
Incorporated 1803. Awarded to Captain Scott in the year
1904.”
a the scientific work of the expedition will be described
at subsequent meetings of the Royal Geographical Society,
Captain Scott only made incidental reference to it, and
added little to what has already appeared in these columns
(vol. Ixix., p. 543, April 7). The following brief summary
of the lecture is, however, of interest in showing some of
the incidents and inquiries of the expedition.
The Antarctic area was divided into four quadrants, of
which the Ross quadrant was allotted to the British ex-
pedition. It was there that Sir James Ross in 1840 dis-
covered the sea that bore his name. But Sir James Ross
was in a sailing ship, and only saw things dimly and in
the distance. The geographical problem was therefore in
brief to find out what lay to the east, to the west and
to the south of what Ross had seen. In addition to the
geographical problem, there were many scientific ones con-
nected with a region so little known. The principal of
these was magnetism, and the course taken by the Discovery
was especially adapted for a magnetic survey.
Accompanied by two other members of the expedition,
Captain Scott left the ship for a southern journey early in
November, 1902, and on December 29 arrived at a point in
latitude 80° 17’, when they were obliged to retrace their
42
NATURE
[ NovEMBER IQ, 1904
steps. Finally, the party returned safely to the ship, and
found that the Morning relief ship had arrived in McMurdo
Sound. Mr. Armitage made a journey to the westward with
a large party. After one or two failures he found a good
route to the main ice cap over the surface of a glacier of
great length. He gradually rose in altitude until he arrived
on the inland plateau at a height of 8900 feet, and was
thus the first to penetrate into the interior of Victoria Land.
The expedition had hoped to accompany the Morning
home, and it was not until the end of February, 1903, that
this was seen to be impossible, because of the condition of the
ice. They expected the ice in the bay in which they lay
to break up, but unfortunately it got so late that there was
only one thing for the Morning to do, and that was to return.
She got home with a good deal of difficulty, but the Dis-
covery was forced to remain a second winter.
Captain Scott next made a sledging expedition in
a westerly direction, reaching his ‘‘ furthest west”
point on November 30, 1903. The party had reached the
top of a mountain range some 7000 feet above the sea-level
when a blizzard came on and prevented further movement
for six days. The party then set out westward, rising
another 1500 feet, and for another week advanced over a
huge plain that extended as far as the eye could reach. The
temperature was forty degrees below zero, and the lips,
nostrils, and cheeks of the party were blistered by the
incessant wind from the west. The rarefied air, too, had a
great effect in reducing staying power. On this expedition
they reached a very interesting spot—that at which the
compass pointed south instead of north. They had reached
for the first time the line of no variation lying between the
South Pole and the south magnetic pole.
By the middle of December, 1903, all the sledging parties
were ordered to be back, in order that an attempt might be
made to free the Discovery from the ice by sawing out a
channel. The attempt to clear a channel had to be
abandoned, but on January 15 the Morning and the Terra
Nova were sighted. They brought word that unless the
Discovery could be freed it must be abandoned, and to
obviate this hard necessity blasting operations were under-
taken. But by the end of January the ice began to break
up of its own accord, and by the middle of February there
was a clear channel for the Discovery, which was then free
to start on its return voyage.
MOUNT EVEREST: THE STORY OF A
LONG CONTROVERSY.
THE highest mountain in the world is situated in a
country from which Europeans have with few excep-
tions been jealously excluded; and the recent visit to the
capital of Nepal of an experienced British surveyor,
equipped with instruments and with full permission to use
them, is an event of no small interest in the annals of
Himalayan geography.’ It is clear from Captain Wood’s
report that this event has been brought about by the personal
intervention of Lord Curzon.
Surveyors have penetrated the Himalayas east and west
of Nepal into Sikkim and Kumaon, and have from these
points of view been enabled to observe a few of the Nepalese
peaks; but from flanking stations the ranges of mountains
are seen ‘‘end on,’’ and the nearer peaks shut out the
more distant from view. The knowledge that we possess
of the heights and positions of the peaks of the Nepalese
Himalayas has consequently been obtained from observ-
ations, taken with theodolites at stations situated in the
plains of Bengal and Oudh.
From maps of small areas we are able to estimate that
the number of peaks existing in Himalayan regions, in-
cluding Kashmir and Bhutan, probably exceeds 40,000, and
that of these more than 10,000 are always clothed with
snow. Such estimates, rough as they are, suffice to show
that the problem which confronted the Indian Survey when
it first undertook the determination of the positions and
heights of the peaks of the Himalayas was not a simple one.
It is difficult now to discover how many of the 10,000
snow-peaks were known to the natives of India by name
before the British commenced their The number
1 Report on the Identification and Nomenclature of Himalayan Peaks.
By Capt. H. Wood, R.E.. with a preface by Colonel Gore, C.S.1., R.E.,
late Surveyor General of India. (Published by Order of Colonel F. B.
Longe, R.E., Surveyor General of India, 1904.)
No. 1828, voL. 71]
survey.
so named was certainly small, and possibly less than fifty.
Not only were the two highest mountains of all without
a name but many of the most conspicuous peaks through-
out the whole length of the Himalayas were nameless.
The few peaks that serve as landmarks to travellers on
frequented thoroughfares have probably always had names,
and the few that mark the sources of sacred rivers and
indicate to weary pilgrims on distant plains the positions
of the shrines that are their goals have for ages been
recognised by names.
It is questionable whether some of the Hindu names now
attaching to peaks were not given in the first instance by
British surveyors; in the earlier days of the survey names
were accepted from villagers more readily, perhaps, than
would now be done. Even the celebrated name of
Dhawlagiri, as attaching to a particular peak, is not
altogether free from suspicion. The story of the con-
troversy over Mount Everest shows how easy it is to find
native names that have no existence in fact, and how hard
it is to identify the precise peak even when a native name
is current.
When 10,000 snow-peaks have to be fixed, and when but
50 of these have names, some system of classification has
to be devised. The case is analogous to that of the stars;
a few of the brighter stars have names of their own,
the remainder are classified by constellations, and
are designated by letters or numbers. The snow-peaks
of the Himalayas are classified by areas, and are designated
by Roman numerals or by letters with numbers attached ;
thus the highest mountain in the world is known in the
official records as Peak XV, and the second highest is
recorded as Peak K,, both having been nameless at the
time of their discovery.
The height of Peak XV, now better known as Mount
Everest, is 29,002 feet, and that of K, is 28,250 feet.
Sixty years ago Dhawlagiri, in Nepal, was considered the
highest mountain in the world; Dhawlagiri is 26,795 feet
high, and has since been found to be surpassed in height
by six Himalayan peaks; of these K, is in Kashmir, and
the other five, Everest (29,002), Kangchenjunga I (28,146),
Kangchenjunga II (27,803), Makalu (27,790), and Peak
T,. (27,000) are in or near Nepal.
The Discovery of Mount Everest..—In 1848 trigono-
metrical surveyors commenced to build a line of survey
stations along the plains of Oudh and Bengal from west to
east, and to determine the positions of these stations in
latitude and longitude by means of triangles observed with
large theodolites. Sir George Everest had _ intended
originally to carry the series along the mountains, but
abandoned his design in consequence of the refusal of the
Nepalese Government to allow the operations to enter their
territories. _ Consequently, after crossing the hills of
Kumaon, the stations were brought down into the plains
near Bareilly, from which point they were carried for 800
miles through the deadly tracts which fringe the Himalayas.
At almost every station the snowy range of Nepal was
visible, and the northern horizon appeared broken by
numbers of peaks. Just as some stars appear brighter to
the eye than others, so do some snow-peaks against the
sky-line appear loftier than others. The superior magni-
tude of certain stars may be due either to their greater
diameter or their lesser distance, and the superior elevation
of certain peaks may be due either to their greater height
or their lesser distance. The most refined observations
with the most perfect of: instruments, if taken from a
single station only, will furnish no clue as to whether a
mountain-peak is conspicuous on account of its magnitude
or on account of its nearness.
As the surveyors moved across Bengal from west to
east they. witnessed changes in the apparent positions of
the peaks; the analogy of the stars no longer serves us, as
owing to the great distances of the latter they appear to
preserve their relative positions in the sky; but the case of
mountain-peaks may be compared to what a traveller
witnesses when he journeys by rail through a forest of
pines—the nearer tree-trunks continually appear to pass
between his eye and the more distant ones. As the surveyor
moves across the plains parallel to the mountains he sees
1 In order to appreciate the distance from which Mount Everest is visible,
we have only to consider that if it stood in Snowdon’s place, it would be
seen from Land's End to Edinburgh and from Kent to Connaught.
r]
NOVEMBER I0, 1904]
INCA O2Ee
43
innumerable peaks, many snow-clad, many bare, always
seemingly changing their places and forms.
It is a mistaken idea that particular peaks can be
identified from different points of view by their characteristic
shapes. Such a course may sometimes be possible from
near stations, but at distances greater than forty miles the
form of a peak is its cross-section in outline against the
sky, and this changes as one moves round it. The same
peak is often found noted in the field records of the survey
‘by a different letter or number at each station from which
it was observed. Colonel Sir Andrew Waugh, of the
Bengal Engineers, who was Surveyor-General of India
from 1843 to 1861, realised from the outset the difficulties
‘of identification. His orders were that every visible peak,
great and small, was to be observed from every observing
station, but that the identification of peaks, with the ex-
ception of the unmistakable few possessing native names,
must be left to computers. In accordance with these orders
the true direction of every visible peak and the angular
elevation of every summit above the horizon were deter-
mined from every observing station.
The identification of the peaks as observed from different
stations was then effected as follows :—
1st Step.—The stations of observation were carefully pro-
jected on a map, and from each were drawn lines represent-
ing the directions of all peaks observed from it.
2nd Step.—When direction-lines from three or more
stations met in one point, it was tentatively assumed that
the same peak had been observed on the three or more
occasions.
3rd Step.—By trigonometrical formulz the distance of
this assumed peak from each of the observing stations was
then calculated, and from these distances independent values
of the latitude and longitude of the peak were obtained; if
the several values were accordant the identification was
proceeded with.
4th Step.—From the observed angle of elevation and from
the calculated distance of the peak from each station the
height of the peak was deduced; a separate value for the
height of the peak was thus obtained from each observing
station. If the several values of height were accordant the
identification was finally accepted.
Numerous peaks were found to have been observed only
‘once or twice, and could not be identified; many others
failed to satisfy all the tests, and had to be rejected.
About 1852 the chief computer of the office at Calcutta
informed Sir Andrew Waugh that a peak designated XV
had been found to be higher than any other hitherto
measured in the world. This peak was discovered by the
computers to have been observed from six different stations;
‘on no occasion had the observer suspected that he was view-
ing through his telescope the highest point of the earth.
The following table shows the several values of height
that were obtained for Mount Everest :
THE OsseRvVED HEIGHT oF Mount Everest.
Extracted from the Records of the Great Trigonometrical
Survey of India.
ai
S| 36 | [5 §
| ws ws> | wo |S 5
(32 338 5 | 5| | ca
A 1% Oxo ale S
‘Observing| = | = to | Date of 5 ac | Obsetved a
station ve S.5 3 | observation B/S coat SS aeares cha
ise) EF 4 es OlElsS | ee a
a SE } 8 a
aa eco ut |z | =
Poa ne <I =
| | |
; | Feet} Miles | oa. tte Feet
Jirol _...| 220 | 118 661 Noy. 27, 1849 ales | 2 |r 53 33°35 | 289916
é ens ||
Mirzapur 245 | 108°876| Dec. 5, 6, 1849 |S 3 12 '2 11 16°66 | 29005°3
| oO |
r , = fo}
Janjpati_ | 255 | 108°362| Dec. 8, 9, 1849 |4 2 | 4 |2 12. 9°31 | 29001°8
Ladnia ..,) 235 | 108'86r Dec. 12, 1849 < 3 | 4 |2 x3 25752 28998°6
2 |
Harpur +-| 219 | r11°523 | Dec. 17, 18, 1849 é S| 8 lo 6 24°98 | 29026'1
. al = all
Minai ..| 228 | 113°761| ‘Jan. 17, 1850 | 8 2 216 64 | 28990%4
| Mean ++,| 29002°3
NOA MO20) VOL. 7 1'|
Sir Andrew Waugh had always adhered to the rule of
assigning to every geographical object its true local or
native name; but here was a mountain, the highest in the
world, without any local or native name that he was able
to discover. He determined, therefore, to name the great
snow-peak after Sir George Everest, his former chief, the
celebrated Indian geodesist. The name of ‘* Mount
Everest ’’ has since become a household word, and no
objection to it has ever been raised by natives of the country.
The Devadhunga Controversy.—When Sir Andrew
Waugh announced that the peak was to be named Everest,
Mr. Hodgson, who had been political officer in Nepal for
many years, intimated to the Royal Geographical and
Royal Asiatic Societies that Sir Andrew Waugh had been
mistaken, and that the mountain had a local name, viz.
Devadhunga. Sir Roderick Murchison, the president of
the Royal Geographical Society, approved Waugh’s action,
but the Royal Asiatic Society supported Hodgson and re-
pudiated the name of Everest. Seeing that the Survey
officers had been debarred from entering Nepal, Mr. Hodg-
son was amply justified in raising the question he did;
but he had made no scientific measurements, and it is
known now beyond dispute that he was mistaken in his
identification of Everest. He apparently assumed that the
great peak, which he saw standing in the direction of
Everest, and which was so conspicuous from Katmandu,
where he resided, was the highest peaix in Nepal;* but
Nepal covers a large area, and Mount Everest is more than
a hundred miles from Katmandu. Either Mr. Hodgson was
unaware of the real distance of Mount Everest, or he failed
to realise that even the highest mountain on earth will look
small at so great a distance. It is probable that Mr.
Hodgson never even saw Mount Everest; it is certain that
if he did so he was unaware that he was looking at it.
All subsequent information goes to show that there is
no peak in Nepal called Devadhunga. Mr. Hodgson’s
sincerity has never been doubted, and it is believed now
that the name Devadhunga is a mythological term for the
whole snowy range.
The Gaurisankar Controversy.—In 1854 three brothers,
Hermann, Adolphe, and Robert de Schlagintweit, undertook
a scientific mission to India and Central Asia at the instance
of the King of Prussia, and with the concurrence of Lord
Dalhousie and the court of directors. Their labours lasted
until 1857, by which date they had succeeded in taking
numerous astronomical, hypsometric, magnetic, and meteor-
ological observations; they had also made geological,
botanical, and zoological collections for the India House
Museum ; and they had explored the high mountains of India
and Tibet, and had constructed many panoramic drawings
of the snow-peaks of the Himalayas. Their mission un-
fortunately ended in the death of the second brother,
Adolphe, who was killed at Kashgar.
In 1855 Hermann de Schlagintweit visited a hill in Nepal
named Kaulia, near Katmandu, and from it took observ-
ations to the snow-peaks. He saw the mountain called
Devadhunga by Hodgson, and he identified it as Mount
Everest ;* he, however, repudiated Hodgson’s name of
Devadhunga, and certified that the local native name for
the peak was Gaurisankar.
Continental geographers, accepting Schlagintweit’s views,
have continued to this day to call the highest mountain in
the world Gaurisankar ; the Indian Survey, however, were
unable to reconcile Schlagintweit’s results with their own,
and have declined to follow him.
The diagram in Fig. 1 illustrates the tour of Hermann
de Schlagintweit, who visited the two stations of Kaulia
and Falut, which are 175 miles apart. From Kaulia he
saw a high peak to the north-east which the natives called
Gaurisankar, and which he identified as Everest. From
Falut he saw a high peal to the north-west, which he also
identified as Everest.
There is no doubt now that Schlagintweit was misled in
his identification of Mount Everest. It is the common mis-
fortune of all pioneers that posterity chiefly concerns itself
with their mistakes. Indian geography owes much to
Hermann de Schlagintweit, but she is more mindful now
of his errors than of her debts. The mistakes of Schlagint-
1 See Proceedings R.G.S., vol. viii., 1886, pp. 89 and 179.
2 Schlagintweit’s ‘India and High Asia,” vol. ii. p. 193
44
weit have formed the basis of controversy, and will continue
to be remembered until controversy ceases.
In 1883 Colonel Tanner visited Falut, and found that
Everest was barely visible from there, being almost shut
out from view, and entirely surpassed in appearance by
Makalu (height 27,790 feet), a lower though nearer peak ;
it was Makalu that Schlagintweit mistook for Everest, and
it was Makalu that he drew as Everest, both in his
panorama of the snows from Falut, and in his picture,
which is preserved at the India Office.
In 1903 Captain Wood visited Kaulia by order of Lord
Curzon; he found that Gaurisankar and Everest were
Everest
O Makalu
@aurisankar
Kaulia
O Katmandy
OFalut
Schlagintweit’s tour in Nepal
Heights in feet. | Distance from Mount Everest
| in miles.
Everest +++ 29,002 | —-
Makalu .-. 27,790 | to Makalu oe ce Se
Gaurisankar +» 23,440 | to Gaurisankar ... non cen S18
Falut . 11,815 | to Falut ... eS “fe ap GG
Kaulia 7,051 | to Kaulia = Ano «+» I0Q
Fic. 1.
different peaks thirty-six miles apart, and that Everest, far
from being conspicuous, was almost obscured from view by
intervening ranges. Captain Wood also discovered that an
imposing peak of the snowy range, a peak long known in
the records of the survey as Peak XX, height 23,440 feet,
was the famous Gaurisankar of the Nepalese.
A comparison of the drawings of Schlagintweit and
Wood tells us that the same peak was shown by the
Nepalese to both observers as Gaurisankar. Schlagintweit
was therefore right in giving the name of Gaurisankar to
the great peak that is so conspicuous from Kaulia and
Katmandu, but he has been proved to have been wrong in
three particulars, namely, (1) in his identification of Everest
from Kaulia, (2) in his identification of Everest from Falut,
(3) in assuming that he had observed the same peak from
Kaulia as he had done from Falut.
It is interesting to consider the magnitudes of the
mistakes he made :—from Kaulia the direction of Gauri-
sankar differs from the true direction of Everest by two
jegrees; from Falut the direction of Makalu differs from
the true direction of Everest by forty-two minutes.
From Kaulia the elevation of Gaurisankar differs from
the true elevation of Everest by twenty-four minutes; from
Falut the elevation of Makalu differs from the true elevation
of Everest by fifteen minutes.
The two peaks Gaurisankar and Makalu, which
Schlagintweit thought were the same, are forty-seven miles
apart.
The supposed identity of Everest and Gaurisankar has
rested only on Schlagintweit’s evidence. It is true that
successive British Residents at Katmandu have continued
to regard Gaurisankar as Everest,’ but their ideas have been
based on the Schlagintweit tradition. It is also true that
in a recent number of the Geographical Journal* the photo-
graphs of Dr. Boeck have been preferred as evidence to the
observations of the Indian Survey; unfortunately Dr.
Boeck made a mistake of thirty-two degrees in direction in
his attempt at identifying Mount Everest,* and this initial
slip led him to twist the whole area of Nepal round through
a third of a right-angle.
Side Issues of the Controversy.—It is difficult to avoid
the thought that this long controversy has of recent years
been degenerating into a barren dispute over side issues.
(1) It has, for instance, been stated in the Geographical
1 “Inthe Himalayas,” by Waddell, 1899, p. 346.
2 Geographical Journal, March, 1903.
% Colonel Gore's preface to Captain Wood's Report, 1904.
NO. 1828, voL. 71]
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 10, 1904
Journal that ‘‘ the object of Captain Wood's visit to Nepal
was to ascertain whether the mountain known as Mount
Everest is visible from the heights in the neighbourhood
of Katmandu, and forms part of the range known in
Central Nepal as Gaurisankar.’’* But this statement is
incorrect. The object of Captain Wood’s visit to Nepal was
to ascertain whether the peak known to the Nepalese as
Gaurisankar was identical or not with the peak known
to us as Mount Everest, and this main issue ought to be
kept in view. It is also inaccurate to speak of a range in
Central Nepal known as Gaurisankar: there is no range
so known; Gaurisankar is a double peak.
(2) A side issue on which some argument has been ex-
pended is whether Mount Everest is visible from Kaulia
or not. This point may be of interest to individuals, but
it has no scientific importance ; and I am surprised to see
it asserted, as though some geographical issue were
involved, that the Survey officers have generally held the
view that Everest was not visible from Kaulia.*
In a paper published in 1886, the late General Walker,
R.E., gave some calculations of azimuth and elevation to
show that the two peaks of Gaurisankar and Everest could
not be identical; after proving his point in a convincing
way, he added the following general remark :—*‘ Obviously
therefore Gaurisankar, the easternmost point of Schlagint-
weit’s panorama of the snowy range, cannot have been
Everest, and the great pinnacle must have lain hidden away
from his view by intervening mountain masses.’’ *
If we wish to discover whether a place A is visible from
a place B, we have but two courses open to us: we can
make calculations from contoured maps of the country, or
we can send an observer to B to ascertain if A can be
seen. If there are no maps, the second course alone is
open.
Mount Everest is 109 miles from Kaulia; the intervening
space is taken up by mountains and valleys, ridges and
hollows, spurs and basins; this complicated area is un-
surveyed, and questions of visibility are not mathematically
arguable.
How came it, then, that an expert like General Walker
expressed the opinion that Everest was not visible from
Kaulia? General Walker was, of course, merely judging
from Hermann Schlagintweit’s recorded evidence. At
Kaulia Schlagintweit made a careful drawing to scale of
the snowy and nearer ranges; in Fig. 2 is given a copy
of his drawing of Gaurisankar.
Schlagintweit wrote against the peak Gaurisankar on
his drawing the words ‘‘ Gaurisankar or Everest,’’ but
-Gaurlsankar
-===-=-Peah XX/
Schlagintweit’s drawing of Gaurisankar!
Fic. 2.
General Walker showed by calculations that if Everest had
been really visible it would have been seen by Schlagint-
weit as a low peak near the spot marked H. As
Schlagintweit showed no low peak at this spot, General
Walker concluded that it had been obscured from his view
by one or another of the many unsurveyed intervening
ranges.
1 Geographical Journal, January, 1904, p. 89.
2 Geographical Journal, March, 1903, and January, 1904.
3 Proceedings R.G.S., vol. vili., 1886, where it will be seen that
Schlagintweit described Everest as the easternmost point of his panorama.
NOVEMBER 10, 1904]
MAT OR LE
45
When Captain Wood visited Kaulia in 1903 he was un-
able to discover the place from which Schlagintweit had
made his drawing; he selected another spot, and made a
careful drawing to scale of the snowy and nearer ranges.
In Fig. 3 is given a copy of his drawing of Gaurisankar.
On the advice of the Prime Minister of Nepal, Captain
Wood recorded on his drawing against the lower peak of
the Gaurisankar double the name Gauri, and against its
loftier companion the name Sankar.
If we compare Wood’s drawing with Schlagintweit’s, we
see that the nearer range B appears higher in Schlagint-
weit’s picture than in Wood’s. This same peculiarity is
visible throughout the panoramas of the two observers; the
near ranges appear in Schlagintweit’s drawing higher
always with regard to the distant ranges than they do in
Wood’s. The inference is that Schlagintweit drew his
panorama from a considerably lower point than Wood did;
this may account for the fact that Schlagintweit shows no
signs of Everest.
Again, in Schlagintweit’s drawing the near range K
cuts off laterally more of the snowy range than it does in
Wood’s, and obscures the shoulder of Gaurisankar just at
the point where Everest should have been visible.
In Wood’s drawing Mount Everest appears as a low
peak at the spot where General Walker calculated that it
would appear.
The omission of Everest from Schlagintweit’s panorama
led General Walker to believe that it was not visible from
--fMount Everest
---Peoak XVIM
-----~-Peak XXI
----- Caurisankar
Wood’s drawing of Gaurisankar
Fic. 3.
Schlagintweit’s station at Kaulia. Whether it was visible
or not was, I am sure, in General Walker’s opinion not a
question of moment.
(3) Now that Gaurisankar and Everest have been proved
to be different peaks, a suggestion has been put forward *
that they belong after all to the same ‘‘ group ”’ of peaks,
and that ‘‘ according to Alpine usage and precedent there
is nothing to prevent the name Gaurisankar being applied
to the loftiest peak of the group.”’
It is clear from this passage that the author is desirous
of getting rid of the name of Everest, but it is not clear
how his object is to be attained, whether by transferring
the name Gaurisankar from the one peak to the other,
or by giving the name Gaurisankar to both peaks.
To displace the native name from the mountain which the
natives know, and to attach it to a remote peak which
they do not know, would be a course that would not com-
mend itself to anyone interested in the preservation of local
geographical names. To give the same name to both peaks
would be to introduce a needless confusion.
Gaurisankar and Mount Everest, we are here told, belong
to the same group; but what is a group? Controversialists
give to the term different meanings to suit their own re-
quirements. It is true that in some instances the same
name has been given to different Himalayan peaks;
Kangchenjunga I and Kangchenjunga II are the official
designations of the two pinnacles which cap the lofty mass
of Kangchenjunga; the eight peaks of a cluster in Kumaon
1 Geographical Journal, March, 1904, p- 362-
NO. 1828, VoL. 71]
are named Badrinath I, Badrinath II, &c.; but these peaks
are slight prominences crowning the snow-clad pyramid of
Badrinath, like turrets on a castle. Everest and Gauri-
sankar are separated by a wide interval and a deep valley,
and are not spires of a single pile.
The extent to which we are justified in giving the same
name to different peaks is, however, not altogether a
question of intervening distance and depth; geographical
significance has also to be considered. The peaks of the
Badrinath cluster have a common, but no_ individual,
significance ; they are notable only as the several pinnacles
of the sacred pile of Badrinath, and can therefore be
classified without disadvantage under one general apel-
lation. But the case of Gaurisankar and Everest is
different: the former is remarkable in Nepal for the pre-
eminence of its grandeur; the latter, screened from the
gaze of man, is known only as the highest point of the
earth. Would it not, then, be a mistake to include under
one name two mountains the claims of which to celebrity
are so different? .
Before we blindly follow Alpine precedents in the settle-
ment of Himalayan problems, we must consider well
whether the conditions are identical. ‘‘It is no exagger-
ation to say,’’ writes a great Himalayan authority, ‘‘ that
along the entire range of the Himalayas valleys are to be
found among the higher mountains, into which the whole
Alps might be cast, without producing any result that
would be discernible at a distance of ten or fifteen miles.’’!
The Discovery of a Supposed Tibetan Name.—Colonel
Waddell’s book,* ‘“ Among the Himalayas,”’ gives a good
description of the Nepalese mountains with many interest-
ing profiles: the author’s investigations have enabled him
to authenticate a Tibetan name for a high peak which he
believes to be Mount Everest. This name is Jamokangkar,
sometimes spelt Chamokankar.
Now let us suppose for one moment that it will be proved
by future evidence—not at present forthcoming—that the
mountain called Jamokangkar by Tibetans is identical with
our Mount Everest. What then? Will it be incumbent
upon us to abandon the name of Everest and to adopt that
of Jamokangkar? I think not.
When the Gaurisankar controversy opened, the name of
Everest was an interloper upon the map of Asia; but its
trespass has long since been condoned. Time and usage
have secured for it a right not less sacred than the right
of origin; for what, after all, is the right of origin but
that conferred by time and usage? To displace now this
name from its lofty position in geography would seem to
many of us an outrage.
It will, I think, be lamentable if former advocates of the
name Gaurisankar, seeing that their cause is doomed, con-
tinue the struggle under this new flag of Jamokangkar.
Already, to our regret, has Mr. Freshfield, a life-long
defender of the claims of Gaurisankar, declared in favour
of the Tibetan name.*
The old dispute has been settled; the names Gaurisankar
and Everest have been proved to belong to different peaks;
and it is to be hoped that Continental geographers, who
have hitherto attached the name of Gaurisankar to the
famous peak that we call Everest, will, in the interests
of scientific harmony, now accept the name that has always
been accepted by India. But before we can look for Con-
tinental acquiescence we must endeavour to show agree-
ment at home. Few Continental geographers see the
official reports of the Indian Government; the majority
draw their conclusions from articles in our geographical
Press.
In March, 1903, Mr. Freshfield, the late secretary of
the Royal Geographical Society, wrote in the Geographical
Journal as follows :—‘ The reason, for which the surveyors
argued so strenuously forty-five years ago, that the 29,002
feet peak cannot be the Gaurisankar of Nepal was, of
course, that their chief’s proceeding in giving the moun-
tain an English name was excused, or justified, at the
time by the assertion that it had no local or native name.”’
The surveyors whose motives Mr. Freshfield has
impugned were formed into a committee forty-five years
1 See the article on Himalaya by General Sir R. Strachey, R.E., in
“Encyclop. Brit.,” oth edition.
2 Published 1899.
3 Geowraphical Journal, March, 1904, p. 363.
46
NATURE
[NovEMBER I0, 1904
ago to consider the question whether the peak which Mr.
Hodgson called Devadhunga was identical with the peak
which Sir A. Waugh called Mount Everest; from the
geographical evidence available they concluded that the
two peaks were not identical, and their conclusion has been
found correct." In those early days there had arisen no
such subtle questions as whether Mount Everest formed
part of a certain range, or whether it belonged to a certain
group of peaks, or whether it was just visible to those who
knew where to search for it. To the clear minds of our
predecessors, to Hodgson and Waugh and Schlagintweit
and Walker, there was but one question at issue, namely,
the identity of Hodgson’s and Schlagintweit’s peak with
the Mount Everest of the Survey.
This question has now been answered, and after fifty
years of discussion the Hindu and Nepalese names have
been proved to be inapplicable; let us, then, close a con-
troversy that has fulfilled its purpose, and let us suffer the
English name to rest on our maps in peace.
S. G. Burrarp.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Oxrorp.—The Vice-Chancellor has appointed Prof. Ray
Lankester, hon. fellow of Exeter College, to be Romanes
lecturer for 1905.
Sir John Burdon Sanderson, Bart., hon. fellow of
Magdalen College, late regius professor of medicine, has
been constituted a perpetual delegate of the university
museum.
Mr. Walter J. Barton, scholar of New College, has been
elected to the geographical scholarship for 1904-5.
The executive committee of the Oxford division of the
British Medical Association has had the electric light per-
manently installed in the Pitt-Rivers Museum as a mark of
their appreciation of the generosity of the university in
allowing the association to make use of their various build-
ings and of the help the university gave them in other ways
during the meeting of the association in Oxford in July
last. The cordial thanks of the university have been con-
veyed to the Oxford division of the association for their
most acceptable gift, and the curators of the university chest
have been empowered to erect a suitable record of the
occasion in the Pitt-Rivers Museum.
CaMBRIDGE.—Mr. J. C. Willis, of Gonville and Caius
College, director of the botanic garden at Peradeniya,
Ceylon, has been approved for the degree of doctor of
science.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., and Mr. A. E. Shipley,
F.R.S., have been elected members of the council of the
Senate.
Mr. A. Young, tenth wrangler in 1895, lecturer in mathe-
matics at Selwyn College, has been elected a fellow of Clare
College.
Mr. R. P. Gregory, demonstrator of botany, and Mr.
E. Cunningham, senior wrangler 1902, have been elected
fellows of St. John’s College.
Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., has been elected president,
and Prof. Thomson, F.R.S., Prof. Liveing, F.R.S., and
Dr. Hobson, F.R.S., vice-presidents of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society.
We learn from Science that the will of Mr. James
Callanan, of Des Moines, makes bequests amounting to
27,0001. for educational institutions. Of this sum 20,000l.
goes to Talladega College, Alabama.
Tue chair of chemistry applied to the dyeing industry at
the Paris Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, rendered vacant
by the death of M. Victor de Luynes, has been given, states
the Athenaeum, to M. Maurice Prudhomme, who acted as
reporter of the section devoted to textile industries and dye-
ing at the Exposition Universelle of 1900. :
Tue following deans of faculties of the University of
London have been elected for the two years 1904-6 :—
medicine, Dr. J.. K. Fowler; science, Dr. A. D. Waller,
F.R.S. ; engineering, Prof. J. D. Cormack ; economies, Mr.
G. Armitage-Smith.
1 Vide Proceedings R.G.S., 1858
NO. 1828, voL 71]
Mr. ANDREW CARNEGIE, who has been Rector of the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews for the past term of three years, was
re-elected to that office on November 4.
AN open competitive examination for not fewer than
twenty situations as assistant examiner in the Patent Office
will be held by the Civil Service Commissioners in January
next. The examination will commence on January 2,
1905, and forms of application for admission to it are
now ready for issue, and may be obtained on request
addressed by letter to the secretary, Civil Service Com-
mission, Burlington Gardens, London, W.
Dr. C. Kassner has been appointed professor of meteor-
ology at the Berlin Technical College; Dr. Maurer physicist
to the German Navy; Dr. O. Lummer, from Charlotten-
burg, to succeed Prof. O. E. Meyer as professor of
physics at Breslau; Prof. London, of Breslau, to succeed
Prof. Heffter as professor of mathematics at Bonn. Dr.
Augustin, of Prague, has been raised to the rank of ordinary
professor of meteorology, and Dr. Karl Exner has retired
from the chair of physics at Innsbruck with the title of
Hofrat. :
In view of the importance of German to students of
science, the University College of North Wales founded a
lectureship in German, to which was attached the duty of
conducting a beginner's class in that language, with especial
reference to the needs of students qualifying for science
degrees, and Mr. Rea, of Belfast, was appointed lecturer.
The experiment bids fair to be a complete success,
about thirty students having joined in the first year of
the new venture. The institution of classes of this kind
in our university colleges will, it is hoped, remove an
anomaly which, in the natural order of events, has grown
up in Britain, viz. the turning out of graduates in science
who are debarred from efficiently engaging in post-graduate
work by their inability to assimilate readily the subject-
matter of Continental scientific literature.
SOCIETIBS AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, June 2.—‘‘Studies on Enzyme Action:
The Effect of ‘ Poisons’ on the Rate of Decomposition of
Hydrogen Peroxide by Hemase.’’ By George Senter,
Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.). Communicated by Prof. E. H.
Starling, F.R.S.
In a former paper (Zeit. physikal. Chemte, xliv., p. 257,
1903) the author investigated the relation of the reaction
velocity to peroxide concentration and amount of enzyme
present, as well as the acceleration caused by rise of
temperature; the results correspond almost exactly with
those obtained by Bredig in his experiments on the decom-
position of hydrogen peroxide by colloidal platinum. In
the present paper, assuming that hzmase is also a colloid
in solution, it is suggested that the velocity of reaction
between the catalysor and hydrogen peroxide is great in
comparison with the rate of diffusion of the peroxide to the
colloidal particles, so that what is measured is really a
diffusion-velocity. This would account for the analogous
results obtained with platinum and hemase, since the nature
of the catalysor would be of secondary importance.
The hemase catalysis of hydrogen peroxide, like the
platinum catalysis, is retarded by small quantities of many
substances, more especially by those which act as poisons
towards the living organism. Thus mercuric chloride,
sulphuretted hydrogen, and hydrocyanic acid, in the con-
centration of 1 gram-molecule to 1 million litres, reduce the
reaction-velocity to half its value; they are just the sub-
stances which have the greatest retarding effect on the
platinum catalysis. Iodine, mercuric cyanide, and aniline
have a much smaller effect. Arsenious acid, sodium
fluoride, and formaldehyde do not greatly retard the cata-
lysis; although powerful antiseptics, they have little effect
on enzyme actions in general. Carbon monoxide, although
an active poison for the platinum catalysis, does not affect
hamase. Hamase, like other enzymes, but unlike
platinum, is very sensitive even to minute quantities of acids
and alkalis. The retarding effect of acids is, in most cases,
proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ions, in other
words, to the strength of the acid. The ways in which
NoveMBER 10, 1904]
poisons may act are discussed in the paper, and it is
suggested that in many cases they enter into chemical com-
bination with the enzyme.
Royal Microscopical Society, October 19.—Dr. Dukin-
field H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair—A com-
munication from Mr. W. D. Colver described the antennz
of Pulex irritans, on the terminal joint of which Mr. Wm.
Jenkinson, of Sheffield, had discovered a lamellated struc-
ture that he believed to have an olfactory function. Mr.
Jenkinson had found similar structures in several other
members of the family Pulicide. A slide showing the
entire antenna, and another showing the terminal joint,
were exhibited under microscopes, and photographs of the
latter slide were exhibited in the room and on the screen.
—Part xvii., being the concluding part, of Mr. Millett’s
report on the recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago
was taken as read.—The President then gave a demonstra-
tion on the reconstruction of a fossil plant. The plant
selected was Lyginodendron Oldhamium. The growth of
our knowledge of its construction was illustrated by a
number of actual sections and lantern slides shown on the
screen. ‘The identification of the stem of a Pinites, the
fern-like petiole of Rachiopteris aspera, and the foliage of
Sphenopteris Hdéninghausi as being corresponding parts
of Lyginodendron was demonstrated. It was discovered
that the stem was frequently branched, and certain fossil
seeds are now, on structural evidence and association, con-
sidered to be the fruit of this plant. The reconstruction
of the plant is, however, still incomplete, for the male
organs have not yet been identified with certainty. The
position of Lyginodendron as a seed-bearing plant allied at
once to cycads and ferns was now established. A picture of
the reconstructed plant was shown on the screen, and
models of the seed lent by Prof. F. W. Oliver were exhibited.
Physical Society, October 28.—Dr, R. T. Glazebrook,
I-.R.S., president, in the chair.—An interference apparatus
for the calibration of extensometers: J. Morrow and E. L.
Watkin. The paper describes an apparatus for calibrating
extensometers and similar instruments by comparison with
the wave-length of sodium light. The apparatus is self-
contained and easily made ready for use. It consists
essentially of two metal cylinders of equal diameter, with
their axes in the same straight line, but with a small gap
between their adjacent ends. The gap is increased or de-
creased by the movement of a lever actuating a screw, and
the alteration in its amount is measured by the interference
rings produced in an optical system situated inside the gap.
--A sensitive hygrometer: Dr. W. M. Thornton. The
instrument is made by enclosing the cooled surface of a
Regnault’s hygrometer in a glass globe so that only the
mass of vapour contained in the vessel is available for con-
densation. The cooled surface is made much smaller than
usual—about 1 sq. cm. The surface-density of the deposited
moisture depends on the total quantity of water-vapour pre-
sent. -If this is more than a minimum to be determined
later, it will be visible either by the loss of brightness by
scattering, or by observing, as in the Dines hygrometer,
the scattered light itself. Little is known as to the manner
in which moisture is deposited on smooth cold surfaces.
Dr. Park has shown that the thickness of the deposit is
of the same order as that of the black spot in interference
films. The reflection of light from such a clear layer of
uniform thickness backed by a bright surface is considered
in the paper, and it is shown that the loss of light due to
the thinnest possible films can be perceived. The opposite
case to that of a smooth layer is that of clear spherical
particles resting on the surface. This is also considered,
and the surface-density to give a visible deposit is calcu-
lated. In connection with this an interesting note was re-
ceived from Lord Rayleigh in reply to an inquiry, in which
he shows that the maximum brightness of a cloud is about
4x10-° that of the sun. Comparing all values, it is taken
that 10-* grams per sq. cm. can be detected by unaided
vision with diffused light. The time taken for moisture to
diffuse from a state of uniform distribution throughout the
globe towards the centre is then calculated, and. found to
be less than ten minutes for a sphere of 20 cm. diameter.
The paper is an attempt to make the somewhat neglected
Regnault hygrometer an instrument of precision in the
detection of small quantities of moisture.—Note on
No. 1828, von. 71]
NEL RE
47
a property of lenses: Dr. G. E. Allan. A_ well
known method of testing the concavity or convexity of
a lens consists in holding the lens at arm’s length and,
while looking through it, moving it from side to side or
up and down, when the image in the convex lens is found
to move in the opposite direction to that of the lens, whilst
in the case of the concave lens it moves in the same direction.
The above facts hold if, instead of the naked eye, we employ
a microscope.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, October 31.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—Presentation of vol. xi. of the ‘‘ Annales de
l’Observatoire de Bordeaux’’: M. Loewy.—Trypano-
somiasis in French West Africa: A. Laveran. The sleep-
ing sickness is endemic in several regions of Senegal; an
examination of six specimens of biting flies from this district
showed that they were all Glossina palpalis, the fly which,
according to the researches of Dr. Bruce, propagates human
trypanosomiasis. In the blood of horses from French
Guinea, in two cases numerous trypanosomes were
encountered. In the flies from this region, Glossina palpalis
predominated. On the Ivory Coast, sporadic cases of
human trypanosomiasis are common; here one specimen of
G. palpalis was found, together with several G. morsitans.
Round Lake Tchad numerous trypanosomes, having the
characteristics of Trypan. Brucei, were found in the blood
from infected horses; G. tachinoides here appears to be the
characteristic tsetse fly—On a case of long phosphorescence
emitted by the wood of a cherry tree: M. Clos.—The
rotation of Venus: P. Lowell. The results of spectro-
scopic observations show a velocity of about 0-005 kilometre
a second, which favours a long period of rotation.
For a twenty-four hour period, the velocity would
be o-450 kilometre a second.—The rotation of Mars:
P. Lowell. The spectroscopic measurements give a
velocity of 0-228 kilometre per second, as against 0.241
kilometre calculated from the previous eye observations.—
On a new micrometer. History of the question: G.
Millochau. An account of previous applications of the use
of parallel glass plates as a micrometer.—On a new safety
arrangement for electrical mains at high tension: L. Neu.
Each line is furnished at its source with an interrupter
which works automatically in the case of a wire breaking,
of a bad insulation, or in the event of an accidental contact
between the high tension wire and a telegraph or telephone
wire.—On the atomic weight of aluminium: M. Kohn-
Abrest. Aluminium, the impurities in which had been
determined by analysis, was treated with acid, and the
evolved hydrogen burnt to water. The mean of seven experi-
ments gave 99-15 parts of water from 100 parts of the pure
metal, corresponding to an atomic weight for the aluminium
of 27-05 (oxygen, 15-88).—The action of halogen derivatives
of the metalloids on halogen alkyl compounds: V. Auger.
The alkyl iodides, bromides, and chlorides react -with phos-
phorus iodide, giving alkylphosphinic acids. No reaction
occurs with the chloride of arsenic; chloride of bismuth
simply gives rise to an exchange of halogens, whilst with
chloride of antimony the quantity of antimony-allyl was
too small to separate.—The tetrahydride and decahydride
of naphthalene: Henri Leroux. These addition products
were obtained from naphthalene by means of the Sabatier
and Senderens reaction. Their properties and those of some
halogen derivatives are described.—The action of the
chlorides of phosphorus on the organomagnesium compounds
of the aromatic series: R. Sauvage. The action of phos-
phorus oxychloride upon organomagnesium compounds of
the aromatic series leads to the production of compounds
of the type R,: P: O and R,=POCI, the latter, after treat-
ment with water, giving acids R,=PO.OH. The tetraoxy-
cyclohexane-rosanilines: Jules. Schmidiin. The author
quotes some experiments of Lambrecht and Weil as affording
a new confirmation of his views on the quinonic structure
of these compounds, and also as showing that the benzene
ring of the carbinol passes through the hexahydrobenzene
ring before forming the quinone ring.—The density of nitrous
oxide and the atomic weight of nitrogen: Philippe A. Guye
and Alexandre Pintza. The nitrous oxide used in these
experiments was prepared from sodium nitrite and hydroxyl-
amine sulphate.. After weighing the flask full of the gas,
the latter. was condensed’ by connecting the flask with a
48
NATURE
[NoOvEMBER I0, 1904
side tube, well cooled, and containing charcoal. The effect
of some of the impurities in the gas was thus eliminated.
The atomic weight deduced for nitrogen from these experi-
ments is 14:013. Previous values obtained in the author’s
laboratory by different methods are, from the limiting
density of nitrogen, 14-004; by weighing nitrous oxide,
14:007; by the volume analysis of the same gas, 14-019.
The mean of the four methods gives 14-011.—On the
oxidation of ethyl and methyl alcohols at the temperature
of their boiling points: René Duchemin and Jacques
Dourlen. The rapid deterioration of some alcohol lamps
had been attributed to the presence of some acid impurities
in the alcohol used. It is now shown that these alcohols
are rapidly oxidised at their boiling points in the presence
of copper, and the effects noticed are possibly due to this
action.—On the anatomy of some fishes of the genus
Orestias: Jacques Pellegrin. The difference in the
pharyngeal apparatus in these fishes is caused by a special
adaptation due to the special food, small molluscs with
very hard shells.—Contribution to the study of resorption
of the vitellus during the embryonic development: H.
Dubuisson.—On the coincidence between the geosynclinals
and the great circles of maximum seismicity : de Montessus
de Ballore.—On the continuity of the tectonic phenomena
between the Ortler and the Hohe Tauern: Pierre Termier.
—On the pit of Trou-de-Souci, Céte-d’Or: E. A. Martel.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, NoveMBeER 10
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The premiums awarded
for papers read or published during the session 1903-4 will be presented,
and the president, Mr. Alexander Siemens, will deliver his inaugural
address.
MATHEMATICAL SociETY, at 5.30.—Annual General Meeting.—Presi-
dential Address on the Theory of Waves on Liquids: Prof. H. Lamb.—
Note on the Application of the Method of Images to Problems of Vibra-
tions: Prof. V. Volterra.—On the Zeros of Certain Classes of Integral
Taylor's Series: G. H. Hardy.—The Linear Difference Equation of
the First Order: Rey. E. W. Barnes.—Curves on a Conicoid: H.
Hilton.—Remarks on Alternants and Continuous Groups: Dr. H. F.
Baker.—On the Expansion of the Elliptic and Zeta Functions of $K in
Powers of g: Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher.—Examples of Perpetuants:
J. E. Wright.—Two Simple Results in the Attraction of Uniform Wires
obtained by Quaternions, with, for comparison, their Verification by
the Geometry of the Complex: Prof. R. W. Genese.-—On the Reduci-
bility of Covariants of Binary Quantics of Infinite Order: P. W,
Wood.—On some Properties of Groups of Odd Order: Prof. W. Burn:
side.
FRIDAY, NovemBER 11.
Royat. ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 5.—Note on the Variation of 7 Auriga :
Col. E. E. Markwick.—On a very Sensitive Method of Determining the
Irregularities of a Pivot; on the Pivot Errors of the Radcliffe Transit
Circle, and their Effects on the Right Ascensions of the Radcliffe Cata-
logue for 1890: A. A. Rambaut.—The Determination of Selenographic
Positions and the Measurement of Lunar Photographs : Third Paper—
Results of the Measurement of Four Paris Negatives: S. A. Saunder.—
Discussion of the Long-Period Terms in the Moon’s Longitude: P. H.
Cowell.—A Determination of the Apex of the Solar Motion and the
Constant of Precession from a Comparison of Groombridge’s Catalogue
(2810) with Modern Greenwich Observations: F. W. Dyson and W. G.
Thackeray.—Magnetic Disturbances 1882 to 1893, as Kecorded at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and their Association with Sun-spots :
E. W. Maunder.—Ephemeris for Physical Observations of the Moon,
1go5 : A. C. D. Crommelin.
MALAcOLoGICcAL Scctgety, at 8.—Descriptions of Three New Species of
Opisthostoma from Borneo : E. A. Smith, 1.S.0.—Two Apparently New
Species of Planispira from the Islands of Java and Gisser: Rey. R. Ash-
ington Bullen.—The Anatomy of Sigua patula, Dixon: H. Howard
Bloomer.—On the Genus Tomigerus, with Descriptions of New Species:
H. von Ihering.—Notes on Some New Zealand Pleurotomid#: Henry
Suter.—Notes on Some Species of Chione from New Zealand: Henry
Suter.
SociotocicaL Society, at 4.—Relation between Sociology and Ethics:
Prof. Héftding.
PuysicaL Society, at 8.—Investigation of the Variations of Magnetic
Hysteresis with Frequency: Prof. T. R. Lyle.—The Determination «f
the Mean Spherical Candle Power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps : G. B
Dyke.—Exhibition of Physical Apparatus: Robert Paul.
TUESDAY, NovEMBER 15.
{NsTITUTION QF CrIvIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion of Papers—Coast
Erosion: A. E. Carey, and Erosion on the Holderness Coast of Yorkshire :
E. R. Matthews.—Succeeding Paper :—Distribution of Electrical Energy :
J. F. C. Snell.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—(1) On Mammals from the Island of Fer-
nando Po, collected by Mr. E. Seimund; (2) On Hylochcerus, the
Forest-pig of Central Africa: Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S.—On the Species
of Crowned Cranes: Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. On the Mouse-hares of
the Genus Ochotona: J. Lewis Bonhote.
MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—Anniversary Mecting.—New Localities
for Gyrolite and Tobermorite : J. Currie.—Occurrence of Brookite with
Anatase in the Cleveland Ironstone: C. R. Lindsey.—(r) Some Applica-
NO. 1828, VOL. 71
tions of the Gnomonic Projection to Crystallography ; (2) The Construc-
tion of Crystallographic Projections: H. Hilton. —Some New Forms of
Quartz-wedge and their Uses: J. W. Evans.—(r) On Three New
meres Ha the Binnenthal; (2) On some Curious Crystals of Blende:
. H. Solly. .
WEDNESDAY, Novemeer 16.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—The Isomerism of the Amidines of the Naph-
thalene Series: R, Meldola and J. H. Lane.—Theory of the Production
of Mercurous Nitrite and of its Conversion into various Mercury
Nitrates: P. C. Ray.—Amide Chloroiodides: G. D. Lander.—A New
Synthesis of Isocaprolactone and some Derivatives: D. T. Jones and
G. Tattersall.—The Influence of Substitution in the Nucleus on the Rate
of Oxidation of the Side-chain, II. Oxidation of the Halogen Deriva-
tives of Toluene: J. B. Cohen and J. Miller.—The Halogen Derivatives
of Naphthacenequinone: S. S. Pickles and C. Weizmann.—Constitution of
Pyrazolidone Derivatives : B. Prentice.
Royat Microscopicat Society, at 8.—Theories of Microscopic Vision
(a Vindication of the Abbe Theory): A. E. Conrady.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.
KoyYAL METEOROLOGICAL SOcIETY, at 7.30.— Meteorological Observing in
the Antarctic : Lieut. Charles Royds, R. N.—Decrease of Fog in London
during recent Years: F. J. Brodie.—Hurricane in Fiji, January 21-22,
190g: R. L. Holmes.
Society or Arts, at 8.—Inaugural Address by Sir William Abney, K.C.B.
THURSDAY, NovEMBER 17.
Royat SociEry, at 4.30.
Linnean Society, at 8.—Onthe Structure of the Stems of Plants: Loid
Avebury, F.R.S.—Observations on Undescribed or Little Known Species
of Membracide ; G. B. Buckton, F.k.S.
FRIDAY, NoveMBER 18,
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Impact Tests on the
Wrought Steels of Commerce: A. E. Seaton and A. Jude.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Mohr. By T. E. T. 25
The Bionomics of Exotic Flowers. By Prof. Percy
Groom .. McemeKnetes tela 3 2
Recent Philosphical Works. Fb 27
The Christian eeaeury inJapan. By F. Victor Dickins 27
Hutchison : ce Lectures on the Diseases of Children” . 28
Riggs: ‘‘Elementary Manual for the Chemical Labora-
tory.",—C. S. . 28
Wegner : ‘‘ Die Einheit der Naturkrafte in der Thermo-
dynamik” . tO
Jones : §‘ The Science and Practice of Photography.” —
C. E. Kenneth Mees... . oe)
Forel and Wheeler: ‘‘ Ants and Some Other Insects.
An Inquiry into the Psychic Powers of these Animals” 29
Letters to the Editor :—
Archebiosis and peterogenes or H. Charlton
Bastian, F.R.S.; Ed. .. 30
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each “‘Degree.—Dr.
Francis Galton, F.R.S.. . 30
Misuse of Words and Phrases. oN. B. Basset, F. R. as) 30
The Coming Shower of Leonids.—W. F. Denning;
John R. Henry... 30
The Definition of Entropy. —Prof. G. H. Bryan,
RS eee 31
The Direction of the Spiral in the Petals of Seleni-
pedium.—George Wherry aBoutese eet FR
Thinking Cats.—R. Langton Cole. . 31
Change in the Colour of Moss Agate. —W. A. Whitton 31
The Origin of Life.—Geologist . . 31
On the Occurrence of Widmannstatten’s Figures. in
Steel Castings. (J//ustrated.) By Prof. J. O. Arnold
and A. McWilliam. . . : 32
Forestry in the United States. (Uilustrated.) . onsweieer 27
Technical Education in London. By A. '.S. ... 34
Notes . Biot A oc oe eee
Our Astronomical Column :—
Apparatus for Measuring the Velocity of the Earth’s
Rotations (@zesrraied.) . este) =) sO)
ThevPerseid¢shGwer-).|.. <! . jeu eee od) =
The Dumb-bell Nebula . . con? a SOC ae - 40
Harvard College Observatory ......+... +... 40
Iron and Steel Institute . . 40
The International Electrical Congress at St. Louis . 41
The National Antarctic Expedition . . 41
Mount Everest: The Story of a Long Controversy.
(Jllustrated.) By Major S. G. Burrard, F.R.S.. . . 42
University and Educational Intelligence Rae cc... <i ea
Societies;and'Academies © 250). Shae) tle <5)5 40
Diarysof/Socictiesm 5) = 0-0 een) eee
NARURE
49
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 17, 1904.
THE THEORY OF CONTINUOUS GROUPS.
Introductory Treatise on Lie’s Theory of Finite Con-
tinuous Transformation Groups. By John Edward
Campbell, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Hertford
College, Oxford, and Mathematical Lecturer at
University College, Oxford. Pp. xx+416. (Oxford :
Clarendon Press, 1903.) Price 14s. net.
HE theory of continuous groups should appeal to
all who are interested in mathematics ; it is based
on the fundamental ideas involved in cases of change
of the algebraic notation, and as such is an illumin-
ating synthesis of a large number of our elementary
operations; and the principal notions of the theory,
once laid bare, are so simple and admit of so many
familiar applications that these should form an
integral part ‘of elementary teaching, particularly in
analytical geometry and differential equations. As to
its philosophical import, the theory is of the greatest
value in the analysis of our geometrical conceptions,
being an indispensable part of that algebraic scheme
which, at present running parallel with these, may
modify them still more than hitherto before the
parallelism is recognised again as an identity.
Lie himself, though directing attention to the fact
that he heard as a student, in 1863, lectures from
Sylow on Galois’s theory of discontinuous groups, and
acknowledging his indebtedness to several writers on
partial differential equations, would seem to have been
interested, above all other things, in the transform-
ations of analytical geometry; and while the precise
propositions of his theory of groups must be primarily
attributed to his study of systems of linear partial
differential equations, his bias was at first, and largely
throughout, to arrive at his conclusions by the help
of geometrical intuition. Thus, though he has
succeeded so extraordinarily in what he tells us was
one of his objects, drawing again into organic union
branches of mathematics which threatened to pursue
solitary developments, there is, some may think, a
certain underlying vagueness of definition as to the
character of the functions to which his theories apply.
This even has, perhaps, some advantages.
Of these various points of view the book now under
notice gives the English student an excellent means
of judging. With roughly the same purpose as the
simplified German account of Lie’s theory (Scheffers,
1893, 800 pages), it is briefer, and yet quite clear in
statement; it contains more of the application of Lie’s
theory to the solution of partial differential equations,
and it offers alternative proofs, due to its writer, of the
fundamental theorems of the subject. Like the
German book, it largely leaves aside the developments
subsequent to Lie, such as the intricate theory of the
structure of groups, and the application to the trans-
student may find something to interest him, and, with
| such limitations as noticed above, it is extraordinarily
full and complete. Altogether a book which should be
widely read.
So much so that it is both difficult and uncongenial
to offer any criticisms, were only a review complete
without some. To us it seems that some account of
systems of equations which in the aggregate define a
finite continuous group forms the most natural intro-
duction to the theory; though Lie’s account of them
comes near the end of his third volume he is there
revising his fundamental principles, and the ideas in-
volved are very simple. Reference to Schlesinger’s
“Treatise on Linear Differential Equations ”’ (Bd. ii.,
Teil i., p. 23) shows how this suggestion works out
in detail. It seems right that the student should early
learn, for instance, how far the linear transformations
which leave x?+y? unaltered fall under Lie’s termin-
ology. Perhaps, again, fuller references to anticipa-
tions of the ideas which Lie has coordinated into one
system would have helped the student. Such may be
found widely scattered in all the early masters; two
that are handy to us are in Sylvester’s writings. In
1852, when Lie was ten years old, Sylvester (‘‘ Collected
Works,’’ vol. i., pp. 326, 353), while ascribing the
notion partly to others, writes of continuous or
infinitesimal variation, and that ‘‘ concomitance can-
not exist for infinitesimal variations without, by
necessary implication, existing for finite variations
also.”’? Or, again, the deduction, so interesting when
we first came across it, of the equations for the in-
finitesimal motion of a rigid body, from the invariance
of the expression dx?+dy*+dz?, is in a paper of
Sylvester’s. of 1839 (ib., p. 34). Again, it
appears to us, though recognising the value of Mr.
formation group of systems of differential equations |
initiated by Picard, and leaves wholly aside Lie’s
criticism of the axioms of geometry, while it accepts |
*Lie’s function theory throughout; but it abounds in |
apt examples, chosen mainly from differential equa-
tions and geometry, so that almost any mathematical
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
i
Campbell’s proofs of the fundamental theorems, that
much would have been gained in directness, with-
out appreciable increase of the necessarily analytical
character of much of the subject, by a frank recognition
of Schur’s forms for the first parameter group in terms
of the constants of structure; of this we are, perhaps,
not impartial judges (see Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.,
vol. xxxiv. p. 91), as equally not of Mr. Campbell’s
use of the word united in his exposition of Lie’s de-
finition of an integral of a partial differential equation,
having ventured elsewhere to introduce the words
connected and connectivity, which latter seems better
than the mere symbol M, which Mr. Campbell adopts
from Lie (see ‘‘ Encyc. Brit.,’’ vol. xxvii. p. 452). But
we have a more serious contention with Mr. Campbell
about a matter in which opinions will be widely divided ;
no doubt it is proper that a beginner’s course in the
theory of groups should insist primarily on the group
property, and not confuse this by complicated consider-
ations in regard to the properties of functions; but in
our opinion no account can be regarded as modern
which does not face the difficulties ; it seems to us mis-
leading, without careful explanations, to use language
about functions in general which applies in the first
instance only to the simplest algebraic functions. On
p. 11 we read: ‘‘ by; can in general be expressed. . .
in order that (2) may remain an analytic function of
its arguments.’”’ In what way is the student to
imagine the function defined after it has ceased to be
D
50
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 17, 1904
an analytic function of its arguments? or does the
word analytic mean regular? and what is the meaning
of expressed? Again, on p. 98: “‘ This transformation
of the variables has only involved algebraic processes.”’
The processes in question consist in reverting certain
power series ; now a power series is an entirely symbolic
thing unless we have very simple rules for the law of
its coefficients; how can the reversion of a power
series in general be regarded as a practicable process
likely to aid the effective determination of the integrals
of a differential equation? and at any rate it does not
seem fair to describe it as an algebraic process. More-
over, apart from such indefiniteness, and passing over
such phrases as (p. 24) ‘‘ where t is a constant so small
that its square may be neglected,’’ there is the question,
apparently unconsidered in this book, of how far Lie’s
propositions can be proved for functions which are not
analytic, in regard to which various investigations are
already forthcoming.
But we gladly turn from such criticisms to remark
again on the merits of the book, choosing two random
examples, one of the practical spirit in which it is
written, the other of the author’s eye for a neat result.
On p. 256 the author frankly uses the known theorems
as to forces in three dimensions to abbreviate the re-
duction of the equation of a linear complex. On
p. 243 the author arrives at the theorem that Ampére’s
partial differential equation of the second order is re-
ducible by a contact transformation either to s=o or to
vt—s*=o, according as it possesses two distinct systems
of intermediary integrals or only two coincident
systems. In conclusion, we would express our admir-
ation for the form and printing of the volume.
1Bls [hy 185
TECHNOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.
The Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and
Varnish. By A. H. Sabin, M.S. Pp. vi+372.
(New York: John Wiley and Sons; London : Chap-
man and Hall, Ltd., 1904.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
Food Inspection and Analysis. By Albert E. Leach,
S.B., Analyst of the Massachusetts State Board of
Health. Pp. xiv+787. (New York: John Wiley
and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1904.)
Price 31s. 6d, net.
(1) HIS is a gossipy, pleasantly discursive volume,
the style of which will be indicated when we
remark that the book is prefaced by an extract from
Quintilian, and closes with a poetical quotation. It
treats, generally in untechnical and even colloquial
language, of varnishes and paints, their history,
fabrication, and uses. Principles, not formulz, are
usually given by the author; the book is in no sense
a collection of recipes.
If there is not much of strictly scientific value in the
treatise, there is a good deal which is of practical
interest. The chapter upon the protection of metals
against corrosion, for instance, may be recommended
to the notice of engineers, and also that on the coating
of water-pipes. As regards this latter question, the
author points out that the essential feature of the
‘““ Angus Smith process ’’ has been misapprehended in
NO. 1829, VoL. 71]
; ounces.
modern practice. Dr. Smith’s treatment resulted in
a varnish or ‘‘enamel’’ of linseed oil and coal-tar
pitch being baked on to the cleaned surface of the pipe,
the oil oxidising more or less completely during the
operation. The modern substitute for this is, too
often, a mere dipping of the pipe in crude tar, or in
tar diluted with “‘ dead oil.’’ From the wording of the
original patent this process may, on a technicality, pass
under Angus Smith’s name; but our author has no
doubt that if the inventor were living he would con-
demn the whole thing from beginning to end. It is
“‘adulterating his invention and stealing his reputa-
tion.””
Mr. Sabin describes a process of his own, which has,
he tells us, been successfully applied to large pipe-
lines in America, and is in use in the United States
Navy for the protection of heavy copper mains. It is
evidently based upon a study of the Angus Smith
process. It consists in applying to the pipes a thin
coating of a mixture of linseed oil and asphaltum, and
afterwards heating the pipe to 4oo° F. until the oil
is completely oxidised. The product is said to be a
hard, elastic enamel. One result is that, whereas the
aforesaid copper mains had formerly an average “* life ”’
of about six months, they have now lasted three or
four years, and their ultimate durability is not yet
determined.
There is some curious lore in the author’s historical
summary. The connection between electricity and
‘* Berenice with the golden hair,’’ between varnish and
the Queen of Cyrene, is a good example of etymological
ramifications. One quaint recipe of 1520 is worth
quoting :—
“A most excellent varnish for varnishing arque-
buses, crossbows, and iron armour: Take of linseed
oil two pounds, sandarac one pound, Greek pitch two
Boil the oil, then dissolve in it the other in-
gredients, and strain through a much-worn linen
cloth; and when you wish to use the varnish, scrape
and polish the work and heat it in a hot oven, because
that is the best place to heat it... then lay it on
thinly with an instrument of wood, so that you may
not burn your fingers, and it will make a beautiful
changing colour.
““ And if you supplied the place of Greek pitch with
naval pitch, I think it would make the work black
when you varnished it.’’
The treatise can be read with profit either by the
manufacturer who knows little of chemistry, or by the
chemist who wishes to know something of paint and
varnish technology.
(2) There is a Madras story of a native woman, who,
charged with possessing illicit salt, would offer no
defence; wherefore she was about to be mulcted in
the sum of one rupee. Before closing the case, how-
ever, the magistrate thought he might just as well
satisfy himself that the substance really was salt, and
forthwith proceeded to taste it. Thereupon the lady
raised her voice in a very effective interjection: ‘* Not
only,’’ said she, ‘* not only does the sahib fine me one
rupee, but lo! he eats the ashes of my dead husband.”
Fortunately for magistrates, such appeals to the
palate are rarely either necessary or sufficient, nowa-
days, for disposing of legal cases relating to the
identity and purity of foodstuffs. Much more cum-
NoOvEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
51
brous machinery has had to be devised. To summarise
and explain this machinery is the aim of the work
under notice. In the main it is intended for the food
analyst, and the author’s idea has been to give this
official some information, not only on the subject of
food-analysis, but also on various collateral matters
with which he is brought into contact. Thus there are
sections discussing the equipment of the laboratory,
the storage of samples, legal precautions, the duties’
of the food inspector, and certain processes of food
manufacture.
All the ordinary foodstuffs are dealt with, a chapter
being allotted to each group of allied products, such
as cereals, spices, alcoholic beverages, and so on. The
descriptions are written clearly; an excellent selection
of the salient facts and the best methods of examin-
ation has been made; and to each division an extensive
bibliography is appended. Microscope work is a
special feature, and the volume is enriched by a series
of forty plates, containing about four times as many
photomicrographs of the principal vegetable and
animal structures met with in the examination of
foods.
The chief criticism to offer on the book is that the
treatment of so much material in one volume—even
one of eight hundred pages—must necessarily be in
the nature of a summary. Hence in many instances
the information, though sufficient for routine work,
is not full enough to be of much value when cases of
real difficulty arise.
One notes several examples of careless transcription
in looking through the work. On p. 441 the so-called
“ Koettstorfer’s equivalent’? for butter-fat is given a
maximum value of 241 and a minimum of 253. It
might be guessed that these two numbers have been
transposed; but on the next page the value of the
constant in question is given as 224. The author has,
in fact, failed to distinguish between the ‘‘ equivalent ”’
and the ‘‘ value’’ of the saponification experiment.
In the table on p. 441 the values of the insoluble acids
for oleomargarine are transposed; the specific gravity
has no temperature of reference; and a faulty arrange-
ment of the table makes it appear that butter-fat and
margarine possess, somehow, a maximum and a
minimum temperature; whilst in the data for edible
oils and fats on p. 380 the limiting values are again
transposed.
Nevertheless, it would be unfair to judge the book
by these slips. It contains a large amount of inform-
ation and, though written more particularly from the
American point of view, will be found a useful con-
spectus of the whole field of food control.
C. SIMMONDs.
THE TRANSPIRATION OF PLANTS.
Die Transpiration der Pflanzen. Eine Physiologische
Monographie von Dr. Alfred Burgerstein, A. O.
Universitatsprofessor in Wien. Pp. x+283. (Jena:
Gustav Fischer, 1904.) Price 7.50 marks.
HIS book is a classified analysis of the published
work on transpiration from the time of Hales
onward, with a running criticism by the author, who
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
is well known to have attended to the subject for many
years.
The amount of contradictory evidence is remarkable.
In the case of the earlier experimenters, with more or
less faulty methods, this is not surprising; but the
same thing strikes one in many modern instances.
The question of the amount of transpiration in moist
tropical regions, as compared with Europe, is a case
in point. Another instance is what the author de-
scribes as a ‘‘ seven years’ war ’’ (1884-1891) between
Wille and Lundstrém as to the absorption of water
by the aérial parts of plants. Other disputed points
are the effect of salt solutions supplied to the tran-
spiring plants, and the iafluence of varying amounts
of CO, in the atmosphere ; and many other cases might
be cited.
The relation of plants to water, though a subject of
primary importance, is still to a great extent in the
elementary stage of inquiry. A large number of the
statements quoted by Burgerstein are little more than
disconnected facts, and, in spite of the interesting book
he has made of them, they still seem to us to await
a somewhat different treatment.
The subject-matter of the book falls into two
classes :—(1) the loss of water-vapour considered as
physical phenomenon; (2) the biological inquiry into
the adaptation of plants to the distribution of water
considered as environment. From both points of view
transpiration should be considered side by side with
assimilation and respiration, and this manner of look-
ing at the subject has not, in our judgment, been kept
sufficiently in mind by the author. The point is that
the same organs—the stomata—serve for gaseous ex-
change and for the evaporation of water. Burgerstein
discusses at the end of his book the question whether,
as some have supposed, transpiration is a necessary
evil. This might have been discussed from a broader
standpoint, and would have been in place in an earlier
chapter. It does not seem necessary to treat the view
referred to as entirely false. Plants undoubtedly have
to strike a balance between the possession of a free
stomatal connection with the atmosphere and the con-
sequent danger of evaporating more water than they
can take up from the soil. This compromise includes
also the value of the transpiration-stream in supply-
ing minerals to the aérial parts, on which Burgerstein
rightly lays stress. All we suggest is that the whole
problem, being of a fundamental character, might well
have been dealt with more liberally, and been given a
place preliminary to the details of transpiration.
A fault in Burgerstein’s treatment of transpiration,
though a fault difficult to avoid, is that he does not
keep before the reader the fact that the condition of
the stomata—whether open, half open, or shut—is far
and away more important than all the other internal
conditions put together. Like the rest of the world,
he is well aware of this, but we doubt whether the
uninstructed reader would here learn to think of the
problem in this way. To take an example, he de-
scribes (p. 62) how, when part of the foliage is re-
moved, the remaining leaves transpire more actively
than before. Here we want a discussion of the possible
effects, direct or indirect, of the operation on the
52
NATURE
{ NOVEMBER 17, 1904
stomata of the remaining leaves. The same thing is
true of the discussion (p. 81) on the transpiration of
flowers as compared with leaves, where the reader is
left in ignorance of how far the facts are explicable
by reference to the stomata.
But it is not merely in relation to isolated problems
that we feel the want of more information with regard
to the stomata. We should expect to find a full
general discussion of their importance in regard to
transpiration. This would have included a reference
to Horace Brown’s work on the static diffusion of gas
through these openings, and a consideration of the
question how far evaporation can be checked by the
closure of the stomata. Again, we should have liked
a discussion of the trustworthiness and general value
of the microscopic measurements of the stomata in
living plants. Burgerstein gives an _ interesting
account of the methods depending on the yield of
water-vapour, such as Stahl’s cobalt test, &c., by which
it can be roughly determined that the stomata are
“widely open ’’ or ‘‘ nearly shut.’’ But if we are to
distinguish the stomatal factor from other factors in
experiments on transpiration, numerical statements as
to the condition of the stomata are wanted, and the
question whether such data are available might well
have been discussed. With regard to method, Burger-
stein seems to us a little hard on the various ‘ poto-
meter ’? methods, by which a general idea of the tran-
spiration curve is obtained by measuring the intake of
water. He is justified in saying that these methods
do not estimate transpiration but absorption; but we
think he undervalues the fact that, with cut branches
and for not too extended periods of time, the intake
so closely corresponds to transpiration that the method
cannot be neglected, and is certainly of great value for
purposes of demonstration.
Though we have criticised ‘‘ Die Transpiration der
Pflanzen,’? we are far from meaning to condemn it;
we have, indeed, read it with interest and profit. Any-
one intending to make a study of the subject cannot
do better than read it with care. He will thus be made
aware of many pitfalls, and will have a guide to the
chief points which need fresh investigation.
B.D:
OUR BOOK SHELF.
House, Garden, and Field; a Collection of Short
Nature Studies. By L. C. Miall. Pp. x+ 316; illus-
trated. (London: E. Arnold, 1904.) Price 6s.
Tuis admirable little work appears to be by far the
best aid to the proper teaching of nature-study that has
hitherto come under our notice, the author having very
wisely refrained from furnishing the teacher with a
manual which would do away with all necessity for
original study and observation on his part, and enable
him to read the various lessons to his pupils without
effort or thought. The object of the writer is, indeed,
as much to educate the teacher as to enable the latter
to teach his pupils. For example, in the article on
bananas, Prof. Miall, when he asks the reason for the
peculiar shape of that popular fruit, under the guise
of leaving the reply to the pupil is really testing the
powers of observation and reasoning possessed by the
teacher himself.
As the author observes in his introduction, teachers
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
seem to expect a series of ready-made lessons on a
variety of nature subjects, basing their demand on the
ground that they have no time (or is it that they have
no inclination?) to make the necessary studies for
themselves. If this course were adopted, it would lead
to two evils. First, all the observations (if they could
be so called) would come from the teacher and not
from the pupils; and, secondly, knowledge thus
acquired by the teacher could not possibly raise the
delights of genuine nature-study in the minds of his
scholars. Prof. Miall has therefore preferred to make
an effort to instil and encourage the habit of observ-
ation and inquiry in a few teachers (who will neces-
sarily be the best of their kind) by showing them what
may be learnt by careful observation of the common
natural objects to be met with among their daily
surroundings, rather than by pandering to the popular
clamour for cut and dried lessons—which are really
not nature-study at all. How he has succeeded re-
mains to be seen. If we may venture to predict, it will
be the clever and inquiring teachers who will praise
and take advantage of his efforts, and the dullards and
plodders who will condemn them and say that they are
unsuited to their purpose.
Although the author modestly says that he gives
only a few lessons, his articles or essays are no less
than fifty-four in number, and cover a very wide range
of subjects, including cheese-grubs, glow-worms,
water-lilies, London pride, the human face and hand,
and museums and their teachings. As an example of
the large amount of information Prof. Miall manages
to give in a very small compass, we may refer to the
exceedingly interesting account of the ancestry and
evolution of insects in the chapter on the “‘ cheese-
hopper.’’ An excellent worlk which should be in the
hands of all teachers is our verdict.
Ideals of Science and Faith. Essays by Various
Authors, edited by the Rev. J. E. Hand. Pp. xix+
333- (London: George Allen, 1904.) Price 5s. net.
“* On all sides ’’ (to quote the preface) ‘‘ is a growing
recognition that the ideals common to both Religion
and Science are not only numerous but are indeed the
very ideals for which the nobler spirits on both sides
care most.’’ Necessarily the treatment is varied,
perhaps too varied, but the editor gently deprecates
criticism of this feature. Prof. Patrick Geddes has
room to discourse on the excellence of teaching boys
to make boxes; and the theologians, under ‘‘A
Presbyterian Approach,’’ ‘“‘A Church of England
Approach,’’ and the like, hardly give one a definite
view of ‘‘ A Christian Approach.”’
In the papers of the men of science and philosophers
the general position is that science does not deal with
the whole of life, and that it can no longer meet the
claims of faith with a “‘ certainly not.’? Sir Oliver
Lodge defends the idea of continuous guidance on the
part of the Deity, seeks to reconcile Pantheism and the
belief in a personal God, and complains that religious
people seem to be losing some of their faith in prayer.
Prof. J. Arthur Thomson and Prof. Patrick Geddes lay
stress on the altruistic side of the struggle for exist-
ence. Prof. Muirhead maintains that we must limit
causation and the conservation of energy to the
material world, and must look for some other concep-
tion when we come to the action of the mind itself.
‘““We use a saw to make a fiddle; we throw it (sic)
aside when we come to play upon it (sic).’? The Hon.
Bertrand Russell’s paper—‘ An Ethical Approach ’’—
is the most eloquent; much of it is Lucretius, Book iii.,
rewritten (could one be more complimentary ?), with
the difference that Mr. Russell recognises more de-
finitely the need for religion and worship, albeit the
worship of a God who is not Force but ‘‘ created by
our own love of the good.”’
lt
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
Mittelmeerlinde.
(Berlin :
Die orientalische Chyristenheit der |
By Dr. Karl Beth. Pp. xvi+427.
Schwetschke, 1902.)
Tue author spent five months in igor in the eastern
Mediterranean, investigating at first hand, and at
close quarters, the institutions, and the practical
working of the Greek, Armenian, and_ Coptic
Churches, and of such other fragments of Christian
communions as survive in those parts. He is
evidently a good observer and quick worker, and was
able to elicit much interesting information, meeting
everywhere, as he did, with cordial receptions and
assistance. The result is a valuable handbook of an
ill-explored section of ecclesiology, full of queer side-
lights upon mediaeval and modern history, and no less
upon the workings of the religious instinct under the
peculiarly unfavourable conditions which have pre-
vailed in the Levant for so long. The author’s per-
sonal knowledge of the working of these curious
institutions enables him to supply a number of
corrections to Kattenbusch’s ‘‘ Lehrbuch,’’ and to
confirm and expand the observations of Gelzer, von
der Goltz, von Soden, and other recent travellers.
Tales of Sutton Town and Chase, with other Tales and
some Sketches. Collected by “Tau.” Pp. 86.
(Birmingham: Hudson and Son, 1904.) Price
2s. 6d. net.
Two of the narrative poems in this delightful little
collection are of more than local interest. One ballad
—‘ The Alchemist of New Hall ’’—refers to the moated
stone mansion of New Hall, where the celebrated Dr.
Sacheverell lived at one time. Another poem deals
amusingly with a meeting of the Lunar Society, which
met in the district in the latter portion of the eighteenth
century, and included among its members Erasmus
Darwin, Galton, James Watt, Priestley, Wedgwood
and Baskerville. To persons familiar with Sutton
Coldfield and the neighbourhood, this collection of
verses describing in appropriate words and metre some
of the stories of ‘‘ oldest inhabitants ’’ will be read
with keen interest; and many others will find pleasure
in the quaint ideas contained in this dainty little
volume.
Lhe Glamour of the Earth. By George A. B. Dewar.
Pp. ix+255; with illustrations by R. W. A. Rouse.
(London: George Allen, 1904.) Price 6s. net.
Tne true lover of the country will enjoy this book.
The author is not addressing the mere seeker after
information; and such a reader will regard the volume
as diffuse and unsatisfactory. But men who are weary
with work and have gone to the country quietly to
come into contact with nature, and so secure refresh-
ment and recreation, will follow Mr. Dewar’s notes
and leisurely observations with sympathy and appreci-
ation. The beautiful pictures by Mr. Rouse add much
to the attractiveness of the volume.
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitét und Elektronik.
gegeben von J. Stark in Géttingen.
1 Heft. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1904.)
TuIs new magazine or ‘‘ year-book,’’ devoted to radio-
activity and the electric discharge, is promised to
appear in four parts yearly. The first part, now under
consideration, contains two original contributions, six
short summaries of recent work on special branches,
and a fairly complete list of the original papers on
radio-activity, &c., which had appeared in 1904 up to
the date of going to press. The short summaries re-
ferred to are preceded by bibliographies, and should
prove useful to specialists.
NO. 1829, voL. 71]
Heraus-
Erster Band.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return. or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTuRE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. |
What is Brandy ?
Wirt regard to the interesting article in your issue of
November 3 upon this subject, I trust that I may be allowed
to pass a few comments.
There can be no doubt that the word ‘“‘ brandy ” originally
connoted burnt or distilled wine ; its derivation is thus stated
in the ‘‘ Oxford Dictionary’ of Dr. Murray as from the
Dutch word “ brandewijn,”’ old English ‘ brandy wine.”
Thus so late as 1719 one D’Urfey, ‘‘ Pills,” v. 23),
wrote :-—
*‘ I was entertained, with Kisses fine and Brandy wine.”
Certain spirits were introduced long before the outbreak
of the phylloxera in France under the name of British
brandy, stil! included in certain legal documents under the
designation of British compounds, though, as a matter of
fact, made more without than within this country. Herein
a difficulty arises for those who may have to advise county
or borough councils in the administration of the Sale of
Foods and Drugs (Amendment) Act, as now interpreted, or
those, like myself, who have to deal with cases under the
Merchandise Marks Act. For on the one hand an astute
chemist could make up a liquid, wholly innocent of grape
juice, so that the results, obtained on analysis, were identical
with those of a genuine grape-spirit, and on the other, a
sample of the latter might, as pointed out in your article,
if carelessly distilled be condemned, though innocent.
Again, if a genuine grape spirit, distilled not far from
Cognac, were mixed with — per cent. of a spirit, not silent
(I omit particular details on the ground of expediency), mere
analytical results would be of little avail; such a problem
(credite experto) requires prolonged research, and the appli-
cation of methods not wholly chemical.
It is clear that professional tasting, especially by certain
specially gifted persons, is a very valuable aid to analytical
results and methods of research, yet, as a matter of evidence,
it can be regarded only as a question of opinion, based on
long experience, rather than as a definite proof.
A Government inquiry would elicit important evidence,
and possibly some kind of standard might be arrived at
which would not only exclude clever and fraudulent imita-
tions, but also bring the present chaos or impasse to a
conclusion. V. H. VELEy.
Oxford, November 5.
Your article published under the above heading in
Nature of November 3 raises some interesting points. The
writer clearly fails to appreciate any difference between
brandy and alcohol, for he says, “‘ if the brandy is being
made from damaged wine the rectification must be most
carefully conducted, and may have to be pushed to a point
that the alcohol is obtained almost pure, that is to say,
almost free from non-alcohol.’’ Now if brandy is merely
alcohol, as is here plainly implied, why produce it from
grapes or wine at all? Similarly, why produce whisky
from malted barley, or rum from cane sugar? The fact is
that the genuine article is, and has always been in history,
the product of the pot still. The pot still produces alcohol
plus ‘‘non-alcohol,’’ the patent still pure alcohol. It is
true that brandy, whisky, and rum contain alcohol, but the
alcohol of the patent still or rectifying still is not whisky,
brandy, or rum. Pot still spirit from ‘‘ damaged ”’ or sick
wines would be nauseous and undrinkable, but pot still
spirit from wines of repute possesses the qualities which dis-
tinguish genuine brandy chemically and physiologically
from rectified spirit. It is well known that the effects of
pure alcohol on the blood pressure and lymph circulation
are modified very considerably by the presence of other con-
stituents in spirits. These other constituents are the ‘‘ non-
alcohol’ which you describe. To call rectified spirit or
patent still spirit brandy is about as reasonable as calling
skimmed milk milk. In England the word brandy ought
to be confined to a pot still spirit produced from the wine
of grapes, and should never be applied to alcohol distilled
in a patent still from ‘‘damaged wine’ or from likely
54
enough worse material. Such a definition, if adopted,
would be ‘‘ calculated to facilitate the work of the un-
fortunate public analysts who may be called upon to express
an opinion as to the genuineness of a sample of brandy,’
and the question, what is brandy? analytically speaking,
would no longer ‘‘ await solution.’’ Recent analyses to
which you refer have at any rate reduced a large section
of the brandy trade to the confession that much of the stuff
they sold never had its origin in the grape at all. The
public house trade now posts notices in the bars that it
cannot guarantee the brandy sold to be genuine grape
spirit.
P The attitude of the French committee is not difficult to
understand, and there can be no objection to it so long as
the trade, in the interests of which it has undertaken
the inquiry, determines on issuing an honest label setting
forth that either the spirit is a pot still spirit from grape
wine or it is not. S. ArcH. VASEY.
Bromley, Kent, November 8.
The Origin of Life.
ALTHOUGH there are good reasons for believing that the
life of our world is the product of its own physical con-
ditions, and distinct from the life of other members of the
solar system, it is hardly probable that living substance
can be produced otherwise than by the same conditions that
produced it in the past, and one of these conditions is a
vast period of time.
We are not acquainted with any life apart from “ cells.”
But the cell is a very complex organism, and between in-
organic substance and the cell there may have been as long
a course of evolution as between the cell and the highest
existing animal or vegetable. Probably most biologists
nowadays regard life not as an entity (e.g. not as a “ vital
force’), but rather as a coordination of many physical
processes which have become more numerous and better
coordinated in the course of evolution. It is not to be sup-
posed that the total functions of life would be developed
in not-living substances under the restricted conditions of
human experiment; nevertheless, some of the individual
functions might be brought into action, at least in a
primitive form.
One of these functions, which I believe to be the most
fundamental, is the deoxidation of a compound containing
the elements N, O, C, H, &c., by the action of light,
moderate heat, or slight electrical disturbance. This is the
foundation of biosynthesis—a small beginning which in
the course of ages develops mechanisms so perfect as the
photosynthesis in chlorophyll-bearing cells. We ought by
research to discover the conditions on which such de-
oxidation depends, and imitate it in our laboratories; we
might even apply it to important economic purposes.
This deoxidation is probably a perfectly natural process,
as natural as the opposite process of oxidation, only it must
not be sought in the behaviour of mere oxides, as CO,, but
rather in that of compounds containing N, O, C, H, &c.,
as above suggested. In fact, it may be expected to be nearly
a reversal of the process of vital oxidation, which has been
more successfully investigated. Vital oxidation seems to
take place in two stages, as follows :—(1) the O is taken
into combination with the N in a complex molecule, (2) it
is transferred from the N to a more oxidisable element.
Whether complete linking occurs between O and N, as
O—N=; =
‘
we cannot say; but the linkings =C—O—N=
and H—O—N= are probable. The oxygen-carrying func-
tion of N seems to be assisted in many (if not all) cases
by Fe.
First attempts at life may be occurring continually around
us, but if any synthetic substances be formed they are sure
to be seized and assimilated by the already developed
organisms. F. J. ALLEN.
Cambridge, November 12.
Change in the Colour of Moss Agates.
In connection with Mr. Whitton’s inquiry (NATURE,
November 10, p. 31), the following note may be of interest.
On the top of the West Cliff at Bournemouth the road
is laid with material which includes a number of flint
pebbles. These are, as a rule, rounded or subangular, and
of a yellow or whitish-yellow colour as regards their general
surface. But where exposed to the air the colour has
No. 1829. VOL. 71]
NATURE
[NoveMBER I 7, 1904
changed to deep blue, violet, or purple, and so much so
that in places the whole surface of the road has a marked
blue shimmer. Or perhaps it should rather be said that
this was the case last autumn; I have not seen it since.
As will be seen from the enclosed specimen, the contrast
between the imbedded and the exposed portion of the pebbles
is very striking.
Without giving any special study to the matter, I was
inclined at the time to attribute the phenomenon either to
a further oxidation and hydration of the iron which is, no
doubt, present in the flints, or, possibly, to a molecular re-
arrangement of the silica. At some points the blue colour
passes almost into black ; this suggests that it may indicate
a transition stage between yellow and black flints.
Possibly some mineralogist has examined the matter more
thoroughly. C. Simmonps.
Northcroft, Deronda Road, Herne Hill, November 14.
Chemical Analysis for Beginners.
In a review on this subject (this vol., p. 5) “J. B. C.”
directs attention once again to the unsuitability of an
extended study of analysis for a beginner. His opinions
not only claim respect, but must be largely shared by all
teachers of chemistry.
There is, however, a side to the question which somehow
seems rather to be overlooked. The average elementary
student will work patiently for hours over qualitative
analysis, well taught, badly taught, or not taught at all—
he is interested, and though none too willing to use brains
as well as tables, he is ready under guidance to do his best.
But in any logical system of elementary quantitative and
preparation work calculated to build up a firm foundation in
the principles of chemistry he appears to take no natural
interest, when it comes to actual work. Possibly ‘‘ J. B. C.”
will not agree that this is so; and it may be right that the
student should be compelled (if it can be done) to think
logically from the first. But it seems not unimportant to
interest him in practice as well as ‘‘ on paper.”
I do not refer to the embryo professional chemist who
soon gets through the introductory work and is nearly
always interested, but to that enormous crowd of text-book
consumers who spend, possibly, three hours per week in
the chemical laboratory as part of their scheme of study.
Does not the marked change of attitude in such students
when qualitative analysis is touched upon indicate that there
is still room for fundamental improvement in the method
of presenting first steps in practical chemistry ?
F. SOUTHERDEN.
Royal Albert Memorial College, Exeter.
Misuse of Words and Phrases.
In Mr. Basset’s book, to which he refers in Nature of
November 10 (p. 30), he speaks of the advantage of having
“‘a concise and pointed mode of expression, which saves a
great deal of circumlocution and verbosity.’’ He thinks
that this object is best gained by coining a new word from
the Greek, for instance, autotomic, whereas I hold that
the same object is better gained by adopting a word of
English derivation, self-cutting. Mr. Basset now says that
he considers this word ‘‘ inelegant,’’ and, in the absence
of any standard of elegance, I can only reply that this is a
matter of individual taste. Perhaps it would be better still
to call a curve that has double points a ‘* nodal curve,’’ and
one that has none a “‘ nodeless curve.’’ The word binodal
is already in use.
As regards the phrase ‘‘ non-singular cubic,”’ it is clearly
inaccurate if, with Pliicker, we speak of ‘‘ singular lines ”’
as well as ‘‘ singular points,’’ and include all these under
the term singularities; but I rather think that in English
books the term singularity was formerly not applied to
double tangents, or even to points of inflection.
November 14. TE; BY Ss
Reason in Dogs.
Apropos of ‘‘ thinking cats,’’ perhaps the following story
of a practical joke played by a dog will interest your readers.
A friend of mine, Mr. W., owns a Manchester terrier of
which he is very fond, and for that reason receives rather
more than doggy attention. The dog passes most of his
time in the library, where a basket and rug are provided for
him, but he prefers, when it is possible, to take possession
NOvEMBER 17, 1904 |
of his master’s easy chair. A short time ago I had occasion
to call on Mr. W., and the dog was, as usual, occupying
the chair, from which he was removed to his basket. He
showed his resentment of this disturbance of his slumbers
by becoming very restless. Presently he trotted over to the
door, which he rattled by pushing with his nose, his usual
method of attracting attention when he wished to go out.
His master immediately rose and opened the door, but in-
stead of the dog going out he rushed back and jumped into
the chair his master had just vacated! The rapid wagging
of his tail and the expression on his face showed the dog to
be very pleased with the result of his ruse. The dog has re-
peated the same joke once or twice since, with much evident
delight to himself. ARTHUR J. HawkEs.
Bournemouth.
Occurrence of a Tropical Form of Stick-Insect in
Devonshire.
A Few weeks ago I obtained through the kindness of a
lady in Paignton a living specimen of a stick-insect, one
of several individuals which had appeared in her garden.
My example was met with on the plaster outside a window,
and owing to the tenacity with which it adhered to its posi-
tion required some force to dislodge it. I preserved it in
captivity for about a fortnight, at the close of which period
it died, having refused to feed on the foliage of any of the
plants with which it was supplied.
It is an apterous female, and is, I think, referable to
Cladoxerus phyllinus, Gray. I have not been able to obtain
any clue as to the cause of its occurrence.
Rosert O. CUNNINGHAM.
A Probable Variable of the Algol Type.
On the evening of October 29, while examining the
Pleiades with a binocular at about 9 p.m., G.M.T., I noticed
that the: star Atlas (27 Tauri) was slightly fainter than
Pleione (28 Tauri), a little to the north of it. I did not
remember at the time what the relative brightness of the
stars was, and on looking them up in the Harvard Cata-
logues I was surprised to find that Atlas was measured
3-80 magnitude, and Pleione 5-19. I find that all the
estimates for the last 300 years agree in making Atlas con-
siderably brighter than Pleione. The nights following
October 29 were cloudy, but on the evening of November 9
I found Atlas of its usual brilliancy, and more than 1 mag-
nitude brighter than Pleione. The observed variation was
therefore about 13 magnitude. As Atlas is not a long period
variable, it seems probable that it is a variable of the Algol
type. The star should be watched, and observations for
variable radial velocity would be very desirable.
J. E. Gore.
THE PREVIOUS EXAMINATION
CAMBRIDGE.
eke first report of the studies and examinations
syndicate, issued on November 11, deals with
the previous examination. This is the first public
test imposed on candidates for degrees at the uni-
versity, and since 1822 has included a compulsory
examination in both Latin and Greek. In response to
a demand for reform sent up by teachers, parents, pro-
fessional men, and men of science in the direction of
making Greek, at least for some students, an optional
subject—a demand supported by a large majority of
head-masters and assistant masters in the secondary
schools—the syndicate proposes a new scheme for the
examination in which this demand is recognised.
Briefly, the scheme provides that for all candidates
the “ previous ’’ shall consist of three parts, to be
taken together or separately at the convenience of the
student. Part i. includes Latin, Greek, French, and
German, the papers in each to require unprepared
translation and composition. ‘Set books” are
abolished. A candidate may take Latin and Greek, or
either Latin or Greek together with French or Ger-
man. In other words, he must take two languages,
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
AT
NALORE
55
of which one at least is an ancient classical language.
Part ii. includes arithmetic, algebra, and geometry as
heretofore. The paper on ‘‘ Paley’s Evidences ’’ is
abolished; it is not a school subject, and it is got up
largely by an effort of memory from a bare abstract
or analysis. Part iii. includes English composition as
a compulsory subject, and two of the following alter-
natives: (1) English history; (2) scripture knowledge
(a Gospel and Acts in English) ; (3) elementary organic
chemistry ; (4) experimental mechanics and other parts
of elementary physics. Natural science, in the shape
of physics and chemistry, is thus introduced for the
first time. The syndicate was urged by weighty
authorities to require from all candidates some know-
ledge of science; but, after full consideration, it is
unable to recommend more than the inclusion of science
among the alternative subjects. Probably, in view of
the imperfect organisation of science teaching in many
public schools of the classical type, to make science
compulsory at this stage would have involved the
adoption of a standard so low as in effect to discredit
the subject.
For the benefit of certain students, among whom
students of science may certainly be reckoned, to
whom the power to read French and German is more
important than a special knowledge of one only of
these, it is provided that the translation papers in each
of the two languages may be substituted for the trans-
lation and composition papers in one alone. eo
For a boy from a modern school or technical insti-
tute, therefore, the examination provided might thus
include, for example, Latin, French, and German
translation, mathematics, English composition, ele-
mentary chemistry, and elementary physics. On the
other hand, a boy from a purely classical school might
take the following combination: Latin and Greek,
mathematics, English composition, scripture, and
English history. For him the examination would be
an improvement on the old ‘‘ previous ’? examination,
not only by reason of the higher standard proposed to
be required, but also on account of the wider range of
literary subjects to be included. :
The report represents a serious attempt to recognise
and to provide for the changes which are in progress
in modern English education. By asking from every
aspirant evidence that he has seriously studied one,
at least, of the classical languages, it safeguards the
traditional virtue ascribed to that form of intellectual
training. By admitting that modern languages (in-
cluding English) and physical science are possible
components of a liberal education in the twentieth
century, it indicates a certain widening of academic
aims and ideals that may lead to better things here-
after. There is little doubt that the report will meet
with strenuous opposition from those who, in the sup-
posed interest of ancient learning, dare not make any
concession to modern knowledge. It will not escape
criticism from reformers of the more advanced type,
who would sweep away Latin as well as Greek. But
the proposals at least remedy a genuine grievance in
a practical manner, and they make for progress along
the lines of a sounder and broader education than the
older universities have yet sought to foster.
THE EXPLORATION OF THE TRANSVAAL.*
jigs this first report, drawn up by Mr. H. Kynaston
and his colleagues, we see the prospect of healthy
rivalry between the geologists of Cape Colony and of
the newly acquired territories to the north. No time
has been lost in issuing one of those small folio
Report for the Year 1903.””
1 “Geological Survey of the Transvaal. 4 9
(Pretoria: Printed
Pp. ii+43; with 24 plates, folding maps, and sections.
at the Government Printing Office, 1904.)
NATURE
| NovEMBER 7, 1904
volumes, the form of which, however unsuited to our
bookshelves, probably recalls to the Government |
printers the blue- books of the old home-country. No |
time has been lost, moreover, in the prosecution of
researches which furnish something worthy to record,
Fic, 1.—Waterberg sandstones near Balmoral, containing fragments of Pretoria quartzite.
and the results have here been illustrated on an ex-
cellent and liberal scale. Topographic work has been
undertaken where existing surveys are deficient, and
it seems probable that the geologists will run ahead,
for some years to come, of the accurate mapping of
the country. The beds dealt with are, firstly, the |
Pretoria series of quartzites and
shales, which must have a _ high
antiquity; secondly,
sandstones and grits, which are now
for the first time proved to be dis-
tinctly unconformable on the Pretoria
series; and thirdly, the Karroo
system, or rather systems, which
opened under Glacial conditions, and
were laid down on the denuded sur-
face of the folded Waterberg series.
The two earlier series are thus
clearly pre-Carboniferous. The Pre-
toria series is in places enormously
swollen by the intrusion of diabase,
which has worked its way along the
bedding-planes with remarkable regu-
the Waterberg
larity. Where it breaks across the
beds, it becomes slightly modified and
from the
Waterberg series
has been invaded
y by granite, which is
correlated with the red granite of the
northern Transvaal. On its upper
surface, which follows the planes of
Stratification of the overlying beds,
it passes into a platy rock the
compact quartz-porphyry type.
Mr. E. T. Mellor regards the Waterberg series, with
its coarse breccias and conglomerates, as de sposited in
waters swayed by powerful currents, torrents from the
land being responsible for the earlier beds. Frag-
ments of the Pretoria quartzites are found in these,
affording additional proof of the unconformity (Fig. 1).
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
charged with fragments
quartzites. The
near Balmoral
laccolitically by a
Fic.
of
2.—Glaciated surface
The Karroo beds similarly contain boulders of the
rocks that preceded them, including the granite that
rose beneath the Waterberg series. These boulders
occur in the Glacial beds at the base of the system,
corresponding
with the Dwyka conglomerate of
Cape Colony. These beds were laid
down in a region already traversed
by large streams, and it is very
interesting to note that the modern
Elands River, Bronkhorst Spruit,
and Wilge River have cleared the
Glacial beds out of the ancient
channels, and have followed in the
course of valleys that were long
fossilised and lost to view.
As in Cape Colony, the Lower
Karroo beds lie on handsomely glaci-
ated surfaces. Dr. Molengraaff
directed attention to these in
1898, and Mr. Mellor has described
numerous new and admirable in
stances (Fig. 2). The uniform direc
tion of the striz from one exposure
to another points to an ice-sheet, and
not to local glaciers. The fact that
the movement was from north to
south, speaking in general terms,
both in the Transvaal and in Cape
Colony, only adds zest to the search
for an explanation of this old
Glacial epoch in the — southern
hemisphere. It is satisfactory to
find that Dr. Molengraaff now con-
cludes that even in the Vryheid
district the ice-movement was from N.W. to S.E,
Ves poe! to his prev ious suggestion.
Mr. . Hall found in the area allotted to him an
‘alee series of igneous rocks, including a norite
which, near Onderstepoort, has given rise to consider-
able masses of magnetite by a process of segregation.
glaciation), north of Douglas Colliery, near
Bal.noral.
e (Permo-Carboniferous
that similar internal pro-
will account for
It is not so clear, however,
taking place during cooling,
the passage of the norite into red granite, described as
occurring near the farm of Doornpoort. The facts
noted, particularly the mottling of the granite near its
margin, where it contains augite and decomposed
cesses,
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
hornblende, seem to point rather to the formation of
a composite rock along an intrusive junction.
Messrs. Kynaston and Hall conclude this important
report with an account of what they style ‘‘ diamond-
iferous ’? pipes and alluvial deposits. It is suggested
that the diamond-bearing vents were connected with
the great uplift that followed the close of the Karroo
period in South Africa.
Some of Mr. Mellor’s results, now detailed in the
official memoir, were communicated earlier in 1904 to
the Geological Society of South Africa, and have been
incorporated in Dr. Molengraaff’s ‘“‘ Geology of the
Transvaal.”?! This handy work, the publisher of
which is not named, now replaces the well known
paper in the Bulletin de la Société géologique de
France for toot. It is
accompanied by a
coloured sketch map on
the scale of 1 : 500,000.
GRENVILLE A. J. COLE.
OUR MUSEUMS-
“THE object of the asso-
ciation, of which the
manifold spheres of
activity are chronicled in
the Museums’ Journal, is
the promotion of the
better and more syste-
matic working of
museums. That museums
are destined to play a very
important function in the
future education of our
race every curator is fully
convinced. Yet anyone
perusing the pages of the
Museums’ Journal will
be struck by the apparent
want of unanimity among
those into whose charge
such institutions have
been placed as to the best
methods to be adopted
in conveying to the public
the educational advan-
tages offered. A learned
German museum official
thought that if artistic
skill were more cultivated
the public would show
increased appreciation for
museums. He _ insists
that the greater the
knowledge of drawing
in a community, the
greater the value of a
museum as an _ educational institution for a
nation. Dr. Hecht, a French museum authority,
advocates placing among natural history specimens a
number of attractive and pleasing exhibits so as to
lead the mind of the visitor to larger ideas, and to
show him by well chosen illustrations in how many
ways animal life is connected with human civilisation.
Another gentleman argues that the doctrine of evolu-
tion should be the key-note of museum work, while
Mr. Pycraft directs attention to a real defect in many
of our museums in the manner in which our animals
1 “Geology of the Transvaal."’ By Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff. ‘Translated
by J. H. Ronaldson, M.E. With Additions and Alterations by the Author.
Pp. vilitgo. (Edinburgh and Johannesburg. 1904.)
2 The Museums’ Journal. Edited by E. Howarth. Vol. iii. (July,
1903, to June, 1904). Pp, x+436 and 73-142. (London: Dulau and Co.,
1904.) Price 12s. net.
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
NATURE
Fic. 1.—Side view of the Peacock in display showing that, when erect, the train stands in frou
not behind then.
Bu!
are mounted. . He gives as an instance how the train
of the peacock, commonly called its ‘‘ tail,’ is often
placed as if it arose from the hinder end of the body,
while in reality when erect it stands in front of the
wings, as shown in the accompanying illustration re-
produced from Mr. Pycraft’s paper.
‘** Would it not be well,’? remarks Dr. Bather very
aptly in his excellent presidential address at the Aber-
deen conference of the Museums’ Association, ‘* for
each of us Museum curators occasionally to ask himself
the question: What exactly is the object of my
Museum? ”’ While laying stress on inspiration as one
of the principal functions of a museum, by which Dr.
Bather understands the selection and display of
material so as to attract members of the general public,
of the wings, and
From the A7usewms’ Journal.
he does not, however, touch upon the really vital point
to the museum curator—how can we best induce the
community to enter the doors of our institutions ?
The scope of museums is extended from year to year,
and everything is done to widen the sphere of their
usefulness. A museum is no longer a place for ex-
hibition only, but a place for research and investi-
gation, and for the encouragement of those who desire
to devote their time to such. Yet no one like the
museum curator is more impressed with the fact that,
in spite of all his efforts to make his collections appeal
to the public, in spite of his heartfelt desire to teach
both old and young, he only succeeds in attracting
within the walls of the institution a comparatively
small percentage of the community. What is really
wanted, it seems to us, is that schools and museums
58
should work hand in hand to aid one another in the
supreme object of education. A beginning in that
direction has been made in the United States and in
some towns in England, where the young are taught
in the lecture theatre and are then conducted by the
teacher to the section of the museum dealing with the
subject of the discourse. In this way the young are
familiarised with the objects and uses of museums, to
which they will surely more readily return in after life,
and in the development of which they will take a keener
interest than they do at present. Es:
DR. FRANK McCLEAN, F.R.S.
if Dr. Frank McClean astronomy has not only lost
one of her most devoted and painstaking fol-
lowers, but a generous benefactor that can ill be
spared, especially in this country. His death came as a
surprise to most of his friends, for, although it was
known that his increasing years were beginning to
tell on his general activity, it was thought that there
was still much work left in him. Unfortunately,
however, this was not to be, for, at the latter end of
his usual trip on the Continent, he was taken ill at
Brussels, and very shortly afterwards passed away on
November 8 at the age of sixty-seven, surrounded by
members of his family.
Dr. McClean was the son of the late distinguished
engineer, Mr. J. R. McClean, F.R.S., and was born
in 1837. After the completion of his education at
Westminster, the College, Glasgow, and Trinity
College, Cambridge, of which he was a_ scholar,
graduating in 1859 as a wrangler, he took up the
profession of his father, and became apprenticed in
the same year to Sir John Hawkshaw; three years
later he was taken into partnership in the firm of
Messrs. McClean and Stileman.
Up to the year 1870 his energy was directed to
engineering matters, but retiring from his profession,
he devoted the remaining years of his life to spectro-
scopic researches in connection with the sun and stars.
The success which rewarded his endeavours is best
shown by the numerous important papers which he
communicated to the Royal Society and. Royal
Astronomical Society, and by the fact that the council
of the latter society awarded him, in 1899, the gold
medal, their highest honour for astronomical research.
The crowning work, which he fortunately completed,
and with which his name will always be associated,
was the conception and carrying out of the great
spectroscopic survey of the brighter stars over the
whole celestial sphere.
He commenced his spectroscopic work with several
important researches, all of which were carried out
with zeal, patience, and thoroughness; these were
naturally closely allied, in fact preliminary steps, to
the great work to which he later devoted his energies.
The first of these dealt with the photography of
metallic spectra by means of an induction spark, after
which he turned his attention to the nearest star, the
sun, and made an elaborate series of comparative
photographs of the spectra at high and low altitudes.
An account of this, accompanied by a beautiful atlas
of plates, was submitted in 1890 to the Royal Astro-
nomical Society. The high sun spectrum was taken
as far as possible when the sun’s altitude was more than
45°, and the low sun when it was under 72°, so that
the depth of atmosphere traversed was in the pro-
portion of one to five respectively. For securing these
photographs he employed a fixed heliostat to reflect
the solar light into a telescope fixed parallel to the
polar axis, in conjunction with a spectroscope in which
was used a large Rowland plane grating.
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
NATURE
|
[NoVEMBER 17, 1904
The investigation brought out in a striking manner
the different effects of atmospheric absorption in the
solar spectrum, and put one on a firmer footing as
regards the variations due to atmospheric influences.
After the publication of these results, McClean
turned his attention again to terrestrial spectra, and
made a minute study of the comparative photographic
spectra of the sun and metals. The first results were
connected with the spectra of the gold and iron groups
of metals. These spectra were collated by means
of their common air lines with the iron spectrum,
and so by means of the iron lines with the solar
spectrum. In the gold group he found many lines
due to these metals which up to that time had not been
observed, and he also remarked some curious coinci-
dences that existed between the air lines in the metallic
spectra and lines in the solar spectrum. That he had
in his mind the eventual spectroscopic study of the
heavenly bodies is shown even in his brief accounts
of these experiments, for in one case he writes, ‘‘ the
spectra of the metals appear to me to be fairly within
the scope of astronomy, as our knowledge of them
forms the basis of any knowledge we possess of the
composition of the heavenly bodies.”
At the end of 1891 he published another set of com-
parative spectra of the sun and metals. The two
series consisted of six sections, corresponding to six
sections of Angstrom’s chart; they were as follows :—
Section i. contained the spectra of the sun, iron,
platinum, iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium,
ruthenium, gold, and silver. The last eight con-
stitute the platinum group of metals.
Section ii. contained the spectra of the sun, iron,
manganese, cobalt, nickel, chromium, aluminium,
and copper. These seven metals constitute the iron
copper group.
Throughout McClean’s scientific career his greatest
work was undoubtedly the spectroscopic survey of
every star brighter than 33 magnitudes scattered
throughout the whole celestial sphere.
Such a programme seemed large for one man to
tackle single-handed, but McClean was equal to the
occasion, and succeeded not only in accomplishing it,
but in discussing and publishing the results.
For the northern stars the photographs were secured
at his home, Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.
The instrument employed was a photographic tele-
scope having an object glass of twelve inches diameter,
and carrying an objective prism of the same aperture,
with a refracting angle of 20°.
To secure the southern stars McClean worked at the
Cape of Good Hope from May to November, 1897.
He took with him the prism he had already used for
the northern work, and fixed it in front of the object
glass of the well-known Cape astrographic instrument,
which had been placed at his disposal by Sir David
Gill. Both series of photographs were thus secured
with practically identical instruments, the advantage
of which it is difficult to overestimate.
Space does not permit, nor is it here necessary, to
enumerate at any length the results of such a far-
reaching research, which were so ably discussed, and
received such high praise. Mention, however, may be
made of the originality he displayed in referring the
stars to galactic latitude and longitude, instead of em-
ploying the usual system of right ascension and de-
clination. The celestial sphere he divided into four
equal areas by drawing a circle at a radius of 60°
from each galactic pole. By means of a great circle
passing through the galactic poles, he cut the sphere
into two halves, so that each of the four areas. was
again equally divided. This apparently simple por-
tioning of the heavens was amply rewarded.
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
In discussing the relation of special type stars to
the Galaxy, one of the chief facts that made itself at
once apparent was that ‘‘ Helium ’”’ stars were not
indiscriminately scattered over the heavens like the
solar or other type stars, but were more thickly con-
centrated in the two zones north and south of the
galactic equator. In addition, among many other out-
comes of this survey was the discovery of oxygen in
the spectrum of 8 Crucis, and in the helium stars
generally.
The energy and stamina displayed by McClean in
all his work will be best understood when it is men-
tioned that he employed no assistants. In his labora-
tory he was the sole operator, and in the observatory
at night every manipulation was accomplished by his
own hands. To quote the words of the president of
the Royal Astronomical Society when presenting him
with the gold medal, “.... it was his eye that
measured the lines, and his was the pen that worked
out the calculations. Need I add more to prove that
what Mr. McClean’s hand had found to do he did with
all his might? ”’
Turning now from this very brief and incomplete
summary of McClean’s scientific work, reference must
be made to his generosity in presenting munificent
gifts for the advancement of astronomy. Being a
worker himself, he was in a position to know in what
direction monetary aid could be best employed. As
the founder of the Isaac Newton studentships at
Cambridge University, requiring an endowment of
15,000/., he rendered a service to astronomical science
which it would be hard to overestimate, and the
results that will accrue from it will, we hope, be a
fitting memorial to his name.
Not content with providing in this way the means
by which the study of astronomy will be encouraged,
he presented the Cape Observatory, ten years ago,
with a large telescope, fittings, and dome, with all the
latest improvements, to accomplish work which other-
wise would have been delayed possibly for many years.
He saw at once the field that was open and the ad-
vance that was possible if the southern heavens were
surveyed by a prismatic camera of large dimensions,
and he took this opportunity to supply the necessary
means.
The fact that Sir David Gill in his recent report for
the year 1903 writes, ‘‘ The Zeiss prism is a very
perfect and transparent piece of glass, and I have no
doubt that its performance will do credit to the fame
of its makers. The observatory is indebted to Mr.
McClean for this splendid gift, as also for the costly
alterations to the spectroscope,’’ shows that McClean’s
original gift has been greatly increased. As the in-
auguration of the ‘‘ Victoria’’ telescope forms an
epoch in the history of the Cape Observatory, may the
results obtained with it play a lile réle in the advance-
ment of stellar spectroscopy for the southern hemi-
sphere.
McClean was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1895; the university of Glasgow conferred on him
the honorary degree of LL.D., while, as previously
mentioned, he obtained the gold medal of the Royal
Astronomical Society.
In 1865 he married Ellen, the daughter of Mr. John
Greg, of Escowbeck, Lancaster, who now mourns
with her three sons and two daughters his loss. They
are not, however, alone in their grief, for his death is
deeply felt by a large circle of friends, among whom
are many astronomical colleagues who will miss his
familiar face.
The funeral, which took place on Friday last, was
attended by representatives from many societies and
institutions, among which may be mentioned the
Cambridge University, the Royal Society, the Royal
No. 1829, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
59
Astronomical Society, the British Association, the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Greenwich Observa-
tory, Solar Physics Observatory, and the Cambridge
University Observatory.
We Je Si
NOTES.
THE seventieth birthday of Prof. G. H. Quincke, the
doyen of German physicists, will be celebrated at Heidel-
berg on Saturday next, November 19. Prof. Quincke’s
laboratory formed the subject of a contribution to our series
of scientific centres in Nature of April 24, 1902, and his
portrait was reproduced in the article. Reference was then
made to the admirable manner in which the laboratories
at Heidelberg are arranged, and the many ingenious devices
to be found in them, as well as to some of the investigations
carried on. It is therefore unnecessary to attempt to
describe again the results of Prof. Quincke’s un-
interrupted work in physical research for nearly half a
century. Among Prof. Quincke’s many pupils have been
Prof. Lenard (Kiel), Prof. Braun (Strassburg), Prof. W.
K6nig (Greifswald), Profs. Elster and Geitel (Wolfenbiuttel),
the late Prof. Willard Gibbs, Prof. Michelson, Dr. J. T.
Bottomley, F.R.S., Dr. J. MeCrae (Glasgow), &c. ; a com-
plete list would include many other English and American
students. To celebrate the occasion of Prof. Quincke’s
seventieth birthday, a committee, with Prof. Kohlrausch
(Berlin) as president and Dr. R. H. Weber (Heidelberg)
as secretary, has arranged for the presentation of a large
and handsome album containing the autograph photographs
of many of the leading physicists of all nationalities and of
Prof. Quincke’s former pupils. A convincing testimony of
the high value set on Prof. Quincke’s work in this country
is supplied not only by the lists of universities and learned
societies which have conferred their honours on him, but also
by the fact that among the English physicists and personal
friends who have contributed photographs are Lord Kelvin,
Lord Rayleigh, Sir W. Huggins, Sir W. Ramsay, Sir
H. E. Roscoe, Sir N. Lockyer, Sir W. H. Preece, Prof.
J. J. Thomson, Sir A. Riicker, Prof. J. Larmor, Prof. J. A.
Ewing, Mr. C. V. Boys, Sir O. Lodge, Prof. J. H. Poyn-
ting, Prof. G. Carey Foster, Prof. A. Schuster, Dr. W. N.
Shaw, Prof. J. Perry, Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. J. G.
MacGregor, Prof. J. T. Joly, Prof. G. H. Darwin, Prof.
W. G. Adams, Prof. W. M. Hicks, Prof. H. Stroud, Prof.
A. P. Chattock, Prof. A. S. Herschel, and many others.
Tue American Consul at Bermuda describes in a United
States Consular Report the steps which have been taken to
establish there a biological station which will be to North
America what the Naples station is to Europe. For several
years American naturalists have carried on investigations
of the natural history of the Bermudas and the surrounding
sea, and have made efforts to establish a biological station
in these islands. Upon the advice of the Royal Society, our
Government has given its assent to the project. The
Colonial Government has expressed its willingness to pur-
chase the land and erect the building, and grants toward
equipment and support of tables have been made by the
Royal Society and the Carnegie Institution. Harvard Uni-
versity and New York University, in connection with the
Bermuda Natural History Society, have already commenced
work in a temporary laboratory close to what will be the
permanent quarters of the station, and the United States
Government has been asked to give generous support to the
station. America has already founded a tropical botanical
laboratory in buildings of the Government of Jamaica at
60
Cinchona, and has now secured a biological station, so that
it appears as if the Americans are rapidly getting the control
of the scientific interests of our western tropical possessions.
While we cannot but admire the interest shown in the
establishment of these stations by universities and colleges
in the United States, it is impossible not to regret the apathy
with which our home and colonial Governments regard
such matters. Surely it is the duty of the State to encourage
the pursuit and cultivation of natural knowledge through-
out the Empire, and to realise the richness of its possessions
in material for scientific study as well as in precious
minerals. It is a reproach to our nation that a biological
station has not been established by us in the Bermudas ;
for now, instead of American investigators carrying on their
work in a British station, we have to face the fact that,
though the station will be on British soil, it will belong to
the United States, and our own countrymen will be guests
in it. So far as the interests of science are concerned,
probably this does not matter; for, as Mr. Balfour wrote a
few days ago to the translator of his British Association
address, community of aim ‘ binds together the scientific
men throughout the world into one international brother-
hood,’’ But it should be evident to some of our ministers,
at feast to Mr. Balfour, who has often expressed sympathy
with scientific progress, that it cannot be to the advantage
of the State for another nation to accept responsibilities
which belong to us. Mr. Balfour is gratified at the success
of the translation of his address into German, but apparently
he does not consider that the interest shown in scientific
matters in Germany is due to the active and practical part
played by the State in helping scientific education and re-
search. What we want here and in all parts of the Empire
is more practical help of the kind given by the United States
and Germany to save us from the future regret of lost
opportunities,
Revrer’s Agency states that a long report has been re-
ceived from the members of the expedition of the Liverpool
School of Tropical Medicine now investigating sleeping sick-
ness in the Congo. Complete observations have been made
on the spread and distribution of sleeping sickness along
the Congo River for a distance of nearly 1000 miles between
Stanley Pool and Stanley Falls. From Leopoldville to
Bumba cases of sleeping sickness were present in every town
visited, and a large percentage of the population harboured
trypanosomes. From Basoko to the falls only imported
cases were met with, with two exceptions, and trypano-
somes were not found among the general population.
Observation seems to show that enlarged cervical glands are
an early sign of the disease, recognisable before trypano-
somes make their appearance in the general circulation, and
in a little fluid withdrawn from a gland with a hypodermic
needle trypanosomes may be detected. Tsetse flies were
incessantly present up to Basoko, the species being Glossina
palpalis, after which they became infrequent, their distri-
bution thus corresponding with that of sleeping sickness.
Mr. W. H. Pickerine, late chief of the inspecting staff
for the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire mining districts, has
been appointed Chief Inspector of Mines in India.
Dr, Catto has been awarded the Craggs prize of the
London School of Tropical Medicine for his discovery of a
new schistosomum parasite of man. The Craggs prize, of
the value of sol., was founded some years ago by Sir John
Craggs, and is awarded annually in October to that student
of the London School who is considered to have carried out
the best piece of research work, or made an important dis-
covery, in tropical medicine during the preceding year.
NU. 1829, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(NovEMBER 17, 1904
—————— CC eee
In a letter to the Speaker of November 5, Mr. J. A. Reid
urges that educationists should consider the desirability of
teaching children the principles of evolution in schools. In
considering how the subject might be taught, Prof. We
Clifford remarked in 1878: ‘‘ The teacher, knowing what
ig to come in the end, may so select the portions of various
subjects which he teaches at an earlier stage that they shall
supply in a later stage a means of understanding and
estimating the evidence on some question of evolution.”
Tne inaugural meeting of the Association of Economi
Biologists was held at Burlington House on Tuesday,
November 8. Mr. F. V. Theobald occupied the chair, and
in the course of his introductory remarks he detailed the
steps taken by Mr. Walter E. Collinge to found the associ-
ation. He hoped that the association would welcome all
investigators in economic biology, whether agricultural,
medical, or commercial. ‘The relationship between biology
and agriculture was apparent to all, but only recently had
the importance of its relationships with medicine and com-
merce been realised. Membership of the association will
be confined to workers in economic biology. The following
officers have been elected for 1904-5 :—president, Mr. Fred
V. Theobald; vice-president, Mr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S.;
council, Prof. G. S. Boulger, Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. —
Geo. I, Carpenter, Dr. Francis Marshall, Mr. Robert New-
stead, Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S., Mr. Fraser Storey, Mr.
Cecil Warburton; hon. treasurer, Mr. Herbert Stone; hon.
secretary, Mr. Walter E. Collinge. The next meeting will
be held at Birmingham in April, 1905.
On December 4, 1804, Joseph Lebon, who is considered
in France as the inventor of lighting-gas, was found
murdered by an unknown hand in the Champs-Elysees, near
the site where is now the Grand Palais. In memory of this
sad tragedy, and to pay due honour to the celebrated in-
ventor, the Compagnie Parisienne du Gaz has given a
certain quantity of gas, free of charge, to the Aéro Club and
Société frangaise aérienne. Ascents will accordingly be
made on December 4 by members of these two societies.
On December 5 an exhibition will be held in the Grand
Palais by the Automobile Club.
At a meeting of the Société astronomique de France held
in Paris on November 2, M. Lippmann being in the chair,
the Comte de la Baume-Pluvinel gave an address on the
forthcoming total eclipse of the sun on August 30, 1905.
He mentioned the intentions of American astronomers to
send expeditions to Labrador, Spain, and Upper Egypt.
After the address the society decided to appoint a committee
for determining the part which France should take in
observing the eclipse. It is fairly certain that the principal
work of this committee will be concerned with observations
in Algeria and Tunis, through which the line of totality
passes. This eclipse was also commented upon at the last
meeting of the St. Petersburg Scientific Aéronautic Con-
gress, officially held in the rooms of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences under the chairmanship of the Grand Duke
Constantin Constantinovitch, president of the academy.
Colonel Vives y Vich has announced that he will make
an aéronautical ascent from Burgos on this occasion, for
the purpose of ascertaining the part the clouds may possibly
play in the apparent brightness and shade of the corona.
In addition, the international committee of ballons-sondes
has decided that atmospheric observations shall be made at
the great altitudes of the various observatories connected
with the institution during August 29, 30, and 31 for
ascertaining the changes the eclipse may introduce in the
prevailing winds and temperatures at different altitudes.
tit
_Novemper 17, 1904]
NATURE
61
Tue Scientific American of October 22 contains the
portrait oft white raccoon-dog from northern Japan, in
the New York Zoological Park, which is regarded as repre-
senting a new species, and is accordingly named Nyctereutes
albus. The ordinary raccoon-dog of Japan and China is
an animal closely allied to the true dogs, but with a marked
superficial resemblance to a raccoon. If the New York
specimen really indicates the existence of a white species of
raccoon-dog, the fact will be of considerable zoological
interest.
Is the second part of the Bergen Museum Aarbog for the
current year Prof. G. O. Sars describes a small crustacean
(Paracartia grani) recently discovered in the oyster-beds of
western Norway which is of great interest from the point
of view of distribution, since the only other known repre-
sentative of the genus inhabits the Gulf of Guinea. The
author considers that the creature reached Norway from
the south during a warm period, and that it survives on
the bays of the west coast owing to the circumstance that
a superincumbent layer of fresh water renders the subjacent
salt water unusually warm. The same explanation accounts
for the prolific oyster-beds on this coast.
Is the November number of the Century Magazine Prof.
H. F. Osborn publishes in extenso the lecture on the evolu-
tion of the horse in America which he delivered at the
recent Cambridge meeting of the British Association.
Omitting reference to that portion of the article devoted
to the origin of the Equidz generally, we may mention that
the author regards North America as the ancestral home
of the genus Equus, the American horses passing into South
America by way of Panama, and into Asia by a land-bridge
across Bering Strait about the early or middle portion of
‘the Pliocene period, giving rise in the latter area to the
Siwalik horses (which, by the way, are not later than older
Pliocene age). Horses of all kinds died out both in North
and in South America, according to the author’s belief,
before the European conquest. The American Miocene and
Pliocene horses are considered to have been striped; but
the splitting of Equus-into the true horses, asses, and zebras
probably took place.in the Old World. Przewalski’s horse
of Mongolia is regarded as representing the ancestral stock
of the ordinary horses of the Old World, the long manes
and tails of the latter being probably due in part to domesti-
cation. On the other hand, the author accepts the view that
the blood-horse may have had a different ancestry, although
he does not refer to its suggested derivation from the Indian
Equus sivalensis.
Some interesting experiments in blasting tree butts with
gellignite—a safety explosive—have recently been carried
out at Lord Leigh’s Stoneleigh Abbey Estate, near Kenil-
worth. The usual boring was made and filled with the
explosive. An electric detonator was used which enabled
the operator to retire under cover at a safe distance. The
butts operated upon were of various sizes and species, but
in each case the method was found to give satisfactory
results. It is also claimed to combine efficiency with
economy.
_
Tue comparative age of the different elements of the flora
of eastern North America forms the subject of a paper by
Dr. J. W. Hashberger in the September issue of the Pro-
ceedings of the Philadelphia Academy. Most of the flora
cannot be older than the close of the Glacial period, which,
from the rate of cutting of the Niagara gorge, is estimated
to have occurred not more than 15,000 years ago. Some of
its elements may, however, be much older, since they may
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
be the descendants of boreal plants which flourished on un-
glaciated areas in the midst of the ice-sheet. Apart from
these, there was firstly a wave of plant-life from the skirts
of the ice-sheet. This was followed by a northern wave,
many of the species of which, forming the bog-plants of
the old Glacial lakes, soon occupied the tundra left by the
ice; the conifers developed later, and restricted the bog-
flora. Hence came the modern bog and swamp floras,
-while the existing Poccona flora is due to a third invasion.
Tue work of the Forestry Bureau of the United States
Department of Agriculture stretches far afield, and the
forests of the Hawaiian Islands form the subject of one
Bulletin by Mr. W. L. Hall, while Mr. W. L. Bray in
another reviews the forest resources of Texas. The
succession of the forests in Texas indicates that their dis-
tribution is primarily influenced by the amount of rainfall,
and only secondarily by the nature of the soil. A remark-
able instance of the spread of a successful type is furnished
by the mesquite, Prosopis glandulosa, which has spread
from the Rio Grande eastwards across the Rio Brazos, and
northwards into the adjoining States of Oklahoma and
Kansas. In the Hawaiian Islands a mesquite, although an
alien, has established itself as a pure forest from sea-level
to an elevation of several hundred feet, and is regarded as
a valuable asset, because, in addition to the fuel and posts
obtained from the wood, the pods furnish excellent food for
stock.
In view of the difficulties of obtaining zygospores of
species of Mucor and allied genera, considerable importance
attaches to a paper—‘ Sexual Reproduction of the Mucor-
ince,”’ by Mr. A. F. Blakeslee—which is published in the
August number of the Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. The author found that the greater
number of these fungi failed to produce zygospores in pure
cultures, but some would do so when a mass of spores taken
from an impure culture was sown together. This suggested
that in the latter case zygospores were produced from
different mycelia or plants, and eventually experiments
demonstrated that two different strains, which may be re-
garded as a (+) and a (—), were required; thus two groups,
the heterothallic and homothallic, are distinguished.
Sporodinia is homothallic, Phycomyces, Rhizopus, and
several species of Mucor are heterothallic. Differences of
colour, luxuriance and duration of conjugating ability were
noted, but the most interesting results obtained were in-
cipient attempts at hybridisation by opposite strains of allied
heterothallic forms.
We learn from the Standard that, under the auspices of
the Meteorological Council, a new observing station for
London has just been established in St. James’s Park. The
station is situated in an open spot a few yards distant from
the iron railings bordering on the Horse Guards Parade,
and is equipped with a set of thermometers, mounted in a
Stevenson screen, and two rain gauges—one of quite an
ordinary kind, the other a self-registering gauge of the
pattern designed by Mr. F. L. Halliwell, of Southport.
Just within the park railings are placed two ornamental
wooden frames, one containing, for the previous twenty-
four hours, automatic records of bright sunshine, of rain-
fall, and of temperature, all made in Westminster ; the other,
copies of the latest weather charts and forecasts prepared at
the Meteorological Office.
We have received a copy of the results of the magnetical
and meteorological observations made at the Royal Alfred
Observatory, Mauritius, in the year 1901. The observatory
has a complete equipment of instruments recording photo-
62
NAPRORE
[NOVEMBER 17, 1904
graphically the variations of the principal magnetic and
meteorological elements and of earth movements, in addition
to a self-registering ‘‘ Beckley ’’ rain gauge and other auto-
matic apparatus. The tables, containing hourly and mean
values, have been carefully prepared on the Greenwich
pattern, and are, therefore, quite clear and convenient for
reference. Mr. Claxton prints the results of an interesting
investigation of the degree of accuracy of self-registering
maximum and minimum thermometers. He finds that maxi-
mum thermometers read higher in a horizontal position than
when inclined to the horizon; the excess may amount to
1° F. Also, that the indications of spirit minimum thermo-
meters are untrustworthy, owing chiefly to evaporation of
the spirit. They should be used in conjunction with an
ordinary mercurial thermometer.
A PAPER on Britain’s place in foreign markets is con-
tributed to the Economic Journal for September by Prof.
A. W. Flux. The author has had considerable difficulty
in drawing up statistics owing to the great discrepancies
which he finds in the returns from different countries. He,
however, considers that the market for British goods in
Germany, France, and the United States, though narrowed
by the tariff policy of the third, is still of great importance,
and is expansive in some degree except in the case of the
United States. In all three cases, however, the trade done
by other countries as a whole has grown faster than their
trade with us.
DurinG March, 1903, several excursions were made
to the Phlegrzean fields of Naples by Dr. G. de Lorenzo and
Sir Archibald Geikie. At the suggestion of the latter the
former has now published a short history of volcanic activity
in this region (Rendiconto Naples Academy, May to July).
Dr. de Lorenzo divides the volcanic formations into three
periods, the first being represented by the pipernoid tufa
of the Campagna and by conglomerate and breccia at Cuma,
Camaldoli and Procida, the second by the yellow tufa of
Posilipo, Nisida, Pozzuoli, Capodimonte, &c., and the
trachitic masses of the Vomero, and the third period by the
eruptions of the Solfatara, Monte Nuovo, the Lago d’Agnano
and similar formations.
In the Rendiconto of the Naples Academy for March and
April, Prof. Orazio Rebuffat describes some interesting and
simple experiments with radium salts. When a glass rod
was rubbed with wool in the common way for producing
electric sparks the author found that if the experiment
was performed in a medium containing a radium salt a
luminous glow followed the wool, and when the finger was
brought near the excited glass a glow was again seen.
By taking a vacuum tube and opening connection with a
small tube containing a salt of radium, and then rubbing
the outside of the glass tube with wool, a brilliant glow
was seen within. By means of this experiment Prof.
Rebuffat considers it possible to demonstrate the production
of emanations from radium preparations of very feeble
activity.
Dr. R. von LENpENFELD, of Prague, has published in
Globus, 1xxxv., 24, a discussion of the melting of glaciers in
winter. The author considers that the earth’s interior heat
is incapable of accounting for any considerable part of the
phenomenon; indeed, he only attributes about 3 per cent.
to 6 per cent. of the result to this cause. Another cause
which may account for a further 1 per cent. is the slow
conduction of the summer heat to the interior. The main
cause of the melting is attributed to the heating of the
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
ice by the work done in its descent. This work is converted
into heat in overcoming friction, viscosity, and similar re-
sistances, just as in Joule’s classical experiments. A
further increase in the internal melting during the winter
is probably due to the pressure produced by the winter
Snows. .
A SPECIAL report of the seventy-sixth meeting of the
German Association of Naturalists and Physicians is con-
tained in the number of the Physikalische Zeitschrift for
October 20. The meeting was held at Breslau from
September 18 to 24, and the physical papers include the
following :—E. Hoppe, constitution of magnets; H. Hartl,
lecture apparatus; C. Pulfrich, coast surveying, &c.; i’.
Miiller, vacuum apparatus ; C. Dieterici, energy of water and
its vapour; W. Scheffer, stereoscopic problems; A. Kohler,
photomicrography by ultra-violet light; J. Stark, mercury
lamps of quartz glass; O. Lummer and P. Weiss, n-rays;
W. Nernst, chemical equilibria at high temperatures;
L. Grunmach, properties of emanium and liquid nitrous
oxide ; A. Wehnelt, negative ions from incandescent metallic
oxides; O. Lummer, resolution of fine spectrum lines;
W. Schmidt, models of wave motion ; H. T. Simon, a phase-
meter ; M. Reinganum, molecular volumes of halogen salts;
L. Graetz, radiations from hydrogen peroxide; J. Rosen-
thal, Sprengel pumps; W. Stern, tone-variators; K.
Schreber, explosion motors, also force, weight and mass;
G. Bredig and F. Epstein, kinetics of adiabatic reactions;
and E. Meyer, combustion engines. In addition a dis-
cussion took place on mathematical and scientific teaching
in the higher schools, including addresses by K. Fricke,
F. Klein, F. Merkel, and G. Leubuscher. In the general
meetings papers were read on the Ice age by Messrs.
Briickner, Meyer and Partsch, on the Antarctic expedition
by Prof. Gazert, and on biological mechanics by Prof.
Roux.
Tue scientific methods which have characterised Japanese
operations in the Far East are not the only results of the
well developed system of education which the last thirty-
five vears has seen established in Japan. Some fifty years
ago Japan was a hermit nation more than five centuries
behind the times, to-day she constitutes a new and important
factor in the problem of the distribution of the world’s
commerce. The story of the foreign commerce of Japan
since the restoration of imperial authority in 1868 is told
by Mr. Yukimasa Hattori in Nos. 9 and to of series xxii.
of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and
Political Science, copies of which have reached us. Mr.
Hattori considers his subject under three headings: the
volume of trade, the character of Japan’s commerce, and
the geographical distribution of trade. Two remarks
towards the end of his paper will show the conclusions
to which Mr. Hattori ““Japan must rely on
industrial development rather than on agriculture, and must
try to excel in the quality of the goods produced rather
than in quantity.’’ ‘*‘ Japan possesses all the advantages
necessary to make her a great manufacturing country. Her
people possess exceptional skill, and labour is relatively
cheap; coal is abundant, and the raw ce ie is easily
obtainable either at home or in the neighbourfmg countries.”
Those readers who have followed the steps in Japan’s de-
velopment since 1868 will be prepared to agree with Mr.
Hattori that his country is but ‘‘ at the very beginning of
beginnings *’ of what will yet be seen.
has come.
A sEconD edition of Mr. Drinkwater Butt’s ‘‘ Practical
Retouching ’’ has been published by Messrs. Iliffe and Sons
Ltd. at 1S)onet
a
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
63
Messrs. MacMiLtan anv Co., Ltp., have in the press an
English translation of Dr. Cohnheim’s ‘‘ Chemistry of the
Proteids,’’ prepared with the author’s sanction from the
second edition of that work by Dr. Gustav Mann, of the
physiological laboratory at Oxford, and author of ‘‘ Physio-
logical Histology.’’ Dr. Cohnheim’s book, which, in its
second edition, has been entirely re-modelled, deals with all
recent advances made in analysing and synthetising proteids.
Several special features have been introduced into the English
translation, and some of the chapters have been re-written.
An English edition of Prof. Weismann’s ‘‘ Evolution
Theory,’’ which has been translated, with the author’s co-
operation, from the second German edition (1904) by Prof.
J. Arthur Thomson, of Aberdeen University, and his wife,
will be published in two volumes by Mr. Edward Arnold
toward the end of this month.
To commemorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of the
founding of the firm of Burroughs, Wellcome and Co., Mr.
Henry S. Wellcome is arranging an exhibition of historical
objects in connection with the history of medicine, chemistry,
pharmacy, and the allied sciences, the object being to illus-
trate the art and science of healing in all ages. The date
of the opening of the exhibition is not yet fixed.
Tue Cambridge University Press will publish very shortly
in the Cambridge Biological Series ‘‘ Morphology and
Anthropology,’”’ by Mr. W. L. H. Duckworth. The volume
will present a summary of the anatomical evidence bearing
on the problem of man’s place in nature. The Cambridge
University Press has also in preparation ‘‘ Studies from the
Anthropological Laboratory in the University of Cam-
bridge,’? by Mr. Duckworth.
Tue November number of the Popular Science Monthly
is devoted entirely to the St. Louis Congress of Arts and
Science. The representative administrative board, it will
be remembered, adopted the plan proposed by Prof. Miinster-
berg, of Harvard University, to hold one congress of the
arts and sciences which should attempt to promote and
demonstrate the unity of science. An appreciation of the
work of this international congress, interspersed with
portraits of representative men of science from various parts
of the world, is contributed by Mr. W. H. Davis, of Lehigh
University, one of the secretaries. A selection from the
addresses given at the congress completes an interesting
number of the magazine.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ENCKE’s CoMET (1904 b).—A telegram from Prof. Max
Wolf to the Astronomische Nachrichten (No. 3975) states
that on October 28 the ephemeris published by M.
Kaminsky in No. 3973 of that journal needed corrections of
+11s, —2'-4, and, further, that the magnitude of the comet
was 12:5.
Visual observations have not, as yet, been fruitful. Prof.
E. Millosevich vainly sought for this object on September 15
and October 5.
DESLANDRES’S FORMULA FOR THE LINES IN THE OXYGEN
BanpD Serizs.—Referring to a note on the results obtained
by Mr. O. C. Lester concerning the oxygen bands in the
solar spectru which appeared in these columns on
October 20, Préf. Deslandres directs attention to the fact
that a modification of his first formula (viz. N=a+bn’),
equivalent to that now proposed by Mr. Lester, was pub-
lished by him in his original (Comptes rendus, August, 1886)
and succeeding memoirs on this subject.
Mr. Lester’s statement that the first law requires the
modification which he proposes is obviously justified, but he
appears to have omitted to study the original memoirs, and
to have accepted the epitomised and generally known results
as being complete. This does not, however, lessen the im- ,
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
portance of the valuable experimental results he obtained
in measuring the old and new bands on his large dispersion
photographs.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CAPE OpsERVATORY.—In the report
of the Cape Observatory for 1903 Sir David Gill records
several important additions to and modifications of the in-
strumental equipment.
The work of the new transit circle has been greatly facili-
tated, and the results improved by the adaptation of a
Repsold automatic transitting device to the instrument.
The line-of-sight spectroscope which is used in connection
with the Victoria telescope has been re-modelled, and an
extremely delicate thermostatic arrangement has been fitted
so that the temperature of the prism box can be maintained
constant, within +0°.o5 F., during a three or four hours’
exposure.
In the astrophysical department several stellar spectra
have been completely reduced in the region A 4200 to A 4580,
and those of Canopus and Sirius have been discussed in con-
nection with the corresponding terrestrial origins of their
lines. The results of the line-of-sight work have been made
more trustworthy by measuring only those lines which, on
traversing either the thin or the thick ends of the prisms,
show no relative displacement, and a Phoenicis has been
shown to have a very large radial velocity. In December
this star was apparently receding from us at the rate of
105 km. per second.
A large amount of routine work in connection with the
maintenance of an efficient time service and the completion
of the Cape zone for the astrographic chart was accomplished
during the year. Important operations were also carried
out in connection with the geodetic survey of South Africa,
whilst the Government survey of the Transvaal and the
Orange River Colony and the topographic survey of South
Africa have been planned, the former having been
commenced.
THE TRANSITION FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SPECTRA.—
Some very interesting experimental results, obtained with
the idea of determining as definitely as possible the points
at which, under various conditions, the primary is replaced
by the secondary spectrum in gases, are published by Mr.
P. G. Nutting in No. 2, vol. xx., of the Astrophysical
Journal.
The general method was to determine what current
capacity caused the above named change when either the
wave-length, the pressure, the nature of the gas, the in-
ductance or the resistance was altered, and this was called
the ‘‘ critical capacity.”’
Among other results the experiments showed that this
critical capacity is a function of the wave-length, and that
it increases slightly as the pressure decreases down to about
I mm. of air, when it suddenly becomes infinite. All the
elements tested have the same critical capacity for the same
wave-length and pressure, although the critical point is more
marked in some elements than in others. The introduction
of inductance always relatively weakens the secondary and
strengthens the primary spectrum, although no amount of
inductance will completely annul the effects of capacity.
Resistance acts similarly to inductance. The critical
capacity of any vapour in a mixture of vapours was shown
to be the same as when no other gases were present.
NEW BUILDINGS OF THE UNIVERSITY
OF LIVERPOOL.
The George Holt Physics Laboratory.
THE George Holt Physics Laboratory, which was de-
clared open by Lord Kelvin on November 12, will be
valued by the University of Liverpool as a magnificent
addition to its fabric, as well as a memorial to one of the
wisest and most generous supporters of that college from
which the university has been developed.
The laboratory covers an area of g600 square feet, and
has an average height of 55 feet. The architects are
Messrs. Willink and Thicknesse, of Liverpool, with whom
there is associated Prof. F. M. Simpson, now of University
College, London. The external walls, which are very sub-
stantial, are built in best common brick with broad courses
of red brick and dressings of Storeton stone. The base-
64
NATURE
{NovEMBER 17, 1904
ment floors are asphalte on a bed of concrete resting on
the continuous rock which is the foundation of the whole
building. All the upper floors are fire-proof; they consist
of a bed of concrete which encases a lattice-work of steel
girders, and supports a layer of coke breeze, upon which
tongued and grooved pitch-pine boards are stuck down with
bitumen and nailed. The resulting surface is both noise-
less and steady, and the whole building is made very rigid
by the girders employed.
In the basement there is a large workshop, fully fitted
with machine tools, store-rooms, a room containing a liquid
air plant, a furnace room, an accumulator room, a room
for the custody and comparison of standards, and a number
of research rooms in which extra steadiness, complete
darkness, or constancy of temperature can be respectively
secured.
On the ground floor, close to the entrance hall and cloak-
rooms, are the doors of the large lecture theatre, a smaller
class-room, and a large laboratory for elementary students.
This floor also contains the preparation room, the apparatus
"|
Fic. 1 —The George Holt Physics Laboratory, Liverpool.
room, and a sitting-room, office, and private laboratory for
the professor.
The first floor is set apart for the teaching of senior
students. It contains two large students’ laboratories, four
smaller rooms suitable for optical and acoustical experi-
ments, a students’ workshop, a library, and two sitting-
rooms for demonstrators.
The second floor consists almost entirely of research rooms
of various sizes. Of these some are designed for special
purposes, such as spectroscopy, but the majority are planned
so as to be adaptable to as great a variety of needs as
possible.
A photographic dark room is provided on each floor ; that
in connection with the preparation room is adapted for the
making of lantern slides and enlargements. There is also
a small observatory on the roof, containing a four-inch
equatorial telescope.
An electrically driven lift, working in the centre of a
tower, is available for the conveyance of heavy apparatus
from floor to floor. It can also be used to give access for
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
experimental purposes to all points of two vertical walls
which extend to the full height of the tower, about 75 feet.
In another part of the laboratory access over a horizontal
distance, about 90 feet, nearly equal to the whole length
of the building, is secured.
The rooms are heated by low pressure hot water, and
are ventilated by an exhaust fan in the roof. They are
adequately supplied with gas, with sinks to which hot and
cold water are led, with electric power from the corporation
mains, and with wires from a switch-board in the basement
to which the accumulators are connected. The wiring is
run in wood casing on the surface of the walls; all pipes
are fully exposed, and, wherever a floor or wall is pierced,
an opening is left through which further permanent or
temporary connections can be made as required.
The apparatus and preparation rooms have galleries round
them, so that their whole wall-space is rendered available
for cupboards and drawers. Special devices have been
adopted for the ready darkening of the lecture theatre, and
for the provision of rigid points of attachment above the
whole length of the lecture table. The counter-shafting in
the workshop is supported so as to be entirely independent
of the rest of the building, and thus silence and freedom
from vibration are secured.
The erection of the laboratory was rendered possible by
the munificence of a small body of donors, Mrs. and Miss
Holt, Sir John Brunner, the late Sir Henry Tate, the ex-
ecutors of the late Rev. J. H. Thom, Mr. Alfred Booth, Mr.
Holbrook Gaskell, Mr. J. W. Hughes and Mr. John Rankin,
who together subscribed the sum of 23,600l., which by the
addition of interest has increased to 25,9001. The cost of
the building, with furniture and fittings, is 21,600/. A sum
of 12001. has already been spent upon machinery and new
apparatus, and thus about 3000l. is available for the com-
pletion and maintenance of its equipment. _
It is hoped that the general scheme according to which
the laboratory is arranged will prove favourable to simplicity
and economy of administration, and will allow teaching
and research to flourish side by side, not hampering but
supporting each other.
New Medical Buildings of the University of Liverpool.
The new medical buildings opened at Liverpool on
November 12 go far to complete the university school of
medicine in that city in a thoroughly efficient and modern
manner. They provide accommodation chiefly for the sub-
jects of anatomy, surgery, and materia medica, the school
of dental surgery and the school offices, and forensic
medicine. There are four full floors to the building, and
the ground plan is of an L shape. One limb of the L-shaped
figure joins the fine Thompson-Yates laboratories opened
six years ago for physiology and pathology. The other limb
forms a wing ending freely towards the north. In the angle
of junction of the two portions of the building are placed
large theatres, one on the ground floor for surgery, the other
upstairs for human anatomy. The pitch of the benching
is steep, and the lighting is extremely good from a series
of long windows following the curve of the rounded angle
of the building. In the wing, lighted by windows east and
west, is a spacious museum for anatomical preparations.
Above this is a large room for dissection, especially well
lighted from the east. An excellent theatre for operative
surgery forms a feature of the surgical equipment.
In addition to the theatres, museum, and dissecting room
are rooms for a library, and for smaller classes than those
the theatres are intended to accommodate. In the front
portion of the building is the medical faculty meeting
room for transacting the business of the faculty and of
its various committees, also for meetings of the veterinary
board which manages the newly started university school
of veterinary medicine. Next to the medical faculty meet-
ing room is the spacious room providing an office for the
Dean of the faculty. No effort or expense has been spared
in making the construction at once durable, well lighted
within, and handsome from the exterior. Admirable light-
ing has been secured throughout, even to the basement
rooms, which are particularly good, so as to provide a
much needed reading room for students. The erection was
begun three years ago, and part of the building has already
been in occupation for more than a year. The architects
are Messrs. Waterhouse, of London, who have designed
NovEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
05
most of the older buildings of the university. The group of
medical school buildings now in use have cost altogether
about $o,oool., including, with the building opened on
Saturday, the Thompson-Yates laboratory and the Johnston
laboratory. ‘The Chancellor of the university, Lord Derby,
formally inaugurated the new buildings on the same after-
noon as Lord Kelvin opened the new university laboratory
for physics. With these fresh additions to its accommo-
dation and teaching equipment, and with the fine new
laboratories for zoology and for electrical engineering now
rapidly nearing completion, the University of Liverpool will
rank among the best provided university institutions in the
country.
PROF. MENDELEEFF ON THE CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS.
HE last half-volume (eightieth) of the new Russian
“Encyclopedic Dictionary’ contains a remarkable
paper by Prof. Mendeléeff on the chemical elements, of
‘which the following is a slightly abridged translation.
Together with the articles on matter and on the periodic
Jaw, which Mendeléeff contributed to previous issues of
the same dictionary, and a paper, ““An Attempt at a
Chemical Comprehension of the World’s Ether,” published
in a Russian review, this article represents the fundamental
physical and chemical conceptions of the great chemist
as they now appear in connection with the discoveries of
recent years.
‘“ Human thought,’’ he begins, ‘‘ has always endeavoured
‘to simplify the immense variety of phenomena and sub-
‘stances in nature by admitting, if not the full unity of the
fundamental elements (Democritus, Epicurus), at least
the existence of a limited number of elements capable of
producing all the variety of substances. In antiquity this
tendency often resulted even in confusing the phenomena
with the substances (earth, water, air, and fire).”’
Since the time of Lavoisier such a confusion has become
certainly impossible: the substances are sharply separated
from the phenomena which are associated with them.
Of course, there may be partial returns to the old
view. ‘‘ However,’’ Mendeléeff continues, ‘‘ the solidity
of the now prevailing conception as to the profound
difference existing between substances and phenomena is
the result of such a mass of coordinated knowledge that
it cannot be shattered in the least even if a small portion of
the men of science return to the ‘“‘ dynamism ”’ of old which
endeavoured to represent matter also as one of the forms of
phenomena. Consequently we are bound now to recognise
the substances (the masses) and the phenomena (the move-
ments) as two quite separate, independent categories, such
as space and time, the substance of which our thought
has not yet penetrated, but without which it cannot work.
Thus, for example, we are far yet from understanding
the cause of gravitation, but with its aid we understand
many phenomena, even though up till now it is not
‘quite evident whether attraction acts through the aid of
an intervening medium or represents a fundamental force
which acts at a distance. Progress in the understanding
of nature depends, therefore, not upon our reducing every-
thing to one final conception—to one ‘ principle of all
principles "—but in reducing the great variety of substances
and phenomena which act upon our senses to a small number
of recognised fundamental conceptions, even though these
last be. disconnected. One of such conceptions is that of
the recognised chemical elements.
“The simplest way of conceiving matter in this case is
to consider it as the result of combinations of elements
which themselves are matter; and the phenomena as the
results of movements which are the property of these
elements or their aggregations. It was from this point
of view that the conceptions were elaborated as to the
distinction, not only between phenomena and substances,
but also between simple bodies and elements; because the
conception of a simple body implies the idea of an im-
possibility of transforming certain bodies into other bodies,
while the conception of a chemical element is merely deter-
mined by the desire of diminishing the number of sub-
stances which are required for explaining the great variety
of the latter.”
No. 1829, VOL. 71 |
Mendeléeff passes next to the so-called ‘‘ rare ’’ elements.
Leaving aside historical details concerning them, he re-
marks that it is the more necessary to dwell upon them
as they complete to a great extent our knowledge of the
periodic law. ‘‘ Our information about them,’’ he con-
tinues, ‘‘can also, in our opinion, contribute towards
explaining the relations between the phenomena and the
substances in nature; because for the understanding of a
multitude of natural phenomena it is necessary to resort
to the conception of the so-called luminiferous ether,
which by all means must be considered as a ponderable
substance, and consequently must have its place in the
system of elements, inasmuch as it reminds us of the proper-
ties of helium, argon, and other similar elements. The
conception of the ether was resorted to at the outset ex-
clusively for explaining the phenomena of light, which, as
is known, can be best understood as the result of vibrations
of the ether. ‘ However, later on, ether, considered as being
distributed throughout the universe, was resorted to in order
to explain, not only electrical phenomena, but also gravita-
tion itself. In consequence of that, a very great importance
has to be attributed to the ether; and as it cannot be con-
sidered as anything but ponderable matter, we are bound
to apply to it all the conceptions which we apply to matter
in general, including also the chemical relations. But as,
at the same time, we are bound to admit that this matter
is not only distributed throughout stellar space (in
order to explain the light which reaches us from the stars),
but also penetrates all other substances; and as also we
must admit that the ether has no capacity of entering into
chemical reactions, or of undergoing any sort of chemical
condensation, therefore the above mentioned elements,
helium and argon, which are characterised precisely by the
absence of that property of entering into chemical reactions
with other substances, show in this respect a certain
similarity with the ether.’ ”’
Referring further to radium, Mendeléeff remarks that
there can be no doubt as to its being a separate element,
extremely rare in nature. As to the emanation of helium
by radium, and the presence of the helium spectrum in the
spectrum of radium, he explains these facts by the occlusion
of helium in a compound of radium, and considers that
“nothing gives us reason to think that radium should be
transformed into helium.’’ ‘‘ Notwithstanding the ex-
tremely small quantities of radium occurring in nature,
Madame Curie has succeeded in obtaining a compound of
it, and in establishing its kinship with barium, as also in
finding its atomic weight to be near 224, which permits us
to complete the periodic system of elements by placing
radium in the second group, in the 12th row, in which we
have already thorium and uranium, the ores of which are
possessed of radio-activity.*
‘“As to argon and its congeners—neon, krypton, and
xenon—these simple gases, discovered by Ramsay, differ
from all the known elements in that, up till now, not-
withstanding the most varied attempts, they could not
be brought into combination with any other substance, or
with each other. This gives them a separate place, quite
distinct from all other known elements in the periodic
system, and induces us to complete the system by a new
separate group, the group zero, which precedes group i.,
the representatives of which are hydrogen, lithium, sodium,
and so on.
“The placing of these elements in a new group is
fully supported by the atomic weights which are deduced
for these gases on the basis of their densities, if we admit
that the molecule of each of them contains but one atom.
1 About this resemblance between argon and helium and the substance
of the world’s ether I have already written in a separate article entitled
*An Attempt at a Chemical Comprehension of the Ether,’ in the review
Messenger and Library of Self-Education, in_ the first four numbers of
1903. This article was translated into German in the Prometheus of 1003
by M. Tshulok, and into English by M. Kamenskiy under the title ‘A
Chemical Conception of the Ether’ (Longmans, Green and Co., London,
1904). I must. however, remark that the German translation is a complete
one, but that the editors of the English translation have omitted the intro-
ductory general philosophical remarks about the fundamental distinction
between substances (masses), forces (energy), and spirit. This omission
deprives the article of the realistic meaning which I intended to give it
by introducing ether into the system of elements.” : R ;
2 ‘Some later researches lead us to believe that the atomic weight of radium
is slightly above the figure found by Madame Curie. but it seems to me that
it still remains doubtful whether the conclusion of Madame Curie has to
| be altered.”
66
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 17, 1904
Thus, helium must be placed before lithium, and argon
before potassium, as is seen from the table, into which
radium has also been introduced. In this table there are,
in the group zero, two unknown elements, x and y, which
have been introduced for two reasons : first, because in the
corona of the sun, above the region of incandescent
hydrogen, there has been noticed an element which has an
independent spectrum, and therefore is named coronium;
and although it is yet unknown (helium was also first
characterised by Crookes as an element, on account of the
independence of its spectrum), it must have a density, and
consequently an atomic weight, both smaller than those of
hydrogen (in the table, this element is marked as y); and
secondly, because there is no reason to believe that the
system of elements is limited in the direction of the lightest
ones by hydrogen. The presence of the elements x and y
in the group zero makes us think that the elements which
correspond to -these positions in the system will be dis-
tinguished by the absence, in a high degree, of the capacity
of chemical combin-
ation—a property which
ception of the chemical elements is connected in the most
intimate way with the generally received teachings of
Galileo and Newton about the mass and the ponderability
of matter, as also with the teaching of Lavoisier concern-
ing the indestructibility of matter, *‘ the conception of the
ether originates exclusively from the study of phenomena
and the need of reducing them tu simpler conceptions.
Amongst such conceptions we held for a long time
the conception of imponderable substances (such as
phlogiston, luminous matter, the substance of the positive
and negative electricity, heat, &c.), but gradually this
has disappeared, and now we can say with certainty that
the luminiferous ether, if it be real, is ponderable, although
it cannot be weighed, just as air cannot be weighed in air,
or water in water. We cannot exclude the ether from
any space ; it is everywhere and penetrates everything, owing
to its extreme lightness and the rapidity of motion of its
molecules. Therefore such conceptions as that of the ether
remain abstract, or conceptions of the intellect, like the one
belongs also, as has
been already pointed
out, to helium, argon,
Group zero] Group I.
|
Group II. Group III.|Group IV. Group V. Group VI.
| |
Group VI.
and their analogues.
““The same property
must be attributed to
the substance of the
ether, which must
possess, moreover, an
extremely low density, | |
Be=9'1 | B=110 | C=r2"0
O=16"0
F=19'0
and consequently a very
great rapidity of motion 3
of its molecules, in pee A ace
Na=23'05
Mg=24"1| Al=27'0 |
Group VIII.
Si=28"4 S=32'06
C5451
order to have the possi-
bility of escaping from
the spheres of attrac-
tion, not only from the
atmosphere of the
earth, but also from
the atmospheres of our
K=39'1 | Ca=4o0'1
Cu=63'6
Rb=85"4] Sr=87°6
Sc=44"1
Zn=65°4 | Ga=7o0'0 Ge=72'3
Y=89'0
Ti=48"1
Wen. | CS Mn=s5'0 | {
As=750| Se=79 | Br=79"05
seein
Rh=103'0
(Ag)
— Ru=1017
Zr=go"6 Nb=94'0 | Mo= 96"0 | Pd=106"s
sun and other suns the
masses of which are 7
greater than that of
Ag=107'9} Cd=112"4
In=114'0 | Sn=r19'0
|
Sb=120'0| Te=127 l=127 |
|
ours. The researches
concerning the double
stars prove that the
masses of the stars 9
which we know do not
exceed the mass of our
sun more than _ thirty-
two times, while in
other cases they are |
Cs=132'9| Ba=13774
La=139 | Ce=r140
|
|
ee
|
Os=ro1
Ir=193
Pt=194'9
Ta=183 | (Au)
W=184 | z If
equal to it; therefore, |
Au=197°2| Hg=200'0) TI=204"1 | Pb=206'9 Bi=208
if we attribute to the a lard |
ether the properties of Rd=224 |
gases, we must admit, |
Th=232
on the basis of the
kinetic theory of gases, that its specific gravity must be very
much smaller than the specific gravity of hydrogen. In
order that the ether may escape from the sphere of attrac-
tion of stars the mass of which is fifty times greater than
the mass of the sun, it must, while it ‘chemically resembles
argon and helium, have an atomic weight not more than
0-000 000 000 053 (and a density, in relation to hydrogen,
half as large, as I have proved in the above mentioned article
on ether). The very small value of this figure already
explains why there is little hope of isolating the substance
of the ether in the near future, as it also explains why it
penetrates all substances, and why it is condensed in a small
degree, or collects in a physicomechanical way, round ponder-
able substances—being mostly condensed round such
immense masses as that of the sun or of stars.’ ”’
In conclusion, Mendeléeff indicates that while the con-
1 ‘Tt is worth noting that all the incandescent, self-luminous celestial
bodies are immense as regards their masses, in comparison with the cooler
bodies like the earth or the moon; perhaps this depends upon the dis-
tribution of the ether, which is condensed precisely round such very big
masses as the sun andthe stars. It is also worth noticing that the atomic
weights of radium, as also of thorium and uranium, are very great in
comparison with those of the other elements.”
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
which also leads us to the very
number of chemical elements out
nature are composed.””
teaching about a limited
of which all substances in
WELSH CONFERENCE ON THE TRAINING
OF TEACHERS,
HE Welsh National Conference on the Training of
Teachers was held in Shrewsbury on November 10
and 11, and although no special reference was made to
science teaching, still the subject of education is now in a
fair way to be considered a science, since it has been in-
cluded as a section of the British Association.
The conference was convened by the Central Welsh
Board and the University of Wales, and in addition to
these bodies, representatives attended from every county
education authority in Wales, from every type of educational
institution, from the National Executive of Welsh Councils
and from all the associations of masters and mistresses.
Upwards of 200 delegates attended in all, most of whom
remained throughout all four sessions.
At the first session, which was devoted to “‘ The Special
Aspect of the Problem of Training Presented in Wales,’”
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
67
Principal Griffiths, vice-chancellor of the University of
Wales, presided, and in his opening address submitted the
points which it was most important that the conference
should decide. Briefly they were these: What were the
real demands of the Principality, and how far were they
met by existing institutions? Was Wales to import the
shortage of teachers, or to increase her own production?
In what manner could the schools be best utilised as train-
ing grounds without injuring the schools? and should
local education authorities undertake the training of
secondary teachers? To these questions no uncertain
answer was suggested, although the conference abstained
from passing formal resolutions until an opportunity had
been accorded the members to consider the verbatim report,
which it was decided to publish at an early date.
At the second session Mr. Lloyd George, M.P., presided,
and a paper was read by Lord Stanley of Alderley, chair-
man of the Anglesea Education Committee, and late chair-
man of the London School Board, on ‘‘ The Point of View
of the Local Authorities.’’ The debate was opened by Mr.
S. J. Hughes, county alderman of Glamorganshire. Both Lord
Stanley and Alderman Hughes emphasised the paramount
importance of training for the elementary school teacher.
In summing up the debate, Mr. Lloyd George replaced the
sword by the trowel, and emphasised the need for addi-
tional accommodation and for subsidising the buildings and
the staffs. Enthusiasm was required, he said, to meet the
increased burden on the rates, but he believed that the
enthusiasm would be forthcoming. At this stage the only
resolution of the conference was passed. This was moved
by Principal Griffiths, and asserted ‘‘ That it is the duty of
the Principality to undertake the training and supply of
teachers sufficient to meet the requirements of the Princi-
pality.”’
At the third session, which was presided over by Sir
John Gorst, ‘‘ The Special Aspects of the Problem of the
Training of Elementary Teachers ’’ was considered, a paper
being read by Mr. T. John, vice-president of the National
Union of Teachers. The experiments already being tried in
the utilisation of the intermediate schools of Wales for the
training of pupil teachers were described in detail, but the
general opinion of the conference was unmistakable—that
any half-time system should be a temporary expedient only.
As regards the question of the concurrent instruction of
primary and secondary teachers, it was agreed that it is
necessary for the separation of the primary teacher’s pro-
fessional training from his general education, and that
under certain conditions it is possible and desirable that
primary and secondary students should be trained together.
The important question of the further training of those
acting teachers whose qualifications are incomplete was
introduced by Mr. Badger, director of higher education
for Monmouthshire.
The relations between the various qualifying examina-
tions were considered, and there was practical unanimity
that matriculation should be a condition of entering the
primary training departments of the three university col-
leges of Wales.
Mr. Humphreys Owen, M.P., chairman of the Central
Welsh Board, presided over the fourth session, which was
devoted to the ‘‘ Special Aspects of the Problem of
Secondary Training.’’ Two papers were read, by Miss E. P.
Hughes, late principal of the Cambridge Training College
for Secondary Teachers, and Mr. Trevor Owen, Swansea,
who acted as the official spokesman of the Association of
Welsh County Schoolmasters. The conference was decidedly
of opinion that secondary training should be post-graduate
and completely differentiated from the degree course, but
that the training college should be essentially attached to
the university college. Representatives of the Association
of Assistant Masters also addressed the conference and
endorsed the views expressed by the readers of the papers.
There can be no doubt that the ultimate result of the
conference will be far-reaching and beneficial. The inter-
change of ideas always makes for good, and it is not too
much to hope that from the deliberations there may be
devised a scheme which will be workable for all parts of
the Principality, and will in time produce a supply of fully
trained teachers of all grades, which, like her system of
secondary education already established, will be a lasting
and tangible proof of the enthusiasm of the Welsh people
for education.
NO. 1829, vol. 71]
THERAPEUTIC BACTERIAL INOCULATION.
ALTHOUGH the majority of diseases are produced
directly or indirectly by the invasion of microbes, it
has come to be generally recognised that the soil in which
they grow plays a cardinal part in determining the ultimate
effect or fate of the microbe. The finding of a pathogenic
microbe, and even the accessory disposing factors of a
disease, are, however, after all only the beginnings of the
greater problem which is the end and aim of all medical
science, viz. the cure of the disease.
To attack the causal agent is manifestly a solution of
the problem, and this was the method originally advocated
by Lister, who may be regarded as the founder of the
doctrine of the etiological curative principle. Experience
has, however, shown that the attempt to destroy by means
of ordinary chemical poisons the microbes in the living body
is fraught with danger, for long before the protoplasm of
the microbe is destroyed the cells of the body are irreparably
damaged. Internal antiseptic therapy is a thing of the
past. To-day we must rely on the stimulus produced by
bacteria in the body whereby the cells of the latter elaborate
substances which are antagonistic to these same bacteria.
These substances—germicidal in the widest sense of the
word—differ considerably in their mode of action. Some
neutralise the bacterial poisons, others produce a solution
—a lysis—of the bacteria. In other cases, again,
Metchnikoff claims that the destruction takes place by a
kind of digestion in the interior of certain cells of which
the chief representatives are the wandering corpuscles of
the blood.
The inoculation of a living microbe for the purposes of
prophylaxis dates from the time of Edward Jenner, whose
work was widely extended by Pasteur. It is not even
necessary to use living bacteria, dead bacteria being like-
wise capable of conferring immunity. In any case, with
the exception of diphtheria antitoxin, previous attempts have
aimed at prevention rather than cure. The authors of the
papers before us are the first who have utilised bacterial
inoculations as a curative agent. Dr. A. E. Wright, late
professor in the Army Medical School, is already widely
known for his method of the preventive inoculation against
typhoid fever—a method which is admitted to have led to
a marked diminution of this disease in the British Army.
His most important work, however, has been the discovery
of therapeutic inoculation. To introduce bacteria into an
individual already infected with the same bacteria would
at first sight appear to be a paradox, but the results obtained
justify the means. By the invention of accurate methods of
testing the effects produced in the body by the inoculations,
Dr. Wright has been able to demonstrate that the elabor-
ation of protective substances follows a general law,
characterised at first by a negative phase and followed by
a positive phase in which the protective substances in the
blood are increased in quantity.
In a series of papers he has likewise shown that in so-
called phagocytosis there is really a cooperation of the cells
and fluids of the body, and that in the latter there are sub-
stances—opsonins—which in some way or other act upon
the microbes and prepare them for subsequent destruction
by the leucocytes. This opsonic type of immunity is applic-
able to a number of diseases, but the present researches
show that the mere presence of these opsonins is not
sufficient to induce immunity. They must be in the proper
place and at the required time if they are to exert their
action, and a great deal of art is required on the part of
the inoculator to create the most advantageous conditions
for his patient. The methods advocated by Prof. Wright
are so new that it is difficult to foresee how far they may go,
but the striking curative results obtained justify one in
prophesying that the time is not so very far distant when
the abilities of the physician will be judged by his successes
as an immunisator, for it must not be imagined that
1 ‘On the Action exerted upon the Staphylococcus pyogenes by the
Human Blood Fluids, and on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in
the Human Organism in response to Inoculations of a Staphylococcus
Vaccine.” By Dr. A. E. Wright and Capt. Stewart R. Douglas, I.M.S.
(Proc. Roy. Soc., September, 1904).
“On the Action exerted upon the Tubercle Bacillus by the Human Blood
Fluids, and on the Elaboration of Protective Elements in the Human
Organism in response to Inoculations of a Tubercle Vaccine.” By the
same Authors (Proc. Roy. Soc., September, 1904).
68
immunisation consists in the subcutaneous inoculation of
some mysterious bacterial fluid prepared in the laboratory.
On the contrary, it is a complex process, and it is only
with the help of accurate scientific measuring methods that
the physician will be able to gauge whether he is helping
or injuring his patient.
PALH#OZOIG SEED PLANTS.
T may be doubted if those who are not directly concerned
with the study of the vegetable kingdom appreciate
the full significance of the distinction which the botanist
maintains between plants of seed-bearing and spore-bearing
habit. For this reason the recent and important discoveries
proving that the seed-bearing habit existed among more
than one group of Palzozoic vegetation, discoveries which
will form a historical landmark in the study of fossil plants,
may not attract the attention which is their due outside
the circle of workers on recent and fossil botany.
The seed-bearing habit is, from many points of view,
regarded as a far higher stage in plant evolution than that
attained by any known member of the vegetable kingdom
in which the fertilised megasporangium remains without
any integument of the nature of a seed-coat. So far, the
botanist has associated the seed habit with two classes of
plants, the gymnosperms (Conifere, Cycadez, &c.) and
the angiosperms or flowering plants, and with these alone.
It has not been suspected that members assigned to other
groups, including the great race of vascular cryptogams
(Pteridophyta), had at any period in their evolution attained
to this high status. Yet such has recently been shown to
be the case.
It is interesting to notice that these discoveries have been
mainly due to the British school of palzobotany. Although
it has been known for a long period that remains, obviously
of the nature of seeds, occur here and there in the sand-
stones and shales of the Carboniferous period, Carruthers
was the first to suggest, in 1872, that some of these fossil
seeds may be attributed to the genus Cordaites, an extinct
race, of gymnospermous affinities. This conclusion was sub-
sequently confirmed by Geinitz, Grand’Eury, Renault, and
other Continental botanists, who have greatly extended our
knowledge of this Palaeozoic type.
Until recently Cordaites has remained the solitary
Paleozoic genus which was known to have attained the
seed-bearing habit.
In 1901, however, Dr. Scott published a full description
of a Carboniferous cone, Lepidocarpon, of undoubted lyco-
podian affinities, where integumented megasporangia are
found when fully mature, and in which each sporangium
contains a single embryo-sac. It has thus become clear
that in the history of the lycopodian stock the evolution of
seed-bearing members had taken place. More recently other
evidence has accumulated which not only confirms this con-
clusion, but tends to show that Lepidocarpon did not stand
alone among lycopods in this respect.
It is to discoveries still more recent of a similar nature,
but affecting other lines of descent, that special attention
may be directed. They are concerned with a synthetic type
of Upper Palaeozoic vegetation of great interest, which has
become widely known under the name Cycadofilices.
More than one genus of this group has now been shown
to have reached the seed-bearing status.
The credit of the first discovery of this nature is due to
Prof. Oliver and Dr. Scott, who recently published a
full account of the seed and the evidence for its attribution
in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
The more important conclusion of these authors may be
briefly summarised as follows. It has been found that a
seed, already recorded by Williamson as Lagenostoma
Lomaxt, was borne by the fossil plant known as Lygino-
dendron. The two have not been found in continuity, but
the evidence for this conclusion, although in the main in-
direct, is none the less conclusive. The chief point lies in
the identity of the glandular structures found on an organ
termed the “* cupule,’”’ which envelops the seed, with those
already known to occur on the stems, petioles and pinnules
of Lyginodendron, which are peculiar to this genus among
Carboniferous plants.
Within a few months of the earlier record of this re-
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
NALORE
| NOVEMBER 17, 1904
markable research by Prof. Oliver and Dr. Scott, their
main conclusion was confirmed in an unexpected manner
by the discovery, on the part of Mr. Kidston, of the seed
of another genus of the same group, Medullosa, of which
an account has also appeared in the Philosophical Trans-
actions. In this case the pedicel of a large seed, of the
type known as Rhabdocarpus, was found to bear pinnules
identical with those of the frond Neuropteris heterophylla,
the foliage of a Medullosa.
Here absolute continuity, an extremely rare circum-
stance among fossil plants, exists between a foliar and a
reproductive organ.
Further evidence, but more inconclusive and indirect, also
exists, but space forbids any notice,here. Attention may,
however, be directed to an interesting and suggestive com-
munication published by M. Grand’Eury in the Comptes
rendus during the present year on the same subject.
The discoveries under discussion have made it clear that
at least two genera of the Cycadofilices possessed the seed-
bearing habit, and evidence is also available which suggests.
that Lyginodendron and Medullosa did not stand alone in
this respect.
Prof. Oliver and Dr. Scott have concluded that ‘ the
presence in the Palzozoic flora of these primitive, Fern-
like Spermophytes, so important as a phase in the history
of evolution, may best be recognised by the foundation of
a distinct class which may suitably be named Pterido-
spermez.’’ This suggestion would seem to be a happy
one, even though it may eventually involve the absorption
of the whole group now familiar as the Cycadofilices.
In connection with these researches of Prof. Oliver, br.
Scott, and Mr. Kidston, many further points of interest,
and in some cases of criticism, might be discussed, but it
must suffice here to direct attention to one or two valuable
clues which these discoveries afford. The phylogeny of the
cycads, a race with a great past, and still existing though
in greatly diminished numbers, is in its main outlines now
clear. There can be little doubt that the cycads are
sprung from this same pteridospermous stock, which in its
turn originated from a truly fern-like ancestor.
In the investing envelope of the young seed of Lageno-
stoma, which Prof. Oliver and Dr. Scott have spoken of
as the ‘*‘ cupule,’’ it is not improbable that homologies may
eventually be recognised with protective structures exist-
ing among members belonging to other lines of descent,
which may have great value as a contribution to other
phylogenetic problems.
In conclusion, the existence of the seed-bearing habit
among certain members of three out of the six great groups
of Upper Palzozoic times raises the interesting speculation
whether other groups may not eventually be found to have
attained to the same status. The Calamites, the repre-
sentatives of the Equisetales, are at present above any real
suspicion in this respect, yet it would now be hardly sur-
prising if further discoveries revealed the existence of seed-
bearing members in this group, although it is by no means
safe to assume that the seed-bearing habit must necessarily
have existed in any group. E. A. N. ARBER.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES.
THE Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist for October
contains, as is usual with this journal, interesting and
well illustrated articles, among which may be noted one
on “the funambulist,’? or rope-walker, by Mr. Arthur
Watson; some Norman and pre-Norman remains in the
Dove-Dale district, by Mr. G. le Blanc Smith; medallic
portraits of Christ in the sixteenth century, by Mr. G. F.
Hill; a carved bone of the Viking age, by Mr. J. Romilly
Allen.
All who are interested in primitive technology will welcome
the new instalment of Dr. Walter E. Roth’s monograph on
North Queensland ethnography. Bulletin No. 7 deals with
domestic implements, arts, and manufactures, and is illus-
trated by twenty-six plates containing 250 figures. Dr.
Roth not only describes the objects in daily use of the
Queensland blacks, but, what is of very much greater im-
portance, he usually describes how and of what they are
made. Of especial interest and importance is his descrip-
tion of the manufacture of stone implements. He says :—
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
NATURE
69
“*T am afraid that too much importance has been hitherto
attached to the differentiation of stone-celts into axes, adzes,
wedges, scrapers, &c.: the savage certainly does not
recognise the fine distinctions embodied on the labels
attached to these articles in an ethnological museum. . . .
The actual manufacture of a celt is now a lost art in Queens-
land. . . . The original celt in its simplest form is a water-
worn pebble or boulder, an adaptation of a natural form;
otherwise, it is a portion removed from a rock, &c., in situ,
either by fire, indiscriminate breakage or flaking.”’
A record of a careful excavation of Jacob’s Cavern,
McDonald County, Missouri, by Messrs. Charles Peabody
and W. K. Moorehead, is given in Bulletin i., department
of archeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. The
implements are of well known types, and nothing suggestive
of Palzeolithic culture was discovered; it is possible that
the cave-dwellers were different from the Osages and from
the lower Mississippi tribes. The paper is illustrated by
eleven plates. The Phillips Academy is to be congratulated
on its activity.
An interesting and well illustrated résumé of the recent
archeological discoveries in Crete is given by M. S.
Reinach in l’Anthropologie (Tome xv., Nos. 3-4, p. 257).
The author tentatively proposes the following chronology
of the development of the Cretan civilisation :—(1) 4500 (at
least) to 2800, Neolithic period. Black pottery, with angular
designs and no spirals; numerous stone vessels; no metal; |
rudimentary figurines of burnt clay. (2) 2800 to 2200,
period of Kamares or Minoan I. About 2800 first certain
contact with Egypt (twelfth dynasty) ; introduction of copper
and bronze into Crete ; painted pottery derived from Neolithic
pottery. (3) 2200 to 1900, period of transition or Minoan II.
Building of first palace. Continuation of relations with
Egypt and commercial dealings with the islands of the
Archipelago, notably with Melos. (4) 1900 to 1500, culmin-
ation of the period of Kamares or Minoan III. Building
of the second palace; great development of ceramics,
glyptics, and painting. An artist of Knossos went to
Phylakopi, in Melos, and executed the “‘ flying-fish fresco ”’;
the linear Cretan writing occurs on Melian pottery. An
insular confederation (?) took possession of Knossos and
there established a new dynasty (?). (5) 1500 to 1200,
Mycenzean period. Ceramics with zoomorphic and curvi-
linear designs. The centre of civilisation passed to the
Peloponnesos; decadence and abandonment of the palace.
The last king of the Minoan dynasty, Idomeneus, left Crete
about 1200 for Italy, and founded Salentium ; shortly after-
wards the Dorians conquered Crete, and the island entirely
retrogressed into barbarity.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CampBripGE.—The report of the studies and examinations
syndicate on the previous examination, in which it is
proposed that a modern language may be substituted for
Greek or Latin, will be discussed in the Senate House on
December 1.
Dr. H. F. Baker, F.R.S., St. John’s, and Mr. F. H.
Neville, F.R.S., Sidney, have been appointed members of
the general board of studies. Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.,
has been appointed a manager of the Gerstenberg student-
ship in moral philosophy for students of natural science.
Dr. Myers has been appointed demonstrator of experi-
mental psychology.
The Isaac Newton studentship in astronomical physics
and optics, value 20o0l. a year for three years, will be vacant
next term. Candidates must be B.A.’s of the university, and
under twenty-five years of age on January 1, 1905. Appli-
cation is to be made to the Vice-Chancellor before
January 26.
Additional benefactions to the university, amounting to
some 3500l., have been paid or promised since February of
the present year. A considerable number are ear-marked
for the endowment of a Huddersfield lectureship in special
pathology.
Two Walsingham medals in biology have been awarded
this year, one to Mr. R. P. Gregory, fellow of St. John’s
College (for botany), and one to Mr. K. Lucas, fellow of
Trinity College (for physiology).
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
New buildings of the Borough Polytechnic Institute, in-
cluding buildings for engineering, building trades, domestic
economy, &c., are to be opened as we go to press by Mr.
J. W. Benn, M.P., chairman of the London County Council.
Lorp Reay will deliver the prizes at the Northampton
Institute for the session 1903-4 on Friday, December 9, at
8 o’clock. The prize distribution will be followed by a
conversazione, which will be continued on Saturday,
December to. .
Dr. FREDERIC Rose, His Majesty’s Consul at Stuttgart,
and the author of a series of diplomatic and consular re-
ports on technical instruction in Germany, has been elected
assistant educational adviser to the Education Committee
of the London County Council.
THE committee in charge of the fund for the develop-
ment and better equipment of the science schools in Trinity
College, Dublin, has announced that 15,886]. has now been
subscribed towards the 78,o00l. necessary for the annual
up-keep of the new schools. It will be remembered that
Lord Iveagh offered to provide the sum of 34,000l. required
to erect the new buildings if the amount required for up-
keep were obtained by public subscription. The committee,
in making an earnest appeal for further subscriptions, points
out that the next most urgent need of the university is the
development of the school of botany and plant physiology.
Ir may be taken as indicative of the widespread interest
in higher education among the Welsh people that large sums
of money are contributed in a great number of small amounts
towards the expenses of the university colleges. For
instance, in the preliminary list of subscriptions, paid or
unpaid, towards the permanent buildings fund, published
in the calendar of the University College of North Wales
for the session 1904-5, we notice that more than 6500l. is
made up of amounts under five pounds, and, in addition to
this, there are more than two hundred gifts of five guineas
or five pounds. The total amount of subscriptions up to
the present towards the permanent buildings fund reaches
27,1901.
Tur Education Committee of the County Council of the
West Riding of Yorkshire arranged last summer for the
attendance of a group of art-masters from the schools in
their administrative area to attend for six weeks at the
School of Industrial Arts, Geneva. The committee has now
published extracts from the report received from _ the
administrator of the Geneva school on the work of the York-
shire teachers, and a summary of the reports submitted by
the art-masters who studied at Geneva. The teachers seem
to have benefited greatly by their visit, and there can be
little doubt that a first-hand acquaintance with Continental
methods is of great value to English teachers. One interest-
ing way in which scientific observation may be rendered
useful in art instruction comes out in the report of one of
the visiting masters, who writes of the Geneva School of
Industrial Arts that: ‘‘ Another very useful adjunct is a
garden where Nature is allowed to have very much of her
own way. Here the form and colour of plants and flowers
and their growth at various stages can be carefully and
leisurely studied.””
SPEAKING at the Birmingham Municipal School on
Tuesday, Mr. Alfred Mosely referred to some lessons taught
by the American educational system. He remarked that
America differs from us in an intense belief in educa-
tion, and the realisation by manufacturers of the value of
the thoroughly trained college student in their factories.
We are face to face with a condition of things which is
somewhat alarming. A scientific education has become an
absolute necessity if we are to hold our place industrially.
We have an Empire such as those who have not travelled
do not realise, an Empire teeming with natural resources
in every direction, merely awaiting the skilled hands of the
mechanic and farmer to develop them. What we have in
Ganada and our other colonies makes the United States
pale by comparison, but the United States have learnt to
develop their resources, while we have been quarrelling over
the village pump. It is Mr. Mosely’s intention at an early
date to approach some of the steamship companies to see
whether facilities can be arranged for some school teachers
to visit the United States and observe what is done there.
7O
NATURE
[ NOVEMBER 17, 1904
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Chemical Society, November 3.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., in the chair.—The following papers were read :—
Studies on the dynamic isomerism of a- and f-crotonic acids,
part i.: R. S. Morrett and E. K. Hanson. Preliminary
experiments on the freezing points of mixtures of the two
acids furnish no evidence as to the existence of a compound
of a- and f-crotonic acids between 100° and 168°, and between
15° and 71°-9.—The constitution of nitrogen iodide: O.
Silberrad. In the interaction of zinc ethyl with nitrogen
iodide it was found that trimethylamine was produced. This
confirms Chattaway’s view that the iodide has the con-
stitution NH,:NI,.—The available plant food in soils:
H. Ingle. Extraction with a 1 per cent. solution of citric
acid for seven days renders a soil much less fertile, especially
at first, but chemical changes in such soil, during the growth
of the plants, gradually render it again capable of supply-
ing plant food.—The basic properties of oxygen : compounds
of the ethers with nitric acid: J. B. Cohen and J. Gatecliff.
It is shown that with aliphatic ethers unstable compounds
of the type X,O,HNO, are formed.—Note on the influence
of potassium persulphate on the estimation of hydrogen
peroxide: J. A. N. Friend. It is shown that a secondary
reaction, represented by the following equation,
H,O,+K,S,0,=K,SO,+H,SO, + O,,
probably takes place in addition to the main reaction.—The
influence of sunlight on the dissolution of gold in aqueous
potassium cyanide: W. A. Caldecott.—The fractional
hydrolysis of amygdalinic acid, iso-amygdalin: H. D.
Dakin.—The effect of anhydrides on organo-magnesium
bromides, part i., the action of phthalic anhydride on
magnesium a-naphthyl bromide: S. S. Pickles and
C. Weizmann.—The combustion of ethylene: W. A. Bone
and R. V. Wheeler. The principal results of these experi-
ments are as follows :—(1) there is no preferential com-
bustion of either carbon or hydrogen; (2) formaldehyde is
the most prominent intermediate oxidation product; (3)
there is no separation of carbon or liberation of acetylene.
—The decomposition of methylearbamide: C. E. Fawsitt.
The decomposition of methylcarbamide by acids is due to a
transformation of the methylearbamide into methylamine
cyanate, which is subsequently decomposed by the acid.—
Position isomerism and optical activity; the methyl and
ethyl esters of di-o-, -m-, and -p-nitrobenzoyltartaric acids :
P. F. Frankland and J. Harger. The authors describe
the preparation and properties of the six esters in question.
—The action of nitrogen sulphide on organic substances,
part ii.: F. E. Francis and O. C. M. Davis.—Reduction
products of a8-dimethylanhydracetenebenzil, and condensa-
tion products of benzaldehydes with ketones: F. R. Japp
and W. Maitland.—Interaction of sodium phenylglycidate
with phenylhydrazine: F. R. Japp and W. Maitland.—
a-Benzoyl-8-trimethacetylstyrene: F. R. Japp and W.
Maitland.—Olefinic ketonic compounds: S. Ruhemann.
—4*-Oleic acid: H. R. Le Sueur.—Action of magnesium
alkyl halides on derivatives of camphor: M. O. Forster.
—Sulphonchloroalkylamides: F. D. Chattaway.
Linnean Society, November 3.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Mr. G. Claridge Druce
showed specimens of a new British grass, Koeleria
valesiaca, Gaud., which he had found in the herbarium of
Dillenius at Oxford, and recently re-found in the original
locality at Brent Down, Somersetshire.—The Rev. John
Gerard, S.J., brought specimens of a proliferous plantain
(Plantago major) from the neighbourhood of Clitheroe,
Lancashire.—Mr. Frank Crisp brought for exhibition a
flower of Schubertia graveolens, Lindl., an asclepiad, which,
deprived of its corolla and with a portion of its calyx cut
away, viewed from the side, presented the genitalia in the
shape of a skull.—A note on some points in the structure of
the gill of the Ceylon pearl-oyster : the President.—Notes
on the “‘sudd’’ formation of the Upper Nile: A. F.
Broun. The author gives a list of the plants forming
the mass of vegetation, which, favoured by the silt
brought down by the White Nile, helps to block the
shallow channels.—Bryozoa from near Cape Horn: A. W.
Waters. The paper deals with specimens which were
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
collected by the French ‘‘ Mission scientifique du Cap
Horn,’’ but were not mentioned by Jullien in his report on
the ‘*‘ Bryozoaires’’ of that expedition, published in 1888.
From this material, which Jullien had presumably not
handled, Mr. Waters adds twenty-eight species to the
original list of fifty-six. He gives further particulars in
regard to some of those named by his predecessor, and
points out that eight species established by Jullien had
been already described under other names. He rectifies
two erroneous identifications, enlarges the range of dis-
tribution for several species, and for six of them calls to
mind that they were first discovered by the Challenger.
Mathematical Society, November 10.—Prof. H. Lamb,
president, in the chair.—The council and officers for the
ensuing session were elected. They are as follows :—
president, Prof. Forsyth; vice-presidents, Prof. Burnside,
Prof. Elliott, Prof. Lamb; treasurer, Prof. Larmor; secre-
taries, Prof. Love and Mr. Grace; other members of council,
Mr. Berry, Mr. Campbell, Dr. Glaisher, Dr. Hobson, Major
MacMahon, Mr. Mathews, Mr. Western, Mr. Whittaker,
Mr. A. Young.—Prof. Forsyth having taken the chair, Prof.
Lamb delivered an address on deep-water waves. He re-
viewed the theory of the waves produced on deep water by
a local disturbance of the surface. The theory developed
independently by Poisson and Cauchy had often been re-
garded as obscure, and it had never been interpreted com-
pletely. The problem has a deeper significance in that it
offers perhaps the simplest example of the propagation of
waves in a dispersive medium, and was the origin of the
theory of group velocity, which has so many applications
in various branches of physics. After tracing the history of
the problem, the author proceeded to disengage the essential
results of the theory from the clouds of analysis in which
they had been involved; he pointed out the connection of
the analytical results with the analysis which was used at
a later date for the investigation of the phenomena of diffrac-
tion; he traced the forms of the waves due to a local initial
elevation both at considerable and at small distances from
the source of disturbance ; and he pointed out the significance
of the results when interpreted by means of modern notions
concerning waves of approximately simple harmonic type
and the propagation of groups of such waves. Finally, he
discussed the solution of the problem of waves generated by
a local and periodic variation of pressure.—The following
papers were communicated :—Note on the application of the
method of images to problems of vibrations : Prof. Volterra.
It is shown how to obtain by means of the method of images
a complete solution of the problem of vibrations of a mem-
brane, and it is pointed out that although the train of images
may be infinite, yet the number of terms in the solution is
finite—The zeros of certain classes of integral Taylor’s
series, two papers: G. H. Hardy. The nature of the zeros
of some particular classes of functions, allied to the ex-
ponential function, is determined with much greater pre-
cision than can be attained by any of the known general
theorems. If ¢(n) is an integer when n is an integer, and
the increase of $(n) is regular and sufficiently rapid, there
(n)
are exactly ¢$(n) zeros of sai within the circle |x] = 4(n),
and their positions can be determined very precisely. In
the second paper similar investigations are given for other
nm
functions of which Bese Tea
ducibility of covariants of binary quantics of infinite order :
P. W. Wood. The paper contains the conditions that any
covariant linear in the coefficients of each of 5 binary quantics
of infinite order should be expressible in terms of products
of covariants of lower total degrees. The reducibility of
covariants of degree 4 is determined completely, and certain
classes of reducible covariants of degree 5 and weight
>(2*-1—1) are discussed.—The linear difference equation
of the first order: Rev. E. W. Barnes. The questions to
be considered relate to the existence of solutions, their
analytical expression, and their place among transcendental
functions. These questions are discussed from the point of
view of the theory of functions of complex variables, the
arguments of the functions which occur in the difference
equations being assumed to be complex.—Curves on a
conicoid: H. Hilton.—Remarks on alternants and con-
tinuous groups: Dr. H. F. Baker.—Expansions of the
is an example.—On the re-
NOVEMBER 17, 1904]
NATO RE
71
elliptic and Zeta functions of $I in powers of q: Dr.
J. W. L. Glaisher.—Examples of perpetuants: J. E.
Wright.—Two simple results in the attraction of uniform
wires obtained by quaternions: Prof. Genese.—A theorem
relating to quotient groups: Prof. Miller.—On certain
classes of syzygies: A. Young.
CAMBRIDGE.
Philosophical Society, October 31.—Annual general
meeting, Dr. Baker, president, in the chair.—Prof. Marshall
Ward, F.R.S., was elected president for the session 1904-5.
—On the dimorphism of the English species of Nummulites :
J. J. Lister, F.R.S. The author gave an account of his
examination of the characters of three English species of
Nummulites, N. laevigata (Brug.), N. variolaria (Lam.),
and N. elegans (Sow.), with respect to dimorphism. It
appears that these species, far from invalidating the con-
clusion that the species of Nummulites are dimorphic, are
in complete accord with it.—A problem concerning wood
and lignified cell-walls: Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. Dr.
W. J. Russell some time ago showed that if a block of
wood is laid on a photographic plate, and kept in the dark
for some time, a photographic image will be found on the
plate after ordinary development, although no light has had
access ; and he has summarised his numerous and important
observations in a recent paper in the Philosophical Trans-
actions. Since resinous woods were found especially active,
Russell suggested that some active body of resin-like nature
was the agent concerned, and that hydrogen peroxide was
developed. Prof. Marshall Ward’s paper describes experi-
ments which were directed to the questions, (1) can this
photographic contact-method be utilised to obtain images
of thin and microscopic sections of wood? and (2) what
other substances, e.g. in woods devoid of resin, are active?
The author showed photographs, obtained without light,
of thin sections of many different kinds of wood, and demon-
strated that in most cases resin and allied bodies cannot be
the active agents. He also showed that a thin section which
gives a very faint image, or even no recognisable image
at all, if used dry and untouched, may give a very deep one
if soaked in a weak solution of tannin, gallic acid, pyro-
gallol, &c., and then dried before being placed on the plate.
A striking result is obtained if such solution is streaked
across the section; the treated streak or figure comes out
deep black on a pale ground-work of the part untreated.
Xylol, clove oil, tannic acid, and some other bodies are also
active. The author thinks that a careful comparative in-
vestigation of all kinds of woods might lead to important
results regarding that very difficult question, the constitu-
tion of lignified cell-walls—The pine-apple gall of the
spruce : note on the early stages of its development: E. R.
Burdon. The galls are caused by certain Aphidze belong-
ing to the genus Chermes. The insect drives its proboscis
into the bud, and sets up an irritation which results in the
young shoot becoming modified into a gall: The early
stages of the gall take place whilst the shoot is still enclosed
in the winter bud scales. The cells are forced into pre-
cocious growth, and a parenchymatous tissue, consisting of
swollen cells with vacuolated protoplasm and enlarged
nuclei, is formed. The chlorophyll, tannin, resin, resin
canals, and secretory cells all disappear, but an abundant
supply of starch is laid down which may possibly arise as
the ultimate product of the disintegration of the tannin.
The chromatin network of the nuclei becomes aggregated
into wart-like nucleoli. The mitotic figures appear to be
of the usual somatic type, and no indication of heterotypical
mitoses has yet been found. There is reason for believing
that the ultimate cause is an injection by the insect, and
that this injection will cause a gall growth only when it
acts on embryonic tissues which are not confined by other
lignified or cuticularised tissues.—On certain quintic sur-
faces which admit of integrals of the first kind of total
differentials; A. Berry.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, November 1.—Prof.
‘W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On
alkaline borates: C. H. Burgess and A. Holt, jun. The
authors found that nearly all the glasses obtained by fusing
boric anhydride with varying quantities of sodium carbonate
could be transformed, wholly or in part, into stable, crystal-
No. 1829, VOL. 71]
line forms, which invariably melt at a higher temperature
than the glasses from which they were derived. The study
of the melting points of these mixtures, and the analyses
of the crystals and glasses, point to the probable existence
of both sodium metaborate and a further compound contain-
ing only a quarter equivalent of sodium. Anhydrous borax
itself does not appear to be a definite compound; it is almost
a eutectic mixture of the solid solution of the two above
mentioned compounds. The glasses appear to be a super-
fused state of the crystals. The familiar colours of borax
beads seem to be due to the formation of a complex sodium
ion, and can be changed in tint by increasing or decreasing
the amount of alkali present.—Note on the electrolytic pre-
paration of titanous sulphate: W. H. Evans. The results
show that a low current density, high concentration, and
a temperature of about 70° C. are the most favourable for
obtaining an efficient yield in this reduction process. More-
over, the author has found that the preparation can be
carried out without the use of any diaphragm to separate
the anode from kathode chambers of the cell.
DuBLIN.
Royal Irish Academy, November 14.—Prof. R. Atkinson,
president, in the chair.—On the discovery of hyzna,
mammoth, and other extinct Mammalia in a Carboniferous
cavern in the county of Cork: R. J. Ussher. After re-
capitulating the work that has been done in Irish caves, Mr.
Ussher described an extensive cavern in county Cork, near
Doneraile, in every portion of which that he has examined
remains of extinct Mammalia have been found. Mammoths,
old and young, have been met with in several places; bears
and reindeer were abundant; Irish elk, wolf, and hyzna
were also found; the last, identified by Dr. Scharff from a
| portion of a skull with teeth, is an addition to the Irish
fauna. ‘These remains were in red sand beneath a floor of
crystalline stalagmite, which was present in the various
chambers and galleries.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, November 7.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—Researches on the desiccation of plants and vege-
table tissues: final equilibrium, under average atmospheric
conditions: M. Berthelot. The rate of loss of moisture
is proportional at any instant to the quantity of water re-
maining in the plant. A further amount of moisture is
driven off at rr0o° C.—On the absolute desiccation of plants
and vegetable materials: period of artificial desiccation.
Reversibility by atmospheric moisture: M. Berthelot.—On
the preparation in a state of purity of boron trifluoride and
silicon tetrafluoride, and on some physical constants of these
compounds: Henri Moissan. The boron fluoride was pre-
pared in two ways, by heating a mixture of boric anhydride
and calcium fluoride with sulphuric acid, and by direct
synthesis from boron and fluorine. After purification, the
gas was frozen by liquid air, foreign gases pumped off, and
the solid allowed to volatilise. The boron fluoride melted
at —127° C. and boiled at —u101°. Silicon fluoride,
purified in a similar manner, melts at —97°, and passes
into the gaseous state without melting. The experiments
establish the physical identity of BF, and SiF, prepared
synthetically with the compounds prepared by the ordinary
chemical methods.—On the nature of charriage : Ed. Suess.
—Remarks by Michel Lévy on the preceding paper.—On
a hyperelliptic surface: M. Traynard.—On the comple-
mentary geodesic triangulations in the higher parts of the
French Alps: P. Helbronner.—On a new mode of con-
structing aérial helices: Ch. Renard. The helices de-
scribed are 2.5 m. in diameter, and are perfectly rigid when
rotated by power, although their weight is only 3 kilograms.
—On explosions in boilers: L. Lecornu.—Retrograde
diffusion in electrolytes: E. Bose. The author points out
that the results obtained experimentally by Thovert were
predicted by Abegg and Rose on Nernst’s theory.—On the
estimation of temporary radio-activity for its therapeutic
utilisation: Th. Tommasina.—The proof of a_ radio-
activity peculiar to living beings, vegetable and animal :
Th. Tommasina.—tThe action of low temperatures on
colouring matters : Jules Sehmidlin. An alcoholic solution
of rosaniline chlorohydrate shows a clear diminution in the
intensity of the red colour, and at the same time developes
a fine greenish-yellow fluorescence.—Heats of combustion of
Fie
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 17, 1904
triphenylmethyl and some derivatives of triphenylmethane :
Jules Schmidlin.—The preparation of iodide of gold by the
Action of iodine on gold: Fernand Meyer. The iodide Aul
can be obtained by the direct action of iodine upon gold at
temperatures between 50° and 100°. Below 50°, or above
200°, there is no action. In the presence of water in a closed
vessel iodine gives with gold the same aurous iodide.—On
a yttrium earth near to gadolinium: G. Urbain. An
attempt to isolate an element characterised by the band
A=488.—On £-bromobutyric acid: M. Lespieau. The
amide of this acid is obtained by saturating allyl cyanide
with hydrobromic acid in the cold. A crystalline mass
separates, which, when dissolved in concentrated hydro-
bromic acid solution, deposits white crystals of the amide.—
The oxidation of acetol: André Kling.—On the formation
of formaldehyde during the combustion of tobacco: A.
Triilat. The experimental results show that aldehydes are
formed during the combustion of tobacco, notably form-
aldehydes. The toxic effects, however, are modified by the
fact that these aldehydes immediately combine with the
nitrogenous bases given off at the same time.—On the
germination of the spores of Atrichum undulatum and
Hypnum velutinum, and on their nutrition in sterilised
liquid media: Paul Becquerel.—On the development of
the kidney and Leydig’s gland in the Elasmobranchs :
I. Borcea. The kidney of the Elasmobranchs has the
same value as that of the higher vertebrates.—The influence
of the feeding on the length of the intestine of the larve
of Rana esculenta: Emile Yung.—On an infectious disease
of ‘horses, with alterations in the bones, observed at
Madagascar : MM. Charon and Thiroux.—On the general
structure of the Tyrolese Alps west of the Brenner Railway :
Pierre Termier.—Modifications undergone by the nutritive
exchanges in skin disease: A. Desprez and J. Ayrignac.
New SoutH WALES.
Royal Society, September 7.—Mr. C. O. Burge, president,
in the chair.—Notes on the theory and practice of concrete-
iron constructions: F. M. Gummow. The author outlined
the theory from the present standpoint of scientific research,
and after reviewing the principal applications, concluded
his paper by giving particulars of a test of concrete-iron
plate beams, carried out on a large scale.—Further experi-
ments on the strength and elasticity of reinforced concrete :
Prof. W. H. Warren. The author stated that the paper
consisted of an experimental investigation of the physical
properties of Portland cement mortars and concrete when
reinforced with steel.
Linnean Society, September 28.—Dr. T. Storie Dixson,
president, in the chair.—Monograph of the Australian
Cicadide: Dr. F. W. Goding and W. W. Froggatt.
Descriptions of all the Cicadidz attributed to Australia,
amounting to 115 species, comprised in 21 genera, are
given. In connection with the geographical distribution
of the species it may be mentioned that though many are
strictly confined to the coastal forests of eastern Australia,
others are found sporadically over a very large area, re-
appearing in widely separated districts if the suitable class
of country presents itself. For example, Tibicen willst,
Dist., described from Rockhampton, ranges up the Queens-
land coast to Townsville, occurs also at Bourke, N.S.W., and
reappears at King’s Sound, N.W.A. Indo-Malayan affinity
is indicated by the occurrence of the genera Gaana and
Huechys.—Notes on Neuroptera, with descriptions of new
species: W. W. Froggatt.—Ngarrabul and other aboriginal
tribes, part ii., distribution of the tribes: J. MacPherson.
The distribution of twenty-four tribes in north-east New
South Wales and South Queensland, in accordance with the
languages spoken and as gleaned from Ngarrabul sources
of information, is discussed and mapped.—Notes on the
native flora of New South Wales, part i., the Tumbarumba
and Tumut districts: R. H. Cambage. These notes
comprise observations on the conspicuous vegetation of the
country between Wagga, Tumbarumba, Tumut, and
Gundagai during the drought of 1903, and serve to show
the striking differences between the flora of the low country
round Wagga (600 feet above sea-level) and that of Laurel
Hill or Bago, near Tumbarumba (about 3300 feet), where
the vegetation presents a recognisable Tasmanian facies.
NO. 1829, VOL. 71]
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, NovemseEr 17.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Air Resistance Encountered by Projectiles at
Velocities up to 4500 Feet per Second: A. Mallock, F.R.S.—Theory of
Amphoteric Electrolytes. Part II. : Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S.—Enhanced
Lines of Titanium, Iron, and Chromium in the Fraunhoferic Spectrum :
Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F. E. Baxandall.—On the
Group IV. Lines of Silicium: Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.,
and F. E. Baxandall.—The Electrical Conductivity and other Properties
of Sodium Hydroxide in Aqueous Solution, as Elucidating the Mechan-
ism of Conduction: W. R. Bousfield, K.C., M.P., and Dr. T. Martin
Lowry.—On the Wetting of Cotton by Water and by Water Vapour:
Prof. D. Orme Masson, F.R.S.
Linnean Society, at 8.—On the Structure of the Stems of Plants: Lord
Avebury, F.R.S.—Observations on Undescribed or Little Known Species
of Membracide : G. B. Buckton, F.R.S.
FRIDAY, NovemMBer 18.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Impact Tests on the
Wrought Steels of Commerce: A. E. Seaton and A. Jude.
EprIpEMIOLOGICAL SociETY, at 8.30.—The Inauguratory Address on the
Epidemiological Aspects of Industrial Diseases: the President, Dr.
Whitelegge, C.B.
TUESDAY, NovEMBER 22.
{nsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Distribution of Electrical
Energy: J. F. C. Snell.
WEDNESDAY, NoveEMBER 23.
GEoLocIcAL SociETy, at 8.—On an Ossiferous Cavern of Pleistocene Age
at Hoe Grange Quarry, Longcliffe, near Brassington, Derbyshire :
H. H. Arnold-Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R S.—The Superficial
Deposits and Pre-Glacial Valleys of the Northumberland and Durham
Coalfield : D. Woolacott.
Farapay Society, at 8.—Recent Investigations Bearing on the Theory
of Electrolytic Dissociation: Prof. L. Kahlenberg.—The Potential of
the Hydrogen-Oxygen Cell: F. J. Brislee.
Society or ARTS, at 8.—The Systematic Promotion of British Trade:
Ben. H. Morgan.
THURSDAY, NovemBER 24.
Roya Scciery, at 4.30.
CONTENTS.
The Theory of Continuous Groups.
Technological Chemistry.
The Transpiration of Plants.
Our Book Shelf :—
Miall: ‘‘ House, Garden, and Field; a Collection of
Short Nature Studies.",—R. L. . ...... 5 52
PAGE
By H. F. B. . 49
By C. Simmonds... . 50
By ED Sees
Hand: ‘‘Ideals of Science and Faith” .. .... 52
Beth : ‘* Die orientalische Christenheit der Mittelmeer-
Nandesyeemeetotr i of, sis sles eke tome ae my
“Tales of Sutton Town and Chase, with other Tales
and some Sketches” ... . 3. Bye es ae eS
Dewar: ‘‘ The Glamour of the Earth” . . 53
Stark : ‘‘ Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat und Elektronik” 53
Letters to the Editor :—
What is Brandy?—Dr. V. H. Veley, F.R.S.; Dr.
S\VASCHBVABE Yk <2 10-5. 5. 01 eee eo
The Origin of Life—Dr. F.J. Allen . ..... 54
Change in the Colour of Moss Agates.—C. Simmonds . 54
Chemical Analysis for Beginners.—F. Southerden . 54
Misuse of Words and Phrases.--T. B.S... .... 54
Reason in Dogs.—Arthur J. Hawkes... .... 54
Occurrence of a Tropical Form of Stick-Insect in
Devonshire.—Prof. Robert O. Cunningham .. 55
A Probable Variable of the Algol Type.—J. E. Gore 55
The Previous Examination at Cambridge ..... 55
The Exploration of the Transvaal. (J///ustraied.) By
Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole . Nee SS)
Our Museums. (J///ustrated.) By R. F.S. ..... 57
Dr. Frank McClean, F.R.S. By W.J.S.L..... 58
NOtES Dieu: eon ho em eer fo) eltan el SD
Our Astronomical Column :—
Encke’s Comet (1904 4). . PA 3 oe =
Deslandres’s Formula for the Lines in the Oxygen
IBanGgeeriesicn > fs.) ‘lees: ord en
Annual Report of the Cape Observatory. . .... . 63
The Transition from Primary to Secondary Spectra. . 63
New Buildings of the University of Liverpool. (///us-
trated.) puree 2 SEO, <2 a eS
Prof. Mendeleeff on the Chemical Elements .. . 65
Welsh Conference on the Training of Teachers. . . 66
Therapeutic Bacterial Inoculation. By B...... 67
Palzozoic Seed Plants. By E. A. N.Arber .... 68
AnthropologicaliNotes =. Si - speed ha)! renee
University and Educational Intelligence ...... 69
Societies;and/AcademieéS)\-)eucpem-ice-ase. ene
Diary Of SOciEueS: =. 0-7 stem gt eats Sete teursmny =
NATURE
= 2
ize)
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 24, 1904.
_ NATURDENKMALER
Die Gefiéhrdung der Naturdenkmialer und Vorschlage
su ihrer Erhaltung. By H. Conwentz. Pp. xii+
207. (Berlin: Borntraeger, 1904.) Price 2 marks.
EADERS may naturally ask, ‘‘ What is a Natur-
denkmal?’’ and, since the word is a com-
paratively new one to the German vocabulary, necessi-
tating its elucidation by the author even for German
readers, it may not be out of place if we explain its
meaning, as near as possible, in his own words. The
usual meaning of ‘‘ Denkmal” to the German mind
suggests a monument or memorial to commemorate
some famous personage or victory (for example,
Geethe-Denkmal, Sieges-Denkmal). But in addition
to this the title is often applied to outstanding works
in science, literature, music, &c. Further, the remains
of ancient buildings or works of art of whatever kind
which have a historical, technical, or educative value,
are spoken of as Bau- and Kunst-Denkmaler. Also
the term is applied to prehistoric remains, such as lake-
dwellings, burying mounds, urns, tools and weapons
of stone or metal; however, the author points out that
all those Denkméaler are of artificial origin, that is, the
result of man’s work and ingenuity. The term Natur-
denkmal has a wider application, and includes certain
results of nature’s handiwork, for example, the
elaborately carved stone obelisk is a Denkmal of recent
times, and the rough stone-block, erected by the hand
of man to commemorate the dead, forms a prehistoric
Denkmal; while the Glacial boulder, carried from afar
in a former epoch and deposited on the plain by natural
forces, forms a Denkmal of nature, or as the artificially
built up cairn and rampart wall of a former age may
form prehistoric Denkmiéaler, so the hill and mountain
range, formed without man’s intervention, are Denk-
maler of nature.
Also the whole natural landscape, with its various
soil formations, with its water courses and lakes, with
its special plant and animal communities, as well as
single rare species and individuals of the original flora
and fauna, represent ‘‘ Naturdenkmiler.’’ Although
only virgin lands, together with their plants and
animals undisturbed by man, should come within the
strict sense of the term, still we must here and there
allow a certain latitude in its application, because un-
disturbed localities.are scarcely to be found in many
of the modern cultured States. For example, any
striking feature in the landscape, even if it is a
deserted valley or village, must not be struck off the
list. Also a natural forest growth which, by self-
seeding, has followed the destruction of the original
forest by man, must also be reckoned a Naturdenkmal.
On the other hand, artificially planted trees, such as
are found in many villages, avenues, and parks, no
matter how interesting they may be, cannot be re- |
garded in the strict sense of the term as Naturdenk-
maler. In many cases the local conditions must be
taken into account in reckoning any natural pheno-
menon as a Denkmal, for example, a part of the forest |
| especially Italy.
which has remained unexploited by man (virgin forest)
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
or the still living representatives of a disappearing
species of plant or animal, is universally regarded as
a Naturdenkmal; but in other cases, according to the
country and locality, we find certain exceptions, for
example, in north Germany the traces of glaciers on
the rocks are among the greatest rarities, and must,
therefore, be regarded as Naturdenkmialer. But on the
coast of Scandinavia their occurrence in places is so
frequent that there they are no longer Naturdenkmaler.
In like manner the Cornel (Cornus Suecica) occurs in
a few localities in north-west Germany, and in the
east it is only found in one place, hence here it is a
Naturdenkmal; but in north Russia, Finland, Sweden,
&c., its occurrence is frequent over large areas, hence
there it is no longer a Naturdenkmal. Similar
examples may be given for many other plants and
birds. From the foregoing it will be seen that a
number of different factors determine whether a
natural object can be reckoned a Naturdenkmal or not,
and a decision can only be come to by taking the
surrounding conditions in each case into account.
The dangers which threaten those natural curiosities
and rarities are many, and the author devotes almost
one-half of the above memorial to an enumeration of
many cases where, through ignorance, indifference, or
natural causes, many unique Naturdenkmaler have
been considerably damaged, if not entirely destroyed.
As an example of the damage which may be done
through ignorance or indifference, the author points
out the way in which the most beautiful parts of the
forests, within reachable distance from Berlin, are
often rendered anything but attractive by the traces
which trippers and picnic parties so commonly leave
behind them. Frequently, also, the most beautiful
spots are disfigured by unsuitable and unattractive
buildings, principally for the accommodation of
visitors. The author also complains that many of the
most picturesque hill-tops are disfigured by monuments
and towers which are entirely out of harmony with
their beautiful, natural surroundings. Then, again,
the landscape is subjected to considerable disfiguration
by the many devices employed by the advertising agent.
Those in high authority are themselves not always
free from blame. In one of the German Federated
States it was at one time proposed that, in order to
preserve the banks and channels of the water-courses,
all trees and shrubs should be removed from the sides
of brooks and streams. This movement was, how-
ever, happily frustrated, otherwise not only the
esthetic features of the landscape would have been
entirely destroyed, but also many plant and animal
communities would also have disappeared.
The author then brings a long list of charges against
tourists and visitors, showing how in many places
characteristic plants of the coast and mountains have
been almost entirely rooted out. The so-called sports-
man, too, is responsible for the wanton destruction of
many song-birds in certain parts of the Continent,
The author further mentions the
extremely regrettable manner in which the reindeer,
now confined to Spitsbergen, Nova Zembla, Greenland,
| Siberia, &c., is systematically hunted and wantonly
destroyed in the name of sport. Two cases are
mentioned where well educated people in high posi-
E
74
tions organised expeditions to the native haunts of
the reindeer, where in one or two days more than 100
head were killed, and the greater number of them
allowed to lie and rot on the ground. The author
further gives a long list of birds which are threatened
with extinction unless something is done for their pre-
servation. The dangers to which Naturdenkmaler are
exposed through the drainage and reclamation of lands,
utilisation of water-power, stone-quarries, exploitation
of moors for peat, &c., also the dangers of scientific
forestry, leading to the disappearance of all the virgin
forest, the uprooting of certain plants for commercial
purposes, trapping of birds for cages, and collecting
by ornithologists, are too numerous to mention in
detail.
Around the ever-increasing centres of industry in
Germany the pollution of air and water is becoming
greater every day, with the result that plant and
animal communities, as well as the whole natural land-
scape, are undergoing a rapid and radical change,
which is necessarily accompanied by the disappearance
of rare and valuable Naturdenkmialer. The proposals
put forward by the author for their preservation occupy
the larger part of the book. Generally speaking, they
fall into three groups, viz. :—making a record of the
various Naturdenkmaler for the different States
throughout the Empire; providing for their protection
in the various places; and making them generally
known. In carrying out these proposals, it is
necessary that the Government should take an active
part by the passing of certain laws and allowing the
active cooperation of different officials in the various
departments. Also communities, societies, and private
individuals are called upon to lend their aid. The
various details in this proposed organisation for the
protection of nature’s ‘‘monuments’’ seem quite
reasonable and eminently practical, but with laudable
modesty the author does not insist that they should
be accepted in their entirety. He puts them forward
more as a working basis, the details of which may be
subject to alteration from time to time as experience
and trial should suggest. He is, however, confident
that the time will come when the ‘‘ monuments ”’ of
nature will receive the same care and reverence as that
which has for long been bestowed upon the monu-
ments of early art and civilisation.
PRINCIPLES OF FUEL COMBUSTION.
Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy. By Wm. H.
Booth and John B. C. Kershaw. Pp. 194.
(London : Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1904.)
Price 6s, net.
| fe the preface the authors state their object to be
the ‘‘ bringing before the fuel using public the
principles of fuel combustion,’’ more especially in re-
lation to the smoke question and the economic use
of fuel. They express their belief in the possibility of
burning bituminous coal perfectly, and that black
smoke is merely so much evidence of improper design. |
“Both on humanitarian and economic grounds its sup-
pression is called for.”
The general principles are clearly stated, and a brief
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 24, 1904
description of selected types of furnace arrangement,
stokers, &c., illustrated by good diagrams, makes the
whole a useful compilation. It cannot be claimed that
any addition has been made to our general knowledge
of the subject, for the importance of proper air supply,
perfect mixing of the gases and air for combustion,
the maintenance of a sufficiently high temperature for
unchecked combustion, and other points have long been
recognised in books dealing with boiler management.
Smoke, in fact, is possibly not so much the result of
ignorance as of conservatism and false economy.
The book contains many statements in reference to
water-tube boilers which few who have had practical
knowledge of their working will altogether agree with.
Thus ‘‘ when moderately worked, some degree of
safety, or at least a danger much less than attached to
the discarded Howard boiler.’’ Surely the rapid adop-
tion of boilers of this type in the large electric light-
ing and power stations, engineering works, &c., is a
sufficient answer to this.
After a reference to the development and satisfactory
working of water-tube boilers with anthracite coals
in America, the authors refer to the same boilers being
erected in this country to burn bituminous coal, and
“being set exactly as in America, the results have
been hopelesly bad, and the present smoke of London
is due to this boiler more than anything else’? (p. 19).
It cannot be denied that the total sum paid in fines
for permitting smoke from steam plant of this type
has been fairly large, but does the total number of
water-tube boilers in London, many of them giving
grand results, bear any large proportion to boilers of
the old pattern, in spite of the rapid adoption of the
former in recent years? The statement we print in
italics is far too sweeping and altogether unjustified.
As the authors point out, in many cases boilers,
presumably those in which the tubes are more nearly
horizontal than vertical, were often set too near the
fire, so that combustion was checked by the chilling
action of the tubes; but this certainly does not apply
to another type of water-tube boiler in use where the
tubes are more nearly vertical than horizontal, for here
ample combustion space is provided. Several excellent
furnace arrangements are described and _ illustrated
which provide for the maintenance of a high tempera-
ture until combustion is complete with these boilers,
including the excellent one due to Mr. Miller.
Engineers, however, do not seem very favourably dis-
posed to much firebrick in the furnace, for it is not
| easy to ensure its standing the high temperature for
any length of time, and water-tube boiler makers rather
fight shy of such arrangements owing to the excessive
heating of the lower tiers of tubes. ;
Closely connected with this question is that of the
chain grate. As mentioned by the authors, this
practically fell into disuse until the advent of the water-
| tube boiler resuscitated it, and yet we find the state-
ment ‘‘ it (the chain grate) must fail under the straight
ascending flow of the usual setting of the water-tube
boiler.’? Everything turns on the usual setting.
| There must be a number of unusual settings about, or
it is not easy to understand why this grate has been
so extensively adopted for these boilers. Certain it is
NOvEMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE
75
that with no further elaboration of the furnace than
.a short firebrick arch at the fore-part (illustrated in
Fig. 15) they will perform their work very efficiently,
and with practically no smoke when using a bitu-
minous coal. i
A chapter is devoted to the chemistry of the com-
bustion process. In referring to the hydrogen in fuels,
the statement occurs, “‘it is generally assumed to be
present combined with carbon to form hydrocarbons.
The most important of these for the fuel user are
“methane, ethylene and acetylene.’’ A small amount
of at least the first may be present in coal, but are we
to assume the authors to mean that these are the
important hydrocarbons existing in the coal before it
has been heated ?
In view of Bone’s work (mentioned in a short foot-
note) it is a pity the authors did not revise their theory
to account for the formation of smoke, seeing that the
book was not published until a twelvemonth after Bone
and Wheeler’s paper appeared in the Journal of the
Chemical Society (August, 1903), and Armstrong’s
paper in the same number, in which it is definitely
stated ‘neither hydrogen nor carbon being burnt
preferentially.”’ Iles Ss 18
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS.
New School Arithmetic. Part ii. By Charles Pendle-
bury, assisted by F. E. Robinson. Pp. vi+207 to
468+xliv. (London: George Bell and Sons, 1904.)
Price 2s. 6d.
New School Arithmetic. By Charles Pendlebury,
assisted by F. E. Robinson. Pp. xvii+468+xliv.
(London : George Bell and Sons, 1904.) Price 4s. 6d.
New School Examples in Arithmetic. By C. Pendle-
bury, assisted by F. E. Robinson. Pp. xiii+223+
xliv. (London: George Bell and Sons, 1904.)
Price 3s.
A School: Geometry. Part vi.. By H. S. Hall and
F. H. Stevens. Pp. iv+347 to 442+iv. (London:
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 1s. 6d.
Theoretical Geometry for Beginners. Part iv. By
C. H. Allcock. Pp. 224. (London: Macmillan and
Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 1s. 6d.
Elementary Plane Geometry. By V. M. Turnbull.
Pp. vi+136. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.,
1904.) Price 2s.
Mathematical Problem Papers. By the Rev. E. M.
Radford. Pp. vi+203. (Cambridge: University
Press, 1904.) Price 4s. 6d. net.
ART II. of Messrs. Pendlebury and Robinson’s
“New School Arithmetic” has followed quickly
on the publication of part i., and this excellent text-
book is now complete. The second part is concerned
mainly with the application of arithmetic to the trans-
actions of commerce, dealing with such subjects as
interest, discount, commission, stocks and shares, profit
and loss, &c. Ratio and proportion find a place, and
they are illustrated largely by this class of problem.
The authors devote a little space to the training of
youths in computations suitable to experimental work
in the laboratory. Thus we find that algebraical
symbols are freely introduced, and chapters are given
NO. 1830, voL 71]
on averages, approximations, graphs, elementary
mensuration, and logarithms. This portion of the
book might well have been extended even at the
expense, if necessary, of some of the chapters relating
to purely business matters. But the subjects treated
are very numerous, affording considerable ground
for selection, and many teachers will no doubt, and
with advantage, omit some of the technical com-
mercial chapters. At every stage examples are
introduced in great abundance, the answers to
which extend to nearly fifty pages. The book con-
cludes with a collection of test papers, and a large
number of miscellaneous problems. Parts i. and ii.
are published separately, and also in one volume. The
examples and answers may also be obtained without
the other text. Altogether the book is one that de-
serves, and will no doubt obtain, an extended
circulation.
With the issue of part vi. of Messrs. Hall and
Stevens’s ‘‘ School Geometry,” this popular text-book
must now be nearing its completion. The present
section corresponds, substantially, with Euclid, Book
Xi., I-21, and it further deals with the mensuration o£
the simpler geometrical solids. In establishing the
theorems of pure solid geometry, the authors follow
Euclid rather closely, but there are some useful addi-
tions. Thus it is shown how a point in space is located
by means. of rectangular coordinates; but it is not
shown how position and form may be exhibited
graphically by means of projections. In dealing with
areas and volumes, elementary trigonometry is used.
The prismoidal formula is also introduced, but its value
is scarcely made sufficiently manifest, and it is not
shown how to deal approximately with irregularly
shaped figures, by means of Simpson’s or other rules.
The book is printed in very distinct type, and the
figures and diagrams are beautifully designed and
executed. The subject-matter is presented and de-
veloped in the clear and attractive style which is always
found in the authors’ text-books, and is illustrated by
well chosen examples.
Part iv. of Mr. Allcock’s ‘* Theoretical Geometry for
Beginners ’’ treats, in the first instance, of ratio and
proportion, with geometrical applications. The pro-
positions correspond roughly with Euclid, Book vi.,
but the style of proof is different. The reader is first
introduced to the conception of ratio and proportion by
means of numerical and algebraical examples, and his
knowledge of arithmetic and algebra is drawn upon
in establishing some preliminary theorems, which are
subsequently used in demonstrating the various
theorems. The latter half of the book is devoted to
modern geometry, including chapters on harmonic
pencils, the complete quadrilateral, poles and polars,
centres of similitude, inversion, maxima and minima,
and envelopes. Some numerical examples are given
at intervals, but, as the title implies, the propositions
and the exercises thereon are almost entirely confined
to deductive geometry, and from this point of view the
treatment is eminently satisfactory. The book is got
up and printed in a way that leaves nothing to be
desired.
The ‘‘ Elementary Plane Geometry ’’? by Mr. Turn-
26
NATURE
bull is intended for youths who have already had a
course of experimental geometry, and is almost entirely
devoted to demonstrative geometry. It is divided into
four sections, dealing respectively with triangles and
quadrilaterals, circles, areas, and with ratio, propor-
tion, and similar figures. Most of the propositions
contained in the volume belong to Euclid, but the
author has allowed himself that freedom of treatment
that is now happily prevalent. The book shows no
conspicuous merits such as would render its general
use either likely or desirable.
In the volume by the Rev. E. M. Radford, the
author has compiled and arranged a hundred test or
examination papers, each containing twelve problems;
a large number of the latter are stated to be original,
and many are taken by permission from published
examination papers. The collection is ‘‘ intended
primarily for the use of candidates for mathematical
entrance scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge,’’ and
the subjects on which problems are set comprise ‘“‘ pure
geometry, algebra, trigonometry, analytical conics,
and elementary mechanics,’’ with the addition in the
last fifty papers of elementary theory of equations and
elementary differential calculus. The book will no
‘doubt prove useful to the class of student for whom
it is intended, but the problems show no sign what-
ever of having been influenced by the reform in the
teaching of mathematics which is now in progress.
“The author hopes shortly to publish a volume of solu-
“tions, and this will be very acceptable to teachers who
mmay use the work.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde. Charakteristik der in
Mitteleuropa heimischen und im Freien angep-
flanzten angiospermen Geholz-Arten und Formen
mit Ausschluss der Bambuseen und Kakteen. By
Camillo Karl Schneider. Erste Lieferung, pp. 160;
Zweite Lieferung, pp. 161-304. (Jena: Gustav
Fischer, 1904.) Price 4 marks for each Lieferung.
THESE two parts form the commencement of a work
intended to render possible the identification of the
hardy species of angiospermous trees and shrubs in-
digenous to, or cultivated in, Central Europe. Such
a work invites comparison with Koehne’s well known
book on the same subject rather than with the more
comprehensive descriptive works by Koch and Dippel.
From the first named it differs in the vastly greater
number of illustrations, and in the fuller details given
regarding the characters of buds and twigs. These
additional details contained in Schneider’s book go far
towards removing the uncertainty of diagnosis involved
in the provisional identification by means of the dicho-
tomous keys employed throughout the work. The
present Lieferungen, dealing with the Salicacez,
Myricaceze, Betulaceze, Fagacez, Ulmacez, Moracez,
Urticaceze, Santalaceze, Loranthacez, Aristolochiacez,
Polygonacee, Chenopodiaceze, Phytolaccaceze, Caryo-
phyllacee, Trochodendraceze, Ranunculacez, Lardiza-
balacez, and some species of Berberis, nominally
include 197 illustrations, but in reality contain
quite 2000 figures of buds, twigs, leaves, in-
florescences, flowers, fruits, and their parts. In
addition, the free use of abbreviations and of small
print has rendered possible the condensation into small
NO. 1830, VOL. 71}
[NovEMBER 24, 1904
compass of much information concerning not only
diagnostic characters of species, varieties, and forms,
but also concerning their nomenclature, distribution,
and phenology. To illustrate the method of treatment
adopted by the author, Populus alba may be selected
from the twenty-three species of Populus considered
in this work. Three varieties of this tree are
sufficiently described as regards their distinctive
features; figures are given of resting-buds, twigs and
their transverse sections, four forms of leaves, flowers,
seed, embryo, and seedling; information is tendered
as to the times of flowering, of flushing of the vege-
tative buds, and of fruiting, also as to the germin-
ation, distribution, and age attained by this species;
and finally hybrids including this species are noted.
In so thorough a work it is exceedingly difficult to
avoid making statements not universally applicable,
but the solitary one that the reviewer has observed is
to the effect that Carpinus Betulus has a trunk with a
light grey coating of cork. The work may be strongly
recommended to all engaged in the study of dicoty-
ledonous woody plants growing in the open in this
country. Percy Groom.
The Cancer Problem in a Nutshell. By Robert Bell,
M.D. Pp. 39. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and
Cox, 1904.) Price 1s. net.
Dr. BELL in this pamphlet ascribes the development
of malignant disease to a withdrawal of some con-
trolling influence exerted by the thyroid gland upon the
cells of the body, caused by some toxic state of the
blood. He therefore advocates the administration of
thyroid gland or of its active principle in the treatment
of the disease, and claims to have obtained successful
results. Little or no evidence is given in support of
these views, and since malignant disease occasionally,
though unfortunately rarely, undergoes spontaneous
cure, the apparent success of any form of medical treat-
ment has to be carefully controlled before such a result
can be admitted. Dr. Bell’s suggestions for the pre-
vention of malignant disease may be of some value.
1B ite del
Photography on Tour. Pp. 132. (London: Published
for the Photogram, Ltd., by Dawbarn and Ward,
Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. net.
In these pages, the sizes of which are only 32 inches
by 42 inches, we have a number of useful hints and
instructions which are well worth an amateur’s time
to read. When the photographer is away from his
base, and has to invent all sorts of makeshifts, he may
find many a useful wrinkle given here for which he
may later be very thankful. The author seems to have
brought into a very small compass a great deal of in-
formation covering a wide field, and this pocket book
for the touring photographer should serve a useful
purpose.
The Story without an End. From the German of
Carové. By Sarah Austin. Illustrated by Paul
Henry. Pp. vii + 77. (London: Duckworth and
Co.) Price 1s. 6d. net.
In this allegory a child is introduced to the beauties
of plants, birds, insects, and other forms and aspects
of nature. It pleases children to imagine themselves
in close communion with inanimate nature, and they
have no difficulty in endowing all the objects around
them with human attributes. Poetic feelings, and
sympathetic interest in plant and animal life, are
appealed to by this daintily bound and gracefully illus-
trated contribution to literature.
NoveMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE 97
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return. or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTuRE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
On the Origin of Flagellate Monads and of Fungus-
germs from Minute Masses of Zooglea.
BACTERIAL scums are exceedingly common in ditches and
ponds, nature’s laboratories, and it is a matter of much
importance to know what goes on therein. Some light may
be thrown upon this subject by making infusions or macer-
ations from cut fragments of various plants, and then ex-
amining, at different periods, the scum or pellicle that
forms on such fluids. What I have now to say will refer
almost exclusively to infusions made from hay. The hay
employed may be either fresh or old, but it does not do to
substitute for hay mere unripe grasses. I have elsewhere
shown how remarkably different are the products derivable
from liying unripe grasses and from ordinary hay.’
In making such an infusion I have been accustomed to
cut the hay into short pieces, to place these in a little beaker,
and then to add water so as well to cover the fragments.
After maceration for three or four hours at a temperature
of about 86° F. (30° C.), the infusion has been filtered
through two or three layers of the finest Swedish filtering
paper into another small beaker. In this way all but the
smaliest particles, 1/12,000 of an inch or thereabout, will
be excluded. For observation of the changes now to be
described it is best that the bacterial scum, which soon forms
on the surface of the fluid, should be very thin, therefore
the depth of the fluid ought not to be more than about one
and a half inches—though if’one is seeking to make out
the origin of ciliated Infusoria infusions of greater depth
should be employed in order that a fairly thick pellicle may
form.
When such an infusion is kept under a bell-jar (to exclude
dust) at a temperature of about 65° F. (18° C.), the pale
sherry-coloured fluid in less than twenty-four hours becomes
lighter in colour and very turbid. Soon a scum, almost in-
visible, begins to form on the surface, composed of several
different kinds of bacteria, and in about thirty-six hours
small Zoogloea masses of the most varied sizes and shapes
begin to appear therein. In Fig. 1, A, a portion of such
a scum is shown as it appeared at the end of the third day
on a hay infusion in which the masses of Zooglaa were
exceptionally numerous. The portion of this scum here
represented had been transferred on the tip of a sterilised
scalpel to a drop of a dilute solution of eosin, which stained
the surrounding bacteria a pale red tint, but left the
Zoogloea masses unstained, so that they were rendered very
distinct. Had logwood been used the results would have
been reversed—that is, the Zoogloea areas would have been
- more or less deeply stained, while the surrounding bacteria
would have remained unstained.
Examination of one of these masses with a high power
will show its constitution, and reveal the fact that we have
to do with an aggregation of separate bacteria imbedded
in a jelly-like material. This may be seen from Fig. 1, B,
which shows a highly magnified portion of one of the
Zoogleea masses from the same pellicle after it had been
immersed in a drop of a weak solution of Ehrlich’s eosino-
phyle fluid, which stained the surrounding bacteria a
yellow tint, while it left the Zoogloea mass unstained. The
slightly altered bacteria within the Zoogloea mass are at
this early stage plainly to be seen, though later on they
become more or less obscured by reason of progressive
molecular changes taking place in the mass during its
subsequent transformation.
Some of these Zoogloea masses are destined ultimately
to be converted into numbers of flagellate Monads or of
Amoebze, while others become resolved into heaps of Fungus-
germs. I have found it impossible to tell from the mere
microscopical appearance of the Zooglaea masses whether
they are destined ultimately to yield Monads or Fungus-
germs. The latter transformation is undoubtedly by far
the commoner of the two, and when I was working for
many months at this subject during 1899 I was unable to
1 “Studies in Heterogenesis,”’ p. 87 (1904).
NO. 1830, vor. 71]
find any good specimens, capable of being photographed,
showing the conversion of Zoogloea masses into Monads,
although I many times saw and photographed Monads
originating from the pellicle as discrete motionless cor-
puscles—especially when the infusions were kept at a
temperature of about 72° F. (22° C.).' But one day last
month, on October 19, desiring to make certain observ-
ations, I made a weak infusion from a portion of a small
handful of hay gathered in Norway more than two months.
previously, which had since been kept in a small cardboard
box. The infusion was prepared and filtered in the manner
already indicated, and divided into two portions: one, which
we may name A, being placed in a small open beaker and
left beneath a bell-jar at the end of the mantelpiece in my
study; while the other (a very small portion), which we
may name B, was put into a small half-ounce earthenware
pot, over which the cover was placed. The two specimens
of the infusion, covered and uncovered, were then left side-
by side beneath the bell-jar, so that the temperature to
which they were exposed might be as nearly as possible
similar. Some of the changes in the scums that formed om
the surface of these fluids are now to be described.
Origin of Flagellate Monads from Minute Masses of
Zoo gloea.
A. When examined fifty-one hours after the time of
filtration the scum on this infusion was found to be very
thickly crowded with small masses of Zoogloea varying
much in shape and actual ‘size, as shown in Fig. 1, A.
Fic. r.—A, Zooglaca masses in the scum on a hay infusion (x 100) ; B
A portion of one of these masses showing the contained bacteria (x soc)
In the course of the fourth day very many of the smallest
masses were seen to be undergoing segmentation into small
motionless ‘spherical bodies, while multitudes of active
flagellate Monads of the same size were for the first time
seen in the fluid and in the midst of the portion of the scum
under examination. When a similar examination had been
made twelve hours previously not a single Monad was seen ;
now there were swarms of them, and all were of about the
same size.
In Fig. 2, A (x500), some of these small masses are
shown together with their contained bacteria; B (X375)
shows a number of the small masses undergoing segment-
ation; while C (x700) shows one of these bodies more
highly magnified, in which the segmentation into embryo
Monads, still in a motionless condition, is almost complete.
In the course of the next day the Monads were found
in prodigious numbers. They were spherical or ovoidal in
shape, and provided with a single flagellum about twice
the length of the body. Under a high power a nucleus
could be distinctly seen, generally surrounded by a circle
of very minute granules. In addition, two or three larger
granules were to be seen—one of them, larger and more
highly refractive than the others, being often present in the
1 “Studies in Heterogenesis,” pp. 69-73, Figs. 53-55-
78
NATURE
[NovEMBER 24, 1904
posterior half of the body of the organism, and there show-
ing faint oscillations. Numbers of the Monads that were
aggregated between three small contiguous air bubbles are
shown in Fig. 2, D (x125), as they appeared under a low
power of the microscope. Many of them were in active
Fic. 2.—A. Small Zoogloea masses from the hay infusion (x soo); B, Other
of these masses undergving segmentation (575); C, One such mass
the segmentation of which is nearly complete (700); D, Monads
derived from products of segmentation (125).
movement and are not shown, but those that were stationary
were photographed by a very brief exposure. I found it
impossible to photograph these particular Monads under a
high power because they were mixed up with active bacteria,
and were themselves very delicate in texture. The move-
ments of these bacteria could not be arrested except by a
Fic. 3.—A, Portion of pellicle taken from the pot (x 500) ; B, Small Zoogloea
masses about to seginent ( x 50x »); C, Small Zooglaza masses which have
undergone complete segmentation ( 500).
comparatively strong osmic acid solution, or by exposure
to the vapour of a 1 per cent. solution for more than half
a minute, and in either case the result was to make the
Monads almost invisible, if it did not cause their complete
diffluence.
NO. 1830. VOL. 71]
B. The closed pot was not opened until the end of the
fifth day, and I then found the surface of the infusion
covered with a very thin, scarcely perceptible film of
bacteria, which on microscopical examination was seen to
be densely crowded with very minute Zoogloea masses such
as are shown in Fig. 3, A (x500). Not a single Monad
was to be seen, but many of the masses were found to be
about to segment as in B, or actually segmenting as in C,
into a number of motionless spherical corpuscles.
During six subsequent days I uncovered the pot for a
moment to take up on the tip of a sterilised scalpel a portion
of the scum for examination, and on each occasion found
the minute Zoogloea masses presenting similar characters,
except that day by day a rather larger number of them
showed evidences of segmentation, though not a single
active Monad was to be seen.
The Zooglcea masses formed in the dark, and in a com-
paratively airless pot, were not only different in character
from those formed in the open vessel, but it would seem that
their process of change was slower and was in part arrested
by the opening of the pot, since after eleven days there
was still not a single active Monad to be seen, though in
the open vessel swarms of them were found during the
fourth day.’ This arrest of the process of change recalls
the similar arrest which was always found to occur when
the pot was opened in which Hydatina eggs were being
transformed into ciliated Infusoria of the genus Otostoma.*
It so happened that on the very day that I first observed
the segmentation of the small Zooglaea masses in A I had
->), TES 0h. el
oR At
ARE
Fic. 4.—A, Minute ‘Zoogloea. masses in various stages of change (X5c0) ;
B One of these masses in which segmentation has been nearly com-
pleted (x 700).
on my work-table under a bell-jar a small petri dish in
which a tuft of dead lichen had been soaking for a few
days in distilled water. There was a very thin scum here
and there on the surface of this water, and on examining
a portion of it I was surprised to find that it also was
crowded with small Zooglcea masses, many of which were
apparently in different stages of segmentation into Monads,
though the majority of them showed no signs of segment-
ation. Being busy with what seemed at the time to be
the more important A infusion, I did not examine this new
scum again until after the expiration of two days, and then
I found crowds of active Monads, and all the Zooglcea
masses now in different stages of segmentation such as
are shown in Fig. 4, A (x500). The only portion of an
unaltered mass that I could find is seen on the left hand
side of this figure, contiguous to the black speck. In
the two days all the small Zooglcea masses had either
1 Examinations of the scum taken from the pot have since been made at
intervals during another week and still, up to the eighteenth day, not a
single Monad has been met with, though very many of the small Zoogloea
masses have been found segmenting into pale brown Fungus-germs. But
nine days ago (in order to test the question whether th= premature opening
of the pot had caused an arrest of the formation of Monads) | made another
similar infusion from the same hay, and placed some of it in another small
half-ounce pot, which was opened for the first time to-day. In the first
portion of the scum obtained from this second pot I found swarms of active
Monads, and also heaps of the small brown Fungus-germs resulting from the
segmentation of other of the Zooglaza masses.—Novemiber 14.
2 “Studies in Heterogenesis,” pp. 49-51, and xiv.
NOVEMBER 24, 1904]
become converted into Monads. or altered in a more or less
irregular manner. I attempted to stain some of the masses
with a dilute solution of gentian violet. One of these, in
which segmentation is pretty. complete, is shown in
B (x700), while the scattered products of another mass are
NATURE
F . * : |
Fic. 5.—A, Products of segmentation stained, and appearing as minute
spherical nucleated cells (x g00); B, Monads in a resting stage (x 700).
shown in Fig. 5, A (Xgo00), after they had been lightly
stained with Westphall’s mastzellen’ fluid. In _ this
embryonic condition the future Monads are’seen as spherical
nucleated cells, either single or in pairs. - Some of the
Fic. 6.—A, Monads developed from Zooglaza masses in a hay infusion
(500); B, Amcebe stained with logwood, from an egg and water
emulsion (xX 200) ; C, Amcebz originating in the scum from an egg and
water emulsion (x 125).
Monads which were found a few days later in a motionless,
resting condition, are shown in B (x 700).
On other occasions I had been a little more successful
in photographing Monads produced from Zoogloea areas in
a hay infusion. Thus Fig. 6, A (Xx 500), shows some such
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
|
79
Monads, found on the third day, which had been developed
from discrete corpuscles, and which were rendered motion-
less by a very weak osmic acid solution. These discrete
corpuscles, as well as the motionless corpuscles derived from
the segmentation of Zoogloea masses, sometimes become
converted into Amoebz rather than into Monads. What
the conditions are that favour this particular change I have
Fic. 7.-—A Zoogloea mass undergoing change (x 375).
been unable to ascertain, though I know that in rare cases
swarms of minute Amoebze rather than Monads appear in
this way in hay infusions. The production of swarms of
minute Amoebz is, however, the rule in the pellicle that
forms on an emulsion made by pouring about eight ounces
of water on a teaspoonful of mixed white and yolk of egg.
Such Ameebe, slightly stained with logwood, are shown in
Fig. 6, B (X200), taken from a pellicle on the seventeenth
day, while in C (x125) they are seen, as I believe, origin-
ating in another egg and water emulsion on the eighteenth
day, in the midst of irregular clumps of bacteria. These
aggregates of bacteria had been noticed for several days,
but when first observed not a single Amoeba had, up to this
time, been seen either in them or in the surrounding
Fic. 8.—Portion of a Zooglaza mass about to segment (x 500).
fluid. Then there were appearances as though changes
were taking place within the aggregates, followed in two
or three days by the presence of swarms of minute sluggish
Amoebe around, and issuing from, the bacterial aggregates,
as shown in the figure under a low magnification.
In reference to the occurrence of these swarms of minute
Amoebz, I may say that I have never seen one of them
multiply by fission, and certainly their vast numbers are
not to be accounted for in this way. I make these remarks
concerning Amcebze without pretending that what I have
here said in regard to them is quite conclusive, or in any
80
way comparable to the convincing evidence above adduced
concerning the heterogenetic origin of Monads from the
transformation of Zoogloea masses—a transformation in
which we have vegetal organisms giving rise to animal
organisms of a totally different kind, though between these
two forms of life no relation of kinship has ever been
admitted, or even suspected, by the great majority of
biologists.
Origin of Fungus-germs from Masses of Zoogloea.
It has seemed to me, as I have said, impossible to say
from the mere microscopical characters of the masses of
Zoogloea whether they are likely to yield Monads or Fungus-
germs. It will be observed, however, that in the three
cases to which I have just referred the masses giving rise
to embryo Monads have all been small, and that they have
tended to go through their metamorphoses with some
rapidity.
It is certain, however, that the great majority of the
farger Zooglcea masses tend rather to produce Fungus-
germs of one or other kind, and to go through their changes
at a slower rate. These statements may be illustrated by
a record of the changes taking place in the larger Zoogloea
masses that were found in great abundance in the pellicle
forming on infusion A. These larger masses of Zooglcea,
and also all the later changes which I am now about to
Fic. 9.—Development of small brown Fungus-germs from a mass of Zoogicea
(X 500).
describe, were, however, wholly absent from the pellicle on
infusion B, up to the eleventh day.’
Where the changes occur to which I would now direct
attention the Zoogloea masses gradually become larger and
much more refractive, while they also stain much more
deeply with logwood, gentian violet, or other of the aniline
dyes. At the same time the constituent bacteria, which
are so very distinct in the early stages, seem to become
enlarged and gradually more or less hidden as the mole-
cular changes taking place in the mass increase. One of
these aggregates in this refractive, glistening stage, which
was found and photographed on the fifth day, is shown in
Fig. 7 (X375).
The next stage of change is revealed by distinct indica-
tions of segmentation beginning to show themselves through
the mass, such as may be seen in Fig. 8 (x 500), which
represents a portion of a large Zoogloeaa mass that was
found on the sixth day. This condition may persist for
several days, but occasionally further changes occur
rapidly, as may be seen by Fig. 9 (x500), showing a
portion of another large Zoogloea mass found on the seventh
day, in which minute ovoid germs of different sizes are
1 See note on p. 78
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 24, 1904
separating from the mass, and at the same time assuming
a brown colour. This change was proceeding more rapidly
at the edge of the mass; but further in, as may be seen
in the upper portion of the figure, the mass shows more
of the appearance to be seen in Fig. 8. Although the germs
seem to separate from the metamorphosed Zoogloea mass
as bodies of varying size, I think there can be no doubt that
some of the separate units subsequently increase distinctly in
Fic. 10.—A portion of the brown mycelium ( 125).
size—though whether they undergo segmentation is not so
clear. On the following day numerous heaps of brown
lungus-germs were found derived from these Zooglcea
masses, forming clusters so thick and dense that their con-
stituents could only be shown by pressing upon the cover
glass firmly and thus breaking up the masses of germs.
Portions of such a broken up mass are represented in
Fig. 11, A (xX 500).
As a rule, these bodies show little tendency to germinate,
Fic. 11.—A, Heterogenetic Fungus-germs (x 500): B, Acrospores produced
from, the mycelium (x 500).
but occasionally they do so, and two or three masses of
mycelium to which they had given rise (also of a brown
colour) were found on the eighth day. One of them had
sent a hypha above the surface, and there produced a great
number of ovoid acrospores having a bluish-black appear-
ance. Some of the mycelium is shown in Fig. 1o (X 125),
while the acrospores are represented in Fig. 11, B (xX 500)
NOVEMBER 24, 1904 |
NATURE
81
It will be noted that the acrospores are comparatively uni-
form in size, and are wholly different from the extremely
variable brown Fungus-germs produced from the Zoogloea
masses.
What has just been illustrated is only one of the ways
in which Fungus-germs are produced in the pellicle from
Zooglcea masses. Anyone working at this subject will have
no difficulty in recognising many other modes in which
they originate. Sometimes the germs separate from the
Zoogloea masses as colourless units, and then take on an
almost black colour before they begin to germinate, as in
the specimen shown in Fig. 12, which was taken on the
twelfth day from another pellicle on a hay infusion.
I have frequently found that these heterogenetic Fungus-
germs are small ovoid bodies with one, or sometimes two,
nuclear particles such as may be seen in this case, and
also in some of the small brown units shown in Fig. 9.
It is interesting, moreover, to find that the immediate pro-
ducts of segmentation which are about to develop into
flagellate Monads present, except for their spherical shape,
very similar characters, as may be seen by reference to
Fig. 5, A.
It seems to me impossible to doubt that we have in the
processes which I have just described definite instances of
heterogenesis. The fact of the individualisation and the
segmentation of these Zoogloea masses cannot be denied.
It is plain, indeed, that from such aggregates of bacteria,
by common consent regarded as belonging to the vegetal
kingdom, we have the production of typical animal
organisms, and that, as I have said, no kinship between
fic. 12.—Heterogenetic Fungus germs becoming black and germinating
(X 500).
bacteria and flagellate Monads has ever been recognised, or
even suspected, by the great majority of biologists; and,
though it cannot be said that there is the same lack of
kinship between bacteria and Moulds, it can certainly be
said that the majority of biologists have never suspected
any such relation between these two forms of life as that
which has now been made known.
I care little what names may be given to the bacteria,
though I am certain that many different varieties are prone
to form zoogleeal aggregates, and to go through one or
other variety of such changes as have just been described.
Being much interested with these processes that go on
in nature, and under more or less natural conditions, I have
been familiar with such phenomena for more than a gener-
ation*; but although they were made known so long ago
I am not aware that any bacteriologist in Europe, America
or elsewhere has ever repeated my observations. Bacterio-
logists to whom I have personally mentioned the subject
have, with only one exception, shown not the least desire
to examine specimens or to follow up the inquiry. They
seem wedded to their strict laboratory methods, and seem-
ingly prefer to have dealings with nothing but pure cultures
and sterilised media. I do not deny for a moment the
1 See Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1872, vol. xx. p. 239.
No. 1830, VOL. 71]
enormous increase of knowledge, and the benefit which has
accrued to the human race, from their studies, but should
like to see a little more toleration displayed for those who
prefer to work in a different way, and strive to find out
what goes on under more natural conditions—undeterred
by the much talked of but much over-rated risk of ** in-
fection.”’ Assuredly, in the future, much of what is now
ascribed to ‘‘ infection ’’ will be differently regarded as the
‘origin of species’? by heterogenesis becomes more and
more known.
If such processes as have just been described are con-
tinually going on in nature, but are not to be met with in
the laboratories of bacteriologists, it should make us hesi-
tate to repudiate a natural origin of living matter at the
present day simply because undoubted proof of its occur-
rence cannot be produced by laboratory experiments. If it
occurred in the past the law of Continuity would lead us
to expect that it has been continually occurring ever since,
and, as I said in my letter of November ro, “‘ if the origin
of living matter takes place by the generation in suitable
fluids of the minutest particles gradually appearing from
the region of the invisible, such a process may be occurring
everywhere in nature’s laboratories, though altogether
beyond the ken of man.” H. Cuartton BastTIAN.
The Temperature of Meteorites. eo
Durinc the early part of the year 1901, when I was on
the staff of the Elswick Works, it occurred to me that it
would be useful and interesting if a connection could be
made between the conditions of the flight of artillery shells
and of meteorites. Later in the same year I made a pre-
liminary mathematical investigation into the matter, and as
a result a paper on the temperature of meteorites was sent
in as an essay to compete for the Smith prizes at Cambridge.
It was distinguished from other essays sent up in not re-
ceiving a pfize.
It has since remained a strong wish on my part some day
to work up the subject into a form fit for presentation to
a scientific society, but the pressure of other matters has
prevented this. In order, therefore, to preserve at least its
outlines, I give here a brief exposition of the premises, the
procedure, and the conclusions of the essay.
Ordinary ballistic tables contain a wealth of information
as to the retardation experienced by projectiles of all sizes
and of one general shape. The shape of the shell is well
known. If the same rules can be made to fit the motion
of meteorites it is clear that the velocity at any time can
be obtained, and thence the loss of energy due to the
obstruction caused by the air. This energy reappears as
heat, sound, electrical energy, chemical energy, &c. Of
these by far the most important is heat. Thus the con-
ditions under which a meteorite ‘‘ heats up ’’ can be ascer-
tained, and if it be assumed that all the energy is so spent,
it is obvious that a superior limit to the resulting tempera-
ture may be obtained. One further point should, however,
be mentioned—a meteor which reaches the earth is called a
‘“ meteorite,’? and the velocity necessary for this is such that
the time of passage through the material part of the earth’s
atmosphere is so short, say five seconds, that chemical burn-
ing will not, in general, introduce any sensible error. Such
error as might be introduced would be of the opposite sense
to radiation losses, themselves small for much the same
reason.
Meteorites may be of almost any shape. I have only
considered the shell shape, as it is the only one the flight of
which has been thoroughly investigated by exhaustive
experiment.
According to Ingall’s “ Exterior Ballistics,’’ the law of
the resistance of the air is a function of the velocity which,
for velocities above 1380 feet per second, is the velocity
squared. For meteoric problems, velocities less than this
are unimportant. Whether this simple law would hold
good for velocities of, say, 20 miles a second, or even the
7 miles a second which the earth can impose, is not known,
but for lack of a better it has been necessary to employ it.
The next difficulty, and of difficulties there is no small
number, lies in the varying density of the air. A few
thousand feet is the upward limit of ordinary projectiles.
Even for howitzer shell the correction for rarefaction is so
slight that the simplest kind of correction is enough. For
82
NATURE
[NovEMBER 24, 1904
meteorites, however, more extended treatment is required.
I have taken the resistance to be in direct proportion to
the density of the air. To do even this requires a know-
ledge of the density at all altitudes, and for this I have
assumed an isothermal distribution of temperature. The
theory of adiabatic distribution makes the atmosphere cease
at distances well within twilight and meteor phenomena,
and is therefore of no use. Probably something between
these two would be most accurate, but its precise form is
not of great importance in this investigation owing to the
very slight influence of the uppermost reaches of the air
on the motion of meteorites.
I now come to the meteorites themselves. Many sizes
have been considered, but chiefly diameters of 0-10 inch
and 12-0 inches. I refer to these as the ‘*‘ small’’ and the
“large ’’’ meteorites. When. other sizes are mentioned
their diameters are given. I have further taken two
materials, viz. iron and stone (trap rock), representing
holosiderites and asiderites. The thermal constants for
the materials are those found by Forbes.
I stated above the circumstances in which a knowledge
of the heat energy given to the meteorite might be taken
to be known. To find the temperature distribution in the
interior of the iron or stone I have adopted the approxi-
mation of considering the meteorite to be cylindrical, and
then utilising ordinary cylindrical coordinates. During the
investigation a good many results were obtained which in-
dicated methods by which the simple labour of the work
could be lightened. Some of the more cumbersome ex-
pressions could be simplified by dividing the distance between
the earth’s surface and infinity into two regions, that within
the sensible effect of the atmosphere and that without.
Many results were obtained during the
gation. In the large meteorite it was found that for
all velocities of approach the temperature at the centre
was a most minyte fraction of that at the surface. For
the small meteorite it was found that the final velocity was
investi- |
always very small and the time of flight correspondingly |
great, with the result that the whole of the material would
be consumed before reaching the earth’s surface—this would |
then properly be termed a meteor, not a meteorite. In its
turn this consideration gives the altitude at which incan-
descence would occur.
into brilliance at 45 miles up, and the stone one at 68 miles.
To obtain a superior limit to the point of incandescence I
assumed a meteor the diameter of which was only a
millionth of an inch. For iron, brilliancy is obtained at
106 miles, and for stone at 129 miles. These figures are
obtained by assuming the meteors to have the maximum
velocity which the earth could impose. If, however, an
initial velocity of 250 miles per second be assumed, surely
a superior limit, incandescence would occur some 35 or 40
miles further off, so that the greatest height for visibility
would lie well within some 170 miles.
An iron meteorite 3 inches in diameter falling to the
earth from an infinite distance would begin to get warm
about nine seconds before reaching the earth, and continue
to increase in temperature for about seven seconds, after
which its velocity would be practically ‘‘ killed,’’? and two
seconds later it would reach the earth at about two-thirds
of a mile per second. This represents a typical case for
what might be termed the ‘‘ twelve pound shell ”’ size.
In the *‘ twelve pound shell ”’ size the internal temperature
falls off very rapidly towards the interior. Thus, taking
the mean temperature in the severest case as 1-00, the
surface temperature was 2-2, and at a depth equal to a
fifth of the radius (0-30 inch) the temperature was about
0-3 only, whilst at the centre it was 0-0016. So that for
the most excessive surface temperatures the central tempera-
ture would be well below the temperature of liquid air,
assuming, of course, that the initial temperature of the
meteorite is at the absolute zero.
The steepness of the heat gradient at or near the surface
is the probable cause of the nodular appearance of
meteorites. Great resistance to the inward flow of heat
would be offered by any internal veining, and as a result
such surfaces of separation would tend to become the limit-
ing surfaces for any burning which might occur.
The various formulz used to obtain the above results
were suited to a subsidiary investigation, viz. that of the
problems connected with the ejection of rock from terrestrial | 7
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
The small iron meteor would burst |
volcanoes.. The results of such an investigation may be
briefly summarised as follows :—Had the earth no atmo-
sphere all masses shot off vertically at 7 miles a second
and over would fail to return. With the existing atmo-
sphere the large meteorite would require a velocity of 13
miles per second, and the ‘‘ twelve pound shell’’ would
want a velocity of 78 miles per second. These velocities
are not without interest in view of the theory that
meteorites originated from terrestrial volcanoes. Smaller
velocities would suffice were the masses discharged
from high altitudes. Thus, from a height of 5 miles,
the velocity for the large iron meteorite would be only
8{ miles per second, and for the ‘‘ twelve pound shell ”
only 18 miles a second. Further calculation shows that
with an initial velocity of 7 miles a second the large
meteorite would rise to only some 120 miles, and the
““ twelve pound shell ’’ to between 4o and 50 miles, and both
would then fall back to the earth.
/1n conclusion, the result of the investigation may be said
to have created a strong presumption in favour of the
following general deductions :—
(a) That the velocities of meteorites are materially changed
by the resistance of the atmosphere, and, in general, by a
fractional part of the velocity which is independent of the
velocity of approach.
(b) That the superior limit for incandescence is probably
about 150 miles above the earth’s surface.
(c) That no iron meteor the original weight of which waS
less than 10 to 20 Ib. reaches the earth’s surface, and that
when a meteor does do so the temperature of-its centre is
not in general above that of liquid air (assuming the
temperature of space to be zero).
I am aware that the whole structure of the investigation
rests on the evil principle of extrapolation, but until man
is capable of experimenting with velocities of 10 or 20 miles
a second, and surviving thereafter to record his results, no
other manner of investigation seems possible.
London, November 13. H. E. WImpeERIs.
Mount Everest: the Story of a Controversy.
I HAVE read with interest in your columns under this
title a carefully compiled and instructive account of the
discussions that have from time to time during the past
fifty years broken out with regard to the naming of the
highest measured point on the earth’s surface, Peak XV of
the Indian Survey. !
I have long maintained it to be a matter for regret that the
monarch of mountains should be called after any individual,
however eminent, and I am still of this opinion, which
is shared by most mountaineers and mountain lovers. We
should prefer that Peak XV should bear a Nepalese or a
Tibetan name, even had one to be invented for it, as twenty
years ago Alpine Clubmen, in accord with Russian surveyors,
found or invented native names for many of the great peaks
of the Caucasus.
But, since your correspondent appeals to me not to prolong
the controversy further, I must remind him that the opinion
I have expressed is an individual and not an official opinion.
For ten years I have had no official connection with the
Royal Geographical Society.
Should the council of that body resolve that, considering
the length of time the title ‘* Mount Everest ’’ has been more
or less in use in this country for Peak XV, the absence of
any evidence that that individual peak is designated as,| or
included in the designation of, Gaurisankar by the Nepalese,
and the practical inconvenience (whether the name be
authentic or not) of introducing a new Tibetan name such
as Chomo- or Jamokangkar, it is expedient that the title
Mount Everest should be generally accepted, I shall
acquiesce. For J attach greater importance to the general
principle than to the particular case, and I believe the pro-
tracted discussion and many protests summarised in your
columns have served their purpose in helping to discourage
the practice of giving personal names to mountains.
I should add that foreign geographers are not, as your
correspondent suggests, mainly dependent on the Geo-
graphical Journal for information in this matter. Captain
Wood’s report has been noticed in that well known periodical
Petgrmann’s Mitleilungen.
Doucitas W. FRESHFIELD.
—
NOVEMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE
83
Observations of the Leonid Meteors, 1904.
OssERVATIONS by the writer this year go to show that
the intensity was much below that of last. Briefly, the
nights of November 12 and 13 were heavily overcast, but
the night of November 14 and early morning of November 15
were fortunately clear. ‘he display lasted about an hour,
-say from 12.30 until 1.30 a.m., maximum 1 o'clock a.m.
(local times), hourly rate, low, 20 to 25. Bright meteors,
however, continued to appear at intervals up to 3 a.m.,
when clouds coming on stopped further observation. <A
couple of hours’ watch before and after midnight of
November 15 gave only two Leonids, while another two
hours’ watch on the night of November 16 showed the
radiant, which was sharply defined the previous nights, at
150° + 23°, near Zeta, to be quite quiescent. Other radiants
active were :—
4
R.A. Dec.
o
(1) Leonids (No. 2)... 165-+25 Strong, bright. -
(2)eUrsids s2. ... > 55CEA7 49 y)
(3) Preesepids 125+20 Slow, small, wiry.
(4) Cancrids 130+5 Short, bright.
(5) Geminids 108 + 28 (One) short, bright.
It would be interesting to hear of observations made
during the hour or so before daybreak on the morning of
November 15, as it is just possible the increased intensity
noticed in previous years may not be real, but due rather
,to the fact of the radiant being near the meridian, and the
smaller meteors coming down more direct at that time are
the better able to penetrate to the lower layers of the atmo-
sphere. * W. H. MILtican.
Holywood, co.. Down, November 18.
The Discovery of Argon.
In your translation of Prof. Mendeléeff’s interesting paper
on the chemical elements (November 17, p. 94) I see that
he attributes the discovery of argon and its congeners to
Ramsay. Am I not right in believing that it was Lord
Rayleigh who discovered argon, and that it was he who
gave that impulse to chemistry which Sir William Ramsay
has carried forward to such remarkable results ?
November 20. G. H. Darwin.
Blue-stained Flints.
SoME years ago there were many blue-stained flints on a
road near Cambridge. Lime from gas-works was about
to be mixed with the flints used as road-metal, and the two
different materials had lain for some time in heaps by the
roadside. The blue colour, in some instances very intense,
was developed wherever a heap of flints and one of lime
touched each other ; from which I surmised that the calcium
sulphide of the gas-lime had reacted with an aluminium
compound present in the flints, producing a substance akin
to ultramarine. F. J.. ALLEN.
Cambridge, November 19.
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.
It may be worth noting that since my letter to you of
some months back, in which I gave an instance of fox-
terrier pups being born with short tails, I have heard of
two similar cases. In one of these cases the dog was owned
by one of the managers of the Rhodes’ Fruit Farms, near
Cape Town. The other case occurred in the Transvaal at
Sabi, one out of a litter of four being born with a short
tail. D. E. HutTcuins.
Forest Office, Cape Town, October 18.
DR. KOENIG’S METHOD OF COLOUR
PHOTOGRAPHY.
EX the methods of three-colour photography hitherto
3 practised the colours are used as inks, stains, or
pigments already prepared, and their distribution is
effected indirectly by the action of light. In the imbi-
bition process three thin gelatin reliefs are prepared
NO. 1830, VOL. 71
(using potassium bichromate to sensitise the gelatin),
and after each relief is stained with its appropriate
colour the thtee films are superposed. The method
recently described by Dr. Koenig is of the multiple
film kind, but the colours are produced by direct ex-
posure to light.
Many organic colouring matters yield by reduction
colourless bodies that are more or less easily re-oxidised
with the production of the original colours. The
oxidation of these leuco colouring matters is generally
if not always quickened by light. If, therefore, the
leuco-compound produced from a dye of a suitable
red colour is caused to impregnate a film, and this is
exposed beneath the negative made to give the red
image in three-colour work, the red image may be
produced by direct exposure to light. A similar pro-
cedure will of course give the yellow and blue images,
and so the complete colour print may be obtained.
Such are the general principles upon which Dr.
Koenig’s process depends, but to elaborate the details
of a successful process on these lines it was necessary
to overcome many practical difficulties.
It was necessary, in the first case, to select only those
dyes (of suitable colours, of course) that yield leuco-
derivatives of sufficient stability to stand the necessary
manipulations. Then it was found that the leuco-
bases selected as otherwise suitable gave but a feeble
image even after long exposure; but it was observed
that when collodion was used as the medium the
sensitiveness was greatly enhanced, and the vigour of
the image very much improved. This improvement
was traced to the action of the nitrocellulose, and other
nitric acid esters were found to have a still greater
effect. Nitromannite especially is useful for sensitising
purposes. Dr. Koenig emphasises the fact that the
leuco-bases in an inert film are useless, as the action
of aérial oxygen, when it has reached its maximum,
gives only a flat and feeble image.
The fixing of the image was the next difficulty, for
obviously it is necessary to remove the excess of the
leuco-body without interfering with its coloured
oxidation product. It is well known that many dyes
show a great tendency to remain attached to a fabric
or film in spite of the application of solvents, but the
leuco-bases employed also have a similar tendency.
Dilute mineral acids, though they dissolve the greater
number of the leuco-bases, would not remove them
fro’ > collodion films. A 10 per cent. solution of mono-
chloracetic acid was found to be the best fixing agent.
The various solutions required are supplied ready for
use, and the following summary of the instructions
issued with them will give a general idea of the
manipulation required. A piece of baryta coated paper
rather larger than the negative has its edges turned
up, and is coated with a 13 per cent. collodion to which
has been added the leuco-derivative of the blue dye and
a solution containing the necessary additions. When
dry it is exposed under the appropriate negative (for,
say, twenty to forty seconds in bright sunshine), soaked
in the fixing bath for a few minutes, washed for a few
minutes, dipped into a gelatin solution that contains
a little chrome alum, and hung up to dry. The print
is then turned so that its lower edge shall be upper-
most, again dipped into the gelatin solution, and again
allowed to dry. The gelatin coating is applied to
isolate the collodion film so that it may not be interfered
with by the application of the second collodion. The
print is then coated with collodion to which the
materials for the blue image have been added, exposed
under the proper negative, fixed, and coated twice with
gelatin as before. A similar procedure follows for the
yellow image, and after the final gelatin coating it is
well to varnish the print. It is claimed for the dyes
employed that the blue, which is the one most liable
to change, is more permanent than Prussian blue.
fore)
nS
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 24, 1904
THE NEW WHALE FISHERIES.*
I N the story of the rise and fall of the whale fisheries
history has many times repeated herself. The
Basque fishery, the oldest of all, the fragmentary
records of which go back beyond the middle ages,
which extended centuries ago to the other side of the
Atlantic, which long furnished harpooners to our own
fleet, and which has left us the harpoon and its name,
finally passed away during last century with a
practical extinction of the object of its pursuit. Our
own Greenland, or right whale, fishery, in which for
one hundred years some 250 vessels were employed,
hailing from almost every east coast port, has been
now for nearly another century on the decline, and
some half dozen whalers from Dundee are all that is
left of the once great argosy. A few fine old American
ships, with dark-skinned harpooneers from the Cape
Verdes, still chase the sperm whale throughout its
world-wide habitat, in place of the 7oo sail that
followed the business sixty years ago. Zorgdrager,
Scoresby, Scammon, and a host of lesser men have left
us records of these old fisheries,
of the methods employed, and of
the marvellous success achieved;
but, nevertheless, the naturalist
has much to regret in the passing
away of these great industries, in
the near approach to extermin-
ation of the most valuable and
most interesting species, and in the
scantiness of the material that has
as yet been saved. Our chief
museum contains, I _ believe,
neither skeleton nor even skull of
the Greenland whale, and _ the
difficulties in the way of procuring
one now-a-days seem to be very
great indeed. We have to go to
Stockholm or St. Petersburg to
see the entire skeleton of such a
whale, with the huge fringes of
whale-bone still in place in the
jaws. Nor, by the way, would
our knowledge seem to be more
adequate than our anatomical
material, for a writer in a standard
text-book told us only the other
day that a single whale may yield
““c ”
us ‘‘ several tons ’’ of whale-bone! .
While the _ fisheries before Fic.
mentioned, and others like to
them, are passing or have passed away, a new fishery
has sprung up that has for the object of its pursuit
a class of whales that formerly had been left in
peace. This is the fishery for the great rorquals, or
finner whales, first instituted by Captain Svend Foyn
at Vads6 in 1864. The fishery is carried on by means
of small steamers, carrying at their bows a harpoon
gun which discharges a line and explosive bullet. The
steamer tows the fish home, to be flensed and worked
up in the factory ashore. Twenty years after Svend
Foyn’s small beginning there were more than thirty
such factories on the coasts of Finmark, but all of these
have very recently been disestablished by the Nor-
wegian Government, which, in deference to temporary
and local prejudice, is robbing its country of a profit-
able and ill-spared industry. The great success and
profit of this fishery has led to its extension to Iceland,
Frode, Newfoundland, and lastly, to Shetland and the
Hebrides; but it is still almost wholly in Norwegian
1 ‘**The Whalebone Whales of the Western North Atlantic.” By
Frederick W. True. (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.) Pp. iv+
232, and plates. (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1904.)
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
hands, and a factory at Tonsberg enjoys a practical
monopoly of the machinery employed.
One consequence of the growth of this new industry
has been to impress upon us, or to remind us of, the
fact that at least certain species of whales exist in
their native seas in prodigious numbers, seldom though
the occasional traveller has the luck to see them.
Once, in the North Pacific, on a calm summer’s day,
I saw for an hour the ship surrounded on every side
by great whales to the number of many hundreds,
and a somewhat similar display is said to have been
witnessed to the north of Shetland during the past
summer. Dr. Hjort calculates that from the be-
ginning until 1901 the finner whale fishery resulted
in the capture of some 27,000 fish, a vast number in
itself, though not great in comparison to the yield of
the Arctic fishery in its palmy days, for the Dutch
alone are reckoned to have taken no less than about
575,900 Greenland whales and ‘ Nordkapers ”’ or
Biscayan whales, between 1669 and 1778. Probably
long lived, but certainly slow breeding, the whale
must in the end give way before a wholesale persecu-
t.—The Common Rorqual, Snook’s Arm, Newfoundland.
tion; but meanwhile several species are still immensely
numerous, and the naturalist has at least the con-
solation that pursuit tends to cease as scarcity becomes
manifest, and long before actual extermination is
achieved.
The new industry has many attractions and oppor-
tunities for the naturalist. The stations are in many
cases within reach of easy travel, and the manner in
which the carcases are drawn up for flensing on the
shore affords a perfect spectacle of the entire creature.
The volume which has suggested the present article,
by Dr. F. W. True, of the U.S. National Museum, is
the outcome of a careful use of the opportunities
afforded by the Newfoundland whaling stations, sup-
plemented by abundant use of literature and study in
American museums. Dr. True, who is already well
known as a student of the Cetacea, seems to have
made it his first object to investigate the specific
characters of the larger whales, with the exception
of the Greenland whale, and to determine, once for
all, whether specimens of the various forms from the
two sides of the Atlantic be specifically identical.
NOvEMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE
85
This question is answered, in general, in the affirm-
ative, with some reservation as to the possible exist-
ence of varietal or subspecific differences in the case
of the humpback, Megaptera, and the lesser piked
whale, Balaenoptera rostrata, or acutorostrata, as our
author, following Lacépéde, prefers to call it.
Furthermore, additional evidence is adduced in sup-
port of the identity of the North Pacific species with
those of the North Atlantic. This conclusion is entirely
confirmatory of the views of European naturalists,
and Dr. True’s remarks on the distribution of the
various forms deserve to be read in connection with
Dr. Guldberg’s recent very interesting papers on the
probable course of the annual migrations of several
species around the circuit of the North Atlantic.
But Dr. True has given us other things besides a
careful account of specific characters. He has given
us, in the first place, a singularly interesting epitome
of the early history of whaling in America, downwards
from the mythical days of the Saga of Thorfinn. It
will be news to the citizens of New York that, in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, there was a not
Norwegians, which seems to be rare on the other side
of the Atlantic, but which in certain years has bulked
very largely in the Finmark catch; lastly, the hump-
back, Megaptera. Besides these ‘a sperm whale is
caught every now and then, and the Icelanders still
take an occasional Nordkaper, or Biscayan whale.
Thus the ‘‘ finner ’’ industry furnishes not only a large
number of individuals, but a great variety of species
to the observation of the naturalist. Several curious
points crop up in regard to the relative commercial
value of the several forms. Thus, for instance,
Rudolphi’s whale, a species very similar to the common
rorqual, long overlooked and afterwards considered
very rare by naturalists, is now a most valuable element
in the fishery, its whale- bone, though no bigger and
longer than that of the common species, being worth,
from its intrinsic quality, just about ten times as much.
Dr. True’s photographs show us, with a wealth of
illustration, Sibbald’s whale, the common rorqual, the
humpback, and the Nordkaper as they lie upon the
beach. Many interesting points are excellently well
shown—the distribution of colour, the curious pleat-
ings of the ventral skin, the con-
trast in form between the long,
slender, lanky Sibbald’s whale
and the shorter, stouter body of
the common species, the tubercles
on the head of Megaptera, the
huge flippers with their garniture
of barnacles in the same species.
It is a common practice of
American naturalists, and Dr.
True is no exception, to deal
somewhat harshly with received
nomenclature in the quest after
‘priority.”’ Rightly or wrongly,
the common rorqual is invariably
known to us as B. musculus, but
that name is here transferred to
what we call B. sibbaldii; the
former is here designated B. phy-
salus, L., and B. biscayensis
figures as B. glacialis, Bonna-
terre. The work as a whole does
not lend itself to epitomisation,
and the foregoing brief account
does not do justice to its scientific
interest.
D) Wal:
Fic. 2.—The Humpback, Balena Station, Newfoundland.
unimportant whale fishery on Long Island and in
Delaware Bay, and that so late as 1823 (?) there was
a family on Long Beach, N.J., who every winter
sought for and ‘‘ sometimes captured ” whales, in
which business they had been engaged, father and
sons, ever since the Revolution. In the next place,
and of still more popular interest, Dr. True has
enriched his book with fifty large plates, for the most
part taken directly from photographs, of whales as
they lay on the beach at the Newfoundland factories.
A few similar photographs have recently appeared
from Norwegian and Scottish sources, but no such
excellent and comprehensive series as Dr. True’s has
yet been made, though, by the way, one series of
B. musculus, published about twenty years ago by
M. Yves Delage, could scarcely be surpassed.
Five or six species of whales are obtained, more or
less abundantly, at the various whaling stations. These
are the great ‘‘ sulphur-bottom,”’ or Sibbald’s rorqual,
the blue whale of the Norw egians, which, rare on our
own coasts, is the chief source of profit to the Icelandic
and Newfoundland whalers; secondly, the common
rorqual; thirdly, Rudolphi’s rorqual, the Seihval of the
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NOTES.
Tur directors of the Ben Nevis Observatories, which were
closed on October 1, have just issued a circular describing
the circumstances in which these observatories have at last
been discontinued. The maintenance of the two stations
at Fort William and on the summit of Ben Nevis has in-
volved an average yearly 1oool. Of this
sum, 3501. has been supplied by the Meteorological Council,
and the remainder has been obtained from various private
sources. It was hoped that the Treasury Committee which
was appointed to consider the question of the annual grant
to the Meteorological Council would deal adequately with
the position of the Ben Nevis Observatories in its report,
expenditure of
but in their circular the directors express disappointment
that this was Some
of their number,
not done. The directors remark :—‘
including the two secretaries,
besides handing in de-
were ex-
amined, and fully stated their case,
tailed memoranda regarding the history, work, and cost
Yet, with all this
state in their re-
of maintenance of the observatories.
information before them, the committee
port that ‘ it appears that only 350l. per annum is required
86
NATURE
[NovEMBER 24, 1904
to ensure the continued maintenance of the observatories.’
The directors lost no time in calling the attention of the
First Lord of the Treasury to this ‘ inexplicably erroneous ’
statement, and in appealing to him that means should be
found to prevent the abandonment of the observatories.
The Treasury, however, could not see its way to any further
increase of the contribution from the Parliamentary Grant,
but offered to continue the allowance of 3501. a year hitherto
received from the Meteorological Council. As this arrange-
ment would have left the directors exactly where they were
before, face to face with the impossibility of continuing to
raise 650l. every year, and with the obvious hopelessness
of obtaining adequate pecuniary support from the Govern-
ment, there was no alternative but to close the observ-
atories.’”
It is announced in the Times that a donor, who desires
to remain anonymous, has placed a sum of toool. in the
hands of the treasurer of the Royal Society, to be devoted
to the advancement of science. By his wish 50ol. of this gift
is to be placed to the credit of the ‘ Catalogue of Scientific
Papers Account ”’ of the Royal Society, and the remainder
to the credit of the ‘‘ National Physical Laboratory
Account ’’ of that body, with the request that the executive
committee of the laboratory will accede to any personal
wish of the director as to its expenditure.
A STRONG, detailed indictment of the department of the
War Office which should be responsible for the production
of necessary maps appeared in Saturday’s Times from the
military correspondent of that journal. The war in the
Far East has lasted now for nearly nine months, and not
a single map of the seat of war has been issued by the
Government department which’ is the chief recipient of the
results of our geographical research. The vexatious thing
is that the information, even the Maps, exist, but that no
endeavour has been made to utilise them for the public
benefit. The Russian and Japanese Staff maps of Man-
churia exist in London, but neither map can be purchased
by the public through the trade, though, as both are in the
hands of individuals in London, and whole sheets of the
Japanese map have been reproduced by the Japanese Press,
the presumption is that the mapping section of the director
of military operations also stands possessed of them. A
map intended to be of use to the public must be a compilation
of these and other materials; but no such map has been
issued officially at all. The only excuse for this deplorable
want of sense is the lack of staff and of time to produce the
map for which there is a public demand. In this case
nothing could be simpler than to provide some house in the
trade with the information available, and allow suitable
maps to be produced by private enterprise. Our official
maps are, the article affirms, nothing less than a national
disgrace. Not only all the Great Powers, but even those
of the second and third rank, are infinitely superior in
cartography. These facts are then employed to direct
attention to the whole question of the teaching of geo-
graphy, and to warn us of a serious defect in our system
of national education. We have suffered in the conduct of
military operations because the teaching of geography has
not assumed its proper place in the education of our army
officers.
Tue death is announced of Dr. Karl H. Huppert, emeritus
professor of physiological chemistry in the University of
Prague, at seventy-two years of age.
Tue scientific committee of the Royal Horticultural
Society met recently and received with regret the resig-
nation of Prof. Henslow, who for more than a quarter of
NO. 1830, VoL. 71]
a century has acted as its secretary. Mr. F. J. Chittenden,
who has been for some time a member of the scientific com-
mittee of the society, has undertaken to discharge the duties
of secretary until the end of the current session.
It is stated by the Pioneer Mail that the Burma Govern-
ment has decided to discontinue the experiments for the
improvement of the indigenous silk industry in the more
important silk centres of the Province by the importation
of silkworm eggs from France. Owing to climatic and
other causes, rearing has failed with foreign imported eggs,
and it is not considered worth while pursuing the experi-
ments without the aid of an expert.
Mr. J. N. Hatpert has been appointed assistant in the
Dublin Museum in succession to Mr. G. H. Carpenter, who
held the post for many years. Mr. Halbert is known as
the author, in collaboration with the Rev. W. F. Johnson,
of a list of the beetles of Ireland (Proc. R. I. Acad.). He
has also published some papers in the Zoologischer Anzeiger
and the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, on fresh-
water mites.
Tue applications for space in the forthcoming automobile
exhibition at Paris on December 4 far exceed the space
available in the Grand Palace of Fine Arts, so it may be
necessary to hold the exhibition at the Galerie des Machines.
One of the curiosities of the exhibition will be the
Lebaudy II.' exhibited in a reduced model. To November 18
the Lebaudy dirigible balloon had executed not less than
fifty-four ascents, and on the fifty-first the return to the
Moisson Aérodrome, the starting point, was accomplished.
From the last day of October to November 18 ten ascents
were successfully executed.
Tue first meeting of the annual session of the German
Society of Naval Architects was held at the Technical High
School at Charlottenburg on November 17. The Emperor
William, the honorary president of the society, the Grand
Duke of Oldenburg, the Secretary of State for the Imperial
Navy, Admiral von Tirpitz, and the secretary of the British
Institution of Naval Architects were present. Prof.
Ahlborn, of Hamburg, read a paper on the spiral formation
of water under the action of a ship’s screw, and on the
movements produced in the water by the revolution of the
screw; and Prof. Braun, of Strassburg, dealt with the
methods and aims of wireless telegraphy.
Tue Journal of the Society of Arts states that among the
congresses arranged in connection with the Liége Inter-
national Exhibition of next year, and with which the co-
operation of the Belgian Government is ensured, one on
chemistry and pharmacy, convoked by the Belgian Chemical
Society and the Liége Pharmaceutical Association, will be
held at the end of July. The congress is to be divided into
the following sections :—(1) general chemistry, physico-
chemistry ; (2) analytical chemistry, apparatus and instru-
ments; (3) industrial mineral chemistry, including metal-
lurgy; (4) industrial organic chemistry (sugar-boiling,
fermentation, tanning, dyeing, &c.); (5) pharmaceutical
chemistry ; (6) the chemistry of food substances; (7) agri-
cultural chemistry, manures ; (8) biological and physiological
chemistry (application to hygiene and bacteriology); (9)
toxicology; (10) practical pharmacy; and (11) legislation
and professional interests, deonthology. The president of
the organising committee is Prof. A. Gilkinet, of Liége.
A CONFERENCE on physical education was held on
November 16 at the Education Offices of the London County
Council, the Bishop of Bristol presiding. Miss Johnson,
of the Swedish Institute, Clifton, advocated the organ-
NovEMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE
87
isation of physical education on the lines of the Royal
Central Institute of Sweden, which she described. Sir W.
Church, president of the Royal College of Physicians, moved
a resolution to the effect that it is desirable that a national
system of physical education should be established in the
United Kingdom. This was seconded by Sir Lauder
Brunton, and supported by other speakers, including Lord
Londonderry and Sir W. Broadbent. The Times of
November 17, in a leading article on the subject of the
conference, while acknowledging our supineness in this re-
spect in the past, rightly deprecates any hasty action in
the matter, and remarks that while Swedish and other
systems have their merits, what we want here is not a
system borrowed from Sweden, Denmark, or Japan, but a
British system growing out of the British character, and
suited, as no borrowed system can ever be, to British needs,
and considers that we must begin with the children in our
elementary schools.
In the Times of November 17 appeared a letter stating
that skulls and limb-bones of horses of known pedigree, no
matter what their breed, are required by the natural history
branch of the British Museum, and the cooperation of
horse-owners is invited in the endeavour to bring together
a large series of such specimens. No mention is made in
the letter of the special purpose for which a collection of
this nature is required. Those who have kept abreast of
zoological literature for the last year or two will, however,
have scarcely failed to notice how much attention has been
directed by naturalists to the problem of the origin of the
various breeds of domesticated horses, and especially to the
idea that thoroughbreds and Arabs have a _ different
parentage from the ‘‘ cold-blooded’’ horses of western
Europe. The circumstance that some horses of eastern
origin show a vestige of the cavity for the ‘‘ tear-gland ”’
of ‘the hipparions has been recently brought to notice
as an important factor in the problem. To ascer-
tain the frequency of this feature is probably one of the
objects of making the collection, while a second may be
to ascertain the constaney of certain proportionate relations
between the limb-bones of racers and cart-horses. The
museum already possesses the skeleton of ‘‘ Stockwell,”
from whom are descended most of our best thoroughbreds,
and likewise the skull of ‘‘ Bend Or,’’ presented by the
Duke of Westminster, and Mr. W. S. Blunt has promised
a skull of one of his famous Arabs.
WE have received from Messrs. Friedlander, Berlin, a
catalogue of books on comparative anatomy, which is
divided into three sections, the first dealing with verte-
brates and the second with invertebrates, while the third
is devoted to comparative embryology and morphology.
No. 9 of vol. xxxi. of the Proceedings of the Boston
Natural History Society is devoted to the North American
parasitic funguses of the group Ustilaginee. These
organisms, which have been hitherto very imperfectly
known, infest various parts of herbaceous flowering plants,
and are represented by twenty-four genera included in two
families. Much still remains to be done in determining
their distribution, and some of the hosts of certain species
are given on the authority of observers other than the
author of this paper, Mr. G. P. Clinton.
AN account of the method of preparing clayed cocoa
appears in the Bulletin of the Trinidad Botanical Depart-
ment for July. The cocoa-beans, after being fermented and
dried, are collected in heaps, upon which men are set to
dance, while others replace the beans as they scatter.
Meantime the heaps are dusted over with powdered clay
NO. 1830, VOL. 71 |
which adheres to the gummy surface of the beans and acts
as a polish, so that finally the beans assume the appearance
and colour of polished mahogany ; careful drying completes
the process, which results in the beans carrying and keep-
ing better on account of the protective covering formed.
Tue Cosmo Melvill herbarium, now the property of
Owens College, Manchester, is estimated by the donor to
contain five thousand genera, or two-thirds of the total
number recorded in the ‘‘ Genera Plantarum,’’ exclusive of
others since instituted, and the phanerogams alone amount
to 36,000 different species. From a geographical point of
view nearly every country appears to have furnished a quota.
Amongst the more important collections mention should
be made of Sir Joseph Hooker and Dr. Thomson’s Indian
plants, Dr. Henry’s Chinese collections, Mr. C. G. Pringle’s
Mexican plants, and the specimens collected by Dr. Nuttall
in North America.
Tue Deutsche Seewarte has added another to its many
useful publications, Tabellarische Rceiseberichte, a collec-
tion of tabular reports of the meteorological logs received
during the year 1903 from observers on ships. It has several
times been suggested that observations made at sea should
be published in a tabular form, similarly to those made at
land stations; the late Admiral Makaroff was the last to
urge the importance of doing so, but the question of expense
has always stood in the way. The work in question does
not attempt such a regular tabulation of observations, but
gives a useful summary of some of the principal phenomena
recorded on each voyage, e.g. the limits of the trade winds
and monsoons, the force of wind, the storms experienced
and the behaviour of the barometer during their occurrence,
noteworthy currents, sudden changes of sea temperature,
&e. Each report also gives the length and nature of
the voyage, so that any person interested in the meteorology
of any particular part of the ocean can determine approxi-
mately the amount of materials available. It is proposed
to issue a similar volume for each year.
Dr. H. HeERGESELL, president of the International Aéro-
nautical Committee, has contributed to Beitrage zur Phystk
der freien Atmosphdre an interesting account of his kite
observations on the Lake of Constance. The ascents were
first made in the year 1900, and subsequently in the years
1902 and 1903, on both occasions with the assistance of
Count Zeppelin, who lent his motor-boat for the purpose.
It is understood that such observations are somewhat difficult
at an inland station, as the wind velocity necessary for
raising the kite (about 8 metres per second, or 18 miles
per hour) is not always available without the artificial wind
produced by the motion of a boat. Dr. Hergesell’s experi-
ments clearly show that, frequently, inversions of tempera-
ture and humidity cccur at certain levels, which are not
exhibited by observations made on mountain peaks, and the
opinion is expressed both by Prof. Mascart (president of the
International Meteorological Committee) and by himself that
however useful in various ways, observations on mountain
stations have not led to the results that were expected from
them. He is of opinion that if any improvement is to be
made in what he terms the present stagnant condition of
meteorological science, it will be by the investigation of the
upper strata of free air rather than by piling up observ-
ations made at ordinary meteorological stations—in other
words, by making meteorology a study of the physics of the
atmosphere.
IN a communication to the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers Mr. R. M. Neilson discusses the possibilities
of gas turbines from a scientific standpoint, a region of
88
study to which up to the present little systematic attention |
has been given. The author considers that there are four
different cycles which could be applied with advantage to
a gas turbine, giving efficiencies of from 0-25 to 054, and
two of them admitting of several different cases. The
necessity of keeping the temperature of the blades of the
turbine down to about 7oo° C. to a certain extent limits
the efficiency, but, as the author points out, a decrease in
the temperature of the source in a Carnot’s cycle affects
the efficiency less than an increase in the temperature of
the refrigerator of the same amount.
WE have received from the Stanley Electric Manufactur-
ing Co., of Pittsfield, Mass., an interesting wall map show-
ing the long distance power transmission lines in Cali-
fornia. There are six power houses situated on the western
slopes of Sierra Nevada from which power is transmitted
electrically to San Francisco and the surrounding district.
The longest transmission is from the De Sabla power house
to Sansaulito, which is to the north of San Francisco, on the
opposite side of the Golden Gate; the length of this line is
232 miles. More than 10,000 h.p. is being supplied to San
Francisco itself from the electric power house which is
147 miles away. An additional power house is proposed,
and also several additional lines.
AT a recent meeting of the Faraday Society, among other
papers was one by Miss B. Pool on a suggested new source
of aluminium. This consists of the vast deposits of laterite
which occur in several parts of India; these laterites are
closely analogous to bauxite, from which aluminium is at
present manufactured. The paper gives analyses of several
of the laterites in different districts, and the author con-
cludes that this raw material, on account of its purity,
ready accessibility, and association with flowing water
should be almost an ideal source of aluminium. Mr. W. M.
Morrison, in the discussion, questioned whether it was prob-
able that the Indian laterites would be used in this country,
as the supply of bauxite near at hand was plentiful, though |
it was not unlikely that at some future date they might be
worked in situ.
WE have received from Messrs. Christy and Co., of Old
Swan Lane, Lower Thames Street, E.C., a few samples of
the several varieties of Dr. Schleussner’s dry plates, and have
found them to vindicate, practically, the commendations
bestowed upon them by many Continental men of science, in-
cluding several well known astronomers. The “* ordinary ”’
plates are characterised by their great sensitiveness and the
evenness of their emulsion. The ‘“‘ special rapid ’’ plates,
intended chiefly for stellar photography and general scien-
tific work, were found excellent, especially in stellar work,
even faint stars giving fairly dense trails when the plates
were exposed in a stationary camera. The results in this
direction especially are enhanced by the very smooth grain
of the finished negative. On testing the ‘‘ orthochromatic ’’ |
plates in terrestrial and stellar spectroscopic work they |
were found to be extremely sensitive, and, with relatively
short exposures, gave spectra extending well up into the
orange with only a short break on the less refrangible
side of the ‘‘F”’ line. The ‘‘ Viridin’’ are especially
sensitive in the green, with reduced sensitiveness in the blue
and violet, and should be found very useful in landscape
work where the use of a screen is inconvenient or likely
to lengthen the exposure unduly. All the plates were easy
to develop with normal pyro-soda, and gave excellent, fine-
grained negatives free from any trace of fog. Messrs.
Christy are the sole agents for these plates in Great Britain.
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| NOVEMBER 24, 1904
No. 9 of vol. cvi. of the Bulletin de la Société d’ Encourage-
ment contains several papers of m2tallurgical interest-
M. H. Le Chatelier describes a photographic method of
recording the temperature of pieces of steel at every instant
during the rapid cooling which accompanies hardening, and
investigates the law of this cooling in the case of the
commoner baths, such as water, oil and mercury, which are
employed in industry. Contrary to the usually accepted
view, the rate of cooling by means of mercury is much
smaller than that due to water; the specific heat of the
quenching material, and not its thermal conductivity, is
obviously the principal factor to be considered in such cases.
The cooling by oil is relatively very slow, owing to its low
specific heat and to its viscosity, which prevents loss of
heat by convection. M. L. Guillet describes in the same
part the properties of tin and titanium steels, and M. P-
Mahler discusses the reversible actions occurring in the
blast-furnace.
WE have received a copy of the *‘ British Standard Specifi-
cation and Sections for Bull Headed Railway Rails,’’ issued
by the Engineering Standards Committee. It has been re-
solved that the steel’ used in these rails shall be of the best
quality, the constituents conforming to the following
limits :—carbon from 0-35 to 0-5 per cent., manganese from
o-7 to 1-0 per cent., silicon not to exceed o-1 per cent., phos-
phorus 0-075 per cent., and sulphur 008 per cent. The
manufacturer shall make and furnish to the purchaser a
carbon determination of each cast, and a complete chemical
analysis representing the average of the other elements
present shall be given for each rolling. A table of the
general dimensions of the ‘‘ B. S.”’ rails is given, with illus-
trative sections. For straight lines, the committee recom-
mends the adoption of the following as the normal lengths
of the rails, namely, 30 feet, 36 feet, 45 feet, and 60 feet.
The tensile strength must not be less than 38 tons per
square inch nor more than 45 tons per square inch, and a
5-feet length of rail shall respond satisfactorily to the blows
of a falling weight of 2240 lb. The inspection and testing
of the rails by the purchaser during the course of their
manufacture are suitably provided for.
AN interesting paper by Mr. L. Gilchrist on the electro-
lysis of acid solutions of aniline appears in the November
number of the Journal of Physical Chemistry. On electro-
lysing a hydrochloric acid solution, aniline black is formed,
the depolarising effect amounting to about 0-3 volt. Sub-
stituted chloranilines are not formed to any appreciable ex-
tent. Electrolysis of a hydrobromic acid solution, which
has a considerably smaller decomposition voltage, leads on
the other hand to bromanilines, and no aniline black is
produced.
Tue Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society (vol. x.,
No. 23) contain a report by Dr. E. J. McWeeney on the
cases of carbon monoxide asphyxiation which have occurred
in Dublin since the addition of carburetted water gas to
the ordinary coal gas. It appears that from 1880 to 1900,
before the addition of carburetted water gas was practised,
there was no recorded case of death from coal gas poison-
ing, whilst during the four years that have elapsed since
the addition was made, there have been ten cases with
seven deaths due to that cause.
IN a paper published in the Manchester Memoirs (vol-
xlix., 1904) Mr. W. Thomson describes experiments which
show that arsenic is rapidly eliminated from the system by
kidney secretion. After the administration of one-fiftieth
cf a gram of arsenious oxide, about 16 per cent. was found
NOVEMBER 24, 1904]
to be eliminated in this way within twenty-four hours.
The amount of arsenic in the secretions of people in towns
where large metallurgical operations are carried on is found
in some cases to be as high as one-thirtieth of a grain per
gallon.
A SECOND edition of Prof. Hantzsch’s ‘‘ Grundriss der
‘Stereochemie ’’ has just been published by J. A. Barth in
Leipzig. The rapid advances which have taken place in this
branch of chemistry during the last ten years have rendered
considerable additions necessary. Sections are now included
dealing with the stereochemistry of diazo-compounds and
complex inorganic bodies, and with the molecular asym-
metry of nitrogen, sulphur, selenium, and tin compounds.
The connection between configuration and __ biological
activity, the reciprocal transformation of optical antipodes,
and the phenomenon of steric hindrance are also treated in
the new edition, which should be welcomed by all classes
of chemists.
A THIRD edition of the ‘‘ Elements of the Mathematical
Theory of Electricity and Magnetism,’’ by Prof. J. J.
Thomson, F.R.S., has been published by the Cambridge
University Press. A new chapter on the properties of
moving electrified bodies has been added, and other minor
changes have been made.
Messrs. BELL AND Sons have published separately, under
the title ‘‘ Examples in Algebra,’’ a selection of the ex-
amples in the recently published ‘‘ Elementary Algebra,’’
by Messrs. W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne. The price is
3s., and the new volume may also be had in two parts at
2s. each.
Tue yearly volume for 1904 of the Reliquary and Illus-
trated Archaeologist has now been published. The four
separate issues, which have been referred to from time to
time in these columns, together form a handsome volume.
Some articles in the volume will appeal to students of science
who are not archeologists. Among these may be mentioned
a well illustrated article by Mr. W. H. Legge ‘‘ About
Almanacs,’’ and Mr. F. W. Galpin’s ‘‘ Notes on a Roman
Hydraulus.”
In order to meet the requirements of the new syllabus in
chemistry of the matriculation examination of the University
of London, Dr. G. H. Bailey has taken advantage of the
demand for a second edition of his book on chemistry to re-
write and enlarge it. In its present form ‘‘ The New
Matriculation Chemistry’’ contains everything that a
candidate at the matriculation examination is likely to re-
quire. An introductory course of experimental work has
been inserted in addition to other new matter. The volume
is published by Mr. W. B. Clive, and edited by Dr. William
Briggs.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Encke’s Comer (1904 b).—On a photograph obtained on
‘October 28 with two hours’ exposure, using the Bruce tele-
scope, Prof. Max Wolf discovered a faint image of Encke’s
comet, the apparent position of which at 28d. 7h. 13m. 48s.
(Konigstuhl M.T.) was
a@=23h. 37m. 51-41s., 3=+26° o! 38-0.
A faint tail,
suspected.
On the same night Prof. Millosevich at Rome was able
to find the comet with the 39 cm. equatorial of the Roman
College Observatory. The object was extremely faint, and
had the following position at 6h. 30m. (October 28, Rome
M.T.), a=23h. 37m. 588., 5=+26° 1/-4.
Prof. E. Hartwig also observed the comet visually, using
the large refractor of the Bamberg Observatory, at
NO 1830, VOL. 71]
extending in a northerly direction, was
NATURE
89
gh. 18m. 11s. (Bamberg M.T.) on October 30, and deter-
mined the following as its position :—
a (app.) =23h. 28m. r-o1s., 5 (app.) =+25° 23! 25/1.
The comet was very diffuse with a faint central condensa-
tion, and a diameter of more than 10! (AstronomiSche
Nachrichten, No. 3977).
OBSERVATIONS OF PERSEIDS.—The results of a large
number of independent observations of the Perseid. shower
of last August, together with a detailed exposition by M.
Chrétien of the process by which the positions of meteor
radiants may be determined from the observed data by the
method of least squares, are published in the November
number of the Bulletin de la Société astronomique de
France.
Among other results, those obtained by M. Perrotin at
Nice and by M. G. A. Quignon at Mons are given. The
former have already been summarised in these columns; the
latter are as follows :—
During a total watch of 7h. 15m. between August 7
and 12, M. Quignon observed 110 meteors, chiefly Perseids,
and determined the position R.A.=44°, dec. =+59°, as
the mean radiant point of the shower. The maximum dis-
play took place between 22h. gom. and 23h. tom. on
August 11, when 21 meteors, or 42 per hour, were seen.
Heicuts or Merteors.—In a letter to the November
number of the Observatory Mr. Denning publishes some
data regarding the observed heights of the appearances and
disappearances of several different classes of meteors.
He states that, generally speaking, the swift meteors
become visible at a greater height than the slower ones, and
do not approach so near to the earth’s surface before dis-
appearing. Thus for the Leonids and Perseids, both of
which are characterised by their comparative swiftness, it
has been determined that the former are generally more
lofty than the latter, the average heights being as follows :—
Height at Height at No. of
: beginning ending meteors
Leonids 84 miles Bommiles sis e285)
IREYSeldsiy 2c KSO 455 coo CS cco 0K)
On the other hand, the mean heights of the very slow
meteors appear to average about 65 miles at the beginning
to 38 miles at the end of their appearance. These, how-
ever, appear to form two distinct classes :—(1) those having
very low radiants, extending from 64 miles to 48 miles;
and (2) those having fairly high radiants, extending from
66 miles to 28 miles.
The swiftest meteors apparently become visible when
nearly 20 miles higher than the very slow meteors, whilst
those of the latter which have high radiants come 20 miles
nearer the earth than those having very low radiants.
Seven Quadrantids and four Lyrids gave mean heights
of 67 miles to 52 miles and 84 miles to 50 miles respectively.
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SPECTRUM OF JupiITER.—Using the
large refractor of the Meudon Observatory in conjunction
with a spectrograph containing one 60° prism and having
a focal length of 292 mm., M. G. Millochau obtained a
number of photographs of the spectrum of Jupiter during
December and January.
A study of the resulting spectra, which were obtained on
Lumiére panchromatic plates and extend from F to C,
showed a number of bands at AA 618, 607, 600, 578, and
515, which are apparently the same as those observed by
Keeler in the spectrum of Uranus. It further disclosed the
facts that the water vapour and a bands were greatly
strengthened in the planetary spectrum, and that all the
bands were relatively more intense in that part which was
produced by the light from the south equatorial band of the
planet’s apparent disc.
The appearance of the band at A 618, which has been
previously observed in the spectra of the superior planets,
and of several new faint bands in the Jovian spectrum,
indicates the existence of a gas in the atmospheres of the
outer planets which does not exist at all, or only in much
feebler proportions, in the atmospheres of the inferior
planets.
M. Millochau intends to prosecute this research further
at the Mont Blanc Observatory, where the clearer atmo-
sphere should permit of better results being obtained
(Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France, November).
90
NAL ORE
[ NovEMBER 24, 1904
SCIENCE, AND WWE SPATE»
I HAVE long held that there is a certain class of work
performed by institutions which should undoubtedly be
carried on by some department of the State, specially de~
voted to such work.
The work to which I refer is such as is not suitable, or
to be expected from societies or individuals. It is work
which is continuous and must expand in the flux of time,
which is recognised by the public as useful, which is not
and cannot be remunerative, which requires a staff larger
than is required by the ordinary demands of a society, and
cannot be dropped without serious detriment to the
public.
When there is some pressing need Government does
administer branches of a department which has to carry
out scientific investigation. Thus the medical branch of
the. Local Government Board has been laboriously and
gradually built up. It is far otherwise, however, with that
scientific work which has no department specially interested
in or needing it, though it is for the public weal; as the
State departments only exist for ministering to that weal,
it appears that some department should be created or en-
larged to take charge of such work. This view, which I have
long held, has been more than confirmed by the evidence
given before a recent committee, which the Treasury
practically appointed, to consider the present position of the
Meteorological Office, but limiting the recommendation to
be made so far as the grant made to it is concerned.
Meteorological science has been greatly retarded in Great
Britain by want of funds. Perhaps the latest example
occurred in 1902, when there was a proposal to obtain further
information about atmospheric currents and conditions by
the use of balloon and kite observations, an international
scheme of work being contemplated. The small sum of
sool. a year would have been necessary to carry out this
research, but the Royal Society was obliged, on behalf of
the Meteorological Office, to reply that they had no funds,
a reply which it would have been difficult to make had the
Meteorological Office been part of a Government depart-
ment. Let us, look across the water at our American cousins
and see how they regard the science of meteorology, and
whether or not it is important enough to attach it to the
State. According to evidence given to the committee, the
Weather Bureau in America, corresponding to our Meteor-
ological Office and forming part of the Department of Agri-
culture, was spending 230,o00l. a year on the same work as
that of the Meteorological Committee, whose funds at the
maximum were confined to 15,300/. In Germany, where
very large sums are spent on the oceanic part of meteor-
ology, it is a part of the Navy Department. We, with our
splendid navy and mercantile marine, surely ought to see
that this part of meteorology is as well cared for as it is
in Germany, and that there is no lack of funds. The
evidence given before the committee showed that without
the help of the, hydrographic branch of the Navy the work
could not have been carried on with anything like success.
I am not intending to enter into a discussion of meteor-
ological science, but it has been pointed out that if fore-
casts are any good (and we have it on record that from
68 per cent. to 75 per cent. of them are successful) they
ought to be made as good as possible. There is no doubt
that kite and balloon observations, and the use of wireless
telegraphy in mid-ocean, would give a still higher per-
centage of successful forecasts. But the additions must
remain in abeyance owing to the money limit which has
been fixed at the same standard for so many years.
Again, we find that a very large item of expenditure by
the Meteorological Office is the cost of telegrams. It has
to pay the same price for the use of the Post Office tele-
graphs as any private individual, whereas every Govern-
ment office has the free use of the wires, and has not to
consider whether a telegram runs to 12 or 120 words, or
whether it sends 1 or 100. The main object of the Meteor-
ological Office is to assist the public, and this is the same
as that of Government departments, yet the one is hampered
by the cost of publishing information (which to be of the
1 Abridged from the inaugural address delivered at the Society of Arts
on November 16 by Sir William Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S., vice-president
and chairman of the council of the Society.
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
greatest use must be transmitted at once), whilst the other
is not. The view of the committee which sat was strongly
that this disability ought to be removed, so that wide pub-
licity to weather reports, especially in harvest time, should
be given. Finally, the committee almost unanimously re-
ported in favour of the office being attached to some Govern-
ment department, and proposed that this should be the Board
of Agriculture, a department which at present is not over-
weighted.
I must remind you that our great Indian dependency
has been more alive to the question of meteorology than we
have at home; but I trust that, backward as we are, we
may, before long, attain that excellence of administration
which the Indian Meteorological Department has exhibited
under its present and past able administrators.
What the Government intends to do with the committee’s
report I do not know. Judging from previous history, there
seems to be a dread at the Treasury of any of the present
departments having more to do with science than is abso-
lutely forced upon them. Perhaps this is natural. The
lay official mind has, with some few exceptions, never fully
grasped the importance of orderly and continued scientific
investigation in order to increase national prosperity. It
recognises this in a way, for the need is continually brought
into prominence by the Press, but to it the easiest plan is to
leave all such investigation to societies. In Great Britain
it has never been realised that to foster such work is a
duty of the nation. We have ignored the very patent fact
that in free America and in other countries the necessity of
annexing to the State all utilitarian research (when such
research is carried out with the definite object of public
usefulness) is fully recognised. I am not proposing for an
instant that the work which is carried out by individuals
or societies should be curtailed, but there are questions which
are too large, too expansive, and bearing too much on the
public weal which should be dealt with in Great Britain as
they are in (say) America.
I have only so far referred to the Meteorological Com-
mittee, but, at all events, there is another institution, the
National Physical Laboratory, which should come into the
same category of quasi-public departments.
The Government has given the National Physical Labor-
atory buildings, and a sum of 19,0001. to make the additions
to them, which were absolutely necessary to commence with.
It granted goool. a year for four years, and afforded assist-
ance to it through the Office of Works. The term of years
for which the grant was made runs out in March next, and
its financial position has to be reviewed by the State through
the Treasury. Its existence and development has become
a necessity through the excellent work that it has already
done. But there is work of first-class importance to the
public which the laboratory has been forced to refuse owing
to lack of funds. Standardising is not a luxury in the pre-
sent day, and England has suffered much in its trade owing
to the want of it.
The table on p. g1 will show the amounts granted by the
different States in regard to these laboratories.
Here we have a direct comparison of grants and turn-out
of work. Great Britain, I think I may say, has no reason
to be ashamed of the work, though it has of the grants.
In connection with the results given in the table, I may
point out that France and the United States started their
institutions after the inauguration of, our own laboratory.
The idea of making any such institution a State institu-
tion, it may be supposed, was never entertained by the
Government, such a notion being foreign to existing pre-
cedent. The precedent—bad precedent too—had to govern
the situation. We have only to look across the Atlantic
to see how our Anglo-Saxon cousins treat such matters.
There, institutions such as I have here described are part
and parcel of a State department, and have a handsome
annual grant allotted to them. The Government of the
United States recognised the public need, and so did
Congress, with the result that the public need is catered
for by a public department, as it should be.
In regard to the National Physical Laboratory, it is no
secret that at the present moment it is hampered by want
of funds for equipment and staff. Its refusal of work has
only proceeded from this cause. The report which it issued
showed that its expenditure had been larger than its income
NoveEMBER 24, 1904]
NATURE gI
of goool., an income which is derived from a variety of
sources :—Treasury grant, 4o0ol.; Gassiot Fund, 4ool.
(about); from Meteorological Committee, 4ool.; fees, &c.,
42001. (about). In addition to this there has been 12o00l.
in donations.
Whether the laboratory can become self-supporting is a
matter of doubt to my mind. Even if it should be so, that
is no reason for taking it away from State control, which
always gives an impress to decisions, and it is a pledge that
gain is not its only object. Certainly it would never arrive
at the proportions that the huge, more than self-supporting
department, the Post Office, has arrived at. The example
of Germany, where the State takes the fees, and supports
the institution, is worth following.
THE BEN BULBEN DISTRICT.
THE region lying north of Sligo, which was visited by
a large party of naturalists last July on the occasion
of the fourth triennial conference of the Naturalists’ Field
Clubs of Ireland, is one of much beauty and interest. In
its general aspect it recalls the best features of the York-
shire Carboniferous Limestone area. Its setting, with the
great limestone plain of Ireland stretching away on one
hand, and the Atlantic Ocean on another, adds a dignity
and impressiveness to this group of cliff-rimmed, flat-topped
hills which might not be bestowed by their height alone,
though they are of no mean elevation (Truskmore, the
highest point, rises to 2113 feet). The Ben Bulben range,
| Cost | Receipts |
Country =| — Cont Paid (| iaasmane. | See
Building Equipment | jp GRE |
Reichsanstalt £200,000 £16,000 43,0007 | 22,469 | 112
Germany... | Aichungs-kommission 48,000 8,500 — — =
Versuchsanstalt 137,000 15,000 8,0007 5,000 140
| £385,000 £39,500 £11,000 27,469 | 252
France Laboratoire de l’état | £27,000 £20,000 5,500 | — — 12
and some
buildings.
ME SSAE ses) as Bureau of Standards E £70,000 45,000 19,009 114° 1,666* 22
Great Britain.. National Physical Laboratory £19,000 4,000 4,042? 30,807* 50
including 2 |
some }
buildings.
1 The annual grant was made before the work was started, and any balance left after paying salaries I believe was available for apparatus.
= In these cases the State takes the fees.
I might refer to researches in solar physics also, which
are carried out in the iron shanties at South Kensington,
‘yader the control of the Board of Education. The sum of
7ool. is allotted as a grant in aid for the work that is carried
out there, and some of the staff are borne on the estimates;
but if, as is to be believed, some of the tremendous problems
of the causes of famine and plenty are dependent on the
solar phenomena, then this work should be enlarged and
encouraged. The expenditure of ten times the sum in one |
year may enable millions of pounds and lives to be saved
which may be lost from the scant supply of needful means.
It is true that the Solar Physics Observatory is under the
Board of Education, but if its history were written, I doubt
not that it would be found that from its very first inception
(due to the repeated recommendation of a host of scientific
men who foresaw something of what might be expected
from it) the State wanted none of it. It may be said that
if the Meteorological Office and the National Physical
Laboratory were attached to a Government department,
they might be starved in the same way. I do not believe it
possible that such would be the case, for these two are of
ostensible use to the ordinary public, and appeal to that
most sagacious and popular person the man in the street,
in a way that solar physics does not. The last deals with
problems which are for future use, but it is intimately, most
intimately, connected with meteorology. If the Meteor-
ological Office becomes attached, as it eventually must be,
to a Government department, the Solar Physics Observatory |
and staff should be attached to the same department.
doing essentially public service, and ask for the necessary
funds, I believe Parliament would vote the supplies in the
same ungrudging manner that Congress has done, as they
would look upon them as a paying investment. Parliament
realises most frequently before Government does the im-
portance of any public work. The most happy solution of
the problem would be (1) to have some department of State
to which these and other kindred scientific institutions should
be attached ; (2) to have a scientific advisory board; (3) to
distinguish clearly between grants for research, equipment,
and material, and those for staff.
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
For the first year.
‘of the Upper Limestone of this district.
4 Includes the Observatory Department.
which deriyes its name from that of one of its spurs which
projects boldly towards the Atlantic, represents the wreck
The fertile un-
dulating low grounds all around are occupied by a lower
and more argillaceous series, through which one of the old
Caledonian folds of Ireland projects as a knobby ridge, its
rugged outlines forming a charming contrast with the green
and grey tabular forms of the limestone. The Upper
Limestone, 700 feet or Soo feet thick, massive and strongly
jointed vertically, rests on the lower series as a cliff-bound
plateau, intersected by several grand glens, which are cut
through the limestone deep into the less resisting rocks
underneath. The mural precipices are the result of the
characteristic weathering of the massive limestones. Below
them, where not obscured by talus, the Middle Limestones
and shales fall away in steep concave slopes into the plain.
The exquisite valleys of Glencar and Glenade cut right
through the plateau, the first in an east and west direction,
the other north and south. Each is from one to two miles
wide from cliff-top to cliff-top, and about a thousand feet
deep (Fig. 1). The floors of these valleys are undulating,
and the scenery is much enhanced by the fact that each
embosoms a lake at the point where the cliff scenery reaches
its best.
On some parts of the plateau-edge denudation has been
more severe, as in the beautiful wedge of Ben Whiskin
(1666 feet), the western side of which displays a character-
istic precipitous front, while the eastern side has been worn
c 1 lent. | down to a uniform steep slope which drops into Gleniff.
If the Government will recognise the two institutions as |
The uniformity of the post-Carboniferous uplift is shown
by the almost absolute horizontality of the beds of lime-
stone throughout the region. The surface of the plateau,
while retaining in a general way this horizontality, is seen
on a nearer approach to be undulating, a feature chiefly
due to the fact that patches of the Yoredale sandstone still
remain here and there isolated on the surface of the lime-
stone. The whole plateau, limestone as well as sandstone,
has in general a thick covering of peat.
To the botanist the Ben Bulben range is well known as
the only British habitat of Arenaria ciliata, a species with
a high northern and alpine distribution, which is locally
abundant on these hills. This plant strikes the key-note of
the flora of the district, which is essentially northern and
alpine in its characters. Adjoining on the south, in Mayo,
the Lusitanian heaths, Erica mediterranea and Dabeocta
polifolia, and other plants fully represent the remarkable
southern flora which characterises the western sea-board
of Ireland, and a few miles on the northern side the same
features are repeated in Donegal in the occurrence of
Saxifraga umbrosa, Euphorbia hiberna, and Trichomanes
radicans. But in the Sligo flora the southern element is
absent, saving the occurrence of Adiantum Capillus-Veneris,
which may be found growing at sea-level in company with
Draba incana and Saxifraga aizoides.
As it is with the plants, so with the animals. The
characteristic southern forms of western Ireland are scarcely
represented, while northern animals are conspicuous. The
Field Club entomologists found Pelophila borealis literally to
swarm on the shores of Lough Gill, which is only a few
feet above sea-level; Nenylla brevicauda, an Apterom new
Tee ye
NATURE
[NovEMBER 24, 1yo4
fined to the erosion taking place on the Yorkshire coast
between Bridlington and Spurn, and the works that have
been carried out in constructing promenades, sea walls, and
groynes at Bridlington.
There is no novelty in the descriptive parts of these papers.
It is a well known and recognised fact that on certain parts
of the coast of this country considerable loss of land is
taking place by the erosion of the sea. The subject occupied
the attention of the geological section of the British
Association in 1885, when a committee was appointed to
investigate the subject of coast erosion, and reports of
experts having local knowledge were obtained from all parts
of the coast and printed in the reports issued from time to
time, the last, which was confined to recent evidence
obtained trum the coast guards, being published in the
report of the meeting held at Southport in 1903. We have
ourselves dealt with the subject in articles in NATURE in
our number for June, 1899, and on sea coast and destruction
in August 23, 1900. The destruction of the Holderness
ewara =F NELCH. |
Fic. 1.—Entrance of Glencar.
to the British Isles, which accompanied it here, is likewise
northern; and other instances might be quoted. Among
other results of the Field Club visit (which are fully de-
scribed in the September number of the Irish Naturalist)
may be mentioned the discovery of three water-mites, one
of which, Eylais bicornuta, is new to science, and the two
others new to Britain.
COAST EROSION AND PROTECTION.
Two papers on this subject were recently read at the
Institution of Civil Engineers, one by Mr. A. E.
Carey on coast erosion, and the other by Mr. E. R.
Matthews, the borough engineer of Bridlington, on the
erosion of the Holderness coast of Yorkshire.
The first paper deals generally with the whole coast of
England, and briefly enumerates the salient
features of the coast line and points out
with the relative rates of erosion.
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
geological
their connection
I'he second paper is con-
Show.ng the southern cliff-wall of Carboniferous Limestone, which rises a thousand feet above the valley.
coast and the protective works put up to stop the erosion
at Hornsea, Withernsea, and Spurn were dealt with in a
paper by Mr. Pickwell on the encroachments of the sea
from Spurn Point to Flamborough Head printed in the
Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
vol. he 1878. ;
The whole subject, both as descriptive of the coast of
England, the losses that have taken place, and the works
that have been carried out to prevent erosion, is also very
fully dealt with in the work on ‘‘ The Sea Coast ’’ pub-
lished by Messrs. Longmans in 1902.
Mr. Matthews in his paper makes a statement that has
frequently been made before, but for which there does not
appear to be any warrant, to the effect that the material
eroded from the Holderness coast is carried into the estuary
of the Humber. This subject was very fully dealt with in
a paper read at the British Association at Glasgow in 1901
on the source of warp in the Humber, in which it was con-
clusively shown that it is physically impossible for this
material to be carried into the Humber, and that, as a
NOVEMBER 24, 1904]
matter of fact, no warp is carried into the river from the
sea, but that the warp in suspension is derived entirely from
the solid matter brought down by the various tributaries
of the river. The paper describes this matter as oscillating
backwards and forwards with the tides in a zone confined
to the lower reaches of the Ouse and the Trent, except that
when heavy freshets are running it extends into the Humber
and is then partly carried out to sea. This peculiar action
is made use of to improve the value of the land adjacent to
the rivers by the process of ‘‘ warping.’’ Any solid matter
brought into the Humber on the flood tide consists entirely
of clean sand, and has no relation to the waste of the Holder-
ness coast.
The only novel features, therefore, in these papers is the
suggestion of Mr. Carey that the matter should be taken
up by Parliament, and that a body of commissioners should
be created with the special function of dealing with the
foreshores of England and Wales. He proposes that the
coast should be divided into districts placed under com-
missioners, each having an engineer to act as coast warden,
with power to deal with the material on the beach, and the
general control and management of all foreshore lands, the
costs incurred by this commission to be divided between
the Treasury, the local authorities, and the landowners.
Mr. Matthews confines his ideas of Government inter-
ference to the coast of Yorkshire, and suggests that this
ought to be protected against the inroads of the sea by the
Government, quoting as a precedent for this that the Board
of Trade protects the Spurn Peninsula. He loses sight,
however, of the fact that this is done for the protection of
the lighthouses which stand on the peninsula, and for the
preservation of the entrance to the Humber. Mr. Matthews
gives an estimate for protecting this reach of coast by sea
walls and groynes, and shows, as has been done by others
on previous occasions, that the value of the land swallowed
up by the sea within a reasonable period would not amount
to one-third of the first cost of the protective works, apart
from their maintenance.
It will be remembered that recently, owing to the great de-
struction of sea protective works that accurred at Lowestoft
and Southwold, the representatives of the sea coast towns
on the east of England held a conference at Norwich and
appointed delegates to interview the Prime Minister
and the officials of the Government departments more par-
ticularly concerned in this matter, urging that the pre-
servation of the coast and the sea defence works ought to
be a national charge. So far, however, they do not appear
to have justified their claims for such aid. It has been
pointed out that most of these towns have gradually
emerged from mere fishing villages into sea-side resorts, and
have erected promenades and other similar works for the
purpose of making their places popular, and have by this
means increased the value of the land in the neighbourhood
from a mere agricultural price to that of building land, very
greatly fo the profit of the owners of such land. It appears
therefore manifestly unfair to ask the owners of the agri-
cultural land at the back, whose rents have already been
greatly depleted by the fall in value of agricultural produce
during the last few years, to contribute towards works for
the improvement of their neighbours’ land on the coast,
which they would have to do if these works were made a
charge on the national revenue, and it would be equally
unjust to levy contributions on inland towns which have
borne the costs of large improvements for sanitary and
health purposes out of their own rates.
Mr. Carey describes in his paper the evolution of a
sea-side village, subject to intermittent inundation, into a
watering place, in front of which the local authority charged
with the works not only encloses within the sea wall nearly
the whole of the shingle beach which afforded a natural
protection to the shore, but also by groynes traps the whole
of the travelling shingle, with disastrous results to the
owner of the land to leeward. It may also be pointed out,
as stated in the British Association report for 1895, that
many of the disasters that occur to the sea walls and
promenades of these sea-side towns are due to defective
engineering and a complete disregard of the laws of
nature.
It is obvious that it would be very desirable to set up
some better control over the works now carried on along
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NATURE
03
the sea shore either by increasing the powers of the Board
of Trade or by the appointment of a special Commission, as
suggested by the author of the paper. The great difficulty
will be in dealing with the rights of the persons claiming the
ownership of the beach material, which in many cases is
sold and removed in very large quantities for concrete
making, road repairs, or other purposes. The Board of
Trade occasionally, on being applied to, intervenes and
issues notices prohibiting the removal of sand and shingle,
but its power to do so is not so well defined as it ought to
be, and the whole subject requires investigation, and legis-
lative action for regulating and controlling works carried
out on the sea shore and the removal of beach material ;
but the preservation of the property of landowners and urban
authorities out of funds provided from the national exchequer
would be entirely contrary to the methods of administration
hitherto pursued in this country.
THE NOVEMBER METEORS OF 1004.
“THOUGH there was no prospect of a brilliant display
this year, there seemed the probability of a pretty con-
spicuous shower. In 1838—five years after the great
meteor-storm of 1833—Mr. Woods, of London, reported in
the Times that on the night of November 12, between
15h. 25m. and 15h. 55m., ‘‘ nothing could exceed the
grandeur of the heavens. Meteors fell like a shower of
bombshells in a bombardment and in such rapid succession
as to defy every attempt to watch their particular directions
or to ascertain their numbers.’’ Mr. Woods estimated
that he saw 400 or 500 meteors during the half-hour
mentioned.
In 1872 also, about five years after the brilliant displays
in 1866, 1867, and 1868, the Leonids returned pretty
abundantly, for on November 13, 12h. to 18h., several
observers at Matera, Italy, counted 638 meteors, and the
display was regarded as having been much brighter than
usual.
In these circumstances it was expected that the return
of 1904 would be deserving of careful observation, and so
it has proved, though the shower was perhaps not quite so
rich as expected. The earth, however, probably passed
through the denser part of the stream at about Greenwich
noon on November 15, and thus it must have escaped observ-
ation in England. Reports from American stations are
awaited with interest. In this country fogs were very pre-
valent at the important time, and at some places appear to
have obliterated the phenomenon.
At Bristol during the night of November 13 there were
very few meteors visible, with only occasional Leonids, but
the stars were dim in the fog.
On November 14 the conditions were more favourable.
Between 13h. 30m. and 15h. 45m. about 55 meteors were
seen (including 33 Leonids) by the writer during a watch
extending over 13h. of the period named. It was considered
that Leonids were appearing at the horary rate of 25 for
one observer. After 16h. increasing fog interfered with
observation. The Rev. S. J. Johnson at Bridport had, how-
ever, a very clear sky after 16h., and noted a fairly numerous
display of Leonids, including one as brilliant as Venus and
several equal to Jupiter. He does not mention the exact
number seen.
Mr. C. L. Brook at Meltham, near Huddersfield, watched
on November 14 between 16h. and 18h., and counted 69
Leonids, of which number 17 were observed in the first
quarter of an hour. Other results have come to hand which
corroborate Mr. Brook’s figures, and show that the
maximum was attained between 15h. 50m. and 16h. 20m.,
when the rate of apparition was 1 Leonid per minute in the
sphere of vision commanded by one observer.
There appear to have been very few Leonids seen either
on the nights of November 13 or 15.
As observed at Bristol, the radiant seemed to be an area
| 4 or 5 degrees in diameter, with its centre slightly west
of y and ¢ Leonis, or at 151°+23°. There were several
minor showers visible, and two of these were well pro-
nounced at 43°+21° and 144°+37°.
W. F. DeEnninec.
94
OWNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Oxrorp.—The Rhodes trustees have decided to add 2o0l.
a year for the next five years to the stipend of the reader
in pathology. Mr. Alfred Beit and Mr. Wernher have
supplied sufficient money to endow a professorship of
colonial history, and to appoint an assistant professor in
the same subject. They have also made a gift to the
Bodleian Library.
Magdalen College has made a grant to the delegates of
the university museum of 2501. a year for the next two
years for the purpose of the payment of scientific assistants.
The following examiners have been appointed :—in
chemistry, W. H. Perkin, jun.; in preliminary physics,
E. S. Craig; in preliminary chemistry, J. E. Marsh; in
preliminary animal physiology, W. Ramsden; in _pre-
liminary zoology, E. S. Goodrich; in medicine, organic
chemistry, N. V. Sidgwick; in human anatomy, A. Thom-
son; in materia medica, R. Stockman; in midwifery, J. S.
Fairbairn; in pathology, G. Sims-Woodhead; in forensic
medicine and public health, J. D. Mann and A. L. Ormerod ;
and in human physiology, L. E. Hill.
Tue Treasury, at the instance of the Colonial Office, has
made a grant of sool. a year to the Liverpool School of
Tropical Medicine.
Tue prizes and certificates gained by students at the
Sir John Cass Technical Institute during the past session
will be distributed by Sir William H. White, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., on Thursday, December 1. The laboratories and
workshops of the institute will be on view, and there will
be exhibitions of students’ work.
At Bedford College for Women two occasional lectures,
open to the public without fee, will be delivered on
November 25 and December 8. The first lecture will be by
Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., on ‘‘ Recent Work and some
Unsolved Problems in Heredity,’’ and the second by Miss
C. A. Raisin on “ London, its Early Foundation and Later
Growth, a Geological Study.”
Tue alumni of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
are collecting, says Science, a fund for current expenses,
which now amounts to more than 20,000l., to be used in the
course of the next five years. We learn from the same
source that Harvard University has received from Miss
Whitney a gift of 1oool., the income of which is to be
applied as a scholarship to aid meritorious students in the
study of field geology or geography in the summer months,
preferably in the mountain region of the western United
States.
APPLicaTION will be made to Parliament in the ensuing
session for an Act to transfer University College, London,
exclusive of the North London or University College
Hospital, the medical school, and the boys’ school, to the
University of London, and to dissolve or provide for the
dissolution of the college itself. The Bill will contain a
clause authorising and providing for the making by the
Senate of the university, or by such other body or persons
as the Act may prescribe, of statutes and regulations for the
management of the college ; and provision will also be made
for carrying on the work of the hospital, the medical school,
and the boys’ school.
TuHE new buildings of the Borough Polytechnic Institute
were opened by Mr. Benn, chairman of the London County
Council, on November 16. The buildings, which were
urgently needed for the large number of students, have cost
with equipment more than 24,000]. Toward this amount
the central governing body of the City of London Parochial
Charities contributed 3000l., the London County Council
16,000l., with a promise of a further sum. The council
also meets the cost of installation of the electric light and |
equipment, amounting to 2950l. The total cost of the land,
about 1; acres, buildings and equipment, by the end of the
year will be not less than 96,000l. |
Wirn the object of giving to the school children of the
United Kingdom better knowledge of the colonies, and of
giving to the school children of each colony better know- |
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[NOVEMBER 24, 1904
ledge of the United Kingdom and of other parts of the
Empire, a syllabus of seven lectures on the United Kingdom,
each to be illustrated by about forty lantern slides, has been
drawn up by a committee connected with the Colonial Office.
The subjects of the lectures are :—(1) the journey from the
East to London; (2) London the Imperial city ; (3) scenery
of the United Kingdom; (4) historic centres and their in-
fluence on national life; (5) country life and the smaller
towns; (6) great towns, the industries, and commerce;
(7) defences of the Empire. Mr. H. J. Mackinder will give
an account of the scheme, and exhibit some of the slides
which have been prepared to illustrate it, at the Whitehall
Rooms, Hétel Métropole, on Wednesday, December 7, at
5 p-m. The Colonial Secretary has consented to preside.
At the inaugural meeting of the new session of the Royal
Statistical Society on November 15, the new president, Sir
Francis Sharp Powell, Bart., M.P., delivered an address on
education in which he presented specially impressive figures
to illustrate prominent educational features of various coun-
tries. The activity in educational matters of to-day was
commended, and attention directed to the growing convic-
tion that a more liberal education than that provided by
purely technical instruction is necessary in this country.
Among other interesting comparisons instituted in the
address was one dealing with the average expenditure on
education per child in Prussia and in England. Exclusive
of central and local administration, it appears that the
average expenditure per child on the register is in Prussia
tl, 15s. 6d. if buildings are included, and 11. 10s. 8d. ex-
clusive of buildings. The corresponding figures in England
are 21, 12s. gd. and 11. 17s. Further, the number of scholars
per teacher is 66 in Prussia and 57 in England, excluding
pupil teachers. It seems clear from these figures that
Germany, with a smaller expenditure per child than our
own, succeeds in securing better results, and it is to be
hoped that English education soon may be conducted more
scientifically, so that the value of our education may be
more in accordance with our expenditure. The address also
pointed out that in secondary education German activity is
shown in the provision of technical schools for special
branches of metal industries, for wood-working, engineer-
ing, and textile industries, and for agriculture.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, June 16.—‘ Hydrolysis of Cane Sugar
by d- and J-Camphor-8-Sulphonic Acids.”” By R. J.
Caldwell, B.Sc.
The rates of inversion of cane sugar by two stereoisomeric
acids were determined in order to compare the results with
the case of inversion by enzymes, which are apparently all
asymmetric substances. Wilhelmj’s law holds accurately
for half normal solutions of both dextro- and lzyo-camphor-
B-sulphonic acids. The velocity constant « (equal to
10"/t log,, a/a—x, where a is the initial cane sugar concen-
tration, and x the concentration of the inverted sugar at
the end of # minutes) was found to be 10.07 and 10-13 in
two experiments with the dextro-acid, and 10-05 and 10-08
for the lzvo-acid. The author concludes that there is no
difference in the inverting power of the two acids attribu-
table to their asymmetric structure. This result is in accord
with the conclusion arrived at by Emil Fischer regardins
the d- and l-camphoric acids (Zetts. Physiol. Chem., 1898,
vol. xxvi. p. 83). The relative activities of hydrochloric acid
and camphor-f-sulphonic acid towards cane sugar are
100: 90, whereas for milk sugar the ratio is 100: 70.
November 17.—‘ Enhanced Lines of Titanium, Iron,
and Chromium in the Fraunhoferic Spectrum.” By
Sir J. Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., and F. E.
Baxandail, A.R.C.S.
In this paper the authors give the results of a detailed
study of the enhanced lines of Ti, Fe, and Cr in relation to
the lines of the Fraunhoferic spectrum. In _ previous
Kensington publications it had been shown that the enhanced
lines of some of the metals are prominent in the spectra of
a Cygni and the sun’s chromosphere, whilst it has been
generally recognised that the lines in the Fraunhoferic spec-
trum are mainly the equivalents of lines in the are spectra
NovEMBER 24, 1904]
VERIO R £2
95
of metals.
it has been noted that some ‘of them, at least, appear to
correspond with comparatively weak solar lines to which
Rowland has attached no origin. With the object of
possibly tracing some of the unorigined solar lines to their
source, a careful comparison has been made between the |
enhanced lines shown in the photographic spark spectra of
Ti, Fe, and Cr and the solar lines. The photographs used
for this purpose were all taken with a Rowland grating, and
on such a scale that the length of spectrum between K
and F is about 14 inches (35 cm.). The chemical elements
named were first selected for investigation because they
furnish by far the greater number of enhanced lines which
have been shown to occur in the spectrum of a Cygni.
It was found that many of the enhanced lines fell exactly
on isolated lines of the solar spectrum, and in these cases
the solar wave-lengths were adopted and the identification
considered established. If, however, for any of these solar
lines Rowland had given alternative origins, special com-
parisons were made of the enhanced line photograph with
those of the metals given by Rowland. Notes (given at
the end of the tables) were made as to the agreement or
non-agreement of the metallic lines involved, and also of
the relative intensities in their individual spectra, so that
due weights could be given to the respective metallic lines
which were thought conjointly to produce compound solar
lines.
Where there was any doubt as to the exact coincidence
of a metallic and solar line, or where by the close grouping
of several solar lines it was not possible to say by direct
comparison to which solar line the metallic line corre-
sponded, careful measures were made of the metallic line,
and its wave-length found by interpolation between closely
adjacent lines of known wave-length. The resulting wave-
lengths were then compared with Rowland’s solar wave-
lengths, and in cases of close agreement with solar lines it
was deemed probable that the two lines were really identical.
A final table is given of the enhanced lines of the three
elements which are considered, as a result of the analysis,
to be identical with lines in the Fraunhoferic spectrum.
Forty-two of these agree with solar lines unorigined by
Rowland, and as the majority of them are conspicuous
lines in stellar spectra of certain types, it has been thought
that these results will be of importance in standardising
the wave-lengths of many stellar lines.
Physical Society, November 11.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Investigation of the varia-
tions of magnetic hysteresis with frequency: Prof. T. R.
Lyle. The experiments were made on two rings of lamin-
ated annealed iron, in one of which the radial breadth of
the iron was considerable relative to its mean radius.
These rings were magnetised by alternating currents of
different strengths and periods; both the magnetising-
current wave and the magnetic-flux wave were quantitatively
determined by a wave-tracer (described by the author in
the Phil. Mag., November, 1903), and the wave-forms so
obtained subjected to harmonic analysis. The experiments
were divided into series, in which the period and wave-form
of the magnetising current were kept as nearly constant
as possible throughout any one series, while its strength
was varied. The analytic expressions for the associated
current and flux waves for a few series are given in tabular
form. From the analytic expressions for each pair of
associated waves it was found that when the magnetising
current was approximately sinusoidal the total iron loss
(I) was, within certain limits of the induction, given by a
formula I=(a+bn)%8!* where n is the number of periods
per sec., % the ‘‘ effective induction,’’ and a and b are
constants. When from the total iron loss per c.c. per cycle
the sum of the statical hysteresis and the value that
theory assigns to eddy-current loss was subtracted, a con-
siderable quantity remained, which increased both when
the frequency and the flux-density increased. This quantity,
called by Fleming the kinetic hysteresis, has been obtained
for each experiment.—On the practical determination of the
mean spherical candle-power of incandescent and arc lamps :
G. B. Dyke. Mr. Dyke points out the need of an improved
method of expressing the efficiency of glow-lamps, and
adopts the suggestion of Dr. Fleming of expressing the
whole flux of light in lumens per watt. The expression of
NO. 1830, VOL. 71|
In connection with the work on enhanced lines, |
the efficiency in this manner involves the determination of
the mean spherical candle-power (M.S.C.P.), and the paper
describes a method of doing this. The objects of the paper
are :—(1) to obtain curves showing the variations of candle-
power of glow-lamps in a horizontal plane; (2) to obtain
reduction factors by which the mean horizontal candle-
power (M.H.C.P.) may be calculated from the maximum
horizontal candle-power (C.P.); and (3) to obtain reduction
factors for deducing the M.S.C.P. from the M.H.C.P. and
from the C.P.—Exhibition of apparatus: R. W. Paul. The
construction of highly sensitive pivoted electrical instru-
ments has been rendered difficult by the fact that delicate
pivots will not admit of transporting without injury. A
number of galvanometers were shown in which the design
was based upon the use of a moving coil, supported on one
pivot in a powerful and uniform magnetic field, and con-
trolled by a spring. A simple non-reflecting, suspended-coil
galvanometer for the student’s use, with a sensibility of
1 division per micro-ampere, was also exhibited. A new
design of lantern, adapted for science lectures, and for use
with three Nernst filaments arranged closely together, was
shown in action. It is capable of being instantly changed
from horizontal to vertical projection, can be fitted with a
reversing prism, and has a wide adjustment for focusing.
Another exhibit was an Ayrton Mather reflecting electro-
static voltmeter with a magnetic damping device. The
instrument shown had a sensibility of 500 mm. at 1 m. for
30 volts, but similar instruments are made to give this
deflection with pressures as low as 8 volts.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, November 14.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—Researches on the desiccation of plants: the period
of vitality. Moistening by liquid water: imperfect reversi-
bility: M. Berthelot.—New researches on the Cafon
Diablo meteorite: Henri Moissan. A very careful and
complete examination was made of a block of this meteorite
weighing 183 kilograms. It was found to be distinctly
heterogeneous in structure, containing iron, nickel, sulphur,
phosphorus, silicon, and carbon. The latter element was
present in several forms: amorphous carbon, graphite, and
diamonds, both the black and transparent variety of the
diamond being separated. Characteristic green hexagonal
crystals of silicon carbide were also isolated, the author re-
marking that this is the first time that this compound has
been met with in nature.—The measurements of the velocity
of propagation of earthquakes: G. Lippmann. An instru-
ment is described capable of determining to 1/5 of a second
the exact time of the commencement of a seismic shock at
any given point. The author also discusses the following
problem : to find the direction of the seismic wave front at
the surface of the earth, in a given region, and to measure
the velocity of its horizontal propagation.—On the inscrip-
tion of seismic movements: G. Lippmann. In the photo-
graphic self-recording apparatus in common use for earth-
quake phenomena, owing to the considerable expense of the
strip of sensitised paper, its velocity through the apparatus
is very slow, about 12 cm. per hour. In the modification
now proposed, the slit through which the ray of light falls
on the paper is closed by a shutter, and this is operated
electrically by the seismic shock. By this means the speed
may be greatly increased, since the paper is only used up
during the period of the earthquake shocks.—On the seeds
of the Neuropteridee : M. Grand’Eury. As the result of
the examination of more than 1000 specimens of fossil
seeds, usually attributed to ferns, the author distinguishes
I5 genera or subgenera of Neuropteridez, and 25 specific
types.—Remarks on MHugoniot’s adiabatic law: M.
Jouguet.—On the use of helium as a thermometric sub-
stance and on its diffusion through silica: Adrien
Jaquerod and F. Louis Perrot. An attempt to deter-
mine the melting point of gold with a thermometer of fused
silica, and containing helium, failed owing to the rapid
diffusion of the gas through the silica at the high tempera-
ture. The velocity of diffusion appears to be proportional
to the pressure of the gas, and is very considerable, since
after six hours’ heating at 1100° C. the pressure of the
helium had fallen to about one-seventh of the initial pressure.
Below a red heat, at about 510° C., the diffusion is still
fairly rapid, and a very slow effect could even be traced
at 220° C. For practical purposes, therefore, the nitrogen
96
NATURE
{[NovEMBER 24, 1904
thermometer remains the best instrument for high tempera-
tures.—Researches on dielectric solids: V. Crémieu and
L. Malctes. In the course of his researches on electric
convection, Crémieu observed some anomalies of electrical
influence through solid dielectrics. The authors have com-
menced a systematic study of these phenomena, and give
an account in the present paper of the apparatus used, re-
serving the results for a future communication.—On the
conductivity of gases from a flame: Paul Langevin and
Eugéne Bloch. The coefficient of re-combination of the
ions from a flame has been measured, and found to be equal
to about 0-7. This value is less than one, as the theory
requires, and is much greater than in the case of the
Rontgen rays.—On the absorption of hydrogen by rhodium :
L. Quennessen. Contrary to the statement given in the
text-books, the absorptive power of rhodium for hydrogen
is nil. Rhodium is not analogous with palladium in this
respect.—The action of boric acid on the alkaline peroxides
and the formation of perborates: George F. Jaubert. By
the action of boric acid upon sodium peroxide a perborate
of sodium is formed, the analysis of which leads to the
composition Na,B,O,,10H,O. On _ re-crystallising this a
substance possessing more oxygen, NaBO,,4H,O, is formed,
and this is very stable at the ordinary temperature, although
decomposed rapidly at 100° C. The latter substance, treated
with 50 per cent. sulphuric acid, gives after filtration
through guncotton a solution of hydrogen peroxide of a
strength of 150 to 200 volumes.—On thioformic acid: V.
Auger. The author has shown in a previous paper that
the substance regarded by Wohler and Limpricht as thio-
formic acid is in reality trithioformaldehyde. The method
which was found to give the best yield of sodium thio-
formate was the interaction of sodium hydrogen sulphide
with phenyl formate. The latter substance was incidentally
obtained in the pure state for the first time, and details of
its preparation are given.—The synthesis of ®f-dimethyl-
adipic acid: G. Blane.—On a new sugar from the berries
of the mountain ash: Gabriel Bertrand. The sugar is
isomeric with, but distinct from, sorbite and mannite, and
is provisionally named sorbierite. Its physical properties
are ‘given, and its composition as a hexahydric alcohol
determined by the production of a hexacetate.—The de-
velopment of the organic material in seeds during their
ripening : G. André.—On the detection of cotton seed oil
in olive oil: E. Milliau. The test proposed is a modifi-
cation of the reduction test with silver nitrate-—Anhydro-
biosis and tropisms: Georges Bohn.—On the growth of
man and of living beings in general: Charles Henry and
Louis Bastien.—The evolution of the weight and organic
material of the leaf during necrobiosis in white light: L.
Beulaygue.—On heterogeneity in the Stichodactyline
group: Armand Krempf.—The comparative influence of
some organic compounds of phosphorus on the nutrition and
development of animals: A. Desgrez and A. Zaki.—On the
inoculation of cancer: M. Mayet.—On the bleaching of
flour by electricity: M. Balland. The treatment of flour
by electrified air has a bleaching action, and produces
chemical changes corresponding to the effect of age.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, NoveMBER 24.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Refractive Indices of the Elements:
C. Cuthbertson.—The Flow of Water through Pipes. Experiments on
Stream-line Motion and the Measurement of Critical Velocity : Drs. H. T.
Barnes and E. G. Coker-—On Galvanic Cells produced by the Action of
Light. Preliminary Communication ; Dr. M. Wilderman.—Some Physical
Characters of the Sodium Borates, with a New and Rapid Method for
the Determination of Melting Points: C. H. Burgess and A. Holt, jun.
—On the Convergence of Infinite Series of Analytic Functions: H. A.
Webb.
INsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Hydrodynamical and
Electromagnetic Investigations regarding the Magnetic-Flux Distribu-
tion in Toothed-Core Armatures: Prof. H. S. Hele-Skaw, F.R.S.,
Dr. Alfred Hay, and P. H. Powell.
FRIDAY,
Puysicat Society, at 5.—The Measurement of Small Differences of
Phase: Dr. W. E. Sumpner.—On the Curvature-method of Teaching
Geometrical Optics: Dr. C. V. Drysdale.—(x) Exhibition of Specimens of
Crystals showing the Phenomenon of Luminous Rings ; (2) On a Rapid
Method of Approximate Harmonic Analysis: Prof. Silvanus P.
Thompson.—Exhibition of Apparatus by Prof. Dalby, Mr. Darling,
Dr. Drysdale, and Prof. Thompson.
NO. 1830, VOL. 71]
NOVEMBER 25.
SATURDAY, Novemser 26.
Essex Fietp Crus (at Essex Museum, Stratford), at 6.30.—Delegate’s
Report British Association: F..W. Rudler.—Notes on Supposed Lake
Settlement at Skitt’s Hill, Braintree: F. W. Reader.—Coast Erosion in
East Anglia: John Spiller.
MONDAY, Novemeer 28.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Musical Wind Instruments:
(Cantor Lecture I.)
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Inauvgural Address by the President,
Mr. Henry Cockburn.
TUESDAY, NovEMBER 29.
ZoOLoGicaL Society, at 8.30.—Some Observations on the Field Natural
History of the Lion : Capt. Richard Crawshay. —On some Nudibranchs
from East Africa and Zanzibar. Part VI. : Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G.—
The Altai Lynx; R. Lydekker, F.R.S. —On Old Pictures of Giraffes
and Zebras: R-Lydekker, F.R S.—On the Morphology and Classifica-
tion of the Asellota Group of Crustaceans, with Descriptions of the
Genus Stenetrium and its Species: Dr. H. J. "Hansen.—On the Lacerta
depressa of Camerano: G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S.
{NsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion :
Electrical Energy: J. F. C. Snell.
WEDNESDAY, NovemMBER 30.
Society or Arts, at 8.—The British Canals Problem: Arthur Lee.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers:—The Ascent o Water in
Trees : Dr. A. J. Ewart.—On the Presence of Tyrosinases in the Skins of
some Pigmented Vertebrates. Preliminary Note: Miss F. M. Durham.
—On Chemical Combination and Toxic Action as Exemplified in Hemo-
lytic Sera: Prof. R. Muir and C. H. Browning.—Histological Studies on
Cerebral Localisation. Part II.: Dr. A. W. Campbell.
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—The Nitrites of the Alkali Metals and Metals
of the Alkaline Earths, and their Decomposition by Heat: P. C. Ray.
RONTGEN Society, at 8.15.
LINNEAN Society, at 8.—Proteid Digestion in Animals and Plants:
Prof. Sidney H. Vines, F.R.S.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 2.
A#RONAUTICAL Society, at 8.—The Aéronautical Exhibits at the
St. Louis Exhibition: the President, Major B. Baden-Powell.—Kites,
Kite-flying and Aéroplanes: W. H. Dines—The Work of tke Inter-
national Aéronautical Commission: Dr. M. H. Hergesell.—Captive
Balloon Photography : Griffith Brewer.
Dayid J. Blaikley
Distribution of
CONTENTS. PAGE
Naturdenkmaler .. . 2 3h)s) i Ae Sen
Principles of Fuel Combustion. By J. S. S. B. nee
School Mathematics. ...... ero ol o/s
Our Book Shelf :—
Schneider: ‘‘Ifandbuch der Laubholzkunde.’’—Prof.
Percy Groom .. 76
Bell : ‘‘ The Cancer Problem ina Nutshell. "_R, T. H. 76
‘*Photography on Tour” . . Blab clad te (0)
Austin ; ‘‘The Story without an 1 End” bf iss Oe eee
Letters to the Editor :—
On the Origin of Flagellate Monads and of Fungus-
germs from Minute Masses of Zoogloea. —( ///ustrated. )
-—Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S. ... Ena,
The Temperature of Meteorites. —H. E, Wimperis . 81
Mount Everest : the Story of a Controversy.—Douglas
W. Freshfield . . . 82
Observations of the Leonid Meteors of 1904. _w. H.
Milligan... 83
The Discovery of Argon. Prof. G. H. Darwin, F. RS. 83
Blue-stained Flints.—Dr, F. J. Allen ... 83
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. —p)
Hutchins .. ofS ed
Dr. Koenig’s Method ‘of Colour Photography . : 83
The New Whale Fisheries. ee cues D. W.T. 84
Notes. . 85
Our Astronomical Column :—
Enckesi@ometi(1904'd) | s . "2 Sie =) fen Somes)
Observations of Porstide Ace! oS Someones cud Sk)
Heights of Meteors. . . y+ (0 ke) ee
The Photographic Spectrum of Jupiter : 89
Science and the State. By Sir William Abney,
KCBS EAR S-0 orcas 90
The Ben Bulben District. (Ullustrated.) . ° (ote: Ioana OR
Coast Erosion and Protection . . 92
The November Meteors of 1904. By W. F. Denning 93
University and Educational Intelligence .... . 94
Societies'and Academies’... .)......... 94
| Diary Of SOCIeEties) .) .) «acumen 96
NA RE
97
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1, 1904.
DAI NIPPON.
Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East, a Study in
National Evolution. By Henry Dyer, D.Sc., &c.
Pp. xvit450. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.,
1904.)
HE story of how Japan jumped from what she
was to what she now is will always form one of
the most remarkable episodes in the history of material
civilisation.
able illustration of the results that can be achieved by
occidental education fostered by and implanted on a
system of oriental ethics.
This story, under the title of ‘‘ Dai Nippon,’’ or
“Great Japan,” is told by Dr. Henry Dyer, who for
about ten years was principal of the College of
Engineering in Tokyo. From it we learn that Japan
has taken from Europe and America every concrete
aid to progress on which she could lay her hands, and
in return for this she now offers a code of morals.
When we realise that it is Japanese ethics which are
at the base of Japanese character, and that these ethics
led to the desire to acquire European knowledge, they
commend themselves for close consideration.
We may give water to a horse, but to make him
drink is another matter. In a similar manner we may
cover a country with schools, but to induce people
who have neither the ability nor desire to learn to take
advantage of such schools is a formidable task. The
Japanese had ability in a marked degree. Their extra-
ordinary power of memorising, which the few Euro-
peans who have noticed the same have only regarded
as an abnormal curiosity, may possibly be the resultant
of committing to heart the sayings of eastern sages
and endless idiographs. A philosophy which had sunk
into the hearts of the people while many Europeans
still revelled in a feral state no doubt played its part in
the suggestion that it was advisable to fall in line with
western progress. The main lever, however, which
forced Japan from its insular Utopia into the never-
ending struggle amongst the comity of nations was
the feeling that national and personal honour had been
affronted. A civil war was ended, the Tokugawa
party had been defeated, and the feudal barons had
been united under the Emperor who still reigns.
Internal dissensions had ceased, but western demands
had settled like a cloud upon the nation. Treaties had
been made with thirteen States, each of which had its
courts of justice; Japan was powerless to fix its tariffs ;
Yokohama was policed by a British regiment, and
legations kept their guards. In these and other direc-
tions Japan felt that, notwithstanding she possessed
a culture about which the man in the street is yet pro-
foundly ignorant, she was humiliated and looked down
upon as an inferior. Buddhism and Shintoism had re-
sulted in an extraordinary patriotism and loyalty, while
the ‘‘ Bushido ”’ of the ‘‘ Samurai’”’ gave a system of
moral principles ‘‘ which entered more deeply into the
national life of Japan than do those of the religion we
profess into Western civilisation.”
Among these ethical teachings those bearing upon
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
Not only is it this, but it is also a remark-
wisdom, benevolence, and courage were preeminent.
Wisdom meant intellectuality rather than mere know-
ledge. Benevolence resulted in social relationships, so
that beggars are practically unknown, whilst State
aid for the poor is seldom sought. Courage
embodied the idea that it is better to die for one’s
country rather than yield. Commerce had always
been looked down upon as a low pursuit. <A nation
saturated with such ethical teachings was naturally
proud of her autonomy, and sought to escape from
occidental restrictions. The escape she chose was by
an education in western utilitarian knowledge, wisely
backed by an army and a navy.
In 1868, when the present Emperor ascended the
throne, he took an oath embodying five principles, the
objects of which were to act as beacons in the ocean
of international struggles of the world. In the fourth
of these we read that ‘‘ all purposeless principles and
useless customs ’’ were to be discarded, whilst the
fifth directs that ‘‘ knowledge and learning shall be
sought after throughout the whole world, in order that
the status of the Empire of Japan may be raised ever
higher and higher.’’? When this announcement was
made the education of Japan chiefly consisted in
memorising Chinese classics and characters, learning
to reckon on the abacus, and studying history and
edicts. Knowledge relating to science and its appli-
cations was almost non-existent, and we can well
imagine the doubts of those who were entrusted with
the administration of the imperial command as to the
courses they should follow. In 1871 a department of
education was created, and with it schools of various
grades were established throughout the country. The
children of the lower classes, including females, were
admitted, while the schedules of study of preexisting
schools were re-modelled. At the present time it may
be said that Japan bristles with schools, and that there
is not an ignorant family in the country.
A child, possibly commencing at a kindergarten, is
admitted to a common school at the age of six. After
four years he passes to a higher grade school, where
there is also a four years’ term. Above this there is a
middle school with a five years’ term. Graduates
from this school can by competitive examination pass
to one of six higher middle schools, above which stand
two imperial universities, in connection with which
there are colleges of literature, science, medicine,
engineering, law, and agriculture. The number of
elementary schools is 27,109. Usually no fees are
charged, but in special cases the local governor may
allow charges varying between 23d. and 5d. per
month.
In the training of children moral education takes
precedence of instruction in facts of practical use in
daily life. Bodily development is not neglected, but
good manners and etiquette rank higher than minds
stored with information.
In the secondary schools, although mathematics,
natural history, physics, chemistry, and other subjects
are taught, we again find—and find in institutions of
all grades—that ‘‘ morals ”’ (without religious dogma)
head the list. It is clear that the Japanese want good
citizens, citizens who recognise the symbol of authority
F
98
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 1, 1904
rather than practical demonstrations of the same. In
Japan a crowd will halt before a straw rope on which
flutters a tiny paper notice. In Europe police and
truncheons might be required. The good manners of |
popularly |
the East are hardly so superficial as
imagined. They are the outcome of their philosophy
emphasised by special training, the end of which is
“to cultivate your mind that even when you are quietly
seated not the roughest ruffian can dare make an attack
on your person.”’
The higher secondary schools are preparatory to the
universities, the objects of which are to teach ‘ such
arts and sciences as are required for purposes of the
State.’ To each is attached a university hall, which
is established for purposes of original research. In
the six colleges forming the university the professors
and assistants number 245, and the students 3121.
The entrance fee is 2 yen, and the annual tuition fee
is 25 yen (1 yen=2s.). For those who cannot proceed
to the universities, industrial, agricultural, commercial,
and other technical schools have been established. In
1902 there were 845 such schools, attended by 55,596
scholars. The expenditure on these in 1902 was
2,739,297 yen, of which 285,253 yen was State aid.
The total annual expenditure by the Government in
connection with the educational department is roughly
six million yen (600,000l.).
In addition to the schools mentioned, Japan has its
naval, military, art, and music schools. Over and
above these, again, we find educations in departments
of life which in Europe have received but little atten-
tion. Chess, or rather ‘ go,’’ clubs are common
throughout the country, and for proficiency in the game
certificates are awarded. Certificates can also be
obtained in the art of flower arrangement, an art which
has its terminology and canons, but which in Europe
finds its perfection in ‘‘ studied negligence.”
In connection with education; a point which Dr.
Dyer has not emphasised, but which is in strict accord-
ance with the imperial edict of 1868, is that the
Government keeps up a stream of its best educated
men flowing round the world, each being a specialist,
visiting countries and institutions with the object of
gathering together what is valuable in his own voca-
tion. Originally it was the Japanese student who was
sent abroad; now it is the professional man. You
may not know it, but often he may be able to give
more information than he receives. Generally speak-
ing, in Dr. Dyer’s words, the Japanese Government
finds that money spent on education is a good national
investment.
The chapters devoted to industrial development, the
army and navy, commerce, politics, and other subjects
are as interesting and full of information as those
bearing upon education.
With regard to the future of Japan, Dr. Dyer tells
us that his ideas are decidedly optimistic, and he
believes ‘‘ that in material, intellectual and moral in-
fluence Japan will fully justify her claim to be called
the Britain of the East.’’ So far as the concrete
adjuncts of civilisation are concerned, Japan might be
pleased could she be on the same platform as her ally,
but it is doubtful if she aspires to much more. Her
46 millions of people have smiling faces,
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
courtesy and politeness have attracted the attention of
all travellers, they are scrupulously clean and see a
bath-tub every day, to show anger is to put yourself
on a level with a dog, and should two persons have
an altercation, for one to dub the other as a ‘‘ shaba
fusagi’’ or an ‘“‘impeder of the world’s progress ’”
would be an epithet not to be forgiven. The courage
of her soldiers needs no comment, while the endurance
of a “jinricksha’’? man, who for a week can pull a
heavy European with his baggage 4o or 50 miles per
day, is, from an occidental point of view, quite
phenomenal.
The Japanese are temperate, frugal, modest, and
happy, while the world knows that they possess
artistic instincts. In many directions a Japanese is
distinctly superior to the European. The nation has a
soul, and if we reflect on the components which make
up that soul—the soul of Ruskin—it seems that in
certain directions European countries might be bene-
fited if only they were able to raise themselves to the
level of Dai Nippon. Although by the opening of the
country much has been gained, there are many signs
indicating that the blessings have not been unalloyed.
Commerce, competition, and the accumulation of
wealth have been accompanied by increasing poverty,
whilst those whose vocations have been at the open
ports have acquired the manners of those with whom
they came in contact. So far is this marked that a
Japanese who has been a servant in a European house
may be handicapped in obtaining similar employment
amongst his own people. To say the least, he has
become too brusque. Side issues of this nature may
cause a nation to regard with regret the disappearance
of old conditions, but, taking all in all, Japan has
gained more than she has lost. She is no longer a
pupil, but a teacher.
SYLVESTER’S MATHEMATICAL PAPERS.
The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph
Sylvester. Vol. i., 1837-1853. Pp. xii+650.
(Cambridge: University Press, 1904.) Price 18s.
net.
ee appearance of this volume is very welcome for
more reasons than one. Sylvester’s papers were
published in a variety of journals, and generally con-
tained a considerable number of misprints; they will
now be available in an attractive form, with their
accidental blemishes removed by a very careful and
competent editor. The work of preparing these papers
for the press must be troublesome and tedious, and
the thanks of mathematicians are due to Dr. Baker
for having undertaken it. Special attention should be
directed to the note at the end of the volume on
Sylvester’s theorems about determinants, some of
which require correction.
The papers here published range in date from 1837
to 1853. The first three relate to mathematical
physics; but Sylvester soon followed his natural bent,
and all the rest of this volume is pure analysis, mostly
algebra. Historically, the most notable results are
those on elimination, canonical forms, and the theory
their | associated with Sturm’s method of locating the real
DECEMBER I, 1904]
NATURE
99
roots of equations. Moreover, there is the paper on
the contacts of lines and surfaces of the second order,
where the invariant factors of a matrix are recognised,
and the system of two quaternary quadratics is con-
sidered in detail with reference to the simplest simul-
taneous reduction of the forms.
Appreciations of Sylvester’s character and of the
value of his mathematical work have been written by
able hands, and it is unnecessary to enlarge upon
them here. His egotism was obvious and often
amusing, but never offensive; his enthusiasm was re-
freshing, and though his temper was touchy, he was
very generous and kind. As a master of formal
analysis he has few equals; the birth of the calculus
of invariants occurred just at the right time to attract
his attention, and his contributions to this subject alone
are enough to make him famous. He had the instincts
of an architect, and it is well, on the whole, that he
did not always trouble to clear away the chips. The
casual remarks scattered about his papers and the
fragmentary nature of some of them, help to make
the reading of them very stimulating; he takes us into
his confidence, shows us how his ideas arose, and gives
us hints of unexplored regions. He was eminently
original, and spent little time in studying the works
of his contemporaries; thus he did not even realise
that his theory of reciprocants had been more than
anticipated by others, especially by Lie. But any mis-
understanding arising from this source must have been
long since dissipated, and his place among the great
mathematicians of his time is quite secure.
Sylvester’s occasional notes on the theory of
numbers and his lectures on partitions suggest
problems to those who are interested in arithmetic.
The present volume, for instance, contains three notes
on cubic Diophantine equations, a subject not yet ex-
hausted, though Sylvester’s own theory of resideration
throws much light upon it. The late Henry Smith
once referred to this problem as being one which might
be hopefully attacked with the engines of modern
analysis; perhaps the appearance of this edition of
Sylvester’s works may lead to the discovery of a com-
plete theory.
A good example of Sylvester’s power of illuminating
and drawing general conclusions from the simplest
mathematical problem is the note (p. 392) on an
elementary geometrical theorem for which no direct
proof had been discovered. He observes that the
proof may be made to depend on showing that a certain
analytical equation has no real root, and suggests that
in all such cases where the analytical proof consists
in demonstrating the non-existence of roots, the
geometrical proof must necessarily be indirect, while
in other cases the reductio ad absurdum may be con-
venient, but is not necessary. This observation re-
minds us at once of Gauss’s discussion of the division
of the circle, and if Sylvester’s conjecture is true it
gives another case of the curious points of contact
that exist between analysis and geometry.
It is not to be expected, or even desired, that many
should share Sylvester’s keen delight in the beauty of
formal analysis; but it is a mistake to discourage
those who are inclined to enjoy it, however unpractical
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
parts of the subject may be. Quite apart from other
reasons, the study of pure mathematics may be de-
fended, like that of music or chess or painting, from
the merely zsthetical side, and this Sylvester does in
terms both vigorous and quaint. For example :—
““The fortunate proclaimer of a new outlying planet
has been justly rewarded by the offer of a baronetcy
and a national pension, which the writer of this wishes
him long life and health to enjoy. In the meanwhile,
what has been done in honour of the discoverer of a
new and inexhaustible region of exquisite analysis? ’”
the latter reference being to Cayley’s discovery of the
calculus of invariants. Fortunately Cayley was saved
in another way from the cares of money-making, and
he lived long enough to realise to the full his great
reputation among those who would appreciate his
work. Sylvester in his early life suffered unjustly from
the current prejudice against his race; so far as it was
possible this was afterwards atoned for, and it is to
be hoped that no bitter feeling was left behind.
G. B. M.
MENTAL AND SOCIAL MEASUREMENTS.
An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social
Measurements. By Edward L. Thorndike, Pro-
fessor of Psychology in Teachers’ College, Columbia
University. Pp. xii+212. (New: York: The
Science Press, 1904.) Price 1.50 dollars net.
SEAN colleges seem more awake than our
own to the fact that the newer methods of
statistics have made it possible to deal with facts with
which they are directly concerned, and to discuss them
with far more completeness than was practicable a few
years ago. They are making in consequence large
collections of anthropometric data to serve as tests of
health and development, and for comparisons between
colleges. Again, there are more teachers in America
than in this country who, appreciating the fact that
the above methods have far wider applicability, extend
the range of their measurements to psychophysical
subjects. They are also eager to deal with purely
psychical matters that elude direct measurement but
admit of being arranged by mutual comparison into
their proper class places, or to utilise a third and still
more general method, which deals with such objects
as can be sorted into a few distinct classes without re-
gard to their internal arrangement. The author is
fully justified in saying that
““The obscurest and most complex traits, such as
morality, enthusiasm, eminence, efficiency, courage,
legal ability, inventiveness, can be made material for
ordinary statistical procedure, the one condition being
that the general form of distribution of the trait in
question shall be approximately known.”’
In these circumstances a system of elaborate-
measurements has come into vogue in many American
colleges. Whether the authorities have always planned
their measurements wisely, and whether they discuss
them adequately and accurately, will not be considered
here. The volume is written to direct and to warn,
in doing which it reveals some grave blunderings.
Unfortunately, it is composed chiefly for those persons
who are ignorant of even simple mathematics. ‘The
100
author is fully conscious of the serious embarrassments
of the position he has chosen, but bravely attempts the
well-nigh impossible task of overcoming them. Thus
he says :—
‘“ Tf this book were written by a mathematician for
the mathematically minded, it would not need to be
one fifth as long. If read by such a one it may well
seem intolerably clumsy and inelegant.”’
Whether he succeeds under these difficulties in
giving easily intelligible explanations may well be
doubted ; indeed, his language, though frequently lucid,
is often quite the reverse. Still, if the volume were
used as a text-book in the hands of an enthusiastic and
capable teacher good results might follow, but it re-
quires an optimistic disposition to believe that it would
prove more than superficially instructive, if it were
intelligible at all, to the mass of ordinary and un-
assisted readers. The author might, however, claim
a higher rank for it than he has done on the ground
that it teems with instructive illustrations by which
everyone may profit, and that it presents familiar ideas
from slightly new points of view, much to the
advantage of even well instructed readers.
There is no science more handicapped by cumbrous
and repellent terminology than that of the higher
statistics. Its ideas are not always intrinsically
difficult to grasp, but the phrases by which they are
expressed are both ugly and unexpressive. The writer
believes that a student, however mathematically minded
he may be, would save himself time and annoyance if
he prefaced his earliest studies by a few hours of what
might be called kindergarten exercises with beans,
acorns, or the like. By the process of sorting them
into arrays and picking out the medians, quartiles,
&c., then by measuring them individually and extract-
ing from the measures the remaining statistical con-
stants, he would soon obtain a serviceable familiarity
with the more elementary technical terms and the ideas
they represent. It would be easy to devise a suitable
course that would prove a welcome help to students
who are enthusiastic about measurements, and it is
to be hoped that the next writer on popular statistics
will elaborate one.
The author gives a large number of ‘frequency
polygons, derived from a wide variety of data, which
are of interest. It is to be wished that attempts were
more frequently made to reduce the variously shaped
polygons obtained by experience into a few classified
types, to append to each type the names of the objects
that had been found to conform to it, and to analyse
the causes of its shape in each instance. It is difficult
to doubt that by so doing some desirable help would
be given to the interpretation of any new polygon.
It is perfectly true that almost any curve or polygon
may be built up in various ways by different types of |
curve or polygons appropriately superposed, but ex-
perience alone will tell whether there is not a much
greater probability of such and such a type being due
to such and such combinations rather than to others.
Through these means many hypothetical sources of
origin might be found so rare as to be hardly worth
considering, and so the field of probable interpretations
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 1, 1904
pretation of results is a branch of statistics that has
hitherto received less attention than it deserves. It
is no doubt a great thing to be able to describe groups
and to determine correlations between them with pre-
cision, but this is not all that is wanted. It is another
and even more important achievement to dissect and.
analyse results and to discover the dominant causes
that produced them, but the art of doing this seems
as yet inadequately developed and to offer a promising
field for research. BiG.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Practical Chemistry, a Second Year Course. By
G. H. Martin, M-A. (N.D.). Pp. 41. (Bradford:
G. H. Martin, The Grammar School.) Price 1s. | -
Mr. Martin has arranged in an unpretentious form a
most excellent syllabus of experiments and examples
suitable for boys beginning the study of chemistry.
It is satisfactory to find that, in a school of such
high standing as the Bradford Grammar School, the
science master has seen the wisdom of devoting a
whole year (it is to be hoped it will be extended to a
second year) to teaching the simple facts which under-
lie important principles without recourse to tests and
tables.
One suggestion may be offered. If the book is to
have a wide circulation, which it certainly deserves,
it will be necessary to fill in the outline of experiments,
and perhaps to illustrate the results by actual ex-
amples, possibly in a companion volume.
Boys cannot be expected to work out details of
apparatus in the short time allotted to science during
school hours if substantial progress is to be made. No
doubt the author has his apparatus set up and gives
an appropriate demonstration to the class, but this will
not help those teachers who wish to profit by the book
unless their technical difficulties are solved for them.
JBace
Retouching. By Arthur Whiting. Pp. xvi+gQ2.
(London: Dawbarn and Ward, Ltd., 1904.) Price
Is. net.
Ir very often happens that photographic negatives
require a certain amount of careful manipulation
owing to defects caused by photographic methods,
scratches, &c. It is also desired sometimes to eliminate
small defects due to slight movement of the object, or
to alter or improve portions of the picture to attain a
desired end. The author has endeavoured in these
few pages to place before the reader the different
methods and devices that are in use to cope success-
fully with the various defects that may be encountered.
In the first instance the tools required are described,
and the special objects of each explained. The reader
is then shown how, in the case of portraits, to preserve
the likeness but yet to eliminate the blemishes .caused
by optical or chemical or other action; he is here intro-
duced in a few words to the elements of facial anatomy.
The author has considered it necessary to insert
a special chapter on retouching portraits of pro-
fessionals, in which the main principle to be kept in
view is to produce a beautiful face. To attain such
an ideal, mouths are reduced, jaws cut down, ears
knifed, eyes enlarged, and various other surgical
operations performed. Working up draperies, retouch-
ing landscapes, preparing prints for the press, and
how to make a portable retouching desl, form other
topics for treatment. The book should serve as an
admirable guide to amateurs, and will be found useful
to those who go more especially into this class of work.
would be narrowed. Speaking generally, the inter- | Numerous illustrations accompany the text.
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
DECEMBER I, 1904]
NATURE
101
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree.
As Dr. Galton has completely misunderstood the point
of my last remark, I fear it will be necessary again to re-
open a discussion which I had thought was satisfactorily
closed.
My point is this: If we take a large number n of families
containing in the aggregate nd sons and nd daughters, and
remove on an average one child of specified sex from each
family, we shall have a preponderance of the opposite sex
in those that remain. The average numbers under this con-
dition will be d and d—1, and not d—3 and d—3, and this
was how I was originally led to my first conclusion.
If, however, we wish to test the question whether a girl
has the same average number of brothers as sisters, we are
only concerned with families containing at least one girl, and
therefore families containing only boys must be left out of
account, as I stated. When these have been removed there
will be a preponderance of girls in the families that are left.
It is this cause which enables us to reconcile the fact that,
while the probable total numbers of girls and boys in any
family may be equal, the probable numbers of brothers and
sisters of a single individual of specified sex, say a girl, may
still be equal. This may not be such a rigorous method as
Dr. Galton employs, but it at least shows that the result
is not necessarily opposed to what one would naturally infer
from general considerations. G. H. Bryan.
Compound Singularities of Curves.
Tue compound singularities of algebraic curves may be
divided into three primary species. First, point singulari-
ties, or multiple points, which are exclusively composed of
nodes and cusps; secondly, line singularities, which are
exclusively composed of double and stationary tangents;
thirdly, mixed singularities, which are composed of a com-
bination of simple point and line singularities. Amongst
compound line singularities may be mentioned (a) a double
tangent which osculates a curve at one of its points of
contact, the constituents of which are one stationary
and two ordinary double tangents; (8) a tangent having
a contact of the fourth order with a curve, the constituents
of which are three double and three stationary tangents.
The third species comprises the majority of compound
singularities, and may be divided into the following sub-
sidiary ones :—
(1) Nodes and multiple points, any tangent at which has
a contact of a higher order than the first with its own
branch, and does not touch the curve elsewhere. The
flecnode and biflecnode are the most familiar examples of
this species.
(2) Nodes, cusps, and multiple points, any tangent at
which has a contact of the first or some higher order at
some other point or points on the curve. For example, it
is possible for each of the six nodal tangents of a trinodal
quintic to touch the curve elsewhere, and it can be shown
that the six points of contact lie on a conic.
(3) Two or more nodes, cusps or multiple points may
have a common tangent. Thus the reciprocal of a biflec-
node is a pair of cusps having a common cuspidal tangent,
whilst a septimic curve may possess a node and a rham-
phoid cusp having a common tangent.
(4) Singularities of the tacnode and oscnode type. When
the number of constituent double points is unequal to
2(n—1), where n is a positive integer, the singularity can-
not be a multiple point, but must be of the tacnode type;
and since the constituents of a tacnode are two nodes and
two double tangents, every singularity of this species must
contain double or stationary tangents, or both. When the
number of double points is equal to 3n(n—1), the singularity
may be a multiple point, but when it contains line as well
as point singularities, it is of the same type as the oscnode,
which is composed of three nodes and three double tangents.
(5) A tangent at a node or a multiple point, which has
NO. 1831,-VOL. 71]
a contact of a higher order than the first with its own
branch, may coincide with some other tangent at the
singularity. When both tangents at a flecnode coincide,
the resulting singularity is a tacnode; but the coincidence
of two or more tangents at a multiple point, any of which
possess this property, gives rise to a variety of peculiar
singularities which do not appear to have been completely
examined.
It is also possible for a mixed singularity to be formed
in more than one manner; in other words, it may possess
more than one penultimate form. Thus an oscnode may be
formed by the union of two cusps and two stationary tan-
gents, and additional singularities of this character are
possessed by quintic and sextic curves.
To call a cissoid or a cardioid a nodal curve appears to
me a glaring misuse of language, since both curves are
nodeless. A. B. Basset.
November 18.
The Origin of Life.
No doubt * Geologist ” points out a literal flaw in my
statement, but I thought it would be obvious that by the
“potentiality of life,’’ which would be destroyed by heat,
I meant potentiality of life, appearing within the time of
the experiment. Given countless ages, then, on the evolu-
tion hypothesis, the potentiality of life, as of the rest of
nature as we know it, existed in the fluid mass of the un-
cooled earth, and I did not mean to say anything inconsistent
with this. Nor, on the other hand, did I mean to say that
by the heat applied the potentiality of life in the matter
under test would be destroyed for all time. I meant
potentiality of appearing within a given time, the time of
the experiment, and I cannot help thinking this was the
natural sense of my words.
In asking me to explain the introduction of life or its
potentiality into this planet, ‘‘ Geologist ’’ shows that he
has entirely mistaken the purport of my letter. My aim
was only logical, not constructive. If I could explain how
life first appeared on the earth, I should probably be able
to suggest a more promising line of experiment than that
hitherto followed, which I find myself unable to do.. My
sole object was to point out a logical error, as it seemed to
me, in the view commonly taken by men of science of the
results of these experiments, an error, if my memory serves
me, fully shared by Huxley—in admiration for whom, I
hasten to say, I yield to no one. Huxley, if I remember
rightly, was so impressed with the strength of the evidence
against the contemporary origination of life that he
practically gave up the idea, and put the date back. In
this, | am venturing to suggest, he was illogical; through
having overlooked the fact that in all the experiments the
agent, which was used to destroy actual life and its germs,
would probably be efficacious in destroying the potentiality
of life in non-living matter on the point of assuming life, if
any such there were, and, consequently, the positive result
having artificially been made impossible, the negative result
meant nothing, and should not be allowed to influence
opinion. GEORGE Hookuam.
Change in Colour of Moss Agates.
Tue following observations may perhaps throw light on
the colour changes in moss agate and flint noted by Messrs.
Whitton and Simmonds in your issues of November 10
and 17. Specimens of the flints from Bournemouth referred
to by Mr. Simmonds were brought to this laboratory some
months ago, and, though they were not submitted to any
very searching examination, it was found that the colouring
matter could be removed on boiling a fragment with hydro-
chloric acid, while the solution gave well marked reactions
for iron and phosphoric acid. Now the compound
Fe,(PO,),.8H,O, whether prepared in the laboratory or
occurring as the mineral vivianite, is colourless when pure,
but becomes oxidised to ferrosoferric orthophosphate, and
turns blue, when exposed to the atmosphere. It seems prob-
able, then, that the change of colour of these flints is due
to a layer of vivianite which alters on exposure.
In considering the case of the agate penholder, it
should be noted -that such objects are but rarely made
of agate in its natural condition, it being the practice of
102
the manufacturers to colour the stone artificially by chemical
treatment. Thus a fine blue colour can be developed by
soaking the stone first in a solution of potassium ferro-
cyanide and then in a solution of a ferric salt. Now as
exposure to the action of alkalies, or in some cases to direct
sunlight, suffices to destroy the blue colouring matter, it
would seem probable that it is in this direction that an
explanation of the change observed by Mr. Whitton is to
be sought.
In conclusion, I may add that a very imstructive series
of specimens illustrative of the artificial colouring of agate
is on exhibition in the mineral gallery of the British Museum
(Natural History). A. HurtcuHinson.
The Mineralogical Laboratory, Cambridge, November 21.
Eocene Whales.
In Nature for September 29 (p. 543) “‘ R. L.”’ reviews
Dr. Fraas’s paper on the Egyptian zeuglodonts, dissenting
from the conclusions that the zeuglodonts are not whales,
and that the ancestors of the whales are at present un-
known. I trust ‘‘ R. L.’’ will pardon me for in turn dis-
senting from these assertions, and for agreeing entirely with
Dr. Fraas. So long ago as 1900, in discussing the pelvic
girdle of Basilosaurus, I pointed out that the vestigial femur
suggested that of a creodont, while later, in Science for
March 11, I recorded my utter disbelief in any relation-
ship between Basilosaurus and existing whales. Conse-
quently, while greatly pleased at the results of Dr. Fraas’s
study of the small zeuglodonts, I was not at all surprised.
It seems to me that our knowledge of Eocene mammals is
really very small, and that it will be many years before we
will be able to trace the line of descent of many existing
forms with any degree of certainty. This is most
emphatically true of the whales, the ancestry of which is
still obscure. At the same time I have pointed out (Science,
March rr) that the Eocene deposits of the southern United
States contain remains of a large cetacean that is at pre-
sent known to us by a few caudals alone. This form is
undescribed, because it seemed to me best to await the dis-
covery of better material than caudals. So while the
ancestors of whales are still unknown, we have a hint that
they may be discovered any day. F. A. Lueas.
Brooklyn Institute Museum, November 4.
The Discovery of Argon.
In reference to the slip indicated in the last issue of
Nature by Prof. G. H. Darwin, permit me to mention that
the slip was mine—not Mendeléeff’s. In Mendeléeff’s text
it stands: ‘‘ As to argon and its congeners—helium, neon,
krypton and xenon—these simple gases discovered mainly
(preimuschestvenno) by Ramsay. . . .’” I am sorry to see
that I had omitted the word ‘‘ mainly.”’
In reality, my manuscript (which I enclose) contained, as
you see, the words ‘‘ discovered chiefly by Ramsay,’’ but
of ”» was not the proper word it was struck out,
as “‘ chiefly
probably by myself, in the proof. THE TRANSLATOR.
The Leonids, 1904.
WatcHING was begun on November 14, when between
18h. 1om. and 18h. gom., in a sky rapidly brightening with
approaching sunrise, one certain Leonid, of magnitude
excelling that of Sirius, shot from Cancer into Gemini.
November 15.—Watch from 12h. 5m. to 12h. 4om., and
14h. 5m. to 15h. 45m. The heavens were very clear at the
start. I had just commenced looking out when a beautiful
tailed Leonid, of mag. 3, shot from 853°+23° to 74°—2°.
At 12h. 17m. thin, broken clouds began to pass over, the
sky becoming completely covered at 12h. gom. At 12h. 38m.
a huge-headed Leonid, outrivalling Venus in brilliancy, was
seen travelling behind small, broken clouds from 129°+353°
to 107°+43° in three-quarters of a second. The path here
given is probably a little too long. About 13h. 30m. the
sky began to clear again, and was pretty good by the time
of the commencement of the second watch. There were
many thin clouds, but the interspaces were large and very
clear. At 15h. 25m. the heavens became quite unclouded.
In this last look-out Leonids were more numerous, six being
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
NATURE
~_—r>
[DECEMBER I, 1904
between 14h. 45m. and 15h. 38m. The increase in frequency
of meteors of the dominant shower at this period was not
due to improvement of seeing conditions.
In the latter watch three shooting stars coming from
160°-+ 483° were mapped. The radiant point of the Leonids
of November 15, as determined from eight tracks, was at
151°+20°. The meteors were swift, and mostly left
streaks. There was a decided tendency towards green in
their colouring.
Below are particulars of some of the most interesting
Leonids, other than those mentioned above :—
November 15.
a 3/4
= From To Mag.| = | = Remarks
co) sale
A
h. m.| 5 mln a | secs.) 0 |
14 46|1814+28 186 +28}| >x } | 4 | Swift. Greenish-yellow. Di-
| | | rected from 1° N. y Ler nis.
15 6 7t — of 64 —11 | >1 3| Very swift. White, tinged blue.
15 26/101 +16) 88 +12}
7
| =—=9|\ x | 14 Green-yellow.
15 38/172 +344 1798+373 7
S—2 | White, tinged green.
Streak.
Sheffield, November 24. ALPHONSO KING.
Intelligence in Animals.
HaAvinG recently seen in NATURE some accounts of the
sagacity of cats, I trust that the following facts, for which
I can personally vouch, may also be interesting to your
readers. :
We have a cat, an ordinary tabby, which, when out and
anxious to gain admittance into the house, not only lifts
the weather-board of either our front or back hall-doors
three or four times in succession, thereby causing a loud
knock each time, but has also instructed her young kitten
to perform the same feat.
Both mother and daughter now regularly knock in this
manner in order to be let in. JesEs Aats
My room opens by a door to a hall; when our fox-terrier
wants to come into my room from the hall he scratches at
my door. When he finds himself in the hall and wants to
go out by another door to the garden or back-hall, he whines
for me, and, going out, I find him by the door he wants
opened. This—mvy leisure regrets—is of daily occurrence.
F. C. CONSTABLE.
Wick Court, near Bristol, November 27.
PATAGONIA. '
OpPRe dispute between the Argentine Republic
and Chile with regard to the boundary line of
their Patagonian possessions threatened at one time
to result in a prolonged and sanguinary struggle.
Happily this misfortune was averted by the decision,
honourable to both nations, to refer the differences that
had arisen to the arbitration of our Sovereign. <A
British Commission was accordingly appointed to
examine the geographical features of the country and
judge how far they could be reconciled with the terms
of the treaties the interpretation of which was in ques-
tion.. As the head of this commission was chosen Sir
Thomas Holdich, who had served his country as
boundary commissioner in the wild inaccessible lands
that lie to the north and west of our Indian possessions,
and this selection was abundantly justified by the tact
and skill with which a frontier more than 800 miles in
length was traced in such a manner as to accomplish
the almost unprecedented feat of satisfying both
parties.
In the present volume Sir Thomas Holdich has
given us his impressions of the progressive republics
of Chile and the Argentine, and of the scene of his
1 “Phe Countries of the King’s Award.” By Sir Thomas Holdich
K.C.M.G. Pp. xv+q20. (London: Hurst and Blackett, Ltd., 1904.
Price 16s. net.
DECEMBER I, 1904]
NATURE
103
labours in Patagonia—impressions all the more valu-
able because they are those of a distinguished soldier
and man of science who has spent the greater part of
his life in the East, and whose principal achievements
have been amongst the great mountain masses and
plateaux of Central Asia, which find their only parallel
in the Andes. Again and again he dwells on the like-
ness and on the contrasts between the new lands
that he was visiting and those with which he had long
been familiar.
We have only space to quote one passage (p. 149) :—
‘“ One could not see the stiff rows of poplars streaking
the stony slopes of the eastern Andes near Mendoza
without being forcibly reminded of the Indian
frontiers; and the plains of Chile round about Santiago
might be the plains of Afghanistan round about Kabul.
Standing on the slopes of the hills near Kabul, where
Baber’s tomb overlooks the Chardeh valley and the
It is, however, the pages that describe the author’s
experiences in Patagonia that will appeal most
strongly to the scientific reader. The international
differences have borne at least some good fruit. In
the hope of finding evidence to support one view or
the other the interior of Patagonia has been so
energetically explored that there are few countries of
which there has been so rapid an increase of our geo-
graphical knowledge in recent years. Comparatively
little of the tract examined by Sir Thomas Holdich
had been trodden by the foot of civilised man a dozen
years before his visit.
We follow with absorbing interest the author in his
rapid journey through the varied scenery of the central
depression between the Andes on the one hand and
the pampas on the other—a fertile land of hill and
valley, with here and there great lakes that occupy
the deeper hollows and overflow, some to the Atlantic
Fic. 1.—Corcovado Valley.
flat range of the Hindu Kush fills up the western
horizon, where interlacing lines of poplars chequer-
ing the purple and yellow fields mark the course of
the irrigation channels, an impression once drifted in
upon my mind of a land of promise set in the midst
of barren hills, specially designed to illustrate man’s
ingenuity in making green things to grow where no
green thing had been before. It was the wealth. of
the poplars and the willows which produced the im-
pression, contrasted with the sterility of the mountains
which formed their background and which were only
faintly visible through the summer haze, with just
the glint of snowpatch here and there. The impression
was reproduced with the first view of the plains stretch-
ing from the foot hills of the Andes outwards to the
Pacific. For twenty-five years Time might have stood
still, and Chardeh, Maidan, and the road to Ghazni
were all back again before me.”
No. 1831, VOL. 71]
From ‘‘ The Countries of the King’s Award, *
and others through deep breaks in the mountains to
the Pacific. Everywhere there are evidences of im-
portant changes in the still recent past—the shrinkage
or complete disappearance of lakes, the diversion of
the drainage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and the
retrocession of the glaciers.
Elsewhere we read of cruises amid the channels and
inlets of the Pacific coast, which form the submerged
continuations of the central valley of Chile, and of the
glens of the rivers that traverse the Andean chain.
Further inland these latter are filled with alluvium
overgrown with impenetrable jungle. On this side,
too, of the Andes there is evidence of recent changes,
for—as Darwin was the first to point out—high above
the sea-level are raised beaches and deposits contain-
ing shells of forms that still live in the neighbouring
ocean.
But although the axis of the Cordillera and the outer
104
NATURE
[DECEMBER I, 1904
chain of islands appear to be rising from a position of
depression, the line of the great Chilian valley is prob-
ably still sinking, for near the head of the Gulf of
Penas, and south of the isthmus of Ofqui, that con-
nects the peninsula of Taitao with the mainland, are
found forests so recently submerged as to render it
necessary to be cautious in steering amongst the tree
tops. Future generations of mankind, the author
thinks, may see the isthmus submerged beneath the
ocean, above which it is even now but slightly raised.
Part of this isthmus is occupied by Lake San Rafael,
which is remarkable as the ‘‘ terminus of an enormous
glacier that scatters huge icebergs about its waters.”’
“Is there any other glacier,’’ the author asks, ‘‘ de-
scending to sea level in latitude 47° either N. or S.?”’
We know of none; but however that may be there are
several that reach the sea between this point and the
Straits of Magellan; and yet southern Patagonia is
a land of luxuriant vegetation, at least on its western
coasts. ‘“ Forest was everywhere about us, dense,
shadowy, dark and generally dripping. The long lines
of the higher sierra were thick with it up to the point
where the granite cliffs polished and smoothed by ice-
cap and glacier gave foothold to vegetation only on
their flat ledges. The little islets that seemed to chase
one another through the streaky grey sea were rounded
and packed with it.’? In the Ultima Esperanza dis-
trict in latitude 52° there are grazing grounds where
the sheep fatten quickly on the tufted grass of the
country, and are left to find their own shelter, while
in the neighbouring woods the puma waits his oppor-
tunity as he does in the tropical forests of Brazil.
And over the whole country, mountains, valleys, and
pampas alike, blow untiringly the strenuous western
winds, for the most part in blustering gales that
succeed one another in quick succession. ‘‘ In
no country in the world,’ remarks our author,
“must ‘ weather’ and climate be so differentiated as
in Patagonia. The weather is bad as bad can be
—wild and boisterous, bursting into fury, breaking
into sunshine, freezing the blood in one’s veins with a
biting blizzard, or suffocating the system with the
still steady glare of a noonday sun, and it may do all
this and more in the course of a few hours’ interval;
but whether storming or shining, tearing one’s tent
to rags or bathing the landscape in sunshine, who can
describe the life-giving, purifying, sweetening,
strengthening effects of the climate.”’
Such is Patagonia, a land that seems destined to
nourish a hardy race woven of many strands, among
which the sturdy Welsh colonists of the 16th of
October Valley, of whom the author has much to
tell us, will not be least important. To the man of
science it is a land of striking illustrations of long
established principles and of problems that will require
many years of research to solve, for of the story of
its making scarcely the first chapter—a chapter of
which Darwin wrote the opening pages—is yet
complete. W. E.
LORD KELVIN AND GLASGOW
UNIVERSITY.
HE installation of Lord Kelvin as Chancellor of
Glasgow University, which took place in the
Bute Hall on Tuesday, is an event which has few,
if, indeed, it has any, precedents in the recent annals
of our universities. The Chancellor is the head of the
whole university, but in practice he is rarely present
except on ceremonial occasions, and a great part of
the work which he has had to do officially is done for
him in Scotland, as it is at Oxford, Cambridge,
London, or in the newer English universities, by the
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
Vice-Chancellor. Many occasions arise, however, when
it is of importance to the universities concerned that
statesmen, such as the Prime Minister, who is Chan-
cellor of Edinburgh, Mr. Chamberlain, who is Chan-
cellor of Birmingham, Lord Rosebery, who is
Chancellor of London, and Lord Spencer, who is
Chancellor of Manchester, should represent their
universities in Parliament or elsewhere, and such men
have usually been elected not so much on account of
their own connection with the universities they pre-
side over as of the eminent place they have taken in
the State, and the weight which must on all occasions
be attached to their considered opinions. Lord Kelvin
has been connected with the University of Glasgow
since his early boyhood, he has spent his life within
her walls, and he built up his enduring fame during
the fifty-three years when he was professor of natural
philosophy in the university.
Lord Kelvin’s father was a north of Ireland man,
preparing for the ministry of the Presbyterian Church.
In his day, and until the foundation of the Queen’s
Colleges in Ireland, Glasgow was the university to
which many north of Ireland men resorted, and Lord
Kelvin’s father was a_ distinguished student in
Glasgow, gaining prizes in many classes more than
ninety years since. About eighty years ago he gave
up his studies for the ministry and became professor
of mathematics in the Belfast Academical Institution.
Eight years later—in 1832—he was elected to the
chair of mathematics in Glasgow, which he filled for
sixteen years with eminent success. There were no
better text-books anywhere than those which he pub-
lished on the subjects of his chair, and the small
number of his students who remember him can
testify that they never met a clearer or better teacher
of mathematics. Prof. James Thomson had a genius
for teaching other things besides mathematics, and
both Lord Kelvin and his elder brother, who was pro-
fessor of engineering first in Belfast and afterwards
in Glasgow, owed the best of their education to their
father. Lord Kelvin was only twenty-two years old when
the university had the courage to elect him to the
chair of natural philosophy, on the strength 6f his
quite exceptional brilliancy as a student first in
Glasgow and afterwards in Cambridge. How he has
discharged the duties of his chair and how wide and
fruitful have been his conception of its duties is known
to the whole world of science.
On Tuesday, after Lord Kelvin had been formally
installed as Chancellor of the University, he proceeded
to confer the following honorary degrees of LL.D. on
the recommendation of the Senate.
Princess Louise (Duchess of Argyll), who was presi-
dent of Queen Margaret College until the college
was incorporated with the university in 1893. The
Marquess of Ailsa, who has taken a great interest in
naval architecture, and in its practical application to
the building of yachts and other vessels. Dr, J. T.
Bottomley, F.R.S.; Dr. James Donaldson, principal of
the University of St. Andrews; Admiral Sir John
Charles Dalrymple Hay, G.C.B., F.R.S.; Dr. J. M.
Lang, principal of the University of Aberdeen; Mr.
G. Marconi; Mr. Andrew Graham Murray, M.P.,
Secretary for Scotland; the Hon. C. A. Parsons,
F.R.S.; and the Lord Provost of Glasgow, Sir John
Ure Primrose, Bart.
After conferring these degrees Lord Kelvin delivered
an address, in the course of which he spoke as
follows :—
To be Chancellor of one of the universities of our country
is indeed a distinguished honour. For me to be Chancellor
of this my beloved University of Glasgow is more than an
honour. I am a child of the University of Glasgow. I
lived in it sixty-seven years (1832 to 1899). But my vener-
ation for the ancient Scottish university, then practically
DEcEMBEK I, 1904]
the university for Ulster, began earlier than that happy
part of my life. My father, born in County Down, was for
four years (1810 to 1814) a student of the University of
Glasgow, and in his Irish home, first as professor of mathe-
matics in the newly-founded Royal Belfast Academical In-
stitution, his children were taught to venerate the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. One of my earliest memories of those
old Belfast days is of 1829, when the joyful intelligence
came that the Senate of the University of Glasgow had
conferred the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws on my
father. Two years later came the announcement that the
faculty of Glasgow College had elected him to the pro-
fessorship of mathematics.
In 1834, two years after my father was promoted from
Belfast to the Glasgow professorship of mathematics, I
became a matriculated member of the University of Glasgow.
To this day I look back to Prof. William Ramsay’s lectures
on Roman antiquities and readings of Juvenal and Plautus
as more interesting than many a good stage play that I
have seen in the theatre. Happy it is for our university,
and happy for myself, that his name, and a kindred spirit,
are with us still in my old friend and colleague, our senior
professor, George Ramsay. Greek, under Sir Daniel
Sandford and Lushington, logic under Robert Buchanan,
moral philosophy under William Fleming, natural philo-
sophy and astronomy under John Pringle Nichol, chemistry
under Thomas Thomson (a very advanced teacher and in-
vestigator), natural history (zoology and geology) under
William Couper, were, as I can testify by my own experi-
ence, all made interesting and valuable to the students of
Glasgow University in the ‘thirties and ’forties of the nine-
teenth century. Sandford, in teaching his junior class the
Greek alphabet and a few characteristic Greek words, and
the Scottish pronunciation of Greek, gave ideas, and some-
thing touching on philology, to very young students, which
remains on their minds after the heavier grammar and
syntax which followed have vanished from their know-
ledge. Logic was delightfully unlike the Collegium
Logicum described by Goethe to the young German student
through the lips of Mephistopheles. Even the dry bones of
predicate and syllogism were made by Prof. Buchanan very
lively for six weeks among the students of logic and rhetoric
in Glasgow College sixty-seven years ago; and the delicious
scholastic gibberish of *‘ Barbara, Celarent ’? remains with
them an amusing recollection. A happy and instructive
illustration of the inductive logic was taken from Wells’s
““ Theory of Dew,’’ then twenty years old. My predecessor
in the natural philosophy chair, Dr. Meikleham, taught his
students reverence for the great French mathematicians,
Legendre, Lagrange, Laplace. His immediate successor in
the teaching of the natural philosophy class, Dr. Nichol,
added Fresnel and Fourier to this list of scientific nobles;
and by his own inspiring enthusiasm for the great French
school of mathematical physics, continually manifested in
his experimental and theoretical teaching of the wave theory
of light and of practical astronomy, he largely promoted
scientific study and thorough appreciation of science in the
University of Glasgow. In this hall you see side by side
two memorial windows presented to the university to mark
permanently its admiration of three men of genius, John
Caird, John Pringle Nichol, and his son, John Nichol, who
lived in it, and worked for it and for the world, in the two
departments of activity for which universities exist, the
humanities and science. As far back as 1818 to 1830
Thomas Thomson, the first professor of chemistry in the
University of Glasgow, began the systematic teaching of
practical chemistry to students, and by aid of the faculty
of Glasgow College, which gave the site and the money
for the building, realised a well equipped laboratory, which
preceded, I believe, by some years Liebig’s famous labor-
atory of Giessen, and was, I believe, the first of all the labor-
atories in the world for chemical research and the practical
instruction of university students in chemistry. That was
at a time when an imperfectly informed public used to
regard the University of Glasgow as a stagnant survival
of medizvalism and to call its professors the Monks of the
Molendinar !
The university of Adam Smith, James Watt, and Thomas
Reid was never stagnant. For two centuries and a quarter
it has been very progressive. Nearly two centuries ago it
had a laboratory of human anatomy. Seventy-five years
‘NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
NATURE
105
ago it had the first chemical students’ laboratory. Sixty-
five years ago it had the first professorship of engineering of
the British Empire. Fifty years ago it had the first physical
students’ laboratory—a deserted wine cellar of an old pro-
fessorial house, enlarged a few years later by the annexation
of a deserted examination room. Thirty-four years ago,
when it migrated from its four hundred years old site off
the High Street of Glasgow to this brighter and airier hill-
top, it acquired laboratories of physiology and zoology, too
small and too meagrely equipped. And now every univer-
sity in the world has, or desires to have, laboratories of
human anatomy, of chemistry, of physics, of physiology, of
zoology. Within the last thirty years laboratories of engineer-
ing, of botany, and of public health have been added to some
of the universities of the British Empire, with highly bene-
ficent results for our country and the world. All these the
University of Glasgow now has. During the last fifty years
our university has grown in material greatness and in work-
ing power to an extent that its most ardent well-wishers in
the first half of the nineteenth century could scarcely have
imagined possible. Two successive legislative commissions
(1858 and 1889) have re-formed its constitution and
broadened its foundations, and added to its financial
resources, and admitted women to its membership, with all
the privileges of students and graduates. Splendidly liberal
subscriptions by the people of Glasgow and by a world-wide
public outside, backed by powerful aid from the National
Treasury, enabled the university, on leaving its ancient site,
to enter into the grand group of buildings on Gilmorehill,
in which it has happily lived ever since. A few years later
the generous gift of 45,0001. by the late Marquis of Bute
built the hall called after his name, in which we are now
met. At the same time the adjoining Randolph Hall and
staircase were built by a portion of the legacy left to the
university by the late Mr. Randolph. The Queen Margaret
College and grounds were presented to the university by
Mrs. Elder, who also added largely to the endowment of the
engineering professorship, and founded the professorship of
naval architecture. Other generous donors have given an
engineering laboratory with lecture-rooms, and botanical
buildings, and great and much needed extensions in the
anatomical department. The Carnegie Trust and the prin-
cipal’s university equipment scheme are at present provid-
ing two new buildings; one of these is for extensions in the
medical school. The other, in which I naturally take the
most personal interest, is for the natural philosophy depart-
ment, including lecture-rooms and a physical laboratory, all
designed and at present being realised under the able
direction of my successor in the natural philosophy chair,
Prof. Andrew Gray. ,
In the province of the humanities the working power of
the university for instruction and research has been largely
augmented during the last fifty years by the foundation of
new professorships, conveyancing, English language and
literature, Biblical criticism, clinical surgery, clinical
medicine, history (in my opinion the most Important of all in
the literary department), pathology, political economy. In
mathematics and in the science of dead matter, professor-
ships of naval architecture and geology ; lectureships of elec-
tricity, of physics, and of physical chemistry ; and demon-
stratorships and official assistantships in all departments
have most usefully extended the range of study, and largely
strengthened the working corps for research and instruction.
I venture to congratulate the city of Glasgow on having
for her god-daughter a university so splendidly equipped and
so admirably provided with workers.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL
SOCIETY.
TRS report of the council of the Royal Society was
presented at the anniversary meeting held yester-
day, November 30, and the president, Sir William
Huggins, K.C.B., F.R.S., delivered the annual
address.
The council refers to the second general assembly of
the International Association of Academies last Whit-
suntide as one of the chief events of the year. At the
i106
NATURE
[DECEMBER 1, 1904
close of the meeting, Vienna was chosen by a
unanimous vote as the place of meeting of the next
general assembly. A complete protocol of the pro-
ceedings of the assembly has been drawn up, and will
be issued before the end of this year. Other matters
referred to in the report are the African geodetic arc,
the international congress of aéronautics held at St.
Petersburg in August, the international laboratory of
physiology on Monte Rosa, the Royal Society ‘‘ Cata-
logue of Scientific Papers,’’ the ‘‘ International Cata-
logue of Scientific Literature,’’ the Government grant
for scientific investigations, and the expenses of special
Government inquiries.
The Royal Society is frequently requested by
various departments of the Government to advise upon,
or in some cases to undertake the supervision and con-
trol of, and in others the entire responsibility for,
scientific investigations of national importance, but no
provision has been made by Government to meet ex-
penses to which the Society has been put in acceding
to these requests. As the result of pointing out this
unsatisfactory position, H.M. Treasury has approved
of an alteration in the regulations for administering
the Government grant of 4oool. for scientific purposes
which will permit a sum to be set aside out of the
reserve fund of the grant for printing and office ex-
penditure incurred “in undertaking, controlling,
supervising or advising upon matters which the Presi-
dent and Council may, at the request of the Govern-
ment, undertake, control, supervise or advise upon.’’
That is to say, the Royal Society is graciously per-
mitted by the Treasury to use a part of the annual
Government grant for scientific investigations to meet
expenses incurred in answering Government inquiries.
Mention is also made in the report of the radium
research grant of the Goldsmiths’ Company, the
Treasury inquiry into the Meteorological Office, and
the letter on scientific education sent by the council
to all British universities last January. The following
extracts from other parts of the report of the council
are of interest :—
Sleeping Sickness.
The investigation of this disease in Uganda was con-
tinued after Colonel Bruce’s return to England by Dr.
Nabarro and Captain Greig, of the Indian Medical Service.
A further report (No. 4) by Colonel Bruce has been pub-
lished, and its general conclusions, briefly stated in the last
report of the council—namely, that the sleeping sickness is
caused by the entrance into the blood and thence into the
cerebro-spinal fluid of a species of Trypanosoma (T.
gambiense), and that these trypanosomes are transmitted
from the sick to the healthy by a species of tsetse fly
{Glossina palpalis)\—have been confirmed by subsequent
observations. The efforts of the observers are now being
directed to the attempt to discover a means of eliminating
the trypanosomes from the blood and tissues of the infected
in the early stages, and before severe damage has been done
to the nervous centres. In the meantime the Royal Society
Committee has advised the Government to adopt such pre-
ventive measures as are found practicable for protecting a
non-infected area where the carrier flv is found from the
incursion of emigrants from the infected areas.
Antarctic Expedition and Investigation.
The Antarctic ship Discovery, accompanied by the relief
ships Morning and Terra Nova, returned safely in March
last to Lyttelton, and a ‘‘ Summary of Proceedings” was
forwarded thence by Captain Scott by post to the presidents
of the Royal and Royal Geographical Societies. The
Discovery arrived in England at the beginning of September,
when a joint letter of welcome from the president and the
president of the Royal Geographical Society was dispatched
to Captain Scott.
The natural history specimens and notes and drawings
have been sent to the British Museum (Natural History
Department), to be preserved there as part of the national
collection, the trustees of the museum having agreed to
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
organise and undertake the publication of these results of
the expedition, under the editorship of the director of the
museum.
The laborious duty of arranging for the reduction and
publication of the magnetic and meteorological observations
made by the expedition has been undertaken by the Royal
Society. Two special expert committees have been
appointed, and are already dealing with these two classes
of material. ;
As regards the magnetic observations, the Hydrographic
Department of the Admiralty has undertaken the reduction
of about one-third of the material, and the remaining two-
thirds, consisting of the slow-run magnetograms, remain-
to be dealt with. The committee for magnetism have
accordingly arranged that these observations shall be re-
duced, under the superintendence of Dr. Chree, their s2cre-
tary, in the observatory department of the National Physical
Laboratory; and the Royal Society has undertaken re-
sponsibility for the cost of these reductions, to the extent
of 4ool., by an advance from the donation fund, in the full
hope that this expenditure will be refunded out of the pro-
ceeds of the sale of the Discovery.
Committees have been arranged for dealing with other
observations. The reduction of the meteorological obsery-
ations has been undertaken by the Meteorological Council
with the aid of a sum of sool. guaranteed by the Royal
Geographical Society in anticipation of the sale of the
Discovery. It is hoped that the publication of these results
will be undertaken by H.M. Stationery Office.
The committees are working as far as possible in concert
with the authorities engaged in the reduction of the observ-
ations of the German and Scottish Antarctic Expeditions,
which in part covered the same period of time.
It is proposed that the special scientific results of the
expedition shall be published in a uniform series of volumes
similar to the published records of the Challenger Expedition.
Mediterranean Fever.
In February last a letter was received from the Colonial
Office asking whether the Royal Society would be willing
to appoint an advisory board in this country for the purpose
of supervising investigations into Mediterranean fever, to
be carried out by a commission representing the Navy, the
Army, and the Civil Government of Malta.
The matter was referred to the tropical diseases com-
mittee of the society, which had superintended the investi-
gations into malaria and sleeping sickness, and upon their
advice the council decided to accede to the request of the
Colonial Office, provided that the appointment of investi-
gators rested with the Royal Society, and that all expenses
in connection with the investigation were borne by the
Government. These conditions were accepted by the
Government with a modification, which the council acceded
to at the particular request of H.M. Treasury, viz. that
the Royal Society should participate by defraying (out of
the Government Grant Reserve Fund) the cost of scientific
equipment to an amount not exceeding 2001. The advisory
board was constituted as a subcommittee of the tropical
diseases committee, with Colonel Bruce, F.R.S., as chair-
man. Members of the commission of investigation were
nominated, with the approval of this committee, by the
Navy, the Army, and the Civil Government of Malta, and
Colonel Bruce himself went out to Malta on behalf of the
committee to start the inquiry, which is now in active
progress.
National Physical Laboratory.
The National Physical Laboratory has continued its work
with success during the year, the last of the five for which
the original annual grant of 4oool. was made by the
Treasury.
This fact has been prominently before the committee at
its various meetings. In reply to an inquiry by the chair-
man, a letter was received from Sir E. W. Hamilton to the
effect that while there was no idea of stopping the grant,
the question before H.M. Treasury was whether there should
be an increase in its amount, and suggesting that the com-
mittee should formulate ‘‘ constructive proposals’’ with
detailed estimates of the expenditure, both capital and re-
curring, required to put the laboratory on a satisfactory
footing. Accordingly this was done, and a memorandum
on the future organisation and expenditure of the labor-
DECEMBER I, 1904]
NATURE
107
atory, which was drawn up by the executive committee on
February 19, was sent to the Treasury by the president
and council, who strongly supported the proposals of the
committee.
The main recommendations of the memorandum were
(1) that a sum of nearly 30,0001, was required for capital
expenditure, and (2) that the annual grant should be raised
in the course of four years to 10,000l.; while, with a view
to supporting these proposals, a request was made for an
official inquiry into the work and organisation of the
laboratory.
To this request the Financial Secretary of the Treasury
replied, stating that the question of the increase must stand
over until the estimates for 1905-6 were under consider-
ation, and suggesting that meanwhile the executive com-
mittee should consider which of the new works were of the
most pressing importance, and make application accord-
ingly.
In answer, a further memorandum was prepared, point-
ing out that the question at issue was whether the labor-
atory is to be allowed to remain undeveloped in its present
condition. with its limited powers and opportunities, or
whether it is to be adequately developed, and ultimately
placed on a footing similar to that of the corresponding
institutions in other countries, and asking that the First
Lord of the Treasury would receive a deputation to support
the request already made, ‘‘ That an inquiry might be in-
stituted into the work and organisation of the National
Physical Laboratory with a view to laying down the lines
that ought to be followed in its future development.”’
In consequence of this request, a conference took place
early in August at the House of Commons between the Prime
Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the President
of the Board of Trade on the one hand, and Lord Rayleigh,
Sir F. Hopwood, the treasurer and senior secretary of the
Royal Society, with the director, representing the laboratory,
at which the matter was discussed.
The donations and subscriptions promised to the labor-
atory, in most cases for five years, have increased, and now
reach a total of about 2o000l.
While the report is one of progress, the committee of the
laboratory feel that with adequate financial support they
might do much more. It is not yet sufficiently recognised
how substantial is the assistance the laboratory can render
to commerce and manufactures. The grant made by the
Government is treated by them as one in aid of science itself,
although it is applied under the highest scientific direction
to facilitate the applications of science to manufacture.
This distinction is an important one, which needs to be
emphasised; when it is fully grasped the progress of the
laboratory, as an aid to national industry, will be much
more rapid.
In his anniversary address the president referred at
first to the scientific careers of the thirteen fellows of
the Society lost by death since the previous anniver-
sary. He then gave a sketch of the work the
society has done and is doing for the nation, and
showed how the generous intentions of the founder,
Charles II., were never fulfilled. From this survey
of the history of the society, we have taken the follow-
ing extracts, with the descriptions of the scientific
work of this year’s medallists :—
During the last few years a very large amount, increasing
each year, of work outside the reading, discussion, and
printing of papers, of a more or less public character, has
been thrown upon the Royal Society—so large indeed as at
present to tax the society’s powers to the utmost. A not
inconsiderable part of this work has come from the initiation
by the society itself of new undertakings, but mainly it has
consisted of assistance freely given, at their request, to
different departments of the Government on questions which
require expert scientific knowledge, and which involve no
small amount of labour on the part of the officers and staff,
and much free sacrifice of time and energy from: fellows,
in most cases living at a distance.
There is little doubt that this largely-increased amount of
public work has arisen, in part naturally from the greater
scientific activity of the present day, but also, and to a
NO. 1831, VOL. 71 |
greater extent, from the fuller recognition by the Govern-
ment and the public of the need for scientific advice and
direction in connection with many matters of national con-
cern.
It may not be inopportune, therefore, for me to say a few
words on the advisory relation in which the society has
come to stand to the Government, and to review very briefly
the great work which the society has done, and is doing,
for the nation.
Among academies and learned societies the position of
the Royal Society is, in some respects, an exceptional one.
In the British dominions it holds a unique position, not only
as the earliest chartered scientific society, but in its own
right, on account of the number of eminent men included in
its fellowship, and the close connection in which it stands,
though remaining a private institution, with the Govern-
ment. The Royal Society is a private learned body, con-
sisting of a voluntary and independent association of students
of science united for the promotion of natural knowledge at
their own cost.
The Royal Society, while remaining a purely private in-
stitution for the promotion of natural knowledge, has been
regarded by the Government as the acknowledged national
scientific body, the advice of which is of the highest authority
on all scientific questions, and the more to be trusted on
account of the society’s financial independence; a body,
which, through its intimate relations with the learned socie-
ties of the Colonies, has now become the centre of British
science. The society’s historical position and the scientific
eminence of its fellows have made it naturally the body which
the scientific authorities of foreign countries regard as re-
presenting the science of the Empire, and with which they
are anxious to consult and to cooperate, from time to time,
on scientific questions of international importance.
On their part, the fellows of the Royal Society, remember-
ing that the promotion of natural knowledge is the great
object for which it was founded and still exists, and that
all undertakings in the home and in the State, since they
are concerned with nature, can be wisely directed and carried
on with the highest efficiency only as they are based upon a
knowledge of nature, have always recognised the funda-
mental importance of the society’s work to national as well
as to individual success and prosperity, and their own
responsibility as the depositories of such knowledge. They
have always been willing, even at great personal cost,
ungrudgingly to afford any assistance in their power to
the Government on all questions referred to them which
depend upon technical knowledge, or which require the em-
ployment of scientific methods. In particular the society
has naturally always been eager to help forward, and even
to initiate, such national undertakings as voyages of
observation or of discovery of any kind, or for the investi-
gation of the incidence of disease, which have for their ex-
press object the increase of natural knowledge.
At the same time, as the society is dependent upon the
voluntary help of its fellows, whose time is fully occupied
with their own work, the society may reasonably expect the
Government not to ask for assistance on any matters of
mere administration that could be otherwise efficiently pro-
vided for. The hope may be expressed that in the near
future, with increased official provision in connection with
the recognition of science, the position of the society to the
Government may not extend beyond that of a purely
advisory body, so that the heavy responsibilities now resting
upon it, in respect of the carrying out of many public under-
takings on which its advice has been asked, may no longer
press unduly, as they certainly do at present, upon the time
and energy of the officers and members of committees. | The
society regards this outside work, important as it is, as
extraneous, and therefore as subordinate, and would not be
justified in permitting such work to interfere with the strict
prosecution of pure natural science as the primary purpose
of the society’s existence, upon which, indeed, the society s
importance as an advisory body ultimately depends. ;
The society has accepted heavy responsibilities at the in-
stance of the Government in respect of the control of scien-
tific observations and research in our vast Indian Empire.
In 1899, the India Office inquired whether the Royal
Society would be willing to meet the wishes of the Indian
Government by exercising a general control over the scien-
tific researches which it might be thought desirable to
108
NATURE
[DECEMBER I, 1904
institute in that country. A standing committee was ap-
pointed in consequence by the council for the purpose of
giving advice on matters connected with scientific inquiry,
probably mainly biological, in India, which should be sup-
plementary to the standing observatories committee which
was already established at the request of the Government as
an advisory body on astronomical, solar, magnetic, and
meteorological observations in that part of the Empire.
An investigation, onerous indeed, but of the highest
scientific interest and of very great practical importance,
has been carried on by a series of committees successively
appointed at the request of the Government for the consider-
ation of some of the strangely mysterious and deadly diseases
of tropical countries. In 1896 a committee was appointed
at the request of the Colonial Secretary to investigate the
subject of the tsetse-fly disease in South Africa. Two years
later Mr. Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies,
requested the society to appoint a committee to make a
thorough investigation into the origin, the transmission,
and the possible preventives and remedies of tropical
diseases, and especially of the malarial and ‘‘ blackwater ”’
fevers prevalent in Africa, promising assistance, both on the
part of the Colonial Office and of the Colonies concerned.
A committee was appointed, and, under its auspices, skilled
investigators were sent out to Africa and to India. In the
case of the third committee the society itself took the initi-
ative. An outbreak in Uganda of the disease, appalling in
its inexorable deadliness, known as “sleeping sickness ”’
having been brought to the knowledge of the society, a
deputation waited upon Lord Lansdowne at the Foreign
Office, asking him to consider favourably the dispatch of a
small commission to Uganda to investigate the disease. He
gave his approval, and a commission of three experts, ap-
pointed on the recommendation of the committee, was sent
out to Uganda, 600l. being voted out of the Government
grant towards the expenses of the commission.
The investigations in tropical diseases, promoted and
directed by these committees, have largely increased our
knowledge of the true nature of these diseases, and, what is of
the highest practical importance, they have shown that their
propagation depends upon conditions which it is in the
power of man so far to modify, or guard against, as to
afford a reasonable expectation that it may be possible for
Europeans to live and carry on their work in parts of the
earth where hitherto the sacrifice of health, and even of life,
has been fearfully great. A general summary of the work
already done on malaria, especially in regard to its pre-
vention, and also on the nature of ‘ blackwater ”’ fever, has
been published in a Parliamentary paper, which records
Mr. Chamberlain’s acknowledgment to the Royal Society
for its cooperation in the work undertaken by the Colonial
Office. The reports on sleeping sickness up to this time
form four whole numbers of the Proceedings, giving evi-
dence in support of the view that this deadly disease is
caused by the entrance into the blood, and thence into the
cerebro-spinal fluid, of a species of Trypanosoma, and that
these organisms are transmitted from the sick to the healthy
by a kind of tsetse fly, and by it alone; sleeping sickness is,
in short, a human tsetse-fly disease.
In 1897, the council was requested to assist the Board of
Trade in drawing up schedules for the establishment of the
relations between the metric and the imperial units of
weights and measures. A committee was appointed, which,
after devoting much time and attention to the matter, drew
up schedules which were accepted by the Board of Trade
and incorporated in the Orders of Council.
Soon after the reports were received of the appalling vol-
canic eruptions and the loss of life which took place in the
West Indies in 1902, the council received a letter from Mr.
Chamberlain to ask if the society would be willing to under-
take an investigation of the phenomena connected with the
eruptions. The council, considering that such an investi-
gation fell well within the scope of the objects of the society,
organised a small commission of two experts, who left
England for the scene of the eruption eleven days only after
the receipt of Mr. Chamberlain’s letter, the expenses being
met by a grant of jool. from the Government Grant Com-
mittee. Six weeks were spent in the islands, including
Martinique, by the commission, which was successful in
securing results of great scientific interest. A preliminary
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
report was published at the time, and a full report has since
appeared in the Transactions.
Time forbids me to do more than mention the successive
expeditions sent out by the society, conjointly with the Royal
Astronomical Society, for the observation of total solar
eclipses ; and the onerous work thrown upon the society for
several years in connection with the National Antarctic Ex-
pedition, undertaken jointly with the Royal Geographical
Society, which has this year returned home crowned with
success ; but the society’s labours are not at an end, for the
prolonged and responsible task of the discussion and pub-
lication of the scientific results of the expedition is still before
them.
To the Royal Society is entrusted the responsible task of
administrating the annual Government grant of 4oool. for
the purpose of scientific research, and a grant of 1oool. in
aid of the publication of scientific papers.
In addition to these permanent responsibilities, which are
always with the society, its advice and aid are sought from
time to time both by the Government and by scientific institu-
tions at home and abroad, in favour of independent objects
of a more or less temporary character, of which, as ex-
amples, may be taken the recent action of the society for
the purpose of obtaining Government aid for the continu-
ation through Egypt of the African are of meridian, and
for the intervention of the Government to assist in securing
the fulfilment of the part undertaken by Great Britain in
the International Astrographic Catalogue and Chart.
Upon the present fellows falls the glorious inheritance of
unbounded free labour ungrudgingly given during two
centuries and a half for the public service, as well as of the
strenuous prosecution at the same time of the primary object
of the society, as set forth in the words of the Charter :
““the promotion of Natural Knowledge.’? The successive
generations of fellows have unsparingly contributed of their
time to the introduction and promotion, whenever the oppor-
tunity was afforded them, of scientific knowledge and
methods into the management of public concerns by depart-
ments of the Government. The financial independence of
the Royal Society, neither receiving, nor wishing to accept,
State aid for its own private purposes, has enabled the
society to give advice and assistance which, both with the
Government and with Parliament, have the weight and
finality of a wholly disinterested opinion. I may quote here
the words of a recent letter from H.M. Treasury :—‘‘ Their
Lordships have deemed themselves in the past very fortunate
in being able to-rely, in dealing with scientific questions,
upon the aid of the Royal Society, which commands not only
the confidence of the scientific world, but also of Parlia-
ment.”’
In the past the Royal Society has been not infrequently
greatly hampered in giving its advice by the knowledge
that the funds absolutely needed for the carrying out of the
matters in question in accordance with our present scientific
knowledge would not be forthcoming. Though I am now
speaking on my own responsibility, I am sure that the
society is with me, if I say that the expenditure by the
Government on scientific research and scientific institutions,
on which its commercial and industrial prosperity so largely
depend, is wholly inadequate in view of the present state of
international competition. I throw no blame on the in-
dividual members of the present or former Governments;
they are necessarily the representatives of public opinion,
and cannot go beyond it. The cause is deeper, it lies in
the absence in the leaders of public opinion, and indeed
throughout the more influential classes of society, of a
sufficiently intelligent appreciation of the supreme import-
ance of scientific knowledge and scientific methods in all
industrial enterprises, and indeed in all national under-
takings. The evidence of this grave state of the public
mind is strikingly shown by the very small response that
follows any appeal that is made for scientific objects in this
country, in contrast with the large donations and liberal
endowments from private benefaction for scientific purposes
and scientific institutions which are always at once forth-
coming in the United States. In my opinion, the scientific
deadness of the nation is mainly due to the too exclusively
medizeval and classical methods of our higher public schools,
and can only be slowly removed by making in future the
teaching of science, not from text-books for passing an
examination, but, as far as may be possible, from the study
DFCEMEER I, 1904 |
NATURE
109
of the phenomena of nature by direct observation and ex-
periment, an integrai and essential part of all education in
this country.
I proceed to the award of the medals.
Copley Medal.
The Copley Medal is awarded to Sir William Crookes,
F.R.S., for his experimental researches in chemistry and
physics, extending over more than fifty years. Ever since
his discovery of the element thallium in the early days of
spectrum analysis, he has been in the front rank as regards
the refined application of that weapon of research in
chemical investigation. Later, the discrepancies which he
found in an attempt to improve weighings, by conducting
the operation in high vacua, were tracked out by him to a
repulsion arising from radiation, which was ultimately
ascribed by theory to the action of the residual gas. This
phenomenon, illustrated by the radiometer, opened up a new
and fascinating chapter in the dynamical theory of rarefied
gases, which the genius of Maxwell, O. Reynolds, and
others, has left still incomplete. The improvements in
vacua embodied in the Crookes tube led him to a detailed
and brilliant experimental analysis of the phenomena of the
electric discharge across exhausted spaces; in this, backed
by the authority of Stokes, he adduced long ago powerful
cumulative evidence that the now familiar kathode rays,
previously described by C. F. Varley, must consist of pro-
jected streams of some kind of material substance. His
simple but minutely careful experiments on the progress of
the ultimate falling off in the viscosity of rarefied gases,
from the predicted constant value of Maxwell, at very high
exhaustions, gave, in Stokes’s hands, an exact account of
the trend of this theoretically interesting phenomenon, which
had already been approached in the investigations of Kundt
and Warburg, using Maxwell’s original method of vibrating
discs.
These examples, not to mention recent work with radium,
convey an idea of the acute observation, experimental skill,
and persistent effort, which have enabled Sir William
Crookes to enrich physical science in many departments.
Rumford Medal.
The Rumford Medal is awarded to Prof. Ernest Ruther-
ford, F.R.S., on account of his researches on the properties
of radio-active matter, in particular for his capital discovery
of the active gaseous emanations emitted by such matter,
and his detailed investigation of their transformations. The
idea of radiations producing ionisation, of the type originally
discovered by Réntgen, and the idea of electrified particles,
like the kathode rays of vacuum tubes, projected from radio-
active bodies, had gradually become familiar through the
work of a succession of recent investigators, when Ruther-
ford’s announcement of a very active substance, diffusing
like a gas with a definite atomic mass, emitted by compound
of thorium, opened up yet another avenue of research with
reference to these remarkable bodies. The precise interpre-
tation of the new phenomena, so promptly perceived by
Rutherford, was quickly verified, for radium and other sub-
stances, by various observers, and is now universally ac-
cepted. The modes of degradation, and the enormous con-
comitant radio-activity, of these emanations, have been in-
vestigated mainly by Rutherford himself, with results
embodied in his treatise on radio-activity and his recent
Bakerian lecture on the same subject. It perhaps still
remains a task for the future to verify or revise the details
of these remarkable transformations of material substances,
resulting apparently in the appearance of chemical elements
not before present ; but, however that may issue, by the de-
tection and description of radio-active emanations and their
transformations, Prof. Rutherford has added an unexpected
domain of transcendent theoretical interest to physical
science.
Royal Medal.
A Royal Medal is awarded to Prof. W. Burnside, F.R.S.,
on the ground of the number, originality, and importance of
his contributions to mathematical science. The section of
our ‘‘ Catalogue of Scientific Papers ’’ for the period 1883—
1g00 enumerates fifty-three papers by Prof. Burnside, the
first dated 1885, and the ‘‘ International Catalogue of Scien-
tific Literature’ thirteen more. His mathematical work
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
has consisted largely of papers on the theory of groups, to
which he has made most valuable additions. In 1897 he
published a volume ‘‘ On the Theory of Groups of Finite
Order,” which is a standard authority on that subject. Two
recent papers on the same theory, published in 1903, may be
specially mentioned. In one of these he succeeded in estab-
lishing by direct methods, distinguished by great conciseness
of treatment, the important subsidiary theory of group-
characteristics, which had been originally arrived at by
very indirect and lengthy processes. In the other he proved
quite shortly the important result that all groups of which
the order is the product of powers of two primes are soluble.
Besides the treatise and papers relating to group theory,
Prof. Burnside has published work on various branches of
pure and applied mathematics. His work on automorphic
functions dealt with an important and difficult special case
which was not included in the theory of these functions as
previously worked out. The paper on Green’s function for
a system of non-intersecting spheres was perhaps the first
work by any writer in which the notions of automorphic
functions and of the theory of groups were applied to a
physical problem. He has also made important contribu-
tions to the theory of functions, non-Euclidean geometry,
and the theory of waves on liquids. His work is distin-
guished by great acuteness and power, as well as by unusual
elegance and most admirable brevity.
Royal Medal.
The other Royal Medal is awarded to Colonel David
Bruce, F.R.S., who, since 1884, has been engaged in
prosecuting to a successful issue researches into the causation
of a number of important diseases affecting man and
animals. When he went to Malta in 1884 the exact nature
of the widely prevalent ‘‘ Malta,’’ ‘‘ Rock,’’ or ‘* Mediter-
ranean’’ fever was entirely unknown. After some years’
work at the etiology of this disease, he discovered in 1887
the organism causing it, and succeeded in cultivating the
Micrococcus melitensis outside the body. This discovery
has been confirmed by many other workers, and is one of
great importance from all points of view, and perhaps more
especially as, thanks to it, Malta fever can now be separated
from other diseases, e.g. typhoid, remittent, and malarious
fevers, with which it had hitherto been ccnfounded.
During the next few years he was engaged in researches
of value on cholera, and on methods of immunisation against
this disease. He also carried out some work on the leuco-
cytes in the blood, published in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1894.
In 1894 he was requested by the Governor of Natal to
investigate the supposed distinct diseases of ‘‘ nagana”’
and the tsetse-fly disease. In the short time of two months
he made the most important discovery that these two dis-
eases were one and the same, and dependent upon the
presence of a protozoan organism in the blood, known as a
trypanosome. Some six months later Bruce was enabled to
return to Zululand, and remained there two years, studying
the disease and making the discovery that the tsetse fly
acted as the carrier of the organism which caused it. He
was thus the first to show that an insect might carry a
protozoan parasite that was pathogenic. This observation
was made in 1895.
Bruce not only determined the nature and course of
“‘ nagana,”’ but in addition he studied the disease in a large
number of domestic animals, and also observed the malady
in a latent form in the wild animals of South Africa. Sub-
sequent observers have found but little to add to Bruce’s
work on this subject.
In 1900 Bruce was ordered to join a commission investi-
gating the outbreak of dysentery in the Army in South
Africa, and a great part of the laboratory work performed
by this commission was carried out by him.
“In 1903 Colonel Bruce went, at the request of the Royal
Society, to Uganda, to investigate further the nature of
sleeping sickness. It was very largely, if not entirely,
owing to him that the work of the Royal Society’s com-
mission was brought to a successful issue. At the time
when he arrived a trypanosome had been observed by
Castellani in a small-number of cases of this disease ; thanks
to Bruce’s energy and scientific insight, these observations
were rapidly extended, and: the most conclusive evidence
obtained, that in all cases of the disease the trypanosome
I1O
was present. He showed further that a certain tsetse fly,
the Glossina palpalis, acted as the carrier of the trypano-
some, and obtained evidence showing that the distribution
of the disease and of the fly were strikingly similar.
Bruce has therefore been instrumental in discovering and
establishing the exact nature and cause of three widespread
diseases of man and of animals, and in two of these, nagana
and Malta fever, he discovered the causal organism. In
the third, sleeping sickness, he was not the first to see the
organism, but he was quick to grasp and work out the dis-
covery, and he made the interesting discovery of the carrier
of the pathogenic organism, and thus discovered the mode
of infection and of spread of the malady, matters of the
highest importance as regards all measures directed to arrest
the spreading of the disease.
All this research work has been done whilst serving in
the Royal Army Medical Corps, and engaged in the routine
work of the Service.
Davy Medal.
The Davy Medal is awarded to Prof. W. H. Perkin, jun.,
F.R.S., for his masterly and fruitful researches in the domain
of synthetic organic chemistry, on which he has been con-
tinuously engaged during the past twenty-five years.
Dr. Perkin’s name is identified with the great advances
which have been made during the past quarter of a century
in our knowledge of the ring or cyclic compounds of carbon.
Thus, in the year 1880, the cyclic carbon compounds known
to chemists were chiefly restricted to the unsaturated group-
ings of six carbon atoms met with in benzene and its deri-
vatives, whilst the number of compounds in which saturated
carbon rings had been recognised was very limited, and it
was indeed considered very doubtful whether compounds
containing carbon rings with more or less than six atoms
of carbon were capable of existence.
The starting point for Dr. Perkin’s researches in this
field of inquiry was his investigation of the behaviour of the
di-halogen derivatives of various organic radicals with the
sodium compounds of malonic, aceto-acetic, and benzoyl-
acetic esters, which led to the synthesis of the cyclic poly-
methylene compounds up to those of hexamethylene, whilst
heptamethylene derivatives were obtained by an adaptation
of the well known reduction of ketonic bodies leading to
pinacones. The reactions thus introduced by Perkin are
now classical, having proved themselves of the highest
importance for synthetical purposes, and having been in-
strumental in stimulating the further investigation of the
cyclic compounds of carbon.
Dr. Perkin also extended the same methods to the syn-
thetical formation of carbon rings of the aromatic series,
obtaining by means of ingeniously designed reactions deri-
vatives of hydrindonaphthene and tetrahydronaphthalene.
But whilst the above achievements depend mainly on
happily conceived and brilliantly executed extensions of the
malonic and aceto-acetic ester syntheses, Perkin has, by a
remarkable development of the Frankland and Duppa re-
action for the synthesis of hydroxyacids, been successful in
building up the important camphoronic acid in such a man-
ner as to place its constitution beyond doubt (1897).
Dr. Perkin has further devoted much attention to the im-
portant subject of the constitution of camphor, towards the
elucidation of which he has contributed valuable experi-
mental evidence embodied in a most important and elaborate
paper, containing the results of many years’ work in con-
junction with numerous pupils, entitled ‘“‘ Sulphocamphylic
Acid and Jsolauronolic Acid, with Remarks on the Con-
stitution of Camphor and Some of its Derivatives ’’ (1898).
Bearing on the same subject are later communications on
camphoric acid and isocamphoronic acid.
About the year 1900, Perkin, in prosecuting his researches
on the constitution of camphor compounds, succeeded in
devising synthetical methods for the production of what he
has termed ‘‘ bridged rings,’’ of which a simple example is
furnished by the hydrocarbon dicyclopentane
/sCH—CH,
CH |
CH—CH,
The universal admiration of organic chemists has been
called forth by these investigations; they reveal, indeed, a
wonderful capacity for devising reactions which coerce
carbon atoms to fall into the desired groupings.
NO. 1831. VOL. 71]
NAT ORE,
[DECEMBER I, 1904
Of other publications displaying not only extraordinary
experimental skill but close reasoning and the power of
interpreting results, mention may be made of Dr. Perkin’s
memorable researches on the constitution of dehydracetic
acid, berberine, brasilin, and hematoxylin respectively.
During the present year (1904), Dr. Perkin has made
perhaps the most remarkable addition to the long list of
his achievements by successfully synthesising terpin, inactive
terpineol, and dipentene, substances which had previously
engaged the attention of some of the greatest masters of
organic chemistry.
In conclusion it may be stated that Prof. Perkin is not
only the author of the above and numerous other important
researches which are outside the scope of this brief sum-
mary, but that he has also created a school of research in
organic chemistry, which stands in the very highest rank.
Darwin Medal.
The Darwin Medal is awarded to Mr. William Bateson,
F.R.S., for his researches on heredity and variation.
Mr. Bateson began his scientific career as a morphologist,
and distinguished himself by researches on the structure
and development of Balanoglossus, which have had a far-
reaching influence on morphological science, and which
established to the satisfaction of most anatomists the affinity
of the Enteropneusta to the Chordate phylum. Dissatisfied,
however, with the methods of morphological research as a
means of advancing the study of evolution, he set himself
resolutely to the task of finding a new method of attacking
the species problem. Recognising the fact that variation
was the basis upon which the theory of evolution rested, he
turned his attention to the study of that subject, and entered
upon a series of researches which culminated in the publica-
tion in 1894 of his well-known work, entitled ‘* Materials
for the Study of Variation, &c.’’ This book broke new
ground. Not only was it the first systematic work which
had been published on variation, and, with the exception of
Darwin’s ‘‘ Variation of Animals and Plants under Domesti-
cation,’’ the only extensive work dealing with it; but it was
the first serious attempt to establish the importance of the
principle of discontinuity-in variation in its fundamental
bearing upon the problem of evolution, a principle which he
constantly and successfully urged when the weight of
authority was against it. In this work he collected and
systematised a great number of examples of discontinuous
variation, and by his broad and masterly handling of them
he paved the way for those remarkable advances in the study
of heredity which have taken place in the last few years, and
to which he has himself so largely contributed. He was the
first in this country to recognise the importance of the work
of Mendel, which, published in 1864, and for a long time
completely overlooked by naturalists, contained a clue
to the labyrinth of facts which had resulted from the
labours of his predecessors. He ‘has brought these
results prominently forward in England in his im-
portant reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal
Society, and in papers before the Royal and other societies,
and also before horticulturists and breeders of animals. He
has gathered about him a distinguished body of workers,
and has devoted himself with great energy and with all
his available resources to following out lines of work similar
to those of Mendel. The result has been the supporting of
Mendel’s conclusions and the bringing to light of a much
wider range of facts in general harmony with them. It is
not too much to say that Mr. Bateson has developed a school
of research to which many biologists are now looking as
the source from which the next great advance in our know-
ledge of organic evolution will come.
Sylvester Medal.
The Sylvester Medal is awarded to Georg Cantor, pro
fessor in the University of Halle, on account of his re-
searches in pure mathematics. His work shows originality
of the highest order, and is of the most far-reaching im-
portance. He has not only created a new field of mathe-
matical investigation, but his ideas, in their application to
analysis, and in some measure to geometry, furnish a
weapon of the utmost power and precision for dealing with
the foundations of mathematics, and for formulating the
necessary limitations to which many results of mathematics
are subject.
DECEMBER 1, 1904]
In 1870 he succeeded in solving a question which was
then attracting much attention—the question of the unique-
ness of the representation of a function by Fourier’s series.
The extension of the result to cases in which the convergence
of the series fails, at an infinite number of suitably dis-
tributed points, led him to construct a theory of irrational
numbers, which has since become classical. From the same
starting point he developed, in a series of masterly memoirs,
an entirely new branch of mathematics—the theory of sets
of points.
Having established the fundamental distinction between
those aggregates which can be counted and those which
cannot, Cantor showed that the aggregates of all rational
numbers and of all algebraic numbers belong to the former
class, and that the arithmetic continuum belongs to the
latter class, and further, that the continuum of any number
of dimensions can be represented point for point by the
linear continuum. Proceeding with these researches he in-
troduced and developed his theory of ‘‘ transfinite ’’ ordinal
and cardinal numbers, thus creating an arithmetic of the
infinite. His later abstract theory of the order-types of
aggregates, in connection with which he has given a purely
ordinal theory of the arithmetic continuum, has opened up
a field of research of the greatest interest and importance.
Hughes Medal.
The Hughes Medal is awarded to Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan, F.R.S., for his invention of the incandescent electric
lamp, and his other inventions and improvements in the
practical applications of electricity. Not as directly in-
cluded in the award, his inventions in dry-plate photography,
which have so much increased our powers of experimental
investigation.
NOTES.
Tue council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh at its
recent meeting decided to award Sir James Dewar, F.R.S.,
the Gunning Victoria Jubilee prize for 1900-4 for his re-
searches on the liquefaction of gases extending over the
last quarter of a century, and on the chemical and physical
properties of substances at low temperatures.
Tue Times reports that a telegram by wireless telegraphy
has been transmitted by Mr. Marconi from the Marconi
Company’s station at Poldhu, Cornwall, to a station belong-
ing to the Italian Government at Ancona, Italy. The
distance between Poldhu and Ancona, about 1000 miles, is
almost entirely overland, and in order to reach their destin-
ation the ether waves had to pass over nearly the whole
of France and a considerable part of Italy, including some
of the highest mountains of the Alps.
Tue will of the late Dr. Frank McClean, F.R.S., in-
cludes the following bequests :—soool. to the University of
Cambridge to be expended in improving the instrumental
equipment of the Newall Observatory, 50001. to the Uni-
versity of Birmingham (in addition to his previous sub-
scription) to be applied in the department of physical science,
2oo0ol. to the Royal Society, 20001. to the Royal Institution,
20001. to the Royal Astronomical Society, and to the Uni-
versity of Cambridge for presentation to the Fitzwilliam
Museum all the testator’s illuminated or other manuscripts
and early printed books, and all objects of mediaeval or
early art which the director of the museum may select as
being of permanent interest to the museum.
In a recent letter to the Times Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt
directs attention to the paramount importance of consider-
ing the question of diet in all schemes of physical education.
It is important that there should be no hasty legislation in
this matter, especially in view of the important researches
which are now approaching completion. Prof. Allbutt gives
in his letter a brief account of the results at which Prof.
Atwater, of Middletown, Connecticut, and Prof. Chittenden,
of Yale University, have arrived. Prof. Atwater has
No. 1831, VOL. 71]
INEM TOUTE:
WU
measured accurately, upon healthy persons in uniform
circumstances, the intake of food, and the output of waste
and work, and has endeavoured to determine the modes and
rates of conversion of foods into bodily and mental energy.
Much of this expenditure of energy is upon an excess of food
taken beyond the needs of the individual. Such excess (or
not more than 4 per cent. of it) does not escape mechanically
and cheaply from the body, but is absorbed, distributed,
and excreted; to this process no little energy is diverted.
In this useless effort energy is chiefly wasted by the nitro-
genous foods. Excessive starches and sugars are burned
off in the lungs almost directly, and at far less cost. Prof.
Atwater teaches that the ordinary man eats too much, and
in so doing wastes energy which he might have used to
profit. Prof. Chittenden comes to a like conclusion by some-
what different methods. He will publish shortly tables to
show how, on a closer adjustment of kinds and quantities
of food to the useful work required, not only is this much
work still sustained, but, by release of energy ordinarily
dissipated in the demolition of food excess, the sum of work
put out is prodigiously increased, in some cases even by so
much as 60 per cent. or 70 per cent. It is clear enough
already that one of the chief factors of physical well-being
is to know what to eat, and what quantity of it results in the
production of the maximum of useful energy. Until this
is known with more exactitude than is common to-day,
systems of physical education must be tentative and im-
perfectly conceived.
Pror. S. Newcomsp has been elected
member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences.
corresponding
Progr. FEHR contributes to l’Enseignement mathématique
for November 15 a list of the principal exhibits of models
and books at the mathematical congress last August. Among
the publishing firms exhibiting books, Germany was repre-
sented by six, Austria by two, France by four, Italy by five,
Switzerland, Belgium and Denmark each by one. This is
exclusive of books exhibited by societies and individuals,
under which category we find the solitary British exhibit, by
the Royal Irish Academy. Among the exhibitors of models
our country was represented by Prof. Greenhill.
Tue Belgian Government has decided upon the construc-
tion of a turbine steamer for its Channel fleet. Gradually
the 19-knot steamers on this international service will be
replaced by new turbine boats, with a speed of 23 knots, so
that eventually even the slowest mail boats under the
Belgian flag will have a speed of 21} knots, or 24 miles
an hour. The steamer which will inaugurate this departure
in the progress of the service is at the present moment on
the stocks at Hoboken, near Antwerp, and it will shortly
be launched. Until quite recently, all steamships in the
Channel and Irish Sea services were of the paddle-wheel
type, a class admirably adapted for these comparatively
short journeys. Drawing little water, they were able to
enter any of the shallow harbours, and, at the same time,
were capable of developing a speed altogether out of pro-
portion to their draught. Since the introduction of turbines
the diminution of the diameter of the propeller and of the
weight of the engines has been rendered possible, so that
what was until lately considered a mechanical impossibility,
namely, to construct a steamer drawing only 9} feet and
developing 12,000 indicated horse-power, may now be taken
as a problem solved. The new Dover-Ostend mail boat
will be a triple-screw steamer driven by Parsons’ marine
steam turbines. There will be three turbines—a high-
pressure one in the centre, receiving the steam direct from
the boilers, and a low-pressure one on each side, driven by
112
the exhaust from the central engine. The Marconi system
of wireless telegraphy will be installed, and remain at the
service of the travelling public, as on all the Belgian mail
steamers.
Tue articles in the fourth part of vol. xxxii. of Gegen-
baur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch are two in number, the
one, by Dr. Bése, on variations in certain muscles of the
human thorax, and the other, by Mr. A. Gierse, on the
brain and cephalic nerves of the small deep-sea teleostean
fish Cyclothone acclidens. The latter is remarkable for
possessing a median cephalic sympathetic nerve-cord,
apparently unknown in any other vertebrate.
ACCORDING to the report of the annual meeting held in
May last, the Boston Society of Natural History (U.S.A.)
is devoting attention to the display in its museum of the
fauna of New England. New England paleontology is to
be shown in the eastern end of the building between the
rooms devoted to the paleontology of the rest of the world,
while the remaining available space will be devoted to the
recent birds and mammals. In the galleries will be
arranged the lower vertebrates and the invertebrates.
Accordingly, the local fauna, which is to be the leading
feature of the museum, will occupy the most prominent and
central position, from which the various portions of the
general collection will diverge. This is as it should be, and
when complete the museum promises to be a model for
other local institutions of a similar nature.
Tue first part of vol. Ixxviii. of the Zeitschrift fiir wissen-
schaflliche Zoologie is devoted to the fourth and apparently
concluding section of Dr. E. Rohde’s valuable and ex-
haustive account of the structure of the organic cell, and
to an article by Mr. D. Deineka on the constitution of the
swim-bladder of fishes. In the second of these articles the
author supports the view that the main function of the
swim-bladder is hydrostatic; fish in which this organ has
been pierced, and the whole or part of its contained gas
withdrawn, or replaced by water, completely lose their
balance, in some cases falling on one side, in others stand-
ing nearly perpendicular in the water with the head down-
wards, and in others, again, floating belly upwards.
Whether, however, the swim-bladder has a double function,
and acts also as a respiratory organ, is, in the author’s
Opinion, extremely doubtful.
In the September issue of the Proceedings of the Phila-
delphia Academy Miss A. M. Fielde records three instances
of curious traits displayed by ants kept under observation
in the laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass. In the first case
the actions recorded suggest something akin to hypnotism,
while from the third there seems a possibility that these
insects may be able to remember and recognise individuals
of their own kind after a separation of several years. The
reactions of ants to vibrations form the subject of a second
article by the same author in conjunction with Mr. G. H.
Parker. In this it is urged that it is misleading to ascribe
or to deny hearing to’ these insects. They are very sensitive
to the vibrations of solids, but not to those of air, and their
reactions to these might as well be described as due to
touch as to hearing.
THE appearance of a bark disease among the Para rubber
trees in certain districts in Ceylon during 1903 created some
alarm among rubber planters, but prompt measures for its
treatment were carried out under the advice of the Govern-
ment mycologist. Mr. J. B. Carruthers, the officer in
question, gives an account of its occurrence in his report,
which forms No. 16 of vol. ii. of the Circulars and Agri-
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(DECEMBER I, 1904
cultural Journal of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, and
states that the disease was due to a canker fungus; further
details with regard to structure and treatment will form the
subject of a separate circular.
Tue Journal of Botany (November) contains the first part
of a detailed description of the plants collected in Patagonia
by Mr. Hesketh Prichard, of which a preliminary list was
given in his book ‘‘ Through the Heart of Patagonia.”
The identification has been undertaken by Dr. Rendle, who
prefaces the list of plants with a short account of the region
in which the collections were made, and the typical elements
which are represented. The new species belong chiefly to
characteristic temperate South American genera. To the
same number Mr. A. B. Jackson contributes some notes on
Leicestershire plants which summarise observations made
since the year 1886, when the ‘‘ Flora of Leicestershire ’”
was published.
Dr. W. E. pe Korté, at a meeting of the Pathological
Society of London on November 15, described what he
believes to be the parasites of small-pox and vaccinia. In
the lymph of the eruptive spots in both these diseases he
has detected bodies measuring about 1/2500 inch in
diameter, amoeboid, and containing refractile granules;
these he regards as amceboid protozoa. They are extremely
delicate, breaking up and disappearing on all but the
gentlest manipulation, and on attempts to stain or preserve.
They seem to be very similar to the bodies described by
Funck some years ago under the name of Sporidium
vaccinale.
In an article on trypanosome diseases (Brit. Med. Journ.,
November 26) Prof. Robert Koch advances arguments in
favour of the view that the trypanosomes of mammals at
present known belong to about three species, viz. the rat
trypanosome and the T. Theileri of South African cattle,
both of which are distinguished morphologically and by un-
changing virulence and inoculability from the other trypano-
somes, i.e. those of nagana, surra, mal de caderas, and
sleeping sickness, all of which show considerable variation
in morphology, virulence, and inoculability, and are there-
fore regarded by Prof. Koch as being probably varieties of
one type.
THE new number of the Mitteilungen aus den deutschen
Schutzgebieten contains papers on the north-western
boundary region of Togoland, by Count Zech, and on the
results of an exploration of the healthy plateau region of the
Kamerun, north of the Manenguba mountains, by Dr. Hans
Zieman. The information in the former paper, and the
map accompanying it, are of particular interest on account
of the immediate proximity of the district to British
territory.
Tue July number of the Bulletin of the Italian Geo-
graphical Society contains the concluding portion of Prof.
Brocherel’s report on the expedition to Central Asia in
1900. Signor Carlo Rossetti writes on the political and
economic conditions of Korea, and Signor Eugenio Bar-
barich makes an important contribution to the physical
geography and geology of Albania. Another paper deals
with the award of the King of Italy in the arbitration as
to the boundary between Brazil and British Guiana.
Pror, PENCK’s account of the progress made during the
last five years in the execution of a map of the world on
a scale of 1: 1,000,000, which was presented to the Inter-
national Geographical Congress at Washington, is pub-
lished in the October number of the National Geographic
Magazine. During the last four years France, Germany,
~~
DECEMBER I, 1904]
and Britain have issued three series of maps, containing
sixty-one sheets worked out on the same scale and in the
same style of division of sheets. These maps cover nearly
10,000,000 square miles, and will ultimately embrace the
whole of Africa, and large parts of Asia and America. It
will be remembered that the congress adopted a resolution
proposing to the Government of the United States the
execution of a similar general map of America.
In a recent number of the Bulletin of the Italian Aéro-
nautical Society Dr. L. Palazzo, director of the Italian
Meteorological Service, gives a very interesting account of
the scientific experiments in Italy with unmanned balloons.
The paper contains photographic illustrations of the balloons
employed, of the methods of filling them, of their flight in
mid-air, and of the records of the instruments. The place
chosen for the aéronautical station is Pavia, principally
‘owing to its geographical suitability and its distance from
mountains and sea. The balloons used are a preparation of
india-rubber, and are made by the Caoutchouc Company, of
Hanover. They are sent up in tandem fashion, and are
spherical and closed, and have the faculty of expanding to
about seventy times their original volume, rising rapidly to
an altitude of 20,000 metres and upwards, where a tempera-
ture of 60° C. below zero may be recorded. The upper
balloon eventually bursts; the second balloon, which is
smaller and not fully inflated, does not burst, but acts as a
kind of parachute, which commences to fall rapidly at first
and afterwards more gradually. It carries the registering
apparatus attached to it by a line, and is intended to attract
the attention of persons in the neighbourhood of its descent.
The instruments generally reach the ground somewhat
gently, and are seldom broken. Dr. Palazzo acknowledges
the assistance he has received from Profs. Hergesell and
Assmann in inaugurating these important experiments.
WE have received a reprint of a paper published by Prof.
A. Righi in the Atti dei Lincet, vol. xiii., ii., 233, under the
title of ‘‘ Certain Phenomena Observed in Air which is
Ionised by Radio-active Substances ’’; experiments are de-
scribed which show the necessity that exists in making
measurements of the ionising power of radio-active sub-
stances by means of the various forms of gold-leaf electro-
scopes to take into account the position of the leaves re-
latively to the walls of the electroscope, and to the direction
of the ionising rays.
IN a paper published in the Physikalische Zeitschrift
(No. 20), C. Liebenow calculates that the presence of
1/5000 of a milligram of radium per cubic metre distributed
uniformly throughout the earth’s volume would be sufficient
to compensate for the loss of heat which is caused by con-
duction through the crust, and thus to maintain the earth’s
interior at a constant temperature. The concentration
which is here assumed is considerably less than that actually
observed by Messrs. Elster and Geitel to hold for radium
in various kinds of natural earths, but it may perhaps be
assumed that the proportion of radium is greater in the
crust of the earth than at the interior. In any case, the
need becomes apparent of making allowance in all calcula-
tions dealing with the earth’s rate of cooling, for the re-
markable thermal effects of radio-active substances.
In No. 17 of the Revue Scientifique, Prof. R. W. Wood’s
recent letter to Nature (vol. Ixx. p. 530) calling into
question the existence of the n-rays is reprinted, and in
No. 18 an editorial article discusses in detail the character
of the evidence on which they are alleged to exist. In
No. 19 of the Revue the opinions of Profs. Berthelot, Bouty,
Pellat, Langevin, and Abraham have been ascertained with
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
NMAPORE
TAS
regard to the matter. Of these expressions of opinion, that
of M. Langevin is the most emphatic; after making many
experiments, he concludes that in no case in which the
observer is unaware of the result he is to obtain is there
the slightest evidence of the existence of these rays, whilst
on the other hand the experimenter can readily so dispose
his mind as to see whatever he wishes to see. The general
attitude which is taken up in these articles is that the
observed phenomena are purely subjective, and due to
suggestion; they are consequently more likely to prove of
importance to the psychologist than to the physicist.
In the October number of the Gazzetta G. Bruni and A.
Callegari have established by means of cryoscopic measure-
ments the remarkable fact that in many cases the nitroso-
group in organic substances is isomorphous with the nitro-
radical. The formation of solid solutions in such cases is
also made evident by peculiar colour phenomena. Whilst,
for instance, a solution of nitrosobenzene in benzene is
green, but becomes colourless when frozen, a solution in
nitrobenzene, which has the same colour, remains green
after solidification. In the former case solid colourless
nitrosobenzene has separated, whilst in the latter a solid
solution of the substance in the solidified solvent is formed,
which, like the liquid solution, is coloured green.
THE numerous attempts which have been made to decide
by physical methods the nature of isodynamic substances
such as ethyl acetoacetate and acetylacetone have given rise
to widely differing opinions. Thus Bruhl, for instance, has
considered that the optical properties of acetylacetone
between o° C. and 100° C. prove that, between these
temperatures, it exists solely in the di-enolic form
CH,.C(OH) : C : C(OH).CH,,
whilst Dr. W. H. Perkin, from a study of the magnetic
rotatory power of the same substance, considers that at
16° C. it consists of a mixture of this form with the keto-
enolic modification, and at 93° C. of a mixture of the keto-
enolic and diketonic varieties. In the October number of
the Gazzetta F. Giolitti shows that at about 7o° C. a re-
markable change in the expansibility of acetylacetone occurs
which conforms with Perkin’s view of a change of struc-
ture at a temperature between the limits 16° C. and 93° C.
The variation in the expansion of ethyl acetoacetate between
—10° C. and 100° C. is, however, perfectly linear, apparently
indicating that at these temperatures only one form exists,
or that the rate of change of one form into another is
uniform between these limits.
A CORRESPONDENT points out that in NaturRE of
November 24 (p. 88, line 19 from top, first column) the name
Sansaulito is a misspelling for a well known locality near
San Francisco. The correct spelling is Saucelito, which
means ‘‘ little willow,’’ from Sauce, willow, in Spanish.
We have received from Messrs. F. Darton and Co., of
142 St. John Street, E.C., a well illustrated catalogue of
electrical novelties. The pieces of apparatus, toys, and
household devices of which particulars are given are in-
genious in design, and some of them would make instructive
presents for boys with a mechanical turn of mind.
Messrs. Warts anp Co. will issue on December 7 for
the Rationalist Press Association an English translation
of Prof. Haeckel’s ‘*‘ Die Lebenswunder,’’ under the title
of ‘* The Wonders of Life.’? The chief aim of Prof. Haeckel
in this work is to present a mass of biological evidence for
the views as to the origin and nature of life which he
briefly advanced in the “‘ Riddle of the Universe.””
114
NATURE
[DECEMBER I, 1904
Messrs. GEORGE BELL AND Sons have published a revised
re-issue of ‘‘ Cities and Sights of Spain,’’ by Mrs. Aubrey
Le Blond (Mrs. Main). This handbook for tourists is meant
as a supplement to the ordinary guide-book, and the inform-
ation supplied shows that the writer has an intimate first-
hand knowledge of the country. The advice as to hotels,
expenses, what to do and what not to do, is of just the kind
to be of assistance to visitors to Spain, of which country
the writer says, ‘‘ no other part of Europe offers so varied
and attractive a field to nearly every type of traveller.”
The appearance of this re-issue is particularly opportune
just now, since astronomers and others will be visiting
Spain next year to view the total eclipse of the sun, as the
central line of the eclipse runs in a direction N.W. to S.E.
across that country. Mrs. Le Blond’s book may be com-
mended to those scientific visitors who will have time to
visit some of the beauty spots of the land in which their
observations will be made.
WE have received vol. xxxvi. of the Transactions and
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, which contains
details of the work of the year 1903. The transactions are
divided into five sections—miscellaneous, zoology, botany,
geology, and chemistry and physics. The total number of
papers contributed in these subjects reaches fifty. Among
the contributions to the miscellaneous section may be
mentioned several statistical studies by Prof. H. W. Segar
and an exhaustive consideration of Maori marriage customs
by Mr. Elsdon Best. The president of the institute, Captain
F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., is the largest contributor to the
section of zoology. He describes a new fish, two new flies,
a new blow-fly from Campbell Island, and has papers on a
new Weta from Chatham Islands and on the occurrence of
the curlew sandpiper (Ancylochilus sub-arquatus) in New
Zealand. Prof. Benham writes of a new species of leech
(Htrudo antipodum) recently discovered in New Zealand,
of the Oligochzta of the New Zealand lakes, and of an
apparently new species of Regalecus (R. parkeri). Prof.
Park contributes to the section of geology five papers on
different aspects of New Zealand geology. Of the six
papers in chemistry and physics, three are the work of Mr.
J. S. S. Cooper. The proceedings, which make up the
second part of the volume, provide interesting particulars
of the year’s work of each of the seven scientific societies
affiliated to the New Zealand Institute. The volume as a
whole demonstrates conclusively that the men of science in
New Zealand are doing successfully their part to extend the
bounds of natural knowledge.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN DECEMBER :—
Dec. I. 10h. gm. to 12h. 8m. Transit of Jupiter’s Sat. III.
5, Ioh. 22m. Minimum of Algol (B Persei).
»>5 13h. 56m. to 14h. 8m. Moon occults 7 Virginis
(Mag. 40).
4. 7h. 11m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
8. 13h. 43m. to 15h. 45m. Transit of Jupiter’s Sat. III.
10-12. Epoch of Geminid meteoric shower (Radiant
108° + 33).
II. 12h. 0m. Saturn in conjunction with Moon (Saturn
37 28° S.).
12. th. Juno in conjunction with Moon (Juno 0° 49’ S.).
13. 10h. 19m. to 11th. 12m. Moon occults A Aquarii
(Mag. 3°9).
», 2th.om. Mercuryat greatest elongation (20° 30’ E.).
16. 17h. jupiter in conjunction with Moon (Jupiter 1°
47 N.)
20. 6h. Im. to 7h. 4m. Moon occults y Tauri (Mag. 3.9).
»> Ith. 25m. to rth. 58m. Moon occults 6’ Tauri (Mag.
3°9).
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
Dec.20. 12h. 21m. to 13h. 31m. Moon occults BAC 1398
(Mag. 4°9). s
s» 15h. 19m. to 16h. 12m. Moon occults a Tauri (Mag.
I'I)
Uranus in conjunction with Sun.
24. 8h. 54m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
26. gh. 2m. to gh. 13m. Moon occults A Leonis (Mag.
4°6).
27. 5h. 43m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
», 2th. Venus in conjunction with Saturn (Venus 07
48’ S.)
28. oh, Neptune in opposition to the Sun.
29. 12h. om. Neptune’s Satellite at max. elong. west
(distance 17”).
EncKE’s Comet (1904 b).—No. 3980 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten contains the results of further observations of
Encke’s comet.
Prof. Millosevich, observing at the Roman College Observ-
atory at 6h. 26m. 15s. (M.T. Rome) on November 7, deter-
mined the position of the comet to be
a (app.)=22h. 50m. 39:938., 5 (app.)=+22° 19! 20"-1,
and recorded the object as an extraordinarily difficult one
with the filar micrometer of the 39 cm. equatorial; no
nucleus could be definitely seen.
On November 15 Herr Moschick, using the 6-inch tele-
scope of the Konigstuhl Observatory, Heidelberg, found the
comet to be a very faint and diffuse object with a doubtful
nucleus. The position at 13h. 12m. (Konigstuhl M.T.) was
a (app.)=22h. 13m. 37-6s., 5 (app-)=+18° 14’ 26".
The following is a corrected ephemeris, by M. Kaminsky,
given in the November number of the Observatory :—
Ephemeris (Berlin Midnight).
1904 R.A.
h. m. s 4 -
Nov. 29 200 21 18 30 +10 30
Decs 3 263 Pe 2) (Xo) +8 9
a dh 20 49 20 ase
yb 20 34 Ic +3 41
SLs 20 16 32 -OnL7
ny LO) 500 19 56 38 Res - 258
x 2B 2 19 35 12 5 — 6 31
On the last mentioned date the comet will be a little
north of « Aquila, and owing to its proximity to the sun
in right ascension will be a difficult object to observe.
As pointed out by Dr. Smart, the comet will approach
very near to Mercury in January, and it is hoped that an
opportunity of testing the mass of Mercury, by observations
of the comet after the approach, will therefore be available.
VARIATIONS ON THE Moon’s SurFacE.—In No. 4,
vol. liii., of the Harvard College Observatory Annals Prof.
W. H. Pickering publishes a number of photographs illus-
trating the changes which take place in the regions about
the lunar crater Eratosthenes during the commencement,
the duration, and the passing of sunlight on that region of
the moon’s surface.
There are sixteen figures in all, the longest interval of
time between the taking of any two successive figures being
1-6 days, and it is hoped that, by publishing these together
with the detailed descriptions by Prof. Pickering which
accompany them, the work of other selenographists may
be greatly facilitated, by the possession of the knowledge
of what to look for.
The mean diameter of the crater of Eratosthenes is 37
miles, that of ‘the floor 28 miles, and measures of the
shadows cast indicate that the western wall has a height
of 12,000 feet, whilst the indicated height of the eastern
wall is something less than 15,000 feet.
As evidence in favour of the vegetal origin of these pheno-
mena, Prof. Pickering suggests that although water could
not exist at the low pressures obtaining on the lunar surface,
yet it might be retained in the soil by capillary attraction
and thence feed the vegetation, which at each return of
sunlight would develop and thus cause the changes illus-
trated in the photographs.
CeLEsTIAL PHotoGRapHy aT H1icu ALTITUDES.—An interest-
ing account of the work performed by Prof. Payne and Dr.
H. C. Wilson during their sojourn at Midvale (Montana),
illustrated by reproductions of two of the photographs
———
Eee
DECEMBER I, 1904]
MATURE
115
obtained, is given by the latter observer in No. 8, vol. xii.,
of Popular Astronomy.
The altitude of the observing station was 4790 feet above
sea-level, and the results lead Dr. Wilson to the conclusion
that the increase in altitude, from Northfield to Midvale,
reduced the necessary exposures, other conditions being the
same, by about one-half. The two reproductions accompany-
ing the account show excellent photographs of the America
' nebula and of the region between B and y Cygni taken
with a 2% inch Darlot lens with exposures of three hours
and of two hours respectively.
DISTRIBUTION OF STELLAR SPECTRA.—In No. 1, vol. lvi.,
of the Harvard College Observatory Annals the distribution
of stellar spectra, mainly in reference to the Milky Way, is
discussed.
The spectra dealt with are those examined by Mrs.
Fleming for the Harvard catalogues, and the work is not
yet complete, the present publication dealing only with the’
results already obtained.
The number and proportion of each class of spectra in
definite regions of the heavens, as determined from the dis-
cussion of 276 plates containing the spectra of 32,197 stars,
ure given in a series of tables and shown on a number of
curves.
The results indicate that the universe consists of two
portions, (1) the first-type stars, which occur in all regions,
‘but preponderate in the formation of the Milky Way; (2)
the stars having second- or third-type spectra, which show, in
general, a uniform distribution over the whole sky.
The proportion of first-type stars increases as fainter
objects are included, but with the Orion stars the opposite
seems to be the case. Stars with peculiar spectra seem to
congregate in the Milky Way, whilst, contrary to expect-
ation, those having spectra of class F appear to be relatively
fewer in the galactic regions.
ABSORPTION BY WaTER VAPOUR IN THE INFRA-RED SOLAR
SprcTtRuM.—An interesting series of experiments has been
made at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory, by Mr.
F. E. Fowle, jun., in order to test the correctness of
Bouguer’s formula for calculating the amount of solar
energy received after atmospheric absorption.
The results, so far as they go, show that the selective
absorption of water vapour is well represented by Bouguer’s
formula and seems to depend only on the amount of the
absorbent present, that is to say, the amount of the absorp-
tion produced by a given quantity of water vapour is the
same, whether the radiations pass through a great thick-
ness of small density or vice versd.
The absorption increases as the wave-lengths of the bands
increase, and varies from about 10 per cent. near A (0-76p)
to nearly 100 per cent. at about 1-Sop.
No indication of a general water vapour absorption has
been found in the region 0-68 to 2-oop.
Mr. Fowle’s complete results, illustrated by some of the
bolograms obtained, are published in No. 1, vol. ii., of the
quarterly issue of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
THE SUPPLY OF VALUABLE FURS.
FEW persons, other than those in some way connected
with the fur trade of this country, or who have had
‘occasion to make statistical inquiries on the subject, have
any conception of its enormous volume and value. Yet
every thoughtful observer who strolls along the fashionable
shopping streets of the metropolis at this season can scarcely
fail to be struck with the number of establishments for the
sale of furs and the richness and variety of their contents,
or with the great extent that furs are worn by ladies. Any
real and comprehensive idea of the magnitude of the trade
can, however, only be gained either by attending the great
London quarterly fur sales, such as those of Messrs. C. M.
Lampson and Co., or by a study of the catalogues and price-
lists of such sales. By a perusal of these documents the
inquirer will gain some conception of the immense number
of skins of the more valuable kinds of fur-bearing animals
imported into this country alone; and when the great Con-
tinental sales, such as the Leipzig and Nijni-Novgorod
fairs, are also taken into consideration, he will marvel
where the supply comes from, and wonder that a clean
sweep has not long ago been made of the chief fur-producing
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
species. Nevertheless, the supply of most descriptions of
furs seems to be well kept up, and, with the exception of
a few species, such as the sea-otter, the beaver in many
districts, the West African guereza monkeys, and certain
kinds of fur-seal, it does not appear that any of the valuable
fur-bearing mammals are in present danger of extermin-
ation, or even of becoming unduly scarce. The truth is
that we have probably little real conception of the abund-
ance of such creatures in the more remote districts of North
eee, and in the fur-producing countries of northern
sia.
To attempt, within moderate limits, any general account
of the mammals which yield the more valuable kinds of
furs is impossible, as it would be with the means at our
disposal to give a survey of the world’s fur trade, and we
shall accordingly content ourselves with referring to some
of the more striking items in trade circulars for the current
year, and with making such notes on certain of the species
there mentioned as may seem desirable. Here it may be
recalled that there appeared in 1892 a valuable and interest-
ing work on “‘ Fur-Bearing Animals ’’ by Mr. Henry Poland.
This work, needless to say, is now altogether out of date,
and it is much to be hoped that the author could see his
way to the issue of a new edition, especially, if we may
say so without offence, if he would seek the assistance of a
professed naturalist in the revision.
We commence our brief review of the more interesting
items in the 1903-4 sale-lists by referring to some of the
most valuable descriptions of furs employed as articles of
dress or as carriage rugs, a large proportion of which are
yielded by the Carnivora, and especially by members of the
family Mustelidez. One of the foremost places in this re-
spect is occupied by the sea-otter (Latax lutris), an animal
which formerly abounded on the coasts of Kamchatka and
the Aleutian Islands, but which now stands in imminent
jeopardy of extermination unless prompt measures are taken
for its protection. Between the years 1772 and 1774 some
10,000 skins of this species were taken in the Aleutians, while
at the end of the eighteenth century the annual take was
120,000 in certain newly discovered haunts in Alaska. This
number, however, soon fell to 15,000, and when Alaska was
ceded to the United States it had sunk to 700. A temporary
improvement then took place, but in 1901 the number had
fallen to 406. In 1903 Messrs. Lampson sold 463
skins, but they had none to offer in January, 1904, and
there are none down in their October list, the latter de-
ficiency being perhaps due to the recent loss of a whole
cargo of furs from the Kommandorski Islands and Kam-
chatka. Of late years tool. is no uncommon price for a
sea-otter pelt, while from 200l. to 3o00l., and even, it is
said, 50ol., have been paid for unusually fine skins.
These prices are, however, paralleled by those given for
American silver or black fox (Canis vulpes argentatus).
Nowadays the trade distinguishes the pure black from the
silver or white-tipped skins. Black skins are said to have
been sold in St. Petersburg at from 3o00l. to Sool. each.
In London a pair of silver skins realised 48ol. and an in-
ferior pair 200]. in 1902, but single skins are reported to
have fetched 200/. Messrs. Lampson offered 670 skins of
this fox in 1903, and have «5 in their current October list.
The white and blue phases of the Arctic fox (Canis lagopus),
which are the winter dress of different animals, although
often regarded as the winter and summer coats of the same
form, have of late years become very fashionable. Of the
former 20,341, and of the latter 3685, were sold by Messrs.
Lampson last year, but none of the blue variety appear in
this autumn’s catalogue, against 57 in October, 1903, and
it would accordingly seem that the demand is telling on the
supply. White fox skins, which some years ago sold for
between 2s. 6d. and 15s. each, have recently risen to from
three to five guineas, although they are now declining; on
the other hand, blue fox, which has long fetched from
ten to fifteen guineas per skin, appears to be rising in value.
Both white and blue fox come from the northern parts of
both hemispheres; the blue should be a pure bluish French
rey.
ij Of lynx skins 5828 were sold by Messrs. Lampson in 1903,
and 6316 were offered this autumn, the catalogue prices
ranging between 22s. and 42s. for good samples. Probably
most of these skins belong to the circumpolar Felis lynx,
although they may include some of the American F. rufa.
116
NATURE
[DECEMBER I, 1904
eel
Another handsome fur now in considerable demand is
that of the glutton or wolverine (Gulo luscus), of which
47,139 skins were sold last year by one firm, the catalogue
price ranging this* autumn from 16s. to 34s. for good
samples. The sales of Russian sable (Mustela zibellina) by
the same firm last year reached the enormous total of
29,547, which compares with a total of 9247 for the whole
of London in 1891, an increase which seems to imply either
the tapping of a fresh source of supply or an undue drain
on the normal stock. The catalogue prices range from Ios.
to 15]. per skin, but specially fine skins will fetch from sol.
to 7ol. each. As its trade name implies, all the best sable
comes through Russia. ‘‘ Kolinsky’’ or Siberian sable
(M. sibirica) is the trade name of an allied species of
which enormous numbers of skins come into the market,
Messrs. Lampson quoting 472,796 for last year; the price
is, however, low, usually less than two shillings, and now
declining.
Ermine (M. erminea), of which the returns for 1903 are
not given in the list before us, has recently risen 30 per
cent. in value; 1379 skins were sold in January, 1903, and
461 this October. From 20s. to 180s. per “‘ timber ’’ of
4o skins was the price some years ago. Ermine is imported
both from Russia and America. When made up with
specks of black fur instead of with the black-tipped tails,
it is called minever. Japanese sable, of which only 179
skins were sold by Messrs. Lampson in 1903, is represented
by 1211 this autumn, a circumstance which may indicate
that our allies are endeavouring to make as much as possible
out of their exports.
A similar increase is noticeable in the case of Japanese
mink (a species it is a little difficult to identify zoologically,
but which would appear to be allied to M. sibirica), of which
13,728 skins were disposed of at the sales in 1903, while 7228
were offered this autumn, against 3543 at the correspond-
ing sale of last year. Of American mink (M. vison) the
imports are always heavy, and for 1903 Messrs. Lampson
record 253,001 skins, this being about 100,000 less than the
total number sold in London in 1901. Prices range from
1s. to 13s., but are on the decline. The various kinds of real
marten, such as M. martes and M. americana, with 55,106,
and the inferior sorts known in the trade as ‘‘ baum ”’ and
““stone’’ (M. foina), with 10,940 and 8323 in the past
year, bulk less large, although prices range higher, fine
pelts of the pine or American marten realising from 30s. to
40s.
Leaving certain others of the marten group, we pass on
to otters (Lutra vulgaris, L. canadensis, &c.), of which
14,757 pelts were disposed of in sales last year, the cata-
logue prices in January ranging to as much as from 50s.
to 6os. With modern methods of curing, the handsome
black and white fur of the various species of skunk
(Mephitis and Conepatus) has come into extensive and
fashionable use, no less than 948,447 skins having been
sold last year, the price ranging from about ts. to 7s. each.
Of badger skins (Meles taxus) the number sold by the same
firm was 13,543; formerly the price was.from ts. to 2s.
per skin, but the range in the list varies now from 4d. to 13s.
Of the larger land Carnivora, the skins of which are
used for fur rather than for floor rugs, we may mention
the sale last year by Messrs. Lampson of 47,139 wolf skins
and 12,834 bear skins. Of the former the catalogue price
ranges from 1s. or less to 30s., while for the latter, which
include the brown, black, grizzly, and white species, prices
up to 4l. are quoted. Reference has already been made
to the silver, white, and blue foxes; in addition to these
are quoted 62,052 skins of red fox (C, vulpes, &c.), 2957 of
the cross-fox (C. v. pennsylvanicus), 64,431 of the American
grey fox (C. cinereo-argentatus), and 2186 of the kit-fox
(C. velox). Raccoon skins number 268,190 in the list under
consideration, while 9650 civet skins are quoted in the
January list.
Among rodents, beaver skins total 16,504 in the list before
us, while the Hudson Bay Company sold in January last
34,806, the latter number comparing badly with the 63,419
sold by the same company in January, 1891, which was
greatly inferior to the sales of half a century or so earlier. In
1891 the price varied from 5s. to 69s. per skin; in Messrs.
Lampson’s list quotations range up to 3o0s., but there had
been a fall of 123 per cent. from the previous year. The
next largest fur-bearing rodent is the South American
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
coypu (Myopotamus coypu), known in the trade as nutria,
of which 80,269 skins appear in last year’s sale-list. Far
more valuable are, however, the much smaller beautiful
silver-grey pelts of ‘‘real’’ chinchilla, of which 23,587
were sold last year by Messrs. Lampson, 60s. to 240s. per
dozen being the price quoted by Mr. Poland in 1891, but
a maximum of 310s. appearing in the list before us. 1
take it that by ‘‘ real’’ chinchilla is meant the typical
Chinchilla lanigera, although the latter name is applied by —
Mr. Poland’s book to the ‘“‘ bastard chinchilla’’ of the
trade, which one would have thought meant one of the
species of Lagidium. Be this as it may, ‘* bastard chin-_
chilla’’ is represented by no less than 132,996 pelts in
Messrs. Lampson’s 1903 sales, the maximum price being
145s. per dozen.
Of the smaller and less valuable rodent furs briefer notice
must suffice, the chief interest connected with these being
the enormous numbers in which they are imported. Thus
musquash (Fiber sibethicus) is represented by no less than
2,979,460 pelts of the normal, and by 117,412 of the black
phase, while 1,678,667 skins of the former were disposed
of at the January sale this year. Squirrel (of various kinds),
on the other hand, totalled only 142,501. Rabbit and hare
skins are not of sufficient value to find a place in these sale-
lists. Among marsupials, skins of the so-called Australian
opossums, that is to say, various species of phalangers,
press hard on musquash skins in point of numbers, 2,455,765
being the quotation in last year’s list. True, or American,
opossum (Didelphys), on the other hand, totals only
168,396. Of kangaroo skins the number in the same list
is 21,963, while wallaby skins (that is to say, those of the
smaller kinds of kangaroos) reach 520,087, and wombat
skins 255,332-
An item of considerable interest in the sale-list of January,
1904, is 343,996 mole skins, ranging in price from Is. to
zs. 3d. per hundred, such prices being stated to be ex-
ceptionally low, and not, one would think, paying for the
trouble of collecting. No year’s total for mole skins is
given, but since Mr. Poland mentions “ several thousands ””
as being the annual collection in 1891, it would seem that
the demand—perhaps for motoring coats—has vastly in-
creased of late years. Another item evidently connected
with motoring is that of 403 musk-ox skins at the March
sale of last year. The trade in these skins has only lately
been developed, and it cannot but be looked upon with
suspicion by naturalists, as the musk-ox might easily be
exterminated.
Although the total numbers of skins offered at sales in
January last compared well with those of the preceding
year, prices ruled lower, which may be accounted for by
the general commercial depression.
In addition to Messrs. Lampson’s sales, it should be
mentioned that there are the Hudson Bay Company’s sales,
as well as several smaller fur sales in London. In January
of the present year (after the loss of a valuable cargo of
furs at sea) the Hudson Bay Company sold 34,806 beaver
skins, as already mentioned (against 47,777 the preceding
year), and 923,053 musquash pelts (against 1,482,670 in
1903). The skins disposed of at ‘the smaller sales we have
not space to quote. We may refer, however, to the follow-
ing items in Messrs. Culverwell, Brooks, and Co.’s sale
catalogue of this October. These are 9280 Australian
opossum, 3214 “‘ wallarine ’’ (smaller kangaroos), 673 chin-
chilla, 934 fox, 2772 wolf, and 2313 African monkey skins.
The latter probably belong in great part to the West
African guereza (Colobus vellerosus), the species already
referred to as, according to consular reports, being in danger
of extermination on account of excessive pursuit.
As regards the prospects of the trade in fur-seal pelts
for the current season, Messrs. Lampson, after referring to
the loss by shipwreck of the Kamchatka Commercial Co.’s
vessel already mentioned, and adding that in consequence
they may have no Copper Island fur-seals to offer, write as
follows :—
““ The Alaska seal-catch this year amounts to 13,134 skins,
as against 19,378 last year. . . . The North-west catch is
not yet completed, but our receipts to date are about the
same as at this time last year. With regard to the Lobos
Island seals, no news has been received so far. . . . The
total supply of seals this season is likely to fall consider-
ably short of last year’s quantity.”
ee ee ee
a ee
—
.
DECEMBER 1, 1904]
NEE RE
117
From the introductory statements this diminution may,
however, be merely temporary, and need not necessarily
indicate a permanent falling off in the supply of fur-seal
elts.
4 In respect to skins used solely for rugs or ornamental
‘purposes, very few words must suffice. In Messrs. Culver-
well, Brooks, and Co.’s list for October of this year appear
too South American guanaco skins (from which the beautiful
orange carriage-rugs are made), 24 tiger, and 266 leopard
skins, while Messrs. Lampson’s January list gives 184 tiger
and 557 leopard skins (inclusive of snow-leopard and
*‘ leopard-cat ’’).
The leopard skins range in price from ios. or less to 34s.
(55s. for snow-leopard), while tiger skins vary from 2l. to
6o0l. each.
Imperfect and sketchy as this review of recent London
fur sales necessarily is, it serves to give some idea of the
enormous—we may almost say appalling—number of wild
animals annually slaughtered for the sake of their pelts.
What, however, it does not—and cannot—give is the effect
that this continuous slaughter is having on the numbers
of the various species of fur-bearing animals throughout
the world.
This is what naturalists want to know from the point of
view of zoology, and it is also what the fur trade com-
munity ought to desire to know from the point of view
of their own and the world’s interest. Of late years furs
have become increasingly fashionable, with a correspond-
ing appreciation in price; but as to whether this increased
demand is having any serious effect on the numbers of fur-
bearing animals in general we appear, except in the case of
a few species, such as the sea-otter, the beaver, the West
African guereza, and the fur-seals, to be in a state of utter
and hopeless ignorance. R. LYDEKKER.
_ UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Oxrorp.—The new statute, the object of which is to
exempt candidates for honours in mathematics or in natural
science from Greek in Responsions, was brought before
Congregation on Tuesday, November 29. The changes
proposed in the statute were in strict accordance with the
resolutions passed by Congregation in Hilary Term, 1904,
except in one small detail. Candidates for honours in
mathematics or in natural_science have two courses open
to them under the proposed statute. They may offer the
subjects required by the present regulations, viz. Greek,
Latin, arithmetic, and elementary algebra or Euclid, or in
place of Greek they may substitute French or German,
together with a mathematical or scientific subject to be
prescribed by the board of studies for Responsions. Candi-
dates who had: not offered Greek would be allowed to sub-
stitute an additional knowledge of the subject-matter of
the Bible for that part of the examination in Holy Scripture
which involves a knowledge of the Greek text of the Gospels.
The statute was lost by 200 votes to 164.
Dr. William Osler, F.R.S., regius professor of medicine,
has been elected to a studentship at Christ Church.
A NEw professorship of applied chemistry has been estab-
lished at Trinity College, Dublin. Mr. Emil Alphonse
Werner, assistant to the professor of chemistry, has been
appointed as the first occupant of the new chair.
‘
WE learn from Science that Park College, near Kansas
City, has received an additional endowment of 20,000l., of
which s5o0ol. has been given by Dr. D. K. Pearson; and
that at a recent meeting of the trustees of Columbia Uni-
versity gifts amounting to about 9400]. were announced by
the trustees. Among these was the sum of 3000l. from
General Horace W. Carpentier.
Tue Minister of Public Instruction for Austria has issued
a decree concerning the admission to the universities of
students from the Realschulen, according to which those
wishing to be on the same footing as candidates from the
Gymnasia are required to pass an additional examination,
held twice a year, in Greek, Latin, and philosophy. Candi-
dates may prepare for this examination either by private
study or by courses held at certain secondary schools.
No. 1831, VOL. 71]
Ir would do much good if everyone spoke their minds on
the subject of free libraries as straightforwardly as did the
Countess of Jersey last Saturday afternoon. When laying’
the foundation stone of a library which the generosity of
Mr. Carnegie is providing for Hanwell, she touched on the’
great usefulness of books of reference, especially with regard
to the particular life-work of the reader. In fact, one
would judge that novels would find but a small place on
the shelves if Lady Jersey were to choose all the books, for
she very sensibly pointed out that the best volumes of fiction
can now be bought for a few pence, and that more expensive
books and those more difficult to get should form the bulk
of a public library.
At the winter session of the General Medical Council
last week a report was considered from the Education Com-
mittee on the proposals for a school certificate submitted
to the council recently by the Board of Education. After
discussion it was decided to inform the Board of Education
(t) that any well considered plan which would tend to a
diminution in the number of examinations in preliminary
subjects of education, and to a unification of standard of
those which remain, would meet with the hearty approval
of the Medical Council. (2) That if the standard of the
examination contemplated in the scheme were such as to be
generally accepted for matriculation by the universities, the
council would be prepared to recognise it as qualifying for
entrance on a course of professional study. (3) That, pend-
ing the general adoption of a uniform system of unification
of educational tests, the council would welcome the establish-
ment under the Board of Education of a central board for
the purpose of classifying examinations according to
standard and arranging for the mutual recognition of certifi-
cates; and, further, that they regard the establishment of
such a board as highly desirable from an educational point
of view.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Entomological Society, November 2.—Prof. E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Mr. J. E. Collin
exhibited a specimen of Platyphora lubbockt, Verr., a species
of Phoridz parasitic upon ants. No specimen has been re-
corded since the one originally bred by the present Lord
Avebury in 1875, and described for him by Mr. G. H.
Verrall in the Journal of the Linnean Society for 1877.
—Mr. P. J. Barraud exhibited an aberrant Epinephele
jurtina (janira), 3, taken by him this year in the New
Forest, in which the usual apical spots were absent from
the fore-wings, giving the specimen a curious appearance,
noticeable even when flying.—Mr. J. Edwards sent for
exhibition three specimens of Bagous lutosus, Gyll., one
found by himself on Wretham Heath, Norfolk, on August 4,
1g00—the first authentic British example—and two taken in
the same locality by Mr. Thouless on May 22, 1903; also
Bagous glabrirostris, Herbst., from Camber, Sussex, for
comparison.—Dr. T. A. Chapman exhibited bred speci-
mens of Hastula (Epagoge, Hb.?) hyerana, Mill., from
larve taken at Hyéres last March, and said the fact that
the pale forms only have hitherto been known, whereas
of those bred nearly half are dark, suggests either that
really very few specimens are in collections—which is the
most probable case—or that melanism is now affecting the
species.—Mr. W. J. Kaye exhibited specimens of the moths
Castnia fonscolombe: and Protambulyx ganascus showing
protective and warning coloration of the two species.—
Mr. H. W. Andrews exhibited specimens of Eristalts
cryptarum, F., and Didea alneti, Fin., two species of
uncommon Syrphide from the New Forest.—Mr. Edward
Harris exhibited a brood of Hemerophila abruptaria reared
by him this season, together with the parents, a dark male
and a normal female, showing considerable variation.—
Mr. Gervase F. Mathew, R.N., exhibited some beautiful
and interesting examples of Leucania favicolor, Barrett, in-
cluding the varieties described by Barrett in the current
volume of the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine (p. 61),
and, more recently, by Tutt in the Entomologist’s Record
for this year. He also exhibited a series of twenty-four
Camptogramma fluviota, the descendants of a wild pair
118
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 1, 1904 °
captured on September 22, 1903, showing a wide range of
colour variation—The President exhibited a photograph
taken by Mr. A. H. Hamm to illustrate the protective flower
selection of Pieris rapae. He also exhibited four specimens
of Conorrhinus megistus, Burm., the large South American
Reduviid which is well known to attack man; these were
brought back by W. J. Burchell in the year 1828, and still
have the original labels affixed to them.
Geological Society, November 9.—Dr. J. E. Marr, F R.S.,
president, in the chair—Mr. E. T. Newton, in exhibit-
ing, by permission of the director of H.M. Geological
Survey, a specimen of Fayolia near to Fayolia grandis,
found by Dr. L. Moysey, of Nottingham, in the Coal-
measures of Ilkeston (Derbyshire), pointed out that Fayolia
was first described by Profs. Renault and Zeiller in 1884, in
their monograph on the ‘‘ Houiller de Commentry.”’ In
1894 Mr. Seward described the first British specimen, from
Northumberland, in the Leeds Naturalist, but thought that
it was not a plant. There was some resemblance to certain
spiral egg-cases of Elasmobranchs, but Dr. Giinther was
unwilling to accept the Northumberland fossil as the egg-
case of a fish. Mr. Kidston had not yet seen the specimen
now exhibited, but from a sketch he recognised its relation
to Fayolia. At present there was still uncertainty as to the
exact nature of this fossil—Notes on Upper Jurassic
Ammonites, with special reference to specimens in the
University Museum, Oxford, ii.: Miss Maud Healey. This
paper gives a re-description of the types of Cardioceras
vertebrale, Sow., C. scarbrugense, Y. and B., C. cordatum,
Sow., and C. excavatum, Sow., and their varieties. Four
varieties of the first, nine of the second, three of the third
and fourth are defined, and a description is given of a
new species of Cardioceras belonging to the same group.
Notes on species allied to the group and on others which
have been wrongly confused with it are added. These
species are so closely connected by innumerable transitional
forms that their limits cannot be definitely fixed. The term
““ species ’’ is therefore used as equivalent to Prof. Tienes
Gregory’s circulus: ‘‘It includes a number of “ forms,’
which vary along lines radiating outward from a central
type.’’—Sarsen-stones in a clay-pit: Rev. E. C. Spicer.
Near to Bradenham, midway between High Wycombe and
Prince’s Risborough, certain clay-pits yield a clay for brick-
making, in which are embedded large angular sarsen-
stones, white saccharoidal sandstones with a_ siliceous
cement.—On the occurrence of Elephas meridionalis at
Dewlish (Dorset). Second communication: human agency
suggested: Rev. Osmond Fisher. This paper is in con-
tinuation of one published by the author in 1888. The site
in which the elephant-remains were found is a narrow
trench, examined to a depth of 12 feet in places, with nearly
vertical sides, a smooth, chalk bottom, and an abrupt end.
It was not a fault or a stream-course, and it was partly
filled with fine dust-like sand which may have been wind-
borne. The trench cuts diagonally across the scarp; and,
even if it could be accounted for by natural agencies, it is
difficult to explain how it happened that so many elephants
fell into it. The author points out that in Africa elephants
are caught by the natives in pitfalls of similar character
constructed on the tracks leading to watercourses. This
trench is in a corresponding position with regard to a
stream, and it is suggested as possible that the trench may
have been of human origin. There is, however, no con-
clusive evidence elsewhere that man was contemporary with
Elephas meridionalis, which is characteristic of the Pliocene
age.
Royal Astronomical Society, November 11.—Prof. H. H.
Turner, president, in the chair.—The long-period terms in
the lunar theory: P. H. Cowell.—Determination of seleno-
graphical positions from measurement of lunar photo-
graphs: S. A. Saunder. This was the author’s third
communication on the subject, and in it he discussed the
measures, made by Mr. J. A. Hardcastle, of four negatives
taken at the Paris Observatory. The methods employed
were explained, and a comparison was given with the results
of other determinations, showing that a considerable in-
crease in accuracy had been obtained.—The magnetic dis-
turbances, 1882 to 1903, as recorded at the Royal Obsery-
atory, Greenwich, and their association with sun-spots :
NO. 1831, VOL. 71]
E. W. Maunder. From the examination and tabulation
of the more considerable disturbances recorded, it had been
found that disturbances succeeded each other at intervals
corresponding to a synodical rotation of the sun. This
occurred with too great frequency and regularity to be the
result of chance coincidence, and it was concluded that the
magnetic influence radiates from very restricted areas on
the sun’s surface, certain streams reaching the earth with
each solar rotation. The relation of the magnetic disturb-
ances with sun-spots was discussed, and it was pointed out
that the theory threw light on the cause of the long straight
rays, seen proceeding from the corona at some solar eclipses,
and which sometimes reach a distance of several degrees.—
Determination of the apex of the solar motion in space,
and of the constant of precession, from a comparison of
Groombridge’s catalogue (1810) with modern Greenwich
observations: F. W. Dyson and W. G. Thackeray.—The
discussion on a paper by Dr. Rambaut on a very sensitive
method of determining the errors of a pivot, with special
reference to the pivot errors of the Radcliffe transit circle,
was deferred, and other papers were taken as read.
Mineralogical Society, November 15.—Prof. IH. A. Miers,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. J. W. Evans de-
scribed two new forms of quartz-wedge by means of which
approximate quantitative estimations can be readily made
of the double refraction of minerals in small grains or in
rock-sections.—Mr. J. Currie contributed a note on some
new localities in Scotland and the Feer6es of gyrolite and
tobermorite, and Mr. C. R. Lindsey one on the occurrence
of microscopic crystals of brookite with anatase in the
Cleveland ironstone.—Mr. R. H. Solly exhibited and de-
scribed various minerals from the Lengenbach quarry,
Binnenthal. Three of these were new, viz. marrite and
bowmanite, of which the chemical composition has not yet
been determined, and lengenbachite, which has been shown
by Dr. Hutchinson to be a sulpharsenite of lead containing
some copper and antimony, and having a specific gravity
of 5.8. Marrite occurs in small lead-grey crystals resembling
modified cubes, and lengenbachite in thin lead-grey blade-
shaped crystals, some as long as 40 mm., showing a highly
perfect cleavage. Marrite crystallises in the oblique system
with a:b: c=0-57634: 1:0-47389 and B=88° 45’, while
lengenbachite is probably anorthic. | Bowmanite occurs in
small honey-yellow rhombohedral crystals with 111: 100=
53° 50’. It has a highly perfect cleavage parallel to 100,
and a specific gravity of about 3-2. The author also de-
scribed twinned crystals of seligmannite dispersed over large
erystals of dufrenoysite and baumhauerite, and curious
highly modified crystals of blende showing a thin metallic
lead-grey coating.—Mr. H. L. Bowman described crystals
of a mineral from Cornwall which had been sent to him
for determination by Mr. F. H. Butler. They were found
to be bertrandite, a mineral new to the British Isles.—Mr.
G. F. Herbert Smith exhibited a slightly modified form of
the hand refractometer which he had previously described.
—Mr. H. Hilton contributed notes on some applications
of the gnomonic projection to crystallography, and on the
construction of crystallographic projections.
Zoological Society, November 15.—Dr. W. T. Blanford,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—The mammals
collected by Mr. E. Seimund in Fernando Po: Oldfield
Thomas, F.R.S. Twenty-four species, of which two were
new, were enumerated and remarked upon. Mr. Oldfield
Thomas also exhibited some skulls and a piece of skin, and
gave an account, of a new species of pig from the forests
of Central Africa.—The crowned cranes of the genus
Balearica, and a new species obtained on the White Nile
by Lady William Cecil: Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.—The
mouse-hares of the genus Ochotona inhabiting the Pale-
arctic region: J. Lewis Bonhote. These numbered sixteen
species, one of which was described as new.—Twelve new
species of earthworms from the north island of New
Zealand: Prof. W. Blaxland Benham.
Chemical Society, November 16.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The following papers were
contributed :—The isomerism of the amidines of the
naphthalene series (fifth communication on anhydro-bases) :
R. Meldola and J. H. Lane. When 2: 4-dinitroaceto-a-
naphthalide is reduced (1) by tin and hydrochloric acid, and
DECEMBER 1, 1904]
(2) by iron and hydrochloric acid, two isomeric amido-
amidines are produced, the former giving rise to that having
the a-NH constitution, and the latter to the B-compound.
This difference in action is explained by assuming that in
presence of iron the two nitro-groups are fractionally re-
duced while with tin both are reduced simultaneously.—
Theory of the production of mercurous nitrite and of its
conversion into various mercury nitrates: P. C. Ray.
Mercurous nitrite is the first product of the action of nitric
acid (containing nitrous acid) on mercury. This is con-
verted into nitrate by the nitric acid, and finally, under
suitable conditions, there ensues an accumulation of nitrite
owing to the occurrence of the reaction represented by the
following equation :—
4Hg + 4HNO, =Hg,(NO.),+ Hg,(NO,),+2H,0.
—Amidechloroiodides: G. D. Lander and H. E. Laws.
Benzoylaniline imidechloride reacts with hydrogen iodide
furnishing an amidechloroiodide to which the constitution
Ph.CCII.NHPh is provisionally assigned.—A new synthesis
of isocaprolactone and certain derivatives: D. T. Jones
and G. Tattersall. The lactone was obtained by the inter-
action of magnesium methyl iodide with ethyl lavulate.—
The influence of substitution in the nucleus on the rate of
oxidation of the side-chain, part ii., oxidation of the halogen
derivatives of toluene: J. B. Cohen and J. Miller. The
authors have studied the behaviour of the dichloro-,
chlorobromo-, and dibromo-derivatives, and the comparative
oxidisability of these compounds is discussed.—The halogen
derivatives of naphthacenequinone: S. S. Pickles and
C. Weizmann.—The constitution of pyrazolidone deri-
vatives; B-phenylazoisovaleric acid and s-8-phenylhydrazido-
butyric acid: B. Prentice.—Preliminary notice of some con-
densations of phenanthraquinone with ketonic compounds :
F. R. Japp and J. Wood.—The decomposition of ethylene
iodide under the influence of the iodide ion: A. Slator.—
The spectrum generally attributed to chlorophyll, and its
relation to the spectrum of living green tissues: W.
Hartley. The author confirms his previous observations
on the difference in the absorption spectra of alcoholic ex-
tracts of (a) fresh green leaves and (b) dried green leaves.
' -—Studies on comparative cryoscopy, part ii., the aromatic
acids in phenol solution: P. W. Robertson. The influence
of various substituents on the molecular association of
aromatic acids is discussed.—Isomeric change of diacyl-
anilides into acylaminoketones. Transformation of di-
benzoylaminobenzophenone into 1-benzoylamino-2-4-dibenz-
oylbenzene: F. D. Chattaway and W. H. Lewis.
Royal Meteorological Society, November 16.—Capt. D.
Wilson-Barker, president, in the chair.—Meteorological
observing in the Antarctic: Lieut. Charles Royds, R.N.—
Decrease of fog in London during recent years: F. J.
Brodie. The author had discussed the number of days of
fog reported at Brixton, the London station of the Meteor-
ological Office, for the thirty-three years 1871-1903, and
found that the mean annual number of fog days was 55,
of which 45 occurred in the winter half of the
year, and only 1o in the summer half. December is the
foggiest month with 9-5, the next being November with
8.5, January with 8.2, and October with 7-8. The clearest
months are July with o-4, June with 0-6, and May with 08.
The greatest number of fog days was 86 in 1886 and 83
in 1887, and the least 13 in 1900 and 26 in 1903. Dividing
the thirty-three years into three periods of eleven years each,
the author showed that the mean for 1871-1881 was 55,
for 1882-1892 it was 69, while for 1893-1903 it was only 41,
there being thus a very marked decrease in the number of
days with fog during the last eleven years.—Hurricane in
Fiji, January 21-22, 1904: R. L. Holmes.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, November 21.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—On the changes in dimensions and volume that the
organs and tissues of plants undergo under the influence
of desiccation: M. Berthelot. The length of the stem is
not greatly affected, but the lateral dimensions, and there-
fore the capacity, diminishes to a considerable extent during
drying.—Remarks on the necessity of studying the vari-
ations of dimensions and volume of organs and parts of
living or extinct beings in anthropological and palzonto-
logical work: M. Berthelot.—On a general theorem con-
NOS E827, VOL. gi |
VAPOR E
119
cerning ,algebraic surfaces of linear connection superior to
unity : Emile Picard.—On the removal of moisture from
the air blown into the Isabella blast furnace, near Pitts-
burg, by freezing: Alfred Picard and M. Heurteau. The
efficiency of a blast furnace is dependent to a considerable
extent on the amount of moisture in the air supplied to the
furnace. An account is given of a plant for removing this
moisture by passing the air through a refrigerating chamber
cooled to about —10° C. The results obtained show a
surprising economy of fuel, the saving in the coke used
amounting to 20 per cent.—On the constitution of ricinine :
L. Maquenne and L. Philippe. The authors have shown
in a previous communication that ricinine is converted by
the successive action of caustic potash and hydrochloric acid
into a methyloxypyridone. In the present paper a detailed
study of this substance is given.—New experiments on the
photographic registration of the action of the n-rays on a
small electric spark: R. Blondlot. A refinement of the
method given in a previous paper, and an investigation of
the possible sources of error. The photographic negatives
obtained are regarded by the author as establishing beyond
cavil the action of the n-rays on the electric spark.—On
continued algebraic fractions : R. de Montessus de Ballore.
—The generalisation of a theorem of Weierstrass : Maurice
Fréchet.—Fourier’s series and Taylor’s series on its circle
of convergence: P. Fatou.—On the chemical composition
of the radio-active gaseous mixtures given off from the water
of some thermal springs. The presence of helium: Ch.
Moureu. The gases evolved from twelve different springs
were analysed, and the figures given for the amounts of
carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and gases of the argon
group.—The influence of the nature of the anode on the
electrolytic oxidation of potassium ferrocyanide: André
Brochet and Joseph Petit. The nature of the metal used
as the anode has a very considerable effect on the electro-
lytic oxidation of potassium ferrocyanide, the yields varying
from 75 per cent. in the case of copper to nil in the case
of metals forming a soluble anode.—On the complexity of
dissolved sulphates: Albert Colson. On the assumption
that the lowering of the freezing point of a solution of
sulphuric acid is due to the single molecule H,SO,, the
author draws the conclusion that the sulphates of the
bivalent metals in aqueous solution are present as double
molecules.—The stimulating and paralysing influence of
certain bodies in the production of rust: L. Lindet.—On
the purification of solutions of vanadate of soda; observ-
ations relating to the methods of double decomposition for
the industrial separation of metals: M. Herrenschmidt.
An explanation of the use of vanadic acid in preference to
sulphuric acid in the separation of silica and vanadic acid.
—The action of iodine and yellow oxide of mercury on un-
saturated acids. The separation of isomers: J. Bougault.
The results obtained depend upon the position of the ethylene
linkage in the molecule. Acids with the By linking fix
hypoiodous acid in a very stable manner, giving rise to
iodolactones.—Researches on the action of hydrobromic and
hydrochloric acids on triacetin. Formation of some new
halogen derivatives of triacetin: R. de la Acéna.—The
addition of hydrogen to some aromatic ketones by means
of reduced nickel. A new method of synthesis of aromatic
hydrocarbons: Georges Darzens. With nickel reduced
from its oxide at a temperature of 300° C., and working the
Sabatier and Senderens reaction at 190° C. to 195° C.,
aromatic ketones of the formula C,H,—CO—R are re-
duced to hydrocarbons of the type C,H,—CH,—R, without
the production of any appreciable amount of the hexahydro-
derivative. If, on the other hand, the nickel is reduced
at the lowest possible temperature, so that it is very active,
the addition product makes its appearance. Details are
given of the application of this reaction to several ketones,
and the method appears to be a general one for the produc-
tion of hydrocarbons.—The action of pyridine and quinoline
bases on bromosuccinic and dibromosuccinic esters: Louis
Dubreuil.—The theory of colouring matters: Jules
Schmidlin.—On trehalase, its general presence in fungi :
Em. Bourquelot and H. Hérissey. Trehalase appears to
be an enzyme generally present in fungi, the times of its
appearance and disappearance being possibly in close re-
lation with the utilisation of trehalose or the storage of
the latter in the form of reserve material—On the measure-
ment and the laws of variation of the energy shown by the
120
ergograph according to the frequency of the contractions
and the weight raised: Charles Henry and Mlle. J.
Joteyko.—On the law of variation of weight of Penicillium
glaucum as a function of its age: Mlle. W. Stefanowska.
The results are expressed graphically, and show that the
evolution of the weight of these fungi as a function of the
time presents two well marked phases: a phase of rapid
ascent up to the period of fructification, and a phase of
decrease appearing suddenly after fructification.—Trans-
formations of the new secreting apparatus in Conifers: G.
Chauveaud.—On vegetation in atmospheres rich in carbon
dioxide: E. Demoussy. With one exception, there is a
marked advantage in supplying plants with an additional
amount of carbonic acid, the average increase in the weight
of the aérial parts of the plant being 60 per cent. greater
in the case of the artificial atmosphere.—On the experi-
mental production of radishes with starchy reserves: Marin
Molliard.—Solanum Commersoni and its variations in re-
lation to the origin of the cultivated potato: Edouard
Heckel.—A new theory of phototropism : Georges Bohn.—
On the geology of the Salzkammergut: Emile Haug and
Maurice Lugeon.—On the mountain chains to the south
of the Guadalquivir: Robert Douvillé.—The tension of
carbonic acid in the sea and on the reciprocal influence of
the carbonic acid of the sea and that of the atmosphere :
August Krogh. From a study of the equilibrium between
sea-water and the carbonic acid of the air, the conclusion
is drawn that the proportion of carbon dioxide in the air
tends to increase, the sea, by absorbing the gas, opposing
this tendency.—The measurement of the sensitiveness of
taste in men and women: N. Vaschide.—The elimination
of sulphur and of phosphorus, the demineralisation of the
organism, and the magnitude of the average molecule
elaborated in persons suffering from skin diseases: A.
Desgrez and J. Ayrignac.—On the relations between
Surra and Mbori: MM. Vallée and Panisset.—Remarks
by M. Laveran on the preceding communication.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1.
Roya Socrery, at 4.30—The Ascent of Water in Trees: Dr. A J. |
Ewart.—On the Presence of Tyrosinases in the Skins of some Pigmented
Vertebrates : Miss F. M. Durham —On the Structure and Affinities of
the Fossil Plants from the Palaeozoic Rocks. V.—On a New Type of
Sphenophyllaceous Cone (Sphenophyllum fertile) from the Lower Coal
Measures : Dr
Toxic Action as Exemplified in Hemolytic Sera: Prof. R. Muir and
C. H. Browning.—Histological Studies on Cerebral Localisation. Part
II.: Dr. A W. Campbell.
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—The Nitrites of the Alkali Metals and Metals
of the Alkaline Earths. and their Decomposition by Heat: P. C. Ray.
RONnTGEN Society, at 8.15.—The Perspective Nature of X-Ray Projec-
tion: Dr. W. Cotton.—The New Ultra-violet Glass recently produced
by Messrs. Schott and Genossen, of Jena: J. H. Gardiner. Both will
be illustrated by the Epidiascope.
LInNNEAN Society, at 8.—Proteid Digestion in Animals and Plants:
Prof. Sidney H. Vines, F.R.S.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 2.
AéronauTicaLt Society, at 8.—The Aéronautical Exhibits at the
St. Louis Exhibition: the President, Major B. Baden-Powell.—Kites,
Kite-flying and Aéroplanes: W. H. Dines—The Work of tke Inter-
national Aéronautical Commission: Dr. M. H. Hergesell.—Captive
Balloon Photography : Griffith Brewer.
Geotoaists’ AssocraTion, at 8.—On the Superficial Deposits of Central
and Parts of Southern England: Dr. A. E. Salter.
{NSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Midland Railway, West Riding
Lines : | he Construction of Contract No. 1: R. T. McCallum.
MONDAY, DECEMBER 5.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Musical Wind Instruments: D, J. Blaikley.
(Cantor Lecture 11.—Brass Instruments.)
Society of CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, at 8.—(1) Raschig’s Theory of the
Lead Chamber Process ; (2) Theory of the Action of Metals on Nitric
Acid: Dr. E. Divers, F.R.S.—A Rapid and Accurate Method for the |
Estimation of Phosphorus in Iron Ores: L. J. Davies.—Fluorescope for |
Comparing Substances under the Influence of Radium Rays: C. S. S.
Webster.
Vicroria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—The Right Way in Psychology: Rev. F.
Storrs Turner.
TUESDAY, DECEMBER 6.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—Exhibition of a Slate Adze and
Otber Objects: Rev. R. Ashington Bullen.—Lantern Illustrations of
Native Types from South India : Edgar Thurston.
INSTITUTION OF CiIviL ENGIN at 8.—Distribution of Electrical
Energy (Discussion): J. F. C. Sneil.—On the Construction of a Concrete
Railway-Viaduet: A. Wood-Hill and E. D. Pain.
NO. 1831, VoL. 71]
D. H. Scott, F.R.S —On Chemical Combination and |
NATURE
(DECEMBER I, 1904
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 7.
Society or Arts, at 8.—The International Exhibition at St. Louis:
W. F. Reid.
Society oF Pustic ANALYSTS, at 8.
GEOLOGICAL SociETy, at 8.—The Chemical and Mineralogical Evidence
as to the Origin of the Dolomites of Southern Tyrol: Dr. E. W. Skeats.
—Certain Genera and Species of Lytoceratide : S, S. Buckman.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SociETY, at 8.—On Evebia bejarensis and Erelia stygne
in Spain, with an Exhibition of Specimens: Dr. Thomas A. Chapman
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 8.
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Pafers:—Memoir on the Theory of
Partitions of Numbers. Part III: Major P. A. MacMakon, F.R.S.—
Note on a Means of Producing a High-voltage Continuous or “ Per-
tinacious ” Current: Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.—The dle of Diffusion
during Catalysis by Colloidal Metals and Similar Substances: Dr.
H. J. S. Sand.—The Effect of Liquid Air Temperatures on the Mechanical
and other Properties of Iron and its Alloys: Sir James Dewar, F.R.S.,
and R. A. Hadfield.
Civi, anp MEcHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SociETY, at 8.—Notes on Portland
Cement: H. E. Bellamy.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL FNGINEERS, at 8.—Hydrodynamical and
Electromagnetic Investigations regarding the Magnetic-Flux Distribu-
tion in Toothed-Core Armatures: Prof. H. S. Hele-Skaw, F.R.S.,
Dr. A. Hay, and P. H. Powell. (Conclusion of Discussion).—Studies in
Magnetic Testing: G. F. C. Searle.
SccieTy of ARTS, at 4.30.—Burma : Sir Frederic Fryer, K.C.S.1.
MATHEMATICAL SocIETY. at 5.30—On Groups of Order #* 7 : Prof
W. Burnside.—On the Linear Differential Equation of the Second Order:
Prof. A. C. Dixon.—On a Deficient Multinomial Expansion : Major
P. A. MacMahon.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 9.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—Ticks and Tick-transmitted
Diseases: Dr. Nuttall, F.R.S. 5 y
MavacotocicaLt Scciery, at &.—Description of a new species of
Trachiopsis from British New Guinea: H. B. Preston.—A Correction in
Nomenclature: E. A. Smith.—Notes on the American Cyclostomatide
and their Opercula: W. H. Dall.—Note on the Dates of Publication
of the Various Parts of Moquin-Tandon’s ‘‘ Hist. Moll. terr. fluv. de
France’: J. W. Taylor.
Royal ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
PuysicaL Society, at 8.—On a Rapid Method of Approximate Harmonic
Analysis: Prof. S. P. Thompson. F.R.S.—A High-Frequency Alter-
nator : W. Duddell.—Exhibition of Experiments to show the Retardation
of the Signalling Current on 3500 miles of the Pacific Cable between
Vancouver and Fanning Island.—Exhibit of Ayrton-Mather Galvano-
meters, Universal Shunts, and Electrostatic Instruments.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Dai Nippon¥e;. < .-. ie re i AS 97
Sylvester’s Mathematical Papers. By G. B. M. 98
Mental and Social Measurements. By F.G. ... 99
Our Book Shelf :—
Martin: ‘‘Praciical Chemistry, a Second Year
Course. ’— J. B. C. ; 100
Whiting : ‘‘ Retouching” . 100
Letters to the Editor
Average Number of Kinsfolk in each Degree.—Prof.
G. H. Bryan, F.R.S. aes C c : J1OX
Compound Singularities of Curves.—A. B. Basset,
BeR eS eee : : SF yteot IOI
The Origin of Life —George Hookham . iL
Change in Colour of Moss Agates.—A. Hutchinson Io!
Eocene Whales.-—F. A. Lucas . Pye wees 102
The Discovery of Aigon.—The Translatcr . .. 102
The Leonids, 1904.—Alphonso King... . 3) Oz
Intelligence in Animals.—J. E A. T.; F. C.
Constable « LASp ae 102
Fatagonia (//lustrated.) By J. W.E. . 102
Lord Kelvin and Glasgow University 104
Anniversary Meetiog of the Royal Society 105
Notes ad be III
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrences in December 114
Encke’s Comet (1904 4) 7 114
Variations on the Moon's Surface . . 114
Celestial Photography at Iligh Altitudes 114
Distribution of StellarSpectra .... ..... II5
Absorption by Water Vapour in the Infra-red Solar
Spectrum ORAM cl... 5) ctl. Cpa NOutc 115
The Supply of Valuable Furs. ByR. Lydekker, F.R.S. 115
University and Educational Intelligen:e 117
Societies and Academies ........ . 117
Diary of Societies ... 120
NATURE
ieee
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 8, 1904.
THE MILLAIS BRITISH MAMMALS.
The Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland. By J. G.
Millais. Vol. i. Pp. xx+363; illustrated. (Lon-
don: Longmans, Green and Co., 1904.) Price
6 guineas net.
‘fo two important features this magnificent work,
of which the first volume is now before us, may
lay claim to special preeminence. First, the illus-
trations, alike in number, size, truthfulness to nature,
and artistic excellence, are unrivalled; and secondly, as
regards the main and most important part of the sub-
ject, namely, the habits and local distribution of the
various species, the work is in no sense a compilation,
but the result of long and patient personal observation
on the part of the author. Indeed, the only matter
for regret connected with the work is that its price
puts it out of the reach of a large percentage of field
naturalists; bearing in mind, however, the style in
which it is got up and the wealth of illustration, it is
difficult to see how it could have been offered to the
public at an appreciably lower figure.
As an author of a work like the present, Mr. Millais
has one incomparable advantage over the great majority
—if not, indeed, over all—of his fellow-naturalists in
this country, namely, that he is a great painter. In
this double capacity of artist and naturalist he is con-
sequently able to present the public not only with
exquisite artistic pictures of the animals he describes,
but also with portraits which emphasise and bring into
prominence their special generic and specific character-
istics. It is, indeed, this judicious blending of the
artistic with the zoological aspect that confers on the
coloured illustrations in this work such peculiar value.
Too often in paintings of this description we find either
zoological details more or less completely sacrificed to
artistic effect or the former brought into undue
prominence to the destruction of all that is really
artistic and pleasing. In hitting off the happy medium
between these extremes, Mr. Millais and the other two
artists who have assisted in the work have been re-
markably successful. In addition to the coloured
pictures, there are a number of sketches, and in some
cases photographs, showing the various animals in
characteristic attitudes, in pursuit of their prey, &c.,
which illustrate their natural history almost without
the necessity for letter-press. Nor is this all, for there
are several sketches illustrative of the mammalian life
of our island in prehistoric times; and although some
of the details of form and colour assigned to certain
of the extinct forms may be open to criticism, these
certainly convey a good idea of the richness of this
fauna as compared with that of the present day. No
illustrations are given in the text of either skulls or
teeth, which is perhaps somewhat to be regretted, as
the latter receive mention in the text.
As regards the amount of time and labour the author
has devoted to the work, it may be mentioned that,
according to a statement in the preface, he made four
successive expeditions, during as many years, in order
NOP 1O32;)VOE. 711
to acquire a full knowledge of the grey seal alone, and
that the best part of five years has been spent on the
task in general.
The present volume contains the preface and intro-
duction to the entire work, together with the text and
illustrations relating to the orders Chiroptera, Insect-
ivora, and Carnivora exclusive of the Mustelide. The
relegation of the latter to the second volume is rather
a pity, as it involves the intercalation of the seals and
walruses between the bears and the weasels, which
somewhat mars the systematic arrangement. The
author states, however, that he found it impossible to
complete his account of the Mustelide in time for it
to come in its proper place.
In his introduction the author takes a cursory survey
of the history of the British Islands during the pre-
historic and later Tertiary periods, and as he is not
a professed palzeontologist he may perhaps be allowed
a little license here, especially as it does not affect the
general subject of the work. The statement as to the
occurrence of ungulates in the Cretaceous (perhaps due
to the author having been misled by a certain South
American writer) is, however, open to exception, while
the alleged first appearance of marsupials and Insect-
ivora at the same time is perhaps an error in the
opposite direction. The assertion that many types of
mammals have been but little altered since the (Lower)
Eocene might also be modified.
While on the subject of errors, it may be mentioned
that the author (and quite justifiably) is very much
‘““down ”’? on other writers on British mammals for
their various sins of omission and commission—
whether trivial or otherwise. He must therefore
take it in good part if similar slips of his own
are brought to notice. For example, we fancy Sir
Archibald Geikie will feel somewhat surprised to find
himself described as a distinguished palzontologist
and zoologist. Again, the initials of Dr. Smith Wood-
ward are not A. B., neither is Dr. R. Ball (p. 238) the
designation of the late director of the Dublin Museum,
while Hermann, and not Herman, is the proper desig-
nation of the author of the name Sorex vulgaris (p.
141). Laclx of classical knowledge seems to be implied
in the translation of Chiroptera as ‘‘ hand-bearers ”’
(p. 12). More serious is the discrepancy between the
number of teeth in Rhinolophus as given in the text
(p. 23) and in the formula (p. 24), while another error
of the same nature occurs on p. 143, where the number
of premolars in the shrew is given as 2/4 instead
of 4/2. Exception may also be taken to the statement
(p. 230) that bears, as a whole, are a more primitive
type than dogs, and the fact that the plate of the walrus
is lettered Trichechus rosmarus while the creature is
described in the text as Odobaenus rosmarus is another
instance of want of care.
Reverting to the merits of the volume before us,
attention may be directed to the value of the work
accomplished by Mr. Millais in regard to the bats.
Although the distinctive features of the various British
representatives of the group can be gleaned by a
careful study of technical treatises, the nature of the
illustrations given in previous works on British
mammals rendered it very hard for the amateur (to say
G
122
NATURE
{DECEMBER 8, 1904
nothing of the professed) naturalist to identify such
specimens as might come under observation. All such
difficulties vanish with Mr. Millais’s life-sized coloured
figures as a standard for comparison, the distinctive
features of each species being brought clearly before
the reader both in the text and in the plates. Much
important work has also been done with regard to the
local distribution of several of the species, notably as
to the occurrence of the lesser horseshoe bat and the
noctule in Wales. Whether Mr. Millais has been well
advised, at all events in a work of this nature, in
generically separating the noctule and Leisler’s bat
from the pipistrelle may, however, be open to question.
Moreover, seeing that the author refuses to admit
‘* Myotis myotis’’ into the British list, the propriety
of assigning a separate heading to this species may
perhaps likewise be doubtful.
Among the Carnivora, the account of the wild cat
is of special interest, largely owing to the fact that
the author does not endorse the views of the late Dr.
Hamilton as to the practical extermination of this
species in the British Islands. Not that it is anywhere
common, even in the wilder parts of Scotland, where
in many districts it has long since been killed off. At
the present day, owing to a special cause, west Ross-
shire appears to be its main stronghold. As to the
extermination of the wolf and the bear from our
islands, the author has much to say—and all that he
says is worth reading. Very interesting, too, is his
account of two distinct types of the fox in Scotland,
namely, a dark and grey form in the mountains, and a
smaller red or pale form in the lowlands. Apparently,
however, he does not allude to the ‘‘ greyhound fox ”’
of the Lake District, which Cumberland sportsmen
insist is entitled to be regarded as a distinct local race.
The most original and therefore the most valuable
part of the section on the Carnivora is that relating
to the British seals, of the characteristics and habits
of which Mr. Millais has made himself thoroughly
master as the result of personal observation in their
native haunts; and no longer will naturalists find any
difficulty in distinguishing between the common and
the grey seal at all ages. Special interest attaches to
the recognition of four distinct colour-phases in the
adult male of the grey seal, although, since every inter-
mediate stage between these may occur, and they are
found together, they cannot be regarded as local races.
Even more interesting is the statement that the young
hooded seal is not, as commonly reported, white, but
of the same mottled colour as the adult. It is, how-
ever, to be wished that the author had given the full
reasons for this assertion.
The author has expressed the hope that his work
may be found a fitting companion, as regards illustra-
tion, to Lord Lilford’s volumes on British birds. So
far as he has gone at present, he may be congratulated
on having attained his ambition, and there is every
reason to expect that the second and third volumes
will be fully equal in this respect to the one before us.
For many years this splendid work will probably re-
main one of the standard authorities on British
mammals, and in the matter of illustration it will most
likely be always without a rival. Rea:
No. 1832. VOL 71]
FIRE RISKS.
Fire and Explosion Risks. By Dr. von Schwartz,
Translated by C. T. C. Salter. Pp. xxi+357.
(London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1904.)
Price 16s. net.
| estimating the risks of fire due to the storage
of goods of varying descriptions, the insurance
companies are met by the difficulty that the knowledge
necessary to gauge the comparative safety or other-
wise of the materials present is of so technical a nature
that but few possess it, and in many cases substances
of apparently the most innocuous character become
active sources of danger under conditions likely to
escape the notice of any but those who have made a
special study of the subject. As a result risks are
often taken at far too low a premium, whilst the dis-
trust born of the loss incurred afterwards leads to ex-
cessive charges in utterly wrong directions, very few in-
surance offices being fortunate enough to possess in-
spectors or assessors with the necessary knowledge
to safely guide them in the adjustment of their scale
of fees.
In Germany several works by such authorities as
Dr. Richter, Prof. Hapke, and Dr. von Schwartz lend
valuable aid to the scientific side of the question, but
in England, with the exception of some valuable little
works compiled by Mr. W. A. Harris, the able secre-
tary to the Phoenix Fire Office in Liverpool, the
literature of the subject has been entirely neglected,
although the fact that on an average 10,000,000l. is
annually paid by British fire insurance companies on
fire claims alone, whilst the loss probably is nearly
double this amount, suggests that the subject is well
worth the deepest consideration.
Under these conditions it is a matter for congratu-
lation that Mr. C. T. C. Salter has now given us an
excellent translation of Dr. von Schwartz’s valuable
book on “ Fire and Explosion Risks,’? a handbook
which deals in a thoroughly practical way with the
investigation, detection, and prevention of dangers
arising in the manufacture and storage of the most
widely used chemico-technical substances.
The author has had a very wide experience as a
consulting chemist and factory inspector, and has
brought his almost unique experience in manufacturing
methods to bear upon the various risks which they
entail, with the result that he has produced a work
in which practice is so blended with theory as to make
the book of the utmost value, not only to chemists, but
also to those who, without much chemical knowledge,
yet wish to master the mysteries of a very intricate
branch of technical application.
In dealing with the various substances the raw
material is fully described in each case, its origin,
physical character, and behaviour under all conditions
is freely discussed, whilst cautions and suggestions
for the safe manipulation and storage of each are
clearly stated.
The arrangement by sections of those bodies likely
to react on each other is particularly useful, and the
works chemist and insurance surveyor can find the
information he seeks in relation to the particular class
of goods with the minimum of trouble.
DEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE
123
Taking the book as a whole, the reader’s interest
is fully sustained, and although one finds instances of
duplication of cautions, this is evidently the result of
the sectional arrangement and so unavoidable.
In so excellent a work detailed criticism is a some-
what thankless task, but it might be suggested that
in discussing the risks attendant on the use of
petroleum lamps, some notice might be taken of the
views of Sir James Dewar, Dr. Boverton Redwood,
and the late Sir Frederick Abel, as to increase of the
flash point not being so complete a solution of the
trouble as the author leads one to believe.
It might be well to note in a future edition that
barium peroxide, which on p. 117 is said to become
dangerous at 800° C., may also give rise to fire at
atmospheric temperatures when exposed to friction
with organic matter. :
On p. 187 it is stated that one pound of calcium
carbide furnishes 4 to 43 cubic feet of acetylene, which
is perfectly true of the inferior carbide made on the
Continent, but with material of the quality until
recently made at Foyers the yield rarely fell below
5 cubic feet per pound. Pye
Occasionally one finds slight discrepancies in the
statement of temperatures in different parts of the
book, the temperature at which lead fuses being given
at p. 291 as 325° C., whilst in the appendix,
P- 343, it is stated to be 334° C. Such details as these,
however, detract but little from the value of a book
which is an important and most valuable addition to
the technical literature of the day.
THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.
Mineral Tables—for the Identification of Minerals by
their Physical Properties. By Arthur S. Eakle,
Ph.D. Pp. 73. (New York: John Wiley and Sons;
London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1904.) Price
5s. 6d. net.
TUDENTS of mineralogy, miners, prospectors,
and others interested in the determination of
minerals by methods which do not involve the use of
elaborate apparatus, will find this little book a useful
addition to the literature of the subject.
The tables, though forming a volume of only 73
pages, include nearly 250 minerals, comprising all
the commonly occurring ores, veinstones, and rock-
formers, as well as a few species of more restricted
occurrence. They are designed for the identification
of unknown minerals by the examination of their
physical properties alone; blowpipe reactions are not
employed at all in the scheme. It is claimed by the
author that the determination of minerals by blow-
pipe analysis is less apt to become merely mechanical
if it has been preceded by practice in identification by
physical properties. This is no doubt true; and if, as
is often the case, the beginner is tempted to rely upon
blowpipe analysis alone, that intimate acquaintance
with minerals which is only gained as the result of
the systematic observation of their physical properties,
and which is so valuable for their ready recognition
in the field, is either missed entirely or is only very
imperfectly acquired. Indeed, in most cases blowpipe
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
reactions are best employed by the determinative
mineralogist in confirming conclusions already arrived
at from the evidence of physical properties. They are,
however, so invaluable for this purpose, and afford
such an indispensable aid to identification by physical
properties, that any determinative scheme from which
they are entirely excluded must be in a sense deficient.
The author would have greatly added to the value of
the tables by including for each species a brief state-
ment of its distinctive blowpipe reactions, and we
venture to suggest this extension of the scope of the
work to him for future editions.
As in all tables of this kind, the identification of an
unknown mineral is effected by a process of elimin-
ation. The minerals dealt with in the book are first
divided into categories according to their colour in the
powdered condition; these groups are then subdivided
into minor groups according to the colour of the
mineral in mass; and finally, the species in each of
these divisions are arranged in order of hardness.
In general plan the tables are similar to those of
Weisbach; but they differ from them in certain re-
spects, notably in their greater simplicity, and in the
abandonment of that indefinite and unsatisfactory
property lustre, as an important means of discrimin-
ation. The tables are preceded by an “ analytical
key,’’ by reference to which it is possible, after pre-
liminary observations of streak and colour, to see at
a glance in which table the mineral under examination
will be found; it is then only necessary to determine
the hardness and one or two other characters, such as
crystalline form, structure, cleavage, specific gravity,
and so forth—all of which are described in columnar
form in the tables—to complete the identification.
The omission of the great majority of those rare
minerals which the ordinary student or prospector is
scarcely likely to meet with, and which by their inser-
tion render so many books of this kind dear and un-
necessarily complicated, is to be commended. The
tables are certainly to be regarded as among the most
satisfactory that have yet appeared.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Die Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen. By G. Haberlandt.
Pp. 46. (Leipzig : Barth, 1g04.) Price 1 mark.
Tuts little book, which is appropriately dedicated to
the memory of Darwin, was given as a lecture before
the recent Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und
Aertzte at Breslau. The author devotes the chief part
of his space to a semi-popular account of the various
types of structures, such as bristles, hairs, papille,
which serve for the perception of mechanical stimulus,
This is necessarily, to a large extent, a recapitulation
of his own interesting work on the subject, and is
followed by an account of the statolith theory—the
hypothesis independently put forward by himself and
Nemec as explaining the sensitiveness of plants to the
force of gravity. The most interesting part of the
lecture is, however, Haberlandt’s concise discussion of
his recent theory of the mechanism by which the direc.
tion of incident light is perceived by plants. He
believes that the epidermic cells are, so to speak, the
eyes of the plant. Thus, according to his view, when
light strikes a leaf at right angles to the surface it
results, from the plano-convex form of the epidermic
cells, that the inner wall of each cell is illuminated
“124
more brightly in the centre than at the periphery.
This makes it possible for the leaf to orientate itself
in regard to light. Thus, suppose the plant to be
moved so that the light now strikes the leaf obliquely,
the bright patches of light on the inner cell walls will
no longer be central. This change may be believed to
constitute a stimulus calling forth a curvature of the
leaf stalk by which the leaf is brought again to its
normal position at right angles to the incident light.
Thus the leaf moves when the bright patch is not
central, and comes to rest when each of its epidermic
cells is centrally illuminated. This attractive theory
cannot be said to be as yet established, and botanists
will look with interest to its further development by
its author. The appendix of six pages is devoted to
the literature of the subject and to short discussions
of points which probably seemed too technical for the
text of the lecture.
Electricity in the Service of Man. By R. M.
Walmsley. Pp. viii+1208. (London: Cassell and
Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 10s. 6d. net.
WuEN the first edition of this book was published in
1888, it was doubtless a comparatively easy matter to
write a treatise covering all the practical applications
of electricity to the service of man. As each successive
edition appeared the task must have become one of
increasing difficulty, and now that the fourth has been
reached Dr. Walmsley no longer finds it possible to
condense all his material into one volume. He has
therefore wisely confined himself to certain branches,
and left the others for treatment in a supplementary
volume. The book before us is divided into two parts,
the first being more or less theoretical, dealing with
the principles, and incidentally with the history, of
the subject, and the second dealing with the technology
of electricity. The first part is clearly written, and
forms a good introduction to the study of electricity
and magnetism which should be valuable to the
beginner or to the amateur interested in scientific
progress. The second part is confined in the present
volume to generators and motors, with a chapter on
measurements. The writer is of opinion that these
more advanced subjects are best studied by means of
the many very excellent treatises specially devoted to
them; but still, there can be no doubt that a general
review such as the one before us appeals to a large
class of readers and serves a useful purpose. The
book is plentifully illustrated with drawings and
diagrams, which are for the most part good, though
several, especially in the earlier part, are rather crude
and out of date. MUS.
The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. By T. Cooke.
Vol. ii. Part i. Composite to Boraginaceze. Pp. 216.
(London: Taylor and Francis, 1904.) Price gs.
Tuts volume begins in the middle of the series inferae
belonging to the gamopetalous division. The indi-
genous species of Composites are numerous, but for
the most part are not so important as the introduced
composites, of which a list is given. In the series
heteromerae the cohort Ericales is unrepresented, but
the orders Myrsinez, Sapotaceze, and Ebenacez in-
clude several interesting genera. Under Bassia Dr.
Cooke explains how the synonym Illipe has been
erroneously introduced. Illipe is the Tamil name for
Bassia longifolia, and is applied commercially to the
fatty product obtained from the fruit; this species re-
places in southern India the better known mahua tree,
Bassia latifolia, of which the flowers furnish a favourite
food, also a spirit to the natives of Central India. The
province is rich in species of Diospyros, amongst them
ebenum, melanoxylon, the calamander-like oocarpa,
and crumenata. The author agrees with Hiern in
uniting D. ebenum and D. assimilis, but separates
D. cordifolia and D. montana. The Apocynacee in-
No. 1832, VOL 71]
NATURE
[DecEeMBER 8, 1904
clude Cerbera Odollam of the salt marshes, an endemic
Beaumontia, and a species, also endemic, of Erva-
tamia, a genus cut off by Dr. Stapf from the original
genus Tabernemontana. Another dominant order
is that of the Asclepiadacez, which furnishes mostly
twining shrubs or climbers, and of which a good many,
as, for instance, the four species of Hoya, and seven
species of Ceropegia, are confined to the western side
of the peninsula. This part gives every indication of
the same care and accuracy which distinguished the
first volume.
Quadratic Partitions.
Cunningham, R.E. Pp. xxiv+266.
F. Hodgson, 1904.) Price 12s. net.
TuIs contains a complete list of primes p up to
99991, with the factors of P—1, and resolutions of
pHa +h =c?+2d2=A*+ 3B?=4(L? + 27M?) ;s
of p=e*—2f? up to p=24977; together with other re-
solutions of the type mp=x*+Dy? for selected values
of m, D, and all primes p up to a certain limit.
Besides this, there are tables relating to the Pellian
equation, and others directly connected therewith.
The introduction explains the nature and use of the
tables, and gives an account of their preparation.
Though some of the contents have already been pub-
lished (as explained in the introduction), a substantial
part appears for the first time in print; the whole
forms a varied as well as extensive series of arith-
metical records which will be found of great value by
those who are interested in the theory of numbers,
especially in connection with the theory of residues
and of quadratic forms. Great care has been taken
to ensure accuracy, and the appendix contains lists
of errata detected in various preceding tables. The
new part of the work represents a very large amount
of labour, which is henceforth spared to those in search
of material for induction, and the grants made by the
Royal Society towards the expenses of computation
and publication have been worthily bestowed. It may
be added that the paper and type used are satisfactory ;
in the case of tables this is a matter of real import-
ance. All serious students of the theory of numbers
ought to procure this work, as well as Lieut.-Colonel
Cunningham’s ‘‘ Binary Canon,’’ for, independently
of their use in solving special problems, these tables
may suggest or confirm new theorems of real import-
ance.
Lieut.-Colonel Allan
(London :
By
Advanced Hand-camera Work. By Walter Kilbey.
Pp. xvii+98. (London: Dawbarn and Ward, Ltd.,
1904.) Price 1s. net.
In this series of photographic books already published
the present author is responsible for the popular volume
on ‘‘ Hand Colour Photography,’’ which is now in
its second edition. In the issue before us he deals with
the higher flights of hand-camera work, more
especially in connection with its use with the focal
plane shutter. The subject-matter treats of the selec-
tion of apparatus, the behaviour and efficiency of the
focal plane shutter, and practical work with the
camera, the last mentioned consisting of hints on
focusing, exposing, and the treatment of moving
objects. No less important are the subjects of the
last two chapters, which concern the plates and
developers suitable for such work, and the employ-
ment of hand cameras in telephoto, stereoscopic, and
orthochromatic photography. A great number of
excellent and appropriate illustrations from the
author’s own negatives accompany the text.
The easy and clear style of the author, and_his
thorough acquaintance with the subject he is treating,
render the book not only delightful to read, but a valu-
able guide to those who wish to work successfully
with hand cameras.
DECEMBER 8, 1904]
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return. or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTuRE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
The Definition of Entropy.
Tuere is, I fear, a difficulty in drafting Prof. Bryan’s
definition so as to be clear as well as accurate. This arises
when the definition is first given with reference to the
entropy of the working substance, because the non-available
energy is not necessarily a portion of the energy of the
substance. The terms available energy, free energy, bound
energy, and non-available energy are continually used
loosely in thermodynamics as if they referred to portions of
the energy of the working substance. I know from experi-
ence the difficulty of defining the entropy of the working
substance in terms of dissipation or degradation, without
reference to the state of things outside the substance, and
in a paper on the factors of heat I adopted the notion of
reduction of ‘‘ transfer credit,’’ so that increase of entropy
went with lessening of capacity for transforming heat into
work with change of volume. In my book on “‘ Entropy ”
the whole treatment is essentially from the dissipation or
degradation point of view, but entropy is first defined in
connection with the irreversible increase of entropy in an
isolated system. It is thus defined: ‘‘ Increase of entropy
is a quantity which, when multiplied by the lowest available
temperature, gives the incurred waste.”’
May I say that I am exceedingly glad to find Prof. Bryan
treating the subject from the same point of view, as it is
strong evidence that my treatment is essentially right.
41 Palace Court, W. J. Swinburne.
Mr. SwineurveE has directed attention to an obscure point
in my letter of November 10 which is calculated to produce
quite the contrary impression to what I intended. In
defining available energy relative to a given temperature, it
was not my intention to exclude work that the system was
capable of producing by expansion or otherwise without
using the reversible engines, and instead of ‘‘ maximum
amount of energy’’ I meant maximum amount of work.
By work I refer to ordinary mechanical energy as opposed
to what Mr. Swinburne calls ‘‘ waste energy.’’ The point
to which I wished to direct attention was the desirability
of basing a definition of entropy on non-available energy,
and the use of the term ‘‘ relative ’’ in this connection, or
at least some equivalent language (as implied in my words,
“The definition may be stated somewhat as follows ”’).
So far as I am able to judge, both from Mr. Swinburne’s
book and from some correspondence with the author, it
would appear that the conclusions to which I am being led
by independent working in regard to entropy agree closely
in many substantial points with those at which he has
arrived. Since the controversy referred to there have been
one or two papers published on the subject by other writers
with which I altogether disagree. G. H. Bryan.
Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid Apes.
In reading Mr. Macnamara’s Hunterian oration of
February, 1901, I find these words :—
“Prof. Deniker in his work on the embryology and de-
velopment of the anthropoid apes has shown that in con-
sequence of the early closure of the anterior sutures of the
skull of these animals the fore part of their brain does not
increase beyond the size it had attained at the end of the
first year of life; but in man these sutures do not consoli-
date until a much later period, so that the anterior lobes
of his brain are enabled to expand, and actually become far
more perfectly developed than the corresponding lobes
among anthropoid apes.’’
This being so, I ask :—
(1) Has the experiment ever been tried of keeping the
sutures of an infant ape open by artificial means? And if
it has,
(2) Has the brain been found to expand and become more
perfectly developed ?
For if so we should expect the ape to manifest an intelli-
gence not far short of that of a man. A. T. Munpy.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
125
IN answer to Mr. A. T. Mundy’s questions, it seems
to me that it would be impossible in a young
living ape, by artificial means, to prevent his frontal
suture from closing, and if we could succeed in keep-
ing it open I question if any marked increase in the
size of the animal’s frontal lobes would augment his in-
tellectual capacity. It is not only the great size of man’s
cerebrum as compared with that possessed by anthropoid
apes which gives him greater intellectual power, but, as I
have stated in the passage quoted by Mr. Mundy from my
Hunterian oration, the frontal and parietal lobes of the
human brain are “‘ far more perfectly developed than the
corresponding lobes among anthropoid apes.’’ This is
especially the case with respect to those motor and psychical
areas of man’s cerebral convolutions which control his
power of intelligent speech; these areas of the brain are
deficient in the anthropoid apes. It is probable that man’s
ability to make use of articulate language, and through
this means to think, has led to the great development of
the psychical elements of his brain. A comparison of the
size and conformation of the cranium of Tertiary man with
that of existing Englishmen is an indication of the length
of time it has taken for the human cerebrum, and therefore
intellect, to reach its present stage of evolution. Man and
anthropoid apes we hold to be derived from a common
ancestral stock; the former, under the action of natural
selection and other causes, including, I think, not only
an inherent capacity of cerebral but also of cranial growth,
have gradually developed, whereas anthropoid apes, from
arrest of cranial and cerebral growth, have not reached the
standard attained by human beings; the difference between
these two orders of beings, however, is one of degree, and
not of kind. N. C. Macnamara.
November 26.
Pinnipedia a Sub-order of Cetacea!
OnE is so much accustomed to encounter strange asser-
tions in regard to zoology in the non-scientific Press that
one takes little notice of them; but when one reads under
the head of ‘‘ Science,’’ as may be read in this day’s
Athenaeum (p. 767), a reviewer of Mr. Millais’s ‘‘ Mammals
of Great Britain and Ireland ’’ complaining of that work
that ‘‘ Nowhere is it stated, as it should be, that the Sub-
order Pinnipedia belongs to the order Cetacea,’’ one is
tempted to ask to what end have writers on classification
laboured, if such an assertion as this is to pass un-
challenged? If, by a slip of the pen, ‘‘ Cetacea’’ was
written for “‘ Carnivora,’’ one can sympathise with the re-
viewer, for all are liable to such unhappy accidents ; but the
general drift of his remarks seems to forbid that charitable
construction, for in the preceding paragraph it is expressly
stated that the Carnivora, except the Mustelidz, are dealt
with in the volume. 1s 74a
December 3.
“ec
The Late Mr. Assheton Smith.
THE man of ample means, and who is a lover of living
creatures, has a great opportunity. Mr. Assheton Smith
had this opportunity, and he used it not only to gratify his
own pleasure, but to share it with others. There was
nothing that he liked better than to go the round of his
park with a guest, and to point out and discuss the characters
and habits of the animals which he had gathered together
from various quarters of the globe. With the late squire
such a ramble was no ordinary treat. One felt, too, that
in this man the beasts had a true friend, that he had studied
them and knew their ways, and that he would do his utmost
to make their lot as happy as possible. To such a man science
owes a great debt. Not only does he afford the student an
opportunity of studying animals in favourable circum-
stances, but he is able to place material at the disposal of
the laboratory and museum when these animals have paid
nature’s last demand. For a number of years I have had
the good fortune to act, as it were, as prosector to his
menagerie, and both my students and I have been able to
carry out not a few studies in comparative anatomy. Some-
times, playfully, he would accuse me of possessing the
“evil eye,’’ as he said that an animal was not likely to
survive long should I express a desire to have it eventually
126
NATURE
[DECEMBER 8, 1904
for the college museum. I am grateful that my liking for
natural history brought me in touch with him. It is in
the small actions of life that one can best read character.
A gentleman to the core, he was never fearful of giving
himself away by showing the utmost courtesy to the
humblest. An unfastened door or gate, a watertap left
trickling he would not abide. Everything at the park
must be precision and finish to the smallest details. Over
his many acts of private charity he ever kept the veil tightly
drawn. A few of them have incidentally come to my know-
ledge, and they reveal the vastness of his sympathy. His
many zoological donations, and his gift to the college of
a site on the Menai Straits for a biological station for the
study of marine life, bear eloquent testimony to his desire
to advance science. May the pile to be raised on this fine
site—let us hope at no distant date—be at least one grateful
tribute to his memory. Puiie J. Wuite.
University College, Bangor, November 28.
The Leonid Meteors of 1904.
From results of observations of this shower as published
in Nature of November 24 it seems that Leonids were
found to be somewhat numerous on the night of
November 14. It is to be regretted that those observers
who were able to count so many shooting stars on this
night had not the following night equally clear, as at
Dublin both November 14 and 15, though not to the same
degree, proved favourable for observations, and it was on the
latter night that the maximum occurred. Owing to the
unsuitable weather that appears to have prevailed in many
places on November 15, some details of the observations
made on the successive nights of the epoch at the same
place may prove interesting.
The night of November 14 turned out ideally fine here,
the temperature also being very mild for the season.
During a watch on this date from 1oh. 15m. to 13h. 45m.
(Dublin time) 16 meteors were counted, of which 7 or 8
were referred to the Leonid radiant. The meteors, especially
the Leonids, did not appear very bright, only 1 of the
first and 2 or 3 of the second or third stellar magnitudes
having been seen. No particulars of their paths were noted,
as doing so might have interfered with the observations
of other meteors. Shooting stars were more numerous in
the early part of the watch than after midnight, 5 having
been counted between 10h. 45m. and rth., of which 2 shot
from the direction of Leo. Another, though feebler, maxi-
mum occurred about 13h.; but, as it was considered from
the declining meteoric rate that the anticipated miniature
shower of this night was already over, observations were
discontinued shortly before 14h.
The night of November 15 began very inauspiciously ;
clouds in the early evening covered the heavens, totally
concealing both moon and stars. Subsequently, however,
the sky partially cleared at intervals, and when observations
were begun at 1oh. 15m. passing clouds in the east left
clear tracts of considerable area. Though the seeing was
thus far from good, yet meteors were considered to be rather
scarce, only 1 shooting star, a third magnitude Taurid,
having been seen during a watch extending over nearly an
hour. About 11h. the clouds passed off, leaving the eastern
sky clear until nearly 14h. Meteors now began to be more
numerous. A fine Taurid at 11h. 25m. passed down straight
towards Leo, which, however, was partly invisible in a
bank of fog along the horizon. When about twenty minutes
later the ‘‘ Sickle’’ emerged clear in the heavens, a
succession of fine Leonids left no doubt as to the superior
character of the coming display.
From 11h. to 13h. 30m. 32 meteors were counted; at
14h. 55m. the number had increased to 50 meteors, the total
result at 16h. 45m. amounting to 60 meteors. But owing
to clouds observations were greatly hindered from 13h. 45m.
to 14h. 15m., and a second interruption of nearly equal
length, arising from the same cause, occurred about 15h.
During the last hour of the watch the sky was fairly clear,
and it was noted that the meteor shower was now rapidly
declining. The majority of the meteors were observed to
emanate from Leo as soon as the latter had become visible
near midnight.
The shower was also observed at the Paris Observatory
on the night of November 15 with the following results * :—
1 The results are of course given in Paris mean time.
No. 1832, VOL. 71]
From toh. 30m. to 13h. 15m. ... 21 meteors observed
» 13h. 15m. ,, 16h. 30m. ... 29 as 2
»» 6h, 30m. ,, 17h. 35m. ... No shooting star seen
As no mention is made of the state of the weather, it
seems the display terminated very abruptly at Paris, slightly
more so than in Dublin or elsewhere, as Mr. T. R. Clap-
ham, on November 15, from 15h. 45m. to 17h. 45m. counted
19 Leonids with 3 three doubtful ones, notwithstanding two
brief interruptions from clouds, this result, it may be added,
indicating a meteoric rate almost exactly equal to that of
the preceding night as given by Mr. Hector Macpherson,
who on November 14, from 15h. to 18h., recorded 35 meteors
(English Mechanic, November 25, p. 365). The rate on
the latter night seems, however, to have been even higher
than this to judge from some results, but more observations
are, no doubt, desirable. Joun R. HEnry.
Dublin, November 29.
Blue-stained Flints.
Two years ago I found large patches of an intense blue
colour, with some black spots, on flints on the quay at
Great Yarmouth. I looked for a possible cause, and dis-
covered other patches similar in all respects but colour.
The latter patches were black, and had been made by tar
spilt by fishermen when tarring their fish skips. I kept
some pieces, both black and blue, in a box until some
months ago, and no appreciable change had taken place,
so I came to the conclusion that the blue colour was pro-
duced by the action of the tar on the flint when exposed to
sunlight.
This occurrence is interesting in view of the action noticed
by Dr. Allen between gas-lime and flint, and points to the
action on the flint of some substance common to the tar and
gas-lime.
May I suggest to your former correspondent that the
blue flints seen at Bournemouth were produced from the
black, and not vice versd. Tuomas L. D. Porter.
County School, Ilford, Essex.
“FIND” OF ROYAL STATUES AT THEBES,
HE ‘‘land of surprises and paradoxes,’’ as Egypt
has well been called, has once again justified its
reputation, and out of the ruins of one of its most
ancient cities there has come to light a mass of
historical evidence which, if we mistake not, will
be found to be of more importance the more it is
studied. It will be remembered that for many years
past M. G. Legrain has been carrying out a series of
repairs of a very far-reaching character on the mass
of buildings of various styles and ages which is
commonly known as the ‘‘ Temple of Karnak.’’ In
the course of this work he has collected a number of
important facts which, when duly arranged, will be of
considerable use to the student of ancient Egyptian
architecture, and, side by side with these, he has
brought together a considerable amount of information
of value historically. It is not our purpose even to
outline the broad facts of the works of restoration
which he has carried out, and we therefore pass on to
state briefly the facts which relate to his last “‘ find ”’
of monuments at Karnak.
Early in the present year M. Legrain was continuing
the excavation of a portion of the temple precincts
near one of the great walls when he accidentally came
upon a large pit or well which, it was evident, had
been filled up by the ancient Egyptians. Soon after
he began to dig out the well the workmen came upon
a layer of statues made of hard stone of various kinds,
and when the mud was removed from them many of
them were found to be inscribed. Beneath this layer
of statues was a layer of earth, and beneath the earth
was another layer of statues, and the clearing out of
the pit showed that it was filled with layers of statues
and earth, arranged alternately. The statues were
usually found face downwards, and it thus became
-
DeEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE
127
clear that they had been so placed in order that their
faces might be protected by the soft earth and mud
in which they were buried. The total yield from the
pit or well was about 450 statues.
As soon as the pit was emptied M. Legrain began
to examine the objects which he had found, and he
saw that many of the statues were royal, and that,
speaking generally, the oldest belonged to the second
or third dynasty, and the latest to the twenty-sixth
dynasty. The greater number of them were, of course,
made for high officials, generals, architects, priests,
&c., and we may be certain that from first to last they
represent the men who, during a period of about 3500
years, were the principal benefactors of the great
temple of Amen-Ra, the “king of the gods,” at
Thebes. The question which naturally arises is, How
came these statues to be in the place in which they
were found? The answer is not far to seek. We
know that it was a custom among the Egyptians
for the kings and their nobles to dedicate statues of
themselves to the temples of the god or gods whom
they loved to worship, and they did so with the idea
that, after death, their spirits would come from their
graves and inhabit them, and would enjoy in their new
existence the worship which had been their delight
when upon earth. As the spirits of the gods also
dwelt in the statues which were dedicated to them in
the temples, the spirits of the kings and their nobles
would thus dwell in divine company, and would par-
ticipate in the happiness which disembodied spirits
were believed to derive from the chants and hymns of
the faithful, and the offerings and incense which were
offered up by the priests. How these statues were
arranged is not quite clear, but it is pretty certain that
they were placed in niches or on pedestals in the
chambers adjoining the sanctuary. As time went on,
chamber after chamber would become full, and at
length it would be as difficult to find a site for a new
statue as it is to find a site for a monument to some
illustrious dead person in our own Westminster Abbey.
It has been the custom to say that the temple of
Amen-Ra at Karnak was founded by the early kings
of the twelfth dynasty, about B.c. 2500, but it is clear
from the statues which M. Legrain has brought to
light that a temple to Amen must have existed at
Karnak at least some 1500 years earlier. Some
archeologists, basing their opinion on the evidence
derived from religious texts, have always maintained
that the twefth dynasty temple of Amen was merely
a new foundation, and not the original temple, and
this was the view which Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
arrived at in his investigations of the systems of the
orientation of Egyptian temples. We now know that
so early as B.C. 4000 an important temple of Amen
stood at Karnak, and that even in that early period
it was already so old that kings held it to be one of
the highest honours attainable to have their statues
included among the monuments of the ‘‘ glorious and
mighty dead’? who were commemorated there. The
temple of Amen represented the roll of fame for the
Egyptians, and M. Legrain’s ‘‘find’’ helps us to
understand why Karnak was declared by the priests to
be the ‘‘ throne of the two lands ”’ (i.e. Egypt), and
the ‘‘ seat beloved of the heart of the god.’? Now the
fortunes of the god Amen and of his temple varied
with those of the king, and the glory of his sanctuary
waxed and waned according as the prosperity of the
country increased or decreased. During the fourth,
fifth, and sixth dynasties the chief centre of power lay
between Heliopolis and Memphis; from the twelfth to
the twentieth dynasty it rested at Thebes, and the
temple of Amen between B.c. 2500 and B.c. 1050 was
the greatest in the land, just as Amen himself was the
greatest of the gods.
Between B.c. 1000 and B.c. 650 evil times came upon ,
No. 1832, VOL. 71]
Thebes, and the formerly wealthy capital became
poverty-stricken. A serious trouble between the priests
and the people resulted in the departure of the former
to Nubia, and in consequence the temple of Amen fell
into a state of decay. Worse than all, soon after his
accession, B.c. 668, Ashur-bani-pal, King of Assyria,
invaded Egypt, and, marching up the country, plun-
dered Thebes and its temples. This blow the city
seems never to have recovered, and for about 300
years it held a position of no importance in the country.
Under the Ptolemies some attempt to rebuild certain
portions of the Temple of Amen was made, and it is
probable that the work was begun under the wise rule
of that astute ruler Ptolemy I. It was, of course,
impossible to restore the worship of Amen to its
original glory, and the extent of the buildings of the
god must have been considerably curtailed.
Whilst the work of restoration was going on, the
question of the disposal of the statues which M.
Legrain has unearthed came up for decision. It was
felt that to destroy the statues would be a sacrilegious
and profane act, and therefore an old well was chosen
in which to bury them; as we have seen, they were
carefully placed in layers of earth or mud, and it is
entirely to the religious instinct of the restorers of the
temple of Amen that we owe the preservation of such
a unique series of statues. In his ‘‘ Notes prises a
Karnak,” recently published in the Recueil, M.
Legrain directs special attention to the statues of three
kings, of whom previously no monuments have been
known; these are :—Mer-hetep-Ra, Mer-sekhemRa
Mer-ankh-Ra. It is early yet to attempt to assign
exact places to these kings, but the discovery of
their monuments is a striking contradiction of the
assertion which has been made recently to the
effect that our knowledge of Egyptian history is
complete, and that there are mo more important
discoveries to be made in Egypt. Already M.
Legrain’s examination of the statues from Karnak
enables us to correct our views on Egyptian
history, and we must be prepared to admit that the
kings of Egypt were considerably more in number
than the king-list of Manetho would lead us to sup-
pose, and that some of the dynasties were contempor-
aneous. M. Legrain’s “‘ find ’’ also proves beyond all
doubt the futility of limiting dynastic history to a
period of 3000 years, as some of the German savants
have done, and the evidence which is accumulating
rapidly all goes to show that the assertions concerning
the great antiquity of Egyptian civilisation made by
Herodotus and other Greek writers, and the opinions
of modern experts like Mariette, Chabas, and our own
Hincks, are generally correct. :
The statues recently found belong to all the dynasties
which are most famed for the production of fine
artistic efforts in sculpture and statuary, and many of
them may well be considered to represent with great
fidelity the features of the men they commemorate.
Nearly all the great kings of Egypt took care to have
their portrait-statues added to the Karnak collection,
and down to the Ptolemaic period the lover of
antiquity in Egypt could look upon contemporaneous
portraits in stone of the kings of the Archaic period,
of Cheops, the builder of the Great Pyramid, of the
great warriors of the eleventh, twelfth, and eighteenth
dynasties, of the bombastic Rameses les and of the
Nubian king Tirhakah, who, to his credit be it said,
left the shrine of Amen at Karnak uninjured, and
humbly worshipped in that great symbol of the solar
worship of the ancient Egyptians. It is greatly to be
regretted that the Ptolemies did not cause portraits of
themselves and their queens to be included among the
statues of the great kings and priests of the country
over which a strange fate called them to rule.
128
COMPULSORY GREEK AT OXFORD AND
CAMBRIDGE.
HE statute enabling students of mathematics and
natural science to proceed to a degree at Oxford,
without previously passing in Greek, has been rejected
in the larger house by 200 votes to 164. At an earlier
stage the proposal was adopted in the smaller assembly
by the narrow majority of two votes. The discussion
accorded to the statute was brief, for the voters had
probably made up their minds; but it revealed the
fact that, while the familiar arguments as to culture
and the humanities held sway with those who have
“learned nothing and forgotten nothing,’’ some con-
demned the proposal, at least ostensibly, because it
Was too narrow. It would shut up school boys with
a bent for mathematics or science to a ‘‘ premature
.Specialism,’’ if they alone had to be segregated, years
before the university stage, from their happier fellows
on the ‘‘ classical side.’’
The Cambridge proposals avoid at least this latter
objection. They recognise that the examination which
admits to the university should be one, in the sense
that it allows the student who has passed it to enter
any faculty or department of the university. He need
not, while still at school, decide finally as to his
special subject or subjects; and if he changes his mind |
as to the course he desires to pursue he need not re- |
trace his steps, and begin to ‘“‘ get up’’ a new set
of “‘little-go”’ subjects after he has entered the
university. For three days high debate on the new
scheme was held in the Cambridge Senate House, and
NATURE
so far as argument goes the impression produced is |
that the placets have the best of it. The official de-
fenders of compulsory Greek spoke, naturally and
properly, of the ennobling influence of Greek literature
and philosophy. They scornfully derided the lack of
culture disclosed by the false quantities of the mere man
of science who is Greekless. But they failed to make
clear the connection between the paltry rudiments,
half grammar and half “crib,” by which Greek is
now represented in the previous examination, and
humanistic culture or literary training of any sort.
It was practically admitted that half the boys, even
from classical schools of the straitest sect, might
spend eight formative years over Greek and be
no Hellenists in the end. But the conclusion
was that time must be given for the improve-
ment of school-teaching in classics, and that, in
order to secure this improvement, the artificial sup-
port of the subject afforded by the present regu-
lations is a necessity. The monopolists asked
for more protection that they might mend _ their
machinery.
One or two headmasters pleaded their helplessness
before the uncultured parent if the shelter of academic
[DecEMBER 8, 1904
opinion it needed no such paltry prop to hold it
upright. To force upon students of another bent the
wasteful drudgery of six months’ cramming in Greek
accidence and the perfunctory conning of a set book
with the help of a translation, was not only an
educational blunder, but a grave moral wrong. It
was bad for the student, it was bad for the
master, it was bad for the university, and it was
worst of all for the cause of Greek learning
itself. It was breeding a race of students who, able
and brilliant and influential in other paths, cherished
a positive hostility to the distasteful subject that had
raised itself as a needless obstacle in their way. But
for compulsion they might have remained at worst
indifferent, at best distant admirers of Greek. Now
their only thought of it was associated with grievance
and injustice. Times had changed, were changing
fast; mew methods of education were afoot in the
schools. The bifurcation of studies—classical and non-
scientific on the one hand, modern and scientific on
the other—had become an accomplished fact. It was
for the university frankly to recognise the change, and
to give equal opportunity for both curricula. Cam-
bridge had amply provided for the needs of the modern
and scientific student once the barrier of the classical
previous was passed. Why should the student, whose
school and university course alike bore in one and
the same direction, say towards natural science, be
obliged to deviate during the last months of his
school-time in order to pass through a wicket that
lay straight in the path of his classical comrade, but
far out of his own? True, a great teacher, a Porson
or an Arnold or a Gow, might make even “ Little-go
Greek ” a thing of life and light for his pupils; but
what of the schools the head of which was a “‘ mere
Newton or Darwin’’? Must the many be sacrificed
for the few?
Then another issue was raised by the clerical mem-
bers of the Senate, an issue on which, seeing the
actual composition of the register, more will ultimately
turn than on the educational question. If Greek is
not compulsory, it will cease to be taught to and
| cease to be learned by candidates for ordination.
compulsion were denied them, and the inconvenience |
they would suffer if they had to rearrange their time-
tables to make room for science and modern lan-
guages, with all their complexity. Greek for all who
aspire to enter the university is so much simpler than
French and German and science for some, mere
““ modern-siders,’’ and Greek and Latin for others,
the ‘‘ pick of the school.’’ ‘‘1f compulsion is done
away with, schools will soon give up Greek altogether ;
in ten years it will be as dead as Hebrew,’’ was the
cry of these despairing headmasters. There were not
wanting others to answer them, no less distinguished
as scholars and teachers. The masters of Trinity and
Christ’s, the president of Queens’ and Dr. Jackson, and
other Grecians of established fame had such faith in
the vitality of Greek—in its undying charm and its
unrivalled power over the human spirit—that in their
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
}
The bishops of the Church of England will no
longer be able to require a knowledge of the
Greek Testament from the aspirant to holy orders.
It is admitted that the Presbyterian Church exacts
both Greek and Hebrew as a condition of admis-
sion to its theological schools. But the heads of
the Anglican Church are weaker than the General
Assembly; the university must reinforce them, what-
ever the consequences to sound learning and unfet-
tered research.
Grave warnings were uttered that the non possumus
of the Senate on this question would not be the final
word. Revolution, in other words a Royal Commis-
sion, would be the inevitable Nemesis of reform
denied. And there is no doubt that this thought will
weigh with some waverers, who love learning and
fear for its displacement by modern studies, but who
love the university more and dread the changes
which a liberal government might impose on it from
without.
The report of the syndicate will doubtless be referred
back for reconsideration of details in the light of the
discussion. But the principle that modern subjects
shall be recognised will certainly be retained, and on
this principle issue will be joined early next term.
The result no man can predict, for it lies with the
silent voters who will flock from the country to the
poll. But the debate has cleared the air, and the
reformers are sanguine that this time something will
be done.
DEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE
129
- PROF. KARL SELIM LEMSTROM.
S has already been announced, Prof. Karl Selim
Lemstré6m, whose name is known to our readers
by his investigations on the aurora borealis and the
influence of electricity on plant growth, died on
October 2 after a short illness. :
He was born in 1838 not far from Helsingfors, and
entered the university in.1857, where he devoted him-
self to studies of physics and mathematics. His first
scientific work, published in 1868, was founded on
experiments made in Stockholm under the guidance
of the late E. Edlund, the celebrated physicist, and
dealt with the intensity curve of induction currents
in relation to time, the intensity of the inducing
current, &c. A summary was published in French in
the Proceedings of the Swedish Academy of Sciences
in 1870.
Lemstrém joined the late Baron A. E. Nordensk-
jold’s expedition to Spitsbergen in 1868 as physicist.
In the two following years he worked in the laboratory
of V. Regnault in Paris; in 1871 he made a journey
to Lapland; in 1872 he continued his researches on
the induction currents at the St. Petersburg Academy
of Sciences. His papers during these years are printed
in the Proceedings of the Swedish Academy and of the
Finland Society of Sciences.
During the journey to Spitsbergen Lemstrom was
engaged in observations on atmospheric electricity,
terrestrial magnetism, and the aurora borealis. These
observations, continued in Lapland, suggested to him
a new theory of the last named phenomenon, so enig-
matic even after the investigations of De la Rive,
Loomis and others. This theory he expounded in a
dissertation entitled ‘‘ The Electrical Discharge in the
Aurora and the Auroral Spectrum ”’ (1873).
‘His next work, on the causes of terrestrial mag-
netism, was published in 1877. Starting from
Edlund’s well known theory on the nature of electricity,
he argued that the rotation of the earth in an atmo-
sphere ‘of non-rotating ether causes the electric
currents of which the terrestrial magnetism is a
manifestation, and he described several experiments
in confirmation of these views.
Appointed in 1878 professor of physics at the
Helsingfors University, he continued his investigations
on the aurora borealis in Lapland in 1882-4, where he
organised two stations for taking part in the inter-
national polar exploration of these years. The investi-
gations carried on by this expedition were published
in a large work, ‘‘ Exploration internationale des
Régions polaires, &c.,’? of which vol. iii. (1898) con-
tains his auroral researches,
One very interesting work by Lemstrém is devoted
to the study of night frosts and the means to prevent
their devastations, so frequent in Finland. Lemstrom
emphasised the nocturnal radiation of heat as the
principal cause of the night frosts, and showed that
in calm and clear summer nights the air, cooled by
the radiating soil and plants, must remain at the sur-
face of the earth, and, flowing like water, gather on
lower grounds, which generally are most exposed to
frost. He proposed to prevent the radiation by artificial
clouds of smoke, and invented for this purpose
“torches ’’ or tubes of peat (described in Acta Socie-
talis Scientiarum Fennicae, Tome xx.).
Moreover, Lemstr6m made important experiments
on the influence of electricity on growing plants, on
which subject he read a paper before the British
Association at Bristol in 1898. The influence in ques-
tion was found by exposing the plants to electric tension
from a metallic wire net, provided with points and
connected with the positive pole of a Holtz machine,
the negative pole being conducted to the earth.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
His frost experiments directed attention to the pre-
vention of frost damage in several countries, and also
gave rise to new scientific investigations (for instance,
by Th. Homén). It is to be hoped that further work
may be devoted to this important subject as well as
to the electrocultural question, which have both but
very little advanced from the point to which they were
brought by the warm-hearted, indefatigable pioneer,
Selim Lemstr6m. ARTHUR RINDELL.
—
NOTES.
Ir was announced last week that the Royal Society cf
Edinburgh has awarded the Gunning Victoria Jubilee prize
for 1900-4 to Sir James Dewar, F.R.S. We now learn
that the following additional awards have been made :—
the Keith prize for 1901-3 to Sir William Turner, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., for his memoir entitled ‘‘ A Contribution to the
Craniology of the People of Scotland,’’ and for his ‘* Con-
tributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire
of India’’: the Makdougall-Brisbane prize for 1902-4 to
Mr. J. Dougall for his paper on an analytical theory of the
equilibrium of an isotropic elastic plate; the Neill prize
for rg01-4 to Prof. J. Graham Kerr for his researches on
Lepidosiren paradoxa.
A vaLuaBLE collection of specimens illustrative of the
fauna of the deep sea has recently been received at
the British (Natural History) Museum as a gift from
H.M. the King of Portugal. The collection is reported to
include a number of deep-sea fishes, among which are
sharks of considerable size, captured during His Majesty’s
recent cruise in Portuguese waters. Several of these may
prove to have been previously unrepresented in the British
Museum collection. King Carlos, like the Prince of
Monaco, is much interested in the fauna of the deep sea,
of which he himself has done much to increase our know-
ledge. The collection sent to the museum is also stated to
contain a series of contributions to our knowledge of the
deep-sea fauna from the pen of His Majesty.
Tue sale of Chartley Park, Staffordshire, the hereditary
seat of Lord Ferrers, involves also a change of ownership
of the remnant of the celebrated herd of white cattle which
have been kept there for the last 700 years. It is much
to be regretted that the cattle could not have gone with
the park, and have been maintained there by the new
owner ; but as this is not to be, it is to be hoped that they
will be given a safe home elsewhere, where they will flourish
and increase. It was long considered that the herds of wild
cattle in various British parks were direct descendants of
the wild aurochs, but it is now generally admitted (largely
owing to the writings of Mr. Lydekker) that they are
derived from domesticated albino breeds nearly allied to
the Pembroke and other black Welsh strains, some of which
show a marked tendency to albinism. This view, as pointed
out by a writer in the Times of November 29, is strongly
supported by the fact that the Chartley cattle frequently
produce black calves. The theory advocated by a later
writer in the same journal that the British park cattle are
the descendants of a white sacrificial breed introduced by
the Romans rests upon no solid basis. The Chartley cattle,
believed to be reduced to nine head, are to be captured by
the purchaser—no easy task.
Tue anniversary dinner of the Royal Society was being
held last week as we went to press. In proposing the toast
of the Royal Society, Mr. Arnold-Forster said that every
day he has lived in a public office he has been more and more
impressed with the need for a greater knowledge in our
130
public life of what men of science are thinking, what they
are doing, and what they hope and mean to accomplish
in all the great departments of scientific life throughout the
globe. There is absolutely infinite opportunity for the work
of trained minds in that important department of our
national life, the public service. Even in his short official
life he had lived to see some progress made in the direction
in which he wished to see this nation travel. Sir William
Huggins responded; and among other speakers were Lord
Strathcona, Sir J. W. Swan, Mr. W. Bateson, and Mr.
Leonard Courtney.
Tue annual dinner of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers was held on Thursday last, December 1, Mr.
Alexander Siemens, the president, being in the chair. In
Proposing the toast of the institution, Lord Alverstone re-
marked that its high standing among scientific organisa-
tions was due to the fact that it had kept pace with the
times, had been the first to promulgate and promote among
its members all the information about electrical science
that could be obtained, had been willing to welcome
electricians from all parts of the world, had kept its students
and its members acquainted with every modern develop-
ment, and had given them the means of cultivating the
technical knowledge of their science to the highest extent.
In the course of his response to the toast, the president
announced that telegrams of congratulation and sympathy
had been received from the Belgian and Italian Societies
of Electrical Engineers. In their visits to foreign countries
the international character of electrical engineering had
come out, and it was this which had contributed not a little
to the development of electricity throughout the world.
Tue death is announced of Dr. T. M. Drown, president
of Lehigh University, and previously professor of chemistry
at Lafayette College and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Ir is reported in the Pioneer Mail that the Secretary
of State for India has sanctioned the creation of the appoint-
ment of electrical adviser to the Government of India, with
headquarters at Calcutta. The present post of electrical
engineer to the Government of Bengal will be abolished.
ACCORDING to the correspondent of the Daily Chronicle
(November 25) the German Commission that is investi-
gating tuberculosis has come to the conclusion that two
distinct forms of tubercle bacilli exist, the human and the
bovine. Out of fifty-six cases of human tuberculosis ex-
amined fifty showed human bacilli only, five (three being
children) showed bovine bacilli, while the remaining one
showed both human and bovine bacilli.
A MOVEMENT has been initiated in Denmark for the
erection of a monument to the late Prof. Finsen, the in-
ventor of the light cure for lupus. It has been thought that
many outside Denmark would desire to join in doing honour
to one who did so much for his fellow-men, and a British
committee has been formed for the furtherance of the
scheme. The Hon. Sydney Holland, Sir Francis Laking,
Sir Frederick Treves, and Mr. Malcolm Morris, members
of this committee, announce that subscriptions may be paid
to the Finsen Memorial Fund at the National Provincial
Bank, 112 Bishopsgate Street, E.C.
Tue Bradshaw lecture was delivered at the Royal College
of Surgeons on December 1 by Mr. Mayo Robson, who
took for his subject the treatment of cancer. He pointed
out that in many instances, perhaps in all if we only knew
it, there was a pre-cancerous stage in which operation ought
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 8, 1904
lives. In early operation with complete removal of disease,
together with a wide margin of healthy tissue, our hope of
cure must depend. Medical treatment could not cure, and
could do little to prolong life. There was hardly any
situation in the body in which an operation for removal
could not be performed provided the disease were recognised
sufficiently early, and the results of surgical treatment were
by no means so hopeless as generally supposed.
WE learn from the Athenaeum that M. Paul Tannery,
whose death is announced, was born at Mantes on December
20, 1843, was president of the Congrés d’Histoire Générale
des Sciences held at Paris in 1900, and had written ex-
tensively on philosophical subjects since 1876. His principal
works include ‘‘ Pour 1’Histoire de la Science Helléne,’’
1887, and ‘‘ Recherches sur 1’Histoire de 1’Astronomie
Ancienne,’’ 1893; he edited with M. Ch. Henry the works
of Fermat, and with M. Ch. Adam an edition of Descartes.
PRINCE RoLanD BONAPARTE has resumed tke presidency
of the committee of the Aéro Club of Paris, which he had
previously to relinquish on account of ill-health. At the
meeting of the club on November 28, the report of the St.
Petersburg congress was read. The suggestion was made
to ask the Government to lend a torpedo-boat for experi-
ments in starting sounding-balloons over the Mediterranean
when the scientific congress meets at Algiers next April.
In connection with proposed ascents during the solar eclipse
of August 30, 1905, it is unfortunate that one of the towns
having the best situation on the line of totality—from
Philippeville to Sfax—Batna, with a population of 6000
or 7000, is lighted by electricity, and there is no gas
reservoir. It will therefore be necessary for the aéronauts
to manufacture hydrogen on the spot, or else to bring it
from a distance.
Tue following are among the lecture arrangements at
the Royal Institution, before Easter :—a Christmas course
of lectures (experimentally illustrated and adapted to a
juvenile auditory) on ancient and modern methods of
measuring time, by Mr. Henry Cunynghame; Prof. L. C.
Miall, adaptation and history in the structure and life of
animals; Prof. Karl Pearson, some recent biometric studies ;
_Prof. W. E. Dalby, engineering ; Mr. A. H. Savage Landor,
exploration in the Philippines; Prof. W. Schlich, forestry
in the British Empire; Mr. J. J. H. Teall, recent work of
the Geological Survey; Prof. H. H. Turner, recent astro-
nomical progress; Prof. R. Meldola, synthetic chemistry
(experimental); Mr. D. G. Hogarth, archeology; Prof.
J. J. Thomson, electrical properties of radio-active sub-
stances; and Lord Rayleigh, some controverted questions
of optics. The Friday evening meetings will begin on
January 20, when a discourse will be delivered by Sir James
Dewar on new low temperature phenomena; succeeding
discourses will probably be given by Dr. E. A. Wilson, Mr.
Cecil Smith, Mr. J. W. Gordon, Prof. H. Marshall Ward,
Chevalier G. Marconi, Prof. J. J. Thomson, Prof. G. H.
Bryan, Prof. J. Wright, Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, Lord
Rayleigh, and other gentlemen.
Tue new board of anthropological studies in Cambridge
is now organised, and commenced work last October with
nine courses of lectures. Sir Richard Temple, Bart., C.I.E.,
delivered an inaugural address at Cambridge in the museum
of archeology and ethnology on “‘ The Practical Value of
Anthropology.’ In the course of his most interesting and
suggestive address he said :—‘‘ Now, when we are started
on a new line of research, when we add a new course of
to be performed, and would be the means of saving many | studies to a university curriculum, there is a question that
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
DeEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE
131
we cannot help facing—a question, in fact, that ought to
arise—What is the good of it all?’’ From his long ex-
perience. as an administrator in the East, Sir Richard
Temple drew, from facts that had come under his own
observation, examples of the desirability, one would like
to add the necessity, of a knowledge of ethnology for those
who are brought into contact with alien peoples, and he
dealt severally with merchants and planters, administrators
and magistrates, and missionaries. He also pointed out
that stay-at-home critics require training and information,
as by their ignorant criticism they are liable to do a great
deal of actual harm. ‘‘ But mischievous as uninformed
criticism is, there is nothing of greater value and assistance
than the criticism of the well informed.’’ He alluded to
the value of anthropological study to history, and after
dealing with the value of an early anthropological train-
ing to a man in his work, he pointed out the value it is
in his private life, even if it is pursued merely as a hobby.
“Not only will it enable the student to do the work of the
world and to deal with his neighbours and those with whom
he comes in contact, throughout all his active life, better
than can be otherwise possible, but it will serve to throw
a light upon what goes on around him, and to give an
insight into human affairs, past and present, that cannot
but be of benefit to him, and it will provide him with in-
tellectual occupation, interest and pleasure, as long as eye
can see, or the ear can hear, or the brain can think.’’ The
address is printed in full in the Cambridge Reporter (vol.
xxvi., No. 643).
AccorpInG fo ‘‘ Notes for Visitors to the Gezira
Aquarium,’’ issued by the Public Works Department of
Cairo in November, the tanks at that establishment con-
tained specimens of no less than twenty-nine species of
mative fishes, including the Nile perch, the electrical cat-
fish, and the elephant-fish (Mormyrus).
WE have received from the author, Dr. W. G. Ridewood,
two papers on the osteology of the skull in some of the more
generalised families of bony fishes, the one published in
the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, and the other
in the Journal of the Linnean Society. Some remarks on
the general morphology of the skull are appended to the
former paper.
Tue Emu for October contains reproductions of two very
interesting photographs, the first showing the ‘‘ run’’ or
““play-house’’ of the great bower-bird (Chlamydera
nuchalis), and the second a flight of bare-eyed cockatoos
(Cacatua gymnopis), estimated at between sixty and seventy
thousand in number. Considerable interest attaches to a
note on bird-sanctuaries in New Zealand, where, it appears,
all the surviving flightless species are now protected by
Government. The want of such sanctuaries, both for birds
and mammals, in Australia forms the subject of comment
in another paragraph.
To vol. Ixxviii., part ii., of the Zeitschrift fiir wissen-
schaftliche Zoologie, Mr. A. Voss, of Dusseldorf, contributes
the first instalment of an essay on the comparative anatomy
and mechanics of insect structure, especially in relation to
flight, commencing with the thorax of the house-cricket
in relation to the attachment of the wings and their move-
ments. The other articles include one by Dr. P. Dugener
on the scent-organ of the butterfly Phassus schamyl and
the function of the same; a second, by Dr. H. Jordan, on
the digestive organs of the sea-mouse (Aphrodite aculeata) ;
a third, by Mr. L. von Graff, on the marine turbellarian
worms of Orotava and the coast of Europe; and a fourth,
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
by Dr. S. Gross, on the perineal sac and its glands of the
guinea-pig.
In the Zoologist for November Mr. O. V. Aplin announces
that the black-necked grebe (Podicipes nigricollis) should
be added to the list of birds nesting in the British Islands.
It appears that during the past summer several pairs of
these grebes successfully reared their young within our
islands, but for obvious reasons neither the locality where
this interesting event tool: place nor the name of the observer
by whom it was recorded are revealed to the public.
Pennant, it seems, stated that the black-necked grebe nested
in the Lincolnshire fens near Stamford in his time, and the
late Mr. E. T. Booth had a pair of nestlings brought to
him by a marshman ; but the observations of this year forrn
the first definite record of the nest having been actually seen.
A second article in the same journal is devoted to notes on
natural history made during the cruise round the world of
Lord Crawford’s yacht Valhalla in 1902-3 by Mr. M. J.
Nicoll. Among new forms obtained during the voyage, the
author refers to Pyroderees crawfordi, belonging to the
Microlepidoptera, and the fish Corvina crawfordi. He also
records his own observations on the flight of flying fish,
and is one of those who believe that they move their
“ wings.”’
TuHE Danish Commission for the Study of the Sea, which
is charged with carrying out the Danish portion of the
cooperative international investigations, has issued the first
memoirs of its report, which is published under the title
“Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havundersdgelser.’”
The report, which is to be written in English or German,
and is issued in quarto form, uniform with the Bulletin of
the Central Bureau of the International Council, is divided
into three series, dealing respectively with fisheries, with
hydrography, and with plankton. Of the fisheries series
one memoir is now published, viz. C. G. Joh. Petersen, on
the larval and post-larval stages of the long rough dab
and the genus Pleuronectes (with two plates) ; of the hydro-
graphic series three memoirs, Martin Knudsen, on the
organisation of the Danish hydrographic researches, H. J.
Hansen, experimental determination of the relation between
the freezing point of sea-water and its specific gravity at
o° C., Niels Bjerrum, on the determination of chlorine in
sea-water and examination of the accuracy with which
Knudsen’s pipette measures a volume of sea-water; and
of the plankton series two memoirs, Ove Paulsen, plankton
investigations in the waters round Iceland, C. H. Osten-
feld, on two new marine species of Heliozoa occurring in
the plankton of the North Sea and the Skager Rak. The
memoirs are of interest as being amongst the first fruits
of the international scheme of cooperative research. They
are, however, all short memoirs, dealing with what may
be considered as side issues of the main investigations, the
reports upon which must be looked for at a later date.
The Danish Commission, which is appointed by the Danish
Board of Agriculture, consists of Prof. C. G, Joh. Petersen
(chairman), C. F. Drechsel, C. H. Ostenfeld, and Martin
Knudsen (secretary).
Tue important preliminary results of the National
Antarctic Expedition have already been utilised by Mr. W.
Krebs in the communication of a useful paper to Das Weltall
(vol. iv., Heft 24). By comparison of the yearly temperature
at the English, German, and Swedish stations during the
year 1902-3, he finds that the average decrease of tempera-
ture amounted to 0°-5 C. for each degree of latitude; and
by applying this value to the results obtained by the five
stations established round the Antarctic Pole during the
132
years 1898-1903, he has constructed approximate isotherms
between 50° and 80° S. latitude, and thus made an important
addition to the valuable yearly isothermal charts published
in Dr. Hann’s ‘‘ Handbook of Meteorology.’? Dr. Hann’s
southernmost isobar is 4° C., just below Tierra del Fuego;
Mr. Krebs continues the isotherms for each 4° C. as far as
—16°, which runs near the 7oth parallel between longitude
60° E. and 60° W. He also draws portions of the isotherm
of —20° C., reaching nearly to the Soth parallel.
Tue Times of November 29 contains an interesting article
on London fogs ; although it deals principally with the most
elementary physics of the atmosphere, and with the part
played by aqueous vapour, the subject is very ably handled
and is made both attractive and instructive. The author
points out the well known facts that the amount of invisible
vapour in the air varies directly with the temperature ;
by whatever process the cooling of the air takes place, the
capacity of the vapour to remain invisible diminishes until
the ‘‘ dew point ”’ or ‘ saturation point ’’ is reached; any
further cooling produces cloud or fog. He states that it is
more than twenty years since it was shown that the vapour
molecules cannot of themselves combine to form cloud or
fog particles, but that solid nuclei of dust, or other impuri-
ties, are necessary, on which the vapour molecules can
condense. Taking this for granted, it is seen at once why
fogs in London (or other large towns) are so much denser
than in the open country. For instance, at an elevation
of 6000 feet, say on the Alps, the number of dust
particles per cubic centimetre may amount to less than
200, while in towns the number may reach 100,000 or
200,000. The vapour in the country, condensed on a few
particles of dust, will result in a coarse grained form of
condensation, whereas in town the same quantity of vapour
being distributed over a very large number of dust particles,
there results a fine grained fog. The author points
out that it is not the large-sized visible dust that does
the damage, but the infinitely small, ultra-microscopic
particles produced by combustion of fuel and light ;
that, in fact, experiments have shown that it is possible
for cloudy condensation to take place in the absence
of dust. In 1897 (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. XXXIX.)
Mr. Aitken stated that dust particles are not absolutely
essential for the production of fog, but that, as the air is
full of dust and condensation takes place on these by pre-
ference, therefore practically all our cloud particles have
dust nuclei. The author concludes, justly, we are afraid,
that London will always be liable to fogs, owing to its
situation and meteorological conditions; all that can be
hoped for is a reduction in the more disagreeable con-
stituent elements; there seems to be, so far, no way of
appreciably reducing their frequency or their bad effects.
We hope that the experiments begun by Sir Oliver Lodge,
with a view to their possible ultimate dissipation by elec-
tricity, will be energetically continued.
Tue Revue Scientifique (Nos. 20 and 21), in continuing
its inquiries as to the existence of the n-rays, publishes a
letter from M. Blondlot stating that the photographic ex-
posures, the results of which he considers prove the reality
of these radiations, were made by a laboratory assistant who
was ignorant of the effects he ought to obtain, and was
therefore not unconsciously biassed. The obvious rejoinder
is made that the results obtained in this way are less to be
trusted than if they were due to M. Blondlot himself. M.
Lambert claims that his experiments showing that the n-rays
exist were made in a manner excluding subjective pheno-
mena. On the other hand, MM. Cailletet, Lippmann,
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 8, 1904
Berget, Turpain, and Perrin have all failed to obtain experi-
mental proof of their existence.
Part x. of the Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society
contains a continuation of the researches of Messrs. W. F.
Barrett, W. Brown, and R. A. Hadfield on the physical
properties of a series of alloys of iron. It is shown that a
remarkable similarity exists between the diminution of the
electrical conductivity and the change in the thermal con-
ductivity of iron, which are caused by the addition of other
elements. Not only is the general order of the electrical
and thermal conductivities the same for all the alloys, but
equal increments of any given element appear to produce
a corresponding diminution of conductivity for both heat
and electricity. It is remarkable that the effect of alloy-
ing iron with another element, even a better conductor, is
always to reduce both the thermal and the electrical con-
ductivities. The ratio of the two conductivities is, how-
ever, not exactly the same for all alloys; on plotting the
electrical against the thermal conductivity, a fairly smooth
parabolic curve is obtained showing that the ratio increases
in magnitude as the conductivity of the alloys increases.
Tue October part of the Physical Review contains an
account by Messrs. C. W. Waidner and G. K. Burgess of
a number of measurements which they have made by photo-
metric methods of the temperature of the electric are.
Wien’s law of the distribution of energy in the spectrum
was assumed as a basis of calculation, and three distinct
types of photometers, namely, those of Holborn and Kurl-
baum, of Wanner, and of Le Chatelier, were employed.
The values obtained for the ‘‘ black body ’’ temperature of
an arc of pure graphite by the three methods agreed within
30° C., the average being about 3700° abs. The true
temperature of the arc must be higher than this by an
amount depending on the departure of the radiation from
true “* black body ’’ radiation, and may possibly be between
3900° and 4000° absolute. Contrary to the usually
accepted view, the temperature of the arc does not appear
to be independent of the current, and it is undoubtedly
influenced by the degree of purity of the carbons forming
the arc. With impure carbons, the temperature is lower
by 40° C. than in an arc of highly purified graphite. Such
variations would appear to preclude the suggested use of
the brightest part of the positive carbon of the electric arc
as a standard source of light.
Tue second number of the Extensionist, which is a record
of the University Extension Guild, has reached us. In
addition to numerous descriptive notes on the work of the
guild, this issue contains addresses by Sir Arthur Ricker,
F.R.S., Mr. Hilaire Belloc, and Mr. Banister Fletcher.
Tue Infants’ Health Society has published a pamphlet
entitled ‘*‘ The Present Conditions of Infant Life, and their
Effect on the Nation,’’ which directs attention to the almost
complete failure of our present method of rearing the infants
of the working class. In the poorer parts of the larger
towns and cities it is not uncommon for nearly half the
children born to die in infancy. The dominating cause of
this appalling mortality is the improper feeding of the
infant.
Messrs. A. AND C. BLack have published the 1905 issues
of three useful annuals—‘‘ Who’s Who,’’ ‘‘ Who’s Who
Yearbook,’’ and the ‘‘Englishwoman’s Yearbook.’
“© Who’s Who”? has been enlarged again this year, nearly
a hundred pages having been added, bringing the total up
to 1796. Due prominence is given to men of science and
their work, not only of those in this country, but in other
parts of the world. There is a want of uniformity in the
DEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE
133
amount of detail given concerning the careers of the notabili-
ties included, and something might be done with advantage
to reduce the lengths of some of the biographies, and thus
to keep the volume of a convenient size. The ‘‘ Who’s
Who Yearbook ’’ contains the tables which were formerly
included in *‘ Who’s Who ”’ itself. ‘‘ The Englishwoman’s
Yearbook ’’ will in its revised form continue to lighten the
labours of women sharing in the useful work of the world.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
RE-DISCOVERY OF TEMPEL’S SECOND Comet.—A telegram
from the Kiel Centralstelle announces that Tempel’s second
comet was re-discovered by M. Gavelle at Nice on
November 30, and that the observation showed the daily
ephemeris published in No. 3971 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten to be nearly correct.
The following is an extract from the above named
ephemeris, which was published by M. J. Coniel :—
12h. M.T. Paris.
1904 ce (app.) 6 (app.) log A 1i72a2
© sy Se a i)
Meer 9 .:. | 20) 7 384essm—24) 19 0'29671 0'126
pyeLO! cas. 20 15) 4 ye 24n oO 0°29913
NSLS) =<) 20) 22) 26) —23 56 O°30161 o'122
mtd, =... 20 20) 47)eet onde 0°30414
pe tO. 2.5 20 37) Aue oot 28 0°30672 O'r17
Sen SO. cuz 20,44 Ome — 23 12 0°30936
eeeO) =<) 2ON5 0eg0) 22 55 0°31206 O'1l3
Parattax Or A Low Mergor.—Whilst exposing on the
Andromeda nebula with two Voigtlander objectives on
August 12 Herr P. Gétz, of Heidelberg, photographed on
each plate the trail of a remarkably low Perseid. From
measurements of the trail on the two plates it was possible
to determine the parallax of the meteor at definite points
in its flight where the trail was considerably strengthened.
The result showed a mean parallax of 28.12, whilst for
six distinct points on the trail the following parallaxes were
determined :—
25:6265 37, 230 eo7ee7 Os 25 220, 07/14. 10! "0.
The base of the triangle Meteor—Voigtlander I.—Voigt-
lander II. measured 68 cm., and it therefore follows that
the distance of the meteor at each of these points was
4:98, 3-78, 5:05, 5:57, 8-27, 14:03 kilometres respectively,
the coordinates of the meteor at each point being re-
spectively :—
a=oh. 282m., oh, 22m., oh. 19°2m., oh. 16°8m., ob. 10°7m.,
oh. 7°7m.
+39) 475) |
+ 38° 59’.
The path of the meteor was apparently rectilinear, but
the observations indicated ‘that it described a sharp curve
in the third dimension with the convex side towards the
observer.
The path of the meteor extended from a=oh. 33-6m.,
5=+44° 17’ to a=23h. 52-2m., 5= +35° 28! (Astronomische
Nachrichten, No. 3975).
Date oF THE Most REcENT Sun-spot MiniMuM.—From a
discussion of the observations of solar phenomena made at
the Roman College Observatory during the period
November 25, 1900, to January 4, 1902, Signor E. Tringali
deduces the date of the latest sun-spot minimum to have
been June 15, 1901, or 1901-45.
In Table i. of the communication the relative daily fre-
quencies of spots, &c., are given for the years 1878-9 and
1888-1903, and it is seen that the frequency of days without
spots during 1901 was greater than obtained during the
previous minimum (1889), but less than in the 1878
minimum, The numbers given for 1878 and 1901 are 0.76
and 0-73 respectively (Memorie della Societa degli Spettro-
scopisti Italiani, No. 8, vol. xxxiii.).
OBSERVATIONS OF PERSEIDS, 1904.—In No. 9, vol. xxxiii.,
of the Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani,
Prof. S.. Zammarchi, director of the meteorological observ-
atory at Brescia, gives in tabulat form the results of the
observations of Perseids made at that observatory during the
nights of August 9-14.
NOES 325 VOL. 71
5= +43°13', +42°1', +4128’, +40° 58’,
531 Perseids were seen, and the observations are recorded
in the order of the appearance of the objects, the time, the
points of appearance and disappearance, and the general
characteristics of each meteor being given.
Tue Oreit oF Sirtus.—In No. 3981 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten Prof. Doberck gives the results of a discussion
of the observations of Sirius and its faint companion, and
includes a set of elements,* an ephemeris for the period
1903-2-1917:2, and a table showing the differences between
the observed and calculated values of position angle and
distance. Owing to the great difference between the magni-
tudes of the two components, the systematic errors of
observation are unusually large.
The following are the elements determined from the dis-
cussion :—
3 =225° 40’ P— 49°49 years
IN SS) GB ‘T=1894:28
Y= 43° 20’ 72508
e =0°5871
The orbit is referred to the equinox of 1900. The motion
is retrograde, and the anomalies are considered as positive
before and negative after periastron.
The consideration of the errors of observation shows
that they are inversely proportional to the aperture of the
object glass employed.
HaRVARD OBSERVATIONS OF VARIABLE STARS.—Part ii.,
vol. xlvi., of the Harvard College Observatory Annals is
devoted to the observations, chiefly of variable stars, made
by Prof. E. C. Pickering with the meridian photometer
during the years 1892-8.
The first chapter gives the results of the observations of
short-period variables, and then discusses the phases of the
light-variations and the corrections to their ephemerides.
Chapter ii. deals similarly with the observations of variables
of the Algol type, chapter iii. collates the observations of
various miscellaneous objects, and the fourth chapter gives,
and discusses, the observations of planets and asteroids.
The early observations of variable stars, at Harvard, are
collected into tables in the fifth chapter, whilst the last
chapter discusses the observations of long-period variables,
and describes the eight light-curves given on the two plates
at the end of the volume.
CORRECTION OF THE LONGER TERM IN THE POLAR Motion.
—In a previous communication to the Astronomische Nach-
yichten Mr. Kimura, of the Mizusawa International Lati-
tude Station, showed that the cycle of the polar motion
might be approximately represented by two principal terms
of 365 and 438 days.
In No. 3981 of the same journal, however, he discusses
the latter term more fully, from observations made during
the period 1890-1904, and finds that it is probably a day
or two too long. Taking the two periods 1890-1896 and
1896-1902, he derived the value 437-1 days, whilst from the
periods 1892-1898 and 1898-1904 the value 436-6 days was
obtained. The latter value, Mr. Kimura thinks, is likely
to be the more correct, and consequently the cycle is not
exactly six years as was indicated by the former discussion.
The values given in the paper show that for the years
1890 and 1891 the radius of the circular motion was
especially large, but from 1892 to last year it remained
nearly constant.
Arc SpEcTRA OF THE ALKALI Metats.—In No. 9, vol. xl.,
of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences Mr. F. A. Saunders, of Syracuse University, gives
the results of a series of researches on the arc spectra of
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and czsium.
The salts were vaporised on nearly pure carbon poles, and
the spectra were taken with a grating camera, special
arrangements being made to photograph the spectra well
up into the red. ; :
Several new lines, which fit into the respective series,
were discovered, and in the lithium spectrum Mr. Saunders
believes that the dual character of the lines is real and not
simply due to reversals as has been supposed by Hagenbach
and other spectroscopists.
A comparison of the arc spectra with spark spectra of
the same substances showed no relative enhancement of
any of the lines in passing from the conditions of the arc
to those of the spark.
134
INVAR AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
Preliminary.
[DDESCRIPTION of Phenomena.—A new material requires
a new name; that of ‘‘ invar’’ has been adopted, on
the suggestion of Prof. Thury, to avoid the periphrase
“steel containing about 36 per cent. of nickel, which is
characterised by possessing an extremely small coefficient
of expansion or by the fact that its specific volume is
practically invariable when considered as a function of the
temperature.’’ The name has been universally adopted, and
the title of this article is thus justified.
The discovery of invar, as is the case with most dis-
coveries, was preceded by observations indicating the direc-
tion of the researches from which it had its origin. As early
as 1889 the late Dr. John Hopkinson noted the singular
fact of the existence of a ferro-nickel containing about
25 per cent. of nickel, the density of which was found to
have diminished by about 2 per cent. after cooling to the
temperature of solid carbon dioxide; and in 1895 M. J.-R.
Benoit, director of the Bureau international des Poids et
Mesures, having to determine the length of a metre scale
composed of an alloy of iron with 22 per cent. of nickel
and 2 per cent. of chromium, was extremely surprised
to find that his measurements, made with an extreme range
of temperature of about 2 degrees C., gave concordant results
only on assuming for the alloy a totally abnormal coefficient
of expansion, equal to that of brass, and consequently half as
antl
6
Fic. 1.—General form of the expansion curve for a reversible nickel-steel.
great again as that required by the law of mixtures generally
applicable to such cases. This alloy was not magnetic, and
thus resembled Hopkinson’s alloy before cooling, although
the latter after exposure to a low temperature became en-
dowed with magnetism.
It was natural to coordinate these two anomalies and to
consider the non-magnetic iron of the second alloy as being
very expansible. At the time I considered that the alloy,
after being rendered magnetic by cooling, would possess a
normal coefficient of expansion; but as the alloy studied by
M. Benoit did not become magnetic either in carbon
dioxide or in liquid air, I was forced provisionally to re-
nounce this hypothesis. For the liquid air I was indebted
to the kindness of Sir James Dewar at a time when liquid
air was not obtainable in Paris. I did not, however,
abandon this research, and it was in seeking for alloys
capable of a transformation similar to that observed by
Hopkinson that I was led to examine alloys possessing
a negatively abnormal coefficient of expansion. I may add
that I was able later perfectly to reproduce Hopkinson’s dis-
coveries and to extend them in various directions, but I am
unwilling to linger over the details in an article of a practical
character, these discoveries having hitherto been fruitless
of industrial applications. It will be sufficient to consider
NO. 1832, VOL. 71|
NATURE
[DECEMBER 8, 1904
later in a brief manner the common cause of the anomaly
observed by Hopkinson and of the phenomenon which I have
studied.
Reversible Alloys.—The alloys of iron and nickel which
contain more than 25 per cent. of the latter metal may or
may not be magnetic, according to the temperature at which
they are studied. The passage from one state to another
is gradual, the magnetism declining continuously as the
temperature is raised, whilst on lowering the temperature
the reappearance of the magnetism follows the same curve.
The temperature at which the magnetism totally disappears
depends on the composition of the alloy. For alloys con-
taining from 26 per cent. to 27 per cent. of nickel it is little
above o° C.; as the proportion of nickel increases it rises
very rapidly until a maximum, corresponding with 70 per
cent. of nickel, is reached at a temperature fixed by M.
Osmond at 550° C., when the curve falls to the transform-
ation point of nickel at 340°. This curve of variation is,
so to speak, an indicatrix of the properties of the alloys;
above the curve the expansion is abnormally great, but at
the moment of crossing it with descending temperature the
rate of the contraction diminishes, and a region is soon
reached in which the anomalous negative expansion exists.
Subsequently at a much lower temperature the normal
state is reached. The curve given in Fig. 1 shows the
general character of the variation for alloys of this class;
its phases are more or less elongated, the different regions
more or less inclined, but the curve always consists of a
region of negative abnormality with two confluent curves,
one side being characterised by large expansions at high
temperatures, the other by a normal expansion. The
abnormal region covers generally several hundred degrees.
ee
C7)
w
15 <0 —}
Fe [sata os =. ys
Vor It
We
5
of 1a alo 0-90 ~+‘tbo-n.ve
Fic. 2.—Coefficients of expansion at o” and so° C. of the various reversible
nickel-steels.
The temperature indicated by the abscissa of the point A
corresponds sensibly with the ordinate of the indicatrix in
question at the point belonging to the same alloy; in other
words, it is at this point that the magnetism finally dis-
appears as the temperature rises.
Curve 1 shows that it is impossible to assign a general
value to the expansion of a particular nickel-steel ; the value
chosen must always apply to a definite region and to a more
or less extensive range of temperature. If we consider, for
instance, the temperatures 0° and 50° C., the two curves
of Fig. 2 can be traced, representing at these two tempera-
tures the inclination of the tangent to curve 1 for all the
reversible alloys of iron and nickel. It is the minimum of
this curve which corresponds with invar, strictly so-called.
This minimum will be displaced toward the left for alloys
considered at lower temperatures and conversely.
It should be noted that beyond the minimum the curves
cross; we are then in the region corresponding to the left-
hand side of curve 1, where the true expansion diminishes
with rising temperature. This result of the measurements
is of interest because, independently of its being observed
for the first time, it has given rise to an interesting appli-
cation. :
Theoretical Views.—Without entering into the details of
a theory for the development of which I may refer to an
article in the Revue générale des Sciences (July 15 and 30,
1903), I will indicate at least the source of the phenomena
which have been described.
In the two transformations which take place successively
DecEMEER 8, 1904] /
NATURE
135
in iron in passing from the @ condition to the B and y con-
ditions of Osmond, the metal undergoes different apparent
changes, of which the most characteristic are the transitions,
in two distinct stages, into the non-magnetic state and a
A 7]
Fic. 3.—Expansion of iron.
sudden diminution of the specific volume of the iron at the
moment it reaches the higher condition. The expansion of
iron up to high temperatures is indicated by a curve such
as ABCD, Fig. 3. The addition of
a little carbon modifies this curve con-
siderably, as was observed especially
by M. Le Chatelier and MM. Charpy
and Grenet. The addition of nickel
begins to separate the change more
and more into two inverse transform-
ations, which commence at _ very
different temperatures (Hopkinson’s
phenomenon); as the proportion of
nickel increases, the change again be-
comes simple, but instead of being
sudden, as with pure iron, it is spread
out over a wide interval of tempera-
tures, at each of which the reciprocal
solution of iron in its two extreme
states and of nickel strives to attain
a stable equilibrium. For the greater
part the attainment of equilibrium is
practically instantaneous; it is much
more rapid, for example, than that
which is observed in an aqueous solu-
tion in which large crystals are
placed, and resembles rather that
which would occur in a_ saturated
solution containing an __ infinite
number of crystalline nuclei of the same density as
the solution. In a medium thus constituted equilibrium
is reached almost instantaneously. The perfect dissemin-
Fic. 4.—Scale at the end of a wire (the divisions are millimetres).
ation of iron throughout the nickel or the converse is
evidently a very important factor of the phenomenon. For
Hopkinson’s phenomenon the same transformation is still
produced, but with an enormous thermal hysteresis.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
It is necessary to mention, however, a retardation in a
minor part of the change which follows very slowly the
principal instantaneous phenomenon. This _ retardation,
due perhaps to a migration of some of the molecules engaged
in the change, is rendered visible in the case of invar,
strictly so-called, by a gradual elongation with time. It is
enormously accelerated by heating the alloy, for example,
at 100° CC.’ Nevertheless, when a bar of invar has been
heated thus it still increases in length very slightly after
several years at the ordinary temperature. At the end of
five or six years the total elongation is nearly 1/100 mm.
per metre, but the subsequent lengthening each year does
not exceed a fraction of a micron.
This phenomenon is of theoretical interest. Practically
it restricts the use of invar, and although, by systematic
heating, a much smaller limit of variation can be reached
than that above indicated, such a change prevents the alloy
from being employed in the preparation of standards of the
first order. It is necessary to point this out before proceed-
ing to consider the apparatus in which invar has introduced
decided elements of progress. For a consideration of other
qualities which may render it valuable I will refer to in-
formation already given in this Journal.” I can describe
here only a few of the uses of invar, and will choose three
of the most typical.®
Applications.
Standards of Length.—If the slight defect of stability
referred to above prevents the employment of invar in the
preparation of fundamental standards, the requirements of
which are infinite, a wide field of application still remains
in the construction of standards which can be referred from
time to time to fundamental units, and during these intervals
are employed at temperatures which are not readily ascer-
tained, as is the case with the majority of measuring instru-
ments which cannot be maintained in a liquid bath. With
a brass scale, for instance, an uncertainty of o-1 degree C.
Fic. 5.—Rolling of a 2 km. wire on an aluminium drum.
in the temperature introduces an error little less than 2m per
metre of length. But a rod of invar, thoroughly annealed
and aged, will not change to the same extent in an interval
of three years. The interpolation of definite values up to
five or six years can be made with even less uncertainty.
Measurements in which the instability of invar will intro-~
duce an unacceptable error are very rare; in the case of
standards prepared with the usual metals they would corre-
spond with errors of temperature which are exceeded in
nearly all ordinary measurements.
But the greatest claim that invar can make to utility is in
its application to geodesy; working in the open air under
extremely variable atmospheric conditions makes the deter-
1 The variation of the rapidity of the change with temperature seems to
follow van 't Hoff’s law of geometrical progression.
2 Narure, No. 1822, September 29, vol. Ixx. p. 527-
3 A more complete description will be found in my recent work, ‘* Les
Applications des Aciers au Nickel.”
3 6
mination of temperature very uncertain, and, on the other
hand, a control on returning, by means of a standard of
reference in a geodesical or metrological establishment, is
always possible. With this idea M. Benoit and myself, at
the request of General Bassot, have designed for the use
of the Geographical Service of the French Army a scale of
4 metres which is made of invar, and has been found so
practical by the surveyors that four other scales of the same
type have been constructed for other countries.
This scale has an H-section with a side of 40 mm.; its
direction lies in the plane of the neutral fibres, and it has
such rigidity that the flexure is quite admissible in an
accurate standard supported at only two points. As a
consequence, the scale can be placed on a light support
which is subjected to no especial conditions of rigidity, since
it has not, as in most of the older apparatus, to assure the
rigidity of the standard. The support which we have
adopted is an aluminium box that completely envelops
the scale and protects it from shocks, dust, and accidents
of all kinds, as well as from rapid changes of temperature.
The complete apparatus weighs 56 kg., whilst the old
form of Brunner, consisting of two scales and a rigid
support, weighs 72 kg., and affords no protection for the
standards.
For direct employment in the field, especially when the
apparatus has to be carried to great distances (the scale will,
Fic. 6.—Reading the position of the end scale of the wire against a movable mark.
in the near future, be used in the Andes), the facilities intro-
duced, compared with those existing in older apparatus, are
considerable, and if they constituted the sole progress in
geodesy they would deserve serious consideration. But the
use of invar has permitted a more complete transformation
in the measurements of bases. Twenty years ago M. Edw.
Jaderin made trial of a method which consisted of the use
of long wires stretched under a constant load and serving
the purpose of fixing between two limits of the base the
distance of a series of movable bench-marks, ranged
between these limits. The advantage of this method, the
rapidity of measurement, lightness of material, and facility
in the choice of ground, will be readily appreciated, but it
will also be recognised that the uncertainty of the tempera-
ture of the wires made the method doubtful in cases where
greater accuracy was required than that usual for the
ordinary requirements of topography or land-surveying.
M. Jaderin has diminished these uncertainties by employing
two wires of brass and steel respectively, by means of which
each of the ranges was successively measured. The differ-
ence observed for the two wires was taken as an indication
of their common temperature, whence the temperature of
the steel wire, considered as the principal standard, was
deduced. Without going into the details of the calculations
necessary to the method, it is easy to see that small in-
evitable errors influence the result; the real difference of
temperature of the two wires at the time of the measure-
ments and errors of reading reappear in the result, multi-
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[DxEcEMBER 8, 1904
plied by factors of a variable nature, but all greater than
unity.
These uncertainties disappear completely with a wire
made of invar, especially as the greatest care can be given to
the manufacture of comparatively small quantities of the
alloy when it is required for particular purposes in which
the price, between certain limits, is a secondary consider-
ation ; samples may be chosen so as finally to descend below
the minimum of the curve in Fig. 2 and cut the axis of
the abscisse. Zero and even negative expansions have thus
been realised. The specimens having a minimum ex-
pansion are strictly reserved for geodetic purposes, and
considerable quantities of wire have thus been obtained of
which it is unnecessary to know the temperature within
about 10 degrees even for the most precise measurements of
base lines. Commonly, a knowledge of the temperature
within 5 degrees is sufficient; an error of this magnitude
hardly makes a difference of 1 part in 1,000,000.
These advantages could not escape surveyors. As early
as 1898, M. Jaderin himself requested me to obtain for him
wires’ made of invar for the purpose of perfecting his
method, at a time when M. Benoit and myself were under-
taking, at the Bureau international des Poids et Mesures,
experiments to ascertain their suitability for such a pur-
pose. The trials were so encouraging that the following
year it was decided to equip the Swedish-Russian expedi-
tion to Spitsbergen with similar wires,
by means of which all its base lines
were measured. At this time, how-
ever, the experiments were not suffici-
ently advanced to obviate the need of
taking many precautions, and the ex-
pedition acted very wisely in not con-
sidering the wires as standards of
length, The true standards were two
iron bars, previously verified at the
Bureau international, which served to
measure the short bases (the Swedish
base was 96 metres long) on which
were standardised the wires of 24
metres, which subsequently served to
measure the true bases of several kilo-
metres in length. This was the first
practical trial of invar in the field, and,
according to the reports which I have
received from several members of the
expedition, notably from M. Jaderin,
the success exceeded every hope. Two
independent measurements of the
Swedish base showed a difference of
19 mm. per 10 kilometres, that is, of
1/500,000 without introducing any
correction for the temperature.
The same sense of safety in the employment of these
wires is felt after reading the report by M. Backlund, of
the Russian expedition, and of Commandant Bourgeois, on
the measurements of the French Survey in the territory
of the Republic of Ecuador. The difference in the measure-
ments of a base made in 1901 with a bimetallic scale and
with a wire of invar was 1/3,300,000; the agreement is so
good that it must be attributed partly to chance, but such
chances are rare when the systematic elimination of errors
has not been pushed to extremes.
In any case a more complete study of the wires of invar
became necessary, and, on the ground of the studies already
commenced by M. Benoit and myself, the International
Committee of Weights and Measures entrusted to us, at
the end of 1900, on the request of the International
Geodetic Association, a detailed investigation of this
question.
We therefore erected against a thick basement wall, pro-
tected by the building of the laboratory of the bureau, a
series of bench-marks spacing out a length of 24 metres at
intervals of 4 metres, measured by means of an invar
standard. On the outside of the last uprights are two
pulleys on ball bearings over which pass two cords that
carry weights of 10 kilograms and are attached to the wire
on which observations are to be made at the distance of
1 Th ese wires were manufactured at the steel works of Imphy belonging
to the Société de Commentry-Fourchambault and Decazeville, by whose
collaboration I was enabled to carry out the work described in this article.
DeEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATURE £37
-.
the extreme marks. These wires carry at their extremities
scales of invar, having the form represented in Fig. 4, with
their edges in the same line as the axis of the wire. This
arrangement, somewhat complicated in appearance, 1s
necessary to ensure constancy of length, whatever be the
inclination of the scale in a transverse direction.
6
fic. 7.—General form of the curve of change of Young's modulus for a
reversible nickel-steel.
During four years measurements have been made weekly
with a great number of wires which have been submitted
to different treatment. Owing to the complexity of the
subject, more than a hundred thousand comparisons
between the wires and the base were necessary to elucidate
all the questions relating to the stability of the wires and
the precision that they guarantee. After four years, and
after the method of treatment of the wires has been gradually
modified so as to ensure the greatest possible degree of
stability, we can emphatically assert the excellence of the
method of measurement by wires constructed of invar.
When a wire of the usual diameter of 1-65 mm. is stretched
by loads varying from an insignificant weight to that of
20 kilograms, the permanent elongation which it undergoes
is not measurable; moreover, it can be rolled as often as
desired on a drum (Fig. 5) of sufficient diameter (at least
50 cm.), or kept rolled for months without showing on
subsequent measurement a variation greater than that due
to errors of observation. Several wires which were
measured at the bureau were returned after use in the field ;
in the beginning, variations in the length of the order 1 in
200,000 were observed in several instances, but recently the
constancy of the length has become much more decided.
Whilst reserving the results obtained by long trials in severe
climates, it may be concluded from the results obtained in
the laboratory that a surveying expedition equipped with
several wires constructed of invar and subject to mutual
control will be able to measure several long bases without
fearing a departure from accuracy in the wires greater
than that permissible in such measurements, assuming, of
course, that the wires are always handled with due care.
The considerable increase in the accuracy of geodetic
measurements, caused by the substitution of wires of invar
for those of steel or brass, necessitated a corresponding
improvement in the apparatus. We have therefore proposed
certain new principles which have been realised in instru-
ments constructed with the aid of M. Carpentier, of which
a provisional model has been already mentioned in Nature."
A description of the final types which have been adopted
would carry me too far; Fig. 6, which indicates one of the
measures, may take its place. It will be sufficient to add
that, thanks to the new material which has been discovered,
the measurement of a base by means of wires answers all
1 June 2, 1904, vol. Ixx. p. 104.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
the needs of a surveyor; the relative error of the base has
fallen below that of the angles; bases can be measured
across broken ground, cultivated land, streams and rivers.
Above all these advantages, the complete staff, including
auxiliaries, need not exceed ten men for a rate of progress
of 5 kilometres per day. This arrangement, compared with
that by which ten years ago fifty men using rules and
| microscopes could advance 500 metres a day, exhibits an
economy of 98 per cent.! To-day the measurement of a
base with all the accuracy required in geodesy costs little
more than chaining, and the proof has been so thorough
that the French Survey finds its advantageous to measure
all its bases by the new method.
The advantages of measurements by wires have been
quickly recognised by surveyors. Several departments of
survey have requested the Bureau international to
standardise wires suitable for base measurements; we have
thus had the satisfaction of examining the apparatus for
use by the Argentine Republic, Australia, Cape Colony,
France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Roumania, Russia,
Servia, and Switzerland.
This simplification in the fundamental measurements of
the survey will lead to a reversal in the future of the re-
spective positions of the base and angular measurements.
In the old method of surveying measurements of bases were
reduced as much as possible and angles multiplied inde-
finitely; in the new geodesy angles will be controlled by
frequent measurement of numerous long bases. __ This
general plan has already been introduced in the United
States in the fine work carried out during the determination
of the length of the 98° meridian.
Horology and Chronometry.—The possibility of con-
structing a compensated pendulum with its rod of invar
is so obvious that it is hardly necessary to emphasise it.
It will be sufficient to observe that the slight change which
invar undergoes is not for this purpose a serious defect.
As it is necessary to determine the rate of a clock at fre-
quent intervals, variations in the daily rate of the order
ASD
Fic. 8.—Diagram of the compensation of a chronometer withia steel-brass
balance.
of a few hundredths of a second in a year will be merged
in the variation of the longer period, and will give rise to
an error hardly to be feared; but other applications will
need some explanation. ’
In order not to prolong the preliminary part of this article,
I omitted to mention a singular property of the nickel-steels,
138
NATURE
| DECEMBER 8, 1904
which for ordinary watch-making is of prime importance.
To resume those considerations. At the end of 1896 I found
that when an alloy containing 24 per cent. of nickel passes
from the non-magnetic to the magnetic state, its modulus of
elasticity undergoes a diminution of 10 per cent. This change
is the more remarkable inasmuch as the limit of elasticity
is simultaneously raised, as was shown by Hopkinson. I
was intending to study the same change in invar when
M. Thury at Geneva and M. Paul Perret at La Chaux
de Fonds, after my first publication, established for the
alloy the singular fact of a positive variation of Young’s
modulus with increasing temperature. A systematic in-
vestigation of the change by M. Perret and myself led us
to results which, completed by the theoretical views which
were developed, permitted me to assign to the total variation
of the modulus of a nickel steel endowed with reversible
properties a course indicated by the curve in Fig. 7. Point
A has the same significance as in the curve of Fig. 1, and
two regions of variation in a normal sense are shown,
between which lies a region of abnormal variations con-
nected with the first by two confluent curves.
The existence of these confluent curves has a great im-
portance for horology. The necessity of fitting good
watches with a bimetallic compensation balance arises
=] Al.
Fic. 9.—Compensation with nickel-steel-brass balance.
almost exclusively from the need of securing comparable
rates at different temperatures owing to the variation in
the modulus of elasticity of the steel spring. This variation
is sufficiently great to cause a retardation of five minutes
in the day in a watch fitted with a steel spring and a mono-
metallic balance, the temperature of which undergoes a
change from 0° to 30° C. The employment in the spring of
a nickel-steel the properties of which are represented by
one of the confluent curves (that is, of an alloy having
Young’s modulus a maximum or minimum at the average
temperature to which the watches are submitted) will
obviate the need of a costly compensation. The com-
pensation is, of course, not perfect; the difference between
the form of the curve and a straight line, and still more, the
difficulty of obtaining an alloy passing through a maximum
or minimum at ordinary temperatures, limit the application
of these springs to ordinary watches, and preclude their
use in accurate chronometers. But in their own province
they represent a real advance, as they reduce the error of
an uncompensated watch by 90 per cent., and the cost of
watches which were approximately compensated by a rough
balance by 6d. in the shilling. The trade of watchmaking
gains as much by direct economy as from an increase in
NO, 1832, WOE. 71
quality; the annual saving is certainly 10,000l., and is
likely to become 20,000]. or 30,0001. Competition, more-
over, is so keen in the trade that a diminution of prices
passes at once from the manufacturer to the consumer, so
that the public gains the whole advantage of it.
Another application in chronometry, although its advan-
tages from a monetary aspect are insignificant, seems to me
of greater interest, because it appeals to a higher range
of thought, and represents an advance in a region in which
perfection had apparently been reached.
In 1833 the celebrated English watchmaker Dent dis-
covered that a chronometer regulated for two extreme
temperatures gains at intermediate ones, and the correction
of ‘‘ Dent’s error,’’ as it is called, has exercised the in-
genuity and invention of the best watchmakers. In England
particularly, the country par excellence of marine chrono-
metry, great efforts have been made to introduce correc-
tions for this error. The auxiliary systems of Loseby, of
Kullberg and others have permitted the attainment of
great accuracy, but at the expense of a considerable increase
in price and of complications which are not exempt from
inconveniences. The cause of Dent’s error is almost
entirely the non-linear variation of the elasticity of the
steel of which the hair spring is composed. The curve OH,
Fig. 8, represents this variation. The action of the balance
is proportional to the difference of the expansions of the
metals composing the bimetallic ring; if we represent the
expansions of steel and brass by the curves OS and OB it
25
42
0° for NandN~
Ae
0° for H
Fic. 1o.—Results obtained at Neuchatelfand Hamburg with Nardin
cbronometers fitted with nickel-steel-brass balances.
will be seen on referring to the numerical formula whence
these curves are obtained that, whilst their average inclin-
ation is very different, the variation of this inclination is
nearly the same. The variation of the difference of inclin-
ation is therefore nearly zero, and the curve giving the
difference of the expansions practically becomes the straight
line OD. The rate of the chronometer at different tempera-
tures is given by the algebraical sum of the ordinates of
the curves OH (natural variation) and OD (corrective fune-
tion), that is, by the curve OR. Such is the reason of
Dent’s error, which has been corrected hitherto by adding
to the natural corrective function of the balance a term of
great curvature given by an auxiliary system. >
But the same result would be attained by substituting for
one of the metals of the double ring another metal or alloy of
which the increase of expansion is much greater than that of
brass, if that metal is rejected, or much less than that of
steel, and preferably negative, if the brass is retained. The
curve of Fig. 1 offers in this respect numerous possibilities.
Practical reasons lead one to retain the brass and to
associate with it an alloy having an expansion which is a
retarded function of the temperature. Fig. 9, in which the
curve OS belonging to steel has been replaced by ONS
referring to nickel-steel, shows a curve OD that can be
rendered symmetrical with regard to OH; the sum OR of
the curves is then always zero, and the problem has a
practical solution.
I had established this theory in the year 1899, when 'wo
DecEMBER 8, 1904]
of the principal Swiss watchmakers, M. P. Nardin, of
Le Locle, and M. P. Ditisheim, of La Chaux de Fonds,
expressed a wish to make a trial of the new balance.
first attempt gave so perfect a result that the balance has
not since been modified ; its adoption by Swiss watchmakers
was very rapid, and to-day it is employed in the majority
of their best timepieces. It was with a pocket chronometer
fitted with this balance that M. P. Ditisheim beat in 1903
all records at Kew with a total of 94-9 points, the previous
best being 92-7. The compensation was awarded 19-7
points, the maximum of ideal perfection being 20. The
dark-lined curve of Fig. 10 shows the theoretical variations
of a perfect chronometer compensated by the usual method ;
the curves N, N’, and H represent the average results
obtained at Neuchatel with two groups comprising in all
sixteen chronometers, and at Hamburg with six chrono-
meters, all made by M. Nardin.
Incandescent Lamps and Crookes’s Tubes.—In con-
clusion, a few words may be given to an application, less
scientific in its nature than the preceding, but likely to be
welcomed by all who regret the systematic destruction of
the world’s store of platinum. The curve in Fig. 2 shows
that two nickel-steels of definite composition have an ex-
pansion equal to that of glass; but only one of these can
be practically considered, namely, that containing about
45 per cent. of nickel; the alloy which contains 29 per cent.,
at a slightly higher temperature passes the point A of
Fig. 1 and enters the region of high expansion.
For a metal to fuse in glass it is indispensable, but in-
sufficient, that it should possess the same expansibility as
glass; fortunately the alloy containing 45 per cent. of nickel
possesses all the other properties which are necessary, pro-
vided that it be not unduly oxidised during the softening
of the glass. As a matter of fact, several manufacturers of
incandescent lamps have adopted, under the name flatinite,
this welcome substitute for platinum, thereby economising
several hundred kilograms of the precious metal. If this
economy spreads, a ton of platinum may be saved annually
for science and those industries in which its use is indis-
pensable.
Conclusions.
It is time to conclude this over-long article. The appli-
cations which have been described are not the only ones
which might be predicted or have been attempted with these
curious alloys, the properties of which for a time seemed
so paradoxical that a number of physicists and metallurgists
refused to believe in their existence. All the applications
which to-day give new resources to science and new
economies, representing large sums, to industry arise from
a peculiar phenomenon of equilibrium in the mutual solution
of two isomorphous metals; that is one interesting side of
the question. There is another on which I would insist in
concluding ; it is that these results have been obtained as
a sequel to a long series of delicate measurements in which
the thousandth of a millimetre was the ordinary unit, and
without which no discovery in this domain would have been
possible. Cu. Ep. GuILLAUME.
SHOWER OF ANDROMEDIDS FROM BIELA’S
COMET (?)
wrt certainly appears to have been a well defined
shower of Andromedids occurred on November 21
and following nights to November 28. Yet this display, if
it really represented the débris of Biela’s comet, like the
meteors seen in November 1872, 1885, 1892, and 1899, was
not true to its time, for no return was to be expected, in
ordinary circumstances, until 1905 or 1906. The period is
about 6-7 years, and if the shower displayed itself this year
it must mean that the swarm has been much disturbed, or
that the meteors are rapidly distributing themselves round
the orbit, and will soon form a continuous stream, visible
annually as the earth intersects it in the third week of
November.
Dr. Schulhof and Prof. Abelman (Astr. Nach., 3516)
pointed out some years ago that a convulsion of the orbit-
motion of the Andromedids would occur in 1901, as Jupiter
would approach the group to within 0-5 of the earth’s
distance from the sun in March of the year named. The
effect would be a displacement of the node to the extent of
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
NATURE
The.
139
6°, which would bring the maximum on November 17, or
ten days earlier than in 1872 and 1885.
The Rev. W. F. A. Ellison, of Enniscorthy, Ireland,
writes me that the most remarkable meteoric shower he
witnessed in November was furnished by the Andromedids.
He was extremely surprised to find the radiant of this stream
very active on November 21. At 7 p.m. he counted 8
meteors in fifteen seconds, and although this rate was not
maintained, he continued to observe numerous Andromedids -
until midnight. From 7h. to 8h. 24 were seen, from 8h. to
gh. 22, after which the number decreased. Until
November 28 meteors continued to fall from this radiant,
and many of them were objects of remarkable brilliancy,
quite equal to the Leonids, but the motions were slower
and the paths shorter. The prevailing colour was pure
white, the trains being greenish. The radiant seemed
further north than Mr. Ellison expected to find it, the posi-
tion being at about 21°+50°.
The following are some of the larger meteors recorded
by Mr. Ellison :—
Nov. 21. 8h. 2m. G.M.T. = Vega. From a point a little
above a Cygni exactly across 6 and about 15°
further, directed precisely from Vega.
» 21. 8h. 49m. =Q. Low down in west where no stars
could be seen to fix the path, but evidently
Andromedid.
» 21. gh. 8m.=1. From 337°+7° to 329°—7°.
», 21. 9h. 16m.=%. From 354°+30° to 348°+ 18°.
» 26. 7h. 35m.=9. From 52°+27 to 64°+84°. Dura-
tion 2 sec., vivid flash at end. q
» 28. Sh. 50m.> 9. From about 215°+50° to 215° +46"
Very short path, swift and flashing. Impossible
to fix path accurately.
It seems desirable to inquire whether any other observers
noticed an abundance of meteors on about November 21,
and if so whether their paths were directed from the usual
radiant point of the Andromedids.
W. F. DENNING.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Campripce.—Mr. J. H. Jeans, of Trinity, has been
appointed university lecturer in mathematics in the place
of Prof. Macdonald, now of Aberdeen University.
The late Mr. G. T. B. Wigan has bequeathed to the
university some goool., the interest of which is to be used
for the purpose of promoting scientific education and re-
search. It is proposed to divide the fund equally between
the board for physics and chemistry and the board for
biology and geology. Each board will administer the in-
come of its moiety subject to the condition that no portion
is to be applied to one specified purpose for longer than five
years at a time.
The name of the late Frank McClean, F.R.S., the founder
of the Isaac Newton studentships in astronomy, and a
generous donor to the observatory, has been added to the
university roll of benefactors. :
Dr. Donald MacAlister, the representative of the uni-
versity on the General Medical Council for the last fifteen
years, has been elected president of the council in succession
to Sir William Turner, K.C.B., principal of Edinburgh
University.
Mr. F. F. Blackman, of St. John’s, has been appointed
reader in botany in the place of Mr. Francis Darwin.
A university lectureship in botany, stipend 1ool., is vacant
by the resignation of Mr. F. F. Blackman, recently
appointed reader. Application is to be made to the Vice-
Chancellor by December 17.
Prof. E. Waymouth Reid, F.R.S., has been approved
for the degree of doctor of science.
Prof. Woodhead has obtained from friends resident in
or connected with Huddersfield a sum of more than r6ool.
for the endowment of a Huddersfield lectureship in special
pathology. The general board proposes that the gifts be
gratefully accepted by the university, and that the lecture-
ship be forthwith established.
The museums and lecture rooms syndicate reports that
140
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 8, 1904
the zoological collections have outgrown their present
accommodation, and suggests that a new zoological museum
should be arranged for on the site recently acquired from
Downing College, in the neighbourhood of the new Sedg-
wick Geological Museum.
A new diploma is proposed in mining engineering for
students who have resided nine terms and have attained a
prescribed standard in certain subjects of the natural
sciences and mechanical sciences tripos.
The board of geographical studies has published a report
submitting regulations for the special examination in geo-
graphy for the ordinary B.A. degree, and for the diploma
in geography. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and
the standard contemplated is obviously high. The regula-
tions are given at length in the University Reporter, pp.
301-3. Dr. D. MacAlister and the Right Hon. Sir G. D. T.
Goldie, K.C.M.G., have been appointed members of the
board.
The memoir of Mr. A. Wood, advanced student of
Emmanuel College, on the spontaneous ionisation of air
in closed vessels, and its causes, has been approved as
qualifying for the certificate of research.
The Rev. Francis Bashforth, second wrangler 1843,
formerly fellow of the college, and distinguished for his
researches in ballistics, has been elected to an honorary
fellowship at St. John’s College.
Lorp Reay will distribute the prizes to the students of the
Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, on December 9.
Pror. HeLe-SHaw has accepted the post of principal
organiser under the Transvaal Technical Council for one
year, and has in consequence resigned the chair of professor
of engineering at Liverpool.
Tue registrar of the University of Leeds announced, at
a Mansion House meeting held at York on November 30
in support of the university, that 61,825]. has been sub-
scribed toward the 100,000l. required to make the necessary
additions to the buildings and to increase the endowment
of the university, so as to satisfy the financial requirements
laid down by the Committee of the Privy Council.
Lorp Lonponprrry will receive a deputation from the
Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United
Kingdom on Monday next, when the following resolution
on commercial education will be submitted :—‘‘ That in
order to retain our industrial positions and to introduce
into this country such further industries as may be profit-
ably developed it is absolutely necessary to establish or
acquire public secondary schools of the highest standard,
and to provide sufficient inducements by bursaries, exhibi-
tions, scholarships, or otherwise to make the efficient boys
stay long enough to take full advantage of the provisions
made for higher technical and higher commercial educa-
tion.”
Tue third annual meeting of the North of England Educa-
tion Conference will be held in the St. George’s Hall, Liver-
pool, on January 6 and 7, 1905. The subject to be discussed
on the first morning is ‘‘ Leaving Certificates.”’ Lord
Stanley of Alderley will preside, and papers will be read
by Mr. G. Alexander, Mr. Owen Owen, and the Rey. J. B.
Lancelot. The discussion will be opened by Sir Oliver
Lodge and Mr. G. Sharples. In the afternoon of the same
day there will be three separate conferences dealing re-
spectively with “‘ Manual Training,’’ the ‘‘ Teaching of
Geography,’’ and ‘‘ Child Study.’ Principal Reichel will
read a paper on the first subject, Mr. Mackinder on the
second subject, and Prof. Sherrington on the third. The
subject for discussion by the conference as a whole on the
morning of the second day is ‘‘ Scholarships, with Special
Reference to the Coordination of Education.’’ Sir William
Anson will take the chair, and papers will be read by Miss
S, A. Burstall and Dr. T. J. Macnamara. Messrs. Gore
and Edwards will open the discussion. In the afternoon
the conference will be divided into three parts to discuss
the ‘‘ Teaching of Domestic Science,’’ ‘‘ School Games,
with Special Reference to Day Schools,’’ and the ‘‘ Teach-
ing of English.’’ Domestic science will be dealt with in
papers by Miss Fanny Calder and Miss E. Pycroft, school
games by Messrs. J. L. Paton and F. W. Augell, and the
teaching of English by Miss E. Drummond and Mr. G. C.
No. 1832, VOL. 71]
Steel. An exhibition of geographical appliances, apparatus,
maps, books, &c., will also be held on the days during which
the conference meets. :
From a long list of recent appointments in such journals
as the Physikalische Zeitschrift, l’Enseignement mathé-
matique, and similar sources, we extract the following pro-
fessorships, mainly mathematical and physical :—Germany,
Austria, &c.—S. A. Arrhenius (Stockholm) for meteorology
and cosmical physics at Berlin; H. Battermann for
astronomy, and directorship of observatory at Konigsberg ;
K. Cranz (Stuttgart) at technical college, Charlottenburg,
Berlin; O. Eggert (Berlin) for geodesy at technical college,
Danzig; Dr. Furtwangler for mathematics at agricultural
college, Bonn-Poppelsdorf ; Grassmann (Halle) at Giessen;
L. Hefter (Bonn) at technical college, Aachen; G. Lands-
berg (Heidelberg) extraordinarius for mathematics at
Breslau; K. Oertel for astronomy at Munich; R. Prantl
(Hanover) extraordinary at Géttingen; Rohn (Dresden) for
descriptive geometry at Leipzig; C. Runge (Hanover) at
Gottingen; K. Schreber at Greifswald; J. Sommer for
mathematics, technical college, Danzig; P. Stackel (Kiel)
at technical college, Aachen, to replace Prof. van Man-
goldt, who is transferred to Danzig; Vahlen (Kénigsberg)
at Greifswald; Wellenstein (Giessen) extraordinary for
mathematics, Strassburg. France.—Cartan for calculus at
Nancy; Cotton for mechanics at Grenoble; Drach for
mechanics at Poitiers; Lecornu for mechanics at poly-
technic college, Paris, in place of the late M. Sarrau;
H. Poincaré for astronomy at polytechnic, Paris; Raffy for
analytical geometry, Paris; Jules Tannery for calculus at
Paris. Italy—F. Guardacci (Florence) for geodesy at
Bologna; Mich. Rajna for astronomy, and directorship of
observatory, Bologna; in addition, F. Amadeo has been
appointed recognised teacher for history of mathematics at
Naples. America.—G. H. Hallett and C. A. Holden (extra-
ordinary), Pennsylvania; D. N. Lehmer (extraordinary),
California; James MacMahon, Cornell; Robert E. Moritz
for mathematics, Washington; H. L. Rietz (extraordinary),
Illinois; J. H. Tanner, Cornell; A. W. Whitney, Cali-
fornia; besides the following instructorships in mathe-
matics :—J. W. Bradshaw, Michigan; A. B. Coble, Balti-
more; L. C. Karpinsky, Michigan; E. B. Lytle, Illinois;
C. L. F. Moore, Massachusetts; A. Ranum, Wisconsin ;
F. C. Touton, Illinois.
THE annual dinner of the past and present students of the
Queen’s Faculty of Medicine in the University of Birming-
ham was held on November 29. In proposing the toast of
““The Medical School,’’ Sir F. Treves said :—‘‘ It is very
much to be regretted that very little heed is given to science
in this country. There was a time when the man of science
—Galileo, for example—was cast into prison; now he is
simply allowed to starve. There is no kind of encourage-
ment offered to science. In every university throughout the
country the same story is told. I think that those men
who devote themselves to science in this country deserve
rewards infinitely beyond any they have ever received.’”
Mr. Chamberlain, who was present in his capacity of Chan-
cellor of the university, in proposing the toast of ‘* Students,
Past and Present,’’ referred to the remarks of Sir F. Treves.
Mr. Chamberlain said :—‘‘I am afraid that for all time
to come probably science, and the conferring of great
benefits upon one’s fellow-creatures, must be, to a large
extent, its own reward. But the pursuit of research is an
impossibility so long as the actual means of existence are
wanting, and the professional practitioner when he starts.
is, in very many cases at any rate, so tied by the necessity
of providing an actual subsistence for himself and his family
that anything like original and continuous research is in
his case impossible. That can only take place when there
are in this country schools established where for a year or
two, perhaps in their younger time, men of ability and of
interest in school subjects can be brought together under
capable heads, and can carry out on the most extended scale
that series of researches which already, in the hands of some
of our most distinguished men of science, have led to such
important results.’’ During the course of his remarks Mr.
Chamberlain also said that three classes of people are essential
to the success of a modern university—students, teachers,
pious benefactors. ‘* Unfortunately,’’ he said, ‘* we have
fewer pious benefactors in this country than they have in
DecEMBER 8, 1904]
>
the United States of America, where, by their munificent
donations, counting by millions, they have covered the land
with a net-work of universities which have brought higher
education within the reach of almost every citizen. I hope
the time is coming when men who have more than they
want, more, perhaps, than is good for them, can find no
better opportunity of disposing of the surplus than by bene-
factions which not only are of present usefulness, but, what
is of more importance, are of permanent advantage to the
community amongst which they live.”
On Thursday last, December 1, the prizes and certificates
gained by students of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute
during the session 1903-4 were distributed by Sir William
White, K.C.B., F.R.S., when the chair was taken by Sir
Owen Roberts, chairman of the governing body. Sir
William White, in the course of his address, said that
during his recent visit to America he had had the oppor-
tunity of studying the methods of technical education in
vogue there, and he must certainly confess that both
America and Canada can teach us a great deal so far as
technical colleges in general, and the interest taken by
employers of labour in the future employment of men trained
in technical institutions, is concerned. The essential
advantage which America and Canada, and also Germany,
possess over this country is that they are all imbued with
the idea that it is a wise investment on the part of a nation
to provide for all kinds of education from the elementary
up to the highest. It is almost impossible to make expendi-
ture on education too lavish, provided it is well directed,
if the nation is to be well educated. This country, in his
opinion, will never reach a truly healthy condition until
every man or woman, in whatever position the accident of
birth may place them, shall, if they possess the capabilities,
have also the opportunities of self-culture. Nevertheless,
there is one respect, he thought, in which this country
stands supreme. It is in the provision of evening classes for
the, working man and the working woman who, from the
very nature of their circumstances, are compelled to work
all day to get a living. Employers should assist these
educational classes more than they do at present. The
London and South-Western Railway Company are doing
what may well be done by other large employers. They
grant to the apprentices in their works at Nine Elms the
necessary time to attend the early morning classes at the
Battersea Polytechnic. The apprentices are allowed to go
to these classes twice a_week, and are paid for the time
that they are away from the company’s service, on the
condition that they do a certain amount of study at home,
thus completing in the evening the training which they
receive during the day at the polytechnic. This is not
altogether an experiment. The Admiralty has done the
same thing for fifty years or more, with the result that
the Admiralty, from the apprentices in its own dockyards,
has trained not only many of its principal shipbuilding
officers and naval architects for the Royal dockyards and
the Admiralty service, but has also furnished to the private
shipbuilding industry of the country some of its most
famous shipbuilders. The leaders and managers in those
great private establishments to-day are in no small pro-
portion drawn from men who were trained in the Admiralty
service under the system which has been in operation, and
by which every apprentice who cares to improve his mind
has the opportunity to do so. If employers will give the
utmost encouragement to institutions like the Sir John
Cass Institute, they will be rewarded by having capable
men on their staff who will know the principles of their
business.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpbon.
Royal Society, November 17.—‘‘ The Electrical Con-
ductivity and other Properties of Sodium Hydroxide in
Aqueous Solution, as Elucidating the Mechanism of Con-
duction.’? By W. R. Bousfield, K.C., M.P., and T. M.
Lowry, D.Sc.
The original object of the research was to investigate
the decay, as the temperature rises, in the “ ionising ’’ |
NATURE
properties of water, which is manifest in the inflected
No. 1832, VOL. 71]
141
character of the curves expressing the relation between
temperature and conductivity in aqueous solutions of the
alkalies.‘ The principal results of the investigation are as
follows :-—
(1) In the most dilute solutions, in which ‘‘ ionisation ”’
is nearly complete, and again in the most concentrated
solutions, the curves expressing the relation between
molecular conductivity and temperature in aqueous solutions
of sodium hydroxide are not inflected between o° C. and
100° C. In each case the form of the curve appears to be
determined mainly by the rapid changes of viscosity which
accompany changes of temperatures. Moderately dilute
solutions give curves that are inflected between 0° C. and
100° C. ; the temperature of inflection reaches a minimum, at
48° C., in the case of a normal (4 per cent.) solution, but
rises to 100° C. when the concentration is raised to 30 per
cent.
(2) The inflected conductivity-temperature curves can be
represented by the formula
Ke Kg = Po] Py (1+ 42)" e~ 9%.
This formula is applicable to conductivity-temperature curves
of all kinds, and gives expression, not only to the inflection
now under consideration, but also to the maximum con-
ductivity and the second inflection in the general con-
ductivity-temperature curve.”
(3) The maximum conductivity of caustic soda at 18° C.
is 0-3490 in a 15 per cent. solution, the value given by
Kohlrausch being 0-3462. At higher temperatures the
maximum conductivity is considerably greater, rising to
more than 1-4 at 100° C., and occurs in solutions of greater
concentration.
(4) The viscosity of a 50 per cent. solution of sodium
hydroxide is approximately seventy times as great as that of
water. The influence of this factor may be to some extent
eliminated by dividing the molecular conductivity by the
fluidity, and this ratio it is proposed to call the ‘* intrinsic
conductivity ’’ of the solution. Whilst the molecular con-
ductivity of sodium hydroxide solutions decreases steadily
as the concentration is increased, the intrinsic conductivity
falls to a minimum at about 8 per cent. NaOH, and then
rises, until at 50 per cent. NaOH, the value is considerably -
greater than in the most dilute solutions. It is believed
that this increase is due to the fact that liquid soda is an
electrolyte, per se, and that, in concentrated solutions, the
current is conveyed partly by the soda alone, as if it were
in the fused state.
(5) In re-determining the densities of aqueous solutions
of sodium hydroxide, quantities of sodium, amounting to
about 150 grams at a time, were weighed, and converted
quantitatively into concentrated solutions of sodium
hydroxide by the action of steam in a platinum vessel.
Eleven determinations, made with six different standard
solutions, gave, as the density of a 50 per cent. solution
at 18° C., the value 1-5268, with an average error of 0-ooo1.
Solutions of known concentrations having been prepared by
dilution, their densities were determined with a probable
error of not more than o-oo01; the values recorded by
previous observers were derived from solutions standardised
by titration only, and appear to contain errors in the third
or even in the second place of decimals.
(6) In the formula
pPr=potat+ BP+ yh,
which represents the influence of temperature on the density
of water and aqueous solutions of soda, the coefficient of
vanishes when a concentration of 12 per cent. NaOH is
reached, whilst the coefficient of t* vanishes at 42 per cent.
NaOH; at the latter concentration there is a simple linear
relationship between density and temperature.
(7) The molecular volume of sodium hydroxide in dilute
aqueous solution has a large negative value, a litre of water
dissolving 140 grams of sodium hydroxide at o° C., 100
grams at 18° C., or 60 grams at 50° C., without in-
creasing in volume. The molecular volume does not in-
crease continuously as the temperature rises, but reaches a
maximum value at about 70° C. In a so per cent. solution
the temperature has little effect on the molecular volume,
the extreme variation being only about ro per cent.
1 Compare Roy. Soc. Proc., 1992, vol. Ixxi. pp. 42-54-
2 Lac. cit., Pp. 52
142
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 8, 1904
Entomological Society, November 16.—Frof. E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Mr. H. St. J.
Donisthorpe exhibited the second recorded British speci-
men of Orchestes sparsus, Fahr., taken by him on August 28
in the New Forest.—Mr. H. W. Andrews exhibited speci-
mens of Atherix crassipes, Mg., from the New Forest, the
only previously recorded locality in Britain being near
Ticehurst, Sussex.—Mr. G. O. Sloper exhibited aberrant
forms of Melitaea athalia from Luan, Switzerland, and
Martigny, in which the tendency of the black markings to
supersede the fulvous was particularly noticeable-—The
President exhibited cases containing Diptera, and a case
containing the skins of African Sphingid larva, dried in
botanical paper, and after seventy years still preserving
their colours, from the Burchell collection in the Hope
Museum, Oxford.—Mr. C. O. Waterhouse exhibited a
gall of some lepidopterous insect found on the califate
bushes in Patagonia. The gall resembled that of Cynips
kollari, but was hollow, the walls being about } inch in
thickness. The circular door prepared by the larva was
about % inch in diameter. The pupa was lying free, with-
out any silk cocoon. It was suggested that the insect was
perhaps allied to C&cocecis.—Mr. G. H. Kenrick com-
municated a paper entitled ‘‘ Natural Selection Applied to
a Concrete Case.’’—Mr. J. C. Kershaw communicated
papers on enemies of butterflies in south China, and a life-
history of Gerydus sinensis.—Mr. Nelson Annandale com-
municated a paper on the eggs and early stages of a
Coreid bug, probably Daladey acuticosta, with a note on
its hymenopterous parasites.
Royal Microscopical Society, November 16.—Sir Ford
North, F.R.S., in the chair.—Mr. Hugh C. Ross exhibited
and described a new electric warm stage of his invention.—
Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited two new designs of the Nernst
lamp suitable for use with a current of 100 and 200 volts
respectively, adapted for use with the microscope, and fitted
with ground glass or blue glass fronts and mounted so as
to be used at any height or angle required.—A paper on
theories of microscopic vision, a vindication of the Abbe
theory, which contained some new views on the subject,
was read by Mr. Conrady.
Linnean Society, November 17.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Mr. H. E. H. Smediey
exhibited forty-one models of Palzeozoic seeds and cones.
The models of the seeds show the complexity of their internal
structure, whilst the models of the synthetically re-con-
structed calamitean and other cones display the high
organisation of the vascular cryptogams of Paleozoic times.
-——Note on the shape of the stems of plants: Lord Avebury.
The author pointed out that while most plants had round
stems, in some they were triangular, some quadrangular,
&c., but that, so far as he knew, no attempt had been made
to explain these differences. He thought they could, how-
ever, be accounted for on mechanical principles. In build-
ing, when the main object was to meet a strain in one
direction, the well known girder was the most economical
disposition of material. In a tree-stem it was necessary to
resist strain coming from all directions, and the woody
tissues acted as a circular series of girders. In herbs with
opposite leaves the strains were mainly in two directions,
and were met by two opposite girders, thus giving the
quadrangular stem. ‘Taking our native flora he showed that
all herbs with quadrangular stems had opposite leaves, and
as a rule herbs with opposite leaves had quadrangular stems.
Sedges had triangular stems and grasses round stems, and
while sedges had the leaves in threes, those of grasses were
distichous. Pentagonal stems might be accounted for in a
similar way, and incidentally this threw light on the petals
of so many flowers. Thus plants had adopted, millions of
years ago, principles of construction which have gradually
been worked out by the skill and science of our architects
and engineers.—Observations on some undescribed or little
known species of Hemiptera Homoptera of the family
Membracide: G. Bowdler Buckton. Prof. Poulton has
explained the significance of the strange forms of some of
the Membracidz by their dependence on environment, and
the requirements of mimicry; and the Rev. Canon Fowler
has also given information respecting the economics of
the species, and their maintenance during the struggle for
life. The present paper may be regarded as supplementary
to Canon Fowler’s work on the Membracidze in the
NO. 1832, VOL. 71 |
“* Biologia Centrali-Americana,’’ and to Mr. Buckton’s
monograph, in which latter work an attempt has been made
to classify the family so far as at present known. The
specific descriptions are chiefly founded on specimens from
the museums of Madrid and Brussels. Most of the new
species are from Mexico and Central America, six from
Africa, and one each from India, Ceylon, Sumatra, and the
Philippines. _ Mr. Buckton then characterises twenty-four
new species, five of which are made the types of new genera,
and the paper concludes with general observations on the
habits, economy, and transformations of the Membracide.
Physical Society, November 25.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The measurement of small
differences of phase: Dr. W. E. Sumpner. Hitherto, in
order to measure the differences of phase between alter-
nating-current quantities, it has been necessary to use some
method involving the simultaneous reading of three de-
flectional instruments, such as the wattmeter method, or
the three-voltmeter method either in its original or in some
modified form. These methods cannot be successfully
applied when the phase-differences to be determined are
small. The author describes new voltmeter methods which
may be used for the purpose, and gives the results of a
number of measurements on alternating-current plant.—
Dr. C. V. Drysdale exhibited and described apparatus for
the direct determination of the curvatures of small lenses,
such as the objectives of microscopes. Parallel light from
a distant source falls upon a plane unsilvered mirror in-
clined at an angle of 45°. Some of the light is reflected and
brought to a focus by an ordinary convex lens. The surface
to be tested is placed at this point, and the reflected rays
proceed as if they had come from a point on the surface.
They pass through the plate glass into a telescope focused
for parallel rays, and an observer sees an image of the
distant source. If the surface is convex and is brought
nearer to the lens, then, when it reaches such a position
that its centre of curvature is at the focus of the rays
emerging from the lens, the light will again retrace its
former path and a distinct image of the source will be seen
in the telescope. In order to obtain the two images the
surface has therefore been moved through a distance equal
to its radius of curvature. If the surface is concave it must
be moved away from the lens. Dr. Drysdale showed how
the method could be carried out by means of an auxiliary
piece fitted to an ordinary microscope. He also described
a method of testing the spherical and chromatic aberration
of microscopic objectives. Light from a distant point is
partially reflected by means of a piece of plate-glass down
the axis of the microscope. In passing out of the objective
it is brought to a focus upon a mirror, and retraces its path
along the axis of the instrument until it reaches the plate
glass. This it passes through, and by means of a telescope
an observer can view the distant source. The light having
passed twice through the lens to be investigated, the effects
of chromatic and spherical aberration are doubled, and at
the same time the effect of coma is eliminated.—Prof. S. P.
Thompson gave an exhibition of specimens of crystals
showing the phenomenon of luminous rings. He said it
was well known that when a source of light was viewed
through certain samples of calc-spar the field of vision con-
tained two luminous rings each of which passed through
the image of the luminous point. The subject had been
investigated by Dr. Johnstone Stoney, who had attributed
the phenomenon to a minute tubular structure in the crystal.
There were, however, certain crystals which when cut in
the ordinary way across the axis and used to view a distant
source of light exhibited a single luminous ring passing
through the image of the source. Looking down the axis
of the crystals no ring is visible, but on tilting it a ring
can be seen in the direction of the. tilt which grows in
diameter as the tilt is increased. So far as he knew, no
explanation of these phenomena had been offered. At the
meeting a piece of calc-spar showing the two rings, and
pieces of beryl and tourmaline showing the single ring
were exhibited.
EDINBURGH.
Royal Society, November 7.—Lord M’Laren in the
chair.—In a paper on Prof. Seeliger’s theory of temporary
stars, Dr. J. Halm gave some important extensions bear-
ing especially upon the characteristics of Nova Aurigz (1892)
and Nova Persei (1902). Seeliger’s theory, broadly stated,
DEcEMBER 8, 1904]
NATORE
143
4
~-
is that a temporary star results from the collision of a dark
body with a nebula, the chances of. such a collision being
much greater than the collision of two dark bodies. A
necessary consequence will be an intense superficial heating
with an atmospheric expansion in all directions. In what-
ever direction an observer may be situated, spectroscopic
observations will show, (1) a displacement violet-wards of
absorption lines or bands due to the absorptive action of
the expanding and cooling atmosphere advancing in the
direction of the observer with the hotter interior parts of
the star as background; and (2) bright bands due to the
expanding atmosphere to right and left of the body of the
star, there being in this case no brighter background and
no spectral shift. Dr. Halm now imagines that the collision
is due to the advance of the dark body into a stream of
nebulous matter passing obliquely across the dark
body’s path. This will at once give rise to a circulation
of parts of the nebula round the star, and these, of course,
will also be highly heated. The portions moving transverse
to the line of sight across the face of the star will produce
absorption bands in their normal position in the spectrum,
while the marginal portions moving on the one side towards
the observer and on the other side from him will produce
a shift of bright bands both towards the red and towards
the violet end of the spectrum. By compounding the effects
of these two conditions, namely, the simple expansion of
the atmosphere equally in all directions and the swirl of
incandescent matter due to oblique collision, Dr. Halm
showed that the two types of spectra obtained in the cases
of the recent Nove were at once obtained.—Three papers by
Dr. Thomas Muir were also communicated, the titles being
“The Sum of the Signed Primary Minors of a Deter-
minant,’’ ‘‘ Continuants Resolved into Linear Factors,”’
and ‘‘ The Three-line Determinants of a Six-by-Three
Array.”’
November 21.—Lord M’Laren in the chair.—Mr. George
Romanes, C.E., read a paper on a possible explanation of
the formation of the moon. The general idea was that the
moon had grown to its present form and size by the gradual
agglomeration of what was originally a ring of satellites
broadly similar to what we know to exist in the case of
Saturn. On this hypothesis it. was easily shown that the
process of agglomeration of a comparatively small body like
the moon could not be accompanied with an evolution of
heat sufficient to produce a molten globe, and that in con-
sequence the ordinary assumption of intense volcanic action
to explain the so-called craters was difficult to accept. But
it seemed possible to account for the rugged mountainous
surface of the moon with the ‘“‘ seas,’’ ridges, ‘‘ craters,’’
and peaks by means of the bombardment of those meteoric
masses, large and small, which in virtue of the combined
action of moon, earth, and sun were precipitated from time
to time upon the lunar surface. In the absence of an atmo-
sphere the masses so precipitated would impinge upon the
surface with high enough velocities to render the material
in the immediate vicinity liquid, the impinging mass also
itself being liquefied wholly or partially according to circum-
stances. The author entered into a detailed examination
of some of the most striking features of the moon’s surface,
and showed how this hypothesis accounted for them. He
also exhibited a mass of lead into which small bullets had
been shot at various incidences. The indentations repro-
duced the leading characteristics of the lunar ‘‘ craters,’’
even to the small hill in the middle of the main depression.
It was also noticed that at the instant of impact the rim
of lead thrown up all round was made red hot. The
mysterious streaks so characteristic of Tycho in certain
aspects were explained as due to great splashes of material
which settled down in thin crystalline layers capable of
throwing off the reflected sunlight in definite directions.—
Prof. Coker described a laboratory apparatus for measuring
the lateral strains in tension and compression members. By
a well designed combination of levers and mirror attach-
ment an apparatus capable of being fixed to the bar itself
had been constructed, which was sufficiently rigid and yet
sensitive enough to measure a change of 1/20,oooth of an
inch. Some experiments on steel, iron, and brass bars
were described, in which the new apparatus was used in
conjunction with Ewing’s extensometer, and values of
Poisson’s ratio were given to three significant figures. The
values varied from one-third to one-fourth.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, November 28.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—On the possibility of chemical reactions: M.
de Forcrand. The author contends that the rigid appli-
cation of the thermodynamical condition of the possibility
of a chemical reaction is neither practical nor necessary, and
that the empirical rule that the disengagement of heat
settles the course of a reaction is the only possible experi-
mental criterion of the possibility of chemical reactions.—
On the prediction of chemical reactions: M. de Forcrand.
In general, accurate prediction of the course of a chemical
reaction is impossible, but there are two rules or principles,
one rigorous the other approximate. The latter, the prin-
ciple of maximum work, is a simplification of the first, and
ought to be considered as the only practical guide—M.
Dastre was elected a member in the section of medicine and
surgery in the place of the late M. Marey.—The Leonids
in 1904: Lucien Libert. Details of observations made at
Havre on the nights of November 14, 15, and 15, 16. 111
meteors were observed and the trajectories measured.—On
the singularities of uniform analytical functions: D.
Pémpeiu.—On a new class of ions: G. Moureau. In
a previous paper it has been shown that a saline vapour
becomes conducting after passing through a porcelain tube
heated to about 1000° C., and remains conducting at much
lower temperatures, possessing the properties of an ionised
gas. In the present paper the mobilities of these new ions
have been measured. It was found that in the neighbour-
hood of the region of ionisation the mobilities of the vapours
are of the same order as the ions of the gases issuing from
a flame.—On the genesis of temporary radio-activity: Ed.
Sarasin, Th. Tommasina, and F. J. Micheli. The
authors conclude from the results of their work that a very
close relation appears to exist between ionisation and the
production of temporary radio-activity. The two pheno-
mena would appear to be reversible, the production of the
temporary radio-activity of a body being due to the absorp-
tion, or, perhaps, adsorption of an emanation which is
formed during the ionisation of a gas. On this view, the
radio-activity would consist in the loss by radiation of the
emanation adhering to radio-active bodies, this causing, in
its turn, the ionisation of a gas.—Stereoscopy without a
stereoscope: A. Berthier. The author points out that he
has already published a description of a method similar in
principle to that given by M. Ives in the Comptes rendus
of October 24 last.—On the colloidal state of matter: G. E.
Malfitano. The author regards colloidal matter as a
system formed of an electrolyte dissociated into ions and
insoluble molecules grouped round these ions.—The influence
exerted by the removal of the moisture from the air supplied
to the blast furnace: A. Lodin. The results obtained by
Gailey at the Isabella blast furnaces, near Pittsburg, on
he effect of drying the air forced into the furnace, have
attracted much attention in Europe, not unmixed with
scepticism. The author makes a comparison of the heat
balances in the two cases, and shows where the economy
is effected. One indirect effect of the drying process is to
increase the temperature of the ingoing air, and a consider-
able portion of the economy effected may be attributed to
this cause. In Europe, where it is usual to work with the
air entering the tuyeres at a much higher temperature than
at the Isabella furnaces, the relative economy which would
be produced by drying the air would be too small to justify
the capital expenditure required to introduce the necessary
plant.—On the use of dry air in blast furnaces: Henri
Le Chatelier. The economy claimed for the use of dry
air is ascribed by the inventor of the process to the fact that
the moisture of the undried air transforms a certain pro-
portion of the coke into hydrogen and oxide of carbon.
From the figures of the amount of water removed it is
possible to calculate exactly this loss; it is 5 per cent., or
only one-fourth of the amount claimed. It is certain, then,
either that the economy claimed is incorrect, or else that
the true cause is to be sought for elsewhere. The author
shows that the quality of the iron produced, especially as
regards its sulphur impurity, is an important factor, and
that when the sulphur is to be kept down to a certain per-
centage the economy of fuel claimed by Gailey may be real.
—On wood spirit from Thuya articulata, Algeria: Emilien
Grimal. Carvacrol, thymohydroquinone, and _ thymo-
quinone were isolated from the product of the distillation
144 ;
=
of this wood with steam.—The formation and distribution
of the essential oil in an annual plant: Eug. Charabot
and G. Laleue. During the formation of the flower the
increase of essential oil by the flower corresponds to a loss
of oil by the green parts. After the seed is formed, and
there is no longer a flow of nutritive principles towards the
flower, the essential oil returns to the green organs.—Floral
abnormalities produced by parasites acting at a distance:
Marin Molliard. The atrophy of the stamens, and the
‘conversion of the sepals, petals, and carpels into green
foliaceous leaves, a phenomenon frequently met with in
Trifolium repens, is shown to be due to the burrowing of
a larva (probably of Hylastinus obscurus) at the base of
the stem of the plant.—Xylotrechus quadrupes and _ its
ravages on the coffee plant of Tonkin: L. Boutan.—The
individuality of the complex particle in a crystal: M.
Wallerant.—On the lakes of the Grimsel and of the St.
Gothard massif : André Delebecque.—The degree of saline
concentration of the blood serum of the eel in sea water and
in fresh water, after its experimental passage from the
former to the latter: René Quinton. The percentage of
salt in the blood serum of the eel varies in accordance with
the degree of salinity of the water in which it is placed,
and is an example of the fact that the saline concentration
of fresh water fishes is that of their marine ancestors, re-
duced simply by the influence of the new medium in which
they live.—The elimination of urea in healthy subjects:
H. Labbe and E. Morchoisne.—Contribution to the study
of acid dyscrasia: A. Desgrez and J. Adler.—On the
bleaching of flour: E. Fleurent.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Decemser 8.
Roya Socigty, at 4.30.—Memoir on the Theory of the Partitions of Num-
bers. Part III: Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.—Note on a Means of
Producing a High-voltage Continuous or ‘ Pertinacious” Current: Sir
Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.—The Effect of Liquid Air Temperatures on the
Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and its Alloys: Sir James
Dewar, F.R.S., and R. A. Hadfield.—The Réle of Diffusion during
Catalysis by Colloidal Metals and Similar Substances : Dr. H. J. S. Sand.
Civit AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SOCIETY, at 8.—Notes on Portland
Cement: H. E. Bellamy.
InNsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Hydrodynamical and
Electromagnetic Investigations regarding the Magnetic-Flux Distribu-
tion in Toothed-Core Armatures: Prof. H. S. Hele-Skaw, F.R.S.,
Dr. A. Hay, and P. H. Powell. (Conclusion of Discussion).—Studies in
Magnetic ‘Vesting: G. F. C. Searle.
Society oF ARTs, at 4.30.—Burma: Sir Frederic Fryer, K.C.S.1.
MATHEMATICAL SociIETY, at 5.30.—On Groups of Order £798 : Prof.
W. Burnside.—On the Linear Differential Equation of the Second Order:
Prof. A. C. Dixon.—On a Deficient Multinomial Expansion : Major
P. A. MacMahon.—The Application of Basic Numbers to Bessel’s and
Legendre’s Functions (second paper): Rev. F. H. Jackson.—On the Failure
of Convergence of Fourier's Series: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—An Extension of
Borel's Exponential Method of Summation of Divergent Series Applied to
Linear Differential Equations : E. Cunningham.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 9.
Roya ASTRONOMICAL SociEty, at 5.—(1) Dark Nebulosities ; (2) Detached
Nebula in Cygnus; W. S. Franks.—On the Relative brightness of Binary
Stars : J. E. Gore.—(1) On the Completion of the Main Problem in the New
Lunar Theory ; (2) The Final Values of the Coefficients in the New Lunar
Theory : Prof. E. W. Brown.—On the Relative efficiency of Different
Methods of Determining Longitudes on Jupiter: A. Stanley Williams.—
On the Temperature of Sun-spots, and on the Spectrum ot an Attificial
One : W. E. Wilson.—On the Validity of Meteor Radiants deduced froin
Three Tracks : H. W. Chapman.—Promised papers :—Observations of the
Leonid Meteors of 1904 November: Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—
Radio-activity of Matter the Possible Cause of Heat Energy in Sun and
Stars: W. E. Wilson.—Mean Areas and Heliographic Latitudes of Sun-
spots in the Year 1903 : Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—The Coefficients
of 145 Terms in the Moon's Longitude derived from Greenwich Meridian
Observations, 1750-1901 : P. H. Cowell.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SociETy, at 8.30.—Ticks
Diseases: Dr. Nuttall, F.R.S.
MatacoLocicaL ScctetTy, at 8.—Description of a new species of
Trachiopsis from British New Guinea: H. B. Preston.—A Correction in
Nomenclature: E. A. Smith.—Notes on the American Cyclostomatida
and their Opercula: W. H. Dall.—Note on the Dates of Publication
of the Various Parts of Moquin-Tandon’s *‘ Hist. Moll. terr. fluv. de
France”: J. W. Taylor.
PHYSICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—On a Rapid Method of Approximate Harmonic
Analy: Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.—A High-Frequency Alter-
nator: W. Duddell.—Exhibition of Experiments to show the Retardation
of the Signalling Current on 3500 miles of the Pacific Cable between
Vancouver and Fanning Island.—Exhibit of Ayrton-Mather Galyano-
meters, Universal Shunts, and Electrostatic Instruments.
MONDAY, DECEMBER 12.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Musical Wind Instruments, Reed Instruments :
D. J. Blaikley.
Society or Dyers Anp Cotourists, at 8.—Bleaching Agents: and the
Methods of Application: F. W. Walker.—The Application of Sulphide
Colours in the Dyeing of Chrome Leather.
NO. 1832, VOL. 71]
and Tick-transmitted
NATURE
(DECEMBER 8, 1904
Ro GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.39.—Explorations in Bolivia: Dr. H.
oek.
TUESDAY, DECEMBER 13.
ZooLoGIcAL Society, at 8.30.—Some Notes on Anthropoid Apes: Hon.
Walter Rothschild.—On the Cranial Osteology of the Clupeoid Fishes :
Dr. W. G. Ridewood.—The Characters and Synonymy of the British
Species of Leucosolenia: Prof. E. A. Minchin.
SocioLoGcicaL Society, at 8.—The School in Some of its Relations to
Social Organisation and to National Life: Prof. M. E. Sadler.
INSTITUTION OF CiIviIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—On the Construction of a
Concrete Railway-Viaduct: A. Wood-Hill and E. D. Pain.
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 14.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—Hydrolysis of Ammonium Salts. V. H. Veley.
—The Viscosity of Liquid Mixtures. Part ii.: A. E. Dunstan.—The
Diazo-reaction in the Dipheny] Series. Part ii. : Ethoxybenzidine : J. C.
Cain.—The Sulphate and the Phosphate of the Dimercurammonium
Series: P. C. Ray.—A Method for the Direct Production of certain
Aminoazo-compounds : R. Meldola and L. Eynon.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—The Patent Laws: C. D. Abel.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 15.
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers :—An Analysis of the Results
from the Falmouth Magnetographs on “‘ Quiet” Days during the Twelve
Years 1891 to 1902: Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S.—The Halogen Hydrides as
Conducting Solvents. Part iii: B. D. Steelee—The Halogen Hydrides
as Conducting Solvents. Part iv.: B. D. Steele, D. McIntosh, and
E. H. Archibald.—Effects of Temperature and Pressure on the Thermal
Conductivities of Solids. Part i., The Effect of Temperature on the
Thermal Conductivities of some Electrical Insulators: Dr. C. H. Lees.—
The Basic Gamma Function and the Elliptic Functions: Rev. F. H.
Jackson.—On the Normal Series satisfying Linear Differential Equa-
tions ; E. Cunningham. 3
INsTITUTION OF ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion on Mr.
Searle’s Paper, Studies in Magnetic Testing ; Followed by The Combina-
tion of Dust Destructors and Electricity Works, Economically Con-
sidered ; W. P. Adams.
LinNEAN Society, at 8.—The Ecology of Woodland Plants: Dr.
T. W. Woodhead.—Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits:
C. C. Hurst.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 16.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Heat Treatment Ex-
periments with Chrome-Vanadium Steel: Capt. H. Riall Sankey and
J. Kent-Smith.—Messrs. Seaton and Jude’s Paper on Impact Tests on
the Wrought Steels of Commerce will be further discussed. 4
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Folkestone Harbour: Cylinder-
Sinking at the Root of the Old Pier: R. H. Lee Pennell.
CONTENTS.
The Millais British Mammals. By R. L.
IBEOIVES 4 9 oon BeeeHEB os Chor a a HEE
The)Determination of Minerals 7 25 =). t25
Our Book Shelf :—
Tlaberlandt: ‘‘ Die Sinnesorgane der Pflanzen”. . . 123
Walmsley: ‘‘Electricity in the Service of Man.”—
MSS ses OE ee eer
Cooke : ‘‘ The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay ” 124
Cunningham : ‘‘ Quadratic Partitions”. ..... 124
Kilbey : ‘‘ Advanced Hand-camera Work”. . 124
Letters to the Editor :—
The Definition of Entropy.-—J. Swinburne ; Prof.
G. H. Bryan, F.R.S. . Macworld yor do LAK
Craniology of Man and the Anthropoid Apes.—A. T.
Mundysine, C: Macnamara "2 )) S020. . ae les
Pinnipedia a Sub-order of Cetacea!—F, Z.S. . . . 125
The Late Mr. Assheton Smith.—Prof. Philip J.
WWDiteRetgs css, « «ols oy ee Set eae
The Leonid Meteors of 1904.—John R. Henry . 126
Blue-stained Flints.—Thomas L. D. Porter 126
‘© Find” of Royal Statues at Thebes ...... 126
Compulsory Greek at Oxford and Cambridge ... 128
Prof. Karl Selim Lemstrom. By Prof. Arthur
PeabeeC | 4 avd bh, OME Oc.) oc oe 6.
Notes) eereemrei ss cs cee 129
Our Astronomical Column :—
Re-discovery of Tempel’s Second Comet ~ c= IS
ParallaxtopawleowsMetsor . 2. livsgiimemeuren tol.) ey mle
Date of the Most Recent Sun-spot Minimum 133
Observations of Perseids, 1904 . ........ : 133
The Orbit of Sirius wat oe 133
Harvard Observations of Variable Stars Sats 133
Correction of the Longer Term in the Polar Motion 133
Are|Spectrajomtoer alkali IVietals eessemnne) 0). cen
Invar and its Applications. (J///ustrated.) By Dr. Ch.
Ed. sGuullaume pecans. = \-)-) Gea ee etal lke ie LA
Shower of Andromedids from Biela’s Comet(?) By
W..at. Denningiige |... .: s/c eee ew eda = ours Ui ESO)
University and Educational Intelligence 139
Societies and Academies ....5.5.... 141
Diary of Societies .... 144
NATURE
145
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 15, 1904.
HUMAN ANATOMY.
(1) A Treatise on Applied Anatomy. By Edward H.
iTayloneeM.D., FRICISWe .bp. xxviil+-7385) "178
figures and plates. (London: Charles Griffin and
Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 30s. net.
(2) The Human Sternum. By Andrew Melville Pater-
son, M.D. Pp. 89; 10 plates. (London: Published
for the University Press of Liverpool by Williams
and Norgate, 1904.) Price ros. net.
(3) Der Gang des Menschen. v. Teil. Die Kinematik
des Beinschwingens.- By Otto Fischer. Price 5
marks. vi. Teil. Ueber den Einfluss der Schwere
und-der Muskeln auf die Schwingbewegung des
Beins. By Otto Fischer. Price 4 marks. (Leipzig:
B. G. Teubner, 1904.)
(1) O those unfamiliar with the ways of modern
medicine the continual appearance of new
works on human anatomy must cause some surprise.
No subject should be better known, for it has been a
matter of almost universal study for centuries. At the
best, many will conclude, a new text-book on applied
anatomy—the kind of anatomy the surgeon and
physician more especially need—can only be a re-
setting of old facts, and an examination of Dr. Taylor’s
work will show that, to a large extent, the conclusion
is justified. The steady advance of surgery necessi-
tates a continual rearrangement of anatomical per-
spective; the areas of the body which were under a
surgical taboo to the septic surgeons of former days
are open to the clean operator of modern times.
The brain and spinal cord, the cavities of the ear and
nose, the organs within the thorax and abdomen, and
the great joint cavities of the limbs, have come, one
after the other, within the field of everyday surgical
procedure during the last thirty years. In his treat-
ment of these parts of the body Dr. Taylor is quite up
to date; his pages reflect accurately the best opinion
that is to be found in modern text-books of anatomy
and surgery. Still, modern advances will not alto-
gether explain the rapid appearance of new works on
anatomy or on any other subject; every generation
demands its books on science or literature wet from
the press.
The study of this work, containing more than half
a million words, furnished with highly finished
figures, written with clearness and accuracy, raises the
question: is the modern surgeon, as seen in a text-
book such as this, a more scientific man than his pre-
decessor of fifty or a hundred years ago? A consider-
ation of a number of subjects in this work, in the treat-
ment of which Dr. Taylor is neither better nor worse
than other rising surgeons, will show that, as think-
ing men, they compare unfavourably with surgeons
of past periods. The subjects referred to deal with (1)
the appendix vermiformis, the seat of appendicitis;
(2) the prostate, which becomes so frequently enlarged
in old men; (3) the epididymis, a structure connected
with the testicle and very liable to disease; (4) the gall
bladder, interesting in connection with the formation
of gall-stones; (5) the antrum of the mastoid, an air
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
space connected with the middle ear; (6) the air spaces
opening into the cavity of the nose. These six struc-
tures are selected because, during the last twenty or
thirty years, they have been the subjects of the: keenest
inquiry, and surgeons have published their observations
concerning them in thousand upon thousand of treatises
and articles. One would expect that the basis of their
treatment would rest on an intimate knowledge of the
normal use of these structures. John Hunter, Everard
Home, and John Hilton would certainly have sought
a complete knowledge of the functions of these parts
to serve as a foundation for a rational treatment. Dr.
Taylor adopts the orthodox view as regards these
structures; he describes their shape, position, and re-
lationships, and the routes by which they may be
reached, but not a word is said of their use. Perhaps
it is unfair to blame Dr. Taylor for this omission,
because it must be confessed that we know much more
of the diseases of these structures than of their normal
function. Yet in a_ text-book written for house
and operating surgeons surely it is the duty of the
author to point out essential gaps in our know-
ledge rather than to gloss them over by a multitude
of unessential details. This criticism is the more
pertinent because the author in this case has not taken
a narrow view of applied anatomy; he devotes a very
large part of his space to a description of operative
procedures, pathological processes, embryological de-
fects, and introduces here and there points in
physiology.
A great part of this work consists not of applied, but
of purely descriptive anatomy. Some years ago
Waldeyer, of Berlin, gave an elaborate description of
some ten or twelve areas he distinguished within the
human pelvis—all of which have been adopted in this
book; yet not a word is said as to what manner of use
a surgeon can possibly apply them. Again, as regards
a small peritoneal recess, which may occur to the left
of the terminal part of the duodenum, all the various
forms which have been described by hair-splitting
surgeons are reproduced in detail. An elaborate de-
scription of the condition known as knock-knee is sup-
plied, yet no mention is made of how bones react in
their growth to the forces which are brought to bear
on them, nor is there any allusion to the forces which
normally act on the knee joint.
Surgeon-anatomists have a fondness for the appli-
cation of certain proper names to surgical procedures
and anatomical structures—such as the ‘“ pouch of
Prussak,’’ the ‘‘ fossa of lLandzert,’’ ‘* Gosselin’s
fracture,’ &c. An examination of the index of this
work shows that more than one hundred such terms
are used, yet, in comparison with many works, the
number is indeed very moderate; but one feels they
are still rather many. Many terms introduced by
surgeons are not words which may be used easily, such
as ‘‘cholecystotomy’’ (opening the gall-bladder),
““ cholecystectomy ’’ (excision of the gall-bladder),
“* cholecystenterostomy ’’ (making a communication
between gall-bladder and intestine), ‘‘ choledocho-
tomy ’’ (opening the bile duct).
(2) In this monograph, a companion to one on the
human sacrum, published in 1893, Prof. Paterson
H
146
gives the facts gathered and the conclusions reached
during a prolonged research into the development,
comparative anatomy, and nature of the human
sternum. Leaving aside the convenience of having
our scattered knowledge on this subject summarised,
and the value of the mass of evidence collected during
the examination of hundreds of individuals, the main
importance of the work lies in two conclusions which
Prof. Paterson draws concerning the nature of the
sternum :—(1) that it is fundamentally part of the
shoulder girdle; (2) that it is not a segmental structure.
Both these inferences are at variance with accepted
opinion.
At the present time it is universally taught that the
sternum in mammals, birds and reptiles—that is to say,
in all vertebrates which use the body wall for the pur-
poses of inspiration—is a composite bone derived from
a fusion of the ventral ends of the ribs. The sternum
is thus regarded as a structure of costal origin, and
having only a secondary connection with the shoulder
girdle. In Amphibia, on the other hand, it is recog-
nised that the sternum is developed in continuity with
the shoulder girdle, of which it forms an intrinsic part;
it is in them a shoulder-girdle sternum. That the
shoulder-girdle sternum represents the more primitive
type, and that from such a type the costal sternum of
the Reptilia was evolved, are assumptions which com-
parative anatomists will freely grant. At present,
however, there is a distinct break in our knowledge
of the history of the sternum; no intermediate forms
between those two types are believed to occur, and no
one, with perhaps the exception of the late Prof. T. J.
Parker, has ever formulated a definite theory as to the
manner in which the costal sternum of Reptilia could
have arisen from the amphibian shoulder-girdle
sternum. Prof. Paterson’s investigations help us very
materially to trace the origin of the costal or, as it
may more truly be named, the ‘‘ respiratory ”’ sternum
of the three higher classes of vertebrates from the
simple sternum of Amphibia. He shows that the
‘‘ respiratory ”’? sternum arises developmentally in con-
tinuity with the precoracoid element of the shoulder-
girdle, and quite independently of the ribs, and that
it is therefore merely a modified form of the amphibian
shoulder-girdle sternum. Further, the various forms
assumed by the “respiratory ’’ sternum in reptiles,
birds, and mammals do not, when rightly interpreted,
favour Gegenbaur’s conception of its evolution by a
fusion of the ventral ends of ribs. The sternum of
amphibians is the median ventral element of their
shoulder girdle, and when Prof. Paterson states that
no corresponding element is developed elsewhere in
the median ventral line, he overlooks the cartilage
developed as a median ventral element in the pelvic
girdle which in every sense exactly corresponds to the
sternum.
The origin of the ‘‘ respiratory ’? sternum is part of
a wide problem, viz. in what manner and under what
conditions did the body wall become modified to serve
as an active inspiratory agent in higher verte-
brates, thus replacing the ‘‘ pharyngeal pump ”’ of
amphibians? Whatever may have been the exact
manner in which the one form of respiration was
No. 1833, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
evolved from the other, there can be no doubt that the
ribs, the intercostal muscles, and the sternum as we
know them in higher vertebrates appeared during this
phase of evolution. Their appearance is directly due
to the introduction of a new type of respiration; the
sternum which serves in the higher forms as an
element of the respiratory thorax is totally unlike the
bone which merely served as part of the shoulder
girdle in the more primitive type. With this evidence
clearly in view it is difficult to understand how Prof.
Paterson concludes that even in mammals the sternum
is still—what it was when it first appeared in verte-
brates—functionally and fundamentally an adjunct or,
element of the shoulder girdle. We are surprisingly
ignorant of the part played by the sternum in the move-
ments of respiration, even in man, but a cursory ex-
amination of its respiratory movements in various
groups of birds, and in several orders of mammals,
quickly serves to show that its form and size depend
chiefly not on the movements of the forelimbs, but on
the part it plays in the respiratory movements of the
thorax. In our opinion the key to the morphology of
the sternum is an accurate investigation of its function.
Prof. Paterson is undoubtedly right in regarding the
sternum as primarily a continuous unsegmented
median bar. The conception of the sternum as a
segmental structure he characterises as “a nebulous
transcendental notion.’’ Yet his own evidence shows
that the greater part of the mammalian sternum, at
the commencement of the cartilaginous and osseous
stages of development, is laid down as a truly
segmental structure, each segment corresponding
exactly to a body segment. Much more “ nebulous
and transcendental ’? appears to us his explanation of
the occurrence of bony segments or sternabre as ‘‘ due
to the traction or pressure on the part of the ribs and
costal cartilages.’? In support of this theory Prof.
Paterson cites the fact that centres of ossification
appear in bones at points of traction and pressure. In
the case of the sternum, however, the centres of ossifi-
cation appear not opposite such points, but exactly
between them.
This monograph is well got up; the figures are
numerous and highly finished. There is evidently a
slight error in Fig. 35, plate v.; the centre of ossifi-
cation for the fourth segment (if the term may still
be used) of the mesosternum is stated to be present in
71 per cent. of cases, whereas in the text (p. 18) the
proportion is given as 26 per cent. A curious misprint
occurs on p. 33, Where the centre just alluded to is
said to appear in 59 per cent. of children before birth,
and 15 per cent. after death—probably meaning after
birth.
(3) The brothers Weber were of opinion that in the
forward swing of the leg in walking the lower ex-
tremity acted as a pendulum, the chief force in action
being that of gravity. Duchenne, on the other hand,
as the result of a special investigation, came toa totally
different conclusion, viz. that the forward swing was
almost wholly due to the direct action of muscle. In
the fifth and sixth parts of his research into the
mechanics of the human gait, Prof. Fischer concludes,
after an elaborate analysis of the force expended during
DECEMBER I5, 1904]
NATURE
147
the movement, that Duchenne comes much nearer. the
truth than the brothers Weber, muscular action playing
a much larger part than the force of gravity. Those
who have watched the passive movements of a para-
lysed leg during attempts at progression will have no
difficulty in accepting Prof. Fischer’s results.
The problem of estimating theoretically the force
necessary to produce the forward swing of the lower
extremity in walking is an extremely complicated one.
Prof. Fischer regards the lower extremity as a pen-
dulum made up of three segments, each of which
undergoes certain secondary movements during the
swing of the entire extremity. Further, the hip joint,
from which the pendulum is suspended, undergoes an
irregular forward movement during the swing of the
limb. The resistance and elasticity of the muscles and
ligaments and the friction at the: various joints are
factors which can only be approximately estimated.
By means of photographic records Prof. Fischer was
able to subdivide the forward swing into forty and
forty-one equal phases of time, and by estimating the
amount of force in action during each phase he shows
that gravity alone can account for only a minor frac-
tion of the force necessarily expended in the movement.
Further, the positions assumed by the foot, leg, and
thigh during a forward swing show distinctly that
various groups of muscles are then in action. He
recognises four periods in the forward movement of
the limb, each of which is characterised by the action
of a distinct group of muscles. In the commencing
phase the ilio-psoas bends the thigh on the body, the
rectus femoris extends the leg forwards, the tibialis
anticus bends the foot upwards; in the second phase
the gluteus maximus and hamstring muscles draw
the thigh backwards; in the third phase the knee is
flexed by the gastrocnemius and short head of the
biceps; in the final phase the muscles in front of the
leg are again in action, and remain powerfully con-
tracted until the sole of the foot is again planted on
the ground.
These results are certainly much more in keeping
with clinical and everyday experience than those of the
brothers Weber. Many who only occasionally take
long walks must have observed that one of the first
groups of muscles to give out are those in front of the
leg, and that they feel painful only at the end of the
forward swing, when the heel reaches the ground—
the period at which Prof. Fischer shows these muscles
come most powerfully into action. A. KEIrH.
EARTHQUAKES.
Earthquakes. By Clarence Edward Dutton, Major,
U.S.A. Pp. xxxiii+314; 63 illustrations. (London:
John Murray.) Price 6s. net.
PITOMISED and carefully digested accounts of
seismological investigations made during the last
twenty-five years are few in number. Two have been
published in England, a compilation has been ‘‘ made
in Germany.”’ and now we have a volume from the
distinguished geologist, Major C. E. Dutton, of the
United States. All told, therefore, we have only four
books which give the uninitiated some idea of what
NO. 1833, VOL. 71 |
the new seismology means and. what it has accom-
plished. About the old seismology, volumes, papers,
and particularly sermons exist in thousands. But if
we except a few, and amongst the few the works of
Mallet stand high above the rest, all they give are
reiterated narratives of what people saw and heard,
now and then enlivened by some wild hypothesis or
pious reflection.
Major Dutton’s work belongs to another category,
and rather than telling us what earthquakes do, his
main object has been to tell us what they are, and
while doing this he has kept abreast with the work
of others which his own inquiries in the domain of
seismic and volcanic activities have enabled him to
present in a terse and accurate form.
Everything is discussed with a minimum of mathe-
matics from a strictly scientific standpoint, whilst that
which is sensational has properly been most carefully
put under taboo. A justification for the exclusion of
what is of practical importance, which gives not only
to the man in the street but to Governments some
inkling as to the use of earthquakes, is not so apparent.
It is extremely likely that a Prime Minister may not
care a twopenny-bit whether the inside of the world
on which he lives is red hot or stone cold, while he
might be extremely interested to know that seismo-
grams may afford a satisfactory explanation for the
interruption of his cablegrams. The importance of
earthquake writings to communities who have been
alarmed by accounts of disasters in foreign countries
is self-evident, while it would at least be consoling to
those who were suddenly cut off from the outer world
by the failure of their cables to learn whether such
failures were the result of an operation of war or of
nature. A knowledge of how to construct so that
earthquake effects should be minimised means the
saving of life and property in countries subject to
seismic disturbances. Seismic charts indicate posi-
tions where it is dangerous to lay deep-sea cables,
whilst they tell the hydrographer where he may expect
to find changing depths. In these and in a variety of
other directions seismology helps to make communities
comfortable, and at the same time acts as incentive
to create a popular interest in and to obtain support
for a young science. But as Major Dutton defines his
standpoint, and as a volume of 300 pages cannot con-
tain everything, our remarks on omissions must only
be taken as indications of the hydra-headed nature of
seismology.
The first four chapters are chiefly devoted to the
cause of an earthquake, which is defined as anything
that ‘‘ calls suddenly into action the elasticity of the
earth.”? Explosions at volcanic foci produce a local
trembling, but they are comparatively of rare occur-
rence and seldom disturb large areas. When a long
fault line is produced, and a large territory carrying
perhaps mountain ranges drops down along its length,
instrumental observations have revealed the fact that
the world may be shaken as a whole. Subsequent
adjustments along such a line due to intermittent re-
covery from overstrain and settlements of disjointed
materials give rise to numerous after-shocks which
are only sensible over areas of small size, and it seems
148
NATURE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
likely that the greater number of earthquakes felt in
the world belong to this latter class. All of them
represent a relicf of stress, and the discussion on the
sources of earth stresses, commencing with the con-
tractional hypothesis and concluding with the results
of investigations by Prof. George Darwin, are attrac-
tive not only to seismologists but to all who wish to
learn something about the inside of the world on which
they live.
Some fifty pages are given up to descriptions of
seismoscopes and seismographs, attention being par-
ticularly directed to those which record unfelt tele-
seismic movements. We cannot say that the concepts
relating to seismic wave motion put forward are
generally accepted, but such as they are we may say
that they represent modern views. About the ampli-
tudes and periods of earthquake waves seismologists
have certain definite information, but about the magni-
tudes of these elements, particularly for waves which
have travelled over long paths, much has yet to be
learned. For this latter class of movement it is pointed
out that discordant results are found in tables showing
the speeds at which they were propagated. The author
inclines to the view that the differences which have
been noted are due to variability in the delicacy of
instruments employed to pick up a wave or wave
group. In great measure. this may be true, but it
seems to us that marked errors may also arise in con-
sequence of inaccuracy in determining the time at
which waves were generated at their origin.
Then, again, there are those who incline to a belief,
which they sustain with arguments deserving close
consideration, that within our earth convection currents
exist; it would follow from this that along similar
paths, or even along the same path, earthquake speeds
should vary.
Notwithstanding these uncertainties, the author
holds the opinion that remarkable and unexpected
results which fit well within errors of observation have
been reached.
Two serious difficulties, for the explanation of which
we are asked to wait patiently, relate to the lengthen-
ing of wave periods and the total duration of a dis-
turbance as it radiates. We will suggest that the
former phenomenon may perhaps be at least partially
explained by assuming that in the vicinity of an origin
the records refer to forced vibrations, while at a
distance the motion represents a periodic natural move-
ment of the crust which varies with its heterogeneity.
With regard to the second difficulty, now and then we
have evidences that a disturbance recorded at a station
far removed from an origin may be reinforced and
lengthened by a repetition of the first disturbance
which has reached the station by travelling in an
opposite direction round the world. Generally, how-
ever, the record from a horizontal pendulum near to
an origin appears to move as long as, if not longer
than, a similar instrument at a distant station, which
means that in certain instances the author’s difficulty
is non-existent.
of a series of waves which reach a distant station along
different paths and with different speeds, with the
NO. 1833, VOL. 71 |
Finally, it must be borne in mind |
that a single impulse at an origin results in the birth |
result that a blow at an epicentre may at a distance
from the same be recorded as a long train of waves.
When Major Dutton suggests to his readers that
the Seismological Investigation Committee of the
British Association carries on its work in consequence
of financial aid received from the British Government,
we recognise that he shares a widespread mis-
apprehension.
Much is said relating to the elasticity of rocks, in
connection with which an elaborate table, the result of
investigations made by Prof. Nagaoka, of Tokio, is
reproduced. A second long table is that drawn up by
M. Montessus de Ballore relating to the distribution
of seismicity.
The illustrations, of which there are sixty-three, are
for the most part excellent, but there are one or two
photomechanical reproductions of instruments which
we imagine will give more delight to their authors at
the sight of their own shaky caligraphy than to the
ordinary reader.
Taken as a whole, the work is one to be read by all
who wish to know what is known respecting the pro-
pagation of wave motion in our earth since the in-
vention of the seismograph, and it is destined to receive
a hearty welcome.
TECHNICAL MECHANICS.
Die technische Mechanik: elementares Lehrbuch fiir
mittlere maschienentechnische. Fachschulen und
Hilfsbuch fiir studierende héherer technischer
Lehranstalten. By P. Stephan, &c. Erster Teil:
Mechanik Starrer Kérper. Pp. viiit+344. (Leipzig :
Teubner, 1904.) Price 7 marks.
| ie the very early part of this excellent work there
is a certain lack of system, inasmuch as, although
the author very properly treats first of the equilibrium
of a particle, he assumes the nature of the stress
exerted in such rigid bodies as the bars of a frame-
work, the crank and connecting rod of an engine, &c.
The nature of such forces is never properly appreciated
by the student who is truly a beginner in the subject
of dynamics—and, indeed, there is no part of statics
in which students of even very considerable experience
are so apt to go wrong as that relating to the forces
exerted by jointed bars. The author treats from the
outset the equilibrium of forces acting in space of three
dimensions without having previously disposed of the
simpler two dimensional case, a course which meets
with the approval of many teachers, although it seems
to the reviewer to be the less simple method. Herr
Stephan enunciates the parallelogram law for the com-
position of forces (or vectors generally) at the outset,
and assumes it as a result of experiment—which, on
the whole, is perhaps the wisest plan for a teacher.
Near the end of the book, however, he gives the
ordinary Newtonian proof of the proposition.
He gives very early and very clearly the method
of determining the resultant of a system of coplanar
forces acting on a body (other than a particle) by means
of the force and funicular polygons—a subject in
which English students are, as a rule, extremely weak.
There is a section on the determination of the centres
of gravity of all the bodies usually figured in our
"e.g eee eee
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
149
English books, followed by a discussion of all the
ordinary simple machines—with this difference, that
Herr Stephan’s figures are much better than those of
our text-books. Then follows a discussion of friction,
in which, although the author almost invariably solves
his problems by introducing the normal force N and
the friction #N, he does not omit to point out the
utility of the total resistance and the angle of friction.
He underestimates this utility, however, in solving a
simple problem by the N and #N method, and in his
final results (p. 118) substituting the angle of friction
—a process which simply obscures the merit of the
second (and much shorter) method—with the remark
that the example shows the advantage which the intro-
duction of the angle of friction ‘‘ occasionally offers.”
The truth is that in the hands of a skilful student the
geometrical method founded on the employment of the
angle of friction and the total resistance is almost
always more neat, direct, and simple than the
analytical, or N and #N, method. It can be conceded,
however, that for engineering students, and technical
students generally, this analytical method is the safer,
although the longer, and requires less of the esprit
mathématique. The nature of rolling resistance,
which seldom finds mention in our English books, is
well explained and illustrated by several applications
(pp. 147, &c.). Indeed, the whole of Herr Stephan’s
treatment of the machines (screw presses, cranes,
friction band-brakes, &c.) commonly discussed is excel-
lent, and occupies a very large part of the treatise; it
is, in fact, the best and most useful portion of the book.
The only kind of catenary treated of in this volume
is the parabola of suspension bridges, to which only
two pages and two illustrative examples are devoted.
Doubtless the subject will receive more consideration
in some subsequent volume.
Herr Stephan is very careful to avoid errors in his
figures, and to represent the lines of action of three
forces when they keep a body in equilibrium as meet-
ing in a point—a very elementary condition not always
observed in our text-books. Once, however, he over-
looks this necessity, and represents the lines of action
of three forces acting on a bar in a framework (Fig.
164) as forming a triangle of very respectable area.
In the section dealing with the equilibrium of frame-
works of jointed bars, he directs attention to the obvious
fact, which is not usually mentioned in our books, that
even if the bars are loaded throughout their lengths
(by their own weights or otherwise) the stresses can
be calculated by taking any of the bars as unloaded
and weightless, and then superposing the calculated
results (p. 197). This simple principle he applies in a
special case, and it is one which on many occasions
might be employed with great advantage.
The last hundred pages are devoted to kinetics of an
elementary kind—including the theory of direct
collision of spheres, the compound pendulum, &c.—
together with a section on the moments of inertia of
various figures and solids. There is no mention made
of the very simple and useful rule that a triangular
area can be replaced by three equal particles placed at
the middle points of its sides—a rule which saves an
enormous amount of trouble in the calculation of
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
moments of inertia for all plane areas bounded by
right lines. In the absence of this simple rule, a pon-
derous application of the integral calculus is the only
refuge of the student. A somewhat similar “‘ particle
rule’? saves reams of ponderous calculus work in
hydrostatics; but these rules are not widely known.
Herr Stephan very properly makes short work of
D’Alembert’s principle, deducing it directly from
Newton’s axioms ii. and iii., so that, although he
employs the term ‘ centrifugal force,’’ he is careful,
except in one instance, to show that it is a force exerted
by, and not on, a moving particle. The exceptional
instance occurs at p. 281, where he is calculating the
tension in a driving belt which passes over the surfaces
of two revolving cylinders. Here he speaks of a small
element of the band as ‘‘ experiencing ’’ a centrifugal
force, which is duly represented, in the usual way, by
a centre-flying arrow. His subsequent teaching, how-
ever, removes the erroneous notion herein contained.
The book is wonderfully well printed and illustrated,
as well as free from mistakes. On p. 15 ‘‘ Punkte ”’
should clearly be ‘‘ Krafte,’’? and on p. 187 the reference
should be to Fig. 131 and not to Fig. 135. The theory
is illustrated by nearly 200 examples.
To all students who desire to attain a real and
physical conception of the subject Herr Stephan’s worl:
can be very strongly recommended.
GEORGE M. MINCHIN.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Machine Drawing. By Alfred P. Hill. Pp. 83-
(London: P. S. King and Son, 1904.) Price 2s. 6d-
net.
In this text-book the author presents a course of in-
struction which he considers suitable for students
attending elementary drawing classes who are unable
to spare more than one evening per week, and whose
technical training is thus confined to the one subject of
machine drawing. Three dozen plates are given,
affording a choice of examples to be copied to scale
from the dimensions figured, some of which are pro-
portional dimensions covering a range of sizes. Accom-
panying the plates are descriptive accounts of the
construction and uses of the machine parts drawn,
with sets of questions founded thereon. At intervals,
where space is available, formula and physical data
are introduced and used in making calculations illus-
trating machine design. This crude attempt to teach
applied mechanics along with elementary machine
drawing seems to us a mistake, as, in the
absence of a knowledge of mechanical principles, such
formule as are given become mere rules of thumb, and
any attempt to apply them independently cannot fail
to be disastrous, as, for instance, in the author’s
method of estimating the limiting speed of a fly-wheel
on p. 42. The time wasted on these premature cal-
culations might very profitably be spent with rule,
callipers, and squared paper, in measuring and making
careful and complete dimensioned sketches of actual
machine parts, and so cultivating the habit of .closely
and accurately observing constructional details.
Errors abound throughout the book. The author is
not a safe guide even in such a small detail as the
projection of a hexagonal nut, while his statement on
p- 44 that ‘‘heat and work are mutually contro-
vertible ’’ is a fair index of the scientific value of the
work. The volume is somewhat redeemed by a few
150
NATURE
| DECEMBER 15, 1904
good plates prepared from working drawings supplied
by makers, but in many cases the figures indicating
dimensions are, unfortunately, so small as scarcely to
be legible.
An Elementary Class-book of Practical Coal-mining.
By T. H. Cockin. Pp. xii+428. (London: Crosby
Lockwood and Son, 1904.) Price 4s. 6d. net.
lx general character this useful volume resembles the
text-books already available for students of coal-
mining. The work is, however, carried to a rather
more advanced stage than has hitherto been considered
necessary for an elementary class-book, and chapters
are given dealing with allied subjects, such as
chemistry, mechanics, the steam-engine, and elec-
tricity. The order of treatment differs from that
usually adopted, the subjects dealt with being :—
(1) geology; (2) structure of stratified rocks; (3) coal
and coalhields; (4) search for coal; (5) sinking; (6)
opening out; (7) miners’ tools; (8) explosives; (9)
methods of work; (10) working by long wall; (11)
methods of working by pillar and stall; (12) special
methods of work; (13) timbering; (14) coal cutting by
machinery; (15) mechanics; (16) steam; (17) gases;
{18) ventilation; (19) instruments; (20) lighting; (21)
winding; (22) haulage; (23) pumping; (24) surface
arrangements; (25) coke making; (26) accidents; and
{27) electricity. This arrangement is not so logical
as that adopted by the late Sir C. Le Neve Foster in his
elementary work. For example, sinking with rock-
drills is described before mining tools, coal-cutting
machinery before the elements of mechanics, and
electric signals before electric terms are defined. The
brief chapter on coke making is hardly necessary, as
this subject is usually dealt with in metallurgical
treatises. It is doubtful, too, whether the chapters
on chemistry, mechanics, steam, and electricity are
sufficiently full to give an insight into the allied sub-
jects, for the study of which excellent text-books are
available. The illustrations are clear and diagram-
matic, and possess the advantage of having been
specially drawn for the book.
By Lady William Cecil.
(London: Archibald
1904.) Price 2s. 6d.
Bird Notes from the Nile.
Pp. xii+113; illustrated.
Constable and Co., Ltd.,
net.
TurREE claims to high commendation present them-
selves on the first glance at this elegant little popular
work. In the first place, the numerous illustrations
are simply exquisite; secondly, technical names are
banished from the text; and, thirdly, in the long list
of species forming the appendix such names appear to
be correctly spelt, and are thoroughly up to date, even
to the adoption of the so-called ‘“‘ Scomber scomber ”’
system of alliteration. In her preface Lady William
confesses that the notes were written originally solely
for her children, who doubtless were desirous of
possessing a memento of their parents’ Nile trip, but
that friends persuaded her to offer them to the public.
The adoption of this advice is, in our opinion, fully
justified, and while the book has no doubt been found
delightful by the young people of the family, it
can scarcely fail to be a pleasant companion to the
many bird-lovers who make a winter excursion up the
Nile. Although no attempt (and very properly) is made
at technical descriptions of the various species
encountered during the voyage, such notes as are given
are in most cases sufficient to render identification an
easy matter, to say nothing of the instances when this
is rendered self-evident by the illustrations.
RE:
No. 1833, VOL. 71]
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions —
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake —
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Education and National Efficiency in Japan.
Tue notice of my book ‘‘ Dai Nippon, the Britain of the
East,’’ which appeared in Nature of December 1, directed
attention to a nation from which much may be learnt at
the present time, and it may interest your readers if I
supplement your article by a few notes from my personal
experience and observation. In the memorandum issued by
Sir Norman Lockyer suggesting the formation of a British
Science Guild, it is stated that the people of this country
do not manifest that interest in and belief in the power of
science which are noticeable among the peoples of the
Continent or of America, and that, in spite of the efforts
of many years, the scientific spirit essential to all true
progress is still too rare, and, indeed, is often sadly lacking
in some of those who are responsible for the proper conduct
of many of the nation’s activities. The British Science
Guild has been proposed with the view of attempting to
remedy this evil, and to bring home to all classes the
necessity of applying scientific treatment to affairs of all
kinds.
The objects of such a guild have been attained, to a very
remarkable degree, in Japan, not so much by the formation
of a special organisation for the purpose, as by the awaken-
ing of the national consciousness to the necessity of keeping
in mind certain definite aims, and by the earnest cooper-
ation of the various departments of Government, of scien-
tific associations, and of private organisations of many
different kinds. There is, indeed, a danger at the present
time in this country of too much importance being attached
to mere organisation and machinery, and too little to the
spirit which pervades them. Mr. Matthew Arnold, in one
of his last official reports on elementary schools, pointed
out that ‘* our existing popular school was far too little form-
ative and humanising, and that much of it to which
administrators point as valuable results is in truth mere
machinery.’’ This applies with far greater force to a great
deal which has been done in recent years in the way of
scientific and technical education. Instruction and know-
ledge are too often confounded with education, and mere
machinery and organisation prevent the development of the
scientific spirit. Many of the men who are supposed to
have had a complete technical education are very poor
specimens of humanity, wanting in individuality and
character, devoid of all originality, and with a very narrow
view of the world. Some of them may manage to pile up
fortunes for themselves, but they will do little to make their
country great. Even from a practical point of view, success
in any trade or profession does not depend so much on the
amount of information which may have been crammed into
the learners’ heads as is often supposed. It depends in-
comparably more upon their capacity for useful action than
upon their acquirements in knowledge. All experience
proves that the spiritual is the parent and first cause of the
practical, and especially the economic history of the Middle
Ages shows us that an ounce of manly pride and enthusiasm
is worth more than a pound of technical skill.
The recent history of Japan has emphasised this fact.
While attention has been paid to details, the spirit which
has animated the leaders of public opinion and action has
been the chief cause of the great developments which have
taken place. The complete study of this aspect of Japanese
national life would take us into many interesting psycho-
logical discussions, but it is sufficient for our present pur-
pose to note that the Japanese mind, unlike the British
(which is strongly individualistic), is dominated to a very
great extent by collective opinion. At the same time,
while Japanese philosophy and their former social order were
essentially communistic in their nature, still (contradictory
as it may seem) their genius is individualistic, and they
impress their personal qualities on their work, although
| they are willing to sacrifice results to a rigid organisation.
The outcome of it all is that the national consciousness is
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
151
directed to the attainment of national objects by men whose
individual powers have been trained to make effective use
of western science, and the results have been simply
wonderful. :
These results have been most apparent in the operations
of war. It was the sound of the cannon on the Yalu River,
in the war with China ten years ago, which awoke Europe
and America to a knowledge of the fact that a new nation
had been born in the Far East, and which at the same time
started many of the political problems which have led up
to the present war with Russia. That war, whatever its
ultimate results may be, has shown that the Japanese have
not only been able to take full advantage of the applications
of western science, but that they have been animated by
the spirit of old Japan, which has made them regardless
of personal sacrifices. The Army and Navy have been
organised and worked on scientific methods, and with a
completeness of arrangements which has won for them the
admiration of all impartial critics. Their intense patriotism
has caused them to perform deeds of daring which are
unequalled in the history of war, while their skill in strategy
and in the applications of the latest scientific methods to
all they have done has made them almost uniformly
successful in their operations, They have demonstrated the
importance of the work of the engineer. The railways
which have been built in Japan have been fully utilised to
convey men and materials, and the ships to transport them
oversea. The telegraphs have been used to communicate
instructions and to keep the authorities informed regarding
movements and requirements. The dockyards and _ ship-
building yards have been ready to undertake repairs, and
the arsenals and machine shops to turn out war material
of all kinds, as well as appliances which aid operations in
the field. Light railways have been laid down on the way
to battlefields, and wireless telegraphy and telephones to
convey instructions to soldiers; in short, all the latest appli-
cations of mechanical, electrical, and chemical science have
been freely and intelligently employed.
The ships of the Japanese Navy are probably the best
illustrations of the Japanese methods of procedure. In naval
matters they accepted all the guidance the western world
could give them, but at the same time they struck out a
line of their own, and the fleet which they have created is
unique in the character of its units. British designs have
in many respects been improved upon, with the result that
they have obtained in their latest ships many features which
have won the admiration of the naval world. The inven-
tions and improvements which have been made by Japanese
_ officers, engineers, and scientific men disprove the charge
which is very often made, that the Japanese have no
originality. Even in the matter of pure science Japanese
investigators have shown that they are able to take their
places among those who have extended the borders of
knowledge. The memoirs and papers published by Japanese
students and teachers, both on scientific and literary sub-
jects, will bear very favourable comparison with those of
any other country, and while no Japanese Newton, Darwin,
or Kelvin has yet arisen, there are men connected with
Japanese universities and colleges of whom any learned
institution in the world would have no reason to be ashamed.
I must refer to my book for details of the developments
which have taken place in engineering and _ industry.
Suffice it to say that roads and rivers have been improved,
railways to the extent of between four and five thousand
miles have been constructed, a large mercantile marine has
been created, docks and harbours have been made, tele-
graphs and telephones are in use all over the country, excel-
lent postal arrangements are in operation, and there are
few departments of mechanical and chemical industry in
which there are not many establishments doing very
efficient work. The result of it all has been that commerce
has been immensely extended, and the financial resources
of the country developed in such a manner as to enable
Japan to take her place among the powerful nations of the
world.
At the root of all these developments has been the very
complete system of education which has been established
in the country. Elementary schools are to be found in every
district, and secondary and technical schools in populous
centres, while the universities of Tokyo and Kyoto supply the
highest training required for the national life; but for de-
NO. 1833, VOL. 71 |
tails of these I must again refer to my book. The motive
underlying all the efforts is what I wish chiefly to emphasise.
Shortly after the Emperor succeeded to the throne, he issued
a proclamation which contained the following sentence :—
““ Knowledge and learning shall be sought after through-
out the whole world, in order that the status of the Empire
of Japan may be raised ever higher and higher.’’ The
recent history of Japan is the most striking illustration of
the influence of a wisely directed system of education on
national affairs when those who are responsible for it are
infused with high national ideals.
At the same time it should be noted that some of the
most thoughtful and influential men in Japan doubt whether
the official system of education is likely to lead to the best
results. They feel, like Matthew Arnold, that too often the
machinery and organisation receive more attention than the
real education, and, moreover, they dislike the idea of all
educational institutions being of the same type. Probably
the most influential educationist in Japan was Yukichi
Fukuzawa, and he never failed to point out the possible
evils which are likely to arise from a too strictly official
routine. His own college, the Keio Gijuku, has been a
great school for statesmen, lawyers, and public men, and
many of the leading men in Japan have been his pupils.
Count Okuma, the distinguished statesman, has also estab-
lished what is essentially a private university, and there are
many other schools of different kinds, all of which supple-
ment the Government institutions. Even in the technical
and professional establishments, however, attention is not
confined to the subjects required for strictly utilitarian pur-
poses or for examinations; the first object is to train men
who will be able to serve their country, in the fullest sense
of that term. Many discussions are now being carried on
with regard to the future of education in Japan, and the
general tendency of these was indicated a short time ago
by a distinguished Japanese author when he said, ‘‘ No
system of education which is not based on sociological con-
ditions can be thoroughly successful, and therefore a study
of ethnology, sociology, and of evolution generally is abso-
lutely essential to a thorough understanding of the
educational questions awaiting solution.” The Japanese
are now face to face with many problems which confront
all industrial nations, and it is to be hoped that, having
organised their education generally, and in some respects
given an example to western nations, they will go a step
further and show that it is possible to combine industrial
development with the welfare of all classes of the com-
munity.
The chief lessons which the British Science Guild has to
learn from Japan is that if it is to be of any real influence
in the life of the Empire, the term science must be used in
its broad sense, as including all knowledge required for
individual and collective life, and that, all efforts must be
guided by a consciousness of the real aims of national life.
Glasgow, December 6. Henry Dyer.
The Heating Effect of the 7 Rays from Radium.
IN a recent communication to the Physikalische Zeit-
schrift (No. 18, September) Paschen has described some
experiments which indicate that the y rays from radium
supply a large proportion of the total heat emission. It
is known that the heating effect of radium when surrounded
by an envelope of sufficient thickness to absorb both the
a and B rays is about roo gram calories per hour per gram.
Paschen, however, found that if the radium was surrounded
by a sufficient amount of lead to absorb completely the
y rays the heating effect was increased 2.26 times. This
large heating effect of the y rays was so unexpected, and
of such great importance in connection with the nature
of these rays, that we decided to verify this result by an
independent method. In Paschen’s experiments, the heat-
ing effect was determined in a special Bunsen ice calori-
meter, in the central tube of which the radium, surrounded
by a lead cylinder about 4 cm. in diameter, was placed.
In order to correct for the natural melting of the ice
mantle a differential method was employed. In our ex-
periments we decided to use a differential air calorimeter,
similar to the one described in our previous work on the
heating effect of radium and its emanation (Phil. Mag.,
February). In each flask of the differential air calorimeter
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 15, 1904
there was placed a narrow glass tube, closed at the lower
end and extending to about the centre of the flask. The
radium bromide weighing 23-7 milligrams was enclosed
in a small metal capsule supported by a thread, and was
inserted alternately in the glass tubes. The flasks,
originally at atmospheric pressure, were immersed in a
water bath kept in a constant temperature room, and were
connected by a xylene tube which served as a manometer.
The heating effect was measured by the movement of the
xylene column, observed by a telescope with micrometer
eye-piece, and the scale was calibrated by a small heating
coil of approximately the same dimensions as the radium.
Two sets of experiments were carried out, in one of which
the ends of the glass tubes were inserted in lead cylinders
3 cm. in diameter and 3 cm. high, and in the other with
aluminium cylinders of exactly the same dimensions.
The lead envelope absorbed more than half the y rays,
while the aluminium absorbed only a few per cent. ine
readings were found to be very steady and consistent, but
no appreciable difference in heating effect could be detected
in the two experiments. As a check, the heating coil was
employed in both experiments to calibrate the readings, the
means of which agreed to about 1 per cent.
According to Paschen’s results, the heating with the lead
cylinders should have been at least 50 per cent. greater
than with the aluminium cylinders. In our experiments
we could not have failed to detect a difference of 5 per cent.
We conclude from this that the y rays do not supply more
than a small percentage of the total heating effect of
radium. E. RUTHERFORD.
H. T. Barnes.
McGill University, December 1
Singularities of Curves.
Tue compound singularities of algebraic curves offer a
wide field for discussion, but the naming of the simple
singularities has not yet been placed on an entirely satis-
factory footing. The latter consist of (1) point singulari-
ties, which are nodes and cusps; (2) line singularities, which
I prefer to call bitangents and inflections. Mr. Basset calls
them double and stationary tangents; but if this is done,
symmetry requires that the point singularities should be
called double points and stationary points, and this is not
admissible, because the phrase double points (as now used)
includes cusps as well as nodes. If a curve has a double
point Mr. Basset calls it autotomic (self-cutting); but this
term is incorrect when all the double points in the curve
are cusps (as in the cardioid), for the curve does not then
cut itself. If it is really desirable to have a means of dis-
tinguishing curves that have nodes or cusps from those
that have none, they may perhaps best be described re-
spectively as curves with or without point singularities.
December 8. B.
A CHRISTMAS BIRD-BOOK.*
HE success which attended his last children’s bird-
book has induced Mr. Kearton to cater once more
for the wants of young people interested in the animal
life around them, and the result is the present charm-
ing little volume, illustrated, as usual, by reproductions
from photographs taken direct from nature by the
author and his brother. In the guise of a narrative
told by ‘* Cock Robin ”’ to his offspring, the author has
contrived to convey in his own inimitable manner a
vast store of information concerning bird-life, inter-
spersed with observations relating to other animals.
Although, as already said, intended primarily for
juvenile readers, the volume contains a_ certain
amount of information which may be new to some ot
their seniors, including those to whom natural history
is not an unknown study. For instance, until we
learnt it from Mr. Kearton’s pictures, we ourselves |
were ignorant of the marked and easily recognised
difference between the foot-prints of a rabbit and those
of a hare, despite the number of times they have come
under our notice in the snow. :
1 “The Adventure of Cock Robin and his Mate.” By R. Kearton.
Pp. xvi+240; illustrated. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 6s.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
Generally Mr. Kearton conveys his information in
simple language, but he is very prone to speak of a
bird picking up food between its two mandibles when
it would be ‘‘ shorter, simpler, and better understood ”
(to quote from a well known Bar story) if he said beak.
Apparently old fables connected with animals die hard,
for, according to the author, many young people at the
present day believe that a wren is a female robin, and
that male robins lose their red breasts in summer.
Fic. 1.—Young Dunlins in their natural surroundings. From Kearton’s
“*Cock Robin.” (Cassell and Co.).
These and other old wives’ legends Mr. Kearton does
his best to replace by accurate and interesting accounts
of the mysteries of bird-life.
The best (if there can be a best where all is so
interesting) of the five chapters are the two on nest-
ing and the clamour of chicks, both being illustrated
by a number of photographs of nests and young birds.
Very graphically does the author bring out the remark-
able difference in development at the date of hatching
between a young sparrow, for instance, and that of
a woodcock, and he also shows how much this differ-
ence depends on habit, a young skylark showing a
somewhat intermediate stage. Very striking are the
two photographs here reproduced, the one showing
young dunlins skulking amid their native covert, and
From Kearton’s
unnatural surroundings.
(Cassell and Co.)
2.—The same birds in
“Cock Robin.”
Fic
the other the same birds removed to an uncongenial
environment.
‘“ Nature-teaching ’’ could not be conveyed in a better
manner, or in one less free from affectation and
faddism, and we trust that the ‘‘ Kearton annual ”’
will enjoy the extensive patronage that it certainly
merits among those on the look-out for suitable
Christmas presents for their young friends.
R. L.
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
153
THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SEA-
é FISHING INDUSTRY.*
ae ai methods employed in the capture and trans-
port of fish, the great combinations of capital,
the trade organisations, the disputes between the trade
and the railway companies, local upheavals, lilke those
of Newlyn and Grimsby, which temporarily paralysed
the industry, the efforts of science to unveil the secrets
of the sea, and of Parliament first to encourage such
investigation and then to act upon its results; these
have in turn been briefly dealt with. Lastly, we
visited most of the important fishing ports.’’. Such in
the author’s words is an outline of the plan of this
book.
Historically the work is of interest as being the first
popular and general account of the sea-fishing in-
dustry which has appeared since Holdsworth’s ** Deep-
Sea Fishing,’? an admirable treatise of similar scope
published thirty years ago. A good idea of the rapid
progress of the industry in the interval may be gathered
from a comparison of the two. Curiously enough,
Holdsworth doubted the probability of
any extensive adoption of either steam
power or the otter trawl in relation to
commercial fishing. Contrary to this
forecast these very two factors, together
with ice and railway facilities, have
effected nothing short of a revolution in
the industry. It is possible that the next
decade or so may also have surprises in
store as the result of trade enterprise on
the one hand and scientific investigation
on the other.
Mr. Aflalo wisely refrains from pro-
nouncing any strong opinions as to future
developments.
After a short sketch on ‘‘ Life in the
Sea,”’ in which the chief of the facts
known about the life-histories of the
edible fishes are mentioned, the author
proceeds to describe the various processes
involved in the capture and distribution
of fish. These subjects receive adequate
if not exhaustive treatment, and are made
as interesting as possible by Mr. Aflalo’s
well-known popular style of writing.
Then follow two important chapters on
legislation and scientific investigation.
The final section consists of interesting
notes on the different kinds of fishing practised at each
important station along the coast, the condition of the
harbours (usually defective), railway facilities, local
modifications of the share system of wage-payment,
and the general prosperity, or otherwise, of the port in
question. The contrasts in some cases are very
striking, as, for example, between the mushroom-like
development of steam-trawling in the hands of syndi-
cates, as at Grimsby, and the moderate but steady
prosperity associated with private enterprise at a
typical smack-trawling port like Brixham. The
former may be safely described as the busiest and least
picturesque port in the kingdom, while Brixham,
which three-quarters of a century ago supplied the
pioneers of the North Sea fishery, and still breeds a
notably hardy and resourceful type of man, remains
attractive in the old-fashioned way.
In dealing with such controversial matters as legis-
lation and scientific investigation, Mr. Aflalo repre-
sents the two sides of a question with some skill, and,
1 “ The Sea-fishing Industry of England and Wales. A Popular Account
of the Sea Fisheries and Fishing Ports of Those Countries.’’ By F.G. Aflalo,
F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. With a sea-fisheries map and numerous photographs by
the author and others. Pp. xx + 386. (London: Edward Stanford, 1904.)
Price 16s. net.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
absolutely committing himself to neither, has'a good
word to say for both. Nevertheless, this attempt to
steer a sort of middle course among the different
opinions leads to no very definite results. The latest
Sea-Fisheries Bill he appears to regard as a measure
which might do some good, and cannot, in view of its
elastic and unbinding character, do much harm; it
has, in fact, its good points. International scientific
investigation is strongly advocated, ‘‘ although
effectual investigation of the vast bed of the North Sea
is out of the question,’’ and ‘‘ however faulty the
Christiania programme may be when analysed on a
purely economic basis.”’
The continued participation of Britain in the inter-
national investigations is recommended for the fol-
lowing reasons :—‘ As a piece of scientific work on an
elaborate scale, the North Sea scheme is not unworthy
of a century which opened with the discovery of
radium and the n-rays. As a measure of high politics
it is at least equal to the Anglo-French Agreement
of which so much more has been heard.”’
Apart from purely diplomatic considerations, such
Fic. 1.—The Hxxley, specially commissioned to carry out fishery investigations.
From Aflalo's “Sea-fishing Industry of England and Wales.”
as the above, the flat-fish problem, which is understood
to be receiving special attention at the hands of the
international experts, is surely very largely an inter-
national one, if only on account of the well-ascertained
fact that by far the most important nurseries of the
plaice are on the Continental side. One awaits with
interest the full details of these researches, especially
of certain experiments on the marking of plaice, as a
result of which it has been stated (in a short report
recently issued by the council of the Marine Biological
Association) that the species performs seasonal migra-
tions of considerable extent and definite direction, and
further that 20 per cent. of the English marked plaice
have been recovered and returned by the fishermen
within a year. The latter result indicates an intensity
of fishing such as may conceivably affect the supply of
this fish. Still more interesting economic possibilities
—standing, perhaps, in relation to the last as the anti-
dote to the evil-—are suggested by some reports recently
circulated in the newspapers. These speak of the
phenomenal growth of small plaice liberated on the
Dogger Bank, to which they had been transplanted
from certain crowded inshore ‘‘ nurseries.’’ . Investi-
gations such as these bear directly on questions of
154
NATURE
supply, and are evidently inspired by a determination
to give something like concrete value for public money.
While awaiting the verdicts of science and the
deliberations of legislators, it is useful to have to hand
a work such as this, which gives a concise statement
and accurate picture of the present condition of the
great sea-fishing industry,
The book is abundantly supplied with interesting
photographs. There is also a sea-fisheries map, in
which, however, is one glaring defect. From this
map it would appear that Yarmouth and Lowestoft
are given over entirely to the drift-net fishing, and
that neither of these places has any connection by rail
with the metropolis. This is inconsistent with what
is stated in the text, and is opposed to common
knowledge.
THE ELEVENTH EROS CIRCULAR.
al HE appearance of this volume brings us definitely
face to face with a new situation in the derivation
of accurate positions of the heavenly bodies from photo-
graphs. It will be remembered that in the winter of
1900-1 the recently discovered small planet Eros made
a very near approach to the earth, and a large number
of photographs were taken with the view of determin-
ing the distance of the planet, from a knowledge of
which that of the sun, and the dimensions of the solar
system generally, could be inferred with (it was hoped)
considerably improved accuracy. The measurement of
the plates involves enormous labour, and has only been
partially accomplished in the intervening four years;
and the discussion of the measures has necessarily pro-
ceeded even more slowly. But the present publication
of more than 4oo quarto pages represents a notable
addition to the tabular statement of measures, and
contains an important contribution to the discussion.
It appears that the plates taken at different observ-
atories are liable to disagreement in a serious manner.
Putting aside the planet itself for a moment, when the
positions of the stars found from plates taken at the
Algiers Observatory are compared with those found
from plates taken at Paris, there is a difference vary-
ing with the brightness of the individual stars. Such
a difference is not altogether new in astronomy; it was
pointed out by Sir David Gill a dozen years ago or
more that eye observations of stellar positions made
by different observers were likely to differ system-
atically in this manner; but this was attributed to
human defects in the observer, and it was hoped that
photography would free us from the embarrassment.
So it probably will when rightly used; but we have
apparently not yet completely realised the necessary
precautions. The instruments for taking the photo-
graphs at Algiers and at Paris are as precisely similar
as the constructor could make them; they were used
in the same way; the plates were measured similarly
and with careful attention to certain known sources
of error, and yet the resulting star places show the
following differences in seconds of are in the mean of
5 groups of 87 stars each :—
Mean Difference
magnitude “
; —0'27
9°4 —0°42
10"4 —0°57
II°2 -—0'72
Il'6 — 0°83
There is a range of more than half a second, and
we want to measure the hundredth of a second! This
is probably an exceptional case; but what may occur
once may occur again, and in view of this fact it is
Cir-
1 Conference astrophotographique internationale de Juillet, 1900.
culaire No. 11. (Paris ; Gauthier Villars, 1904.)
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
not too much to say that a very serious addition has
been made to the labour of determining the quantity
sought—the solar parallax—by this revelation.
It is disappointing to find no satisfactory sugges-
tion of the cause of error in the paper which gives an
account of it. A suggestion is indeed made, viz. that
in measuring a plate the presence of an adjacent image
(for the exposure is repeated on the same plate so as
to show all the images more than once) may disturb
the eye of the measurer. All our experience hitherto
is against such a possibility. It seems more likely to
the writer that the cause may be sought in the object
glass of the photographic telescope, and, to be more
precise, in an error of centreing of the crown lens re-
latively to the flint. Such an error is well known to
opticians, and is easily detected in a visual telescope
by the fringe of colour on one side of a star image
when slightly out of focus. But the images formed
by a photographic telescope are not examined by the
eye in the regular course of work, and such an error
might therefore escape detection until revealed by such
a comparison of measures as is given above. The
stray light on one side of the image would not be
strong enough to affect the sensitive film in the case
of faint stars, but for a bright star it would spread the
image in that direction, and so introduce a spurious
displacement of the centre. If this explanation be
correct, the error can be both detected and eliminated
by turning the object glass through 180° (with most
forms of telescope mounting it is only necessary to
turn the telescope to the other side of the pier), and this
can easily be done. Indeed, it ought to have been done
before now, under the admirable maxim for physical
work, ‘‘ reverse everything that can be reversed,’’ but,
so far as is known to the writer, the point has hitherto
escaped notice.
If on examination this explanation will not fit the
facts, some other must be found. A few additional
details in the volume before us would have made it
possible to test this hypothesis; if, for instance, it had
been specified which plates were taken on one side of
the pier and which on the other, a comparison of the
two sets would have given very definite information.
Mr. Hinks has already given cogent reasons (see
Observatory for September, 1903) for regretting the
lack of information as to the identity of the individual
plates, and we have now to add this further reason.
For the systematic difference described is not confined
to Algiers-Paris. If we turn to the paper following
that in which M. Trépied gives the figures above
quoted and arrange the differences found at the Good-
sell Observatory (Carleton College, Minnesota) accord-
ing to stellar magnitude, we find a well marked effect
in R.A. and a smaller one in dec. ; and probably other
cases, when duly examined, will give similar results,
though it does not seem to have occurred to astro-
nomers generally to make a properly searching inquiry.
For instance, at the end of the volume M. Lewy
tabulates a series of differences between two lists of
star places prepared with great care by himself and
by Prof. Tucker, of the Lick Observatory, and he com-
ments with satisfaction on the close accordance of the
two lists. But a very slight examination suffices to
show that the differences are affected with ‘‘ magni-
tude-equation,’’ though in this instance the effect may
be due to the visual observations.
In fact, while duly admiring the energy and dili-
gence with which this vast mass of material has been
collected and published, a result due in great part to
the powers of organisation of M. Loewy, the director
of the Paris Observatory, we may well feel some doubts
whether it will turn out to be, as he hopes, a “ collec-
tion of homogeneous material, susceptible of being
immediately used without the necessity of undertaking,
DECEMBER I5, 1904]
as in the past, long and tedious preliminary investi-
gations’? (p. 3). Homogeneity for such a purpose
cannot be secured by mere similarity in publication of
results; indeed, this very process tends to cover up
vital differences of detail, and it is to be feared that,
unless these can be unearthed again, the work will
suffer in accuracy.
There is an appendix at the end of the volume pro-
fessing to give a bibliography of the already large
literature on the Eros campaign, but containing no
reference to the Monthly Notices or other English
work. Is not this rather a strange oversight?
H. H. Turner.
NOTES.
Britis science has been honoured by the award of the
Nobel prize for physics to Lord Rayleigh, and the prize for
chemistry to Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. Prof.
Pavloff, of the Military Academy of Medicine at St. Peters-
burg, has been awarded the prize for physiology. The
distribution of the prizes took place at Stockholm on
December to in the presence of King Oscar and the Royal
Family, foreign ministers and members of the Cabinet, and
many leading representatives of science, art, and literature.
After speeches had been delivered by the vice-president and
other representatives of the Nobel committee, and of the
Academies of Science, Medicine, and Literature, King
Oscar personally presented Lord Rayleigh, Sir William
Ramsay, and Prof. Pavloff with their prizes, together with
diplomas and gold medals. The sum of money attaching
to each prize amounts to about 7825]. The distribution of
the prizes was followed by a banquet, at which the Crown
Prince presided; and among the company were Prince and
Princess Charles, Lord and Lady Rayleigh, Sir William
and Lady Ramsay, and M. and Mme. Pavloff. Count
Morner proposed the health of Prof. Pavloff, Prof.
Petterson that of Sir William Ramsay, and Prof. Hassel-
berg that of Lord Rayleigh. On Monday Sir William
Ramsay delivered a lecture on argon and helium at the
Academy of Sciences, and King Oscar gave a dinner party
to the prize winners. On Tuesday Lord Rayleigh delivered
a lecture at the academy on the density of gases. Both
fectures were highly appreciated and greatly applauded.
It is announced that Lord Rayleigh proposes to present to
Cambridge University the value of the Nobel prize for
physics awarded to him.
Str Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., has been elected
a corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at St. Petersburg.
Tue Lavoisier gold medal, which has been awarded by
the French Academy of Sciences to Sir James Dewar,
F.R.S., for his researches on the liquefaction of gases, was
founded in 1900, to be given, without distinction of nation-
ality, at such times as the French Academy should elect
in recognition of eminent services rendered to chemistry by
scientific men. The present is the first occasion on which
the medal has been awarded to a British man of science.
Tue Wislicenus memorial lecture will be delivered before
the Chemical Society by Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., on
Wednesday, January 25, at 8.30 p.m.
Mr. A. Sitva Wuite, formerly secretary to the Royal
Scottish Geographical Society, and editor of the Scottish
Geographical Magazine, has been appointed assistant
secretary of the British Association, and has already taken
up the duties of the post.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
NATURE
755
Pror. Boyce, of Liverpool University, has proposed to
the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce a scheme for the
establishment of a commercial museum and bureau of
scientific information, The object is to correlate the various
scientific forces in the city in order to utilise them for com-
mercial advantage. The scheme has been referred to a
committee of the Chamber of Commerce,
On the invitation of the director, Dr. J. J. Dobbie, F.R.S.,
and Mrs. Dobbie, a large and representative gathering
assembled in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, .on
Monday evening, December 12, to celebrate the jubilee of
the museum. The museum embraces three departments—
natural history, art and ethnography, and technology, under
their respective keepers, Dr. Traquair, F.R.S., Mr. D. J.
Vallance, and Dr. Alex. Galt. In the natural history de-
partment the collection of fossil fish is one of the most
important in the world. Other special features of this
department are the hall of British zoology and the zoo-
logical type collection, the aim of the latter being to illus-
trate the bearing of comparative anatomy on the classifi-
cation of the animal kingdom. The ethnographical collec-
tion is one of the most extensive of its kind, and contains
many specimens brought home by explorers of the end of
the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth centuries.
The technological department contains a large and fine
collection of machine and engineering models, most of
them made in the museum workshops, together with
mining and metallurgical specimens and models. There is
also a large collection of economic botany attached to this
department. The collections of H.M. Geological Survey
of Scotland are housed in the museum, and with these is
associated the MHeddle-Dudgeon collection of Scottish
minerals, which has been described as the finest collection
of the minerals of any one country in existence. The
museum is supported by a Parliamentary grant, and is
under the Scotch Education Department, which was repre-
sented at the conversazione by Sir Henry Craik, K.C.B.,
and Mr. Macdonald, assistant secretary.
A MEETING was held in the geological lecture theatre of
the Owens College, Manchester, on December 8, at which
it was resolved to establish a Manchester University Geo-
logists’ Association. The object of the association is to
afford a centre of social reunion for the discussion of geo-
logical subjects. Prof. Boyd Dawkins was elected presi-
dent, Mr. B. Hobson and Mr. Winstanley vice-presidents,
Mr. W. J. Hall secretary, and Mr. O. B. Leigh treasurer.
A sHorT time ago Dr. Doyen claimed to have discovered
the microbe of cancer, and to have prepared with it a
curative serum for the disease. A committee was appointed
to investigate Dr. Doyen’s claims (see NATURE, October 27,
p. 631), and, according to the daily Press, has now reported
favourably on them. The Standard’s correspondent tele-
graphs, however (December 14), that the committee has not
yet arrived at any conclusion.
On the recent retirement of Sir William Macgregor from
the Governorship of Lagos, the Liverpool School of Tropical
Medicine decided to mark its appreciation of his valu-
able services to the cause of health and sanitation by raising
a fund, to which Sir Alfred Jones contributed s5o00l. and
Mr. John Holt 200l. It has been decided to expend this
fund on two medical expeditions to the west coast of Africa,
one in charge of Prof. Boyce, who, with Dr. A. Evans
and Dr. H. H. Clarke, sailed from the Mersey on Wednes-
day, the other under Colonel Giles. These expeditions will
156
NATURE
[DecemBEr 15, 1904
study the various health problems presented by the districts
they visit, the distribution of biting insects, and related
matters.
A DEMONSTRATION of the Pollak-Virag high-speed writing
telegraph was given on December 9 at the Carlton Hotel
in the presence of the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador. The
Pollak-Virag high-speed telegraphic system was described
upwards of three years ago in a detailed article published
in Nature for May 2, 1901, and readers may be referred
to that account for particulars of the instruments used.
Very high speeds—reaching 100,000 words an hour—were
reported as having been attained in America in 1901 by
this system, using several perforating machinés to prepare
the message being sent; but it now appears that these
-estimates were too high. The postal authorities in Hungary
in recent experiments Carried out between Budapest and
Pozsony, a distance of some 218 kilometres, with two copper
telephone wires of 3 mm. diameter, secured the trans-
mission of 45,000 words an hour. In another series of ex-
periments, conducted between Berlin and K6nigsberg, a
maximum transmission of 40,000 .words an hour was
attained over a distance of 710 kilometres with wires
45 mm. in diameter. It is stated that our Post Office
department is about to carry out some trials of the Pollak-
Virag system.
Tue performances of an intelligent horse—‘ Clever
Hans ’—at Berlin two or three months ago attracted much
attention. In a letter which appeared in Nature of
October 20 (vol. Ixx. p..602) the Rev. J.. Meehan pointed
out that the performances of the horse were much the same
as those of the horse ‘‘ Mahomet’? shown at the Royal
Aquarium twelve or thirteen years ago, and depended
entirely upon the animal’s observation of movements of the
trainer or the tones of his voice. Much the same opinion
has been reached by a commission of psychological experts,
headed by Prof. Stumpf, of Berlin University, that has sub-
jected “‘ Clever Hans’? to a. scientific examination. The
conclusion arrived at is that the horse is not capable of
independent thought. According to the Berlin correspon-
dent of the Daily Chronicle, Prof. Stumpf found that this
horse is gifted with remarkable powers of observation,
which four years of patient and skilful treatment have de-
veloped. When asked a question ‘‘ Hans’? knows he has
to beat with his hoof in reply, but he does not know when
to cease beating until he detects some movement on the
part of the person questioning him. The commission ex-
presses the opinion that, so far as Herr von Osten, the
owner, is concerned, these movements are given involun-
tarily, and are sometimes of so imperceptible a nature as to
be undetected, save by highly trained human observers.
There has been no trickery, says Prof. Stumipf, but, on the
other hand, there have been no reasoning powers on the
horse’s part. The whole secret is in von Osten’s skill,
patience, and judicious reward, and, on ‘‘ Hans’s ”’ part,
in keen powers of observation.
Visitors to the Zoological Gardens in the Regent’s Park
will miss the old Indian rhinoceros ‘‘ Jim,’”? which had
been a denizen of the menagerie since July 25, 1864, on
which date it was presented to the society by the late Mr.
A. Grote. It died on December 7, after having been out
of health for many months. Such a long sojourn in
captivity in this country is probably unparalleled for
an animal of this kind. As a statement has appeared
in the Press that the skin might perhaps be mounted in
the British (Natural History) Museum, it may be well to
state that His Highness the Maharaja of Kuch-Behar
recently presented the skin of a wild specimen of the great
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
dis fully explained in the article.
Indian rhinoceros to the museum, which has been set up,
and is exhibited. The ‘‘ Zoo ”’ specimen will therefore not
find a home in the national collection.
Tue December number of the Century Magazine contains
a most interesting account, by Mr. G. H. Grosvenor, of
the new method of purifying water—both in small quanti-
ties and when stored in large reservoirs—by means of blue
vitriol (copper-sulphate).
copper is fatal to bacteria, but the fear has hitherto been
that the amount required to effect the destruction of such
organisms would likewise be injurious to man. Dr. G. T.
Moore has, however, announced in an American official
publication that he can employ copper in such a diluted
form as to be quite harmless to the higher forms of animal,
and yet sufficiently potent to destroy the germs of cholera
and typhoid, as well as mosquito larvz, ina few hours.
The method of introducing the copper-salt into the water
It may be added that
the treatment is stated to be equally efficacious and
safe for sterilising milk. As an illustration of the effects
of copper in destroying bacteria, it is mentioned that such
organisms are never found on copper coins, although
abundant on those of silver, and it is mentioned that
_artisans in copper-works are immune to bacterial diseases-
Whether we have been wise in abolishing the old-fashioned
copper tea-kettle is one of the questions raised by the new
operations.
Tue discovery of the existence of an anterior rudimentary
pair of gills in the Continental fresh-water crayfish Astacus
fluviatilis, which is not present in the common A. pallipes
of the Thames, was described by Prof. Lankester in
Nature of January 21 (vol. Ixix. p. 270), and is recorded in
the November issue of the Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science by Miss M. Moseley, who appears to have
inherited her father’s love for biological studies. The
other four papers in the same number are of a
very technical nature, the longest and perhaps the
most important being a detailed account by Mr. J. W.
Jenkinson of the maturation and fertilisation of the egg
of the axolotl (Amblystoma tigrinum). More general interest
attaches, however, to the article by Prof. L. Rogers on the
development of flagellated organisms or trypanosomes from
the protozoic parasites found in the spleen in cases of
cachexial fevers and certain other diseases. Of the two
remaining articles, the one by Dr. J. Rennie discusses the
so-called epithelial islets in the pancreas of bony fishes, while
the second, by Dr. H. G. Fowler, is devoted to the descrip-
tion of the anatomy of a radiolarian of the genus Gazeletta.
In an article entitled ‘‘ A Flamingo City,’’ which appears
in the December number of the Century Magazine, Mr.
F. M. Chapman, of the American Museum of Natural
History, gives a graphic and well illustrated account of one
of the great breeding-places of the American flamingo in
the Bahamas. Although previous observers, both in those
islands and in Europe, have published descriptions of
flamingo colonies, and have refuted the old’error that the
birds sat straddle-wise on their nests, the author claims to
be the first to have seen nestling flamingoes in their native
haunts, and likewise to have brought the camera to bear
on one of the breeding-places of these birds. Flamingoes,
as Mr. Chapman remarks, are more brightly coloured than
any other large bird, and their gregarious habits and the
open nature of their resorts are admirably suited to bring
their gorgeous hues into prominence. The visit to the
nesting-grounds was made at the latter end of May, when
both eggs and young birds were. to be found in the nests-
It has long been known that
eT ne ee ee ag SO ra ee ae
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
157
At first the birds—estimated at 2000 in number—rose in
a flock, and fears were entertained that they would per-
manently forsake their nests, but after a time—despite the
erection of a ‘‘ blind’’ for the camera—they returned in a
body. The sight of such an army of large birds, both in
flight and when marching, is described as magnificent and
imposing, if not, indeed, appalling. The young remain
in the nest for about three days, and for the first three weeks
after leaving it feed like ordinary birds. By that time,
however, the beak has attained its characteristic flexure,
and the young birds then search for their food with the
lower mandible upwards. Molluscs of the genus Cerithium
form almost the sole food of the Barbados species. It is
sincerely to be hoped that a movement to prevent these
‘rookeries ’’ from being raided by the plumage-hunter will
be attended with success.
In vol. iv. of the Bulletin of the Imperial Botanic Garden
at St. Petersburg, Mr. J. Palibin describes the plankton
which he collected in Barents Sea, and also gives a historical
résumé of other collections made in the Arctic Ocean. In
a series of letters Mr. Boris Fedtschenko communicates the
botanical observations made during a journey through the
Sir Daria region of Turkestan.
In a pamphlet entitled ‘* Notes on the Commercial Timbers
of New South Wales,’’ Mr. J.. H. Maiden describes the
principal woods, their characters, and uses. The inform-
ation is primarily suited to practical men who supply or
use timber in the colony. The majority of the timbers are
hard woods, and different species of Eucalyptus give iron-
barks, stringy barks, varieties of box, mahogany, and gum.
The timbers recommended in lieu of pine are white beech,
Gmelina Leichhardtii, a genus of the order Verbenacez, and
red cedar, Cedrela australis, and rosewood, Dysoxylon
Lessertianum, both included in the Meliacez.
Tue establishment of ‘“‘ biologic forms’? of species of
Erysiphaceze and Uredinez is based upon the restricted
powers of infection of the spores upon allied species of the
host plant. But the immunity of a species of the host plant
is not absolute, because, as pointed out by Mr. E. S. Salmon
in No. 3 of vol. ii. of the Annales Mycologici, another host
plant may act as a bridging species. Thus the form of
Erysiphe graminis which grows on Bromus racemosus will
infect Bromus hordeaceus, but will not infect Bromus com-
mutatus, although the spores found on Bromus hordeaceus
will infect Bromus commutatus. If spores from Bromus
racemosus are sown on Bromus hordeaceus, then the spores
produced: on Bromus hordeaceus as a result of that sowing
are found to be capable of infecting Bromus commutatus.
Tue daily’ weather report issued by the Meteorological
Office on Tuesday, December 6, showed that on the morning
of that day the winds and sea in the Channel were still
very heavy, and, further, that a rapid fall of the barometer
at Scilly pointed to the approach of a fresh disturbance.
This storm developed very rapidly, and by 2h. p.m. a deep
disturbance Jay over Dorsetshire, and another to the north
of the Helder. These disturbances were accompanied by
very heavy rainfall, amounting in twenty-four hours to
2-25 inches at Cuxhaven, 1-25 inch at St. Aubins (Jersey),
and 0-94 inch in London, while severe thunderstorms
occurred — generally in Devon and Cornwall: Much
damage to property is reported from various districts, and
in parts: of Dorsetshire a veritable tornado occurred; rain
and hail fell in torrents, accompanied by heavy thunder and
lightning. At Beaminster roofs and trees suffered severely ;
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
-are alleged to produce.
the path of the storm was well defined, and, as is usually
the case in these local whirlwinds, was limited to a very
small area: The region of heavy rainfall over the country
generally was sharply defined on its northern side; at
Nottingham and Spurn Head no rain was reported to the
Meteorological Office on the morning of December 7.
A votuME of monthly wind charts for the South Atlantic
Ocean, prepared by the marine branch of the Meteorological
Office, has just been published by the Hydrographic Depart-
ment of the Admiralty. The region covered extends from
the equator southward to the 65th parallel, and from the
2oth meridian of east longitude to the goth of west longi-
‘tude, so that a portion of the Pacific is included. Nearly
a million sets of observations, extending over a period of
forty-five years, have been used. The winds have been dis-
cussed in areas of 5° of latitude by 5° of longitude, and
the results are exhibited by means of roses showing the
relative frequency and strength at the sixteen even points
of the compass. The distribution of mean atmospheric
pressure is shown by means of isobaric lines, and the mean
air temperature by isotherms, while along the African and
American coasts are numerous notes bearing upon the
characteristic climatic features of the various months. A
striking feature on every chart is the area of high baro-
metric pressure covering the whole of the area between
Africa and the east. coast of America, its central space
being usually more on the western side of the ocean, as is
the case with the anticyclone of the North Atlantic. The
wind ‘circulation of the South Atlantic is associated with its
dominating high pressure system. On the eastern and
northern portions of the ocean the south-east trade is very
constant, is never interrupted by storms, nor attains the force
of a gale. On the western side the winds are more variable,
but gales are very rarely experienced northward of the 35th
parallel. Except near the land fogs seldom occur north-
ward of the 3oth parallel, and the south-western part of the
ocean is the only region where ice is ordinarily met with.
Statistics of the rainfall at a number of places within the
area of the charts show that the annual amount ranges
from 0-31 inch at Walfisch Bay and 1-54 inches at Serena
(Coquimbo) to 93-41 inches at Pernambuco and 100-63 inches
at Valdivia. It may be recalled that at the Cambridge meet-
ing of the British ‘Association Commander Hepworth read
a paper on the results of the discussion of the observations
for these charts. ’
In No. 22 of the Physikalische Zeitschrift Messrs. Elster
and Geitel reply to Mr. J. R. Ashworth’s recent letter to
Nature (vol. Ixx., p- 454) suggesting that the human breath
may be considered as a source of the ionisation of the atmo-
sphere. Their measurements of the conduetivity of air
charged with ordinary human breath show that such air
is not more conducting than ordinary air. On the other
hand, the breath of a person who has been working con-
tinually with radium preparations has decided ionising
power, and the nature of the ionisation shows that it is
due to the emanation of radium.
Nearty all the physicists who have been approached
hitherto by the Revue Scientifique in the course of, its in-
quiries as to the existence of the n-rays have unequivocally
stated their inability to observe the effects which these rays
It is therefore particularly interest-
ing to note in the Revue for November 26 that M.
D’Arsonval has been able to reproduce. these effects in many
instances, and to show that they are not due merely to
thermal causes. . M. Mascart .is stated jointly to have
observed: with him the same phenomena. M.. Poincaré,
158
NATURE
{DECEMBER I5, 1904
although himself unable to verify the existence of the radi-
ations, adversely criticises Prof. Wood’s objections. M.
Weiss, from his failure to observe the rays, simply concludes
that he was physically unfitted for such observations.
Part xii. of the Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society
consists of an investigation by Mr. Richard J. Moss of the
state in which helium exists in pitchblende. The total
quantity of helium in a sample of pitchblende was 0-107 c.c.
per gram, and of this 1.17 per cent. was liberated by simply
grinding the mineral in a vacuum. The quantity of carbon
dioxide separated by completely decomposing the mineral
was 4-686 c.c. per gram, of which only o0-0085 per cent.
was obtainable by grinding. As a similar proportion of the
total occluded carbon dioxide can be separated from calcite,
in which the gas is undoubtedly present in minute cavities,
by simply pulverising the crystals, it is probable that the
whole of the carbon dioxide of pitchblende, and possibly
the helium also, are present similarly occluded. It is
evident that the proportion of the gases liberated by roughly
grinding must necessarily be only a small proportion of the
total volume.
Tue Christmas number of Photography, published by
Messrs. Iliffe and Sons, Ltd. (rs. net), is restricted to many
kinds of work with the camera which can be accomplished
indoors during the winter months. It might be said
further to deal with the lighter side of photography as
well, as will be judged by reading the second portion of
this number. Part i., by Mr. C. J. Harrison, deals with the
working up of negatives and prints for the removal of
mechanical and other defects from negatives. The methods
and dodges employed are, as the author states, the outcome
of his own experience, but nevertheless they are interest-
ing reading, and may prove serviceable to many photo-
graphers. The illustrations accompanying the text and
chosen to represent various stages of these methods are
also well worth examination. In part ii. Mr. W. L. F.
Wastell discourses on bye-paths of photography. Here
the reader is made acquainted with methods for producing
what may be termed ‘freak’? photographs. Thus we
have illustrated examples of the so-called “‘ spirit ”” photo-
graph, distortions due to the object being too near to the
camera, two images of the same person in one picture, com-
bination portraits, silhouettes, and many others of a similar
character. The supplement to this number consists of
designs, covering sixteen pages, of photographic mounts to
serve as Christmas cards.
THE articles in the October number of the Johns Hopkins
Hospital Bulletin (xv., No. 163) are mainly of medical
interest. Dr. Packard, however, writes an interesting
account of some famous quacks, including Valentine Great-
rakes, who claimed the healing touch for the King’s evil
in the seventeenth century, no other than Robert Boyle
testifying to his powers; Joshua (‘‘ Spot ’?) Ward, who dis-
covered a cheap way of making oil of vitriol; and John
St. John Long, who devised a famous liniment which
possessed not only curative powers, but also revealed hidden
disease, and from his practice is said to have derived 13,0001.
a year.
Mr. W. B. Crive has published a revised and enlarged
edition of ‘‘ First Stage Building Construction,” by Mr.
Brysson Cunningham.
Messrs. DAwBARN AND Warp, Ltp., have published in
their “‘ Home Worker’s ”’ series a booklet by Mr. R. H. S.
Williams with the title “‘How to Build a Bicycle,’’ and
one on “‘ How to Build a Petrol Motor,’’ by Mr. J. F. Gill.
No. 1833, VOL. 71]
THE separate parts (parts i.—vi.) of *‘ A School Geometry,’”
by Messrs. H. S, Hall and F. H. Stevens, which have been
reviewed in these columns from time to time, have been
published together in one volume by Messrs. Macmillan
and Co., Ltd., at 4s. 6d.
A FOURTH edition of Prof. Olof Hammarsten’s “ Text-
book of Physiological Chemistry’? has been published by
Messrs. John Wiley and Sons, New York (London: Messrs.
Chapman and Hall, Ltd.). This issue is an authorised
translation by Prof. John A. Mandel from the author’s
enlarged and revised fifth German edition.
THE 1904 issue of the ‘‘ Year-book of the Scientific and
Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland’? has now
been published by Messrs. Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd.
This is the twenty-first annual issue of a useful list of
organisations for the advancement of science, literature,
and art, and of work done year by year. Comprehensive
as the compilation is, it is not quite complete, for there
appears to be no reference either to the Sociological Society
or to the Geographical Association.
Erratum.—In the inscription of Fig. 5 (p. 135) of the
article on ‘‘Invar’’ in last week’s Nature, ‘‘a 2 km.
wire ’’ should read ‘‘ a 24 m. wire.”’
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
RELATIONS BETWEEN SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA.
—In a paper communicated to the Royal Society of New
South Wales, Mr. H. I. Jensen, of Sydney University, dis-
cusses the more recent data concerning sun-spot frequencies
and the occurrence of volcanic outbursts, earthquakes and
climatic variations, with the view of illustrating further
the dependence of the terrestrial upon the solar phenomena.
In a previous paper communicated to the same society in
June, 1902, he arrived at the conclusion that the maxima
of volcanic and seismic activity coincided, in point of time,
with the sun-spot minima, but the discussion of the later
data has led him to a confirmation of the views expressed
by Sir Norman Lockyer, viz. that the maximum activity
of the terrestrial takes place at both the minima and the
maxima of the solar phenomena. His observations show,
however, that the action at sun-spot maxima is less marked
than, and of a different character to, that which takes place
at the minima.
The differential action of lunar attraction is also dis-
cussed, and although the author concludes that this cause
is only one of secondary importance, he shows that volcanic
outbursts and earthquakes seem to occur most frequently
at those times when the moon is in perigee.
In discussing the connection existing between solar and
meteorological variations, Mr. Jensen refers to the work
performed in this direction by Sir Norman and Dr. Lockyer,
and in general agrees with their results, although he in-
clines to the belief that the epochs of sun-spot maxima are
generally the epochs of excessive rainfall. Further, he
strongly insists upon the necessity of attaching more im-
portance to geographical position when considering the
prevailing meteorological conditions of any place (Proc.
Roy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. xxxviii.).
Sun-spot SpectrA.—In No. 4, vol. xx., of the Astro-
physical Journal Father Cortie brings together the results
of all the sun-spot spectra observations made at the Stony-
hurst College Observatory during the period 1883-1901.
Using a Browning automatic spectroscope containing
twelve 60° prisms, the widened lines in the region B—D of
the solar spectrum were picked out, and the intensity of
their relative widening recorded on an arbitrary numerical
scale. The present catalogue results from 5486 individual
observations of 349 lines, and the results generally confirm
the observations made at South Kensington as recorded by
Sir Norman Lockyer in a paper (‘* On the Relation between
the Spectra of Sun-spots and Stars ’’) recently communicated
to the Royal Society, viz. that vanadium and titanium are
the elements chiefly affected in sun-spot spectra.
ee
Oo
DECEMEER 15, 1904]
NATURE
159
Father Cortie states that the widening of some oxygen
dines in sun-spot spectra, particularly in the a band, seems
to be a real phenomenon.
EcripsE OBSERVATIONS.—Vol. iii. of the Annalen of the
Royal University Observatory of Strassburg, edited by Dr.
E. Becker, the director, contains the results of the helio-
meter observations of the total solar eclipse of May 28,
1900, and of the lunar eclipses which took place on
January 28, 1888, May 11, 1902 (partial eclipse), and April
II, 1903, respectively.
Inthe first part Prof. Kobold gives the results of a
number of observations made in order to determine the
reduction elements of the heliometer, and then applies them
to the observational results obtained during the solar
eclipse of 1900. Finally, he gives the corrections to the
previously determined positions. In part ii. the same
observer discusses the observations of the 1888 and 1892
‘eclipses of the moon, and gives the values obtained for the
radius of the earth’s shadow, &c., finally comparing them
with the calculated values.
In the third part Herr C. W. Wirtz discusses the observ-
ations of the lunar eclipse of April 11, 1903, including the
corrections to the moon’s place, the figure and size of the
earth’s shadow, and the variations of the diameter of the
«rater Linné during the eclipse. The curve on which are
plotted the values of the last named quantity shows a con-
siderable increase in the diameter during the approach of
the earth’s shadow to the crater, the maximum value
evidently occurring during the actual eclipse of Linné.
THE APPEARANCE OF SPARK LINES IN ARC SpEecTRA.—An
interesting discussion of the conditions which lead to the
appearance of ‘‘spark’’ lines in arc spectra is published
in No. 4, vol. xx., of the Astrophysical Journal by Dr.
Henry Crew, of the North-western University, Ill. Dr.
Crew made a number of experiments in which the Mg
line at A 4481 appeared in the arc spectrum, and examined
the arc, simultaneously, with a Rowland grating spectro-
graph and a Duddell high-frequency oscillograph.
The various conditions under which the arc was produced
were as follow:—(1 and 2) current with negligible and
with large amount of inductance respectively; (3) arc
broken by air blast; (4) arc in atmosphere of coal gas.
The reproductions of the oscillograph curves show the
current conditions during each experiment, and from a dis-
cussion of the results Dr. Crew arrives at the following
conclusions :—(1) A rapidly changing, high E.M.F. is a
probable conditio sine qua non for the appearance of spark
dines in are spectra. (2) The effect of hydrogen and other
atmospheres in introducing spark lines is explained by the
fact that these atmospheres produce a more rapid break,
and this, in turn, introduces an extra E:M.F., which in
some way, as yet unknown, is responsible for the radiation
of the spark line. A possible explanation of the stellar
‘conditions which produce spark lines in the spectra of stars
is also discussed.
Tue Royat AstronomicaL Society oF Canapa.—Founded
as the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, the
name of this society was changed in 1900 to that of the
Toronto Astronomical Society. In 1903 it was decided to
change its name to the Astronomical Society of Canada,
and in response to a petition the privilege of prefixing the
word ‘‘ Royal’’ to its name was granted, so that the full
title of the society is now the above heading. We hope
that this now national society will be a stimulus to the
promotion and diffusion of astronomical science, and that
its influence will be greatly extended. We have before us
the volume containing the selected papers and proceedings
for the years 1902 and 1903, edited by A. Harvey; the
varied topics there dealt with bid fair for the future of the
society. Among some of the papers may be mentioned the
address of the president, R. F. Stupart, director of the
Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory of Toronto, in
which is an account of the history and work of the institu-
tion. W. H. S. Monck gives a catalogue of aérolites,
arranged in order of the months in which they fell. There
is a brief account of the present astronomical equipment of
‘Canada as a whole, and a discussion on papers dealing with
solar phenomena and terrestrial effects. The volume con-
cludes with an account of women’s work in astronomy, by
Miss E. A. Dent.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
THE FIRST TRUE MAPS.
]N the history of cartography, in the development of maps
and map-making, there is perhaps nothing quite com-
parable to the first appearance of the “‘ portolani’’ or
““handy charts’’ at the close of the thirteenth and the
beginning of the fourteenth century. For the portolani,
the first true sea-charts, are also the first true maps of
any kind—the earliest designs in which any part of the
earth-surface is laid down from actual observation of close
and continuous character,
By the term ‘‘ portolani’’ we intend, of course, to refer
to that great series of coast-plans of which the earliest
known examples belong to the first decade of the fourteenth
century (A.D. 1300-1310); which are traceable to a very
few, perhaps to two or three (now lost), originals; which
may be extended to cover at least 500 designs (reaching
down to the end of the sixteenth century); and were
primarily intended to serve as practical guides to mariners
and merchants in the seaports of the Mediterranean and
Black Sea.
These plans of practical navigators—of men whose liveli-
hood largely depended on their knowledge of nature and
their close observation of natural features—are a remark-
able contrast, in their almost modern accuracy, to the
results of the older literary or theological geography as we
have them in the Hereford or Ebstorf maps (both of the
very same period as the oldest existing portolans, c. A.D.
1300). They have never yet received adequate attention
from English geographers (as from Nordenskjold the
Swede, Fischer the German, or Uzielli the Italian), and
the problem of their sudden appearance in such comparative
perfection is surely deserving of more study, and capable
of fuller explanation, than it has yet received. Certain
assumptions may perhaps be made without danger. The
portolano type was not the invention of one man, of one
year, of one decade. It did not spring from any school or
any example of medizval student-map. It was the final
result of centuries’ experience—the outcome of the notes,
plans, and oral tradition of generations of pilots and
captains. Skipper-charts of certain important and much-
frequented sections of the coast trade-routes were probably
combined, by slow degrees, into a coast-chart of the
Mediterranean basin as a whole. It may be that the
sketches of small portions of shore-line which we have in
fifteenth century manuscripts of Leonardo Dati’s poem
“La Sfera’’ are really copies, but slightly modified, of
such old skipper-charts—reaching back, perhaps, to the
eleventh century, and forming the very earliest indications
of that new scientific geography in which the compass
played so great a part. If this surmise is correct, the open-
ing of the medieval Renaissance, in the generations immedi-
ately preceding the Crusades, was accompanied by the
oldest embryonic forms of modern cartography.
Once more, it may be that the sea-chart which is
mentioned in connection with the Seventh Crusade (of
A.D. 1270), and which St. Louis apparently employed to aid
his attack on Tunis, was a portolan, or a sectional chart
of the North African coast of portolan type. It may be
that the charta noticed in Raymond Lulli’s ‘ Arbor
Scientiz ’’ (about A.D. 1300) as necessary for sailors—along
with the compass, needle, and “‘ star of the sea’’—was a
work of the same kind. It may be that Andrea Bianco’s
planisphere of 1436 is a re-edition of a ‘* handy-map ”’ of
the thirteenth century. But the oldest certain examples of
the type we are concerned with, which have been discovered
up to the present, are the Carte pisane and the first design
of Giovanni de Carignano, both belonging to the opening
years of the fourteenth century, while the oldest dated
portolan is the first of Pietro Vesconte (or Visconti),
executed in 1311.
And when, with these and the next few examples, we
get at last our full coast-chart of the Mediterranean basin,
what is its character ?
It is a map without graduation, embracing only the coast
lines and the towns and natural features in the immediate
neighbourhood of the coast. But though it is restricted, it
has extraordinary merits in its own field. Its delineation
of the shores of the Mare Internum, from the Straits of
Gibraltar to the extreme east of the Black Sea, is markedly
superior to anything of earlier date—even to the Madaba
’
160
mosaic of the sixth century or to Matthew Paris’s thirteenth
century ‘‘ England.’’ The chief errors which Ptolemy had
imparted to the shape of the Mediterranean are corrected.
The main features of the great inland sea are presented
with a correctness and a minute detail which, at the most
casual glance, immediately distinguish portolan work
from any preceding variety of cartography. No attempt is
made to fill up the interior of the lands—continental or
insular—of which the coasts are portrayed; such attempts
are made later, it is true, but they are obvious and confessed
additions to the primitive, normal, or typical portolan.
But, along the shores in question, all points important for
navigation are drawn with great care; small islands, bays,
cliffs, and headlands—of no great general importance, but
vital to the coaster—are often depicted in disproportionate
size; all the ports especially suitable for calling, watering,
and revictualling are indicated with the especial honour of
red colouring ; even shallows are frequently marked, denoted
by a sign still used at the present day ; the very large number
of shore-names testifies to the minute knowledge under-
lying the work. Thus along the north coast of the
Mediterranean we have (by A.D. 1320) about 620 names;
on the coasts of the Black Sea and Sea of Marmora about
260; on the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria about 160; on
the north coast of Africa about 240; in all some 1280,
without counting island names—which are very numerous—
or the names which fringe the western coast of Europe to
the mouth of the Elbe, and the western coast of Africa to
Cape Nun, or Non, at the extreme south-west of Morocco.
In respect to these shores—let us say from Hamburg almost
to the Wady Draa, and from Gibraltar to Azov, Poti,
Batum, Alexandretta, Jaffa, and the Nile—the portolani
soon become fixed in the pattern they permanently. retained,
a pattern which gradually triumphs over every other—even
the revived Ptolemaic, to which scholars clung so
desperately and so unhappily. We may therefore regard
the great mass of these works as mere copies of a
few normal or typical designs which were completed (at
least in all their essential parts) before the outbreak of
the Hundred Years’ War, and a good twenty years before
the battle of Crecy. How closely the original type was
followed may be guessed from the fact that the portolan
colours—used according to certain definite rules—are un-
altered for long periods of years, and through scores of
examples. Thus red or reddish-brown is always kept for
the Red Sea, and long after the Turkish conquest of Rhodes
that island regularly appears in white with a black cross.
Instead of lines of latitude and longitude (or substitutes
for such lines, as we find in the “‘ Palestine’ of Marino
Sanuto, .c. a.D. 1310), a net of loxodromes is employed on
(or has, at any rate, been added to) the portolani even of
the earliest time. These loxodromes are straight lines in
the direction of the various winds, proceeding from a number
of crossing-points regularly distributed over the map. But
in this loxodrome net-work, in sharp contrast to all other
features of the portolan map-type, there is almost infinite
variation ; one seldom comes across two designs of exactly
similar character in this respect.
A distance-scale, with the same unit of length, occurs on
all the portolani ; this unit (which has been called the portolan
mile) is estimated with much care by Nordenskjéld at 5830
metres; while of all known mediaeval measures, that which
corresponded most nearly with the “‘ portolan mile ’? seems
to have been the Catalan legua. A Catalan league
therefore, it is suggested, may have furnished the basis of
the portolan measure, and the portolan type of map may
have originated (in part at least) among Catalan mariners.
Baron Nordenskjold, indeed, does not hesitate to ascribe
to the portolani an entirely Catalan parentage. But,
admitting that one germ of the first true maps may have
existed at Barcelona or some other centre of Catalonian
trade and seamanship, I cannot but think that another
germ still more active and important was to be found in
Italy, and above all in the north-west—in Genoa and Pisa.
For, remembering the indications in Dati’s ‘‘ Sfera,” we
may agree with Theobald Fischer that map sketches of
portolan type, and with the practical object of helping
navigation, were almost certainly drawn in Italy, and by
Italians, before 1300. Remembering, also, that of the
NO.'1833, VOL. 71]
NATURE
_the creation of the oldest scientific maps.
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
existing portolani all the earliest examples are unquestion-
ably Italian—and that, of some 500 known, 413 were
executed by the countrymen of Carignano and Vesconte—
we shall not be ready to deprive Italy of the first place in
Even if that
creation was, as seems probable, an ‘‘ Homeric ’’ feat—the
piecing together (with additions and improvements) of a
great number of small sectional coast-surveys—yet this
earlier stage, only recorded in Italian manuscripts, seems
no less due to the seamen of the peninsula.
Can we throw any other light upon the origin of the
portolani? :
In 1881 Fiorini suggested that West-European mariners,
such as those of Italy, learnt from the Byzantines the art
of making and using maps founded on careful draughts-
manship and close study of distance (i.e. portolani of a
kind) as early as the eleventh century. This idea has been
accepted by Theobald Fischer, and has been treated with
great respect by other scholars. Yet it is surrounded by
difficulties. For no Greek portolan has yet been found, nor
is Greek influence anywhere to be detected in the language,
legend-allusions, contours, or other details of the early
portolani. Fragments of Latin, fragments of Italian and
Catalan dialects, fragments of a lingua franca composed
of various Romance tongues—these are the media through
which the early portolan draughtsmen convey information.
But of Greek they make no use, and of Byzantine geo-
graphy, history, harbours, or coast routes they show no
special knowledge. We may give weight to the fact that
the Byzantine navy was one of the chief Christian weapons
in the ninth, tenth, and early eleventh centuries; that
Constantinople was then the greatest trade centre in
Christendom; and that the seamen of the Greek islands
were very prominent in Mediterranean navigation in the
age of the Byzantine revival (c. 860-1060 a.p.). But all
this is far from proving a Byzantine right to the “‘ inven-
tion’ of the portolan coast-chart,' even in the primitive
form of sectional pilot-maps of limited areas.
It only remains to say that all genuine progress in geo-
graphical delineation followed the lines of the portolani;
that the accurate methods employed by them for coast-work
were gradually applied to the interior of countries; that in
spite of the contempt shown for them by most of the learned
in the so-called Renaissance period, they were at last known
by their fruits and vindicated by the success of their type.
Ancient classical or pre-Christian maps were not without
certain merits, though we can only judge of them by the
two remaining examples, the Peutinger table, originally a
road-map of Augustus’s Empire, and the designs illustrating
the ‘* Geography ’’ of Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria—both
surviving only in manuscripts of the central medizvat
period. After the modern age of oceanic discovery had
passed through its earliest and most difficult stages, the
Renaissance editions of Ptolemy (from 1474) played a very
important part in delaying geographical progress and re-
tarding the history of civilisation. But in the time of the
early portolani (say from 1300 to 1400) neither the work of
the Alexandrian astronomer nor the road-maps of the Roman
Empire were adequately known in western Europe. The
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were not so innocent.
Designs of the portolan type do not seem to have existed
even in the best ages of classical geography and exploring
activity ; the old peripli were sailing directions, not drawn,
but written; and the only Arabic scheme of the sort which
has yet been found is certainly copied from a Christian
—and Italian—original.
It is in the portolani, and especially in such a work as the
Laurentian design of 1351, with its revelations of the Azores
and the Madeira group, and its still more startling sugges-
tion of the true shape of Africa, that we may find, perhaps,
the chief geographical teachers of Henry the Navigator and
his Portuguese. Never better than in these long-neglected
charts does the history of civilisation illustrate man’s
change from empirical to scientific, from traditional book-
learning to the investigation of nature. The portolani long
1 To Nordenskjold’s wild theory, ‘‘ Facsimile Atlas,” p. 48, that Marinus
of Tyre is the real original portolan draughtsman, and that the Marinus
maps which Masudi saw before a.p. 956 were really portolani, we need not
pay attention.
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
161
suffered, in general appreciation, from the fact that—in
their essential features—they never attempted to gratify
popular taste; that they did not, with rare exceptions, illus-
trate! the works of fashionable writers, whether classical
philosophers or medizval prelates; that they had no con-
nection with the legends and dreams of chivalry and
romance; that they were not the work of schools or courts;
and that they owed nothing to Ptolemy or Strabo. But we
know their worth better now.
They first record for us the new discoveries among the
Atlantic islands and along the African mainland ; they guide
and accompany the faltering steps of our race in the out-
ward, oceanic, movement of European life; in them true
cartography, the map-making of the civilised world, begins.
‘ C. Raymonp. BEAZLEY.
GEOLOGICAL NOTES.
STATISTICS of mineral production in India in the ten
years 1894 to 1903 have been issued by the Government
of India (Department of Revenue and Agriculture, 1904). In
the report for 1903 satisfactory progress in the mining
industry is recorded. There has been a remarkable develop-
ment in the production of petroleum and manganese ore,
and a continuation of the progress previously recorded for
coal and gold.
From the Geological Survey of India we have received
part ii. of the newly re-issued Records. Mr. T. H. Holland,
director, contributes a short appreciative memoir of the late
General C. A. McMahon, and among other articles there is
a well illustrated report by Mr. J. Malcolm Maclaren on
the auriferous occurrences of Chota Nagpur, in Bengal.
The conclusion is that there is little scope for the legitimate
investment of capital in the recovery of gold, whether from
the quartz veins or from the superficial deposits, but that
the, greater portion of the gold must be left to the native
washer, “‘ forming for him a reserve that, though it will
never raise him to affluence, will always lift him beyond
the grasp of famine.’’ Two minerals, thenardite and
cancrinite, are recorded for the first time from India. We
have also received a report on the geology of Spiti, by Mr.
H. H. Hayden (Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. xxxvi., part i.).
Hitherto no systematic survey had been made of the region,
and the results of this work, which was carried out by
Mr. Hayden with the assistance of the late Dr. von Krafft,
are depicted on a map to the scale of one inch to four miles,
and further illustrated by some striking pictorial views and
sections. The formations represented are Cambrian,
Silurian, Carboniferous and Permian, Trias, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous, with also intrusive rocks. The oldest sedi-
mentary rocks belong to the Middle Haimanta division of
Mr. Griesbach; they are unfossiliferous, and are overlain
presumably by the Upper Haimantas, in which Lingulella
and Olenus have been found. Lower and Upper Silurian
rocks are recognised, and from these and the later form-
ations many fossils are recorded.
_ The ammonite fauna of the Spiti shales forms the sub-
ject of a monograph by Dr. Victor Uhlig (Mem. Geol.
Survey, India, ser. xv., vol. iv.). Only the first portion of
this work has at present been issued, and in it the author
deals with the genera and species of Ammonoidea. With
regard to the classification, the author remarks that as no
universally satisfactory agreement has yet been reached, he
gives the descriptions of the various forms in unclassified
sequence, while indicating their approximate position. In
the course of his work he has studied as far as possible all
the old as well as new material, and he has found it
necessary to re-figure and describe many of the species
previously published.
In mineralogical notes contributed by Mr. A. K.
Coomaraswamy (Spolia Zeylanica, August), reference is
made to the occurrence in Ceylon of thorium-bearing
minerals, of corundum-sillimanite rocks, kyanite, serendi-
bite, &c. The same author, in dealing with the geology
1 Some of the atlases founded on portolani, such as the Carte Catalane of
1375. really illustrate the travels of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
e.g. Marco Polo's. But this is strictly in the way of explanation of a great
eographic text.
NO. 1833. VOL. 71 |
of Ceylon (Geol. Mag., August), proposes the name
Balangoda group for a series of granitic and pegmatitic
rocks intrusive in the Charnockite series. The group in-
cludes granites with zircon, allanite, magnetite, &c.
The summary of progress of the Geological Survey for
the year 1903 contains the usual particulars of the field work
which has been carried on in Cornwall, Derbyshire and
Nottinghamshire, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, in
various parts of Ross-shire and the western highlands, in
the Edinburgh coal-field, and in the neighbourhood of Cork
in Ireland. Special attention is directed to the discovery
in Ross-shire of a rock essentially composed of magnetite
and cassiterite—the occurrence of tin-ore being new; but
it is stated that at present there is no reason to believe that
the tin-bearing rock occurs in any large masses. In an
appendix Dr. J. S. Flett contributes first notes on the petro-
graphy of western Cornwall, dealing with some of the
garnetiferous greenstones, the granites and greisen veins,
.and the phenomena of contact alteration; Mr. H. B. Wood-
ward writes on the Geological Survey in reference fo Agri-
culture, with report on the soils and subsoils of the Roth-
amsted estate; and Mr. H. A. Allen continues the important
catalogue of types and figured specimens of fossils in the
Museum of Practical Geology, with a record of Oolitic
Gasteropoda and Scaphopoda.
The general report and. statistics on mines and quarries
for 1903, part iii. (output), has been issued by the Home
Office. The total value of the minerals raised during the
year showed a decrease of 5} million pounds as compared
with r902—a decrease arising from the fall in price of coal.
The total output of coal was the highest hitherto recorded.
The outputs of ores of iron, copper, and lead show increase,
while those of manganese, tin, and uranium ores show
decrease.
In the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society
(n.s., vol. x., part iii.) Prof. Lloyd Morgan and Prof. S. H.
Reynolds give particulars of the field relations of the Carbon-
iferous volcanic rocks of Somerset. There is also an
interesting article by Mr. W. H. Wickes on the Rheetic
bone-beds, the author pointing out that there is no regular
and persistent bed, but thin layers of varying extent occur
on different horizons, due to the former presence and de-
struction of shoals of carnivorous fishes and saurians, while
the occurrence of small pebbles in the bone-beds is attributed
to the fact that large sea fish often have stones in their
stomachs. Mr. H. B. Woodward contributes a memoir on
the late Robert Etheridge, dealing more especially with his
work in the Bristol area.
In the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field
Club (vol. xv., part i.) Messrs. J. W. Gray and G. Wiss
Brewer direct attention to the evidence of a Celtic settle-
ment on Cleeve Hill, prior to the Roman occupation of
that part of the country; among the domestic animals
were the horse, ox, sheep, pig, dog, and fowl. Mr. L.
Richardson contributes an article on the Rheztic beds of
Worcestershire.
A study of sands and sediments has been commenced by
Mr. T. Mellard Reade and Mr. Philip Holland (Proc. Liver-
pool Geol. Soc., 1904). So far as their investigations have
proceeded, they are led to believe that purely mechanical
micro-sediments may constitute a much larger proportion of
the rocks than has been hitherto suspected. Moreover, their
experiments show the persistent retention of detrital car-
bonate of lime in extremely fine subsidence-matter, and
suggest that deep-sea limestones may sometimes be formed
as detrital accumulations.
The twenty-eighth annual report of the Department of
Geology and Natural Resources, Indiana, under the direc-
tion of Mr. W. S. Blatchley, State geologist, is accompanied
by an excellent geological map of the State on the scale of
an inch to four miles, with explanatory descriptions by Dr.
T. C. Hopkins and Dr. A. F. Foerste. The formations re-
presented are Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Lower
Carboniferous, and Coal-measures. The petroleum pro-
ducing areas are specially marked, that industry having
become one of the greatest in the State. Special reports are
contributed on this and on the lime industry, and there is
also an article on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the
Niagara formation by Mr. E. M. Kindle, with twenty-five
plates of fossils.
162
NATURE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
A comprehensive memoir on the geology and ore-deposits
of the Bisbee Quadrangle, Arizona, by Mr. F. L. Ransome,
appears as one of the “‘ professional papers ’’ of the United
States Geological Survey (1904). This district became
famous for its production of copper-ore in 1880, and was
connected with the railway system as recently as 1902.
Hence Mr. Ransome has found himself obliged to invent
names—and pleasing ones of Spanish origin—for several
topographic features. His plates show how the geological
structure of the country can be read on many of the hill-
sides with the clearness of a diagram; in several respects
they remind one of the bare dry landscapes in the Mesozoic
areas of the Basses Alpes. The fossiliferous beds include
Middle Cambrian, Devonian (apparently conformable on
these), Lower and Upper Carboniferous (both marine), and
Cretaceous, resting unconformably on the preceding beds.
The affinities of the strata are with those of Texas. The
paper concludes with a discussion of the origin of the copper-
ores, in which stress is laid on their concentration from
cupriferous iron-pyrites, deposited in metamorphosed lime-
stone.
In the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria (vol.
xvii., n.s., part i.) Messrs. F. Chapman and G. B.
Pritchard commence an article on the fossil fish-remains
from the Tertiaries of Australia. They deal with the de-
scription, range in time, and distribution of the sharks, and
they observe that Asteracanthus, hitherto known only from
Secondary strata, extended beyond question into the Tertiary
seas round southern Australia. In other articles the
Silurian Ostracoda and Phyllocarida, and the Tertiary
Polyzoa and Mollusca of Victoria receive attention. Prof.
J. W. Gregory contributes a paper on the antiquity of man
in Victoria, and concludes (contrary to his previously ex-
pressed opinion) that, however ancient the Australian
aborigines may be, there is no evidence of the long occupa-
tion of Victoria by man.
We have received the annual report of the Geological
Survey of Canada for the year 1900, issued in 1903; it is
accompanied by geological maps, dated 1904, of parts of
British Columbia (Atlin Gold-fields), Labrador, Saskat-
chewan, and Quebec.
A revision’ of the Palzwozoic Palzechinoidea, with a
synopsis of all known species, has been contributed by
Mary J. Klem (Trans. Acad. Science, St. Louis, vol. xiv.,
No. 1). She remarks that the prevailing characters which
may be taken as a basis for classification are :—(1) number
of columns in the ambulacra; (2) position and number of
the ambulacral pores; (3) ornamentation of the plates;
(4) imbrication of the plates; (5) apical system; (6) general
shape of the body; and (7) geological position.
An interesting article on the occurrence and distribution
of copper in the United States, by Mr. W. H. Weed, appears
in the Mining Magazine (New York, September). Nearly
700 million pounds of metallic copper were produced in the
States during 1903, and in the previous year nearly 300
million pounds were obtained from an area a mile long
and half a mile wide at Butte, in Montana, where the
Anaconda Mine produces more copper than any other mine
in the world. The ores occur in well defined veins in quartz-
monzonite, associated with white granite or aplite, which
forms dykes and small masses. Dykes of quartz-porphyry
also occur, and seem to have some genetic association with |
the ore-bodies. Several mines are 2200 feet deep.
The Geological Survey of Queensland has commenced the
issue of Records. In No. 1 Mr. B. Dunstan, the acting
Government geologist, contributes notes on the occurrence
of gold nuggets near Mount Morgan, on phosphate-bearing
rocks, asbestos, oriental rubies, &c. Mr. R. Etheridge re~
cords the occurrence of Halysites in the Chillagoe lime-
stones. We have received also Publications Nos. 191 and
192, on the tin, copper, and silver mining in the Stanthorpe
district, by Lionel C. Ball, and on the Herberton tin field, by
Mr. W. E. Cameron.
Some Upper Devonian fish-remains, obtained by Dr.
Whitman Cross from Colorado, are described by Mr. C. R.
Eastman (Amer. Journ. Sci., October). The remains belong
to the genera Bothriolepis and Holoptychius. In the same
journal a number of fossil turtles belonging to the Marsh
collection in Yale University Museum are described and
figured by Mr. O. P. Hay. Many of the specimens are
from the Laramie deposits of Wyoming.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71|
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
“THE occupation of the Philippine Islands by the United
States has been quickly followed by the establishment
of laboratories, and already a large amount of scientific
work has been done, and several valuable reports have been
issued. °
he report’ under review deals with the year ending
September, 1903. The permanent buildings of the Govern-
ment laboratory at Manila were completed last April, and
comprise a serum laboratory for the preparation of thera-
peutic sera and vaccine lymph with attached paddocks and
animal houses, a chemical laboratory, a biological depart-
ment for the prosecution of pathological, entomological, and
botanical research, a marine biological station, a bureau of
weights and measures, and a library.
About one-third of the volume is occupied with a report
on trypanosomiasis by Dr. Musgrave and Mr, Clegg, with
special reference to the existence of surra among the horses.
in the Philippines. At the same time a very complete re-
view of our present knowledge of trypanosomiasis is given,
the various species are described, and the symptomatology
and prophylaxis are discussed. The report, which is a very
valuable one, is copiously illustrated with excellent photo-
graphs, temperature charts, &c. Several other papers of
pathological interest are included in the volume; also am
account of rinderpest inoculation.
Another valuable report is on the gutta-percha industry
and‘the various gutta-percha-producing trees, and is illus-~
trated with a number of photographs of species of Pala-
quium and Payena, methods of collection of the gutta-
percha, maps of geographical distribution, &c.
The final third of the volume contains the report of Mr-
Charles Banks, the Government entomologist, and gives an
account of the insect pests attacking the cacao. This, like
the rest of the papers, is copiously illustrated with excellent
photographs.
The volume reflects the greatest credit on the staff of the
laboratory, but the complete omission of a table of contents
and an index should be remedied in future issues.
R. T. HEWLETT.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
BirMInGHAM.—A chair of music has been established by
an endowment of 10,000]. given for that purpose by Mr-
Richard Peyton, of Birmingham. The chair has been
accepted by Sir Edward Elgar; but the intention of the
university. authorities is by no means to interfere in
any way with his work as composer, and he will be left
free to develop the chair gradually and on such lines as he,
in consultation with other members of the Senate, may
think fit.
Dr. Arthur Robinson, of King’s College, London, has
been elected to the chair of anatomy, vacated by the appoint-
ment of Dr. Windle to the presidency of Queen’s College,
Cork. The new professor will assume office in January.
A new chair of electrical engineering has been estab-
lished as a supplement to the lectureship in the same sub-
ject held by Dr. D. K. Morris. The first occupant of the
chair will be Mr. Gisbert Kapp, now lecturer at Charlotten-
burg. He is not expected, however, to return to this.
country until the autumn of next year, and his appoint-
ment will not take effect until October, 1905. Meanwhile,
and subsequently, Dr. Morris and his staff will continue
their work as before. The new and large buildings for the
department will be ready by that time. A competent
assistant will have to be elected to assist Prof. Kapp in the
drawing office for dynamo and central station design.
Prof. Burstall will continue to occupy his chair, the title
of which will be changed to ‘‘ Mechanical Engineering,’”
and he will have control over a great engineering block
and the power station.
It is not improbable that a special chair of civil engineer-
ing in the narrower sense will be established.
1 Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the
Philippine Islands for the Year ended September 1, 1903,
—
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
EpInspurRGH.—Sir Donald Currie has subscribed the sum
of 25,0001. toward the fund which is being raised by the
university to enable a site to be purchased on which
faboratories and other educational buildings could be erected,
and for making further financial provision for an extension
of the teaching staff and for the promotion of research in
the university. To the principal, Sir William Turner, Sir
Donald Currie stated that he wished the revenue from this
money to be applied by the university court to the remuner-
ation of a staff of lecturers, such as the authorities of the
university might find it advisable from time to time to
appoint. An option was also given to the university court
to apply soool. of the amount towards the purchase of a site
for the new laboratories, should it be mecessary to use a
portion of his gift for that purpose. In addition to this
gift, subscriptions amounting to 15,000l. have been promised
‘by other friends of the university.
AccorDING to a report mentioned in Science, it is pro-
posed to move the Western University of Pennsylvania
from the suburbs of Allegheny to Pittsburg proper, near
the new Carnegie Technical School. About fifty acres of
ground, sufficient for twenty large university buildings,
are being secured at a cost of about 400,000l., and the work
of construction will be begun before long. Fifty citizens
“of Pittsburg have agreed to give each from 8000l. to 20,000l.
for the school. From the same source we learn that the
general assembly of the State of Vermont has appropriated
12,0001. for the use of the agricultural department of the
university. The money is to be expended in the erection
and equipment of a building to be known as Morrill Agri-
cultural Hall, in memory of the father of the agricultural
colleges of the country, the late Senator Justin S. Morrill.
It may be remembered that the authorities of University
College, Sheffield, were informed by the committee of the
Privy Council that, subject to a substantial realisation of
the hopes entertained in connection with the movement
Yor the establishment of a Sheffield University, their Lord-
ships would be prepared in due course to recommend to
His Majesty the grant of a charter. We learn from the
calendar of the University College for 1904~—5 that of the
sum of 170,o00l., which efforts are being made to raise,
54,134l. has been promised since 1903.
was promised in 1902 to the new buildings fund, so that
some 107,0421. has been raised for higher education in
Sheffield within a short period. It is to be hoped that little
difficulty will be experienced in securing the amount which
must be provided still before the University of Sheffield can
‘be incorporated.
Two technical State scholarships have been just placed
at the disposal of the local government of the Punjab, says
the Pioneer Mail. These scholarships will enable natives
of India to pursue a course of study in Great Britain or
other western countries with the object of qualifying
them to assist in promoting the improvement of existing
mative industries and the development of new industries
wherever this may be possible. In the case of the Punjab
the industries allowed to be taken up are tanning, metal-
work, and pottery, and the local government has decided
Xo confine its efforts to the first two, at any rate for the
present. The value of each scholarship has been fixed at
150l. a year, and it will be tenable for two years, but it
will be open to the Government of India to increase the
value of any scholarship, and to extend the period during
which it will be tenable. Commissioners and superin-
ttendents of divisions have been asked to make the scheme
publicly known, and to enlist in its behalf the interest of
the commercial classes.
THE annual prize distribution and students’ conversazione
at the Northampton Institute, E.C., was held last week,
when the prizes and certificates were distributed by Lord
Reay. The principal’s report showed that the work of the
institute has in several important departments overtaken
the accommodation, and that there is urgent necessity for
extension. A special note was made of the recent recog-
nition of the work of the institute by the Board of Educa-
tion ; and the necessity for a “‘ British Institute of Technical
Optics’ was pointed out. Lord Reay, in his address,
dwelt upon the desirability of reviving, so far as modern
conditions would allow, the old system of apprenticeship,
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
In addition, 52,9081.’
NATURE
163
and pointed out how the polytechnics and technical insti-
tutes could be made useful in connection therewith. The
vote of thanks to Lord Reay was moved by Mr. Alexander
Siemens. After the distribution the various laboratories
and workshops were thrown open, and a series of
lecturettes, exhibits, and demonstrations was given. The
most interesting demonstration was perhaps that of a new
submersible boat in the swimming bath. These boats, in-
vented by Mr. Middleton, of Brighton, are propelled,
directed, controlled, and governed by fins actuated by prime
movers, in such a fashion that they can move any way in
tri-dimensional space in the fluid in which they are
immersed. By altering the inclination of the plane of the
fins, these can be made to propel the boat forwards or back-
wards, to sink it below the surface, to raise it again, and,
in fact, to direct it along any course, whether inclined to
the horizontal or othewwise.
Tue proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry of Great
Britain and Ireland for 1904, which have now been pub-
lished, show that the council of the institute has had under
consideration the recommendations of the Consultative Com-
mittee to the Board of Education for a scheme of examin-
ations for school certificates. It will be remembered that
it is proposed that these school certificates should take the
place of the many professional preliminary examinations
now held; that a central board should be constituted for
England, consisting of representatives of the Board of
Education and of the different examining bodies, to control
the standard of the examinations for school certificates ;
and that the proposed examinations should be under the
control of independent external examiners, although con-
ducted by internal and external examiners jointly. The
council of the Institute of Chemistry has informed the
Board of Education (a) that the council considers it desirable
to substitute some such system as is proposed in lieu of the
various professional preliminary examinations now held;
(b) that if such a system be established, the council will
be prepared to accept the proposed senior certificate examin-
ation, passed in the subjects required by the regulations of
the institute; and (c) that the council will be pleased to be
represented on the proposed central board. A scheme for
school certificates submitted by the University of Birming-
ham has also met with the approval of the council of the
institute, and it has also been decided to accept the matricu-
lation examination held jointly by the Victoria University,
the University of Liverpool, and the University of Leeds, as
an approved preliminary examination, provided the certifi-
cate include the subjects required by the regulations of the
institute.
A DEPUTATION from the Association of Chambers of Com-
merce of the United Kingdom waited upon Lord London-
derry, President of the Board of Education, on Monday to
urge that increased Government aid should be given to
higher technical and higher commercial education. The
views of the deputation were expressed in the following re-
solution, which was passed at the meeting of the association
on September 28, and was now laid before Lord London-
derry :—‘‘ That, in order to retain our industrial position
and to introduce into this country such further industries
as may be profitably developed, this association is of opinion
that it is absolutely necessary to establish or acquire public
secondary schools of the highest standard, where efficient
means of such education do not exist, with fees low enough
to make them accessible to all grades, and to provide
sufficient inducements by bursaries, exhibitions, scholar-
ships, or otherwise to make the efficient boys stay long
enough in these schools in order to thoroughly train and
adequately prepare a very much larger number than is at
present available for taking full advantage of the provisions
made.for higher technical and higher commercial education,
the facilities for which ought also to be largely extended
and the standard considerably raised.’? In introducing the
deputation, Sir W. H. Holland, M.P., said the chambers
of commerce might be fairly taken to represent the organised
commercial opinion of the country, and they were convinced
that the Board of Education would encourage them to take
a keen interest in secondary and technical education. Mr.
Ivan Levinstein said the want of secondary education was
the cause of our present most deplorable position. What we
wanted, in the first instance, was a far larger number of
164
high-class public secondary schools, We must be prepared
to face a great financial sacrifice, for some years at any
rate, if we were to put secondary education in this country
on anything like the level it had reached in America,
Switzerland, and Germany. After other speakers had put
forward similar claims for consideration of the subject, Lord
Londonderry, in reply, said that he felt the weight of the
arguments put forward, but the opinions of his colleagues
of the Board of Education and himself on this vitally im-
portant matter were expressed in such detail and so de-
finitely in the reply forwarded by Mr. Morant to the chamber
on September 26 (see NaTuRE, October 13, p- 595) that on
the present occasion he proposed to devote attention rather
to the question of commercial education than to that of
technical education. The whole matter was one to which
the Board were fully alive, and he was very glad to learn
from the representations which they had made that day
that there was on the part of the chambers of commerce
a keen appreciation of the value of that special advanced
instruction in the several sections of mercantile practice
which the Board had felt it their duty to encourage in the
evening schools serving the more important commercial
communities.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, February 11.—‘‘ On Certain Properties of
the Alloys of Silver and Cadmium.”’ By Dr. T. K. Rose.
Attention was directed to these alloys on account of the
advantages of using them as the material for trial plates
for testing the fineness of silver coin and plate. An ex-
amination of the curves of equilibrium between the liquid
and solid states of the alloys proved the existence of several
compounds of silver and cadmium, some of which have
already been recognised in other ways. Horizontal branches
of the curve mark the solidification of the compounds
Ag,Cd,, AgCd, and AgCd,, and the solidification of Ag,Cd,
corresponds to a cusp on the curve of initial freezing points.
There is a strong tendency for mixtures of the compounds
to form solid solutions. This is strikingly shown in the
case of alloys containing more than 8o per cent. of silver.
At temperatures in the short range of a few degrees between
the initial and final freezing points of these alloys, two
bodies exist side by side, but at a lower temperature they
coalesce to form a single solid solution provided that
sufficient time is allowed for complete mixing by diffusion.
For example, in the standard alloy, which contains 7-5 per
cent. of cadmium, solidification begins at. about 945°, and
is completed at about 913°. If the alloy is maintained at
some temperature between these points a network of a silver-
poor body is gradually formed surrounding crystals of a
silver-rich body. If the alloy is subjected for some hours
to a temperature a little below 913°, large crystals with
regular boundaries are formed occupying the whole area of
the field. These alloys are remarkably ductile.
The alloy corresponding to the formula Ag,Cd_ is fine-
grained and apparently homogeneous. If heated for some
time to a temperature of 750°, somewhat below its point
of solidification, the cadmium from the surface is volatilised,
leaving a layer of pure silver. On removing this during
the operation of polishing a black layer is met with, coloured
by oxide of cadmium, and underneath this the original alloy
is found to exist. The layers are not everywhere of the
same thickness, so that in the course of polishing alternate
rings of black and white are produced, resembling the well
known Japanese decorative metal-work called Mokumé,
which is used in jewellery.
The alloy containing about 50 per cent. of silver consists
of crystals of a silver-rich body, often pinkish in colour, set
in a white matrix composed of AgCd,. The 4o per cent.
alloy is a hard, brittle substance, the compound Ag,Cd,.
As the percentage of silver decreases, a matrix, consisting
mainly of AgCd,, makes its appearance surrounding the
crystals of Ag,Cd,, and specimens containing less than
25 per cent. of silver consist of crystals of AgCd, set in a
matrix of cadmium.
Several similarities to the silver-zinc series of alloys have
been noted.
No. 1833, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
November 24.—‘ The Refractive Indices of the
Elements.’’ By Clive Cuthbertson. \
In a letter addressed to NatuRE in October, 1902, atten-
tion was directed to the fact that the refractivities of the
five inert gases of the atmosphere, He, Ne, A, Kr, and X,
as determined by Ramsay and Travers, were, within narrow
limits of accuracy, in the proportion of 1, 2, 8, 12 and 20;
or, more simply, of 3, 3, 2, 3, and 5.
In a second letter it was shown that the refractivities of
the halogens, Cl, Br, and I, stand also in the relation of
2, 3, and 5 to the same degree of accuracy; but it was
pointed out that the figures for P, As, and S, as measured
by M. Le Roux in 1861, did not show any similar relation ;
and it was observed that a re-determination of them would
be interesting.
With a Jamin’s refractometer, adapted for use with high
temperatures, results have now been obtained for Hg, P,
and S, which differ widely from those of M. Le Roux. The
index of mercury, calculated for a molecule containing two
atoms, is placed at 1-001857, a number which agrees closely
with the value given by the refractive equivalent of Glad-
stone. The index of P, is found to be 1.001197, and that of
S, is 1-oor1o1.
In all three cases it is estimated that the margin of error
does not exceed 13 per cent. Comparing these values for
P, and S, with those of N, and O,, it is shown that the
simple relations found in the case of the inert gases and
«=n ll
the halogens also hold in the case of nitrogen and phos- —
phorus, oxygen and sulphur; and that an atom of phos-
phorus retards light four times as much as an atom of
nitrogen, an atom of sulphur four times as much as an
atom of oxygen.
Efforts have also been made to measure the index of
fluorine in the gaseous state, but, owing to the experimental
difficulties, success has not yet been attained.
It appears then, that, out of fourteen elements the index
of refraction of which has been measured in the gaseous
state, twelve conform to the rule that in each chemical
group the refractivities of the elements are in the ratios of
small integers. The other two, Hg and H, have no allied
elements with which they can be compared.
It is pointed out that N, O, and Ne are each followed, in
their respective families, by an element the refractivity of
which is four times as great, and that, consequently, there
are reasons for believing that the elements composing the
series N, O, F, and Ne, and P, S, Cl, and A are, in some
sense, homologous. Comparing the refractivities of the
latter series we see that the power to retard light appears
| to be closely connected with the valency, increasing as it
increases, in spite of the decrease in atomic weight, as
shown in the following table :-—
Element
, OEP. S cl A
Atomic weight... 31 32 35°55 40
Refractivity 299X4 275x4 I192X4 I41x4
The series Ne, O, N, show the same relation, and it is
probable that the refractivity of C is even higher than that
of N.
The refractivity of B, estimated from BCI, and BBr,, is
certainly very great; but whether it exceeds that of C
there is not sufficient evidence to determine.
December 1.—‘‘ On the Structure and Affinities of Fossil
Plants from the Paleozoic Rocks.—V. On a New Type of
Sphenophyllaceous Cone (Sphenophyllum fertile) from the
Lower Coal-measures.’’ By Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
The class Sphenophyllales, of which the fossil described
is a new representative, shows on the one hand clear
affinities with the LEquisetales, while on the other it
approaches the Lycopods ; some botanists have endeavoured
to trace a relation to the ferns. The nearest allies among
recent plants are probably the Psilotacee, which some
writers have even proposed to include in the Sphenophyllales.
The new strobilus appears to find its natural place in the
type-genus Sphenophyllum, as at present constituted, but
it possesses peculiar features of considerable importance,
which may probably ultimately justify generic separation.
The specimen, of which a number of transverse and longi-
tudinal sections have been prepared by Mr. Lomax, is from
one of the calcareous nodules of the Lower Coal-measures
DECEMBER 15, 1904]
NATURE
165
of Lancashire, and was found at Shore Littleborough, a
locality rich in petrified remains, now being opened up by
the enterprise of the owner, Mr. W. H. Sutcliffe.
The close affinity of the strobilus with Sphenophyllum is
shown by the anatomy of the axis, which has the solid
triarch wood characteristic of that genus, and by the fact that
the whorled sporophylls are divided into dorsal and ventral
lobes, as in all other known fructifications of this class.
But whereas, in all the forms hitherto described, the lower
or dorsal lobes are sterile, forming a system of protective
bracts, while the ventral lobes alone bear the sporangia;
in the new cone, dorsal and ventral lobes are alike fertile,
and no sterile bracts are differentiated. On this ground
the name Sphenophyllum fertile is proposed for the new
species.
Each lobe of the sporophyll divided palmately into several
segments, the sporangiophores, each of which consisted of
a slender pedicel, terminating in a large peltate lamina,
on which two pendulous sporangia were borne. In the
bi-sporangite character of the sporangiophores, and in other
details of structure, Sphenophyllum fertile approaches the
Bowmanites Rémeri of Count Solms-Laubach, while in the
form and segmentation of the sporophylls there is a con-
siderable resemblance to the Lower Carboniferous genus
Cheirostrobus.
The wall of the sporangium has a rather complex struc-
ture, the most interesting feature in which is the well
defined small-celled stomium, marking the line of longi-
tudinal dehiscence.
The spores, so far as observed, are all of one kind; they
are ellipsoidal in form, with longitudinal crests or ridges ;
their dimensions are 90-96 in length by 65—7ou in width.
The most characteristic point in the structure of the new
cone—the fertility of both dorsal and ventral lobes of the
sporophyll—is regarded as more probably due to special
modification than to the retention of a primitive condition.
““On the Presence of Tyrosinases in the Skins of some
Pigmented Vertebrates.—Preliminary Note.’’ By Florence
M. Durham.
An extract can be made from the skins of certain pig-
mented animals (rabbits, rats, guinea-pigs and chickens)
which will act upon tyrosin and produce a pigmented sub-
stance. This action suggests the presence of a tyrosinase
in the skins of these animals.
The action of the tyrosinase is destroyed by boiling, does
not take place in the cold, is delayed by time, requires a
temperature of about 37° C., and also the presence of an
activating substance such as ferrous sulphate to start it.
The coloured substances produced are in accordance with
the colour of the animals used. Black substances are
obtained, when animals with black pigment in their skins |
are used, and yellow substance, when the skin contains the
orange pigment. The coloured substances are soluble in
alkalis, but insoluble in acids.
Anthropological Institute, November 22.—Mr. H. Balfour,
president, in the chair.—Dr. Ed. Westermarck read a
paper on the magic origin of Moorish designs. The designs
are largely derived from charms against the evil eye. A Moor
protects himself against the evil eye of another person by
stretching out the five fingers of his right hand, saying,
“five in your eye.’’ The object of this gesture is to throw
back the evil power, /-bas, which has emanated from the
other person’s eye. The number five by itself has thus come
to be regarded as a charm against the evil look. This was
illustrated by a number of lantern slides, showing charms,
and designs grown out of charms. Silver amulets contain-
ing a double five grouped in the form of a cross, with a
piece of blue glass as a common centre, are in frequent use.
Magic efficacy is attributed to the cross, not only because
it represents a five, but also, as it seems, because it is
regarded as a conductor for baneful energy, which is dis-
persed by it in all the quarters of the wind. The double
five is often represented as an eight-petalled rosette, or a
double cross, with or without a well marked centre. By
joining the extremities of the lines which form each of the
two crosses, two intersecting squares are produced; they
are probably intended to represent a pair of eyes. By paint-
ing over all the lines which fall within the two intersecting
squares, or by hollowing the two squares, the artist pro-
duces an empty octagon. The two crosses may also be of
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
different lengths, and then the joining of the extremities
of each cross gives rise to two squares, of which the one
is inscribed in the other. The tendency to produce the
number five double as double five, an eight petalled rosette,
a double cross, or a double square seems to be due to the
fact that the protective gesture is sometimes performed
both with the right and left hand. By doubling each petal
in the eight-petalled rosette, the sixteen-petalled rosette has
been produced. The image of an eye or a pair of eyes is
also used to throw back the baneful energy emanating from
an evil eye. The eye is sometimes represented as round,
sometimes as a triangle (the two intersecting triangles
seem to represent a pair of eyes), sometimes with a triangular
eyebrow. A row of triangular eyes and eyebrows, or of _
eyebrows alone, is a common design on carpets.
Geological Society, November 23.—Dr. J. E. Marr,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On an_ ossiferous
cavern of Pleistocene age at Hoe-Grange Quarry, Long-
cliffe, near Brassington (Derbyshire): H. H. Arnold-
Bemrose and E. T. Newton, F.R.S. The quarry is
situated near the top of the plateau, at about 1100 feet
above Ordnance-datum. The cave is evidently a master-
joint in the limestone, enlarged by water, and, besides being
a swallow-hole, has served as a hyzna-den. The large
number of mammalian remains found includes lion, hyzna,
rhinoceros, Elephas, and other Pleistocene forms; but, be-
sides these, there were numerous bones and teeth of fallow-
deer, mixed with the Pleistocene remains at all horizons in
the cave. The physical conditions are such as to preclude,
as the authors think, any idea of a re-deposition of the bones
at any date subsequent to the Pleistocene period; and it is
concluded, therefore, that the fallow-deer (Cervus dama)
was a Pleistocene species, although hitherto supposed to be
a much later introduction.—The superficial deposits and pre-
Glacial valleys of the Northumberland and Durham Coal-
field: D. Woolacott. Six volumes, published by the
North-of-England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, contain a large number of borings made in the
northern coalfield. A considerable proportion of these are
most valuable in showing the nature and distribution of the
superficial deposits. From them and from field-mapping it
is possible to form a fairly accurate conception of the pre-
Glacial floor of the district and its drainage, and also of the
relative changes of level before, during, and after the Glacial
period.
Zoological Society, November 29.—Mr. G. A. Boulenger,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Observations on the
field natural history of the lion made during seventeen years
of travel and residence in Central Africa: Captain Richard
Crawshay.—Some nudibranchs from East Africa and
Zanzibar, part vi.: Sir Charles Eliot. The paper contained
an account of thirty species and varieties, of which eight of
the former and one of the latter were described as new.
—Some photographs of giraffes and a zebra taken from
pictures in the art collection at Windsor Castle, and an old
print of a zebra dated 1762: R. Lydekker. Mr. Lydekker
was of opinion that the picture and print of the zebra had
been taken from the same animal.—Two specimens of
lorises, one a slow loris (Nycticebus) and the other a slender
loris (Loris), recently acquired by the British Museum: R.
Lydekker. The latter specimen was pointed out to be
sufficiently different from the typical L. gractlis to be
entitled to subspecific rank.—The morphology and classifi-
cation of the Asellota group of crustaceans, with descrip-
tions of the genus Stenetrium and its species: Dr. H. J.
Hansen.—The lizard Lacerta depressa of Camerano and
its varieties: G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S.—A small collection
of fresh-water Entomostraca from South Africa: R.
Gurney. The collection comprised examples of five species,
three of which were described as new.—The cranial
osteology of the Egyptian mastigure (Uromastix spintpes) :
F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.
Chemical Society, December 1.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., in the chair.—The nitrites of the alkali and alkaline
earth metals and their decomposition by heat: P. C. Ray.
These nitrites are shown to be comparatively stable, and
their aqueous solutions can be evaporated to dryness without
decomposition or oxidation taking place. When barium
nitrite is heated it is first’ converted into barium oxide and
166
NALORE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904
barium nitrate, the latter finally also being decomposed
into baryta.—Metallic derivatives of nitrogen iodide and
their bearing on its constitution: O. Silberrad. Guyard’s
supposed copper derivative of nitrogen iodide is shown to
be a cuprosamine periodide. The silver derivative de-
scribed by Szuhay is found to be a true nitrogen iodide
derivative of the formula NI,,NH,Ag.—Synthesis of
1: 1-dimethylhexahydrobenzene: A. W. Crossley and
Nora Renouf.—The formation and reactions of imino-
compounds, (i.) condensation of ethyl cyanoacetate with its
sodium derivative: H. Baron, F. G. P. Remfry, and J. F.
Thorpe. This is a preliminary communication regarding
the properties of compounds containing the group
—C(=NH)-—, which in some respects closely resembles the
=CO group in reaction.—The affinity constants of aniline
and its derivatives: R. C. Farmer and F. J. Warth.
These constants are best measured in such cases by deter-
mining the distribution of the salts between two immiscible
solvents applied simultaneously. The following substituents
exert a decreasing electronegative action, in the order in
which they are given, on the affinity constant of aniline :—
NO,,COOH —N=NPh,Br,Cl,Me,OMe. — The attractive
force of crystals for like molecules in saturated solutions :
E. Sonstadt. Crystals of a salt were placed in saturated
solutions of the same salt, and the amount of the latter
withdrawn from the solution by the attractive force of the
crystals was determined periodically.—The Grignard re-
action applied to the esters of hydroxy-acids: P. F.
Frankland and D. F. Twiss. A substance which is prob-
ably aaéé-tetraphenylerythritol was obtained by the action
of magnesium phenyl bromide on dimethyltartrate.—Note
on the addition of hydrogen cyanide to unsaturated com-
pounds: A. Lapworth. It is shown that in spite of
Knoevenagel’s assertion to the contrary, there is no experi-
mental evidence that mesityl oxide unites directly with
hydrogen cyanide except in the presence of alkalis. The’
author is now engaged in the examination of a number
of products obtained by the interaction of aldehydes with
chloroacetates in presence of potassium cyanide.
Mathematical Society, December 8.—Prof. Forsyth,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were com-
municated :—On a deficient multinomial expansion: Major
MacMahon. A generalisation of the binomial theorem,
made by Abel and restated by Cayley, leads to the consider-
ation of the series that is obtained from an ordinary multi-
nomial expansion by restricting the indices of the terms
to obey certain Diophantine inequalities. The paper con-
tains investigations of the number of terms in such a series,
the sum of the coefficients, and a syzygetic theory of the
distinct terms.—The application of basic numbers to
Bessel’s and Legendre’s functions: Rev. F. H. Jackson.
The author generalises various functions that are expressed
by power series by replacing n in the coefficient of x” by
(g"—1)/(p—1)- Two generalisations are obtained of
Bessel’s functions, one being derived from the other by in-
version of the ‘‘ base’’ p. In the present paper the author
shows that these two functions are connected by a relation
containing basic exponential functions. He obtains also
generalisations of a number of results which bear on the
relations between Legendre’s functions and Bessel’s func-
tions, and _he connects the theory of the generalised
Legendre’s functions with that of the Theta functions.—
On groups of order p%g8: Prof. W. Burnside. In a
previous paper the author had proved that these groups are
soluble. In the present paper it is shown that, subject to
certain specified exceptions when the order is even, a group |
of the specified order in which p*>g® must have a character-
istic subgroup of order #*, where a is such that pis greater
than /%g-®.—On the failure of convergence of Fourier’s
series: Dr. E. W. Hobson. Fourier’s series formed for a
continuous function may not converge at a point, and then
it does not represent the function at the point. In the
paper attention is directed to a class of series which fail to
converge, but can be made to converge to any assigned
value by enclosing suitable sets of terms in brackets and
treating the terms in a bracket as a single term. No
example has ever been found of a non-convergent Fourier’s
series which cannot be included in this class. The nature
of the set of points in the periodic interval at which a |
Fourier’s series fails to converge is discussed, and it is
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
shown that, when the function to be represented by the
series is continuous, this set has the ‘‘ measure ’’ zero.—
An extension of Borel’s exponential method of summation
of divergent series applied to linear differential equations :
E. Cunningham. ‘The object of the paper is to make
more precise the connection between Laplace’s solution of
linear differential equations in terms of definite integrals
and the asymptotic expansion of the solution as the product
of an exponential function and a descending power series.
The latter series, with the exponential factor omitted, is
shown to be “‘ summable ”’ in a sense analogous to that of
Borel’s theory; and it is proved that the fundamental
properties of summable divergent series, such as differenti-
ation term by term, addition and multiplication term by
term, are valid for the series in question.—On the linear
differential equation of the second order: Prof. A. C-
Dixon.
CAMBRIDGE.
Philosophical Society, November 14.—Prof. Marshall
Ward, president, in the chair.—The charge of the a rays
from polonium: Prof. Thomson, F.R.S. A bismuth disc
covered with polonium (or radio-tellurium), as supplied by
Sthamer, was mounted on pivots in a vacuum tube. In
front of the disc and about 3 cm. from it was a very care-
fully insulated gold-leaf electroscope which could be charged
with either positive or negative electricity. The vacuum
tube was exhausted by first pumping out as much air as
possible by a mercury pump, and then using Dewar’s
method of extracting the remainder of the air by dense
charcoal cooled by liquid air. In this way vacua were
obtained very much superior to those got by pumping alone.
It was found that at these very low vacua the electroscope
in front of the polonium if negatively charged leaks so
slowly that it is hardly possible to measure the leak with
accuracy ; while if the electroscope is positively charged its
leak is very rapid, certainly more than 100 times the leak
when charged negatively. Thus the polonium gives out
large quantities of negative electricity, but not enough
positive to be detected ; this is very remarkable, as polonium
is generally supposed to give out nothing but a rays. In
order to see that the positive electricity had not been
swamped by the negative the instrument was placed in a
strong magnetic field; this stopped the negative corpuscles
coming out of the polonium from reaching the electroscope,
and it was found that now the latter no longer leaked when
charged with positive electricity ; but though the negative
particles had been stopped no positive ones could be detected,
for there was no leak from the electroscope when negatively
electrified. The author was never able to be sure of any
increase in the charge of a negatively electrified body placed
near the polonium; this he thinks is due to the negative
particles from the polonium moving so slowly that they
are unable to make headway against the repulsion exerted
by a negatively electrified body. The a rays of polonium
are deflected by a magnet, hence they must be positively
charged at some part, at any rate, of their course, yet no
trace can be found of this charge when the rays strike
against an electroscope. The question is discussed whether
the a particles lose their charge when they pass through
the cloud of negative ones near the polonium, or whether
they are alternately charged and discharged, the time during
which they are uncharged being much longer than the time
they are charged.—On the dynamical significance of Kundt’s
law of selective dispersion in connection with the trans-
mission of the energy of trains of dispersive waves: Prof.
Larmor, F.R.S.—The chlorination of a picoline: W. J.
Sell, F.R.S.—An attempted synthesis of uric acid: H. J. H-
Fenton, F.R.S.—The diffusion of hydrogen through
palladium: O. W. Richardson. The paper is chiefly a
criticism of the conclusions drawn by Mr. G. N. St. Schmidt
(Drude’s Ann., vol. xiii. p. 747) from his experiments on
this subject. The author shows that the known facts can
be explained on the hypothesis that the hydrogen inside the
metal is dissociated, in the same way as for platinum.—
Optically active nitrogen compounds: Miss M. B. Thomas
and H. O. Jones. The work was undertaken in order to
find out what connection exists between the constitution
of optically active nitrogen compounds and the numerical
value of their rotatory power. The rotation for a basic
ion may be determined by preparing the salt with an acid
of known rotatory power, and subtracting the rotation due
DECEMBER I5, 1904]
NATURE
167
to the acidic ion from the total rotation of the salt in
aqueous solution. The series of substituted ammonium
salts under investigation contain the phenyl, benzyl, and
methyl radicals with ethyl, isopropyl, isobutyl or isoamyl.
The paper contains a brief account of the resolution of the
isopropyl compound by means of its dextro-brom-camphor-
sulphonate.
DvuBLIn.
Royal Dublin Society, November 15.—Dr. R. F. Scharff
in the chair.—Prof. T. Johnson gave an account of a
disease of swedes which has caused considerable loss in
different parts of Ireland, especially in the west. The small
leaves become “ spotted,’’ turn yellow, and fall off. The
attack is due to Cercospora Bloxami, Berk. and Br., which
causes disease in swedes in Germany and Switzerland.
Associated with the Cercospora from different localities, the
author found a Phoma-stage, suggestive of Phoma
Brassicae, Thiim., and in one locality, associated also with
Cercospora, Pleospora herbarum, B Brassicae (Lasch), Sacc.
The swede disease shows a curious parallelism with the
disease of the sweet chestnut investigated by Berlese in
Italy, where. Cercosporella, Phoma or Phyllosticta, and
Spherella stages are associated.—Prof. W. F. Barrett,
F.R.S., read a paper on a method of protecting the hands of
the operator from X-ray burns. The author stated that in
taking some radiographs of surgical cases during the first
three months of 1896 (shortly after Rontgen’s discovery)
he noticed the extreme opacity to the X-rays of any band-
ages which contained a dressing of iodoform. This led to
a series of experiments on the relative transparency of bodies
to the X-rays, and it was discovered, early in March, 1896,
that all bodies of high molecular weight, such as iodoform,
were opaque to these rays. If, then, the burns produced
by the X-rays be due to those rays which cannot penetrate
a layer of iodoform, it is easy to construct gauntlets with
an inner lining filled with iodoform which would entirely
protect the hands of the operator. Such gloves would be
far more flexible and far lighter than gloves with a lead
lining. The author added to his paper an historical note
on the relative transparency of bodies to the X-rays, giving
a brief summary of the work done.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, November 15.—
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., president, in the chair.
—Dr. W. E. Hoyle exhibited specimens of certain rare
Cephalopoda :—(1) Ancistrochirus lichtensteini from the
Maldive Archipelago, the type specimen in the Paris
Museums being the only one previously known. (2) A
species of Cirroteuthis from the neighbourhood of the Cape
of Good Hope, beautifully preserved in formol, and exhibit-
ing the gelatinous appearance and rounded stumpy form
of the animal in a way never seen in examples preserved in
alcohol. (3) Section of an octopod embryo from Zanzibar
showing a number of peculiar chitinous rods in the epithe-
lium.—Mr. F. Nicholson communicated a note on the
mistaken idea that birds are seed-carriers, in which the
author stated that he had found no evidence from his own
observations, extending over many years, that entire seed
can pass through a healthy bird. In confirmation of this
view Mr. Nicholson quoted two passages from Macgillivray’s
“A History of British Birds,” in which the author states
that of many hundreds of berry-eating and seed-eating
birds which he had opened there were only two which
showed the presence of whole seed in their intestines, and
these two were in all probability cases of diseased action.
—Mr. R. W. Ellison exhibited a number of birds’ eggs, in-
cluding specimens of the following :—the great black-
backed, the lesser black-backed, the herring, and black-
headed gulls, the Sandwich and lesser terns, the ring sand
plover, and the guillemot. The selection was made with
the view of demonstrating certain facts as to the coloration
of the eggs and its relation to that of their surroundings.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, December 5.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—On the general formula giving the number of
double integrals of the second species in the theory of
algebraic surfaces: Emile Picard.—On the nepheline rocks
of Tahiti: M. Lacroix. A detailed examination of a series
of rocks from Tahiti constitutes a continuous series from a
petrographical point of view, in which the mineralogical
NO. 1833, VOL. 71]
variations are essentially the result of an increase in the
amount of lime, iron, and manganese, accompanied with
a corresponding reduction in the amount of silica and
alkalis.—On differential equations of a parabolic type: Vito
Volterra.—Observations on the Perseids for 1904, and the
determination of their heights above the ground: V.
Fournier, A. Chaudot, and G. Fournier. The observ-
ations were carried out on the nights between August 9
and 16. 274 meteors were registered, 180 of which were
Perseids. Only 27 of these were of the first magnitude,
the greater part being of the third or fourth order. With
the view of determining the heights of some of the meteors
simultaneous observations were carried out on the night
of August 16 at Rouvray and at Morvan (Céte d’Or), two
stations 10-1 kilometres apart. 32 shooting stars were
noted at the first station, and 52 at the second, 13 of these
being common to both, and of these 4 have been reduced.
The height at the first appearance varied from 107 to 283
kilometres, at disappearance from 35 to 66 kilometres, and
the length of the trajectory from 56 to 245 kilometres. The
average height for the first appearance was 168 kilometres,
and of disappearance 53 kilometres, these figures being
greater than those obtained by M. Chrétien in 1901.—On
groups of the order pm(p prime, m>4) of which all the
divisors of the order pm-—* are Abelian: M. Potron.—The
design of high-speed vessels: Vice-Admiral Fournier.—On
telestereoscopy : Paul Helbronner. The object of the ex-
periments was, whilst preserving the strong magnification
of the telescope objective, to get the details standing out
in clear relief. The arrangement described has been used
in geodesic work in the French Alps, and has been found
very useful.—Researches on dielectric solids: V. Crémieu
and L. Malciés. By means of a quantitative study of the
phenomena described qualitatively in a previous note, the
diminution of electrical influence through solid dielectrics
by the production in the dielectric of a reactive charge is
clearly established.—Experiments permitting of the demon-
stration of the n-rays: H. Bordier. With the view of re-
moving objections to the purely subjective experiments
which are used for the detection of the n-rays, the author
has applied with success a photographic method, very long
exposures being employed on account of the feeble intensity
of the light emitted-—On the composition of colloidal
granules: Victor Henri and André Mayer. The compo-
sition of the colloidal granules of copper ferrocyanide studied
by J. Duclaux may be considered as a particular case of the
phenomenon of adsorption. The granules may be looked
upon as formed by copper ferrocyanide which has adsorbed a
certain quantity of potassium ferrocyanide. It is not neces-
sary that compounds of indefinite chemical composition
should be assumed.—The action of methylene chloride upon
toluene in the presence of aluminium chloride: James
Lavaux. It is shown that the ditolylmethane and dimethyl-
anthracene isolated by previous workers on this reaction
are mixtures. From the former the author has isolated
dimeta- and dipara-ditolylmethane, and 8-methylanthracene,
and from the latter three isomeric dimethylanthracenes.—On
the retrogradation of some cyclic secondary amines: P.
Lemouilt. Amines of the type R—NHR’ on heating with
PCI, give some of the primary amine RNH,, together with
R/Cl. The reaction was best marked with the methyl-
anilines.—On the organic combinations of metals in plants :
MM. Schlagdenhauffen and Reeb.—On the synthesis
and chemical nature of sorbierite: Gabriel Bertrand. It
is shown synthetically that the sorbierite described by the
author in a previous paper is identical with the d-idite of
Fischer and Fay.—The biological réle of the diffusion of
liquids : Stéphane Leduc.—Researches on the germination
of the spores of some yeasts: A. Guilliermond.—On the
anatomical modifications which are produced in the course
of the evolution of certain rhizomes: André Dauphiné.—
Biospeleology : Armand Viré. A discussion of the bearing of
the evidence of the animals found in caves on the theory of
evolution.—Osmotic communication between the vital and
exterior media in certain marine Selacian fishes: René
Quinton.—Lernaeenicus Sprattae, a parasite of the sardine
on the coasts of Vendée : Marcel Baudouin.—The action of
calcium permanganate on alkaloids, and in particular on
strychnine: G. Baudran.—The nutritive value of cows’
milk, sterilised at 108° C., for artificial feeding: G.
Variot. As the result of work carried on over a period of
168
NATURE
[DECEMBER 15, 1904.
twelve years, on an average of 150 to 200 infants daily, the
conclusions are drawn that milk sterilised at 108° C. pre-
serves all its nutritive value, and is in no way inferior to
milk pasteurised at 80° C. or simply heated to 100° C,
No appreciable decrease in the readiness with which the
milk was assimilated could be noticed, and not a single
case of infantile scurvy occurred. The percentage of
infants incapable of utilising sterilised milk was between
3 per cent. and 4 per cent.
New Soutu WaALEs.
Royal Society, October 5.—Mr. C. O. Burge, president,
in the chair.—Ethnological notes on the aboriginal tribes
of New South Wales and Victoria: R. H. Mathews.—
Preliminary observations on radio-activity and the occur-
rence of radium in Australian minerals: D. Mawson and
T. H. Laby. A brief summary of observations on the
radio-activity of minerals and occurrence of radium is given,
showing that comparatively intense activity is only found
associated in minerals with thorium and uranium. <A
torbernite and euxenite were found highly active, but the
specimens were too small to examine for radium. A
Western Australian gadolinite, found by Prof. Norman
Collie. to contain one bubble of helium in ten grams, was
expected to contain radium, but none could be detected.
Twelve monazites were found radio-active; one, with
double the average activity of the others, from Pilbarra,
Western Australia, gave on heating the radium emanation ;
five monazite and zircon sands were also active. No re-
lation between thoria contents and activity was found, which
points to the presence of uranium.—The flood deposits of
the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers: Prof. F. B. Guthrie
and Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David.
Care Town.
South African Philosophical Society, September 28.—
J. D. F. Gilchrist, president, in the chair.—A new
South African cypress, Callitris schwarzit, Marl.: Dr. R.
Marloth. The two species of cypress hitherto known from
South Africa belong to the genus Widdringtonia, which,
however, is now mostly merged into the genus Callitris.
Until recently only one other species of Widdringtonia was
known, viz. W. Commersoni from Madagascar, but lately
a fourth species has been found by Whyte on the Shire
Highlands, called by Sir H. H. Johnston the Malanje cedar.
The South African species are C. juniperoides, the so-called
Cape cedar, and C. cupressoides, the sapreehout. The
former is a tree from 30 to 4o feet high, and occurs oniy
on the Cedar Mountains, while the latter is only 10 to 12
feet or rarely 15 feet high, but is common on all the moun-
tains of the south-western districts. When recently the
author heard that some ‘‘ Sapree’’ trees in the Baviaans-
kloof Mountains were 50 to 60 feet high, he suspected at once
that this must be a different species, and an examination of
some ripe cones proved that this tree is quite distinct from
the common C. cupressoides.—The Glacial conglomerate in
the Table Mountain series near Clanwilliam: A. W.
Rogers. This communication is an extension of one read
before the society in 1901. The conglomerate with glaciated
pebbles has now been traced through a distance of about
23 miles near Clanwilliam.—South African Verbenacez,
supplementary note: H. H. W. Pearson.—Further note
on factorisable continuants: Thos. Muir.—South African
Hymenoptera : P. Cameron.—On the structure of the endo-
thiodont reptiles: R. Broom.
October 26.—Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., vice-presi-
dent, in the chair.—The rocks of Tristan d’Acunha, brought
back by H.M.S. Odin, Commander Pearce, R.N., ‘and their
bearing on the question of the permanence of ocean basins :
E. H. L. Schwarz. Through the courtesy of Commander
Pearce, of H.M.S. Odin, a number of specimens were
recently obtained for the South African Museum from the
island group of Tristan d’Acunha. The islands are de-
scribed in the Challenger reports, and from the accounts
published in them it is evident that while Inaccessible Island
and Tristan d’Acunha itself are ordinary volcanic islands,
Nightingale Island is a gigantic agglomerate neck like
those that the author has described from Griqualand East,
on the flanks of the Drakensberg Mountains. Two rocks
of a type unusual to volcanic islands were brought back by
the expedition; one was a white mica and biotite gneiss
from Tristan d’Acunha, the other a lava containing foreign
fragments from Nightingale Island.
NO. 1833, VOL. 71|
|
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, DeEcEMBER 15.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Ultra-violet Spectrum of Gadolinium :
Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.—An Analysis of the Results from the
Falmouth Magnetographs on “Quiet” Days during the Twelve Years
1891 to 1go2: Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S.—The Halogen Hydrides as Con-
ducting Solvents. Part iii, Preliminary Note: B. D. Steele.—The
Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents. Part iv. Preliminary
Note: B. D. Steele, D. McIntosh, and E. H. Archibald.—Effects of
Temperature and Pressure on the Thermal Conductivities of Solids.
Part i. The Effect of Temperature on the Thermal Conductivities of
some Hlectrical Insulators; Dr. C. H. Lees. —The Basic Gamma Function
and the Elliptic Functions: Rev. F. H. Jackson, R.N.—On the Normal
Series satisfying Linear Differential Equations : E. Cunningham.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Dscussion_ on Mr.
Searle's Paper, Studies in Magnetic Testing ; Followed by The Combina-
tion of Dust Destructors and Electricity Works, Economically Con-
sidered : W. P. Adams.
Linnean Society, at 8.—The Ecology of Woodland Plants: Dr.
T. W. Woodhead.—Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits:
C. C. Hurst.
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 16.
InsTtruTION oF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Heat Treatment Ex-
periments with Chrome-Vanadium Steel: Capt. H. Riall Sankey and
J. Kent-Smith.—Messrs. Seaton and Jude's Paper on Impact Tests on
the Wrought Steels of Commerce will be discussed.
{NsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at & —Folkestone Harbour: Cylinder-
Sinking at the Root of the Old Pier : R. H. Lee Pennell.
MONDAY, ees 19.
Sociery oF ArTs, at 8.—Musical Wind Instruments, Flutes : D. J. Blaikley.
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—On the Retrospective Method of
Valuation: Frederick Bell.
Farapay Society, at 8.—The Electric Furnace ; its Origin, Trans-
formation, and Applications. Part ii.: A. Minet.—Electrolytic Analysis
of Cobalt and Nickel: F. Mollwo Perkin and W. C. Prebble.—(1) The
Electrolytic Preparation of Tin Paste. (2) Note on the Electrolytic
Recovery of Tin: F. Gelstharp.
TUESDAY, DECEMBER 20,
RovaL STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—D/scussion on the Construction
of a-Concrete Railway-Viaduct: A. Wood-Hill and E, D. Pain.
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 21.
GEoLoGIcAL Society, at 8.—Certain Genera and Species of Lytoceratidz :
S. S. Buckman.—(1) The Leicester Earthquakes of August 4, 1393, and
June 21, t904. (2) The Derby Earthquakes of July 3, 1904. (3) T'win-
Earthquakes: Dr. C, Davison.
Royat Microscopicat Society, at 8.—The Theory of Highly Magnified
Images: J. W. Gordon.
RovaLt METEOROLOGICAL Society, at 7.30.—Discussion of Mr. F J
Brodie’s paper, Decrease of Fog in London during Recent Years.
Followed by The Study of the Minor Fluctuations of Atmospheric
Pressure: Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and W. H. Dines.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Human Anatomy. By Dr. A. Keith. ... . 145
Earthquakes 147
Technical Mechanics. By P Prof, George M. Minchin,
FR Sie ae tas Res 148
Our Book Shelf :—
Hill: ‘* Machine Drawing” — . 149
Cockin: ‘* An Elementary Class- book of Practical
Coal-mining ” igtbc 150
Cecil : ‘‘ Bird Notes from the Nile.”—-R. L. . . 150
Letters to the Editor :—
Education and National Bae in Japan.-—Dr,
Henry Dyer .. PPh te? pire PR tics gh 342)
The Ileating Effect of the 7 Rays from Radium.—
Prof, E. Rutherford, F. RS. and Prof. H. T.
Barnes . . Siro Mae ate 151
Singularities of Curves. —T. B.S... 152
A Christmas Bird-book. (J///ustrated.) By R. i ; *'52
The Present Condition of the Sea-Fishing Industry.
(Tllustrated.) . . Aad Oe Sicha WERE tor! OSS
The Eleventh Eros Circular. “By Prof. H. H. Turner,
BRS Stee: yeas eS")? ee
Notest ee: Cae 155
Our Astronomical Column :—
Relations between Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena. 158
see | | ee ee 158
Eclipse Observations . . Fa ttl!
The Appearance of Spark Lines in Arc ‘Spectra : 159
The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. . . 159
The First True Maps. By C. Raymond Beazley 159
Geological Notes. . . . 161
Scientific Research in the Philippine Islands, By
Prof yiaemewiett 1 la. a* sh sy 1 naan
University and Educational Intelligence’ 162
Societiesiand Academies. fe. wc... <. = shah sine eens aka
Diary ofiSocreties: Ve... ek, Gs, 3 eetete ee eS
NATURE
169
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 22, 1904.
A ZOOLOGICAL TRIBUTE.
Mark Anniversary Volume. To Edward Laurens
Mark, Hersey Professor of Anatomy and Director
of the Zoological Laboratory at Harvard University,
in Celebration of Twenty-five Years of Successful
Work for the Advancement of Zoology, from his
former Students, 1877-1902. Pp. xix+513; 36 plates
and portrait. (New York: Holt and Co., 1903.)
HIS stately volume is a tribute to a notable
personality in the history of American zoology.
It has been inspired by the affection and loyalty of about
one hundred and fifty of his former students, twenty-
six of whom contribute the memoirs which fill its 500
quarto pages. To their esteemed master, these
students—now themselves in many cases well known
teachers and investigators—express their gratitude for
his rigorous discipline in methods of work, for his
critical skill, and for his stimulating sympathy. They
recall with pride the service that was done to science
by the publication of Mark’s work on the maturation,
fecundation, and segmentation of the egg of Limax—
““a work that introduced into America the then new
cytological methods in the application of which this
country has since reached an elevated position. It
likewise introduced into zoology a proper fulness and
accuracy of citation and a convenient and uniform
method of referring from text to bibliography. It
marked a step forward, also, in thoroughness and de-
tail, and in the full recognition that, even in zoology,
as in physics and chemistry, method is hardly less
important than matter.”
The tribute of twenty-five memoirs is one to make
a teacher proud, especially as they exhibit many of the
features which have distinguished his own work.
Seitaro Goto leads off with a description of a new
Craspedote medusa—Olindioides formosa, n.g. et sp.,
from Misaki, like Haeckel’s Olindias in some ways,
yet strikingly different, e.g. in having six radial canals
instead of four. Along with Gonionema and Hali-
calyx, Olindiopsis and Olindias represent the sub-
family Olindiadz, which must rest meanwhile under
the Eucopidz among the Leptomeduse. H. S. Pratt
describes four new Distomes—a new genus (Ostiolum)
from the frog, related to Hamatotcechus of Looss, and
three new species of Renifer (=Styphlodera) from the |
mouth and air passages of common North American
snakes. W. A. Locy takes us into a different domain
in elaborating his discovery (1899) of a ‘‘ new nerve ”’
in Selachians, which arises on the dorsal summit of
the fore-brain, before and apart from all other olfactory
radices, and runs to the olfactory epithelium. A similar
nerve has been recorded in Protopterus by Pinkus, and
in Amia by Allis; elsewhere it has remained un-
detected. Jacob Reighard takes us into the open air
in his fascinating and most instructively careful study
of the breeding habits of Amia calva. The sexes differ
obviously in colour, but spawning is usually at night;
there are about three times as many males as females
on the spawning ground; the male builds the nest,
guards and defends it; he excites the female by biting
and rubbing; he may induce two females at different
No. 1834, VOL. 71]
times to spawn in the same nest; he leads the young
black larvze forth, re-unites the school when it loses
scent, and guards them until they begin to assume
orange and green hues; he is a model of paternal care.
Charles A. Kofoid describes an interesting Opalinid,
Protophrya ovicola, the least specialised member of the
family, which he found in the brood-sac of Littorina
rudis. An interesting item is the presence of a micro-
nucleus, which has only been observed in one other
Opalinid, Anoplophrya branchiarum. It is obvious
that the question of the micronucleus in Opalinids
should be looked into, and that this new genus should
be searched for in other localities. The next memoir
brings us back to ‘‘new-fangled’’ methods, for
C. B. Davenport compares a lot of Pectens from
Tampa, Florida (Pecten gibbus, var. dislocatus), with
another lot from San Diego, California (Pectew
ventricosus). These are closely analogous species,
and if environmental facts are similar, the variability
should be the same. But in all the proportions
measured, the San Diego Pectens show themselves.
from 50 per cent. to 100 per cent. more variable than
those of Tampa. The San Diego forms represent a
plastic race in a varied present environment. It seems.
to us that the concepts of variability and modifiability
must be analysed out before such statistics as those
offered in this memoir can be of much value in ztio-
logical discussion. Observed differences have to be re-
corded, but it is only when demonstrable modifica-
tional differences are subtracted from the observed
differences that we can draw secure conclusions as to
variability in the strict sense. Gertrude Crotty Daven-
port discusses the longitudinal division and fragmen-
tation of the sea-anemone Sagartia luciae, and shows.
that numerous intermediate forms may occur while the
individuals are always tending by means of regenera-
tion in the direction of twelve stripes and forty-eight
mesenteries. Again, we must emphasise the desir-
ability of distinguishing between modificational and
variational divergences from the norm of the species.
Frank W. Bancroft describes an interesting seasonal
modification of the compound Ascidian Botrylloides
gascoi; the colony died down and the zooids de-
generated, but with the assistance of a ‘‘ yellow lobe ”’
containing no zooids recuperation was effected. Carl
H. Eigenmann discusses another mode of degener-
ation in telling the whole history of the eyes of the
blind Amblyopsid fishes. The foundations of the eye
in the embryos, which develop in the gill-cavity of the
adult, are normally laid, but the stages beyond the
foundations are ccenogenetic or direct; in fact, there is
a developmental degeneration corresponding to the
degeneration of the eye in the adult. Somewhat sur-
prising is H. P. Johnston’s account of three fresh-
water Nereids—Nereis limnicola, n.sp., Lycastis
hawaiiensis, n.sp., and Lycastroides alticola, n.g. et
sp.—from indubitably fresh-water habitats. The author
discusses the conditions which will admit of marine
forms becoming denizens of fresh water, and gives a
useful synopsis of recorded cases of fresh-water Poly-
cheta. Then follows an interesting study in ethology,
H. R. Linville’s account of the tube-formation in
| Amphitrite ornata and Diopatra cuprea, the particular
I
170
point of which is the minute adaptations of structure
to function, an illustration of a kind of research which
is always welcome and valuable.
W. E. Ritter discusses the structure and affinities
of a new type of Ascidian from the Californian coast,
which he calls Herdmania after a well known
ascidiologist. The colony is composed of crowded but
entirely free zooids arising by budding from short,
much branched, closely interwoven stolons. The zooid
is long and narrow, with three regions—thoracic,
digestive, and cardiogenital. It is quite unique in
having two epicardiac tubes, separate throughout their
length; the oviduct serves as a uterus in which the
embryos go through their development to nearly the
period of metamorphosis; there is a peculiar grouping
of the numerous branchial tentacles. It seems to be
a divergent offshoot from the Polyclinid branch.
R. M. Strong brings us back to a familiar subject and
an old problem; he analyses the iridescence or metallic
coloration of the dorsal surfaces of the distal portions
of the feathers from the sides of the neck of grey
domestic pigeons. The coloration is not due to diffrac-
tion, and Gadow’s refraction-prism hypothesis will not
work. The colours are probably thin-plate interference
colours or Newton’s rings, effects which are produced
where spherical pigment granules come in contact with
the outer transparent layer. C. R. Eastman takes
us back to Paleozoic sharks, showing that the much-
debated Edestus fossils are genuine teeth, and repre-
sent a stage in an interesting evolution series from
Campodus to Helicoprion. We can hardly do more
than refer to H. V. Neal’s careful study of the de-
velopment of the ventral spinal nerves in Selachians,
but we may note that while the neuraxones of these
nerves develop like those of Amniota as processes of
neuroblast cells, there is a migration of medullary cells
in early stages of development, which, though they
take no part in the formation of the neuraxones or
ganglia of the ventral nerves, participate in the form-
ation of the nerve-sheaths, which have usually been
regarded as of mesenchymatous origin.
H. S. Jennings elaborates his interesting thesis
that the asymmetry of most flagellate and ciliate In-
fusorians, as also of the Rattulid Rotifera, is corre-
lated with the habit of swimming in spirals. The
spiral course is the simplest device for permitting an
unequally balanced organism to progress in a given
direction through the free water, and the method of
reaction to most stimuli is closely correlated with the
unsymmetrical or spiral type of structure. Rolfe
Yorke contributes a study of the nerve cells of the cock-
roach and of the substance within these that seems to
correspond to the chromophilous material in the nerve
cells of higher animals. R. M. Yerkes shows by
elaborate experiments that Daphnia pulex is strongly
positively phototactic to all intensities from o to 100
candle-power, and is negatively thermotactic at a
temperature of about 25° (Os
In a very interesting paper on Mendel’s law and the
heredity of albinism, W. E. Castle and G. M. Allen
show that complete albinism, without a recorded ex-
eption, behaves as a recessive character in inherit-
and that the facts are in general accord with
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
nce,
NATURE
[DECEMBER 22, 1904
Mendelian principles. P. E. Sargent discusses the
structure and functions, development and phylogeny
of that archaic portion of the mesencephalic roof known
as the torus longitudinalis which is characteristic of
Teleosts. T. G. Lee attacks a not less difficult probl
—the implantation of the ovum in the gopher, which
he finds to be quite unique as regards the nature and
history of the pre-placental ‘‘ fixation-mass ’’ formed
by the trophoblast. J. H. Gerould makes a comparison
of the early stages of Sipunculus and Phascolosoma
and seeks to show that the ‘‘ serosa ’’ of the former rel
presents the remains of a degenerating prototroch equi
valent to that of the latter, which is in turn homo-
logous with the primitive condition seen in mesotrochal
Annelids.
G. H. Parker takes us once more into the open air
in his study of the positive and negative phototropism
of the mourning-cloak butterfly (Vanessa antiopa). It
is interesting that the negative phototropism is only —
seen in intense sunlight and after the butterfly has
established a certain state of metabolism by flying
about for a while, and that the position assumed ind
negative phototropism exposes the colour patterns of ©
the wings to fullest illumination, and has probably
something to do with bringing the sexes together
during the breeding season. Ida H. Hyde presen
a new interpretation of the structure of the eye of
Pecten, supplementing and correcting previous de-
scriptions. The long series of memoirs ends with one
by H. B. Ward on the larve of Dermatobia hominis
—an Oestrid or bot-fly, widely distributed in America
though not in the States, which occurs commonly in
the skin of cattle, pigs, and dogs, and less frequently
in some other creatures, including—unfortunately—
man.
We cannot conclude our rapid review of this huge
volume without directing attention to the great range
of zoological territory which the memoirs cover, to the
high standard of workmanship which they exhibit, and
to the unanimity with which the various authors
recognise their indebtedness to their master, Edward
Laurens Mark. jf. A.
SYNTHESIS OF VITAL PRODUCTS.
The Chemical Synthesis of Vital Products, and the
Inter-relations between Organic Compounds. By |
Prof. Raphael Meldola, F.R.S. Vol. i. Hydro- |
carbons, Alcohols and Phenols, Aldehydes, Ketones, —
Carbohydrates and _ Glucosides, Sulphur and |
Cyanogen Compounds, Camphor and Terpenes, |
Colouring-matters of the Flavone Group. Pp. |
xvi+338. (London: E. Arnold, 1904.) Price 21s.
net.
ite spite of the long and daily increasing list of
successful chemical syntheses of substances which —
are primarily produced as the result of processes
occurring in living organisms, one constantly hears
from physiologists the complaint that the synthetic
work of chemists, wonderful as it may be in itself,
throws no light on the biochemical problem of how
the same substances are generated in the bodies of
plants or animals. The points of view of the organic
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
NATURE
chemist and the physiologist are entirely distinct. The
chemist, in studying a biochemical product, starts by
dissecting it into a number of known atomic groups,
and when this analytic work is complete, he seeks
to confirm his conclusions as to the constitution of the
substance by piecing these atomic groups together
again, so as to reproduce, the substance synthetically.
In accomplishing the latter part of his task, the
question of imitating biochemical conditions never
even occurs to him, inasmuch as for his purpose the
simplest and most efficient laboratory processes are
the best; and when he has solved the problem from
his point of view he is satisfied. That alizarin and
indigo can not only be synthesised, but that they
can be synthesised so cheaply that the natural products
cannot compete with them in the market, is doubtless
a triumph both for the chemist and for the techno-
logist; but so long as each step of these syntheses is
effected either by means of such chemical agents or
under such conditions of temperature as would be
fatal to life in any form, it is evident that the results
_are devoid of any biochemical bearing, and that the
physiologist is justified in disregarding them. Mean-
while, therefore, so far as the important subject of
the synthesis of vital products is concerned, there is
no helpful interaction between chemistry and physi-
ology. Each goes its own way.
It is with the object of endeavouring to remove this
reproach from these sciences and of bringing about a
better understanding between them that Prof. Meldola
has written the present work, of which the first volume
is now before us. The work is, as the author states,
‘a record of the synthetical achievements of gener-
ations of workers arranged with a distinct biochemical
bias.”’
chapters, ‘“‘ Organic Chemistry from the Bio-centric
Standpoint,’’ might have served as a subtitle for the
entire work.
This biocentric standpoint has, as the author indi-
cates, necessitated an arrangement of the subject-
matter differing materially from that usually followed
in works on organic chemistry. In these the deriva-
tives are arranged under the parent compound, or
chemical type, from which in many cases they can be
produced by processes of laboratory synthesis. But,
‘** According to the present scheme each vital product
is in itself a biochemical type quite independently of
the chemical type to which it may be referred, and
the synthesis of each product, instead of being men-
tioned incidentally in connexion with the group to
which it belongs as a point of minor interest, is here
brought into the first rank of importance. In other
words, the chemical type is in this work subordinated to
the individual compound—a mode of treatment for
which every justification will be conceded when it is
pointed out that in vital syntheses there are unquestion-
able genetic relationships between compounds of quite
different types’ (p. 12).
Another necessity arising from the biocentric stand-
point has been the recognition of ‘ down-grade
synthesis ’’ as well as of ‘ up-grade synthesis ’’—of the
synthetic products obtained from complex generators
by fission as well as of those obtained from simpler
generators by union. Thus a number of substances
NO. 1834, VOL. 71 |
In fact, the title of one of the introductory |
171
generally recognised as vital products do not occur
as such in the living organism, but are produced by
hydrolytic fission, sometimes during the process of
isolating them: thus alizarin from the glucoside
ruberythric acid. The justification for registering
these as vital products lies in the fact that their atomic
complexes are pre-existent in the glucosides and
similar compounds from which they are obtained.
The details of these classifications are worked out
by the author with very great skill and with exhaus-
tive knowledge of the subject. References are every-
where given, no fewer than forty-five periodicals, not
to mention the patent literature, being quoted from.
Among the syntheses enumerated we have not suc-
ceeded in detecting any omissions. The author does
not claim to have sifted critically the enormous mass
of experimental records which he has brought. to-
gether; he leaves to the investigators themselves the
responsibility for their statements. His object is ‘* to
bring practical workers, whether chemists, physi-
ologists, or technologists, into communication with
the various authorities quoted.”’
The author admits that we are at present profoundly
ignorant of the modes of synthetic action which go
on within the living organism, and he points to the
necessity for a more systematic study of the chemical
stages in which such action occurs—a branch of in-
vestigation for which plant life offers especial facilities.
He points to Charabot’s researches on the develop-
ment of the terpene alcohols and ketones as examples
of the pioneering work required. He is firm in his
belief that such work will not only increase our
knowledge of biochemistry, but will place us in a
position to imitate the conditions of biochemical
synthesis. He writes :—
“* Tf, some decades hence, a work on similar lines to
the present should ever be compiled, it may be
anticipated with confidence that the laboratory methods
for synthesising vital products will have approximated
more closely to the physiological processes *’ (p. 9).
This confidence in the future powers of the chemist
is closely connected with the author’s attitude towards
Neovitalism. He says :—
“T think it advisable to place on record the opinion
that the present achievements in the domain of
chemical synthesis furnish no warrant for the belief
that the chemical processes of the living organism
are in any sense transcendental, or that they must be
regarded as belonging to a class of special material
transformations which human science will never be
able to reproduce. Such an admission as the latter
would be tantamount to a proclamation of Neo-
Witalismi:, = -.\..: There is no warrant for the belief
that the physics or chemistry of animals and plants is
ultra-scientific ’’ (Preface, p. vi).
To the present reviewer the terms “‘ transcendental ”’
and “ ultra-scientific ’’ seem to beg the question. It
is surely a matter for legitimate and entirely ‘* scien-
tific’? inquiry, whether our present laws of chemistry
and physics, which have been deduced solely from the
study of dead matter, apply without qualification to
living matter. Possibly, when the conditions of the
biochemical problem are more thoroughly understood,
it may be, contrary to Prof. Meldola’s belief, just as
172
easy to show that we can never, in our beakers and
retorts, imitate the biochemical conditions of vital
synthesis as it is for a mathematician to prove the
transcendence of 7.
This view, like its opposite, is, however, in the
present state of our knowledge, rather a matter of
opinion than of proof.
In conclusion we congratulate the author on having
produced a most useful work—a work of almost ultra-
German thoroughness—and one which will be an
immense boon to all interested in the subject with
which it deals.
IONISATION AND ABSORPTION.
The Becquerel Rays and the Properties of Radium. |
By the Hon. R. J. Strutt. Pp. vii + 214. (London :
Edward Arnold, 1904.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
NUMBER of books dealing with radio-activity
and the kindred phenomena have already |
appeared; and it is a bold thing on the part of an |
author to place another before the public. However, |
with the exception of Prof. Rutherford’s inimitable |
treatise on the subject, none of the previous works
NATURE
have been characterised by any striking individuality, |
so that there is, or rather was, still room for a
vigorous statement of the general features of the sub-
ject from a popular point of view. This the author of
the present work has accomplished in a manner that |
leaves little room for criticism. He possesses to a
remarkable degree the faculty of stating difficult ques-
tions in a simple way, and of expressing the answers
in a language which is easily understood.
In a book of this kind there is usually a good deal
of treatment which appears somewhat slipshod when
regarded from a strictly scientific standpoint; but such
a charge cannot with justice be maintained against
the present volume. Naturally some of the most in-
tricate points, such as the effect of a magnet on a>
moving electric charge, have to be treated analogically
to make them represent anything real to a mind in- |
expert in dealing with this class of phenomena; but
here the author has not only been fortunate in choosing
familiar instances, but those chosen have been true
analogies, and accurately represent the physical
features of the case. The whole treatment is char-
acterised by vigour and interest, and is such as we
should have every reason to expect from the pen of
so well-known an investigator in this branch of
physical science as the author.
It is scarcely necessary to analyse in detail the con-
tents of the book, but the whole forms a clear and
concise presentation of the great question of the rela- |
tionship between electricity and matter, which is of |
overpowering interest to physicists at the present time.
In the first chapter we are made familiar with the
various phenomena accompanying electric discharge
in rarefied gases, and are thus placed in a position to
understand the working of what may be regarded as
a miniature discharge tube, viz. a radio-active atom.
After describing the various manifestations of radio-
activity and the properties of the radiations, the author
No. 1834, VOL. 71]
| was at different distances below it.
| reduced to one-twentieth. This shows clearly,
[DECEMBER 22, 1904
considers the various products of radio-active change.
We are thus led to a probable view of the mode of
origin of the chemical elements, in the evolution of
which the inert gases seem to form the final stage.
The last chapter forms a very lucid account of the
electrical theory of mass and the various views of
atomic structure based thereon.
Unfortunately there is one serious blot on the
general excellence of the book, and that is the treat-
ment of absorption in chapter iv. Almost at the out-
set (p. 87), the author contradicts himself owing to
the word “ greater ’’ having crept in where he doubt-
less intended to say “‘less.’’ This uncorrected error
is not likely to cause much trouble to those who are
familiar with the subject, but we imagine the beginner
will be greatly perplexed by trying to reconcile this
statement with what follows.
Apart from this, it seems a great pity that so much
stress should be laid on Madame Curie’s experiments
on the absorption of the e-rays from polonium, as it
is doubtful what conclusion can be drawn from them
except that practically all the rays are stopped by
about four centimetres of air. In the experiments re-
ferred to a quantity of polonium was placed at a
variable distance below two parallel plates three centi-
metres apart. A hole in the lower plate covered by
| Wire gauze allowed the a-rays from the polonium to
penetrate the region between the two plates, and the
ionisation it produced there was taken to measure its
“intensity.” Madame Curie then investigated the
diminution in the ionisation produced by placing a
sheet of aluminium foil o-oor cm. thick (equivalent to
2 cm. of air) over the lower plate, when the polonium
When the polo-
nium was 0.5 cm. away the aluminium cut down the
| radiation to one-quarter its previous value, whilst
when the distance was I-g cm. the ionisation was
as
Madame Curie pointed out, that {1e a-rays which
| have passed through a certain thickness of matter are
less penetrating than those which have not. The ques-
tion, however, which is of most interest in the present
state of the subject is how the ionisation per centi-
metre of path varies with the amount of matter pre-
viously passed through. These experiments furnish
no very certain answer to this question, since when
the aluminium foil is inserted the whole of the radia-
tion is absorbed long before it reaches the upper plate,
so that the different experiments are not strictly com-
parable. The whole question of absorption is very
intricate, and it is undesirable to dwell further upon
it here. There is still plenty of room for experimental
investigation on this subject. For instance, Town-
send’s experiments on ionisation by collision and
Durack’s on that produced by the Lenard and
Becquerel rays show that the number of ions pro-
duced per cm. by a moving corpuscle increases with
the velocity up to a certain point, and then decreases.
It would be of interest to see whether, as is probably
the case, this holds for the positively charged a-rays
as well.
The book contains three useful appendices. The
first describes a number of simple experiments illus-
trating the essential features of radio-activity; the
_
NATURE
173
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
wn
second gives the simple theory of the deflection of
kathode rays, for the benefit of those not entirely
unacquainted with mathematics; while the third
describes the chemical processes involved in the
extraction of the radio-active products from pitchblende
residues.
The general arrangement is good, but there appears
to be more than the usual allowance of uncorrected
errors in spelling and composition. We hope that a
second edition will give the author an opportunity of
correcting these.
On the whole the book may be thoroughly recom-
mended to the general reader as an accurate and
attractive account of the latest aspect of scientific
thought on the structure of matter; whilst the
specialist will find numerous passages which are
suggestive and stimulating.
O. W. RicHarDSsON.
LABORATORY EXERCISES IN BREWING.
Laboratory Studies for Brewing Students. By A. J.
Brown, M.Sc., &c. Pp. xviii+193. (London:
Longmans, Green and Co.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
HE brewing school at Birmingham is fortunate
in possessing Prof. Brown as its head, and we
hail the appearance of his book as extending its
advantages to students of brewing generally.
' These Laboratory Studies describe a systematic series
of experiments illustrating the scientific principles
underlying brewing. The author is careful to point
out that he does not aim at dispensing with a teacher.
Assuming a knowledge of chemical manipulation, he
gives the detail necessary for the successful perform-
ance of each experiment, and draws the appropriate
conclusion. He frequently connects the conclusions
with others from allied experiments, and even to some
extent with brewing practice, but at each step more
and more scope is left for the teacher to discuss the
bearing of the results on one another and on large scale
work. If the author published his own lectures we
should doubtless find them an exceedingly valuable
complement to the work before us.
The book is divided into four sections :—(1) barley
and malting; (2) principles of the mashing process;
(3) fermentation; (4) hops. These sections are further
subdivided into parts and paragraphs, the latter corre-
sponding to each experiment.
The first section follows the changes in outward
appearance from the flowering stage to the ripe barley
corn, and thence passes on to the anatomy of the corn
and to its conversion into malt.
Under the heading dealing with the varieties, we
find one of the many instances of the way in which
the author equips his men for taking their part in the
controversies of present day brewing but avoids all
dogmatising on points still sub judice. The experi-
ments are planned so that the student will know
all the characteristics of, e.g., Chevallier (we
adopt Mr. Beaven’s spelling of the rev. gentleman’s
name) and Goldthorpe, but he is left with an
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
open mind as to the vexed question of their rival
merits.
Dealing with the technical examination of malt
(and, indeed, also of barley and hops), we are glad to
find due recognition given to expert knowledge—the
student being specially commended to the teacher foi
instruction in it. For we are apt nowadays to under-
rate the knowledge accumulated by the practical man
—what corresponds to the “ farmer’s eye’? is still of
immense value to the brewer.
Section i., part v., devoted to the chemical examin-
ation of malt, is as good as any in the book. UHeron’s
method of determining the yield of extract is very
fairly criticised, and we leave the subject with a full
appreciation of its value and difficulties. The foot-
note of p. 46, that ‘‘a thoroughly satisfactory malt
mill is yet to be introduced,’’ should appeal to all
interested in brewing.
Section ii., the principles of the mashing process,
deals with the changes which take place when malt
and water are brought together at various tempera-
tures and sketches the analysis of wort as far as the
carbohydrates (much the largest constituents) are con-
cerned. We were sorry that, in giving the experiment
showing that the influence of heat in restricting starch
transformation is due to modification of the diastase, no
reference is given to Kjeldahl’s ‘‘ Recherches sur
les ferments producteurs de sucre’’ (Résumé du
Compte rendu des Travaux du Laboratoire de Carls-
berg, i, 109), but this is perhaps on account of its
being in a foreign language and so unsuitable for
students.
Section iii. is devoted to fermentation, but, as there
are already books, chiefly by the Hansen school, deal-
ing with this important subject, this section is a good
deal curtailed. We are, however, glad to see (even
if they are in small print) experiments on the author’s
important discovery that the maximum number to
which yeast cells multiply in a nutritive solution de-
pends, not on the number of cells with which the solu-
tion is seeded, but on the volume of the solution,
granted, of course, a sufficiency of food.
Section iv., on hops, concludes the volume. We
wish an experiment had been included to show the
restrictive action of hops on the acid-forming bacteria,
but such an experiment is not a very easy one for
students.
It will have been noticed that the book adheres to
the usual plan of beginning with barley and ending
with beer. This seems inconsistent with the custom
of passing from the well known to the less well known,
and we should like to see tried the opposite plan of
starting with beer and tracing it back into its con-
stituents.
In training men for technical work the course should
be; first, a general grounding in science; secondly,
practical experience of the art in question; thirdly, a
study of the scientific principles involved. If this be
so the work before us should not only be of service
to students but also to those brewers who desire to
look into the experiments on which the principles of
their art are founded.
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 22, 1904
174
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle. By Dr.
Alexander Gurwitsch. Pp. xix+437. (Jena:
Gustav Fischer, 1904.)
WE are told in the preface that this book is intended
for the use of beginners. The author must, however,
have had Macaulay’s omniscient schoolboy looming
large in his imagination when he thus appraised the
character of his completed work. Many of the topics
discussed are quite the reverse of elementary, and the
general treatment adopted throughout is lacking in
that quality of lucidity which is essential to success,
especially in a work that is written for the use of
beginners. The fact is the author has attempted too
much, and although his book may be serviceable to
readers already tolerably familiar with cytology, it can,
we imagine, hardly hope to appeal to the class for
which it is stated to have been designed.
The general plan of the work is somewhat novel and
has much to recommend it, whatever one may think
of the manner in which Dr. Gurwitsch has actually
executed his task. Thus, whilst a considerable de-
scription of cell-structure is naturally included, it is
on the physical and physiological aspects of the
problems that attention is mainly concentrated. Some
of the sections, in particular those dealing with
metabolism, are suggestive and well worth reading,
although one not seldom misses expected allusion to
recent work. Indeed, it almost seems at times that
the author is rather needlessly attacking positions
which have already ceased to possess any real import-
ance,
A considerable number of pages are devoted to the
subject of nuclear and cell division, as well as to a dis-
cussion of conflicting theoretical explanations of the
process of mitosis. The advanced student. will here
find much to interest him if he will take pains to dig
it out. But the whole question of reduction is omitted,
on the ground that the author regards it as foreign to
the main purpose of his book. We cannot but regret
his decision, since the processes therein concerned
serve to throw light on many difficulties connected
with an ordinary mitosis that are not otherwise easily
cleared up.
The last portion of the book is given up to a dis-
cussion as to whether the cell is to be regarded as an
elementary organism or as the unit of organisation,
and the question is treated both from the view of the
Protozoa and Metazoa. The discussion is difficult to
follow, and the answer really depends on what mean-
Ing is attached to the somewhat elusive definitions
employed. It is, of course, obvious that the signifi-
cance attaching to the unit will not always be the same
for this will have a different value for the morphologist
and the physiologist respectively.
We confess that, whilst the book as a whole possesses
undoubted merits, it nevertheless strikes us as the
result of a premature effort. There is much evidence
of undue haste, for example in the amazing number
of glaring typographical errors; the names of authori-
ties quoted, no less than ordinary words, repeatedly
assume an unfamiliar appearance. But however
irritating this may be to the reader, it would after all
be a trifling matter if the subject as a whole had been
presented in a well digested fashion. Ifo 183, 18%
A New Geometry for Senior Forms. By S. Barnard,
M.A., and J. M. Child, B.A. Pp. xv+331.
(London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price
35. 6d.
THIS text-book is intended primarily for the use of
students who are reading for the Oxford and Cam-
bridge local examinations; the London intermediate
examinations ; mathematics, stages iii. and iv., South
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
Kensington, and examinations of like nature. The first
half of the book is a very happy combination of practical
work and deductive reasoning. Much scale drawing
is done, it is to be hoped with proper appliances in a
proper manner, and teachers and students can select
from a large number of graphical exercises appearing
at short intervals, many of which have been taken by
permission from recent examination papers. Trigono-
metrical ratios for acute angles are introduced and
formule established relating to triangles, a short table
of sines, cosines, and tangents being employed for
numerical calculations. This section also deals with
the geometry and mensuration of the simple solids,
the formule: used being all proved. The prismoidal
formula and suggestions for the treatment of irregu-
larly shaped figures seem unfortunately to have been
overlooked. There are a few pages on the geometry
of plane motion where the idea of a vector might have
been appropriately and very usefully introduced.
The second or ‘‘ theoretical ’’ half of the book is
mainly concerned with the formal establishment of
theorems relating, amongst other matters, to the con-
nection between algebra and geometry (after
Euclid ii.), to circles, to ratio, proportion, and similar
figures, and to solid geometry as in Euclid xi. Al
little modern geometry is given, but there is no
description of how form and position in space are de-
fined and exhibited by scale drawings.
The authors have produced one of the best of the
new text-books which are following closely the progress
of reform rather than leading the way. The volume
can be heartily recommended to students who are pre-
paring for mathematical examinations under recently
revised schedules.
Studien tiber die Albuminoide mit besonderer Beriick-
sichtigung des Spongin und der Keratine. (Studies
on Albuminoids, with Special Reference to Spongin
and the Keratins.) By Dr. Eduard Strauss. Pp. 128.
(Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1904.) Price 3:20 marks.
Tuis little book does not treat, as its title might lead
some to suppose, of the albuminous substances in
general, but of that limited group of them to which
the term albuminoid is usually restricted by physio-
logists. This group includes spongin, cornein, gor-
gonine, onuphine, conchiolin, spirographin, and silk,
which are products (mainly skeletal in function)
of the invertebrate world; and collagen, reticulin,
elastin, and the keratins, which are found among the
vertebrata. One notes in this list the absence of
chitin among the invertebrate products, the reason
being that this material has now been shown not to be
a member of the proteid group at all. Reticulin, also,
which is mentioned, and was originally described by
Siegfried, does not really exist. Miss Tebb con-
clusively proved it to be an artifact from collagen, and
this view is accepted by Dr. Strauss.
The first seventy pages deal with a general account
of these substances taken one by one. The remainder
of the book deals with some original work on the
digestion products of spongin and the keratins. The
proteoses so formed were separated by Pick’s method,
and their properties differ somewhat from, though in
the main resemble, the similar products of proteolysis
derived from other and better known sources. Among
them two gluco-albumoses are described. Iodine
occurs not only in gorgonine, the organic substratum
in certain corals, but also in spongin.
This contribution to science is interesting, but deals
with such a small corner of biochemistry that it will
appeal to very few. We doubt whether it is wise to
magnify its importance by making it the subject of a
special book. The first part of the work is dealt with,
though perhaps not quite so fully, in all text-books of
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
NATURE
175
physiological chemistry, and the second part might
quite well have formed the subject of a brief paper in
one of the numerous journals devoted to such subjects.
W. D. H.
By P. Somers. Pp.
Pages from a Country Diary.
Edward Arnold,
vi+280; illustrated. (London :
1904.) Price 7s. 6d.
Tuts is one of those delightful books written in the
form of a discursive diary, somewhat after the style
of Sir Herbert Maxwell’s ‘‘ Memories of the Months,’’
which may be taken up and read during every spare
half-hour until the reader finds with regret that he
has come to the last page. Almost every kind of topic
and pursuit connected with country life receives a
share of attention, among them, to a brief extent, the
habits and ways of birds and other animals. Among
statements connected with natural history is one (on
the authority of a well known taxidermist) that albino
pheasants always have diseased liver; this, however,
if true, can scarcely be cause and effect, since such
birds have white plumage from the first, and they
surely cannot be hatched with liver-disease. Special
interest attaches to the statement that a hen grouse
of normal colouring produced an entire brood of cream-
coloured chicks, since this seems to afford an instance
of how a new colour-phase might be produced by dis-
continuous variation. The subsequent history of the
prom is not recorded—probably its members were all
shot.
Several references are made to otters and their
habits, and, although he is a thorough sportsman,
the author cannot refrain from uttering a word of
sympathy with these beautiful animals when sur-
rounded in the water by a pack of hungry otter-hounds.
On the other hand he has nothing but scorn for the
sickly sentimentality of those who would forbid such
manly sports as hare-hunting and stag-hunting, even
when the deer is a so-called tame animal.
A Scheme for the Detection of the more common
Classes of Carbon Compounds. By Frank E.
Weston, B.Sc. Pp. viiit56. (London: Longmans,
Green and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 2s.
Tuts little book is intended for students who are pre-
paring in chemistry for the final B.Sc. examination
of the University of London. The author, who is
lecturer on chemistry at the polytechnic in Regent
Street, has elaborated the scheme now offered as the
result of many years’ experience with his own classes.
There certainly has been a dearth of ‘‘ systematic
schemes ’’ for the detection of carbon compounds, and
from this point of view the book should be useful.
Whether it will have any real educational value will
depend very much upon the manner in which it is
used. If, as in the case of the ‘‘ systematic schemes ”’
for the detection of inorganic substances, the identifi-
cation of organic compounds is to be reduced to a
purely mechanical series of operations involving no
real scientific knowledge on the part of the student,
the present book will do more harm than good to the
cause of education, although it may help candidates
through the final B.Sc. as intended. On the other
hand, if used intelligently in connection with the scien-
tific treatment of organic chemistry, it may be made
of some educational use. The selection of compounds
has on the whole been judiciously made, and we have
no fault to find with the treatment excepting to point
out that certain crudities of style and inconsistencies
of spelling seem to indicate either imperfect knowledge
or imperfect revision. What quantity, for example, is
meant by ‘fa pinch’’? Why should the word
““monohydricphenols ”’ appear on one page and “ tri-
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
hydric phenols ’’ on another? There are too many
slips of this kind in such a small book to enable us
to recommend it unhesitatingly to students in its pre-
sent form.
Photograms of the Year 1904. By the Editors and
Staff of the Photogram, assisted by A. C. R. Carter.
Pp. xlviiit176. (London: Dawbarn and Ward,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 2s. net.
In these pages we have typical photographic pictures
of the year reproduced and criticised. This statement
does not apply simply to British productions, but ex-
tends to those made in many lands where pictorial
photography is practised. Robert Demachy discourses
on the pictures exhibited at the annual series of photo-
graphic events in France. British Columbian progress
is recorded by H. Mortimer Lamb. The editor of the
Australian Photographic Journal gives some notes of
the advances made in his country, while ‘‘ A new De-
parture in American Pictorialism”’ is written by
Savakichi Hartmann. These are followed by articles
on the work of the year, suggestions to would-be
picture-makers by H. Snowden Ward, and “* Royal and
Ring.” The two great exhibitions, the Photographic
Salon and the Royal, are dealt with by A. C. R.
Carter. The ‘‘ American Salon’? and ‘ Western
Workers in the United States ’’ conclude the volume.
It may be mentioned that this publication is the tenth
annual issue, and equals, if it does not exceed, both in
quality and number of illustrations, those that preceded
it. Most of the reproductions are the work of Messrs.
Carl Hentschel, Ltd.
It seems scarcely necessary to add that those of our
readers who follow this special branch of photography
will find in this volume material which should prove
of great value to them.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return. or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Heterogenetic Fungus-germs.
Tue development of brown fungus cells in connection with
Zoogloza, as described in Nature, November 24, by Dr.
Bastian, is very familiar to me, and probably to all who
attempt pure cultures of fungi. é :
Various species of microscopic fungi belonging to the
genus Cladosporium are everywhere present on fading and
dead leaves. The spores, and also the vegetable portions
of these fungi, constantly assume the form called Dematium
pullulans by De Bary. Such forms produce exceedingly
minute colourless conidia, which can pass through thick
filter paper. Under normal conditions these minute
conidia on germination form delicate hyaline hyphe
which give origin to a Cladosporium. If cultures of these
conidia become infested with bacteria that form Zooglea
the hyphz become invested with a comparatively thick,
brown cell-wall, and form either compact masses of cells
or irregular hyphz consisting of short cells, constricted at
the septa, exactly as shown in Dr. Bastian s Fig. 12. In
a disease of Prunus japonica, caused by a Cladosporium,
large masses of gum, just sufficiently dense to prevent
dripping, issued from the wounds. The mycelium of the
fungus spread into this gum, and produced myriads of
brown cells arranged in chains.
The semi-liquid gum caused the same abnormal develop-
ment as that produced by Zoogloea. A plate showing the
entire course of development of the fungus in the gum is
contained in the Kew Bulletin, December, 1898. As these
fungi only develop on fading leaves, it was not to be ex-
pected that they would appear in infusions of young grass.
Herbarium, Kew. GEORGE MASSEE.
176
NALORE.
[DECEMBER 22, 1904
Note on Radio-activity.
In the course of some experiments on the chemical be-
hhaviour of the B and y rays from radium (Ramsay and
Cooke, Nature, August 11) solutions were obtained con-
taining a radio-active substance which could sometimes be
removed from the solution by the formation in it of a
suitable precipitate. Sometimes when such a solution, con-
taining ammonium salts, and in which several precipita-
tions had already taken place, was evaporated to dryness
on the lid of a porcelain crucible the residue was found
to be capable of lessening the rate of leak of the electro-
scope, i.e. it behaved in the opposite way to an active
residue, which would increase the rate of leak. This
“anti-activity:’? has been observed on several occasions,
and seems to be a specific property of the matter examined,
and not to be due to any variable condition of the electro-
scope; thus the natural leak taken before is the same as
that taken immediately after such an experiment.
I have not found any mention of a similar phenomenon
in the literature on radio-activity, but should be glad to
know if like results have been noticed by other observers.
An explanation of the “‘ anti-activity ’? would seem to be
either that the leaf of the electroscope, which was always
negatively charged, receives particles carrying a similar
charge, which particles cause little ionisation of the air, or
that the rays exert a de-ionising power on the air, if one
‘can conceive of such an action. W. TERNENT COOKE.
Chemical Department, University College,
Gower Street, W.C.
Blue Flints at Bournemouth.
THERE is an old man living here, in Bournemouth, who
years ago was employed in re-laying a part of the Poole
Road, some little distance within the western boundary of
the borough. He says that he helped to put down a
quantity of refuse from the gas-works mixed up with flints,
&c.—for this was before the days when the Poole Road
began to be mended with granite. Now it so happened
that this very man was employed to dig up and remove the
surface of the road in preparation for the laying down of
the tram lines, and of the wood pavement with which the
whole road is now covered; and he says that he helped to
dig up the very stuff which years ago he had helped to put
down, and that this old road material was carted off to
the new road then in course of construction upon the common
and along the top of the cliff close by this part of the Poole
Road. The flints, he says, came out. blue, and are the blue
flints now to be seen in patches upon this new road along
the west sea-front. J. W. SuHarpe.
Bournemouth.
Intelligence of Animals.
As some stray remarks of mine seem to have set this
discussion agoing, I should be glad if you would kindly
allow me to supplement your correspondents’ interesting
letters by two or three further stories which have come
directly under my own observation. They are intended to
be illustrative of methods of reasoning about reason in
animals, particularly dogs. It will be observed that each
story has its own distinctive shade of inaccuracy, and that
the shade grows deeper as you proceed.
I trust, however, I shall by no means be taken as doubt-
ing the correctness of the facts sent you by your scientific
readers, though I admit I might plead guilty to an indict-
ment for suspecting seriously their interpretation. In the
case of one or two of them I should not be surprised if some
much more simple explanation than the one put forward
might have been overlooked.
(1) Some years ago I had a favourite Irish terrier, Tim.
Tim was a brave little chap, and would not quail before
a lion. Like all of his strain, he had, I may say in pass-
ing, the rather human habit of grinning when amused, and
would smile back at you in quite a comical fashion. This
not too common trait is, I think, noteworthy.
When a mere puppy, Tim, in one bound, leaped into the
household’s good graces, and by no less meritorious an action
than by saving us all from being burned alive. It was this
way. Some newspapers thrown carelessly near the library
grate caught fire; but Tim, who was snoozing on the hearth-
rug, bounded up and rushed to the cook, making such a
NO. 1834, VOL. 71|
row that that good lady dashed upstairs and tramped out the
budding conflagration.
I am loth to point out that the young terrier could have
had no more idea of a conflagration than Juno’s geese when
they cackled had of the Gallic invasion, from which by so
doing they are said to have saved the Roman Capitol, and,
further, I am greatly afraid that on the occasion showed
not the foresight set down to his credit, but for once in his
life—cowardice. The results, indeed, as not rarely happens
from that species of wisdom, were satisfactory, and the
appropriation of the praise on Tim’s part quite after the
manner of fully acknowledged rationals.
(2) In adult life Tim used to earn his breakfast of morn-
ings by carrying my boots up to my room. Where his
astuteness and “* reasoning power ’’ came in was by always
fetching up polished boots, though he might have three or
four pairs to pick and choose from. Of polished pairs he
would invariably seize my light ones if they were at hand—
a hint, the housekeeper used to insist, that he wished that
I should ‘* go off with myself ’’ and visit friends.
When “‘ doggie ’’ stories are circling I seldom fail to
extract this from my budget, and I am always tempted to
add little flourishes. At all events, I never feel called upon
to explain that Tim possessed no acquired taste for bog-mud,
and accordingly he discarded soiled shoes. Further, though
Tim was by no means lazy, he set store by Helmholtz’s
great principle of the conservation of energy. He had ex-
perimented and discovered for himself that there was far less
using up of brawn and muscle in bearing along and aloft
a thin than a heavy, thick-soled boot. All this by no means
appeared on the surface, and so his superlative judiciousness
was a source of delight to the cook, and of bewilderment to
her visitors, all the year round.
(3) A farmer residing near me has a strong, useful
mongrel, Major by name. Though Major is a cur of low
degree, his wisdom is great and ‘‘ uncanny.’’ Like every
other dog around here he would almost know your think-
ing—to use the pet phrase—and certainly would understand
your talking. The latter statement can be proved, and I
beg to undertake the demonstration.
For agriculturists in these parts fairs are the grand
monthly carnivals. Some months ago, on the eve of one,
our farmer said to his wife as they sat by the fireside,
““Jane, I think I must chain up Major to-night and not
have him follow us to-morrow as he did on the last
occasion.’’ ‘‘ Would you believe it,’’ so the farmer relates
it, “‘on hearing hist sentence out marched Major, most
indignant.’’ Next morning at an early hour, as Jane and
himself proceeded to the fair, there he was sitting on his
tail on a fence looking out for them more than a mile
from home! And so he was at the fun of the fair as well as
another.
Our farmer never conjectured there might have been
in the meantime for the mongrel an attraction of his own
in the direction of the town, though the torn ear was there
to set him thinking. Qui vult decipi, dectpiatur.
(4) Another neighbour possesses a spotted dog which he
calls a water spaniel. Though he, no less than every other
puppy, whelp, and hound in the country, may be dis-
tinguished for intelligence, he and they are certainly not
noted for good looks or long pedigrees. This particular
thoroughbred, amongst many things, (a) can go on a message
to any house he is directed to within a radius of three miles!
(b) can catch any hare he sets his eyes upon! and yet (c) will
be fifteen years old to a day if he lives until January 2 next!
Explanation :—His owner sometimes gives a loose rein
to a splendidly vivid imagination.
I yield to no one both in my respect and liking for our
canine friends and in my admiration for their affection,
their highest developed quality. But I am inclined to think
their good points and “ thinking powers’ are often vastly
exaggerated by friendly and carelessly observing eyes.
Much that surprises may be of the type of one or other of
the four stories above given. Imperfect, ill-trained observ-
ation, reading into actions motives and purposes which were
never dreamt of, setting aside the simple for the marvellous,
assisted by a heavier or lighter dash of Munchausenism,
would turn folly into wisdom and wisdom into folly. By
the help of any one of these principles one is quite capable of
seeing in the most aimless action the profundity of the gods.
Creevelea, co. Leitrim. JoserH MEEHAN.
92
a+)
DeEcEMBER 1904]
NATORE
Ua
SOME SCIENTIFIC CENTRES.
VI.—Tue Puysica, LaBporatory AT THE MUSEUM
D’HISTOIRE NATURELLE.
a HE Museums d’Histoire naturelle, in the beautiful
surroundings of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris,
founded in 1793, form an institution of acknow-
ledged eminence; whilst the lectures delivered there
are by the most renowned professors, and on most,
if not all, branches of the natural sciences. It was
‘Cardinal Richelieu, as we know, who founded the
Jardin des Plantes somewhere
about 1626, not long before the
establishment of the French
Academy by the same _ great
Minister of State.
The physical laboratory in par-
ticular of these museums has been
the seat of many discoveries and
tthe centre from which has radi-
ated some of the best thought, as
well as some of the best work,
that has animated the academy
and through it the scientific world
for three-quarters of a century.
It is not often the case with
science, nor, indeed, with other
branches of learning, that in a
single family there should be
found for three generations a
series of distinguished men of the
highest order of intellect who have
devoted their lives and _ best
energies to its pursuit and
attained to universal fame. More
seldom is it, then, that when the
lineage is thus preserved un-
broken, the members thereof
should all ‘be devoted to the one
and to the self-same calling. For
three generations the Becquerels
have occupied in succession the
same chair at the same institu-
tion, namely, the Museum
d’Histoire naturelle in Paris. The
number of papers which have
been read before the Academie
des Sciences by the Becquerels
extends to seven or eight hundred.
Henri Becquerel, whose portrait
in his laboratory at the Museum
d’Histoire naturelle is here repro-
duced, is, we venture to think,
perhaps the most distinguished of
his race. His father, ‘Alexander
Edmond, is known as the in-
ventor of the phosphoroscope and
the author of ‘‘ La Lumieére,’’ a
work of great value in its day,
whilst his grandfather, Antoine
‘César, was likewise famous for a
long series of researches, chiefly
on chemical dynamics and electro-
capillary phenomena. His electro-
magnetic balance is of historic
interest in the development of the galvanometer,
although long since abandoned for practical purposes.
Thus the history of the physical laboratory at the
Museum d’Histoire naturelle may be said to run
parallel with the history of the Becquerels, and the
two to be so closely interwoven that to describe the
part played by one and the influence exerted by it in
the development and advancement of knowledge
perhaps equivalent to writing that of the other in detail.
©; 1834; VOL, 71]
is
| It was not so with other scientific centres of this series;
| there there were many discontinuities, here the con-
tinuity is one.
The technical process of gilding due to de la Rive
was based upon Becquerel’s observation in 1834 of the
deposition of metals on the negative electrode when
the poles of a pile are immersed i ‘in solutions of various
metallic salts; that the two solutions needed could be
kept apart by the use of animal membranes without
preventing the passage of the current, and that with
very feeble currents the deposition of metal is even
Fic. 1.—Prof. Henri Becquerel in his Laboratory at the Paris Museum d’ Histoire naturelle.
| and uniform on the surface of the electrode. Although
rivalled by many others in the application of these
principles, many were the facts and many the methods
which he announced with rapid succession in laying
the foundations of the art of electro-plating.
It was to the study of electrocapillary phenomena,
which he was the first to observe in 1867, that his later
years were devoted. The discovery was a curious one,
the result, if we mistake not, of the deposition of
NATURE
[| DECEMBER 22, 1904
metallic copper on a crack in a test-tube containing
a solution of cupric sulphate, and immersed in another
solution of sodic sulphide. The investigation of this
phenomenon was full of interest, and not the least was
the suggestion that the deposition of metals in veins
in rocks is due to the same cause as that which he
observed in the broken test-tube.
A member of the French Academy from 1829, eight
years before being called to the chair which he filled
to the end of his life, he was also a corresponding
member of the Royal Society, and received from it its
greatest honour, the Copley medal, and from the
Emperor Napoleon III. the Cross of Commander of the
Legion of Honour. Thus with him there closed a
chapter, a long, an interesting, and an eventful chapter,
in the history of the Museums d’Histoire naturelle.
Edmond Becquerel, although a pupil of his father
and for a considerable time his assistant at the
museums, did not teach there, and, indeed, as Sir
William Crookes has said in his obituary notice of
him in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, of which
he was a foreign member, it may ‘‘ be remarked
that though he had early distinguished himself by
scientific works of high value, and as the son of an
eminent and much respected Academician he was not
without influence, yet none of the great scientific
establishments of his country offered him an appoint-
ment.’’ He finally, however, secured a permanent
position at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, and
there the abilities so long latent had full play, and
manifested themselves by the success of his subsequent
career.
At the death of his father, in 1878, he succeeded to
the chair of physics at the museum, and this im-
portant position he continued to hold until his death in
1892. Brought up as he was in a scientific atmo-
sphere, he evidently inherited from his father his
“acute power of observation,” and that ‘ infinite
capacity of taking pains which seems to be the
essential characteristic of the Newtons, the Faradays,
and the Darwins, and, in short, of all the great leaders
of science.’*
Since 1892 Henri Becquerel has been professor at
the Museum d’Histoire naturelle, and has continued
those studies which his ancestors in days gone by
pursued with ardour and with success, not the less
marked, although perhaps, on the whole, notwith-
standing their brilliant achievements, less fruitful in
revealing that knowledge which was to come; for by
his memoirs on the radio-activity of matter Henri
Becquerel has given to the world of science the results
of a very remarkable series of researches.
There are four methods of studying the infra-red
parts of the spectrum: the thermopile, as employed
by Tyndall and others, the radiomicrometer of Boys,
the bolometer as used by Langley, and the phos-
phorescent screen of Becquerel. After exposure to the
violet rays, and if the screen is subjected to the action
of the infra-red, the phosphorescence becomes so intense
that the energy accumulated is radiated so rapidly
that the parts thus acted upon become quite dark
relatively to the other parts of the screen. Thus a
map of the infra-red can be produced and studied at
leisure so long as the phosphorescence of the screen
lasts, or, indeed, photographs of the screen thus
affected may be taken. The effect is due most prob-
ably to heat, and is therefore a case of thermolumin-
escence. Under the influence of heat the collisions
between molecules become more frequent and more
violent, and’ the energy absorbed from the more re-
frangible rays, and stored up in the substance, by
some means at present not very clearly understood, is
once more yielded up to the zether and radiated away.
The energy is stored up in unstable molecular aggre-
NO. 1834. von. 71]
gates which gradually disintegrate, as radio-active
molecules have been found to do,! the change. of
absorption which accompanies fluorescence being due
to the formation of these molecular groups.
The absorption spectrum of crystals exhibits many
anomalies, from which Becquerel has extracted a most
important principle. If a crystal is composed of two.
isomorphous substances the molecular elasticity of
which varies in different directions, so that the absorp-
tion varies too, the absorption spectrum will likewise
vary in different directions, so that it is thus possible
to detect the presence of different substances, since
in two isomorphous substances the directions of
molecular elasticity do not correspond, and therefore
the directions of absorption would likewise differ.
Each chemical substance, therefore, affects the direc-
tion of propagation and of absorption.
If the directions of absorption do not coincide with
the optic axes, it is due to the presence of different
isomorphous substances in the crystal. The absorp-_
tion spectrum of each substance remains different and
in its own particular direction, whilst that of refrac-
tion is the resultant effect. By this contrivance the
composition of crystals has been examined and after-
wards confirmed by chemical means, whilst in many
instances the presence of substances in quantities too
minute for the chemist to notice has been detected by
this elegant method of analysis.
But the most striking work that has issued from
Becquerel’s laboratory relates to the radio-activity of
matter. Of this great discovery, separating as it does
the ideas of this century from those of the last, so much
has been written, upon their far-reaching importance,
so many ideas have been discussed in these columns,
that to discourse upon them here would be but vain
repetition of all that has been said before; yet, para-
doxical though it may seem, it is unquestionably the
work of all works that most definitely separates, and
at the same time most closely unites, the two sciences
of physics and chemistry, whilst it brings into promin-
ence what may appropriately be called a new science—
that of radio-activity—a science which neither physics
nor chemistry can claim within its old province, and
yet neither can disclaim, nor would it very readily do
so if it could.
What is the influence which these laboratories have
exerted and exert? We may ask, what is the in-
fluence of the Royal Institution? Is it not to be
measured by the work which has been done there and
by the ideas which have been scattered from those
great fountains of thought—if they can be measured?
How many youthful imaginations, how many
enthusiastic aspirations have been aroused within
those venerable halls, of the Becquerels as of the
Davys, the Faradays, and the Tyndalls? Parisian
lecturers are savants, philosophers, and orators. For
although the Teuton regards the gift of eloquence
(we hope it is his own) as the gift to be designated as
““ oab,’? the southerner or the Celt thinks it indis-
pensable in the expression of a clear mind and of a
great soul, at once saturated with thoughts and the
grandeur of its subject; and in France this counts for
more than it usually does among us.
These lectures are a source of inspiration to the
multitude as well as to the grave, and their importance
cannot be overrated.
Having said thus much of the laboratories of the
Museum d’Histoire naturelle, we may perhaps be per-
mitted to add a word as to the central figure in this
centre of scientific thought, of M. Henri Becquerel;
from none need we expect greater freedom, greater
ease, or kindlier consideration. The brief summary
1 British Association and £vectyicfan, 1900-02; and Phil. Alag., 1901
Phil. Trans., 18978
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
NATURE
179
of his researches and of that of his predecessors is the
record of this branch of the museums, and also of the
debt which knowledge owes, and must ever owe, to
the influence of one of the most remarkable of the
pioneer laboratories and great European
centres of scientific work.
Joun Butter Burke.
THE “ NATURE-STUDY * OF
BIRDS."
THis book fulfils the chief conditions we
have previously insisted upon as being
essential in all new works relating to the
birds of the British Isles, in that it is
original, interesting, exquisitely illustrated
from living subjects, and not burdened with
technical names. Indeed, the latter are con-
spicuous by their complete absence, thereby,
no doubt, rendering the volume much more
acceptable to readers of all classes than it
would have been had it included the usual
superfluous intercalations in bracketed
italics. Mr. Boraston, it appears, took to
the ‘‘ nature-study ”’ of birds comparatively
late in life, and in his case it may be truly
said ‘‘ better late than never,’’ for had he
never done so lovers of nature in general,
and of birds in particular, would have been
deprived of a very charming volume contain-
ing a number o} fresh ideas and suggestive
observations. | Having once decided to take
up the outdoor study of bird-life, the author entered
on his task with characteristic energy, and at once saw
how essential it was for him to follow in the steps of
the Messrs. Kearton and to employ the camera to
perpetuate the scenes that he so much enjoyed if his
Fic. 1.—Kittiwakes on an Anglesea Cliff. From ‘‘ Birds by Land and Sea.”
work was to be one that would appeal successfully to
the public.
1 * Birds by Land and Sea; the Record of a Year's Work with Field
glass and Camera.” By J. M. Boraston. Pp. xiv+282; illustrated.
(London : John Lane, 1905.) Price ros. 6d. net.
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
Fic. 2.—Young Ringed Ployers crouching.
4 How successful have been the results, both from the
literary and the artistic point of view, readers of his
book will not, we venture to think, be long in de-
ciding. To whet their appetites, we herewith reproduce
From “ Birds by Land and Sea.’
a couple of the illustrations, all of which, by the way,
are taken from the author’s own photographs.
The volume opens with the latter of what the author
terms the two critical periods of bird-life, namely,
March and September, when the migratory species
are in the thick of their departure from or
arrival at the British Islands. From Sep-
tember until May the seasonal observations
of the year forming the subject of the volume
relate to the bird-li‘e of the neighbourhood
of the author’s home at Stretford, near Man-
chester, but during June the scene is trans-
ferred to the wild coast of Anglesea and
Puffin Island, while in July and August we
once more return to the home district.
Perhaps the Anglesea interlude forms the
most interesting part of the volume; but
whether on a holiday or whether at home,
the author seems to be endowed with a
marvellous capacity for work, both in the
matter of making and recording observ-
ations and in taking photographs.
On the wild cliffs of Anglesea, as we are
told on p. 210, ‘stalking’ birds for the
purpose of taking their portraits by a well
planned snap-shot demands a considerable
amount of coolness and steadiness on the
part of the observer, as if he becomes too
much absorbed in the object of his. pursuit
awkward accidents are likely to occur; and
even if such undesirable contingencies are
successfully avoided, disappointments from
unsuspected or unavoidable causes are only
too likely in many instances to annul the
results of all the toil and trouble. Who,
for instance, will fail to commiserate
the author on having lost the chance of ‘‘ snapping ”
a sitting nightjar (p. 202), from the fact that he
actually did not see the bird for some seconds, and
then, when ‘his eyes were opened,’’ the camera
slipped?
180
NATURE
[DrcEMBER 22, 1904
As an example of the successful accomplishment
of a difficult task, we reproduce (Fig. 1) the photo-
graph of kittiwake gulls nesting on the precipitous
face of a cliff, approach to which was effected by climb-
ing down a narrow gulley and then scrambling over
seaweed-clad boulders, to the imminent peril of the
camera.
As a specimen of really excellent bird-photography,
we present to our readers the picture of a group of
young ringed plovers (Fig. 2), the mottled down of
which harmonises so admirably at a short distance with
their surroundings.
If it be said that this notice is purely commendatory,
and contains nothing in the way of criticism, the reply
is that we have found nothing to criticise or to con-
demn. It is real nature-study. Rs:
J OF
RUBIES BY FUSION.*
te HIS memoir opens with a short historical account
of the attempts previously made to produce
rubies by fusion, starting with the researches under-
taken by Gaudin with the view of obtaining fused
alumina in a transparent state. He obtained by
fusing potassium or ammonium alum, together with
a little chrome alum, small globules, which became
opaque on solidification, but had the composition of
the ruby. These were shown by Becquerel to have
the cleavage of corundum, and contained small cavities
lined with crystals of ruby. Gaudin concluded that
alumina could not exist in the vitreous state, and this
view was supported by C. Sainte-Claire Deville, on
account of the uniform density of the oxide before
and after fusion. The facts at present known are in
support of this view, for the transparent alumina
obtained by fusion is a completely crystalline mass.
The problem was not further investigated until, in
1886, Charles Friedel described an experiment by which
corundum was obtained by fusion, presenting most of
the properties of the ruby, but differing from the
natural product by the presence of certain included
bubbles, and by a rather low density.
As the production of the so-called ‘‘ Geneva rubies ”’
remained a trade secret, M. Verneuil started a series of
investigations, following up the work of Gaudin. He
found that to obtain the fused material in a transparent
state certain conditions must be rigorously fulfilled.
He compares the solidification of alumina to that of
water, which forms according to the method of cool-
ing transparent or opaque ice. An important observ-
ation which appears to have escaped Gaudin is that it
is only the portions of alumina which are fused in the
cooler parts of the flame which remain transparent
on_ solidification. One of the greatest experimental
difficulties is that, however carefully the cooling is
conducted, the fused mass is excessively brittle. This
brittleness is least marked when a very small support-
ing surface is employed. The apparatus devised by
M. Verneuil is very ingenious. The blow-pipe and
furnace tube must be absolutely vertical. The finely
powdered alumina, containing the requisite quantity
of chromic oxide, and specially purified, is admitted
by means of a fine sieve, which is given a series of
regular taps, controlled by an electromagnet, so that
the material falls down the tube intermittently in a
series of thin layers. It forms a cone at the bottom,
and as soon as this cone reaches a hot enough part of
the tube the apex fuses, and the fused material then
extends gradually upwards in a long filament. This
eventually reaches a still hotter part of the furnace, and
develops a spherical mass instead of growing further;
1 “‘Memoire sur la Reproduction artificielle du Rubis par Fusion.” B
A. Verneuil. (Annales de Chimieet de Physique, 8 série, t. ii., September.)
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
this spherical globule when solidified forms the ruby.
The cooling has to be very gradual, so that the crystal-
line particles have time to become regularly arranged,
or an opaque product is obtained. If the ovoid mass
is carefully detached when cold, it splits up into two
nearly equal portions, but not along a cleavage-plane.
The product so obtained is an individual crystal, and
the direction of its principal optic axis is never very
different from that of the major axis of the ovoid.
The product when cut cannot be distinguished by
its chemical, physical, or optical properties from a
stone cut from a natural ruby. The operation may
be considered successful when the clear product weighs
12 to 15 carats, and has a real diameter of 5 or 6
millimetres. It is, however, impossible to obtain
stones larger than } carat free from included bubbles
and cracks, and experts can therefore readily dis-
tinguish the artificial gems from natural ones. These
flaws do not in any way detract from the beauty of
the stones; they are often clearer than many natural
rubies, which are seldom found perfect.
The paper is illustrated by diagrams of the very in-
genious apparatus devised by the author.
CALCIUM METAL.
LECTROMETALLURGY has at last succeeded
in producing metallic calcium in commercial
quantities, and at what must be considered a relatively
low price. Until within a few weeks ago this metal
had only been available in very small amounts, and re-
mained a rare laboratory specimen; it is now obtain-
able at a price per kilogram less than that charged
by most chemical dealers for a small one-gram sample.
Humphry Davy first formed the amalgam by electro-
lysing lime, mixed with mercuric oxide and slightly
moistened, with a mercury kathode; he isolated the
metal in small quantities by distilling off the mercury.
Since then many chemists have tried in vain to find
a method suitable for its preparation on a larger scale.
Matthiesen, making use of Bunsen’s suggestion of
applying high current density at the kathode, only
succeeded in obtaining a few grams at a time by electro-
lysis of the fused chloride, or of mixtures of calcium
and other chlorides having a lower fusing point.
Henri Moissan, as the result of a critical study of the
numerous proposed methods, was able to prepare some-
what larger quantities of the metal. His method was
essentially a modification of that proposed by Liés-
Bodart and Jobin in 1858, which consisted in reducing
fused calcium iodide with metallic sodium. Moissan
found that molten sodium forms an excellent solvent
for calcium, and by heating calcium iodide with a
large excess of sodium obtained on cooling a cake
of the sodium-calcium alloy resting on the sodium
iodide. Small quantities of the alloy were thrown into
well cooled absolute alcohol, which reacts with the
sodium leaving the calcium pure, but in the state of
a fine crystalline powder. This powder can be
agglomerated by pressure and fusion, and thus
Moissan prepared the fine specimen ingots of this
metal which so greatly interested visitors to the Paris
Exhibition of 1g00. It is largely to him that we are
indebted for a knowledge of the properties of the pure
metal, of which he prepared some a kilos. by this
process. Contrary to the earlier descriptions, calcium
is a white metal, the yellow coloration being due to
a film of nitride; its melting point is about 760° C., and
its density 1-85. The definite compounds which it
forms directly with hydrogen and nitrogen promise
useful applications in the laboratory in cases where
it is necessary to remove these gases.
The next advance was made almost simultaneously
by Borchers and Stockem at Aix-la-Chapelle, and
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
2
NATURE
181
Ruff and Plato at Berlin. The method employed by | Iv is announced by the Athenaeum that the Circolo Mate-
these workers was in principle that of Matthiesen, but | matico di Palermo intends to offer an international prize
by suitable construction of apparatus and regulation |
of temperature much better yields were obtained, and
the metal was thus prepared in larger quantities.
Borchers and Stockem electrolysed molten calcium
chloride, which was maintained at a temperature below
the fusing point of calcium; they ascribe the low yields
at higher temperatures to the reaction of fused calcium
with calcium chloride to form a subchloride.
an iron rod as kathode, they obtained a metal sponge
which was pressed with tongs before removing from
the electrolyte. The raw material prepared in this
way contained some to per cent. of calcium chloride, |
which could, however, be almost entirely removed by |
subsequent fusion of the metal.
The final step in the evolution of the commercial
process was taken by Suter and Redlich, of the Elektro-
chemische-Werke, Bitterfeld. By the ingenious em-
ployment of a kathode which only just touches the
surface of the fused calcium chloride, they obtain a | p,. Nordenskjéld was the guest on Saturday afternoon of
small layer of fused calcium under the kathode; before
the calcium has collected in sufficient amount to flow |
away the electrode is very slightly raised; the metal
thus comes into a cooler zone and solidifies.
tinuing the process a rather irregular rod of calcium
is built up, which itself forms the kathode. The metal
is supplied in these rough rods, which in outward |
appearance strongly resemble cabbage stalks, but show
a white metallic surface when cut through.
The present price quoted in Germany is about 20s.
a kilogram retail, or 12s. a kilo. in 100 kilogram lots,
which quotation alone proves the feasibility of the
process. The technical product is said to contain about
97-11 per cent. pure calcium, 1-64 per cent. calcium
chloride, and 0.4 per cent. sodium. If one may judge
by the case of metallic sodium, there will doubtless be
difficulties in finding any large demand for the metal,
but it will obviously be much appreciated for experi-
mental purposes in -many chemical and_ physical
laboratories. R. S. Hurron.
NOTES.
WE regret to announce that Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
F.R.S., died on Tuesday, at eighty-eight years of age.
Tue death of Mr. Norman Maccoll, late editor of the
Athenaeum, at sixty-one years of age, will be deeply re-
gretted by many men of science. Mr. Maccoll did much
to further the interests of science, and to cultivate sympathy
with the pursuit of natural knowledge among readers not
actively engaged in scientific work.
Own Saturday last, direct telegraphic communication was
established between Liverpool and Teheran, in Persia, a
distance of four thousand miles. The line belongs to the
Indo-European Telegraph Company.
On Tuesday next, December 27, Mr. Henry Cunynghame
will deliver at the Royal Institution the first of a Christmas
course of six lectures adapted to a juvenile auditory on
ancient and modern methods of measuring time, experi-
mentally illustrated.
AT the December meeting of the Astronomical Society of
France an address was given by Mr. de Watteville on the
temperatures of stars. The lecturer described a series of
experiments made by him in the Count de Labaume Pluvinel
laboratory, and exhibited a series of photographs of spectra
obtained by him, reproducing the principal types described
by Sir Norman Lockyer. The president congratulated the
speaker on having obtained such brilliant results, on the
subject of which he has already delivered a thesis at the
Sorbonne.
NO. 1834, VOL. 71}
Using |
|
By con- |
for geometry at the fourth International Mathematical
Congress, which will meet at Rome in 1908. The prize
will consist of a small gold medal, to be called the Guiccia
medal, after its founder, and of 3000 francs, and will be
given by preference, though not necessarily, to an essay
which advances the knowledge of the theory of algebraical
curves of space. The treatises may be written in Italian,
French, German, or English, and must be sent to the presi-
dent of the Circolo Matematico before July 1, 1907.
WE learn from the Times that on Friday last President
Loubet received Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld, who was presented
by the Minister for Sweden and Norway in Paris. On the
evening of the same day Dr. Nordenskjéld delivered a lecture
on his Antarctic explorations before the French Geographical
Society. Prince Gustav Adolph and Prince William of
Sweden were present, and several Ministers were represented.
the Paris Municipal Council at the Hétel de Ville. He was
welcomed by the president of the council, who presented
him with a silver medal commemorating his visit to the
city. On Saturday evening Dr. Nordenskjéld delivered a
lecture before a large and distinguished audience at the
Sorbonne.
Tue death is announced of Mr. C. G. Barrett, one of the
editors of the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, at the age
of sixty-eight years.
Ir is stated that at a meeting of the French Surgical
Society held on December 14 a report of the committee
appointed to investigate Dr. Doyen’s researches on cancer
and its microbe was read, and that some of the conclusions
support Dr. Doyen’s claims. No authentic details have,
however, as yet been published.
Tue following recent deaths are announced in the Bulletin
of the French Physical Society and the Popular Science
Monthly :—M. Jeunet, late professor of physics; Prof.
Lespiault, of the University of Bordeaux; Prof. Joseph
Thimont, of the Ecole Ste.-Geneviéve and other institutions ;
Prof. Clemens A. Winckler, professor of chemistry at
Dresden ; Prof. Max Berbels, of Berlin, noted for his publi-
cations on ethnology ; Major Henry F. Alvord, chief of the
dairy division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
In the Bulletin of the French Physical Society, No.
the death is announced of Prof. Macé de Lépinay,
Marseilles, a former member of the council of the society.
Prof. Macé de Lépinay’s researches were mostly connected
with optics, and had special reference to the determination
of wave-lengths by means of interference phenomena, on
the lines first laid down by Fizeau. The methods used were
interference due to double refraction, interference of a direct
ray with one passing through a lamina of the crystal, and
interference of two rays, one passing once and the other
twice through the lamina. A further series of researches
dealt with the inverse problem of determining the specific
mass of water. Most of the experiments were performed
with sodium light. Prof. Macé de Lépinay’s latest re-
searches were conducted conjointly with M. Buisson, who
proposes to complete them.
219,
of
Guass hives for the observation of bees at work have
been in use for many years, and latterly ants’ nests have
been on view at the Crystal Palace; but it may be new to
many of our readers to learn that Messrs. A. W. Gamage,
Ltd., of Holborn, have actually put on sale a contrivance
called ‘‘ The Lubbock Formicarium,’’ which is really a
182
NATURE
[DECEMBER 22, 1904
portable ants’ nest, which can be moved anywhere without
trouble or inconvenience, and which, it is claimed, will last
for upwards of six years with ordinary care. The species
selected is the small yellow ant, Formica flava, and the nest
is enclosed in a frame 10 inches square, resembling a picture
frame, except that it must, of course, be laid flat, and the
cover must be kept over it except when the ants are under
observation. The nest contains ants in their various stages,
and some of the other insects which are associated with
them; and it is supplied with or without a queen,
and accompanied by full directions as to management. This
novelty has attracted considerable attention already, and the
visitors, many of whom are children, show much interest in
this novel exhibition.
Dr. CHARLES WALDSTEIN gave a lecture on ‘‘ Herculaneum
and the Proposed International Excavation’ at the Royal
Academy on December 14. He remarked that from
Herculaneum many beautiful works might be expected.
The city and district of Herculaneum were overwhelmed
with volcanic material, but this is not the impenetrably
hard lava commonly supposed. Geologists have shown that,
apart from actual contact with air, the material is perfectly
friable and manageable for the excavator. The beautiful
works from the city which are to be seen at Naples show
that the disaster was not destructive of the beauty of the
works of art at Herculaneum. Manuscripts which can be
unrolled and read, as well as glass and marble, with no
trace of fire on them, give good hope of what may be ex-
pected from thorough excavation. The catastrophe was a
marvellous preservation of a provincial city’s life at the
moment of arrest. The King has expressed approval of the
proposed international excavation, and the King of Italy, as
well as his Prime Minister, promise support. The Presi-
dent of the United States, the German Emperor, the Presi-
dent and Government of the French Republic, the Emperor
of Austria, and the King of Sweden encourage the under-
taking. There is already a committee in Vienna, and it is
hoped to secure the cooperation of many other national
committees. Mr. Neville Rolfe, our Consul at Naples, has
told Dr. Waldstein that there is ample work for many
years without infringement of private rights.
Our Norwegian namesake—Naturen—for November con-
tains an illustrated account of the mammoth discovered in
the Kolyma district in 1901, and now mounted in the St.
Petersburg Museum. The monster has been set up in the
position in which it was found, namely, endeavouring to
struggle out of a quicksand or crevasse.
In the issue of the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy
for November 10 Dr. F. Werner gives an account of the
zoological results of his recent expedition to Egypt and
Nubia. The most important part of the collection appears
to consist of orthopterous insects—a group hitherto very im-
perfectly known from the countries in question, and of
which a large series of specimens was obtained. Very note-
worthy is the discovery of certain Central Asian species of
the group in the heart of this part of Africa. A fish and a
fresh-water mussel previously supposed to be confined to
the Upper Nile are recorded from the delta, and some
interesting observations with regard to certain reptiles have
also been made.
WE are indebted to the publisher—G. Freytag, of Leipzig
—for copies of the two issues of the new (twenty-sixth)
edition of Pokorny’s ‘‘ Naturgeschichte des Tierreiches,”’
a well known zoological text-book for schools. The present
enlarged edition has been supervised by Mr. M. Fischer,
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
of Miilhausen. The book is issued in two forms, one more
expensive than the other. In the cheaper issue (of which
the price is 3s. 6d.) there are only five coloured plates,
whereas in the more expensive one (price 4s. 6d.) the number
of illustrations of this description is twenty-nine. Some
difference in the arrangement and number of the cuts dis-
tinguishes the two issues. Considering the price of the
volume, the coloured illustrations are all that could .be
desired. The fact of the work reaching its twenty-sixth
edition is a sufficient guarantee of its fitness for its special
purpose.
WE have received a copy of a new monthly publication,
Indian Public Health (No. 4, vol. i.), which is to be devoted
to the discussion of public health questions in our Indian.
Empire. We cannot help expressing the opinion that it is
undesirable to multiply small journals, of which there are
already too many. It would be better to enlarge the scope
of the existing journals.
In the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club (ix.,
No. 55) Mr. T. B. Rosseter gives a good description of the
anatomy of Taenia sinuosa, a tapeworm of geese, and proves
by feeding experiments that the cysticercoids inhabit certain
copepods and ostracods; and Mr. Wesché investigates some
new sense-organs of Diptera, concluding that where the
antennz are not particularly sensitive, the palpi have struc-
tures to compensate, and may bear organs of touch, taste,
and smell, but not more than two of these at the same time.
He also describes certain organs, probably of sense, on
the legs of many species, the function of which is doubtful.
WE have received ‘‘ Researches in Helminthology and
Parasitology,’’ by Prof. Joseph Leidy, edited by his son, Dr.
Joseph Leidy (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, part
of vol. xlvi.). It gives a summary of Prof. Leidy’s con-
tributions to science, with bibliography, and should prove
of considerable value to those engaged in these branches
of research. Commencing in 1849, Prof. Leidy’s contribu-
tions were continued without intermission down to 1889, and
are no less than 578 in number, many being of considerable
importance, and embracing parasites of all kinds, as well
as some papers on comparative anatomy.
In the report for the year 1903-4 on the administration
of the Government Museum and Connemara Public Library,
Madras, amongst other interesting matter the following
paragraph appears :—‘‘ A prolonged tour was made in the
Mysore province in connection with the ethnographic
survey, with the primary object of continuing my researches
into the character of the Canarese cranium (vide Museum
Bulletin, iv., 2, 1901). The work was carried out under
conditions of considerable difficulty, caused by the terror
of the natives, who mistook me for a recruiting sergeant
bent on seizing them for employment in South Africa or
for the Somali war, and fled before my approach from
town to town. The little spot, which I am in the habit of
making with Aspinall’s paint to indicate the position of
the fronto-nasal suture when measuring the nose, was sup-
posed to possess blistering properties, and to turn into a
number on the forehead, which would serve as a means of
identification. The untimely death of a Korava outside
a town where I was halting was attributed to my evil eye.
Villages were denuded of all save senile men, women and
children. The vendors of food-stuffs in one bazaar finding
business slack owing to the flight of their customers, raised
their prices, and a missionary complained that the price
of butter had gone up. My arrival at one important town
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
—$_——
was coincident with a temple festival, wheredt there were
not sufficient men left to drag the temple car in procession.
The headman of another town, when he came to take leave
of me, apologised for the scrubby appearance of his chin,
as the local barber had fled. One man, who had volunteered
to be tested with the tintometer, was suddenly seized with
fear, and, throwing his body-cloth at my feet, ran away
and was no more seen. An elderly municipal peon wept
bitterly when undergoing the process of measurement.
Such are a few examples of the results which attend the
progress of the Government anthropologist.”’ Mr. Edgar
Thurston finds that the average cephalic index of various
groups of natives in the southern (Tamil and Malayalam)
districts of the Madras Presidency ranges from 72-6 to 76:5,
while that in the Canarese and Maratha area ranges from
77-1 to 81-8. The significance of this brachycephalic element
is not yet elucidated.
In the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St.
Louis, vel. xiii., No. 8, Mr. J. A. Harris gives some details
NATURE
—_—_—_,
of polygamy and floral abnormalities in species of Solanum. |
A collection of flowers of Solanum carolinense showed about
twenty staminate to eighty perfect flowers. A second paper
by the same writer describes the germination of seedlings
with unequal cotyledons of Pachira campestris, a genus
sometimes allied with Bombax.
Tue formation of a botanic garden in sandhills does not
perhaps suggest utility or success, but in the Gardener’s
Chronicle (November 19) Dr. Masters gives an account of
the practical results obtained by experiments carried out in
the garden, or, as it may be called, the experimental station
established in the Belgian dunes at Coxyde. As an instance
of the way in which experimental results are sometimes
opposed to theoretical supposition, the writer describes the
successful formation of a forest of dwarf poplars in the
sandhills, and even suggests that they would act as nurses
to seedling pines.
Ir is characteristic of the scattered groups of islands
which lie between the parallels of 45° and 60° south that
in their flora they all contain a proportion of what has been
termed a Fuegian element. Amongst these are the so-
called Southern Islands of New Zealand, of which the latest
account is that given by Dr. Cockayne in the Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute, vol. xxxvi. The plant associ-
ations of the Auckland Isles include a forest formation, with
Olearia lyallit as the dominant tree, which Dr. Cockayne
regards as the primitive forest, and one that was previously
more extensive, but which has been curtailed by the spread
of a rata forest similar to the rata forests found in New
Zealand. This fact, and the existence of a well marked |
New Zealand element in the flora are points of evidence in
favour of a former extension of New Zealand to the south.
Mr. A. TinGLe, of the Imperial Provincial College,
Chinanfu, Shantung, has sent a further communication upon
the flowering of the bamboo, in which he supplements—
in view of the letters of Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S., in our
issue for August 11, and of Mr. J. S. Gamble, F.R.S., in
Nature for September 1—the information supplied in his
previous letter. Mr. Tingle is unable to tell the species of
the bamboos that flowered, but he reports that they were
small, growing to a height of about 4 metres, and that the
stems averaged about 4 cm. in circumference near the
ground. All the bamboos have died since flowering. Mr.
Tingle points out that the bamboo will grow in Shantung
only if carefully cultivated in a garden. The seasons, he
remarks, have been in no way exceptional in Shantung.
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
183
Amonc the interesting collection of models of Palaozoic
seeds and cones exhibited by Mr. H. E. H. Smedley at a
recent meeting of the Linnean Society, a few are of special
interest to palzobotanists. The example selected for illus-
tration here is that of the group of three models of the
sporophylls of the lycopodiaceous cone, Lepidocarpon, from
the Carboniferous formation. The model on the left shows
the general morphology of a single sporophyll, from which
will be seen the peculiar shape of the integument and
micropyle, much resembling a hand-bag. The centre
model demonstrates the general anatomy as seen in the
Fic. 1.—Palzozoic cones.
transverse section, and shows the complete lamina of the
sporophyll, while that on the right clearly exhibits the com-
plex internal structure of the sporangium containing four
megaspores, one of which has developed a seed-like form-
ation filling nearly the whole of the sporangium, the other
three being abortive. In urging an affinity between the
lycopodiaceous cones and the gymnosperms, the author sub-
mitted the following points of agreement :—Integument and
micropyle, the single functional megaspore in the spor-
angium, and the detachment of the seed-like organ as a
whole.
Tue report of the Meteorological Council for the year
ending March 31, 1904, shows increased activity, and is
somewhat more bulky than its predecessors, extending to
more than 200 pages; the report proper embraces only some
30 pages; the remainder is composed of appendices which
contain details of the operations of the office. No change
| has taken place in the constitution of the council during the
year, nor is any clue given to the future of the office result-
ing from the deliberations of the Meteorological Grant Com-
mittee; their report, however, was not issued until after
the period to which the council’s report refers. While the
work of a former Government department is arduously per-
formed, the Meteorological Office continues to hold a very
anomalous position compared with similar establishments
in other countries; it performs valuable public duties, but
has not the status of a Government office, although sup-
ported by a Government grant. The operations may be
summarised under four principal heads :—(1) ocean meteor-
ology, the collection, tabulation, and discussion of meteor-
ological data for all parts of the ocean, and the preparation
and issue of charts and the supply of instruments to the
Royal Navy and mercantile marine ; (2) the issue of storm
warnings to all seaports willing to receive them, of daily
weather forecasts, and of forecasts for agriculturists during
harvest seasons; (3) the climatology of the British Isles,
184
statistics relating to British colonies and dependencies, and
replies to numerous meteorological inquiries from all
sources; (4) the discussion of automatic registers received
from the observatories and other stations in connection with
the office. The library contains weather maps and other
publications received from all parts of the world, and these
are available to all persons wishing to consult them.
Part x. of the Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture
of Jamaica contains an interesting article by Mr. H. H.
Cousins, the Government chemist, on the possibility of
manufacturing starch from cassava on such a scale as to
undersell German potato starch in the English market.
The high proportion of starch in cassava makes the latter
twice as valuable as the potato as a raw material, and
cassava has the additional advantage that it is not liable
to fungoid diseases such as produce extraordinary variations
in the annual potato crop in Germany. The seasons of its
growth and harvest are, moreover, perfectly unrestricted.
SoME apparatus left by the late M. Félix Worms de
Romilly has been offered by the French Physical Society
for distribution to its members.
TuE Association of Engineers of the School of Liége is
organising, under Government patronage, a congress of
mining, metallurgy, applied mechanics and geology, to be
held at Liége from June 26 to July 1, 1905, on the occasion
of the Universal Exhibition.
In the Physikalische Zeitschrift for December 1 Mr.
Hermann Bonin contributes an interesting report on steam
turbines, based on the writings of Stodola, Feldmann,
Gutermuth, and Boveri. In it the Laval, Curtis, Rateau,
Zolly, and Parsons turbines are figured, and their peculiar
features discussed.
Pror. R. W. Woop contributes a paper on n-rays to the
Physikalische Zeitschrift for December, and suggests that
those experimenters who obtain positive and those who
obtain negative results should arrange to make a series of
joint experiments in the way that has been done in a similar
case by Crémieu and Pender.
WE have received a thesis by Messrs. H. C. Crowell and
G. C. D. Lenth on the ‘‘ Doble ” needle-regulating nozzle
for fire hoses and other jets. This nozzle is furnished with
a convergent mouth-piece in the centre of which is a
peculiarly shaped ‘‘needle,”? the effect of which on the
stream lines is to obviate the spraying noticeable with
ordinary jets, and thus to increase the efficiency. The paper
is printed by permission of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Pror. N. Umow contributes to Terrestrial Magnetism
and Applied Electricity an ingenious method of constructing
magnetic charts. It consists in developing the magnetic
potential in a series of spherical harmonics, and represent-
ing on a Mercator’s chart the poles of the various harmonics
and curves showing their zeros and so forth. The advantage
of this system is that instead of drawing a large number
of magnetic curves, it is possible to convey more exact
information by drawing a comparatively small number of
curves indicating the various terms in Gauss’s expansion.
IN a paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers on November 18 Messrs. A. E. Seaton and
A. Jude emphasise the need of testing materials which are
to be subjected to rapidly repeated or to alternating loads
by other methods than by merely determining the tensile
strength and elastic limit. A form of apparatus is described
by means of which the ability of a notched bar of the
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| DECEMBER 22, 1904
material to withstand impact can be measured, and it is
shown that although a high tensile strength may be accom-
panied by a small resistance to shock, a bar which responds.
satisfactorily to the impact test always has sufficient tensile
strength and elasticity. The best results as regards resist-
ance to shock are obtained with those steels which contain
only a small proportion of carbon, an extraordinarily rapid
increase of brittleness occurring with an increase in the
percentage of carbon. The line of fracture of the metal
follows the direction of the ferrite and avoids the perlite.
Oil quenching has the effect of increasing the shock strength
of steel to a value which is 500 per cent. to 600 per cent.
greater than that of the natural steel in its best condition.
A NEw and revised edition of stage iii. of Mr. Vincent T.
Murché’s ‘‘ Object Lessons in Elementary Science based
on the Scheme issued by the London School Board ”’ has.
been issued by Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
In the November, 1904, issue of the Central, the magazine
of the Central Technical College Old Students’ Association,
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., continues his papers on the
mechanism of combustion, and there is an illustrated de-
scription of the Manhattan railway power station of New
York, contributed by Mr. W. A. Del Mar.
In addition to the enumeration of classes and other
administrative matter, the Johns Hopkins University
Circular for November, 1904, contains one or two original
papers. Among these may be mentioned one by Prof-
W. B. Clark on the Matawan formation of Maryland,
Delaware, and New Jersey, and its relations to overlying
and underlying formations.
Tue Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland has issued a pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Notes for
Manual Instructors.’’ Manual instruction is comparatively
new in Ireland; the conditions are different from those in
other countries, and there are initial difficulties to be over-
come. For these reasons the notes here brought together
should be of real assistance to teachers of the subject.
A copy of an almanac for the year 1905, compiled at the
offices of the Egyptian Survey Department, and published
by the National Printing Department at Cairo, has been
received. The almanac provides full particulars of the dates
of all the important meetings of the various Government
departments, and gives information on points in connection
with the Government regulations which should be of service
to tourists and residents.
In view of the largely increased facilities provided within
the past few years by the publication departments of various
institutions, and more especially by the Carnegie Institution,
for the promotion of original research with its incident
publications, the Wagner Free Institute of Science, Phila-
delphia, has decided to discontinue for the present its work
in this department, and to devote its energies more ex-
clusively to other purposes indicated by its founder.
WE have received a copy of the ‘‘ Guide to the Archives
of the Government of the United States in Washington,”’
just published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
The guide was begun by Mr. C. H. Van Tyne and Mr.
W. G. Leland, and completed by the newly organised Bureau
of Historical Research. The original purpose of the guide
was to gather information of the whereabouts of important
historical materials, but as the work proceeded it was found
desirable carefully to deal with all administrative records.
The work, in fact, developed into a survey of all the
branches, bureaus, and divisions of the Federal Government
in Washington.
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
Two new volumes have been added to Ostwald’s series
of scientific classics, published by Mr. W. Engelmann,
Leipzig (London: Williams and Norgate), bringing the
number of reprints and translations in the collection up to
145. One of the volumes, is a translation, by Herr F.
Plehn, of Kepler’s ‘‘ Dioptrice,’’ with an introduction,
notes, and sketch of Kepler’s life and work. The second
volume (No. 145) contains reprints of two papers by Kekulé,
edited with notes by Herr A. Ladenburg; the papers are :—
“Uber die Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und iiber die chemische Natur
des Kohlenstoffs ’’ and ‘‘ Untersuchungen tiber aromatische
Verbindungen.”’
Tue annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for
ithe year ending June 30, 1903, has been received. As usual,
the general appendix makes up the greater part of the
volume. The excellent and varied selection of beautifully
illustrated papers by men of science of all nationalities, con-
stituting the general appendix, provides a trustworthy in-
ication of the extent and nature of the progress in science
during the twelve months with which the report deals. It
is impossible here to give even the titles of the fifty-three
papers included. Some of the papers have been reprinted
from Nature and other periodicals, some are addresses de-
livered before scientific bodies, and a few are new
contributions. In addition to these works there are
a number of translations of papers originally published in
other languages. The first place is given to a reprint of
the general description of the moon included by Prof. N. S.
Shaler in the introductory chapter of his memoir on ‘‘ A
Comparison of the Features of the Earth and the Moon.’’
This paper is illustrated by ten magnificent plates. The
work done on radium and radio-activity is chronicled in
papers by M. E. Curie, Prof. J. J. Thomson, Sir William
Ramsay, Mr. Soddy, Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir William Crookes
—the names being mentioned in the order in which the
papers are printed. Geographical research is represented
by contributions by Captain E. W. Creak, Mr. Alfred H.
Brooks, Commander Peary, Sir Clements R. Markham,
Dr. Otto Nordenskjold, M. G. Ts. Tsybikoff, and others.
The articles on geographical and zoological subjects are
illustrated very profusely, and the volume will make a
valuable addition to reference libraries fortunate enough to
secure copies of it.
NATURE
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Discovery OF A New Comet (1904 d).—A telegram from
the Kiel Centralstelle announces that a new comet was dis-
covered by M. Giacobini at Nice on December 17-11. Its
position at 17h. 41-3m. (M.T. Nice) was
R.A.=16h. 14m. 4os., dec. =+27° 28’,
and its movement was in a north-easterly direction.
This position is situated on the western boundary of the
constellation Hercules, about 44m. east of a Coronze, which
has approximately the same declination (27° 2’), and is
favourably situated for observation during the three or four
hours preceding dawn.
A second telegram from Kiel informs us that the comet
was again observed at Nice on December 18. Its position
at 16h. 44m. (M.T. Nice) was as follows :—
R.A.=16h. 17m. 3-4s., dec.=+27° 54’ 8”.
Temret’s Comet (1904 c).—The following details of M.
St. Javelle’s re-discovery of Tempel’s second comet are given
in No. 3984 of the Astronomische Nachrichten :—
M.T. Nice R.A. (app-) Dec. (app.)
ine THE EG b ib BB se “
Nov. 30 ... 6 7 48 ... 19 36 39°89 ... —24 48 37°3
Dec. Dee Se55etOr--- 1G,4012358).... —24 46 1785
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
185
The comet was a feeble and ill-defined object as seen in
the Nice equatorial of 0-76 m. aperture, and had the appear-
ance of a whitish spot 1’-5 to 2’-o in extent; no nucleus
was visible.
A continued abstract of M. Coniel’s daily ephemeris
(Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3971) is given below :—
12h. M.T. Paris.
1904 a (app-) § (app.) log A ri72A2
5) a 4 }
Dec. 20 20 5I 30 — 22 55 0731206 O'113
eee) 20 58 39 —22 36 0°31480
re ees 21 5 43 —22 17 0°31760 o'108
a2) 21 12 44 —2I 57 0°32044
ees 21 19 41 —21 35 0°32333 0'103
ap Be) 21 26 35 =21 13 0°32626
1905
any) I 21 33 24 —20 50 0°32924 o*c98
ENncKE’s Comet (1904 b).—An observation of Encke’s
comet was made by Herr van d Bilt at Utrecht on
December 8. At 8h. 3m. 46s. (M.T. Utrecht) the position
of the comet was
a (app.)=20h. 46m. 22-11s., 5 (app.)=+5° 12’ 29"-5,
and its magnitude was estimated as 7-5. This observation
indicated that a correction of +41s., +1'-2 was necessary to
the ephemeris published by Messrs. Kaminsky and Ocoulitsch
in Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3981 (Astronomische
Nachrichten, No. 3985).
OBSERVATIONS OF OCCULTATIONS BY PLANETS.—Dr. T. J. J.
See, writing to the Astronomische Nachrichten (No. 3984),
explains the futility of making observations of occultations
by planets for the purpose of determining the extent of the
planetary atmospheres. He points out that the extent of
the irradiation about a planet’s disc, at night time, in every
case exceeds the probable extent of the planet’s atmosphere,
so that the star is lost in the irradiation zone before the
interposition of the atmosphere between it and the observer.
Thus observations of this character, made during the
hours of darkness when the irradiation affects the observ-
ation, can never succeed in determining the amount of re-
fraction suffered by the star light in passing through the
planet’s atmosphere, because the star is always hidden
before it reaches even the outer limit of that atmosphere.
RELATIVE DRIFT OF THE HyapEs Stars.—In a paper com-
municated to the British Astronomical Association Dr.
Downing, F.R.S., discusses the resulting values obtained
by Herr Weersma, and published in No. 13 of the Groningen
Astronomical Laboratory Publications, in order to determine
the relative drift of the sixty-six Hyades stars dealt with
by the latter observer.
The results of the discussion show that these stars may
be arranged in three chief groups as regards the amount
and direction of their annual motion. The first group con-
tains thirty-eight stars, including most of the bright ones
except Aldebaran, having a mean motion of o0”.096 per year
in the mean direction 106° from north towards east. In the
second group Aldebaran and three faint stars are included,
and the annual mean motion is as much as o/.160 in the
mean direction 160°. In both these groups the magnitudes
are in no way related to the amounts of movement, some
of the fainter stars, in fact, having a greater apparent
motion than the brighter ones in the same group. The
values for the third group are o’-036 and 254° respectively,
and it is reasonably conjectured that this group is at a
greater distance from our system than the others (Journal
British Astronomical Association, No. 1, vol. xv.).
DESIGNATIONS OF THE VARIABLE STARS DISCOVERED DURING
1904.—In No. 3984 of the Astronomische Nachrichten the
Variable Star Commission of the Astronomischen Gesell-
schaft publish a catalogue of fifty-eight mew variables, dis-
covered by various observers during the present year. They
give for each star the number by which it will in future be
known, the temporary designation which this replaces, its
coordinates and the amount of precession in each coordinate,
for 1900, and the magnitude. The catalogue is followed by
a detailed account of the discovery, variations, and general
characteristics of each variable.
186
NATORE
[ DECEMBER 22, 1904
Tur ‘ComMPANION TO THE OpseRvATORY.’’—The 1905
edition of the well known ‘‘ Companion to the Observatory,”
published at 1s. 6d. by Messrs. Taylor and Francis, contains
its usual complement of useful data for all kinds of astro-
nomical observations. Ephemerides for the planets and their
satellites, the Greenwich magnetic elements, the times of
maxima and minima and the periods of numerous variable
stars and data relating to a number of double stars are
given amongst the mass of information contained.
As in previous years, Mr. Denning gives the dates and
radiant points of the principal meteor showers and Mr.
Maw has supplied the double-star tables, whilst the
ephemerides of an ever-increasing number of variable stars
‘ have been taken from advance proofs generously contributed
by M. Loewy.
GLACIATION IN NORTH AMERICA.
THs volume, which has only recently reached us, is by
no means of merely local interest. The first 226 pages
form a treatise on glacial geology in general, and represent
the author’s views after some twelve years of study of drift
deposits in the field. No one who examines plates i. to vi.
can mistake the character of these deposits ; these excellent
photographic pictures would meet, indeed, with international
acceptance. On p. 30 we have some suggestive figures
given as to the area of existing glaciers, from which it
appears that the whole drift-covered country in North
America is only ten times as large as that still covered by
ice in Greenland. ‘The Antarctic ice-sheet, moreover, is as
extensive as that postulated for North America in “* Glacial ee
times, a fact that effectually ‘‘ removes the element of in-
credibility which, at first thought, attaches to so striking
a theory as that of the glacial origin of the drift.”’
northern ice, however, as Mr. Salisbury immediately points
out, extended into temperate latitudes, and special explan-
ations must thus be sought. New Jersey, we may observe,
lies on the latitude of Lisbon and Sicily in the northern hemi-
sphere, and corresponds with Cape Town and Melbourne
in the southern and more glacial hemisphere. Mr. Salis-
bury at present seeks the cause of older widespread glaci-
ations (p. 192) in Chamberlin’s hypothesis of variations in
the amount of carbon dioxide in the’atmosphere. Elevation
accelerates rock-decay, and this process promotes re-
frigeration by withdrawing carbon dioxide from the air.
The possibility of variation in the constitution of the atmo-
Fic. 1.—Side of a glacier in Greenland, showing the moraine-débris in the
lower part, while the upper ice is almost free from it.
sphere, owing to the emanations of volcanoes, is also touched
on as one of many other causes controlling the supply of
carbon dioxide.
Plates xviii. and xix. are valuable for the comparison
they afford between the landscapes formed by the uniform
1 ‘The Glacial Geology ot New Jersey.” By Rollin D. Salisbury.
Vol. v. of the Final Report of the State Geologist. Pp. xxviii+80o2 ; plates
and folding maps. (Trenton, N.J.: Mac Crellish and Quigley, 1902.)
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
The |
ice-cap of Greenland and the protrusion of peaks through
a dwindling ice-area in the familiar scenes of Switzerland.
Other interesting photographs from Greenland occur on
plait ae and xxvi., and one of them is here reproduced
(Fig. 1).
The general propositions stated by the author are illus-
trated by examples of moraine-material, striated surfaces,
&c., from New Jersey, so that dwellers in that State may
now acquire a new insight into the topographic features
round them. Mr. Salisbury restricts the word kame to
material washed out from and left against the irregular
Fic. 2.—Glaciated surface of ‘‘trap” at Weehawken, New Jersey.
margin of a glacier (p. 116), while eskers represent the
channels of subglacial streams. Seeing how these two terms
have been interchanged, as the author’s references show
(p. 136), it might have been well to invent a new word for
the special type of water-formed terminal moraine which
the author describes here as a kame. Chapter v., on
changes in drainage resulting from glaciation, contains a
very suggestive study of the former glacial lakes in the flat
basin west of Newark. The concluding 550 pages are con-
cerned with “local details,’’ the meaning of which be-
comes clear after so excellent an introduction. One of
the most striking illustrations is that facing p. 537 (Fig. 2),
where the “ plucking’ away of blocks along the joint-
planes of a glaciated surface is clearly shown ky the step-
like structure and abrupt details of the lee side uf a roche
moutonnée. This term, by the by, does not seem to be
defined in the earlier portion of the book.
In conclusion, we could wish that some ‘‘ State Survey ””
would give us a similarly comprehensive memoir for the
glacial provinces of the British Isles. Go ASA:
THE PEOPLE OF THE NORTH-EAST
SCOTLAND.*
I? is to the credit of the Anatomical and Anthropological
Society of the University of Aberdeen that it can issue
Proceedings in a form far superior to those of the Anatomical
Society of Great Britain and Ireland—the only other
anatomical society in this country. Even in the contents
of its Proceedings the younger society, founded and fostered
by the professor of anatomy in the university, compares not
unfavourably with the older society.
Naturally one turns first to those papers which deal with
the people in the north-east of Scotland. By common repute
they are a shrewd, “ hard-headed ’’ race. In a well written
paper on the contents of short cists found in Aberdeenshire
and neighbouring counties, Dr. Alexander Low tells all
that can at present be known of their ancestors, the pre-
historic inhabitants of this part. The picture drawn by Dy.
Low is founded on the broken skeletons of eight men and
OF
1 Proceedings of the Anatomicaland Anthropological Society of Aberdeen
University, 1902-04. Pp. 155, 28 plates, 22 figs. in text. (Aberdeen:
University Press, 1904.)
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
two women which, owing to the foresight of the late Prof.
Struthers and of Prof. Reid, have been slowly accumulated
and safely preserved in the anatomical museum of the
university. These prehistoric Aberdonians were of low
stature (5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 4 inches), with rounded heads
which measured in breadth from 82 per cent. to 85 per cent.
of their length. One can see, by referring to ‘‘ An Analysis
of Anthropometric Statistics,’’ a contribution made to this
volume of the Proceedings by Mr. John Gray, that only
about 12 per cent. of the present inhabitants of Aberdeenshire
possess heads which, in the proportion of their diameters,
resemble those of the prehistoric race. Further, it is
evident that the present inhabitants of Aberdeenshire stand,
as regards the diameter of the head—the only racial
characteristic that can be dealt with—in an intermediate
position between the long-headed highlanders of the west
of Scotland and the short-headed prehistoric people of the
east coast. The natural inference appears to be that the
present race of the north-east of Scotland is the result of a
fusion of the east and west types—but the west has exerted
the stronger influence. One of the two female skulls de-
scribed by Dr. Low is that of a woman who, in shape of
head, belonged to the west rather than to the east type.
She may have been an exceptional member of the ‘‘ short-
cyst ’’ race, but it is more probable that she was a western
woman captured by the eastern invaders. Those who seek
to discover the factors which determine the shape of the head
will find most valuable material in the fourteen plates con-
tributed by Prof. Reid. They represent serial sections of
the heads of two subjects which had been very successfully
prepared.
In these Proceedings one can recognise the influence that
the Anatomical Society exerts on the medical graduates of
Aberdeen. A skeleton of a Chinese coolie sent from Singa-
pore, a Boxer’s skull brought from north China, five Wa
Kamba skulls and ten Wasoga crania collected in Uganda,
provide material for the junior members to examine and
report on. A paper contributed by Dr. F. W. Moir contains
the results of a prolonged study of the people of Ashanti.
Is it not strange that the University of London, in the very
centre of the Empire, offers no such stimulus to its medical
graduates as is given in Aberdeen? When the board of
studies for human anatomy and morphology was recently
‘constituted in the University of London the study of human
races was, for all practical purposes, completely excluded.
The eyesight of the people in the north-east of Scotland
is remarkably good. Drs. Usher and Stoddart found, from
the examination of goo students, that 15 per cent. were
myopic or short sighted; Fuchs found in Germany that
o per cent. of students at a corresponding age were myopic ;
Norris and Oliver give 28 per cent. as the corresponding
figure for American students. About three in every hundred
of the Aberdeen school children are myopic; the proportion
in Edinburgh is almost twice that number. Seven per cent.
of the Aberdeen police are short-sighted.
In conclusion, it is to be hoped that the oblivion which
so frequently overtakes the Proceedings of local societies,
because of their inaccessibility to other workers, will spare
the Proceedings of which this volume is but one of a series.
HYDROLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES.
“THE Geological Survey Department of the United States
embraces much wider duties than those covered by the
similar department in this country, and the following notes
upon some of the various matters with which it deals, and
of the trouble taken to afford information as to the mineral
resources and water supply of America, may be of interest.
The United States Geological Survey Department was
created by an Act of Congress in 1879. From time to time
its duties, as originally set out, have been considerably
extended. For administrative ‘purposes the survey is now
divided into branches and divisions, comprising geology,
topography, hydrography, with offices charged with
administration and the publication of maps and reports.
The department of the Geological Survey has charge and
classification of all public lands; the examination of the
geological structure, mineral resources, and the products of
NO, 1834, VOL. 71]
NATURE
187
the national domains; the survey of forest reserves and the
preparation of topographic and geologic maps. The hydro-
graphic and hydrological branch has charge of all investi-
gations relating to the occurrence of water as a mineral and
as a source of wealth to the country. It is engaged in
making systematic measurements of the rivers and streams
throughout the States, and of the flow of water and the
supply available, whether for domestic use or as a source
of power. It also, through the Reclamation Service, pre-
pares plans for the construction of reservoirs, canals, and
other works for the irrigation of arid lands, of which there
are very large areas in America, and superintends the carry-
ing out of works that have been decided on for reclamation.
To show the thorough way in which the work of the
department is carried out and the pains taken to ensure
efficiency, recently a conference was called by the chief
engineer for the purpose of enabling the heads of the
engineering staff of the Reclamation Service (twenty-five in
number) to become acquainted with their work, and of ex-
changing views and information as to the works in hand
and those planned for the future, and so secure uniformity
of method in carrying out their work. At this conference
an address was given by the chief engineer on the duties
of the officers engaged in the work, and papers were read
by the engineers having charge of the various works in
execution. A record of these proceedings, with copies of
the papers and other information, is given in one of the
State papers issued by the department.’
Nearly two hundred engineers, hydrographers, and topo-
graphers are in the employ of the Reclamation Department
alone, and comprehensive instructions are issued as to the
management of the works, rates of pay for assistants and
workmen, and other matters. One condition laid down by
the State is that in all constructive work eight hours shall
constitute a day’s work for all labourers and mechanics.
For the use of the staff engaged in the hydrological
department a manual? has been issued containing instruc-
tions as to the proper method of taking observations and
the best form of float and current meters to be used under
different conditions, with illustrations of the different kinds
of meterS in use and the method of using the same from
bridge, cable, and boat stations ; forms of reports, diagrams
of discharge and current observations; with formule and
tables to be used in computations.
From time to time the reports sent in by the staff as to
the results of the various suryeys and works going on are
issued by the department, some of which, relating to water
supply and irrigation, the relation of rainfall to run
off and the floods in the Mississippi, have been noticed in
Nature of January 7, July 28, and November 3, the last re-
ports, Nos. 89, 90, 91, being on the water resources of the
Salinas Valley, the geology and water resources of the
lower James River Valley, and on the natural features and
economic development of drainage areas in Ohio.*
1 “ Proceedings of the First Conference of Engineers of the Reclamation
Service, with accompanying Papers.” Compiled by F. H. Newell. Water
Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 93. (Washington : Government Printing
Office, 1904.)
= “* Hydrographic Manual of the U.S. Geological Survey.” Water Supply
Papers, No. 94.
3 “On Destructive Floods in the United States in 1903"; ‘‘On the Pro-
gress of Stream Measurements for 1903”; ‘‘ Underground Waters in
Southern Louisiana”; ‘‘ Contributions to the Hydrology of the Eastern
United States in t903”; ‘* The Underground Waters of Arizona.”
““Water Resources of the Salinas Valley, California.” Paper No. 89.
“Geology and Water Resources of the Lower James River Valley.” Water
Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. go.
““The Natural Features and Economic Development of the Sandusky,
Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami Drainage Areas in Ohio.” Water Supply
and Irrigation Paper, No. or.
“Destructive Floods in the United States in 1903.”
Paper No. 96.
‘Report on the Progress of Stream Measurements for the Calendar Year
1903.’ By J. C. Hayt. Paper No. 97.
** Report on the Progress of Stream Measurements for the Calendar Year
1go3." By J. C. Hayt. Paper No. 98.
“Underground Waters of Southern Louisiana.”
Paper No. ror.
By E. C. Murphy
By G. D. Harris.
“Contributions to the Hydrology of Eastern United States.” By M. L.
Fuller. Paper No. 102.
““The Underground Waters of Gila Valley, Arizona.’ By W. T. Lee.
Paper No. 104. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904.)
188
NATURE
[DECEMBER 22, 1904
A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCE.
‘THE yearly increasing output of scientific workers, like
the fleas that have ‘‘ lesser fleas to bite ’em,’’ has
called into being another class of workers who have to
abstract the papers into Jahresberichte, Centralblatter,
records, and the like, the next step in the ad infinitum
process being represented by the indexes which appear every
decade or so to the abstracts themselves. By no other
means would the investigator be able to ‘‘ read up the
literature ’’ before attacking a new problem, and though
there may be two opinions as to the wisdom of so doing,
there can be none as to the desirability of having the power
if need be. The present volume consists of a subject index
to the first twelve volumes of the Experiment Station
Record, the well known series of abstracts of both American
and European papers in agricultural science which is issued
monthly by the United States Department of Agriculture,
and distributed so liberally to all foreign workers. The
Experiment Station Record is, indeed, something more than
a journal of abstracts; it contains from time to time special
articles resuming the current state of knowledge about par-
ticular subjects, and written by some acknowledged expert ;
for example, in this index we find mentioned special articles
by Kthn, Stohmann, Kellner, Zuntz, and Hagemann on
nutrition investigations alone.
The abstracts proper in the Experiment Station Record are
generally very full; like all abstracts, they vary much in
value, but generally they fulfil their real purpose of telling
one whether it is worth while to read the original paper or
not. Naturally, with a subject like agriculture, touching
on so many sciences, the abstracts cover a very wide field ;
chemistry, botany, zoology, geology, all have their special
journals which must be looked through lest any article
bearing on agriculture escape; meteorology, bacteriology,
veterinary science, horticulture also contribute, in addition
to the great volume of journals in every country which
are devoted solely to agricultural topics. The present index
only adds to the debt of gratitude which all British workers
in this field have long owed to the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture; in fact, if one wants to find the
reference to some English experiment, by far the best if
not the only way of tracing it is to hunt up its abstract
in the Experiment Station Record. Such a pursuit will
now be greatly facilitated by the present general index,
which represents a putting together of the very full indexes
to each of the annual volumes. A further feature of value is
a complete list of Bulletins issued by the various divisions of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, with references to the
abstracts in the Record. When we add that the department
has also published card indexes to the more important
foreign agricultural publications, as, for example, to the
well known Landw. Versuchsstationen, we get a further idea
of the completeness with which the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture is pursuing its self-imposed task of
bibliography.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
At the Darmstadt Technical College Mr. Clarence Feld-
mann has been appointed professor of electrotechnics.
Pror. W. Nernst, director of the departments of physical
chemistry and electrochemistry at Gdéttingen, has accepted
the chair at Berlin previously occupied by Prof. Landolt.
Pror. ARRHENIUS has declined the appointment offered
him at Berlin, the Swedish Academy of Sciences having
founded a Nobel Institute of Physical Chemistry with Prof.
Arrhenius as director.
Dupin University has conferred the degrees of Master
in Surgery and Doctor in Medicine honoris causa on Sir
Frederick Treves, C.B., and the degree of Doctor in Science
honoris causa on Major Ronald Ross, C.B., F.R.S.
Dr. E. W. Skeats, demonstrator in geology at the Royal
College of Science, has been appointed to the chair of
geology and mineralogy in the University of Melbourne in
1 ** General Index to Experiment Station Record,”’ Vols. i. to xii., 1889-
igor. Pp. 671. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (Washington, 1903.)
NO. 1834. VOL. 71 |
succession to Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., now professor
of geology at Glasgow University.
Cuairs for research and teaching in protozoology and in
helminthology are about to be established at the London
School of Tropical Medicine, the funds being provided by
certain colonial Governments. The importance of these
branches of research in tropical medicine is unquestionable,
and it is gratifying to know that this is appreciated by the
Governments which have thus assisted the study of the
subjects.
Dr. Jory has been appointed ordinary professor of mathe-
matics at Lausanne; Dr. Heinrich Liebmann, hitherto
recognised teacher in mathematics, has been appointed
assistant professor of philosophy at Leipzig; Dr. Roland
Scholl, assistant professor of chemistry at the technical
college, Carlsruhe; Dr. Arthur Wehnelt assistant professor
of theoretical and applied physics at Erlangen; Dr. Georg
Edler von Georgievics, hitherto professor of chemical
technology at Bielitz, is to succeed Prof. Karl Zulkowski at
the German Technical College at Prague.
THE annual conference of teachers, arranged by the
London County Council, will be held on January 5-7 next
at the Medical Examination Hall, Victoria Embankment.
At the first meeting, addresses on the teaching of arith-
metic will be given by Mr. C. T. Millis and Mr. S. O-
Andrew, and the discussion will be opened by Mr. A. W-
Siddons. Other subjects to be brought forward at sub-
sequent meetings are:—the psychology of dictation, the
teaching of reading, art teaching in Japan, the influence
on handicraft of art teaching in elementary and secondary.
schools, the art training of the artisan, and true and false
applications of Froebel’s principles.
THE promoters of the movement for providing the Uni-
versity College of North Wales with new buildings on the
site presented by the Corporation of Bangor have within
the last few days been greatly encouraged in the task by
an announcement that Mr. Owen Owen will contribute
roool. to the building fund. This donation, taken in con-
junction with the recent bequest to the college by the late
Dr. Isaac Roberts of the sum which is expected to reach
about 15,000l., and by the late Mr. John Hughes, of Liver-
pool, and Mr. Richard Hughes, of Llanfwrog, Anglesey, of
5oool. and 15001. respectively for the purpose of establish-
ing scholarships, affords a welcome indication of the interest
which is now being taken in the fortunes of the college by
Welshmen having the like means and wish to benefit the
cause of higher education.
Ar a recent meeting with reference to Swanley Horti-
cultural College, presided over by Lady Brassey, Mr. J. C.
Medd urged the claims of the college to recognition by the
Board of Agriculture, and showed how the institution now
fulfilled the conditions which it ought to do, if it were to
expect an annual grant from that Government department.
He also alluded to the nature-study course for teachers.
which was held at Swanley during the summer holidays.
Sir John Cockburn pointed out that all educational establish-
ments that did their duty were in need of funds, and that
Swanley College was no exception. Mr. Buckmaster, chief
inspector to the Board of Education, spoke of the efficiency
of Swanley College at the present time, and thought that
all energy should be directed towards maintaining and im-
proving the position which Swanley had attained rather
than to inaugurating similar undertakings.
ADDRESSING the boys at St. Clement Danes’ Holborn
Estate Grammar School on Monday, Lord Alverstone re-
marked that it was the knowledge acquired in youth which
lasted longest. The effort to retain impressions in later
life was in marked contrast to that made when the brain
was younger. Modern languages, therefore, should be
earnestly and carefully studied at school. He was glad to
see a considerable number of pupils had gained honours in
English literature. In the hurry and race of modern life
there was a tendency to advocate education which would
be of immediate assistance to professional life; but he was.
strongly of opinion that up to the age of sixteen or seven-
teen a boy’s education should be general, and the tempt-
ation to specialise too much should be resisted. A boy
vould be a better student and would make a better mam
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
NATURE
189
of the world if up to seventeen he received a liberal educa-
tion rather than one directed to any special object. Most
educationists would agree with Lord Alverstone in
his objection to specialisation at school; but in connec-
tion with this subject it is pertinent to ask whether the
study of Greek is not specialisation to a boy who is taught
English and Latin properly.
Ar the annual speech day of Scarborough Municipal
School on Tuesday, the Right Hon. A. H. Dyke Acland,
chairman of the governing body of the school, remarked that
if he were asked what the secondary schools of the country
needed most he would say more money, fewer examinations,
and a more effective instruction in English language and
literature. They wanted the means which would enable
them to try to follow the example of other countries in the
matter of secondary education. The culprit in this case
was not the Board of Education but the Treasury. If it
had to put down ten millions for elementary education it
tried to take it out of secondary education, and at this pre-
sent moment of our country’s history there was nothing
which needed more assistance than secondary education.
With regard to examinations, Mr. Acland strongly con-
tended that the old system of paper examinations was not
a true test of the efficiency of a school, and was often
altogether deceptive. The true test was when half a dozen
inspectors spent four days and watched the work of the
pupils, as was done at Scarborough. In America there were
almost no examinations, and in Germany the ordinary paper
examination of which we thought so much was unknown.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, October 27.—‘“‘ Some Physical Characters of
the Sodium Borates, with a New and Rapid Method for the
Determination of Melting Points.’’ By C. H. Burgess
and A. Holt, jun.
The glasses obtained by fusing sodium carbonate with
boric anhydride can be transformed either wholly or in part
on prolonged heating into stable, crystalline varieties,
which invariably melt at higher temperatures than the
glasses from which they were derived.
A study of the melting points of the crystalline and
vitreous forms of mixtures of different compositions leads
to the conclusion that only two sodium borates can be
obtained by fusion—Na,O.4B,0, and Na,O.B,O,.
The addition of Na,O to boric anhydride produces in the
first place a solution of the borate Na,O.4B,O, in boric
anhydride. This then becomes supersaturated, and the
borate in excess separates on heating for some time. The
amount which separates continues to increase until the
mixture has the composition of nearly pure Na,O.4B,0O,,
when complete crystallisation occurs. Between this point
and the compound Na,O.B,O,, the crystalline forms appear
to be solid solutions of the two above mentioned borates,
anhydrous borax itself being almost the eutectic point.
In mixtures containing more sodium than Na,O.B,O,, the
crystals seem to be solid solutions of this compound with
sodium carbonate. The glasses appear to be the superfused
and metastable forms of the crystals.
Analyses of glasses and crystals of various composition
confirm the observations derived from the melting points.
The melting point method employed consisted essentially
of a platinum wire which was heated electrically, to which
a small bead of the substance under investigation was
hung. A light weight was attached to the bead. When
the wire was heated to the melting point of the substance
the bead and weight fell off. The resistance of the wire
was determined at this moment, and thence the temperature.
The method proved good for substances like glass, which
have hitherto not been supposed to melt at any definite
temperature.
November 17.—‘ On the Group IV. Lines of Silicium.’’
By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
and F. E. Baxandall, A.R.C.Sc.
In previous communications to the Royal Society an
account has been given of the behaviour of the lines of
No. 1834, VOL. 71]
silicium under varying experimental conditions, and as a
result of the inquiry the lines were divided into four dis-
tinctive groups. The genuineness of the lines of group iv.,
as silicium lines, has recently been questioned by M.
de Gramont, of Paris. He concludes that, as the lines of
group iv. always disappear from his spectra with the air
lines, they are really due to oxygen or nitrogen. This is
so much at variance with the Kensington conclusions that
it has been considered necessary to give, in the present”
paper, the photographic evidence on which those conclusions
were based. Reproductions of photographs of silicium
spectra under various electrical conditions are given, and
from the behaviour of the Si iv. lines in the different photo-
graphs it is claimed that they cannot be due to anything
other than silicium. :
In the vacuum-tube spectrum of SiF, the Si iv. lines are
seen to be stronger than even the strongest of Neovius’s
air lines, which appear in the same spectrum.
In one of the reproductions, the spark spectrum of
sodium-silico-fluoride, volatilised between platinum poles,
is compared with the spark spectrum of air, also made in.
candescent between platinum poles. In each spectrum the
ordinary lines of nitrogen and oxygen are well seen. The
silicium lines in question are shown in the former spectrum,
but have no corresponding lines in the air spectrum. It is
also mentioned that these lines do not occur in the Kensing-
ton spark spectrum of any element other than silicium.
There are, according to Neovius, very weak lines of
oxygen or nitrogen near the positions of the silicium lines
(4089-1 and 4116-4). These faint air lines are possibly the
lines which Gramont gets in his spectra, but from the’
evidence adduced in the present paper they are not the lines
which appear so strongly in the Kensington silicium spectra.
_In another reproduction the SiF, spectrum is given along-
side that of e Orionis, and the identity cf position of the
Si iv. lines and strong-lines in the stellar spectrum is shown.
Linnean Society, December 1.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Proteid digestion in animals
and plants: Prof. S. H. Vines, F.R.S. In this discourse
Prof. Vines first remarked that the foundation of our know-
ledge of gastric digestion in animals was laid by van Hel-
mont so long ago as early in the seventeenth century
(“ Ortus Medicinz,’’ 1648), who held that it was effected
by an ‘‘ acid ferment.’’ But in spite of continued research
by Réaumur, Stevens, Spallanzani and others, it was not
until two hundred years later that the ferment was actually
detected. This important discovery was made in 1836 by
the celebrated Schwann, who gave to the ferment the name
““pepsin.’”’ In the course of subsequent investigation, it
came to be recognised that the digestion of the food is not
by any means completed in the stomach, but that the greater
part of the digestive process is carried on in the small
intestine (duodenum) by the pancreatic secretion. Claude
Bernard ascertained in 1856 that the pancreatic juice con-
tains a ferment that digests proteids; to this ferment the
name ‘* trypsin’? was given by Kiihne in 1876. These two
were the only proteases known until quite recently (1901) a
new protease, termed ‘“‘erepsin’’ by Cohnheim, its dis-
coverer, was added to the list. Like trypsin, this protease
peptolyses peptones, and is active in alkaline liquids; but
its peptonising power is much less marked, as it is without
action on albumin and fibrin, though it can peptonise casein.
The discovery of erepsin suggested the possibility that
trypsin might be, not a single enzyme, as had hitherto been
thought, but a mixture of enzymes, possibly of peptonising
with peptolysing enzymes. Research in this direction has,
in the hands of Dr. Vernon, already (1903) shown that
what is generally known as trypsin is a mixture of erepsin
(pancreato-erepsin) with what may be termed trypsin
proper. It is not inconceivable that analysis may be carried
still further, and that trypsin proper may itself be found
to be a mixture of a peptonising with a peptolysing enzyme.
Prof. Vines next turned to proteid-digestion in plants. His
own contribution, made within the last three years, consists
of a number of observations on many different plants or
parts of plants, showing that a protease of some kind is
probably to be found in all parts of all plants at one stage
or other of their development. It appears that whilst all
plants that have been investigated. can effect peptolysis,
190
NATURE
| DECEMBER 22, 1904
only a limited number have been found capable of digesting
fibrin. Prof. Vines has ascertained that in certain cases
(yeast, mushroom) the tissues contain a mixture of erepsin
with a fibrin-digesting enzyme, a result which finds its
analogue in Vernon’s researches on pancreatic trypsin.
Entomological Society, December 7.—Frof. E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair——Mr. H. St. J.
Donisthorpe exhibited Quedius nigrocoeruleus, taken by
Mr. H. C. Dollman in a rabbit-hole at Ditchling, Sussex,
this being the fourth recorded British specimen.—Prof.
T. Hudson Beare exhibited a specimen of the rare Longi-
corn Tetropium castaneum, taken about two years ago in
the vicinity of the quays at Hartlepool, and probably intro-
duced from abroad.—Mr. G. J. Arrow exhibited a series
of the Lamellicorn beetles from the Burchell collection, and
remarked that Burchell had at the time of their capture,
some seventy years ago, already noted their powers of pro-
drawings illustrating the development of the front wing in
the pupa of the Tusser silk moth, showing the relation of
the trachez to the veins, prepared for exhibition in the
’ Natural History Museum. He also exhibited some coffee
berries from Uganda injured by a small beetle belonging
to the Scolytidiz, and two coleopterous larve from the
Burchell collection from Brazil, submitted to him for deter-
mination by Prof. Poulton. One was a heteromerous larva
two inches long, much resembling the larva of Helops. The
more interesting one was noted by Burchell to be luminous,
and appeared to be the larva of an Elaterid.—Mr. J. J.
Walker exhibited the type-specimen of Haplothorax
burchelli, G. R. Waterhouse, from the Hope collection, a
remarkable Carabid discovered by Burchell in St. Helena.
It is now exceedingly rare, if not entirely extinct, in its sole
locality, the late Mr. Wollaston, during his visit to the
island in 1875-6, having entirely failed to find the beetle
alive, though its dead and mutilated remains were often
met with.—The President exhibited cases showing the
results of breeding experiments upon Papilio cenea con-
ducted by Mr. G. F. Leigh, who had for the first time bred
the trophonius form from trophonius itself. He also ex-
hibited a photograph, taken by Mr. Alfred Robinson, of
the Oxford University Museum, showing the Xylocopid
model and its Asilid mimic, exhibited by Mr. E. E. Green
at a recent meeting. The example was particularly interest-
ing, inasmuch as Mr. Green’s record of the mimic circling
round its model tended to support the view that the bee
is the prey of the fly.—Erebia palarica, n.sp., and Erebia
stygne, chiefly in regard to its association with E. evtas, in
Spain: Dr. T. A. Chapman. The author described
Erebia palarica, a new species from the Cantabrian range ;
he said it was phylogenetically a recent offshoot of E. stygne,
and the largest and most brilliant in colouring of all the
known members of the family.—Entomological experiences
during a tour through India and Ceylon, October 10, 1903,
to March 26, 1904: Dr. G. B. Longstaf?.
Geological Society, December 7.—Dr. J. E. Marr,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The chemical and mineral-
ogical "evidence as to the origin of the dolomites of
southern Tyrol: Prof. E. W. Skeats. Recent work on
modern coral-reefs has shown that these limestones contain
very little, if any, insoluble residue. The study of the re-
lative proportions of the organisms composing these reefs,
and the alterations that they undergo, has further shown
that corals play a subordinate part in them, and that cal-
careous algz, foraminifera, and other organisms form the
bulk of the rocks of the reefs. The author has applied this
information in the examination of collections from the much
debated area of the dolomites of southern Tyrol. The
chemical examination of numerous specimens from the
Schlern dolomites of the Schlern, the Langkofl, the Marmo-
lata, the Sella, the St. Cassian district, the Richthofen Reef,
and numerous other localities is described, so far as relates
to the proportions of lime and magnesia and of insoluble
residue. These results are compared with similar analyses
of limestones from lower and higher horizons.
Physical Society, December 8.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On a rapid method of
approximate harmonic analysis: Prof. S. P. Thompson.
For the study of alternating electric currents and for several
NO. 1834, VOL. 71 |
other applications, harmonic analysis is simplified by the
consideration that all the even terms in the Fourier ex-
pansion are absent. In this case the second half-period is
similar to the first half-period, but with the ordinates of
the corresponding angles reversed in sign. Given a com-
plicated harmonic curve containing constituents of the odd
orders only, the zero-line can always be drawn so that the
constant term vanishes from the Fourier series, the mean
ordinate being zero; and it is then always possible to choose
as origin a point for which the ordinates at 0° and 180°
are zero. The paper gives a résumé of the various methods
which have been employed for harmonic analysis by re-
duction from simultaneous equations, graphical means, and
by harmonic analysers. The method adopted by the author
is a simplification of a general method of analysis published
by Prof. Runge.—A high frequency alternator: W.
Duddell. The author described and showed in action a
high-frequency alternator which he had constructed in 1900
for some experiments on the resistance of the electric arc,
and with which frequencies up to 120,000 ~ per second had
been obtained. An illustration will perhaps convey some
idea of how high a frequency of 120,000 ~ per second really
is. In plotting curves for ordinary frequencies of 50 to
100 ~ per second, a scale often adopted is 10 inches for
1co ~. If it were attempted to plot a curve up to
120,000 ~ per second to this scale, the curve paper would
require to be 12,000 inches, or nearly one-fifth of a mile
long.—Exhibition of experiments to show the retardation
of the signalling current on 3500 miles of the Pacific cable
between Vancouver and Fanning Island: Prof. W. E.
Ayrton. The experiments were performed upon a cable
electrically equivalent to the portion of the Pacific cable
between Vancouver and Fanning Island, the product of the
capacity (in mfds.) and the resistance (in ohms) being nine
millions. Three dead-beat galvanometers were employed to
indicate the current at the beginning, in the middle, and
at the end of the cable. It was shown that upon applying
an E.M.F. at one end of the cable the current at that end
was enormously greater than its steady value, and that
one-fifth of a second elapsed before any indications of current
were shown at the far end of the cable. By that time the
current at the sending end was 3-7 times its steady value,
and after two-fifths of a second it had fallen to 2-3 times
its steady value. In about five seconds the current became
steady.
Royal Astronomical Society, December 9.—Prof. H. H.
Turner in the chair.—On a very sensitive method of deter-
mining the irregularities of a pivot, and on the influence
of the pivot errors of the Radcliffe transit circle upon the
right ascensions of the Radcliffe catalogue: Dr. Rambaut.
The method is a modification of that of M. Hamy, a small
steel pin being inserted in each pivot; by means of a lever
arrangement horizontal as well as vertical displacements,
due to pivot irregularities, can be observed. The apparatus,
which had been found entirely satisfactory, was fully de-
scribed and illustrated.—On the validity of meteor radiants
as determined from three observed tracks: Mr. Chapman.
—A note accompanying a photograph of the detached nebula
in Cygnus: W. S. Franks. The nebula was the one
recently photographed by Dr. Max Wolf; the present plate,
taken with the late Dr. Isaac Roberts’s 20-inch reflector,
showed the details of the nebula on a larger scale. A
second note by Mr. Franks upon dark nebulosities was also
read; it was illustrated by four photographs of long lenti-
cular nebulz, each of which was sharply divided longi-
tudinally throughout its entire length by a dark line. The
author suggested that these nebula, probably spirals seen
edgeways, were cooler at their extreme edges, and that this
band,of cooler matter absorbed their light and caused the
appearance of the dark bands seen in ‘the photographs.—
Two papers on the lunar theory, one being a note on the
completion of the solution of the main problem : Prof.
Ernest W. Brown.—An analysis of 145 terms in the moon’s
longitude : P. H. Cowelt.—On the decline in the apne
of the variable 159, 1904 Pegasi: Mr. Wickham.
Zoological Society, December 13.—Mr. Herbert Druce,
vice-president, in the chair—Some specimens of a gazelle
from Palestine: a new species: Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S
The anthropoid apes, illustrated by a large collection of
mounted skins, skeletons, and skulls: the Hon. Walter
DECEMBER 22, 1904]
Rothschild. The gorilla from South Cameroon and the
white-faced chimpanzee of the Gaboon were characterised
as new.—The cranial osteology of the clupeoid fishes: Dr.
W. G. Ridewood.— Characters and synonymy of the British
species of sponges of the genus Leucosolenia: Prof. E. A.
Minchin.—Descriptions of eighteen species of land-shells
belonging to the genus Macrochlamys and its allies: Dr.
W. T. Blanford, F.R.S.—Descriptions of a new genus and
thirty-two new species of phytophagous Coleoptera of the
family Halticidee from South and Central America: M.
Jacoby.
CAMBRIDGE
Philosophical Society, November 28.—Prof. Marshall
Ward, president, in the chair.—Remarks on Piroplasmosis
with exhibition of specimens: G. H. F. Nuttatl.—Note on
some peculiar features in seedlings of Peperomia: A. W.
Hill. The seedlings of Peperomia umbilicata were found in
the Andes of Bolivia at about 13,500 feet above sea-level.
The species is a geophilous one with small bulbs and peltate
leaves. The peculiarity of the seedlings lies in the fact that,
though they are dicotyledonous in structure, only one of
the two cotyledons leaves the seed to function as an assimil-
ating organ; the other remains permanently in the seed as
an absorbent organ. The other bulbous species from the
Andes apparently show the same features of germination,
and several other species from Central America, preserved
in the herbaria of Kew and South Kensington, whilst differ-
ing in their vegetative habits, show a similar type of germin-
ation.—Exhibition of new and rare Arachnids taken near
Cambridge: C. Warburton and N. D. F. Pearce.—The
inheritance of tortoiseshell and related colours in cats: L.
Doncaster. ‘Tortoiseshell cats are heterozygotes, contain-
ing the two colours black and orange. They can be pro-
duced by mating orange with black, but a tortoiseshell
paired with either orange or black may throw all three
colours. Male tortoiseshells are exceedingly rare, and the
normal colour of the black-orange heterozygote in the male
is orange, the black in this case being completely recessive.
When a male tortoiseshell is paired with a female, all three
colours may be produced in the kittens. Cream and blue
are dilute forms of orange and black, and behave similarly
when crossed, the females being ‘‘ blue tortoiseshells,’’ the
males creams. Creams may be obtained by pairing blue
with orange, the dilution being transferred from one colour
to the other. Blue is recessive to black, and so probably
is cream to orange; it appears also that blue may be com-
pletely recessive to orange in the female, although black
by orange in the female gives tortoiseshell.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, November 29.—-
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., president, in the chair.
—Determination of wave-lengths in the extreme ultra-violet
part of the spectrum: H. Morris-Airey. After a brief
historical sketch of the work of earlier investigators, the
classical experiments of Schumann were described. Schu-
mann was not able to measure the wave-lengths of the new
lines beyond 1854, which he photographed, on account of
our defective knowledge of the dispersion of the material
of which his prism was constructed. The author attempted
to do this by producing the spectra by means of a concave
grating in vacuo, but without success. However, using a
plane transmission grating ruled on a plate of white fluor-
spar, to resolve the light from a powerful induction coil
discharge between aluminium electrodes four new standard
wave-lengths were measured extending to the wave-length
1694. The experiments were carried out, after Schumann,
in vacuo, and the spectra recorded on photographic plates
specially designed for the work.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, December 12.—M. Mascart in the
chair.—Remarks on some thermochemical rules relating to
the possibility and the prediction of chemical reactions: M.
Berthelot. The author discusses the statement that a
chemical reaction must always be accompanied with an
evolution of heat, and refers to his earlier works to show
the exact meaning to be attributed to the words chemical
NO. 1834, VOL. 71]
NATURE
191
reaction.—The determination of the difference in longitude
between Greenwich and Paris made in 1902: M. Loewy.
A detailed account is given of the precautions necessary for
the accurate determination of this constant. Particular care
was given to the study of the personal equation of each
observer, and to reduce still further the errors due to this
source, the English and French observers changed stations.
The mean result obtained by the latter for the difference of
longitude between Paris and Greenwich was 9m. 20-974.
—On the element Zs: Lecog de Boisbaudran. In dis-
cussing the presence of a band A=488, M. Urbain regards
the existence of a new element corresponding to this band
as hypothetical. The author gives reasons for his state-
ment that this band is really due to a new element, and
maintains the accuracy of his work published in 1895.—
Observations of the sun made at the Observatory of Lyons
with the 16 cm. Brunner equatorial during the third quarter
of 1904: L. Guillaume. The results are summarised in
three tables giving the numbers of spots, their distribution
in latitude, and the distribution of the faculze in latitude.—
On the approximation of incommensurables and of trigono-
metric series: M. Fatou.—On continuous space groups,
finite and infinite: M. Le Vavasseur.—Remarks on a
method for the study of the convergence of certain con-
tinuous fractions: H. Padé.—The detonation of explosive
substances under water: M. Jacob.—An electrically driven
nickel-steel pendulum: Jean Masecart. A preliminary
account of the results obtained with a pendulum of invar,
driven by the electrical arrangement devised by M. Lipp-
mann. Its rate was about two seconds per day. The
author regards it as preferable to use several pendulums of
this kind, which can be set up with ease, to attempt an
absolute compensation.—On the registration of the n-rays
by photography: G. Weiss and L. Bull. A description of
the arrangement adopted is given in detail, the object being
to produce three squares in contact with each other, the
centre one corresponding to the effect produced by the
phosphorescent surface when not exposed to the rays. The
two outer squares should have been darker if an increase
of the light intensity had been produced under the action
of the rays. The experiment was repeated a great number
of times, varying the nature of the plates, the time of ex-
posure, and the intensity of lighting. The shortest ex-
posure was twenty seconds, and the longest five minutes.
In no case was a positive result obtained, there being no
difference between the intensity of the squares correspond-
ing to the time of action of the rays.—On some new deri-
vatives of tetrahydrobenzene: Léon Brunel. By the simul-
taneous action of iodine (in the presence of mercury oxide)
and acetic anhydride upon tetrahydrobenzene an iodoacetate
is formed, CH,.CO,.C,H,,I.—The synthesis and study of
cyclic substituted thio-hydantoins: Emm. Pozzi-Escot.
The method of preparation adopted consisted in acting upon
the a-b-disubstituted thio-ureas with a monoalkyl fatty acid.
—On the possibility of producing a non-brittle steel,
tempered blue: Ch. Frémont. It is generally supposed
that all irons and steels, whatever their quality, become
brittle under shock at temperatures between 200° C. and
450° C. An example is given showing that this is not
necessarily the case.—On a method of decomposition of
complex statistical curves into irreducible curves: Charles
Henry.—On the accessory glands of the larve of the Lepi-
doptera: L. Bordas.—The development of the tentacles of
the Campanulariide and the Plumulariidee: Armand
Billard.—The resistance to desiccation of some fungi:
Mme. Z. Gatin-Gruzewska. It has been found that
certain fungi, including three species of Polyporus, are not
killed by a prolonged drying at 37° C., as the dried fungi,
when moistened, possess the same respiratory coefficient as
the undried plant. The amount of carbon dioxide given off
per hour is, however, less in the former case than in the
latter.—On the constitution of arable earth: A. Delage
and H. Lagatu. By the application of the methods of
petrography to the smallest particles of arable earth, the
authors come to the conclusion that instead of the earth
being, as is usually represented in classical works on the
subject, the result of a disaggregation followed by a de-
composition of the mineral constituents of rocks, it simply
consists of the various minerals of the rocks from which
it is derived in a very fine state of division. The mica,
quartz, felspar, calcite, tourmaline, apatite, &c., are per-
192
fectly normal, and show no signs of decomposition or of
localised corrosion. The advantages of this method of ex-
amining arable earths, when used to supplement the results
of a chemical examination, are pointed out.—On a new
potato suitable for cultivation in damp soils: M.
Labergerie. Solanum Commersoni, which up to the pre-
sent has been regarded as only good for forage, has been
found to give an excellent edible tuber, and it possesses the
great advantage of preferring a damp soil for its growth.
—On the gasification of vegetable combustibles and the
generation of an economical motive power in agriculture :
L. Bordenave. An account of the production of gaseous
fuel from agricultural refuse, used in conjunction with a
gas engine designed for gas of low calorific value.—The
Coal-measures in French Lorraine: Francis Laur. The
views of the author regarding the prolongation of the
Saarbruck basin into France, following an axial line
Neukirchen-Pont-a-Mousson, have been confirmed by two
borings 700 metres deep. Further borings are in progress
for the thorough exploration of the coal field. The coal
contains 2 per cent. of moisture, 36 per cent. of volatile
matter, 49 per cent. of coke, and 13 per cent. of ash.—
Glacial growth at the end of the nineteenth century, and
the different factors which have determined the anomalies
of this growth in the massif of Pelvoux: Ch. Jacob and
G. Flusin. The observations put forward furnish an ex-
planation of the anomalies of glacier growth in this region
indicated in 1900 by Kilian.—On subterranean corrosion at
Wells (England), and the chronometry of subterranean
erosion: E. A. Martel.
New SoutH WALES.
Linnean Society, October 26.—Dr. T. Storie Dixson,
president, in the chair.—Notes on Australian Lycznide,
part iv.: G. A. Waterhouse and R. E. Turner.—Re-
visional notes on Australian Carabidze, part i., tribes
Carabini, Pamborini, Pseudozznini, Clivinini, and the genus
Nebriosoma: T. G. Sloane.—Notes on the native flora of
New South Wales, part ii.: R. H. Cambage. The route
traversed—Boggabri to Tingha, via Narrabri, Moree,
Warialda, and Inverell—offers sufficient variations in alti-
tude and geological formation (including portion of the
black soil plains) to provide interesting examples of the
results traceable to these factors in the distribution of species
under Australian conditions. Thus the effect of climatic
influence is exhibited by such species as Eucalyptus
sideroxylon (ironbark or mugga), E. conica (a box-tree), and
E. melanophlota (silver-leaved ironbark), which in the south
grow at lower elevations than is the case towards the north,
where they are able to ascend the mountains owing to the
warmth of northern latitudes being tempered by the in-
creased elevation. The same influence also allows certain
eastern and western species to mingle on the northern high-
lands, while in the south the Great Dividing Range serves
as a cold barrier to keep them apart. As an instance of
the influence of geological formation, the case of a sand-
stone area between Boggabri and Narrabri was mentioned ;
here Angophora lanceolata is a conspicuous feature of the
flora.—Notes from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, No. 10:
J. H. Maiden and E. Betche.—Miscellaneous notes
(chiefly taxonomic) on Eucalyptus, part i.: J. H. Maiden.
The author deals with some plants formerly included under
E. amygdalina, Labill. The confusion which has gathered
around E£. radiata, Hook. f. (non Sieb.), is finally cleared
up. That ‘‘ white gum”? included under radiata by Ben-
tham and others is described as a new variety or species
under the name E. numerosa, from the number of fruits in
an umbel.
GOTTINGEN.
Royal Society of Sciences.—The Nachrichten (physico-
mathematical section), part v. for 1904, contains the follow-
ing memoirs communicated to the society :—
July 23.—A. Sommerfeld: Contributions to the theory
of electrons; (2) bases of a general dynamic of the electron.
G. v. d. Borne: Seismic records in Gé6ttingen, July—
December, 1903. W. Voigt: The action of electric vibra-
tions upon optically active bodie M. Laue: On the pro-
pagation of radiation in dispersive and absorptive media.
September 10.—J. Thomae: On a Gaussian series in
various parts of its region of convergence.
1832, VOL. 71]
NATURE
{ DECEMBER 22, 1904
INDIA.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, November 2.—Some archzo-
logical remains in Bishnath: W. N. Edwards. The old
earthworks round Bishnath and Pertabghur are described,
as well as the Buroi Fortification.—Novicie Indicz, xxiii.,
four orchids new to the Indian flora: D. Prain. Descrip-
tions of two new species, Microstylis Cardoni from Chota
Nagpur, and Eulophia Campbellii from Manbhum and
Singbhum; and also of Lecanorchis japonica, Bl., and
L. malaccensts, Ridl., orchids now first added to the Indian
flora.—Noviciz Indice, xxiv., some new Indian plants:
D. Prain. Some notes on species of the orders Anonacez,
Sterculiaceez, Celastracee, Leguminose, Rosaceex, Com-
bretaceze, Orobanchacee, Labiatez, and Monotropee,
together with descriptions of new species.—A language map
of west Tibet with notes: A. H. Francke. The distribu-
tion is given of the Rong, Leth, Sham, Purig, and Balti
dialects in the Indus and Shayog valleys, and in Zangskhar
and Rubshu.—Additions to the collection of oriental snakes
in the Indian Museum, Calcutta: Nelson Annandale. A
paper adding to our knowledge of the distribution of
Typhlopidz, Uropeltidze, Colubridz, and Viperide in India.
—On Dioscorea deltoidea, Wall., D. quinqueloba, Thunb.,
and their allies: D. Prain and I. H. Burkill.
CONTENTS. PAGE
A Zoological Tribute. By J. A. T. 169
Synthesis of Vital Products . 170
Ionisation and Absorption. By Dr. O. w. Richardeod 172
Laboratory Exercises in Brewing . 173
Our Book Shelf :—
Gurwitsch : ‘f Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle.”—
Je Bees) 2. ae ee Se
Barnard and Child: ‘‘A New nea: for Senior
OXI Secure meets 174
Strauss: ‘‘Studien fiber die iMieamnee a (ebeaondeeen
Beriicksichtigung des pee und der Keratine.”—
We DeHnr.. Sse, "ot ree
Somers : “* res Som a conan Diary ” ; 175
Weston : ** A Scheme for the Detection of fhe more
common Classes of Carbon Compounds”. . . . . 175
‘*Photograms of the Year 1904” ......4.. < aS
Letters to the Editor :—
Heterogenetic Fungus-germs.—George Massee 175
Note on Radio-activity.—W. Ternent Cooke . 176
Blue Flints at Bournemouth.—J. W. Sharpe 176
Intelligence of Animals.--Rev. Joseph Meehan . 176
Some Scientific Centres. VI.—The Physical
Laboratory at the Museum d’Histoire naturelle.
(Zilustrated.) By John Butler Burke .. . Ly
The ‘ Nature-Study ”’ of Birds. (Mstrated By
De Lae = aL79
The Arties prediction oF Rubies os Fusion 180
Calcium Metal. By R. S. Hutton. eee eae SOS
Notes. (l/lustrated.) . li, Ss ee “MAM Roto
Our Astronomical Column :—
Discovery of a New Comet (1904 a) . . 185
Tempel’s Comet (1904.c). . - -- =... -> erie: ely
Encke’s Comet (1904 4) . . . . er Olea ces
Observations of Occultations by Planets en
Relative Drift of the Ilyades Stars .. . 185
Designations of the Variable Stars discovered during
TOG4. W- sie 5 ae sf aos
heirs Gonerent to the Obsenveeaees : obi ee
Glaciation in North America. ideal a) By
G. ADJ. G; : -) S on OS
The People of the North. East ae Scatland | . 186
Hydrology in the United States. . . RPM NSC ache ss.)
A Bibliography of Agricultural Science wa oe aie
University and EducationalIntelligence ..... 188
SocietiesiandvAcademies caw 2) cy. Glennie 189
NEAT LS
193
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 29, 1904.
THE FUTURE OF THE HUMAN RACE.
(1) Mankind in the Making. Pp. viiit+429. Price
ys. 6d. (2) Anticipations. Pp. 122. Price 6d.
(London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1903.) (3) The
Food of the Gods. Pp. 317. (London: Macmillan
and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 6s. By H. G. Wells.
R. WELLS is a man of imagination, and he
has let his imaginative faculty play about the
great problems that obtrude themselves when we con-
template the new conditions under which civilised man
is now living, conditions which must inevitably under-
go further change as science advances. Three books
of his more especially claim to forecast the future
of our race, and to lay down the lines on which
education should proceed. These three are ‘“ Antici-
pations,’’ a very bold attempt to peer into the future;
““The Food of the Gods,’’ a lively romance full of
humour that does not pall from beginning to end of
the book; and ‘“‘ Mankind in the Making,’’ a series
of essays dealing mainly with education, and advo-
cating radical changes in our methods.
As to style, Mr. Wells is a hard hitter. He pounds
at all classes or professions or trades which fall below
his standard of efficiency, or who represent, as he
thinks, mouldering ideas and systems. He cannot
talk patiently of bishops, schoolmasters, army men or
plumbers. His philosophy has had its origin in the
theory of evolution. He looks at the race of men in
the past, the present, and the future, and he sees a
long series of births. The individual is trustee for
the race of the principle of life. The idea of this
trusteeship is to Mr. Wells a great and ennobling one.
A man must not look upon his individual life as the
all-important thing, but must find his true happiness
in the propagation and education of offspring. Never-
theless, we find in “‘ Anticipations ’’ that this ideal will
be shared only by a limited number of people. In the
world he pictures are many childless ménages, and
Mr. Wells himself is prepared to tolerate relaxation
of the marriage law and even “sterile gratification.”
But in this new world there will be also many men
of strenuous earnestness and of religious purpose,
though not professing a definitely Christian faith, who
will be the leading spirits. As a rule they will be
fathers of families, for the childless ménages will not
fit in with their theory of things.
These men of energy—men of science, engineers,
doctors, and so forth—will shape policy and adminis-
tration. The result will be marvellous efficiency, such
as is rarely if ever seen now. There will be no king.
Monarchy will have given place to the New Republic.
Royalty is connected with all things out of date, with
aristocratic privileges, ridiculous costumes and decor-
ations. Therefore it must go. In the New Republic,
though so efficiently managed, there will be many
idlers.. There will be an enormous development of
irresponsible wealth, great numbers of people living
on invested money, having no cares of management
and no duties in connection with their property. It
is among this class mainly that will be found the child-
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
less ménages. The class that supplies unskilled
labour, the old servile class, will tend to disappear.
The invention of machines capable of performing
more cheaply all the worl that has hitherto fallen to
the unskilled will make such men unnecessary.
Peasant proprietors and all small land-holders must
pass away. They represent stagnation, and there is
room only for go-ahead, adaptable people. Those whe
fail to adapt themselves will fall into the abyss, the
great sink in which wallow all those who are unfitted
for the new conditions. The people of the abyss are
to be encouraged to extinguish’ themselves, to
practise what would commonly be called vice without
offspring resulting.
Mr. Wells is quite alive to the need of an antiseptic
in a wealthy society such as he foresees. To keep
down excessive accumulations of wealth he proposes
heavy death duties, and heavy graduated duties upon
irresponsible incomes, ‘‘ with, perhaps, in addition,
a system of terminable liability for borrowers.’’ But
besides this there will be at work for many years to
come ‘‘ that most stern and educational of all masters
—war.’’ In its methods war will be very unlike any-
thing of which we have as yet had experience. There
will be marksmen few in number, but possessed of
skill altogether beyond that of the marksmen of to-
day. The army will no longer be officered by men
too stupid and indifferent to use properly the inven-
tions of science. No masses of raw, unskilled lads
will be driven on to the slaughter.
Some greater synthesis will emerge. Mr. Wells
reviews the various large groups of peoples which
make up the greater part of the population of the
earth. There is the Russian group, the German,
Latin, and English groups, and there are the Yellow
Races. Mr. Wells does not think the Russian or the
German likely to predominate. In the French he has
a great belief, though they do not ‘breed like
rabbits.’’ The richness and power of their literature
make him think their language will extend itself far.
He laments the comparative poverty and meagreness
of our literature. Still, he inclines to the belief that
a great dominant synthesis of the English-speaking
peoples may be formed. Germany will be cowed by
the combined English and American Navies, and
Anglo-Saxonism will eventually triumph.
There remain the Yellow Races. Their star, too,
will pale before that of the Anglo-Saxons. But all
syntheses, however great, will eventually fuse into
one. There will be a World State, and rival nation-
alities will be a thing of the past. ‘‘ Against these
old isolations, these obsolescent particularisms, the
forces of mechanical and scientific development fight
and fight irresistibly.”’
All these speculations are very interesting reading,
but we cannot help regretting that Mr. Wells did not
study and reflect a little longer before writing. His
imagination, unclogged by knowledge, is apt to run
away with him. Though he expresses the greatest
reverence for Darwin and his successors, he does not
show a very thorough grip of the principles of evolu-
tion. To begin with, he seems unaware of the part
in the national life that is played by the lower stratum
K
194
NATURE
[DEcEMBER 29, r904
of society, the ‘* stagnant *’ masses as he would call
them. From this stratum emerge the men of energy
so dear to Mr. Wells’s heart. Occasionally the son
of a poor man, say in Scotland or Yorkshire, rises to
eminence. Far more often it takes more than one
generation to climb the ladder. But this does not alter
the fact that this substratum is an absolute necessity.
For the upper strata do not keep up their numbers,
and society has been truly described as an organism
that is perpetually renewing itself from its base. But
Mr. Wells knows only of the abyss into which tumble
all the failures.of modern life. Such a valuable
national asset as peasant land-holders he despises and
wishes to abolish. Yet from such ‘‘ stagnant ”’ classes
spring the families that work upward and produce the
men of energy that do the highest work of the nation.
The downward movement of which Mr. Wells talks
so much is comparatively but a puny stream. No
doubt there is an abyss, no doubt there are in our big
towns not a few degraded families which are tending
to die out. Yet even the most degraded produce here
and there a man of grit, a man, for instance, who
enlists and rises to be a non-commissioned officer.
The pick of the slum-bred men make fine fighters.
Mr. Wells wishes all citizens to be energetic and
up to date. The unadaptable masses must be got rid
of. They must be instructed so that the indulgence
of their sexual instincts may not lead to their having
offspring. Reckless parentage must be in every way
discouraged. And yet Mr. Wells declares that he
cannot devise any system of selection by which it
would be possible to breed good citizens; the qualities
demanded are too diverse. So we are to get rid of
the reckless classes and depend solely on the careful
classes. We are to introduce careful parentage, that
is, put a stop to natural selection; but there is to be
no scientific selection to take its place. The result
would indeed be disastrous. As it is, our national
physique may be poor, but what there is in the nation
of physical vigour is due to the great amount of
elimination, probably not far short of 50 per cent.,
that still goes on.
Here is another strange forecast. War is ‘‘ the
most educational of all masters,’’ and yet after many
years a great world state will arise and there will be
a kind of millennium. If war the great educator,
the great antiseptic, is no more, surely the world is
likely to be the worse for its absence. What is to
make the world better? No doubt Mr. Wells would
say, “‘ The advance of science.’’ Science is his sheet
anchor. It is to ennoble the national life so that even
the idle holders of irresponsible wealth will be power-
less to degrade it. But will this be so? No doubt the
inventor is ennobled by his brain labour, by his striving
to make his dream a reality. And the men of energy
who find practical applications of his discoveries are
doing work of a kind that often, though not always,
elevates the character. But what of the people who
merely make use of the discoveries and inventions of
others? The man who invents a locomotive engine
is likely, at the lowest, to be above the pettiest mean-
But the mere travelling in railway trains
leaves men morally no better and no worse. The
striving after knowledge is the ennobling thing, and
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
nesses,
not the knowledge itself, the making of discoveries,
not the enjoyment of them.
This being so, there is a fallacy running all through
that very humorous romance ‘The Food of the
Gods ’’; in the story those who are fed on this food!
in their infancy and youth grow to a height of some
forty feet. The inventors do not add to their inches.
In its application this is not true. The mass of man-
kind remain small in brain and character—they grow,
but do not grow much, when their youth is nurtured’
on the clearest and noblest ideas. The few thinkers,
discoverers, inventors are the giants. As to education,
Mr. Wells has much to say that is worth pondering.
He wishes boys to make a real study of the English
language and literature. On our success in teaching
English and producing good literature depends the:
answer to the question: Will English retreat before:
the tongue of some rival synthesis, or will it become
the language of the world? For educational pur-
poses, the dead languages, as we might expect, are
tried and found wanting. Those who teach them are:
‘fumbling with the keys at the door of a room that
was ransacked long ago.”’ F.. W. H:
BRITISH FRESHWATER ALG#.
A Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae. By Prof.
G. S. West. Pp. xv+372. (Cambridge: At the
University Press, 1904.) Price ros. 6d. net.
A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae. Vol. i.
By W. West and Prof. G. S. West. Pp. xxxvi+224.
(London: Printed for the Ray Society, 1904.) Price
25s. net.
WU HOEVER has sought to gain a practical know-
ledge of the British freshwater Algz has in
the past been often checked by the impossibility of
determining, by the aid of English works, many of the
forms met with. During the twenty years that have
elapsed since the issue of the latest large English
work on the group (Cooke’s ‘‘ British Freshwater
Alge’’) very great progress has been made in most
countries of Europe, in North America, and to some
extent in other countries also, in the study of these
plants. Very many species previously unknown have
been detected, and much light has been thrown on
obscure life-histories, on the effects of environment,
and on the relationships of the various Algz to one
another, and to other organisms of simple structure.
But while so much new knowledge has been gained, it
is dispersed in various languages and in numerous
volumes; and there has been, in English, no trust-
worthy guide even to the published results of these
years dealing with the British freshwater Algz. Thus:
it has become more and more difficult to pursue the
study with success, and the need of adequate present-
ation of the subject has been felt to be very urgent.
The works just issued by the Messrs. West are most
welcome, and mark a very great advance on earlier
books in English dealing with these Algw. The
authors possess a unique knowledge of the species and
of their distribution in Britain, the result of personal
investigations carried on unweariedly in many and
varied districts of the British Islands. They have
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
added largely to previous records in species new to
science, in others new to British lists, and in the fuller
knowledge of the life-histories of species already
known. The task was no easy one, but none more
competent could have undertaken it, and it has been
accomplished in a way to deserve the gratitude of all
interested in the freshwater Algz of Great Britain and
Ireland.
The “ Treatise ’’ is one of the well known and excel-
lent Cambridge Biological Series. Its aim is stated as
“to give the student a concise account of the struc-
ture, habits and life-histories of Freshwater Algz, and
also to enable him to place within the prescribed limits
of a genus any Alga he may find in the freshwaters of
the British Islands.’”’ To do this within the limits of
an octavo volume of less than 400 pages, in which
are numerous illustrations, is a task possible of
accomplishment only by one very familiar with the
subject and skilled in concise expression; but that it
has been successfully done will, we think, be the verdict
after testing the book thoroughly. The views and
labours of others receive due attention, and footnotes
direct the student to the original publications; but
Prof. West is no mere follower of the views of others,
and much of the excellence of his book is due to his
personal researches and to the conclusions he has
drawn from them. In the preface we read that ‘‘ there
is no single book, or accessible set of books, by means
of which a student can hope to accurately identify one-
third of the freshwater Alga he may find in a single
day’s ramble through a reasonably productive part of
the country.’? With the aid of this guide he may
hope to determine the genus of all save the more
critical forms, and even the species in some of the
genera. But the book is much more than a guide to
the identification of genera and species. The intro-
duction gives a very readable and interesting general
account of freshwater Algz in respect of their habitats,
distribution, relations to and associations with certain
other plants, and even with the lower animals, some
of these correlations being of very curious kinds.
Their relations to temperature (some thriving on ice
and snow, while others can live around hot springs
at 94°.5 C.), to surface conditions and exposure, and
to geological strata are discussed; and the author’s
wide experience in field work gives much interest to
the discussion. Mountainous districts are the richer,
especially in Myxophyceze and Conjugate, of which
latter the desmids and Mougeotia are peculiarly
numerous in species in these regions. The older
Paleozoic and Igneous regions are preeminent in this
respect, and the richest localities in Britain, ‘* and
perhaps in the whole of Europe,’’ are tarns and peat-
bogs in hollows of the Lewisian gneiss of north-west
Scotland, while the fen district of eastern England is
the poorest in Britain in freshwater species of Algae.
The methods of collection, of cultivation (so im-
portant as a means of study), and of preservation for
future use are described. The structure, cell-contents,
nutrition and growth of the cells and plant-bodies, the
methods of multiplication by division and of reproduc-
tion (asexual and sexual), the alternation of gener-
ations, the range of polymorphism observed in some
species, and alleged to occur in others, are considered,
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
NATURE
195
and the belief is stated that the higher types have
originated by gradual evolution from the more lowly
types, but that the latter still persist, and must not
be confounded with stages in the life-histories of the
higher forms, as the author believes has been done
by some. The phylogeny and scheme of classification
take full note of the discoveries and views of Black-
man, Bohlin, Borzi, Chodat, Wille and others, com-
bined with the author’s own discoveries.
Six great classes are recognised, of which four
(Rhodophyceze, Phzophyceze, Bacillariaceze or dia-
toms, and Myxophycez) are of the usual compass, the
two former including few species in fresh waters. The
Heterokontz, a group proposed a few years ago by
Luther for a few families characterised by yellowish-
green chromatophores and the production of oil as a
reserve of food, are separated off from the other green
Algz; but all the remaining green types are included
in the class Chlorophycez, the methods of reproduction
not being accepted as justifying their separation into
different classes. Chlamydomonas is regarded as
nearest to the origin from which all have sprung,
scarcely different from the Flagellata, and the divergent
lines of increasing complexity are traced, three chief
tendencies, as pointed out by Blackman, showing
themselves, and resulting in three types of structure,
viz. the motile cceenobium, the multinucleate unicellular
coenocyte, and the multicellular aggregate, the cells of
which become more and more intimately related and
specialised to form the definite organism. This last
type has resulted in the most complex structures among
Alge, and is regarded as having given origin through
them to the archegoniate plants.
All grades of classification of the British freshwater
Algz down to genera are defined in this ** Treatise,”
and each genus is well illustrated by drawings from
the plants themselves, with few exceptions original.
The number of British species is stated under each
genus, and information is often added regarding the
more representative species. For each genus also the
synonymy is given, along with references to the litera-
ture.
Prof. West’s treatment of his subject is instructive
and stimulating, and the book will do much to extend
the study of these plants. But it also excites the hope
that he will supplement this work by giving us one
descriptive of all the species and varieties of these
Algze that have been found in Britain, with, if practic-
able, indications of those likely to be added to the
flora. He has pointed out the need of such a guide,
and has proved that it could be attempted by none
more fit to make it a success.
The volume on “ British Desmidiacez ’
trates the extraordinary advance in the study of British
freshwater Algz in recent years, due to the researches
of but a few workers, among whom the authors are
in the front rank. In this monograph will be brought
together not only much information that, though pub-
lished, was often scarcely accessible, but also much
acquired through researches in many regions, from
Shetland to Cornwall, in Wales and Ireland, and not
yet published. Nearly 700 species and 450 varieties are
now known from the British Islands (being rather
more than one-third of all named species). Of these
? also illus-
196
NATURE
[DECEMBER 29, 1904
many have been discovered and made known by the
authors. Cooke’s ‘“‘ British Desmids,’’ issued in
1886-7 as a compilation of all the forms then known,
included less than 300 species and less than 50 varie-
ties. In this first volume rather more than one-fifth
of the British species and varieties are included, so
that the ‘‘ Monograph”’ will probably extend to five
volumes.
Each form is described, with references to its
synonyms and its bibliography; and its distribution in
the British Islands is detailed, the authority for each
locality being stated. The figures are original, except
where it was not possible to procure specimens. When
borrowed the sources are always acknowledged. A
very full list of books and papers on desmids adds to
the value of the work.
The ‘Monograph of British Desmidiacee’’ is
worthy of a place among the numerous valuable works
issued by the Ray Society, and will be indispensable
in the study of these plants.
THEORY OF RAPID MOTION IN A COM-
PRESSIBLE FLUID.
Lecons sur la Propagation des Ondes et les Equations
de l’Hydrodynamique. By Jacques Hadamard.
Pp. xiii+375. (Paris: Hermann, 1903.) Price 18
francs.
HE theory of fluid motion, as ordinarily worked
out, presents several lacunae. One notable
omission is the absence of any detailed dis-
cussion of the effects of compression and rarefaction
of air owing to the rapid motion of bodies through
it. An artillerist, seeking by the aid of the theory
for principles that would help him to understand the
resistance of the air to the motion of projectiles, would
be likely to be disappointed. He would find an
explanation of the effect of rifling in keeping the
points of projectiles forward; but, while he might
admire the ingenuity displayed in the development
of the theory, he would feel that, with this exception, it
shed but little light upon his business.
book represents the outcome of efforts made in recent
years by some French mathematicians, and especially
by Hugoniot and P. Duhem, to widen the scope of
the traditional hydrodynamics so as to include rapid
motions in compressible fluids.
Our hypothetical artillerist would need to exercise
much patience in order to get on with the book. He
would probably soon give it up as too intensely mathe-
matical. The first chapter is devoted to an account of
an existence theorem in the theory of potential. It is
to be proved that, provided a certain condition is
satisfied, there exists a function which is harmonic in
a given region and has a given normal rate of vari-
ation at the boundary of the region, in other words,
that irrotational motion of incompressible fluid is
possible within a closed surface which changes its form
in a prescribed manner without changing its volume.
The author gives a proof which is very interesting from
the point of view of analysis. He also expresses the
required function by means of a subsidiary function
which he calls ** Fonction de Franz Neumann,’’ and
)f another which he calls ‘‘ Fonction de Klein.”’
NO. 1835, VOL. 71 |
The present ;
latter is the velocity potential due to a source and a
sink within the given surface, and the former also can
be interpreted physically, but the interpretations are
not recorded. In the case of a spherical boundary,
which is worked out, the results are attributed to
Bjerknes and Beltrami. It would seem that these
writers, therefore, virtually anticipated Hicks’s dis-
covery of the image of a source with respect to a
sphere. One misses the interpretation in terms of
images. The mathematics is there, but the author
does not tell us what it means. Nevertheless the
mathematics is excellent.
In chapters ii. and iii. we have so much of the
ordinary theory as is requisite for the purpose of
setting out the equations and conditions which govern
the motions of fluids, and we have also an extension to
discontinuous motions. The fact that was emphasised
by Hugoniot is that the motion is not necessarily
continuous. He paid especial attention to the case
in which the velocity is everywhere continuous, but
the differential coefficients of the components of
velocity are discontinuous at a moving surface. The
discontinuities at such a surface are not arbitrary, but
are subject to three sorts of conditions. The surface
moves through the fluid like a wave. One set
of conditions connects the discontinuities with the
direction of the normal to the surface. A second set
connects them with the velocity of propagation. These
two sets of conditions are kinematical. To determine
the velocity of propagation the dynamical equations
must be introduced. The kinematical conditions are
called ‘‘ conditions d’identité’’? and ‘‘ conditions de
compatibilité,’? and they are expressed by means of
some elegant geometry. The necessity for such con-
ditions has been recognised by other writers in the
case of discontinuities that affect the velocity. The
latter are here called ‘‘ waves of the first order.’
The origin of Hugoniot’s discontinuities, called
““ waves of the second order,’’ is found in an analytical
paradox. If the pressure is a function of the density,
the equations of motion determine the acceleration of
every particle; but, if the motion of a boundary is
prescribed, the normal component of the acceleration
of the particles that are in contact with the boundary
is prescribed also. The two values thus obtained for
this acceleration are in general different. Waves of
the second order originate at the boundary, and are
propagated through the fluid.
Chapter iv. deals with rectilinear motion in a gas,
and is mainly occupied with the problem, first attacked
by Riemann, of discontinuities that affect the velocity.
Riemann’s theory was condemned by Lord Rayleigh
on the ground that it violated the principle of energy,
and the problem remained in an unsatisfactory state
for many years. It was taken up again by Hugoniot
in 1887 without knowledge of Riemann’s work.
Hugoniot introduced expressly the condition that the
increment of energy—kinetic and internal—of the
portion of fluid which undergoes a sudden change of
state is equal to the work done upon it by the pres-
sures of neighbouring portions, and he concluded that
the law connecting pressure and density (p=xpyY)
The | cannot be maintained during the passage of the dis-
ae wet
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
197
continuity. This conclusion is opposed to Riemann’s
theory. H. Weber, in his recent edition of Riemann’s
‘‘Vorlesungen itiber die partiellen Differentialgleich-
ungen der mathematischen Physik,’? has contended
that a complete calculation of the energy supports
Riemann’s theory against Lord Rayleigh’s objection,
but he did not refer to Hugoniot. In the book under
review no mention is made of Lord Rayleigh’s objec-
tion or of H. Weber’s contention, but Riemann’s
theory and Hugoniot’s are developed side by side, and
the results are compared both with each other and
with the results of certain experiments by Vieille.
Much of the analysis is worked out and interpreted
by the aid of geometrical constructions, but the reader
wishes often for a more physical interpretation.
Chapters v. and vi. contain extensions of the
theories of the preceding chapters to motion in three
dimensions and to waves in elastic solid media. The
physical value of a theory of rapid motions, accom-
panied by strains that are not “‘ small,’’ in an elastic
solid, supposed to have a strain-energy function, is
extremely doubtful; but no exception can be taken to
the analytical methods by which the theory is de-
veloped. Chapter vii. brings the theory of waves that
do not involve discontinuities of velocity or strain into
relation with the theory of characteristics of partial
differential equations. The discovery of the relations
between these two theories has attracted a good deal
of attention recently, and we may be grateful to M. |
Hadamard for his masterly exposition of the subject.
A few notes are appended to the volume. Of these the
most interesting is the one in which it is shown that
discontinuities of the first order may give rise to vortex
motion, even when the pressure and density in the
undisturbed state are uniform throughout the fluid.
It is a sign of the healthy state of mathematics in
France that the ablest analysts are bringing their
powerful methods to bear upon recondite physical
questions. The book under notice is a very valuable
contribution to a most important and, at the same
time, a most difficult subject. It breaks fresh ground,
and it cannot fail to stimulate inquiry. It may be
expected to conduce to the further advance of our
knowledge of aérodynamics Neel ae Slo iba,
THE .GREAT ST. BERNARD PASS.
Across the Great St. Bernard. The Modes of Nature
and the Manners of Man. By A. R. Sennett. Pp.
xvi+444 and 111; illustrated. (London: Bemrose
and Sons, 1904.)
ye FLUENT but not too accurate pen, and a general
knowledge of the more frequented districts of
the Alps appear to be Mr. A. R. Sennett’s chief
qualifications for writing this book. It has a compre-
hensive title, and needs it, for the St. Bernard Pass
is hardly more than a thread to connect, if possible,
quotations in prose and verse, scraps of science and
history, descriptions of scenery, and moralisings on
things in general. The author has nothing new to
tell us about the St. Bernard, which is not sur-
prising, for the pass has been often described, and a
carriage road now goes the whole way from Martigny
NO: 1835, V0L. 70 |
to Aosta. Mr. Sennett, however, informs us that
Hannibal crossed it ‘‘ with his vast army,’ of which
he proceeds to describe the sufferings. Notwithstand-
ing what has been written by Law, Ellis, Freshfield
and others, we are well aware that it is not easy to
determine what route Hannibal did follow, but thought
that the Great St. Bernard was no longer advocated
by anyone who had studied the question.
Other statements are disputable. We are told the
soldanella flower protrudes through the edge of the
névé (which does not mean the winter snow); that the
edelweiss dwells ‘‘in snow, owning a habitat where
no other flowering plant may survive,’’ and as “ its
haunt is far removed from all verdant vegetation and
in the most craggy and inaccessible positions,’’ we
cannot expect to see it growing at the botanical station
in Bourg St. Pierre, and so forth. This village is
rather more than 5300 feet above sea-level, and the
plant is often found between this and 6000 feet ; indeed,
it can be cultivated in England. As for the craggy and
inaccessible positions, we had thought newspaper
correspondents now enjoyed a monopoly of this fiction.
Like any other Alpine plant, it may grow in a break-
neck place, but its favourite habitat is a rough slope
of grass and stone. It used to grow profusely on a
place of this kind, where it could be gathered in perfect
safety, on a mountain ridge about a thousand feet
above San Bernardino,
But Mr. Sennett, though prone to discuss scientific
questions, does not always win our confidence. The
| “Tertiary period of the London Clay” is an odd
phrase, and adamantine an inappropriate epithet for the
firn or upper basin of a glacier; and in what respect the
Lago di Garda resembles a diadem we fail to perceive.
To his vision of a Europe the glacier fields of which
only just failed in reaching the Alps we are perhaps
accustomed, but think that most geologists at the pre-
sent day would speak less confidently of glaciers having
scooped out the Alpine lake basins, or having “‘ cut out
gorges for themselves through the solid mountain,
divided enormous peaks in twain, planed down and
levelled great asperities.’’ The Marjelen See does not
lie in a lake basin, but simply at the head of a glen,
blocked by the great Aletsch Glacier, and after seeing
it one day full and the next empty, we utterly disbelieve
Mr. Sennett’s explanation that it is emptied on the
principle of a syphon. The name Mérjelen, which he
prefers, may be patois, but the other form is more
usual; so also is Gondo for Gonda, Guttannen for
Guttenen, Meiringen for Meyrengen, and, notwith-
standing Baedeker, Penninus for Pceninus (the title of
the Alpine Jupiter). The science is discursive and
commonplace, where not enriched by extracts from
Tyndall or Ruskin, or yet more ornamental writing.
Mr. Sennett may think in English, but is so
prone to translate into journalese that we sus-
pect he was trained in a certain Fleet Street
haunt of young lions. We cannot welcome the verb
““resurrect,’’ the adjective ‘‘ riverian ’’ (of or belonging
to a river), or “lithic ’’ (a favourite one) when plain
folks would say stony or rocky. The book, however,
contains numerous illustrations, often pretty, but it is
tiresome to have them (except in the appendix) only
198
NATURE
( DECEMBER 29, 1904
numbered, and to be obliged to consult a list to see what
they are, especially when we are sometimes greeted
with fanciful titles instead of place-names. ‘* Dame
Nature’s Painters ’’ does not much enlighten us, but
it looks very like a view down the lower part of
the Via Mala. But the author has tried the dangerous
experiment of mingling poetry and science, and we
cannot honestly congratulate him on his success.
0.1G. Bs
TRACHOMA.
Trachoma. By Dr. J. Boldt. Translated by J.
Herbert Parsons, D.Sc., F.R.C.S., and Thomas
Snowball, M.B., C.M. With an_ introductory
chapter by E. Treacher Collins, F.R.C.S. Pp. lii+
232. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904.)
R. BOLDT’S monograph on ‘‘ Trachoma,’’ pub-
lished at the end of last year, deals with a subject
presenting many problems to which no satisfactory
solutions can at present be offered. It is therefore a
matter for congratulation that an English translation
of such an excellent résumé of the subject has been
prepared. Dr. Boldt has been working for many years
in one of the trachoma infested centres of Germany,
and has been constantly faced during that time with
these unsolved problems, and in the book before us he
clears the ground of all the lumber which gathers
round any subject of discussion, and states clearly the
present condition of our knowledge and the lines on
which future investigation must go.
The first and most important difficulty met in deal-
ing with trachoma is that at present the ztiological
factor is unknown. The discussion of this question
in chapter iv. particularly, and incidentally in chapters
iii. and v., will be, to ophthalmic surgeons, the most
interesting part of the book. The author distinctly
inclines to the view that there is a specific organism,
the primary cause of trachoma, as yet undiscovered,
but that also an individual predisposition and a number
of subsidiary causes, such as climate, soil and race,
overcrowding, uncleanliness, and other social evils, are
also contributing causes.
Many workers at the present time are inclining to
lay much greater stress on the importance of the in-
dividual predisposition and to hold the view that the
disease may be set up by any bacterium which is patho-
genic for the conjunctiva. The large number of cases
in which some scrofulous taint can be traced is dis-
tinctly in favour of this view. It has been frequently
shown that in such people any infection will give rise
to a lymphoid hypertrophy, and the essential pathology
of trachoma is primarily a hypertrophy of lymphoid
follicles with subsequent degeneration of the lymphoid
tissue and formation of scar tissue. Dr. Boldt, with
absolute fairness, gives both hypotheses and the argu-
ments which have been advanced by various writers
in support of them.
It would be of undoubted benefit to the community
if this book were to get into the hands of two classes in
particular, the men who are concerned in the adminis-
ration of the Poor Laws of the country, and those con-
d in the medical and sanitary administration of
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
a
the Army. The excellent introductory chapter by Mr.
Treacher Collins gives details of the most useful work
which is being carried on at Swanley, and of the in-
fluence that proper hygienic measures have had
generally in checking the disease. Dr. Boldt gives
similar details of the progress and subsequent check-
ing of trachoma throughout the various countries of
Europe. It would indeed be well if the last chapter
were separately printed and distributed as a pamphlet
to the various boards of guardians and health officers
throughout the Empire.
We have nothing but praise for the way in which
the translators have carried out their work. We
could nowhere detect a trace of German origin in the
style.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
The Cyclones of the Far East. By Rey. José Algué,
S.J. Second (Revised) Edition. Pp. 283. (Manila:
Bureau of Public Printing, 1904.)
In the present edition the author has extended the
area dealt with in the earlier editions, and as abundant
additional data have been collected, not only from the
Philippines themselves, but also from the surrounding
coasts, this information has now been embodied. The
author says that, ‘‘ owing to the opening up of the
Far East in recent years, an endeavour has been made
to extend the usetulness of the work by giving a
greater compass to the study of the phenomena which
cause, accompany, and follow the atmospheric /per-
turbances which are experienced in the various seas
of the Far East.’’ The title of the revised edition is
changed from ‘Cyclones of the Philippines ’’ to
‘* The Cyclones ot the Far East.’’ The present edition
appears in English, and is freed from the formidable
list of errors found in the English version of an earlier
edition. Among the many additions contained in this
new edition may be mentioned some practical rules
for navigating in case of encountering a typhoon, and
a list and description of the ports of refuge during
storms in the Far East, especially in the Philippine
Archipelago.
Commendation should certainly be given of the care-
ful arrangement and division of the whole work, which
aid much the general study and grip of the valuable
material, whilst numerous illustrations add much to
the elueidation of the subject. Father Algué must
be credited with what is only too commonly over-
looked. At the conclusion of each chapter reference
is given to the works which may be consulted in con-
nection with the branch of the subject dealt with.
The references appear to have been chosen with the
greatest impartiality and with the sole desire to render
the work as complete as possible. This example may
commend itself to authors of other branches of scien-
tific work.
The principal cause which influences the progressive
movement of typhoons is said to be the general move-
ment of the atmosphere in which they take place,
not of that part only which overlies the land and sea
over which they pass, but especially of that portion of
the atmosphere which moves at higher altitudes, as
we are to look there for the seat of the greater part
of the energy and power which nourish and sustain
the atmospheric whirls. _This opinion is endorsed by
all who discuss the nature and law of storms, but,
unfortunately, too little light can be thrown on the
movement of the upper air, although praiseworthy
efforts are being made in this direction.
——_e
oe ee
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
199
The storms which visit the Philippine Archipelago
vary greatly in frequency according to season, the
months with the greatest number being July, August,
and September, whilst the months with the least
frequency are January, February, and March. Much
good work is done in the classification of cyclones, and
diagrams are given showing the paths of eleven
different types. Considerable attention is paid to the
precursory signs of cyclones, and naturally much im-
portance in this direction is attached to the form and
movement of clouds. ‘
The whole treatise is suggestive of further scientific
inquiry, and Father Algué has done much by this work
to advance our knowledge of the law of storms.
H.
The Animals of New Zealand: an Account of the
Colony’s Air-breathing Vertebrates. By F. W.
Hutton and J. Drummond. Pp. xiv+ 381; illus-
trated. (Christchurch and London : Whitcombe and
Tombs, Ltd., 1904.)
SoME months ago, when noticing Captain Hutton’s
valuable ‘‘ Index ”’ of the New Zealand fauna, we had
occasion to refer to the impending issue of the present
volume ; now that it is before us, we are happy to be
able to state that it fully realises our expectations,
and forms a most valuable history of the air-breath-
ing vertebrates of the colony, written in a pleasant style
which cannot fail to make it acceptable to a large circle
of readers. At starting, the authors refer to their in-
debtedness to the late Mr. T. H. Potts, who did such
good work in describing a fast vanishing fauna before
it was too late. The melancholy story of the waning
of this curious and interesting fauna forms, indeed,
the key-note of the introduction of the volume. From
the time that Captain Cook, in 1773, turned down pigs
in Queen Charlotte’s Sound, the native fauna has had
to contend with competitors from Europe of a stronger
and more aggressive type, the natural result being
that many forms, like the tuatera lizard, have already
disappeared from the mainland, although in some
instances surviving in the adjacent islets, and many
more are destined to go ere long. Among the latter
(if, indeed, it be not already extinct) is the short-tailed
bat, the sole representative of the genus Mystacops,
its rarity, or extermination, being attributed to the
destruction of insect life caused by the introduction of
European birds. i
From a purely commercial standpoint the authors do
not, however, by any means condemn the introduction
of many of the foreign species, having even a good
word to say for the much abused sparrow. ‘‘ Witkout
the sparrow, or some other bird equally common,”’ they
write, ‘‘ residents in the colony would be over-run with
the insects again, and life would be insupportable.”’
The phrase concerning insects, it may be explained,
refers to the ‘‘ plagues’’ of various species which
occurred when European food-crops were first intro-
duced into the colony. On the other hand, the intro-
duction of certain species, such as the greenfinch and,
above all, the rabbit, is most strongly condemned. The
acclimatisation of several kinds of deer is considered
to be of considerable advantage to the general pro-
sperity of the islands, as it leads to the visits of
European sportsmen.
Among the species which have suffered most severely
from foreign competition may be mentioned the two
bats, the kiwis, the wela rail, and the tuatera. The
moas appear to have been completely and_ the
Notornis all but exterminated by the Maories before
the European advent.
Limitations of space alone prevent further commend-
ation of a very excellent, interesting, and beautifully
illustrated work.
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
|
Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben. By Prof. Dr.
Rhumbler. Pp. 43. (Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 1904.):
Price 1 mark.
Tuts little work represents a sketch of the author’s
views on the causes and means of manifestation
of cellular activity. The point of view adopted is a
materialistic one. It is considered that the whole
subject should be dealt with from the physical or the
physico-chemical aspect, even when this fails to present
a complete solution of all the difficulties that may arise.
It is becoming more and more recognised that many
of the acts which used to be regarded as specially the
outcome of vital activity find their parallel in inorganic
nature. An amoeba when ingesting a filament of
oscillatoria much longer than itself is able com-
pletely to enclose it because the algal thread becomes
coiled up within the protoplasmic body of the proto-
zoan. But an exactly similar state of things is pro-
duced if a drop of chloroform is placed in water and
a filament of shellac be then presented to it. The fila-
ment is drawn into the chloroform, and coiled up much
as the alga in the amceba; and if a short glass thread
be coated with shellac, it is also ‘‘ ingested,’’ but as
the lac becomes dissolved the glass thread is
gradually extruded. The whole question here resolves
itself into one of surface tension, and perhaps the pro-
cesses of ingestion and excretion may ultimately prove
to be essentially similar in nature.
Again, the remarkable uniformity in the details of
nuclear divisions (karyokinesis), from whatever source
the cells may originate, strongly suggests that a com-
prehensive physical explanation of the process will one
day be forthcoming.
But although the physical aspects of cellular activity
will certainly become more clear and definite, this is
only the first step on to the threshold of the temple in
which the secret of life is guarded. Behind the proxi-
mate physical phenomena lies a vast complex of chang-
ing chemical conditions, and it will be long before we
are likely to be able exhaustively to analyse them. The
more successfully we do so, however, the more nearly
shall we be able to grapple with the physical problems
of movement and the like. Rhumbler regards changes
of surface tension, and the reactions that affect it, as
constituting one of the most profitable of the many
possible lines of cytological investigation.
By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S.,
(London: Chatto and
Studies in Astronomy.
MoRALAS Pp) xi-+-3306:
Windus, rg04.) Price 6s.
In this book the reader is presented with a series of
disconnected essays on a variety of astronomical sub-
jects, many of which include interesting and suggestive
results of calculations made by the author. The sub-
jects range from “‘ giant telescopes "’ to the “ construc-
tion of the visible universe,’’ but Jupiter is the only
planet to which any detailed reference is made, and
the sun is only dealt with from the point of view of
its stellar magnitude and its motion in space. The
chapter on ‘‘ Messier’s nebulz,’’ bringing together all
the recent information with regard to these objects,
will be of considerable value to those who possess
telescopes, and the notes comprising *‘ recent advances
in stellar astronomy ’’ give a useful summary of the
state of our knowledge of the subjects dealt with at
the beginning of the present year.
Most of the papers have already appeared
magazine articles, and, notwithstanding the revision
which has been made for the present purpose, there is
necessarily a considerable amount of repetition. Apart
from this, however, the book provides a very accept-
able course of not too difficult reading for those who
have a general elementary acquaintance with the
subject.
t
as
200
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 29, 1904
Salts and their Reactions. By Dr. L. Dobbie and H.
Marshall. Pp. 198. (Edinburgh: James Thin,
1904.) Price 3s. 6d. net.
Tuts book is intended to serve as an introduction to
the study of practical chemistry, and has for its basis
a series of notes intended for use in the Edinburgh
classes. In an interesting preface Prof. Crum Brown
states his belief in the possibility of devising a course
that would be “ something better than a mechanical
training to enable students to pass a mechanical ex-
amination consisting in the detection of simple salts
in solution.’’ Notwithstanding this assurance, one
finds that about half the book consists of descriptions
of the ordinary tests and schemes of analysis common
to most books treating of elementary practical
chemistry.
The first part of the work consists of a short and
very clear account of the general physical properties |
of salts and salt solutions. An outline is given of the
ionisation hypothesis and of its applications, some of
which are practically illustrated at a later stage.
After a short account of the nature and use of in-
dicators, a chapter is devoted to alkalimetry and
acidimetry. The experimental part of the book, ex-
cluding the sections on qualitative analysis, is only
represented by about twenty-five pages, and although
the selection of experiments has evidently been care-
fully made, it seems a pity that the practical illustra-
tion of a really excellent theoretical introduction should
be so meagre.
The remainder of the book is taken up with a de-
scription of the reactions of metallic and salt radicals,
and with schemes for analysis. In several small par-
ticulars a departure from the conventional methods
has been made with distinct advantage. Dry-way
reactions, which so few chemists appear to appreciate,
are relegated to an appendix, which also contains the
inevitable and perfectly useless description of the re-
actions of the so-called rare elements. Teachers who
have the management of large practical classes should
find the volume of value.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]|
Radiation Pressure.
On p. 515 of your issue of September 22 I stated that
there is a retarding force on the earth as it moves along its
orbit amounting in all to about 20 kgm. The calculation
was made on the supposition that the earth is a full radiator
of uniform temperature. I have found on revising the
calculation that there was an error in the arithmetic, and
that the force is considerably greater, though still too small
to have an effect worth considering. The following is a
simple method of obtaining its value. It assumes that the
earth may be treated as a black sphere exposed to sun-
light, radiating as much as it receives, and with all its
surface at one temperature.
If the stream of solar energy falling normally on
I sq. cm. is S per second, a black sphere, radius a,
receives 7a°S per second. If it radiates R per second per
sq. cm. its total radiation is 47a*R, and the assumption of
equal receipt and expenditure gives R=S/4. The total
repulsive force exerted by the sun’s radiation is Sza?/U,
where U is the velocity of light. The total retarding force
due to velocity u in the orbit is 4/3 Ru/U*.za?. This is the
Doppler effect due to crowding of energy in front and open-
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
ing out behind (Phil. Trans., A, ccii. p. 546, corrected by
final note). Hence we have
Retarding force_
Solar repulsion 3U™
At the earth’s distance u/U is about 10o-*, so that the re-
tarding force is about 1/30,000 of the solar repulsion.
If we take S/U as 5-8x 10—° dyne/sq. cm. (Phil. Trans., ~
the earth as
repulsion is about
radius of
solar
and the
total
loc, éit;,. ‘Pp.
539),
6-37 X 10°
cm., the
75X10° kgm., say 75,000 tons, and the retarding force is
about 2500 kgm.
But another effect comes in which will more than counter-
balance this. The hemisphere of the earth which is
advancing in the orbit is on the whole colder than that
which is retreating, owing to the lag in the warming of
the surface exposed to the sun. I find that if one hemisphere
is at 301° A, and the other at 300° A., the greater radiation
from the warmer side gives a net push directed from that
side to the colder of about 165,000 kgm. Of course this
hemispherical distribution of temperature is only a rough
approximation to the real condition, and even if the force be
as large as 165,000 kgm. only a component of it acts along
the orbit tending to accelerate the motion. Still, that com-
ponent must almost certainly be much greater than the re-
tarding force due to the Doppler effect, and on the whole,
therefore, there is probably a small acceleration in the orbit.
A force of 2500 kgm. would destroy about 4/10** of the
earth’s momentum in one year. Even if the accelerating
force were twenty-five times as great as this it would only
generate 1/10'° of the present momentum in one year.
This illustrates the insignificance of radiation pressure on
the larger bodies in the solar system.
I take this opportunity of correcting another error in the
address in Nature of September 22, which has been pointed
out to me by Mr. C. T. Whitmell. It arose from some very
faulty arithmetic on p. 541 of the paper in the Philosophical
Transactions already referred to. Apparently in the formula
giving the radius of each of two equal spheres the mutual
radiation-repulsion of which balances their gravitative
attraction, a square root of 10 was omitted, and the value
of that radius should be a=o.696?/10*p. A wrong value
was also assigned to the density of the sun. Mr. Whitmell
has very kindly re-calculated the results depending on this
formula, and I have worked them out independently. We
now find that two equal spheres will have equal radiation-
repulsion, and gravitative attraction with radii as given
below :—
Temperature Radius in
absolute Density centimetres
6200 - 1°375 1930
300 oe I a 6'1
300 ses II 0°5645
300 = 55 rig
The last was given previously as 3-4 cm.
The effect of radiation pressure on terrestrial dust is
worthy of consideration, for it may be quite appreciable
when the particles are small and are among surroundings
at different temperatures. For simplicity of calculation, let
us suppose a very small dust particle, of density p, to be
cylindrical with radius a and length a, and let its flat ends
be black and let its curved surface be perfectly reflecting.
Let it be situated between two indefinitely extended parallel
vertical walls, one at a temperature 6,° A., the other at a
lower temperature 6,° A., and let its ends be parallel to the
walls. The two faces of the dust particle will, if it is small
enough, be at very nearly the same temperature, so that
we may leave out of account the pressures due to the emitted
radiation and consider only those due to that received from
the walls. If o is the radiation constant 5-32 x 10-°, and if
U is the velocity of light, the difference of pressure on the
two sides will be 20(6,*-@,*)/3U, and the acceleration due
to this on area za? and mass pma* is 20(6,*-6,*)/3Upa.
When p=1, a=10-*, 6,=400° A., f:=300° A., this acceler-
ation is 0-02 cm./sec.?.
etcetera sees Cnr = aie
pe EA
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
If the law of radiation pressure can be taken as still
holding when the radius is reduced to a=10~—°, the acceler-
ation is 2 cm./sec.?.. This implies that such a particle of
dust, in a yacuum, and between vertical walls respectively
at 27° C. and 127° C. would not fall vertically, but would
deviate about 2 mm. per metre towards the colder wall.
The effect found by Prof. Osborne Reynolds (Phil. Trans.,
ii., 1879, p- 770) on a silk fibre exposed to radiation from
a hot body, and assigned by him to “‘ radiometer ’’ action,
is far larger than this. The radius of the fibre was
0000625 cm., and its length was probably about 15 cm.
When it was hung up in a test tube containing hydrogen
at atmospheric pressure, and was exposed to radiation from
a neighbouring jar filled with boiling water, the lower end
of the fibre moved through o-or cm. This would imply an
acceleration of about 0-7 cm./sec.*,- about sixty times the
acceleration on a dust particle of the same radius under the
conditions assumed above. The action detected by Reynolds
increased, too, very rapidly as the pressure fell, being ten
times as great when the pressure was reduced to 1 inch of
mercury. J. H. Poyntine.
The University, Birmingham, December 15.
The Date of Easter in 1905.
ALREADY queries have been addressed to me on the subject
of the date of Easter in 1905, owing to the fact that, accord-
ing to the almanacs, the moon is full at 4h. 56m. Green-
wich mean time on the morning of March 21 next, and that
therefore, according to the Prayer Book rule, it would
appear that Easter Day should be the Sunday following
March 21, viz. March 26. As the misunderstanding on the
subject seems widely spread, perhaps you will allow me to
explain that the ‘‘ moon’’ referred to in the ecclesiastical
calendar is not the actual moon in the sky, which is full
at a definite instant of time, but a fictitious moon, the times
of the phases of which are so arranged as not to differ much
from those of the actual moon. These phases are held to
occur, vaguely, on certain days, and therefore hold good
for all longitudes, and so avoid a practical inconvenience
that would arise from the use of the actual moon. Thus, in
the instance before us, in which the actual moon is full at
4h. 56m. a.m. Greenwich mean time, the same moon is
full at rth. 48m. p.m. (on the preceding day) Washington
mean time. The people adopting Greenwich time would,
therefore, in the supposed circumstances, keep Easter Day
on March 26, whilst those adopting Washington time would
keep it on April 23.
Perhaps the simplest expression for the date of the Paschal
full moon is March (44—epact), which gives the date
directly when the epact is less than 24. When the epact is
equal to or greater than 24, this expression gives the date
of the preceding full moon, and the Paschal full moon is
found by adding 29 to this date.
Thus in 1905 the epact is 24, therefore the calendar moon
is full on March 20, and again on April 18. The latter is,
by the rule, the Paschal full moon, and Easter Day is the
following Sunday, viz. April 23.
A. M. W. Downine.
H.M. Nautical Almanac Office.
Lepidocarpon and the Gymnosperms,
THE concluding sentence in your note on Mr. H. E. H.
Smedley’s admirable models of the fructifications of
Palzozoic plants (Nature, December 22, p. 183) may
possibly be misleading to some of your readers. As the
models of Lepidocarpon shown in your figure were pre-
pared from my instructions, I may be supposed to share
the responsibility for the hypothesis of an affinity between
the lycopodiaceous cones and the Gymnosperms, stated to
have been urged by ‘“‘ the author,’’ especially as the points
of agreement mentioned are quoted, with some slight
abridgment, from my paper on the seed-like fructification
of Lepidocarpon in the Philosophical Transactions.1 Such
1 Phil. Trans. R.S., Series B, vol. cxciv., 1901, p. 320. See also NATURE,
vol, Ixiii., 1900-1901, pp. 122 and 506.
No. 1835, VOL. 71]
NATURE
201
an affinity has never appeared to me to be probable. The
characters cited—the presence of an integument and micro-
pyle, the single functional megaspore, and the detachment
of the indehiscent, seed-like organ as a whole—are im-
portant points of analogy with true seeds, but in Lepido-
carpon “‘ these organs differ too much in detail from the
seeds of Gymnosperms to afford any evidence of affinity.’’?
I doubt whether my friend Mr. Smedley really intended
to suggest anything more than an analogy.
As regards the Gymnosperms, evidence has been accumu-
lating for some time past indicating their connection with
the fern-phylum rather than with the Lycopods. Some
account of this evidence will be found in my discourse at
the Royal Institution on the origin of seed-bearing plants
(1903),* while a more recent summary is given in Mr.
Arber’s article on Palzozoic seed-plants in Nature for
November 17, p. 68.
The seed-like organs of some Paleozoic Lycopods, such
as Lepidocarpon and Miadesmia,* seem to be cases of homo-
plastic modification, and not to be indicative of any affinity
with those groups of seed-plants which have come down
to our own day. D: HH. Scorr:
Jodrell Laboratory, Kew.
Fishing at Night.
THE notice in your Journal of the ‘‘ Sea Fishing Indus-
try,”’ written by Mr. Aflalo, suggests to me that he or some
other of your readers may inform me why sea fishing takes
place for the most part at night. I have heard the subject
discussed all my life, and the answers have been of the most
opposite and unsatisfactory character, such as to obtain a
supply of fish for the morning markets, and because fish
come nearer to the surface in the dark. Everyone must be
familiar with the sight of our fishing boats preparing to
take their departure as the evening approaches in the
different harbours.on our coasts. Some of the masters,
unfortunately, like the Apostle Peter, have toiled all night
and caught nothing. Ss. W.
December 20.
A New British Bird!
A FINE example, a male, of the Pacific eider-duck, Soma-
teria v-nigrum, was killed at Scarborough on December 16.
This is the first recorded instance of the occurrence of this
bird on our shores. Closely resembling the common eider,
Somateria molissima, it may yet be readily distinguished
therefrom by the bright orange colour of the bill, and the
sharply defined, black V-shaped mark on the throat—hence
the specific name v-nigrum.
The Pacific eider occurs in abundance along the coasts
of north-western America and north-eastern Asia.
W. P. PycraFt.
Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Intelligence of Animals.
In reference to the question of intelligence in animals, it
may be of interest to mention a case of distinct reasoning
power in a cat which for nine or ten years associated him-
self with our family ; he would have scorned the suggestion
that he belonged to it. When he found himself on the wrong
side of a closed door—a very constant occurrence—he stood
up and, catching the handle in his fore paws, rattled it.
I do not think he tried to turn the handle, but he certainly
knew that it played an essential part in the opening of the
door. He is now no more, and de mortuis nil nisi bonum
bars any further reference to his career, for he was a dissi-
pated old scoundrel ; but it is a pleasure to me to pay, with
your permission, the above little tribute to his memory.
Greenock, December 17. T. S. Patterson.
1 Phil. Trans., loc. cit, p. 324.
2 NaTUuRE, Vol. Ixviii., p- 377-
3 Miss M. Benson, ‘‘A New Lycopodiaceous Seed-like Organ," New
Phytologist, vol. i., 1907, p. 58-
to
(@)
to
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 29, 1904
FAUNA OF THE HIGHLANDS.
at HIS handsome new addition to Mr. Harvie-
Brown’s ** Vertebrate Fauna of Scotland ’’ main-
tains the high standard of excellence which has marked
the preceding volumes. It is punctiliously accurate
and at the same time picturesque and full of interest.
One of the authors, the
Rev. H. A. MacPherson, a ah
sacrificed himself too
whole-heartedly to an
enthusiasm for ornith-
ology, and died in roor at
the e of forty-three, and
Mr. MHarvie-Brown has
also to deplore the loss of
another collaborator, Mr.
lr. E. Buckley, who died
in 1902. Of both these
naturalists there are
appropriate in memoriam
sketches.
This volume deals
specially with the western
parts of the counties of
Sutherland and Cromarty
west of the great
““ watershed ’’—and_ with
similar portions of Ross-
shire and Inverness-shire
down to the boundary of
“Argvyil.’’ In the intro-
ductory matter we find
terse physiographical
accounts of Skye, the
Ascrib . Islands, Handa,
Priest Island, and _ the
coast of the mainland,
designed to illustrate the
most outstanding faunal
feature of the area,
namely, its isolation. Mr.
Lionel W. Hinxman con-
tributes a brief account of
the geology of the north-
west Highlands, and
there is another interest-
ing section dealing with
climatic and other
changes, including those
due to the hand of man.
Few of these can be said
to do man’s intelligence
much credit.
Mr. Harvie-Brown con-
fesses that the chief in-
terest of the area in ques-
tion is the comparative
poverty of its fauna.
‘“The true faunal value
lies in its isolation by sea
and mountain
“Tt appears to me to be
rans
ges.
struggle for existence amid which some species are
still advancing. What Mr. Harvie-Brown particularly
seeks to show is that the hemmed-in nature of the area
is a main reason for its faunal poverty; thus some of
the more prominent land-features of the country, such
as the long tongue of land of Ardnamurchan, act as
deterrents to the advance of land birds from south to
almost the poorest and
least favoured of our
Scottish Faunal \reas Fic. 1.—Fulmar’s first nesting-place
both as regards species
ind in its paucity of in-
dividuals of many of them But it includes
some old frequented haunts of some of our now
rarer birds, it illustrates faunistic changes traceable
climat changes, and it gives evidence of a keen
North-West High Sk " By J. A. Harvie
H. A. MacPherson. Py trated. (Edinburgh
g ) iPr
) From ‘“‘A Fauna of the N
C Handa (at
Highlands and Skye.
jnorth. The nature of the soil, the vegetation, the dis-
tribution and character of wooded areas, and the
climatic conditions have also to be borne in mind, but
Mr. Harvie-Brown has not done justice to himself or
to his theme in his treatment of this aspect of the
problem Of course it is not given to everyone to be
a Humboldt, but without attaining to his compre-
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
hensiveness of outlook it would not have been difficult
to improve the chapter on the ‘* Faunal Position ”’ of
the area in question; and even in regard to the par-
ticular factors which Mr. Harvie-Brown emphasises
in his interpretation of the faunistic peculiarities of the |
areas, his ‘‘ argument,’’ as he calls it, appears to us too |
jerky and elliptical to win conviction. But he gives
some references to papers dealing with the physio- |
graphical conditions in some detail.
Turning to the list of mammals—which is somewhat
mournful—we find that there is only one bat, the
pipistrelle; the hedgehog, the lesser shrew, and the |
water-shrew are rare; the true wild cat still lingers;
foxes, once very numerous, are now scarce; the marten,
once abundant, is trembling in the balance between
rarity and extinction; the polecat has become decidedly
rare; a colony of badgers still persists; the rabbit, intro-
duced about 1850, is in many places taking a rapid—
lamentably rapid—hold of newly afforested grounds;
and so on. The chief value of such
The book is beautifully got up and illustrated, and
though, unfortunately, somewhat of a luxury, is sure
to be welcomed by those who are interested in the
wild life of Scotland. Its mood is one that will foster
interest in open-air natural history, and the thorough-
ness of its lists should help to lessen the ruthless
killing of supposed rarities. pages
A NATURALIST IN SARAWAK.!
IN CeeLY forty years ago Dr. Beccari, the well
L known traveller-naturalist, made extensive
journeys in Sarawak, but not until now has he pub-
lished an account of his experiences; indeed, for this
volume we have to thank the Ranee, H.H. Lady
Brooke, who wisely urged Dr. Beccari to give the
public the benefit of his knowledge, for, as she justly
stated, the conditions have practically remained un-
changed from times unknown.
information lies in the precision with
which it records increase or decrease,
e.g. of squirrel and polecat, within a
term of years, and thus _ illustrates
evolutionary processes going on around |
us.
We need hardly refer to the records
of adder, lizard, and slow worm, of
frog and toad, and two newts; but we }
may be allowed to note, without being
‘captious, that the title on the back of
the book and on the beautiful frontis- |
piece, ‘“‘ A Fauna of the North-West |
Highlands and Skye,’’ is somewhat
too big for the volume, which deals
with mammals, birds, reptiles, and |
amphibians, and no more. |
The most entertaining part of the |
books is that which deals with the birds,
in regard to which the authors speak
from rich experience and with infec- |
tious enthusiasm. _ There is naturally
enough a dominant note personnel, but
it is always pleasant, even when the
information given does not seem very
important. Among the rare visitors
we may mention the lesser whitethroat,
the barred warbler, the nuthatch, the
golden oriole, the great grey shrike,
the waxwing, the rose-coloured pastor,
the roller, the hoopoe, the osprey, the
fbittern, Pallas’s sand-grouse, the red-
necked phalarope, the great crested
grebe, and the fulmar. Among the
most interesting residents are the
|
: |
chough, the raven, the hen-harrier, the }
sea-eagle, the rocl dove, and the
~s a — ee ——
ptarmigan. This section is rich in his-
torical material, e.g. in regard to the
starling, the golden eagle, the sea-
eagle, the osprey, the grey lag and the
fulmar. Apart from their historical interest, the |
notes on the birds are full of interesting observa-
tions, and some of the descriptions by the late
Mr. MacPherson are fine pieces of picturesque writing.
Mr. Harvie-Brown gives here and there an inkling
of his strong views on bird protection; thus, ‘ the
Bird Acts require steady and relentless revision and
change. The idea of saving trouble at Westminster
and County Council and Sheriff Courts, by dividing
Great Scotland into two divisions—north and south—
for all species mentioned in these Acts, is absurd, and
appears to me to be eminently calculated to defeat all
useful purposes of the Acts.’”
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
goose,
Fic. 1.—Adult Male Mayas Tjaping.
From *‘ Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo.’
Dr. Beccari collected in the land of the Land Dyaks,
of the Sea Dyaks, and of the Kayans, not to mention
less numerous peoples, and he gives a first-hanc
account of the people, their houses, dress, weapons, anc
ways. All this is very interesting reading, but there
is little, if anything, that has not been recorded in
Ling Roth’s great compilation ‘‘ The Natives o
Sarawak and British North Borneo,”’ or in the writings
of more recent travellers. Indeed, it is the great faul
of this book that the numerous contributions that have
of late years been made. to the natural history anc
1
Travels and Researche?
. Beccari. ‘lranslated by Dr. E. H
H. H. Guillemard. Pop. xxiv+424
o., 1904.) Price 16s. net
Naturalist in Saray
i, and revised and
illustrated. (London:
204
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 29, 1904
ethnology of Sarawak are one and all ignored. A few
references are given to older publications or the
Sarawak Gazette, and to some of the papers based on
the collections sent home by Dr. Beccari. The reader
must consequently bear in mind that there is a con-
siderable amount of information about the animals and
people of Sarawak which, to say the least of it, supple-
ments Dr. Beccari’s book. To the ethnologist the
chief value of the book lies in the identification of
animals, and especially of plants, employed by the
natives, as the author not only gives their uses, but
their native and scientific names.
The general naturalist will find the book packed
with interesting information. Dr. Beccari is an
enthusiastic and keen witted field naturalist. The in-
tending traveller will pick up many valuable sugges-
tions, and the stay-at-home naturalist will gain an
extremely good idea of the conditions of life in the
opinion that at least two species of orang-utan exist
in Borneo, Dr. Beccari has come to the following
conclusions :—There is no well authenticated case of a
female with lateral face-expansions, though there is
some evidence that such do occur; but there are young
orangs with milk dentition which have them well de-
veloped, and adult male individuals are found with
the expansions rudimentary. Not associated with the
above character is the frequent absence of the terminal
phalange of the hallux with the total or partial sup-
pression of the nail. Evidently there is great vari-
ability in the orang, but Dr. Beccari holds that there is
only one species of Simia satyrus with two main varie-
ties, ‘‘ tlaping ’’ with lateral adipose cheek-expansions.
and highly developed cranial crests, and ‘* kassa ”’
with no lateral cheek-expansions and its skull devoid
of strongly pronounced crests. Nevertheless, he
suggests ‘‘that in a remote past the Mayas tjaping
Fic. 2.—-Rafflesia Tuan-Mud2, Becc. (flower 22
jungkes of Borneo. The author not only describes
what he saw, but he seeks to trace the interdependence
of organisms upon one another and their relations to
the environment. As Dr. Bececari is a professional
botanist, the botany of a tropical forest is dealt with
more fully and with greater knowledge than is usual
in similar books, and those botanists who are interested
in ecology will find much that will be of service to
them.
The most important zoological observations are
those on the orang-utan. The Dyaks recognise
several varieties of orang, the two more important
being the ‘‘ Mayas kassa ”’ and the ‘‘ Mayas tjaping,”’
with a laminar lateral expansion of naked skin in front
of each ear. (In a foot-note we read that tjaping, in
Malay, is the term applied to a small, nearly triangular
piece of silver which is hung in front of baby girls
as a fig-leaf.) Wallace and others have expressed the
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
inches in diameter).
From ‘* Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo.”
and the Mayas kassa were two quite distinct species,
perhaps having their origin in separate regions, and
only later coming into contact on the same area. . .
at present it seems hardly likely that the two races
should remain distinct.’? Dr. Beccari brought home
a large number of skins, skeletons, and heads of these
animals, and he confesses to have killed and wounded
others which he could not take away. He adds
practically nothing to our knowledge of their habits.
Dr. Beccari does not hesitate to throw out a number
of hypotheses, many of which will by no means be
implicitly accepted by biologists; for example, he
suggests (p. 32) that the prominent nose with narrow
nostrils directed downwards of the Semitic people is
associated with living in an open country, ‘‘ whilst
Negroes and Malays, for the most part dwellers in the
forest, have snub noses with wide nostriis turned up-
wards, such as characterise most monkeys.’’ Again,
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
he says, ‘‘ I have always thought that there must have
been a formative epoch, in which every creature had
the power of special adaptation to its own needs—nay
even to its own wishes or caprice. In this epoch of
‘plasmation ’ when the so-called force of heredity—
which tends to reproduction according to the type of
the progenitor—had but little power, the world being
still young, the organism must have been far more
susceptible of modification by external forces (p. 36).
. . . The actual power of adaptation in organisms is
at the present day well nigh non-existent as compared
with what they must have possessed in the past (p. 211).
. .. The varied forms assumed by those groups of
individuals called by naturalists species, would be
merely the result of a plasmative force exerted by
surrounding conditions on primitive beings (p. 208).
. .. May it not be that the Rafflesia, and a host of
other aberrant species, both animals and plants, are
examples of the autocreation of organisms (derived
from exceptional circumstances of the environment)
and suddenly appeared a l’improviste, as it were, in
that primitive epoch during which organic matter was
easily plasmated, so as to adapt itself with facility
even to extraordinary conditions of existence? (p. 389).
. .. Therefore, contrary to the present prevailing
tendency to attribute a powerful action to variability
during the existing period, and to consider every species
as inconstant, I hold the opposite opinion, namely,
that at the present time species do not vary in Nature,
returning thus to the old idea of the nearly absolute
fixity of existing species (p. 210).”’ It is interesting
to compare these views with those arrived at by Alfred
Wallace, who wandered in the same jungles; and, as
Dr. Guillemard, the English editor, rightly observes,
““ Whether the scientific reader does or does not admit
the validity of all Dr. Beccari’s theories concerning
species-formation, he cannot call in question his
abundant experience of the country, or his knowledge
of the subjects of which he treats.”” AS ©. HA.
OILS FOR MOTOR-CARS.
OSSIBLY this article may be of interest to rvaders
of Nature who are not chemists, and therefore
no apology need be made for treating certain parts
of the subject in an elementary manner. The com-
mercial names for motor-oils are numerous and con-
fusing, and the automobilist may well be puzzled to
discriminate between them, even if his chemistry has
by no means become a mere schoolboy reminiscence.
The various liquids in use at the present time as
fuels for motors are derived from three sources, namely,
crude petroleum, coal tar, and alcohols. By far the
largest quantity is furnished by the petroleum. Coal-
tar “ spirit ’’ is scarcely beyond the experimental stage.
Alcohol is somewhat largely used abroad, but at pre-
sent is almost out of the question in this country.
Products from Crude Petrolewm.—These, so far as
motor fuel is concerned, are two: a light oil and a
heavier or “ burning ”’ oil. The light oil, in one grade
or another, is variously known as gasoline, petroleum
spirit, petrol, petrol spirit, motor spirit, mineral spirit,
motol, moto-essence, naphtha, petroleum-benzine, and
benzoline. Of these, gasoline has the lowest density,
benzoline the highest. The oil is obtained in the dis-
tillation of American crude petroleum, and may be
said generally to be the portion of the distillate pass-
ing through the still between the temperature-limits
of 60° C. and 150° C., and having a specific gravity
ranging from 0.68 to 0.74. The limits, however, vary
somewhat with the different refineries. To obtain a
good motor ‘‘ spirit’ this fraction of the distillate is
purified with sulphuric acid and with soda, and rectified
NO. 1835, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
205
by re-distillation. Such a spirit is clear, has no strong
odour, and leaves no residue when evaporated from
the hand. Two or three years ago the best English
petrol had a specific gravity of 0.680; but, for reasons
to be mentioned later, the density has been gradually
raised, and is now generally about 0.720 or more.
Chemically, light oil or petrol is a mixture of several
members of the homologous series of paraffin hydro-
carbons, C,Hony>o %It is generally assumed to be
mainly heptane, C,H,,, and octane, C,H,,, but both
lower and higher members are usually present, and
some analyses indicate that the range may commonly
be from hexane, C,H,,, to undecane, C,,H,,. A point
to notice is that whilst petrol as a whole is a light,
volatile oil, it is by no means a homogeneous liquid.
The different hydrocarbons composing it have not the
same volatility &s one another, and they require
different quantities of air for their complete com-
bustion.
The heavier oil obtained from crude petroleum corre-
sponds to what is ordinarily known as kerosene, petro-
leum oil, or paraffin. It is obtained by refining the
fraction which distils between 150° and 200°, and
has a density of about 0.78 to 0.81. This product con-
tains higher members of the paraffin series than those
of petrol. It is consequently less volatile, and has a
higher flash-point.
Kerosene is not only cheaper than petrol, but safer
in the handling. Why, then, is petrol used so largely
as a motor fuel instead of kerosene? And why are
some kinds of petrol better than others? To answer
these questions we have to remember that, to form the
proper explosive mixture for the engine, it is necessary
to have the vapour of the liquid mixed with a particular
proportion of air. With too little air the mixture burns
too gently; with too much there is a diluent clfect,
and liability to failure of ignition. The ready volatility
of petrol allows of the requisite mixture being made
more easily, more certainly, and with a simpler form
of carburetter than when kerosene is used. Failure to
ignite is less frequent, and the combustion is cleaner.
Nevertheless, since the supply of petrol is not limit-
less, attempts are being made, with some success, to
utilise kerosene as a source of motor energy. The
principle employed is that of heating up the vapour of
the kerosene, or the liquid itself, in order to allow of
a readier admixture with the air in the carburetter.
This is effected either by the heat of the exhaust or
by some other special contrivance. A ‘‘ smokeless
petroleum engine ’’ has recently been described which
is said to run without smoke or smell, and without
“sooting ’’ the cylinder. It will not, however, start
with the cold kerosene. Petrol is used for the first
revolutions in order to heat the vaporiser and raise
the kerosene to the necessary temperature.
As regards differences of quality met with in motor
spirits (petrol), the first thing to notice is that the
higher the density of the liquid the nearer does it
approach to the character of Ierosene and to the
possession of the disadvantages peculiar to the latter.
To meet the growing demand, makers have been rere
and more inclined to eke out their supply of petrol by
including a portion of the heavier fractions that were
formerly rejected. Hence many of the present oils are
to that extent of inferior quality. Next, the density
alone is not an infallible criterion, because a spirit
having a density of, let us say, 0-700, may be made up
in different ways. Ideally, it might consist of a single
hydrocarbon having the density in question. On the
other hand, it might be compounded of two hydro-
carbons having widely different densities, such as 0.660
and o.740 respectively. In the first case it would distil
completely at one uniform temperature, in the second
there would be a difference of perhaps a hundred
206
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 29, 1904
degrees between the initial and the final boiling points.
With homologous hydrocarbons the lower-boiling
member vaporises more readily than the higher; con-
sequently, in practice, the vapour from the second
spirit would in the early stages of a run contain an
excessive proportion of the more volatile constituent,
and in the later stages too much of that which is
less volatile. For satisfactory combustion these two
constituents require very different proportions of air;
hence if the carburetter was initially arranged to give
the proper quantity it would not do so in the later
stages. The practical bearing is that, to avoid waste
of fuel or loss of heat, more attention must be paid to
the carburetter when the petrol has a wide range of
boiling points than when it is more nearly homo-
geneous. :
As already mentioned, the petrols in actual use
consist of several hydrocarbons; there is none contain-
ing only one, or even only two. But the foregoing
examples typify the better and the inferior qualities
respectively.
Products from Coal-tar.—These are known com-
mercially as benzol or benzole, benzine, and coal-tar
spirit, all of which terms mean nearly the same thing,
and toluol, which is a very similar liquid of lower
density. (Benzol or benzine should be distinguished
from benzoline, the petroleum product previously re-
ferred to.) In the first group the aromatic hydro-
carbon benzene, C,H,, is the chief constituent, but
toluene, C,H,, and xylenes, C,H,,, also accompany it.
Benzol is commercial benzene, i.e. benzene with some
impurities and homologues; benzine is a cruder
variety; these differ only in the proportions of the
admixtures, and are often indistinguishable the one
from the other. Coal-tar spirit is a general term for
either. In America and in France, as well as some-
times in this country, the term ‘‘ benzine ’’ refers to
the petroleum naphtha, not to the coal-tar product.
Benzol has a greater density than petrol (about 0.883
at 15°-5 C.), and a higher boiling point, viz. about
902 (Ce Nevertheless, it has the advantage of dis-
tilling, as a whole, within much narrower limits than
most varieties of petrol do. Thus, while there may
be a difference of more than 100° C. between the initial
and final boiling points of petrol, a good sample of
“‘go’s benzol ’’ will distil completely within a range of
about 55° C. or less, i.e. between 90° and 145°
Benzol is consequently more like the ideal homo-
geneous fuel than petrol is, and this, together with the
necessity of supplementing the supply of petrol by
some other fuel, has led to its frequent employment
abroad and to experimental trials in this country.
Deutz benzol locomotives have been used for some time
in Germany, and the tram-cars of the Saalgau-
Herbertingen-Riedlingen line are worked by a 14 h.p.
benzol motor, whilst a mixture of benzol and alcohol
is used in some of the French racing cars. So far as
the German experience has gone, the results are said
to indicate that the benzol motor is about ro per cent.
cheaper in working than the alcohol engine. The
British trials seem to show that benzol works more
uniformly than petrol, and is generally satisfactory,
except that with too great a compression in the
cylinders there is a liability to pre-ignition.
One disadvantage of benzol is the presence in it of
sulphur compounds, chiefly carbon disulphide and thio-
phene. These not only give an evil-smelling exhaust,
but may conceivably corrode the metal of the cylinder
through the formation of acid vapours in the combus-
tion. Probably at a cost of about a penny per gallon
the benzol could be sufficiently freed from sulphur,
and it is thought that, with a good demand, the purified
liquid might be supplied at a price of about 7d. a
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
gallon, or less. Unfortunately, however, the
supply of benzol is even more limited than that of
petrol; the yield from coal-tar is only some 0.6 per
cent., and much of what could be produced is already
absorbed by the chemical and dye industries. It seems,
therefore, very unlikely that benzol will ever largely
supplant petrol, though it may usefully supplement
this fuel.
Toluol (crude toluene), of lower density but higher
boiling point than benzol, has also been recently tried,
though not on a sufficiently extended scale to give
much practical information. Benzol is essentially a
mixture of pure benzene and toluol, and in one respect
the mixture is better than pure benzene, because the
latter freezes at 0° C., and this is prevented by the
presence of toluol.
Alcohols as Fuels.—The industrial side of the ques-
tion has encouraged the use of alcohol in France and
Germany, since, other things being equal, it is better
to support home agriculture than foreign oil-fields.
Strong alcohol can be bought in Germany at a cost
of 83d. to tod. per gallon, and at this price its use
is said to be economical compared with petrol. Pure
alcohol, of course, is heavily taxed—in this country
the duty amounts to 17s. per gallon of go per cent.
alcohol—and that used for motor purposes is ‘‘ de-
natured ’”’ by the addition of foreign substances. In
England the denatured product is methylated spirit,
obtained by mixing “ spirits of wine ’’ with not less
than one-ninth of its bulk of wood-naphtha, and when
intended for retailing, with 0.38 per cent. of mineral
naphtha or petroleum oil in addition. In France the
denaturant is a mixture of heavy ‘‘ benzine’’ and
malachite green. Ordinary methylated spirit, in some
experiments made a short time ago, was said to give
an exhaust with an odour so vile as would preclude
its general use; this is attributed to the denaturant,
and to obviate it one suggestion is that alcohol in-
tended for motor-fuel should be denatured with petrol.
There are, however, some fiscal difficulties in the way.
Alcohol is a substance already partly oxidised; it
contains rather less hydrogen than does petrol, and
only about one-half as much carbon, the difference
being made up of oxygen. Consequently its available
heat-energy, viz. the heat developed by the complete
oxidation of its carbon and hydrogen, is not much
more than one-half that of good petrol. Nevertheless,
it has some compensations. It is of nearly uniform
composition, and distils within much narrower limits
than petrol; in fact, strong alcohol, not denatured, is
an almost homogeneous body, which boils away com-
pletely at a practically constant temperature. More-
over, it is claimed that the alcohol engine has a much
greater efficiency than the petrol motor. To get the
best results, however, it has been found necessary to
use a higher compression than that given by the
ordinary petrol engine. In some cases both petrol and
alcohol are employed, with two*carburetters; the petrol
is used for starting, and is automatically cut off by a
governor when the motor is sufficiently hot. The net
result of the alcohol trials at present seems to be that,
for equal volumes, petrol is appreciably more efficient
than denatured alcohol; but the difference is not con-
siderable, and fluctuations in price may yet make
alcohol a serious competitor with petrol where the fiscal
difficulties can be overcome.
The cheaper higher alcohols of fusel oil (chiefly
amyl and butyl alcohols) have also been proposed for
use as motor-fuels. But practical trials are lacking,
and in any case the supply of fusel oil is only a limited
one. For the principal motor-fuel of the future it is
probably to kerosene that we must look. —
C, SIMMONDS.
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
ADMIRAL SIR ERASMUS OMMANNEY,
K.C.B.5 FiteS-
WELL-KNOWN figure has been lost to scientific
circles by the death of Admiral Sir Erasmus
©mmanney, K.C.B., F.R.S., which occurred on
December 21, at ninety years of age.
Erasmus Ommanney was born in London so long
ago as the year 1814, and entered the Navy in 1826.
He became Lieutenant Ommanney in 1835, and at
once volunteered to serve under Sir James Ross in
the voyage for the relief of a number of missing
whalers reported to be caught by the ice of Baffin’s
Bay, and on the coasts of Greenland and Labrador.
‘The objects of the expedition were successfully carried
out, notwithstanding the extreme danger of the navi-
gation during the winter months.
In 1850 he was appointed second in command under
Captain Horatio Austin on the Arctic expedition in
search of Sir John Franklin; and in August of that
year was the actual discoverer of the first winter
quarters of Franklin’s ships. He also directed an
extensive system of sledge journeys, by which the
coast of Prince of Wales Land was laid down. After
his return from the Arctic he was elected a Fellow
‘of the Royal Society for his services to science.
After his retirement in 1877, he threw himself with
zeal into the work of numérous learned societies, of
which he was an energetic member. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
been a member of the council. He was also a Fellow
of the Royal Astronomical Society. An active mem-
ber of the British Association, he had served upon its
council, and went with it to Canada in 1884 as
treasurer, receiving on that occasion the honorary
degree of LL.D. from the McGill University,
Montreal. :
The funeral took place at Mortlake Cemetery on
Tuesday afternoon. Among the wreaths placed upon
the coffin was one from the president and members
of the Royal Geographical Society.
NOTES.
Ir is proposed to establish in the University of Liverpool
a memorial to Mr. R. W. H. T. Hudson, late lecturer in
mathematics, whose brilliant career was so tragically cut
short at the end of last September. The will
probably take the form of an annual prize in mathematics,
memorial
to be awarded for distinction in geometry, the subject in
which Mr. Hudson’s work chiefly lay. For this purpose
a sum of tool. would be required. Contributions to the
fund should be sent to Mr. Alexander Mair, the University,
Liverpool. ;
Dr. J. MacInrosu Bett, a nephew of Dr. Robert Bell,
T.R.S., has just been appointed Government geologist of
New Zealand. Dr. MacIntosh Bell has seen much active
service on the Canadian Geological Survey, having worked
during four seasons under his uncle, the director. In the
spring of 1899 he went with Dr. Robert Bell to Great Slave
Lake, where he spent the following winter, and in 1900
he was sent to Great
further north. On his return he was employed in 1901 and
1902 as geologist by the Lake Superior Commercial Co.,
and in 1903 by the Ontario Bureau of Mines.
Bear Lake, several hundred miles
REPLYING to a vote of thanks, after laying the foundation-
stone of the Chelmsford Free Library, School of Art, and
Museum on December 21, Lord Rayleigh said that the visit
to Stockholm from which he had just returned was of great
interest. His colleagues and he received almost a royal
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
NATURE
207
welcome, and at the banquet which formed part of the pro-
ceedings it was very much impressed upon them that what
Nobel had in view in providing his prizes was to bring
scientific men of the various countries together not merely
for the advancement of science, but to promote good feeling
and the cause of peace between the nations of the world.
Lady Rayleigh afterwards distributed the prizes to the
students of the local science and art classes.
Lorp Ketvin has accepted the nomination of the council
for the presidency of the Faraday Society, in succession to
Sir Joseph Swan, F.R.S.
Tue death is announced of the Rev. J. M. Bacon at the
age of fifty-eight. Mr. Bacon had made a
balloon ascents for scientific purposes, and
results of his studies are described in his
Dominion of the Air ’’ and *‘ By Land and Sky.”’
number of
the
“ The
some of
works
AccOoRDING to the Patria, negotiations have been entered
upon by the Italian Minister of Posts and Telegraphs and
the British Postmaster-General view to establish
wireless telegraphic communication between the stations of
Poldhu and Bari.
with a
We are informed that the constitutional amendment
exempting the California Academy of Sciences from further
taxation was carried at the election, November 8, by a
majority of nearly 11,000.
Tur bog-slide reported in several newspapers as having
occurred on December 7 between Frenchpark and Castlerea,
in the north part of the county of Roscommon, appears
now to have come to rest, after invading a village and
covering a large area of agricultural land. Local inform-
ation reaches us to the effect that clefts still remain visible
in the bog, but that the hollow formed at the origin of
the slide is gradually closing in. The flow is attributed to
heavy rain, with which existing means of drainage were
unable to cope. Lord de Freyne is erecting huts for the
dislodged tenantry, and about twenty men still
engaged at Christmas in clearing the main road from its
peaty covering.
were
On December 22 the airship Lebaudy II. made its
thirtieth experiment in aérial direction at Moisson, near
Mantes. In these voyages the Lebaudy II., the volume of
which has been brought up to 2063 metres, returned each
time to the shed which shelters it, after having gone away
to distances so great as ten The length of the
balloon is 64 metres, and its regular crew consists of three
people. Several times, however, it has taken passengers,
as many as six persons having ascended at one time. The
speed attained by its own propulsion, measured with a
registering anemometer, may be estimated at 4o kilometres
The airship has been talken out in wind blow-
It has risen to the
miles.
per hour.
ing at 5 or 6 kilometres, and in rain.
altitude of 500 metres. The ascent of December 22
the last of the autumn campaign, eighteen ascents having
been made during the months of November and December.
During this were decide
whether an astronomer aboard an airship can know the
Was
season experiments made to
precise geographical position of the balloon when he makes
his observation. An ascent was made between 1 and 2 a.m.
on a foggy morning. In the been
acetylene searchlight equalling 100,000 lamps of ten candles
each, like those at the Exposition of the Grand Palais.
car had taken an
The balloon was invisible to persons on the earth, and the
the But the
movements
earth itself could not be seen by aéronauts.
light. could easily be distinguished, and its
208
followed. Next year new voyages to considerable distances
will be undertaken, like that from Moisson to Paris, or to
the Crystal Palace from London. In its last trial the
Lebaudy II, remained inflated for sixty-four days.
With Mr. C. G. Barrett, whose death was announced
last week, has disappeared one of the last of the old school
of British lepidopterists, contemporary with Doubleday and
Newman. The first mention we can find of Mr. Barrett’s
name is in the list of entomologists in the ‘“‘ Entomologist’s
Annual ”’ for 1857, but from that time onwards he became
a frequent contributor to the Entomologist’s Weekly
Intelligencer, and afterwards to its successor, the Entom-
ologist’s Monthly Magazine, the first number of which
appeared in June, 1864, so that the fortieth year of this
periodical has been marked by the demise of two out of
the seven editors whose names appear on the early numbers
of 1904, Robert McLachlan, the last of the original staff
who still continued to act, and C. G. Barrett, who joined
the staff of that magazine in 1880, and became a member
of the Entomological Society of London in 1884. Mr.
Barrett was an enthusiastic and very successful collector of
British Lepidoptera, and as he held a position in the Excise
which involved his being moved from one station to another,
he had great facilities for investigating the insects of
widely separated localities. Perhaps the most important of
his captures was the extremely interesting moth which he
obtained on the Hill of Howth, near Dublin, and was named
Dianthoeia Barrettit after him. Mr. Barrett’s contributions
to entomology, with one notable exception, were published
almost exclusively in magazines, but in 1892 he commenced
his great work, ‘‘ The Lepidoptera of the British Isles,’’ in
serial parts, and he had completed the Macro-Lepidoptera
at the time of his death. Mr. Barrett’s last paper, a de-
scription of the larva of Doryphora palustrella, Douglas
(one of the Tineina), appeared in the Entomologist’s
Monthly Magazine for the present month, so that he may
be said to have died in harness.
Tue Standard’s correspondent states (December 26) that
the Vienna Veterinary Institute has just opened a labor-
atory for the study of the diseases of fish, which will be
in charge of Prof. Fiebinger.
Tue Paris correspondent of the British Medical Journal
details some of the conclusions of the committee appointed
to investigate Dr. Doyen’s claims respecting the cause and
treatment of cancer (December 24, p. 1720). M. Metschni-
koff, one of the committee, states (1) that in culture tubes
inoculated by Dr. Doyen with cancerous material in his
presence the Micrococcus neoformans developed; (2) that
the characters of the microbe so obtained agreed with
those described by Dr. Doyen as characteristic of the
M. neoformans ; (3) it is not yet possible to report on the
specificity or pathogenic characters of the microbe; (4) it
is not possible yet to state whether Dr. Doyen’s serum has
a curative action or no. It will be seen that this report
is a very guarded one, and very different from the details
published in the daily Press.
WE learn from the Times (December 21) that a consider-
able number of beautifully worked flints have recently been
discovered at Culmore, which is said to be in the south
of Scotland, but we have been unable to find the locality on
maps. The spot where the flints were found has the appear-
ance of having been surrounded by marshy ground, and it
is possible that the flint-tools may have belonged to lake-
dwellers. Arrow-heads, scrapers, anvil and hammer stones,
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[ DECEMBER 29, 1904
are abundant among the worked flints. The collection has
been acquired by Mr. Ludovic Mann, and will be exhibited
for a few weeks in the People’s Palace, Glasgow.
THE annual conversazione of the Royal College of Science
and Royal School of Mines was held at the college as we
went to press last week, and was attended by about five
hundred guests. The company included Sir Norman
Lockyer, Sir Arthur Riicker, Mr. Morant, Prof. Judd (the
dean), Prof. Tilden, Prof. Perry, Prof. Callendar, Prof.
Gowland, and Mr. G. W. C. Kaye (secretary). There were
many interesting exhibits in the various departments in
chemistry, physics, astrophysics, mechanics, metallurgy,
mining, geology, and biology, under the direction of their
respective professors. The Solar Physics Observatory was
open by permission of Sir Norman Lockyer, and a kinemato-
graph exhibition was given, while the college company of
the Corps of Electrical Engineers showed a searchlight.
Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S., delivered a lecture during the
evening on radium and twentieth century alchemy.
Spolia Zeylanica for October contains the description by
Mr. Boulenger of a new snake of the genus Aspidura, and
an illustrated account by Mr. J. L. Hancock of the
Cingalese representatives of the grasshoppers of the family
Tettigide.
Tue October number of the American Naturalist is
entirely devoted to botanical subjects, even the usual pages
of notes being omitted. In the first article Prof. Penhallow
completes his account of the anatomy of conifers, in the
second Dr. B. M. Davis contributes the fourth instalment
of his studies of the plant-cell, while in the third Prof.
D. H. Campbell discusses the affinities of the ferns of the
groups Ophioglossaceee and Marsilacez.
At the meeting of the Zoological Society held on
December 13 Mr. Rothschild exhibited a wonderful series
of mounted skins and skulls of gorillas and chimpanzees,
most of which had been set up by Rowland Ward, Ltd. A
long paper was also read on this unique collection, in the
course of which the author stated that he recognised four
different forms of gorilla, two of which constituted species.
Unfortunately, in our opinion, he advocated the transference
of the name Simia satyrus, so long applied to the orang-
utan, to the chimpanzee. Surely a title to a name ought
to become valid after such a long period of unchallenged
use.
Two articles from the twentieth volume of the Journal
of the Imperial University of Tokyo were received by last
mail. In the first Mr. T. Fujita discusses the mode of
formation of the germinal layers in gastropod molluscs.
More general interest attaches, however, to the second, in
which Mr. H. Yabe describes a number of cephalopod re-
mains from the Cretaceous rocks of Japan, this being his
second contribution to the subject. Most of the species
belong to European genera, and the large size of some
of the specimens of turrilites is very noticeable. We have
also received article 8 from vol. xviii. of the same serial,
in which Mr. B. Hayata gives a list of the plants of the
order Composite found in Formosa.
In the December number of Bird Notes and News the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds records its efforts
in regard to the late osprey case in Surrey. It may, how-
ever, be asked whether it would not be well to admit that
the preservation of such stragglers is a practical impossi-
bility, and that ospreys and motors are incompatible.
Similarly, in view of recent letters in the Field, the question
ee er
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
209
as to whether birds are or are not harmful requires dis-
cussion on a business footing, altogether apart from senti-
ment. If they are proved harmful, we can decide whether
we will put up with the damage for the sake of the attrac-
tion they add to the landscape; but let us abandon attempts
to gloss over charges of damage and to defend birds at all
costs. The society urges the advisability of establishing
a “bird and tree day ’’ throughout the country; possibly
an excellent way of developing interest in nature—but this
time will show.
WE have received four zoological papers from American
serials. The first (from the Proceedings of the Boston
Natural History Society) contains a list of molluscs from
Frenchman’s Bay, Maine, by Mr. D. Blaney, while in the
second (from the same journal) Mr. W. R. Coe discusses
the terrestrial nemertean worms of the genus Geonemertes
from Bermuda. These worms, it may be remembered, were
first discovered, dwelling in company with ordinary earth-
worms, during the Challenger cruise, but the specimens
were lost, and no others were ever collected until 1898 and
1go1. In the third paper (from the Proceedings of the
U.S. National Museum) Mr. P. Schmidt re-determines a
Japanese fish, while in the fourth (from the Proceedings
of the American Academy) Messrs. Parker and Starratt
record some interesting experiments with regard to the
effect of heat on the colour-changes of the American
chameleon-iguana (Anolis carolinensis).
Messrs. Jordan, Russell, and Zeit publish details of ex-
periments on the longevity of the typhoid bacillus in water
(Journ. of Infectious Diseases, i., No. 4, p. 641), from which
it appears that under conditions probably closely simulating
those in nature the vast majority of typhoid bacilli intro-
duced into a water perish within three or four days. This
is rather opposed to the views now generally prevailing,
and needs confirmation before it can be absolutely accepted.
At a meeting of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
fheld on December 15 Messrs. Thomas and Macqueen read
a paper on methods of dealing with dust in the air and
gases from explosives in a Cornish mine (Dalcoath).
Miners’ phthisis is especially due to inhalation of stone
dust, and it is found that the use of a water-jet with machine
drills entirely prevents dust if used from the commence-
ment of operations and properly directed, a coarse spray
‘being more efficient than a fine one, but is difficult to apply
when the drill-holes become deeper than about two feet.
James’s water blast was found particularly effective for
laying the dust caused by shovelling and blasting.
AN interim report has been issued by a
appointed by the British Association to inquire into
ankylostomiasis in Britain. The Ankylostoma is an intes-
tinal parasite producing serious and sometimes fatal effects.
The report states that there are many channels by which
the Ankylostoma might be introduced into British coal
Mines (it has been introduced into the Westphalian coal
fields and into the Dalcoath tin mine in Cornwall, as
already recorded in these columns). The conditions exist-
ing in our mines are such that it would probably flourish
and become firmly established. Once introduced it is
doubtful if it could ever be eradicated, and therefore it is
recommended that proper sanitary regulations should with-
out delay be formulated and enforced to prevent infection
of the pits.
committee
A ReEPoRT by Drs. Haldane and Wade has been issued
by the Local Government Board on the destruction of rats
and disinfection on shipboard, with special reference to
plague. For destroying rats the burning of sulphur, the
NO. 1835, voOL. 71]
use of liquid sulphurous acid, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid,
and the Clayton process are discussed. Carbonic oxide,
while very fatal to rats, has no effect on insect vermin and
no disinfecting action, and having no odour may be
dangerous to man, and may form an explosive mixture
with air. Carbonic acid, while fatal to rats, is similarly
without lethal effect on vermin, has no disinfecting action,
and a large quantity is required, which makes it expensive,
but it is less dangerous to man than carbonic oxide, Burn-
ing sulphur is tedious and only applicable in empty cabins
and holds, but is cheap and fairly effective. Much the
same may be said of liquid sulphurous acid, but it is quicker
though mere costly. The Clayton process consists in burn-
ing sulphur in a furnace, the fumes from which are pumped
into the holds, &c., and is probably the best of the methods
discussed. Properly carried out it is fatal to rats and all
vermin, has considerable disinfecting and penetrative
power, is not likely to cause accident as its odour is so
marked, but it damages certain articles, especially if
damp, and does not diffuse well in a closely packed hold.
Tue area planted with cotton this season in the West
Indies is estimated in the Agricultural News, November 109,
at from eight to ten thousand acres, excluding Carriacou,
where four thousand acres were planted mostly with Marie
Galante cotton. Of this amount Barbados and St. Vincent
each have sixteen hundred acres under cotton, and in St.
Kitts the acreage exceeds two thousand acres. The crops
generally are much healthier than in the previous year, and
an output of about 5000 bales may be expected.
Tue Quarterly Record of the Royal Botanic Society of
London for the second quarter of this year contains an
account of the horticultural exhibition held in June, and
most of the papers read at the conferences have been pub-
lished. The educational section attracted a number of
speakers and visitors when nature-study and horticulture
formed the subjects of addresses by Sir George Kekewich,
Mr. F. Verney, and others. At the forestry conference
Prof. W. R. Fisher delivered the address, in the course
of which he discussed the selection of seeds of forest trees,
and advocated the formation of experimental stations in
order to study the suitability of different trees for particular
districts and soils.
Tue morphological nature of the ovary in the genus
Cannabis has engaged the attention of many botanists, in-
cluding Payer, C. B. Clarke, and Briosi and Tognini;
finally, Dr. Prain, having been deputed by the Government
of India to report upon the cultivation of gdnjd, has upon
the evidence of certain abnormal forms contributed a new
explanation in No. 12 of the Indian Scientific Memoirs.
Previously the views had been expressed that the pistil
consists either of a single carpel, or of two carpels of
which the anterior alone is developed, and bears an ovule ;
the bicarpellary nature of the ovary is, in Dr. Prain’s
opinion, fully borne out by specimens showing phyllody of
the gyncecium, but it is the posterior carpel which is fertile.
With respect to the character of the diclinism of the flower,
this is shown to be primitive and not vestigial.
de Moidrey, S.J., of
useful
We have received from the Rev. J.
the Zi-ka-wei Observatory, an interesting
memoir on the climate of Shanghai, based upon observ-
ations made between 1873 and 1902. The coldest weather
occurs about the beginning of February, and the warmest
about August 1, nearly forty days after the solstices. The
mean temperature for thirty years at Zi-ka-wei was 59°-2 F.,
and the mean range 43°-2. The extreme readings were :—
102°-9, minimum variation of the
and
L i}
maximum 10°-2. A
210
NATO RES
(DrcEMBER 29, 1904
climate is not apparent. The average monthly relative
humidity is 78 per cent.; the annual variation is insignifi-
cant, averaging only 4 per cent. The average yearly rain-
fall is 43-6 inches; June is preeminently the rainy month,
both for frequency and amount, while December is the
driest month. The paper contains useful remarks upon the
cyclones experienced over the China seas.
We have received a copy of ‘‘ Meteorology in Mysore '’
for 1903, being the results of observations at Bangalore,
Mysore, Hassan, and Chitaldrug; these observing stations
lie at the corners of a quadrilateral comprised between
12° 18’ and 14° 14’ N. latitude and 76° 10’ and 77° 36’ E.
longitude, Bangalore being 190 miles west of and 3000
feet higher than Madras. ‘The results, including the means
for eleven years, 1893-1903, have been very carefully
worked out by the director, Mr. John Cook, and contain
some interesting features. The highest reading for eleven
years of air temperature in shade was 103° at Chitaldrug
in April 1901 and 1903, and the lowest 42°-7 at Hassan in
December, 1895. The mean relative humidity varied from
57 per cent. to 62 per cent., but extreme dryness was
occasionally experienced, the humidity varying between
4 per cent. and 6 per cent. Rainfall is fairly uniform
throughout the province, varying from 26} to 37% inches
per annum. The value of the report would be enhanced
by a key-map of Mysore and surrounding districts.
In the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy, cxiii., 3
and 4, Dr. Fritz Hasendhrl discusses the laws of reflection
and refraction of light as applied to a body which is moving
relative to the ether, in connection with the thermodynamical
aspects of the principle of reciprocity, and also the vari-
ations in the dimensions of matter due to motion through
the ether.
In No. 86 of the Communications from the Leyden
Physical Laboratory Dr. H. Kamerlingh Onnes and Dr.
H. Happel discuss the application of Gibbs’s volume-energy-
entropy model to the representation of the continuity of the
liquid and gaseous states on the one hand, and the various
solid aggregations on the other. For this purpose models
have been constructed for an ideal substance, showing the
continuity of the solid and liquid as well as of the liquid
and gaseous states.
A SERIES of experiments on. the influence of abnormal
position upon the motor impulse is described in the Psycho-
logical Review for November 1 by Mr. Charles Theodore
Barnett. Without going into the theoretical aspect of these
investigations, we notice that the author refers to the well
known puzzle of drawing a rectangle and its diagonals in
front of a looking-glass, and the difficulty of playing the
piano with crossed hands, as Beethoven so often requires in
his sonatas, is another illustration which suggests itself.
Part i. of vol. xlviii. of the Transactions of the Institution
of Engineers and Shipbuilders of Scotland contains a paper
by Mr. F. J. Rowan on the smoke problem, which is of
especial interest on account of the recent inquiry by Sir
John Ure Primrose at the sanitary congress in Glasgow
into the connection of smoke with the production of rain
and fogs in large cities. It is pointed out that although
domestic fires are principally responsible for atmospheric
pollution in a large town, only the smoke issuing from
factory chimneys is subject to municipal control, and that
many kinds of industrial furnaces, other than those used
for raising steam, are employed in operations of such a
that they large
NO. 1835, VOL. 71 |
nature cannot but necessarily produce
volumes of smoke. In dealing with the question of the
prevention of smoke from furnaces used in connection with
steam boilers, the employment of smoke-consumers, smoke-
washers, and similar appliances is condemned, and a system
of gas firing is advocated. Mr. Fyfe, the sanitary inspector
of Glasgow, in the course of the discussion of the paper,
stated that although the Public Health Act empowered
prosecution in the case of ‘‘ any chimney (not being the
chimney of a private dwelling house) sending forth smoke
in such quantity as to be a nuisance,’’ it was customary in
Scotland, under the Burgh Police Act, not to proceed against
other kinds of furnaces than those used for heating boilers.
His own experience had convinced him that gas firing was:
not absolutely necessary in such cases, but that by means
of a suitable and inexpensive smoke-consumer, consisting.
of ignited jets of producer gas, all the smoke could be got
rid of, and an additional supply of heat given to the boiler.
SamPLes of an improved form of crucible lid have been
sent to us by Messrs. J. J. Griffin and Sons. It is made
slightly convex towards the crucible, and has been designed
to obviate the loss of substance which so readily occurs in
simple gravimetric experiments, such as the conversion of
copper into copper oxide by means of nitric acid, when the
ordinary form of crucible lid is employed.
ACCORDING to a paper by M. Bertrand in the Comptes:
rendus (No. 20, p. 802) mountain ash berries not only con-
tain the alcohol sorbitol, but an isomeric alcohol, sorbierite,
is also present. To obtain it the sorbitol is completely con-
verted into sorbose by the action of the sorbose bacterium,
and the sorbose is removed by crystallisation. Sorbierite
has been obtained from the mother liquor in the form of
deliquescent crystals. That the new alcohol is hex&hydriec
has been established by the cryoscopic determination of its
molecular weight, and by the preparation and analysis of
the di- and tri-benzoic acetals.
A very interesting paper dealing with the primary form-
ation of optically active substances in nature is contributed
by Dr. A. Byk to the Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie
(vol. xlix. p. 641).
manner that it is possible to effect the resolution of racemic
It is shown in an indirect experimental
substances by a purely physical agent—circularly polarised
light. The reflection of the plane polarised rays of sun-
light from the surface of water under the influence of the
earth’s magnetism is supposed to give rise to a predomin-
ating quantity of one form of circularly polarised light, and
this is the cause which determines the production of optically
active substances in the photochemical processes taking
place in animal and plant life.
We have received Williams and Norgate’s “* International
Book Circular.’’
chemists, illustrated by twenty portraits, is contributed by
Dr. M. O. Forster.
An article on some contemporary foreign
Pror. M. W. TrRavers’s work on the experimental study
of gases has been into Dr: ¥ax
Estreicher, and the translation has been published by Messrs.
translated German by
F. Vieweg and Son, Brunswick.
An authorised translation, into German, of TProf. J. J-
Thomson’s lectures on ** Electricity and Matter,’’ reviewed
in Nature of May 26 (vol. Ixx. p.
Herr G. Siebert, and published by the house of F.
Brunswick. The the third
of a series of monographs issued under the general title
“* Die
73), has been made by
Vieweg
and Son, work forms volume
Wissenschaft. ”’
DECEMBER 29, 1904] NATURE 211
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ee period August, 1903, to January, 1904, the average time
es of rotation was gh. 55m. 41-52s.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN PENUARY, Hecke He points out that this is a remarkable increase on the
Jan. 2-3. Epoch of January meteors (Radiant 230° + 53°). rotation period (viz. gh. 55m. 39-66s.) of the preceding
6. 4h. 52m. to 7h. 5m. Transit of Tupiter’s Sat. III. | vear.
(Ganymede). REPORT OF THE Unitep States Nay S
: J : 4 NITE ATES NAvaL OpsERVATORY.—
8. ie Arata in conjunction with Moon (Saturn Tie ae pce. report gt the work done at the
Tae : a 2 Ae nite tates Nava servatory during the fiscal year end-
g. 3h. Venus in conjunction with Moon (Venus 2° 13 ing June 30, 1904, shows that the observatory and the staff
S.).
Ith. Juno in conjunction with Moon (Junoo’ 11’S.).
5h. 9m. to 6h. 23m. Moon occults » Aquarii
(Mag. 4°4).
11. _ Perihelion Passage of Encke’s Comet.
13. Sh. 52m. to 1th. 6m. Transit of Jupiter’s Sat. ITI.
(Ganymede).
A} 10h. 36m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
15. Venus. Illuminated portion of disc=o'650, of
Mars =0'903.
16. 7h. 25m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
24. 12h. 43m. to 13h. 4om. Moon occults 8 Virginis
(Mag. 3°8). : ;
27. 10h. Mars in conjunction with Moon (Mars 2° 45’
S.).
28. 15h. 7m. to 16h. r1m. Moon occults y Libre
(Mag. 4°1).
ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIS OF Comet 1904 d.—Circular
No. 69 from the Kiel Centralstelle contains a set of elements,
calculated by Herr M. Ebell from the observations made on
December 17, 18, 19, and a short ephemeris, for comet
1904 d, recently discovered by M. Giacobini at Nice. They
are as follows :—
Elements.
T = 1905 Jan. 3'2814 Berlin.
750098
Blasoass ned | rsore
Zz) = 103- 27:3
log g = 0'27173
Ephemeris 12h. (M.T. Berlin).
1904-5 a 6 log A Bright-
h. m s a ness
Dec, 26 16 37 56 +31 45 0°3328 I'I2
»» 30 16 49 48 mets) si 0°3234 1°17
wan. 3 17, (2: 37. +36 8 0°3146 1°22
Brightness at time of discovery =1-o.
From the above it will be seen that both the northern
‘declination and the brightness of the comet are increasing,
but at the same time its right ascension is approximating
more closely to that of the sun, thereby rendering observ-
ations increasingly difficult, and only possible during the
few minutes preceding dawn.
OBSERVATIONS OF BriGHt Meteors.—During a_ sea
voyage undertaken in 1903-4, Dr. J. Moller, of Elsfleth,
observed a large number of meteors, and in No. 3984 of
the Astronomische Nachrichten he records the essential data
regarding the observations of the sixteen brightest objects
seen during November—December, 1903, and March, 1904.
Of these, two were as bright as Jupiter, and five were
brighter than Saturn. The latitude and longitude of the
place of observation are given in each case, so that in the
event of duplicate observations having been made the real
paths may be computed.
The same observer recorded in No. 3971 of the same
journal an authenticated naked-eye observation of Jupiter’s
third satellite on November 1, 1903.
Tue Great Rep Spot on Jupiter.—In a note to No. 3983
of the Astronomische Nachrichten Mr. Denning gives the
results of his own and the Rev. T. E. Phillips’s observations
of the Great Red Spot since the last conjunction of Jupiter.
They show that for the seven months prior to last September
‘the motion of the spot indicated a rotation period, for the
zone wherein it is located, of gh. 55m. 38-6s., a shorter
period than any observed since 1883, when it was
gh. 55m. 38-2s.
In the same publication Mr. Stanley Williams gives the
results of his observations of this phenomenon, and shows
that from his eye-estimates of the times of transit, during
NO. 1835, VOL 1|
are still maintaining their reputation as regards the number
and excellence of the observations made. In all 15,287
observations were made, including photographs of the sun
taken on 210 days which show an increase of 93 days on
which spots and facula were recorded on the solar disc.
A new photo-visual triple objective with an aperture of
75 inch and a focal length of 65 feet, giving a 7-inch
image, is to be obtained for the photoheliograph, and will
also be used on future eclipse expeditions for photographing
the corona. In regard to next year’s eclipse the superin-
tendent asks for a special grant of 1200]. and_ re-
commends the employment of a man-of-war and its crew to
assist in the observations, which he suggests should be
made at two widely separated stations in Spain.
The report also contains individual reports from the
assistant in charge of each department, and records the
personnel, the routine work performed with each instru-
ment, and the publications issued during the period with
which it deals.
The branch observatory at Tutuila, Samoa, has now been
established, and placed under the supervision of assistants
from Washington.
MATHEMATICAL DRAWING.'
‘THE appearance of a useful little book by Prof. Gibson
may be made the occasion of emphasising the import-
ance of drawing in mathematics, whether pure or applied,
especially as the University of London has recently made a
paper on drawing compulsory for all mathematical candi-
dates for the B.Sc. degree. It was not without due con-
sideration of the attendant difficulties that this step was
taken. For the last two years the paper on drawing
was left optional for the candidates in order that teachers
as well as students should have time to obtain some definite
notion of what is required; but even now, in the absence
of well established text-books, a considerable amount of
uncertainty exists as to the nature and scope of the subject.
Time will, no doubt, set this right, and we welcome Prof.
Gibson’s text-book as assisting towards the desired object.
There are three prominent conceptions of mathematical
drawing which may be noticed. These are :—(1) plotting,
which means the construction of curves by taking a set of
successive values of an abscissa and from them calculating
(by a book of tables or otherwise) the values of the corre-
sponding ordinate, and finally marking the positions of the
points on squared paper; (2) the construction of curves—
usually conic sections—from certain geometrical data ;
(3) what is generally called ‘‘ geometrical drawing,”
embodying the principles and processes of projective
geometry, and including problems in three dimensions.
This is, perhaps, a rough division, but it will suffice.
Plotting may be a very humble process—* mere ”’ plotting,
as it is sometimes contemptuously called—or it may be what
has long been known as curve tracing, and is to be found
in treatises on the differential calculus. But even in this
latter and higher character it is not (at least as usually
employed by students) a system of accurate drawing. The
construction of circles, and conics generally, from assigned
data is certainly not a pure exercise in drawing, because it
involves a very large knowledge of theorems on the part
of the student. An exercise in this subject is apt to be, in
reality, a severe examination in Euclid or in the theory of
conic sections, and it cannot be what was intended by the
advocates of a paper on drawing. With regard to projective
geometry the case is somewhat different; the principles in-
volved are not very numerous, and it cannot be said that a
1 An Elementary Treatise on Graphs.” By George A. Gibson, M.A.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College. Pp. x + 183. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.)
Price 3s. 6d.
212
NATURE
[DECEMBER 29, 1904
knowledge of a large assortment of theorems is necessary ;
but the practical value of the study to students who are
neither engineers nor architects is another matter.
There is, however, another kind of mathematical drawing
which does not fall under any of these heads, and which
consists in the invention of graphic solutions of equations
which can be solved with great difficulty, if at all, by the
stock processes of accurate mathematics. This branch is
at once the most useful and the most vague; it is impossible
to lay down its principles in systematic order—it must be
learnt by abundant exemplification.
The ordinary academic problems of statics and hydro-
statics furnish many examples of this subject, but only a
few of these can be noticed here.
If AB and BC are two ladders freely jointed together at
B, of different weights and lengths, placed with the ends
A and C€ resting on a rough horizontal plane, A being pre-
vented from moving while C is drawn out along the plane,
the inclinations, 6, ¢, of AB and BC to the ground when
the limiting position is reached are determined from two
equations of the forms
asin @—b sin =o; m tan +n tan ¢=k,
where a, b, m, n, k are all given quantities. The graphic
solution of these equations is effected with great ease thus :-—
draw a line OH equal to m, and produce OH to O’ so that
HO!’ =n; at H draw HC perpendicular to OO’ and equal
to k; through O draw any line OQ meeting HC in Q; take
a point R in CH such that CR=HQ, and draw O'R; then
the point, P, of intersection of OQ and O’R is a point on
the locus represented by the second of the above equations,
the angles 6, ¢ being POO’ and PO’O. These points, P,
are therefore constructed with great ease and rapidity. Also
the locus represented by the first equation is a circle having
for diameter the line joining the points which divide OO’
internally and externally in the ratio a:b, and the points
of intersection of these two loci give the required values of
6 and ¢.
The following problem leads to precisely the same equa-
tions as the above :—rays of light emanate from a fixed
point P in one medium separated by a plane surface from a
second medium; find the ray proceeding from P which will
be refracted to a given point, Q, in the second medium.
Again, the fact that when a uniform chain hangs with
free extremities over two fixed supports of equal heights
there are either two figures of equilibrium or none results
from the solution of an equation of the form xe@#/t=k, which
is effected by drawing the curve y=e® and the right line
y=kx/a, and then it is at once seen that there are either
two points of intersection or none.
When a heavy wire rope has its ends fixed at two points
in the same horizontal line, and a load is suspended from
the lowest point of the rope, the rope forms parts of two
distinct catenaries, and the determination of these curves
leads to an equation of the form
e&/x—[lx* + a®)t + a)/[(x° + 2)? + 4],
in which x alone is unknown. The tracing of the curve
obtained by putting y equal to the right-hand side of this
equation is quickly effected by means of two fixed circles
and the drawing of right lines.
The figure of equilibrium of a revolving self-attracting
liquid spheroid gives an equation which is a particular case
of x(a+bx?)/(c+x*)=tan-'x, and this is best solved by the
tracing of two curves. If we put y equal to the left-hand
side we have a curve of the third degree the geometrical
construction of which is exceedingly simple, and requires
only a fixed circle and right lines.
Whenever a problem involves two unknown angles in two
equations one of which is of the form m cos 6+n cos ¢=c,
where m, n, c are given, all angles satisfying this equation
can be represented as the base angles of a triangle the base
of which, AB, is fixed, and the vertex of which describes
what may be called a quasi-magnetic curve, the geometrical
construction of which is this: take any two fixed points,
A, B; about A as centre, with radius m.AB/c describe a
circle; about B describe a circle with radius n.AB/c; draw
any line perpendicular to AB meeting these circles in Q and
R respectively; then the lines AQ and BR intersect in a
point on the required curve. When m=n we have the
common magnetic curve the construction of which is not
nearly so well known as it should be.
No. 1835, VOL. 71]
The solutions of the above examples have all been of a
purely geometrical kind, and have not involved the plotting
of points by coordinates arithmetically calculated. There
are other problems of a slightly different kind, still in-
dependent of plotting, but involving trial; the value of a
certain unknown quantity which has to satisfy a certain
geometrical condition is found by trial to do so very nearly
if not completely. In all such cases Taylor’s theorem
furnishes a still closer value than the observed one, and
completes the solution with all desirable accuracy.
For example, many problems lead to the equation
a sin 2(@—a)=b sin 6 for an unknown angle @, the other
quantities being all given. This can be solved by two
circles thus:—draw a line AB equal to b, and on it as
diameter describe a circle the centre of which is C; draw
AD making the angle BAD=a and cutting the circle in D;
draw CD and produce it to E so that CE=a, and on CE
as diameter describe a circle. Now find on the circum-
ference of the first circle a point P such that if CP meets
the second circle in Q we have BP=EQ. This is done with
great accuracy by the eye, and Taylor’s theorem will im-
prove the solution.
An equation which can be solved also very easily by trial
is a sin?@=b cot 6, which may be taken in the form
a sin‘ @=b cos 6, and a graphic solution suitable to each
form is easily found.
Finally, we may notice equations of the form
tan x=ax/(c—<x’),
which we obtain from Bessel functions in certain problems
relating to vibrations. Such an equation is easily solved
by the intersections of the curve y=cot x with the hyperbola
y =(c—x*)/ax, and the construction of the hyperbola belongs
to the most simple case of this curve, viz. given one point
on the curve and the asymptotes. As compared with the
graphic solution of equations given by physical problems,
the graphic solution of algebraic equations is unimportant,
though not devoid of interest, because Horner is always
available for numerical cases. :
Prof. Gibson gives many examples of the solutions of
quadratics and of cubics by graphic methods; but as re-
gards quadratics it must be confessed that there is no
utility in the process, and too much space is usually devoted
to it. For cubics in general he gives a graphic solution
and an interesting discussion. In a second edition of his
book he might treat the biquadratic similarly, because its
graphic solution can be easily effected by means of a circle
and a parabola, or by means of a right line and a curve
easily derived from a parabola. Many curves occurring in
physics are dealt with in the book—such as isothermals
and adiabatics; there is also a useful discussion of Fourier’s
theorem, and a treatment of the curves belonging to vibra-
tions, damped as well as undamped. The graphic method
is also applied to the solution of some of the simpler mixed
trigonometric and algebraic equations, and the book con-
cludes with a chapter on the properties of conic sections.
GrorcEe M. MINCHIN.
CENTRAL AMERICAN MAMMALS.'
“[ HREE years ago the author of these volumes published,
in the same serial, a valuable synopsis of the mammals
of North America and the adjacent seas. In the present
larger work he has taken in hand the mammals of the tract
generally known in this country as Central America, but
on the other side of the Atlantic termed, at any rate by
zoologists, Middle America, together with those of the West
Indian islands. The greater bulk of the present work is
accounted for, not so much by the greater number of species
(690 against 606) as by the increased elaboration of
the mode of treatment, the addition of diagnostic ** keys ’”
to the various genera, and by a fuller account of the habits
of many species, the latter feature rendering these volumes
proportionately more valuable to the naturalist, and at the
same time of more general interest. The illustrations,
too, are more numerous, comprising, besides crania, figures
of the external form of a considerable number of species,
1 “The Land and Sea Mammals of Middle America and the West
Indies." By D. G. Elliot. Field Columbian Museum Publications,
Zoological Series, vol. iv., parts 1. and ti, pp. xxi+8so. illustrated.
—s
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
213
the addition of the latter likewise tending to popularise the
work.
In his preface Dr. Elliot reiterates and emphasises the
remarks made in the companion volume as to ‘“‘ the
excessive and probably unwarranted multiplications of
Species and races (made easy by the too liberal application
of the trinomial system) ’’ of American mammals in general.
Many of the forms, he adds, which have received separate
names are separated on the evidence of comparative instead
of distinctive characters. That is to say, their differences
from other types are so slight as to be incapable of defini-
tion except by comparison with the latter, often, indeed,
involving the necessity of placing specimens of each side by
side. Consequently, in many instances specimens cannot
be referred to their respective species or races without access
to museums.
Perhaps it is rather unfortunate that the author did not
see his way to go one stage further, and mention what
species and races are entitled, in his opinion, to recognition.
A step would then have been made towards the elimination
of the forms named on insufficient distinctive characters.
Nowadays it is the fashion to assign a distinct name to
every recognisable form, however slight may be its points
of difference ; but some limit in this direction will apparently
have to be imposed before long, unless zoology is to become
an impossible science. In our opinion, one way of miti-
gating the difficulty is by using specific terms in a com-
paratively wide sense, thus leaving the subspecies, or races,
to be recognised or not according to the discretion of the
individual student.
Nomenclature is another point on which the author has
a good deal to say, and he mentions that some of the names
employed in the companion volume have been changed in
the present work. He hopes, however, that as the result
of such changes ‘‘ a nomenclature that at least will approach
stability may, in the distant future, be expected to be
reached.’’ Possibly it may—at the cost of rendering all
the older standard works on zoology, palzontology, distri-
bution, and scientific travel worse than useless—but a pro-
posal like that of emending such a name as Odocoileus
(in universal use among his naturalist countrymen) to
Odontoccelus scarcely seems calculated to pave the way to
such a happy millennium !
Among changes in nomenclature that we specially regret
to see is the substitution of Agouti for Ccelogenys as the
name of the paca, largely on the ground that the former
is the popular title of a totally different group of rodents,
for which reason we think its use in the scientific sense
should be barred. It is also distressing to see the familiar
Fic. r.—Lord Derby's Opossum and young. From Elliot's ‘‘ Mammals of
Middle America.”
classic Rome. One point in regard to the plan of the work
—whether intentional or accidental it is not easy to say—
strikes us as unsatisfactory. In the case of certain species,
such as Odontocoelus americanus and Ovis cervina (pp. 69
and 84), for example, of which the typical form does not
| occur within the limits of the area under consideration,
name Hapale, for the marmosets, banished in favour of ,
‘Callithrix, so long used for the titi monkeys, which now
figure as Saimiri. On a par with the latter is the’ substi-
tution of Tayassu for Dicotyles, of Coendu for Cercolabes,
and of Potos for Cercoleptes, which is like an invasion of
zoological Goths and Vandals into the sacred precincts of
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
Fic.
From Elliot's ‘‘Mammals of Middle
America,”
2.—Long-tailed Skunk.
the species-name itself does not appear in the list at all, but
_only the subspecies, such forms consequently lacking a dis-
tinctive number, and thus rendering the census of specific
types occurring within the area inaccurate.
Otherwise we have nothing but commendation to bestow
on the general mode of treatment of the subject, and it may
be safely affirmed that the author has earned the gratitude
of all naturalists on this side of the Atlantic by putting in
a convenient and easily accessible form such a vast amount
of information with regard to the mammalian fauna of an
extremely interesting region. The illustrations (two of
which are reproduced), it may be added, are, for the most
part, beyond praise. ROL:
THE FISHERIES OF SCOTLAND.
HE twenty-second annual report of the Fishery Board
for Scotland, for the year 1903, is issued in three parts
as usual, the first dealing with the sea fisheries, the second
with the salmon fisheries, and the third being concerned with
iaarine research.
With regard to’sea fisheries, tables are given showing the
results of the trawl fishing and the line fishing. The number
of steam trawlers has been increasing steadily for the last
seven years, and from 109 in 1896 to 280 in 1903.
The average catch per vessel increased from 5030 cwt
to 5594 cwt., while the value of the catch per cwt. was
practically the same in 1903 as it was in 1896.
In the line fishing the number of steam liners in-
creased from 39 vessels in 1898 to g1 vessels in 1903, the
number having varied somewhat in the intermediate years,
23 vessels having been added in 1903. The total number of
boats was slightly less than in 1898, owing to a steady de-
crease in the number of sailing craft. The catch, since
rose
214
NATURE
[| DECEMBER 29, 1904 |
1898, has steadily decreased from 1,050,000 cwt. to
602,600 ewt., and the value per cwt. has slightly decreased.
The reason given for the reduction in value of line-caught
fish is that the trawlers have been landing large quantities
of cod. Thus, in spite of the large increase in the number
of steam liners, which are, of course, independent of wind
in getting to the fishing grounds, the catch per boat fell
from about 182 cwt. to about 121 cwt.
It is interesting to note that for the herring fishing in
the Buckie and Peterhead districts experiments have been
made with sailing boats fitted with auxiliary steam power.
The value of steam power is shown in another part of the
report, where the catch of the Scotch boats (sailing craft)
working from English ports during October and November
is compared with that of the English boats, a large number
of which are steamers. The Scotch boats caught more than
653 per cent. of the total catch, but only got 46% per cent.
of the total value, the steamers always being able to make
the market first.
The west coast mackerel fishing has shown great improve-
ment, the catch in 1903 being 57 per cent. better than in
1902. The trade apparently only requires development, as
‘“shoals of mackerel almost every year visit the coast.”
In the report:on salmon fisheries we learn that during the
year Mr. Calderwood, Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for
Scotland, made inquiries as to the views of the various
fishery boards with regard to the limitation of netting in
narrow waters, this move being an outcome of the report
of the Royal Commission on Salmon Fisheries.
Some of the boards have already taken steps to reduce
the netting in their rivers. In the Annan all nets have been
removed, while in the Spey only about three miles of water
is now netted. In the Aberdeenshire Dee an association
has, for about thirty years, annually bought off the nets
on some sixteen miles of water, and now both upper and
lower proprietors are seeking to secure the permanent re-
moval of these nets.
While eleven of the boards consulted passed resolutions
in favour of reducing the netting, six were unable to express
an opinion, and only one, the North Esk Board, passed a
resolution against any such reduction. In Mr. Calderwood’s
words :—‘‘ The resolution was prepared and agreed to by
the lower proprietors—who are in the majority—before the
meeting took place, and was based upon ‘the argument,
supported by good evidence, that the present amount of
netting in the district—which netting has been constant for
a great number of years—has not produced a decline in the
stock of fish. The question of improving the general
interest of their whole district is complicated by other con-
siderations which need not be referred to here.”’
One of the most important papers in this report is Mr.
Calderwood’s contribution to the life-history of the salmon
as observed by means of marking adult fish, the first part
of which appeared in the report for 1901. Since then 62
additional re-captures of marked fish have been made, which,
with those previously caught, gives a total of 252 re-captured
fish. From this material, and also from other results
obtained in Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, Mr. Calderwood
has been able to draw some important conclusions. We now
have evidence bearing out the commonly accepted view that
the great majority of salmon after visiting the sea return
to the river they left.
The marking experiments seem to show that grilse spend
less time in fresh water than salmon, running up and down
from the redds more quickly than the latter.
Another very interesting fact brought out is that a grilse
kelt after running down to the sea may return within a
few months as a summer salmon of about ro Ib., or may
remain in the sea until the following year, returning to the
river as a spring salmon. This partly upsets the belief that
spring salmon are old fish, for, although there is no doubt
that old fish do run up in the spring, we now know that
a fish of 18 or 20 lb. may only be five years old, according
to Mr. Calderwood, and on its second return from the sea.
There is evidence showing that some fish spawn in two
successive seasons, and one case, No. 7298, seems to suggest
that the fish was spawning for the third year in succession.
There is a diagram, in which fish of various weights are
considered as being of various ages, which shows the |
interesting facts observed as to the “‘ dual migration *’ which
exists, perhaps, in all stages of the salmon’s life-history.
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
|
We know that all the fish of one hatching do not migrate
to the sea at the same time. Some migrate at one year old,
the great majority at two years, and some again at three
years.
For the smolt to grilse stage Mr. Calderwood mentions
three cases in which the smolts returned after a year and
some months as grilse of 33, 33, and 63 lb. respectively,
and says ‘‘ we have no data to show any other seasonal
migrations which may occur at this stage.’ We do not
know whether the authority for the cases is untrustworthy, —
but we recollect records of smolts marked and released being
re-caught after a few months as grilse up to 8 Ib. weight-
Such cases are mentioned by Fraser (‘‘ On the Salmon, &c.,””
1833, pp- 15, 16) and by Brown (‘‘ Stormontfield Experi-
ments,” p. 92), who says ‘* the experiments here have shown —
. that all the smolts of one year do not return the same
year as grilse, the one half returning next spring and
summer as small salmon.”’
Mr. Calderwood shows that what he considers five-year-old
fish do not increase in weight in the way that four-year-olds
and six-year-olds do, and he suggests that this may represent
the period in the life of the adult salmon when the repro-
ductive function is at its best, and thus asserts itself at the
expense of the body-growth.
Surely this classing of fish into ages by size can only —
be roughly correct at best. We do not yet know to what
extent fish spawn annually or biennially, or whether a fish
may rest several seasons after spawning. Yet if Mr.
Calderwood’s suggestion that the activity of the reproductive
organs checks growth is sound, surely a fish spawning three
years in succession—as No. 7298 suggests may happen—
would be considerably smaller than a fish of the same age
which spawned in alternate years or less often.
There are several other interesting papers in this part,
but space precludes us from referring to them.
Part iii., scientific investigations, contains eight papers
on various subjects connected with marine fisheries. Dr.
T. Wemyss Fulton, the superintendent, gives an account of
the trawling investigations, and in another paper continues
the report of his investigations on the rate of growth of
fishes. He also reports upon the operations of the Nigg
Marine Hatchery, and has another paper entitled ** Ichthyo-
logical Notes” on the various interesting species taken
during the year.
ee eer ae 68
}
~
An important paper is that by Dr. Williamson on the life- 1
histories of the edible crab and other decapod Crustacea.
Dr. Williamson has discovered that the ova of the crab are
not attached by mucilage to the long hairs of the spinnerets
as was supposed, but that the eggs are actually pierced by
the hairs, and are thus spitted in rows, the eggs not being
attached to one another.
Dr. Thomas Scott contributes a paper on some rare and
interesting marine Crustacea, and another upon some fish
parasites new to the Scottish marine fauna.
The report is published at His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
and can be obtained through any bookseller.
FRANK BaLFoUR BROWNE.
PRIZE AWARDS OF THE PARIS
OF SCIENCES.
T the annual meeting of the Academy of Sciences the
list of prizes awarded for the year 1904 was announced
as follows :-—
Geometry.—The Bordin prize to M. Servant, for his
memoir on the determination of surfaces applicable to the
paraboloid of revolution which pass through a given con-
tour; the Vaillant prize, divided between M. Emile Borel
(3000 francs), and M. Bricard (1000 francs); the Francceur
prize to M. Emile Lemoine; and the Poncelet prize to M.
Désiré André. .
Mechanics.—A Montyon prize to M. Gustave Richard.
Navigation—The extraordinary prize, of 6000 francs,
divided in equal parts between M. Jacob (for his theoretical
researches on the transmission of submarine explosions),
ACADEMY
| M. Gayde (for a study of the resistance of hulls to sub-
| marine explosion), and M. La Porte (for hydrographic work
| on the coast of Brittany); the Plumey prize to M. Lucien
Mottez, for important services to submarine navigation.
lstronomy.—The Pierre Guzman prize is not awarded ;
DECEMBER 29, 1904]
NATURE
a5
the Lalande prize to Mr. S. W. Burnham, for his work on
double stars; the Valz prize to M. de Campos Rodrigues,
for work done at the Lisbon Observatory, with especial
reference to the determination of the solar parallax by means
of the planet Eros; the Janssen medal to M. Hansky.
Geography.—The Binoux prize, divided between M.
Baratier (for his work in connection with Colonel Mar-
chand’s expedition in Central Africa), M. Bénard (for his
work on Arctic exploration), and M. Alphonse Berget (for
his book on the physics and meteorology of the globe);
the Gay prize to Mr. Bell Dawson, for his hydrographic
work in eastern Canada; the Tchihatchef prize to Lieut.-
Colonel Lubanski, for his explorations in Indo-China; the
Delalande-Guérineau prize to M. Auguste Pavie, for work
in French China.
Physics.—The Hébert prize to M. Georges Claude, for
his book on electricity for general readers; the Hughes
prize to Lieut.-Colonel E. Ariés, for his publications on
the theory of heat and chemical statics; the Kastner-
Boursault prize to Captain Ferrié, for his work on wireless
telegraphy.
Chemistry.—The Jecker prize,
Freundler, Minguin, and Lespieau; the Cahour prize,
divided between MM. Chavanne, Kling, and Binet du
Jassoneix; a Montyon prize (unhealthy trades), divided
between MM. Dupont and Détourbe.
Botany.—The Desmaziéres prize to M. Guilliermond, for
his work on cryptogams, especially fungi; the Montagne
prize to M. Camille Sauvageau, for his work on alg; the
de la Fons-Melicocq prize is not awarded.
Anatomy and Zoology.—The Savigny
Krempf; the Thore prize to M. d’Orbigny.
Medicine and Surgery.—A Montyon prize to M. Paul
Reclus, for his memoir on the proper use of cocaine in
surgery; to M. Kermogant, for his work on _ exotic
pathology and hygiene; and to M. Cazalbou, for his re-
searches on the trypanosomiases of the French Soudan.
Mentions are also accorded to MM. P. Launois and Roy, for
their biological studies on giants; MM. F. Bezancon and
M. Labbé, for their treatise on hamatology; and to M.
Odier, for his work on the action of electricity and certain
poisons on nerve cells. MM. F. Marceau, P. Briquel,
J. Gagniére, and R. Voisin are accorded citations. The
Barbier prize to MM. Prenant, Bouin and L. Maillard, for
their book on histology, and a mention to M. Pierre Lesage ;
the Bréant prize (accumulated interest) to M. Frédéric
Borel, for his memoir on cholera and plague in relation to
Mahometan pilgrimages; the Godard prize to MM. J.
Albarran and L. Imbert, for their memoir on tumours of
the kidney ; the Baron Larrey prize to M. Conor, for work
on typhoid fever, M. E. Lafforgue receiving a mention;
the Bellion prize to M. Jules Delobel, for his book on
hygiene in schools, M. Gabriel Gauthier receiving a
mention ; the Mége prize to M. G. Delamare, for his experi-
mental researches on morbid heredity.
Physiology.—A Montyon prize to M. J. Jolly, for his
memoir entitled *‘ Experimental Researches on the Indirect
Division of the Red Blood Corpuscles,’’ a very honourable
mention being accorded to M. C. Fleig, for his work on
the mode of action of chemical stimulants on the digestive
glands; the Philipeaux prize to M. Cristiani, for his work
on thyroid grafting, an honourable mention being accorded
to M. Joseph Noé; the Lallemand prize, divided between
M. Maurice de Fleury (for his works on the nervous system)
and MM. J. Camus and P. Pagniez (for their memoir on
psychotherapy); the Pourat prize to M. J. Tissot, for a
study of the physical and chemical phenomena at high
altitudes; the Martin-Damourette prize, divided between
M. A. Frouin (1ooo francs) and M. Manquat (400 francs).
Among the general prizes, the Lavoisier medal was
awarded to Sir J. Dewar, for his work on the liquefaction
of gases; the Berthelot medal to MM. Freundler, Minguin,
Lespieau, Kling, Binet du Jassoneix, Dupont, and Paul
Villard ; the Jerome Ponti prize to M. Maurain ; the Trémont
prize to M. A. Guillemin; the Gegner prize to M. J. H.
Fabre; the Lannelongue prize to Mme. Vve. Nepveu; the
Leconte prize to M. René Blondlot, for his work taken as
a whole; the Wilde prize to M. Paul Villard, for his work
in physics; the Houllevigue prize to MM. Henri de la
Vaulx and Henri Hervé, for their work in aéronautics;
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
divided between MM.
prize to M.
the Saintour prize to M. Charles Frémont, for his experi-
mental researches on the elasticity of metals; a Montyon
prize (statistics), divided between M. V. Lowenthal, for
twelve memoirs relating to the depopulation of France, and
M. Paul Razous, for his memoir on the mortality and
liability to disease in dangerous professions, MM. Henry
Guégo, E. Maury, and Ott receiving mentions; the Jean-
Jacques Berger prize is divided between MM. J. Resall
(6500 franes), A. Alby (3500 francs), Laurent (2000 francs),
Grimaud (1500 frances), and Retraint (1500 francs).
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Liverroot.—The arrangements for excavations to be
made during the winter under the auspices of the university
institute of archeology, in Upper Egypt, have been com-
pleted, and the work will be begun at Hierakonpolis before
the New Year. The excavations have been placed as in
previous years at Beni-Hasan, Negadeh, and elsewhere
under the care of the university reader in Egyptian
archeology.
Dr. Norman Moore has been appointed a member of the
consultative committee vice Prof. Bertram C. A. Windle,
F.R.S., who has resigned his membership upon appointment
as president of Queen’s College, Cork. Dr. Moore is chair-
man of the board of advanced medical studies of the
University of London, and represents the Royal College of
Physicians upon the General Medical Council.
Tue annual meeting of the Geographical Association will
be held at the Royal Colonial Institute, Northumberland
Avenue, London, W.C., on Friday, January 6, at 4 p.m.
The president, Mr. Douglas W. Freshfield, will be in the
chair. A report on the eighth international geographical
congress will be read by Mr. H. Yule Oldham, and there
will be a discussion on practical geography in schools.
On December 20 Lady Warwick distributed the prizes
gained by the students of the evening classes and of the
day secondary school of the Carpenters’ Company at Strat-
ford. In the course of some remarks upon the school, she
said that England needed a better system of secondary
education, and it was now acknowledged that the State
should take the matter in hand. But in the meantime the
city companies were doing a good work in bringing
secondary education to the doors of the people.
Tue annual conference of the Public Schools Science
Masters’ Association will be held at Westminster School
on Saturday, January 14, 1905. The following are among
the subjects to be discussed :—(1) the importance of in-
cluding both Latin and natural science in a scheme of
general education; (2) recent proposals for school leaving
certificates ; (3) the use and misuse of terms in science teach-
ing ; (4) the possibility of teaching ‘* scientific method ’’ to
boys whose education is almost entirely literary and who
have no time for a regular course in chemistry and physics.
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., is the president of the associ-
ation for the year.
New buildings of the Willesden Polytechnic, erected at a
cost of about 10,0001., were formally declared open by Sir
W. Anson on December 21. After distributing prizes to
the successful students, Sir W. Anson remarked that poly-
technics marked what he hoped was becoming the modern
view of education, that it did not consist of independent
sets of studies, but was a composite whole, no part of
which did not rest upon or form a foundation for another
part. It should be borne in mind that a polytechnic did not
merely train a student in a handicraft. The object of such
an institution was to combine theory and practice, to teach
the student not only how to do a thing, but why it was
done in a particular way, so that he became not only skilful
in the craft upon which he was engaged, but got to under-
stand the scientific principles underlying his work,
Mr. L. L. Price read a paper at the meeting of the Royal
Statistical Society on December 20 entitled ‘* Accounts of
the Colleges of Oxford, 1893-1903, with Special Reference
216
to their Agricultural Revenues.” The paper is based on
the accounts, published annually, of the colleges (and the
university) of Oxford, and is a continuation of one read
in 1895. The gross external receipts of the colleges (and
the university) in 1903 exhibited an increase on 1893 of
29,7971., and on 1883 of 16,343/. The net external receipts
of the colleges alone showed an increase of 16,5661. on 1893,
and a decrease of 10,3111. from 1883. Later in his paper
Mr. Price states that it hardly seems extravagant to affirm
that during a quarter of a century the colleges (and the
university) have lost between a third and a fourth of
their agricultural revenues. Had it not been for
an increase in revenues derived from other sources,
they would have been crippled yet more seriously.
The most noticeable feature is the large increase in the
receipts from houses and sites of houses. Between 1883
and 1903 these receipts were doubled, and between 1893
and 1903 they increased from 56,877/. to 91,388I. On the
whole this gross increase has more than balanced the gross
diminution in the receipts from lands and tithe. The in-
ternal receipts of the colleges increased by 5814]. between
1883 and 1893, and by 11,428]. between 1893 and 1903.
THE annual conference of headmasters of public schools
was held this year at Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham, on
Thursday and Friday last, December 22 and 23. Among
the subjects discussed on Thursday were the recommend-
ations of the consultative committee of the Board of Educa-
tion for the establishment of school certificates, and the
policy of the Board of Education in encouraging the send-
ing of intending elementary school teachers to secondary
schools in lieu of pupil teacher centres. The following
resolutions were adopted :—‘‘ That the question of school
certificates be referred to the committee of the conference
with a view to immediate action, and that it be an instruc-
tion of the committee to obtain in writing the opinion of
every member of the conference on the various points in-
volved in the scheme of the consultative committee.”
““That this conference pledges itself to support the educa-
tion authority in its policy of providing that candidates for
pupil teacherships in public elementary schools shall receive
a substantial portion of their education in a public secondary
school, and considers it desirable that as many recruits as
possible for teacherships in public elementary schools should
be obtained from the ranks of ordinary pupils of secondary
schools.’’ On Friday a discussion took place on the sub-
ject of Greek, with special reference to the proposals of the
Cambridge Syndicate, and the following resolution was
carried by twenty-one votes to eight :—‘‘ That, without
committing itself to details, the conference generally dis-
approves of the Cambridge Syndicate with regard to Greek
in the Previous Examination.’’ The conference also ex-
pressed itself against some of the reforms of the new Army
entrance examinations, and carried the following resolution
unanimously :—‘‘ That this conference hopes that the
scheme for qualifying certificates in the examination for
Woolwich and Sandhurst will be so amended as to encourage
the study of Latin.’’ A strong representation is to be made
to the War Office on this subject. It was also agreed that
the committee of the conference should consider the
syllabus issued by the Board of Education on the teaching
of English literature, and should include their recommend-
ations in the annual report.
SOCIETIES
AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Meteorological Society, December 21.— Capt. D.
Wilson-Barker, president, in the chair.—Decrease of fog in
London during recent years: F. ). Brodie (Discussion).
—The study of the minor fluctuations of atmospheric
pressure: Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and W. H. Dines.
The authors described an apparatus called the ‘* micro-
barograph,’’ which they have designed to magnify the
minor fluctuations, and at the same time to disentangle
them from the general barometric surges. They also
showed some records from three of these instruments. The
authors wish to obtain information as to the nature of the
disturbances and the causes to which they may be assigned.
Among the causes which suggest themselves as likely to
NO. 1835, VOL. 71]
NATURE
{ DECEMBER 29, 1904
produce temporary fluctuations of the barometric curves are
stated by the authors to be (1) atmospheric billows passing
along surfaces where there is discontinuity of density in a
manner somewhat similar to ocean waves; (2) the passage
of minute whirls or cyclonic depressions of small scale;
(3) variations of pressure due to the attraction or repulsion
produced by electric stress as masses of air at different
potential pass over; (4) the mechanical effects of wind;
and (5) the mechanical effects of rapid condensation of
aqueous vapour.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
MONDAY, JANvARY 2.
Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—Confucianism: Rey. A. Elwin.
WEDNESDAY, January 4.
GEoLocIcaL Society, at 8.—The Marine Beds in the Coal Measures of
North Staffordshire : J. T. Stobbs.—The Palzontology of the Marine
Bands in the North Staffordshire Coalfield : Dr. Wheelton Hind.—The
Geology of Cyprus: C. V. Bellamy, with Contributions by A. J. Jukes-
Browne.
THURSDAY, JANUARY 5.
RGNTGEN Society, at 8.15.—Description of an Automatic Vacuum Pump:
C. E. S. Phillips. (The apparatus will be shown at work.)—Exhibition
of a Method by which Strongly Adherent Films of Aluminium may be
applied to Glass.—A Note on the Coloration of Glass by Radium
Radiation.
FRIDAY, January 6.
Grotocists’ ASSOCIATION, at 8.—The Third Issue of the British Associa-
tion Geological Photographs: Dr. C. G. Cullis.
CONTENTS.
The Future of the Human Race. By F. W. H.
British’ Kreshwater Algs -.. 5 .. )). 40 eae Joy ier!
Theory of Rapid Motion in a Compressible Fluid.
By Ay Be hine esi g is is)/ie) <> 1s) velget stents) ce mee ee 196
The Great St. Bernard Pass. ByT.G.B. ... 197
‘Trachomaygweetres >; = Ua cee | Mees ee 198
Our Book Shelf :—
Algué : “ The Cyclones of the Far East.”--C. H. . 198
Hutton and Drummond: ‘‘ The Animals of New
Zealand : an Account of the Colony’s Air-breathing
Wertebratesieuge sc): - ee RRC celts ES
Rhumbler : ‘‘ Zellenmechanik und Zellenleben ” . 199
Gore: ‘‘Studiesin Astronomy” ..... - : 199
Dobbie and Marshall: ‘‘ Salts and their Reactions”? 200
Letters to the Editor :—
Radiation Pressure.—Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S. 200
The Date of Easter in 1905.—Dr. A. M. W.
DowningwhoRes:.;.-) > ste eeaeeneees econ
Lepidocarpon and the Gymnosperms.—Dr.:D. H.
SCOSPEARES i lie... solange Se elle ee OE
Fishing at Night—S. W. ...... - 201
A New British Bird !—W. P. Pycraft of ey seer
Intelligence of Animals.—T. S. Patterson .. . 201
Fauna of the Highlands. (J//ustrated.) By J. A. T. 202
A Naturalist in Sarawak. (J//ustrated.) By A.C. H. 203
Oils for Motor-Cars. By C, Simmonds Ses eZO8
Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, K.C.B., F.R.S. . 207
Notes) tame. (sce 207
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrences in January, 1905 . 211
Elements and Ephemeris of Comet 1904 @ 211
Observations of Bright Meteors. . .. . 211
The Great Red Spot on Jupiter... . .. 211
Report of the United States Naval Observatory . . 211
Mathematical Drawing. By Prof. George M.
Minchin ges soc... 2 emSeeEC) i= <> le) eee
Centrai American Mammals. (//lustrated.) By R.L. 212
The Fisheries of Scotland. By Frank Balfour
Browne ga aes) =) Nh eee 5. 3) >. cee
Prize Awards of the Paris Academy of Sciences . 214
University and EducationalIntelligence . 215
Societiesiand/Academies’ 27025. . = 3). 216
DiaryiofSoctenesmecn 7) tonne =i) >) 216
NEA ORE
217
THURSDAY, JANUARY «5,
1905.
OPTICAL METHODS.
in optischen Instrumenten, vom
Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik. By the
Scientific Staff of Carl Zeiss’s Works. Edited by
M. von Rohr. Pp. 588; with 133 woodcuts. (Berlin:
Julius Springer, 1904.)
Grundziige der Theorie der optischen Instrumente
nach Abbe. By Dr. Siegfried Czapski. Second
edition. Edited by Dr. O. Eppenstein, with the
assistance of M. von Rohr. Pp. 490; with 176
woodcuts. (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth,
1904.) 5
HE old geometrical optics which we used to read
at Cambridge was a delightful subject. It
would have been a still more delightful subject had
examiners set better questions on it. Probably no
other branch of mathematics would lend itself so well
to the kind of treatment which is now fortunately
coming into fashion, viz. the use of graphical and ex-
perimental methods. If the German system of Lehr-
freiheit prevailed in this country I would rather teach
geometrical optics to an elementary class than
geometry adapted to modern requirements.
This elementary optics, however, bears about the
same relation to the optics treated in the first of these
books that Newton’s deductions from Kepler’s laws
bear to the planetary theory. The analogy is the more
complete in that both the optician and the astronomer
have found it impossible to obtain an exact solution by
direct methods, and they have therefore been led to em-
ploy the method of trial and error in order to obtain
successive approximations giving the desired results
to closer and closer degrees of accuracy. As Messrs.
Czapsky and Siedentopf point out (p. 25), the exact
determination of the forms of the refracting surfaces
required to produce exact images subject to given
conditions has never been effected, except in a few
cases, such as the Cartesian oval, in which rays from
one focus converge to a point in the other. We
therefore take spherical surfaces, and by calculating
the various kinds of aberration, show how they may
be corrected. It is, however, interesting to learn that
the theory of non-spherical surfaces has quite récently
been put into practice in the Zeiss works for the first
time in the construction of lenses other than large
reflectors and refractors for telescopes. It has, in fact,
been found possible to correct certain residual
aberrations by applying finishing touches to the lenses
giving them a slight deviation from sphericity.
The analogy between the problems of the optician
and the astronomer is made still closer by observing
how different specialists have confined their attention
to particular kinds of aberration: in the one case and
of perturbation in the other, and have devised special
methods for simplifying the calculation of the corre-
sponding terms.
In his preface Dr. Czapski tells us that the present
work owed its origin to the demand for a revised
edition of his ‘‘ Theorie der optischen Instrumente
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
MODERN
Die Bilderseugung
nach Abbe,’’ published in 1893. Being unable to
undertake the work himself, the idea suggested itself
that a better purpose would be served by obtaining
the collaboration of a number of joint authors, and
that no better body of men could be found for the
purpose than the scientific staff of the Zeiss firm.
The work has been divided among the seven joint
authors as follows :—The first chapter, dealing with
the fundamental principles of optics, including the laws
of re!raction, the principle of minimum path, and the
characteristic function, is contributed by Drs. Czapski
and Siedentopf; Drs. Kénig and von Réhr contribute
the second chapter, on formule of calculation, and the
fifth, on spherical aberration, in which latter is con-
tained a complete exposition of Abbe’s method of in-
variants and its application to the determination of the
ten corrections determined by the problem of Seidel.’
The chapters on chromatic aberration and on deter-
mination of optic systems according to the theory of
aberrations (chapters vi., vii.) are contributed by Dr.
Konig alone. ‘‘ The Geometrical Theory of Images
after E. Abbe ”’ is the title of the third chapter, by Dr.
Mandersleb. In the fourth chapter, by Dr. P. Cul-
mann, on the realisation of optical images, we actually
do find our old friend the formula
[Soman ay
a a >
Vv tu r
in a position, however, of subsidiary importance. Dr.
Lowe contributes a chapter on prisms, while Dr. von
Rohr is responsible for the last two chapters, ‘dealing
with the breadths of pencils, penetration, brightness
of images, and similar matters.
The second of these books is of a more elementary
and practical character. It contains a general dis-
cussion of images formed by small pencils, and illus-
trated descriptions of the principal optical instruments.
The corrections are discussed, but the discussions are
less mathematical. The theory of conjugate foci re-
ceives fairly full treatment, and among the interesting
features which we notice at a first glance, attention
may be directed to the series of sections of a pencil of
light on p. 24, and the figures of an object and its
image on p. 40, where the object is an arrow in a
plane through the axis of a lens, and is bisected by
the focal plane of the lens.
This is the second edition of a book of which the
first edition was written for Winkelmann’s ‘ Hand-
buch der Physik.’’? Of matter new in this edition, Dr.
Eppenstein contributes chapters on screens, on pro-
jection apparatus, and on the illumination of objects;
chapters on vision, on photographic objectives, and on
spectacles are contributed by Dr. M. von Rohr.
The perfection to which the manufacture of optical
instruments has been brought by the Zeiss firm is well
known, and it is also pretty generally realised that
the results attained could not have been accomplished
by an establishment run on purely business lines by
“practical men ’’ falsely so-called. The usual stock
form in which the last named class of individual re-
commends his wares to the public is the stereotyped
statement that ‘* The materials used in the preparation
of these goods are of the best quality obtainable.”
1
218
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
The present books furnish abundant proof that this
statement is particularly applicable to the Zeiss instru-
ments in regard to the quality of those materials most
essential for the production of good optical apparatus,
viz. brains and knowledge of advanced mathematics.
G. H. Bryan.
AMERICAN CYTOLOGY.
Fecundation in Plants. By David M. Mottier, Ph.D.
Pp. viiit+187. (Washington: Published by the
Carnegie Institution, 1904.)
Contributions to the Knowledge of the Life-History of
Pinus, with Special Reference to Sporogenesis, the
Development of the Gametophytes and Fertilisation.
By Margaret C. Ferguson, Ph.D. Pp. 153.
(Washington: Published by the Washington
Academy of Sciences, 1904.)
M R. MOTTIER’S * Fecundation in Plants ”’ gives
to those who are interested in cytology an
account of the phenomena of fertilisation throughout
the vegetable kingdom, written by one who has carried
on investigations in several branches of the subject with
success. His practical acquaintance with his subject
confers even on his descriptions of the investigations
of others a freshness which makes his work a pleasure
toread. The first chapter is perhaps the most generally
interesting. In it he gives an account of some of the
vexed problems of karyology which are at present
calling out so much controversy among cytologists.
Among these problems may be mentioned the existence
of centrosomes, the homology of centrosomes and
blepharoplasts, the nature of synapsis, the significance
of the sexual process, and the numerical reduction of
chromosomes. The author’s method of discussion is
candid. He avoids being dogmatic in expressing his
own views, although he criticises somewhat severely
the observations of others. He holds that centrosomes
and centrospheres do not occur in plants higher than
the liverworts, and are, indeed, only well established
in a few of the Thallophyta. It is remarkable that
he does not allude to the possibility that the radiations
at the poles of mitoses may be in part artefacts pro-
duced by the fixing agents. He considers Belajeff
hasty in coming to the conclusion that the centrosome
is the homologue of the blepharoplast; but he admits
later on that certain ‘‘ facts lend encouragement to
the belief that centrosome and blepharoplast may be
homologous structures.’’ Mottier regards synapsis
as due in a large measure to the action of reagents.
He accepts Strasburger’s theory of the numerical
reduction of chromosomes as a good working hypo-
thesis, and he holds now that there is no evidence for
Weismann’s ‘‘ reduction ’’ to be found in the mitoses
of plants. His candid expression of doubt as to the
persistent individuality of the chromosomes preserved
through the successive mitoses—so often assumed,
though almost involving a miraculous resurrection—is
typical of his attitude of independence.
The succeeding chapters give an account of fertil-
isation in types taken from the various subdivisions
of the vegetable kingdom. These descriptions are
most useful in bringing together what is scattered
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
sporadically through botanical literature into the
compass of a short, well written book. The work is
illustrated by blocks in the text, which show in a
satisfactory manner the points to be brought out.
Miss Ferguson’s memoir has a more limited scope,
but this allows her to devote more space to her own
researches, which have been very extensive in the
cytology of the spore-production of conifers. It is
quite remarkable to see how two cytologists, writing
almost simultaneously, can hold so divergent views on
fundamental subjects. While Mottier sees in the
fusion of sexual nuclei the blending of two lines of
descent, Miss Ferguson’s researches lead her to believe
that no fusion-nucleus, combining the paternal and
maternal hereditary substances, is formed. Rather
the processes of mitosis allow these to be kept apart
during the life of the offspring, and the ‘‘ reduction ”
or qualitative division occurring some time during the
life-cycle secures that the gametes shall be ‘ pure.”
It is evident that the later writer is concerned with
the relation of mitosis to Mendel’s views rather than
to Weismann’s hypothesis. With regard to synapsis,
Miss Ferguson believes it to be a normal stage in
heterotypic mitosis. Another point of difference is the
mode of origin of the double chromosomes of hetero-
typic mitosis. Miss Ferguson finds confirmation in
her preparations for the view (first published by the
writer of this review in 1896, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.)
that the two arms of the chromosomes are approxi-
mated pieces of the nuclear thread, and do not arise by
longitudinal cleavage as Mottier believes. This inter-
pretation seems to be gaining ground, and the Louvain
school, once so much opposed to it, has recently
accepted it, putting the folding back, however, to the
synaptic stage. The reviewer’s investigations seem to
suggest the possibility that two distinct foldings take
place, one during synapsis and another between that
stage and the differentiation of the chromosomes.
Whatever views are held on these disputed matters,
all cytologists are indebted to the author for her
beautiful drawings, which are reproduced in a series
of twenty-four plates.
There is no doubt that the publication of these two
memoirs, the one by the Carnegie Institution and the
other by the Washington Academy, will be of much
service to those engaged in cytological research.
He EDs
PHYSICAL RESEARCH AT LEYDEN.
Het Natuurkundig Laboratorium der Ryks-Universi-
teit te Leiden in de Jaren 1882-1904. Gedenkboek
aangeboden aan den Hoogleeraar H. Kamerlingh
Onnes, Directeur van het Laboratorium, by gelegen-
heid van zyn 25-jarig Doctoraat op 10 Juli 1904.
Pp. viii+288. (Leyden: Eduard Ydo, 1904.)
HIS volume was prepared by colleagues and pupils
of Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes, of Leyden Uni-
versity, and presented to him on the twenty-fifth
anniversary of his receiving the degree of Ph.D. It
differs in character from the usual collections of
scientific papers which it has become the fashion on
the Continent to present to eminent men of science on
JANUARY 5, 1505]
similar occasions. Since 1882 Prof. Onnes has been
director of the physical laboratory at the University
- of Leyden, and the book gives a description of the
growth of the institution since his accession to the
directorship, of its present condition, and of the work
carried out by himself and by his pupils under his
supervision. In a sense it is a matter for regret that
by the nature of the case he himself had to be excluded
from the list of contributors; on several of the subjects
dealt with it would be interesting to have the director’s
personal views.
After an eloquent dedication from the hand of Prof.
Bosscha, we find in the first chapter, compiled by Prof.
Haga and others, a detailed description of the labor-
atory and of the more important machinery and
fittings, particularly those belonging to the ‘‘ cryo-
genic ’’ department, to which Prof. Onnes has devoted
most of his personal labours; the low temperature
baths prepared here are extensively used throughout
the laboratory for various researches.
In an appendix to this chapter Dr. Siertsema gives
an interesting account of the training school for
apprentice mechanics instituted by Prof. Onnes in
connection with the laboratory. This institution is
probably unique ; it was started in 1886 with one pupil,
and the number has risen steadily until this session
no less than thirty-three boys are receiving systematic
instruction in the various mechanical arts, with
the object of qualifying themselves as instrument
makers, glass-blowers, electricians, and for similar pro-
fessions. The boys are supposed to assist to a certain
extent in the routine work of the laboratory and earn
corresponding small wages, while in the evening they
have to attend classes in the municipal technical
institute. A better training for the purpose could
hardly be imagined, and one is not astonished to learn
that after the completion of the three years’ course
the boys appear to be much in request in laboratories
and various engineering and technical works.
In chapter ii. thermodynamical investigations are
reviewed; Prof. van der Waals gives an account of
Prof. Onnes’s researches on thermodynamical surfaces,
Prof. Kuenen writes on the phenomena of condensa-
tion of binary mixtures, and there are further articles
on accurate isothermals of gases, on the construction
of models of surfaces, and on capillarity and viscosity
of liquids up to the critical region.
The third chapter, edited by Prof. Lorentz and
others, is devoted to optical and magneto-optical
work ; here we find a discussion of experiments on the
reflection of light by mirrors, on the magnetic rota-
tion of the plane of polarisation in gases, liquefied
gases and other liquids, on the influence of pressure
on the rotation of sugar solutions, on the reflection of
light by magnetised mirrors (Kerr’s phenomenon), and
an account of Zeeman’s discovery of the modification
in spectra by magnetic forces. The phenomenon dis-
covered by Egoroff and Georgiewsky, that a sodium
flame placed in a magnetic field emits partially
polarised light, was investigated by Prof. Lorentz
himself, and appears to be closely connected with
Zeeman’s phenomenon.
In the last chapter Prof. Zeeman gives a description
NO 1836, voL. 71]
NADORE
219
of researches on Hall’s phenomenon in bismuth at
various temperatures down to the boiling point of
oxygen, measurements of the dielectric constant of
liquid oxygen and liquid nitrous oxide, and of the
absorption of Hertz vibrations by salt solutions.
A detailed account of all the research work is pub-
lished regularly in the Communications from the
physical laboratory at Leyden, the issue of which was
commenced in 1892, but the present papers give a
useful general summary of the work carried out, pre-
sented in a manner which should make it intelligible
to the uninitiated.
The volume bears ample testimony to the success
which has attended Prof. Onnes’s manifold labours for
his laboratory, which owes to him its position as one
of the best known institutions of its kind. It is well
illustrated, and contains as a frontispiece a striking
likeness of Prof. Onnes, apparently after a drawing.
PRACTICAL SILICATE ANALYSIS.
Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks. By H. S.
Washington, Ph.D. Pp. ix+183. (New York:
Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.,
1g04.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
F late years greatly increased attention has been
directed to the chemical investigation of rocks,
and the science of petrology has been enriched by many
excellent analyses. Among these the work of the
United States Geological Survey deservedly holds the
highest place, both on account of its abundance and
its thoroughness. The present treatise arises from an
endeavour to make the methods used by Clarke,
Hillebrand, and other chemists in the United States
laboratory available to all workers. It is excellently
clear and detailed, and though the experienced analyst
will not find in it much that is not already published
in more succinct form in the official Bulletins of the
Survey, he will glean a few details of manipulation
and discussions of the bearings of chemical petrology
that will at any rate repay perusal.
The author intends his book to be used mainly by
the rather numerous class of geologists and petro-
logists who combine a fair knowledge of chemistry
with a desire to make their own rock analyses. Un-
doubtedly this is a far more satisfactory proceeding
than, as is usually done, to have the analyses executed
by some analyst who has no special knowledge of the
intricacies of this part of practical chemistry, and
follows methods which are discredited or discarded.
In any case such a worker will do well to place him-
self, for a time at least, under some teacher who is
thoroughly at home in the subject; we hope that this
book will not stimulate the production of analyses of
rocks by students in course of training. Much of the
worst analytical work with which chemical petrology
is burdened has been executed in that way. If it helps
to spread the knowledge of the methods used by Clarke
and Hillebrand this book will do much good, as it is
desirable that these should henceforward be recognised
as standards, from which any important departure
should be notified when the results are published.
In a few respects Dr. Washington has simplified the
220
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
standard American procedure. We think this is wise,
and, while we endorse his opinion that only the best
work should be aimed at, we do not think that this
means that the very elaborate American analyses
should be emulated by the ordinary worker. From
twenty to twenty-five elements are usually sought for
by the American chemists, and nearly one-half of these
may be present in less than 1 per cent. of the total
rock. Such analyses look exceedingly well on paper,
but require the greatest experience and manipulative
dexterity if they are to be trustworthy. Moreover,
their value is as yet not beyond question. Certainly
an analysis in which ten or twelve elements are deter-
mined as exactly as possible is more welcome than an
analysis which is more elaborate but less accurate.
We notice that the author discourages the routine
execution of duplicates. No doubt this is right; they
take up much time, and may be useless or misleading ;
it is better for the experienced chemist to occupy
himself in the most thorough testing of his re-
agents, the purity of which is never above suspicion.
Still, there can be no doubt that duplicate analyses
do show how far it is possible for the results to vary
when two samples of the same powder are analysed.
They help to check any exaggerated confidence in |
analytical refinements. In this respect it would be
interesting to know what are the probable limits of
error in analyses executed by the methods given in this
book. The author gives his opinion (apparently not
founded on any special investigations), and it strikes
us that he is more sanguine in this respect than the
majority of experienced silicate analysts in Britain or
on the Continent.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Application of some General Reactions to Investi-
gations in Organic Chemistry. By Dr. Lassar-
Cohn. Translated by J. B. Tingle, B.A. Pp. ror.
(New York: Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman
and Hall, Ltd., 1904.) Price 4s. 6d. net.
Ir would be difficult to say with what object and for
what class of readers this little volume (it is scarcely
more than a pamphlet, and may be read in an hour)
was written. Yet anyone engaged in the practical pur-
suit of organic chemistry cannot fail to be interested
in it. One may say roughly that the book treats of
the unsystematic part of organic chemistry, i.e. of the
ordinary reactions which do not succeed, and how they
may be made to do so.
Without always offering a very satisfactory explan-
ation of the causes of success or failure, for the terms
“protective influence ’’ and ‘‘ contact action ’’ are
after all merely names, the author points out how an
apparently unimportant modification may affect the
whole course of a reaction and convert an unprofitable
method into a successful or commercially lucrative
one. Incidentally, he urges the systematic study of
these anomalous reactions.
As an example may be mentioned the well known
fact that the accidental introduction of a few drops of
mercury into the experimental vessel, in which the
preparation of phthalic acid from naphthalene was in
progress, rendered the operation and consequently the
production of artificial indigo a success.
As a rule the difficulties encountered by
not by more drastic treatment, but by milder reagents.
No. 1836, VOL. 71 |
the |
anomalous behaviour of organic compounds are met |
The whole trend of modern organic synthesis seems
to lie in this direction. Thus the caustic alkalis have
been replaced in many cases by alcoholic solutions of
sodium ethoxide, by diethylamine, pyridine, or chalk,
the strong mineral acids by phosphoric, boric, or one
of the organic acids. High temperatures have given
place to lower ones. The days of so-called ‘ pyro-
genic synthesis”? are past. No one nowadays makes
organic compounds by the aid of a red-hot tube.
In this connection it is suggestive that the funda-
mental reactions of living matter which embrace
oxidation and reduction of a far-reaching kind, as well
as synthetic processes more complex than anything
achieved in the laboratory, are all effected at ordinary
temperatures and with the mildest reagents.
It follows, therefore, that the more closely organic
chemists succeed in imitating these conditions the
more surely will those mysterious contact or ferment-
ation problems usually associated with living proto-
plasm, but not unknown in the laboratory, approach
solution. eo 85.45
A Further Course of Practical Science.
Leonard and W. H. Salmon. _ Pp.
(London: John Murray, 1904.) Price 2s.
In this book the principles of natural science are
taught and enforced in a scientific manner by means
of a course of experimental work, simple in character,
but involving quantitative measurements, and carried
out personally by the student. To begin with, lengths
are measured with an ordinary rule, and tests are
made in order to find out the limits of accuracy within
which the measurements may be relied on. These
measurements serve as an introduction to “ physical
arithmetic,’? or simple arithmetical computations
specially suitable for dealing with numbers which are
avowedly only approximately correct. Then follows a
chapter on elementary mensuration involving the
estimation of angles, lengths, areas, and volumes, the
balance very wisely sharing in this work.
Experiments are devised to illustrate some of
the fundamental properties of matter, such as those
of indestructibility, inertia, porosity, ductility, &c.
The next six chapters deal with mechanics, the sub-
jects including uniform linear acceleration, Newton’s
laws, relative motion, statical equilibrium of uniplanar
forces, and simple machines. This difficult section is
not treated in a very satisfactory manner. The
method is too deductive, the experiments are some-
what scanty and not very well chosen. Thus there
is no direct verification of the fundamental principle
of the conservation of momentum. Vectors, though
introduced, are not made sufficiently prominent, and
in the so-called ‘‘ simple machines ’”’ it seems rather
antiquated to find the three kinds of levers, the three
systems of pulleys, the wedge, &c., introduced.
In the concluding chapters relating to the properties
of liquids and gases, and the nature of heat, the
authors are happier in their treatment, notwithstand-
ing an occasional looseness in the statement of a
principle. The book deserves to be very favourably
received, and teachers will find that arrangements
have been made to facilitate the purchase of the
apparatus necessary for conducting the experiments.
By Dr. Gustav Eichhorn.
(Leipzig: Veit and
By Jj. .
ix+224.
Die drahtlose Telegraphie.
Pp. x+256; numerous figures.
Co.) Price 5 marks.
Tuts is an elementary exposition of the principles and
practice of wireless telegraphy with especial reference
to the systems developed by Dr. Braun. It is evidently
intended to enable a practical man to become
acquainted with this method without, at the same
| time, any attempt being made to give such a complete
JANUARY 5, 1905]
account as would warrant its use as a class text-book.
By means of the first five chapters a reader who knows
a little about the elements of electricity and magnetism
will be able to appreciate the nature of electric waves
and of Hertz’s achievement in producing them. Then,
after briefly alluding to the early system of Marconi,
the writer passes on to the particular devices of Dr.
Braun. The book is well and clearly written, but is
‘in no sense a complete compendium on the subject,
and the reader who derives all his knowledge from
it will be inclined to think that there is only one system
in the world, and that Eichhorn is its prophet. More
recent methods of detecting waves by means of effects
arising from hysteresis in iron are dismissed in a couple
of pages, where there is no reference to Rutherford’s
early detector working on the same principle, while
Lodge’s steel-mercury-contact detector does not appear
even to be mentioned, although the ‘ Literature ”
appendix at the end includes the year 1903. In
appendix ii. the Thomson-Kirchhoff theory of the
oscillatory discharge of a condenser is given; the
credit, of course, belongs to Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
Notes on the Natural History of the Bell Rock. By
J. M. Campbell. Pp. xv+112; title-piece. (Edin-
burgh: David Douglas, 1904.) Price 3s. 6d. net.
As a record of the various types of aérial and marine
life commonly seen by the guardians of the lonely
lighthouses of the east coast of Scotland in particular,
and of the British coasts in general, these random netes
are worthy of all commendation, more especially as
they are written by a man who does not appear to have
had a scientific training. Mr. Campbell was assistant
light-keeper on the Bell Rock for the long period of
nine years, and he is therefore well qualified to know
all that is to be known with regard to the general
habits of the commoner and more conspicuous species
frequenting the environment of his station; while a
_ period of such a length is sufficient to include the visits
of many of the rarer stragglers. Most or all of the
notes, it appears, have been previously published in
the local Press of the neighbouring mainland, and they
are certainly worthy of rescue from such oblivion.
The only point for regret is, perhaps, that the author
does not say more about bird migration. Mr. James
Murdoch, late secretary to the Board of Northern
Lighthouses, has contributed an interesting introduc-
tion on lighthouses and lighthouse-men in general.
Ry Mes
The British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1905.
Edited by Thomas Bedding. Pp. 1612. (London:
Henry Greenwood and Co., 1904.) Price 1s. 6d.
net.
Tuts bulky volume, with its mine of miscellaneous
photographic information, is compiled on the same
lines as the earlier issues, and will be found to be a
necessary adjunct to the studio and library. Among
the host of articles in these pages may be mentioned
a condensed summary of the story of the British
Journal of Photography and the almanac’ which
appeared in the jubilee number of the above mentioned
journal, and also a selected number of the jubilee
articles. Recent novelties in apparatus, &c., by the
editor, forms also a conspicuous feature, and represents
the progress in this branch of photography. No less
important are the practical notes on numerous subjects,
the formulz, tables, list of photographic societies of
the United Kingdom, &c., all of which add to the
utility of the volume. The full indices to advertisers
and contents make a quick reference to any portion of
the book quite an easy matter, an important consider-
ation in a book containing 1612 pages. The processed
illustrations and woodcuts are as numerous as ever.
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
NALURE
225
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Mean Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes.
On p. 131 of Nature of December 8, 1904, you give an
approximate calculation of the mean temperatures of high
southern latitudes, by Mr. Krebs, based upon the observ-
ations of the most recent Antarctic expeditions.
For the new edition of my ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Meteorologie ’*
I have made a similar calculation, and have made use of
the observations in order to calculate afresh the mean
temperature of the southern hemisphere. My preliminary
results are as follows :—
Salatitideme meena sOr N60 be 70m sy So
Yearly temperature... 5°5 ... —2°0 ... —II°§ ... —19°8C.
January et ees lesa) 905) 6-4) 9372) 2a O'S) as — 1075) 5,
July Mat Maan: Olena. 017 (Oi y-2) 222) 7.5 — 30'S. 5
Mean temperature of both hemispheres :—
Annual
January July Year variation
o o ° °o
S. hemisphere ... 17°3 10°3 136 701s
N. 6, Rea SIO Sean 12255 LSC eens TAILS
Whole earth . 12°6 16°4 TATA) Greer Qco as
Ferrel and myself formerly determined the mean tempera-
ture of the southern hemisphere to be 15° C. (from tempera-
tures up to 55° S. lat.). The new observations in high
southern latitudes have now shown that the southern hemi-
sphere is considerably colder than the northern, viz. by
about 1°-5 C. The publication of the temperature observ-
ations of the Discovery’s second year will be very important
for this question; in my calculations I could only make use
of the observations relating to the first year.
Vienna, December 30, 1904. Jutius Hann.
Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction Machines.
Last week, while working with a small Voss machine,
I accidentally observed, on stopping the machine, giving
about two turns in the wrong direction and then re-starting
the machine in the original direction, that the poles had
reversed. I repeated the experiment a dozen times, and
invariably the reversal occurred. The reversal was observed
| by examining the spark between the knobs.
I mentioned the fact to Prof. Gray, and we then tried
the effect with a vacuum discharge tube connected to the
knobs. While the tube was fresh the reversal occurred,
but after a little time the reversal occurred but seldom.
It was found, however, that if the discharge was made
to pass by connecting one terminal of the tube to earth, the
other terminal to one pole of the machine, while the second
pole of the machine was kept insulated, then the reversal
invariably occurred when the procedure mentioned was.
followed.
We next tried the large Wimshurst machine in the labor-
atory with the same results. It was noticed, however, when
the induction rods were so arranged that the machine.
excited both ways, that the reversal did not occur.
As I do not remember to have seen the experiment
mentioned before, I think it worth directing attention to, as
it provides a simple way of getting the discharge to pass in
whatever direction it is required.
GrorGE W. WALKER.
Physical Laboratory, The University, Glasgow.
Fishing at Night.
TuereE are, as I have explained in the book referred to
by ‘‘ S. W.’’ in Nature of December 29, 1904 (p. 201), many
reasons for night-fishing by our pilchard and other fishing
fleets. He quotes one, however, which is quite unsatis-
factory, namely, the convenience of catching the morning
to
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
a
market. To a few ports this might apply, but as a general
rule the fish-train for Billingsgate leaves the coast towns
about six or seven in the evening, the fish reaching the
central market by van first thing in the morning. The
actual reasons for this preference for night-fishing are
many. In the case of pilchards taken in drift-nets, the
habits of the fish themselves furnish the explanation. In
the case of trawlers, the reasons are diverse. In some cases
the water is so shallow that the nets would be seen and
avoided by the fish in daylight, and this, in fact, is still more
the case with the drift-nets. Elsewhere, they trawl at night
because they want soles, just as many Plymouth boats
trawl by day because their best market is for the rougher
kinds of fish. There is no night-trawling in Cornwall by
reason of the local regulations, which clear the sea by
night of other fishing craft in order that the drifters may
work without interruption or risk. F. G. AFLALo.
14 Westover Villas, Bournemouth, Hants.
The Cost of Chemical Synthesis.
In your review of Prof. Meldola’s, Synthesis of Vital
Products,’? your reviewer argues that though certain pro-
ducts, viz. alizarin and indigo, ‘‘can be synthesised so
cheaply that natural products cannot compete with them in
the market ’’; yet this is of little interest from the bio-
chemical point of view.
May I point out that this argument is even stronger than
it seems, for the cheapness is quite accidental, and due to
the fact that the world requires coal gas, and iron.
If the syntheses above were dependent on anthracene and
naphthalene obtained from coal treated strictly ad hoc this
cheapness would disappear. R. J. FRISWELL.
43-45 Great Tower Street, London, E.C., January 2.
‘Bastard ” Logwood,
fur Jamaica Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture
for November, 1904, prints a very interesting article on this
subject by B. C. Gruenberg and William Gies, contributed
originally to the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
During the past few years the growers of logwood in
Jamaica have been greatly disturbed by an apparent in-
crease on their properties of an unmerchantable variety of
the plant known as “‘ bastard” logwood; the exportation
of this wood along with real logwood has served to condemn
all the logwood from the districts which have shipped it.
“Bastard? logwood differs from the genuine varieties,
from the dyer’s standpoint, in yielding little or no hama-
toxylin, but instead a yellowish-green pigment which is of
no value, and which, when mixed with the commercial
extract, reduces: the characteristic tinctorial properties.
Chips of the ‘‘ bastard ’’ logwood present a yellow, pale
pink, white, or even chocolate coloured surface, instead of
the dark red or deep purple bronze-tinted colour of the best
logwood. There appears great uncertainty, even when the
trees are cut down, as to whether a tree is really a
““ bastard’? tree or not. What is known as a “ bastard”
tree is frequently dark enough when first cut to lead one to
believe that it is a good red-wood tree, but instead of
darkening with age it remains the same colour, or becomes
lighter rather than darker. ‘* Bastard’’ wood is not the
result of disease or of any lack of vigour; the trees pro-
ducing it are perfectly healthy and normal.
It is not the result of soil or climatic conditions, since
bastard and normal trees are found growing side by side
under absolutely identical conditions.
It is not the result of immaturity ; aged trees may produce
bastard wood.
These facts point to heredity as the probable cause of
the trouble, that certain trees produce “* bastard ”’
wood because they grow from seed of a ‘‘ bastard ’’ tree ;
in other words, ‘‘ bastard ’’ logwood is a variety of
Haematoxylin Campechianum that normally produces little
or no haematoxylin. The chemical differences existing
among all these logwoods are quantitatively very slight,
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
is,
l
|
and there are no striking structural differences among all,
the varieties of logwood. |
There can be no doubt that ‘* bastard’’ logwood is a_
distinct variety or subspecies of Haematoxylin Campechi-
anum, notwithstanding the slight morphological difference —
that distinguishes it from the ‘‘ red’’ logwood and blue
logwood.
lhe Jamaica Bulletin has dore good service to the colony
in bringing the fact prominently before the planters that
the admixture of useless wood which has been the source
of unnecessary loss to them may be avoided.
S: Nie?
Imtelligence of A: imals.
Tue instance of intelligence in a cat recorded by Mr.
T. S. Patterson on p. 201 is not unusual. I have known
several cats, all of them males, that were accustomed to
rattle the handle or some part of the lock in order to get
a door opened. F. J. ALLEN:
Cambridge.
A NEW CONTRIBUTION TO ASSYRIAN
HISTORY.'
ie
a handy little volume, to which we have much
pleasure in directing the attention of our readers,
Mr. L. W. King, o: the British Museum, has pub-
lished the cuneiform text and a translation of a very
important historical Assyrian document, which has
been recently exhibited in the Assyrian and Babylonian
room in the British Museum. This document is a slab
of limestone, about 153 inches long and 11 inches
wide, which is inscribed with sixty-seven lines of
cuneiform text, thirty-seven lines being on the obverse
and thirty on the reverse. The writing is in bold, well
formed characters, but it seems to have been cut some-
what hurriedly, for the mason was obliged to make
nine erasures, and in two passages he has left out a
sign, apparently without having detected the omission.
We need not discuss the paleographical importance
of the text, which is of considerable interest, and it is
only necessary to state that it exhibits the style of
Assyrian characters employed in monumental inscrip-
tions in the early part of the thirteenth century before
Christ.
The contents of the text, which is actually the official
summary of the principal events in the reign of Tukulti-
Ninib I., King of Assyria about B.c. 1275, fall readily
into four divisions, which respectively record the king’s
name and titles, his military expeditions, the found-
ation of the city Kar Tukulti-Ninib, and an appeal to
future rulers. The stone tablet or slab which supplies
this information was either placed in a niche in the
wall or laid in a box of stone or clay, and then built
up in the foundation of the city Kar Tukulti-Ninib. In
passing, Mr. King discusses briefly but clearly the
question of foundation deposits, both in Egypt and
Assyria, and shows how the ideas concerning them
in the two countries agree in some respects and differ
in others. .
Turning now to the campaigns of Tukulti-Ninib 1.,
we find that in the first he conquered the Kuti and the
inhabitants of four other districts; in the second he
became master of the land of Shubari, and ten other
provinces; in the third he vanquished forty kings of
the land of Na’iri; and in the fourth he defeated
Bibeashu, King of Babylon, and completely subjugated
the regions of Sumer and Accad. The last campaign
was undoubtedly the most important of all, for with
1 “Records of the Reign of Tukulti-Ninib I., King of ‘Assyria. abou
n.c. 1275.” By L W. King, M.A., F.S.A._ Pp. xvi+185, and rr illustra-
tions. (London: Luzac and Co., 1904.) Price 6s. net.
;
;
January 5, 1905]
NEURO RE
223
the fall of Babylon Tukulti-Ninib became master of
all Mesopotamia. The resistance offered by the
Babylonians was serps in the extreme, and the
Assyrian king slew large numbers of them and de-
stroyed their city wall. Tukulti-Ninib looted the city
and plundered the treasuries of E-sagil, the great
temple of Marduk, and he carried off to Assyria not
only Bibeashu himself, but the statue of his god
Marduk. No victory could have been more complete,
and even at this distance of time it is impossible not
to feel some sympathy with the vanquished Babylonian
king when we read that he, a prisoner and bound in
chains, was led, with his god Marduk, into the
presence of Ashur, the great god of Assyria, as
witnesses of the comprehensive manner in which
Tukulti-Ninib had performed Ashur’s commands.
The account of the conquest of Bibeashu
and of the capture of Babylon by Tukulti-
Ninib is especially important from a chrono-
logical point of view, for it establishes beyond
a doubt the fact that these two kings were
contemporaneous. For some time past it
has been known from the ‘‘ Babylonian
Chronicle’ that Tukulti-Ninib conquered
Babylonia, but the name of the Babylonian
king, although it occurs on this document,
was not recognised. Both Mr. Pinches, who
published a translation of this ‘‘ Chronicle,’’
and Dr. Winckler, who published a copy of
the text, misread the passage in which the
name occurs. ‘The identification of Bibeashu
and the correct reading of his name we owe
to Mr. King, who has succeeded in establish-
ing a new and very important synchronism
in Assyrian and Babylonian history. Thus
the system of chronology which made
Bibeashu to live sixty or seventy years after
Tukulti-Ninib I. is proved to be incorrect.
In connection with the conquest of Babylon
by Tukulti-Ninib I., mention must here be
made of the copy of an inscription which is
found on a small clay tablet (K. 2673), now
in the British Museum. This copy was made
from a lapis-lazuli seal, on which the original
inscription was engraved by a scribe of
Sennacherib, who caused some lines to be
added to commemorate his conquest of
Babylon and the recovery of the seal by him-
self. The lapis-lazuli seal, as Mr. King tells
us, was not made for Tulkulti-Ninib I., as
was once generally thought, but for
Shagarakti- Shuriash, a Kassite king. When
Tukulti-Ninib captured Babylon he found the
seal there, and carried it off to Nineveh, and
he had his own inscription engraved upon it
without erasing that of Shagarakti-Shuriash.
The seal was subsequently, in circumstances
unknown to us, carried back to Babylon,
where Sennacherib found it about 600 years
Fic
later, and he, of course, restored it to
Nineveh, and, having added his own in-
scription to it, had a copy of the in-
scription of the Kassite king, that of the King of
Assyria, and of his own made on a tablet. The first
to translate the copy of Tukulti-Ninib’s inscription on
the tablet was Mr. George Smith, but that. of
Shagarakti-Shuriash baffled him, and he failed to reaa
the characters of which it was composed. Profs.
Hommel, Bezold, and Schrader were likewise unable
to translate it, and Mr. King has been the first to prove
that, in addition to the words added to the seal by the
order of Sennacherib, the copy contains two distinct
inscriptions, namely, one of Shagarakti-Shuriash and
one of Tukulti-Ninib I. The copy of Sennacherib’s
NO 1836, voL. 71]
1.—Limestone Tablet inscribed with the annals of Tukulti-Ninib I.,
inscription is very important, for it enables us to assign
the date of Tukulti-Ninib’s reign provisionally to about
B.C. 1275; its length cannot at present be stated with
exactness.
In addition to the interesting text of Tulkulti-Ninib,
of which a general summary has been given above,
Mr. King adds the inscriptions of Shalmaneser I. from
the fragments of inscribed bowls now in the British
Museum, a passage from the synchronous history,
the inscriptions from the lapis-lazuli seal of Shagarakti-
Shuriash, and Sennacherib’s accounts of his capture
of Babylon both in 702 B.c. and 689 B.c. ; in fact, every
bit of evidence which relates to the period of which
his book treats, and is found in the cuneiform inscrip-
tions, is appended for the assistance of the reader, with
full transliterations and translations. That Mr. King
King o
Assyria. From ‘ Records of the Reign of Tukulti-Ninib I.”
has published not only a new, but important historical
| inscription is clear, and all w ho are in any way familiar
| with the subject will find his sober and concise observ-
| ations on its contents helpful and stimulating. Messrs
Harrison’s large cuneiform type has been used for
| printing the text, and paper and binding leave nothing
to be desired. We note that the volume is the first of
a series of ‘‘ Studies in Eastern History ’’ which
Luzac and Co. are about to publish, and we feel that
if the succeeding volumes are as valuable as the
““ Records of the Reign of Tukulti-Ninib I.’’ the success
of the undertaking is assured.
224
SEISMOLOGY IN JAPAN.
16 NDER the title of *‘ Recent Seismological Investi-
gations in Japan,’’? Baron Dairoku Kikuchi,
former Minister of Education, has issued for private
circulation only an ‘‘ address ”’ prepared for the late ex-
Fic. 1.—Model of a Farmer's Cottage. Showing the essential points of construction recommended
The chief points to be observed are diagonal on
bracing, the use of iron straps, and the avoidance of mortices and other cuts at joints.
by the Earthquake Investigation Committee.
position in St, Louis. When we look at this address,
which is a quarto volume of 136 pages filled with
illustrations, we feel that its author should have doffed
his modesty and called it seismology as developed in
Japan. To describe the work more closely, we shall
not be far from the mark if we
say it is an epitomised translation
of a number of publications which
to Europeans have hitherto been
eryptogramic. It gives us not only
a résumé of sixteen numbers of the
publications of the Tokyo Earth-
quake Investigation Committee—
called for short the E. I. €.—
which have been published in a
European language, and with
which we are more or less familiar,
but there is added an abstract of
forty-seven numbers or volumes
published in Chinese idiographs.
Many seismologists have looked at
them and wondered what they
meant. The contents of these
sixty-three publications have been
epitomised, mixed, and system-
atised.
After an introduction to the
“recent ’’ investigations, which
tell us that the first earthquake re-
corded in Japan was in a.p. 416,
and reference to various investi-
gations made by Europeans in
Japan, we are introduced to the
system under which investigations
have been classified and discussed.
Under the heading ‘“ Statistical’? we find data
relating to the distribution of earthquakes in space
and time, their relation to meteorological conditions,
NO. 1836, VOL 71]
and their results
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
Fic. 2,—Nagoya Spinning Mill.
brick building and on a chimney constructed according to European practice.
and various phenomena, Earthquakes which have a
submarine origin are most frequent in summer, when
the level of the Pacific Ocean bordering Japan is
higher than in winter. Those originating on the land
are most frequent in winter, at which season baro-
metric pressure is at a maximum. Out of forty-seven
destructive earthquakes which
originated beneath the Pacific,
twenty-three were accompanied by
tsunami or sea waves, which prob-
ably means that on these occasions
marked and sudden changes had
taken place in the configuration of
the sea bed.
Among the instruments which
are described we notice a_hori-
zontal pendulum the bob of which
is controlled by a small inverted
pendulum. Although the vertical
and horizontal dimensions of this
apparatus are each only I metre,
Prof. Omori tells us that a period
of one minute can be obtained
without difficulty. | Macroseismic
motion is described, and after this
reference is made to microseisms
or pulsations. These two classes
of movement Prof. Omori finds
alternate in their frequency, so
that when the small movements
are at a minimum the larger ones
may be expected. This observ-
ation, we learn, has enabled him
several occasions to predict
within ten or twelve hours the
occurrence of an earthquake.
The geological investigations which have been made
chiefly refer to the survey of volcanoes, which is a
work outside that done by the Geological Survey.
The investigations of relationships that may exist
between earthquakes and various physical phenomena
RE ST ad
Showing the effects of the Mino-Owari Earthquake of 1901 ona
which affect or are affected by strain in the earth’s
crust are particularly interesting. At present con-
tinuous magnetic observations are being made in Japan
at five stations, from which, amongst other things, it
has been observed that on several occasions magnetic
JANUARY 5, 1905]
NATURE
225
needles have been disturbed before or at the time of
large earthquakes. Speaking generally about these
investigations, Baron Kikuchi considers that they
promise to throw light upon the state of underground
stress, and as one of the chief objects of the E. I. C. is
to devise means to predict earthquakes which may be
taken as announcements that stress has been relieved,
it will be recognised that the inquiries relating to local
magnetic disturbance are of a promising nature.
Other phenomena which receive attention are vari-
ations in latitude, the determination of gravity, under-
ground temperatures, seiches, changes in the level of
water in wells, and the elastic constants of rocks.
The last section of this interesting volume is an
account of investigations which have been made with
the object of reducing the disastrous effects of earth-
quakes to a minimum. To the prac-
tical person this is no doubt the most
important branch of all seismologica}
research. Already it has accomplished
much, and after a severe shaking we
have learned that in Japan new types of
structures are to be seen standing
amongst the ruins of older types.
We welcome’ Baron Kikuchi’s
volume, and trust that although its
circulation is private it may also be
wide.
THE FOUNDER OF AUSTRALIAN
ANTHROPOLOGY.*
R. A. W. HOWITT is our highest
authority on the native tribes of
Australia. Ever since the publication
of ‘‘ Kamilaroi and Kurnai,’’ in 1880,
he has been adding to our knowledge
of the most instructive and interesting
aboriginal population in the world.
The present work, therefore, which
summarises the data collected by him
during forty years of personal inter-
course with the ‘‘ blackfellows,’’ is of
the greatest importance. Most of the
material here incorporated was written
up before 1889; a few modifications of
theory and many new facts have been
introduced, and some corrections made,
but the broad deductions remain un-
altered.
The main body of the work is pre-
ceded by a useful summary and
criticism of the principal views that have
been put forward as to the origin and
ethnological affinities of the Tas- E
manian-Australian stock; Dr. Howitt Fic.
rejects both the Dravidian and the
Malayan hypotheses. The tribes here
dealt with came into contact with the white man at
a date too early, perhaps, to allow them much chance
of survival; many of them are now practically extinct,
and most of them are at least deorganised. The area
they occupied is about one-quarter of the continent,
extending on the north to near the tropic of Capricorn,
and on the south bordered by the Southern and Pacific
Oceans, connected by Bass Strait. This area has a
wide range of climate and temperature, and the tribes
themselves present almost every variety of social
organisation, from that of the Dieri and central dis-
tricts through the ordinary Australian types to the
unique system of the Kurnai in Gippsland. Excellent
1 “The Native Tribes of South-East Australia.”
D.Sc. Pp. xix+8rq; illustrations and maps.
Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price ars. net.
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
By A. W. Howitt,
(London: Macmillan and
1.—One of the Krauatungalung Clan of the Kurnai Tribe.
Tribes of South-East Australia.”
maps, very numerous and complete, illustrate both the
tribal areas and the range of the various social
systems.
In this matter of organisation Dr. Howitt traces the
gradations in a way conclusive enough to point to the
probable course of evolution. In particular he reduces.
the problem of exogamy to the bisection of the com-
munity into two exogamous intermarrying moieties—
the typical Australian system—which bisection is
based, as he implies, on the prohibition of marriage
between brothers and sisters. It is to be regretted that
he does not fully discuss this ground of exogamy. He
quotes Dr. Frazer and the present writer as having
independently reached the same conclusion, and it
seems that we are at last approaching unanimity as
to this primal law of human social relations. - He
From Howitt’s ‘‘ The Native
agrees with Spencer and Gillen that the primary
functions of totemism were in existence before
exogamy became established, and that the relation
between totemism and exogamy is secondary only.
On the other hand he sees no reason to modify his
original view that the bisection was a reformatory
measure, instituted after a long reign of the ‘ Un-
divided Commune.’’ It is doubtless impossible to
deny some purposiveness to the innovation, if innova-
tion it was; Mr. Lang is here inclined to agree. But
to engineer such bisection in a large undivided com-
mune seems beyond the powers even of primitive man.
A shorter way may be easily suggested :—the moieties
practically correspond to two groups of intermarrying
relatives; we may suppose, then, to begin with, two
small families or fire circles, A and B, making inter-
226
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
marriage, and continuing to do so in successive gener-
ations. Now here we have in A and B not only the
two moieties of the future tribe, but the tribe itself, in
the making. The bisection grew out of a quasi-
purposive exogamous instinct against marriage within
the fire-circle.
There seems to be nothing against Aristotle’s view
that the tribe grew out of the family, except the
curious but fashionable prejudice in favour of an
organisation for primitive man of the baboon type.
Mr. Atkinson in a remarkable paper has dealt the
latest and one of the shrewdest blows at this prejudice,
and doubtless anthropologists may in time revert to
Darwin’s suggestion that the earliest form of the
human family resembled rather that of the unsocial
anthropoids, such as the gorilla. It is noteworthy that
Dr. Howitt modifies considerably the earlier concep-
tion of the Undivided Commune, and regards it as
having been originally something like ‘‘ what occurs
when the modified Communes of the Lake Eyre tribes
reunite.’’ The battleground of the two schools is, of
Fic. 2.—The Bret or Dead Hand. From Howitt's ‘‘ The Native Tribes of
South-East Australia.”
course, the so-called group-marriage of the tribes last
named. In this connection the author does good
service by putting together a full and revised account
of the Dieri marriage-system, with its Tippa-malku
or individual marriage, and its Pirrauru or group-
union. We are thus enabled with some certainty of
data to compare the notorious Urabunna and Arunta
systems. But when Dr. Howitt says, ‘‘ the germ of
individual marriage may be seen in the Dieri practice;
for as I shall show later on, a woman becomes a
Tippa-malku wife before she becomes a Pirrauru or
group-wife ’’ (p. 179), the logic strikes one as curious.
The inference should surely be that the group-marriage
has been evolved from the individual system, and not
the other way about.
The author still regards the practice, as amongst
the Wiimbaio, of exchanging wives on the approach
of a pestilence, as a survival of group-marriage, and
the right of access as a survival of the jus primae
noctis and an ‘‘ expiation’’ for individual marriage.
One had thought that these two last categories had
been relegated to the limbo of outworn fictions anthro-
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
pological. Noticeable details are that the action of
jealousy is very strong in the Dieri tribe; that, as the
Rev. O. Siebert puts it, ‘‘ the practice of Pirrauru is
worthy of praise for its strength and earnestness in
regard to morality, and in the ceremonial with which
it is regulated, since no practice could be less in accord
with the hetairism which Lord Avebury has imagined
for the Australian aborigines ’’ (p. 186).
It is disappointing to find that no mention is made
of Cunow’s theory of the four and eight subclasses;
it would have been instructive to see what light an
| unrivalled personal knowledge of the system and an
acquaintance, doubtless extensive, with the dialects
might have thrown on the view that these classes are
age-divisions, and have primarily nothing to do with
marriage-restrictions. The Kurnai with their totems
which do not affect marriage, and their local, not class-
divisions, present a fascinating problem, and no one
knows more about the Kurnai than does Dr. Howitt.
Their marriage by elopement, and the systematic use
therein of priestly assistance, are remarkable customs.
“Tt was the business of the Bunjil-yenjin to aid the
elopement of young couples. For instance, when a
young man wanted a wife, and had fixed his mind
on some girl, whom he could not obtain from her
parents, he must either go without her, persuade her
to run off with him, or call in the aid of the Bunjil-
yenjin. In the latter case his services were retained
by presents of weapons, skin-rugs, or other articles.”’
The Bunjil-yenjin then sang a magic song until he
thought his magic strong enough to secure the
“covering up ’’ of the parents in a state of coma.
The author in a very interesting essay applies the
facts of ‘‘ maternal descent ’’ to the Teutonic Salic
Laws. Among the more important features of the
book is the masterly and final settlement of the vexed
questions of the native headmen, and the belief in
supreme beings, like Daramulun. The connection
between the two questions is that the headman in the
sky is the analogue of the headman of the tribe on
the earth. Among the Kurnai—to note another
difference between many of* the south-eastern tribes
and those studied by Spencer and Gillen—the know-
ledge of Mungan-ngaua is confined to the initiated
men, who impart it in all sincerity to their novices;
the Arunta, as Spencer and Gillen inform us, take this
opportunity of explaining their deity away as a being
only believed in by women and children. Among
further details of interest are the Kurnai custom of
the Dead Hand, the performance of the Indian Rope
Trick by Kurnai medicine-men, the magical influence
which exists between opposite sexes, and the belief
that the initiated elders infuse their own magical
power into boys at confirmation.
The book is a fitting crown to Dr. Howitt’s labours,
and is, in effect, the most considerable and important
of all studies of the Australian race.
A. ERNEST CRAWLEY.
CHANGES UPON THE MOON’S SURFACE.
NTIL within the last few years there has been
a very general opinion that the moon was a cold,
dead world, or, as it has been sometimes expressed,
a burned out cinder, upon which nothing ever
happened. This view was apparently due to the fact
that the men who wrote the text-books on astronomy
were not the men who studied the moon. Among the
selenographers themselves, those astronomers who
made a special study of the moon, there is not one,
so far as the writer is aware, who has not expressed
his belief that changes of some sort, volcanic or other-
wise, occasionally occur upon our satellite. Reference
JANUARY 5, 1905]
NATURE
227
is made to such men as Madler, Schmidt, Webb,
Elger, and Nieson.
As the result of his lunar observations in Peru,
Jamaica, and California, the writer has come to the
conclusion that physical changes do occur upon the
moon, and that they may be classified under three
heads, those due to volcanic action, those due to the
formation and melting of hoar frost, and those due to
vegetation. ;
In the first class theeclassical example is that of
Linné, which, according to the measurements of
Lohrmann, Madler, and Schmidt, prior to 1843, had
a diameter of between four and seven miles. Its
diameter at present is three-quarters of a mile. A
few years ago a new crater was announced by Klein
in the vicinity of Hyginus. The writer is not
sufficiently familiar with this region to speak from
personal experience, having but a few sketches of it,
but he believes that a change there of some sort is
generally admitted by selenographers.
Perhaps no area of its size upon the moon has been
so thoroughly examined as the floor of Plato. It has
been studied at intervals of about eleven years, first
in 1870 by a committee of the British Association, next
by A. S. Williams and others in 1881, and again a
few years later, then by the writer at Arequipa in
1892, and again this past summer in California.
In each survey about forty craterlets have been
mapped, and each time some new ones have been dis-
covered, while at the same time a few of those pre-
viously observed had ceased to be visible. The
original trigonometrical survey of 1870 was based
upon four craterlets located near the centre of the
floor, and selected as primary stations. The eastern-
most of these was last seen as a crater in 1888. A
trace of it was suspected in 1892, but a search for it
this past summer with a 16-inch telescope working
under most favourable climatic conditions failed to
reveal any trace of it whatever. Even the large white
area upon the floor which formerly marked its posi-
tion has partially disappeared.
A map of the floor of Plato, based on a survey made
in 1892, is given in the Harvard Annals (xxxii.,
plate x.). On this map the craterlet numbered 3 corre-
sponds to craterlet number 22 of the older surveys.
This craterlet was tenth in order of conspicuousness
in 1870. In 1881 it had risen to the seventh place.
In 1892, although carefully looked for, it could not be
found, and it was entered on the map as a missing
crater. A study of this region during the past summer
revealed the presence of what appeared to be a large
crescent-shaped bank of sand, six miles in length by
from one to two miles in breadth. Its height was
computed at not far from tooo feet. It is the only
object of the sort upon the floor, and the writer has
so far found no previous record of its existence.
When the sun is setting upon Plato it is by far the
most conspicuous object within the crater walls, and
was readily revealed by a 6-inch objective in Cam-
bridge, Mass., working under very unfavourable atmo-
spheric conditions. At sunrise it was also in part seen
without difficulty under fair conditions. It seems in-
credible that so conspicuous an object as this should
have been overlooked by all the earlier observers, had
it then been visible.
I accordingly wrote to Mr. Williams, and he kindly
sent me a list of forty-two observations made during
the years 1879 to 1890, dealing with the particular
portion of the crater floor where this formation was
situated. Five of these observations were made during
that portion of the lunar day when the object is now
conspicuous, and when it is much more so than any
of the craterlets upon the floor. Three of Mr.
Williams’s observations record that nothing was
visible upon this portion of the floor. One observy-
NO. S36" VOL. 77 |
ation records two small white spots, one of which he
thinks may have been the original crater, and the
other is possibly a neighbouring hill. Both of them
as shown by this sketch were evidently very small
objects as compared to the present formation. The
fifth observation records a bright streak passing
through the spot in question and extending for about
thirty miles across the floor. Evidently if the present
sandbank had been in existence at that time Mr.
Williams could not have failed to have seen it and
recorded it upon his sketches. Between this sand heap
and the crater wall a large craterlet now exists. It
is, in fact, the largest upon the floor, measuring about
two miles in diameter, but owing to its peculiar posi-
tion, and also to the fact that it is never bright like
most of the others, it can only be seen at lunar sun-
set, and even then is not conspicuous.
Turning now to the second class of physical changes
visible upon the moon, those due to the formation and
disappearance of hoar frost, we find numberless ex-
amples scattered over the surface, but in most cases
favourable atmospheric conditions and a large glass
are necessary to render them clearly visible. Before
dealing with any specific cases, however, it may be
well to endeavour to answer some of the objections
raised on theoretical grounds to the possibility of the
existence of water vapour upon the moon.
The writer believes that he himself was one of the
first to point out that if water vapour existed upon the
lunar surface, it must sooner or later be dissipated
into outer space (Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1892,
xi., p. 781). That such a dissipation must have been
going on in times past seems to be inevitable, but
before reaching a conclusion as to the present existence
of water vapour upon the moon, there are one or two
important considerations that must be taken into
account. ;
Vulcanologists are now generally agreed that the
vast quantity of water, amounting to thousands, and
sometimes to millions of tons, given off during
volcanic eruptions is not rain water, nor yet water
that has reached the interior from the ocean, but is
water that either is being expelled for the first time
from the earth’s interior or is being expelled by
heat from the rocky materials of the earth’s crust with
which it was previously united by the forces of crystal-
lisation. If the earth is still discharging such large
quantities of water from its interior there is no reason
why the moon should not be doing the same thing.
It is true the moon is smaller, but then also it began
life later than the earth. The reason why the earth
has oceans is that it is large enough and massive
enough to retain the expelled water in that form. The
moon, on the other hand, is too small to do so, and
the water therefore appears scattered widely over its
surface in the form of hoar frost before being dissi-
pated into outer space. :
Another objection to the theory of the existence of
water vapour that has been raised is the statement
that there is no evidence of erosion upon the moon.
This statement is clearly a mistake, but the eroded
valleys are small, and it requires good atmospheric
conditions to detect them. Fairly conspicuous ex-
amples, however, exist upon the central peaks of
Theophilus and Eratosthenes. Although the valleys
are small, it is hard to understand how the compara-
tively minute amount of hoar frost at present found
in these regions could have produced so great an
effect, and we must conclude that formerly there must
have been a great deal more of it. The only strong
evidence that water in the liquid state ever existed upon
the surface of the moon lies in the dry river-beds. The
best example of these lies on the eastern slopes of
Mt. Hadley, at the base of the Apennines. Another
river-bed, partially fragmentary, discovered this past
228
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
summer lies sixty miles due south of Conon.
Although difficult objects, the former has been seen
in Cambridge, Mass. <A sketch of it is given in the
Harvard Annals, xxxii., plate vii.
Turning now from theory to fact, one of the clearest
evidences of hoar frost upon the moon is found in
connection with the pair of small craters known as
Messier and Messier A. Sometimes one of these
craters is the larger and sometimes the other. Some-
times they are triangular and sometimes elliptical in
shape. When elliptical their major axes are some-
times parallel and sometimes nearly perpendicular to
one another. When the sun first rises on them they
are of about the same brilliancy as the mare upon
which they are situated, but three days later they both
suddenly turn white, and remain so until the end of
the lunation. When first seen the white areas are
comparatively large, especially that surrounding
Messier itself, but it gradually diminishes in size under
the sun’s rays. By \
the crater itself, while at the end of the lunation
only the bottoms and interior western walls remain
By the eighth day little is left outside |
They reach their minimum size five days after sun-
rise, when the smaller is about half a mile in diameter.
They then begin to, increase, the northern one attain-
ing a length of five miles shortly before sunset. If
these markings are due to white quartz, or some
similar rock, it is difficult to account for their change
in size.
The third class of physical changes with which we
shall deal the writer believes to be due to the presence
of vegetation. Changes of this class are more con-
spicuous than those of either of the other two, and if
the explanation of vegetation is admitted, both the
other explanations almost necessarily follow. It is
therefore important to study these changes with the
greatest care.
Before describing the facts, it may be well first to
deal with the principal objection that has been made
to the suggested explanation, namely, the lack of
water on the moon in the liquid form. The reason
that we believe liquid water to be lacking is that it
is known that as we reduce the atmospheric pressure
the boiling point of water is gradually lowered, until
Fic. r.—1901, July 26, 2°6 days, 43°.
brilliant. The general character of these changes can
be followed even with a 4-inch telescope working under
only moderate atmospheric conditions. Photographs
of these craters showing their varying shapes and
sizes will be found in the Harvard Annals (li., p. 28).
Those to whom the Annals are not accessible will find
these photographs and most of the other illustrations
referred to in this article in my book ‘** The Moon.”
The white area surrounding Linné also shows
evidence of change in size during the lunation. Soon
after sunrise it measures 4” in diameter, at noon 2”,
and at sunset 3’.5. The change is evidently analogous
to that shown by the polar caps of the earth and Mars,
lunar noon in this case corresponding to midsummer
for the planets, and sunrise and sunset to spring and
autumn.
In the crater Eratosthenes there is a brilliant white
area on the summit of the central mountain range.
When the sun first rises on it it measures five miles
in length by two in breadth. It soon, however, begins
to dwindle, and two and a half days later all is gone
save two little spots, each about a mile in diameter.
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
Fic* 2.—1901, March 31, 35 days, 54°.
when we reach a pressure of 4-6 millimetres the boil-
ing and freezing points coincide. Below this pressure
ice changes at once into the gaseous form without
passing through the liquid state. While, therefore,
there can be no free water upon the surface of the
moon, there is yet nothing to prevent it from occurring
beneath the surface of the ground, retained by the
capillary action of the soil. This action is so strong
that, as has recently beén shown by Cameron (Science,
1903, XVili., p. 758), it is capable of extracting water
from a membrane against a calculated osmotic pressure
of 36 atmospheres.
Since on the earth plants can live on moisture which
they have in turn extracted from such a soil, there
seems to be no difficulty in understanding how they
could live on the moon, in a soil which could thus
retain considerable moisture in spite of the low atmo-
spheric pressure. Although in a state of nature, even
in desert regions, all plants are occasionally exposed
to water in the form of rain or dew, yet under artificial
conditions we knov-y that even such highly organised
structures as house plants can flourish on water that
JANUARY 5, 1905]
IS VAIMOM 5a &&
220
in the liquid form reaches them only by capillary
absorption from the soil.
Turning now to our observations, as early as 1837 it
was pointed out by Madler that there were two small
spots in the crater Alphonsus which always became
very dark at about the time of full moon, while earlier
and later they were much lighter. A similar observ-
ation had been made by him regarding a region just to
the south of the Mare Crisium. Little else was known
regarding the matter until 1892. Since that date
spots presenting these characteristics have been found
all over the moon’s surface, except in the vicinity of
the poles. The most northern spot known is in lati-
tude +55°, the most southern in latitude —60°. It is
possible that some of the maria, notably Tranquilli-
tatis, and part of the borders of Serenitatis and
Vaporum, are covered with these spots, but in any
case they do not cover more than 5 per cent. of the
een ’s visible surface, and possibly it is very much
ess
It should be mentioned here that the western spot
shown by Madler in Alphonsus is now comparatively
Fic. 3.—1g01, April 2, 5°6 days, 79°:
inconspicuous, but that north and south of it lie two
others, which with Madler’s eastern spot form a very
striking isosceles triangle at full moon.
We will now direct our attention to the crater
Eratosthenes, which has been more carefully studied
than any other region presenting these phenomena,
and which exhibits wine changes on a sufficiently large
scale to enable us to make use of photography. The
four photographs here shown were taken in the Island
of Jamaica in 1901, and are enlargements from some
o! the negatives used in printing the Harvard ‘“ Atlas
of the Moon.’’ Beneath each figure is given the date
on which it was taken, the number of terrestrial days
that had elapsed since the sun rose upon it, and the
colongitude of the sun, taken from Crommelin’s
ephemeris. The photographs are all on the same scale
of 1/2,000,000, or about thirty-two miles to the inch.
Upon this scale the moon would be 68.5 inches in
diameter.
When the sun rises upon this formation the whole
of the floor is at first of a light grey tint, whatever
detail there is being but faintly marked. This tint is
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
| be partly due also to something else,
maintained by the south-western quadrant of the floor
throughout the lunation. About three days after sun-
rise a dark spot appears on the north-western slopes
of the central mountain range. The regions at its
immediate base darken at about the same time, and
an irregularly mottled darlx sector appears as the result.
On the fourth day the centre of the sector lightens,
leaving two canal-like forms radiating from the central
peaks. Although in a small telescope these canals
appear straight, yet when well seen with a large glass
they are found to present considerable irregularity of
structure. On the eleventh day the southern one fades
out, and just before sunset the northern one se dis-
appears.
A faint X-shaped marking distinguishes the north-
eastern quadrant of the floor at sunrise. The centre
rapidly darkens as the sun rises upon it, and soon
becomes intensely black. Three branches of the X
successively fade away, leaving only the south-eastern
one, which on the seventh day becomes very pro-
nounced. A new branch or canal forms by gradual
darkening on the east, while the canal on the north-
Fic. 4.—1991, March 5, 7’o days, 97°.
east, which had disappeared, forms anew by a pro-
gressive growth downwards from the crater rim.
This growth progresses for five days at a nearly uni-
form rate of 250 feet per hour, or about 4 feet a minute.
The south-eastern quadrant, while very light at
first, soon surpasses all the others in darkness The
dark area on the outer wall, which in the first figure
is undoubtedly in part due to shadow, must very soon
for it still shows
upon the third figure, which was taken but 0.8 de Ly
before full moon, when shadows are geometrically
impossible. The last figure was taken 0.8 day after
full moon, and the darker portion of the spot is seen
to have rapidly increased in size and to have grown
downwards with considerable velocity tow< rds the
central peaks.
Since this dark*area cannot be shadow, our only
alternative seems to be that we have here a real change
in the character and brightness of the lunar surface.
Since we do not know of any mineral which gradually
darkens as the sun shines upon it, and later fades out
only alternative seems to be to call in the
again, our
230
aid of vegetation. At all events nobody has ever cared
to propose any other explanation of the facts, so far
as the writer is aware.
As the lunation progresses the western portion of
this dark area slowly tades out, while the eastern is
absorbed in the gathering shadows of the lunar night.
In various parts of the crater, but especially in the
south-eastern and northern portions, numerous small
canals and lakes present themselves. These markings
are practically identical in appearance with those seen
upon the planet Mars. They are too small to be well
shown in the photographs, and seem to be of much
more regular structure than the larger markings,
which are here also called canals. It is possible that
this difference is due merely to the fact that the larger
markings are better seen. A more detailed account of
the phenomena here described will be found in the
Harvard Annals (liii.).
Witiiam H. PICKERING.
SIR LOWTHIAN BELL, BART., F.R.S:
IR Lowthian Bell, whose death at the age of
eighty-eight has already been announced, studied
physical science at the University of Edinburgh and
the Sorbonne at Paris, and at the age of twenty-four
entered the Walker ironworks, near Newcastle.
There, we learn from the obituary notice in the Times,
he remained until 1850, when he became connected
with the chemical works at Washington, in North
Durham. He greatly enlarged the works and laid
down extensive plant for the manufacture of an oxy-
chloride of lead introduced as a substitute for white
lead by his father-in-law, Mr. H. L. Pattinson, F.R.S.,
with whom he was associated in the business at
Washington. There, too, was introduced in 1860
almost the first plant in England for the manufacture
of aluminium by the Deville sodium process.
Soon after the discovery of the main bed of Cleveland
ironstone near Middlesbrough, Sir Lowthian Bell, in
conjunction with his brothers, Thomas and John,
started ironworks in 1852 at Port Clarence, on the north
bank of the Tees. The Clarence works was one of the
earliest and is now one of the largest iron-smelting
works on the Tees. About half a century ago the Tees
then flooded ground where iron furnaces now stand.
Sir Lowthian Bell and his brothers acquired their own
ironstone mines, collieries, and limestone quarries,
while they were always prompt to adopt any improve-
ment in process or apparatus that seemed likely to be
advantageous. ;
In the development of the Cleveland iron industry
the Bell firm played a very important part, and what
has been the extent of that development may be judged
from the fact that whereas the district in 1850 produced
less than 25,000 tons of pig iron, at the present time
Middlesbrough produces about one-quarter of the total
output of this country. The firm was active in pro-
secuting those technical studies by which processes
have been devised enabling Cleveland ores to compete
as raw material for the production of iron and steel
with others possessing greater natural advantages.
In regard to steel, the great trouble with those ores is
the high percentage of phosphorus (1-8 to 2-0 per cent.)
contained in the cast iron which they yield ; yet Middles-
brough, largely as a result of experiments carried on
under Sir Lowthian Bell’s direction, at a cost, it is
said, of between 40,000l. and 50,000!., produces steel
a in which this percentage is reduced to 0.07 or
ess.
When the British Association met at Newcastle in
1863, Sir Lowthian Bell contributed a paper on the
manufacture of iron in connection with the
Northumberland and Durham coalfields. In 1870 he
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
wrote a paper on the sanitary condition of Newcastle,
and more recently he compiled an elaborate account
of the iron trade of the United Kingdom, compared
with that of the other chief iron-making countries.
On the chemistry of iron he was a high authority.
The establishment of a chemical laboratory in connec-
tion with the Clarence works shows how fully he
realised the importance of the scientific study of in-
dustrial processes, and his own researches on the
chemistry of iron and steel have become classic. Many
of these appeared first in the form of papers read before
the Iron and Steel Institute, and a number of them
were subsequently collected and published in a volume
entitled ‘* The Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelt-
ing.’? Sir Lowthian was also the author of a book on
the ‘‘ Principles of the Manufacture of Iron and
Steel,’’ as well as of many papers contributed to other
scientific societies.
He was one of the original founders, in 1869, of the
Iron and Steel Institute, and filled the office of president
from 1873 to 1875, and in 1874 became the first recipient
of the gold medal instituted by Sir Henry Bessemer the
year before. He was a member of the Institution of
Civil Engineers and of the Chemical Society, and a
past president of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers. In 1874 he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society. In recognition of his services as juror
of the international exhibitions at Philadelphia in 1876,
and at Paris in 1878, he was elected an honorary
member of the American Philosophical Institution, and
an Officer of the Legion of Honour. He was elected
on the council of the Society of Arts in 1876, and in
1895 was awarded the Albert medal of the society
““in recognition of the services he has rendered to arts,
manufactures, and commerce by his metallurgical re-
searches, and the resulting development of the iron and
steel industries.’ The honour of a baronetcy was con-
ferred on him in 1885, and in 1893 he received the
degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh University.
NOTES.
A SELECTION from the specimens recently presented to the
British (Natural History) Museum by His Majesty the King
of Portugal has recently been placed on public exhibition
in the north hall.
Tue annual meetings of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and of the American Physical
Society were held in Philadelphia, Pa., in ‘* Convocation
Week,’’ from December 26, 1904, to January 2.
Tue International Botanical Congress will meet at
Vienna in June next, when a discussion will take place on
the important question of uniformity of nomenclature, re-
garded both from a scientific point of view and in connection
with international reports.
”
Unper the title “ Lichtenstein Prize,’’ the Montpellier
Academy of Sciences offers a prize for the best essay dealing
with any question of zoology not referring to man. The
last day is November 1, 1905. Printed memoirs more than
three years old, or papers which have gained previous prizes,
are excluded.
Tue third International Congress of Philosophy will be
held at Heidelberg in 1908. Among the English speaking
members of the organising commission the name has been
added of Prof. Strong, of Columbia University. A detailed
account of the congress held this year at Geneva is given
in a special number of the Revue de Métaphysique et de
Morale for November, 1904.
JANUARY 5, 1905]
NATURE
231
Tue Postmaster-General has made provisional arrange-
ments with the Marconi International Marine Communica-
tion Company for the acceptance and prepayment at tele-
graph offices in the United Kingdom of telegrams for trans-
mission from wireless stations on the coast to ships at sea.
The arrangement came into operation on January 1.
Pror. R. S$. Woopwarp, dean of the faculty of pure
science, Columbia University, has been elected president
of the Carnegie Institution. Prof. C. A. Young, who has
held the chair of astronomy at Princeton University since
1877, will retire at the close of the present academic year.
Carrain R. F. Scott, leader of the National Antarctic
Expedition, has been awarded a gold medal by the Royal
Danish Geographical Society.
WE learn through Science that Mr. Andrew Carnegie has
given 108,o0ol. for the establishment in Boston of an insti-
tute similar to Cooper Institute, which is to be added to a
fund of 54,000l., which has grown from 1oool. left one
hundred years ago by Benjamin Franklin.
Tue twenty-second annual dinner of the old students of
the Royal School of Mines will be held on Thursday,
February 9. The chair will be taken by Mr. T. A. Rickard.
Applications for tickets should be made to Mr. D. A. Louis,
77 Shirland Gardens, London, W.
A CORRESPONDENT of the Times states that Frédéric
Mistral, the Provencal poet recently awarded 2000l. as half
share of the Nobel prize for literature, intends to devote
this sum to the development and adequate installation of
the ethnographical museum—Le Musée Arletan—founded by
him some years ago at Arles. For this purpose the
municipal authorities agree to make over an old palace,
now used as a college, the restoration and adaptation of
which will cost 10,000l. An American resident at Avignon,
Mr. Edward Leon, has offered 20001. as a subscription, and
will arrange for five lectures in the United States to help on
the fund thus inaugurated.
Tue prizes for the year 1904 have been awarded, we
learn from La Nature, by the Paris Society for the
Encouragement of National Industry. The grand prix of
the Marquis d’Argenteuil has been awarded to MM. Auguste
and Louis Lumiére for their discoveries in photography.
The “chemical arts’’ gold medal has been awarded to
M. Héroult for his works on electrometallurgy, and the
““ constructions and fine arts’? medal to M. Arnodin. Gold
medals have also been awarded to M. Boulanger for his
micrographic work, to M. Grey for a rolling-mill, to
M. Guillet for his work in metallurgy, and to M. Schweerer
for his system of superheated steam.
An optical convention will be held, under the presidency
of Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., at a date toward the
end of May next, at the Northampton Institute, Clerken-
well, London, E.C. The object of the convention is to
bring into cooperation men interested in optical matters.
A subcommittee has been appointed to consider the subjects
of papers on optical questions which should be brought
before the convention, and suggestions as to subjects for
discussion will be welcomed. It has been decided to
organise an exhibition, of a scientific character, of instru-
ments manufactured in this country, with a view to show
the progress recently made and to stimulate further efforts.
In order that interest in the convention may be not con-
fined to London workers in optics, a subcommittee is being
formed to secure the assistance of local representatives.
The honorary secretary of the convention is Mr. F. J. Selby,
Elm Lodge, Teddington.
NO. 1836, vol. 71]
WRITING on the subject of ‘‘ Greek at Oxford,’’ a corre-
spondent of the Times again expressed the common belief
that ‘‘ Darwin regretted not having learnt Greek.’”’ <A
letter from Mr. Francis Darwin in the Times of December
29, 1904, shows that the statement is altogether opposed
to Darwin’s views. Darwin of his education at
Shrewsbury School :—‘‘ Nothing could have been worse for
the development of my mind than Dr. Butler’s school, as
it was strictly classical, nothing else being taught, except
a little ancient geography and history’? (‘* Life and
Letters,’’ i., 31). He was, in fact, a victim of that “ pre-
mature specialisation ’’ which is generally referred to in a
somewhat one-sided spirit, and from which the public school-
boy is not yet freed. Mr. Darwin adds :—‘ If the name of
Charles Darwin is to be brought into this controversy it
must not be used for compulsory Greek, but against it.
In 1867 he wrote to Farrar, ‘I am one of the root and
branch men, and would leave classics to be learnt by those
alone who have sufficient zeal and the high taste requisite
for their appreciation ’ (‘ More Letters of Charles Darwin,’
ieyeraiasl)
says
Tue Aéro Club of Paris has asked permission from the
municipal authorities to make experiments in aviation in
the Galerie des Machines next February. Under the head
of aviation, among other experiments will be some in
mechanical aérial direction. The building is so large that
the results will be almost the same as would be obtained in
the open air, with the difference that the disturbing effect
of wind need not be feared.
St. Catherine’s Lighthouse, situated on the south coast
of the Isle of Wight, has just been provided with a new
light of 15,000,000 candle-power, as against 3,000,000
obtained with the old apparatus. Seen from the land there
are three distinct beams of light revolving in view, one
just on the point of disappearing behind the ‘‘ blank ’’ or
shield, while the others pass rapidly over the waters of the
English Channel. The new lens is by Messrs. Chance
Brothers, Birmingham; and the whole of the revolving part
floats in a trough of mercury, instead of being on rollers,
which has hitherto been usual, about 816 lb. of mercury
being required to float it. Hitherto chain has been used
in lighthouses for suspending the weights, but in this case
a fine steel cable, about } inch in diameter, has been adopted.
Tue annual report of the Russian Geographical Society
gives the full list of medals awarded by the society at its
annual sitting. The following medals were awarded :—
the Constantine medal to the veteran geologist Friedrich
Schmidt, the Count Liithe medal to Sir John Murray, and
the Semenoff gold medal to Prof. N. I. Kuznetsoff. Five
small silver medals were awarded, to V. A. Vlasoff, Th. N.
Panaeff, and W. M. Nedzwiedski for meteorological work,
to M. M. Siazoff for the part he took in the expedition of
Grum-Grzimailo, and to E. L. Byakoff for the support he
gave to the same expedition.
AccorpDING to information communicated by the Meteor-
ological Observatory of Irkutsk, the earthquake which took
place in Transbaikalia on September 28 last covered an area
of about 4500 square miles, representing an imperfect oval
elongated from N.W. to S.E., its furthest points being
Troitzkosavsk in the south-east and Balagansk in the north-
west. The centre of this earthquake, which was un-
doubtedly of tectonic origin, was located in the neighbour-
hood of the station Pereyemnaya, on the south-east shore
of Lake Baikal. No less than three earthquakes have had
their origin at this centre during the past three years.
de Se
-o9-
In the Zoologist for December Mr. A. H. Patterson
records a number of more or less remarkable specimens of
fishes captured off Great Yarmouth during the year.
Several examples of flat-fish with the two sides of the
same colour are recorded, a plaice of this type being further
remarkable from the fact that the dorsal and anal fins
united beneath the tail. In a second article Mr. G.
Dalgleish directs attention to the recent migration into
India of birds native of eastern Central Asia—notably the
mandarin-duck.
TueE October issue of the Proceedings of the Philadelphia
Academy contains two papers devoted to the histology and
early development of invertebrates. In the first Dr. J. A.
Nelson discusses that puzzling creature Dinophilus, referred
by some authorities to the turbellarians, and by others to the
annelids. If the ‘‘ trochophore’’ be regarded as a larval
form common at least to all annelids, the development of
Dinophilus cannot be considered as primitive. Rather it
may be looked upon as an annelid the larval stage of which
has become one towards which development tends, and
which has consequently become specially modified. In the
second of the two papers Mr. T. H. Montgomery gives the
results of his investigations into the development and
structure of the larva of the parasitic thread-worm
Paragordius.
Tue December issue (vol. vii., No. 2) of the Journal of
the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom
contains a full list of the marine invertebrate fauna of
Plymouth, compiled from the records of the association.
An excellent map of the Plymouth district accompanies the
list, together with notes on the various dredging-grounds
and their characteristic zoological products. Some of these
grounds, which formerly yielded rich harvests, have been
more or less completely spoiled by being made the receptacle
for rubbish and refuse from the neighbouring towns.
Attention is directed to the large number of species of
marine organisms attacking the limestone of which the
Plymouth breakwater is constructed. To such an extent,
indeed, is the stone eaten into by these creatures that con-
siderable damage is done to the structure, and constant
repairs are rendered necessary.
WE have received copies of three papers by Dr. J. E.
Duerden dealing with the morphology, development, and
relations of corals and sea-anemones. Their titles are
respectively “‘ The Antiquity of the Zoanthid Actinians ”?
(Rep. Michigan Acc., No. 6, pp. 195-8), ‘‘ Recent Results
on the Morphology and Development of Coral-Polyps ””
(Smithson. Miscell. Contrib., vol. xlvii. pp. 93-101), and
“The Morphology of the Madreporaria,’’ No. 5 (Biol.
Bull., vol. vii., No. 2). The main thesis of the first two
papers is that, since ordinary hexamerous coral-polyps differ
from sea-anemones to a great extent only by the absence
of a skeleton, and the presence of such skeleton is a
secondary development, the second group must be older
than the first. From this basis it is argued that the
tropical polyps known as zoanthids, which differ in regard
to the number of their septa from the hexamerous group,
bear a similar relationship to the Palzwozoic tetramerous
“ rugose ’’ corals, and are consequently of still more ancient
origin. In the author’s own words, ‘‘ The Rugosa and
Zoanthezee undoubtedly constitute a common group of
skeleton-forming and skeletonless polyps, just as do the
modern Madreporaria and ordinary hexamerous Actiniaria.”’
THREE papers by Dr. R. Broom on the fossil reptiles of
South Africa and their relationship to mammals appear in
vol. xxv., part iii., of the Transactions of the South African
NO. 1836, VOL 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
Philosophical Society. In the most important of these the
author discusses the origin of the mammalian carpus and
tarsus. After a brief review of the nature of these two
portions of the skeleton in other groups, Dr. Broom points
out that in dicynodonts and theriodonts the mammalian
approximation is most marked. To quote his own words,
““Tn these latter we find more or less approximation to the
mammalian type, but if we take into consideration the
extreme mammalian specialisation—the presence of a large
tibiale and fibulare, with a centrale which is not in the
centre but comes between the tibiale and the first tarsale,
then we are driven to the conclusion that the mammalian
ancestor must have been a dicynodont, a theriodont, or a
form belonging to a closely allied order. From the ex-
amination of the skull we have good reason to believe that
the ancestor was a theriodont, and the evidence of the
tarsus fully confirms that drawn from the skull and other
parts of the skeleton; and the carpus, while it does not add
any very strong evidence, certainly does not afford any
evidence that is not in harmony with this conclusion.”
A REMARKABLE instance of what the author thinks may be
| true mimicry among plants is described by Dr. R. Marloth
in the Transactions of the South African Philosophical
Society, vol. xv. p. 97. Years ago, it appears that the
traveller Burchell picked up on stony ground an object he
mistook for a pebble, but which on exaimnation proved to be
a plant of the genus Mesembrianthemum. Both in colour
and in form this plant, previously named M. truncatum,.
presented a remarkable resemblance to the stones among
which it grew. A second species, M. bolust, growing on
the hills around the Karru, generally produces two leaves
about the size of a duck’s egg, which have a surface like
weathered stone, and a brownish grey colour tinged with
green. In this state it closely resembles the surrounding
stone, although for a short time its bright yellow flowers
render it conspicuous enough. M. nobile is very similar.
A fourth species of the same genus, together with
Anacampseros papyracea (in which the leaves are covered
with white papery stipules), resembles the quartz pebbles
among which it grows. In the author’s opinion, M. bolusi,
M. nobile, and perhaps M. truncatum (which, unlike some
of the other plants mentioned, do not change their
characters under cultivation), may afford instances of true
mimicry, or ‘* homoplasy.”’
WE have received a report on forestry in the Transvaal
by Mr. D. E. Hutchins, conservator of forests, Cape Town.
The report deals with the immediate necessity for the
afforestation of those large tracts of land in the colony which
are unsuitable for agriculture. The importance of forestry
in the Transvaal cannot be over-estimated, as a perusal of
this report will show. After a tour of inspection, Mr.
Hutchins has been able to indicate in his report the organ-
isation and equipment necessary for the scheme. A list of
trees suitable for cultivation in the Transvaal is given,
together with short notes on their sylvicultural character-
istics and uses. It may be interesting to mention that the
common ash, Fraxinus excelsior, does not thrive in the
Transvaal.
Messrs. F. Darton and Co., St. John Street, E.C., have
submitted to us a very handy and portable little instrument,
‘* Piesmic ’’ barometer, invented by Mr. A. S. Davis.
It consists of a glass tube about seven inches long, bent
in the form of a syphon, the longer arm being of strong
capillary tubing of one-tenth inch bore, the shorter arm
being of thin quill tubing. The end of the longer tube
Opens into a small cast iron cistern, containing mercury ;
the
JANUARY 5, 1905]
NATURE
259
when the instrument is out of action the tube lies hori-
zontally, and the mercury lies on one side of the cistern,
leaving the open end of the tube exposed to the air. When
the tube is brought into a vertical position the mercury
flows over and closes the mouth of the tube, and then
flows down the tube to a greater or less depth, dependent
upon the atmospheric pressure at the time. We have made
a number of comparisons with a mercurial standard baro-
meter, and find that its indications are correct to within
about 0-12 inch. The readings, to the nearest tenth of an
inch, or, by interpolation, to the hundredth of an inch,
can be rapidly obtained. As a weather-glass it appears to
be very useful, and even less likely to get out of order
than an aneroid, but it would not be suitable for accurate
scientific observations like an ordinary mercurial barometer.
It has the advantage of being less costly, small in size, and
easier of transport than an ordinary barometer.
WE have received from Messrs. C, F. Adolph and Co.,
of 14 Farringdon Road, E.C., their new price list of
selenium cells and apparatus. This firm has introduced a
new type of selenium cell which possesses the advantage
over the old form of cell that it is exposed to the light on
two surfaces with a consequent increase in the sensibility
of fully 75 per cent. Complete sets of apparatus for
demonstrating the sensitiveness of selenium to light and
the transmission of sound by means of light are also
described and illustrated in the list.
In No. 21 of the Physikalische Zeitschrift Mr. Josef
Rosenthal describes a number of improvements which he
has introduced in the construction of mercury air-pumps of
the Sprengel type. These pumps usually suffer from the
disadvantage that the glass tube in which the mercury falls
is liable to sudden fracture after the pump has been in action
during a few weeks. The fracture appears to be due to the
friction of the mercury on the glass producing an electrical
charge which, by influencing the moist air without, con-
verts the glass wall of the tube into the insulator of a
condenser. The possibility of a discharge through the glass
is eliminated by surrounding the dropping tube with a larger
glass tube filled with oil, which acts as an efficient in-
sulator. It is stated that a tube protected in this way lasted
five months, although in daily use.
Tue American Journal of Science for November, 1904,
contains an investigation by Mr. Bertram B. Boltwood of
the radio-activity of natural waters which is of particular
interest because of an attempt that is made to explain its
origin. It is shown that neither hot nor cold water dis-
solves any appreciable quantity of radium, as such, from a
mass of finely powdered uranium minerals consisting
principally of uranophane, although a brief contact with
these minerals is sufficient to impart to water enough of
the radium emanation to produce a very marked radio-
activity. Water can also acquire a measurable quantity of
the radium emanation by simple contact with gaseous
mixtures which contain it. It is considered that an
extremely minute trace of uranium minerals in the rocks
and soils through which a water percolates would be
sufficient to impart to it a measurable radio-activity. But
waters such as those of Bath and Baden Baden, which con-
tain true dissolved radium, must owe the presence of the
latter to a special decomposition taking place under the
influence of high temperature and great pressure.
Messrs. LONGMANS AND Co. have in the press a trans-
lation, by Mr. J. Garcin, of M. Blondlot’s papers on n-rays
communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences. The
volume will contain additional notes and instructions for
the construction of phosphorescent screens. :
No. 1836, VOL. 71]
Messrs. MacMILtaAN anp Co., Lrp., have published an
edition of ‘‘ An Elementary Course of Mathematics,’’ by
Messrs. H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, in which parts i.
and ii. of the authors’ ‘‘ School Geometry ’’ have been
substituted for the parts of Euclid’s elements contained in
previous editions.
Messrs. F. VIEWEG AND Son, Brunswick, have issued
the fifth edition of Wiedemann and Ebert’s comprehensive
work on practical physics—‘‘ Physikalisches Praktikum.”’
The book contains a good systematic course of practical
work in physics, the experiments being well arranged and
clearly illustrated.
TuE issue of the Antiquary for January commences the
first volume of a new and enlarged series. The magazine,
which is devoted to the study of the past, has been enlarged
by the addition of eight pages. A new section, called ‘* At
the Sign of the Owl,’ has been introduced, and consists of
about two pages of notes concerning books of archzological
interest. A good selection of articles is promised for the
present year.
THERE has now been published at the Patent Office a
subject list of works on the fine and graphic arts (including
photography), and art industries, in the library of the
Patent Office. The list consists of two parts—a general
alphabet of subject headings, with entries in chronological
order of the works arranged under these headings, and a
key, or summary, to these headings shown in class order.
The catalogue includes some 2916 works, representing 5373
volumes.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ANoTHER New Comet (1904 e).—A telegram from the
Kiel Centralstelle announces the discovery of a new comet
by M. Borrelly at Marseilles on December 29, 1904. The
position of the object at gh. 7m. (Marseilles M.T.) was
R.A.=ih. 13m. 4os., dec.=—10° o’,
and its apparent daily movement was found to be +1-6m.
in R.A. and —54’ in declination. A nucleus was seen.
A further telegram states that the comet was observed
by Dr. Cohn at Kénigsberg on December 31 at 6h. 22-2m.
(K6énigsberg M.T.), when its position was as follows :—
R.A.=th. 15m. 56-53s., dec.=—8° 29’ 59”.
The position of the comet is near to that of @ Ceti.
Comer 1904 d (Gracopin1).—Further observations of
comet 1904 d are published in No. 3986 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten, together with Herr Ebell’s elements and
ephemeris. A photograph taken at the Konigstuh! Observ-
atory, Heidelberg, on December 19d. 17h. 37-3m. (Konigs-
tuhl M.T.) showed a short tail and a complex nucleus,
whilst the position of the object for 1904-0 was
R.A. (app.)=16h. 19m. 38-8s., dec. (app.)=+28° 23/ Ue
OBSERVATIONS OF LEONIDS AT HARVARD, 1904.—Several
observers at Harvard kept the eastern part of the sky under
observation for meteors from 12h. to 17h. on the night of
November 14-15. As a rule, four observers kept watch,
whilst a fifth wrote down their results, and between them
they saw 275 meteors, of which 183 were Leonids.
The following table shows the horary rate, for a single
observer, at intervals of twenty minutes :—
Nov. 14-15 Rate Nov. 14-15 Rate Nov. 14-15 Rate
h. m. h. m. h. m.
T4040 ..2 40ers H5eAOwere2o) -<s) (:-- 16 40 ... 24
1S) (On-6. 3Ogarmees ie @. cay AS aoe D7 sO 25)
TS) 20h np 20 eects Bo 20"... 25
Of the total number 35 were of the first magnitude or
brighter, but none exceeded magnitude —2-0. At the
moment of explosion the heads were generally blue or white,
but’ in two cases, at least, the colour was clearly red or
234
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
orange, probably indicating, according to Prof. W. H.
Pickering, a different chemical constitution.
The radiant appeared to cover a considerable area, about
8° in diameter, and seemed’to be double, the two principal
centres being situated at R.A.=oh. 56m., dec. =+24°, and
at R.A.=gh. 4om., dec. =+26°.
Although elaborate preparations were made for securing
photographs, only two -trails appeared on the resulting
negatives. One, due to a Leonid, commenced at R.A.=
gh. 17-2m., dec.=+28° 57’, and ended at R.A.=oh. 8.8m.,
dec.=+29° 52’, a more careful measure showing that
the meteor passed through a point having the posi-
tion R.A.=gh. 57-om., dec.=+24° 14/ (1855). The other
trail extended from R.A.=4h. 52.5m., dec.=+0° 52’, to
R.A.=5h. 10-7m., dec.=—4° 39’ (1855), and was, there-
fore, not due to a Leonid (Harvard College Observatory
Circular, No. 89).
Licnt-cuRVE OF 6 Cerne!.—Employing the method used
by Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer in his discussion of the observ-
ations of » Aquila (G6ttingen, 1897), Dr. B. Meyerman
has reduced the observations of 6 Cephei.
As a result he obtained the following as the formula for
determining the epochs of maxima :—
1840 September 26.3588+ 5-366404 E. (Bonn).
A comparison of the phases determined from this formula
with observed values gives small differences which compare
favourably with those previously obtained by other observers.
The new observations are consistent with an invariable
period (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3985).
STRUCTURE OF THE THIRD CYANOGEN Banp.—Some
interesting results concerning the structure of the third
cyanogen band have been obtained by Herr Franz Jung-
bluth at Bonn. By employing the third order of a Rowland
grating having 630 lines to the millimetre (i.e. about 16,000
to the inch) and a focal length of 6-6 metres (about
21-6 feet), he obtained a greater dispersion than has hitherto
been used for this purpose.
His results, stated briefly, are as follow :—(1) the third
cyanogen band consists of double lines; (2) the maximum
intervals between successive lines in the four strongest series
form an arithmetical progression ; (3) the view of King, that
the inverted ‘‘ heads ’’ are to be. regarded as ‘‘ tails’’ of the
bands connected with the known ‘‘ heads,’’ possesses a high
degree of probability; (4) the connection of groups of
“heads ’’ and “‘ tails ’’ is such that the first ‘‘ head ’’ and
the last ‘‘tail’’ belong to the same series, the second
““head”’ to the penultimate ‘‘ tail,’’ and so on; (5) the
hypothesis of Thiele, that the intervals between successive
lines in a band increase only to a certain point and then
decrease until the series ends in a tail, appears to be correct;
(6) the lengths of the successive series form an arithmetical
progression (Astrophysical Journal, vol. xx., No. 4).
New ReErFRactTion TaBLes.—A set of new refraction tables
whereby one may find the refraction correction to o.o1 of a
second of are are given in No. 3983 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten by Dr. L. de Ball, of Vienna. The tables are
adaptable to a range of atmospheric temperatures and
pressures and of zenith distances. Knowing the temperature
and pressure at the place of observation, one finds the
logarithm of the actual density of the atmosphere. from
table i., and with this and the known zenith distance finds
the refraction correction to the second decimal of a second
of are from table ii.
Tue *‘ ANNUAIRE’’ pu BurEAU DES LonGitupEs.—Con-
tinuing the scheme inaugurated in last year’s ‘‘ Annuaire ”’
for the alternation of various subjects in the successive
issues, the volume for this year contains, in addition to the
astronomical data, tables regarding statistics, geography,
&c., to the exclusion of data for chemistry and physics.
The astronomical section contains, among many other
things, the following useful information:—A table for
calculating the altitude from readings of the barometer, a
complete table of the elements of variable stars of known
periods, tables of stellar parallaxes, double stars and proper
motions, and an article of stellar spectroscopy by M.
Gramont, whilst the sun-dial, solar physics, the table of
minor planets, &c., are reserved for the issue of 1906.
NO. 1836, VOL, 71]
EctipsE REsuLTS AND PropLeMs.—In the December (1904)
number of the Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France
M. le Comte de la Baume Pluvinel reviews the results
obtained during the total solar eclipses of the last thirty
years, and in connection with the study of each eclipse
phenomenon he outlines the problems which yet require
further elucidation. To those interested in eclipse work
the article will be found to be a useful résumé.
BisLioGRAPHY OF CONTEMPORARY ASTRONOMICAL WoORKS-
—We have received from Prof. Ernest Lebon, of the Lycée
Charlemagne, Paris, an extract from a plan of an analytical
bibliography of contemporaneous writings on_ historical
work in astronomy, as submitted by him to the International
Congress of Historical Science held at Rome in April, 1903-
Judging from the list of authors named in the plan and
the specimen extracts given therein, the bibliography will
be found extremely useful by those workers in astronomy
who have occasion to refer to previous results obtained since
1846.
PRIZES PROPOSED BY THE PARIS ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES FOR 1995.
(oo ae Francoeur prize (1000 francs), for
discoveries or work useful for the progress of pure or
applied mathematics; the Poncelet prize (2000 frances), for
work in applied mathematics.
Mechanics.—A Montyon prize (zoo francs), for the in-
vention or improvement of instruments useful in the progress
of agriculture, the mechanical arts or sciences; the
Poncelet prize (2000 francs), for a work on applied mathe-
matics ; the Fourneyron prize (1000 francs), for a memoir
on the theoretical or experimental study of steam turbines.
Navigation.—The extraordinary ‘prize of 6000 francs as
a recompense for any work tending to increase the efficiency
of the French naval forces; the Plumey prize (2500 francs),
for an improvement in steam engines or any other invention
contributing to the progress of steam navigation.
Astronomy.—The Pierre Guzman prize (100,000 francs),
for the discovery of a means of communicating with any
celestial body other than the planet Mars; failing the award
of the capital sum, the interest will be awarded every five
years for a work important to the progress of astronomy.
The Lalande prize (540 francs), for the observation, memoir,
or work most useful to the progress of astronomy; the
Valz prize (460 francs), and the G. de Pontécoulant prize
(yoo frances), under similar conditions. The Damoiseau
prize (2000 francs); the question proposed for this prize is
as follows :—there are a dozen comets the orbit of which,
during the period of visibility, is shown to be of a hyper-
bolic nature. The problem set is to find out whether this
was the case before the arrival of the comet in the solar
system, going back to the past history of the comet, and
allowing for the perturbations of the planets.
Geography.—The Gay prize (1500 francs), for an explorer
in Africa who has determined with great precision the
geographical coordinates of the principal points on his
journey; the Tchihatchef prize (3000 francs), as a recom-
pense or encouragement for naturalists of any nationality
who have most distinguished themselves in the exploration
of the Asiatic continent, more especially in the lesser known
regions; the Binoux prize (2000 francs).
Physics.—The Hébert prize (1000 frances), for a discovery
or treatise on the popular applications of electricity; the
Hughes prize (2500 francs), for a work contributing to the
progress of physics; the Gaston Planté prize (3000 francs),
for a discovery, invention, or important work in the field
of electricity ; the L. la Caze prize (10,000 francs), awarded
in one sum for works important in physics.
Chemistry.—The Jecker prize (10,000 francs), for worl:
in organic chemistry; the Cahours prize (3000 frances), for
| the encouragement of young chemists; the Montyon prize,
unhealthy trades (2500 francs and a mention of 1500 frances),
for a means of rendering a trade less unhealthy or
dangerous; the L. la Caze prize (10,000 francs), for the
best work on chemistry during the last two years; the
Bordin prize (3000 frances), for a memoir on the silicides
and the part played by them in metallic alloys.
Mineralogy and Geology.—The Delesse prize
(1400
JANuARY 5, 1905]
NAT ORE
205
francs), for a work concerning geology, or, failing that,
mineralogy ; the Fontannes prize (2000 francs), for the best
publication on paleontology; the Alhumbert prize (1000
frances), for a memoir on the period of the last volcanic
eruptions in France.
Botany.—The grand prize of the physical sciences (3000
francs); the question proposed is the demonstration of the
various modes of formation and development of the egg in
the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes. The Desmaziéres
prize (1600 francs), for the best work published during the
preceding year on Cryptogams; the Montagne prize (1500
francs), for work having for its object the anatomy,
physiology, development, or the description of the lower
Cryptogams; the Thore pgize (200 francs), for work on the
cellular Cryptogams of Europe.
Anatomy and Zoology.—The Savigny prize (1300 francs),
for the assistance of young travelling zoologists, not re-
ceiving Government assistance, who have especially occupied
themselves with the invertebrates of Egypt and Syria.
Medicine and Surgery.—A Montyon prize (2500 franes and
a mention of 1500 francs), for works and discoveries useful
in the art of healing; the Barbier prize (2000 francs), for a
valuable discovery in surgical, medical, or pharmaceutical
science, or in botany having relation with medicine; the
Bréant prize (100,000 francs), for the discovery of an absolute
specific against Asiatic cholera, or to point out in an
irrefutable manner the causes of Asiatic cholera, so that the
suppression of the disease will follow. Failing the award of
the capital sum, the annual interest will be given for a
rigorous demonstration of the existence in the atmosphere
of matter capable of playing a part in the production or
propagation of epidemic diseases. The Godard prize (1000
franes), for the best memoir on the anatomy, physiology,
and pathology of the genito-urinary organs; the Baron
Larrey prize (750 francs), for the best work dealing with
the subject of military medicine, surgery, or hygiene; the
Bellion prize (1400 francs) ; the Mége prize (10,000 francs) ;
the Serres prize (7500 frances), for a memoir on general
embryology applied as far as possible to physiology and
medicine; the Dusgate prize (2500 francs), for the best
work on the diagnosis of death and the prevention of
premature burial.
Physiology.—A Montyon prize (750 rence) and the
Philipeaux prize (goo francs), for work in experimental
physiology ; the Lallemand prize (1800 frances), for work on
the nervous system; the Pourat prize (1000 francs), for an
essay on the origin of muscular glycogen.
Statistics—A Montyon prize (500 francs),
on French statistics.
Among the general prizes offered in 1905 are the follow-
ing :—the Binoux prize (2000 francs), for a work on the
history of science; the Trémont prize (1100 francs), the
Gegner prize (3800 francs), the Lannelongue prize (1200
francs), the Wilde prize (4000 francs), the Saintour prize
(g000 franes), the Petit d’Ormoy prizes (two of 10,000
franes), all for work useful in the promotion of scientific
knowledge. Of these prizes those bearing the names of
Pierre Guzman, Lalande, Tchihatchef, La Caze, Delesse,
and Desmaziéres are especially mentioned as being awarded
without distinction of nationality.
for a memoir
GEOLOGICAL NOTES.
VERY little geological information appears to have been
published on the State of Durango, in western Mexico.
The observations therefore recorded during a brief journey
by Dr. O. C. Farrington are of considerable interest (Field
Columbian Museum, No. 89, geological series, vol. ii.
No. 5); His route extended from the city of Durango,
which is situated upon an alluvial plain hemmed in by low
and rugged hills, to the silver-mining town of Villa Corona
er Ventanas, distant about seventy miles in a direct line.
The ground, which forms part of the interior plateau of
Mexico, rises from about 6000 feet at Durango to gooo feet.
While large tracts of the area are semi-arid and sparsely
covered with soil and vegetation, in some places corn is
successfully grown, and elsewhere there occur extensive
pine forests with oaks. Views of the scenery are given.
Eruptive rocks prevail, and near the Ciudad ranch, on one
of the highest parts of the plateau, there is a tract of
NO. 1836, VOL. 71|
|
|
weathered masses known as La Ciudad de Rocas (‘‘ The
City of Rocks ’’). The outlines of the rocks are domed and
rounded, and they appear to be due to the weathering of
fairly homogeneous rhyolitic materials.
Particular attention directed by the author to the
famous Cerro Mercado or Iron Mountain, a hill largely
made up of solid iron-ore, and situated less than a mile
north-east of Durango City. It rises abruptly from the
alluvial plain to an average height of about 300 féet, with
single peaks 50 feet to 100 feet “higher. The length of the
hill is about 1% miles, and its average width Fini one-
third of a mile. The ore appears to be chiefly haematite,
although some magnetite also occurs ; in physical characters
it varies, being feed and soft, black, red, specular, and
earthy. Hard, solid black ore, however, forms the chief
mass of the ‘* mountain,’’ the black colour being in striking
contrast to the yellow and green of the surrounding plain,
The ridge is almost bare of vegetation, except for straggling
cacti, and its outline is bold and rugged. Steep cliffs 10 feet
to 20 feet high are not infrequent, and in places they exhibit
a distinct columnar structure like that of basalt (see Fig. 1),
The existence of this hill appears to have been made known
in 1552 A.D., but the first serious attempt to work the iron-
is
Fic. 1.—Cliff showing columnar structure of iron-ore at western end of the
Cerro Mercado or Iron Mountain of Durango, Mexico.
ore was made in 1828. Successful operations were not
conducted until 1888, and only within the last five years
has a steady production been maintained. The amount of
ore exposed above the level of the plain is estimated at
360 million tons. The author briefly discusses the origin
of the iron-ore, regarding it as probably igneous. The
associated rocks of the district are rhyolites, probably of
later Tertiary age, but the relation, either in time or manner
of origin, between the associated eruptive rock and the
iron-oxide, and the origin of the iron-oxide itself, seem as
yet difficult to determine.
~ A geological description of the Baraboo iron-bearing
district of Wisconsin, by Dr. Samuel Weidman, has been
issued by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey (Bulletin No. 13, economic series No. 8). The area
is formed mainly by pre-Cambrian quartzites, which stand
out in bold north and south ranges, so connected both on
the east and west as to constitute a cordon of bluffs enclosing
a depressed drift-covered interior. Isolated areas of still
older rocks, rhyolite, granite, and diorite, occur along the
outer borders of the ranges. Potsdam sandstone is found
beneath the drift, and on the slopes of the Baraboo
quartzites, while later Paleozoic strata are met with at
higher levels. Special interest has recently been aroused by
236
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
the discovery of large deposits of iron-ore beneath the drift-
covered valley, a discovery made while digging or drilling
the farm wells in this otherwise well settled agricultural
district. The iron-bearing rocks, termed the Freedom
formation, from the town of North Freedom, comprise
slate, chert, dolomite, and iron-ore, and all gradational
phases between these kinds of rock, including banded ferru-
ginous chert like that in the iron-bearing series of Lake
Superior. The author points out that the Baraboo pre-
Cambrian series may be compared with the upper portion of
the Lower Marquette series, the Freedom formation corre-
sponding with the Negaunee iron-bearing formation. De-
tailed accounts are given of the various rocks and drift
deposits, and of the circulation of underground water.
The recent numbers of the Boletin del Cuerpo de
Ingenieros de Minas del Peru, issued during 1904, continue
to testify to the energy and activity of the Government
officers charged with the development of Peru. No. 8, by
Senor Venturo, describes important deposits of hamatite
in the extreme north of the country, the ore appearing on
the surface, and being probably derived from the dehydration
of an old lake-iron deposit. Fragments of rocks from the
margins of the former lake are found surrounded by the
iron oxide, and the iron itself seems to have been dissolved
out from the acid igneous masses in the neighbourhood.
In view of the demand for nickel for plating, for alloy-
ing steel, and for coinage, Sefior Eduardo de Habich was
sent to report on the nickeliferous veins of the province of
La Mar, which present practically a virgin field. His
memoir (No. 11) seems encouraging, the chief ores being
ullmannite and nickeline (kupfernickel), occurring mostly
in veins of quartz, which may also contain both gold and
silver. No. 12 has probably the widest interest for
geologists in general, giving as it does the results of a visit
to central Peru by Dr. Gustav Steinmann, of Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, early in 1904. Senor Elmore is the author of
Boletin No. 13, on the water-supply of the Rimac valley.
It is shown that the permeable subsoil in the valley-floor,
from Chosica downwards, becomes charged with a good
potable water by infiltration from the River Rimac, and this
is capable of furnishing a healthy supply wherever it may
be desirable to tap it. The marked rise of this underground
water in Callao is interestingly attributed to the obstacle
furnished by the neighbouring island of San Lorenzo. The
economic aspect of Senor Elmore’s report is sure to be
widely welcomed in a populous and practically rainless
district.
The fourteenth volume of the
forschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg-im-Breisgau (1904)
contains several papers of geological interest. A. Freiherr
von Bistram’s studies on the dolomitic region of the Alps
of Lugano were commented on when they first appeared in
separate form (Nature, vol. Ixix. p. 112). Walther Schiller
and W. Paulcke are both concerned with the structure of
the Engadine, the former giving a detailed account of the
region south-east of Schuls, of which the Piz Lischanna
forms the centre, while the latter examines the structure of
a wider area, from Landeck to the basin of the Po.
Paleontological papers seldom contain so much personal
revelation as is to be found in Herr Georg Boehm’s first
section of his Beitrage zur Geologie von Niederlandisch-
Indien (Palaeontographica, supplement iv., Stuttgart, 1904).
The splendid series of ammonites therein described, prob-
ably from a Tithonian horizon, were obtained for the most
part from the collection of a postmaster of Sula Besi, and
from one of ‘‘die Alfuren,’’ the latter name _ being
applied to any uncivilised natives. Some specimens were
even extracted from concealment in the scanty clothing of
the boatmen. The postmaster and his allies appear, con-
sciously or unconsciously, to have lost touch with the true
locality of their finds, and to have opened up a delusive route
through the forest in Taliabu, whereby Herr Boehm was
led to a spot where he found abundant belemnites and
Nuculz, but none of the highly prized ammonites. The
“* Alfuren-Sammlung ’’ proves to be of unusual interest, and
may perhaps grow in the course of time, if judicious sums
are expended on the “‘ uncivilised’’ population. The in-
clusion of fossils smuggled in from other places is now,
however, a possibility against which it will be difficult to
guard.
No. 1836, VOL. 71]
Berichte der natur-
Part ii. of the seventh volume of the Transactions of the
Geological Society of South Africa (Johannesburg, 1904)
bears witness to the prevalence of research in Africa in all
branches of geology. Dr. Hatch contributes two papers,
one in conjunction with Prof. Corstorphine, who has been
drawn off from the service of Cape Colony into a more
adventurous field. Mr. J. P. Johnson shows that two types
of stone implements are found in the Taaibosch Spruit, the
older and rougher lying beneath 15 feet of alluvium, and
the newer type upon the surface. Mr. F. W. Voit furnishes
a paper of general interest on the geology of German South-
West Africa, in which a large series of ancient metamorphic
rocks is dealt with; these are accompanied by intrusions of
granite. The author urges that some of what might be .
regarded as ordinary contact-phenomena are here carried
out on a regional scale, and must be referred to the action
of pressure rather than to the invasion of the granite. fhe
metamorphic rocks are impregnated with important de-
posits of copper-ore, sometimes localised in quartz veins,
and sometimes spread in cloud-like masses through the
SChISLS; ame
In the first part of the Jahrbuch der k.k. geologischen
Reichsanstalt for 1904 (September 15), Franz Toula de-
scribes the results of his journey to the Dobrudscha in 1892,
and discusses in particular the forms of Exogyra met with.
Dr. Petrascheck, in examining the granitic mass near
Brixen, in the Adige valley, reviews the nature of Seder-
holm’s ‘‘ Myrmekite,’’ an intergrowth of triclinic felspar
and quartz, and concludes that it is a primary product of
the consolidation of the igneous magma. Dr. Ampferer’s
important examination of the terraces along the valley of
the Inn (pp. 91-160) should be considered by all who seek
to explain the topography of glaciated areas. The author
finds that the terraces of gravel rest on an earlier series
of terraces cut in the rock, which are at very different levels
on opposite walls of the valley. He summarises his results
in a series of fifty-six propositions, among them being the
conclusion that the Inn valley, on the retreat of the ice,
exhibited a succession of shallow basin-like excavations,
which were filled in later by a continuous deposit of
alluvium. These hollows, like the smaller details of the
ice-erosion, were formed independently of the hardness of
the rocks concerned, and Dr. Ampferer believes that the
variation in the activity of a glacier as an abrading agent
depends in reality on variations in the local pressure and
velocity. With reduced pressure and greater velocity the
same amount of erosion can be performed as with greater
pressure and less velocity. The author opposes the view
that rock-obstacles on the walls of a valley are inevitably
worn away by the passage of glacier-ice; he urges, on the
other hand, that such irregularities may be left standing
out, while others are actually produced by the lack of
uniformity in the forces of erosion, to which he specially
directs attention.
The Verhandlungen der k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt,
Nos. 9-12, for 1904, continue to be rich in papers on
Bohemia and Moravia, and students of petrology in the
broad sense, as well as of Palzozoic and Mesozoic faunas,
must endeavour to keep pace with the monthly observations
furnished by Dr. Katzer, Jaroslay J. Jahn, Friedrich
Trauth, and others. The Dalmatian islands also receive
attention in Dr. Waagen’s reports of his recent journeys.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND
RESEARCH. ~
THE writings of Henry, Babcock, King, and others have
made the University of Wisconsin familiar to English
agricultural students, so that considerable interest attaches
to the twentieth annual report of the experiment station,
which contains a short history of the College of Agriculture,
and summarises the results of twenty years’ research. The
college is one of the best known in the United States, and
its record is typical of many similar institutions. A pro-
fessor of agriculture was appointed in 1866, there was the
usual attempt to teach before the materials for a course of
university grade existed, and there was the usual failure.
Then, when the indignation and forcible action of ‘* some
thirty representative farmers ’’ led the regents of the uni-
JANUARY 5, 1905]
NATURE
257
versity to realise the need of ‘‘ better directed measures,”’
there was a change of policy. The farmer’s educational
requirements were studied, suitable courses were devised,
and research in his interests was begun. The success of
this changed policy is testified to by every chapter of the
report, and is strikingly shown by the material progress of
the institution. When the present director took charge in
1880 the buildings consisted of a dwelling house and two
barns, worth about roool.; the present buildings are worth
more than 60,000/. In 1881 the income of the agricultural
department was represented by the salary of the professor
and a grant of about roool. for experiments. In 1903 the
College of Agriculture had an income of 10,oool. for
administrative and teaching purposes, and of 6o00ol. for re-
search; and in addition free instruction in languages,
mathematics, and pure science was provided for agricultural
students in other departments of the university.
But the ‘‘ better directed measures’’ of the regents of
Wisconsin University have had an influence outside the
College of Agriculture. At the jubilee of the uni-
versity last summer, Prof. Chamberlin, of Chicago, de-
livered an address on ‘‘ The State University and Research.”’
In this address it was argued that ‘‘ the fundamental pro-
motion of education lies in an increase in the intellectual
possessions of a people, and in the mental activities and
attitudes that grow out of the getting, the testing, and
the using of these possessions ”’ (Experiment Station Record,
xvi., 3). As an illustration of the effects of properly directed
research on a community, the work of the Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station was referred to in the following words :—
“It was my privilege to compare the Agricultural con-
ventions of this State at two periods separated by a decade,
within which the experiment station became a potent in-
fluence. The dominant intellectual and moral attitude of
the earlier period was distinctly disputatious and dogmatic.
. . . In the second period the dominant attitude was that
of a scientific conference. . . . The whole was character-
ised by a notable approach to the methods of approved
scientific procedure. The intellectual and moral contrast of
the two periods was one of the most pronounced expressions
of advance in the higher education in a great mass of people
in the midst of a practical life which it has ever been my
privilege to witness.”
The educational value of research may be traced here and
there in our English shires, where agricultural experts
have won the confidence of farmers by conducting well
devised experiments in their midst. But our education
authorities still view research with suspicion, and one finds
agricultural experiments, for example, labelled ‘‘ demon-
strations ’’ for no other reason than to satisfy the county
auditor! One wishes that our education committees,
entrusted as they are with funds for the encouragement
of agriculture, would study the “‘ better directed measures ”’
which have been so successful in Wisconsin, and not in
Wisconsin only, but throughout the States. They would
probably find in the American institutions confirmation of
a view expressed by Prof. Chamberlin in the above quoted
paper.
He remarks that while it is a good thing to provide
technical instruction in agriculture, it is ‘‘a much higher
and truer function to develop the science of agriculture, to
increase the intellectual activity of every farmer, to improve
the agricultural art on every farm, and by such improved
art to furnish better and safer food to every citizen.”
T. H. Mippieton.
SCIENTIFIC REPORTS OF THE LOCAL
GOVERNMENT BOARD.'*
AS is customary, the report under notice is divided into
three portions, (1) an excellent digest by the principal
medical officer, Mr. Power, of the contents of the volume;
(2) statistics of vaccination and details on outbreaks of
disease investigated by the board’s inspectors; and (3) the
reports of scientific investigations carried out for the board,
and of the board’s vaccination department.
It is reassuring to learn that abstention from vaccin-
ation seems to be steadily diminishing, the percentage of
1 Supplement containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1902-93.
(Thirty-second Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1902-03.)
No. 1836, VOL. 71]
births remaining unvaccinated being 20-8 in 1899, 199 in
1900, and 17-3 in 1901. The epidemic of small-pox which
raged in London in 1901-2 again directs attention to the
danger of small-pox hospitals in disseminating this dis-
ease in their vicinity. Practically all the London cases
were removed to the hospital ships moored in the Thames
at Long Reach, opposite to which is the village of Purfleet,
containing a number of unvaccinated persons, and an
excessive incidence of small-pox prevailed there attributable
to aérial conveyance of infection from the ships. The
populations of Purfleet garrison and of the training ship
Cornwall close by were, however, thoroughly vaccinated
and re-vaccinated, and not a single case of small-pox
occurred in these communities, another instance of the pro-
tective power of vaccination. The report by Dr. Bulstrode
on outbreaks of typhoid fever at Winchester and South-
ampton attributable to infected oysters has already been
noticed in these columns (see NATURE, vol. Ixviii. p. 303).
An outbreak of throat illness at Lincoln attributable to
milk was the subject of investigation by Dr. Mair.
Although bearing considerable resemblance to scarlatina
the outbreak was conclusively proved not to be one of this
disease. From a few of the cases a yeast was isolated from
the throat by Drs. Klein and Gordon which proved patho-
genic to mice, and reproduced on inoculation some of the
features of the human disease.
Dr. Bulstrode’s report on the excessive incidence of
typhoid fever at Bridgend (Glamorgan) supplies an instruc-
tive instance of the superiority of properly conducted
bacterioscopic examination over chemical analysis for de-
tecting a slight degree of pollution of water supplies.
Turning to the scientific investigations carried out for the
board, it is difficult in a short space to give adequate notice
of their contents and importance.
Dr. Klein records some observations on the bacteriological
diagnosis of plague, and the manifestations of this disease
in the rat. He regards the natural disease in this animal
as one of slight virulence and feeble infectivity, and con-
siders that it is spread from rat to rat mainly through their
fighting propensities. Dr. Klein, in continuation of his
study of agglutinins, also details experiments made to test
the ability of two or more agglutinins to coexist in the
blood of the same animal. Cultures of B. typhosus and
B. enteritidis (Gartner) injected simultaneously in an animal
were found to produce agglutinins corresponding to each
of these microbes. But if the cultures were injected not
simultaneously, but in sequence, the agglutinin of the first
microbe was to a large extent replaced by that of the second
microbe injected.
Dr. Sidney Martin has continued his investigations of the
toxic substances elaborated by diarrhcea-producing bacteria,
dealing in the present instance with those of the Proteus
vulgaris. He finds the toxin to be proteid in nature, but
not albumose, and readily extractable from the bacterial
cells by distilled water. An injection of the toxin produced
diarrhcea with depression of temperature.
The report by Dr. Mervyn Gordon on a bacterial test for
the estimation of pollution of air is one of great interest
and importance. First examining the natural bacterial
flora of the saliva, he found that a streptococcus having
the power of producing acid in glucose and in lactose media,
acid and clot in milk, and of changing the colour of an
anilin dye neutral red, was extremely abundant, no less than
10,000,000, and in some cases 100,000,000, being contained
in 1 c.c. of saliva, and by using a neutral red broth and
incubating anaérobically minute traces of saliva may be
detected. By placing, therefore, dishes of neutral red broth
at varying distances from a speaker, and subsequently in-
cubating and examining, the distance to which particles of
saliva may be carried can be ascertained. It was found
that particles of saliva were present in the air no less than
40 feet in front of and 12 feet behind the speaker during
loud speaking. Dr. Houston has carried out an exhaustive
study of the bacterial flora of human dejecta, with special
reference to the colon bacillus. He finds that not less than
go per cent. of the total number of this organism present
have the characters of the typical B. coli.
The same observer details the results of the chemical and
bacteriological examination of Tunbridge Wells deep well
waters, and, in conjunction with Dr. Klein, reports on the
use of nutrose agar for the identification of the typhoid
bacillus.
238
NATURE
[JANUARY 5, 1905
‘ihe remainder of ‘the volume is occupied with reports of
scientific investigations carried out in the board’s vaccine
laboratories by Dr. Blaxall, Mr. Fremlin, and Dr. Green,
and a number of excellent plates illustrating the various
researches. R. T. HEWwLetTT.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CampripGe.—During the first fertnight of last month
some four hundred candidates were being examined at
Cambridge for entrance scholarships. The majority of the
larger colleges are now combined into two groups, the
larger of which includes Pembroke, Ganville and Caius,
Jesus, St. John’s, Christ’s, King’s, and Emmanuel, whilst
the smaller comprises Peterhouse, Clare, Trinity Hall,
Trinity, and Sidney Sussex. Queens’ examined alone, and
a week later than the two large groups. As a result of
the examination of these thirteen colleges a sum amounting
(o a little more than Goool, was awarded in scholarships
to 1o8 successful candidates. This total does not include
the sum, which amounted to some hundreds of pounds,
given in exhibitions, sizarships, and subsizarships, and in
certain extra scholarships offered by some of the colleges
aiter the result of the first selection had been published.
It is interesting to note the number of scholars and the
value of the scholarships given in the different subjects.
Out of a little more than 60001. awarded to 108 candidates,
classics gained 285ol., divided amongst 49 scholars, mathe-
maties, with 34 scholars, earned 1945/., and the natural
sciences divided g90l. amongst 20 successful competitors,
whilst candidates in history and oriental and modern
languages were successful in only five instances, and these
5 divided amongst them 22ol.
AmonG the papers down for reading at a conference of
the National Federation of Head Teachers’ Associations,
arranged to be held at Cambridge yesterday and to-day, is
one by Sir Lauder Brunton, F.R.S., on ‘‘ The Proposed
National League for Physical Education and Improvement.”’
Science announces that Mr. E. D. Adams has given
10,0001. to Columbia University for the foundation of a
research fellowship in physical science. The gift is accom-
panied by a valuable collection of scientific apparatus to
be allotted to the electrical, physical, and psychological
laboratories of the university.
THE prospectus for 1904-5 of the Colorado School of
Mines shows that much importance is attached in the metal-
lurgical courses to visits arranged for the students to works
where typical. processes in metallurgy can be seen in oper-
ation under commercial conditions. Immediately after
taking up the study of metallurgy, trips extending through-
out the junior and senior years are begun. These
excursions, intended to illustrate the lectures, are taken while
the particular topics are under discussion, and tend to aid
greatly in an appreciation of approved machinery and
practice. By means of outlines with which the student is
provided, which he is required to fill out, care is taken
that all the important points in connection with each plant
visited are studied and reported upon.
Tue following recent educational appointments are
announced :—Dr. Foster P. Boswell assistant in psychology
and Mr. Edwin Lee Norton instructor in philosophy at
Wisconsin. Miss Florence Fitch associate professor of
philosophy in Oberlin College. Prof. F. S. Luther, who
occupies the chair of Trinity College, Hertford, Conn., has
been elected president of the college. Dr. J. Stebbins has
been appointed assistant professor of astronomy, and Mr.
A. H. Wilson instructor in mathematics, at Illinois; Dr.
H. B. Evans assistant professor of mathematics at
Pennsylvania; Mr. C. P. Weston assistant professor of
mechanics, Mr. H. R. Willard instructor in mathematics,
and Mr. R. K. Morley tutor in mathematics, at Maine; Mr.
W. D. Cairns associate professor of mathematics, and Mr.
J. R. Luckey assistant in mathematics and physics, at
Oberlin; Mr. E. D. Grant associate professor of mathe-
matics at the Michigan College of Mines; Dr. K. Schmidt
professor of mathematics and astronomy at Lake City,
Florida.
NO 1836, VOL. 71]
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
LonpDon.
Royal Society, Novemler 17, 1904.—‘* Theory of Anpho-
teric Electrolytes.’” Part ii. By Prof. James Walker,
F-R.S.
In a previous paper (see Nature, April 7, 1904, vol. 1xix.
p- 545) it was shown that it is possible to express the con-
centrations of the ions present in the aqueous solution of
an amphoteric electrolyte in terms of the concentration of
the un-ionised substance, the dissociation constants of the
substance acting as acid and as base respectively, and the
ionisation constant of water. In the present paper the
values for the aminobenzoic acids have been re«calculated,
and a closer concordance obtained between theory and
experiment than was apparent in the former calculations.
As a knowledge of the concentration of the un-ionised pro-
portion of an amphoteric electrolyte in solution is of funda-
mental importance in the application of the theory, a table
is given of the values of this magnitude with varying con-
stants and total concentration. From this table it appears
that when the acidic and basic constants approximate in
value, dilution has little effect on the total ionisation of an
amphoteric electrolyte, although the proportions of the two
positive ions, and consequently the molecular conductivity,
may vary greatly.
For a series of amphoteric electrolytes with a constant
product y%,, where % is the acidic and & the basic con-
stant, it may be shown that the simultaneous alteration of
1/ku, %, and v in the same ratio has no effect on the total
ionisation. From this and the preceding result it may be
deduced that in such a series, beginning with an infinitely
small value of k. the total ionisation falls off as Re
diminishes and k, increases, the fall being at first rapid,
thereafter becoming slower until, through a comparatively
long range, it is practically constant at the minimum value,
which is actually reached when kg=%. At this point the
substance is absolutely neutral. As /, still further
diminishes, and k, correspondingly increases, the ionisa-
tion begins to increase, very slowly at first, and the sub-
stances considered become more and more basic in character.
Finally, the ionisation increases rapidly, and we deal at
last with a practically simple base for which ka is infinitely
small.
The theory has been applied to cacodylic acid and to
asparagine with satisfactory accordance with the experi-
mental results.
December 1, 1904.—‘ On Chemical Combination and
Toxic Action as exemplified in Haemolytic Sera.” By Prof-
Robert Muir and Carl H. Browning.
This paper deals with the mode of action of complements
—those comparatively labile bodies which are present in the
serum of normal animals, and which are the active sub-
stances in haemolysis and bacteriolysis. Towards red cor-
puscles treated with the suitable immune-body (the anti-
substance developed by the injection of such corpuscles into.
an animal of other species) a complement may be regarded
as a toxin, and already many points of similarity in the
constitution of toxins and complements have been brought
forward. The hemolytic dose of a particular complement
varies greatly in the case of different corpuscles, when each
variety is treated with the corresponding immune-body,
and the question dealt with in this communication is whether
such variations in dosage are due to variations in the com-
bining affinities of complements or to variations in their
toxic action. For example, the hemolytic dose of guinea-
pig’s complement is ten times greater in the case of its own
corpuscles than it is in the case of the ox’s corpuscles, and
the writers show by quantitative methods that in the former
case the whole of this large dose of complement enters
into combination with the guinea-pig’s corpuscles (through
the medium of the immune-body) ; there is no want of com-
bining affinity of complement, but its toxic action is slight.
A similar result was obtained with each of three sera in-
vestigated—a relative non-sensitiveness of the corpuscles of
an animal to its own complement; in one case there was
also a deficiency in the combining power of the complement.
All the results go to emphasise the importance of dis-
tinguishing these two factors in the action of a complement,
which correspond with the two chief atom groups desig-
nated by Ehrlich ‘‘ haptophore,’’ or combining, and
JANUARY 5, 1905]
““zymotoxic.’’ As bearing on the general biology of the
subject, the following may be quoted :—‘‘ No one has yet
succeeded in producing an anti-substance or immune-body
by injecting an animal with its own corpuscles or cells—
such a body as with the aid of complement would produce
destruction of these cells. This is manifestly a provision
against self-poisoning, and Ehrlich has applied to it the
term autotoxicus horror. The results which we have
brought forward, if they were found to hold generally,
would go to show that even if some substance should appear
which acted as an immune-body, there is a provision where-
by the complement of an animal should produce compara-
tively little harmful effect.”
Chemical Society, December 14, 1904 —Prof. W. A.
Tilden, F.R.S.,- president, in the chair.—The following
papers were read :—Hydrolysis of ammonium salts: V. H.
Veley. It is shown that when aqueous solutions of
ammonium salts are heated the evolution of ammonia and
the concomitant acidity of the solutions are due not to dis-
sociation, but to hydrolysis——The viscosity of liquid
mixtures, part ii.: A. E. Dunstan. The author's con-
clusions, given in a previous paper (Chem. Soc. Trans.,
1904, Ixxxv., 817), are confirmed by the present series of
viscosity-concentration measurements for a number of
binary mixtures containing hydroxy-compounds.—The diazo-
reaction in the diphenyl series, part ii., ethoxybenzidine :
J. C. Cain. The author has examined the action of heat
on the solution of the diazonium salt prepared from ethoxy-
benzidine, and has shown that the diazonium group,
adjacent to the ethoxy-group, is normally substituted by
hydroxyl, whilst the other remains intact.—The sulphate
and the phosphate of the dimercurammonium series: P. C.
Ray. When dimercurammonium nitrite, NHg,NO.,, is
treated with an oxyacid, the dimercurammonium complex
remains intact. In this way, the author has succeeded in
preparing the sulphate and the phosphate of the series.—
A method for the direct production of certain aminoazo-
compounds: R. Meldela and L. Eynon. The authors
have found that most diazotised amines when treated in
aqueous solutions with a strong solution of sodium dichrom-
ate give crystalline precipitates of diazonium chromates.
These chromates are more or less explosive when dry, and
it is suggested that some of them might find technical
application as high explosives——The combination of
mercaptans with olefinic ketonic compounds: S. ‘Ruhe-
mann.—Studies in optical superposition, part i.: T. S.
Patterson and F. Taylor. Menthyl acetate, /-menthyl
d-tartrate, and /-menthyl diacetyl-d-tartrate have been pre-
pared and their rotations examined between 0° and 100°.
It is shown to be possible by analogy to trace the separate
effects of the different active groups composing menthyl
tartrate and its diacetyl derivative.
Linnean Society, December 15,1904.—Prof.W. A. IIcrdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The ecology of woodland
plants in the neighbourhood of Huddersfield: Dr. T. W.
Woodhead. The plant-associations of this portion of west
Yorkshire having been dealt with on broad lines by Smith
and Moss, the author has endeavoured to carry the study
a stage further by paying special attention to a very limited
area. A small wood (Birks Wood, near Huddersfield) was
examined in great detail, and the main factors determining
the distribution of the more important plants of the under-
growth studied, such as soil, shade produced by the
dominant tree, moisture, exposure, and wind. ‘The results
thus obtained were then tested by an examination of the
woodlands in an area of 66 square miles to the south and
west of Huddersfield; special attention was also paid to’the
distribution of these species beyond the limits of the wood-
lands.—Experimental studies in heredity in rabbits: C. C.
Hurst. The studies were based on breeding between a
Belgian “‘ hare ’’ and an albino Angora; the second gener-
ation showed but little outward variation from the Belgian
parent, but the third generation displayed great diversity
of colour—albino, grey, black, and variegated. These
experiments tallied in a very close degree with the numbers
expected according to the Mendelian laws.
Faraday Society, December 19. 1904.—Mr. J. Swinburne,
vice-president, in the chair.—The electric furnace: its
origin, transformations, and applications, part ii.: M.
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
NATURE
239
Adolphe Minet.—Electrolytic analysis of cobalt and nickel :
Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin and W. C. Prebble. Cobalt.—
The aim of the experiments was to obtain bright deposits
of the metal that should be quantitatively accurate. The
most satisfactory results were obtained with a solution con-
taining an alkali phosphate and a little phosphoric acid,
the latter to prevent the precipitation of the double
sodium cobalt phosphate. Nickel.—Similar solutions
were tried for nickel deposition. In this case good
results were obtained with a borate solution, while a phos-
phate solution, which gave good figures in the case of
cobalt, was not at all satisfactory.—(1) The electrolytic
preparation of tin paste ; (2) note on the electrolytic recovery
of tin: F. Gelstharp. The electrolytic process is less costly
than other processes in spite of the low current efficiency (50
per cent.), and it can be worked continuously. The process
consists in dissolving anodes of tin, roughly cast from com-
mercial ingots, in dilute hydrochloric acid, and depositing
the metal in the form of sponge on kathodes of block tin
or tinned iron. In the second note an experiment is de-
scribed that has some bearing on the conditions necessary
for electrolytically stripping tin plate.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, December 26, 1904.—M. Mascart.
in the chair.—On the theorem of areas and conservative
systems: Paul Painlevé.—Groups of negative bands in
the air spectrum with a strong dispersion: H. Deslandres.
A detailed examination under high dispersion of the ultra-
violet band A 3914. This band is intense round the
negative pole in vacuum tubes filled with air or nitrogen,
and it constitutes nearly exclusively the kathode light
of gases; it is found in the aurora borealis and in
the radium light.—On the constitution of the sodium
salts of certain methenic and methinic acids: A-
Haller and P. Th. Mulier. A differential optical method
has been employed in this work, comparing the molecular
refraction of the sodium salt with its corresponding acid,
so far as possible in the same solvent and at equal con-
centrations. The substances studied included cyanacetic
ester, propionyl-cyanacetic ester, malonic and cyanomalonic
esters, malonitrile, and cyanocamphor. The results in-
dicate that all the sodium salts examined have a different
constitution from that of the generating acid, and hence
that the latter should be classed as pseudo-acids.—On
some new geological discoveries in the Soudan: A-
de Lapparent. The fossils found present a fresh proof
of the existence of an arm of the sea penetrating into the
Soudan.—On the new Giacobini comet: M. Giacobini.
Observations, the elements and ephemeris of the new
comet, discovered on December 17, 1904, at the Observ-
atory of Nice—The provisional elements of the Giacobini
comet (December 17, 1904): G. Fayet and E. Maubant.
-——Observations of the Tempel comet (1873, 2) made at the
Observatory of Algiers with the bent equatorial of 31-8 cm..
aperture: MM. Rambaud and Sy.—On the stability of
aérostats fitted with steering apparatus: G. A. Crocco.
—On the fragility of certain steels: A. Perot and Henri
Michel Levy. A study of the effect of shock on notched
test-pieces, a photographic method of recording the results
being adopted.—On the kathode rays and the laws of
electromagnetism: P. Villard. Diagrams are given show-
ing the comparison of the theoretical curves with those
actually obtained, and it was found that none of the experi-
mental results present anomalies requiring the assumptior
of a magnetic friction.—On the thermoelectricity of the
aluminium alloys: Hector Pécheux. Alloys of aluminium
with tin, lead, bismuth, magnesium, antimony, and zin~
were studied at 100°, 180°, and 380° C.—On the theory ur
magnetism: P. Langevin. An application of the hypo-
thesis of electrons to the explanation of the phenomena of
para- and dia-magnetism.—On a phenomenon of retinal
adaptation relating to visual perception of faintly illumin-
ated colours: A. Polack.—On the reduction by amorphous
boron of the oxides of manganese, and on the preparation
of a new boride of manganese: Binet du Jassonneix.
The composition of the new boride studied is represented
by the formula MnB. It fits into the series of well defined
and crystallised borides FeB, NiB, and CoB prepared by
M. Moissan by means of the electric furnace.—On quadri-
2,0
NATURE
[January 5, 1905
valent oxygen: E. E. Blaise. Ethyl ether and magnesium
iodide form a well defined, crystalline compound from
which the ether is only driven off when heated to tempera-
tures approaching 190° C. Its probable constitution is
given as
A I,
BOR 5
3 NMy/ Gos
in which the oxygen must be tetrav alent. If this substance
is treated with an ether containing an alkyl group of higher
molecular weight, as amyl ether, the latter replaces the
ethyl ether, and a vigorous reaction ensues.—On the re-
duction of the anhydrides of the dibasic acids: G. Blanc.
The anhydrides of pyrotartaric, aa-dimethylsuccinic,
aa-dimethylglutaric, B8-dimethylglutaric, and camphoric
acids, w hen reduced with sodium and absolute alcohol, give
good yields of the corresponding lactones.—A general
method for the synthesis of aldehydes with the aid of sub-
stituted glycidic acids: Georges Darzens. A mixture of
monochloracetic ester with any ketone is treated with sodium
ethylate in powder. The acid formed by this condensation
is unstable, and splits up easily into carbon dioxide and an
aldehyde of the type RR’CH—CHO, where the original
ketone was RR’:CO. The reaction has been applied to
a considerable number of ketones and found to be quite
general.—On the diastatic coagulation of starch: A.
Fernbach and J. Wolff. It is shown that the diastatic
coagulation of starch is only possible if it is in a state of
liquefaction, this being produced either by a liquefying
diastase or artificially. ~ On the combustion of sulphur in
the calorimetric bomb: H. Giran.
of sulphur has been determined in the Berthelot bomb at
pressures varying between 2-5 and 45 atmospheres,
the unexpected result that the heat of formation of sulphur
dioxide increases with the pressure. This result is regarded
as being possibly due to the formation of the persulphuric
anhydride of Berthelot.—On the electrical conductivity of
colloidal solutions: G. Malfitano. In order to eliminate
the effect possibly produced by the presence of minute traces
of electrolytes in solution, the conductivity of the colloidal
solutions was taken both before and after filtration through
a thin film of collodion, it having been shown by pre-
liminary experiments that solutions of pure electrolytes
undergo no appreciable change after such filtration. It
was found that the conductivity due to the fine particles
in suspension was practically nil.—On the comparative pro-
duction of alcohol and carbonic acid during fermentation :
M. Lindet and P. Marsais. The ratio of alcohol to
carbonic acid has been followed throughout the whole
course of a fermentation, the effect of varying temperature
being also studied.—Study of calcium carbide used as an
explosive in mining work: Marcel P. S. Guédras. The
cartridge used consisted of a charge of calcium carbide
separated by an insulating membrane from water. The
membrane is broken by a cap controlled electrically, and
after five minutes the explosive mixture is fired also by
electrical means. The explosion takes place in a manner
well adapted for mining work.—On the histology of the
myocardium in the primitive molluscs: P. Vigier and Fr.
Vies.—Intranuclear fat in the suprarenal capsules of
mammals: P. Mulon.—On the migration of glucosides in
plants: W. Russell.—On the destruction of the winter egg
of Phylloxera by lysol: G, Cantin. An account of experi-
ments demonstrating the practical efficacy of a 1 per cent.
/Col;
solution of lysol against the disease——On the mineral |
species of arable earth: A. Delage and H. Lagatu.—The
geology of Sahel, Algeria: General de Lamothe.—The |
of warm countries :
anemia of the horse: MM.
culture of the parasite of dysentery
A. Lesage.—On infectious
Carré and Vallée.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES
THURSDAY, JANvary 5
RONTGEN SocieEry, at 8.15.—Description of an Automatic Vacuum Pump:
C E.S. Phillips. (The apparatus will be shown at work.)—Exhibition
of a Method by which Strongly Adherent Films of Aluminium may be
applied to Glass.—A Note on the Coloration of Glass by Radium
Radiation.
Civit anp MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ Sociery, at 8.—Thanes Burage:
James Casey.
NO. 1836, VOL. 71]
The heat of combustion !
with |
FRIDAY, January 6.
IncorPoRATED Society OF Mepicat OFFICERS OF HEALTH, at 7.30.—
The Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Degenera-
tion: Sir Lauder Brunton, F.R.S.
GEoLoGisTs' AssocIaTION, at 8.—The Third Issue of the British Associa-
tion Geological Photographs: Dr. C. G, Cullis.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 3.39.—National Antarctic Expedition :
Capt. R. F. Scott. (Lecture to Young People.)
MONDAY, JANuary 9.
Society oF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, at 8.—Some Ckemical Aspects of the
St. Louis Exhibition: Walter F. Reid.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.30.—Mr, Reginald Enock's Jour-
neys in Peru: the President.
TUESDAY, JANUARY 10.
INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Recent Visit to the
United States and Canada: Sir William Henry White, K.C.B. (The
Address will be repeated on the following day at 3.30 p.m.)
WEDNESDAY, January 11.
Society oF Pustic ANALysTS, at §.—Brandy ; Otto Hehner.
THURSDAY, JANUARY 12.
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.— Generational Relations for the Abstract
Group simply Isomorphic with the Abstract Group LF [2, 4”); Dr. W.
Bussey.—On a Class of Expansions in Oscillating Functions: Prof.
A. C. Dixon.—Isogonal Transformation and the Diameter Transforma-
tion: H. L. Trachtenberg.—A Generalisation of the Legendre Poly-
nomial: H. Bateman.—Current Flow in Rectangular Conductors :
H. Fletcher Moulton.—Basic Generalisations of some well known
Analytic Functions: Rev. F. H. Jackson.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Modern Opticai Methods. By Prof. G. H. ee
FIRS Saye s 2, ars > 217
American Cytology. By H. H. D. PEC ie oS)
Physical#Researchiat Leyden. . . 5% <2) a seers
Practical Silicate Analysis ...... 5 219
Our Book Shelf :—
Lassar-Cohn and Tingle: ‘* Application of some
General Reactions to Investigations in Organic
Chemistry.”"—J. B.C. . 220
Leonard and Salmon : “A Further Course of Practical
Science” 3 220
Eichhorn : “ Die drahtlose Telegraphie ” : 220
Campbell : ‘‘ Notes on the Natural pen of the Bell
Rock.”--—R. LL... . 221
Bedding: ‘‘ The British Journal * Photographic
Almanac; 1905he) <2. « a poe ee ee 5 en
Letters to the Editor :—
Mean Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes.—
Prof. Julius Hann Medd mer camear. oo ei
Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction
Machines.—George W. Walker. ...... 221
Fishing at Night—F. G. Aflalo .. . 221
The Cost of Chemical Synthesis. . R. J. Friswell 222
‘* Bastard” Logwood.—S. N. C.. . eee 222
Intelligence of Animals.—Dr., F. if Allen . |. . 222
A New Contribution to Assyrian History. (///us-
trated.) dtm o See 3
Seismology in ‘Japan, * Illustrated.) Ao = Ca ere.
The Founder of Australian Anthropology. * (lus-
trated.) By A. Ernest Crawley. . . Bee 225
Changes Upon the Moon’s Surface. (Uilustrated )
By ProfWillhamH: Pickering’ 2.0) ) a. 226
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S. .. oes 230
Notessa-aen PRP ine a, hatiy Oud 230
Our Astronomical ‘Column :—
Another New Comet (1904 e) . 233
Comet 1904 d@ (Giacobini) j é Sante 233
Observations of Leonids at Harvard, 1904 Sern 28
l.ight-curve of 5Cephei’. . . of, 6 6: \emiemetl
Structure of the Third Cyanogen Band . 234
New Refaction Tables. . . 5 234
The ‘Annuaire” du Bureau des Longitudes 234
Eclipse Results and Problems .. . - 234
Bibliography of Contemporary Astronomical Works . 234
Prizes Proposed Ke the Paris Academy of Sciences
for 1905. CO MOMUERSMOMMD cbt:
Geological Notes. (Ulustrated.) Paths ene eR 235
me ate < Education and Research. By Prof.
H. Middleton F 236
sciedane Reports of the Local Government Board.
By Prof. Ri Te mewlett) <2 | - oon ees ol
University and Educational Intelligence i . 238
Societies and Academies ........ ee Ra
Diary of Societies .... 240
NATURE ae
THURSDAY, JANUARY 12, 1905.
SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT IN EUROPE.
A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth
Century. By John Theodore Merz. Vol. i., pp. xiv
+ 458; vol. ii., pp. xiv + 807. (Edinburgh and
London : William Blackwood and Sons, 1903-4.)
NEWSPAPER review of this book has come into
our possession, which gives the impression that
its most prominent feature is the treatment of bio-
logical questions such as the Darwinian theory. Doubt-
less the reviewer was a biologist. His remark that
“‘ the book is not a very easy one to read ”’ is, how-
ever, very true.
Now to the present writer the feature which appears
most noteworthy is the author’s intimate knowledge of
mathematics, as revealed in his masterly expositions
ef the development of all branches of mathematical
thought during the last century. Probably an exhaus-
tive account of this work could only be given by a
number of different reviews written by specialists in
different subjects, and such reviews would be so
different that it would be difficult to realise that they
all referred to the same book. The course we propose
to follow is to give a general outline of the scope and
subject-matter of the book, to scrutinise a little more
closely the portions devoted to mathematics and
mathematical physics, and to subject such branches as
thermodynamics and kinetic theory to a still closer
scrutiny.
At the outset (pp. 24-27), Dr. Merz is confronted
with the difficulty that he can find no precise equiva-
Jent in French or German for our English word
thought; for instance, he says :—
“* No other language has a word so comprehensive,
denoting at once the process and the result, the parts
and the ideal whole of what is felt and meant... .”
“And yet I think I am right in saying that the con-
ception of thought in the sense in which I am using it
is truly an outcome of interrational, not of specifically
English progress, and belongs mainly to the period of
which I am treating. ...”
What thought precisely is the author considers im-
possible to define, but it is only thought which renders
the phenomena of nature intelligible, as he says
(p. 2) :—
““That which has made facts and events capable of
being chronicled and reviewed, that which underlies
and connects them, that which must be reproduced by
the historian who unfolds them to us is the hidden
element of thought.”
-It is the object of these volumes, as the author re-
marks on page 13,
eS to rescue from oblivion that which appears
to me to be our secret property; in the last and dying
hour of a remarkable age to throw the light upon the
fading outlines of its mental life; to try to trace them,
and with the aid of all possible information gained
from the written testimonies or the records of others
to work them into a coherent picture, which may give
those who follow some idea of the peculiar manner in
which our age looked upon the world and life, how it
intellectualised and spiritualised them.’’
No; 1837, van! 77 |
On p. 34 he says :—
““A history of this thought will be a definition of
thought itself.”
In order to limit the scope of the inquiry, Dr. Merz
confines his attention to European thought, and of
this, again, he only selects the central portion, the
thought embodied in French, German, and English
literature. Accordingly. the first three chapters deal
with the scentific spirit in France, Germany, and
England respectively. This order of arrangement is
a fitting one, and well brings out all that has been
said by various writers about ‘‘ England’s neglect ot
science.’’ Thus (p. 75) :—
““Compared with Germany in philosophy and with
France in science, England during the early part of the
century appears remarkably unproductive. English
science and English philosophy had flourished in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and leavened the
whole of European thought, but in the beginning of
our period we find neither represented by any great
schools. The great discoveries in science belonged to
individual names who frequently stood isolated; the
organisation and protection which science could boast
of in France was then unknown in England; into
popular thought it had hardly entered as an element
at all.”’
It is to France that we must turn in order to find
what might be described as a national scientific spirit,
and this spirit was very largely the outcome of the
foundation of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
‘Whilst the Royal Society of London only received
a charter, and existed by the entrance payments and
contributions of its own members, augmented by pri-
vate donations; the Paris Academy had as far back as
1671 received the funds with which to commence its
labours in connection with the survey of the kingdom
and its extensive dependencies. ’’ . “It was almost
exclusively by these observations that the data were
found with which to substantiate Newton’s mathe-
matical reasoning; in his own country that fruitful
cooperation which can only be secured by an academic
organisation and the endowment of research was
wanting ”’ (p. 99). ‘‘ In two important departments—
the popularisation and the teaching of science—France
for a long period led the way. A general interest was
thus created in the proceedings and debates of the
ANGACENIY. ee =) = A
In the present connection are cited Laplace’s
“Mécanique Celeste,’? and the development of the
analytical methods rendered possible by Leibnitz’s in-
vention of the calculus, about which we are told (p.
101),
““No learned body did more than the Paris Academi-
cians to perfect (with purely scientific interest) this
new calculus, which in the course of the eighteenth
century had in the hands of Lagrange been adapted to
all the purposes and problems contained or suggested
in Newton’s Principia.’’
As another illustration we take the popular interest
which centred round Laplace’s discovery of the cal-
culus of probabilities (pp. 120 et seq).
Passing on to Germany we find national interest
converging towards another equally important centre,
namely, the university system, which is unique of its
kind. This system was perfected’ in the eighteenth,
and fully developed at the beginning of the present
century. It is essentially a training school of research
M
242
NATURE
[JANUARY 12, 1905
and its ideal is expressed in the word Wissenschaft.
This word, Dr. Merz considers, ‘‘ cannot be defined by
any single word of the English language.”
*“Tn fact, the German word for science has a much
wider meaning than science has in French or English,
it applies alilke to all the studies which are cultivated
under the roof of an ‘alma mater’; it is an idea
specially evolved out of the German university system,
where theology, jurisprudence, medicine and the
special philosophical studies are all held to be treated
‘scientifically ’ and to form together the universal, all-
embracing edifice of human knowledge ”’ (p. 170).
It was not, however, until the second quarter of the
century that the scientific spirit had entered the
universities.
“During these twenty-five years Gauss lived and
soared in solitary height—a name only to the German
student as Euler had been before him.’? ‘‘ The man
to whom Germany owes its first great school of mathe-
matics was Jacobi’’ (pp. 184-5).
“* German science was essentially cosmopolitan, and
the absence of a central body like the Paris Academy,
led to an important result, the publication of a large
number of periodicals devoted to special branches of
science. ’’
Turning to Great Britain the author says (p. 225) :—
“ Considering that the great scientific institutions of
the Continent—the Paris Institute, the scientific and
medical schools in Paris and the German universities—
have done so much for the furtherance of science and
the diffusion of the scientific spirit, it is natural that
we should ask, What have similar institutions done
in this country? ”’
A perusal of this chapter leads to the general con-
clusion that a ‘‘ national ’’ scientific spirit has never
existed in our country. The records of the great dis-
coveries made in Britain during the half-century ending
1825 (given in a footnote on p. 229) show that in that
period hardly a year passed without some great
scientific discovery being made by an Englishman, and
fully justify the statement that
“England had during the early part of the century
in all but the purely mathematical sciences a greater
array of scientific names of the first order than Ger-
many, and nearly as great an army as France.’’
And yet we find the works of these writers quite un-
known in their own country, and in many cases only
rescued from oblivion by falling into the hands of the
Continental schools of science. We have only to in-
stance Dr. Merz’s references to the difficulties encoun-
tered by Young, Green, Babbage, Boole, Dalton,
Faraday, and a host of others, and then to refer to
foreign opinions on English science, as expressed by
Cuvier and Prof. Moll, and quoted (pp. 235-7), as |
evidence of the high estimation in which British scien-
tific work was held on the Continent. The lack of
stimulus to scientific research, the absence of higher
mathematical studies, were peculiarly noticeable in the
two older universities, where traces of the same spirit
survive to this day in spite of the internationalising
influences which have played such an important part |
in recent scientific work. If Britain played a
prominent part in the origination of the metric
system, and if Continental nations base their zone
system of time on the meridian of Greenwich, no better
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
evidence of the general national apathy to science could
be adduced than the fact that Britain is one of the few
European States which have not yet universally
adopted either of these systems.
The last two chapters of vol. i. are devoted to ‘‘ The
Astronomical View of Nature ’’ and ‘‘ The Atomie:
View of Nature,” while chapters vi. to xii. in vol. ii.
deal with the “‘ kinetic or mechanical,’’ the ‘‘ physical,’”
the ‘‘ morphological,”’ the ‘‘ genetic,’’ the ‘‘ vitalistic,’”
the ‘‘ psycho-physical,’’ and the “‘ statistical ’’ views of
nature. These chapters refer more especially to the
second half of the present century, and it is in them»
that we feel ourselves compelled to single out a few
selected points rather than attempt to cover the whole:
range of subject-matter. nd
It is well known that many of our leading scientific
ideas can be traced back to very ancient sources; as in—
stances, Dr. Merz refers to the law of gravitation and
the atomic theory as known to the Greeks and Romans,.
the kinetic theory as suggested by Heraclitus, the
vortex atom theory as forestalled by Descartes and
Malebranche (pp. 312-4). In passing judgment on.
these prior claims, Dr. Merz very rightly remarks :—
“Tt is the scientific method, the exact statement,
which was wanting, and which raises the vague
guesses of the philosophical or the dreams of the poetic
mind to the rank of definite canons of thought,
capable of precise expression, of mathematical analysis-
and of exact verification.”’ ‘“‘In every case the
awakening touch has been the mathematical spirit, the _
attempt to count, to measure, or to calculate.”
Those who flood our breakfast tables with ‘‘ new ’”
theories of the ether or designs of flying machines
only constructed on paper will do well to bear these
remarks in mind.
Let us now examine how Dr. Merz treats the
second law and the ideas of temperature and entropy.
In commenting on the work of Lord Kelvin and
Clausius, he says (p. 128) :-—
‘“ The result was the doctrine of the ‘ conservation of
energy "—not of heat as Carnot had it—and the em-
bodiment of the two correct ideas contained in-
dependently in Carnot’s and Joule’s work in the two-
well-known laws of thermodynamics—viz. the con-
servation, equivalence and convertibility of energy as
expressed in the first law and the doctrine of the avail-
ability of energy as expressed in the second law.”
In speaking of entropy (p. 169) he is no less definite
in associating that conception with unavailable energy,
and he only falls into a pitfall on p. 594, where he
speaks of ‘‘ entropy (or energy which is hidden away) ’”
as if the two were identical and did not differ by a
temperature-factor. But the footnote on p. 189 of
Maxwell’s ‘‘ Heat,’’ seventh edition, shows that in this
he has erred in good company. In the footnote on p:
in discussing the absolute scale of temperature, he
is more unfortunate. The scale ‘‘in which every one
degree had the same dynamical value’? was not the
present absolute scale (which approximates fairly
closely to the gas scale), but Lord Kelvin’s first abso-
lute scale, published in 1848, in which the absolute
zero is not —273°, but minus infinity.
Of the application of statistical methods to the
kinetic theory we can speak equally well in regard to
the completeness with which the author has traversed)
315,
JANUARY 12, 1905]
NATURE
243
the literature of the subject. We do not find any re-
ference to the underlying assumption which has up to
the present been unearthed in every attempt to treat the
problem mathematically. But this is hardly a point on
which anyone but a specialist could be expected to
light, and the majority of specialists make the assump-
tion without knowing it (pace Burbury’s criticisms).
The last chapter but one deals with the development
of mathematical thought. We have selected for
special examination the portions dealing with Cantor’s
researches on the transfinite and the continuum, and
we find the subject treated in such a way as to pre-
sent a clear and definite picture to one who has not
specialised in this difficult branch of mathematical
thought. The last chapter contains a retrospect and
prospect.
We must not omit to mention what is, perhaps, as
important a feature as any, namely, the footnotes,
which occupy a considerable proportion of the whole
book, and constitute a kind of historic encyclopedia.
We do not believe in filling reviews with lists of mis-
prints, but the ‘“‘ Racket’’ (index, p. 800) may per-
haps better describe Stephenson’s locomotive than its
correctly spelt name. A more serious defect is that
these two large and bulky volumes have been issued
with the pages uncut, and readers have to waste much
time in doing what is the proper work of the guillotine
before they can begin the book. This want of thought
on the part of the publisher (on his own head be it—
i.e., the guillotine) constitutes a serious obstacle to the
attempts made by scientific workers of the present day
in endeavouring to cope with the ever-increasing mass
of literature that accumulates before them.
G. H. Bryan.
THE PROBLEMS OF VARIATION.
Variation in Animals and Plants. By H. M. Vernon,
M.D. The International Scientific Series. Pp. ix+
415. (London: Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd., 1903.)
Price 5s.
“| gee little book meets a real want. The frequent
discussions of recent years upon the problems of
evolution have been followed with much interest by
an increasing number of readers and listeners, with
the desire but often the inability to understand.
A very large amount of interest and stimulus has been
excited by such questions as acquired characters and
their transmission or non-transmission by heredity,
the continuity of the germ-plasm, physiological selec-
tion, continuous or discontinuous evolution, De Vries’s
experiments and views on mutation, the Mendelian
hypothesis as opposed to that of Galton and the bear-
ing of the great array of facts, the fruits of observ-
ation and experiment conducted by those who take
opposite sides in the controversy. The present writer
has often been surprised at the keenness of the interest
which can coexist with an almost complete lack of
knowledge of the essential details, and he feels that
the present work provides precisely the information
that is required—a clear, accurate, and dispassionate
statement, not too long or too detailed, of researches
and reasoning upon problems connected with variation.
NO, 163%) vou. 71]
The notable success of Section D during the late’
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge
provides an excellent illustration of the wide and deep
interest excited, at the present moment, by the last
of the subjects mentioned above, and was in itself in
some measure an answer to the complaint in the presi-
dential address that insufficient attention was paid
to the re-discovered discoveries of Mendel. The sub-
ject was new to probably a large proportion of the
audience: those among them who had taken the
opportunity of reading the fourth and fifth chapters
(on blastogenic variation) of this work must have felt
that they were thoroughly prepared to follow the dis-
cussion in all its detail.
The book is divided into three parts, of which the
first, dealing with the facts of variation, contains
three chapters, on the measurement of variation,
dimorphism and discontinuous variation, and corre-
lated variation respectively ; the second, the causes of
variation, includes two chapters on blastogenic vari-
ations, one on certain laws of variation, and four re-
spectively treating of the effects of temperature and
light, moisture and salinity, food and products of meta-
bolism, and conditions of life in general; the third,
variation in its relation to evolution, is considered in
chapters on the action of natural selection on variation,
and on adaptive variations.
The author wisely uses the word ‘‘ hybridisation ”’
very prominently in his account of Mendel’s researches
and conclusions. In the comparison between the
Galtonian and Mendelian views of heredity an im-
portant difference is sometimes lost sight of—the pre-
sent writer does not remember hearing it expressly
mentioned, although it was certainly implied, at Cam-
bridge. The former view is, at any rate chiefly, built
upon the results of interbreeding between individuals
separated by ordinary differences, the latter upon inter-
breeding between individuals separated by differences
comparatively large. ‘‘ Ordinary ”’ differences are the
points of distinction—generally small, mainly differ-
ences of degree—by which we discriminate between
the individuals of a species forming a single compact
mass, or if the species be broken up into two or more
masses—then between the individuals within each of
them. The larger differences alluded to are the
points of distinction—generally frequently
differences of kind—between the individuals of one
mass (“‘ species,’’ “‘ race,’? or ‘‘ breed ’’) and those of
another, or between the ordinary individuals of a
mass and those sudden large departures from its type
which are apt to appear spontaneously in its midst.
Even when breeds or races are distinguished by a test
apparently so superficial and unimportant as_ colour,
we are probably often confronted by the mere outward
sign of inward and important distinction.
If the Mendelian view should hereafter be estab-
lished beyond the possibility of doubt, there will still
remain the interesting question of the part it has
played in evolution. This is very largely the attempt
to decide whether Darwin’s earlier or later views were
correct, whether evolution proceeds from the selection
of large variations, ‘‘as when man selects,’’ or from
the selection of ordinary individual differences as
large,
244
defined above. The question cannot be discussed
on the present occasion, but it is well to bear in
mind that however completely the causes of evolu-
tion in the past may evade our attempts at demon-
strative proof, the history of evolution is a subject
which can be brought to the test. For many years it
has seemed to the writer that paleontology can settle
decisively whether evolution has been continuous or
discontinuous. Those who desire to bring conclusive
evidence to bear upon this important controversy
would do well to follow the example of Prof. W. B.
Scott, of Princeton, who told us at Cambridge that
he was ‘‘just crazy’’ over the fossil mammals of
Patagonia.
In the last chapter, on adaptive variations, the
author would have done well to place in the forefront
the warning that a superficially apparent example ‘‘ of
direct adaptation to surroundings in the ordinary
acceptation of the term... may be the calling up,
in response to one of two stimuli, of one of two groups
of characters long since acquired by the plant proto-
plasm.’’ The principle contained in these words
should be prominently before the mind of the naturalist
who attempts to investigate the response of an
organism to its environment. He should remember
that the species which he investigates are ‘‘ heirs of
all the ages,’’ thoroughly inured to experimental re-
search, past masters in the art of meeting by adaptive
response the infinite variety of stimulus provided by
the environment.
be on his guard against a too hasty interpretation
based upon the fundamental properties of protoplasm.
The discussion of the question, are acquired
characters inherited? (pp. 351 et seq.) is a particularly
interesting and suggestive introduction to the subject,
A few well chosen examples of the evidence chiefly
appealed to in support of such transmission are
followed by a brief but well balanced discussion. The
author supports the conclusion that the soma, and
through the soma the environment, exert a chemical
influence upon the germ-cells, and he makes effective ;
use of the ‘‘ internal secretions ’? which have marked
an epoch in physiological research.
Several examples, generally believed to supply
evidence of the ‘‘ cumulative action of conditions of
life’’ (pp.. 352 et seq.), would be more satisfactory
and convincing if they were re-investigated as a piece
of special research. Too often they bear the impress
of an off-hand opinion without any secure foundation
upon specially directed inquiry. Thus, in the trans-
port of adult sheep or dogs to a different climate, it
may be expected that less change will be manifest in
the hairy covering of the parent than in that of the off-
spring which has been born and passed the whole of its
life in the new conditions. Thus the appearance, but
by no means necessarily the reality, of an accumulated
effect may be produced. In order to test the hypo-
thesis of accumulation, it would be necessary to neglect
the generation which has been subjected to two very
different environments and to determine quantitatively
with all possible accuracy the characters of those
which follow. The often repeated statements about
the telegonic effect of mating ‘“‘ Lord Moreton’s mare ”’
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE
If he remember this he will always
[JANUARY 12, 1905
with a male quagga, when compared with the results
of Prof. Cossar Ewart’s researches, prepare us for the
belief that many a general impression which has been
produced as evidence will collapse when it has become
the subject of searching and critical investigation.
In the preface the author speaks with some diffi-
dence of the prominence given to his own researches.
Investigations such as those into the effect upon off-
spring of the relative freshness or staleness of the
parental germ-cells would, in any circumstances, be
an unfortunate omission from a book on variation.
They are, moreover, described in the publications of
scientific societies not always freely accessible to the
general reader. For another reason also the book
would have suffered if these researches had been treated
less fully. When the author of a general work is not
altogether wanting in the sense of fitness and propor-
tion, the account of his own contributions to science
will probably be the salt of his book. These subjects
stirred his own enthusiasm for research, and in writing
of them he is likely to stir the enthusiasm of others.
i. B: Pe
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ECLIPSES.
The Mathematical Theory of Eclipses, according to
Chauvenet’s Transformation of Bessel’s Method.
Explained and illustrated by Roberdeau Buchanan,
S.B. Pp. x+247. (Philadelphia and London:
J. B. Lippincott Co., 1904.) Price 31s. net.
WV BEN a practical man devotes himself to the
task of explaining to others the difficulties of
any specialised subject on which he has been engaged
for many years, the result is likely to be satisfactory.
There is always the chance that the prolonged study
of one particular subject has had the effect of unduly
exalting its importance, with the consequent loss of
a proper perspective, and when one sees a compara-
tively narrow branch of astronomical inquiry, like
eclipses, occupying a rather ponderous volume, he may
be led to think that the subject has been indiscreetly
expanded. We therefore hasten to say that there is
no evidence of disproportionate treatment in Mr.
Buchanan’s book. He himself has been employed for
twenty-three years in the office of the ‘‘ American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac,’’ and during that
time has been responsible for the accurate preparation
of the necessary information connected with eclipse
prediction. His practical acquaintance with the sub-
ject eminently fits him for the task he has undertaken,
and his book is a success. The moon’s nodes have
made more than one complete revolution since he
began his work, and an entire series of eclipses has
revealed to him their peculiarities and oddities.
The theory of eclipses has been well explained by
various astronomers, and practical rules given by
some. Hallaschka, in his ‘‘ Elementa Eclipsium,”’
following the method of orthographic projection, has
worked out an example in full. Woolhouse, in the
appendix to the ‘‘ Nautical Almanac”? for 1836, not
only discussed the subject with great fulness, but
gave practical rules for the determination of the
phenomena, which for many years were followed in
JANUARY 12, 1905]
the preparation of the English ephemeris, and perhaps
are so still. Bessel gave a more thoroughly con-
secutive discussion, which Chauvenet followed in his
treatise, and this last forms the basis of Mr.
Buchanan’s work. The practical part of the arrange-
ment does not seem to be easily systematised. A
computer finds some difficulty in translating the
formule into numbers. There are to the uninitiated
continual ambiguities about the quadrants; and the
manner in which angles are to be reckoned is fré-
quently a stumbling block to the unwary. Perhaps
these little difficulties are more noticeable in Wool-
house’s method than in Bessel’s, but it is with the view
of limiting these troubles and of giving a convenient
arrangement to the whole of the work” that Mr.
Buchanan has written his book. In his time he must
have met with all the difficulties with which a young
computer has to contend, and must have removed these
out of the path of many. Knowing these pitfalls, he
has done his best to get rid of them by suitable explan-
ations, and probably with success. But those who
have conducted pupils through carefully worked
examples know only too well that a fresh set of diffi-
culties is apt to reappear with a new case.
The author has divided his book into two parts.
In the first he treats of solar eclipses and the method
of deriving the various curves which are necessary for
the exhibition of the whole circumstances of the
phenomenon on a map. Here we get the north and
south limits of total and partial eclipses, the position
where the eclipse begins and ends with the sun in the
horizon, and one can follow the method by which
are drawn those weird curves on the eclipse maps that
accompany every nautical ephemeris. By way of
adding a little lightness to a rather dreary subject, we
may notice some curiosities the explanation of which
is not very readily seen without the assistance of a
competent guide, such as the occurrence of a north
limiting curve of totality falling south of the south
limiting curve. Ingenuity might construct some
further troublesome problems of this nature when the
clue is furnished, and one can imagine an examiner
exulting over the discovery of such oddities, affording
as they do opportunity for worrying unhappy candi-
dates who fall into his hands.
In the second part of the book we have detailed
the method of computing the circumstances of lunar
eclipses, occultations of stars by the moon, and of the
transits of Venus and Mercury. These are practically
particular cases of the same problem as that treated
in the first part, simplified by certain conditions. In
the case of the lunar eclipse, the absolute position of
the moon and shadow are independent of the position of
the observer on the earth, and therefore the effects of
parallax can be treated much more simply. We
notice that the semi-diameter of the shadow is in-
creased by the fiftieth part of its amount, in preference
to the older estimate of 1/60, but the whole question
of semi-diameters is a troublesome one, which will
soon have to be treated with great rigour. The
occultation semi-diameter is not altogether satis-
factory, and some international convention is needed
to secure uniformity. From a letter from Dr.
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE
245
Downing, quoted by the author, we gather that the
occultation diameter of the moon, as used in the pre-
paration of the English ‘‘ Nautical Almanac,’’ differs
2’.36 from that employed in eclipse calculations. But
we find a little difficulty in following the author in
his reference to authorities. In the matter of lunar
parallax, Adams is not quoted, and Lardner’s ‘‘ Hand-
book of Astronomy,’’ or Proctor on ‘‘ The Moon,”’
can scarcely be considered original and trustworthy
sources, W. EL P,
ENGLISH FIELD-BOTANY.
Flora of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight. By
Frederick Townsend, M.A., F.L.S. Second edition.
Pp. xxxviii+658. (London: Lovell Reeve and Co.,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 21s. net.
eee field botanists frequently complain that
the British flora has not yet received the careful
critical attention which has been lavished on Con-
tinental floras. To a certain extent this is doubtless
true. We have no manual that for thoroughness of
treatment and wealth of reference to original descrip-
tions and type-specimens can compare with Rouy and
Foucault’s ‘‘ Flore de France ’’; at the same time there
is an abundance of valuable information scattered
through our numerous natural history journals only
waiting for some energetic and widely experienced
systematist to collate and bring together in a really
satisfactory British flora. There are several botanists
eminently fitted for such an undertaking, and it is
urgently to be desired that one or more of them should
take the matter in hand. Meanwhile, our numerous
and rapidly accumulating county floras are paving the
way to a complete botanical survey of the British
Isles.
In Mr. Townsend’s ‘‘ Flora of Hampshire and the
Isle of Wight’? we have one of the best books of its
class, and the work and careful attention expended
upon its production must have been very considerable.
The volume opens with a chapter on topography and
climate. This is followed by an account of the geo-
logical structure of the district, including a summary
of Mr. Clement Reid’s researches on the fossil seeds
of the Stone and Silchester beds of the newer Tertiary
formation. In his list it is particularly interesting to
notice the names of several plants usually regarded
as weeds of cultivation, or as colonists, such as
Brassica alba, Boiss., Thlaspi arvense, L., Linum
usitatissimum, Linn., and also damson and plum.
The now generally approved method of dividing a
district into botanical areas according to its river-
systems is here in the main followed, and a useful map
of the county is appended. Turning to the systematic
section—by far the larger portion of the book—so
many points call for attention that it is quite impossible
within the limits of a short notice to mention more
than a few of them. In the section devoted to
Ranunculus, what appears to be a_ satisfactory
account of the forms of R. acris is given; this will be
appreciated by many collectors. The name Nymphaea
alba, Linn., is retained instead of Castalia speciosa,
246
NATURE
[JANUARY 12, 1905
Salisb., which found favour in the eyes of the editors of
the ‘‘ London Catalogue”’ (ninth edition). Viola
calcaria, Bab., appears as var. B of V. hirta, Linn.,
though the author admits an inclination to regard it
as a starved or stunted form rather than a variety. No
mention is made of V. calcaria, Gregory, which has
been cultivated, and appears to be a good species.
V. canina, Linn., is given as synonymous with
V. flavicornis, Sm., non Forster, while V. ericetorum,
Schrader, appears as a hybrid caninaxlactea. All
botanists will not find themselves in agreement with
Mr. Townsend upon this point, for V. ericetorum is
sometimes abundant where JV. lactea is extremely
scarce. Perhaps it may be hoped that cultivation will
settle the question, especially if it be found that hybrid
violas obey Mendel’s law of segregation.
The list of Rubi brings the number up to eighty-five,
making the county, with one exception, the richest
in brambles of any in the British Isles. Some useful
notes on the genus Erythrza are given, and the variety
sphaerocephala, Towns., of E. capitata, Willd., is
beautifully figured; the author now considers that the
plant does not merit a varietal name.
Among the Monocotyledons, the Rev. E. F. Linton’s
Orchis ericetorum is fully described. It appears to be
a well marked plant, and the fact that it grows only
on heaths while the chalk plant is typical O. maculata
cannot be said to militate against its claim to specific
rank in view of the parallel case of distribution of the
two plants included under the name Valeriana
officinalis, Linn. But here again there may be great
virtue in cultivation. It is satisfactory to find the
truth told about Ruscus aculeatus. The plant with
staminate flowers has narrower cladodes than the
pistillate plant, and there is no evidence for a narrow-
leaved and a broad-leaved variety.
In an appendix appear notes on several plants,
‘amongst which are Stellaria uwmbrosa, Opiz, and
S. media, Linn. (both of which are fully diagnosed),
Prunus spinosa, Linn., P. fruticans, Weihe, P.
insititia, Linn., and P. domestica, Linn. An account
of Murbeck’s arrangement of the gentians is given,
and all the forms of Euphrasia and Salicornia noted
in the county are described. So much matter of
general interest is brought together that no field
botanist, be he a native of the district or a worker in
any other part of the country, can afford to neglect
this volume.
SANITARY ENGINEERING.
Small Destructors for Institutional and Trade Waste.
By W. Francis Goodrich. Pp. 127. (London:
Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 4s.
net.
R. GOODRICH’S book on ‘ Refuse Disposal
and Power Production,’’ which dealt with the
problems arising in the disposal of civic waste, was
recently reviewed in these columns (May 12, 1904, vol.
Ixx. p. 25); in the present volume the same author
treats of the equally important subject of the disposal of
institutional and trade refuse, that is, with the design
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
and working of small destructors. The aim has been
to make clear the fact that high temperature working
is as vital in the small as in the large destructor.
In an introductory chapter Mr. Goodrich lays down
the principles which must be observed in the design
of small destructors, and he points out that it is
possible to operate at a low working cost such de-
structors when built on modern lines. The weak points
in the design of the earlier forms were precisely those
which were found in the early forms of large municipal
destructors, namely, low temperature system of work-
ing, slow combustion, and inadequate and unsatis-
factory methods of feeding the refuse into the cells;
these difficulties, however, have all been overcome, and
at the present day small destructors for use in institu-
tions such as isolation hospitals, hotels, &c., can be
obtained as satisfactory in every respect as the large
ones now so commonly employed. On account of the
unpleasant substances which have to be dealt with in
many of these institutional destructors, they are often
neglected, and proper supervision over them is not
maintained; this leads to the refuse being improperly
fed into the destructor; in a good modern type there
is no risk of this misuse, as it is impossible to feed
the destructor in any other way than that originally
provided by the designer.
A number of typical destructors suitable for such
institutions are described and illustrated, the drawings
being fairly complete. In thinly populated districts
it is often advisable to have a portable destructor, and
two very successful ones of this type, namely, a
Horsfall and a Meldrum, are described. Such port-
able destructors would be invaluable during campaigns
and in our home training-camps. How dangerous
the waste from a large camp may become to health
was vividly shown during the inquiry by the Royal
Commission into the war in South Africa. Many of
the medical witnesses expressed the opinion that
hundreds of lives might have been saved had the
necessary steps been taken to destroy camp refuse
properly and to supervise thoroughly the sanitary con-
dition of camps. In America, which, strangely
enough, has lagged behind in the adoption of muni-
cipal destructors, there has been a considerable de-
velopment in the utilisation of the smaller forms, both
for hospitals and for hotels. The latter portion of the
book treats of the disposal of trade refuse, and the
author points out how valuable from the point of view
of generation of power this trade refuse often is. Such
trade refuse can only be burnt in boilers specially de-
signed for fuel of low calorific power, and where the
boilers are properly designed there is no difficulty in
utilising it. A number of different types of furnaces
and boilers suitable for use with trade waste are de-
scribed and illustrated in these chapters.
The last few pages of the book are devoted to a
discussion as to the advantages of disposing of car-
cases of diseased and condemned beasts by means of
suitably designed destructors. The book will be
found, like Mr. Goodrich’s other books upon this im-
portant branch of sanitary engineering, extremely
valuable by all who are engaged in dealing with the
disposal of solid refuse. ID SESBs
JANUARY 12, 1905]
OUR BOOK SHELF.
La Statique chimique basée sur les deux Principes
fondamentaux de la Thermodynamique. By E.
Ariés. Pp. viilit+251. (Paris: A. Hermann, 1904.)
Price 10 francs.
Die heterogenen Gleichgewichte vom Standpunkte der
Phasenlehre. Zweites Heft, erster Teil. By H. W.
Bakhuis Roozeboom. Pp. xii+467. (Brunswick :
F. Vieweg and Son, 1904.) Price 12.50 marks.
THE two volumes under review are concerned with
the application of thermodynamics to the problems of
general chemistry, but are yet so different in material
and in treatment that few points of resemblance may
be found between them.
In the book by Lieut.-Colonel Ariés the mathe-
matical derivation of the laws of equilibrium from
the fundamental principles of thermodynamics are
stated in the most abstract and general form with just
sufficient exemplification to indicate the bearing of the
deductions on the practical work of physical chemistry.
The author uses as characteristic function the thermo-
dynamic potential at constant pressure, and it may be
said in a word that his deductions are as simple and
concise as the case will allow, the introduction of use-
less conceptions and formule being scrupulously
avoided. One noteworthy feature which might with
advantage be imitated in other works on thermo-
dynamics applied to chemistry is the postponement of
the discussion of the perfect gas to a point in the last
third of the volume. The student is only too apt in
dealing with the involved formulz of certain cases of
chemical equilibrium to introduce unconsciously into
his equations some result which has its origin in a
consideration of perfect gases, thereby obtaining a
simple result apparently general, but in reality not so.
The temptation to do this is greatly lessened by the
simplification of the perfect gas being delayed
until the general formule are well developed. The
book is well and clearly written, and those interested
in mathematical chemistry will be thankful for this
lucid exposition of the subject.
The first part of Prof. Roozeboom’s book has already
been noticed in Nature. It dealt with the equilibria
of systems of one component. The present volume
deals with the equilibria of binary systems, though
such is the wealth of material that it has been found
necessary to reserve the discussion of many systems
presenting special features for a subsequent volume.
In contradistinction to the work of Colonel Ariés, there
is scarcely a mathematical formula to be found in Prof.
Roozeboom’s treatise; the graphic method is used to
the practical exclusion of others. In the present part
there are 150 diagrams, chiefly of curves the co-
ordinates of which are pressure, volume, temperature,
and composition in some combination. As in the first
part, the various equilibria are carefully classified
according to the nature of the phases involved, and
cach class is discussed in detail with the most pains-
taking completeness, and with full reference to the
original sources of the experimental work used in illus-
tration. In general terms the volume may be said to
deal with simple solutions, and no one whose interest
lies in this direction can afford to dispense with the
aid of such a valuable guide to the work already
accomplished, and to the theory of the practical work
still to be performed.
The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification.
By H. Stone. Pp. xxviiit311. (London: William
Rider and Son, Ltd., 1904.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
Tuts work is sure to meet with a cordial reception
and to be welcomed by all branches of the timber trade.
The information contained in its pages is such that
only an enthusiast and expert could bring together
NOF 1837, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
247
with the cooperation of others interested in the growth
and utilisation of timber in every part of the globe.
In all 247 different species are described, even to the
minutest detail. In each case the specific name and
authority are stated, and, wherever necessary, to avoid.
confusion, the synonyms have also been added. Then
comes a list of the alternative names, or what we
might call the common names. It is a well known
fact that frequently one and the same kind of timber
receives two different names, whereas two totally
different species may be known by the same common
name. The vernacular names in foreign languages,
so far as they are not to be found in dictionaries, have
also been quoted. Following this comes a paragraph
dealing with physical characters, &c., such as recorded
dry weight, hardness, taste, combustion, character of
ash constituents, &c. The grain and bark are next
described. The following paragraph deals with the
uses to which the timber may be put. The colour is.
also given as a means of identification, and the
anatomical characters, as seen in transverse and longi-
tudinal sections, are fully described.
The author seems to have spared no pains in collect-
ing and authenticating the vast amount of information
and details necessary for the above purpose. A very
valuable feature of the book are the illustrations,
numbering 183 photomicrographs, which represent all
the genera mentioned in the text, except where a single
illustration serves for more than one genus. In most
cases the photographs are taken from transverse
sections, though in many cases longitudinal sections
are also given. It is stated that the scale of magnifi-
cation is three times the actual size, and is designed
to show the appearance of a transverse section as seen
by means of an ordinary hand lens. For those de-
siring further general information about wood a very
useful bibliography is given at the end of the book.
Also two appendices are added, which respectively
describe the method and apparatus for measuring the
amount of resistance in timber to impact and the
absorption of water by a given area on any surface of
a piece of wood.
At the beginning of the book a very interesting
chapter, entitled ‘‘ Practical Hints,’’ is included, which
we are sure will be read with much interest and profit
by all those who work with wood. The index is a
very complete one, and will render the bool invaluable
as a ready work of reference.
Verhandlungen der deutschen zoologischen Gesell-
schaft, for 1904. Pp. 252; illustrated. (Leipzig:
Engelmann.) Price 11s. net.
Tuts valuable publication contains the papers read at
the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the society, held
at Tiibingen on May 24-26, 1904. The congress was
opened by an address from Prof. Spengel, in which the
society was congratulated on the good work it con-
tinued to produce, and especially on recent investi-
gations on the structure of the Protozoa and on the
relations of the nucleus to the general mass of proto-
plasm. To Prof. Blochmann was assigned the
pleasant task of welcoming the society to Tubingen.
The published papers are sixteen in number, in addition
to which were numerous exhibits and demonstrations.
Most of the former are of an extremely technical
character, and to a large extent interesting chiefly to
specialists. Among them we may refer to Prof. A.
Brauer’s account of recent investigations into the
structure of the light-organs of the bony fishes, more
especially of the deep-sea forms, in which the question
of the relation of these structures to the lateral line
system is discussed at considerable length. Dr. von
Buttel-Reepen’s article on the mode in which the larvae
of the honey-bee are made to assume a particular sex
is also one of considerable importance. In the course
248
of a discussion on the zoological system as commonly
taught, Prof. H. E. Ziegler emphasises the view that
the rhizopod and flagellate animalcules, together with
the Sporozoa, form an allied assemblage, while the
ciliated animalcules, both as regards the nature of
the nucleus and the mode of reproduction, are
altogether different. In a fourth important com-
munication Dr. Bresslau amplifies and illustrates his
discovery that the marsupium of the marsupials, in
place of being a simple organ, is really formed by the
amalgamation of a number of small pouches. These
pouchlets, which at first form solid ring-like growths
of the epidermis, soon begin to degenerate, and are
merged in the wall of the marsupium. R.
The Optical Dictionary. Edited by Charles Hyatt-
Woolf, F.R.P.S. Pp. x+77. (London: The Guten-
berg Press.) Price 4s. net.
Tuts is an optical and ophthalmological glossary of
English terms, symbols, ‘and abbreviations, together
with the English equivalents of some French and
German terms arranged alphabetically. The mean-
ings are, as a rule, very clearly given, and the book
should prove of use to students (especially medical
students) who suddenly come upon an unfamiliar term
in the course of their general reading. Of course, it
must be understood that it is practically impossible
to explain properly any scientific term in a line or two,
and this is all that is attempted; the meanings given
must therefore in most cases be somewhat unsatis-
factory. But the book will doubtless succeed in its
aim, especially in the translation of foreign terms.
As regards accuracy—the sine qué non of a dictionary
—we only notice a very few actual errors, e.g.
dioptrically does not mean by reflection, and in the
definition of numerical aperture the words refractive
index of the medium in which the object is immersed
scarcely indicate that the medium must extend into
contact with the objective. Underlant is apparently
a misprint for wndulant, and one-third of p. 70 has
got into its wrong place.
But these are not very important blemishes, and we
cordially recommend the book to those whom it may
concern.
Practical Professional Photography. Vols. i. and ii.
By C. H. Hewitt. Pp. 126 and 114. (London:
Iliffe and Sons, Ltd., 1904.) Price 1s. net each.
THESE two volumes form a very useful addition to the
Photography bookshelf series, of which they form
Nos. 17 and 18. Although the author does not profess
to go into any great detail, he gives an excellent
account of the necessary requirements of the pro-
fessional photographer, from the choice of business
premises, the handling of customers, book-keeping,
&c., down to the packing up of the finished pictures
and their dispatch. The chapters on portraiture, com-
position, and lighting are especially satisfactory, and
many a valuable hint is contained therein.
A great number of illustrations accompany the text,
and serve the useful purpose of illustrating the author’s
remarks on many lines of work.
Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and Siddons’s
Elementary Geometry. By E. A. Price. Pp. 172.
(Cambridge: The University Press, 1904.) Price
5s. net.
Tuts book will be found very useful to all, both pupils
and teachers, who use the well known work of Messrs.
Godfrey and Siddons. The solutions, 1836 in number,
contain not only the deductive,
exercises, the figures being all such as the pupil is
required to construct. We cannot refrain from plead-
ing for a better figure of a hyperbola than that given
on p. 143, which a trained eye rejects at once, although
it is not essential to the pupil’s worl. :
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NA TURE
but the drawing |
[JANuaRY 12, 1905
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Average Number of Kinsfolk in Each Degree.
May I ask you to insert yet another brief communication
on the above subject, because private correspondence shows
that paradoxical opinions are not yet wholly dispelled?
The clearest way of expressing statistical problems is the
familiar method of black and white balls, which I will now
adopt. :
Plunge both hands into a dark bag partly filled with black
and white balls, equal in number, and well mixed. Grasp
a handful in the right hand, to represent a family of boys
and girls. Out of this unseen handful extract one ball, still
unseen, with the left hand. There will be on the average
of many similar experiments, as many white as black balls,
both in the original and in the residual handful, because
the extracted ball will be as often white as black. Using
my previous notation, let the number of balls in the original
handful be 2d. Consequently the number in the residual
handful will be 2d—1, and the average number in it either
of white or of black balls will be half as many, or d—3.
It makes no difference to the average result whether the
hitherto unseen ball in the left hand proves to be white or
black. In other words, it makes no difference in the
estimate of the average number of sisters or of brothers
whether the individual from whom they are reckoned be a
boy or a girl; it is in both cases d—}. The reckoning may
proceed from one member of each family taken at random,
or from all its members taken in turn; the resultant average
comes out the same.
This, briefly, is my problem. Francis GALTON.
On the State in which Helium Exists in Minerals.
In 1898 I published in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society the results of some experiments on the evolution of
gases from minerals on heating them. I succeeded in
proving that the hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the gases
could be accounted for quantitatively by the reduction of
water vapour and carbon dioxide by ferrous oxide, or by
similar substances, and that, except in cases in which
cavities could be proved to exist, the evolution of a gas
from a mineral implied chemical change at the moment of
heating. In the cases in which helium was evolved on heat-
ing a mineral, I pointed out that by the action of heat it is
possible to obtain only half the helium, though the evolution
of this gas never really ceases, but only becomes very slow.
This I took to be evidence of the existence of a chemical
compound of helium with some constituent of the mineral.
Recently (Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1904) Mr. Moss has
shown that by grinding pitchblende in vacuo helium is
evolved, and considers this result as certain evidence of the
existence of the gas in the free state in cavities. Since,
however, helium is evolved, though slowly, from the crushed
mineral at a temperature not above 300° C., the liberation
of the gas in Mr. Moss’s experiment may be attributed to
local heating set up in the process of grinding.
In view of recent discoveries it appears to me that both
of us have been on the wrong track in looking for an
explanation of the phenomenon. As Sir William Ramsay
and Mr. Soddy have shown, the presence of helium in the
minerals may have resulted from the decomposition of radio-
active matter, formerly present in them. Recently Dr.
Jaquerod, of Geneva (Comptes rendus, 1904, No. 20, p. 789),
has found that when helium is heated in a quartz bulb to
a temperature above 500° C. the gas passes out through the
quartz with a velocity which increases with the temperature.
At 1100°, in’a comparatively short time the pressure in
the bulb fell considerably below that of the atmosphere.
Hydrogen appeared to behave similarly.
This experiment shows that quartz, and probably sub-
stances of the nature of the minerals we are considering,
though impermeable to helium at low temperatures, become
permeable at moderately high temperatures, and furnishes
us with a solution of the second part of our problem.
~ 2 nee
JANUARY 12, 1905]
NATURE
249
I think that we are now justified in assuming that the
helium, a product of radio-active change, is present in the
minerals in a state of supersaturated solid solution; that
the mineral substance being impermeable to the gas at
ordinary temperatures, the velocity with which equilibrium
is established between the helium in solution and the helium
in the gaseous phase is infinitely small, but increases very
rapidly with rise of temperature; that as the solubility of
helium in the mineral substance is probably very small,
the mineral cannot be made to re-absorb the gas. Grind-
ing even to an impalpable powder, if unaccompanied by
local heating, should result in the evolution of minute
quantities of helium only.
I may point out in conclusion that the ‘‘ deflagration ”’
which takes place when ‘‘ fergusonite’’ is heated, and
was taken by Sir Wm. Ramsay and myself to indicate the
presence of a chemical compound of helium, also takes place
in the case of some minerals which contain no helium.
University College, Bristol. Morris W, TRAVERS.
The Pollination of Exotic Flowers.
In connection with Prof. Groom’s article on the pollin-
ation of exotic flowers (November 10, 1904, p. 26) the
following notes may be of interest. The inflorescence of
Marcgravia Umbellata is described in Schimper’s ‘* Plant
Geography,” where Belt’s description is quoted from the
““ Naturalist in Nicaragua.’’ The plant is common here,
climbing to the summit of the forest trees, and is frequently
visited by humming birds. The bird settles on the top of
the flowers and inserts its long curved beak into the pitchers
below to suck the sweet juice which they contain. I have
not seen insects visiting the flowers, neither have I found
them in the pitchers, and conclude that the birds are
attracted by the sweet juice itself rather than by insects in
search of it as Belt suggests. '
Flowers with strong scent and brush-like stamens are
very common, and one of them, the Pois Doux (Inga
laurina), is surrounded when in blossom by a motley crowd
of bees, large beetles, and insects of every description, as
well as by humming birds of several species. The latter
certainly visit very different plants, but are most familiar
hovering round the banana flowers, sucking the drops of
sweet liquid continually oozing from them.
Flowers like the Pois Doux are easily destroyed by heavy
rain, and blossom only for a short period. A large number
of others are provided with horned stamens, with barren
anthers or anther lobes. May not this be a protection
against loss of pollen by rain and wind, it being kept in
a sheltered situation, and only set free when an alighting
insect moves the stamens? It would be interesting to
observe how far the abundance of flowers with horned
stamens is correlated with heavy rainfall and constant wind.
Dominica, December 13, 1904. Exta M. Bryant.
Reversal of Charge in Induction Machines.
I wave tried Mr. G. W. Walker’s experiment with a small
Wimshurst, with 8” plates, and find that the reversal he
mentions generally takes place, but not always. In my
case, however, the machine is made so as to excite either
way, and the reversal will not take place unless excitation
has occurred while the motion is reversed.
R. Lancton Cote.
Sutton, Surrey, January 6.
EVIL SPIRITS AS A CAUSE OF SICKNESS
IN BABYLONIA.*
ie. a former number of Nature (vol. Ixix., p. 26) the
attention of our readers was directed to the appear-
ance of the first volume of a work which Mr. Campbell
Thompson, of the British Museum, was devoting to
the consideration of the important function which devils
and evil spirits were believed to play in the produc-
tion of disease by the early inhabitants of Babylonia.
1 “The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia.” By R. Campbell
Th SeeOLenith i G
ee Vek li, Pp. liv+179. (London: Luzac and Co., 1904.)
NO. 1837, VOL. 71 |
It was impossible at that time to state the final con-
clusions at which Mr, Thompson had arrived, for the
publication of his work was not completed; but now
that we have the second volume in our hands our
readers are in a position to judge for themselves of the
character and importance of the results, which have
now been clothed in the dress of a modern language
for the first time. The sources of such results, we
need hardly say, are the terra-cotta tablets of the
royal library at Nineveh, now preserved in the British
Museum, and after a careful examination of Mr.
Thompson’s volumes we are able to say that the trans-
lator has done his best to reproduce the meaning of
the documents which he places before us without
‘unnecessary comments or theories.
It must be said at the outset that we do not regard
Mr. Thompson’s work as final in all particulars, for
in respect of many Assyrian texts this work is the
editio princeps; but none can fail to be pleased with
the manifest honesty of the translations, which quite
justifies us in overlooking the baldness and crudity
of expression which sometimes characterise them.
In studies of this kind we want the texts and the best
rendering of them possible, but the most important
point of all is that the editor should not read meanings
into the words of his texts or twist them to suit pre-
conceived notions. It goes without saying that: Mr.
Thompson’s translations will not be accepted by other
labourers in his field without reservation. Indeed, we
may note in passing that M. Fossey has already
animadverted upon them in the Recueil de Travaux,
in the Revue Critique, and in the part of the
Journal Asiatique just issued. It is no part of our
duty here to attempt to vindicate Mr. Thompson’s
renderings or to belittle M. Fossey’s knowledge of the
science of ancient magic, but it must in common fair-
ness be stated that the latter savant is not skilled in
dealing with cuneiform documents except through the
medium of the copies of other scholars who have been
trained in making transcripts direct from the original
tablets, and the mere fact that he condemns Mr.
Thompson’s derivations from the Syriac proves that he
does not comprehend the importance of one northern
Semitic dialect in helping to explain another. On the
other hand, Mr. Thompson has spent some years 1n the
task of copying the various classes of tablets which
he is now editing and translating, and though some
may admire M. Fossey’s tempting renderings, and
prefer them to those of Mr. Thompson, it should be
remembered that the translations set forth in the volume
before us are those of the skilled workman who is
working at his trade, whilst those of M. Fossey are the
product of a student of magic and religion in general.
The groups of tablets published by Mr. Thompson
are five in number. The first are inscribed with
exorcisms and spells which are directed against the
disease of ague or fever; the second contain charms
and incantations which were intended to do away with
headache; the third deal with a series of diseases
of an internal character, but it cannot at present
be said exactly what those diseases were; the fourth
are inscribed with texts written with the view of
destroying the ‘‘ taboo ’? to which, it seems, man was
thought to be peculiarly liable; and the fifth supply
descriptions of supernatural beings, among whom
may be mentioned a creature who was half woman
and half snake. Mr. Thompson identifies her with
the goddess Nin-tu, who was the Babylonian equivalent
of the Egyptian goddesses Hathor, Isis, Mer-sekert,
&c., and the Virgin Mary among Oriental Christian
peoples. Like each of those goddesses she was a form
of the World-mother, or chief Mother-goddess who
plays such an important part in many mythologies.
By way of supplement, Mr. Thompson has added the
250
‘translation of an ancient prescription for curing the
tooth-ache. The sufferer was ordered to mix some
beer with oil and with another unknown ingredient,
and, having rubbed it on his tooth, he recited the
following words three times:—‘‘ When Anu _ had
created the heavens, the heavens created the earth, the
earth created the rivers, the rivers created the canals,
the canals created the marshes, the marshes created
the Worm, which came and wept before Shamash and
cried out before Ea, saying :—‘ What wilt thou give
me for my food? What wilt thou give me to eat?’
To this the Sun-God replied :—‘ I will give thee dry
‘bones and scented... wood.’ To this the Worm
made answer:—‘ Of what use are dry bones and
scented . . . wood to me? Let me drink between the
teeth and let me be at the gums, that I may drink the
‘blood of the teeth and sap the strength of the gums,
then shall I be master of the bolt of the door.’’’ When
the patient had said the above, he was ordered to
-address the Worm and say, ‘‘ May Ea smite thee with
ic. 1.—Bronze animal-headed figure of one of the Babylonian Powers of
Evil. From ‘‘ The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia."
the strength of his fist, O Worm!’ We can only
hope that these potent words relieved the sufferer.
The bullkk of Mr. Thompson’s present volume is, of
course, occupied with the transliterations and literal
translations of the documents of which he treats; but,
as these are manifestly intended for the expert in
cuneiform only, we may briefly note the summaries of
their contents, which appear in the preface. The texts
which refer to words of power show that they possessed
much in common with a similar class of document
found in Egypt and elsewhere. The Sumerian
magician having found out the name of the devil which
‘caused the sickness he was called upon to cure, pro-
ceeded to deal with it by means of sympathetic magic.
He employed ceremonies of various kinds, in which
magical figures, loaves of bread, pieces of hair, water,
a virgin kid, &c., played prominent parts. Sicknesses
could be transferred to the dead bodies of kids and
pigs, and devils could be made to disappear into masses
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE
Annalen der Naturphilosophie.
i
| JANUARY 12, 1905
of water collected in. pots, whereupon the vessels
themselves would break. In Sumer and. Accad
knotted cords were much used for purposes of witch-
craft, and knotted locks of hair were held to be all-
powerful. The section which treats of the ban and
taboo is especially suggestive, and we hope that Mr.
Thompson will say more on these subjects when he
has collected a larger number of examples. Finally,
he directs attention to the existence of the word
“« Kuppuru,’’ which is the equivalent in meaning to the
Mosaic idea of ‘‘ atonement,’’ and the texts printed in
the volume before us show conclusively that the acts
which formed the atonement removed the taboo which
man had incurred. The Sumerian ceremonies of
atonement were certainly developed out of sympathetic
magic, and the examples of atonement given in the
Bible show that the ceremonies mentioned were, in
more than one case, closely connected with primitive
Hebrew magic. Those who are interested in the study
of magic in all its forms will find Mr. Thompson’s
book of considerable interest and importance.
SPEECH CURVES.
pave interesting lecture* was recently delivered in
the psychological institute of the University of
Berlin by Prof. Scripture, of the University of Yale,
whose investigations in phonetics are well known.
Prof. Scripture’s method is that first employed by
Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, and afterwards de-
veloped by Hermann, the writer and others, namely,
to record on a moving surface, either by photo-
graphy or by a direct system of levers, the curves
imprinted by speech on the cylinder of a phonograph
or on the disc of a gramophone. Dr. Scripture has
recently improved the mechanism of his apparatus so
as to obtain an amplification of the curves, about three
times in the horizontal and three hundred times in the
vertical direction, while the speed of the movement of
his gramophone plate was reduced 126,300 times that
at which it rotates during the acoustical reproduction
of the sound. His curves have been submitted to
analysis, and it shows the energy with which the
research is being prosecuted when he is able to state
that in America he has twenty persons engaged in this
special bit of work.
In the discussion of his results, Prof. Scripture, in
the first instance, refers to some remarks by Prof.
Sievers, of Leipzig, on what may be called the
‘“melody ’’ of vowels and words. Prof. Sievers says
that each line and verse of a poem has its own melody,
and that this will be determined by the psychological
condition of the individual at the time of its vocal ex-
pression. An author, too, while writing a poem, say
one of a dramatic character, may give a certain
‘“melody’’ to the expressions of one individual.
Goethe, for example, causes Faust to drop his voice at
the close of a sentence, while the voice of Mephisto-
pheles rises and falls in a variable manner. Sievers
also points out, as a curious fact, that when Goethe
completed the poem, many years after he wrote the
earlier portions, he had forgotten these melodic effects,
and the later portions have not the same melodic
characteristics. Prof. Scripture supports Prof.
Sievers’s view. This melodic character will thus affect
the quality of a vowel sound.
Prof. Scripture holds that the movement of the vocal
cords does not produce a sinuous curve, and herein
he agrees with Marage, of Paris. By the movements
of the cords a number of sudden and more or less violent
shocks are given to the air, and each shock is com-
municated to the air in the resonators. In this way
1 “Uber das Studium der Sprach Kurven.” By E. W. Scripture.
(Leipzig : Veit and Co.).
JANUARY 12,1905]
NATURE
251
~we can interpret the groups of marks made on the wax
‘cylinder of the phonograph. Each group corresponds
ito a ‘* shock ’’ from the cords, and the smaller curves
making up the group are due to the movements of the
air in the resonators. Prof. Scripture is not satisfied
with the theory of Helmholtz that the resonators de-
velop overtones in a harmonic series, nor with that
-of Hermann, who asserts that the resonance tones need
mot necessarily be harmonic. He states that he can-
not interpret his tracings by the rigid application of |
either of these theories, and he lays stress on the fact
that the walls of the resonating cavities above the
cords are not rigid like the resonators of musical
instruments, but are soft, as if the wall were, fluid.
‘Such a resonator, he says, will give its own tone in
response to all tones. We confess that here we are
not able fully to comprehend the author’s meaning.
Prof. Scripture endeavours also to establish a close
relationship between the form of the vibration of the
cords and the action of the resonators. According to
him, the form of the vibration of the cord may be
altered by changes in the action of the muscular fibres
that tighten the cord, so as to produce a tone of a given
Come
Rip
Ha!
So
good
health
pros-
per
Ah!
Fic. t.—Curves of Rip van Winkle’s Toast, spoken by the American actor,
Joseph Jefferson,
pitch. Assuming that each muscle fibre has a separate
nerve fibre (which is highly improbable), one can see
that the tension of the cords, even when adapted to the
production of a tone of a given pitch, might be so
modified as to give out a tone-wave of a special form,
and that thus an almost infinite variety of qualities of
tone (tone-colours) might be produced. ‘The special
quality of tone would thus in the first instance depend
on the psychical condition of the individual at the
moment. In the next place, according to Prof.
Scripture, the ‘‘ water-wall’’ resonators, as he calls
them, will develop their own tones, independently of
the cord-tones, and thus, again,
these tones, the quality of the vowel-tone may be
almost infinitely varied. In this way there is a
physiological association between the movements of
the cords and the action of the resonators.
by a summation of
Prof. Scripture also notes that each vowel has its |
own harmony, depending on the resonators, and that
if it is sounded for even a short time its ‘‘ melody ”’
may change. This is why it is that when we examine
the waves corresponding to a vowel as transcribed
from the gramophone they are often seen to change in
character
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
as we approach the end of the series of |
waves. The writer can corroborate this view from his
observations by his own method of recording directly
the vibrations of a phonograph recorder on a rapidly
moving glass plate.
Prof. Scripture also points out a fact that was soon
apparent to all observers in experimental phonetics,
namely, that in the records of the phonograph or
gramophone there are neither syllables nor inter-
mediate glides, but a sutcession of waves, infinitely
diverse in form, corresponding to the tones of the voice
or the sounds of any musical instrument. The sound
of a single vowel may be in a groove a metre long on
the wax cylinder of the phonograph, and in the bottom
of this groove there may be thousands of little groups
of waves. The writer possesses records of songs that
if drawn out would be 100 metres in length. Finally,
Prof. Scripture lays emphasis on the effect of varying
intensity as influencing quality. Apart from the
theory of vowel-tones advanced by the author, this
interesting lecture owes its value to the way in which
Prof. Scripture approaches the problem from the
physiological and psychological side. The mode of
production of vowel-tones is in this sense not entirely
a physical problem. We are dealing with living cords
moved by living muscles, and with curiously ‘shape od
resonators having living walls.
Joun G. McKENpDRICK.
GEOLOGY OF SPITI.'
HERE are spots, insignificant in
which have a world-wide celebrity
interested in certain pursuits or investigations. Such
is Gheel to the alienist, Shide to the seismologist, or
Bayreuth to the musician, and such, too, is Spiti, a
barren and sparsely inhabited valle 2y in the centre of
the Himalayas, which has long been known to geo-
themselves,
among those
logists for its extensive series of richly fossiliferous
rocks. A district like this could not long escape the
notice of the Geological Survey of India, and one of
the earliest volumes of its memoirs is that by Dr. F.
Stoliczka and F. R. Mallet. Published in 1864, this
remained the standard, and practically the only, de-
scription of the geology of Spiti until the public: ition,
iiguagstopee Oli Wien (Cs ILS (Grate sbach’ s memoir, in which,
while adopting his predecessors’ mapping in the main,
he introduced great modifications in the sequence
Neither of these descriptions, however, is entitled to
rank as more than a reconnaissance, but now we have
the results of what may fairly be de scribed as a survey
of this region, and, in an interesting and clearly ex-
pressed memoir, Mr. Hayden has gone far towards
clearing up the points which were in dispute. In all
cases where he has found himself at variance with
his predevsccors? conclusions he has produced good
evidence, and it is in one way satisfactory that he is
generally in agreement with the one who can no longer
defend his views.
The Spiti valley contains represent: ey of every
series from Cretaceous to Silurian, and a Sambrian
age is inferred for a series of sedime aes but un-
fossiliferous, beds underlying the latter. In all these
Mr. Hayden not only collected from known, but also
discovered several previously unknown, fossil-horizons,
among the most interesting of which we may me ntion
that of the land plants of Culm age. In the Silurian
he has restored Stoliczka’s correlation and fully sup-
ported it by fossil evidence; on the other hand he has
confirmed Mr. Griesbach’s discovery of Lower Triassic
beds, and his conclusion that there in Spiti, a con-
tinuous conformable sequence from Permian to Upper
Trias, and in this connection has rendered ample
1 ‘The Geology of Spiti, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu. " By H. H.
Hayden. (MJemozrs of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xXxxvi , part 1,).
Pp. vit+-129; illustra'ed. (Calcutta; Government Printing Office, 1904-)
is,
252
NATURE
[JANUARY 12, 1905
acknowledgment of the work of the late Dr. A. v.
Krafft, by whom it had been intended that the descrip-
tion of the Triassic rocks should be undertaken.
A chapter is devoted to the correlation of the un-
fossiliferous sequence of the outer Himalayas with
that in Spiti, and an impartial account is given of the
guesses—they are nothing more—which have been
made. Mr. Hayden does not attempt to deliver judg-
ment on this vexed questidh, but seems inclined to-
wards Dr. Stoliczka’s view; in this we think that he |
has not taken sufficient account of what may be called
extra-Himalayan considerations. The differences be-
tween Spiti and the outer Himalayas, the long sequence |
of fossiliferous rocks in the one, the complete absence
of fossils in the other, seem to admit of only two ex-—
planations—either the rocks of one area are unrepre- |
sented in the other, or the conditions of deposition
were so dissimilar that lithological similarity in the
two areas is not to be looked for, and either supposi-
tion precludes all hope of direct correlation.
Ys eee
t Head of Teti River,
Bashabr.
Shales; 5, Muschelkalk; 4, Lower Trias ; 3, -Productus shales ; 2,
Fic. 1.—Muth Quartzite a 6, Daonella
Muth Quartzite; 1, Silurian limestone. From ‘‘ The Geology of Spiti.”’
The memoir is indexed and illustrated by plates,
several of which are reproductions of photographs by
the author; it bears the stamp of careful work, and
is worthy of the reputation of the Geological Survey
of India. We regret that we cannot say as much for
the method of stitching adopted by the Calcutta
Government Press; the book may be re-bound, but the
torn and mangled leaves can never make a seemly
volume.
SIR LAUDER BRUNTON ON THE NEED OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
TPae report of the inter-departmental committee on
physical deterioration, while in the absence of
scientifically ascertained data it hesitated to pronounce
the evil it investigated to be widespread, has pointed
us all to a better way, and Sir Lauder Brunton in these
two addresses* drives home the lesson.
1 January 5.—National Federation of Head Teachers’ Associations, |
“The Proposed National League for Physical Education and Improvement.” |
January 6.—Incorporated Society of Medical Officers of Health, ‘The
Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Degeneration.”
NO. 1837, VOL 71]
In speaking at Cambridge to the Head Teachers”
Association on the National League, which owes its
inception to his statesmanlike grasp of the psycho-
logical moment at which to enlist the sympathy and
interest of the nation, half alarmed, half repentant of
its easy optimism and laissez-faire, Sir Lauder Brunton
went direct to the point—
How can we alter most surely and speedily those
conditions which tend to physical deterioration ?
The answer lies in a nutshell. By training the
young to open-air work and play, to care of teeth and
exercise of muscles, the girls in preparation of appe-
tising food, the boys in such drill as will make them
real defenders of their country.
We may not go so far as Sir Lauder in his belief
in the educative value of the wall picture of the ravages
of the tubercle bacillus—we remember the fearful joy
with which we contemplated a ghastly picture of
volcanic colouring which an old lady assured us was
an accurate delineation of a drunkard’s stomach—nor
do we think his picture of the country cottage
altogether accurate; but he has seized the fact that
the master of the situation is the teacher, and to the
teacher he turns, confident in his zeal, his devotion,
his stimulating propaganda, his patient training,
confident, too, in the plastic material our schools bring
to his hand.
To another large class of workers in the public
service, the medical officers of health, Sir Lauder
Brunton also appeals. He pointed out to the Incor-
porated Society that physical efficiency is more than
doubtful in the mass of people even if physical deterior-
ation is unproved.
For accurate data as to height and weight, growth
and physical development of the youth of the nation,
we must look to the teachers in daily touch with them.
Such data have hitherto been conspicuous by their
absence, but once in existence they will enable the
statesman and statistician alike to realise the problem
they have to solve.
This involves periodical measurement, and to render
their taslx effective the teachers will need instruction,
and the most likely person to be called in to give that
instruction is the M.O.H. Without trenching on the
medical profession the teacher may learn from them
to detect signs of fatigue or mental strain, to note
defective vision and physical weakness, all of which
too often escape notice until irremediable mischief is
done.
Sir Lauder Brunton dwelt on the question of the milk
supply, the feeding of underfed school children, and
the housing question, and warmly endorsed the com-
mittee’s recommendation that the medical officer of
health should have security of tenure in view of the
local jealousies he may arouse, the local prejudices he
may cross. Discussing the report, Sir Lauder Brunton
approved the desire for a Board of Health to undertake
some of the duties of the over-worked Local Govern-
ment Board; failing such a board, he cordially
welcomed the idea of an advisory council for matters
concerning the national physique, such council to
consist of representatives of the Departments of State
reinforced by men of science and by experts in ques-
tions of health and of physical development.
He is assured of the readiness of the medical pro-
fession to do their part in the educative work; he
believes in equal readiness of the teachers to learn and
teach what it is of vital importance the coming gener-
ation should acquire, not only theoretically, but
practically—a knowledge of the laws of health.
The National League for Physical Education and
Improvement has so far been mainly confined to the
medical profession, but now that its aims are focused
and defined Sir Lauder looks to a wider public. He
4
JANUARY 12, 1905]
NATURE
253
hopes that before long not only every medical officer
of health and every school teacher, but every man and
woman who knows what is needed, will join its ranks.
Thus will be formed that body of enlightened public
opinion which is the moving power in every reform
worked, in every advance made by nation, district, or
parish, and thus the gospel of physical culture and
healthy environment may win its way to every British
home. No more patriotic work can be imagined, even
though “ the foes be they of our own household.”
NOTES.
Tue council of the Geological Society of London has de-
cided to award the medals and funds this year as follows :—
Wollaston medal to Dr. J. J. Harris Teall, F.R.S.;
Murchison medal to Mr. Edward John Dunn, of Melbourne ;
Lyeil medal to Dr. Hans Reusch, director of the Geological
Survey of Norway; Bigsby medal to Prof. J. W. Gregory,
F.R.S.; Wollaston fund to Mr. H. H. Arnold-Bemrose ;
Murchison fund to Mr. H. L. Bowman; and Lyell fund to
Mr. E. A. Newell-Arber and Mr, Walcot Gibson.
St. Marcaret’s Bay, Dover, where great falls of cliff
frequently occur, was the scene of another landslip on
Tuesday, January 10, when an enormous slice of the cliff,
estimated by the coastguard at about a quarter of a million
tons, fell into the sea. The fall occurred a little to the
eastward of the bay, where the cliff is about 250 feet high.
When the fall took place, about 9.30 a.m., it is said that
a very sharp earth tremor was felt throughout the village,
and was at first believed to be an earthquake. A further
fall occurred at noon. As the result of these landslips a
gap about 200 feet wide and 50 feet deep appears in the cliff.
The débris at the foot of the cliff covers a large area with
some very large fragments of rock. The mass is 20 feet
or 30 feet high, and extends seawards about a quarter of a
mile.
WE learn from the Times that an International Archzo-
logical Congress will be opened at Athens by the Crown
Prince of Greece on April 7. The opening meeting will be
held in the Parthenon, and M. Carapanos, the Minister of
Public Instruction, will address the members of the
congress. The director of Greek antiquities and the
directors of the foreign schools will give an account of the
progress of archeological research in Greece. The congress
will be divided into seven sections :—(1) classical arche-
ology ; (2) prehistoric and oriental archeology ; (3) excava-
tions, museums, and preservation of monuments; (4) epi-
graphy and numismatics; (5) Byzantine archeology;
(6) instruction in archeology; (7) geography and topo-
graphy.
A SLIGHT earthquake shock which lasted a few seconds
was felt at Gibraltar on January 7, at 5 a.m. No damage
was done. The disturbance was also felt in the Spanish
towns of Algeciras, Campamento, and San Roque. At La
Linea there were two severe shocks, each lasting about five
seconds, the first occurring at 4.40 a.m., and the second at
4.52 a.m.
On Tuesday next, January 17, Prof. L. C. Miall will
begin a course of six lectures at the Royal Institution on
the ‘‘ Structure and Life of Animals.’’ The discourse on
Friday, January 20, will be delivered by Sir James Dewar
on ‘“‘New Low Temperature Phenomena,’? and on
January 27 by Dr. E. A. Wilson on ‘‘ The Life of the
Emperor Penguin.’’
NO. 1837, Vor. 71]
WE regret to see the announcement of the death of Mr.
G. W. Hemming, K.C., in his eighty-fourth year. In
addition to contributions extending over many years to
various magazines and periodicals, he was the author of a
‘* Differential and Integral Calculus,’’ which appeared in
1848, and also of a work entitled ‘* Billiards Mathematically
Treated ’’ (1893), of which a second edition was recently
published,
Tue death is announced of Mr. Robert Harris Valpy at
the advanced age of eighty-five. Although a keen geologist,
he published very little, but he made a very fine collec-
tion of fossils from the Devonian rocks of North Devon,
and his assistance was acknowledged in the late Mr.
Etheridge’s work on the ‘‘ Physical Structure of West
Somerset and North Devon ’”’ (1867). Mr. Valpy was the
author of ‘f Notes on the Geology of Ilfracombe and the
Neighbourhood,’’ published anonymously by Twiss and
Sons, of Ilfracombe.
TuE first award of the Henry Saxon Snell prize will be
made this year by the Royal Sanitary Institute. The prize
was founded to encourage improvements in the construction
or adaptation of sanitary appliances, and is to be awarded
by the council of the institute at intervals of three years.
The first prize, which will consist of sol. and a medal of
the institute, ¥is offered in the year 1905 for an essay on
“domestic sanitary appliances, with suggestions for their
improvement.’’ Essays must be delivered on or before
March 30, addressed to the secretary of the Royal Sanitary
Institute, 72 Margaret Street, W.
Tue Association for Maintaining the American Women’s
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples and for Promoting
Scientific Research by Women announces the offer of a
third prize of 2ool. for the best thesis written by a woman,
on a scientific subject, embodying new observations and
new conclusions based on an independent laboratory re-
search in biological, chemical, or physical science. The
theses offered in competition are to be presented to the
executive committee of the association, and must be in the
hands of the chairman of the committee on the prize, Mrs.
Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, Mass., before December 31, 1906. The prize will
be awarded at the annual meeting in April, 1907.
Tue death is announced of Mr. Beauchamp Tower, who
was associated for some years with Mr. W. Froude,-F.R.S.,
in the experiments made for the Admiralty on the models of
ships and on full-sized vessels and engines of the Navy, from
which experiments much of the present knowledge of the
scientific design of ships has been derived. While working
as a consulting engineer, says the Times, Mr. Tower de-
veloped several ingenious inventions, notably a machine to
carry out Mr. Spencer Deverell’s idea of obtaining work
from wave motion, the well known ‘‘ spherical’? steam-
engine, largely employed for some years where high rotary
speeds were needed, a centrifugal pump revolution indicator
for ships, and a gyroscopic steady platform for guns at sea,
all of which afford good examples of originality and scientific
acumen. He also undertook for the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, and carried to a successful issue, an
extremely complete series of experiments on friction, by
which much new knowledge on the subject was gained.
Lonponers probably began to realise that the electrifi-
cation of the ‘‘ underground ’’ railways was nearing com-
pletion when, last week, a partial electrical service was
started on the section of the lines running from Baker
Street to Harrow and Uxbridge. This marks the first step
in the change which will be carried out by degrees
254
over the whole system, the electrical trains being at first |
run in place of some only of the regular trains, their
numbers being increased until eventually the complete
service is electrical, When this has been effected, and the
steam trains entirely displaced, the cleaning of the stations
and tunnels will be taken in hand; it is not until this is
complete that the public will derive the full benefit of the
alteration, so it is to be hoped that no difficulties will be
experienced to cause delay. It has been no small under-
taking to prepare everything for the conversion of these
lines, and the actual change itself must necessarily be
carried out with care, especially as it has to be effected
without interruption of the traffic.
M. H. Bourcet, of the University of Toulouse, writes to
ask what is the form of the surface of a fowl’s egg, and
if precise measures have been made of eggs in order to
‘determine whether the shape is constant and approaches
that of any known geometrical figure. In reply to this
inquiry, Prof. G. H. Bryan, to whom the matter was re-
ferred, remarks:—‘‘I believe it is generally recognised
that the shape of the meridian section of an egg is most
approximately a Cartesian oval, that is, a curve given by
the equation ar,+br,=c, where r, and r, are distances from
two fixed points. For a=b this becomes an ellipse, but
with a and b unequal we get a figure with,one end more
rounded and one more pointed, very like an egg. But
anyone who tried to find mathematical equations for the
curves occurring in the forms of organic life would have
a difficult task, especially if he were to tackle the
Diatomacez. It should also be remembered that the number
of curves which have an equation is infinitely small com-
pared with the number of curves that cannot be so re-
presented.”’
Tue annual report of the Russian Geographical Society
for 1903 has only just reached us. Among the scientific
explorations accomplished during the year we notice the
explorations of Lake Balkhash by M. L. S. Berg, of Lake
Kosogol by M. V. S. Elpatievsky, of Lake Ladoga by
M. J. M. Shokalsky, and of various lakes in European
Russia, as also of Lake Gokcha, by several students under
Prof. D. N. Anuchin. M. V. I. Lipskiy has continued to
study the flora of Central Asia, in connection with his
forthcoming work on this subject, and has made for this
purpose interesting journeys in the Tian-Shan, while the
range of Peter I. has been further explored by M. V. Th.
Novitzkiy. The botanist, M. J. N. Voronoff, explored
north-western Mongolia, M. N. B. Grinevetskiy the flora
of Transcaucasia, V. A. Faussek the Transcaspian fauna,
and V. E. Petersen the Lepidoptera of the Urals. A
journey in the Pechora region, by P. P. Mataftin, is also
worthy of notice. Several expeditions—Dr. Zarudnyi in
Persia, Syeroshevskiy, explorer of the Ainos, in Yezo,
Karskiy in White Russia—were at work during the same
year, as also the committee for the scientific collection of
folk-songs, with their music.
At the meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers held
on January 1o Sir William White, K.C.B., delivered an
address on the recent visit of the institution to the United
States and Canada. He described the visits made to the
principal engineering works in New York City and district,
to those in Canada, and to similar enterprises in Chicago.
In Canada, many opportunities afforded to see
examples of the utilisation of water power, and no one
could fail to realise the enormous possibilities of develop-
ment in the pulp and paper industry, with cheap power and
a good supply of labour. The visitors were informed, that
No. 1837, VOL. 71]
were
NATURE
{January 12, 1905
within a few miles of Ottawa there is 200,000 h.p. of water
power, and within a radius of forty-five miles nearly a
million horse-power. At Niagara on the Canadian side
three new undertakings are being rapidly advanced,
together giving more than 400,000 h.p., while a fourth
will yield 40,000 h.p. When these are completed the grand
total of power derived from Niagara on both sides of the
river will-be about 700,000 h.p. These particulars were
followed in the address by an account of the Inter-
national Engineering Congress at St. Louis organised
by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Concluding,
Sir William remarked that there can be no doubt but this
visit enabled American and Canadian engineers to give
practical proof of their fellowship with British engineers.
The visit must tend to strengthen the friendly feeling already
existing between the United States and the British Empire.
It must result also in a better understanding between the-
mother-country and Canada.
A VALUABLE report by Dr. Musgrave and Mr. Clegg on
pathogenic amcebe, the cultivation of amoebae, and
ameebic dysentery, has been issued by the Bureau of
Government Laboratories, Manila (No. 18, 1904). It is
considered that all amcebz are, or may become, pathogenic.
Pure cultures of amcebze were obtained by a modified plate
culture method, but it was not found possible to cultivate
the organisms unless bacteria were present in the cultiva-
tions, and the amoebze were often found to exhibit a
preference for certain species of bacteria.
Tue United States Department of Agriculture has added
to its valuable memoirs on food and diet a report by Messrs.
Woods and Mansfield on the food of the Maine lumbermen
(Bulletin No. 149, 1904). These men perform hard manual
labour, and are much exposed to cold, wet, and hardship,
and the staple daily fare consists of pork or beef, sour
dough biscuits made of dough which undergoes ferment-
ation with a ‘‘ wild’’ yeast, tea and molasses, and beans
which are first parboiled in the forenoon, and are then
packed with alternate layers of salt pork in a pot which
is covered with hot ashes and earth, and allowed to cook
over night. It is considered that the dietary, as regards
protein and energy, is the highest yet recorded for any
American labouring men, is well digested, and costs about
23-5 cents per person per diem.
WE have received a copy of the third and final part of a
“* Catalogue of Canadian Birds,’’ by Mr. J. Macoun, issued
by the Geological Society of Canada, which deals with
such families of the Passeres as were not included in the
preceding part. Owing to the fuller knowledge of the
habits of most of the birds recorded in this part, as com-
pared with those in its predecessors, a larger amount of
space is devoted to the majority of the species, thereby
enhancing the value of the work. Otherwise the method
of treatment is the same as that adopted in parts i. and ii.,
which have been previously noticed in our columns.
Ix the eighteenth annual report of the Liverpool Marine
Biology Committee, dealing with the new biological station
at Port Erin, Isle of Man, the director deplores that while
there have been more students than in any previous year
(who have worked harder than their predecessors) and more
investigators engaged on original work, to say nothing
of the success of the public meetings and the excellent result
of the fish-hatching, yet the number of subscribers does not
increase; and, in truth, the list of subscriptions to such an
admirable institution is but a pitiful one—a total of
89]. 3s. 6d. The marvel, indeed, is how so much good
work is accomplished and the establishment kept in going
JANUARY 12, 1905]
NATURE
255)
“order on an income of 1761. 14s. 1d. Apparently, however,
there must be some other fund for the up-keep of the build-
ing, as there are no items in the account for caretaker’s
wages or for repairs. The committee has been unfortunate
jn losing several influential friends and supporters, among
them Dr. Isaac Roberts, during the past year, and regret
is expressed that it becomes increasingly difficult to find
men of the same stamp among the younger generation to
fill their places. The report is illustrated with figures of
the early stages of the development of the lobster and of
ithe plaice. Although plaice-hatching was fairly successful,
results were by no means so good as regards the rearing
of lobsters. After one failure 5000 larve were successfully
hatched ; but of fhese, despite every care, very few attained
the “‘lobsterling ’’ stage. It is incidentally recorded that
tthe female spiny lobster (Palinurus vulgaris) destroys her
eggs in captivity. The general interest of the report is
much enhanced by an illustrated account of Manx (or
““Manks’’) antiquities, inclusive of fossil mammals, by
Messrs. Kermode and Herdman,.
In the Sitzungsberichte, No. 22, of the Imperial Academy
-of Sciences in Vienna, Mr. J. Dérfler gives an itinerary of
‘a six months’ tour in the island of Crete, undertaken for
ithe purpose of collecting botanical specimens. From this
‘point of view the journey was very successful, as 1200 plants
were obtained, including Triadenia Sieberi, Senecio
gnaphalodes, and the tiny Bellium minutum.
Two rare seaweeds, Rhipidosiphon and Callipsygma, both
veferred to the Codiacez, form the subject of a short article
contributed by Mr. and Mrs. A. Gepp to the Journal of
Botany (December, 1904), and Mr. Salmon presents a second
instalment of his notes on Limonium. The second supple-
ment (1898-1902) to the biographical index of British and
Irish botanists, compiled by Mr. J. Britten and Mr. C. S.
Boulger, is concluded in the same number.
In addition to the maintenance of the more ornamental
gardens, the director of the Public Gardens, Jamaica, in
his report for the year 1903-4, describes a number of experi-
ments which have been carried on at the Hope Experiment
Station. With the view of combining the good qualities of
‘different varieties of pineapples, a number of hybrid
‘seedlings have been raised by crossing the Cayenne, Ripley,
and Queen varieties. The method of growing Sumatra
wrapper-tobacco under tent-cloth, as practised in the
Connecticut valley in America, was tried with good results,
but the climate at Hope was found to be too dry for curing
the leaf satisfactorily. Considerable success has attended
the budding of mango, nutmeg, cocoa, and other trees, and
the process is strongly recommended, both as a means of
tapid propagation and also with the object of improving
the fruit.
We have received a further instalment of the States
gazetteers, already noticed, in the ‘‘ Gazetteer of West
Virginia,’’ by Mr. Henry Gannett, published by the United
States Geological Survey.
Tue August and September (1904) numbers of the
Bollettino of the Italian Geographical Society contain an
extremely interesting and suggestive memoir by Prof.
Gustavo Coen on the supposed decadence of Great Britain
and the awakening of eastern Asia. The conclusions of
tthe paper, which cannot be briefly summarised, are
obviously the result of wide study and research, and should
‘be of great value to geographical and political students in
this country.
In a paper published recently in the Hungarian Mathe-
matischen und naturwissentschaftlichen Berichte Dr. yon
KKalecsinszky gives an account of further observations and
No. 1837, VOL. 71 |
experiments on the warming of different layers of liquid
by the sun’s rays. Observations in lakes in which salt
water is covered over with a stratum of fresh water show
that the salt water may be warmed to a much higher
temperature than the overlying fresh water. Experiments
with solutions of magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate,
ammonium chloride, and sodium carbonate, and with fresh
water covered with petroleum and with olive oil, gave
similar results. It is concluded that the phenomenon is of
general occurrence, and that it is a factor of geological
importance in the formation of certain deposits.
Tue United States Weather Bureau has reprinted Mr.
W. L. Moore’s article on climate, written for the ‘* Encyclo-
pedia Americana,’’ as No. 34 of its Bulletins. It embraces
only thirteen pages of large octavo size, and is written in
clear, simple language that can be understood by all. It
contains in this small space a large amount of useful in-
formation relating to the effects of solar energy, distri-
bution of land and water, and mountain ranges. With
regard to secular variations, the author is of opinion that
there has been no appreciable change in the climate of any
large area within the period covered by authentic history.
WE have received from the observatory of the University
of Odessa a copy of its Annals for the years 1901-3. The
observatory having then completed the tenth year of its
existence, the volume in question includes, in addition to
observations taken thrice daily, and the monthly and yearly
results for 1901-3, a valuable series of means for the ten
years 1894-1903. The observatory is situated in latitude
46° 26’ N.; the mean temperature is given as 28°.8 in
January and 72°-1 in July. The absolute maximum was
94°-3, and the minimum —10°-3 F.; the temperature of the
ground is observed at various depths. The annual rainfall
is only 13 inches; the wettest month is June (2-3 inches).
WE have received a copy of the report of the International
Meteorological Committee’s meeting at Southport in
September, 1903. The meeting was well attended, and
various subjects of interest were discussed, including the
valuable reports by subcommittees and by individuals ; these
reports are printed in extenso in the appendix. Five of them
refer to the arrangements existing or proposed for the
exploration of the upper air by means of balloons and kites,
and to the results hitherto obtained. Much credit is due
to M. Teisserenc de Bort, who, in addition to the stations
he has established at Trappes and Itteville, near Paris, has
been chiefly instrumental in establishing similar stations at
Moscow and Viborg (Denmark). This latter enterprise is
acknowledged to be a most important contribution to
meteorological science. Appendix vii. is a very valuable
report by Sir Norman Lockyer on simultaneous solar and
terrestrial changes, which may have an important influence
on the meteorology of the future. After summarising the
investigations made from earliest times, he points out the
considerable advances made during the last quarter of a
century. Among the other appendices we may specially
mention two by Prof. Pernter (chief of the Austrian Meteor-
ological Service) and by M. Rykatcheff (director of the
Russian Service) on the use of the hair hygrometer instead
of the wet-bulb thermometer. This instrument is found to
be of much service in times of severe frost. M. J. Violle
contributes a valuable report on radiation. The author
points out that the question is exceedingly complex, and
demands a complete study of each of the simple radiations
which go to make up the total solar radiation. The Inter-
national Meteorological Committee voted for the convening
of a conference of all directors of meteorological offices, to
be held at Innsbruck in September, 1905.
256
NATURE
Messrs. J. J. GrirFiIn AND Sons have sent us specimens
of ‘* Vitro-Ink,’’ which is a non-corrosive ink for writing
on glass, celluloid, wood, or other material. The ink may
be used with an ordinary pen, and flows quite readily. A
‘useful property is that it may be completely removed by
means of a damp cloth at any time before it has set hard,
so that mistakes can be rectified without difficulty. The
ink will be found of especial service in labelling such things
as laboratory or photographic dark room bottles, where
labels of ordinary type quickly become discoloured or worn
away. When written on with vitro-ink the inscriptions
entirely resist strong acids, and it is only prolonged action
of strong alkalis or boiling water which may efface the
material. Microscopic slides, lantern slides, and glass or
celluloid photographic negatives may be labelled and
numbered direct, and as the ink is quite unaffected by
alcohol it can also be employed for biological or other
specimens which it may be necessary to preserve in spirit.
Another useful field for this ink will be in the rapid pro-
duction of diagrammatic lantern slides for class or lecture
illustration, as the design may be drawn direct on the glass
during actual projection, thereby placing considerable
facilities in the hands of lecturers or others desiring to
employ the screen in place of a blackboard or prepared wall
diagrams. The ink can be especially recommended to
photographers as an efficient labelling agent, showing good
contrast in the dark room light, and capable of being
washed clean instantly whenever the names become stained
from the unavoidable oxidation of the various solutions
employed.
Mr. A. Henry Savace Lanpor’s new book, ‘‘ Tibet and
Nepal,’’ will be published within the next few days by
Messrs. A. and C. Black.
Messrs. GEORGE BELL aNnD Sons have published a
teacher’s edition of part i. of ‘‘ Elementary Algebra,’’ by
Messrs. W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne. The arrangement
by which the answers are printed on the page opposite to
the examples which are to be given to pupils to work out
should prove convenient for the teacher during class work.
[ JANUARY 12, 1905
ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIS FOR COMET 1904 e.—The follow-
ing elements and ephemeris for Borrelly’s comet (1904 e)
have been calculated by Dr. Elis Strémgren from the posi-
tions determined on December 31, 1904, January 1 and 2 :—
Elements.
T =1905 January 1°2710 (Berlin).
341 32]
69 54°82 |; 19050
a eg50 30:79
log g =0°19344
Ephemeris gal (Berlin).
a
oo
8
Hou il
1905 log 4 Bright-
h. m. s oo ness -
Jan. 12 I 33 39 +1 174 070870 0°83
3° 1X6 140 8 +4 18°7 0'0985 0738
35120 I 46 56 +7 136 O°L107 073
Brightness at time of discovery =1-0.
According to the above the comet will pass through the
south-eastern corner of the constellation Pisces into Aries,
and will be about twenty-five minutes west of a Piscium
on January 12 (Kiel Circular, No. 72).
Cotours oF STARS IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.—
During the period October, 1903-March, 1904, Dr. J-
Moller, whilst cruising in the tropical regions of the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, made a number of observations of the
colours of 169 stars situated between declination —20° and
the South Pole, all of which were about magnitude 3-5.
The results of these observations are published in No.
3980 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, where the observer
also shows the reduction of his colour values to Osthoff’s
scale and the differences between his own results and those
obtained by the latter observer.
““ THe HEAVENS AT A GLance.’’—The handy card calendar,
‘“The Heavens at a Glance,’ published by Mr. Arthur
Mee, Llanishen, price sevenpence, post free, is full of useful
information for amateur astronomers. Among other things
it contains a ‘‘ celestial diary ’’ which gives all the more
important astronomical events during each month, a table
showing the elements of the sun and planets, and a mass of
information relative to the brighter stars, variable and
double stars, and star clusters and nebule.
Intended to hang on the observatory wall, the calendar
forms a most useful adjunct to the more voluminous
almanacs which it epitomises.
ASTRONOMICAL “‘ ANNUARIO ’’ OF THE TURIN OBSERVATORY.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
DiscoVERY OF A SIXTH SATELLITE TO JupITER.—A telegram
received from the Kiel Centralstelle announces the discovery
of a sixth satellite to- Jupiter by Prof. Perrine. The exist-
ence of the object was suspected in December, 1904, and
was confirmed by an observation made on January 4. The
position angle on that date was 269°, and its distance from
the planet 45’, the latter quantity decreasing 45” daily,
whilst the apparent motion was retrograde.
A later communication from Kiel states that the dis-
covery was made with the Crossley reflector, observations
of the satellite having been made on December 3, 8, 9, and
10, 1904, and January 2, 3, and 4.
Comet 1904 d (Giacopini1).—Another set of elements and
an ephemeris for comet 1904 d have been calculated by
Herr M. Ebell from positions determined on December 17,
21, and 26, 1904, and are given below.
Elements.
T =1904 November 4°22 (Berlin).
o= 4I 15°6 |
2 =218 32°0 } 1904'0
z 99 3971
log g =0°27536
Ephemeris (12h. Berlin).
é
ll
1905 a log A Bright-
iy mls, ch aay ness
Jan. 12 17 29 10 +40 37 0°3451 101
Fans: 17 36 I +4I 42
5216 17 43 2 +42 47 0°3438 1°00
4 g8 vie
(Kiel Circular, No. 71).
NO. 1837, VOL. 71 |
The first annual publication of the Turin Observatory
appeared in the year 1787, but for various reasons their
appearance has not been continuous. A new series com-
mences with the ‘‘ Annuario’’ for the present year, and in
the preface Signor Boccardi, the director, explains its raison
d’étre by the statement that it does not contain the
ephemerides, star-places, &c., published in the larger
national almanacs, but deals more especially with the calcu-
lations and researches made at the Turin Observatory, and
fills up the gaps left by those almanacs.
As examples of this we may mention the tables which
contain the mean positions and the apparent positions at
upper culmination (Greenwich meridian) of 202 stars not
included in the ‘‘ Nautical Almanac,’’ the ‘*‘ American
Ephemeris,’’ or the ‘‘ Connaissance des Temps.’’ The
heliocentric coordinates of Jupiter and Saturn (for 1905 and
1906), the elements and ephemerides of various minor
planets, a mass of meteorological data, and a review of
the meteorology of 1903 are also given.
OriciIn OF Lunar Formations.—In a paper on “A
Possible Explanation of the Formation of the Moon,’’ read
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on November, 21,
1904 (see NaturE, December 8, 1904, p. 143), Mr. G.
Romanes showed that there had never been sufficient heat
developed in the interior of the moon by gravitational com-
pression to account for volcanic action on its surface; and
he explained how lunar markings could be accounted for on
his hypothesis by the impact of meteoritic masses. Dr.
Johnston-Lavis writes to say he has long held this view,
and reminds us that Dr. G. K. Gilbert developed the impact
| theory of the formation of lunar craters several years ago
(see Bull. Phil. Soc. of Washington, vol. xii., pp. 241-292,
and NAToRE, vol. xlviii., p. 82, May 23, 1893).
JANUARY 12,1905 }
NATURE
24
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS IN, MOORLAND
DISTRICTS.
URING the last four years systematic observations have
been made on the distribution of the various associ-
ations of vegetation covering the moorland region lying
to the east of the Vale of Eden.’ The boundaries of each
plant association have been traced out in the field and laid
Fic. 1.—Succession of moorland vegetation.
wet, gently sloping foreground jis reached. From the Geog
down on the six-inch Ordnance map, and reduced to the
one-inch map for publication. The factors governing the
distribution of plant associations over such a limited area
are mainly edaphic, although the
differences in altitude, which amount
to about 2500 feet in the area
in question, produce changes in the
vegetation which are chiefly due to
climatic conditions. Much of the vege-
tation at present covering cultivated
areas in Britain owes its distribution
to artificial agencies, edaphic and
climatic factors being to a great extent
masked. The more remote moorland
districts of the north of England and
Scotland, however, give opportunities
for studying plant associations the dis-
tribution of which is chiefly determined
by edaphic and climatic factors, ihe
artificial factors due to the influence
man being secondary.
The most important artificial agencies
of
tending to modify the natural disiribu-
tion of vegetation covering our moor-
lands at the present day appear to be
drainage operations and grazing of
cattle. On many of the alpine moor-
lands these factors are almost ne
gible, and any change in the vegetation
has been caused, not by artificial
agencies, but by secular changes in
climate. The evidence of a change in
vegetation, both on the alpine moor-
lands of England and Scotland, is un-
mistakable, and it is possible to a certain
extent to reconstruct the waves of
vegetation which have occupied the areas mentioned since
the passing away of the last ice sheet.
Fic. 2
I ““Geographical Distributions of the Vegetation of the Basins of the
Rivers Eden, Tees, Wear and Tyne.” (Geographical Journal, March and
September, 1g04.)
NO. 1937, VOL. 71 |
Eriophorum Bog on the summit plateau.
Grass Heath developed on the slopes below, changing to Grass Heath with Eriophorum as the
aphical Journal.
-—Calluna and Vaccinium association on
vegetation developed
Geographical Journal.
The district in which mapping has been carried on by
the author consists of a great extent of bleak, gently sloping
moorland, of which about to per cent. lies above 2000 feet.
The author has found that considerable and marked changes
take place in the plant associations at about 2000 feet; tree
vegetation ceases, and many alpine plants make their
appearance which are absent from the lower moorlands.
The geological formation in the south
and west of the district is chiefly
Carboniferous limestone yielding only a
small amount of detritus, whilst in the
north and east the limestone thins out
and is replaced to a great extent by
sandstones, grits, and shales which
yield a much larger amount of detritus.
This feature has an important effect
upon the vegetation, the wetter types of
associations being developed upon those
rocks yielding a large amount of
detritus.
The moorlands first resolve themselves
into two chief types, grass moorland and
heather moorland, and these are fre-
quently linked together by several inter-
mediate plant associations. Dry heather
moors or heaths do not cover any great
extent of ground, and are chiefly found
in the limestone districts of the south.
The wetter types of heather moors are
well developed, and the whole district
can be bfiefly described as a wet heather
and dry grass moorland country. These
features are well shown in many of the
and gills leading out of Wear-
** hopes ou
dale and South Tynedale. The steep
lower slopes of the hills are covered
with an association having Nardus
Nardus styicta as the dominant plant. Above
1500 feet to 1800 feet the slope of
the ground becomes more gradual, and
shales and grits make their appearance. At the same time
the Nardus stricta association yields to heather associations
in which Eriophorum is always a prominent plant. The
lower
the
The
From
a dry wind-swept summit at 2326 fex
great increase in Erioph
on wet peat shows a
succession of different types of moorland is often well shown
along some.of the ‘‘ edges ’’ in the north-east of the district.
At Redbourne Edge the almost flat, poorly drained summit
is entirely covered by Eriophorium bog, developed on deep
wet peat. \As the edge of the bog is approached the peat
258
NATURE
[JANUARY 12, 1905
becomes drier, and Eriophorum is replaced by a narrow
band of Calluna moor. Peat is absent on the slope below,
and the ground is tenanted by Nardus grass heath, yielding
to a wetter type of grass heath dominated by Molinia and
Eriophorum. Such a succession of terraces of Eriophorum
bog, Calluna moor, Nardus grass heath, and Molinia-
Eriophorum moor can be distinguished from a distance of
many miles in the later months of the year, when the
bleached Nardus stands out in vivid contrast to the sombre
hued Calluna and Eriophorum associations.
The lower slopes of the alpine moorlands are generally
covered by heather associations, which yield to pasture and
grass heath as the summits are approached. The drier hills
are covered by an association consisting of Calluna, Rubus
Chamaemorus, Vaccinium Myrtillus, and V. Vitis-Idaea; the
wetter hills are characterised by a much greater develop-
ment of Eriophorum vaginatum and E. angustifolium.
The summits of the hills are generally tenanted by a few
stunted members of the lower associations; in some cases,
however, the vegetation only forms patches separated by
bare stony soil or peat. Part of the summit plateau of
Cross Fell at 2900 feet is entirely tenanted by Racomitrium
lanuginosum, which forms low mounds of peat frequently
broken by patches of stones and bare soil, a formation bear-
ing a close resemblance to a moss-tundra of northern
latitudes.
A considerable portion of the higher ground is covered
with a deposit of peat varying in thickness from a few
inches to nearly 20 feet. The peat appears to be undergoing
rapid denudation at the present day—in many places large
areas are quite unoccupied by vegetation, and exhibit the
channelled and wasted appearance characteristic of peat-
hags. These features can be seen on all the peat covered
hills of the Pennines, the Cheviots, and the Scottish southern
uplands, being particularly well marked on the Moorfoot Hills
and in the Tweedsmuir district, and again appear in most of
the peat districts of the Highlands. Many of the lowland
mosses, particularly those bordering on the Solway Firth
and along the west coast, exhibit no such denudation. How
far the denudation of the mosses in the hill districts is due
to drainage operations it is difficult to say, but the fact
that the peat is generally wasted away quite as much on
the more remote moorlands where artificial drainage has
scarcely been carried on at all as on the drained areas lends
strong support to the view that denudation is due to climatic
changes. This is further supported by a detailed examin-
ation of the deeper peat beds, which frequently show many
alternating beds of wet and dry condition plants. The
peat beds on the Cross Fell chain are evidently of very
ancient origin, as the author* has found the remains of an
Arctic flora at the base consisting of Arctic willows, and
the peat above contains the remains of extensive woodlands
up to an altitude of 2700 feet. The area in which woodland
remains in the peat have been observed is about 140 square
miles, whilst only 11 square miles are forest clad at the
present time.
Gunnar Andersson* has shown that the destruction of
some of the woodlands buried in the peat of Sweden has been
caused by artificial retention of drainage water and a
gradual exhaustion of food supply in the upper layers of
the peat, thus bringing about a gradual swing from wood-
land conditions to moss conditions, and again to heath
conditions. These causes may have produced alternations of
woodland, moss, and heath in some of our low-lying mosses,
but an examination by the author of the peat lying between
the woodland beds suggests that the destruction of much of
the buried forest growth has been due, not to local alter-
ations in drainage and failure of food supply, but to climatic
changes acting over very long periods of time.
Francis J. Lewis.
THE ABNORMAL TIDES OF JANUARY 7.
N
A coast of Britain on Saturday last, January 7, extensive
areas being flooded and considerable destruction wrought.
At 6 p.m, on Friday, January 6, as shown in the Meteor- |
ological Office reports, a very deep cyclonic system
appeared over the upper part of the North Sea, the baro-
1 British Association Reports, 1904, Section K.
2 “Svenska Vaxtvarldens Historia.” (Stockholm.)
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
abnormally high tide was experienced down the east |
meter at Sumburgh Head having fallen quickly to 28-7
inches. There was a steep gradient for north-westerly
winds, and in the course of the night a more or less severe
gale from that quarter was experienced over the North
Sea, and as the south-going tide from the Pentland Firth was.
then on the flood, both its velocity and its volume were
greatly increased, so that it reached the Thames estuary
some hours ahead of its time, and was several feet above the
calculated height. While the low barometer of Friday night
may have caused the tide level in the far north to have been
raised about a foot, the very rapid increase of pressure to
29-83 inches at 8 a.m. on Saturday at Sumburgh Head, a
rise of 1-13 inches in fourteen hours, may have done some-
thing towards swelling the volume of the tide further south.
to those which prevailed with the great tide experienced
on the southern and south-western coasts at the beginning
of February, 1904 (Nature, vol. lxix. p. 348).
Much damage was done all along the coast from Scar-
borough to the Thames. At the former place the pier was
entirely washed away, and at Hull, Goole, Boston, Yar-
mouth and Lowestoft, and other places the low-lying parts
of the towns were flooded. The damage was not due to
unusual violence of the wind alone, but to the combined
effects of wind and tidal waves. From the returns of the
Meteorological Office it appears that the force of the gale
from Wick to Yarmouth varied from 7 to 10 on the Beau-
fort scale. The tide was the third after the new moon,
and laid down in the tide tables as less than a full spring
tide. At Boston 28 feet 5 inches was recorded on the gauge
at the dock, or 116-47 feet above Ordnance Datum,
being 4 feet 8 inches above the height expected. The follow-
ing tide in the evening was 21 feet 11 inches, or 1 foot
10 inches below the tide table height, the difference in the
two tides being 6 feet 6 inches. The highest tide recorded
there previously was in 1883, when the tide rose to 29 feet,
the great record tide of 1810 rising to 29 feet 4 inches-
Notwithstanding the great height to which the tide rose, it
ceased flowing nearly half an hour before its proper time.
The tidal wave had fortunately somewhat expended its
a very disturbed condition. By mid-day the water at Putney
Bridge had risen as high as it should have been at full
tide, which was not due until 3.45. At 1.30 it was a foot
higher than any spring tide in recent years. Shortly after
this the water began to recede, and continued to do so
for half an hour. Then the water again rose, and at 3.15
the ebb again set in. The water in the Thames and Med-
way estuaries was kept from receding by the gale, and
on the morning of Saturday it was 8 feet above its normal
height. At 9 a.m., when the tide had still 4$ hours to flow,
it was running up the Medway 6 feet above the anticipated
height at this stage. By 11 o’clock the level of high water
was reached, but during the remaining 2? hours the flow
was very slight compared with the earlier stages, and
although the water rose from 2 to 3 feet above the normal
height, there was no overflow or breaches in the banks.
THE ELECTRO-THERMIC MANUFACTURE
OF IRON AND STEEL.
THs report is of great interest and importance to iron
and steel metallurgists, and the appointment of the
commission which has drawn it up suggests that Canada
has an enterprise in fostering metallurgical knowledge
which the Government of the mother country might well
imitate for the advantage of British metallurgical indus-
tries. The English metallurgist attached to the commission
was Mr. F. W. Harbord.
| Three processes were experimentally examined :—(1) the
| Kjellin process at Gysinge, Sweden (this is an induction
| process not involving the use of electrodes) ; (2) the Héroult
process at La Praz, France (this is a resistance method
involving the use of electrodes) ; (3) the Keller process (also
a resistance method in which electrodes are employed).
On p. 15 of the report Dr. Eugene Haanel, the chief
1 “‘ Report of the Commission appointed by Mr. Clifford Sifton, Minister of
the Interior, Ottawa, Canada, to Investigate the Different Electro-thermic:
Processes for the Smelting of Iron Ores and the Making of Steel in Europe.'”
| (Ottawa: Department of Interior.)
Except for the hard gale, the conditions were very similar
energy before reaching the Thames, but the water was in
JANUARY 12, I 905]
commissioner, remarks that he considers ‘‘ By far the most
important experiments witnessed by the Commission were
those made by Keller, Leleux and Company at their works
at Livet.”
It is a little difficult to realise upon what grounds the
above conclusion was arrived at. Putting aside the
speculative calculations of M. Keller and descending to
experimental facts, it appears that the commission saw
smelted several tons of pig-iron, as a rule remarkably high
in manganese (1-5 per cent. to 4 per cent.), and hence of
limited commercial interest, and as it is evidently not
thought by the commission that the electric furnace is
to become a serious competitor with the blast furnace, the
specified exceptional value of these results from an industrial
point of view is not quite clear.
As regards steel, only one not very satisfactory and un-
tested heat was made (see pp. 77-78), yet upon such evidence
the report states that this process is capable of producing
steel equal to the best products of Sheffield’s crucibles.
Such premature conclusions based on such scanty data are
not calculated to carry conviction to the experienced metal-
turgical mind.
The commission also describes a series of experiments
made by M. Héroult at La Praz works. The analyses of
tthe steels obtained appear quite satisfactory, but this process
is hardly capable of competing with the ordinary open-
hearth furnace even from the rosy point of view taken by
the commissioners based on costs calculated (in all good
faith) by the patentee. ;
From a British point of view Kjellin’s induction process
deserves the most serious attention in view of (under certain
conditions) its probable competition with the crucible steel
process.
Analytically, mechanically, and micrographically this
steel leaves nothing to be desired, but unfortunately
chemical and tensile tests, and the indications of the micro-
scope, have a limited value in determining the working
capabilities of tool-steel.
In his ‘‘ conclusions’? on p. 115 of the report, Mr.
Harbord states that ‘‘ Steel, equal in all respects to the
best Sheffield crucible steel, can be produced, either by the
Kjellin or Héroult or Keller processes, at a cost consider-
ably less than the cost of producing a high-class crucible
steel.”’
The above statement, so sweeping and involving issues
of profound industrial import, should have been made only
as the result of a series of exhaustive working tests. For
such, in the report, the reviewer has sought in vain.
It is true that a series of tests of turning tools made
from Kjellin and Héroult steels has been carried out at
Woolwich by Mr. H. F. Donaldson, but the results are
quite inconclusive, because of the steels employed hardly
one was fit for turning tools.
Cold sett steel, carbon 0-8, cold chisel steel, carbon 09,
tap-steel, carbon 1-1, and drill steel, carbon 1-2, have all
been set to do the work of a comparative turning tool steel
of carbon 1-38 per cent.
The natural consequence is that in the Woolwich results,
where *“‘ E’’ means equal to the ordinary Woolwich turn-
ing tool steel of carbon 1-38, and ‘‘ NE’’ means not equal
to that steel, we find in the report, pp. 87 and 88, five
*“equals ’’ and no less than fourteen ‘‘ not equals.’’
As to whether Kjellin electric steel is or is not equal to
crucible steel time alone can show. The conclusion of the
commission may be accurate, but it is certainly not based
on any scientific evidence worthy of the name.
Such evidence on a commercial scale can be conclusively
obtained only by at least two comparative years of shop
practice, employing all kinds of tools, and recording the
average wear and waste of the steels as evidenced by the
ratio between the work turned out and the annual cost of
the tool steels purchased.
In the micrographic section of the report the reviewer
notes with regret a recrudescence of the use (in this con-
nection) of the meaningless and unscientific term “‘ grain ”’
in describing the allotrimorphic crystals of ferrite.
These crystals, although usually lacking idiomorphic
external faces, nevertheless present that internal molecular
symmetry associated with individual crystals, and hence
should be classed as such.
Prolonged tests on Kjellin steel of all carbons, compared
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE
259
with similar crucible steels, have been inaugurated at the
University College of Sheffield, and the erection of a Kjellin
furnace capable of making one ton of steel per day is under
consideration.
Without in any way compromising one’s industrial atti-
tude as to the exact capabilities of the respective methods
devised by Messrs. Héroult, Keller and Kjellin, one can
cordially congratulate these gentlemen on the scientific
ability displayed in the development of their several methods,
all of which, within their legitimate spheres, are un-
doubtedly of great metallurgical value. It is the more
necessary to say this because such value is liable to be dis-
counted by the hasty and ill-digested conclusions drawn by
the Canadian commission. J. O. Arno.p.
LONDON FOG INQUIRY, 1901-3.'
HE Meteorological Council have issued their final report
on the above inquiry, which had to be terminated at
the end of the winter 1902-3 as the London County
Council were unable to make any further contribution to
its cost beyond the 25o0l. originally assigned. A short
account of the chief results obtained by Captain Carpenter
from the observations of the winter 1901-2 has already
appeared in these columns (vol. Ixvii. p. 548). During the
succeeding winter records of the duration and intensity of
fog were continued at forty-six stations in and around
London, and in addition to this the scope of the inquiry was
extended to include a detailed study of the distribution of
air temperature over the London area. With this object
thermometer screens and dry bulb thermometers were issued
to thirty fire brigade stations, and daily observations of the
air temperature were made at fixed hours.
The material so accumulated has been utilised to deter-
mine so far as possible the physical causes most active in
producing fog in each case. The guiding principles adopted
in the classification are those suggested in an article by
the secretary to the Meteorological Council which appeared
in Nature (vol. Ixiv. p. 649) at the time when the
inquiry was started. The majority of our fogs were
found to be due to radiation from the earth’s surface during
calm nights. Others, among them the most persistent fog
of the winter, were caused by the passage of warm air over
a previously cooled surface, while a third group were
identified as “‘ cloud ’’ fogs. A certain number of fogs could
not be included in any of the above categories. Thev
appeared to be mere accumulations of the products of com-
bustion in an almost calm atmosphere, and as such were
termed ‘‘ smoke’’ fogs. Full particulars of the thirty-nine
most serious fogs of the winter are given in an appendix.
Among the chief results of the inquiry must be reckoned
the establishment of a workable scale for the estimation
of fog intensity by different observers, based on the extent
to which traffic is impeded by land, river, and sea.
Comparison of the fog statistics from the various stations
confirms Captain Carpenter’s results. With a few possible
exceptions which need further investigation, there is no
evidence to show that, in London, geological formation has
any influence on liability to fog. Again, as was to be
expected, the fog frequency on the river and in the parks
is very high, but the evidence does not support the view
that the fog there found drifts far into the neighbouring
districts.
With regard to the main purpose of the inquiry, greater
precision in fog forecasts, Mr. Lempfert points out that
a first step would be the establishment of a night service
at the Meteorological Office. As the majority of fogs are
caused by nocturnal radiation, and the intensity of this
radiation depends largely on the accident whether the sky is
free from cloud or not, it is manifest that forecasts issued
at the suggested hour of 5 a.m. would have a much greater
chance of proving correct than the present ones, which are
based on observations taken at 6 p.m. on the previous even-
ing. As most fogs become thick soon after sunrise, several
hours’ warning could still be given, though the hour would
1 Report of the Meteorological Council upon an Inquiry into the Occur-
rence and Distribution of Fogs in the London Area, during the Winters of
1gor-2 and 1902-3, with Reference to Forecasts of the Incidence and
Duration of Fogs in Special Localities, to which is appended the Report
by R. G. K. Lempfert, M.A. on the Observations of the Winter 1902-3.
260
be too late for the dissemination of the forecasts by the
morning papers. Under the existing arrangements it was
found that sixteen out of twenty-four ‘‘ radiation ’’ fogs
and four out of eight ‘‘ smoke’’ fogs were anticipated.
The three *‘ cold surface’’ fogs and four ‘‘ cloud’’ fogs
were not forecasted. The present forecasts rarely, if ever,
contain any indications of the intensity of the fog expected.
The problem of the issue of fog warnings for individual
districts has been approached from two points of view.
As was pointed out in the previous report, the observations
of drift smoke, during the incidence of fog usually show
an indraught of air to some central district of London, but
this is rarely symmetrical; a preponderating direction,
usually identical with that due to the barometric gradient,
can in most cases be identified, and plays a most important
part in determining the region of thickest fog. Out of
forty-four days of fog twenty-seven showed the thickest fog
to leeward, five showed it to windward, while in the remain-
ing twelve cases no particular preference for any one locality
could be identified. Captain Carpenter had suggested that
a more detailed study of the distribution of temperature
might prove useful in this connection, and Mr. Lempfert
reproduces diagrams which show conspicuous differences of
temperature within the London area, in which the thickest
fog is also to be found in the coldest region. Four out of
the five apparently exceptional cases in which fog was
thickest to windward show the lowest temperatures also on
the windward side. It is the more to be regretted that
the inquiry has had to be discontinued as the winter proved
to be singularly free from fog. Investigation of the thick
fogs of the present season from this point of view would
probably have yielded interesting results.
4 Me
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
EpInBURGH.—The annual report for 1904 shows that the
total annual value of the university fellowships, scholar-
ships, bursaries, and prizes now amounts to about 18,27ol.
In addition, a sum of upwards of 6o00l., being the income of
the Earl of Moray endowment fund, is annually available
for the encouragement of original research. As already
announced, in response to the appeal for subscriptions to
provide for the further development of the university, Sir
Donald Currie has made the munificent gift of 25,0001. He
has expressed a wish that the revenue from his money
should be applied to the remuneration of a staff of lecturers
such as the authorities of the university may find it advisable
from time to time to appoint. The university court, being
desirous of permanently associating his name with the fund,
has resolved to designate it ‘‘ The Sir Donald Currie
Lectureship Endowment Fund.” Other contributions to the
extension scheme have also been intimated to the extent of
15,0001., including a sum of soool. given by Sir John
Jackson to the Tait memorial fund, for the encouragement
of physical research.
LiverPooL.—The committee of the institute of archa-
ology has been enabled by the munificence of Sir John
Brunner to take in hand the publication of a ‘‘ History of
Egypt,” to include all the results of modern research, and
to be, so far as possible, a complete history of the Egyptian
civilisation from the earliest times down to the conquest
by Alexander the Great. It is estimated that the work will
take two years to complete, and it will be published with
full photographic illustrations.
A CONFERENCE on school hygiene has been arranged by
the Royal Sanitary Institute, to be held in the University
of London, under the presidentship of Sir Arthur W. Riicker,
F.R.S., on February 7-10.
A course of ten lectures on ‘‘ Enzymes ’’ will be given
by Dr. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S., at University College,
London, commencing on January 18. The lectures are open
to all internal students of the university, and also to medical
men on presentation of their cards.
THE sixteenth issue of the ‘‘ Public School Year Book ”’
that for 1905—with its select list of preparatory schools,
as useful as ever. The information given respecting
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[January 12, 1905
each public school connected with the Headmasters’ Con-
ference is of just the kind to help parents to a decision as
to where to send their boys to be educated.
Pror. Fritz Hetse, of the Berlin School of Mines, has
been appointed director of the Bochum School of Mines, and
Mr. Georg Baum, the author of several works on coal-
mining, has been appointed to succeed him in the Berlin
chair. Mr. August Schweman, mine manager of Neurode,
has been appointed professor of mining at the Aachen
Technical’ High School to fill the vacancy caused by the
death of Mr. Lengemann.
In view of the educational and scientific progress which
Japan has made in recent years, the two lectures on ‘‘ The
Japanese Spirit,’’ which will be delivered by Mr. Y.
Okakura, of the Imperial University, Tokyo, at the London
School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C., on January 17
and January 20, should be of special interest. Tickets of
admission may be obtained free from the secretary of the
school.
Science reports that Mr. W. A. Riebling, of Newark,
N.J., has sent an additional 2000]. to the Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, N.Y., to be used in replacing the
building destroyed by fire. Mr. Riebling gave 2oo0ol. last
June. A gift of 1roool. from Mr. George B. Cluett is also
announced. Wellesley College has received 3600l., we also
learn, from the Robert Charles Billings fund, the income
of which is to be applied to the department of botany.
Tue West Riding Education Committee has resolved,
says the British Medical Journal, subject to certain con-
ditions, to make grants, which will doubtless be renewed
annually, to the Universities of Leeds and Sheffield of
45001. and 15001. respectively. In thanking the county
council for the grant to Leeds, the Pro-Chancellor, Mr-
A. G. Lupton, stated that of the 100,o001. for which the
university was now asking a sum of 64,oo0l. had already
been subscribed.
THE 1905 edition of the ‘‘ Schoolmaster’s Yearbook and
Directory ’’ follows on the same excellent lines as the issue
of last year. It contains an immense amount of well
arranged information, and has become indispensable to all
engaged in educational work. If the publication continues
to increase in size, as it seems to do annually, the section
on the books of the year might be dispensed with, as in-
formation of the same kind can be obtained from many
educational periodicals. The editor is to be congratulated
on the fact that this useful work of reference has become
established so securely.
A RESEARCH scholarship or scholarships, founded by Mr-.
Andrew Carnegie, will be awarded shortly on the recom-
mendation of the council of the Iron and Steel Institute.
Candidates, who must be under thirty-five years of age,
must apply on a special form before the end of February
to the secretary of the institute. The object of this scheme
of scholarships is not to facilitate ordinary collegiate
studies, but to enable students, who have passed through
a college curriculum or have been trained in industrial
establishments, to conduct researches in the metallurgy of
iron and steel and allied subjects, with the view of aiding
its advance or its application to industry. There is no
restriction as to the place of research which may be selected,
whether university, technical school, or works, provided it
be properly equipped for the prosecution of metallurgical
investigations.
A CONFERENCE of teachers from elementary and secondary
schools and technical institutes was held under the auspices
of the London County Council at the Medical Examination
Hall, Victoria Embankment, on January 5, 6, and 7. On
the first of these days, under the presidency of Sir William
Collins, the teaching of arithmetic was discussed. Mr.
C. T. Millis, principal of the Borough Polytechnic, said
that what is needed in the teaching of arithmetic is that
some of the time now spent in teaching special rules in
money sums should be devoted to giving a sound know-
ledge of general principles. Mr. S. O. Andrew, during the
course of a paper on the same subject, remarked that what-
ever part of arithmetic may be given up or postponed, there
is a general agreement that it must still include a know-
JANUARY 12, 1905]
NATURE
261
ledge of the standards of measurement necessary for the
investigation of physical phenomena. The need for a co-
ordination of the elementary instruction in arithmetic and
geometry was emphasised by subsequent speakers.
Tue third annual meeting of the North of England
Education Conference was held in Liverpool on January 6
and 7. More than 2000 members of education committees,
teachers, and others attended. The question of leaving
certificates was discussed at the first meeting, and during
the course of the discussion Sir Oliver Lodge said the use
and not the abuse of examinations is admitted by all as an
adjunct to teaching, but the point is to determine the re-
lation between teachers and examiners, also between
teachers and inspectors. People are no longer going to be
satisfied with purely external examinations imposed from
above upon the schools. It is not a dignified position for
the schools, and they have rebelled. | Prof. Sherrington,
F.R.S., read a paper later on child study, in which he urged
that this study could not devote itself more profitably at
the present time than to what may be termed the natural
history of the child. In healthy school life lay the first line
of defence against race deterioration. It would help
society if teachers and physiologists could combine to
examine into the mischief to growth resulting from hours
of breathing vitiated air, from want of warm clothing that
economised food, from semi-starvation, from improper food,
from chronic fatigue, and from insufficient rest and sleep
in bed. Among other subjects dealt with were the teach-
ing of geography, the teaching of domestic science, and
the place of handwork in the school curriculum.
A DEPUTATION from the executive committee of the
Association of Education Committees (England and Wales)
recently waited upon the Board of Education to urge the
adoption of a more liberal scale of grants for secondary
schools, to ask for a larger share from the Government of
the cost of training pupil teachers, and to urge the necessity
for the compulsory attendance up to the age of fourteen at
evening continuation schools of all children who do not
continue as whole-day scholars up to that age. Sir William
Anson, in reply to the deputation, agreed that more money
should be allowed to secondary schools, but though such a
demand would have his support, Sir William Anson said
he was by no means sure of obtaining the necessary funds.
He expressed the opinion that the question of cost made it
almost impossible to enforce a system of compulsory attend-
ance at evening continuation schools up to fourteen years of
age for children leaving the day school before that time.
Until we have better security that the education given in
the elementary school lasted, and a better secondary educa-
tion system with larger grants for secondary schools, Sir
William added, he would not be a party to asking for another
penny for elementary education, as such. It is satisfactory
tto find it recognised officially that this country must spend
more money on secondary. and technical education if we
are to have an educational system which will assist national
progress.
THE annual meeting of the Geographical Association was
held on January 6. Mr. Douglas Freshfield presided, and
an interesting discussion took place on the teaching of
practical geography in schools. Prof. Dryer, of the State
Normal College, Terre Haute, Indiana, opened the debate,
and said that practical geography meant in America
laboratory work. This work is not necessarily done in a
special room, and, indeed, the best part of it is done out
of doors. The study of maps plays a large part in this
laboratory work. Contoured topographical maps are also
much used, together with raised models illustrating different
forms of the earth’s surface. Pictures, photographs, and
lantern slides also have a conspicuous place in the school’s
equipment. The instrumental study of the earth’s atmo-
sphere is taken next by the students, who keep records of
their own observations for a period of three months. ‘The
official weather charts can be obtained daily at every school,
and, owing to the area covered by them, it is possible to
follow cyclonic and anti-cyclonic disturbances for several
days together, and sometimes to predict in the school itself
the arrival at a particular time of an atmospheric disturb-
part of geographical study. Mr. B. B. Dickinson described
an experiment in the teaching of practical geography carried
out by him at Rugby School. The report of the association
shows that 123 new members have been added to the roll,
making the total membership 448. The members now in-
clude teachers of every grade, school inspectors, directors
of education, technical education committees, and others
interested in geographical education, both at home and
abroad.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, December 1, 1904.—‘‘The Ascent of
Water in Trees.”’ By Dr. Alfred J. Ewart, Lecturer on
Botany in the University of Birmingham.
Since the time when Strasburger’s researches seemed to
show that the ascent of water in trees was a purely physical
phenomenon, attempts have been made by Dixon and Joly,
as well as by Askenasy, to prove that the ascent of water
is due to a tensile stress set up by transpiration in the
leaves, and transmitted downwards by continuous water-
columns which are practically suspended from them. A
knowledge of the resistance to the transpiration current in
the stems of trees, and of the influence of various factors
upon it, forms, however, an essential preliminary to any
such explanation.
The author finds that when the vessels are completely
filled with water and are open at both ends, the flow through
them takes place in accordance with Poisseuille’s formula,
the rate of flow being directly proportional to the pressure
and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the liquid and
the square of the radius of the vessel. Hence in climbing
plants where a rapid rate of flow is required the vessels
are large, approaching 1 mm. in diameter, and in such
cases the total viscosity resistance during average trans-
piration is equal to a head of water considerably less than
the height of the stem. Under normal conditions, however,
air bubbles always appear in the conducting vessels of
angiospermous trees, and each bubble exerts a resistance
to flow which is directly proportional to the surface tension
of water against air and inversely proportional to the radius
of the tube. In a tall tree the theoretical resistance due
to this cause alone might amount to as much as 300 atmo-
spheres, whereas calculations from direct experiments gave
total resistances for the tallest trees of 100 atmospheres
during active transpiration.
No leaf could produce or maintain an osmotic suction of
this intensity, nor could the water columns in the vessels
transmit it without rupture. In addition, actual observ-
ation showed that although differences do occur in the
osmotic concentration of the cell-sap in the leaves at different
levels, these are not sufficient to overcome the resistance
to average flow in the intervening portions of the trunk.
It appears, therefore, that a staircase pumping action must
be exercised in the wood of a tall tree, which enables the
leaves to obtain the water they require without their being
forced to exercise tensions of more than 3 to 3% of an
atmosphere. No satisfactory physical explanation of such
action has yet been given, but the author points out that
by appropriate surface-tension action along the length of
| a Jamin’s chain the water could be led upwards from water-
column to water-column, and maintained in a labile con-
dition ready to flow in any direction where moderate suction
was exercised. Various indirect estimations have been made
which lend support to this view, but direct observations
have not hitherto yielded satisfactory proof, so that further
investigations are still needed in this direction, and these
are, in fact, in progress.
December 15, 1904.—* An Analysis of the Results from
the Falmouth Magnetographs on ‘ Quiet ’ Days during the
Twelve Years 1891 to 1902.’’ By Dr. Charles Chree,
F.R.S.
The paper contains an analysis and discussion of the
results obtained from the declination and horizontal force
magnetographs at Falmouth on quiet days from 1891, when
the records commenced, until 1902.
The total secular, changes of declination fram 41891 to
ance. Field excursions are regarded as the most important | 1g0o at Kew. and,Falmouth were identical, and, the changes
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
262
NATURE
[JANUARY 12, 1905
from year to year were closely alike. In horizontal force
the annual changes recorded at the two stations did not
agree so closely, and on the average the change at Falmouth
was somewhat the greater.
Whilst the mean daily range of temperature at Falmouth
—a seaside station—is notably less than at Kew, the daily
ranges of declination at the two places are as nearly as
possible equal, and the daily range of horizontal force is
somewhat larger at Falmouth. ‘
The annual variation of diurnal temperature range 1s
again notably less at Falmouth than at Kew, the winter
range at the former station being relatively high, and the
summer range low. There is in this case a somewhat
analogous state of matters in magnetics, the difference
between the diurnal ranges at midsummer and midwinter
being relatively less at Falmouth than at Kew. ’
Analysing the diurnal inequality of temperature into
harmonic terms, General Strachey (Phil. Trans. for 1893)
found that the local time of occurrence of the maxima was
distinctly earlier at Kew than at Falmouth, the difference
being greatest for the 24-hour term, for which it amounted
to nearly an hour. When the declination and horizontal
force diurnal inequalities are similarly analysed, the local
times of occurrence of the maxima are so nearly alike at
the two stations that it is impossible to say with certainty
which is the earlier. This result applies to the average
year of a sun-spot cycle.
When the annual variations in the amplitudes of the daily
ranges in declination and horizontal force at Kew, and of
the 24, 12 and 8-hour terms in the diurnal inequality, were
expressed as Fourier series, with an annual and a semi-
annual term, there proved to be a remarkably close agree-
ment between the dates of occurrence of maximum in the
annual terms, and also in those of the semi-annual terms
for the several elements. The same phenomenon appears
at Falmouth, and there proves, moreover, to be a remark-
ably close agreement between corresponding Kew and
Falmouth dates. This result again applies to the average
year of a sun-spot cycle.
Applying Wolf’s formula R=a+DbS, associating the range
R of a magnetic element with sun-spot frequency S, results
are obtained for the variation of b and b/a throughout the
year at Falmouth very similar in character. to those
previously obtained for Kew.
Taking the above formula, but making S represent in
turn the areas of whole sun-spots, umbrze and faculz as
given by the Astronomer Royal, values are calculated for
a and b in the case when R represents the range of declin-
ation or horizontal force in the mean diurnal inequality for
the year. A comparison is then instituted between the
ranges for individual years of the 12-year period as calcu-
lated from the values of a and b thus found, and the
Astronomer Royal’s mean yearly data on the one hand,
and as actually observed on the other. When S represents
areas of whole sun-spots or of umbra, the agreement
between observed and calculated ranges is nearly though
not quite so good, especially in horizontal force, as when
S represents Wolfer’s sun-spot frequencies; but when S
represents areas of facula the agreement is much inferior,
especially in years of sun-spot maximum.
‘““The Effect of Temperature on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of some Electrical Insulators.’? By Dr. Charles H.
Lees.
The substance the thermal conductivity of which is to
be determined has the form of a cylinder about 8 cm. long,
2 cm. diameter, surrounded by a thin cylinder of brass and
placed ina Dewar tube. The heat is supplied by the passage
of an electrical current through a platinoid wire embedded
in the substance parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and
about 0-4 cm. distant from it. The temperature is measured
by the electrical resistance of two short spirals of No. 40
pure platinum wire, down the centre of one of which the
heating wire passes.
The difference of temperature of the two spirals is deter-
mined by making them two arms of a resistance bridge,
the other two arms of which are equal. By means of
mercury cups resistances may be placed in series with either
of the spirals until a balance is obtained.
\ few values of the conductivities in C.G.S. units for a
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
portion of the range of temperature on the hydrogen scale
are given in the following table :—
At 120° abs. At 180° abs. At 240° abs.
MWe tore dod, co 070062... ~=«-0'0058 0°0052
Naphthaline .-- 0'0013.—««...“~O'OOIT o0'0009r
Aniline; ;-3 a <eeeen O‘ooll 0"00086 0°00070:
Nitrophenol (para) o'0010 0"00085 0°00070-
Glycerine .... ... 000078 0"00082 0°00076:
Paraffin wax... ... ... 0'00060 000065, 000061
B-Naphthol ... .... .... 0°00067 ... 0°00065 0°00063,
Diphenylamine ... ... 0'00058 ... 0700054 000052
Geological Society, December 21, 1904.—Dr. J. E. Marr.
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On certain genera and
species of Lytoceratide : S.S. Buckman. ‘This paper deals.
with certain specimens sent by Mr. Beeby Thompson from
the Northampton Sands, one of which is remarkable for its:
homceomorphy with Phylloceras——The Leicester earth—
quakes of August 4, 1893, and June 21, 1904: Dr. C.
Davison. The earthquake of 1893 was a twin, with its
principal epicentre between Markfield and Woodhouse
Eaves, and the other near Tugby, about seventeen miles.
to E. 34° S. Its disturbed area contains about 2200 square
miles. On June 21, 1904, two shocks were felt: the first,
a very slight one, at about 3.30 a.m., the second at 5.28 a.m.
The epicentre of the earlier shock was in the neighbourhood
of Markfield and Groby, or near the south-eastern margin
of the north-western focus of 1893. The distance between
the epicentres of the earthquakes of 1904 was about twelve
miles. Thus the foci of 1904 appear to have occupied the
nearer margins of the foci of 1893—The Derby earthquakes.
of July 3, 1904: Dr. C. Davison. Although weaker than
the earthquake of March 24, 1903, this shock, owing to its
occurrence at 3.21 on a Sunday afternoon, was felt over
a much wider area (about 25,000 square miles). As in 1903,
the earthquake was a twin, the epicentres being almost
exactly coincident with those of that year, one being situated
near Ashbourne, and the other, about six or seven miles
from it, near Wirksworth and Matlock Bath.—Twin-earth-
quakes: Dr. C. Davison. In a twin-earthquake, the shock
consists of two maxima of intensity, or of two distinct parts
separated by a brief interval of rest and quiet. In Great
Britain, one in every twenty earthquakes is a twin, and
our strongest shocks (the Colchester earthquake of 1884,
the Hereford earthquake of 1896, &c.) belong to the same
class. The phenomena show that twin-earthquakes cannot
be caused by reflection or refraction of the earth-waves, or
by the separation of the waves of direct and transverse
vibrations, or by the repetition of the impulse within the
same or an overlapping focus. They must therefore be
due to impulses in two detached, or practically detached,
foci; and it is shown that all the known phenomena of
twin-earthquakes can be thus accounted for. In British
twin-earthquakes, the distance between the epicentres varies
from four to twenty-three miles, the average for seven recent
earthquakes being-between ten and eleven miles. As a rule,
the foci are elongated approximately in the direction of the
line joining them, showing that they are portions of the
same fault. The foci appear to be situated at different
depths, and, in two cases, the fault probably changes hade
in the region between them.
Royal Microscopical Society, December 21, 1904.—
Mr. G. C. Karop in the chair—Mr. Conrady read a short
paper explaining an experiment he exhibited to prove the
phase-reversal in the second spectrum from a grating of
broad slits, the mathematical proof of which he gave in
his paper on theories of microscopical vision read before
the society at its last meeting. The object consisted of
two gratings one above the other, similar in every respect
except that one had broad slits and the other had narrow
slits. In accordance with what was theoretically predicted
by the author, the difference was brought out when the
direct light plus the first and second spectra of one side
were admitted, but when the direct light was cut off by
the movement of a shutter the image of the broad slits
underwent a startling change. The lines jumped across to
positions mid-way between the correct ones, showing there
was an antagonism of phase between the light of the first
and that of the second spectrum. Some photographs show-
ing the effects produced by cutting out the various spectra
January 12, 1905]
of one side were exhibited by Mr. Rheinberg, who
suggested to Mr. Conrady that the experiment should be
made to test the correctness of the theory.—Mr. J. W.
Gordon then gave a summary of his paper on the theory
of highly magnified images.
EDINBURGH.
Royal Society, December 5, 1904.—Dr. R. H. Traquair
in the chair.—The igneous geology of the Bath-
gate and Linlithgow Hills: J. D. Falconer. Five
successive zones of igneous rocks were described in detail,
and important conclusions drawn as to their geological age
and to the relations between the intrusive rocks and dykes
so characteristic of the region. The region has been very
recently re-surveyed by the Geological Survey, and Dr.
Horne, Dr. Peach, and others of the staff were able io
corroborate many of Mr. Falconer’s results, the value uf
which could not be over-estimated. A further paper was
promised dealing with the petrology of the district. —
Experiments on the simultaneous removal of spleen and
thymus: Drs. Noel Paton and Goodall. Already the
authors had found that the removal of either had no apparent
deleterious effect upon the life of the animal, and now they
proved that the removal of both in no way affected the
vitality. The experiments were made on guinea-pigs.—
Crystallographical notes: Dr. Hugh Marshall, F.R.S.
The author suggested (1) that the ‘‘ axis of compound
symmetry of second order ”’ should not be used in crystallo-
- graphical work, as it is not a definite direction in the crystal,
and that the ‘‘ centre of symmetry ”’ should be used instead ;
(2) that in order to simplify the classification of crystals
for teaching purposes, the rhombohedral and scalenohedral
classes should be treated as members of the hexagonal and
not of the trigonal system.
December 19, 1904.—Sir John Murray in the chair.—A
supplementary note on the Lower Devonian fishes of
Gemunden: Dr. Traquair. The author brought forward
further evidence in support of his original description, which
had been criticised by Prof. Bashford Dean.—A specimen of
salmon caught in the Galway River which appears to be
intermediate between the smolt and grilse stages: W. L
Calderwood.—Networks of the plane in absolute geo-
metry: D. M. Y. Sommerville. Networks built up of
the various regular figures in the Euclidean plane were dis-
cussed at considerable length, and the investigation was
then extended to non-Euclidean planes.
e Paris.
Academy of Sciences, January 2.—M. Troost in the
chair.—The cooling power of a current of fluid on an
ellipsoid with unequal axes immersed in the current:
J. Boussinesq.—Interference fringes produced by a system
of two perpendicular mirrors: G. Lippmann. ‘The system
of fringes formed, possessing a white central fringe, is
parallel to the intersection of the plane of the mirrors. The
experimental arrangement for the production of these
fringes, which is described in detail, is simpler than that
required for the Fresnel fringes.—On the alkaline micro-
granites of the Zinder territory: A. Lacroix. The rocks
are egyrine and amphibole microgranites, and are
characterised chemically by their extreme poorness in lime
and magnesia, and by the quantity of alkali, the potash
being slightly in excess of the soda.—On limiting functions
and functional operations : Maurice Fréchet.—On substitu-
tions with three variables and invariant curves by a contact
transformation: S. Lattés.—On invariant subgroups of
index p*: G. Miller.—On the deviation of freely falling
bodies: M. de Sparre. It is shown that the formule
usually given for this deviation are based on incomplete
data, and a new expression is deduced. It is, however,
impossible to check the calculations by experiment, on
account of the smallness of the deviations, which would
amount at most to o-1 mm. for a fall of 1000 metres.—On
a fundamental formula in the kinetic theory of gases: P.
Langevin. The formule given by Maxwell and Boltz-
mann for the diffusion of gases is re-investigated, and the
results applied to the diffusion of ionised gases. The author
arrives at the conclusion that the conductivity of flames is,
for the most part, due to the presence of free kathodic
particles arising from spontaneous corpuscular dissociation
NO. 1837, VOL. 71]
NATURE.
in the flame, under the action of the high temperature.—
The measurement of the conductivity of dielectrics by means
of ionised gases: Charles Nordmann. One of the faces
of the dielectric, the other of which is connected with earth,
is supplied with known quantities of electricity per unit
of time, and the variation of the potential of this face is
observed with an electrometer. The constant charge is pro-
duced by means of a radio-active substance placed between
the plates of an air condenser, and the stationary potential
is measured. Details of the measurements will be com-
municated in a later paper.—The influence of steam on the
reduction of the oxides of iron by carbon monoxide and
dioxide: O. Boudouard. With the view of throwing some
light on the results of employing dried air in the blast
furnace, the author has made experiments on the influence
of moisture on the reducing action of carbon monoxide,
either pure or mixed with the dioxide, upon ferric oxide.
It has been found that the dry gases exert a more energetic
reducing action than the moist gases, but that this differ-
ence, which is considerable at low temperatures, becomes
negligible at high temperatures.—On the existence of a
normal» green chromic sulphate: Albert Colson.—The
separation of the three dimethylanthracenes obtained by the
action of methylene chloride upon toluene in the presence
of aluminium chloride: James Lavaux. Modifications of
the Friedel and Crafts method are described, by means of
which larger and more constant yields are obtained. These
modifications appear to be not only advantageous in this
particular case, but are applicable to any reaction carried
out in the presence of aluminium chloride.—Observations
of the Giacobini comet (d 1904) made at the Observatory of
Algiers with the 31-8 cm. equatorial: MM. Rambaud and
Sy.—On the crystalline rocks collected by the Sahara ex-
pedition: F. Foureau and L. Gentil.—The resistance of
water to the motion of vessels. Hulls of least resistance :
Vice-Admiral Fournier.—Hydrogen peroxide in the nascent
state and its bactericidal activity on organisms in water :
Ed. Bonjean. It is shown that whilst 0-291 gram of
hydrogen peroxide per litre was required to sterilise a litre
of Seine water in six hours when commercial hydrogen
peroxide was employed, under the same conditions, 0-060
gram was sufficient to produce sterilisation in four hours
when the hydrogen peroxide was in the nascent state
from calcium peroxide.—Hyphoids and bacteroids: Paul
Vuillemin. Hyphoids and bacteroids are not purely para-
sitic formations, but are symbiotic products.—Research on
plant radio-activity: Paul Becquerel. No trace of radio-
activity of plant products could be observed if precautions
were taken to prevent the moisture transpired by the plant
from reaching the electrometer. The author therefore re-
gards the positive results announced by M. Tommasina as
being due to a neglect of this precaution.—On the accentu-
ation of the alpine characters of leaves in juniper galls: C.
Houard.—On the increase of weight of organic and mineral
substances in oats as a function of the age: Mlle.
M. Stefanowska.—Respiratory measurements on marine
fishes: J. P. Bounhiol. By means of a specially devised
tank the author has been enabled to determine the carbon
dioxide per gram-hour, the oxygen per gram-hour, and the
ratio CO,/O, for several fishes. The effect of captivity in
diminishing the respiratory exchanges was well marked.
New SoutH WALEs.
Linnean Society, November 30, 1904.—Dr. T. Storie
Dixson, president, in the chair.—Contributions to the study
of Australian Foraminifera, part i.: H. I. Jensen. This
paper, for the most part, is a compilation of the species
which have been identified in samples of sand or other
materials obtained from various sources.—Revision of
Australian Lepidoptera, part ii.: Dr. A. Jefferis Turner.
Some supplementary remarks on the family Notodontidz
(revised in a previous paper) are offered, and the family
Syntomidz, comprising four genera with forty-four species
(of which eight are described as new), is reviewed.—A
yellow race of Bacillus pseudarabinus from the quince: Dr.
R. Greig Smith. The organism is identical in its morpho-
logical and cultural characters with the white race previously
isolated from the sugar-cane. The gum obtained from the
slime was also identical in giving the reactions of arabin
and in yielding only galactose upon hydrolysis. While the
cultivations of the sugar-cane race were always white, those
264
of the quince race were yellow.—The bacterial origin of
Macrozamia gum: Dr. R. Greig Smith. An organism,
Bacillus macrozamiae, n.sp., isolated from the tissues of
Macrozamia spiralis which was exuding a gum, produced,
upon lzvulose media, a slime from which a gum was
obtained.—On a new species of Rhizophyllum from the
Upper Silurian rocks of Yass, New South Wales: A. J.
Shearsby. A third species of Calceola-like, operculate,
rugose corals is described.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Janvary 12.
MaTHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—Generational Relations for the abstraet
Group simply Isomo rpbic with the Abstract Group LF [z, #7]; Dr. W.
Bussey-—On a Class of Expansions in Oscillating Functions: Prof.
A. C. Dixon.—Isogonal Transformation and the Diameter Transforma-
tion: H. L. Trachtenberg.—A Generalisation of the Legendre Poly-
nomial: H. Bateman.—Current Flow in Rectangular Conductors :
H. Fletcher Moulton.—Basic Generalisations of some well known
Analytic Functions: Rev. F. H. Jackson.—On the Kinematics and
-Dynamics of a Granular Medium in Normal Piling: J. H. Jeans.—On
Alternants and Continuous Groups: Dr. H. F. Baker.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Combination of
‘Dust Destractors and Electricity Works Economically Considered:
W. P. Adams. (Conclusion of Discussion.)—Fuel Economy in Steam
Power Plants: Wm. H. Booth and J. B. C. Kershaw.
FRIDAY, January 13.
Roya ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—On the Temperature of Sun-spots
and on the Spectrum of an Artificial One : W. E. Wilson.—On Terms of
Long Period in the Complete Expression for the Moon's Longitude: E.
Nevill.—The Longitude of the Moon's Perigee: P. H. Cowell.—On the
Relative Buhne of Stars: J. E. Gore.—On the Variable Star
Y Aurige: A. S. Williams.—The Spiral Nebula H I. 153 Ceti: W.S:
Franks. —Sun-spots and Magnetic Storms: A. Schuster.—Promised
Papers: Magnetic Storms and Associated Sun-spots: Rev. A. L.
Cortie.—On the Possible Effect of Radiation on the Motion of Comets :
H. C. Plummer.—Note on the Re-determination of the Paris-Greenwich
Longitude (communicated by the Astronomer-Royal).—Observations of
the Spectra of Sun-spots, Region C to D (communicated by the Astro-
nomer-Royal).—Probable Discussion of Mr. Maunder’s Paper in the
Monthly Notices, on the Connection of Magnetic Storms with the
Rotation of the Sun.
{NsTITUTION OF CIviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Theory of Electricity and
Magnetism: James Swinburne.
Mataco.ocicat Soctety, at 8.—A Review of the Genera of the family
Mytilide : A. J. Jukes-Browne.—Note on the Type of Geomelania, with
Description of New Species: E. R. Sykes.—On Three. Species of
Dyakia from Sumatra: E. R. Sykes.—Some Nudibranchs from the
Pacific, including a New Genus, Chromodoridella: Sir C. Eliot, K.C.M.G.
—Notes on Two Rare British Nudibranchs, Hero formosa, vat.
arborescens, and Staurodoris maculata: Sir C. Eliot, K.C.M.G.—
Description of a new Achatina from the Zambesi: H. B. Preston.
MONDAY, Janvary 16.
Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—The History of Rajputana: Col. T. Hol-
bein Hendley.
TUESDAY, January 17.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure of Animals: Prof. L. C.
Miall, F.R.S.
Roya. STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5s.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The River Hooghly:
Vernon-Harcourt.
ZooLocicat Society, at 8.30.—On a Collection of Sipunculids made at
Singapore and Malacca: W. F. Lanchester.—On a Collection of
Gephyrea from Zanzibar; W. F. Lanchester.—On the Sipunculids and
Echiurids collected during the ‘‘Skeat Expedition” to the Malay
Peninsula: W. F. Lanchester.—On the Oral. and Pharyngeal Denticles
of Elasmobranchs: A. D. Imms.—A Contribution to the Anatomy of
Chlamydosaurus and some other Agamidz: F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.—
A Note on the Brain of, Cynopithecus niger: F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.
WEDNESDAY, January 18.
CHEMICAL SOcIETY, at 5.30.—(1) Nitrogen Halogen Derivatives of the
Sulphonamides. Part i. : Sulphondichloroamides and Sulphonalkyl-
chloroamides.—(2). Nitrogen Halogen Derivatives of the Sulphonamides.
Part ii. : Sulphondibromoamides and Sulphonalkylbromoamides: F. D.
Chattaway.—Electrolytic Oxidation of Aliphatic Aldehydes: H. D. law.
—The Diazo-derivatives of the Benzenesulphonylphenylenediamines :
G_T Morgan and F. M. G. Micklethwait.—The Molecular Condition in
Solution of Ferrous Potassium Oxalate: S.E. Sheppard and C. E. K.
Mees.—The:Formation of Magnesia from Magnesium Carbonate by Heat,
and the Effect of Temperature on the Properties of the Product: W. (
Anderson.—Transformations of Derivatives of s-Tribromodiazobenzene :
K. J. P. Orton.—Uhe Addition of Sodium Bisulphite to Ketonic Com-
pounds: A. W. Stewart.
ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—Annual Meeting.
sident, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.
GeotocicaL Sociery, at 8.—The Geology of Arenig Fawr and Moel
Llyfnant : W. G. Fearnsides.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Wireless Telegraphy and War Correspondence :
Capt. Lionel James.
Royat MicroscopicaLt Society, at 8.—What were the Carboniferous
Feras? the President’s Annual Address.
Kovat METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.40.—Annual General Meeting.
Address on the Connection of Meteorology with other Sciences: the
*resident, Capt. D. Wilson-Barker.
1837, VOL. 71]
L. EF.
Address by the Pre-
NATURE
(JANUARY 12, 1905 ij
THURSDAY, January 19.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Pagers: On the Blaze Currents” of
the Gall Bladder of the Frog : Mrs. A. M. Waller.—The Dual Force of
the Dividing Cell. Part i.: The Achromatic Spindle Figure illustrated
by Magnetic Chains of Force: Prof. M. Hartog.—Note on the Effects
produced on Rats by the Trypanosomata of Gambia Fever and Sleeping
Sickness: H. G. Plimmer.—Further Histological! Studies on the Localisa-
tion of Cerebral Function. The Brains of Felis, Canis and Sus compared
with that of Homo: Dr. A. W. Campbell.
LINNEAN Socigty, at 8.—Botanical Collecting : Dr. A. Henry —On the
Cranial Osteology of the Families Osteoglossidz, Pantodontide, and
Phractolemidz: Dr. W. G. Ridewood.
Sociery oF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Gates of Tibet: Douglas W. Freshfield.
FRIDAY, JANUARY 20.
Royat INstTiTuTION, at 9.—New Low Temperature Phenomena: Sir
J. Dewar, F.R.S.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOcIETY, at 8.30.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Some Impressions of
American Workshops: A. J. Gimson.—Waterworks Pumping Kngines in
the United States and Canada: J. Barr.—Some Features in the Design
and Construction of American Planing Machines: A- Kenrick, Jun.:
Engines at the Power Stations, and at the St. Louis Exhibition:
A. Saxon.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Scientific Thought in hes By Prof. G. H.
Bryans shoRSS see. = 5s St 241
The Problems of Variation, ey E. B. P. BBS tc 243
Mathematical Theory of Eclipses. By W. E. P. 244
English Field-Botany . A 5 Aa WS 245
Sanitary Engineering. By T. H. B. Maerses 246
Our Book Shelf :—
Ariés: ‘‘La Statique chimique basée sur les deux
Principes fondamentaux de la Thermodynamique” ;
Roozeboom : ‘‘ Die heterogenen Gleichgewichte vom
Standpunkte der Phasenlehre.”—J. W. . . 247
Stone: “The Timbers of Commerce and their
Identification” . 247
ee Verhandlungen der deutschen zoologischen ‘Gesell-
scaft, for 1904."—R. L. . . oe 247
Hyatt-Woolf: “ The Optical Dictionary” a 248
Hewitt : ‘‘ Practical Professional Photography ” 248
Price: ‘‘ Solutions of the Exercises in Godfrey and
Siddons’s Elementary Geometry” 248
Letters to the Editor :—
Average Number of Kinsfolk in Each ite
Dr, Francis Galton, F.R.S. . . 248
On the State in which Helium Exists in Minerals. —
Prof. Morris W. Travers, F.R.S.. .... 248
The Pollination of Exotic Flowers.—Ella M. Bry ant 249
Reversal of Charge in Induction Machines.—R.
Langton Cole. . 249
Evil Spirits as a Cause of Sickness in a Babylon:
(Zilustrated.) . whi «te SRL eee EES 249
Speech Curves. (J/lustrated.) By Prof. John G.
McKendrickgheR-s. < . <9. 2) lee 250
Geology of Spiti. (Z//ustrated.) .... 251
Sir Lauder Brunton on the Need of Physical
Educationyeeeemerc a... > s1 = ieee 252
Notes): 72a Puke 6 253
Our Astronomical Column :—
Discovery of a Sixth Satellite to Jupiter 256
Comet 1904 d(Giacobini) . . < 256
Elements and Ephemeris for Comet 1904 é 256
Colours of Stars in the Southern Hemisphere . 256
* The Heavens ata Glance”. . . 256
Astronomical “ Annuario” of the Turin Observatory . 256
Origin of Lunar Formations 256
Plant Associations in Moorland Duseacts. (Ties
tivated.) By Francis J, Lewis Fak 257
The Abnormal Tides of January7... . 258
The Electro-thermic Manufacture of Iron and Steel.
meee ieee °° ight 258
London Fog Inquiry, 1901-3 . .... 259
University and fegucational Intelligence 260
Societies and Academies . 2... ...... 261
Diary qhGacieties Go ici Ace. Sele seers 264
NATORE
265
THURSDAY, JANUARY 10, 1905.
ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS FROM GERMANY.
(1) Anthropogenie oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des
Menschen; Keimes- und Stammes-geschichte. By
Ernst Haeclxel. Fifth revised and enlarged
edition. 2 Vols. Pp. xxviii+992; with 30 plates,
512 text figures, and 60 genetic tables. (Leipzig:
Engelmann, 1903.) Price 25s. net.
(2) Morphologische Studien. Als Beitrag sur Method-
ologie zoologischer Probleme. By Tad. Garbowski.
Pp. vii+189; 6 chromolithographic plates. (Jena:
Fischer, 1903.) Price 28 marks.
(3) Untersuchungen iiber den Phototropismus der Tiere.
By Dr. Em. Radl. Pp. viiit+188. (Leipzig:
Engelmann, 1903.) Price 4s.
(4) Graber’s Leitfaden der Zoologie fiir hodhere
Lehranstalten. Bearbeitet von Dr. Robert Latzel,
k.Js. Gymnasial-Direktor. _ Fourth revised edition.
Pp. 232; illustrated. (Leipzig: G. Freytag, 1904.)
Price 3.80 marks.
(1) i first edition of Prof. Haeckel’s book
appeared thirty years ago, and the fourth
edition in 1891. With each reappearance the book has
increased in size and in stateliness, and this is particu-
larly true of the new edition. The sequence of editions
reads like a developmental process, say in crustaceans ;
there is some ecdysis, there is addition of new parts,
there is a growing beauty, but the essence remains the
same. The veteran evolutionist has gone over the whole
work again; he has incorporated new discoveries, he
has added fresh arguments and illustrations, but the
gist of the book remains unaltered. Our familiar old
acquaintances—the Monera and the Gastreadz, the
biogenetic law and its helpmate ccenogenesis, dystele-
ology and monism, and so on—are all as alive as ever,
and with much to say for themselves. As Haeckel
says, the book may have its faults; but has anyone
given a better popular presentation of the concrete
facts as to the position of the human organism in its
place in nature, or, for that matter, has anyone else
ever tried? We may object to some of his embryology
and to some of his phylogeny and to all his philosophy,
but here is a vivid, picturesque account of man’s de-
velopment and of his plausible pedigree. It is a
historic document which will occupy an honourable
place among the archives of biology. It is an achieve-
ment on the author’s part to have made this revision
now—adding about 100 pages, three score and ten
figures, ten plates, and eight genetic tables; we could
not expect him to change his cherished convictions.
Nor, as he says, has he seen any reason to do so. The
parts we like least are where he brings in new or
relatively new discoveries somewhat casually, as we
may illustrate by referring to the centrosome which
he calls a “‘ nicht farbares Kérperchen.’’? What is it,
then, that stains so intensely with iron—hamatoxylin ?
(2) Dr. Garbowski has ceased to find satisfaction in
interpret phylogenetic advances. He has ceased to
believe in the homology of the germinal layers, in the
gastrea theory, and in the ccelome theory; and he
thinks that the usual application of the so-called bio-
genetic law is for the most part fallacious. In all this
he is not so solitary a sceptic as some of his sentences
would lead one to suppose.
There is a branch of ztiological inquiry in which
the zoologist interprets the whole organism as a system
of adaptations, and seeks to show how the various
items in this system may have arisen in the course of
variation, and may have persisted by enhancing the
survival-value of their possessor. There is another
branch of aetiological inquiry which tackles the deeper
problems of morphogenesis, which inquires into the
formative conditions leading to various big steps in
organisation-progress—such as the origin of an
enteron, the establishment of metamerism, the develop-
ment of a ccelom, or the institution of a vertebral axis.
It is with these morphogenetic problems that Dr. Tad.
Garbowski is mainly concerned, and he wishes to find
a via media between the use of what he believes to
be obsolete verbal formulae and the extreme of bio-
mechanics.
‘Darwin and his school sought to discover the
nature of transformation without knowledge of the
internal processes, and the ‘ Entwickelungsmechan-
iker ’ are trying to interpret the latter apart from the
immanent effects of the former.”
It is easy enough to say that sponges are quaintly
inverted primitive Metazoa, that annelids represent
ancestral Chordates on their backs, that Trochophora
have sprung from Ctenophora—the illustrations are the
author’s—but what we must get at is an observational
or experimental knowledge of the actual way in which
architectural changes of moment are brought about.
In short, we must deepen our physiological-morph-
ology, getting beneath mere form-changes to the
functional changes which condition them. This, so
far as we can see, is what Dr. Tad. Garbowski is
driving at. We are surprised, by the way, that he
does not include Rauber’s ‘‘ Formbildung und Form-
storung ”’ in his huge bibliography.
The first chapter is devoted to a study—full of interest
—of Trichoplax adhaerens, with subsections on Trep-
toplax and Salinella; the second chapter discusses the
Mesozoa in general; the third chapter describes various
processes of gastrulation, and ends with a rejection of
the gastraea theory; the fourth chapter deals with the
two primary germinal layers, the mesoderm and the
ceelom, and ends with a rejection of the germ-layer
theory. In conclusion, the author expounds the scope
of physiological morphogenetic studies. There are six
fine plates.
Dr. Garbowski is iconoclastic, and his recoil from
some familiar theses is thorough-going, but his
scepticism is neither unexpected nor unwelcome. The
late Prof. Claus had promised to protect him if the
Thames caught fire, so to speak, but the author is
quite able to look after himself, and his theses will
the conventional formule often used in seeking to find as much acceptance as opposition. We have all
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
N
266
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
been having our doubts about the homology of the
germ-layers and the like; morphological concepts are
every day becoming more kinetic, less static. The
only question is how far we can go with the little that
we know of physiological morphology. In so far as
Garbowski has increased the data his memoir is very
welcome.
(3) Dr. Em. Radl has made many experiments on
the phototropism of animals, that is to say, on the
manner in which they orientate themselves in relation
to light stimuli. Phototropic phenomena have been
most studied in plants, but there is already much
literature relating to their occurrence among animals,
and the author begins with a historical survey. He
goes on to the reactions of animals on a revolving turn-
table, the compensatory head-movements of insects,
nystagmus in insects, and phototropic orientation in
insects with one eye blackened.
After showing that phototropic orientation or move-
ment occurs widely among animals, e.g. in Ccelentera,
echinoderms, planarians, annelids, arthropods, and
molluscs, and that it may be exhibited in eyeless forms,
RAdl discusses various phenomena which cannot be
set down as simply phototropic. Thus it cannot be
safely said that the movement of pigment in the eye
or in the skin is phototropic, and there are many de-
tails in the behaviour of butterflies and dragon-flies in
relation to light and shade which seem to be more
than phototropic. A simple reflex may become com-
plicated by the association of accessory reflexes. In
unnatural conditions the established phototropic reflex
may lead the animal astray, as when the moth, circling
nearer and nearer, finally finds its death in the candle
—an interesting and much discussed subject to which
Rad! devotes some attention.
Sedentary animals, like plants, orientate themselves
to the direction of the light; freely moving animals
move into the direction of the light. The author dis-
cusses the question whether these two kinds of re-
sponse are merely different aspects of phototropism,
and comes to the conclusion that the two are not
directly dependent on one another. He also regards
the difference between positive and negative photo-
tropism as a secondary matter ; in both there is orienta-
tion to the direction of light, but the locomotor muscles
are differently stimulated.
In the more general part of his book, Radl discusses
the relations between phototropism and other tropisms
——or the more legitimate of these—geo-, stereo-, rheo-,
galvano-, chemo-, and thermo-tropisms. There is a
chapter, all too short, on the ethological importance
of phototropism. The author is clear that organisms
are systems of adaptations and that phototropism is a
physiological adaptation, but he looks askance at
teleological phraseology, and does not follow up the
subject. The book with a discussion of the
general theory of orientation; this must be based on
study of tropisms; there is no ‘‘ Orientierung tber-
haupt,’’ but the organism seeks for a_ state of
equilibrium in relation to various external stimuli—an
closes
equilibrium which consists not merely in the position
of the body, but in its functioning.
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
|
Dr. Rddl is cautious in stating his own theory of
phototropism; he restricts himself to the following
propositions :—
(1) Phototropic orientation means the capacity of
assuming a definite position of the axis of the body in
the field of light.
(2) A phototropically orientated organism is in a state
of physiological equilibrium in relation to the light.
(3) The orientation can only be brought about by the
operation of paired or coupled forces, which are partly
external, partly internal.
(4) In the orientations or tropisms of organisms there
is always at least one internal force operative, and
this is usually muscular.
The conclusions strike one as disappointing, for they
seem to be practically summed up in the conception of
““ physiological equilibrium ’’; those who are prepared
to advance other theories will find this book of great
service. It summarises the subject, describes many
new experiments, and criticises many untenable
positions.
(4) About twenty years ago we were familiar with a
| little book, ‘‘ Outlines of Zoology,’’ by Graber, which
had a wide use if not popularity in Gymnasien. Its
features were brevity, accuracy, lucidity, and compre-
hensiveness. We suppose, in the absence of any pre-
fatory note, that the volume before us is our old
acquaintance in a glorified edition, in which Dr. Latzel
has preserved the characteristics of the original. The
_ book begins with a short introduction on metabolism,
the cell, and protoplasm—which must be difficult
pabulum for even ‘‘ héhere Lehranstalten ”’; it pro--
ceeds to the structure and functions of the human body,
and thence to a survey of the whole animal kingdom
from mammals to the Protozoa. As a systematic
summary to be associated with more vital studies in
natural history the book is admirable; it is clear,
direct, accurate, and most copiously illustrated. It is.
so ambitiously all-inclusive that we are almost startled
to find no mention of Balanoglossus, Peripatus, or the
okapi; but these will doubtless find their place in the
next edition. A book of this sort, tightly packed with
information, without, in many cases, even the padding
of verbs to the sentences, must be judged by its inten--
tion. If that be, as we charitably suppose, to serve
as a terse index rerum or synopsis, associated with
practical work and open-air studies, it deserves to be
encouraged. But if it is meant as a book to be “ got
up ’’—and there are unpleasant suggestions of the
cram-book about it—then it is emphatically not in the
line of progress. It stands in direct antithesis to the
natural history text-books for high schools which find
favour in America and are securing their place in this
country. There is almost no suggestion of the evolu-
tion or affinities of the great types; there is almost no»
hint of initiation into scientific methods of observation
and reasoning; and there is very little open-air. It
seems to us more like a revisal-book for a student going
up for his first professional examination in medicine
or natural science than a book for schools. At the same
time, it is a very effective book of its sort; the illus-
trations are admirable, and the coloured plates are as-
fascinating as the text is dry. eA ene
JANuaARY 19, 1905]
NATURE 207
|
AN AMERICAN TEXT-BOOK OF GEOLOGY.
Geology. By Thomas C. Chamberlin and Rollin D.
' Salisbury. Vol. i. Geologic Processes and_ their
Results. Pp. xix+654; with 24 plates and 471
figures in the text. (New York: H. Holt and Co.,
1904.)
HE work of which this is the first volume, bear-
ing the names of two well known professors in
the University of Chicago, is addressed to the mature
student, and is designed “ to present an outline of the
salient features of geology, as now developed.’’ The
present instalment, dealing with the nature and results
of the processes now in operation upon the globe, will
naturally prepare the way for the second volume, to
be devoted to tracing the history of past ages. Agree-
ing with other writers in approaching the science from
this side, the authors have been led by their own ex-
perience as teachers to depart somewhat from the
beaten track in their general plan of treatment, as well
as in the relative importance assigned to certain specific
subjects. They tell us in their preface that they have
laid little stress on the generally recognised divisions
of geology, ‘‘ dynamical,’ ‘ structural,’’ “‘ strati-
graphical,’’ &c., but have tried rather to emphasise the
historical element even in the discussion of special
themes, thus bringing out the essential unity of the
science. Again, some subjects, such as the develop-
ment of drainage-systems, the ultimate cause of
crust-movements, and others, receive here fuller
treatment than has been customary in works of this
scope.
Most of the original features of the book we heartily
welcome. We think, too, that the authors have
generally been happy in their treatment of the more
dubious and debatable problems of physical geology.
Their design in this has been freely to introduce the
theoretical element when necessary, and at the same
time ‘‘ to avoid confusing the interpretations based on
hypothesis with the statements of fact and established
doctrines.’’ Where important differences of opinion
exist, the alternative hypotheses are set forth and their
consequences compared. In some instances this
candour is pushed rather far, as when the cause of
vulcanism is discussed on seven distinct hypotheses.
Having regard to the class of students for whom the
book is primarily intended, we think that the authors
have needlessly hampered themselves by trying to
make it intelligible to one who has had no previous |
acquaintance with the rudiments of geology. How far
they have succeeded in this it is not easy to judge.
Thus the technical terms of the field-geologist, ‘* dip,”’
‘‘ anticline,’’? ‘‘ dyke ’’ and the like, are not formally
defined until we reach a late section of the volume, but
the conceptions implied have necessarily been intro-
duced much earlier. Such difficulties inevitably |
confront the writer of an elementary class-book, but
they might safely be ignored in a work like the
present.
After a preliminary outline of the general scope of
geology, the authors proceed to discuss in turn the
geological effects of the atmosphere, of running water,
NO. 1838, VoL 71]
of underground water, of snow and ice, and of the
ocean. Their clear exposition of the mechanism of
rain- and river-erosion, with due regard to the con-
trolling conditions, is an admirable summary of a
fundamental part of geology which in most of our
text-books receives very inadequate treatment. It is
written on modern lines, the fertile conception of the
‘““base-level of erosion,’’ with its important conse-
quences, being introduced at an early stage. The sub-
ject is one which American geologists, with their un-
rivalled opportunities, have made peculiarly their own,
and it could scarcely have fallen into better hands.
The other geological agents are discussed in the same
comprehensive but concise manner, and the chapter
dealing with glacial action is, as might be expected
from the authors, of special interest.
The chapter on movements and deformations of the
earth’s body contains much material which is not else-
where accessible to the student in a connected shape,
and some originality appears in matter as well as in
treatment. Consideration of the possible causes of
| the great crust-movements leads to an inquiry into the
original and present distributions of temperature in
the globe, and to a comparison of the nebular hypo-
thesis with that of ‘‘ accretion.’’ The comparison is
presented in a judicial manner, and the enunciation of
the accretion hypothesis is tantalisingly brief; but a
fuller discussion is promised in the second volume.
Geologists sometimes need to be reminded that cosmo-
gony is a legitimate part of their province, not to be
surrendered without good reason shown. At least it
is well that students should see just how much of
accepted physical principles and how much of arbitrary
assumptions go to the building of dogmas which have
carried alarm into some quarters.
The treatment accorded to igneous action seemis to us
in some respects unsatisfactory. Descriptive petro-
graphy is, no doubt wisely, represented by a_ brief
summary, an appendix to a generalised account of
“the origin and descent of rocks.’’ But what follows
seems to lack due proportion. ‘‘ Vulcanism ”’ is used
to include intrusive as well as extrusive action, but
the chapter is occupied almost exclusively with the
latter. The plutonic and other igneous intrusions, the
varied forms which they assume, and their intimate
relation to crust-movements and to geological history
in general, are dismissed almost without notice. The
full and admirable discussion of voleanoes might thus
give a student the impression that these superficial
phenomena are the only important effects of igneous
activity.
The volume concludes with a chapter on the geologic
functions of life, and a good index is added. The book
| is issued in handsome form; but the highly glazed
paper, presumably adopted for the sake of the figures,
is irritating to the reader. The abundant figures,
selected from various sources, are well chosen to illus-
trate the text, and well reproduced. The subjects are
for the most part American. A useful feature is the
illustration of various types of topography by actual
maps, taken from the beautifully contoured sheets of
the United States Geological Survey. A. H.
268
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF BRITISH INDIA.
India. By Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich, K.C.M.G.,
K.C.I.E., C.B., R.E. Pp. 375; 8 maps in colours.
The Regions of the World. Edited by H. J.
Mackinder. (London: Henry Frowde, Oxford
University Press, n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
W ITH climates varying from the ice-bound deserts
of the higher Himalayas and the rain-steeped
forests of Tenasserim, to the desolation of Makran,
where at one time of the year fire is almost
unnecessary, even for cooking, and at another the
cold blasts almost defy human endurance; the in-
habitants of which number races unsurpassed as brave
and stubborn fighters, and races among whom physical
cowardice is regarded as no disgrace; where in one
part music is produced by stamping on a piece of
wood, and in another has been carried to a refinement
which requires sixty-four tones to our octave—both
extremes, it may be added, equally unmusical to the
European ear; where there is found a system of laws
so elaborate that the cashier who has confessed to
embezzlement may yet succeed in escaping punish-
ment, and a system of government so paternal that
it imprisons the husband, whose domestic happiness
has been ruined, to prevent his committing the crime
of murder; the territories known as British India |
may be a country for political purposes, but in no
proper sense of the word do they constitute a nation,
they are hardly even a ‘‘region of the world,” and
the name is nothing but a geographical expression
for the area which is administered by the British
Government through the agency of the Governor-
General of India in Council. To write a descrip-
tion which, in a book of moderate compass, will
convey a clear and fairly proportioned conception, re-
quires a master hand; not to have failed is in itself
high praise, but Sir Thomas Holdich has done more
than this, he has produced a topographical descrip- |
tion of the Indian Empire which, in spite of minor
errors—such as the reference to the Kasmur bund as
intended for the storage of water, and a general in-
accuracy where he ventures into geology—is not only
interesting to read, but accurate and well proportioned
on the whole.
With all its manifold diversity in detail, the Indian
Empire is composed of two parts, each of which may
be regarded as a geographical unit, and each geo-
graphically distinct from the other. The larger and
more important of the two may be regarded as India
proper, and consists of the alluvial plains of the Indo-
Gangetic river system, and the triangular area known,
though incorrectly, as the Peninsula. It is cut off
from Burma by a tract of mountains, impassable by |
reason of the deep-cut network of valleys and the dense |
vegetation with which their slopes are covered, and on |
the north it is bounded by the mighty range of the
Himalayas.
against either ethnical or military invasion, but on the
west are the semi-desert hills and open plains of
Afghanistan and Baluchistan, which have repeatedly
been traversed by invaders. It is in the description of
this region that Sir Thomas Holdich is at his best,
partly, no doubt, because it is that of which he has the
No. 1838, VOL. 71]
Both these barriers have proved effective |
most intimate personal knowledge, but largely, too,
because of the intrinsic interest attaching to it; for
across this region came not only the great prehistoric
Dravidian and the semi-historic Aryan invasions of
India, but also the military invasions of Alexander the
Great, and of the successive Mohammedan conquerors
of India. Until the improvement of navigation brought
in the nations of the west, it was the only way by
which invasion and conquest were possible, and it is
through this region alone that we need look for a
serious attack on India, so long as we hold the com-
mand of the sea.
Of this long series of invasions all the historical
ones, from Alexander onwards, have been purely
military; they have left their impress, more or less
deeply marked, on the religion, the administration and
the political geography of India, in buildings and in
public works, but they have hardly affected the great
bulk of the people, who derive their origin from the
earlier invasions. In these it was no mere conquering
army that came, but nations, with their wives and
families, their flocks and herds, their household goods
and gods, who absorbed or exterminated the in-
habitants of the land, and whose descendants are found
over the length and breadth of India, constituting nine-
tenths of the total population.
The other unit in the Indian Empire is Burma, which
belongs, geographically, rather to Indo-China than to
India. Cut off from the latter by a band of forest-
clad mountains, which has rarely been traversed even
by marauding expeditions, it received centuries ago
its religion and philosophy from India, but has re-
mained unaffected in all other respects, and maintained
its ethnical distinction untouched. This isolation of
Burma is now at an end; the establishment of steamer
lines across the Bay of Bengal has rendered it easy
of access, the Hindu prejudice against crossing the
sea has given way to the stronger claims of pecuniary
gain, and the gay, picturesque, pleasure-loving
Burman, who had evolved an epicurean philosophy
and regarded life merely as something to be enjoyed,
is being ousted by the plodding, but joyless and un-
attractive native of Behar or Madras.
Across the north of the Empire runs the great moun-
tain barrier of the Himalayas, the highest and greatest
mountain range of the world, which separates the
Mongolians of Thibet from the races of India,
and has left its impress on their mythology and follk-
lore. This naturally gets a chapter to itself, and it
is satisfactory that the author recognises the futility
of an attempt to trace any limited number of
continuous chains in a mountain range of so great
an extent, and wisely abstains from formulating any
theory of the Himalayas. We cannot, however,
accept the statement, repeated more than once, that
the eastern Himalayas are older than the western; it
is true that the rocks of which they are composed are
older, but the rise of the Himalayas, as a mountain
range, belongs to the great period of mountain form-
ation which commenced at the close of the Secondary
era, and there is no reason for supposing that the two
halves of the range differ materially in the age of their
elevation.
oo
JANUARY 19, 1905]
The book is provided with a large number of blocks
in the text, nearly all maps, in which, with very few
exceptions, but one method of representing relief is
adopted—that of shaded areas bounded by contour
lines. The method is valuable for some purposes, but
as a means of representing the form of the ground is,
in most cases, inferior to the much abused ‘‘ cater-
pillar ’? method of delineation, and frequently conveys
a misleading impression. The figure intended to re-
present the lower Brahmaputra valley and Gangetic
delta is an instance of this, while that intended to
represent the orography of the Hindu Kush looks more
like an ink-maker’s advertisement. In the coloured
maps the complete absence of hill shading gives to
the Thibetan plateau an air of flatness which it is
far from possessing in reality, yet it would be unfair
to conclude this notice without a word in their praise.
Mr. Bartholomew has accustomed us to a high
standard of workmanship, but his map of India, re-
produced in this book, has seldom been equalled for
intricacy and accuracy of colour printing, and for
success in showing the leading features of the relief
of the land.
PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
OF LIGHT.
Light Energy; its Physics, Physiological Action, and
Therapeutics. By Margaret A. Cleaves, M.D. Pp.
xiv+827. (London: Rebman, Ltd., 1904.) Price
21s. net.
WU HILE this book is written primarily to further
our knowledge of the properties and uses of
that form of energy called light, in the treatment of
disease, yet it will be found of great interest to those
whose study is mainly confined to the purely physical
aspects of light phenomena. The subject is treated
from the modern view of energy in the form of waves
of a certain length and direction, but at the same time
the emission theory is not entirely ignored on account
of the peculiar behaviour of some of the recently dis-
covered radio-active substances, notably radium.
About 130 pages are devoted to a description of the
various kinds of rays, their origin and physical
properties. The part dealing with the electric arc is
very complete and clear, and embraces all one could
wish to know to ensure an intelligent application of
the arc lamp in the treatment of disease.
Following this is a series of chapters dealing with
the action of light on the various forms of life, from
the most elementary to the highly complex human
subject. In this section the action of light from both
natural and artificial sources is treated very thoroughly.
It is quite evident that the author has devoted her-
self to a large amount of painstaking experiment, the
valuable results of which are recorded in the pre-
sent volume. According to her, the mercury vapour
lamp has not justified the expectations regarding it
as a therapeutic agent.
The second half of the book is taken up with the
therapeutic applications of the various forms of light.
This part will be of special interest to medical men,
especially those who are engaged in this line of work. |
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
NATURE
269
Sun, arc, and incandescent light baths are treated most
fully, together with their use in those diseases in which
the author has found them respectively useful. The
indications are, in every instance, based on spectro-
scopic analysis, and full details of the proper technique
are given for every variety of application. Several
forms of bath cabinet are described, as well as arc and
other lamps for local treatment with concentrated
light.
While the author is rather emphatic on the necessity
for employing lamps of large amperage—quantity
being as essential as quality—yet she speaks highly
of certain small lamps the efficiency of which was
such as to necessitate their replacement by lamps of
greater power in the light department of the London
Hospital. The reason for this praise is seen, later on,
to be related to the comparative cost of the lamps—the
smaller being sold and maintained at a fraction of the
cost of the Finsen, and their efficiency is at least in
proportion to this cost. According to the author, the
great advantage of a lamp of high amperage, like the
Finsen, is that we get not only the short and high
frequencies of intense chemical activity, but also the
frequencies of long wave-lengths having great ampli-
tude and penetrability—a combination which is
essential to ensure the best success. In the smaller
lamps these long wave-lengths of great amplitude are
not present in such abundance because of the lesser
amperage and smaller carbons. The results which the
author has obtained in many diseases not generally
subjected to light treatment will come as a surprise to
those who have not kept closely in touch with modern
light therapeutics.
The applications of the various coloured lights, as
also those of the invisible spectrum rays, are fully
discussed. A short chapter is given to the considera-
tion of n-Rays and one to the Alpha, Beta, and
Gamma rays of radio-active substances, their physical
properties, actions, and therapeutic uses. An_in-
teresting chapter is that on fluorescence, fluorescent
stimulation, and sensitisation of tissues, and the book
closes with a chapter on the pernicious effect of sun-
light and the pathological effects of electric lighting.
The book can be confidently recommended. It will
be found of great interest to most students of natural
science. REGINALD MORTON.
A BOOK ON INK.
Inks: their Composition and Manufacture. By
C. Ainsworth Mitchell, B.A. (Oxon.), F.I.C., and
T. C. Hepworth. Pp. xiv+251; with 46 illustra-
tions, including 4 plates. (London: Chas. Griffin
and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
fe scripta manet; but the permanence of the
writing depends upon the quality of the ink.
Certain papyri of ancient Egypt, now deposited in the
British Museum, contain the earliest ink-written re-
cords so far brought to light. A roll dating from
2500 B.C. still bears decipherable characters, and frag-
ments of papyri have been found by Prof. Flinders
Petrie in a tomb to which the date 3500 B.c. is ascribed.
If the origin of the use of ink is ‘ost in antiquity, at
270
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
least one thing is certain—the writing-fluid used by
the ancient scribes for such records as the foregoing
must have possessed in a high degree the property of
durability.
In one form or another, the basis of these early
writing-fluids was carbon. For example, Chinese ink,
the so-called ‘* Indian ”’ ink of the modern artist, which
according to the native historians has been made since
2600 B.c. or thereabouts, was at first a vegetable
varnish, and later a mixture of lampblack and glue.
Inks containing gallate of iron did not come into use
until a much later period. Thus Sir Humphry Davy,
“examining some documents recovered from the ruins
of Herculaneum, ‘‘ looked in vain amongst the MSS.
. for vestiges of letters in oxide of iron,’’? and he
concludes that the Romans up to the time of Pliny
had never used “ink of galls and iron” for writing
purposes. Gradually, however, in the early centuries
of the Christian era, there came a transition from
carbon inks to those containing iron; and Blagden, in
*“Some Observations on Ancient Inks,’’ communicated
to the Royal Society in 1787, records that the writing
fluid employed in various MSS. on vellum, dating from
the ninth to the fifteenth centuries, was an iron and
gall ink. Somewhat earlier than the date of Blagden’s
paper logwood began to find employment as a con-
stituent of inks, and soon after the middle of last
century came the next notable modification, namely,
the use of aniline dyes in the manufacture of both
black and coloured writing-fluids.
Of these and other matters bearing upon the history,
composition, and methods of preparing the various
Kkkinds of inks, Messrs. Mitchell and Hepworth have
much to tell us in the volume under notice. They
have brought together, and made convenient for
reference, material that has been hitherto chiefly
scattered amongst periodicals and isolated dictionary
articles. In so doing they have saved their con-
temporartes some labour, and earned for themselves
much gratitude.
The book is divided into three sections. The first
of these deals with writing inks, including those of
which carbon, tannin, logwood, and aniline re-
spectively form the characteristic ingredients. It
comprises chapters upon the sources of the tannin
materials, the chemical nature of iron-gall inks, and
the best methods of examining both the fluid itself and
the characters on the written page. Printing inks
form the subject of section ii., in which an interesting
chapter treats of colour work, including three-colour
printing and inks for use in the production of cheques
and bank-notes. In the concluding section there is a
description of inks intended for miscellaneous pur-
poses; these comprise copying, marking, safety, and
sympathetic inks, and fluids for writing on glass,
wood, ivory, or leather. Many formule are given,
some of which the authors have personally tested, and
the work closes with a list of English patents relating
to the subject.
Despite occasional incoherency of style, the two
collaborators have produced a useful and attractive
little volume. One or two slips may be pointed out;
thus the equation on p. tor is incomplete, and the
No. 1838, VOL. 71]
specific gravity of dilute hydrochloric acid is given
wrongly on p. 208. In the historical introduction we
are told, apropos of a certain document (p. 11), that
“it was probably written at the end of the sixteenth
century by a man past middle age, who learned to
write just about the time that Shakespeare was born
(1504).’’ At first it seems an unnecessarily cautious
understatement to call such a man “ past middle age,”’
but a little reflection shows that it is those kittle cattle
the figures that are to blame.
The book is a serviceable addition to the literature
of chemical technology. C, SIMMONDs.
SHELF.
By Hans Driesch.
OUR BOOK
Naturbegriffe und Natururteile.
Pp. viiit239. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann;
London: Williams and Norgate, 1904.) Price 4s.
net.
Tus book deals chiefly with three topics. Starting
on a Kantian basis, it seeks to state the a priori prin-
ciples of pure physical science. (A priori is con-
veniently defined as ‘‘ independent of the amount of
experience.”’?) Next, the leading principles of
“energetics ’? are discussed, and their relation on the
one hand to the a priori principles of pure physical
science, and on the other hand to the ordinary laws
of thermodynamics. Incidentally, the ‘‘laws’”’ of
conservation (of substance and the like) are examined,
and entropy has a good deal of attention. Last of all
the results attained are carried over to a discussion of
biology. The point of view is neo-vitalistic. It would
be hazardous to say that the author has run to earth
the x which is the object of all our search, the vital
principle or whatever other name may be applied to
it; the term which he uses is the blessed word
entelechy.
Herr Driesch is well known to be at his best a
clear, original and suggestive writer. Much of the
present work is excellent, but we doubt if the last
eighty pages are either clear or convincing. Perhaps
one would require to read the author’s other works
in order to accustom oneself to his point of
view and his independent modes of statement. He
is occasionally unsatisfactory as well when dealing
with the theories of others, for example, with Prof.
Clerk Maxwell’s ‘*‘ sorting demon.’’ The discussion
occurs under the heading ‘‘ Declarations of Physicists
regarding Biological Subjects,’? and Herr Driesch
almost seems at times to suppose or to imply that the
conception may have been formed in order to limit
the second law of thermodynamics to inanimate bodies.
True, Lord Kelvin’s statement of the second law has
the words ‘‘in inanimate material.’’ But Lord
Kelvin’s declaration is explicit (*‘ Popular Lectures and
Addresses,’’ 1889, vol. i. p. 141) :—‘t The conception
of the ‘sorting demon’ is merely mechanical and is
of great value in purely physical science. It was not
invented to help us to deal with questions regarding
the influence of life and of mind on the motions of
matter.’ On p. 103 the accurate reference to Helm-
holtz’s work is—Ostwald’s Klassiker Nr. 124, p. 30,
Anm.,
Higher Text-book of Magnetism and Electricity. By
R. Wallace Stewart, D.Sc. Being vol. iv. of ‘‘ The
Tutorial Physics.’ Pp. viii+672. (London: W. B.
Clive, University Tutorial Press.) Price 6s. 6d.
We have several times noticed this work as successive
editions have appeared, and can speak as appreciatively
of it as we have on other occasions. The present
volume is based on the older one, but it has been wholly
JANUARY 19, 1905]
NATURE
27a
re-cast, and a very considerable quantity of new matter
has been added in view of the rapid advance which
has been made in electrical theory in the last few
years.
In this edition the author has followed several other
text-books in laying stress upon the importance of
the electric field as the real seat of the energy of an
electric circuit. It should be clearly brought out, how-
ever, that part of the energy must flow in the con-
ductor, following there, as elsewhere, the direction of
the equipotential surfaces; the forward flow is, how-
ever, in the dielectric itself. The figures exhibiting
this flow of energy on pp. 344, 525, and 528 are very
far from satisfactory. It is sufficient to point out that
in every ordinary case of steady transfer the lines of
force are convex forwards; indeed, if it be borne in
mind that in accordance with Poynting’s theorem the
flow of energy takes place at right angles to the lines
of force, there would be energy flowing out from and
not into a conductor if the lines were as shown.
Too much care cannot be exercised in the construc-
tion of diagrams. They catch the eye; and just as
nothing is better than a good diagram for inculcating
truth, nothing can be worse educationally than one
that is slipshod.
This remark applies equally to a figure illustrating
the action of the keeper of a magnet on p. 227, where
about twice as many lines of ‘‘ force ’’ are shown in
the keeper as are represented in the magnet itself. Is
the keeper supposed to be independently magnetised ?
Again, on p. 4or1, if the equipotential lines on the
plate exhibiting the Hall effect were really as shown,
some of the current would flow over the edges of the
conductor.
This slovenliness is almost wholly confined to the
figures. The text is exceedingly lucid and painstaking
in the endeavour to give a student a sound knowledge
of physics. The large number of worked out examples,
which have always been a distinguishing feature of
the book, have no doubt contributed largely to the
appreciation which it has received, especially from
those who are compelled by circumstances to work
without a teacher.
Life and Energy—Four Addresses. By Walter
Hibbert. Pp. xiv+ 182. (London: Longmans,
Green and Co., 1904.) Price 2s. 6d. net.
Tue thesis of these four addresses—originally delivered
at the Polytechnic Institute, London—is that life is
not matter, is not energy, but an unceasing non-
factorial directive control of energy and its transform-
ations. ‘‘ Directive control,’’ i.e. in the same sense
in which ‘“ temperature’’ in the case of heat, or
‘potential’? in the case of electricity, controls the
direction in which the energy shall flow. ‘ Non-
factorial,’? because while temperature, potential, and
the like are factors of energy, life is not a factor.
Mr. Hibbert puts most of his points clearly, and
much of what he says has considerable force. But it
is doubtful if the range of ideas within which the book
moves is adequate to the problem. The main position
is not unassailable, and the deductions from it in re-
gard to morals and religion are occasionally fanciful.
Yo descend to details. (1) It is difficult to see how
the terms factorial and non-factorial describe precisely
the difference between the directive control of energy
manifested in inorganic and in organic bodies re-
spectively. The discussion on p. 50 rather begs the
question. (2) In describing God’s directive control as
being purely non-factorial, in saying (p. 144), ‘‘ It is
not the office of prayer to seek any direct disturbance
of the course of material nature,’’ but ‘‘ its office is
to secure a renewed faith in non-factorial control,”
Mr. Hibbert lays himself open to the retort, “‘ Then
non-factorial control is no control at all.’’ (3) ‘‘ Pro-
NO. 1838, voL. 71]
vided that life is a physical entity, it must be either
matter or energy ’’ (p. 16). ‘‘ If it is a form of matter,
it must weigh something ’’ (p. 17). But what if it
were ether? (4) ‘‘ The living plant opens out a new
path in which physical law can operate ’’ (p. 39)—‘ it
has, in a sense, directed the energy into special
channels ”’ (p. 38). But is this a differentia of life?
Surely to one acquainted only with other manifest-
ations of energy the path opened out by the dynamo is
as new as anything can be.
Glossary of Geographical and Topographical Terms,
By Alexander Knox, B.A., F.R.G.S. Pp. xl+432.
(London: Edward Stanford, 1904.) Price 15s.
Tuts work, which is intended as a supplementary
volume to Stanford’s ‘‘ Compendiyim of Geography
and Travel,’’ is evidently the outcome of a vast amount
of industrious research on the part of the author. The
amount of labour involved in the collection of some
10,000 geographical terms derived from the most
diverse languages all over the world can readily be
imagined, and it can only excite our admiration that
so much should have been successfully accomplished
by a single individual. The book will be a decided
boon to readers of works of geography and travel,
who, in the absence of deep linguistic attainments,
must constantly be puzzled by the terms employed in
the place-names of foreign countries. It will also be
valuable to the more scientific geographer as supply-
ing a useful basis for the complete dictionary of geo-
graphical terms, which has long been felt to be a
desideratum. Mr. Knox’s book, useful as it is, can
hardly be said to supply this need, being concerned
rather with the general and popular, than with the
scientific and technical usage of geographical terms.
It was undertaken in the first instance, as the author
explains, with a view to elucidate the terms in use in
extra-European countries, and this object it certainly
fulfils with success. European geographical terms,
which naturally include the majority of those with
which the scientific geographer is concerned, are less
fully dealt with, and we not only miss many such
technical terms as ‘“‘ Karst,’ ‘‘ Kar,’’ ‘ Horst,”
“ Schrund,”’ ‘* Aven ”’ (to take a few only at random),
but we find little attempt made at discrimination
between the terms in use for closely allied features, or
at the definition of nice shades of meaning, such, ¢.g.,
as are involved in the words “‘ dale ”? and ‘‘ dell,’” both
of which are explained merely as a “‘ valley.’’ Many
English local terms are missing, and the definition of
others is not always quite satisfactory. On the other
hand various Spanish topographical terms are carefully
explained, and the recent. definitions by the Inter-
national Commission for the Study of the Sea of the
main features of suboceanic relief are correctly given.
But the special value lies in the fact that the in-
formation supplied is just that which is most out of
reach of the ordinary reader, terms derived from the
languages of Africa, Asia, and the less known parts
of the world generally, being particularly well repre-
sented. The introduction includes some useful hints,
by Dr. A. H. Keane, on the laws of interchange of
letters in various languages.
Blackie’s Handy Book of Logarithms. Pp. 128.
(London: Blackie and Son, 1904.) Price 2s.
Vier- und fiinfstellige Logarithmentafeln. Pp. 24.
(Brunswick : F. Vieweg and Son, 1904.) Price
mark.
In order that mathematical tables intended for common
use may serve their purpose, it is essential that great
attention be paid to the labour-saving arrangements
which authors have from time to time introduced, such
as the careful grouping of the figures in rows and
columns, the use of varied type or of differently
272
NATURE
[JANUARY I9, 1905
coloured inks, marginal or thumb indexes, proportional
differences, inverse functions, &c. On _ opening
Blackie’s ‘‘ handy ’’ volume, the reader will be dis-
appointed to find that the compiler of the tables has
paid little attention to the points enumerated above.
A table of six-figure logarithms of four-figure numbers
occupies twenty-two pages; the average difference for
each row of figures is given, but there is no room found
for proportional differences, so that the taking out of
the logarithm of a five- or six-figure number involves
an irritating calculation. Anti-logarithms are not
included, but there is a table of hyperbolic logs.
Sixteen pages are allotted to tables of natural and
logarithmic functions of angles, for increments of one-
sixth of a degree, without differences. Other tables
include reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and
cube roots, circumferences and areas of circles, heights
and areas of circular segments, and rhumbs in degrees.
There is an appendix giving some simple mensuration
rules, some old-fashioned practical geometry, and
definitions of the functions of angles, not as ratios, but
as lengths.
The German tables are specially suitable for use in
the chemical laboratory. The main feature is an
eighteen-page table of five-figure logarithms of five-
figure numbers, arranged, with proportional differ-
ences for each row of figures, like the four-figure
logarithms contained in the first two pages. The
collection of physical constants at the end is such as
a chemist would be likely to require. There are no
anti-logarithms, nor is there a marginal index. The
size of page is ample, allowing of bold and effective
type.
Second Report on Economic Zoology: British Museum
(Natural History). By Fred. V. Theobald, M.A.
Pp. x+197. (London: Printed by Order of the
Trustees of the British Museum, 1904.) Price 6s.
TuHE recent development of British Museum activities
in the line of economic zoology, for which the insight
of the director is largely to be thanked, is re-expressed
in a second report, following quickly on the heels of
the first (see Nature, January 28, 1904, vol. Ixix.
p. 290). We congratulated Mr. Theobald on his first
report, and we repeat our congratulations, for the
volume does credit to his energy and ability, and to
the expertness of those inside and outside the national
museum who have given him assistance. Everyone
who has had even a little experience of the amount of
work which is often required in order to answer
apparently simple questions from outside will
appreciate the skill which this report displays. The
volume contains a large part of the information
furnished by the director of the natural history depart-
ments of the British Museum to the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries between November, 1902, and
November, 1903, besides replies to other correspondents
and some special notes of present-day interest. The
British Museum of Natural History is not only one
of the greatest world-treasure-houses of scientific
material, it has also, in its staff, an almost unrivalled
wealth of learning, and we cannot refrain from giving
expression to the widespread gratification that these
resources of material and knowledge are now being
utilised in behalf of the practical queries of the nation.
The volume deals with mosquitoes, sheep scab, weevils,
aphides, wire-worm, mites, leather-jackets, warbles,
ring-worm, liver-fluke, and a hundred other economic-
ally interesting pests—and always in a way that leads
us to respect Mr. Theobald’s wide knowledge and
practical shrewdness. We hope that there will be
many such reports, for they are of a kind that enrich
the nation as well as science. That they also con-
tribute to art may be illustrated by the report on the
grubs causing damage at Rye Golf Links.
No. 1838, vol. 71]
LETTERS TO-THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, vejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]|
The Heterogenetic Origin of Fungus-germs.
An attempt has been made in Nature (December
22, 1904, p. 175), by Mr. George Massee, of Kew, to
question the validity of my conclusions because of certain
observations of his own of a totally different kind, which
have little or no bearing upon what I have brought
forward.
What he says is this:—Dematium pullulans of de Bary
produces exceedingly minute colourless conidia which are
most widely distributed and are capable of passing through
“thick ’’ filter paper. ‘‘ Under normal conditions,’’ he
adds, ‘‘ these minute conidia on germination form delicate
hyaline hyphe which give origin to a Cladosporium. If
cultures of these conidia become infested with bacteria
that form Zoogloea, the hyphz become invested with a
comparatively thick, brown cell-wall, and form either com-
pact masses of cells or irregular hyphe consisting of short
cells, constricted at the septa, exactly as shown in Dr.
Bastian’s Fig. 12.’’ He then refers to an illustrated paper
in the Kew Bulletin for December, 1898, in which he has
shown this process as it occurs in a certain disease of
Prunus japonica. He thinks his observations exactly
illustrate some of the facts which I have brought forward,
while I, after carefully reading his paper and studying
his illustrations, think they are altogether beside the mark.
He supposes the widely distributed conidia are not only
present in the hay infusion (which of course they may
be), but that they are able to pass through two layers
of very fine Swedish filter paper (not merely ‘‘ thick ”’
paper, as he loosely puts it). Looking to his Fig. 5 and
the size of the conidia there shown, this, I think, is more
than doubtful. It is, however, altogether immaterial
whether such conidia are present in the original hay in-
fusion and are able to pass through the filter used by me
or not, because the next necessary step in his suggested
explanation is altogether wanting in my observations.
This step is that the conidia assumed to be present shall
produce delicate hypha, and that these hyphz, coming into
contact with masses of Zooglcea, shall ‘** become invested
with a comparatively thick, brown cell-wall, and form
either compact masses of cells or irregular hyphz consist-
ing of short cells constricted at the septa.’’ But I had
already privately assured Mr. Massee that all the pheno-
mena which I have described may be witnessed without
its being possible to meet with a single hypha of any
kind or a single one of the thick-walled, brown cells to
which he refers.‘ Yet for his explanation to have any
weight ‘‘ delicate hyphz ’’ should always be seen in rela-
tion with the Zoogloea masses, and as for the “‘ thick-
walled cells’? which are then formed being exactly like
what I have shown in my Fig. 12, I can assure Mr.
Massee he is absolutely mistaken. What I have repre-
sented in that figure are colourless products of segment-
ation of a Zoogloeea mass (wholly unlike the colourless
conidia shown in his Fig. 5) which speedily assume a
brownish-black colour, and then, without any intervention
of delicate hyphae, at once grow out into mycelial filaments
of the same colour. In accordance with his explanation,
the production of delicate colourless hyphz should be the
commonest thing possible, and should always be met with
at an early stage of the changes that I have been de-
scribing; but, as a matter of fact, nothing is more re-
markable than the rarity with which any of the myriads
of Fungus-germs produced in a bacterial scum undergo
a further stage of development, with the production of
hyphz either colourless or coloured, and I can assure
Mr. Massee that he might work for three weeks or
more with such infusions as I have described without
finding a single specimen at all comparable with my
Fig. 12. It seems deplorable that in regard to such an
1 This was in reply to a private letter to me very similar to that which he
subsequently sent to Navure. In this reply I asked him to come and
examine my specimens for himself, which he did not do.
JANUARY 19, 1905]
NAT ORE
273
important subject as the reality or unreality of hetero-
genesis, persons like Mr. Massee, who could speak authori-
tatively, should not think it necessary to make personal
observations, and should be content to offer in reply to
real and prolonged work only loose explanations which
will not bear any serious examination.
A further instance of the same lack of care is afforded
in the last sentence of Mr. Massee’s letter. Referring
evidently to my remark (Nature, November 24, 1904,
p- 77) as to the very different products that may be met
with in the scum forming on an infusion made from
unripe grasses as compared with that forming on an
ordinary hay infusion, he says:—‘‘ As these fungi only
develop on fading leaves it was not to be expected that
they would appear in infusions of young grass.’’ This
sentence must have been penned without the writer having
taken the trouble to look at p. 87 of my ‘‘ Studies in
Heterogenesis,’’ to which reference was made when I
directed attention to the differences in question. Had he
done so he would have seen how little he had explained
the differences noted on that and on the following page,
and he would also have seen that the most striking differ-
ence recorded is the complete absence of Zooglcea masses
(spoken of there as ‘‘ areas”’) in the scum forming on
infusions of unripe grasses. Of course if the Zooglcea
masses are not there it is easy for me to understand the
absence of the Fungus-germs which, as I maintain, are
produced therefrom.
This point, as well as others in Mr. Massee’s letter,
shows the great importance of bearing in mind two wholly
distinct aspects of my observations, corresponding with
different stages in the processes described. We have to do
(1) with the growth, the individualisation, and the pro-
cesses of segmentation taking place in masses of Zoogloea.
We have also to do (2) with the question of the ultimate
destination, or the transformation, of the products of such
segmentation. These are two parts of the subject which
are to some extent distinct, and are well worthy of further
separate consideration.
In conclusion I would ask, Why do the bacteriologists
not tell us what they know about Zoogloea—whether they
are or are not aware of its developmental tendencies, and
why it should undergo processes of minute segmentation,
unless such processes are a result of an organising tendency
destined to have some definite outcome? Why, again,
should it or its segments so often tend to assume a brown
colour, while it is still nothing but Zoogloea, either
segmented or unsegmented? Again, why, if the brown
Zooglcea does not yield the brown Fungus-germs, should
there be this constant association of myriads of brown
Fungus-germs (in the absence of hyphz) in association
with brown masses of Zoogleea? How can they explain,
other than I have done, the actual organisation of a
Zooglcea mass, and the stages by which the brown Fungus-
germs seem to be formed therein? What process of
“infection ’’ in a filtered hay infusion contained in a
closed pot could cause thousands of small Zoogloea masses
to go simultaneously through similar processes of this
kind—producing myriads of brown Fungus-germs—when
not a single hypha is anywhere to be found, and when at
first no Fungus-germs are to be met with outside the
Zoogloea masses themselves? I trust the bacteriologists
will vouchsafe to give us some information on these points,
or, if they cannot reasonably explain them, that they may
be induced to work at the subject, and satisfy themselves
that something important can be learned concerning
bacteria, even though it be outside their laboratories and
by methods other than their own.
H. Cuaritton BAstTIANn.
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.
As a corrective to much vague discussion, perhaps the
following record of facts may be of interest.
_ Entering the University of Cambridge in 1886, entirely
ignorant of the Greek language, I was, of course, obliged
to pass the “‘ Little-go ’’ in order to proceed to the natural
sciences tripos. The Greek subjects prescribed were the
Gospel of St. Mark, the Pluto of Aristophanes, and the
1 My further observations on this subject will be found in the February
number of the Aznals and Magazine of Natural History.
NO. 1838, VoL. 71]
usual grammar papers, and, in conjunction with a friend
similarly circumstanced to myself, I set to work to
“cram ’’ these by as ‘‘ scientific’? methods as we could
devise, in order to pass with as little waste of time as
possible.
Purchasing a copy of Wordsworth’s ‘‘ Primer of Greek
Grammar,’’ we read the nouns, adjectives, and the active
voice of tumre—no more, and then started on the pre-
scribed books. These we translated by aid of a good
lexicon, word by word—thus learning the parts of the
irregular verbs, which form a favourite subject in the
grammar papers. Having been once through the books
by this method, we procured the translations, and read
these through five or six times, in order to become so
familiar with the subject-matter of the books that we
could translate most passages easily at sight after making
out the leading words in them.
The actual time expended by us in the preparation of
Greek for the examination was carefully recorded, and
amounted to 1053 working hours, and we passed the
examination in the second class, with, I believe, a con-
siderable margin of safety even in Greek. I need hardly
add that my present knowledge of the language is nil,
Joun C. WILLIs.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon,
December 28, 1904.
Polyhedral Soap-films.
Tue fact that polyhedral wire frames can be used for
the purpose of forming films across them is well known,
but there are some features of this subject, which I have
investigated, which may be of interest.
If a frame of wire representing the edges of one of the
simpler polyhedra, such as a cube or octahedron, is dipped
into soap solution, then on taking it out it will have films
attached to its edges and meeting roughly at a point in
the centre of the figure, forming a number of pyramids
standing on the faces of the figure. If, however, a more
complex figure, such as the rhombic dodecahedron or the
eicosihedron, be taken, then the effect will be quite different ;
the film will then simply cover all the faces except the
one which was drawn out of the solution first. The former
thing will happen if the area of the (n—1) faces is greater
than that required to form the pyramids, while the latter
will occur if the reverse is the case.
If, now, in the case of the cube, for instance, after the
pyramids have been formed, a film be applied to one of
the faces, then a certain amount of air becomes entirely
enclosed by film, and the bubble so formed settles in
the centre of the frame, forming roughly a cube suspended
in the frame by twelve sheets of soap-film. On closer in-
spection, however, it will be seen that the faces of this cube
are convex, thus showing that the air in it is compressed.
By inserting a tube this cubical bubble can be inflated or
reduced in size, all the time retaining its convexity, so
that if thus left in communication with the air it will
collapse of its own accord. A little consideration shows
the reason for this, namely, that three films meeting one
another cannot be in equilibrium unless their planes are
inclined to one another at 120°, since the tensions in all
three are equal. But since the dihedral angle of a tetra-
hedron, cube, or octahedron is less than 120°, therefore in
these figures the internal polyhedral film must always have
convex faces. ,
From this I expected to get an exact polyhedron with
plane faces in the case of the rhombic dodecahedron, since
its dihedral angles are all 120°. On trying this it was
found to agree remarkably with my assumption, only, as
may be gathered from what has gone before, it was not
quite so simple to obtain the central bubble as in the former
case. After the (n—1) faces had been covered with film
the figure was again immersed so as to displace about one-
half the air contained in it, and while thus immersed it
was turned round so as to cover the one open face with
liquid. On withdrawing it there was seen the plane-faced
rhombic dodecahedron. The same result can be obtained
by applying a film to the mth face and then exhausting
some of the enclosed air by means of a tube. By using a
tube, as in the former cases, the bubble can be enlarged
247
NALORE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
or reduced at will by blowing or suction, and it will
retain its size constant when placed in open communication
with the outer air by means of this tube. This is, of course,
the only plane-faced polyhedron which can thus be formed,
faces, edges and vertices being entirely made out of soap
films. If, on the other hand, a figure has its dihedral
angles greater than 120°, then the internal bubble will
have concave faces, and will, if placed in communication
with the outer air, increase in size until it coincides with
the faces of the frame, and will then be kept in equilibrium
by their rigidity. This I verified in the case of the
eicosihedron.
There is one important law which must be mentioned.
I found a certain irregularity in the behaviour of the films
in the case of the octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron.
This was due to the fact that two films cannot cross one
another aft right angles, a law which can be put to the
test by placing two plane loops covered with film at right
angles, when a small lanceolate film will be formed making
two curved lines of intersection with the film on the loops,
instead of allowing them to intersect in a single straight
line. In the case of the rhombic dodecahedron this slightly
modifies the form of the internal bubble, introducing a
small edge and a little curvature at each of the acute
vertices. This defect causes a serious convexity if the
bubble is small, but in general we have double curvatures
at the points in question, the remaining portion of each
face being plain while the figure retains the form of a
rhombic dodecahedron. W. F. Wartu.
Reversal of Charge from Electrical Induction Machines.
Tue reversal of the poles of a Voss machine by giving
some turns in the wrong direction, as observed in NATURE
of January 5 (p. 221), is not an unknown phenomenon. It
is described in my paper ‘‘ Essai sur la Théorie des
Machines électriques a influence ’’ (Gauthier-Villars, Paris,
1898), p. 38, together with a much more trustworthy and
simpler means—an improvement, in theory and in fact.
This consists in discharging by hand, at the same time,
both the inductors of the fixed disc. Then the reversal is
invariably observed without stopping the machine.
V. SCHAFFERS.
Louvain (Belgium), 11 rue des Récollets.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE ELECTRO-
SCOPES FOR EXPERIMENTS ON RADIO-
ACTIVITY.
HE electrical method, where it is applicable, is
now by far the most sensitive method of detect-
ing small quantities of matter; and the recent advances
in physical science made by the method of measuring
small leakages of electricity, especially in connection
with the phenomena of radio-activity, have excited a
very general interest in the experimental arrange-
ments employed. The writer hopes that the follow-
ing account of simple electroscopes for this kind of
work will be found to be of a practical nature and
of service to those who, though unfamiliar with many
of the devices in general use in a physical laboratory,
are nevertheless desirous of making quantitative ex-
periments on radio-activity or some other subject where
the electrical method is employed.
In general the final shape of the instrument will
depend very much on the purpose for which it is re-
quired ; in fact, it is one great advantage of the gold-
leaf electroscope that it can usually be fixed up in
any odd corner of the apparatus which happens to be
convenient. There is, however, one part of the
apparatus which is always the same in sensitive instru-
ments, and that is the gold-leaf system itself. Before
describing this it will perhaps make things clearer
if we consider for a moment one or two points about
the theory of the instrument.
What we observe usually is the rate of decrease of
the deflection of a charged gold leaf from a vertical
NO. 1838, voL. 71]
metal support to which it is attached. Now the de-
flection in question depends only on the shape and size
of the leaf and of the metal support, and on the electro-
static potential of the system, so that the rate of
collapse of the leaf measures the rate of decrease of
the electrostatic potential. But what we wish to
measure is the current or rate of alteration of electric
charge, and this is equal to the rate of decrease of
potential multiplied by the electrostatic capacity of the
system. Thus for a given current the rate of move-
ment of the gold leaves is greater the smaller the
capacity of the system. For a sensitive instrument it
is therefore absolutely necessary to have the parts
which are metallically connected with the gold leaf
as small as possible.
Cutting gold leaves is a process which requires a
considerable amount of patience, especially from the
beginner. The process I always adopt is to take a
plate of glass and lay a sheet of smooth note paper
on it. On this the gold leaf is spread out flat by blow-
ing gently if necessary, and is cut by means of a
razor. To do this, all except a narrow strip at the
edge is covered with a second sheet of note paper, the
straight edge of which is pressed down with the
fingers so as to hold the gold leaf. A fine strip out-
side the edge of the paper is then cut off from the leaf
by dragging the razor gently backwards parallel to
itself and to the edge of the paper. It is not necessary
to exert any great pressure during this operation, but
a little practice will be necessary to get into the way
of doing the saw-cut stroke at the proper speed. Mr.
C. T. R. Wilson has succeeded in this way in cutting
uniform strips one-tenth of a millimetre across, but
for most purposes strips one millimetre wide are good
enough. In working with gold leaf much trouble
will be saved by working in a room which is free from
draughts and disturbances generally.
For the metal support to which the gold leaf is
attached it is convenient to use a piece of wire of
about the same diameter as the thickness of the gold
leaf. To fix the leaf on to the wire it is sufficient just
to moisten the latter at the point of attachment with
the tip of the tongue; on allowing the end of the
gold leaf to come in contact with the very slightly
moist wire it will be found to attach itself sufficiently
firmly for all that is required of it. For obvious reasons
the cutting and mounting of the gold leaf should be
the very last operation in the construction of the
electroscope.
In constructing an electroscope it is of the utmost
importance to have trustworthy insulation. When the
apparatus has not to be raised to a high temperature,
and great mechanical strength is not required, sulphur
is a long way better than anything else for this pur-
pose. Generally speaking, it is better to have as small
a quantity of insulating material as possible in order
to diminish irregularities caused by the superficial
charging up of the dielectric. Suppose we wish to
insulate the wire carrying the gold leaf from another
wire which supports it mechanically we should proceed
as follows :—Take a porcelain crucible and gently
heat a quantity of pure flowers of sulphur in it until
it just melts and forms a clear yellow limpid liquid.
It is important that it should not be heated so strongly
as to become dark coloured and viscous, as this appears
to diminish its subsequent insulating properties. The
end of one of the wires is then dipped into the liquid
sulphur, when a coating of sulphur forms on the wire.
This is allowed to cool until it has solidified, and the
operation is repeated a number of times until a bead
of sulphur like that shown in Fig. 1 a has formed on
the end. The end of the other wire is now heated
gently in the flame and applied with a slight pressure
to the point a, when it melts its way into the sutohur;
JANUARY 19, 1905]
NATURE
275
and if the operation has been successfully carried out
the result will be as indicated in Fig. 1 B.
In this sort of work it is often necessary to make
sulphur stoppers, &c., of various shapes. To do this
it is only necessary to make paper models of the re-
quired shape, into which the sulphur is cast. The
paper generally sticks to the sulphur, but may be
taken off with a clean knife without impairing the
insulation. It is advisable to do this, and also any
cutting away of the sulphur that may be necessary,
immediately after it has set, since it becomes very hard
and brittle soon afterwards.
For ordinary work with radio-active substances it
is not necessary to employ the most sensitive type of
electroscope, amd for such work the design shown in
Fig. 2 is very convenient. It consists of a brass
cylinder of about the proportions shown and to cm.
high. The top is closed by a flat plate with a narrow
tubular opening a, into which a sulphur stopper }b,
cast as above, fits fairly tightly. The sulphur is best
cast round the wire destined to carry the gold leaf.
For examining the properties of various radiations the
bottom may be made in the form of a ring, as shown.
This is fixed by the slot and pin indicated or some
Fig |
A = Fig 2
similar arrangement, and the circular hole in the base
can be covered with sheets of foil, &c., if it is desired
to examine the penetrating power of the rays under
investigation. In all these instruments a hole has to
be cut in the metal both in front and behind the gold
leaf to illuminate it and to read its position. The
holes are conveniently of about the relative size shown ;
they may be covered up with glass, mica, or trans-
parent celluloid, whichever is most convenient. A
suitable illumination is obtained by placing a sheet of
white paper in front of a paraffin lamp about twelve
inches behind the electroscope. The movement of the
leaves is most conveniently read by means of a micro-
scope of about 6 cm. focal length furnished with a
micrometer eye-piece. It is advisable to have a micro-
scope with as short a focal length as possible to in-
crease the magnification, and therefore the sensitive-
ness.
The final appearance of the electroscope will de-
pend very much on the appliances at the disposal of
the experimenter. An instrument of this character
could quite well be made out of a cigarette tin, but it
would probably be more satisfactory to have the metal
parts made by a competent mechanic.
If cells are not available the above instrument is
NO’ 163) 8, VOL. 71 |
readily charged by allowing a rubbed sealing wax or
ebonite rod to spark to the outside wire. In measur-
ing leaks the gold leaf should always be charged to
about the same extent, as the sensitiveness depends a
good deal on the amount of the deflection. The
instrument will not keep its charge indefinitely, but
will show a small leak even if no radio-active sub-
stances are present; this is nearly all due to the so-
called spontaneous ionisation of the air. There is
practically no leakage across the sulphur if the instru-
ment is properly made.
For some purposes a more convenient arrangement
is that indicated in Fig. 3, where the figure is drawn
so as to exhibit the electroscope in its most sensitive
form, i.e. with the minimum capacity. <A piece about
4 cm. deep is cut off a wide brass cylinder, and the
side tubes fitted on as shown. The gold leaf is carried
by the wire b, and is insulated by the sulphur bead a,
formed in the manner already described. Thus the
insulation lealkk can only take place to the support c,
and can be entirely prevented by keeping c at the same
Fig 3
potential as b by means of cells. The insulation of
the wire c from the tube which supports it need not
be of a very high order; it is sufficient to fix it in with
a rubber stopper in the manner shown. So far we
have all our charged system enclosed, so that there
arises the difficulty of charging it. This is done by
means of the wire d, which can be rotated about an
axis through the centre of the ebonite stopper e. It
is advisable to remove the wire d from the gold-leaf
system when once this has been charged. By means
of the sealing-wax handle f this may be accomplished
without discharging the electroscope. The instrument
is so far open. It is conveniently closed by two squares
of window glass cemented on to the brass cylinder
with sealing wax. The whole of the outside is then
covered with thin lead sheet or tin foil to obviate effects
due to the glass getting charged. Suitable windows
must be cut in this to allow the position of the gold
leaf to be read.
The above arrangement is as sensitive as this type
of instrument can conveniently be made, since its
capacity is only that of a short piece of wire and the
276
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
gold leaf. Generally speaking, the capacity in electro-
static units is found to be of the same order as the
length of the wire. In this or a slightly altered form,
the instrument is suitable for experiments on spon-
taneous ionisation and the radio-activity of ordinary
materials.
In experiments on emanations, induced activity, and
very penetrating rays it is often convenient to increase
the magnitude of the effects by allowing them to ionise
a large volume of air. For this purpose the arrange-
ment last described is particularly convenient. It is
only necessary to solder a long straight wire upon the
lower end of b and to fix g by means of a rubber
stopper into the neck of an oil can. The leak then
measured is due to the ionisation produced throughout
the volume of the can. The sensitiveness, though
greater than before, is not increased in the ratio of
the volumes, as would otherwise be the case, owing
to the increased capacity produced by the additional
wire. This arrangement is especially useful for
examining the induced activity which may conveniently
be deposited on the wire.
A still more sensitive type of electroscope was re-
cently invented by Mr. C. T. R. Wilson. It does not,
however, appear to be an instrument which can be
safely recommended to the inexperienced, so that it
scarcely comes within the scope of this article. It is
described in the Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. xii.
Pp. 135, and may be bought from the Cambridge
Scientific Instrument Company. Much further in-
formation about electroscopes and electrometers for
radio-active work will also be found in Prof. Ruther-
ford’s book on radio-activity, chapter iii.
O. W. RicHarpson.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.
aoe Geological Survey of Canada, which was
established in 1842 under the direction of Mr.
(afterwards Sir) William E. Logan, commenced its
labours with 1500l., which was voted by the Provincial
Legislature. The sum seems to have been granted
without any clear idea of the length of time which the
survey would take, but apparently it was expected to
last about two years.
In the winter of 1844-5 the amount was expended,
and Logan was more than Sool. out of pocket.
Eventually provision’ was made for the continuance
of the survey for five years with an annual grant of
20001. Notwithstanding many difficulties and dis-
appointments vigorous progress was made in the field
work and office work, and this has been continued
for upwards of sixty years under the successive
directors, Selwyn, George Dawson, until now, when
the survey, under Dr. Robert Bell, is provided for
better than at any previous time. Thus the total votes
for the present financial year amount to 22,8o0ol. for
general purposes, and to about Soool. for the salaries
of permanent officers.
We gather from the last summary report by Dr.
Bell that while the Canadian Geological Survey, like
that of the United States, has been engaged in
palzontological, zoological, botanical, ethnological,
and archeological investigations, by far the largest
proportion of the work has been of an economic and
practical character. Thus the justification for the in-
creased support given to the survey is amply supplied
by the investigations which have been carried on with
the view of aiding the development of the mineral re-
sources of the country. Up to the end of 1903 the
publications of the survey included about 350 maps, of
which roo relate especially to mining districts; and
about 250 reports and bulletins, amongst which nearly
100 are exclusively economic. During the four
No. 1838, vou. 71]
have been obtained.
years of Dr. Bell’s directorship, the field parties have
been increased, and during the past year they have
worked in many interesting districts, from the Yukon
and British Columbia in the west to New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia in the east, and from southern
Ontario and Quebec to Lancaster Sound in the Arctic
regions. Their researches have had reference to gold,
silver, lead, copper, graphite, corundum and mineral
pigments; to coal, peat, petroleum and natural gas;
to various building and ornamental stones, clays and
cement ingredients. Hitherto unknown sections of the
country have been explored and surveyed, and obsery-
ations have been made on the timber, soils, and water
supply, as well as on the general natural history.
The palzontological work of the survey has been
carried on by the veteran paleontologist Dr. J. F-
Whiteaves, aided in the department of vertebrates by
Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe. In the ‘‘ Contributions to:
Canadian Palzontology ”’ (vol. iii.), recently issued by
the survey, Mr. Lambe has described some remains of
the carnivorous dinosaur Dryptosaurus incrassatus
(Cope), from the Edmonton series of Alberta, in the
North-West Territory. The strata belong to the
Lower Laramie (Cretaceous) formation. The import-
ance of a more intimate knowledge of the fauna of the
Edmonton series is apparent when it is borne in mind
that the beds of this series in Alberta constitute the
principal coal-bearing horizon of the district.
Dr. Bell himself has been partly occupied, in con-
junction with other leading geologists in Canada and
the United States, in investigating the crystalline rocks
in Upper Michigan, in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and
in the Rainy River, Thunder Bay, and other districts
of Ontario, with the view of settling disputed ques-
tions. The controversies on these rocks have long
been occupying attention without any definite result.
A few years ago Dr. Bell urged upon the International
Committee of Geologists the desirability of forming a
small central committee, the members of which should
go to the ground together and look at the facts. This
was carried out, and as a result the members have
come to an almost complete agreement on all the vexed
points. The standing committee consists of Dr. Bell
and Dr. F. D. Adams (professor of geology in McGill
University) for Canada, and Dr. C. W. Hayes (chief
geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey) and Prof.
C. R. Van Hise (president of the State University of
Wisconsin) for the United States. By invitation there
were also associated with them Prof. Leith (of the
University of Wisconsin), Dr. Lane (State geologist
of Michigan), Prof. Seaman (professor of geology in
the College of Mines at Houghton, Michigan), Messrs
Sebenius and Merriam (geologists of the Iron Ranges),
and Prof. W. G. Miller (provincial geologist of
Ontario). It is anticipated that the joint report will
shortly be published.
RECENT EXPLORATION IN THE MENTONE
i CAVES.
ROF. MARCELLIN BOULE has recently been
studying the deposits in the well known caves of
the Rochers rouges (Baoussé-roussé of local patois)
near Mentone, and read a paper on his results before
the Société géologique de France in the early part of
last year, which is published in the society’s Bulletin
(No. 1). Since the original discovery by M. Riviére
of a human skeleton in one of these caves, the question
of the age of their deposits has been debated with
much warmth, but without any satisfactory result. In
recent years the caves have been carefully and system-
atically explored under the direction of the Prince of
Monaco, with the result that a great number of fossils
Prof. Boule’s researches were
JANUARY 19, 1905]
NATURE
277
conducted chiefly from the geological standpoint
with the view of determining the age of the deposits,
and of throwing light upon the much debated question
of the oscillations of sea-level in recent times on the
Mediterranean seaboard.
Prof. Boule’s attention was directed in the first
instance to the Grotte du Prince, which was almost
intact when excavation was commenced. Here the
deposits attain a thickness of more than 20 metres,
and consist of basal beds of marine origin upon which
strata of continental origin are superimposed. The
latter can be subdivided into a number of layers, both
by their physical characters and by their fossil con-
tents, but the point of importance is that the upper
and middle beds contain remains of reindeer (never
previously recorded in this region), ibex, marmot, and
woolly rhinoceros, that is, the fauna of the cold period
of the Quaternary, while the lower beds contain quite
a different fauna—Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros
mercki, and hippopotamus, that is, species belonging
to the lower Quaternary fauna. The last named de-
posits lie upon an old raised beach which is also dis-
cernible outside the cavern, along the shore rocks, at
a mean altitude of 7 metres. Almost all the contained
fossils belong to the existing Mediterranean fauna,
but Prof. Boule has found some beautiful examples of
7-metre beach, described at other parts of the
Mediterranean littoral by MM. Depéret and Caizot,
and regarded by them as of late Quaternary date, really
belongs to a much more distant period, for it is
anterior to the subaérial deposits containing fossils
belonging to the older period of the Quaternary. If
this conclusion be correct, it affords a means of fixing
the age of the last oscillation of sea-level in this region.
It should, however, be noted that in the discussion
which followed the reading of the paper M. Depéret
protested against the proposed homologising of the low
raised beach (height 5~7 metres) studied by him on
the French coast of the Mediterranean (e.g. in the Bay
| of Pierre-Formique) with the Strombus beach in the
Mentone caves. The former type of beach contains a
fauna very different from that of the Strombus layers,
Strombus being absent, and all the fossils belonging
to living species.
At the conclusion of his paper Prof. Boule referre
to the three new human skeletons which have been
recently discovered in the Grotte des Enfants. The
first of these has been studied by MM. Gaudry and
Verneau, and proves to be markedly Australoid in type.
It was obtained in a bed containing Ursus spelaeus,
Hyaena spelaea, Felis spelaea, &c., and rested upon
a bed containing molars of Rhinoceros mercki. It
Fic. 1.—Skeleton from the Grotte des Enfants.
Strombus mediterraneus, which has been regarded as
characteristic of the raised beaches of the Quaternary
period in the Mediterranean area. But the Prince’s
cave contains other traces of marine action of a much
earlier date. In its upper part, at a height of 28
metres, there is a calcareous encrustation due to the
action of the waves, below which the wall of the cavern
is perforated by boring molluscs. The sequence of
events is therefore explained by Prof. Boule as
follows :—
The sea formerly stood at the 28-metre level, and
then gradually retired until it stood at a height of
7-8 metres. At this level the shell deposit was laid
down on the floor of the cavern. Subsequently the
movement of elevation was continued. Its extent is
difficult to determine, but the oceanographical re-
searches of the Prince of Monaco have shown that
there extends along the rochers rouges at a slight
depth an extensive submarine platform. This sug-
gests that the movement—whether of the land or of
the sea—continued until there was laid bare between
the sea and the present irregular shore line a plain
sufficiently extensive to become the home of such large
animals as elephants, hippopotami, and rhinoceroses,
for which the present topography allows no space.
is at least certain, according to Prof. Boule, that the
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
It
must therefore belong to the earlier part of the
Quaternary period. The second skeleton was found
about 0.60 metre above the first, and was accompanied
by remains of the same species of mammals. The
third skeleton, on the other hand, found 6 metres above
the first, seems to belong to the period of the reindeer,
that is, to the end of the Quaternary epoch.
THE SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION OF LAKE
TANGANYIKA.
HE committee for the scientific exploration of
Lake Tanganyika (consisting of Sir John Kirk,
Dr. Sclater, Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lankester,
Dr. Boulenger, and Mr. J. E. S. Moore) has lately
received news of the progress of its envoy, Mr.
W. A. Cunnington, who left England in March, 1904,
under directions to continue the researches carried out
by Mr. J. E. S. Moore during his two expeditions to
Lake Tanganyika. Proceeding by the Zambesi and
Shiré route, Mr. Cunnington was most kindly re-
ceived at Zomba by Sir Alfred Sharpe, who granted
him the assistance of two native collectors. Mr.
Cunnington had instructions to devote his special
attention to the lacustrine flora and fauna of Lake
278
Tanganyika, and, as he passed up Lake Nyassa,
began his investigations in that lake, in order to be
able to compare its products with those of Tanga-
nyika. On Lake Nyassa Mr. Cunnington was able
to get a good number of tow-nettings from different
parts of the lake’s surface, and obtained, on the
whole, a large quantity of its characteristic phyto-
plankton, besides a considerable amount of zoo-
plankton, consisting mostly of Copepoda, Cladocera,
and insect-larve. The temperature of the water of
Lake Nyassa was observed to fall seldom below 70°,
while the temperature at 76 fathoms below the surface
was ascertained to be about three degrees higher.
Mr. Cunnington arrived at Karonga, at the head
of Lake Nyassa, at the end of June, 1904, and
travelled on to Tanganyika by the ordinary route of
the Stevenson road. His last letters from Tanga-
nyika are dated at Vua, on October 29, 1904. He
had obtained a dhow from Ujiji, which enabled him
to make his stay at different places on the lake
longer or shorter according as he found much or
little to collect. A good series of fishes had been
preserved, and many freshwater crustaceans. As re-
gards the vegetable life, Mr. Cunnington had been
much struck by the near resemblance of all the forms
obtained in Tanganyika to those which he had
collected in Nyassa, though he could not, of course,
say that they were specifically identical. From Vua,
Mr. Cunnington had arranged to cross to the east
coast of the lake, and to go some distance further
north before returning to the western shore. Mr.
Cunnington may be expected to return to England
before the end of the year.
NOTES.
Sir James Dewar has presented the proceeds of the
Gunning prize, amounting to one hundred guineas, recently
awarded to him by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, as
a contribution to the fund for the encouragement of re-
search, now being founded in the University of Edinburgh
in memory of the late Prof. Tait.
WE regret to learn from the London branch of the
Zeiss optical firm that Prof. Abbe, of Jena, died a few
days ago. We also announce with regret the death of
M. Paul Henry, astronomer at the Paris Observatory.
His brother, M. Prosper Henry, with whom he was
associated for many years in celestial photography, died
about eighteen months ago.
Tue Paris Société d’Encouragement pour 1’Industrie
nationale has awarded the grand prize of the Marquis
d’Argenteuil to MM. Auguste and Louis Lumiére for their
photographic discoveries. M. Héroult has been awarded
a grand gold medal for his works on electro-metallurgy.
Tue two Antarctic ships Terra Nova and Morning were
sold at Portsmouth on January 11. Messrs. W. Ziegler
and Co., New York, bought the Terra Nova for g6ool.,
and she will probably be used for North Polar exploration.
The Morning was sold for 16001. The Discovery has been
sold privately to the Hudson’s Bay Company for 10,0o00l.
M. L. BonnamkrRE has been elected president for 1905
of the Prehistoric Society of France.
Tue death is announced of Dr. Anton Mittrich, pro-
fessor of physics and the Academy of
Forestry at Eberswald.
mathematics in
Sir WILLIAM THIseELton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., will take the
lecture to be delivered at the West India
NO. 1838, VOL. 71 |
chair at a
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
Committee Rooms, Seething Lane, on Wednesday,
January 25, by Mr. W. G. Freeman, superintendent of
the colonial economic collections at the Imperial Institute,
on ‘‘ The West Indian Fruit Industry.’’
THE next competition for the Howard medal of the
Royal Statistical Society will take place in the ensuing
session. The essays must be sent in on or before June 30.
In addition to the medal, a grant of 2ol. will be awarded
to the successful competitor. The subject is:—‘ A Critical
Inguiry into the Comparative Prevalence of Lunacy and
other Mental Defects in the United Kingdom during the
Last Fifty Years.”
Tue death is announced of Mr. T. W. Shore, author
of a number of papers on geological and archzological
subjects. Mr. Shore was for a long time resident at
Southampton, where he acted as curator of the Hartley
Institution and secretary of the Hampshire Field Club.
At the Southampton meeting of the British Association in
1882 he was one of the secretaries of the section of
geology. On removing to London, he founded the Balham
Antiquarian Society, and became its secretary; he was
also secretary of the London and Middlesex Archzological
Society.
WE have received a letter from Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, of
Manchester, in which he suggests that irregularities of
the earth’s surface might be detected by special observ-
ations for determining the position of the northern and
southern limits of totality during the coming total solar
eclipse of August next. Unfortunately there are many
practical difficulties in the way which the author has not
discussed, but he makes one suggestion which might be
carried out. He proposes to place soldiers at short dis-
tances along the northern and southern borders of the
shadow’s path, who, by marking the positions where
the eclipse was total, might determine with greater
accuracy than is known the breadth of the moon’s shadow.
A CORRESPONDENT writes:—The death of Dr. Thomas
Woods occurred on January 5 in Birr (or Parsonstown).
Dr. Woods was born in February, 1815, and graduated as
doctor of medicine in Glasgow in 1838. He spent all
his long life as a medical practitioner and as medical
officer of the union and dispensary in Birr. So it
perhaps, not to be wondered at that his scientific work
belonged largely to a former generation. He was a
chemist, and as such took part in the early development
of photography, originating in the “forties a new wet
plate process, the ‘‘ catalysotype,’’ a detailed description
of which may be found in Hunt’s ‘“‘ History of Photo-
graphy.”’ In 1852 and 1853 he published in the Philo-
sophical Magazine some original observations on the heat
developed by chemical combination, and defended with
considerable success his claim of priority against Andrews
and Joule. He was a man of remarkable ability and
astoundingly general scientific interest, and it is much
to be regretted that circumstances kept him in a small
country town, and that his professional duties prevented
him from adding further to scientific knowledge. He,
continued mentally and bodily fresh to the very end, ever
eager to hear of the latest scientific discoveries, and Birr
feels distinctly the poorer for his loss.
is,
A ReuTeR message from Christiania states that at
Nesdal, north of Bergen, on Sunday, a of rock
slipped into the Loenvand Lake. A wave of water twenty
feet high, which resulted from the fall, swept the neigh-
bourhood, carrying away houses, people, and cattle.
mass
A
JANUARY 19, 1905]
INGA ORL,
279
As supplementary to the paragraph on the recent fall
of cliff at St. Margaret’s Bay, near Dover (NATURE,
January 12), it may be mentioned that the cliffs at St.
Margaret’s Bay, which rise from 150 to 300 feet, are
formed of the Upper Chalk, comprising soft chalk and
harder nodular bands, with scattered flints and occasional
continuous seams of flint. These beds are surmounted by
‘chalk, with many layers of flint nodules and some con-
tinuous bands of flint; and this portion of the chalk forms
‘the mass of the cliffs at St. Margaret’s Bay, the lower
beds appearing at beach level and southwards.
The general dip of the chalk is to the north-east, corre-
sponding to some’extent with the trend of the coast from
East Wear Bay to Dover and St. Margaret's. Numerous
falls of cliff have taken place along this coast for many
centuries, the greatest losses having occurred above East
Wear Bay in the great landslip of the Warren, where
notable founders in 1886.
‘Such slips along the sea-front may serve for a time to
protect the cliffs from further waste, until the débris is
removed by the breakers. Copious springs issue along the
foot of the cliffs here and there, and a powerful spring
issues at St. Margaret’s Bay. These probably had no
direct influence on the recent falls of cliff, but rather
would the slips be due to the local feeders of the springs,
to their erosive action along joints in the chalk, and to the
effects of frost. It is quite possible, as has been suggested,
that blasting operations at the Admiralty Harbour at
Dover may have accelerated the falls of cliffs at points
where they were weakened by natural agencies.
rising
occurred 1716 and again in
Tue Victorian Naturalist brings us news of the death,
‘on November 18, 1904, of Mr. J. G. Luehmann, Govern-
ment botanist and curator of the National Herbarium at
Melbourne, at the age of sixty-one. Mr. Luehmann went
to Victoria in 1862, and in 1867, on the resignation of
Mr. E. B. Heyne, secretary to the late Baron von Mueller,
Mr. Luehmann was offered the position, which he accepted,
and he remained connected with the botanical department
until shortly before his death. For many years he made
the preliminary identifications of specimens for Baron von
Mueller, becoming an authority on the eucalypts and
acacias. His great assistance was acknowledged by Baron
von Mueller in the preface to the ‘‘ Key to the System of
Victorian Plants.’’ In the early days of the Field
Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, before the institution of the
Victorian Naturalist, he contributed papers on the euca-
lypts and acacias. In 1896, on the death of Baron von
Mueller, he was appointed curator of the National Her-
barium, and afterwards became Government botanist.
During late years he contributed several descriptions of
plants to the club’s proceedings, in addition to an interest-
ing paper—observations on pre-Linnean botanists—in which
he directed attention to the many valuable botanical works
in the herbarium library. He was one of the earliest
Victorian fellows of the Linnean Society of London.
IN a paper in the Lancet (January 7) Mr. G. C.
‘Chatterjee, working under the direction of Captain L.
Rogers, I.M.S., announces that he has succeeded in culti-
vating trypanosomes from the Leishman-Donovan body
or parasite, thus confirming Captain Rogers’s previous
work in this direction.
We have received the first number of the new voiume
of the Journal of Hygiene (vol. v., No. 1), which con-
tinues to maintain its previous high standard. It contains
papers on piroplasmosis by Mr. Bowhill and by Mr. Ross,
cultivation of trypanosomata by Mr. Smedley, epidemi-
NO. 1838, VOL. 71 |
ology of plague by Mr. Hankin, a leprosy-like disease in
the rat by Mr. Dean, &c. An introductory memoir, with
a portrait, gives an account of the work of the late Sir
John Simon.
MM. SALOMONSEN AND DreyeER have conducted some ex-
periments on the effect of the radium emanations on certain
Protozoa and on the blood. The material consisted of
fifty milligrams of pure radium bromide covered with
a sheet of mica. On Nassula the radium had little effect,
even with an exposure of six days. Some amoeba were
killed in less than twelve hours, but others survived four
days. Trypanosoma Brucet was killed in from two to
three hours.
hamolytic power.
On blood corpuscles the radium exerted a
H.R.H. Princess Criristran and Mr. Chamberlain were
present on Friday last at St. George’s Hall, Liverpool,
on the occasion of a meeting in connection with
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, at which a lecture
was delivered by Major Ronald Ross, F.R.S., on “ The
Progress of Tropical Medicine.’ Major Ross, in the
course of his address, alluded to the discoveries which had
proved that yellow fever is conveyed solely by mosquitoes,
to the work of Sir William MacGregor in the suppression
of malaria in Lagos, and to the anti-malarial measures
of the Suez Canal Company, which had resulted in a re-
duction of the annual rate of malarial fevers at Ismailia
from two thousand to two hundred. He also alluded to
the fact that the Liverpool School had sent out no less
than fourteen expeditions to investigate tropical diseases
in various parts of the world.
the
Naturen for December, 1904, contains some realistic, and
perhaps rather ghastly, photographs of a python and its
prey, taken from menagerie specimens. In the first of
the series we have an unfortunate rabbit “‘ fascinated ”’
and about to be seized by a python, in the second the
rodent in the coils of the serpent, and in the third the
python commencing to devour the crushed carcase.
Tue most important, or at all events the longest and
most fully illustrated, paper in the second’ part of vol. ii.
of the quarterly issue of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Con-
tributions is one by Mr. C. Schuchert on Silurian and
Devonian cystoid echinoderms and the Camara-
crinus, in the course of which many new forms are de-
scribed, and valuable contributions made to the
morphology of the group. Among the other contents of
this issue, reference may be made to a list of west Indian
birds by Mr. J. H. Riley.
genus
some
Tue issue of Biologisches Centralblatt for January 1
contains an article by Dr. E. Rddl on the hearing of
insects, at the conclusion of which it is pointed out that
this sense is much less developed in that group than in
the higher vertebrates. The hearing of insects seems, in
fact, to be a muscular rather than a nervous sense. The
other articles include one by Mr. H. S. Skorikow on the
plankton of the Neva, in the course of which several new
forms are described, and one by Dr. O. Zacharias on
the light-organs of Ceratium tripos.
IcurHyosaurs, or the extinct marine ‘‘ fish-lizards”’ of
the Mesozoic epoch, form the subject of an article by
Prof. H. F. Osborn in the January number of the Century
Magazine. After tracing the ichthyosaurian paddle into a
limb of the type of that of the existing terrestrial tuatera
lizard (Sphenodon) of New Zealand, which is regarded as
nearly related to the ancestral stock of the group, the
280
NATURE
[JANUARY I9, 1905
author proceeds to point out how much we know with
regard to the nature of the soft-parts and the life-history
of the fish-lizards. We are aware, for instance, that they
had a dorsal and a caudal fin, a naked scaleless skin, and
a spiral valve to the intestine, similar to that of sharks;
while, from the inclusion of skeletons of foetuses within the
ribs of full-grown individuals, we also know that they
produced living young. This viviparous condition is, of
course, an adaptive modification, similar to that which
occurs in the sea-snakes of to-day, rendered necessary by
the pelagic habits of these reptiles. The similarity in
bodily form existing between sharks, dolphins, and fish-
lizards is referred to as another instance of such an
adaptive modification. Excellent illustrations—one show-
ing a female ichthyosaur and her progeny—accompany
the paper. Apparently the author is unaware that the
name Shastasaurus, proposed for a Triassic American
ichthyosaur, has been changed, on account of pre-occupa-
tion, to Merriamia.
A PAPER upon Mendel’s discoveries in heredity, read by
Mr. C. C. Hurst before the Leicester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society, gives a succinct account of Mendel’s ex-
periments, and the rules which he evolved therefrom; also
it contains a list of the chief experiments with different
plants and animals which have been carried out subse-
quently. The paper is published in the Transactions of
the society, vol. viii. (June, 1904), and in the same part
will be found a useful summary prepared by Mr. H. St. J.
Donisthorpe of additions to British Coleoptera during the
last ten years.
In the Comptes rendus, vol. xxxv., No. 6, of the
Imperial Society of Naturalists of St. Petersburg, lists of
new plants for the Crimea are given by Mr. K. Golde
and Mr. A. Younghé. Two of the most striking mentioned
by Mr. Younghé are Crambe juncea, a Persian plant,
which grows to the height of a man, and Lythrum nanum,
a dwarf Siberian plant. Both botanists make a special
reference to the freshwater plants, which include species
so familiar to us as Zannichellia pedicellata, C&nanthe
Phellandrium, and species of Potamogeton.
Tue first appendix to the Kew Bulletin for 1905,
enumerating the hardy shrubs, trees, and herbaceous
plants of which seed is available, has been received.
In our issue of January 12 (p. 255) we referred to the
prominent part taken by M. Leon Teisserenc de Bort in
the establishment of a Scandinavian station for the explor-
ation of the upper air by means of kites and unmanned
balloons. The first results of this important enterprise
have been published in a work entitled ‘‘ Travaux de la
Station Franco-Scandinave de Sondages aériens A Hald,
1902-1903,”’ a large quarto volume of 160 pages. The
station is situated on an extensive open domain belonging
to M. Krabbe, near Viborg, in Jutland, and is due to the
exertions of MM. Hildebrandsson, Paulsen, and Mascart, the
official meteorological representatives of Sweden (Upsala),
Denmark, and France. The necessary subscriptions for
carrying out the experiments have been chiefly contributed
by private persons—in Sweden, by an anonymous donor,
28,000 francs; in Denmark, 245,000 francs (including a
grant of 10,000 francs by the Danish Government); in
France, 66,100 francs (of which M. Teisserenc de Bort
contributed 50,000 francs, and a further loan of material
from Trappes valued at about 12,000 francs). The Danish
Government also lent two gunboats for kite experiments ;
the value of kite ascents from steamers at sea has been
NO. 1838, VOL. 71 |
more than ever fully established by the results obtained,
some of the kites reaching altitudes varying from 3000
to 5900 metres. The difficulty of reaching such heights is
well known to persons who have undertaken similar
experiments.
Pror. Dr. C. UnLic contributes some notes of a journey
from Kilimandjaro to Mweru to Nos. 9 and to of the
Zeitschrift of the Berlin Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. The
paper is illustrated by a number of excellent photographs.
TueE last issue of the Mitteilungen aus den deutschen
Schutzgebieten is entirely devoted to the region of the
Pacific. Dr. Born records some observations on the ethno-
graphy of the Oleai Islands, Herr Senfft describes a visit
to some of the West Caroline Islands, and there are
abstracts of meteorological observations for 1903, and maps
based on recent surveys.
Tue last number of the Deutsche geographische Blatter
contains reports of two lectures delivered to the
Vereinigung fiir staatswissenschaftliche Fortbildung at its
meeting at Bremen in November last. Dr. Tetens dis-
cussed the importance of Bremen as a centre of trade, and
gave an exhaustive statistical account of its development
and a comparison with other seaports; his paper is illus-
trated by nineteen sheets of diagrams, and should be of
great value to students and teachers of commercial geo-
graphy. Dr. W. Hochstetter lectured on the history of
the North German Lloyd.
Tue Royal Geographical Society has issued, as an extra
publication, a paper on recent contributions to our know-
ledge of the floor of the North Atlantic Ocean, by Sir
John Murray and Mr. R. E. Peake. The new material
dealt with consists chiefly of soundings from the telegraph
ships Minia and Faraday, but the chart accompanying the
paper has been fully brought up to date, and new measure-
ments of areas at different depths have been made. An
interesting correspondence with the United States Hydro-
graphic Office about the origin of the term ‘‘ telegraphic
plateau ’’ appears in the introduction.
Tue first place in the January number of the Geo-
graphical Journal is given to a striking address delivered
to the International Congress of Arts and Sciences at St.
Louis in September last by Dr. H. R. Mill. Dr. Mill’s
address is entitled ‘‘ The Present Problems of Geography,”’
by which the author means not “ the whole penumbra of
our ignorance, but those problems the solution of which
at the present time is most urgent and appears most
promising.’’ Many of his conclusions concerning the
scope and methods of geography are of profound signifi-
cance. It seems specially appropriate that the address
should immediately precede a paper on geography and
education in the same number, in which the recent articles
and correspondence in the newspapers are summarised and
discussed. Dr. Mill puts his finger on many points which
have formed real obstacles to the development of geo-
graphical teaching in schools and elsewhere.
A CORRESPONDENT of the Physikalische Zeitschrift in-
quires whether any experimental or other information
exists regarding the heeling over of a ship on one side
caused by the turning moment on the screw shaft.
Pror. R. W. Woop describes in the Physikalische Zeit-
scrift a simple experiment for showing the pressure due
to sound waves. The waves are made to converge to a
| focus by reflection, and close to this point is placed a
——
JANUARY 19, 1905]
small horizontal paddle wheel almost exactly like a
Crookes’s radiometer. If the sound waves converge to one
side of the wheel it will spin rapidly in the corresponding
direction.
From the Volta Bureau of Washington we have received
two reprints, one dealing with the so-called ‘‘ visible
speech’’ alphabet introduced into England by Dr.
Alexander Melville Bell in 1865-7, and the other being an
essay, by Dr. William Thornton, on teaching the deaf
and dumb to speak, published in 1793. The reprints are
illustrated by portraits of Drs. Bell and Thornton, and
a biographical notice also accompanies Dr. Thornton’s
paper. ;
WE have received the report for 1903-4 of the Scientisc
Society of St. Paul (Brazil), and have been able to
gather from it that the society was founded in June,
1903, the city already having a historical and geographical,
a medical and an agricultural society. It numbered in
April last fifty-six effective, four contributing, one corre-
sponding member, and two “‘ socios ouvintes,’’ a total of
sixty-three members, of whom twenty-eight were found-
ation members. The membership list now, however, shows
thirteen corresponding members. There have been held
two preliminary, one inaugural, fourteen ordinary, and
four ** economic ’’ meetings, and from the account of these
meetings the papers seem to have been interesting and
varied. A desirable improvement would be the publication
of the reports in one of the international languages.
cc
ee
THE question as to whether the trioxide of nitrogen, .
N,O,, is capable of existence has frequently been dis-
cussed, but until recently has remained unanswered owing
to the lack of experimental data. When the brown gas
produced by the action of starch or of arsenious anhydride
on nitric acid is passed through a freezing mixture, it
condenses to a blue liquid, which does not solidify at
—go°. But the determination of its vapour-density shows
that the gas is completely dissociated, and Ramsay and
Cundall showed in 1885 that no contraction takes place
when the monoxide and dioxide are mixed. The blue
solution might therefore be regarded merely as a solution
of NO in N,O,. The actual existence of the trioxide has
recently been demonstrated by Wittorff (Zeit. anorg.
Chem., vii., 209), who has investigated the freezing point
of mixtures of different composition. A liquid having the
empirical composition N,O, solidifies to a blue crystalline
solid, which melts at —103° C., and is undoubtedly the
pure trioxide. As the proportion of N,O, is increased
the freezing point at first falls to a eutectic temperature
at —112° C., and then rises to the freezing point of the
peroxide. In this way, by accurate work at low tempera-
tures, it has been possible to solve one of the long-debated
problems of inorganic chemistry.
It has long been suspected that in solution the di-
chromates might perhaps be dissociated into neutral
chromates and free chromic acid, thus,
K,Cr,0, —K,CrO,+CrO,.
Purely chemical methods have given but little inform-
ation as to the nature of the dissolved salt. As the result
of an ingenious application of physicochemical methods,
the problem has recently been solved by Abegg and Cox,
and these authors have been able actually to determine the
proportion of free chromic acid in dichromate solutions of
different concentrations. The method, which is described
in the Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie (vol. xlviii. p.
725), depends on saturating a solution of a dichromate with
meutral and basic mercuric chromates, HgCrO, and
No. 1838, VOL. 71]
NATURE
281
HgCrO,.HgO. In presence of these two salts the con-
centration of free chromic acid in the solution is main-
tained constant at 0-706 mol. per litre at 50° and 0-456
mol. at 25°, and any excess of chromic acid must be
combined either as chromate or as dichromate. It is calcu-
lated that in the case of potassium dichromate complete
dissociation occurs at a dilution of 1000 litres, whilst at
roo litres 99 per cent. of the salt is dissociated, at 10 litres
gi per cent., and at a dilution of 1 litre 62 per cent. Even
in the strongest solutions, therefore, the greater part of
the dichromate is dissociated into chromic acid and normal
chromate.
Messrs. WHITTAKER AND Co. will shortly publish a new
book entitled ‘‘ The Insulation of Electric Machines,” by
Mr. H. W. Turner and Mr. H. M. Hobart.
Messrs. GEORGE BELL AND Sons have published parts i.
and ii. of ‘‘ Elementary Algebra,’’ by Messrs. W. M.
Baker and A. A. Bourne, in one volume at qs. 6d. The
book may be had with or without answers.
Tue twenty-fourth volume of the Geographical Journal
has now been published. It contains the monthly numbers
from July to December, 1904. As usual, the volume is
richly illustrated by means of blocks and a profusion of
well executed maps. The volume should be added to the
library of every geographer and teacher of geography.
Messrs. NEWTON AND Co.’s new supplementary list of
lantern slides includes several sets which should prove
very valuable to science teachers and lecturers. Among
these instructive slides we notice photographs by Mr.
W. M. Martin illustrating the embryology of a chicken;
British birds and nests photographed by Mr. R. B. Lodge;
photographs of insects and other small forms of animal
life; photomicrographs of rock sections; and photographs
of diseases of the bone, by Dr. C. T. Holland.
A REVISED and enlarged edition of Dr. Arthur Keith’s
“Human Embryology and Morphology’’ has been pub-
lished by Mr. Edward Arnold. This edition differs from
the last in several particulars. The chapters dealing with
the early development of the human embryo and the form-
ation of the placenta and membranes have been re-written.
Much of the chapter dealing with the urogenital system
has been amended, and numerous additions have been
made in other sections of the book.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
OBSERVATIONS OF COMETS 1904 d AND 1904 e.—The
results of several observations of comets 1904 d and
1904 e, respectively, are published in a supplement to the
Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3987.
The latter object was observed at Bamberg by Prof.
Hartwig on January 1 and 2, and was seen as a circular
patch about 2’ in diameter, having a nucleus which was
not symmetrical. The magnitude of this comet has been
variously estimated. In the above observation Prof. Hart-
wig recorded it as 11-0, but Prof. Nijland, observing at
Utrecht on January 1, estimated it as 9-5, whilst Prof.
Ambronn, observing at Géttingen on January 2, found it
to be 10. The brightness at the time of discovery, as
given by M. Borrelly, was equal to the tenth magnitude.
The following is an extract from the daily ephemeris of
comet 1904 d published by Herr M. Ebell :—
12h. (M.T. Berlin).
1905 a (true) 6 (true) log x log A Bright-
by mings. eT ness
Jan. 20 ... 17 57 38 ... +44 57 ... 0'3253 -.. 0°3437 .. 0°98
ay 24... LORIE MEA Testa O12 3200) -.. 073440)... O05
1, 28... 18 29 II ... +49 IO... 0°3346 .. 0°3465 ... 0°93
Feb. 1... 18 46 10... +51 9... 0°3394 ... 0°3495 .. 0°89
» 5 +19 3 58... +53 3 - 073443 .-- 03535 -. 0°86
Brightness at time of discovery = 1.
282
EPHEMERIS FOR CoMET TEMPEL, 1904 ¢.—In No. 3986 of
the Astronomische Nachrichten M. J. Coniel gives a daily
ephemeris for Tempel’s second comet extending from
January 3 to March 2, which is a continuation of the
ephemeris published by him in No. 3971 of the same
journal. Although the southern declination of the comet
is decreasing, its R.A. is so near to that of the sun, and
the object itself is so faint, that observations will be
difficult, and only possible immediately after sunset.
The comet’s position on January 21 will be
R.A.=22h. 37m. 47s., dec.=—16° 109’.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT OF Martian Canats.—A further
contribution of observed phenomena, in support of his
theory concerning the causes which produce the seasonal
development of the canals on Mars, is published by Mr.
Lowell in the January number of Popular Astronomy.
The particular canal therein discussed is Brontes, which
is 2440 miles in length and connects along a great circle,
in nearly a north and south direction, the two important
points Linus Titanum and the Propontis.
From a study of ninety drawings made during the
period January-July, 1903, six of which are reproduced
on the plate accompanying the paper, it was seen that
the visibility of the canal increased after the summer
solstice in the northern hemisphere, and, further, on
dividing the canal into five nearly equal sections from
north to south, the section nearest the north polar cap
became strengthened first, and the others followed in order
of their north polar distance. This is plainly shown on
the visibility ‘‘ cartouches’’ given by Mr. Lowell, who
considers the phenomena as a further proof of his theory
that the visibility of a canal is due to vegetation, quickened
by the water loosened at the melting of the polar snows
and flowing towards the equator. The extension south of
the equator is considered as a probable proof of intelligent
artificial interference in the propulsion of the water.
VARIABLE STARS AND NEBULOUS AREAS IN ScoRPIO.—An
examination of thirty-three plates exposed on the large
nebulous regions mentioned in previous Circulars has led
Miss H. S. Leavitt to the discovery of 105 new variable
stars in the constellation Scorpio.
The positions of these, for 1900, their greatest and least
observed magnitudes, and their magnitude ranges are
given in No. 90 of the Harvard College Observatory
Circulars.
The most striking result of this research has been the
revelation of vast areas of diffused nebulous matter, so
faint as to be beyond visual observation. One of these
areas extends over a number of square degrees in the
constellations Ophiuchus and Scorpio, and, like the Orion
nebula, it attaches itself to individual stars, the principal
condensation being about the quadruple star p Ophiuchi.
The region is marked by an absence of faint stars, and
dark lines may be traced beyond the confines of the
nebulosity as yet seen on the plates.
Report OF THE NATAL OBSERVATORY.—The report of Mr.
E. Nevill, Government astronomer of Natal, for the year
1903, gives a brief résumé of the work accomplished at
the Durban Observatory during the period with which
the report deals, and contains a mass of information
respecting the meteorology of the colony.
The time signals have been sent out as in former years,
and Borrelly’s comet was observed regularly during its
appearance, the orbit deduced from the observations agree-
ing with those obtained at other observatories.
It is proposed to utilise the tide observations made
during the years 1884-8 in order to provide the port
authorities with tide-tables, but, owing to the construc-
tional changes in the harbour during the last few years,
it will be necessary to reduce the more recent observations
and this will require additional computing assistance.
In former years it has been customary to issue the
meteorological data compiled from the returns of the sub-
sidiary stations once each month, byt in future the returns
will be published daily. Among the numerous tables
given in the report there occurs, for the first time, a
summary of the meteorological observations made at the
Botanical Gardens, Durban, during the period 1873-1883
NO. 1838, VoL. 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
inclusive, before the institution of the Government
observatory.
Tune Jesuir Osservatory AT Been, Havana.—An
interesting illustrated account of the observatory attached
to the Jesuit College at Belen, Havana, has been written,
in Spanish, by Father Mariano Gutiérrez, S.J., the sub-
director, and contains a history of the installation of the
institution in 1857, and its proceedings since that date.
The meteorological section was first founded under the
direction of Father Antonio Cabré, S.J., in the year
named, but its position was not secured until the in-
stallation of Father Vines as director, in 1870, to the
memory of whom the author of the history pays a high
tribute, and laments his death in 1893 as an irreparable
loss.
The equipment of the observatory is fairly complete,
and includes meteorological, seismological, magnetic, and
astronomical instruments, most of which, including the
6-inch Cooke equatorial, are illustrated in the present
volume.
THE DISCOVERY OF JUPITER?S SIXTH
SATELLITE.
HE addition of a sixth satellite to the system of
Jupiter marks another triumph in Prof. Perrine’s
employment of the modified Crossley reflector. As
mentioned in a note published in ** Our Astronomical
Column ’”’ last week, Prof. Perrine first suspected the
existence of the newly discovered body from observations
made during December, 1904, but it was not until
January 4 that a further observation confirmed his
suspicion, and enabled him to open the new year with
the announcement of this important discovery.
The new satellite, so far as one may gather from the
meagre news yet to hand, is situated at a much greater
distance from its primary than any of the five previously
known. The telegram announcing the discovery gave this
distance, on January 4, as 45’, whilst that of the outer-
most of the four satellites discovered by Galileo never
exceeds 10/-5, and the fifth, the innermost of all, is not
quite half the distance from Jupiter that the moon is
from the earth.
Assuming, for the moment, that the above distance is
the outward limit of the satellite’s orbit, it should make
one revolution about its primary in about half a year,
whereas the time occupied by the fourth satellite is only
16-7 days; thus we see there is an immense gap between
the two bodies which, according to precedent, may contain
other satellites as yet undiscovered.
The recent discovery raises the number of satellites in
the solar system, discovered during the past thirty years,
to five, and it is worthy of note that the discovery of
a satellite has usually occurred at times when a new
instrument has been installed or old instruments or methods
have been improved. This fact calls to mind, although
beyond our thirty years’ limit but still dealing with the
Jovian system, that Jupiter’s four moons, Io, Europa,
Ganymede, and Callisto, or i., ii., iii, and iv. as they
are usually designated, were the first members of the
solar system to be discovered, resulting, as, they did, from
Galileo’s first use of the telescope in January, 1610.
After these, and within the past thirty years, came
Deimos and Phobos, the lilliputian attendants to Mars,
which were discovered by Prof. Asaph Hall at Washing-
ton in August, 1877, and were the first fruits of the then
recently mounted 26-inch refractor of the U.S. Naval
Observatory.
The fifth satellite of Jupiter was discovered by Prof.
Barnard on September 9, 1892, with the nearly new
giant refractor of the Lick Observatory. It is, com-
paratively, a minute object and can only be seen with
the largest telescopes under the most favourable con-
ditions. Its diameter can scarcely be greater than 100
miles, whilst the diameters of the other four, in order
of their distance from the planet, are 2400, between
2000 and 2200 (about the size of our own moon), 3000,
and 3600 miles respectively. This object revolves between
JANUARY 19, 1905]
~Io—the first satellite—and Jupiter in a _ period of
ith. 57m. 22-6s.
Following this discovery came the addition, to an already
mumerous family, of the ninth satellite of Saturn, which
was found by Prof. W. H. Pickering. The search was
commenced in 1888 with the 13-inch Boyden telescope of
the Harvard College Observatory, but was not successful
in bringing to light any previously unknown attendant on
Saturn. On the installation of the new 24-inch Bruce
telescope in the clear atmosphere of Arequipa the search,
which was photographic throughout, was renewed, and
on examining the plates taken on August 16, 17, and 18,
1898, Prof. Pickering was rewarded by the appearance
of a short trail which apparently partook of the planet’s
motion among the stars, and was, therefore, to be con-
sidered as part of its system. The story of the subse-
quent doubts and difficulties has been too recently told
(Harvard College Annals, No. 3, vol. liii.) to need re-telling
here, but it may be recalled to mind that the subsequent
observations showed that the satellite revolves in an orbit
which is far more eccentric than that of any other satellite,
or of any major planet, in the solar system, and that its
motion in that orbit is opposite in direction to the orbital
motions of the remaining eight of Saturn’s moons. Like
the fifth satellite of Jupiter, this object can only be
observed visually with the largest telescopes and under
the best conditions. As a matter of fact, it was not seen
until its position was accurately known, and even then
Profs. Barnard and H. H. Turner, using the 40-inch
refractor at Yerkes Observatory, in August last, could not
feel certain that they had really observed the object which
thad up to that time remained invisible to human eyes.
Whilst our knowledge of the most recently discovered
satellite is as yet very scanty, Prof. Perrine’s message
tells us that on January 4 its position angle was 269°, and
the daily rate of its apparent approach towards Jupiter
was 45", i.c. about 100,000 miles.
The magnitude, 14, ascribed to it is one magnitude
fainter than that of Barnard’s fifth satellite, and this
primarily suggests that the diameter may be less than
that of the fifth, although a smaller reflecting power, or
“*albedo,’? may account for the relative faintness. Its
-distance from Jupiter on January 4 would probably be about
6 million miles. The>statement that the motion was “‘ re-
trograde ’’ refers, of course, to the apparent motion in the
‘sky, and must not be confounded with a retrograde orbital
motion similar to that followed by Phoebe, Saturn’s ninth
‘satellite. Wi 2 Eom
CARBON
ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC
DIOXIDE.
HE carbonic acid of sea-water is usually supposed to
be present in combination with certain bases, which
constitute the alkalinity of the water, partly in the form
‘of normal carbonate and partly in the form of bicarbonate,
‘the total amount present being insufficient to convert the
whole of the base into the bicarbonate. Thus the water
of the North Atlantic has been found to contain 49 c.c. of
carbonic acid gas per litre, whilst 54 c.c. would be required
to convert the base completely into bicarbonate. That this
‘view is not quite correct has been shown by Dr. A. Krogh,
of Copenhagen, in a series of investigations on the carbon
dioxide of the air and ocean.*
The reaction between carbonic acid and a_ normal
carbonate to form a bicarbonate is, like so many chemical
reactions, reversible, and equilibrium is established while a
certain amount of the carbonic acid is still free. This free
carbonic acid exerts a definite gaseous pressure, which varies
with the total amount of carbon dioxide present and with
the alkalinity of the water. This pressure can very readily
be determined by simply shaking the water with a small
‘volume of air and then ascertaining by direct analysis the
pressure of the carbon dioxide in this air, which is, of
course, equal to the pressure of that in the water, since
the two have been brought into equilibrium by the shaking.
This process gives excellent results both with fresh- and
‘sea-water, and can be carried out very rapidly by the aid
1 ‘* Meddelelser om Gronland,” vol. xxvi. pp. 333, 409-
No. 1838, voL. 71]
NATURE
283
of the apparatus of Haldane or Petterson and Sonden for
the estimation of small quantities of carbon dioxide. As
the result of a careful study of the behaviour of sea-water
in this respect, it appears that a comparatively large amount
of carbon dioxide may be absorbed, whilst the correspond-
ing pressure only undergoes a very small absolute change,
provided that the alkalinity remains constant. A water,
for example, which has the alkalinity 23, and contains
36-7 c.c. of carbon dioxide per litre, is capable of absorbing
43 c.c. of the gas per litre, whilst the pressure, measured
as described above, only rises from 0.015 per cent. to 0:0295
per cent. of an atmosphere. This means that the air shaken
up with the original water would be found to contain 1-5
parts of carbon dioxide per 10,000, whilst after the further
absorption the air similarly treated would contain 2-95 parts
per 10,000.
Owing to this pressure of carbon dioxide constant inter-
change takes place between every water surface, whether
of sea-water or of fresh-water, and the air above it, result-
ing in evolution from the water or absorption by it accord-
ing as the pressure of carbon dioxide in the water or the
air is the greater. The effect of this is that the ocean acts
as a regulator on the amount of carbon dioxide in the air,
tending to compensate for any deviation from the normal
proportion. The pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is at
present about 0-03 per cent. of an atmosphere (3 volumes
per 10,000), the absolute amount in the whole atmosphere
being calculated as 2-4x10'* tons, whilst the quantity con-
tained in the entire mass of the sea may be taken as twenty-
seven times as great as this. j
In order to increase the proportion of the atmospheric
carbon dioxide to 0-04 per cent. it would be necessary, of
course, in the first place to add one-third of the amount
already present. The pressure thus attained would, how-
ever, be gradually decreased by absorption by the sea, and
it follows from the author’s experiments that in order to
bring the ocean into equilibrium with the altered atmo-
sphere a further addition of twice the amount originally
present would be required, a total change involving the
production of 5-6xX10** tons of carbon dioxide! A calcula-
tion of this kind goes far to explain the constancy of com-
position of the atmosphere, which at first sight appears so
remarkable, and to indicate the enormous changes required
to produce any considerable variation in it.
The interchange of carbon dioxide between sea and air,
moreover, is by no means a slow process, but takes place
with remarkable rapidity. Thus a pressure difference
between sea and air of only 0-001 of an atmosphere, i.e. the
presence in the air of an additional o-1 part of carbon
dioxide per 10,000, leads to the absorption of 0-525 c.c. of
this gas per square centimetre of ocean surface per year,
or a total annual absorption of 3-85 x 10° tons.
The author considers from this point of view the effect
on the composition of the atmosphere of the combustion of
coal, which annually throws into the air about one-
thousandth of the carbon dioxide already present in it, so
that, apart from any regulating action of the sea, in a
thousand years—if the coal lasted—the percentage propor-
tion would be doubled, rising from 3 to 6 volumes per
10,000, and rendering the air almost unfit for continued
respiration. Before the proportion rose to 3-1 volumes per
10,000, however, the sea would be able to absorb the gas
as fast as it was produced, and, owing to the large volume
required to bring the ocean water into equilibrium with the
air, it is probable that at the expiration of the thousand
years the proportion of carbon dioxide in the air would not
be more than 3-5 volumes per 10,000.
Many other interesting questions of great importance in
the economy of nature are capable of being attacked from
this point of view and subjected to experimental investi-
gation. Such are the rate of deposition of calcium
carbonate from hard waters, the rate of solution of limestone
and chalk in natural waters, the absorption of carbon
dioxide by rocks and soils, &c.
On the great question as to whether the production of
carbon dioxide is on the whole greater or less than its de-
composition nothing certain is known. Indications are not
wanting, however, that this constituent of the atmosphere
is increasing in quantity. The chief evidence to this effect
is derived from the fact that over the sea the pressure of
284
this gas is distinctly lower than over the land. This would
appear to be most easily accounted for on the assumption
that the pressure of carbon dioxide in the sea is constantly
lower than that in the air, and that, therefore, the air must
be steadily deriving supplies of the gas from some source,
by means of which this difference of pressure is maintained.
A. HARDEN.
CONFERENCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL SCIENCE
MASTERS.
THE annual meeting of the Public School Science
Masters’ Association was held for the second time at
Westminster School on January 14, by kind permission
of Dr. Gow, who had undertaken the duties of president
and occupied the chair. A letter was read by the honorary
secretary, Mr. W. A. Shenstone, from Sir Michael Foster
explaining why he had not been able to act as president.
The meeting then occupied itself with business matters,
and Sir Oliver Lodge was unanimously elected president
for the ensuing year.
In the short address with which Dr. Gow opened the
conference, he expressed the opinion that every boy should
be taught natural science, and this pronouncement, coming
as it does from a classical headmaster, is of very great
importance at the present moment, as Prof. Armstrong
was not slow to point out. It was no doubt elicited by
the subject of the first paper, namely, the importance of
including both Latin and science in a scheme of general
education. This was read by Mr. Douglas Berridge, of
Malvern College. In the paper the necessity of a
general education was discussed, and the report of the
committee upon the education of army officers was taken
as a guide. In this it is laid down that English, mathe-
matics, one modern language, Latin, and science are
essential to a sound general education; but what is very
strange, the framers of the report proceed to propose
that all future officers of our Army should be debarred
from obtaining what was considered necessary by the
proposal that Latin and science should be optional and
alternative subjects. In addition to the injury which a
one-sided education inflicts upon the individual, Mr.
Berridge pointed out a greater and more far-reaching
danger to our nation as a whole. He urged that the
present trend of education, as represented by London Uni-
versity (in its matriculation and school leaving examin-
ation), by Oxford and Cambridge (in their school leaving
examinations), and by the Civil Service Commissioners
and the Army entrance examinations, is sharply to divide
Englishmen into two classes, the one trained on literary
lines, leavened only by a modicum of mathematics, the
other on scientific lines, leavened only by a smattering of
French. Could it be, Mr. Berridge asked, to the advantage
of any nation that its future rulers and organisers should
thus be grouped into two opposing camps, of which, while
they mutually despise one another, neither is able to under-
stand the very method of reasoning adopted by the other?
Mr. Berridge was able to support his contention by figures,
for on application to all our public schools he had found
that for the Army and matriculation examinations 45-6 per
cent. of the boys now learn Latin and 54-4 per cent.
learn science.
The discussion showed that while the need of a literary
as well as a scientific training was thoroughly recog-
nised, many speakers did not agree with Mr. Berridge
that Latin was the best means of acquiring the former.
It is true that Father Cortie (Stonyhurst) found that the
best classical boys were most successful in science, but
Prof. Armstrong said that no honest attempt had ever
been made in this country to afford a literary training
through any other language, and though Latin had proved
very efficient in a few instances, in the vast majority of
cases it was not. He maintained, also, that Latin trans-
lation did not give style. Finally, Prof. Armstrong
characterised the making of science alternative to Latin
in Army examinations as illogical and preposterous. Dr.
Gow said that he never regarded Latin as a literary train-
ing, but as a scientific one, and referred to his opening
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
remarks, in which he had characterised the words as
typical and exceptional genera and species, and parsing
as scientific classification.
The paper dealing with recent proposals for school
leaving certificates, by Mr. C. I. Gardiner, of Chelten-
ham, dealt with what has been done on the Continent, and
afterwards with the regulations at present suggested to
the Board of Education by its consultative committee.
The paper welcomed, as did many of the speakers after-
wards, what is not very happily expressed as State inter-
ference. Many of the Board of Education’s proposals were
characterised by Mr. Gardiner as too vague, upon very
good grounds. In the discussion, surprise was expressed
that Mr. Gardiner had not mentioned what has been done
recently in Ireland. It was recommended, also, that the
Board of Education should get to know the schools before
it suggested too much, and that its interference should
be taken in small doses. Mr. W. A. Shenstone fancied he
saw the edge of red tape in some of the proposals, while
Father Cortie thought there was a danger that education
might become stereotyped, so that special traits of certain
schools would not be given free play. He hoped that
inspectors with fads or insufficient knowledge would
not interfere as they had done in elementary schools, and
would not say, for instance, ‘‘ your ‘labs’ are not so
good as those in the primary schools (which are built
with the ratepayers’ money), you must erect new ones.”
The third paper dealt with the use and misuse of
terms in science teaching. It was contributed by Mr.
T. L. Humberstone, of Toynbee Hall, who took exception
to the loose way in which words, law, theory, hypothesis,
and so on were used. He pointed out what the real
meanings of the words were, and objected strongly to
the idea that the experiments in practical mathematics
‘“ proved ’’ the laws that they were intended to illustrate.
Prof. Tilden agreed with Mr. Humberstone in regard to
the misuse of terms, and said that professional scientific
men were just as much to blame as schoolmasters. He
thought that if boys were taught a little logic before they
left school many mistakes would be prevented. He was
amazed at the statement incidentally made by Mr.
Humberstone as to there being too much laboratory work
done in schools, and he pointed out that every discovery
of the organic chemists was additional evidence in
favour of the atomic theory which Mr. Humberstone
thought was tottering. Mr. Fletcher, of the Board of
Education, said that there was a widespread misappre-
hension as to the place of practical work in geometry.
It was not possible to prove anything by the experiments
used, but it was most important to get approximations
which could be idealised into conceptions. They were
| mecessary to create a state of mind and to commend
postulates to common sense. Mr. Sanderson thought that
some of the practical work set to boys was superfluous,
and might well be replaced by good experiments shown
by the master. Mr. Humberstone, in answer to a ques-
tion from Mr. Shenstone, said that he thought ten or
twelve hours a week was longer than was required for
laboratory work, and he further said, with regard to
superfluous work, that when a boy had learned how to
obtain one gas properly it was not necessary for him to
produce all the others.
The last paper was by Mr. F. B. Stead, of Clifton, and
was on the possibility of teaching scientific method to
boys whose education is almost entirely literary, and who
have no time for a regular course in chemistry and
physics. It was suggested that older boys in the Vth
form should be given some definite piece of work to be
carried out in detail, in order that they might under-
stand (1) the method of experiment and observation by
which facts are ascertained; (2) the process of reasoning
from particular instances to general laws; and (3) the use
of explanatory theories and their verification.
Prof. Armstrong considered the paper to be one of very
great value, and suggested that the term ‘* experimental ’”
should be used instead of ‘‘ scientific,’’ bearing in mind
what Dr. Gow had said in connection with Latin as
scientific training. He also asked what place there would
be in the near future for boys who only had had a literary
education. WILFRED MARK WEBB.
JANUARY 19, 1905]
NATURE
285
PRIZE AWARDS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF
EDINBURGH.
At a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on
January 9 the prizes awarded by the council were
presented by the chairman, Prof. J. Geikie. We have
received the following particulars of the awards :—
The Gunning Victoria Jubilee prize for 1900-4 was
awarded to Sir James Dewar, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., &c.,
for his researches on the liquefaction of gases, extending
over the last quarter of a century, and on the chemical and
physical properties of substances at low temperatures,
his earliest papers being published in the Transactions
and Proceedings of the society.
In 1867 Mr. James Dewar read a paper to this society
on the oxidation of phenol to oxalic acid. This, his
first contribution to the aromatic compounds, was followed
by a more important one on the oxidation of picoline,
which he gave to the British Association in 1868, and in
a fuller form to this society in 1870. In this he proposed
a graphic formula of pyridine, which expresses the relation
between the constitution of benzene and that of pyridine,
now universally recognised.
Dewar’s experiments on the liquefaction of gases extend
over the last quarter of a century, and have culminated
in the production of liquid and solid hydrogen in large
quantities, so that as thirty-five years ago he studied the
chemical and physical properties of hydrogenium solidified
in palladium, he has now given us the properties of the
solid element, hydrogen itself. Having thus in his hands
the means of preparing large quantities of liquefied gases,
and having devised most ingenious arrangements for keep-
ing these very volatile liquids for a long time with only
a small loss from evaporation, he made good use of the
Opportunity for examining the chemical and _ physical
properties of substances at extremely low temperatures.
The results of these inquiries are of the highest interest
and importance. For this long series of investigations in
chemistry and physics, characterised by ingenuity, skill,
and perseverance, and crowned with success, the council
has awarded to Sir James Dewar the Gunning Victoria
Jubilee prize.
The Keith prize for 1901-3 was awarded to Sir William
Murner, KiGiB., LLeDaeF-ReS-) &c., for his memoir
entitled ‘‘ A Contribution to the Craniology of the People
of Scotland,’’ published in the Transactions of the society,
and for his ‘‘ Contribution to the Craniology of the People
of the Empire of India,” parts i., ii., likewise published
in the Transactions of the society.
These memoirs, important as they are, form a com-
paratively small part of the work which Sir William
Turner has done in the field of physical anthropology.
More especially should notice be taken of the two elaborate
reports which he published on the crania and other bones
of the human skeleton which were collected by the
Challenger Expedition. These reports are not only
valuable on account of the information which they convey
regarding the physical characters of many races of man-
Ikind, but also because they establish methods of cranio-
logical and anthropometrical research which have very
generally been accepted in this country by workers in the
same field.
Four great leaders have been chiefly instrumental in
developing that branch of science which has received the
name of physical anthropology: Broca in France, Huxley
and Flower in England, Turner in Scotland.
The Makdougall-Brisbane prize for 1902-4 was awarded
to Mr. John Dougall, M.A., for his paper on an analytical
theory of the equilibrium of an isotropic elastic plate,
published in the Transactions of the society.
The problem of the deformation of an isotropic elastic
plate under given forces has occupied the attention of
mathematicians from the time of Lamé. The solution
given by Lamé himself is merely formal; the integrals
by which that solution is expressed are not only very
complicated, but are not convergent, and they do not
lead to the approximate theory.
NO. 1838, VoL. 71]
In his memoir Mr. Dougall makes a new departure, and
develops a method that has important applications in other
branches of applied mathematics. By an exceedingly
skilful use of Cauchy’s theory of contour integration,
certain integrals, which in Lamé’s solution are not con-
vergent, are transformed into highly convergent series,
and the modifications which are necessary to secure con-
vergence lead at once to the most significant terms of
the solution. The theorem of Betti is applied to develop
a method, analogous to the method of Green’s function
in the theory of the potential, by which the properties of
the solution for a finite plate can be deduced from that
for an infinite plate, and here, as elsewhere throughout
the memoir, numerous results are obtained which have
great value both for pure and for applied mathematics.
The memoir confirms the ordinary approximate theory,
but extends it in various directions; for example, the
edge conditions given by Kirchhoff in correction of Poisson
are found directly from the mathematical investigation,
without the aid of any special physical hypothesis, and are
carried to a higher degree of approximation than by
Kirchhoff himself. The memoir contains much acute
analysis, and strikes out a new method of treating the
problems of mathematical physics that seems likely to be
of great value in future investigations.
The Neill prize for the period 1901-4 was awarded to
Prof. John Graham Kerr, M.A., for his researches on
Lepidosiren paradoxa, published in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, London.
This work includes an account of the embryological
material collected during an expedition specially organised
for the purpose to the Grand Chaco of South America in
the years 1896-7. The general biology and habits of
Lepidosiren are described, the external features of develop-
ment are fully dealt with, and in a discussion of the
general bearings of the phenomena considered reference
is made to, amongst other things, the relations of the
protosoma to the body of the vertebrate, to the origin
of the spiral valve, and to the morphological significance
of the external gills which it is suggested are the persist-
ing representatives of the organs from which the limbs
of vertebrates have been evolved.
After the presentation of the prizes, Sir James
Dewar gave a lecture on the properties of liquid
air, with special reference to charcoal vacua, being a
sequel to a paper communicated to the society by Prof.
Tait and himself in 1875 (see Nature, vol. xif. p. 217).
Many of the familiar properties of liquid air were demon-
strated by a series of experiments. Of particular interest
were its use as a calorimeter and its employment in cool-
ing charcoal in a vacuum tube so as greatly to diminish
the density of the rarefied gas. By this means the tube
gradually passed through all the well known stages from
the ordinary bright discharge to the condition of evident
striation and so to the Réntgen ray stage, and finally to
the non-conducting state. When the liquid air was re-
moved the charcoal gradually heated up to the ordinary
temperature, and the tube passed back again through
the stages in the reverse order. The phosphorescence at
very low temperatures of certain substances not phosphor-
escent at ordinary temperatures was also demonstrated ;
also the production of luminous effects due to the electrifi-
cation of a certain crystal on being cooled down to the
temperature of liquid air.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Campripce.—Mr. R. H. Lock has been appointed
assistant curator of the herbarium for four years from
January 1. He succeeds Mr. Yapp, who was some time
ago elected professor of botany at Aberystwyth.
Prof. Sorley has been appointed chairman of the ex-
aminers for the moral sciences tripos.
The Sedgwick Museum Building Syndicate has issued
a final report, from which it appears that the total cost
286
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
of the building and fittings is 49,389]. 2s. 3d., of which
sum 26,1251. has been furnished by the Sedgwick memorial
trustees, besides 10501. appropriated to the bronze statue
sculptured by Mr. Onslow Ford.
In connection with the recently established diploma and
final examination for the degree in geography, the Board
of Geographical Studies has issued a list of eight lectures
which amply cover the syllabus for these examinations.
Besides the lectures on geography in general by Mr. Yule
Oldham, Mr. Hinks is lecturing on geographical survey-
ing, Dr. Marr on geomorphology, and Dr. Haddon on
anthropogeography.
The recently established board of anthropology announce
some thirteen courses of lectures which seem to embrace
the world, ancient and modern. Prof. Ridgeway deals
with Greek and Roman numismatics, Mr. Green with
Egyptology, Mr. Johns with Assyriology and the social
customs of Babylonia, Mr. Chadwick with those of the
Anglo-Saxons, whilst Dr. Haddon lectures on the ethnology
of Southern Asia, Baron von Higel on the Melanesians
and Polynesians, and Mr. Minns on the ancient ethnology
of eastern Europe. Special courses on the sacred character
and magical functions of kings in early society, and on
physical anthropology, are to be delivered by Mr. Veo kee
Frazer and Mr. Duckworth.
Lonpon.—The Drapers’ Company has voted to Uni-
versity College the sum of 4ool. a year for the next five
years towards assisting further the statistical work and
higher teaching of the department of applied mathematics.
The Mercers’ Company has voted the sum of roool. for
providing for the chair of physiology at the college. Dr.
Atkinson has been appointed an honorary demonstrator in
the department of organic chemistry.
EprxnpurGH.—The Senate has submited a resolution to
the University Court expressing the view that the time
has come for the recognition of geography as a subject
for graduation in arts and science, and requesting that
the court should take steps as soon as possible to obtain
such alteration of the ordinances as may be necessary to
that end. It was agreed that when the framing of a
new and amending ordinance in arts comes before the
court, the question of giving an adequate position to
geography shall be given due consideration.
Duptin.—The Provost and senior fellows of Trinity
College have accepted an offer made by Sir John Nutting,
of St. Helens, county Dublin, to endow for a period of
five years ten annual entrance exhibitions each of the
value of tool. (sol. per annum for two years). The
exhibitions are to be awarded without further examin-
ation, and at the discretion of the Board of Trinity College,
to ten young men or women who have competed with
success at the senior or middle grade examinations of
the Board of Intermediate Education in Ireland. The
exhibitions will be confined to pupils of Irish secondary
schools (Protestant and Roman Catholic) which have no
other endowment than the “‘ results fees’’ of the Inter-
mediate Board, any other endowment to act as a dis-
qualification.
Mr. Stantey H. Turner, assistant in political economy
at Glasgow, has been appointed lecturer in political
economy in the University of Aberdeen, and a full qualify-
ing course of lectures will in future be given by him.
Dr. Kart Boerum, of Heidelberg, and Dr. Hugo Kauf-
mann, of Stuttgart Technical College, have been appointed
extraordinary professors for mathematics and chemistry
respectively.
recently made an offer
of England to found
husband, the late Mr.
Macloghlin proposes, in
husband’s death, to give
Mrs. MACLoGHLIn,
to the Royal College
scholarships in memory of
E. Percy P. Macloghlin. Mrs.
five years from the date of her
to the college a sum of 10,0001. for the purpose of endow-
ing these scholarships, which are intended to assist young
students in need of financial help to proceed with their
professional studies. The council of the college has
accepted Mrs. Macloghlin’s munificent offer, and has agreed
to administer the trust.
NO. 1838, VoL. 71]
of Southport,
of Surgeons
her
Tue president of the Board of Education has appointed
the Right Hon. R. B. Haldane, K.C., M.P., to be chair-
man of the departmental committee which is inquiring
into the present and future working of the Royal College
of Science and Royal School of Mines, South Kensington,
in succession to Sir Francis Mowatt, G.C.B., who will,
however, remain a member of the committee. It may be
remembered that the terms of reference to the committee
are as follows:—To inquire into the present working of
the Royal College of Science, including the School of
Mines; to consider in what manner the staff, together with
the buildings and appliances now in occupation or in course
| of construction, may be utilised to the fullest extent for
the promotion of higher scientific studies in connection
with the work of existing or projected institutions for
instruction of the same character in the metropolis or
elsewhere; and to report on any changes which may be
desirable in order to carry out such recommendations as
they may make.
Tue annual meeting of the Incorporated Association of
Headmasters was held at the Guildhall on January 11
and 12. In his presidential address, the Rev. James Went
said that, speaking broadly, the difference between the
English and the German educational ideal has been that
the Germans have recognised the paramount importance
of secondary education and the English have not. It is,
however, being recognised gradually that the word
““ secondary ’’ connotes, not a social distinction, but one
of attainment. The recognition of this fact is, Mr. Went
believes, largely due to boys of ability and good character
who, under the name of exhibitioners or county council
scholars, have during the last thirty years been admitted
freely into grammar schools, and of whom many have
afterwards won the highest distinctions at the universi-
ties. It appears likely that the number of boys of this.
class will be increased as time goes on. The address also
dealt with the education of pupil teachers at secondary
schools and with the recent regulations for secondary
schools issued by the Board of Education. The following
resolution was adopted :—‘‘ That this association regards.
the new regulations for secondary schools with satisfac-
tion in general, but regrets that the Board of Education
does not provide (a) for the calculation of grants upon
terminal attendance; (b) for the recognition of advanced
courses to follow upon the existing four-years’ course ;:
(c) for ensuring comparative freedom of curricula to schools.
satisfying certain tests of a higher liberal education ;
(d) for an elastic percentage division of the whole school
time when prescribing for groups of subjects, in place of
the existing rigid minima of hours or periods in each
week. A rider was adopted also declaring that the
financial basis on which grants are calculated is not at
all adequate, and protesting against any application of
the new regulations to secondary schools hitherto earn-
ing grants from the board, which would result in such:
schools receiving grants on a lower basis than in the past.
At the second day’s meeting of the Incorporated Associ-
ation of Headmasters the following resolutions were
adopted after discussion :—(1) That in the opinion of this.
association it is desirable that the universities should
institute a twofold entrance examination (a) for candidates:
proceeding to degrees in arts, in general as at present,
but with a higher standard in literary subjects ; (b) for
candidates proceeding to degrees in mater and
science, with a modern language, including translation at
sight, composition, and an oral test, as an alternative
for Greek. (2) That the provision for papers in English
and history, and for the omission of Paley’s ‘‘ Evidences ’”
from the Cambridge previous paper as laid down in the
first report of the Cambridge Studies Syndicate, should
be insisted upon in examinations under both (a) and (b),
above. (3) That a new degree in mathematics and in
science should be instituted, differing in title from the
degree in arts, but of precisely the same university stand-
ing. The Rev. R. D. Swallow, in moving the resolu-
tions, said he would not add anything to the arguments
on either side of the vexed question as to whether the
study of Greek is to be compulsory for students who
sought admission to the ancient universities. It is a
January 19, 1905]
NATURE
287
question which has often been debated by the association,
and now in later years, as the subject has assumed a
more prominent place in all questions about the curricula
of the universities and the secondary schools, the associ-
ation has gradually focussed its view of it in favour of
relaxation for candidates for admission at the university
who are able to prove themselves worthy of high honours
in mathematics or natural science.
Mr. ARNOLD-ForstER, Secretary of State for War,
attended on Monday the first lecture of a course on
military history and strategy at the University of London;
and at the conclusion of the lecture spoke on army educa-
tion. In the course of his remarks, he said :—If we have
had one thing more than another to admire in the great
military example in the Far East, it is the way in which
the officers’ corps of a great and friendly nation have
succeeded in combining the maximum of devotion with
the maximum of intelligence in the effective service of
their country. In our Army we can find officers in every
rank and branch of the service who will challenge com-
parison with the officers of any army in the world; but
the diffusion of intelligence and education throughout the
officers of the Army is not so great as it ought to be.
This is not peculiar to the Army; it is characteristic of
every profession in the country; and what this country
is now feeling acutely is that we have so long subsisted
on an educational basis inadequate to the needs of modern
life. The time has come for the public schools to render
to the Army greater service than they do now. Numbers
of young men come up for the Army from the public
schools with a totally inadequate knowledge of the
language of every country but their own, and with an
inadequate knowledge of the history and literature of their
own country, as well as of the history and literature of
every other country. That must all be changed. Young
men ought to come up from the public schools instructed in
the great science of geography. Now they are practically
without any knowledge whatever of one of the sciences
which, more than any other, is the reasonable foundation
for the studies of an officer in the Army. There is an
extraordinary lack in this country—which of all others
ought to be well posted in this branch of science—of a
proper knowledge of geography. We might be compelled
to establish in this country for the Army schools like
those which have been already established for the Navy,
or like the college at West Point in the United States.
The time has almost come when it would be wise to
establish a great college like West Point, where the equip-
ment, staff, and method should be as complete as possible,
and where candidates should be taken not only for the
Army, but for all the great departments of the State, and
where even those who have no intention of entering the
service of the State may be allowed to receive instruction.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, January 9.—M. Troost in the
chair.—The external or superficial conductivity represent-
ing for a given body the cooling power of a fluid current:
J. Boussinesq.—The micrographical study of the meteorite
of the Diablo Canyon: H. Moissan and F. Osmond.
The micrographical study of this meteorite has shown that
the metallic parts, apparently homogeneous, frequently
contain irregular microscopic nuclei formed of superposed
layers of phosphide and carbide of iron. A detailed ex-
amination of nodules which have not been submitted to
external oxidation made it clear that they are formed
of sulphide of iron surrounded by successive layers of iron
phosphide and carbide. In certain cases the laminated
structure of the nodules showed that they had been sub-
mitted to very considerable pressures.—Trypanosomiasis
and the tsetse-fly in French Guinea: A. Laveran. Speci-
mens of Glossina, or the tsetse-fly, have been found in
all parts of French Guinea, and in places where the
existence of diseases due to trypanosomes has been already
demonstrated. These trypanosomes attack horses as well
as human beings, and a detailed account of the course
of the disease in a horse, together with the results of a
No. 1838, voL. 71]
post-mortem examination of the animal, are given.—
Observations on the Borrelly comet (December 28, 1904)
made with the large equatorial at the Observatory of
Bordeaux : G. Rayet. Two sets of observations were made
on December 31, 1904, and one on January 2. On the
latter evening the sky was clear, and the comet appeared
as a nearly round nebulosity of about 1’ in diameter,
possessing a stellar nucleus of the thirteenth magnitude.
—On a method of reading large surfaces of mercury: A.
Berget. A collimator with a well illuminated very narrow
slit is placed behind the column to be read, and an un-
graduated thermometer tube in front. A luminous line,
the focal line of a cylindrical mirror, is formed, and ends
with great sharpness at a fixed point, which can be read
off in a cathetometer with an accuracy of o-o1 mm.—
The attraction observed between liquid drops suspended in
a liquid of the same density: V. Crémieu. Drops of
olive oil, suspended in a mixture of alcohol and water of
as nearly as possible the same density as the oil, ascend
or descend in a vertical straight line, with extreme slow-
ness, if precautions against changes of temperature and
shaking are taken. If two or more drops are present in
the dilute alcohol at the same time, there is an attraction
between the two drops which is manifested by their follow-
ing curved paths instead of vertically straight ones.—On
the photogenic radio-active properties of calcined coral
placed in a radiant vacuum and submitted to the influence
of the kathode rays: Gaston Séguy. Amongst various
substances examined calcined coral (carbonate of lime and
magnesia) gave the most intense phosphorescence as
measured by the action on a photographic plate. Phos-
phorescent coral excites the fluorescence of barium platino-
cyanide screens, and is very rich in ultra-violet rays.—
Concerning the action of very low temperatures on the
phosphorescence of certain sulphides: F. P. Le Roux.
The maximum potential light energy which can be in-
duced in a given phosphorescent body by a given light is
independent of the temperature. Variations of temperature
can only have an influence on the velocity of transform-
ation of the potential into the actual light energy,—On
a supposed demonstration of the existence of the n-rays by
photographic methods: M. Chanoz and M. Perrigot.
The authors have repeated an experiment of M. Bordier’s
on the photographic detection of the n-rays emitted by
tempered steel, with contrary results. They find that two
equal masses of lead and tempered steel, placed identically
on screens comparable as to thickness and insolation, never
give different halos, whatever may be the duration of
the exposure.—The special sensibility of the physiological
ear for certain vowels: M. Marage.—On the fluorides
of indium and rubidium: C. Chabrié and A. Bouchonnet.
The fluoride of indium was prepared by dissolving the
hydroxide of the metal in hydrofluoric acid, and was
found on analysis to possess the composition In,F,.18H,O.
It emits acid vapours, and is completely decomposed on
ignition to redness. On treating rubidium carbonate with
hydrofluoric acid and evaporating to dryness the acid
fluoride RbF.HF is obtained.—The limit of the reaction
between diazobenzene and aniline: Léo Vignon. Amino-
azobenzene does not react with diazobenzene either in
aqueous or alcoholic solution. Aniline reacts with diazo-
aminoazobenzene chloride in presence of potassium carbonate
giving a diazoamine.—Camphene, camphenylone, _ iso-
borneol, and camphor: L. Bouveault and G. Blanc.
The tertiary alcohol, methyleamphenylol, was prepared
from camphenylone by Grignard’s reaction. The reaction
of this alcohol with pyruvic acid at 140°-150° C. has been
studied.—On the diastatic coagulation of starch: J. Wolff
and A. Fernbach.—The estimation of carbon monoxide
in confined atmospheres: Albert Lévy and A. Pécoul.
The authors utilise the reaction first indicated by M.
Gautier between carbon monoxide and iodic anhydride at
80° (., modifying the method by receiving the vapours of
iodine in a small quantity of pure chloroform. The amount
of iodine set free is ascertained calorimetrically by com-
parison with a set of sealed tubes containing known quanti-
ties of iodine. It is possible in this way to measure in four
litres of air only down to 1/200,000 of carbon monoxide
by volume. A test analysis with an artificially prepared
atmosphere is given to show the accuracy of the method.
re.)
88
—On the rational estimation of gluten in wheaten flour :
E. Fleurent. It is shown that by taking certain pre-
cautions as to the temperature and lime contents of the
wash water, and fixing the time of washing, it is possible
to obtain results by the mechanical method which agree
well with the chemical method.—Physicochemical re-
searches on hamolysis: Victor Henri.—The comet e 1904,
discovered December 28, 1904, at the Observatory of
Marseilles: M. Borretly.—The provisional elements of the
new Borrelly comet (1904 December 28): G. Fayet and
E. Maubant.—On the isochronism of the pendulum in
the astronomical clock: Ch. Féry. For an amplitude
between 2° 13’ and 2° 29’, that is, for a variation of
amplitude of about 9 mm., the variation of the rate was
nil, or there was a minimum for the time of oscillation.
This result is probably due to a want of isochronism of
the escapement.—On the value of the magnetic elements
on January 1: Th. Moureaux.—Osmotic communication
in fishes between the internal and external media: Jean
Gautrelet. Referring to a recent paper by M. Quinton,
the author directs attention to a paper of his bearing on
the same subject published in 1902.—On the infection of
Padda oryzivora by Trypanosoma paddae and by Haltert-
dium Danilewskyi: M. Thiroux.
INDIA.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, December 7, 1904.—The
lizards of the Andamans, with the description of a new
gecko and a note on the reproduced tail in Ptychozoon
homocephalum: N. Annandale. Out of the nine geckos
recorded from the Andamans, five or possibly six would
seem to have been carried thither by man. The remaining
three are indigenous. One of the three is very nearly
related to forms on the nearest mainland, the second has
Malabar affinities, and the third Madagascan. The author
describes Gonatodes Andersonit—a new species. The scales
of the reproduced part of the tail, dorsal and ventral sur-
faces, of Ptychozoon homocephalum are slightly smaller
than those of the uninjured part, and the dorsal tubercles
are absent; also the loose membrane is narrower, asym-
metric, and not lobed. This last point is important, as
Miller had thought the lobes of specific importance.—The
occurrence of an aquatic glow-worm in India: N.
Annandale. A glow-worm larva of aquatic habit has
been found in a tank in the neighbourhood of Calcutta.
The only other aquatic glow-worm recorded was found in
Lower Siam.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, January 19.
Rovat Scciety, at 4.30.—The Dual Force of the Dividing Cell. Part i.
The Achromatic Spindle Figure illustrated by Magnetic Chains of
Force: Prof. M. Hartog.—Note on the Effects produced on’Rats by the
Trypanosomata of Gambia Fever and Sleeping Sickness: H. G. Plim-
mer.—Further Histological Studies on the Localisation of Cerebral
Function. The Brains of Felis, Canis, and Sus, compared with that of
Homo: Dr. A. W. Campbell.—Experiments on the Nature of the
Opsonic Action of the Blood Serum: Dr. W. Bulloch and E. E. Atkin.
LinNnEAN Society, at 8.—Botanical Collecting : Dr. A. Henry —On the
Cranial Osteology of the Families Osteoglossidz, Pantodontidz, and
Phractolemidez: Dr. W. G. Ridewood.
Society or ARTS, at 4.30.—The Gates of Tibet:
FRIDAY, JANUARY 20.
Roya. INsTITUTION, at 9.—New Low Temperature Phenomena:
J. Dewar, F.R.S.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Some Impressions of
American Workshops: A. J. Gimson.—Waterworks Pumping Engines in
the United States and Canada: J. Barr.—Some Features in the Design
and Construction of American Planing Machines: A. Kenrick, jun.
Engines at the Power Stations, and at the St. Louis Exhibition:
A. Saxon.
Douglas W. Freshfield.
Sir
MONDAY, January 23.
SoctoLocicaL Society, at 8.—Civics: as Applied Sociology, Part ii:
Prof. Patrick Geddes.
Royat GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.30.—The Great Zimbabwe and
other Ancient Ruins in Rhodesia: R. N. Hall.
SociETY oF ARTs, at 8.—Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain Pens:
J. P. Maginnis.
TUESDAY, January 24.
Roya. INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure and Life of Animals:
L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
[NsTITUTION OF CiviIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Notes on the Working of the
Shone System of Sewerage at Karachi : Hotlse
Douglas, Isle of Man: E. H. Stevenson
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.
President’s Address, &c.
NO. 1838, VOL. 71]
Prof.
d E. K. Burstal.
30.—Annual General
Meeting.
3runton.—The Sewerage of |
NATURE
[JANUARY I9, 1905
WEDNESDAY, January 25.
Society or Arts, at 8.—London Electric Railways: Hon. Robert P.
Porter.
THURSDAY, January 26.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: On the Boring of the
Simplon Tunnel, and the Distribution of Temperature that was En-
countered : Francis Fox.—On the Comparison of the Platinum Scale of
Temperature with the Normal Scale at Temperatures between 444° and
~190°C., with Notes on Constant Temperatures below the Melting
Point of Ice: Prof. M. W. Travers, F.R.S., and A. S. C. Gwyer.—On
the Modulus of dosing piveidity, “of Quartz Fibres, and its Tempera-
ture Coefficient: Dr. Horion.—On a Method of Finding the Con-
ductivity for Heat : Be C. Niven, F.R.S.—Exterior Ballistics. ‘* Error
of the Day” and other Corrections to Naval Range-Tables: Prof.
G. Forbes, F.R.S.—The Theory of Symmetrical Optical Objectives.
Part ii. : S- D. Chalmers.—On the Drift produced in Ions by Electro-
magnetic Disturbances, and a Theory of Radio-activity: G. W. Walker.
—Coloration of Glass by Natural Solar and other Radiations: Sir
William Crookes, F.R.S.—On the ‘‘ Blaze-Currents "’ of the Gall Bladder
of the Frog: Mrs. Waller.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fuel Economy in Steam
Power Plants: W. H. Booth and J. B. C. Kershaw. (Conclusion of
discussion.)
FRIDAY, JANUARY 27.
Rava INSTITUTION, at 9.—The Life-History of the Emperor Penguin:
Edward A. Wilson.
see Society, at 5.—Action of a Magnetic Field on the Discharge
through a Gas: Dr. R. S. Willows.—Action of Radium on the Electric
Spark: Dr. R. S. Willows and J. Peck.—The Slow Stretch in India-
rubber, Glass, and Metal Wires when subjected to a Constant Pull :
P. Phillips.— Determination of Young's Modulus for Glass: C. A. Bell.
—Some Methods for Studying the Viscosity of Solids: Dr. Boris
Weinberg.
InNsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Concrete-Making on the
Admiralty Harbour Works, Dover: T. L. Matthews.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Zoological Books from Germany. By J. A. T. 265
An American Text-Book of Geology. By A. H. 267
The Topography of British India... . 7 zos
Physical and Physiological Aspee of f Light. =
Dr. Reginald Morton. . . Jha oc . 269
A Book on Ink. ByC. Simmonds . DL CLOMEN Se o>) ee)
Our Book Shelf :—
Driesch : ‘‘ Naturbegriffe und Naturerteile” .. . . 270
Stewart: ‘“* Higher Text-book of ates and
Electricity” . . =) aay O
Hibbert: “Life and Energy—Four “Addresses ” ee
Knox : ‘ Glossary of Geographical and Tope ae 3
Terms” . 271
** Blackie’s Handy Book of Logarithms mis ; © Vier- und
fiinfstellige Logarithmentafeln”. . . . 271
Theobald: ‘‘Second Report on Economic "Zoology :
British Museum (Natural ITistory)” Mee heed 272
Letters to the Editor :—
The Heterogenetic Origin of Fungus-germs.—Dr. H
Charlton Bastian . . 272
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge. John C. Willis. — 273
Polyhedral Soap-films.—W. F, Warth . . . 273
Reversal of Charge ee Electrical Induction
Machines.—V. Schaffers . . . 274
The Construction of Simple Electroscopes for Ex-
periments on Radio-activity. (Jé/ustrated.) By
DLO ee id . Cae
Geological Survey of Canada .... 276
Recent Exploration in the Mentone Caves. (Ils
trated.) .. 276
The Scientific ‘Exploration. of Lake > Tanganyika . 277
Notesia eae i e — 278
Our Astronomical Column :—
Observations of Comets 1904 @ and 1904 ¢ 281
Ephemeris for Comet Tempel, 1904 ¢ 282
Seasonal Development of Martian Canals 282
Variable Stars and Nebulous Areas in Scorpio 282
Report of the Natal Observatory . . . 282
The Jesuit Observatory at Belen, Havana. Ae 233
The Discovery of Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite. By
Wort Rae Pee
Atmospheric and Oceanic Carbon Dioxide. By Dr.
A. Hardeniiegen = 5 263
| Conference of Public School Science Masters. cl
| Wilfred Mark Webb . . . 284
Prize Awards of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . 285
University and EducationallIntelligence .... . 285
SocietiesyandsAcademresii. (cua) st) iiss ele
Diary Cf SOCterlec in mem cmrenc time mate. ent enema
NAROCRE
289
THURSDAY, JANUARY 26, 1905.
A MONOGRAPH OF THE HELIOZOA.
Les Heliozoaires d’Eau Douce. By E. Penard. Pp.
341; illustrated. (Geneva: Henry Kundig, 1904.)
HE Heliozoa or ‘‘ sun-animalcules ’’ have always
been favourite objects with microscopists on
account of their abundance, especially in fresh water,
their relatively large size, and their beauty as objects
for the microscope. From the scientific aspect, how-
ever, they have not attracted so much attention as
many other groups of Protozoa, on account, perhaps,
of their somewhat isolated position from the systematic
or phylogenetic point of view, no less than from their
perfect innocuousness, so far as mankind is concerned.
The work before us is a monograph of the fresh-water
Heliozoa, based upon investigations upon those found
in the environs of Geneva. It was. the author’s
original intention, he tells us, to have confined himself
to a description of the forms occurring in that terri-
tory, but since he obtained there nearly all the species
hitherto known from fresh water, he has added to his
catalogue descriptions of the species which appear not
to occur in the sphere of his personal investigations
in order to give his monograph a wider basis.
The monograph is divided into four chapters. The
first contains general considerations on the structure,
reproduction, and affinities of the group; the second
gives a systematic account of those fresh-water forms,
the position of which among the Heliozoa is above
suspicion; the third deals with the ‘‘ Pseudo-
Heliozoa,’’ that is to say, with organisms commonly
referred to this group, but of which the affinities and
systematic position are dubious; and the fourth dis-
cusses synonymic species, namely, those which are of
doubtful nature, or which have not been described in
a manner adequate for identification. The work
further commences with a short introduction and ends
with a full bibliography, and is illustrated by numerous
text figures.
In his general chapter the author gives first an
account of the methods employed by him for collecting
these organisms, and then proceeds tc consider their
body-structure. Under the latter heading he dis-
tinguishes two principal types of Heliozoa. The first,
or Actinophrys-type, has a large spherical nucleus
occupying the centre of the body, and lying, surrounded
by a clear zone of protoplasm, in the granular and
vacuolated endoplasm, which in its turn is enveloped
by the very vacuolated ectoplasm containing a large
contractile vacuole. The pseudopodia, seldom longer
than the diameter of the body, are supported by re-
latively strong axial filaments, centred round the
nucleus and radiating thence to the periphery of the
spherical body. To this first type, which might be
called the text-book Heliozobn, may be referred,
besides Actinophrys, the genera Clathrulina and
Hedriocystis, while Actinosphzrium is derived from it
by multiplication of the originally single nucleus. The
second or Acanthocystis-type is much commoner ; here
the centre of the spherical body is occupied, not by the
nucleus, but by a central granule, apparently some-
what of the nature of a centrosome, from which radiate
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
the delicate axial filaments, each passing to the surface
of the body to be continued into one of the slender
pseudopodia, which usually exceed the diameter of the
body in length. The central granule and nucleus are
both contained in the endoplasm ordinarily so called,
which itself is eccentric in position, so that the sur-
rounding zone of ectoplasm becomes thin on one side
of the body and is thickest at the pole opposite to
this. The large nucleus is placed eccentrically in the
endoplasm, being always near the region where the
ectoplasmic zone is at its thinnest, and is therefore still
more markedly eccentric in relation to the body as a
whole. The author inclines to the opinion that the
ordinary use of the terms ectoplasm and endoplasm
is incorrect in the case of the Acanthocystis-type of
Heliozoén. He thinks that the true ectoplasm is here
limited to a narrow peripheral zone of the body, and
that the remainder of what is commonly called ectc-
plasm should really be considered as endoplasm, of
which that part to which the term endoplasm is usually
applied is only a special region, containing nucleus
and central granule, and perhaps homologous with the
clear zone round the nucleus in Actinophrys.
In the classification the author keeps to the division
into the four well known orders founded by Biitschli,
| and since repeated in every text-book, although he is
decidedly of opinion that this classification ‘‘ is arti-
ficial and does not always correspond to the real affini-
ties of the species.’’ If this is the case, it is a matter
for regret that the author did not attempt to embody
his ideas of the natural relationships of the Heliozoa
in a scheme of classification more suited to express
them. He contents himself, however, by making only
minor improvements, such as transferring the genus
Heterophrys from the Chlamydophora to the Chalaro-
thoraca. He also separates from Butschli’s list certain
forms which are placed by him under the heading
““ Pseudo-Heliozoa.’’ This category, he is at pains to
explain, is not intended to have any systematic value,
but merely to serve as a mode of uniting ‘‘ certain
organisms which exhibit points of resemblance to
Heliozoa sufficiently striking to tempt one to unite
them with the latter, and which nevertheless do not
belong to the group.’’ Under the Pseudo-Heliozoa
are placed various aberrant types the descriptions of
which constitute one of the most valuable portions of
the book to the student of Protozoa.
For the many interesting details of structure or
mode of life of these animalcules described by the
author the reader must be referred to the book itself.
The following sentences, however, from the section
headed ‘‘ Psychology ’”’ merit quotation :—
“Tf we wish to adopt the chemico-physical theory,
so much in favour now-a-days, according to which
everything in the lower beings is but mechanical re-
action, it is necessary to apply the theory consistently,
to examine the higher animals as well as the others,
and we shall then be forced to recognise that between
the top and the bottom of the psychical scale there is
only a descending gradation. Hence, according to
this theory, the savant solving a problem should only
differ from the Protist in the greater complexity of the
physico-chemical reactions. If on the contrary one is
led to see something more than matter in the highest
manifestations of human thought, this something must
ie)
290
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
likewise be admitted for the beings lowest in the scale.
But then, we may add, on the supposition that the
scale rests on pure matter, it is not on the lowest grade
that we find the infinitely minute creatures, but already
some way up, so much so that the gap separating
them from the bottom is infinitely greater than that
which they would have to traverse to arrive at the
summit.”’
In conclusion, it may be said that everyone
interested in the study of microscopic forms of life will
welcome this work from the hand of an enthusiastic
observer, who has a most intimate knowledge at first
hand with the creatures about which he is writing,
and who has achieved a wide reputation as an investi-
gator of the fresh-water Protozoa. The work is
weakest on the side which deals with the minuter
phenomena of the cell and nucleus, especially in re-
lation to reproduction, the study of which during the
last decade has developed with such rapidity and has
brought forth results of such fundamental importance
in biology. The author is evidently more of a
naturalist than of a cytologist, but it is perhaps too
much to expect detailed cytological work in a system-
atic monograph even of a group of Protozoa. As a
general survey of the peculiar forms dealt with it will
be found most useful, not only as an exposition of the
present state of knowledge, but even more as in-
dicating how much still remains to be worked out
with regard to the affinities of the Heliozoa and allied
forms of life. By directing attention to the many
interesting problems these lowly creatures present for
solution, it may be hoped that this monograph will
act as a guide and stimulus to investigators in all
countries. EAS Me
TREES.
Trees. By Prof. H. Marshall Ward. Vol. i. Buds
and Twigs. Pp. xiv+271. Vol. ii. Leaves.
Pp, x+348. (Cambridge: University Press, 1904.)
Price 4s. 6d. net each.
S one might naturally expect from the scant atten-
tion which has hitherto been given to the study
of forestry in this country, our literature on the subject
is by no means what it ought to be. True, we have
several standard works, excellent of their kind, which,
however, deal with trees more from a sylvicultural
than from a botanical aspect. Students of forestry,
and especially students of forest botany, and all those
interested in the growth and cultivation of trees, have
long felt the great want of a suitable text-book or
guide to their studies, but happily now, with the
appearance of the above handbook from the facile pen
of Prof. Marshall Ward, this want has become a thing
of the past.
The work will consist of several parts—each part
forming a volume—the first of which is already to
hand, and treats of buds and twigs. The mere men-
tion of buds and twigs might suggest to some a dry,
uninteresting study of minute details; but never was
a greater mistake made than to imagine such is the
case. The study of our trees and shrubs in their
winter condition has a fascination all its own, and, in
the author treats the subject is sure to inspire many
with interest and enthusiasm for the study of forest
botany.
The study of the minute structure of plants in the
laboratory has in many. cases received the lion’s share
of attention, with the result that students have been
taught to know the internal structure of plants: before
they were able to recognise these plants in the field.
The author clearly recognises this fact, and plainly
states that his object is to bring the student more into
touch with the plant in its natural surroundings, where
he may form a personal acquaintance with it and learn
to observe and note facts for himself, and thereby lay
a solid foundation for the further study of the biology
of the living plant of whatever kind or nature, The
opening chapter gives a short but clear account of the
general segmentation of the plant. The next eight
chapters are devoted to a consideration of buds. The
different kinds, structure, position, arrangement, and
function are described in a most masterly and interest-
ing fashion. The next seven chapters deal with the
different kinds of shoots—their tegumentary systems,
leaf-casting and the formation of leaf scars, lenticels,
twigs and other accessory characters.
The second portion of the book contains a very com-
prehensive classification of trees and shrubs according
to characters afforded by their buds and twigs. The
classification is accompanied by a complete set of illus-
trations, showing very clearly in pictorial form: all
those features by which the species may be determined
in their winter condition. Most of those drawings
have been done by Miss Dawson, of the County School,
Cambridge, to whose artistic skill they do great credit.
The other illustrations with which the volume teems
have been obtained from various sources, and are all
duly acknowledged by the author.
The work will be found indispensable to those
students who wish to make an expert study of forest
botany. At the same time it is expressed in language
so clear and devoid of technicalities that the amateur
who wishes to know something about our trees and
shrubs will find this one of the most useful guides to
which he can turn.
Succeeding volumes will deal with leaves, in-
florescences and flowers, fruits and seeds, seedlings,
and the habit and conformation of the tree as a whole,
and each of those volumes, like the present one, will
contain diagnostic tables at the end, devised for use
in the field.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the work is
a many-sided one, acting not only as a guide to the
naturalist in the field, but also as a laboratory hand-
book, where the use of the lens and microscope may
be employed to amplify the study of objects already
observed in their natural habitats.
Botanists generally, and especially forest botanists,
will welcome the appearance of this book as supplying
a decided want, and filling a distinct gap in our
literature of forest botany.
Since the above was written the second volume has
appeared. As already stated, it deals with leaves, and,
like vol. i., consists of a general and a special part.
The general part contains an admirable and ex-
addition to this, the clear and simple way in which | haustive treatment of the external features of leaves,
NO. 1839, VOL. 71 |
JANUARY 26, 1905]
their form, composition and arrangement, together
with the general characters of their venation, surface
and texture; nor has the author omitted to go into the
more detailed but equally important consideration of
the anatomical structure and physiological functions
of leaves. This part also contains many lists com-
prising those leaves which show the same common
features as regards arrangement on the twig, form of
venation, character of base, apex and margin of
lamina, &c.
Part ii. of this volume, like that of vol. i., gives the
classification of trees and shrubs, but, in this case,
according to the character of their leaves. A useful
glossary is given at the end of the volume, so that the
beginner need have no difficulty in understanding the
few but necessary technical terms which are used in
the book.
ADVANCES IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
The Recent Development of Physical Science. By
W.-C. D. Whetham, F.R.S. Pp. xii+344.
(London: John Murray, 1904.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
T is now nearly thirty years since Prof. Tait pub-
lished his lectures on ‘“‘ Recent Advances in
Physical Science.’’ The period that has since elapsed
has been one of remarkable fruitfulness, and it is
a suggestive fact that the fundamental problems of
physical science which were dealt with by Prof. Tait
have to so large an extent supplied the motive for
the investigations now described by Mr. Whetham.
Foremost amongst these perennial problems must
be placed the structure of matter, the mutation of
energy, and the nature of comets and nebula. Lord
Kelvin’s vortex-ring theory of the atom, so lucidly
expounded by Prof. Tait, finds in the later volume its
analogue in the electrical or corpuscular atom of Prof.
J. J. Thomson, and the doctrine of the conservation
of energy, which occupies the foremost position in the
earlier volume, is again brought into prominence by
the recent suggestions that the internal motion of the
atom, be it that of a vortex ring or of a moving
electron, may perhaps be drawn upon to supply the
energy that is liberated from some hidden storehouse
by the radio-active elements.
After an introductory chapter on the philosophical
basis of the science, Mr. Whetham devotes two
chapters to the liquefaction of gases and the pheno-
mena of fusion and solidification. These two chapters
afford striking examples of the way in which recent
years have added to the equipment of the experimental
sciences, not only by increasing the range of tempera-
tures within which investigations may now be con-
ducted, but also by providing the means of accurately
measuring these temperatures. Under the heading of
“Fusion and Solidification ’? Mr. Whetham has given
a concise and readable account of the knowledge
recently acquired with reference to the structure of
metals and alloys. The examples, already classical,
of the copper-tin alloys studied by Roberts-Austen and
by Heycock and Neville, and the iron-carbon alloys
studied by Osmond, le Chatelier, Roberts-Austen, and
others are described. Photomicrographs of the former
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
NATURE
291
series of alloys are given. The most fascinating part
of the chapter, however, is that which deals with Mr.
Beilby’s recent investigations of the surface structure
of solids. These investigations have shown that
even a brittle metal like antimony can be made at
ordinary temperatures to flow like a liquid, so that
when it is rubbed with fine emery paper the surface
produced is not jagged or crystalline, but under the
highest magnification appears rather like a freshly
painted surface on which the rounded streaks left by
the brush are still visible.
In the chapter on the problems of solution, the
mechanism of electrolysis is discussed from the point
of view of Arrhenius’s theory of electrolytic dissoci-
ation, but the arguments in favour of this theory
are stated with a moderation that is in marked con-
trast to the one-sided statements that have sometimes.
been put forward by ardent supporters of the theory.
In considering the nature of colloidal solutions, a
purely physical explanation is given of the coagulation
of the proteids; the observation that ‘‘ the direction
of movement of certain proteids ’’ under the influence
of an electric current ‘‘ could be changed by changing
the solvent from a very dilute acid to a very dilute
alkali ’’ would be interpreted by the chemist as evidence
of their power, as amino-acids, to function either as
acid or as base, whilst the fact that ‘‘ if the solvent
was very carefully neutralised an isoelectric point was
reached at which the solution became very unstable
and coagulation seemed to occur spontaneously ”
would be ascribed to the tendency of the free amino-
acid to condense and form a more complex molecule
in the manner characteristic of this group of com-
pounds.
The chapters on the conduction of electricity through
gases and on radio-activity contain a concise account
of the series of investigations that have been co-
ordinated in the recently published works of Prof.
J. J. Thomson and Prof. Rutherford. The chapter
on atoms and zther derives its chief interest from the
inclusion in it of the results of Prof. Thomson’s recent
investigations of the stability of a system of negatively
charged corpuscles revolving in orbits within a posi-
tively charged sphere. The atomic model suggested
by such a system gives, probably for the first time, a
clear representation of the periodic properties of the
elements, including the variation in valency, which is
the most characteristic of these properties.
The final chapter, on astrophysics, contains an
account of the more recent results of spectroscopic
investigations of the sun and stars, and includes re-
productions of three of the most striking of Prof.
Hale’s solar photographs. In the later part of the
chapter the pressure due to radiation is considered and
applied to the explanation of the curious phenomena
of comets’ tails, whilst the mutual repulsion of radi-
ating particles is suggested as a possible explanation
of the permanence of Saturn’s rings.
The author has sought to express the results of
recent physical investigations in a form which “‘ might
prove useful to students of science in general,’”? and
‘also appeal to those who, with little definite scientific
training, are interested in the more important con-
clusions of scientific thought.’’ In the former part
292
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
of his task he has been eminently successful. In his
appeal to a wider public, it is to be hoped that the
difficulties of ‘‘ treating the wider and deeper general-
isations of natural science as fit subject-matter for
current thought and literature ”? will not deprive him
of a further measure of well merited success.
Tie.
THE CYANIDE PROCESS.
Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores. A Practical Treatise
on the Cyanide Process; embracing Technical and
Commercial Investigations, the Chemistry in
Theory and in Practice, Methods of Working and
the Costs, Design and Construction of the Plant
and the Costs. By H. Forbes Julian and Edgar
Smart. Pp. xx+ 405; illustrated. (London: C,
Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 21s. net.
i Be cyanide process is still in its teens, but it is a
lusty stripling. Much of the enormous increase
in the production of gold during the last few years is
due to it, either directly or indirectly. There are few
gold mines of any importance in the world at which
the process is not installed, and it has been stated on
high authority that the majority of these mines could
not earn profits and pay dividends without its aid.
Owing to the shortness of the time since the industry
of cyaniding gold and silver ores began to spring up,
there is a lack of data on the subject readily available
to men at work far from centres of civilisation. There
are many books on the cyanide process, but new ones
are still welcome, particularly a work like that of
Messrs. Julian and Smart, in which some degree of
completeness is attained.
The authors were well equipped for their task, both
having been engaged in the industry for a number of
years. They have not, however, merely written down
the results of their own practical experience, a course
which usually leads to dogmatic assertion on doubtful
points, but, on the contrary, have studied the
voluminous literature of the subject with evident care,
and displayed some judgment in their extractions. If
they had added a bibliography, one shudders to think
of the portentous length it would have attained.
Not content with this, they have made a number of
laboratory experiments on the dissolution and pre-
cipitation of gold, and advance views based on these
which are in part novel and somewhat unsatisfactory.
Exception may fairly be taken to this portion of the
book, for whether these views are right or wrong, they
are out of place in a text-book until they have been
discussed adequately. To the practical worker, for
whom this book is intended, theories are useful only
if they explain and elucidate phenomena with which
he is confronted in the mill, or enable him to decide
on a course of action in unusual cases. Much of the
authors’ theorising does not appear to answer this
test very well.
The book begins with an interesting, if not an
impartial, chapter on the early history of the cyanide
process. The authors next proceed to describe the
laboratory experiments which are necessary to deter-
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
mine the method of applying the process to any par-
ticular ore. In the useful discussion on sampling, the
omission of any reference to recent work is noticeable,
and the account of automatic machines is hardly
adequate.
The most serious omission in this section, however,
is in regard to laboratory work in connection with a
mill in operation. The examination of mill solutions
for gold and other metals, for available cyanide, for
oxygen, or for dissolving power is not touched on.
The only reference to the matter is in the sentences :—
“Tt must however be understood that there is no
relation between the (total cyanide) found present and
the dissolving action of the solution on gold and silver.
For this reason two different solutions containing by
the test the same quantity of cyanide may have very
different dissolving effects.’’
This would be cold comfort to anyone who wished
to learn what he could of the methods adopted to deter-
mine the condition of a mill solution. The gap should
be filled in a future edition.
The later chapters, dealing with the methods and
machinery used in practice, form by far the most
interesting and useful part of the book. The authors
seem to be quite at home in describing the design
and construction of leaching vats, precipitation boxes,
pumps, launders, sizing plant, and all the accessories
of a modern cyanide mill. The methods of treating
different classes of material are also handled with skill
and judgment, and are fairly up to date. It is not the
fault of the authors that progress in the industry con-
tinues to be rapid, and that any description is behind
the times almost as soon as it is printed. The book
ends with a couple of excellent chapters on the cost
of constructing plants and of treating ores, and the
index has been carefully prepared.
The volume is handsomely got up, and enough has
probably been said to show that the merits of the work
so far outweigh its faults that those interested in the
cyaniding industry cannot do without it.
gl Wd LC TE
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Fireside Astronomy. By D. W. Horner. Pp. 105.
(London: Witherby and Co., 1904.) Price 1s. 6d.
net.
“Tue articles which go to make up this little book
originally appeared in the ‘English Mechanic and
World of Science,’ and caused some discussion
therein.’? This we read in the preface of the book
before us, and we are further told there that this
‘“‘ simple worded treatise ’’ is intended for the “‘ man
in the street.”
A perusal of these pages will, however, tend to
bewilder the mind of this very practical personage con-
siderably, for the text is not a specimen of clearness,
and the illustrations are very far from being self-
explanatory; in fact, the latter are as bad as it seems
possible for illustrations to be.
In justification of these statements it may be re-
marked that the zodiac is mentioned on p. 3 and
defined on p. 14. On p. 4 we have a very ambiguous
statement about the various altitudes of the sun at
different seasons of the year, no reference being made
January 26, 1905]
NATURE
293
to the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of
the ecliptic, or to altitudes at noon. On p. 11 we
read :—‘t By refraction we mean the property of the
atmosphere to bend the rays of light from celestial
bodies, and so make them appear at a point in the
heavens some distance (greater according to the
proximity to the horizon) from their true position.”’
Such a statement, to the man in the street, could apply
equally as well to a horizontal as a vertical change
of position. On p. 19 is written :—‘‘. . . solid body
of the Sun himself, which is probably a relatively
dark body . . .’’; for such readers as this books is in-
tended a statement of this nature should have been
carefully avoided.
On the same page we must conclude that for most
days of the year, especially in years away from sun-
spot minimum, the earth is subject to nearly a con-
tinuous series of magnetic storms, for ‘‘ the appear-
ance of spots on the sun is nearly always accompanied
by a ‘magnetic storm’... .’’ The use here of the
term ‘‘ magnetic storm ’’ is quite unnecessary and
misleading.
Enough, perhaps, has been said about the text of
this ‘‘ simple worded treatise,’? and we leave intend-
ing readers to criticise the drawings themselves, their
attention being specially directed to those on pp. 6,
25, 36, and 89.
Observations océanographiques et météorologiques
dans la Région du Courant de Guinée (1855-1900).
(1) Texte et Tableaux. Pp. iv+116. (2) Planches,
viii. The Netherlands Meteorological Institute.
(Utrecht: Kemink & Zoon, 1904.) Price 5 francs.
THESE volumes contain the results of a discussion of
observations recorded by Dutch shipmasters. The
area extends from the equator to latitude 25° N., and
from the meridian of Greenwich to 40° W. The work
is a revised and more complete edition, brought up to
date, of ‘‘ De Guinea—en Equatoriaal Stroomen,”’
published in 1895. Currents, winds, temperature and
specific gravity of the sea water, temperature and
pressure of the air, frequency of rain days, records of
current ripples, flying fish, phosphorescence, and of
green, brown, and blue water have been tabulated for
each month in spaces of 1° squares, then grouped
into 5° squares for each month and the year, also for
each of twelve three-monthly periods—December to
February, January to March, &c.—and finally, the
current and wind results in 5° squares for each month
and the year for each octant. So far as they go, the
results for the various elements are interesting and
valuable. Unfortunately, throughout this long period
of thirty-six years Dutch ships kept so very closely
within the narrow limits of the recognised outward
and homeward routes that the information immediately
beyond has been exceedingly sparse; indeed, over an
area of about 400,000 square miles in the south-western
quarter of the region under discussion not a single
observation was available for the four consecutive
months August to November, a period of the year
when the east-going counter-current would be met
with in this locality. We are presented, therefore,
with very incomplete results as to the seasonal
extension and contraction of this important current.
It is admitted that, having failed to devise a wholly
satisfactory system of weighting the frequency of
winds, a method ‘“‘ subject to some objections ’”’ has
been followed, so that whether the wind has been
logged from the same point once or six times in the
day it has been counted as one observation, whereas if
logged from six different points in the same interval
six observations have been tabulated. Except in
table iv., and planches vi. and vii., the absence of
current or wind has been ignored.
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
(1) Opere matematiche di Francesco Brioschi. Vol. iii.
Pp. x+435- (Milan: U. Hoepli, 1904.) Price 25
ire.
(2) Opere matematiche di Eugenio Beltrami. Vol. ii.
Pp. 468. (Milan: U. Hoepli, 1904.) Price 25 lire.
THESE are the continuations of series of collected
papers of which the previous volumes have already
been reviewed in NaTurE.
The mathematical papers of Francesco Brioschi are
published under the auspices of a committee consist-
ing of Profs. G. Ascoli, V. Cerruti, G. Colombo,
L. Cremona, G. Negri, and G. Schiaparelli. Of the
papers in the third volume, Nos. 90 to 100 were pub-
lished in the Annali di matematica pura ed applicata
from 1887 to 1897, Nos. tor to 125 in the Lombardy
Rendiconti between 1867 and 1896, the next two in
the Memorie of the Modena Society in 1855, and the
remainder (Nos. 128 to 144) in the Atti of the Lincei
Academy between 1870 and 1886. The papers have
been revised by Profs. Bianchi, Capelli, Cerruti,
Gerbaldi, Loria, Pascal, Pittarelli, and Tonelli; the
volume has been edited by Profs. Gerbaldi and Pascal,
and the former is mainly responsible for the revision
of the proofs.
The second volume of Beltrami’s works, like the
first, is brought out under the auspices of the faculty
of science of the University of Rome, and contains
nineteen papers arranged in chronological order,
numbered 27 to 45, and published between the years
1867 and 1873. ‘The series is to be completed in five
volumes.
Edited by Major
The Science Year Book for 1905.
(London :
B. F. S. Baden-Powell. Pp. iv+393-
King, Sell and Olding, 1905.)
A piace should be found for this Year-book on the
writing table of every astronomer and meteorologist,
and the volume should be available for ready refer-
ence in laboratories and schools where science is
studied. The first section of the work contains an
astronomical ephemeris throughout the year, short
notes relating to the movements of the earth, par-
ticulars as to paths of the principal planets this year,
details of eclipses, many useful tables, and maps of
constellations. There are also meteorological tables
and diagrams, physical and chemical constants, and
tables of weights and measures of various kinds.
Another section is devoted to particulars of scientific
societies at home and in America, and notes on prizes
and awards offered for scientific research. This list,
which at present occupies only two pages, might be
made a very valuable part of the book; for, so far
as we are aware, the information does not exist in
a convenient form anywhere. Particulars might be
given, for instance, of the subjects and values of the
prizes offered each year by the Paris Academy of
Sciences and many similar bodies. Short articles are
contributed on the progress of different branches of
pure and applied science last year, and there is a
biographical directory which includes the names of
fellows of the Royal Society and a few other men
of science, but is not complete enough to be of much
use as a directory.
The remainder of the volume consists of a diary
with pages for every day, for monthly notes, cash
account, &c. For each day astronomical particulars
are printed at the top of the page, and there are
columns in which to enter results of meteorological
observations. It is very convenient to have all these
matters brought together so handily for reference
and record; and we have no hesitation in saying
that all who are interested in natural phenomena or
concerned with scientific progress will find this Year-
book of great service.
294
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, vejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
The Origin of Radium.
ErcutT months have elapsed since I wrote in your
columns (NaTuRE, May 12, 1904) giving an account of
some experiments designed to test the view advanced
by Prof. Rutherford and myself that radium is a product
of the radio-active change of uranium. I then stated that
in 1 kilogram of uranium nitrate that had been under
observation over a period of one year since it was com-
pletely freed from radium, the quantity of radium repro-
duced in that time was less than one-ten-thousandth of
the quantity theoretically to be expected. This result has
‘been widely quoted, more widely, perhaps, than I intended,
for the result was a preliminary conclusion only, and, as
I pointed out, obtained under very unfavourable conditions
owing to the very powerful preparations of radium that
had been in use in the laboratory for other researches.
The necessity for publishing it was to a certain extent
forced upon me by the attention the problem was beginning
to attract from other investigators, and by the prospect
of several months’ absence abroad. I relied on the fact
that the result being negative, the presence of the radium
in the laboratory could have had no effect, but in this I
was mistaken.
Since my return I have resumed the research in the
new chemical laboratories recently erected here, into which
no radium has so far been brought, and have found that
the earlier result was affected by an error which invali-
dates the conclusion drawn. It is therefore my duty to
point this out at once without waiting for any further
results. I am now fairly satisfied that there is a steady
production of radium from uranium, and although the
quantity formed, as measured by the amount of radium
emanation evolved, is of a lower order of magnitude than
is indicated by the disintegration theory, it is much greater
than the ten-thousandth part.
At the present time, about eighteen months since the
commencement of the experiment, the kilogram of uranium
nitrate in solution contains, so far as the amount of
emanation evolved is a measure, about 1-5xX10-° gram of
radium, and if the whole series of measurements from
the commencement are re-calculated, eliminating the error
alluded to, they are fairly consistent with there having
been a steady production of radium at this rate con-
tinuously from the commencement. This gives the value
2x10-** for the fraction of the uranium changing per
year, whereas the most probable theoretical estimate is
1o-*. The new result is thus still only one-five-hundredth
of the theoretical.
The error in the result published last May was not in
the determination of the amount of radium emanation
evolved from the uranium, but in the determination of the
amount of emanation given by a known weight of radium,
against which the first mentioned determination was com-
pared. The measurements on the uranium are in good
agreement with those recently obtained, whereas the com-
parative experiments with radium gave results too high
owing to extraneous radium in the laboratory. For the
effect from the uranium is so minute that to obtain a
comparable effect with the radium emanation, the quantity
of the latter obtainable from the smallest weighable
quantity of pure radium bromide must be diluted and sub-
divided until only a millionth part at most remains. Thus
if any emanation were present in the air of the labor-
atory used for the dilution, or if by mischance any of the
gas apparatus, rubber tubing, or mercury had been used
previously in experiments with powerful radium _prepar-
ations, the results obtained would be completely false.
It is now known (vide Rutherford, Phil. Mag., November,
1904, p. 637) that even metals, as copper and silver,
absorb the radium emanation appreciably and slowly evolve
it. The utmost precautions have to be observed in
standardising the rate of leak of the electroscope by the
emanation from a known weight of radium, so that each
No. 1839, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
successive dilution of the emanation is performed in an
entirely new apparatus with new mercury and rubber
connections. Otherwise emanation is absorbed from the
gas rich in it and given out to the diluted gas, and when
the final dilution should contain only one-millionth of the
original emanation, as in these experiments, it will be in
reality far richer. This explains the apparently para-
doxical result I obtained that the determinations of the
amount of radium produced were far too low, owing to
the extraneous radium of the laboratory.
The research is being continued with the view of elimin-
ating what appears a probable explanation of the too low
rate of production. It may be that under the conditions
of the experiment the greater part of the emanation is
retained by the uranium solution and not evolved as gas.
New methods are being tried, and it is hoped that they
will give a positive answer to this question.
FREDERICK SOpDy.
The University, Glasgow, January 20.
A New Radio-active Product from Actinium.
At the suggestion of Prof. Rutherford, I have made an
examination to see if there is any product in actinium
corresponding to the product UrX in uranium or ThX in
thorium. The investigations were made with a prepar-
ation of the emanating substance of Giesel (of activity
300 times that of uranium), which has been shown to
be identical in radio-active properties with the actinium
of Debierne.
Taking into consideration the similarity of actinium
and thorium, both as regards their chemical and radio-
active properties, I resolved to try if the method used by
Rutherford and Soddy for the separation of ThX would
not serve also to separate an analogous product from
actinium. The experiments were at once successful. If
ammonia was added to a solution of actinium in hydro-
chloric acid, the actinium was precipitated, while a small
amount of a very active substance was left behind in the
filtrate. This substance, which is so similar in properties
to ThX, will be called actinium X (AcX).
The product AcX, immediately after its separation,
weight for weight, was more than a hundred times more
active than the original actinium. The activity increased
in the first day after removal to about 15 per cent. of
its original value, and then decayed with the time accord-
ing to an exponential law, falling to half value in about
ten days. The actinium from which the AcX had been
removed, almost inactive immediately after separation,
gradually recovered its lost activity. As in the case of
thorium, the curve of recovery of the activity was com-
plementary to the curve of decay of AcX.
The behaviour of the product AcX is thus completely
analogous in all respects to that of ThX, only the constant
of change has a different value, which is characteristic
for AcX.
Special experiments, made for the purpose, showed that
the emanation was produced from AcX, and not directly
from the actinium. The latter, immediately after separ-
ation of AcX, gave off very little emanation, while AcX
produces the emanation in large amount. The amount of
emanation from AcX diminished with the time at the
same rate that AcX loses its activity. At the same time
the actinium gradually increased in emanating power, due
to the production of fresh AcX, and finally reached an
equilibrium value.
The product AcX gives out both a and 8 and probably
y rays. It is, however, difficult to determine whether the
B rays arise directly from AcX or from the excited activity
to which the emanation gives rise.
There is an interesting point of distinction between the
radio-activity of thorium and actinium. After the separ-
ation of AcX, the actinium is almost completely inactive,
only 4 per cent. of the maximum activity being observed.
It is probable that this amount could be still further re-
duced by successive precipitations. Thorium and radium,
on the other hand, always show a non-separable activity
of about 25 per cent. of the maximum. This points to
the fact that the activity from ordinary actinium is due
entirely to AcX and its successive products, and that little,
JANUARY 26, 1905]
NATURE
295
if any, is supplied directly by actinium itself. From the
point of view of the theory of radio-active changes, this
shows that the change of actinium into AcX is a ‘ ray-
less ’’ change.
A more complete account of these investigations will be
published later. T. GODLEWSKI.
McGill University, Montreal, January 2.
A Simple Model for lilustrating Wave-motion.
Macn’s model for illustrating the transversal as well
as the longitudinal wave is known to work in a beautiful
manner. The arrangement for exciting the wave-motion
is not, however, very simple. The fact that the period
of a pendulum varies with the length of the string may
conveniently be availed of for producing a wave-motion in
a row of pendulum-bobs.
As shown in the annexed figure, a series of pendulums
of equal length is suspended at equal intervals. Each
ball hangs on two strings, each of which passes through
the corresponding one in the row of holes in one of two
parallel horizontal rods m and Nn; the strings pass through
the holes from inside to outside, and are tied together to
a horizontal rod Lt placed symmetrically above the two
rods. One end of the upper rod is pivoted, while the
L
Bie
SSS
Fic. 1.
other can be raised to a suitable height. If this end be
raised, the length of the pendulums increases from the
end toward the other.
The two rods, M and Nn, can be separated or brought
in contact by two links Pp and Q (not shown in the
figure), attached to their ends. If the rods be in contact,
the pendulums oscillate at right angles to the vertical
plane containing the rod L; if they are separated, the
pendulums oscillate in this plane. Hence, by the position
of the links, the longitudinal as well as transversal oscilla-
tions of the pendulums can be excited at will.
To produce a wave-motion, the end of the upper rod L
is raised, and then the two rods m and N are brought in
contact. Then the pendulums are set in motion simul-
taneously by a long rod. After one or two minutes the
phase-difference in each pendulum gradually increases, and
a beautiful transversal wave-motion is produced. The
wave-length becomes shorter and shorter; if a wave of a
required wave-length is obtained, the rod t is lowered to
its initial position. Each pendulum has then an equal
length, so that wave-motion of a definite form incessantly
proceeds from one end to another.
If the links be rotated, so as to separate the two bars
mM and N from each other, the plane of oscillation of each
pendulum gradually changes, until the oscillation becomes
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
at last longitudinal. Then a regular longitudinal wave is
observed to proceed from one end to another.
On the other hand, a longitudinal wave can first be
excited, and then be transformed into a transversal one.
Raising the end of the upper rod, and separating the two
horizontal rods M and N, each pendulum is simultaneously
set in a longitudinal motion by a long rod with receiving
holes for pendulum-bobs. <A longitudinal wave is gradually
formed ; if a wave of a suitable length be obtained, the rod
L is lowered to its initial position; then wave-motion of
a definite form is established. By turning the links the
longitudinal wave is transformed into a transversal one.
Tokyo, Japan. K. Honpa.
Recently Observed Satellites.
May I ask whether the small, distant, eccentric, and
possibly retrograde satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, which
have been discovered and seem likely to be discovered,
ought not more properly to be regarded as cometary bodies,
or a shoal of meteors not yet too much drawn out for
visibility at a distance? Would it not be possible for the
larger planets to be attended by such bodies, the orbits of
which have been made moderately elliptical by an accidental
perturbation? It is known that the larger planets are able
to capture comets for the sun; is it possible that with the
aid of their satellites and subsequent tidal action they may
be able to catch a few for themselves?
OLiveR LopcE.
The University, Birmingham, January 20.
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.
My experience of Greek at Cambridge is very similar
to that of Mr. Willis, but the slight differences are, I
think, instructive.
When I decided to go up to Cambridge to study mathe-
matics and philosophy I was living abroad, and I crammed
Greek just as Mr. Willis describes, except that I worked
entirely alone. But on going in for the ‘‘ Little Go,”
though I passed easily in translation, I failed by a few
marks in Greek grammar. It was so near a thing that I
thought I might pull through in December with a few
hours more grind; but unfortunately I ran it too fine, and
again failed by a few marks. This meant that I had to
get up a complete new set of translation books for the
following June, and to prevent further mistakes I went
to a coach for the grammar part. I then passed, getting
a second class. Like Mr. Willis, I can only say my
present knowledge of the language is nil, although I had
a double dose of it. It cannot for a moment be pretended
that I got any insight into ‘‘ Greek thought’? which I
could not have got equally well by reading a good trans-
lation. But I confess my opinion of the value of Greek
thought was not raised by what I read—at best it only
seemed to me creditable, considering how long ago it
was written. But this may have been due to my resent
ment at being forced to waste time in an uncongenial
study, when I was. keen to get on to something else.
Epwarp T. D1xon.
Racketts, Hythe, Hants, January 20.
Super-cooled Rain Drops.
Watxinc home from the university last night at about
8.45 p.m. an interesting phenomenon occurred.
Something was falling which. at first appealed to one.
as hail, but I soon found that it was large rain drops
evidently cooled below the freezing point; at the moment
they struck objects such as one’s hat, coat, or walking
stick, &c., they instantly solidified in small hemispherical
lumps; falling on the ground they gave it the appearance
of a sheet of ice, but the roads were not slippery, as the
solidified rain gave the road just a nice amount of rough-
ness. The noise of the falling rain was very curious—a
crackling noise, not unlike that of small electric sparks.
Epwarp E. ROBINSON.
The University, Birmingham, January 17. 7
2096
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
Polar Plotting Paper.
May I be allowed to direct the attention of all interested
in mathematical teaching in our schools and colleges to
the polar plotting paper recently prepared by Mr. Ellice
Horsburgh, lecturer on .technical mathematics in Edin-
burgh University?
The special feature of this paper is that it is ruled
radially with lines which subdivide the region about a
point into aliquot parts of a radian. There are two forms
of sheets now in the market. In one the origin is at the
centre, and the radial subdivision is carried right round
through four right angles. In the other, a reduced copy
of which is here reproduced, the origin is taken near. one
corner, and the graduation is carried through a little more
than a quadrant. Dotted radial lines show the backward
continuation of the axis from which the radians are
measured, and also the axis perpendicular to it. These
dotted lines do not, of course, belong to the system of
lines dividing the region into aliquot parts of a radian.
The radius of the fiftieth orthogonal circle is taken as
the unit, and on the margins just outside the proper
radian subdivisions small radial lines are drawn giving
the usual division into degrees. The two circles drawn,
the one on the axis as diameter and the other on the
dotted perpendicular of unit length, serve to give by in-
ay ae
1a aay Oa
LAINE
PERE
LOR
LORD
seer hee tee
SRBOK,
Men pene
THY
Ma ean lta tea,
spection the sines and cosines of the angles given in
radians.
Thus the paper contains on its own surface the means
of plotting with great ease the polar equations of curves
involving radians, sines and cosines, and a little calculation
will enable the student to take account of other functions.
The first important use in the hands of the student is
obviously to get a clear idea of the radian as the true
scientific measure of angle; but a great many other im-
portant uses will at once occur to the teacher of practical
mathematics, such, for example, as finding reciprocals,
geometric means, mean proportionals, fourth proportionals,
squares, square-roots, &c.
Another use is the evaluation of the integrals ,r7d@ and
Sra. The former is got by simply counting the elements
included in the area, and the latter by multiplying the
total angle between the initial and final radius by the
mean radius, the value of which may be obtained by a
method similar to Simpson’s rule.
From these few statements and indications the purpose
of Mr. Horsburgh’s patent will be readily appreciated.
It is doubtful if the average student, taught along the
usual lines, ever gets an accurate working knowledge of
the radian or circular measure of an angle, indispensable
though that is for all higher trigonometrical and analytical
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
|
work. A few hours’ systematised exercise with the polar
paper will do more than days of arithmetical transform-
ations in the usual academic style. C. G. Knorr.
Lissajous’s Figures by Tank Oscillation.
THE oscillation of a rectangular water basin may be
utilised for the illustration of the composition of two
simple harmonic motions in two directions, perpendicular
to each other.
A light pendulum was constructed of a thin aluminium
rod, R (Fig. 1), 10 cm. long. The bob B was made of a
disc of wood. On the upper end of the rod a light mirror
M was attached. The rod could be supported at any
desired point by a small gimbal c, so that the rod could
oscillate as a spherical pendu-
lum. <A small brass weight
W was attached to adjust the
period of oscillation by raising
or lowering it to a proper
position.
The bob is sunk into the
middle part of a _ suitable
rectangular basin, filled with
water to a proper depth. If
the basin be tilted suddenly,
and then let stand, the water
is set in an oscillation which
consists of two simple har-
monic motions in perpen-
dicular directions, the ratio of
the periods varying as the
ratio of the corresponding
sides. The amplitudes of two
component oscillations may be
varied at pleasure. If the
natural period of the pendu-
lum is considerably shorter
than that of the basin, the
bob follows very nearly the
motion of water, as judged by
the motion of fine dust par-
ticles suspended in water.
Now, if a beam of strong Fig. ab
sun-light be sent as shown in
the figure, the motion is projected on the ceiling of the
room.
I have also obtained a photographic record of the motion
of a small bead attached to the upper end of a small
needle erected on the rod. By making the illumination
intermittent by means of a perforated rotating disc, the
difference of velocities at different phases may be shown.
The motion of a kaleidophone may be projected in a
similar manner. T. TERADA.
Physical Laboratory, Tokyo, December 19, 1904.
JANUARY 26, 1905]
NATURE
297
NOTES ON STONEHENGE.
I.—ConbDITIONS AND TRADITIONS.
FTER Mr. Penrose, by his admirable observations
in Greece, had shown that the orientation theory
accounted as satisfactorily for the directions in which
the chief temples in Greece had been built as I had
shown it did for those in Egypt, it seemed important
to apply the same methods of inquiry with all avail-
able accuracy to some example, at all events, of the
various stone circles in Britain which have so far
escaped destruction. Many attempts had been pre-
viously made to secure data, but the instruments and
methods employed did not seem to be sufficient.
Much time shas, indeed, been lost in the investi-
gation of a great many of these circles, for the
reason that in many cases the relations of the monu-
ments to the chief points of the horizon have not
been considered; and when they were, the observ-
ations were made only with reference to the magnetic
north, which is different at different places, and
besides is always varying; few indeed have tried to
get at the astronomical conditions of the problem.
So far as I know, there has never been a complete
inquiry into the stone circles in Britain, but Mr.
Lewis, who has paid much attention to these matters,
has dealt in a general manner with them (Archaeo-
logical Journal, vol. xlix. p. 136), and has further
described (Journal Anthropological Institute, n.s., iii.,
1900) the observations made by him of stone circles
in various parts of Scotland. From an examination
of a large number he concludes that they may be |
divided into different types, each of which has its
centre in a different locality. The types are (1) the
Western Scottish type, consisting of a rather irregular
single ring or sometimes of two concentric rings. (2)
The Inverness type, consisting of a more regular ring
of better-shaped stones, surrounding a tumulus with a
retaining wall, containing a built-up chamber and
passage leading to it, or a kist without a passage.
(3) The Aberdeen type, consisting of a similar ring
with the addition of a so-called ‘‘ altar-stone ’’ and
usually having traces of a tumulus and kist in the
middle. In addition to these three types of circles,
there are what Mr. Lewis calls sun and star circles,
with their alignments of stones, and apparently pro-
portioned measurements.
It may be useful here to state, with regard to mega-
lithic remains generally, that they may be divided as
follows :—
(a) Circles. These may be single or double, and
either concentric or not.
(b) Menhirs, or single stones, in some cases still
upright, but in many overthrown.
(c) Alignments, 7.e. lines of stones in single, double,
or in many parallel lines. If these alignments are
short they are termed avenues.
(d) Cromlechs; this term generally means a collec-
tion of stones; the term is applied to irregular circles
in Brittany. It also applies to a single stone raised on
the summits of two or more pillar stones forming the
ynd and sides of an irregular vault generally open at
bne end (‘* Dolmens of Ireland,’’ Borlase, p. 429).
(e) Coves. A term applied by Dr. Stukeley and
others to what they considered shrines formed by
three upright stones, thus leaving one side open. I
take them to be partially protected observing places.
There are well-marked examples at Avebury, Stanton
Drew, and Kit’s Coity House.
(f) Dolmens, from Dol Men, a table stone. These
consist of a flat stone resting on two or more upright
stones forming a more or less complete chamber,
which may or may not have been sepulchral. I note
the following subdivisions, ‘‘Dolmen a_ galérie ”’
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
having an entrance way of sufficient height, and
“ Galgal,’”’ similar but smaller. In the ‘‘ Dolmen a
l’allée couverte ’’ there is a covered passage way to
the centre. It is a more elaborate cove. For the
relation between cromlechs and dolmens, see Borlase
(loc. cit. and p. 424 et seq.).
With regard to dolmens, I give the following ~
quotation from Mr. Penrose (Nature, vol. Ixiv.,
September 12, 1901) :—
““Near Locmariaquer in the estuary named Riviere
d’Auray, there is an island named Gavr’ Inis, or Goat
Island, which contains a good specimen of the kind of
dolmen which has been named ‘ Galgal.’
‘* At the entrance our attention is at once arrested by
the profusion of tracery which covers the walls. From
the entrance to the wall facing us the distance is
between 50 and 60 feet. The square chamber to which
the gallery leads is composed of two huge slabs, the
sides of the room and gallery being composed of up-
right stones, about a dozen on each side. The mystic
lines and hieroglyphics similar to those above
mentioned appear to have a decorative character.
‘“ An interesting feature of Gavr’ Inis is its remark-
able resemblance to the New Grange tumulus at
Meath. In construction there is again a strong re-
semblance to Mes-Howe, in the island of Orkney.
There is also some resemblance in smaller details.”
While we generally have circles in Britain without,
or with small, alignments, in Brittany we have align-
ments without circles, some of them being on an
enormous scale1; thus at Menec (the place of stones)
we have eleven lines of menhirs, terminating towards
the west in a cromlech, and notwithstanding that great
numbers have been converted to other uses, 1169
menhirs still remain, some reaching as much as 18
feet in height.
The alignments of Kermario (the place of the dead)
contain 989 menhirs in ten lines. That of Kerlescant
(the place of burning), which beginning with eleven
rows is afterwards increased to thirteen, contains
altogether 579 stones and thirty-nine in its cromlech,
with some additional stones.
Both circles and alignments are associated with
holidays and the lighting of fires on certain days of
the year. This custom has remained more general
in Brittany than in Britain.
At Mount St. Michael, near Carnac, the custom
still prevails of lighting a large bonfire on its summit
at the time of the summer solstice; others kindled on
prominent eminences for a distance of twenty or
thirty miles round reply to it. These fires are locally
called ‘‘ Tan Heol,’’ and also by a later use, Tan Se
Jean.
In Scotland there was a similar custom in the first
week in May under the name of Bel Tan, or Baal’s
Fire; the synonym for summer used by Sir Walter
Scott in the ‘‘ Lady of the Lake”:
Ours is no sapling chance-sown by the fountain
Blooming at Beltane in winter to fade.
At Kerlescant the winter solstice is celebrated by
a holiday, whilst Menec greets the summer solstice,
and Kermario the equinoxes, with festivals. The
adoration paid these stones yielded very slowly to
Christianity. In the church history of Brittany the
Cultus Lapidum was denounced in 658 A.D.
Many of the fallen menhirs in these alignments have
been restored to their upright position by the French
Government. Some of them may have been over-
turned in compliance with the decree of 658 A.D. above
referred to. Several of the loftier menhirs are sur-
mounted by crosses of stone or iron.
1 “ "lhe French Stonehenge: an Account of the Principal Megalithic
Remains in the Morbihan Archipelago.’’ By T. Cato Worsfold, F.R.Hist.S.
F.R.S.L. (London: Bemrose and Sons, Ltd.)
298
Regarding both circles and alignments in the light
of the orientation theory, we may consider simple
circles with a central stone as a collection of sight-
lines from the central stone to one or more of the
outer ones, or the interval between them, indicating
the place of the rise or setting of either the sun or
a star on some particular day of the year, which day
will be a new year’s day
Fic. 1.—Plan of Stonehenge, standing stones shaded. a, Stone which fell
in 1900 ; BR, Stones which fell in 1797.
(Reproduced from “* VWan.’’)
Alignments, on the other hand, will play the same
part as the sight-lines in the circles.
Sometimes the sight-line may be indicated by a
menhir outside, and even at a considerable distance
from, the circle.
The dolmens have, I am convinced, been in manv
=
t
NATURE
1
[JANUARY 26, 1905
In order to bring some measurements to test the
orientation theory in Britain, I found that Stonehenge
is the ancient monument in this country which lends
itself to accurate theodolite work better than any
other. Avebury and Stanton Drew are known to a
great many archzologists; there are also other very
wonderful stone circles near Keswick and in other
parts of England; but unfortunately it is very much
more difficult to get astronomical data from these
ancient monuments than it is in the case of Stone-
henge, one reason being that Stonehenge itself lies
high, and the horizon round it in all directions is
pretty nearly the same height, so that the important
question of the heights of the hills along the sight-
line—a matter which is very important from an astro-
nomical point of view, although it has been neglected,
so far as I can make out, by many who have made
observations on these ancient monuments—is quite a
simple one at Stonehenge. Hence it. was much easier
to determine a date there than by working at any
of the other ancient remains to which I have referred.
In orientation generally, such orientation as has
been dealt with by Mr. Penrose and myself in Egypt
and in Greece, the question frequently was a change
in direction in the axis of a temple, or the lay-
ing down of the axis of a temple, by means of
observations of stars. Unfortunately for us as
archeologists, not as astronomers, the changes of
position of these stars, owing to certain causes, chiefly
the precessional movement, are very considerable; so
that if a temple pointed to a star in one year, in
two or three hundred years it would no longer point
to the same star, but to another one.
Acting on a very old tradition, the people from
Salisbury and other surrounding places go to observe
the sunrise on the longest day of the year at Stone-
henge. We therefore are perfectly justified in assum-
ing that it was a solar temple used for observation
in the height of midsummer. But at dawn in mid-
Fic. 2
-—View of Stonehenge from the west.
(Reproduced
cases not graves originally, but darkened observing
places whence to observe along a sight-line; this
would be best done by means of an allée couverte,
the predecessor of the darkened naos at Stonehenge,
its covered trilithons.
1839, Vol. 71]
hielded by
NO.
“yom. an account of the
Jal.
A, Stone which fell in 1900 ; Stones which fell in 1797.
len stones by Mr, Lewis in “ Man.”)
summer in these latitudes the sky is so bright that
it is not easy to see stars even if we get up in the
morning to look for them; stars, therefore, were not
in question, so that some other principle had to be
adopted, and that was to point the temple directly to
pte i il ee inn oe
ee ee
ditions are better at Stonehenge
January 26, 1905]
NATURE
209
the position on the horizon at which the sun rose on
that particular day of the year, and no other.
Now, if there were no change in the position of
the sun, that, of course, would go on for ever and
ever; but, fortunately for archeologists, there is a
slight change in the position of the sun, as there is
in the case of a star, but for a different reason; the
planes of the ecliptic and of the equator undergo a
slight change in the angle included between them.
So far as we know, that angle has been gradually
getting less for many thousands of years, so that, in
the case of Stonehenge, if we wish to determine the
date, having no stars to help us,
the only thing that we can hope to
get any information from is the very
slow change of this angle; that,
therefore, was the special point
which. Mr.. Penrose and I were
anxious to study at Stonehenge, for
the reason that we seemed in a posi-
tion to do it there more conveniently
than anywhere else in Britain.
But while the astronomical con-
than elsewhere, the ruined state of
the monument makes accurate
measures very difficult.
Great age and the action of
weather are responsible for much
havoc, so that very many of the
stones are now recumbent, as ‘will
be gathered from the accompanying
plan, for which I am indebted to
Mr. Lewis, who described the con-
dition of the monument in rgor in
Man.
But ‘the 'real destructive agent has
been man himself; savages could
not have played more havoc with
the monument than the English
who have visited it at different
times for different purposes. It is
said the fall of one great stone in
1620 was caused by some excava-
tions of the then Duke of Bucking-
ham; the fall of another in 1797
was caused by gipsies digging a
hole in which to shelter, and boil
their kettle; many of the stones have
been used for building walls and
bridges; masses weighing from
56 lb. downwards have been broken
off by hammers or cracked off as a
result of fires lighted by excur-
Sionists.
It appears that the temenos wall
or vallum, which is shown complete
in Hoare’s plan of 1810, is now
broken down in many places by
vehicles indiscriminately driven over
it. Indeed, its original importance
has now become so obliterated that
many do not notice it as part of the structure—that,
in fact, it bears the same relation to the interior stone
circle as the nave of St. Paul’s does to the Lady
Chapel. : ‘
It is within the knowledge of all interested in
archeology that not long ago Sir Edmund Antrobus,
the owner of Stonehenge, advised by the famous
Wiltshire local society, the Society for the Protection
of Ancient Buildings and the Society of Antiquaries,
enclosed the monument in order to preserve it from
No. 1839, VOL. 71 |
further wanton destruction, and—a first step in the way
of restoration—with the skilled assistance of. Prof.
Gowland and Messrs. Carruthers, Detmar Blow, and
Stallybrass, set upright the most important menhir,
which threatened to fall or else break off at one of the
cracks. This menhir, the so-called ‘‘ leaning stone,”’
once formed one of the uprights of the trilithon the
fall of the other member of which was said to have
been caused by the digging and researches of the
Duke of Buckingham in 1620. The latter, broken in
two pieces, and the supported lintel, now lie prostrate
across the altar stone.
Suurreght Dake
Fic. 3.—Copy of Hoare’s p!an o: 1810, showing unbroken Vallum and its relation with the Avenue.
This piece of work was carried out with consum-
mate skill and care, and most important conclusions,
as we shall see in a subsequent ‘‘ Note,’ were derived
from the minute inquiry into the conditions revealed
in the excavations which were necessary for the proper
conduct of the work.
Let us hope’ that we have heard the last of the
work of devastators, and even that, before long, some
of the other larger stones, now inclined or prostrate,
may be set upright.
300
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
Since Sir Edmund Antrobus, the present owner, has
acted on the advice of the societies I have named to
enclose the monument, with a view to guard it from
destruction and desecration, he has been assailed on
all sides. It is not a little surprising that the ‘‘ un-
climbable wire fence ’’? recommended by the societies
in question, the Bishop of Bristol being the president
of the Wiltshire Society at the time, is by some
regarded as a suggestion that the property is not
national, the fact being that the nation has not bought
the property, and that it has been private property for
centuries, and treated in the way we have seen.
Let us hope also that before long the gaps in the
vallum may be filled up. These, as I have already
stated, take away from the meaning of an important
part of one of the most imposing monuments of the
world. In the meantime, it is comforting to know
that, thanks to what Sir Edmund Antrobus has done,
no more stones will be stolen, or broken by sledge-
hammers; that fires; that excavations such as were
apparently the prime cause of the disastrous fall of
one of the majestic trilithons in 1797; that litter,
broken bottles and the like, with which too many
British sightseers mark their progress, besides much
indecent desecration, are things of the past.
If Stonehenge had been built in Italy, or France or
Germany, it would have been in charge of the State
long ago.
I now pass from the monument itself to a refer-
ence to some of the traditions and historical state-
ments concerning it.
Those who are interested in these matters should
thank the Wiltshire Archeological and Natural
History Society, which is to be warmly congratulated
on its persistent and admirable efforts to do all in its
power to enable the whole nation to learn about the
venerable monuments of antiquity which it has
practically taken under its scientific charge. It has
published two most important volumes! dealing
specially with Stonehenge, including both its traditions
and history.
With regard to Mr. Long’s memoir, it may be
stated that it includes important extracts from notices
of Stonehenge from the time of Henry of Huntingdon
(12th century) to Hoare (1812), and that all extant
information is given touching on the questions by
whom the stones were erected, whence they came, and
what was the object of the structure.
From Mr. Harrison’s more recently published
bibliography, no reference to Stonehenge by any
ancient author, or any letter to the Times for the
last twenty years dealing with any question touching
the monuments, seems to be omitted.
It is very sad to read, both in Mr. Long’s volume
and the bibliography, of the devastation which has
been allowed to go on for so many years and of thé
various forms it has taken.
As almost the whole of the notes which follow deal
with the assumption of Stonehenge having been a
solar temple, a short reference to the earliest state-
ments concerning this view-is desirable; and, again,
as the approximate date arrived at by Mr. Penrose
and myself in 1901 is an early one, a few words may
be added indicating the presence in Britain at that
time of a race of men capable of designing and
executing such work. I quote from the paper com-
1 “ The Wiltshire Archeological and Natural History Magazine.
henge and its Barrows.’ By William Long, M.A., F.S.A. (1876.)
“The Wiltshire Archeological and Natural History Magazine. Stone-
henge Bibliography Number.’’ By W. Jerome Harrison, (1902.)
NO 1839, voL. 71]
Stone-
|
municated by Dr. Penrose and myself to the Royal
Society :— ’
“As to the first point, Diodorus Siculus (ii., 47)
has preserved a statement of Hecatzeus'in which Stone-
henge alone can by any probability be referred to.
“We think that no one will consider it foreign to
our subject to say a word respecting the Hyperboreans.
‘““Amongst the writers who have occupied them-
selves with the mythology of the ancients, Hecatzus
and some Others tell us that opposite the land of the
Celts [ev rois advtimépay trys Kedrixys ténas] there
exists in the Ocean an island not smaller than Sicily,
and which, situated under the constellation of The
Bear, is inhabited by the Hyperboreans; so called be-
cause they live beyond the point from which the North
wind blows. . . . If one may believe the same myth-
ology, Latona was born in this island, and for that
reason the inhabitants honour Apollo more than any
other deity. A sacred enclosure [vjaov] is dedicated
to him in the island, as well as a magnificent circular
temple adorned with many rich offerings. . . . The
Hyperboreans are in general very friendly to the
Greeks.
“The Hecateus above referred to was probably
Hecatzeus of Abdera, in Thrace, fourth century B.c. ;
a friend of Alexander the Great. This Hecatzeus is
said to have written a history of the Hyperboreans :
that it was Hecatzeus of Miletus, an historian of the
sixth century B.c., is less likely.
‘“ As to the second point, although we cannot go so
far back in evidence of the power and civilisation of
the Britons, there is an argument of some value to
be drawn from the fine character of the coinage issued
by British kings early in the second century B.c., and
from the statement of Julius Casar (‘De Bello
Gallico,’ vi., c. 13) that in the schools of the Druids
the subjects taught included the movements: of the
stars, the size of the earth and the nature of things
(Multa praeterea de sideribus et eorum motu, de mundi
magnitudine, de rerum natura, de deorum immor-
talium vi ac potestate disputant et juventuti tradunt).
““ Studies of such a character seem quite consistent
with, and to demand, a long antecedent period of
civilisation.” , :
Henry of Huntingdon is the first English writer to
refer to Stonehenge, which he calls. Stanenges.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (1138) and Giraldus Cam-
brensis come next.
In spite of Inigo Jones’s (1600) dictum that Stone-
henge was of Roman origin, Stukeley came to the
| conclusion in 1723 that the Druids were responsible
for its building, and Halley, who visited it in 1720—
probably with Stukeley—concluded from the weather-
ing of the stones that it was at least 3000 years old;
if he only had taken his theodolite with him, how
much his interest in the monument would have been
increased !
Davies (“‘ Celtic
Stukeley’s view :—
‘“ Amongst the pure descendants of the Celtae, the
Druidism of Britain was in its highest repute. The
principal seat of the order was found in Mona, an
interior recess of that ancient race, which was born
in the island. Into that sequestered scene, the
Druids, who detested warfare, had gradually retired,
after the irruption of the Belgae, and the further
encroachment of the Romans. They had retired from
their ancient magnificent seat at Abury, and fron
their circulay uncovered temple on Salisbury Plain,
in which the Hyperborean sages had once chaunted
their hymns to Apollo and Plenyz.”’
NORMAN
Researches,’’ 1804) endorses
LockYER.
JANUARY 26, 1905]
PROF. ERNST ABBE.
Forty Yerars’ PROGRESS, 1866-1905.
Bess ABBE, born January 23, 1840, was the
son of a foreman in a_ spinning mill at
Eisenach. He was a student at Jena and Géttingen,
graduating at the latter university with a thesis on
the mechanical equivalent of heat. After teaching
for some time at Frankfort-on-Main, he established
himself at Jena in 1863 as a privat docent in mathe-
matics, physics, and astronomy, taking for a special
subject of instruction the theory of errors. In 1870
he was appointed an extraordinary professor. In
1874 there was a proposal to establish a physical
laboratory at Jena, and Abbe was offered the pro-
fessorship of physics, but his connection with Carl
Zeiss had then begun, and he was compelled to de-
cline the offer. He had married in 1871 the daughter
of Prof. Snell, and has left two daughters.
Carl Zeiss had established himself at Jena in 1846
as a manufacturer of optical instruments; for some
years the business prospered, his microscopes were as
good as those of other makers, probably neither better
nor worse; but Zeiss was not satisfied; he felt that
the microscope ought to be improved, and in
endeavouring to effect improvement he realised the
deficiency of his own equipment; after one other
2S aes attempt he enlisted Abbe’s help in his
work.
The partnership which has had so remarkable an
effect on the manufacture of optical instruments
began in 1866. Abbe’s task was a hard one; the
theory of the microscope was at that date only
partially understood; the corrections to the lenses
were made by a rough trial and error method, and
the results were doubtful; the first step was to solve
a mathematical problem of no small difficulty, and
trace the path of the light through the complex lenses
of a microscope objective.
Abbe soon found out the defects of the ordinary
theory, and was led in 1870 to what is now known
as the Abbe theory of microscopic vision; unfortu-
nately, no complete account of that theory from his
own pen has yet been printed, though the ‘‘ Collected
Papers of Ernst Abbe,’’ of which the first volume was
published last year under the skilful editorship of
Dr. Czapski, and noticed in these pages recently
(Nature, vol. lxix. p. 497), go far to fill the gap,
and it is to be hoped that Dr. Czapski himself or
some other member of the Jena staff will now be in
a position to give the complete theory to the world.
It is not necessary here to discuss the controversy
which has arisen over the matter, due in great
Measure to an incomplete representation of the
problem and to a misconception of the theory.
It is clear that if we can treat the object as self-
luminous, or if we know the distribution of light
with respect to both intensity and phase over the
object plane, then we may start from the object as
our source, and the principles of the wave-theory, as
Lord Rayleigh has shown, will allow us to determine
the distribution in the view plane. If, however, the
distribution in the object plane is unknown, we
must go back to the source, consider how the light
from the source is modified both by the object and
the lenses, and from this infer what the resulting
image will be like.
Diffraction patterns will be formed practically in
the second focal plane of the object glass, and the
distribution of the light in the image can, theo-
retically at any rate, be deduced from a knowledge
of the intensity and phase of the disturbance in these
patterns.
This theory, at any rate, led Abbe to most valuable
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
NATURE
Sot
results, and was one source of the success of the
Zeiss microscope. From it, among other conse-
quences, he deduced the importance of what is now
known as the numerical aperture, the quantity
# sin a, where yp is the refractive index of the first
lens of the object glass, and 2a is the angle which
that lens subtends at the point where the axis of the
system cuts the object plane.
But the assistance given by the new theory was
not alone sufficient to solve the problem. It had long
been known that when the best glasses then obtain-
able were combined to form an achromatic system, a
secondary spectrum remained, and until this could be
removed it was hopeless to look for perfection in the
image.
The experiments of Stokes and Harcourt had been
directed to the discovery of glasses free from this
defect, and Abbe and Zeiss in their early days made
many attempts in the same direction, using in some
cases liquid lenses to secure the desired end.
In 1876 the South Kensington Loan Exhibition of
Scientific Apparatus took place, and Abbe came over
to inspect it. In his report, published in 1878, he
writes :—‘‘ The future of the microscope as regards
further improvement in its dioptric qualities seems to
lie chiefly in the hands of the glass maker,’’? and
then he explains in what direction changes. are re-
quired and how difficult it is to introduce them.
This report of Abbe’s fell into the hands of Dr.
Otto. Schott, a glass maker of Witten,.in West-
phalia. Schott communicated with Abbe in.1881, and
commenced his investigations into the subject. . Next
year he removed to Jena, and, aided by a large grant
from the Prussian Minister of Education, the experi-
ments were satisfactorily. concluded, and the firm of
Schott and Co. was established; in 1884 he was in a
position to commence the wholesale production of
optical glass. The combination was now complete.
“To-day it is difficult,’? as Prof. Auerbach writes in
his recent work on the Carl Zeiss Stiftung in Jena,
“to think of the Optical Works without the Glass
Works, .or vice versd.’’
From this time onwards Abbe’s time was fully
occupied in. developing the new undertaking; the
history of his life would be the history of the works,
and in the Zeiss instruments, known throughout the
world, his monument is to be found.
But in many ways the latter years of his life are
not the least interesting. Carl Zeiss died in 1888;
next year his son Roderick retired from business, and
Abbe was left sole proprietor of the optical works.
In 1891 he created a kind of trust known as the Carl _
Zeiss Stiftung, to which he ceded all his proprietary
rights, both in the optical and also in the glass works.
The story of. the Carl Zeiss Stiftung as told by
Prof. Auerbach is a very striking one. The statutes,
due to Abbe himself, which were confirmed by the
Grand Duke of Saxony in 1896, and have the force
of law, can up to 1906 be modified by a simple pro-
cedure; afterwards legal action is practically required
to render a change valid.
The works are a great cooperative concern. ‘To
provide a large number of people with the most
favourable opportunities for labour is both the means
and the end of the Stiftung. The individuals who
benefit by it are at the same time those who main-
tain and increase it. The. officials and workmen
employed at the optical works, the community and
the university contribute their share towards the in-
crease of the value of the property, and these, there-
fore, are entitled to participate in the benefits.” The
university alone will shortly have received 100,000l.
from the scheme.
The Stiftung is managed by the Stiftung Adminis-
302
NATURE
{JANUARY 26, 1905
tration; on this the Saxon Government appoints a
representative or trustee whose duty it is to see that
the statutes are obeyed; the works are supervised by
boards of management appointed by the adminis-
tration.
The employés possess the right of combination;
they can be represented by their own committees,
which may address the administration direct on any
subject relating to the affairs of the concern. They
are paid by piece-work, with a minimum time wage,
and there is in the scheme a proviso by which no
one, even though a member of the board of manage-
ment, can receive a salary greater than ten times
the average yearly earnings of workers of twenty-
four years and over who have been at least three.
years with the firm. Moreover, when an employé
has once received a certain wage and drawn it for
one year his wage cannot be reduced because of
slackness of trade. In addition to the wages calcu-
lated on the work done, every worker receives a share
of the profits depending in any year on the net sum
realised. There is also a liberal pension scheme,
under which every employé who enters the works
before his fortieth year is entitled, after five years’
service, to a pension calculated at a rate which
reaches 75 per cent. of his salary at the end of forty
years’ service, while the widows and orphans of
employés have also pension rights. Finally, the
working day is eight hours, and Abbe has put it
on record in an address, delivered in 1go1 to the
Social Science Association, that in the case of 233
piece-workers about whom accurate statistics could
be taken the total output was increased by 4 per cent.
in the first year that followed the change from nine
to eight hours.
Such has been Ernst Abbe’s work; until 1903 he
remained an active member of the board of manage-
ment of the optical works; then he retired, partly
on account of the state of his health, partly, if his
health improved, to devote himself to his scientific
work. The improvement hoped for never came, and
he died last week, leaving it to the trained band of
workers he had gathered round him to continue his
task, and to show still further what can be done by
the organised application of science to industry and
manufactures. xe elese Gre
M. PAUL HENRI.
BOUT the year 1864, two brothers entered the
meteorological department of the Parjs Observy-
atory, and for nearly forty years laboured with zeal
and success to promote the best interests. of that
institution and of astronomical science generally. In
the autumn of 1903, one brother, M. Prosper Henri,
died suddenly on a holiday tour, and we now have
the melancholy duty of chronicling the death of the
second brother, M. Paul Henri. It is necessary to
recall the close and intimate relations that existed
between these two, because the scientific life of one
was that of the other. No one has ever thought of
them separately, no one has ever attempted to dis-
criminate between their successes and their triumphs.
The same day (November 8, 1889) they were both
elected associates of the Royal Astronomical Society,
and other instances of similar recognition of their
united work might be quoted. We may quote the
words of the late M. Callandreau of these two :—
“si unis que nous ne voyons souvent en eux qu’ une
seule personne pour ainsi dire, si oublieux de faire
ressortir leur mérites respectifs qu’ il est difficile de
distinguer ce qui peut appartenir A chacun dans
l’ceuvre commune.”’
It is an oft-told tale to recall how these brothers,
NO. 1839, VOL. 71 |
with whom mechanical art was a conspicuous gift,
constructed their own instruments, and laboured to
complete the ecliptic charts on which Chacornac had
worked, how their systematic work and diligence
added to the number of small planets, and how,
finally, the necessity was forced upon them of adopt-
ing improved methods in registering the places of
stars in the crowded regions of the heavens. The
history of the ‘‘ International Chart of the Heavens,”
which has taxed the resources of so many observ-
atories, was the outcome of their skill and resource.
Not only did they provide the optical parts of the
instruments that were employed in many observ-
atories, but they laboured zealously on the zone
allotted to the Paris Observatory, and it is believed
brought their share to a successful issue. They led
the way in the photographic examination of clusters
like the Pleiades, and showed to others how un-
suspected nebulz might be detected.
A new era of activity opened for astronomy in the
general application of photography, and few have
contributed more to the harvest of results that has
followed that activity than have the brothers Henri.
They not only supplied the instruments with which
the negatives were taken, but they suggested devices
for the construction of measuring machines by which
these negatives could be discussed. The reputation
of one and both rests on their photographic work.
Smaller work, such as the careful and accurate de-
lineation of planetary markings, the observation of
minute satellites, and the more ordinary routine of
observatory work, are all forgotten in the large share
taken in the application of photography to celestial
measurement. His colleagues in the observatory
spoke of the many excellent qualities that dis-
tinguished M. Prosper Henri as a colleague and
friend, and one is sure that no less kindly expressions
will be used towards M. Paul Henri, who has enjoyed
the confidence and respect of all the directors of the
Paris Observatory who have followed M. ie Meus
NOTES.
Tue cross of officer of the Legion of Honour has been
conferred, La Nature states, upon Dr. Otto Nordenskjold
for his South Polar explorations. Mrs. Bullock Workman
has been appointed Officier de 1’Instruction publique for
her travels in the Himalayas.
Tue autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute
is to be held this year in Sheffield for the first time.
Mr. R. A. Hadfield has been elected to succeed Mr.
Andrew Carnegie as president of the institute. The visit
will take place during the week beginning September 25.
The most influential members of the Sheffield steel in-
dustry have associated themselves with the invitation to
the institute, and a committee has been formed, of which
the Lord Mayor of Sheffield and the Master Cutler are
chairman and vice-chairman respectively. Colonel H.
Hughes, C.M.G., has been* appointed chairman of the
reception committee, with Mr. J. Rossiter Hoyle as
honorary secretary. Mr. Frank Huntsman—who is, we
learn from the Times, a descendant of the Huntsman who
founded the Sheffield industry of melting steel in pots
about 170 years ago—will act as honorary treasurer, and
Mr. John Wortley as honorary assistant secretary.
On Thursday next, February 2, Prof. W. Schlich will
deliver the first of a course of two lectures at the Royal
Institution on ‘‘ Forestry in the British Empire.’’ The
discourse on Friday, February 3, will be delivered by Prof.
T. Clifford Allbutt on ‘‘ Blood Pressure in Man.”
|
—— EES
JANUARY 26, 1905]
NATURE
303
Tue International Congress of Psychology will meet this
year at Rome on April 26-30. We learn from the British
Medical Journal that there will be four sections. The
section of experimental psychology, the president of which
is Prof. G. Fano, of Florence, will deal with psychology
in its relations to anatomy and physiology, psycho-physics,
and comparative psychology. That of introspective psycho-
logy will, under the presidency of Prof. R. Ardigo, of
Padua, devote itself to psychology in its relations to philo-
sophical sciences. The section of pathological psychology,
the president of which is Prof. E. Morselli, of Genoa,
will discuss hypnotism, suggestion, and analogous pheno-
mena, and psycho-therapeutics. The programme of the
section of criminal, padagogic, and social psychology, which
is under the presidency of Prof. Lombroso, of Turin, has
not yet been published. The president of the congress is
Prof. Giuseppe Sergi, of Rome; the general secretary, Dr.
Sante de Sanctis, to whom all communications relative to
the meeting should be addressed at the Istituto
Fisiologico, 92 Via Depretis, Rome.
WE are informed that Dr. Carl Otto Weber, the well
known chemical authority on india-rubber, died suddenly
on January 14 at his residence in Massachusetts, U.S.A.
On November 16 last the University of Lehigh was
‘bereaved of its president, Dr. Thomas Messinger Drown,
and a brief obituary notice is contained in the Popular
Science Monthly for January. Dr. Drown was born on
March 19, 1842, at Philadelphia, and he graduated in
medicine at Pennsylvania, subsequently studying chemistry
in Germany and America. He held the chair of chemistry
at Lafayette College for seven years, and at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology for seven years. He was
secretary and editor of the American Institution of Mining
Engineers for ten years from its foundation, and was
elected president in 1897. His researches in quantitative
analysis were devoted in the first place to devising standard
methods in the analyses of iron and steel, and in the second
place to water analysis, especially in connection with the
natural waters of the State of Massachusetts, and the dis-
tribution of normal chlorine. He was elected president of
Lehigh. University in 1895, at a time when that institu- |
tion’s influence was at a low ebb, and since his appoint-
ment the efficiency of the college has developed in many
important directions.
Reuter’s Agency has been informed by the Pacific
Cable Board that by an arrangement between the Washing-
‘ton and Sydney Observatories, with the cooperation of the
telegraph administrations concerned, time signals were
sent on New Year’s Eve from the Washington Observ-
atory to the Sydney Observatory at 3h., 4h., 5h., and 6h.
The mean interval between the times when these signals
were sent and when they were received was 2-90s.
The distance separating Sydney and Washington
jis more than 12,000 miles. The signals through the
Vancouver-Fanning cable, the longest | cable span in the
world (3457-76 nautical miles), were sent by automatic
apparatus, and were recorded, as they passed, at the
Vancouver station on an instrument placed in the artificial
line which balances the cable for the purpose of duplex
working. The signals consisted of second contacts,
omitting the thirtieth and last five of each minute, except
the last minute of the hour, when the thirtieth and all
after the fiftieth second were omitted, the circuit closing
with a long dash on the even hour. The signals were
sent for five minutes before the hour from 3 p.m. to
6 p-m., Sydney time; equivalent to midnight to 3 a.m.
Washington time,
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
| chin.
Writinc from Amsterdam, Dr. €. M. yan Deventer
desires to direct attention to an interesting fact observed
by a schoolboy. Two years ago, during a lesson in
physics given at the high school at Batavia, one of the
boys, called Van Erpecum, told Dr. Deventer, as an
observation of his own, that the water in a glass, filled
to the brim with water and floating ice, does not flow
over when the ice melts. The observation was com-
municated to Profs, Van der Waals and Zeeman, who
judged it worthy of being the subject of a note presented
by them to the Royal Academy of Amsterdam. Dr.
Deventer says that the observation of his pupil tells only
the half of the phenomenon—the truth being that the
water neither rises nor sinks. He therefore states the
proposition that “‘ In a vessel containing water and float-
ing ice, the level stays at the same height when the ice
melts.”” Or, speaking more generally, ‘‘ When a vessel
contains a solid floating in its own liquid, the level of
the latter does not change by the melting of the solid.’’
This proposition Dr.. Deventer proposes to call the ‘‘ law
of the permanent level.’’ The law can be deduced from
Archimedes’s principle; but it is only rigorously exact
when the weight of the air is neglected.
At the meeting of the Society of Antiquaries on
January 19 Mr. A. J. Evans communicated an account of
the tombs of Minoan Knossos. Mr. Evans’s last season’s
work at Knossos was devoted largely to the search for the
tombs in relation with the Minoan palace and city. Ona
hill about a mile north of the palace a cemetery was dis-
covered. One hundred tombs were opened, and the con-
tents showed that the bulk of them belonged to the period
immediately succeeding the fall of the palace. The
character of the art displayed by the relics found showed
the unbroken tradition of the later palace style. The
jewelry and gems discovered were of the typical “‘ mature
Mycenzan ”’ class, and a scarab found in one of the graves
is of a late eighteenth dynasty type. The tombs were of
three main classes:—(a) Chamber tombs cut in the soft
rock and approached in each case by a dromos; in many
cases these contained clay coffins, in which the dead had
been deposited in cists, their knees drawn towards the
(b) Shaft graves, each with a lesser cavity below,
| containing the extended skeleton, and with a roofing of
stone slabs. (c) Pits giving access to a walled cavity in
the side below; these also contained extended skeletons.
A number of skulls have been secured, and are to be sent
to England. On a high level called Sopata, about two
miles north again of this cemetery, an important sepulchral
monument was discovered. This consisted of a square
chamber, about eight by six metres, constructed of lime-
stone blocks, and with the walls arching in
““ Cyclopean ’’ fashion towards a high gable. The back
wall was provided with a central cell opposite the blocked
entrance. This entrance, arched on the same horizontal
principle, communicated with a lofty entrance hall of
similar construction, in the side walls of which, faeing
each other, were two cells that had been used for sepulchral
purposes. A second blocked archway led from this hall
to the imposing rock-cut dromos. A number of relics
were found scattered about, including repeated clay im-
pressions of what may have been a royal seal. Specially
remarkable among the stone vessels is a porphyry bowl of
Minoan workmanship, but recalling in material and execu-
tion that of the early Egyptian dynasties. Many imported
Egyptian alabastra were also found, showing the survival
of middle empire forms besides others of early eighteenth
dynasty type. Beads of lapis lazuli were also found, and
side
304
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
ne
pendants of the same material, showing a close imitation
of Egyptian models. The form of this mausoleum, with
its square chamber, is unique, and contrasts with that of
the tholos tombs of mainland Greece. The position in
which it lies commands the whole south A4igean to Melos
and Santorin, and Central Crete from Dicta to Ida.
WE have to welcome an addition to the already lengthy
list of American biological serials in the form of a Bulletin
issued by the Springfield (Mass.) Museum of Natural
History, of which the first number is in our hands. This
is devoted to the description of the early stages in the
development of the ground-beetles of the family Carabide,
as exemplified by a member of the genus Diczelus, in which
the larva is of the ordinary predaceous type, and one of
Brachinus, in which the larva is parasitic and degenerate.
Of the adult beetles, the more specialised seems to be
Brachinus. The authors of the paper are Messrs. Dimmock
and Knab.
Tue Albany Museum, according to the report for the
first half of 1904, continues to make steady progress, and
it is satisfactory to learn that arrangements are under
consideration both for augmenting the staff and for in-
creasing the size of the building. An important part of
the museum’s work is the investigation of the life-history
of insects injurious to agriculture and horticulture, and
the discovery of the best means of checking their ravages.
For this purpose a piece of ground adjoining the museum
has been enclosed, and it is hoped that funds will shortly
be forthcoming for erecting in this enclosure an_insect-
house, without the aid of which the work
on only with difficulty.
Tue Field Naturalists’ Quarterly for. December, 1904,
strikes us as being an unusually excellent number: It
includes, in the first place, the second of the series of
plates illustrating the development of the frog. Later on
we have the first instalment of a set of articles by the
editor (Dr. G. Leighton) explaining modern investigations
on heredity in a manner calculated to bring home the
fundamental truths of this complex subject to every in-
telligent reader, the development of the germ-plasm being
the text of this contribution. In a preliminary note the
editor expresses the hope that his articles will induce many
persons who reside in the country to take up the practical
investigation of some form of heredity for themselves. A
third article to which we may direct attention is one by
Mr. H. E. Forrest. in which simple methods of distin-
guishing the various species of British bats are formulated.
We notice that the author adheres to the old-fashioned
nomenclature for the members of this group.
can be carried
WE have received the January number of Climate, which
contains an illustrated description of the Japanese soldier’s
outfit, and articles on blackwater fever, water and its con-
nection with disease, the drinking habits of native races,
climate and health in hot countries, &c. The
articles are semi-popular in character, and should be useful
to missionaries others stationed
medical
and in districts remote
from medical aid.
Tue Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute (vol. xxv.,
part iii.) forms a bulky volume of some 600 pages. It
contains a number of interesting and important papers and
discussions thereon contributed to the congress of the in-
stitute at Glasgow last year. They are on such varied
subjects as disinfection in phthisis (Prof. Kenwood and Dr.
Allan), prevention of diphtheria (Dr. Cobbett),
disposal, hygiene and ventilation,
sewage
school conditions of
housing, &c.
No 1839, VOL. 71]
Tur December (1904) number of the Johns Hopkins
Hospital Bulletin (vol. xv., No. 165) contains an account
of the opening of the new surgical building and clinical
amphitheatre of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, a descrip-
tion of a new chromogenic bacillus, B. cyaneum, and
various papers of medical interest. In the new buildings
a tablet has been erected to the memory of Dr. Jesse
Lazear, who died from an attack of yellow fever while
investigating that disease in Cuba.
It is proposed to add to Reichenbach’s ‘‘ Icones Flore
Germanic et Helvetica ’’ a number of extra volumes con-
taining monographs of critical genera. The publishers,
Messrs. von Zezschwitz, of Gera, announce the immediate
issue of the first of these, in which the genus Hieracium
is treated by Dr. J. Murr and Mr. H. Zahn.
Tue cultivation of mushrooms is not such an important
business in the United States of America as in Great
Britain and France. With the view of extending and im-
proving the trade, Prof. B. M. Duggar has written a
pamphlet on the subject, which has been issued by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture as a Farmers’ Bulletin.
The preparation of English brick spawn and French flake
spawn is dependent upon the haphazard collection of what
is known as “‘ virgin spawn’ in the open. Prof. Duggar
has for some time attempted to discover the conditions
which are necessary for the germination of mushroom
spores. He has already succeeded in germinating spores
in pure cultures by means of chemical stimulation, and
hopes shortly to make the process more practical. This
will enable the grower to produce a definite strain, and
if necessary to obtain improved varieties by selection.
Tue Ani-i-Akbari, or annals of the Emperor Akbar,
written in the Persian language, contain descriptions of
various customs which prevailed during the Moghul period.
Amongst these was the use of perfumes in religious
observances, and the emperor took a personal interest in
the preparation of the ingredients. A short summary of
the principal substances and their sources is contributed
by Mr. D. Hooper to the October (1904) number of the
Calcutta Review. Among vegetable products, Aquilaria
agallocha, aloe-wood, was then as now valued for the
oleo-resin agar, and an oil known as chuwah; sandal-
wood was used as a powder, and perfumes were distilled
from the rose, orange, jasmine, and broad-leaved willow,
Salix caprea. Ambergris obtained from the sperm whale,
the moist secretion of the civet cat, and the opercula of
certain molluscs, known as “‘ fingernails,’’ were important
animal products.
PaMPHLET series No. 32, issued by the Imperial Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the West Indies, gives a summary
of the results on the cultivation of seedling and other
canes at the Barbados experiment stations in 1904. As in
previous years the investigation has been conducted by
Prof. d’Albuquerque and Mr. Bovell. Sixteen sugar estates
in typical localities were selected, thirteen on black soils
and three on red soils. The seedlings were treated in
precisely the same manner as the ordinary canes. The
season was favourable, there was very little root disease,
and the crop consequently was above the average. Cane
B208 again gave uniformly good results, both as plant
canes and ratoons, and it is recommended for a general
trial on a field scale in all red soil districts. A newer cane,
B 1529, however, takes the first place in the black soil
list, coming out second to B 208 in the red soil list. Its
cultivation will consequently be extended to as many ex-
perimental plots as possible. Cane B147, at one time
JANUARY 26, 1905]
NATURE
395
considered the most promising of the seedling varieties,
did not give such good results as in previous years, but
it appears to be cultivated with some success in the rather
light soils in the parish of St. Philip. :
Tue Barbados Official Gazette of December 19, 1904,
contains some correspondence relating to Cassava poison-
ing. Mr. Briggs, one of the district coroners, noted to
the Colonial Secretary that witnesses in inquest cases
frequently assert that if roasting and poison cassava grow
closely side by side, the roasting cassava takes up some
of the poison from the poison cassava; also that the
roastin§ cassava gets a “‘ spring in it,’’ and that makes
it poisonous. The Colonial Secretary submitted the note
to Sir Daniel Morris, who replied that (1) ‘* there can be
no direct connection between the two plants, and it is
impossible that the poison can pass through the soil from
the poisonous cassava to the sweet,’’ and (2) ‘‘if by the
“spring in it’ is meant that the plant starts into second
growth after heavy rain, it is probable that certain changes
may take place inducing an increase of the poisonous
quality.’’ What probably happens when persons die from
eating sweet or roasting cassava is that it is either too old
or it has not been sufficiently cooked to drive out all the
acid. It is only really wholesome when the roots are not
too old, and when they have been cooked until they are
quite soft. If the centre is hard it is probably more or
less poisonous, and should not be eaten. Even properly
cooked cassava which has been allowed to become cold is
not fit to eat unless it is cooked a second time.
BECKELITE, a new mineral species named in honour of
Prof. F. Becke, of Vienna, is described by Prof. J.
Morozewicz in the December (1904) Bulletin of the Cracow
Academy of Sciences. It occurs as an accessory constituent
of a dyke-rock composed of albite, nephelite, zgirite, and
magnetite in the elzolite-syenite complex near Mariupol, on
the Sea of Azoy. The wax-yellow octahedral or rhombic-
dodecahedral crystals resemble pyrochlore in general
appearance and physical characters, though the somewhat
indistinct cleavage is cubic instead of octahedral.
Chemically, however, the new mineral is quite distinct
from pyrochlore, containing 17-13 per cent. of silica and
65-31 per cent. of rare earths, with no niobium or tantalum.
The formula is Ca,(Ce,La,Di),Si,O,,, which presents a
certain resemblance to the garnet formula with rare earths
in place of alumina. From analogy to calcium ‘‘ alumo-
silicate,’’? the new mineral is described as a calcium cero-
lanthano-didymo-silicate.
For the twenty-second time, the climatological records
of the British Empire are summarised in the current
number of Symons’s Meteorological Magazine, viz. for the
year 1903. The stations number twenty-five, but, as the
editor points out, it is impossible to represent the average
conditions of the climate of the Empire by so small a
mumber of stations, however well distributed. Adelaide,
which has almost constantly held the first place in the
summary for extreme maximum temperature, now, as in
1902, gives way’ to Coolgardie, in Western Australia,
where the shade temperature reached 113°-4 on January 27;
the lowest shade temperature was —60°-8 at Dawson on |
January 26. Dawson had also the greatest yearly range
(150°-3). The greatest mean daily range was 23°-5 at’
Winnipeg, and the least 8°-5 at Hong Kong, London had
the highest relative humidity (82 per cent.) and Adelaide
the lowest (62 per cent.). The greatest rainfall, 93:67
inches, was recorded at Hong Kong, and the least, 10-74
inches, at Dawson. We may mention, incidentally, that
NO. 1839, VOL. 71 |
the present number of the magazine is the largest since
its foundation in 1866; we hope to refer shortly to another
of the interesting articles that it contains.
WE have received the Journals of the Meteorological
Society of Japan for October and November last. They
contain (as we see from the English titles) several interest-
ing articles in Japanese. There is also one in English, on
the duration of rainfall, by T. Okada. The object of the
author is to show that Dr. Képpen’s formula for the
calculation of the probable duration of rainfall in a month,
or any interval of time, from three or six observations
daily, holds good for all climates. The calculation is very
simple, and the formula in question, (r/n)N, is contained
in an article by Dr. Képpen in the Austrian Meteor-
ologische Zeitschrift for 1880; n is the total number of
observations, r that of observations with rainfall, and N
the total number of hours in a month (or other period).
The author shows that the duration of rainfall, computed
from tri-daily observations, does not differ materially from
that computed from hourly observations—in the annual
mean at most 4 per cent., and in the monthly mean 18
per cent. In the majority of cases the differences are much
less; the method gives more approximate results than an
ordinary self-recording rain-gauge, owing to the usual
want of sensibility of such instruments.
In the Zeitschrift fiir physikalischen und chemischen
Unterricht, xvii., 5, Mr. Walter Stahlberg, of Steglitz,
gives an account of the Zeiss ‘‘ Verant ’’ by which photo-
graphs are made to stand out in natural relief with mon-
ocular vision. The apparatus can hardly be correctly de-
scribed as a stereoscope, since one of the most important
features of the stereoscope depending on binocular vision
is absent. The Verant is a single lens, the focal
length of which should be equal to that of the camera
used in taking the photographs, and this lens is convexo-
concave, so that the axes of the pencils from different
parts of the picture meet in the eye. From Mr. Stahl-
berg’s account, we think the principle of the Verant may
be roughly explained by the following illustration :—When
a photograph of cloisters is taken from one corner in the
interior the photograph gives the impression that the two
colonnades meet at a very acute angle instead of at right
angles. If the picture were seen through the Verant the
angles would appear correct as they would to a person
standing in the cloisters themselves. The now old-
fashioned graphoscope appears to have had a somewhat
similar purpose.
Two papers which are of importance in the study of
superfusion phenomena are published by Drs. Tullio
Gnesotto and Gino Zanetti in the Atti of the Royal
Venetian Institute (1903, vol. Ixii., p. 1377). By
means of a modified ice calorimeter, the variation of the
specific heat of superfused liquid sodium thiosulphate at
temperatures between 0° C. and the melting point of the
salt, 48°-8 C., was determined, the observations being also
extended above this temperature up to 100° C. On calcu-
lating the specific heat at all temperatures within this
range, it is seen that in the neighbourhood of the melting
point a sudden diminution in its value occurs, but that
slightly above this temperature the specific heat again
increases, so that the curve resumes the same direction
that it had below the melting point. The latent heat of
fusion of the salt at 0° C. was also determined.
A vatuaBLe paper on the properties of chrome-vanadium
steels was read before the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers on December 16, 1904, by Captain Riall Sankey
4
3
06
and Mr. J. Kent Smith. These steels appear to be most
valuable from their power of resisting rapid alternations
of stress and sudden shock, especially after they have been
subjected to special thermal treatment. The temperature
of their recalescence is at about 715° C., and the effect
of quenching in oil from goo® C. and subsequently re-
heating at 600° C. is to increase enormously the resist-
ance of the alloy to shock, as measured by an impact test,
and to alternations of stress, without affecting the tensile
strength. A spring of chrome-vanadium steel which was
prepared was found to have double the strength of an
ordinary steel spring of the same dimensions, the extension
being directly proportional to the load throughout a very
much wider range. Like the nickel steels, those which
contain vanadium and chromium are very efficient in with-
standing bending tests.
Messrs. DaWBARN AND Warp, Ltp., have added a
booklet, ‘‘ How to Read’a Workshop Drawing,’’ by Mr.
W. Longland, to their ‘‘ Home-Worker’s’’ series of
practical handbooks.
A THIRD edition of Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir’s trans-
lation of Prof. Lassar-Cohn’s ‘‘ Chemistry in Daily Life ”’
has been published by Messrs. H. Grevel and Co. The
book has been revised and enlarged.
A TEACHERS’ edition of part ii. of ‘* Elementary Algebra,”’
by Messrs. W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, has been
published by Messrs. George Bell and Sons. Teachers
are likely to find the plan of printing the answers on the
page opposite to the examples a convenience in class
work.
Tue Engineering Standards Committee has just issued
the “‘ British Standard Specification for Portland Cement.’’
The specification deals with the quality and preparation
of the cement, gives particulars as to sampling and
preparation for testing and analysis, and goes on to
enumerate what should be its fineness, specific gravity,
chemical composition, &c. The specification also considers
at length the various tests which a satisfactory cement
should pass. Copies of the publication may be obtained
from Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son, price 2s. 6d.
net.
THE 1905 issue of ‘‘ Hazell’s Annual ’’ has now been
published. Twelve pages are devoted to scientific progress
during 1904, and about five to scientific societies and
institutions. Education in the United Kingdom in all
its branches is given some fourteen pages.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Tue REPORTED SIXTH SATELLITE OF JUPITER.—A telegram
from the Kiel Centralstelle gives the position of a minor
planet, P.V., photographed by Prof. Wolf on January
23-135 at the Konigstuhl Observatory, at 7h. 8.8m.
(ISonigstuhl M.T.), as
R.A.=rh. 31m. 59s., dec.=+8° 36! 13”.
The daily movement of this object is +23! in R.A.
and —9! in declination, and it is suggested that the body
may possibly be identical with the object announced by
Prof. Perrine as a sixth satellite to Jupiter. i
PERIODICAL COMETS DUE TO RETURN IN 1905.—In the
January Observatory Mr. W. T. Lynn directs attention to
the periodical comets which are due to return to peri-
helion this year. There are only two, of which the first,
Encke’s, has already been seen, and passed through peri-
helion on January 4. The second is that discovered by
Prof. Max Wolf on September 17, 1884 (comet iii., 1884)
NO. 1839, VOL. 71 |
,
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
which has a period, variously estimated, of about 6-76
years. This object returned as comet ii., 1891, and
comet iv., 1898, its perihelion being passed during the
latter return on July 4, although its nearest approach
to the earth did not take place until the end of November.
Accordingly it should again pass through perihelion early
in April next.
CHANGES ON THE SURFACE OF JUPITER.—An_ interesting
popular exposition of the knowledge acquired during the
past twenty-five years concerning the conditions of, and
the changes on, the visible surface of Jupiter is given by
Prof. G. W. Hough in No. 1, vol. xiii., of Popular
Astronomy.
Prof. Hough’s own observations of Jupiter have extended
over twenty-five years, and the present article summarises
them and the conclusions to which they have led him.
He particularly refers to the determined values for the
rotation periods at different latitudes, and sees no evidence
for the existence of any law connecting the two, giving
diagrams which illustrate the point. Two other diagrams
show the variations in the latitude and the rotation period
of the great red spot from 1879 to 1903, whilst yet
another illustrates the changes in the position and width
of the equatorial belt during the period 1895-1904. From
the latter diagram it is seen, very clearly, that the changes
in the northern part of the belt are much more sudden
and of a greater magnitude than those which take place
in the southern portion.
Stars Havine Pecuriar Spectra.—During the examin-
ation of the Henry Draper memorial plates, Mrs. Fleming
has discovered some additional stars which are either
variable or have peculiar spectra. Thirty-one of these are
announced and briefly described in No. 92 of the Harvard
College Observatory Circulars. Of those having peculiar
spectra a few are worthy of special notice. For instance,
d Cephei (mag. 5-6) was found to have a spectrum identical
with that of ¢ Puppis, which hitherto has been regarded
as unique. The stars D.M.—11° 1460 (Monoceros) and
+64° 1527 (Cepheus), amongst others, show a_ bright
HB line. In the former the other hydrogen and the helium
lines are double, whilst in the latter they are single but
broad. The spectrum of D.M.+39° 4368 (R.A.=
2oh. 51-6m., dec.=+39° 55’, mag.=7-2), as photographed
on September 15, 1904, was continuous, showing no trace
of lines, although the lines in the spectra of neighbouring
stars were sharply defined; on other plates the hydrogen
\| lines show faintly, although the spectrum was not so well
es
Reat Patus, HEIGHTS, AND VELOCITIES OF LEONIDS.—
From the observational data submitted to him by various
observers, Mr. Denning has computed the real paths,
heights above the earth’s surface, and velocities of several
Leonids seen during the last shower. From three observ-
ations of the brightest meteor seen at Greenwich, at
16h. 24m. 42s., November 16, 1904, he finds that the height
of this object was from 88 to 44 miles along a path
extending not more than 60 miles from near Petersfield
to Hungerford. The velocity was about 46 miles per
second, and the radiant point was 151°+22°.
A second meteor recorded by two observers was seen at
Greenwich, at November 14d. 10h. 26m., and at Enniscorthy
(Ireland), 280 miles away. This had a long horizontal
flight from over the neighbourhood of Sheffield to near Car-
marthen, and was 83 to 78 miles high, the velocity being
about 40 miles per second. Another meteor travelled at’a
height of 79 to 58 miles from over Faringdon to Stroud,
its visible path being 35 miles long and its velocity 39
miles per second (Observatory, January).
New METHOD FOR MEasuRING RADIAL-VELOCITY SPECTRO-
Grams.—At a meeting of the International Congress of
Arts and Sciences held at St. Louis in September, 1904,
Prof. J. Hartmann, of Potsdam, gave a brief outline of
a new method whereby he proposes to reduce considerably
the labour involved in measuring the displacements cf
lines in stellar spectra for the purpose of determining the
radial velocities of the stars. Hitherto it has been
customary to measure the displacement of each line
separately, and subsequently to reduce the individual
measures; but in Prof. Hartmann’s new method the dis-
JANUARY 26, 1905]
placement of the whole of the lines in the star spectrum
would be measured simultaneously. He proposes to photo-
graph the spectrum of the star, with the terrestrial com-
parison spectrum alongside it, as usual, and then to photo-
graph the solar spectrum and the same comparison with
the same instrument. The two negatives are then placed
in a specially devised measuring machine, and the solar
plate moved by the micrometer screw until the similar lines
in both the solar and the stellar spectra coincide. Then
the solar plate is again moved by the screw until the
lines in the comparison spectrum on it coincide with the
analogous lines in the comparison spectrum on the stellar
spectrogram. The difference between the two settings
gives the displacement of the stellar lines, from which the
radial velocity is. computed. In the reduction, which is
simple, the only assumption made is that the lines have
the same wave-lengths in the solar and the stellar spectra,
and this is permissible, at least with second-type stars for
which the method was primarily devised (Astrophysical
Journal, vol. xx., No. 5).
MEDICAL RESEARCH-IN EGYPT."
AN interval of three years has elapsed since the first
volume of these ‘‘ Records ’’ was published. ‘The pre-
sent series of papers would alone afford abundant evidence of
the activity of the members of the staff in the intervening
period. But it is still more satisfactory to recollect that
this does not represent the total output of research, for
many other memoirs from the same source have already
appeared elsewhere. There are evidently many problems of
both local and general importance which require investi-
gation, and the standard of excellence reached in the
““ Records ’’ already published arouses a desire that succeed-
ing volumes should appear more frequently.
The papers are naturally chiefly concerned with problems
of special local importance. The three scourges of Egypt
are said to be the malarial parasite, Ankylostoma and
Bilharzia. The last seems to bring an extraordinary
number of cases under the care of the surgical staff, some
16 per cent. of all surgical in-patients suffering directly
from lesions produced by this parasite. From the patho-
logical report by Dr. Symmers, it would appear that
about 7 per cent. of the deaths are directly due to
Bilharzia. In 100 consecutive admissions to the medical
wards, 35 were found to have the eggs in their urine,
though only two of these were suffering in any way from
the infection. The surgical aspects of the disease are
discussed in two interesting papers by Mr. Madden and
Mr. Milton; they find that many pathological conditions
turn out most unexpectedly to be due to the worm. At
one period of life or another practically the whole of the
native population is said to be infected. Unfortunately, no
material progress has been made in elucidating the extra-
corporeal history of the parasite; it is therefore impossible
to take any direct preventive measures.
Dr. Phillips contributes an article on the relation of
ascites to malaria. In at least one-third of the cases of
ascites in Kasr-el-Ainy no cause could be found other than
malaria, but the ztiological connection is not very clearly
established. A definite malarial cirrhosis occurs in a
certain number of the cases, but it is not always present,
and the conditions found appear to be very variable.
Of ankylostomiasis there is nothing in this volume
beyond incidental mention. But, as is well known, the
most important recent contributions to our knowledge of
this destructive world-disease have come from the Cairo
Medical School. Dr. Looss, in a long series of papers,
has most ably carried on the investigations begun by
Griesinger in the same school fifty years ago, and we are
disappointed to find here no sequel to his account of the
Sclerostomidae of horses and asses which appeared in the
first volume of the ‘‘ Records.’’
Dr. Wilson follows up his observations on the poisons
of spiders by a very interesting study of the venom of
Egyptian scorpions. An aqueous extract of the poison
gland is treated with excess of alcohol, and from the
1 ** Records of the Egyptian Government School of Medicine.” Vol. it;
1904. Edited by H. B, Keatinge, M.B., Director. Pp. 169+plates. (Cairo:
National Printing Department, 1904.)
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
NATURE 307
precipitate thus obtained a substance may be extracted
with normal saline which possesses toxic properties of a
very high order. The toxic value is about ten million,
that is, 1 milligram will kill 10 kilograms of guinea-pig
—a figure of the same order as that obtained for similar
preparations from the venoms of the more poisonous
serpents. A full-grown specimen of the common Egyptian
species (Buthus quinque-striatus) contains about 34 milli-
grams of this (impure) “‘ toxin.’’ If the susceptibility of
man is the same as that of the laboratory animals, it
follows that a single sting can kill at the utmost 35 kilo-
grams. These calculations correspond very well with the
fact that fatal cases of scorpion sting in adults are
extremely rare, though the mortality in young children
reaches 60 per cent. Scorpions are in this way on a
different level from many of the poisonous snakes; as
Captain Lamb has shown, the amount of toxin normally
injected by a vigorous cobra is many times the minimum
lethal dose for an adult man. Dr. Wilson finds that
certain animals living in the desert (including the hedge-
hog) are naturally immune (at any rate relatively) to the
venom; and Dr. Tallart has immunised goats and obtained
an anti-toxic serum with curative properties.
An article by Dr. Tribe shows that phthisis in Egypt
does not differ very much in frequency, incidence on
rural and urban populations, and type from the same
disease in western Europe; and Dr. Sobhy gives a curious
account of the obstetric customs of the natives, which
seem to have undergone no material change since very
remote times. The volume concludes with the first instal-
ment of what promises to be a monumental contribution
to the morphology of the human brain, by Dr. Elliot
Smith. The present section, which is fully illustrated,
deals with the occipital region, and contains a great deal
of original matter on the vexed questions of the signifi-
cance and homologies of the convolutions. .
The general printing of the volume is excellent, though
the inevitable misprint has crept in here and there. The
illustrations are good and useful, but we are sorry to see
that the coloured plate illustrating Dr. Symmers’s case
of secondary sarcoma of brain could not be printed in
Egypt. An En Be
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY IN WAR.
VERY interesting account of the working of the
wireless telegraphic war correspondence of the
Times during the early part of the Russo-Japanese war
was given by Captain James at a meeting of the Society
of Arts last week. This is the second occasion on which
the Times has played a prominent and important part in
the practical development of wireless telegraphy. The first
was when, shortly after Mr. Marconi had established com-
munication between America and England, a regular
correspondence was started between the two countries by
means of wireless telegraphy—a correspondence which was
not, however, destined to last for very many days. Very
soon after its inception something went wrong, and
though since that time the Marconi Company has greatly
developed its Transatlantic signalling and has effectively
demonstrated its utility and convenience for communicating
with liners, the shore to shore correspondence has not
been renewed.
The second case in which the Times intervened was
also only of short duration; but here the cessation
was due to its having met with too great success, the
results achieved having demonstrated not that wireless
telegraphy is useful for war correspondence, but that it
is too effective to be permissible.
The system selected for the equipment of the Haimun
was that of Dr. de Forest, a system which had already
shown its efficiency during the yacht races of 1903; the
reasons that led to the choice of this system were its
freedom from interference and the speed at which it could
be worked, it being possible to transmit thirty to thirty-
five words a minute, as against ten to twelve words by
any other system. The experiences of Captain James
seem certainly to bear out the claim of freedom from
interference. In spite of the fact that four other systems
were at work in close proximity to the Haimun—the
308
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905
Russian, Japanese, British, and Italian—Captain James
never found his messages interfered with in any way.
This notwithstanding that many of the messages sent
were of considerable length, running from 1500 to 2000
words. To transmit these long messages under all the
attendant difficulties was no mean achievement for wire-
less telegraphy and journalism alike.
Some of the incidents narrated by Captain James are
both interesting and amusing. On one occasion, when
the Japanese steamed in to attack Port Arthur, the
Haimun telegraphed the news of the firing of the first
shot to Wei-hai-wei, whence the message was forwarded
express to London, with the result that two hours later
the Times received the news, so that, on account of the
difference in time, the journal knew that an engagement was
taking place six hours before it started. On the occasion
of the transmission of their first long message—one of
1500 words—which was sent from a distance of 130 miles
from Wei-hai-wei, the operator listened anxiously at his
telephone receiver, after the first section of 350 words had
been transmitted, to know whether it had been satis-
factorily received. For five minutes he waited; then his
face lighted up, and he remarked, ‘‘ Captain, we will
deliver the goods, Wei-hai-wei says that it is coming in
like a drum.’’ It is a remarkable achievement, which
journalists and men of science highly appreciate, that
wireless telegraphy is capable even in adverse circum-
stances of transmitting messages that will ‘‘ come in like
a drum.’’ Wireless telegraphy may still be in its infancy,
but the results attained by its use have shown that it is
no longer in an experimental stage. M. S.
“FLOODS IN THE UNITED STATES.
[N our number for July 28 we gave particulars of the
great flood that occurred in the Mississippi valley in
1903, and of the damage done in Kansas and other places,
and also of floods in the Passaic River, the information
being obtained from the reports issued by the Geological
Department of the United States. We have recently re-
ceived a further report on floods in other parts of the
States.?
This report states that the year 1903 will be long remem-
bered for its extreme local variations from normal climatic
conditions. | Besides the floods in the Mississippi valley
already referred to, due to heavy and continuous rainfall,
a cloud-burst at Heppner, in Oregon, caused the loss
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Fic. 1.—Clifton before the Flood of 1903.
of 100 lives and of property valued at half a million dollars,
one-third of the town being entirely destroyed. This flood
was due to a very heavy storm of short duration covering
a very small area, such storms being peculiar to this arid
region, and locally called a ‘* cloud burst.’’ Such a storm
1 “ Destructive Floods in the United States in 1903.” By E. C. Murphy.
Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, No. 96. (Washington.)
No. 1839, VOL. 71]
is almost like a tornado in its suddenness, destructibility,
and limited extent. The duration of this storm was only
half an hour, and the resulting flood lasted less than an
hour. It was estimated that the storm area was from two
to four miles in width and eight to ten miles in length, and
affected an area of twenty square miles.
This storm was accompanied by a very heavy fall of
hail ; some of the hailstones measured 1} inches in diameter.
Fic. 2.—Clifton after the flood of 1903.
Five days after the storm some that measured five-eighths
by seven-sixteenths inch were removed from a house buried
under silt and mud, and bodies were found in drifts of hail’
in nearly a perfect state of preservation.
Another destructive flood due to heavy rain occurred in
South Carolina in the district situated on the southern
slope of the Saluda Mountains, which includes the foot-
hills and rolling country. About half of it is covered with
timber, the remainder being cultivated and pasture land.
The surface slopes are such that the water runs off rapidly,
and there is very little storage.
Rain had occurred daily for some time previously,
saturating the ground, and culminating in a fall of from
33 to 5 inches in twenty-four hours.
The greatest destruction caused by the flood due to this
rainfall was the wrecking of three large cotton mills
situated at Clifton (Figs. 1 and 2), on the river Pacolet.
At one mill a chimney stack 137 feet high was washed
down, and the mill, with shops, engine and boiler houses,
and sixteen cottages, entirely destroyed. At another mill
110 feet of the main building and the wheelhouse were
totally wrecked, and the machinery of the lower floors
severely damaged by water, mud, and drift, and several
cottages were destroyed. In another mill fifty-two women
and children were drowned. Railway traffic was stopped
for a week. The damage to the mills and other property
was estimated at 33 millions of dollars.
SEISMOLOGICAL NOTES.
‘T°HE third number of vol. x. of the Bolletino of the Italian
Seismological Society contains the first instalment of
the earthquake record for 1g03. This is now in charge of
Dr. G. Agamennone, and follows the same lines as in
previous volumes, except that it has been found impossible
to continue the attempt to reproduce all the records of
earthquakes registered in Italy. This change is a con-
sequence of the great increase in the number of stations
where instruments devoted to the new seismology have been
set up, and the consequent impracticability of collecting in
one periodical all the records of even the limited number
of great world-shaking earthquakes. Italy will, therefore,
be content with publishing its own records, and at most
a few lines will indicate those earthquakes which have also
been recorded out of Italy.
a
JANUARY 26, 1905]
Improvements are continually being made in the instru-
ments used in every branch of science, and seismology is
no exception. Prof. Omori publishes (Publications of the
Earthquake Investigation Committee, No. 18) an account
of a combination of light, inverted, vertical, with a heavy
horizontal pendulum, with which it is claimed that a period
of sixty seconds can easily be got from an instrument
which does not exceed 1 metre in height and length of boom.
Prof. Alippi, in the Boll. Soc. Sismol. Ital., vol. x., No. 3,
describes a simple device for overcoming the tendency to
adherence in the electric contacts of delicate seismoscopes ;
it consists in placing an ordinary electric bell, without the
gong, in the circuit, and fixing it so that the clapper beats
against the stone slab on which the seismoscope rests. He
finds that the vibration set up by this is sufficient to cause
the two parts of-the contact to separate, without in any
way affecting the instrument, and suggests that it would
be better to incorporate a small electric vibrator in the base
of the seismoscope to act like the decoherer in wireless
telegraphy.
The mysterious sounds known locally as mist-poeffers,
barisal guns, &c., and now generally looked upon as seismic,
are the subject of a short note by Prof. Alippi, who records
two new localities and names. In the neighbourhood of
Arezzo they are known as “ baturlio della marina,’’ and in
the country between Bologna and Modena as ‘‘ romba di
Sassuolo.’’ The multiplication of localities where these
sounds are familiar, and of local names for them, is thought
by Prof. Alippi to render a generic name desirable, and
he suggests brontid, which has certainly the advantages of
being descriptive and of implying no theory of origin (Bol.
Soc. Sismol, Ital., x., part iii.).
The relation between the variations in latitude at Tokio
and the occurrence of earthquakes in Japan is the subject
of a paper by Prof. Omori in No. 18 of the Publications of
the Earthquake Investigation Committee ; he finds that the
destructive earthquakes of the last eight years all occurred
during periods of high or low value of the latitude, and
none at times when this was changing from one to the
other. This result is said to be in harmony with the results
obtained by Prof. Milne, but we may point out that this
is not so; what Prof. Milne found was that the greatest
frequency of world-shaking earthquakes coincided with the
most rapid variation in the position of the pole, while Prof.
Omori finds that the destructive earthquakes of Japan
occurred at times when the latitude was stationary or only
changing very slowly. What his investigation seems to
show is that any connection which there may be between
“the occurrence of really great earthquakes and changes in
the position of the axis of revolution, does not extend to
local earthquakes.
NATURE
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
In accordance with the will of the late Mr. George
Smith, of St. Louis, the treasurer of Harvard University
has received, it is stated by Science, a payment of 51,50ol.
When this fund reaches go,oool. by accumulation, three
new dormitories are to be erected.
At the institute of archeology of the University of
Liverpool, a course of lectures dealing with recent re-
searches on the ancient sites of Greece and with the
historical geography of western Asia, particularly Pales-
tine, has been arranged, and will be delivered on successive
Wednesdays of this spring term. The lecturers are Dr.
Caton and the Rev. M. Linton Smith.
Tue President of the Board of Education has appointed
Mr. T. S. Dymond, of the Essex County Technical Labor-
atories, Chelmsford, to an inspectorship under the Board,
and to act as special adviser in matters of rural educa-
tion, of nature-study in public elementary schools, of
agricultural instruction in evening (including afternoon
- and Saturday) schools, and of the advancement of various
forms of technical education in rural districts.
Tue Bucks Education Committee, under the presidency
of the chairman, Lord Buckinghamshire, has decided that
a communication should be issued to all school corre-
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
309
spondents in the county requesting the managers toa
consider the desirability of introducing the teaching of
the subjects of hygiene and temperance into the schools
under their charge, and referring to the support given
to the movement by 15,000 members of the medical
profession.
Asout twenty scholarships ranging in value from 2ol.
to 5ol. a year, and exhibitions for men and women
tenable at University College, King’s College, and the
East London Technical College, in the faculties of arts,
science, and engineering, will be offered for competition
on June 27 and following days. Full particulars and
forms of application may be obtained on application to
the secretary of the Inter-Collegiate Scholarships’ Board,
King’s College, Strand, W.C.
Tue conference on school hygiene, which will be held
at the University of London on February 7-10, will be
opened with an address by Sir Arthur W. Rucker, F.R.S.,
on “The Coordination of the Teaching of Hygiene.’’
The subjects of papers for discussion include the follow-
ing :—‘ Physical and Mental Development during School
Life,’ Miss A. J. Cooper; ‘‘ Physical Inspection,’’? Dr.
A. K. Chalmers; “ Building and Equipment,’’ Sir Aston
Webb, R.A.; “‘ Sanitary Inspection,’’ Dr. J. F. J. Sykes;
“Training of Teachers,’’ Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S. ;
and ** Training of Scholars,’’ Prof. Findlay.
Tue British Medical Journal announces that the French
Congress of School Hygiene will hold its second meeting
in Paris this year at Whitsuntide. The following is the
programme of discussions :—(1) the medical inspection of
primary schools; (2) the education of families in school
hygiene; (3) vacations and holidays; (4) tuberculosis and
teachers; (5) the overloading of school courses and com-
petitions for admission to large schools. Profs. Debove,
Grancher, Landouzy, and Pinard are honorary presidents
of the congress. All communications should be addressed
to Dr. I. Ch. Roux, 46 rue de Grenelle, Paris.
Tue annual general meeting of the Association of
Technical Institutions is to be held at the Manchester
School of Technology on January 27. The business will
include the address of the president, Sir Philip Magnus,
consideration of the council’s report, the election of
officers, and the reading of papers. The subjects to be
dealt with are:—‘ The Coordination of the Work of
Evening Continuation Schools and Municipal Technical
Institutions,’’ ‘‘ The Cooperation of Employers in the
Technical Training of their Apprentices,’ and ‘‘ The
Registration of Teachers in Technical Institutions.”’
THE annual general meeting of the members of the
Association of Directors and Secretaries for Education
was held in London on January 19 and 20. Mr. F.
Wilkinson, the chairman for the year, presided, and in
the course of his remarks dealt with the new regulations
for secondary schools of the Board of Education. The
following resolution was adopted by the association :—
““That the policy at present pursued at South Kensington
with reference to the erection, financing, and control of
secondary day schools is calculated to cast a heavy burden
upon the ratepayers, while at the same time depriving
them of adequate control.’
Mr. A. J. Gimson described before the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers on January 20 his impressions of
sixteen engineering workshops visited by him in America.
In the course of his remarks, he said that a feature of
the engineering industry that impressed him was “‘ the
close intercommunication of technical institutes and manu-
facturing workshops, of professors and manufacturers, and
the presence, in minor positions of authority, of young
men who had passed through a complete course of
technical instruction.’’ In this country, manufacturers as
a rule have yet to learn the value of scientific investi-
gation and scientific education as factors of industrial
progress.
Sir Wittiam Wuite delivered an address at the Battersea
Polytechnic on January 21 on the systematic study of
310
engineering. He expressed the opinion that in the teach-
ing of those who have to work during the day and
have only the evening in which to study, Great Britain
is making progress. In many departments of technical
education there is still much to learn, but in classes such
as those in polytechnics England has led the way. The
full value of such studies is often not attained, said Sir
William White, because of the absence of a_ scientific
method of teaching. Some teachers are uninformed them-
selves, and the consequences are serious to their students.
The want of a good English elementary education has
been recognised, but in secondary education there is much
which still remains undone. He advised every student of
engineering to apply himself to the study of mathematics
and applied mechanics, without which an engineer must
be at a disadvantage and have to work in the dark.
REFERENCE was made last week (p. 286) to the grant
of 4ool. a year, for the next five years, voted by the
Drapers’ Company for work in the department of applied
mathematics at University College, London. The company
has long taken an active part in the development of higher
education, and the enlightened policy which has prompted
it to make grants in aid of university work and scientific
research in London will, we trust, be adopted by other
city companies: No better testimony to the value of such
grants could be obtained than is afforded by the memoirs
which have been published containing the results of work
carried on in Prof. Karl Pearson’s laboratory (see, for
instance, a note in Nature of November 3, 1904, p- 15)-
In acknowledgment of the assistance given by the Drapers’
Company to work of this kind, the council of University
College passed the following resolution at its last meet-
ing :—‘‘ That the council desire to convey to the Court
of the Worshipful Company of Drapers their best thanks
for the vote of 20001. towards further assisting the
statistical work and higher teaching of the department of
applied mathematics at University College. By their
original grant of r1oool. for this purpose the court has
enabled the council to appoint an adequate staff and to
purchase valuable apparatus for the work of the depart-
ment. By generously continuing their aid the court will
enable. the work thus begun to be placed upon a more
permanent footing, and will prepare the way for the
establishment of a permanent statistical institute.”
A RETURN showing the amount spent on_ technical
education by local authorities in England and Wales—
with the exception of four which have made no return—
during the year 1902-3, has been prepared by the Board
of Education and issued as a Blue-book. The ‘return
shows that the total amount of the residue received under
the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, by the
councils of. counties and county boroughs in England
(excepting the county of Monmouth), in 1902-3 was
$79,4051., of which 840,253]. was appropriated to educa-
tional purposes, and 39,152/. to relief of rates, the latter
sum including 22,3661. devoted by the London County
Council to relief of rates. Of the 49 county councils, 45
were applying the whole of the residue to technical educa-
tion, and 3 a part of it to the same purpose. Of the
councils of the 64 county boroughs, 61 were devoting the
whole, and 3 a part of the residue to technical education.
Further, 4 county councils and the councils of 31 county
boroughs, tor boroughs, and 211 urban districts, in
England, were making grants out of the rates under the
Technical Instruction Acts; and 31 local authorities were
devoting funds to technical education out of the rate
levied under the Public Libraries and Museums Acts.
Thirty-three local authorities raised sums by loan on the
security of the local rate under the Technical Instruction
Acts. The total amount expended on technical education
during the year was 1,149,2161. The total amount of the
residue paid to the 13 county councils and the councils
of the 3 county boroughs in Wales and Monmouth was
42,2011. These local authorities devoted the whole of it
to intermediate and technical education, chiefly under the
Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889. The total
amount expended on technical education in Wales and
Monmouth under the Technical Instruction Acts during
the year was 42,7811.
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 26, 1905 |
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Geological Society, January 4.—Dr. J. E. Marr,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The marine beds in the
Coal-measures of North Staffordshire: J. T. Stobbs,
with notes on their palzontology by Dr. Wheelton Hind.
The stratigraphical position of the marine beds can be
located with exactness in situ. she horizons can be
utilised for the subdivision of the Coal-measures. The
known horizons at which marine fossils have been obtained
were enumerated, and a map of the distribution of these
beds was given. The Speedwell and Nettlebank bed
appears to be the most important marine bed in the coal-
field. A detailed table of the beds in North Staffordshire was
given to show the exact position of the marine beds. Dr-
Hind, in his notes on the paleontology, remarked that from
the base of the Pendleside series to the top of the Coal-
measures there is an unbroken succession of beds—at one
time marine, at another estuarine, without unconformity-
—The geology of Cyprus: C. V. Bellamy, with con-
tributions by A. J. Jukes-Browne. The Kyrenia Moun-
tains rise to heights of more than 3000 feet. They are
composed of rocks tilted into a vertical position, altered
by compression and intrusion, and are devoid of fossils.
They are referred by Prof. Gaudry to the Cretaceous
period, and are compared by him with the hippurite-
limestones of Attica. The Kythrazean rocks (Upper Eocene)
are based on breccias and conglomerates made up of
fragments of the Trypanian limestones. No fossils, except
a few small tests of Globigerina, have been found in this
series, which consists entirely of volcanic débris. The
Idalian (Oligocene) series appears to rest conformably on
the last. The gypsum-beds are largely developed in the
south; the white chalky marls and limestones extend over
nearly one-half of the island, and are always conspicuous
from their intense whiteness. Foraminifera are abundant,
and other fossils have been found which indicate that the
beds are mainly of Oligocene age. Igneous rocks are
most conspicuous in the centre of the island. They are
intrusive. into the formations already mentioned. The
rocks include augite-syenite, rhyolite, liparite, olivine-
dolerite, basalt, augite, and several varieties of serpen-
tine. Miocene rocks have only been recognised in the
south-east of the island. The Pliocene strata lie in hori-
zontal or slightly inclined beds, resting unconformably
upon all older rocks. The Pleistocene rocks sometimes
attain a thickness of 50 feet. The cave-earths have yielded
Hippopotamus minutus and Elephas Cypriotes to Miss
D. M. Bate. An account of the chief economic mineral
products of the island is given. Descriptions of some of
the rocks, a note on the Miocene rocks, and a sketch of
the physical history of the island are contributed by Mr.
Jukes-Browne.
Mathematical Society, January 12.—Prof. A. R. Forsyth,
president, in the chair.—Basic generalisations of well
known analytic functions: Rev. F. H. Jackson. Recent
investigations have led to generalised forms of the serial
expressions of certain functions. The functional characters
of the new series, the domains of convergence, and the
possibility of finding linear differential equations satisfied
by the generalised functions are the matters that next
claim attention. The author explained the degree of
success which he had attained in these lines of investi-
gation.—Current flow in rectangular conductors: H.
Fletcher Moulton. The paper deals with the resistance
of a rectangular lamina between electrodes which occupy
portions of opposite sides, and the distribution of currents
which flow in a conducting lamina bounded internally and
externally by squares.—On the kinematics and dynamics
of a granular medium in normal piling: J. H. Jeans.
The paper is occupied with problems suggested by Prof.
O. Reynolds’s ‘* Sub-mechanics of the Universe.’’ An
attempt is made to examine the question of the permanence
or non-permanence of peculiarities of piling such as Prof.
Reynolds interpreted as matter, electricity, magnetism, &c-
The results go to show that such peculiarities would be
transient, and that a universe constructed as imagined by
Prof. Reynolds would suffer instant dissolution, after which
| Particles of matter, charges of electricity, &c., would
JANUARY 26, 1905]
NATURE 311
appear fortuitously at rare intervals, and have no con-
tinuous existence either in time or space. If the ether
were a granular medium in normal piling, it would be
zolotropic with eighteen elastic constants, and the velocity
of propagation of waves of high frequency would be much
greater than that of waves of low frequency. Light
transmitted from distant stars would consist largely of
mirages and coloured spectra.—On a class of expansions
in oscillating functions: Prof. A. C. Dixon. The paper
deals with expansions of the kind discussed by Liouville
and Sturm in which arbitrary functions are expanded in
series of special functions which satisfy differential equa-
tions of a certain type. These expansions are used fre-
quently in applications of mathematics to physics. The
object of the paper is to give a rigorous proof of the
possibility of such expansions in the case of functions
which are analytic throughout the proposed range of
validity of the expansions.—Generational relations for the
abstract group simply isomorphic with the group
LF[z2,p"]: Dr. W. H. Bussey.—On alternants and con-
tinuous groups: Dr. H. F. Baker. The paper is occupied
with the proof of that fundamental theorem of non-com-
mutative algebra which is usually written in the form
e4eB=eC, where A and B are non-commutative quantities,
and c is a series of alternants of a and zw. The proof is
derived from a property of a matrix called the E-matrix,
which involves the structure constants, and one set of the
canonical variables, of the parameter group. This property
is established independently of the theory of continuous
groups. It is proved, further, that every alternant of
'E-matrices is an E-matrix, and thence is obtained a general
expression for the equations of the first parameter group.
—A generalisation of the Legendre polynomial: H.
Bateman.—Isogonal transformation and the diameter
transformation: H. L. Trachtenberg.
Royal Astronomical Society, January 13.—Prof. H H.
Turner, president, in the chair.—The eclipse of Agathocles
in the year —309: Prof. Newcomb. ‘The author considered
that this eclipse had been identified by Celoria with an eclipse
said by Cleomedes to have been total in the Hellespont.
Assuming this to be the case, it would be necessary to
make a diminution of 1-5 in the secular acceleration.—
The longitude of the moon’s perigee: Mr. Cowell.—
Magnetic storms and associated sun-spots: Rev. A. L.
Cortie. - Discussing -Mr. Maunder’s paper (read at the
November, 1904, meeting), Father Cortie considered it
was still possible to consider sun-spot phenomena and
magnetic storms as produced by some common cause, and
brought forward evidence from the Stonyhurst observations
which he thought conflicted with some of Mr. Maunder’s
conclusions.—A paper on the same _ subject: Prof.
Schuster. From Mr. Maunder’s statistics, which Prof.
Schuster discussed, it appeared that in some form or other
magnetic storms recur at intervals apparently identical
with that of the revolution of sun-spot zones. The author
was unable, however, to accept Mr. Maunder’s explan-
ation of the cause of the storms, which he considered as
of terrestrial origin, the earth’s diurnal rotation being
the real source of the energy. The energy thus drawn
away from the earth would tend to diminish its velocity
of rotation, but in a million years this diminution would
not amount to more than a second a year. Without form-
ing a definite theory on the’ subject, Prof. Schuster
suggested that there is some solar effect, propagated in
straight lines, which may increase the electric conductivity
of the earth’s atmosphere, and thus set a magnetic storm
going without supplying its energy. The author concluded
that Mr. Maunder had shown the urgent importance of
further investigation, but that the facts have become more
difficult to understand and explain. After a discussion,
followed by a reply from Mr. Maunder, the meeting
adjourned, many other papers being taken as read.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, January 16.—M. Troost in the
chair.—On the generalisation of an elementary theorem
of geometry: H. Poincaré. The theorem that the sum
of the angles of a plane triangle is equal to two right
angles is extended to the case of the tetrahedron.—On
some theorems relating to algebraic surfaces of linear
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
connection greater than unity: Emile Picard.—On
some physical constants of calcium and on calcium
amalgam: H. Moissan and M. Chavanne.—On the
A-methyl-e-alkylcyclohexanones and the corresponding
alcohols, homologues of menthone and menthol: A.
Haller. §-Methylcyclohexanone, which can be prepared
either by the decomposition of pulegone or from metacresol
by Sabatier and Senderens’s method, is treated with
sodium amide and the alkyl iodide. A mixture of various
alkyl derivatives is obtained which up to the present has
not been completely separated into its constituents.—On
a synthesis of menthone and menthol: A. Haller and C.
Martine. Methylcyclohexanone is treated successively
with sodium amide and isopropyl iodide, the mass treated
with water, extracted with ether, and the latter solution
fractionated in a vacuum. ‘The physical properties of the
menthone obtained, as well as those of its oxime, semi-
carbazone, and other derivatives show that the synthetical
is identical with the natural product.—Observations of the
Borrelly comet (1904 e) made at the Observatory of Paris
with the 30-5 cm. equatorial : G. Bigourdan.—On irregular
algebraic surfaces : Federigo Enriques.—On some points in
the theory of numbers : Georges Remoundos.—On equations
of the parabolic type: S. Bernstein.—On fluorescence :
C. Camichel. The author has repeated some experiments
of J. Burke on fluorescence with some additional pre-
cautions. His conclusion, which is opposed to that of
Burke, is that the coefficient of absorption of uranium
glass for the radiations which it emits during fluorescence
is the same whether the fluorescence be excited or not.—
Some combinations of samarium chloride with ammonia:
C. Matignon and R. Trannoy. Samarium chloride
forms eight different compounds with gaseous ammonia.
The range of temperatures between which each of these
compounds can exist, together with the heats of dissoci-
ation, were determined.—On a colloidal hydrate of iron
obtained by electrodialysis and on some of its properties :
J. Tribot and H. Chrétien. A solution of ferric hydrate
in ferric chloride was placed in an ordinary Graham
dialyser, and the amount of chlorine remaining in the
solution determined at different intervals of time, in the
first place on simple dialysis, and afterwards when a
current of 1 ampere was passed through the solution.
In the latter case the chlorine was more quickly and more
completely removed; the theory of the two cases is given
in detail, and the theoretical and actual results compared.
—On an isomeride of trichloracetone: G. Perrier and
E. Prost. Aluminium chloride is allowed to act upon
alcohol in carbon bisulphide solution, and chloral is added.
A liquid product possessing the composition and molecular
weight of trichloracetone is obtained. The reactions, how-
ever, are quite different from this latter substance, and
CCl,
the formula Eee is provisionally proposed,—The migra
| oO
CH
tion of the ethylene linkage in unsaturated acyclic acids:
E. E, Blaise and A. Luttringer. The migration of the
ethylene linkage has been studied in the case of six
allkkylacrylic acids and normal aB-hexenic acid. It appears
to move into the longest chain, giving either an isomeric
acid or a y-lactone.—On the combination of natural leucine
with carbamic acid: M. Hugouneng and Albert Morel.
—On a new method of synthesising saturated ketones by
the method of catalytic reduction: M. Darzens. It is
shown that in applying the reaction of Sabatier and
Senderens the temperature at which the reduced nickel
is reduced is of equal importance with the tempera-
ture at which the reduction is carried out. If the nickel
is prepared at 245° C. to 250° C., and the reduction is
carried out at 180° C. to 190° C., unsaturated ketones can
be readily reduced to the corresponding saturated com-
pounds without the formation of considerable amounts of
secondary alcohols as by-products. The reaction has been
applied to mesityl oxide, methylhexanone, and methyl-
heptenone.—Observations on the Borrelly comet (1904 e)
made at the Observatory of Besancon: P, Chofardet.
Observations of the Borrelly comet (e 1904) made at the
Observatory of Algiers with the 31-8 cm. equatorial :
312
MM. Rambaud and Sy.—Orogenic sketch of the chains
of the Atlas mountains to the north-west of Chott el
Hedna: M. Savornin.—On the existence and _ the
abnormal tectonic situation of the Eocene deposits in New
Caledonia: J. Deprat and M.. Piroutet.—Geological
observations collected by the Chari—Lake Chad expedi-
tion: H. Courtet.—Contribution to the chemical study
of the soil, water, and mineral products of the region of
‘Chari and'of Lake Chad: Alex. Hébert.—On the spring
at Hammam Moussa, near Tor, Sinai: R. Fourtau and
N. Georgiadés. The water from this spring approxi-
mates to the water at Wiesbaden, containing sodium
chloride and the sulphates of lime and magnesia. It has
a slightly acid reaction——Man and the mammoth at the
Quaternary period in the soil of the Rue de Rennes, south
of Saint-Germain-des-Prés: M. Capitan. Excavations in
this district have led to the discovery in the Quaternary
strata of several roughly executed flint heads and a well
preserved tooth of the mammoth. It follows from this
and previous discoveries that man, the elephant and the
rhinoceros lived in the Seine valley, on the actual spot
where Paris now stands.—Chlorophyll assimilation in the
absence of oxygen: Jean Friedel. It is shown that the
presence of oxygen in the atmosphere surrounding the leaf
is not indispensable for the process of assimilation.—A
gum bearing Stereospermum in Madagascar: Henri
Jumelle.—The physiological effects of ovariotomy in the
goat: P. Oceanu and A. Babes. Amongst the
advantages of this operation in the goat are the disappear-
ance of the characteristic smell of the milk, an increased
secretion of the milk, and prolongation of the lacteal
period:
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, January 26.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Boring of the Simplon Tunnel, and
the Distribution of Temperature that was Encountered: F. Fox.—
On the Comparison of the Platinum Scale of Temperature with the
Normal Scale at Temperatures between 444° and —190° C., with Noteson
Constant Temperatures below the Melting Point of Ice: Prof. M. W.
Travers, F.R.S., and A. S. C. Gwyer.—On the Modulus of Torsional
Rigidity of Quartz Fibres, and its Temperature Coefficient : Dr. F. Hor-
ton.—On a Method of Finding the Conductivity for Heat: Prof.
Cc Niven, F.R.S.—On the Drift produced in Ions by Electro-
magnetic Disturbances, and a Theory of Radio- -activity : G. W. Walker
—txterior Ballistics. ‘‘ Error of the Day” and other Corrections
to Naval Range Tables: Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S.—The Theory of
Symmetrical Optical Objectives. Part ii. : S. D. Chalmers.—Coloration
of Glass by Natural Solar and other Radiations : Sir William Crookes,
F.R.S.—Note on the Cause of the Period of Chemical Induction in the
Union of Hydrogen and Chlorine : C. H. Burgess and D. L. Chapman.
InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fuel Economy in Steam
Power Plants: W. H. Booth and J. B. C. Kershaw. (Conclusion of
discussion.)
FRIDAY, JANUARY 27.
Roya InstiTruTION, at 9.—The Life-History of the Emperor Penguin:
Dr. Edward A. Wilson.
PHYSICAL SocltETY, at 5.—Action of a Magnetic Field on the Discharge
through a Gas: Dr. R. S. Willows.—Action of Radium on the Electric
Spark: Dr. R. S. Willows and J. Peck.—The Slow Stretch in India-
rubber, Glass, and Metal Wires when subjected to a Constant Pull:
P. Phillips.— Determination of Young’s Modulus for Glass: C. A. Bell.
—Some Methods for Studying the Viscosity of Solids: Dr. Boris
Weinberg.
InstiTuTION OF Civit ENGINEERS. at 8.—Concrete-Making on the
Admiralty Harbour Works, Dover: T. L. Matthews.
SATURDAY, January 28.
MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION, at 3.—Models and their Use: E. M. Lang-
ley.—The New Geometry: W. H. Wagstaff.—Should Greek be Com-
pulsory for Mathematicians at Cambridge? A. W. Siddons.
Essex FIELD Ctup (at Essex Museum of Natural History, Stratford),
at 6.30.—On the Occurrence of Gypsum in Essex Soils: T. S. Dymond.
—The Bog-Mosses (Sphagnacez) of Essex, a Contribution to the Flora
of the County: F. J. Chittenden.
MONDAY, January 30.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain Pens:
J. P. Maginnis.
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—On Staff Pension Funds: G. King.
FARADAY SOCIETY, at 8. Be Wiass Analyses of Muntz’s Metal “Toys Electro-
lysis, and some Notes on the Electrolytic Properties of this Alloy:
J. G. A. Rhodin.—On the Equilibrium between Sodium and Magnesium
Sulphates: Dr. R. Beckett Denison.—*‘ Refractory Materials": E. K.
Scott.
TUESDAY, JANuARY 31.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure and Life of Animals: Prof.
L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
{NSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Floating Docks: L. E. Clark.
MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—(1) On Danalite from Cornwall: (2)
Cryst tallog 2raphic Characters of Barium-radium Bromide: Prof. H. A
F.R.S.—On the Regular Growth of Crystals of one Substance
n "Those of Another: T, V. Barker.—Apparatus for Determining the
1}
Density of Small Grains: K. A. K. Hallowes.
NO. 1839, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[JANUARY 19, 1905
WEDNESDAY, Fesruary 1.
GEoLoaicat Society, at 8.—On the Sporangia-like Organs of Glossopteris
Browniana, Brongn. : E. A. Newell Arber.
Society oF Pusric ANALYsTS, at 8.—The Volumetric Estimation of
Reducing Sugars: A. R. Ling and T. Rendle.—The Inversion of Cane
Sugar in the presence of Milk Constituents : Hon. Francis Watts —The
Colorimetric Estimation of Salicylic Acid in Food Stuffs: F. T. Harry
and W. R. Mummery.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—The Navigation of the Nile: Sir William H.
Preece, K.C.B.
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 2.
Roya Society, at 4,30.—Probable Papers: On the Compressibility ot
Gases between One Atmosphere and Half an Atmosphere of Pressure :
Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S —On the ‘‘ Blaze Currents” of the Gall
Bladder of the Frog : Mrs. A. M. Waller :—The Theory of Photographic
Processes ; on the Chemical Dynamics of Development: S. E. Sheppard
and C. E. K. Mees. —On the Relation between Variation of Atmospheric
Pressure in North-East Africa, and the Nile Flood: Capt. H. G. Lyons.
—wNote on the Determination of the Volume Elasticity of Elastic Solids :
Dr. C. Chree. F.R.S.—Theory of the Reflection of Light near the
Polarising Angle : R. C. Maclaurin.
Roya. InsTITUTION, at 5.—Forestry in the British Empire: Prof.
W. Schlich.
Civit AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SOCIETY, at 8.—The Mechanics of
Flour Milling: A. R. Tattersall.
LINNEAN Society, at 8.—New Chinese Plants from the Neighbourhood
of Hong Kong: W. J. Tutcher.—European Marine Species of Isopoda :
Dr. H. J. Hansen.
RONTGEN SociETY, at 8 r5.—Some Points in the Construction of a High
Frequency Machine: Dr. Clarence A. Wright.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—Studies in the Camphane Series. Part xvi.
Camphorylearbimide and Isomeric Camphorylcearbamides: M. O. Forster
and H. E. Fierz.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 3.-
Roya INsTITUTION, at 9.—Blood Pressure in Man: Prof. T. Clifford
Allbutt, F.R.S.
GEoLoGisTs' ASSOCIATION, at 7.30.—Address on Modern Methods in the
Study of Fossils: the President, Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S.
CONTENTS. PAGE
A Monograph of the Heliozoa. By E. A.M. .. . 289
Trees. . mi ener ns 2 ZC)
Advances in ‘Physical Science. By’ T.-M. Ie 2, aor
MheiCyanideProcess:, “By T.. Kj Rise. one
Our Book Shelf :—
Horner: ‘‘ Fireside Astronomy” . ato Ae
‘* Observations océanographiques et “météorologiques
dans la Région du Courant de Guinée (1855-1900)” 293
‘*Opere matematiche di Francesco Brioschi” ;
‘*Opere matematiche di Eugenio Beltrami” . . . 293
“©The Science Year Book for 1905”... ... . . 293
Letters to the Editor :—
The Origin of Radium.-—Frederick Soddy .. . . 294
A New Radio-active Product from Actinium.—Dr. T.
Godlewskigte gate ss: .<.-1 eee ee OE
A Simple Model for Illustrating Wave-motion.
(Uitustrated.)—K. Honda 2 2 295
Recently Observed Satellites. —Sir Oliver Lodge,
RUNS Sa 295
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.—Edward ne
DixonWiee. 295
Super-cooled Rain Drops. Edward E. Robinson . 295
Polar Plotting Paper.—(W2th Diagram.) Dr. C. G.
Knott 3 296
Lissajous’s Figures by Tank Oscillation. —(Uthust rated, )
T.. Nieradai:.:). 296
Notes on Stonehenge. ie (Litustrated) By Sir
Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.. . a 207
Prof. Ernst Abbe. By R. T.. Gc geek gor
M. Paul Henri. By, B."P. ee eee 302
Notesieaeme 2) ct ee RC! all coll 302
Our Astronomical ‘Column :—
The Reported Sixth Satellite of Jupiter . . . . . . 306
Periodical Comets due to Return in 1905... . . . . 306
Changes on the Surface of Jupiter. . ...... . 306
Stars having Peculiar Spectra . . 306
Real Paths, Heights, and Velocities of Leonids . 306
New Method for Measuring Radial-velocity Spectro-
grams . . is Ols. OMeMe Oo RE
Medical Research in Egypt . AS Roars a 307
Wireless Telegraphy in War. ByM.S. . 307
Floods in the United States. eee) 308
Seismological Notes . . 308
University and Educational Intelligence ») BOD)
SocietiesiandiAcademies) . . 25 9 7 s-.0e ee aO
Diary of{Societtesmisnc!- |.) sete oe 312
NATURE
343
. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 2, 1905.
THE QUINTESSENCE OF HAECKELISMUS.
The Wonders of Life. A Popular Study of Biological
Philosophy. Supplementary volume to ‘‘ The Riddle
of the Universe.’’ By Ernst Haeckel. Translated
by Joseph McCabe. Pp. xiv+5o1. (London:
Watts and Co., 1904.) Price 6s. net.
HIS new book by the indefatigable Haeckel is
supplementary to his ‘‘ Riddle of the Universe.”
That several hundred thousand copies of the ‘‘ Riddle ”’
were sold indicates the widespread interest taken in
what the author calls ‘‘ the construction of a rational
and solid philosophy of life,’’ or in what others would
call an extremely biological way of looking at things.
But the ‘“‘ Riddle ’’ and its solutions raised storms of
criticisms and evoked hundreds of reviews—both
friendly and hostile—besides many large pamphlets
and even a few books, not to speak of more than five
thousand letters. To these collectively, friends and
foes alike, Haeckel now replies in this ‘‘ biological
sketch-book,’’ written uninterruptedly in the course of
four months when he was completing his seventieth
year in a vacation at Rapallo, a tiny coast-town of the
Italian Riviera. He had leisure there to think over
all the views on organic life which he had formed in
the course of a many-sided experience of life and learn-
ing since the beginning of his academic studies (1852)
and his teaching at Jena (1861). The constant sight
of the blue Mediterranean, the animal inhabitants of
which he knows so well, his solitary walks in the wild
gorges of the Ligurian Apennines, and the moving
spectacle of the ‘‘ forest-crowned mountain altars,’’ in-
spired him with “a feeling of the unity of living
nature—a feeling that only too easily fades away in
the study of detail in the laboratory.’? He hopes that
his readers may be moved by his book ‘‘ to penetrate
deeper and deeper into the glorious work of Nature,
and to reach the insight of our greatest German
natural philosopher, Goethe :
““ What greater thing in life can man achieve
Than that God-Nature be revealed to him? ”’
The work is described as ‘‘a popular study of
biological philosophy ’’; it is divided into four sections
—methodological, morphological, physiological, and
genealogical, which deal respectively with the know-
ledge of life, the nature of life, the functions of life,
and the history of life. It raises no end of perplexing
problems—life and death, nutrition and reproduction,
heredity and variation, sensation and _ intelligence,
morality and religion. It discusses protoplasm and
the cell, spontaneous generation and evolution in
general, the “‘ pro-morphology ’’ of organisms and the
intricate architecture of the brain, the recapitulation
of phylogeny in ontogeny, the inheritance of acquired
characters, the evolution of sensation, zsthesis, intelli-
gence, and morality. In short, it comprises practically
everything, including miracles, the religious thoughts
of Mr. Romanes, the university curriculum, the in-
crease of pauperism, the introduction of Spartan
elimination-methods, the Apostles’ Creed, the immacu-
NO 1840, voL. 71]
late conception, immortality, and a belief in a personal
God. A book with so large a purview is bound to be
sketchy—and the author calls it ‘‘a biological sketch-
boolx ’’—but sketchiness in dealing with subjects so
momentous is apt to be unsatisfactory, and, while
Haeckel continually and quite fairly refers to what
he has said elsewhere in his large family of books, the
discriminating reader may justly complain that he
has often to deal rather with an assertion of convic-
tions than with a reasoned argument. What carries
one on from page to page is the feeling that we have to
listen to a veteran who is telling us frankly and fear-
lessly what he believes to be true in regard to the order
of nature and our place in it.
From one point of view Haeckel’s discussion of the
““ Wonders of Life ’’ is an apology for ‘‘ Monism ”’ or
‘“‘ Hylozoism.’’ In studies of ‘* unequal value and in-
complete workmanship,”’ as the illustrious author con-
fesses, an attempt is made to show how we may attain
to the conception of one great harmoniously working
universe—‘ whether you call this Nature or Cosmos,
World or God ’’—without utilising any knowledge
which is not of empirical origin and a posteriori. We
must not allow metaphysical fictions to intrude on our
philosophy—still less into our science; we may work
with the ‘‘law of substance,’’ but there is to be no
hocus-pocusing with transcendental formule; science
is sufficient unto herself, and is justified of her children ;
criticism of her postulates and categories is a waste
of time when there is so much to do; psychology is
‘‘a branch of physiology,’’ and it is unprofitable to
think about thinking; a ‘“‘ theory of knowledge” is
a luxury for the leisured. Everything seems to be-
come plain sailing if we embark on the craft
““ Hylozoism,’’ but we require faith to help us across
the gangway.
From another point of view Haeckel’s book may be
taken as an expression of the outlook on man and
nature which may be reached by a conscientious pur-
suit of the scientific method. Those who remain
agnostic or positivist in regard to either monism or
dualism in any of their forms will be interested in
hearing once more of the order, unity and pro-
gressiveness of nature’s tactics, and in considering
the practical proposals which a_ thorough-going
Darwinian has to offer in regard to incapables and
incurables, pauperism and crime. We cannot do more
than remark that these proposals preach elimination
rather than eugenics; they are more akin to surgery
than to preventive medicine. Much of the book Ss
naturally enough, an echo of previous works—the
‘*Monera,’’ the ‘‘ Gastraezaa Theory,’’ the ‘‘ Natural
History of Creation,’”’ the ‘‘ Evolution of Man,”’ and,
what has always appeared to us the author’s magnum
opus, the ‘‘ Generelle Morphologie ’’ (1866); but all
has been modernised and orientated afresh to illustrate
what Haeckel was so much impressed with at Rapallo,
the unity of living nature, An interesting illustration
of the author’s artistic enthusiasm and indifference to
popularity will be found in the pages on pro
morphology, wherein he discusses the architectural
symmetries of organisms, as he did forty years ago.
The centrostigmatic, centraxonial, and centroplane
P
314
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 2, 1905
types of architecture have some personal fascination
for us, but they must be caviare to the general.
To illustrate more concretely the general tenor of
the ‘‘ Wonders of Life,’? we may refer, for a moment,
to the first two chapters, on truth and on life. In
the chapter on truth we are introduced to the
“ bhronema,”’ the organ of knowledge, a definite and
limited part of the cerebral cortex, consisting of
association-centres, the innumerable cells of which are
the elementary organs of the cognitive process, the
possibility of knowledge depending on their normal
physical texture and chemical composition. How this
august possibility depends on the organisation of the
“‘phronetal cells ’’ remains entirely obscure, and no
amount of ‘‘ bluffing ’’ will lessen this obscurity. As
to life in general, its phenomena are determined by
the physicochemical organisation of the living matter ;
metabolism has its analogue in inorganic catalysis;
reproduction is analogous to the ‘‘ elective multipli-
cation ’’ of crystals; and sensation is a general form
of the energy of substance, not specifically different in
sensitive organisms and irritable inorganic objects
(such as dynamite). It is unfortunate, however, for
this view of things that we cannot at present interpret
even the simplest vital phenomenon in terms of physical
and chemical formula. But we must remember that
while “‘ there is no such thing as an immaterial soul,”’
a “‘soul’’ in the atom ‘‘ must necessarily be assumed
to explain the simplest physical and chemical pro-
cesses.’’ It seems to us six of one and half a dozen
of the other whether we recognise the soul at the top
or at the bottom. In Aristotelian language, there is
nothing in the end which was not also in the
beginning ; in plain English, we put into the beginning
what we know to be in the end. In fact, when we
pass from the descriptive, formulative, interpretative
task of science to philosophical explanation—whether
monistic or dualistic—we load our intellectual dice.
The only alternative is positivism, which is not
amusing, and refuses to play. Haeckel’s monism, we
are bound to confess, appears to us to be dualism in
disguise. He predicates for his ‘‘ substance ’’—which
is from everlasting to everlasting—a trinity of funda-
mental attributes, matter, energy, and sensation.
It is one of Haeckel’s pastimes to coin new words,
and now and again he has hit on a term which has
been really useful, and has come to stay. In his
““ Wonders ”’ his verbose inventiveness is still manifest.
For the sciences which deal with inanimate nature a
term is needed, and we are invited to choose between |
abiology, anorganology, abiotik, and anorgik, each
of which seems worse than its neighbour. ‘‘ Erg-
ology’’ we might digest, but when it comes to
perilogy, metasitism, trophonomy, tocogony, gonima-
tology, plasmodomism, and metaplasmosisms, the
suggestion of an emetic is so obvious that we cannot
swallow them.
We wish to make a remark in regard to the trans-
lation. Haeckel’s preface is dated June 17, 1904, and
this means that the translation has been accomplished
with quite remarkable rapidity. It is on the whole
clear and vigorous, but it betrays inexpertness. Thus |
we would point out the undesirability of calling |
i}
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
| period.
Acanthocephala ‘‘ itch-worms,”’ or Cirripedia ‘‘ creep-
ing-crabs”’ or ‘crawling crabs,’ or Arion ‘‘ our
common garden snail,’ or Holothurians ‘ sea-
gherkins,’”’ and we could add to this list considerably.
There seems something wrong, too, in calling repro-
duction “‘ transgressive growth,’’ and we wonder what
““ wonder-snails ’’ can be, or ‘‘ the actinia among the
tunicates.’’ In regard to the articulation of the lower
jaw in mammals, we learn that ‘‘ this joint is temporal
and so distinguished from the square joint of other
vertebrates.’’ ‘‘ Square ’’ is a quaint way of referring
to the quadrate bone! ‘The translator has not the
vaguest idea what he is translating. Defective proof-
reading introduces us to a number of strangers, such
as an early microscopist ‘‘ Crew’ in England and a
prominent modern biologist who is always referred to:
as ‘‘ De Bries.’’ We are interested also in a renowned
physiologist called Felix Bernard, and in what Wilhelm
Preyer did ‘‘ for the plant.’’ Such is fame! Beside
these, misprints like Cecidomyca, Ichtyosauri, and
diatomes are trivial. It is a very unusual proceeding
to print every technical name of class, genus, or species
in italics without capitals.
In conclusion, while we entirely disagree with
Haeckel’s treatment of philosophy, and believe that
he has not justly realised what its office is, while we
also disagree with some of Haeckel’s science, e.g.
the transmission of acquired characters, we desire to
point out that this book expresses the sincere con-
victions of a veteran who has done much for biology,
and that its aim is to help towards including “ all the
exuberant phenomena of organic life in one general
scheme, and explaining all the wonders of life from
the monistic point of view, as forms of one great
harmoniously working universe—where you call this
Nature or Cosmos, World or God.”? As Browning
said, our reach should exceed our grasp, ‘‘ else what’s
Heaven for?”
A USEFUL BOOK FOR FRUIT GROWERS.
The Culture of Fruit Trees in Pots. By Josh Brace-
Pp. x+110. (London: John Murray, 1904.)
Price (5S.ener
iZ is nearly half a century since the late Thomas.
Rivers built glass structures for the protection of
his fruit trees in pots. He was led to do this because in.
several successive seasons the hardy fruit crops were
almost destroyed by severe frosts, which occurred when
the trees were in flower—a very critical stage in the
growth of the trees. Mr. Rivers was convinced that
in order to be certain of obtaining crops of first-rate
fruit of peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, cherries,
and even apples and pears, it was necessary to have
large glass structures to protect the trees at that
These early houses were not provided with
means of heating them artificially, because it was then
thought that the extra expense this would have en-
tailed was unnecessary; but subsequent experience
proved that a flow and return hot water pipe in each
house not only provided additional security against
frost, but the slight heat thus obtainable, if employed.
in bad weather while the trees are in flower, has a
——————
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
-good effect upon the pollen, and therefore assists in
securing the fertilisation of the flowers.
Since that time the pot fruit trees cultivated in the
Sawbridgeworth nurseries of Messrs. T. Rivers and
Son have provided a unique object lesson to British
fruit growers, and the system has been imitated in
other commercial establishments and in many private
gardens, a notable instance being the gardens belong-
ing to Mr. Leopold de Rothschild at Gunnersbury
House, Acton, where excellent results are obtained
notwithstanding the fact that the gardens are in
London. The author of the book under review has
been charged with the care of the orchard houses at
Sawbridgeworth for more than twenty years, and the
details of cultivation he explains are those which
have been practised with such conspicuous success in
that establishment. It may be admitted that the
orchard house is more necessary in the colder districts
of midland and northern counties than in the south,
but even in the south the season of ripe fruits can be
prolonged by orchard house culture, and more perfectly
developed apples and pears obtained for particular
purposes. Who that has seen the exquisite specimens
exhibited at the autumn fruit shows has not wished
to cultivate fruits of similar excellence? It is the
mission of Mr. Brace’s book to assist the reader to
accomplish this purpose.
In the first chapter the author has described very
minutely the construction of the best type of houses,
and the importance of commencing with suitable
structures is so great that we are not disposed to com-
plain that the subject occupies one-fifth of the
book, as well as several diagrams. From every point
of view houses with span-shaped roofs are best, and if
Mr. Brace’s instructions are studied, the cultivator, by
moving his trees out-of doors at suitable periods, will
be able to make the most of the space afforded in the
houses.
In chapter ii., in which the furnishing of the houses
with trees is considered, the best methods of arranging
them are described, so that as many trees may be
grown as possible, and yet none be obscured by the
others. If only one house is built, and this is of an
appreciable size, it should be divided into sections,
because peaches and nectarines can be treated more
successfully when grouped by themselves, as the trees
need to be syringed daily until the fruits begin to ripen,
which would not be possible if cherries or plums,
which ripen much earlier in the season, were associated
with them in the same division.
Chapter iii. must be read very carefully, and should
be frequently referred to by the inexperienced culti-
vator. It contains details of cultivation, explains the
best forms of training for the different kinds of trees,
the process of potting, methods of forcing, pruning,
summer pinching, value of surface dressings to the
roots, cost of trees, &c. In the cultivation of fruit
trees in pots, whether half standards, or bush trees of
peaches, nectarines, and plums, or pyramids of apples
and pears, the work of pruning and pinching is of
the greatest importance, and if it be done unskilfully
not only will the trees be unshapely and the fruit spurs
become longer than is desirable, but the trees will fail
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
NATURE S16)
to contain sufficient fruitful wood to produce satis-
factory crops.
The best varieties of the different kinds of fruits
for pot culture are described in chapters iv. and vii.,
and in chapter v. the subject of insect pests is dealt
with, and the measures to adopt against these and the
peach mildew are explained. Chapter vi. consists of
a brief calendar of operations in the unheated orchard
house for each month of the year, which is sufficient
to remind the practitioner of the correct time to carry
out the operations which are more fully described in
the previous pages.
In addition to other illustrations, the work is adorned
with full-page plates representing pot fruit trees in
bearing, being reproductions from photographs
obtained in Messrs. Rivers’ nursery. These are re-
produced in the very best manner, and the printing
throughout the book is clear, and the type large and
distinct.
The book has little claim from a literary point of
view, but the author has described in plain words a
system of cultivating fruit trees in pots which, if faith-
fully followed, will be attended with absolute success.
Rew ese
A TRAVELLER’S COMPANION.
Stanford’s Geological Atlas of Great Britain (based
on Reynolds’s Geological Atlas). By Horace B.
Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. Pp. x+140; with 34
coloured maps and 16 plates of fossils. (London:
E. Stanford, 1904.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
HIS work is a re-written and revised edition of
the well known atlas, which was long a familiar
object to the students of shop-windows near Temple
Bar, associated as it was with geological diagrams
of a highly venerable aspect. It was always attractive
by its very neatness and compactness, and has gained
further in these respects under Mr. Stanford’s care.
The maps are printed in colours, and the concluding
plates of fossils, reproducing for the most part Mr.
Lowry’s refined workmanship, are almost as delicate
as the engraved originals, which were published in
1853. These plates, by the by, are not now arranged
so consecutively as could be desired. Mr. H. B.
Woodward has brought the text up to a modern stand-
point, and we note references to the Pendleside series,
to the Mesozoic rocks in a volcanic vent in Arran, and
to the occurrence of Pliocene mammalian remains in
a fissure in Derbyshire—all matters of very recent
history. The Upper Greensand and Gault are de-
scribed and mapped together as Selbornian, a com-
bination of great stratigraphical convenience, however
much it departs from the petrological and geognostic
mapping of early days. Here we see at once how the
philosophic view of ‘‘ organised fossils,’’ introduced
by William Smith, has made two types of geological
maps necessary, one for the students of the earth’s
history, and one for the engineers, landowners, and
agriculturists, to whom Smith made his first appeal.
Luckily, in our British Isles, our ‘‘ drift’? maps, on
a reasonable scale, go far to satisfy both requirements.
216
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 2, 1905
Mr. Woodward’s descriptions of the various counties
contain rather too much matter that could be discovered
from the maps themselves. Though dealing with
a land of most fascinating variety, they do not always
rise to the demands made by the salient scenic
features. Yet these are the features that strike the
common traveller, to whom this work must always
be a boon. From his point of view we have read
the account of Gloucestershire a second time, and,
of course, discover nothing to add, while we are
grateful for a good deal of graphic description, tersely
worded. The matter probably only needs a new
arrangement, so that the reader who descends in
imagination or in memory from the steep side of the
Forest of Dean, and wonders at the great scarp of the
Cotteswolds, facing him ten miles off across the
Severn, is not dragged aside to learn that Coal-
measures were discovered in the Severn Tunnel, and
the irritating fact that ‘‘ sulphate of strontium is
worked at Wickwar in the Keuper Marl.’’ The
traveller wants to move forward; the open landscape
lies before him; when he has gained his first broad
physiographic view, he will condescend to search for
fossils, and to rejoice in geodes of celestine.
The exceptional knowledge of the country possessed
by the author is apparent in all these careful pages.
He has added, moreover, exceedingly practical de-
scriptions of the geology that is to be learned along
the main lines of British railways. His views on the
nomenclature of fossils are known from his published
writings; but, while most of us are sadly inconsistent,
he yields perhaps too little to the purists. If Mr.
Woodward goes so far as Doryderma and Ccelo-
nautilus, where none will blame him, why does he
retain Ammonites and Goniatites as unrestricted
generic names? Why Echinocorys scutatus, which
seems to surpass the historical acuteness of Mr. C. D.
Sherborn (see ‘‘ Index to Zones of the White Chalk,”’
Proc. Geol. Association, June, 1904), and, side by side
with it, Galerites albogalerus? We doubt also
Protocardium for Protocardia; but these matters are
outside the main intention of the atlas. As a com-
panion in Great Britain, this handy book is to be re-
commended to every traveller. The complete revision
of the Scotch map, which is now so admirable, despite
its comparatively small scale, makes us hope that
Ireland, as a country of equal interest and variety, may
be included in the next edition. GoeAceEaC:
THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE.
The Preparation of the Child for Science. By M. E.
Boole. Pp. 157. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1904.)
Price 2s. 6d.
Special Method in Elementary Science for the Common
School. By Charles A. McMurry, Ph.D. Pp. ix+
275. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1904.)
Price 3s. 6d. net.
AN GREAT change in the character of the books
4 concerned with the teaching of science has taken
place during the last twenty years or so. A quarter
of a century ago the claims of science to a place in the
school curriculum were being advocated vigorously,
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
and men of science had still to convince reigning school-
masters that no education was complete which ignored
the growth of natural knowledge and failed to re-
cognise that an acquaintance with the phenomena of
nature is necessary to intelligent living. Speaking
broadly, it may be said that most classicists even
admit now that there are faculties of the human mind
which are best developed by practice in observation
and experiment. One consequence of the success
which has followed the persistent efforts of Huxley
and his followers—to secure in the school an adequate
recognition of the educative power of science—has been
that modern books on science teaching are concerned
almost entirely with inquiries into the best methods
of instructing young people, by means of practical
exercises, how to observe accurately and to reason
intelligently.
Mrs. Boole deals with the earliest education of the
child, and gives a great deal of attention to the years
which precede school life. Her book may be warmly
recommended to parents anxious to adopt sane methods
of educating their children and to teachers responsible
for the training of the lowest classes of schools. Mrs.
Boole rightly insists that the development in the child
of the right attitude towards knowledge is of more
importance during early years than the actual teach-
ing. We agree with her, too, that ‘‘ the best science
teacher is usually a thorough-going enthusiast in the
science itself, who in the intervals of regular teach-
ing, gets his pupils to assist him in his own investi-
gations or pursuits.’’ But, unfortunately, the teach-
ing profession is at present hardly attractive enough
to secure the services of a sufficient number of
ordinarily well educated men, and we shall have to
wait a long time before we can expect to find many
men of science engaged upon origihal research also
teaching science to children in schools. Mrs. Boole’s
little book deserves to be read widely.
Like many other American educationists, Dr.
McMurry attempts to do too much for the teacher.
The larger part of his book is devoted to “‘ illustrative
lessons ’’ and “‘ the course of study,’’ minute instruc-
tions being given as to what science subjects should
be taught in each of the terms of each of the years
spent by children in the elementary school. The
teacher will deal most satisfactorily with those subjects
of science he knows best, and in which he is most
interested. From the point of view of the British
teacher at least, it is inadvisable to attempt to impose
a detailed scheme of work drawn up by somebody in
another district and unfamiliar with the precise con-
ditions and environment of the school in which the
science teaching is to be done. Even if this were not
the case, Dr. McMurry’s scheme of work expects the
| class to accomplish far more in a term than can be
studied satisfactorily in that period. Moreover, sub-
jects too diverse, and hardly at all related one to the
other, are prescribed for a single term. But Dr.
McMurry’s ideal is better than his practice ; he says :-—
‘it is easy for us to expect too much from formal
method. The atmosphere which the teacher diffuses
about him by his own interest and absorption in nature
studies is more potent than any of the devices of
method.”’ AY Dens.
FERRUARY 2, 1905 |
NATURE
317
OUR BOOK SHELF.
The Basic Law of Vocal Utterance. By Emil Sutro.
124. (London: Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd.,
Duality of Voice and Speech. An Outline of Original
Research. Pp. vit+224. (London: Kegan Paul and
Co., Ltd., n.d.)
Duality of Thought and Language.
Original Research. Pp. viii +277.
Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd., n.d.)
Tue first of these volumes, which was originally
published in America in 1894, contains the starting
point and main beliefs of the author; the second and
third volumes form the amplification and illustration.
Beginning with the practical problem of finding how
a foreigner, especially a German, can learn to speak
English correctly, Mr. Sutro has gone on until he has
become convinced that he has discovered several most
important scientific truths, and that he has a great
mission to carry out in proclaiming them.
Among the discoveries stated in these volumes the
following may be mentioned. There are two streams
in the air which is breathed, which keep separate, one
being for respiration, the other for sound. A person
who breathed correctly might use the air supplied by
the sound current in such a way as to speak for ever
’ without taking breath, were it not for fatigue. For
English speech we inspire through trachea and expire
through cesophagus; for German the direction is
reversed. The author has discovered a new vocal cord
in the lower jaw. Air passages are diffused through
the body; it is through these that the emotional
nature of sound is produced. The original source of
tone production has its location in the lungs, the
kidneys, and the bladder for the most part. For the
utterance of a word representing a flower there is an
impression made on the right side of the thigh, while
the expression is on the left side just opposite, the
order being reversed for the corresponding German
word. Just how we breathe into and out of the pelvis
the author expects to explain satisfactorily in a future
volume. Statements such as these, together with
philosophical reflections and practical discussions as to
the way in which the production of different sounds
should be managed, fill the three volumes.
The volumes are not without a certain kind of
interest—that of observing the process by which
a man, who is evidently in earnest, comes to
elaborate and believe such nonsense. it is at the same
time possible that there may be in the remarks regard-
ing the way in which sounds should be produced some-
thing which would be suggestive to one engaged in
the practical work of teaching in this subject. Accord-
ing to Mr. Sutro, America has left his works almost
unnoticed, while Germany has given a more favour-
able reception to them. It appears that an Inter-
national Physio-Psychic Society has been founded for
the propagation of the views put forward in these
volumes,
An Outline of
(London :
A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1902. By
H. C. Bolton. Second supplement. Pp. 462.
(Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1904.)
THE present volume of the ‘‘ Select Bibliography ”’ is
the second supplement which has been published since
the first issue in 1893, and carries the work down to
1902.
One can only admire the patient labour of the
author, now unfortunately removed by death, who has
placed in the hands of chemists all over the world a
book of reference of such permanent value.
The supplement contains the titles of books pub-
lished between 1898 and 1902 inclusive, in which the
NO. 1840, VOI. 71]
same subdivisions are preserved as in the first volume.
It is just a question whether the last subdivision—
academic dissertations—which fills nearly half the
book, is worth the trouble it has entailed. It consists
almost entirely of the titles of dissertations for the
German doctorate, which in Germany often find their
way into booksellers’ hands, but are merely reprints
of memoirs that have appeared in the scientific
journals. The list is necessarily incomplete, and the
trouble of indexing it must have been enormous.
The proof-reading, as well as the preparation of the
index, have been done by Mr. Axel Moth, of the New
York Public Library. Horde, (i
Hints on Collecting and Preserving Plants. By
S. Guiton. Pp. ii+55. (London: West, Newman
and Co., 1905.) Price 1s.
Tue collector of plants, whether he is merely pur-
suing a hobby or whether his object is to acquire
specimens for reference which will enable him to
get a better knowledge of systematic botany, ought
to be acquainted with the best methods of preparing
and arranging a herbarium. For information he
will find this small book useful. Some of the
suggested details are not absolutely necessary, but a
little experience will soon show which are essential.
In some respects Mr. Guiton tends to what one may
call the collector’s views, as, for instance, when he
recommends gumming the specimens on cardboard ;
the more usual practice of fixing them by means of
gummed slips on drawing paper is cheaper, and
allows the specimens to be taken off for examination.
The preference of iron grids in place of wooden
ventilators, the advantages of cotton mattresses, and
other such details which might be suggested are
rather matters of individual taste; so long as a
collector takes as much care as Mr. Guiton, his
herbarium will be a pleasure, not only to himself,
but also to kindred botanists.
By Drinkwater Butt.
Iliffe and Sons, Ltd.,
Practical Retouching.
xv+78. (London:
Price 1s. net
Pp.
1904.)
Tuts book forms No. to of the Photography Bookshelf
Series, and will be found a useful addition. The
matter contained in it originally appeared in the pages
of Photography in 1901, but the author has brought
the information up to date and presented it in the
present form, which will be found convenient for
beginners. The chapters are eight in all, and after
the preliminary ones dealing with things to be done
and to be avoided, and the apparatus and material
required for the work, we have those on general
manipulations, manipulations in detail of portrait
work and inanimate objects, concluding with the use
of the back of the negative for further hand-work.
Stories from Natural History.
Translated from the German by G. S.
177. (London: Macmillan and Co.,
Price 1s. 6d.
By Richard Wagner.
S. Pp. viii+
Ltd., 1904.)
THESE interesting stories dealing with subjects of
natural history are presented in excellent English.
The translator’s style is graceful, and the language
chosen is of a kind which will appeal to children;
while the scientific information is sound as well as
instructive. A young reader should learn incidentally
a great deal about animal life, and at the same time
be given sympathetic interest in it. The little volume
is suitable for a reading book in the higher standards
of the elementary school and for the lowest forms
of a secondary school.
318
NATURE
[FEsBRuARY 2, 1905
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, vejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.
My own experiences are somewhat different from those
of your correspondents, but the result is the same. I
commenced Greek when about thirteen; I passed the
London matriculation, the entrance examination at Trinity,
and the Little-go without any difficulty; and I have read
the three synoptic gospels in the original, several Greek
plays, and a certain amount of Homer, Xenophon, and
Thucydides. Now, if all the knowledge I thus acquired
had been of any practical value to me in after life, I
should, as a matter of ordinary common sense and worldly
wisdom, have kept it up; but, finding Greek absolutely
useless, my acquaintance with the language has so com-
pletely faded away that I can scarcely make out the sense of
a Greek quotation in a historical or theological work.
It has often been a matter of profound regret to me that
the time spent on Greek was not devoted to German, for
if it had I should have been able to speak the language
sufficiently well to enjoy during my whole life German
society, German literature, and German places of amuse-
ment.
I have never been able to discover any educational value
in a training which condemns boys to grind up pages of
Greek declensions and irregular verbs. In my experience
of life a youth who, after acquiring some knowledge of
the grammar of a modern language, is made to read
easy books on the manners, customs, and history of the
country where the language is spoken (and nothing: is
better than a well-written novel) is far better equipped for
the battle of life, and is a far more agreeable companion
both intellectually and socially, than a man whose boyhood
has been spent in studying musty old mythologies, which
nobody troubles about nowadays except the select few who
have made such subjects the hobby of their lives.
By all means let the bishops continue to require a know-
ledge of Greek (and also of Hebrew) on the part of
candidates for orders, on the ground that these subjects-
ought to be considered part of the professional stock-in-
trade of a clergyman; but special studies of this kind, like
law in the case of barristers and solicitors, need not be
commenced until a youth has decided upon the profession
he intends to follow. A. B. Basset.
January 27.
Can Birds Smell?
EXAMINATION of the Bird’s brain shows that the sense of
smell can be but little developed. The olfactory bulbs are
small. No medullated nerve-fibres unite them with the rest
of the brain. Yet in no birds are the bulbs entirely absent,
so far as I am aware. The olfactory membrane of birds
presents certain structural peculiarities which are difficult
to interpret. The nasal chambers which it lines are not
large in any bird, but in some they are sufficiently exten-
sive to suggest that olfaction is not completely in abey-
ance. The fact that they are better developed in birds
which seek their food in the sea (petrels, the tropic bird,
&c.), in which pursuit smell can, one would suppose, be
of little service, than they are in most other birds
seems to indicate that they have some function other
than olfaction. Perhaps they serve to warm the inspired
air; although here again we are confronted with the
difficulty that, in the frigate bird (Fregata), in which
the nasal chambers are relatively large, the nostrils are
obliterated. Air may, of course, enter the nasal chambers
through the cleft palate, but such a mechanism cannot
provide for the warming of the air on its passage to the
lungs. The teachings of anatomy being so obscure, it
seemed to me desirable that direct observations should be
nade.
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
A study of the habits of flesh-eating birds shows that if
they possess the sense of smell at all, it is not sufficiently
acute to enable them to use it in finding food. All
observers are agreed that when a carcase is hidden, by
never so slight a screen, it is safe from the attacks of
vultures and other carrion-seekers; but the most remark-
able proof of the ineffectiveness of the sense (if it exist
at all) is afforded by experiences which Dr. Guillemard
was good enough to relate to me. Many times it has
happened, he tells me, that, having shot a wildebeest or
other game which was too heavy to carry home, he has dis-
embowelled it, and has hidden the carcase in the hole of an
““ant-bear.’? On returning with natives to carry it to
camp, he has found a circle of vultures standing round the
spot where the offal had been thrown, completely unaware
of the carcase within a few yards of their beaks. Of ob-
servations proving the possession of the sense I know none,
unless we are willing to accept as evidence the belief,
which is very general among fanciers, that birds are
attached to the smell of anise, and the similar belief of
gamekeepers in some parts of the country that they are
attracted by valerian. It is said that pigeons may be
prevented from deserting the dove-cote by smearing their
boxes with oil of anise. Poachers are supposed to lure
hen-pheasants from a wood by anointing gate-posts with
tincture of valerian.
With the view of testing the smelling powers of gramini-
vorous birds, I placed a pair of turkeys in a pen which
communicated with a large wired-inrun. The pen was closed
by means of a trap-door. In the run I placed, each day,
two heaps of grain, right and left of the trap-door, but so
far in front of it that they made with it an angle of about
50°. Various substances which give out a powerful odour
were placed under one of the heaps, alternately the right
and the left. The birds were lightly fed in the morning
in their pen. At two o’clock the trap-door was raised, and
they were admitted to the enclosure. It was curious to
note that after the first few days the hen almost always
came out first (in the last ten experiments this rule was
broken but once), and invariably went to the heap on her
right; the cock following went to the heap on the left.
The cock usually tried the hen’s heap after feeding for a
short time from his own, but the hen never trespassed
upon the preserve of the cock. In the earlier observations
I placed beneath one of the heaps a slice of bread soaked
with tincture of asafoetida, essence of anise, oil of lavender,
or sprinkled with valerianate of zinc or powdered camphor.
When the birds, plunging their beaks into the bread, took
some of the tincture or essential oil into the mouth, the
head was lifted up and shaken, but they immediately recom-
menced to peck at the grain. They were completely in-
different to the presence of camphor or valerianate of zinc.
In several cases in which these substances were used, they
consumed the bread. As a turkey does not steady the
thing at which it is pecking, with its foot, but, seizing
it in the beak, shakes it violently until a piece is detached,
it is probable that most of the powder was shaken from the
bread. As these experiments gave absolutely negative results,
the birds showing neither preference for nor repugnance to
any of the odorous substances used, I proceeded to stronger
measures. The grain was placed upon a seven-inch cook’s
sieve, inverted. The odorous substance was placed beneath
the sieve. Each of the following experiments was repeated
three times, first with a small quantity of “‘ smell,’’ then
with a great deal, and lastly with as much as possible.
It is only necessary to describe the final tests. Four ounces
of carbide was thrown into a saucer of water and placed
beneath one of the sieves. There was no reason to think
that the birds were aware of the existence of the acetylene
which was evolved. The saucer was filled with bisulphide
of carbon. The hen turkey finished her meal. When the
grain was exhausted she knocked the sieve over with her
foot. Both birds then lowered their beaks to within
half an inch of the colourless liquid, which they appeared
to examine. It is, perhaps, unfortunate that they had
already satisfied their thirst at the water-trough. A bath
sponge soaked in chloroform was placed under the sieve,
the wire of which rested upon it. The hen finished her
meal without leaving the sieve. Towards the end she
ae
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE 319
pecked very slowly, and frequently raised her head
and stretched her wings as if partially narcotised.
This experiment was repeated on the cock, but I
could not detect any indications of narcosis. The saucer
was filled with hot dilute sulphuric acid, into which
an ounce of powdered cyanide of potassium was thrown.
The evolution of prussic acid was so violent that I con-
sidered the neighbourhood unsafe. My gardener, who
was working thirty yards away, spoke to me of the ‘‘ smell
of almonds.’’ For some minutes the cock turkey fed with
his usual eagerness; then, suddenly, he began to stagger
round the enclosure, crossing his legs and holding his beak
straight up in the air. He made his way back into the
pen, where he stood with head down and wings out-
stretched. After ten minutes he returned to the enclosure,
but did not eat any more grain. His comb and wattles
were deeply suffused with blood.
In all observations on the sense of smell of animals we
have an obvious difficulty to face. There is no reason for
supposing that an animal enjoys an odour which pleases
us or dislikes one which we find disagreeable. My dog
appeared to be almost indifferent to bisulphide of carbon.
He showed, however, great repugnance to chloroform and
prussic acid. It is difficult to think that an animal which
is unable to protect itself from the injurious effects of such
drugs as these can possess the sense of smell.
I shall be very grateful to any of your readers who will
give me information on this subject. Especially should I be
glad to learn something about the habits of wingless birds,
the mode of life of which, more or less, resembles that of a
terrestrial mammal. In them, if in any birds, it would
seem likely that the sense of smell would be efficient. In
his memoir on the Apteryx, Owen stated that “‘ the relative
extent and complexity of the turbinated bones and the
capacity of the posterior part of the nasal cavity exceed
those of any other bird; and the sense of smell must be
proportionately acute and important in its economy.’’
Downing College Lodge, January 26. ALEX. HILt.
The Origin of Radium.
In the issue of Nature for January 26, Mr. Soddy
describes the present position of his experiments on the
production of radium from compounds of uranium, and
announces a positive result.
Since I wrote on May 5, 1904, pointing out that, on the
theory of Rutherford and Soddy, the quantity of radium
developed by a few hundred grams of uranium should
be measurable in a few months, a quantity of about
400 grams of uranium nitrate has been preserved in my
laboratory.
I am not yet prepared to give definite quantitative
results, but Mr. Soddy’s announcement may perhaps excuse
a preliminary statement that the quantity of radium
emanation now evolved by my uranium salt is distinctly
and appreciably greater than at first.
A rough calculation of the rate of growth of radium
indicates a rate of change far slower than that suggested
by the simplest theory of the process, but somewhat
quicker than that given by Mr. Soddy, who finds that
about 2X10-** of the uranium is transformed per annum.
As Mr. Soddy says, it is possible that the total amount of
emanation is not secured, and the fraction obtained may
depend to some extent on the particular method used by
each experimenter. But another possibility should be borne
in mind. If a non-radio-active product, intermediate be-
tween uranium and radium, exists, the rate of appearance
of radium would be slower at first, and quicker as the
experiment proceeds. My uranium salt was not purified so
successfully as that used by Mr. Soddy, and, when the
first measurement was made a month or so after prepara-
tion, the yield of radium emanation was appreciable. It
may be that Mr. Soddy is tracing the process from its
inception, and that I have started at a later stage, where
the rate of formation is somewhat greater. Further
observation may be expected to elucidate these and other
questions. W. C. D. WuertHam.
Cambridge, January 30.
No. 1840, VOL. 71 |
Fact in Sociology.
I ADDRESSED a letter to the editor of Nature replying
to what I allege to be misrepresentations and misstate-
ments in a review of three of my books by ‘‘ F. W. H.”
(December 29, 1904, p. 193). After a delay of some weeks.
due to the absence of ‘‘F. W. H.’’ abroad, the editor
of Nature has written to ask me to modify and shorten
my protest.
‘““B. W. H.” told the readers of Nature that my
““ Food of the Gods”’ ‘‘ claimed to forecast the future.’
This was untrue, and I said so.
““F. W. H.”’ mixed up my discussion of probabilities
in ‘‘ Anticipations ’? with my general review of educational
influences in ‘* Mankind in the Making,’’ and presented
this as my ideals. I pointed out that this was an un-
sound method of criticism.
““ BF, W. H.”’ presented the following as my opinions :—
“Germany will be cowed by the combined English and.
American Navies, and Anglo-Saxonism will eventually
triumph. There remain the Yellow Races. Their star,
too, will pale before that of the Anglo-Saxons.’’ I re-
pudiated this balderdash with some asperity. It is violently
unlike my views.
He wrote of me, ‘‘he seems unaware of the part
in the national life that is played by the lower stratum
of society, the ‘ stagnant’ masses as he would call them.”
I denied that I should, and pointed out that no one does
know what part is played by any stratum of society in
national reproduction. It is a field of unrecorded facts.
I commented on ‘‘ F. W. H.’s’’ assumption that he was
in possession of special knowledge.
He wrote of ‘‘ the fact that this stratum is an absolute
necessity.’’ This is not a fact. It may or may not be
true. I commented on this use of the word “ fact’’ in
view of ‘‘F. W. H.’s’’ professorial sneer at my
““imagination unclogged by knowledge.”’
He declared that I want to “‘ get rid of the reckless
classes, and depend solely on the careful classes,’’ a state-
ment which has not an atom of justification. He not only
“guys ’”’. my suggestions, but foists an absolutely uncon-
genial phraseology upon me.
Finally, he wrote, ‘‘ we are to introduce careful parent-
age, that is, put a stop to natural selection.’’ I quoted
this in view of his statement that I had ‘‘ no very thorough
grasp of the principles of evolution.’’ I discussed what
appeared to be his ideas about evolution. They appeared
to me to be crude and dull, and I regret I cannot condense
.my criticisms to my present limits.
I expressed some irritation at his method of mis-
statement followed by reply, and hinted a doubt whether
my own style of inquiry—in spite of the fact that romances
blacken my reputation—was not really more scientific
than his. H. G. WELLS.
The Fertilisation of Jasminum nudiflorum.
Tuts well known plant, in accordance with its usual
habit, has been flowering in my garden at Stonehaven,
Kincardineshire, since the third week in December, 1904,
and amidst frost and snow and cold winds. There are no
leaves, but there are thousands of bright yellow flowers.
It is a puzzle to me how fertilisation is effected. The two
stamens are situated about half-way down the tube of
the corolla, and about four or five millimetres below the
style, which is, in many cases, two millimetres longer than
the tube of the corolla. It seems to me to be a plant
requiring the aid of insects in its fertilisation, but there
are no insects to be seen at this time of the year. On
January 22, as there was some sunshine, I watched the
plant for about four hours, but no insect paid it a visit.
At the same time I found the oblong anthers had split
and pollen grains were sticking to the stigma in many
flowers. The brilliantly coloured flowers, although desti-
tute of scent, are fitted to attract insects, and the form.
of the flower seems adapted for their visits. But there
are no insects! Can anyone offer an explanation? The
plant is beautifully figured in the Botanical Magaszine,
Ixxviii., tab. 4649. Joun G. McKeEnprick.
University of Glasgow, January 24.
|
The Moon and the Barometer.
Ir is an old popular belief that weather tends to be
more settled about full moon. Here are some sayings
from Inward’s ‘‘ Weather Lore ’’ :—
‘““The three days of the change of the moon from the
way to the wane we get no rain’’ (United States).
‘The weather is generally clearer at the full than at
the other ages of the moon’ (Bacon).
““In Western Kansas it is said that when the moon is
near full it never storms.’
‘“ The full moon brings fine weather.’’ ‘‘ The full moon
eats clouds.’’ (This disappearance of cloud Mr. G. F.
Chambers pronounces ‘‘a thoroughly well authenticated
fact.’’)
The following evidence in this connection seems to me
instructive. It relates to Ben Nevis (1884-1892, nine
years) and Greenwich (1889-1904, sixteen years), and to
the summer half only (to be more exact, the six lunations
commencing with that which had full moon in April).
The method was as follows :—In the case of Ben Nevis,
fourteen columns were arranged for the fourteen days
ending with full moon, and fourteen for those following
full moon. Each day with barometer under 25-2 was re-
f2332/
/
(2332! 12332f (23321
°o a e
a
Greenwwsk seale_
presented by a dot in those (graduated) columns; total 407. |
The dots in each column were then counted, and the
sums obtained were added in groups of three (first to
third, second to fourth, third to fifth, and so on). Thus
we get the upper curve in the diagram.
In the case of Greenwich, the method was slightly
different (see lower horizontal scale). The columns were
for seven days about each of the four phases. For com-
parison with the Ben Nevis curve we commence with the
first day after new moon. The days here considered were
those with barometer under 29-6 inches; total, 476.
These two curves seem to tell much the same tale; few
days of low barometer about (just after) full and new
moon, many such days about (just after) the quarters.
Thus, so far as the summer half in those twenty-one
years is concerned, the popular belief would appear to be
vindicated.
To give a fuller idea of the relations, I add a table of
the maximum and minimum values (each number is,
of course, the sum of three) :—
First First Second Second
min. max. min. max.
Ben Nevis 35 53 31 61
Greenwich 25 69 ... 35 65
No. 1840, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 2, 1905
It will be seen that the chief maximum is about double
the chief minimum in one case, and more than double
in the other.
In a dot-diagram, where each day is represented
separately according to its barometer (not merely grouped
with others as below a certain limit), the contrast between
the phases comes out still more clearly.
The view here given apparently finds support from
various quarters. In the Meteorologische Zeitschrift for
1900, p. 421, Herr Bornstein gives a curve of pressure
for Berlin (May to August in 1883-1900) which is of
similar type to those in the diagram. Fr. Dechevrens
informs me that the results above given agree with those
of his own observations in China, Constantinople, and
Jersey. M. Sainte Claire-Deville found the same variation
at Cayenne, in French Guiana.
With regard to the winter half (October to March), the
vyégime would appear to be somewhat different, but I
cannot speak definitely of it at present.
Whether the facts presented be thought to indicate lunar
influence or not, it may be of interest to watch future
weather (in the summer half) from the point of view
suggested. AtEex. B. MacDowatt.
Reversal in Influence Machines.
Tue method suggested for producing reversal on a
Voss or Wimshurst will not be found always trustworthy.
Atmospheric conditions make a great difference. I have
been experimenting for more than a year with the view
of finding a solution of the reversal problem, and think I
have succeeded in tracing the cause, which is primarily
connected with dielectric strain. A Wimshurst with the
dischargers. beyond sparking distance, working at full
speed, will often reverse if the discharge is made by
suddenly connecting the terminals, but there is no certainty
in producing this effect. I have recently constructed an
influence machine akin to the Voss except that the re-
plenishment is from the back of the disc. Reversal is still
the stumbling block, and must occur with fixed inductors,
while no plan for controlling the reversal can be relied
upon. I should be happy to give any of your correspon-
dents fuller particulars of my experiments if they will
communicate with me. Cuartes E. BENHAM.
Colchester, January 14.
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books.
May I through your columns suggest to publishers—
especially of scientific and mathematical books—to give
in their catalogues the dates of publication of their books?
As a book often gets out of date very soon, such an
addition would greatly help those who have no access to
good libraries in selecting books to be purchased. I may
say that this is done almost invariably in the catalogues
of French and German publishers. To take an instance,
the Clarendon Press still includes Price’s ‘“* Infinitesimal
Calculus ’’ in its catalogue. Now, although to one who
wants to study the subject in an exhaustive manner the
book is very valuable, still, to one who wishes to know
the principles only, the book is, to say the least, not
worth the big price asked for; and if the date of publi-
cation were mentioned in the catalogue, the purchaser
would at any rate know that he was not buying an up to
date book. P. PARAIYPYE.
Fergusson College, Poona, India, January 1.
Super-cooled Rain Drops.
Tue letter which appeared in your last issue (p. 295)
from Mr. Robinson with reference to this interesting
phenomenon reminds me of a similar case which I ob-
served in Bournemouth during the winter of 1888, and I
described in Nature at the time under the title, ‘‘ Is Hail
| thus Formed?” (vol. xxxvii., p. 205).
Cecit Carus-WILSON.
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE
321
PARA RUBBER.’
[ay recent years the cultivation of rubber-yielding
trees has attracted an increasing amount of
notice. About 12,000 acres in Ceylon, and in the
Malay Peninsula a still larger area, have been stocked
with the Para rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis, and
other species of Hevea. The cultivation has also
been successful in India and South America, and ex-
perimental plots are being tested in Uganda and
the Gold Coast Colony. ;
In tropical Africa there are thousands of square
miles of land suitable for growing
the Para tree. But whilst the
demand for rubber has been in-
creasing with the development of
the electrical and motor industries,
the number of forest trees yielding
the substance has been diminish-
ing, year by year, as a consequence
of the faulty methods of ‘‘ tapping ”’
employed by the natives. Hence a
stimulus has been given to the pro-
duction of rubber by cultivation;
and with a view of fostering the
industry in West Africa, Mr. John-
son was commissioned by Govern-
ment in 1902 to visit Ceylon and
study the methods employed there
in the management of the planta-
tions and the preparation of the
rubber. He now gives, for the
benefit of persons taking up the
cultivation, some of the results of
the visit in the form of such practi-
cal advice as would be likely to
assist them in their undertaking.
The rubber trees are raised from
the seeds, which may be obtained
from Ceylon or the Straits Settle-
ments at a cost of about 6s. 8d. per
thousand. When the tree has
attained a girth of twenty to
twenty-four inches, the latex can
safely be tapped; this may be in
about five to seven years from the
date of planting. The yield varies
greatly, depending on the soil, the
age of the tree, and the method of
tapping. At present no_ really
satisfactory data are available;
but from such statistics as are given
it would seem that about 1 lb. to
3 lb. of dry rubber per annum may
be the average product of each tree.
In addition, the seeds yield a drying
oil somewhat resembling that ob-
tained from linseed. As regards
the latex-bearing ‘‘life’’ of the
trees, it is stated, on the authority
of the director of the Botanic
Gardens, Straits Settlements, that
trees are known to have _ been
tapped, off and on, during fifty
years, and to be still yielding a
plentiful supply of latex.
The rubber-substance is contained in the latex of
the plant in the form of minute globules, much as
butter-fat exists in cow’s milk. These globules can
be made to coalesce by centrifugal action, just as
cream is formed from mill in an ordinary separator;
but the product thus obtained does not, apparently,
By W. H.
(London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1904.)
1 ‘The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber.”
Johnson. Pp. xii+go.
Price 7s. 6d. net.
NO. 1840, VOL 71]
if
compare favourably with the rubber given by the
older methods of separation. These consist in
coagulating the latex, either by simple exposure to
the air or by the addition of an acid or a salt; the
resulting coagulum is washed and rolled to free it
from moisture and nitrogenous matters, and then
dried by gently heating. The particular process
suggested by the author is that of spontaneous
coagulation of the latex in shallow saucers, followed,
after washing and rolling, by exposure to the smoke
of a wood fire as an antiseptic treatment.
The price
Fic. 1.—One of the Parent Trees of the Para Rubber Industry in the East, growing in the Botanic
Gardens, Henaratgoda, Ceylon.
(From ‘ The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber.’’)
obtained depends largely upon the care exercised in
the preparation. For example, Congo rubbers, which
some time ago realised only ts. to 1s. 6d. a pound,
now often fetch 4s. in consequence of being more
carefully prepared. As showing what can be done
in this direction, it is interesting to note that Ceylon
Para rubber has recently commanded the “ record ””
price of 5s. 6d. per pound.
The appurtenances required
are of the simplest,
322
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 2, 1905
and no great demand is made upon the skill of the
cultivator who desires to try his fortune in this
direction. As regards the call upon his capital, some
idea of the cost of opening and maintaining a plant-
ation will be obtained from the estimates which the
author supplies, showing the expenditure in Ceylon
and the Malay Peninsula. As an alternative to tea-
planting, orange-growing, and cattle-ranching, the
production of rubber would seem to be well worth
consideration by young Britons who go abroad in
search of a competency. C. Simmonps.
PREHISTORIC ENGLAND.*
AS this volume contains a notice by the publishers
that they ‘‘ will shortly begin ’’ the issue of the
series of ‘‘ The Antiquary’s Books,’ to which this
belongs, it may be assumed that it is the first. For
the reason that it is an earnest of the quality to be
expected in its successors, the book, both in manner
and matter, must be treated in somewhat more critical
and judicial fashion than if the series had been already
fairly launched. The responsibility of a publisher in
placing an antiquarian library before the public is
never light, and at the present time it suffers from the
inequality of modern knowledge in respect to the
various prehistoric and archzological periods. The
later stages of the former class have vast floods of
light thrown upon them by the constantly recurring
discoveries in the Levant, and the comparative method
has enabled us to classify many of our native antiqui-
ties by their means. In regard to the earlier stages of
man’s existence we are in the main still advancing at
a painfully slow rate, and can scarcely be held to have
more than a misty comprehension of the subject.
In historic times the same want of balance of know-
ledge exists equally, though it is a far easier task to
mask the difficulty, and to produce a nicely balanced
tale from groups of facts of very different values.
The present volume deals only with the relics of
man in Britain anterior to the coming of the Roman
invaders, and in a sense, therefore, may be called
prehistoric, for nothing in the nature of a native record
can be quoted in support of any part of it. The author
by his title, moreover, limits his field to the remains
(Fic. 1.—Section of Barrow with successive Interments.
of the Prehistoric Age in England.”
From “‘ Remains
of the dwellers in Britain, that is to say, to the monu-
ments they raised, the implements they made, and the
graves in which they deposited their dead. The racial
characteristics, as shown by the physical characters,
are treated very briefly, and the burning questions of
the priority of Brythons and Goidels in the land, of
the precise position of the Picts as an indigenous tribe,
of the succeeding immigrations from the Continent
bringing with them new types of people, of weapons,
or of burial customs, are only incidentally mentioned.
By the elimination of all these questions Dr. Windle
has set himself an infinitely lighter task; but it is to
be questioned how far an intelligent reader can gain
1 ** Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.”
Windle, Sc.D., F.R.S. Pp. xv + 320; illustrated.
and Co.) Price 7s. 6d. net.
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
By Bertram C. A.
(London: Methuen
a true understanding of the conditions described with-
out some fuller information on these points. It must
be confessed, however, that the subject bristles with
difficulties of all kinds and has tempting pitfalls for
even the wary searcher, and, on the other hand, Dr.
Windle has a right to set his own limits. Even
within these limits he may be thought somewhat
hardy, for to give an adequate account of all the
material relics of man in Britain from the dawn of
human life up to about 2000 years ago, within the
compass of little more than three hundred pages, is
not a thing to be undertaken with a light heart. One
of the principal difficulties to be overcome is to avoid
confusion in exposition and arrangement. In this
matter Dr. Windle might have had more success. In
“ls
Oi
YY MY UYU
Yijffy
VW,
Fic. 2.—Ideal Section of Pit-dwelling.
heaped up around Pit ;
and Branches.
a, Natural soil; 4, Bank of same
c, Central support of Roof; d@, Roof of Turfs
From ** Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.”
more cases than one, instances of special types of
implements are quoted without giving the very
necessary information that they belong to widely
different periods. For instance, in dealing with
‘pygmy flints,’’ a puzzling subject, Dr. Windle quotes
a number of surface finds, and then goes on to say,
‘“in France they have been discovered at Bruniquel.”’
This can only mislead the inquirer or the student, for,
so far as we know, the Bruniquel station, which is
undoubtedly of the mammoth period, has no relation
at all to such surface finds as have been made in
Lincolnshire, Lancashire, India, or Belgium. Nothing
is more certain than that mere type or form alone is
the most unsafe criterion of age.
This elementary axiom may sound very like a plati-
tude, but it is constantly neglected by men whose
words carry weight, and cannot, therefore, be too much
insisted upon. Such errors or vague statements affect
the essentials of prehistoric science, and if persisted in
inevitably retard the advance of knowledge instead of
accelerating it, as Dr. Windle undoubtedly wishes to
do. Again, it is very questionable wisdom to devote
a chapter to “‘ bone implements,’’ the paragraphs deal-
ing indiscriminately with the remains from the French
caves, the Swiss lakes, and from a station like Grime’s
Graves. In the first place, there is again no relation
between the sites quoted, and, so far as the French
caves are concerned, the ‘‘bone’’ implements are
mostly of horn. No doubt the information necessary
to a proper understanding of the relative ages of the
Dordogne caves, the Swiss lake dwellings, and the
Norfolk flint pits is to be found elsewhere in the book ;
but for a popular work dealing with a difficult and
complicated subject the first essential is clearness of
exposition beyond all possibility of misunderstanding.
Further, Dr. Windle’s authorities are occasionally
antiquated. It is not treating the reader quite fairly
to give him Dr. Thurnam’s classification of barrows
without qualification. Is it, for instance, quite certain
in the light of recent knowledge that all round
barrows are of the Bronze age? It is also a trifle hard
to find the late Dr. Frazer quoted as an authority on
FERRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE
S73
gold in Ireland, while Salomon Reinach is not even
mentioned. A little discrimination would have shown
that Mr. Romilly Allen was making a curious state-
ment (p. 293) when he said: ‘‘ The bowls . . . seem to
belong to the end of the Late Celtic period and the
beginning of the Saxon.’? What becomes of the four
hundred and odd years intervening between the two,
when the Roman power was dominant in Britain?
Such statements betray a carelessness that is not easily
excused in a man of Dr. Windle’s standing. The
same want of precision is shown in “ Hallstadt ’’ for
Halstatt, ‘‘ Collie March ”’ on one page and ‘‘ Colley
March ”’ on another, the ‘‘ forging ’’ of bronze instead
of ‘“‘ casting,’’ and others of the same kind. In the
circumstances it is a hard thing to say, but the illus-
trations leave much to be desired. The two figures we
reproduce show diagrammatically a barrow with
successive interments, and a restoration of a pit dwell-
ing, from Mr. George Clinch’s Kentish discoveries.
The book might easily have been so much better,
for it has many good and useful points, that there is
something exasperating in finding much to quarrel
with. The index is a good and useful one, the lists
of ancient remains an excellent departure, compiled
with all modesty, and there is a great deal of clear
treatment of some knotty questions, such as the so-
called ‘‘ Eolithic ’? period. As a series, the size of the
volume is convenient and the print good, and in spite
of the strictures we have felt bound to make, there is
little doubt that the publishers will find a ready sale.
MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA.
AE British Association will hold its meeting this
year in South Africa. In these exceptional
circumstances, the general officers of the association
requested the council to appoint a strong committee
to cooperate with them in carrying out the necessary
arrangements. This ‘‘ South African Committee ”’
has held frequent sittings, and its work is so far |
advanced that it is now possible to make the following
announcements.
Although the annual circular and programme have
not yet been issued, pending the receipt of informa-
tion from South Africa, many members have already
intimated their intention of being present at the
meeting. The “ official party’’ of guests invited by
the central executive committee at Cape Town, and
nominated in the first instance by the council of the
association, numbers upwards of 150 persons, com-
prising members of the council, past and _ present
general officers and sectional presidents, the present
sectional officers, and a certain proportion of the
leading members of each section. To this list has
yet to be added, on the nomination of the organising
committees, the names of representative foreign and
colonial men of science, the total number of the
official party being restricted to 200, including the
local officials. It is hoped, however, that many other
members of the association will also attend the
meeting.
The presidents-elect of the various sections are as
follows :-—
A (Mathematical and Physical Science), Prof. A. R.
Forsyth, F.R.S.; B (Chemistry), Mr. G. T. Beilby;
C (Geology), Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.; D (Zoology),
Mr. G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S.; E (Geography),
Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton, K.C.B., F.R.S.;
F (Economic Science and_ Statistics), Rev. W.
Cunningham; G (Engineering), Colonel Sir Colin
Scott-Moncrieff, G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E.; H
(Anthropology), Dr. A. C. Haddon, F-.R.S.; I
(Physiology), Colonel D. Bruce, F.R.S.; K (Botany),
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
Mr. Harold Wager, F.R.S.; L (Educational Science),
Sir Richard C. Jebb, M.P.
The vice-presidents, recorders, and secretaries of the
eleven sections have also now been appointed.
In view of the numerous towns to be visited by
the association, and in which lectures or addresses
will be given, the number of lecturers appointed is
much larger than usual. The list of these, as at
present arranged, is as follows :—
Cape Town: Prof. Poulton, on Burchell’s work in
South Africa; and Mr. C. V. Boys, on a subject in
physics. Durban: Mr. F. Soddy, on radio-activity.
Maritsburg: Prof. Arnold, on compounds of steel.
Johannesburg: Prof. Ayrton, on distribution of
power; Prof. Porter, on mining; and Mr. G. W.
Lamplugh, on the geology of the Victoria Falls.
Pretoria (or possibly Bulawayo): Mr. Shipley, on a
subject in zoology. Bloemfontein: Mr. Hinks, on a
subject in astronomy. Kimberley: Sir William
Crookes, on diamonds.
As the wish has been conveyed to the council from
South Africa that a few competent investigators
should be selected to deliver addresses dealing with
local problems of which they possessed special
knowledge, a geologist, a bacteriologist, and an
archzeologist have been invited to undertake this
work, involving in two cases special missions in
advance of the main party. Whilst Colonel Bruce,
F.R.S., will deal with some bacteriological questions
of practical importance to South Africa, Mr. G. W.
Lamplugh (by the courtesy of the Board of Educa-
tion) will be enabled to investigate certain features
in the geology of the Victoria Falls—particularly as
regards the origin and structure of the cafion—and
Mr. D. R. Maclver, who is at present exploring in
Nubia, will proceed in March to Rhodesia in order
to examine and report on the ancient ruins at
Zimbabwe and also at Inyanga.
Most of the officials, and other members of the
| association, will leave Southampton on July 29 by
the Union Castle Mail SS. Saxon, and arrive at Cape
Town on August 15, the opening day of the meeting ;
but a considerable number will start from Southamp-
ton on the previous Saturday, either by the ordinary
mail-boat or by the intermediate steamer sailing on
that date.
The sectional meetings will be held at Cape Town
(three days) and Johannesburg (three days).
Between the inaugural meeting at the former and
the concluding meeting at the latter town, oppor-
tunities will be offered to members to visit the Natal
battlefields and other places of interest. Subse-
quently a party will be made up to proceed to the
Victoria Falls (Zambesi); and, should a_ sufficient
number of members register their names, a special
steamer will be chartered for the voyage home, vid
Beira, by the east coast route, as an alternative to
the return through Cape Town by the west coast
route. Thus all the colonies and Rhodesia will be
visited by the association. The tour will last 70 days
vid Cape Town, or a week longer vid Beira (all-sea),
leaving Southampton on July 29 and returning
thither on October 7 or 14.
A central executive committee has been constituted
at Cape Town, with Sir David Gill as chairman and
Dr. Gilchrist as secretary; while local committees
have been formed at Johannesburg and other important
centres.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., is the president-elect,
and among the vice-presidents-elect are the follow-
ing :—the Rt. Hon, Lord Milner, the Hon. Sir Walter
Hely-Hutchinson, Sir Henry McCallum, the Hon. Sir
Arthur Lawley, Sir H. J. Goold-Adams, Sir David
| Gill, and Sir Charles Metcalfe.
324
NATURE
[ FEBRUARY 2, 1905
Sir David Gill, Mr. Theodore Reunert, and others
have taken a prominent part.in the initial work. The
South African Association for the Advancement of
Science is ‘cordially cooperating in the local
organisation, and will join with the British Associa-
tion in attending the meeting.
The aim of the council has been to secure the
attendance of a representative body of British men
of science, including specialists in various lines of
investigation, and that, along with the generous
support of the people and authorities in South Africa,
should go far to ensure the success of the meeting
and to stimulate local scientific interest and research.
THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON COAL
SUPPLIES.
jp le. Royal Commission appointed on December
28, Ig01, to inquire into the extent and avail-
able resources of the coalfields of the United Kingdom
has issued its final report, which, in 38 pages, con.
tains an able summary of the vast amount of valuable
information submitted by the numerous witnesses
examined. The Commission originally appointed
consisted of Lord Allerton, Sir W. T. Lewis, Sir
Lindsay Wood, Sir C. Le Neve Foster, and Messrs.
T. Bell, W. Brace, A. C. Briggs, H. B. Dixon, J. S.
Dixon, E. Hull, C. Lapworth, J. P. Maclay, A.
Sopwith, J. J. H. Teall, and R. Young. Mr. A.
Strahan was subsequently added to the Commission ;
Sir C. Le Neve Foster and Mr. Ralph Young died
before the inquiry was completed.
On the whole the report is of a _ reassuring
character. Adopting 4000 feet as the limit of
practicable depth in working, and one foot as the
minimum workable thickness, the commissioners
estimate the available quantity of coal in the proved
coalfields of the United Kingdom to be 100,914,668, 167
tons, as compared with the 90,207,285,398 tons
estimated by the Coal Commission of 1871, notwith-
standing the fact that 5,694,928,507 tons have been
raised in the meantime. The excess is accounted for
by the more accurate knowledge of the coal-seams.
It is also estimated that there are 39,483 million tons
of coal in the concealed and unproved coalfields.
It is thought that in future thin seams will be
worked more extensively than at present, and that
the use of coal-cutting machines will facilitate this.
The amount of unavoidable loss incident to coal-
mining is a serious factor in estimating the available
resources. Much coal is lost by leaving unnecessary
barriers between properties, and a certain amount
must necessarily remain in order to support the
surface. The amount thus left might perhaps be
reduced by the introduction of the methods employed
on the Continent and in America of packing excava-
tions with water-borne sand or other materials. ‘The
recovery of coal formerly abandoned might be
facilitated by the establishment of central pumping
stations.
The possible economies to which attention is directed
comprise the adoption of coal-cutting machines, of
which 483 were in use in 1902 and 643 in 1903, and
the use of electricity for the transmission of power.
The importance of cleaning, sizing, and sorting coal
is also strongly urged, and the extended adoption of
coking advocated. In this connection the advantages
of by-product coke ovens are pointed out, and it is
shown that washing and compression render it
possible to coke many coals previously considered
worthless. It is probable that briquettes will in
future be more largely used for steam and domestic
purposes, and there appears to be a promising field
No. 1840, VOL. 71]
for research for the discovery of a less smoky and
less costly binding material than pitch, which is now
chiefly used.
In view of the dearth of statistics of coal consump-
tion, the following estimate for 1903 is of special
interest :—
Tons
Railways... 3 13,000,000
Coasting Steamers... 2,000,000
Factories 53,000,000
Mines ect oh se 18,000,000
Tron and steel industries ... 28,000,000
Other metals and minerals A ... 1,000,000
Brick works and potteries, glass works
and chemical works 5,000,000
Gas works .., 15,000,000
Domestic 32,000,000
Total ... 167,000,000
It is calculated by Mr. Beilby that in this total
there is a possible saving of 40 to 60 million tons.
More particularly in connection with the raising of
steam there are immense economies capable of realisa-
tion. Economy in the production of power may be
effected by the combustion of gas obtained as a by-
product. Information submitted by Mr. Bennett
Brough points to increasing opportunities of utilis-
ing blast-furnace waste gases as a source of power
Waste gases from coke ovens might similarly be
utilised. Gas engines are referred to as the most
economical of heat motors, but increased efficiency
both thermally and mechanically is still possible.
The importance of the development of producer-gas
plants is strongly urged as rendering possible the
utilisation of inferior coal. Interesting information
is given regarding various other ways in which
economies in consumption may be effected. Regret is
expressed that the recommendations of the Mining
Royalties Commission of 1893 and of the Depart-
mental Committee of the Home Office in 1895 regard-
ing mineral statistics had not been carried out. The
commissioners recommend that accurate informa-
tion on the coal industry should be published by one
authority, and they think that it would be of great
advantage if particulars of deep borings could be
preserved in a Government office.
The report must necessarily attract great attention
from mining engineers and economists; and it should
also be carefully studied by students in mining
classes. It is essentially a cautious document; and
the general public will doubtless be disappointed that
Lord Allerton and his colleagues have made no sensa-
tional prophecies as to the probable duration of our
coal supplies, and have given no indication as to the
way in which their estimate of the available tonnage
of coal compares with that of other countries. Their
report certainly shows that, while the coal re-
sources are ample, the cost of coal is not likely to
decrease, as the improved methods and appliances wilt
probably be neutralised by the increased cost of work-
ing deeper and thinner seams. Where we should be
glad of clearer light from the Royal Commission is
on the question of the probable condition of compet-
ing coal-producing countries when the cost of pro-
duction in Great Britain is considerably raised. It is
futile to offer a detailed criticism of the final report
until the sections containing the reports of the district
commissioners, the report of the geological committee,
and the minutes of evidence and appendices are
published. The probable duration of the coalfields and
the colonial and foreign coal resources appear to have
been dealt with in special reports written respectively
by Mr. R. Price-Williams and Mr. Bennett Brough,
and to these the commissioners direct attention.
FEBRUARY 2, 1905 |
NATURE
43)
NOTES.
THE Royal Meteorological Society has arranged for an
exhibition of meteorological apparatus to be held on
March 14-17. The exhibition will be chiefly devoted to
recording instruments, but it will also include new meteor-
ological apparatus invented or first constructed since the
society’s last exhibition, as well as photographs, draw-
ings, and other objects possessing meteorological interest.
Science announces that Prof. Ernest Rutherford, of
McGill University, has been appointed Silliman lecturer
at Yale University for 1905. The previous Silliman lec-
turers have been Prof. J. J. Thomson and Prof. C. S.
Sherrington.
As Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., is unable to lecture at
the Royal Institution on Friday evening, March 24, Sir
Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., will deliver a discourse on that
date on ‘‘ A Pertinacious Current.’’
A Grant of 50. has been awarded by the Berlin Academy
of Sciences to Prof. R. Hagenbach, of Aachen, and Dr.
Konen, of Bonn, for the publication of a spectrographic
atlas.
Tue de Candolle prize of 201. for the best monograph
on a genus or family of plants is offered by the Physical
and Natural History Society of Geneva. Papers may be
written in Latin, French, German, Italian, or English, and
should be sent before January 15, 1906, to M. le Président
de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire naturelle de Genéve,
l’Athénée, Genéve (Suisse). Members of the society are not
- admitted to this competition.
WE are sorry to see in the Athenaeum the announcement
of the death, on January 21, of Mr. E. Crossley, of
Halifax, in his sixty-fourth year. Mr. Crossley published
in 1879, in conjunction with Messrs. Gledhill and Wilson,
a valuable ‘‘ Handbook of Double Stars,’’ which is com-
plete in its information up to the time of publication. The
Crossley reflector, with which excellent work is being done
at the Lick Observatory, was presented to that observatory
by Mr. Crossley, and contains one of the best mirrors
made by the late Dr. Common.
Pror. J. W. Mason, professor of mathematics at the
College of the City of New York from 1879 to 1903, died
on January 10 at the age of sixty-nine years. The death
is also announced of Dr. Guido Bodlaender, professor of
physical chemistry and electrotechnics at the Brunswick
Technical College.
WE regret to see the announcements of the deaths of
Dr. T. H. Behrens, professor of microchemistry at the
Delft Polytechnic School, on January 14, at the age of
sixty-two; of Dr. Albert von Reinach, the eminent
geologist of Frankfurt, on January 12; of Prof. Benjamin
W. Frazier, professor of mineralogy and metallurgy at
Lehigh University since 1871; and of M. Joseph Chaudron,
the Nestor of Belgian mining engineers, at the age of
eighty-two. M. Chaudron’s method of boring shafts was first
employed in 1848, and its most recent application is now
in progress at the colliery at Dover.
Tue annual general meeting of the Iron and Steel
Institute will be held on May 11 and 12. The annual
dinner will be held—under the presidency of Mr. R. A.
Hadfield—in the Grand Hall of the Hotel Cecil on May 12.
The autumn meeting will be held in Sheffield on Sep-
tember 25-29. Members of the institute are invited to
participate in an International Congress of Mining, Metal-
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
lurgy, Mechanics and Applied Geology, to be held at Li¢ge
on June 26 to July 1, in connection with the International
Exhibition. The general secretary of the organising
committee is M. Henri Dechamps, 16 Quai de 1’Uni-
versité, Liége.
Dr. F. T. Roszerts will deliver the Harveian Oration
of the Royal College of Physicians of London on June 21.
Dr. W. H. Hamer has been appointed to deliver the Milroy
lectures on State medicine and public hygiene for 1906;
the lectures for this year will be delivered by Dr. T. M.
Legge on ‘‘ Industrial Anthrax,’’ on March 7, 9, and 14;
Dr. W. H. Allchin will deliver the Lumleian lectures,
‘Some Aspects of Malnutrition,’’ on March 28, 30, and
April 4; and the second Oliver-Sharpey lecture, “ The
Influence of Atmospheric Pressure on Man,”’ will be de-
livered by Dr. L. E. Hill on April 6. Other lectures to
be delivered during the year are the Croonian, by Prof.
E. H. Starling, F.R.S.; the FitzPatrick, on ‘‘ The History
of Medicine,’? by Dr. Norman Moore; and the Bradshaw
lecture, by Dr. G. R. Murray.
On Sunday, January 22, M. Victor Serrin died, at
Neuilly-en-Tel, Department of Oise, aged seventy-five years.
M. Serrin was the inventor of the first automatic regulator
of the electric arc light used in the public service. The
action is so satisfactory that the apparatus is still in use,
after fifty years of scientific progress. M. Serrin produced
other ingenious inventions, but no other has had the
importance of his are lamp. In 1852, M. Serrin was in
charge of the rebuilding of the Pont St. Miche] in Paris,
and, as the work was urgent, men were kept busy night
and day. At night an electric light, with hand-feed adjust-
ment, was used, since no regulators existed. Provided
with blue spectacles, Serrin watched the lamp and adjusted
the carbons when necessary. He thus contracted ophthal-
mia, in consequence of which he nearly lost his sight.
The idea of the regulator then occurred to him, and he
made all the parts with his own hands. At the funeral
the principal scientific societies of Paris sent wreaths.
Tue Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin for January (xvi.,
No. 166) contains a number of papers of pathological and
medical interest, together with an interesting account by
Dr. Platt of Fabricius Guilhelmus Hildanus, the ‘“ father”
of German surgery, who lived in the latter part of the
sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries.
z
We have received the January number of Le Radium, a
monthly journal devoted to radio-activity and now com-
mencing its second year of publication. It contains articles
on Finsen’s method of phototherapy, on the sensitisation
of living tissues by the injection of certain fluorescent dyes
whereby they become more susceptible to, and more pene-
trable by, the radium rays, and on the phenomena of induc-
tion, together with a comprehensive review of recent work.
The publication is excellently printed and illustrated.
Messrs. WINSLOW AND BELCHER have carried out an
investigation on the variations in the number of bacteria
in samples of sewage kept in the laboratory (Journal of
Infectious Diseases, i., No. 1). They find that the total
number of bacteria rises rapidly during the first twenty-four
hours of storage, increasing more than ten-fold, and then
decreases steadily for at least six months. The rise and
fall in the number of bacteria appear to affect the various
organisms in an almost equal degree, there being no
tendency towards the development of a pure culture of
any dominant form. :
A THIRD example of variation—among gold and silver
pheasants—is discussed by Mr. F. Finn in the Avicultural
Magazine for January. These variations, in the colour
and markings of the plumage, would, in the author’s
opinion, be regarded as at least of subspecific value if
the birds were wild instead of domesticated.
In the Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of
Edinburgh for December last (vol. i. part i.) Dr. Gerald
Leighton discusses the variation in the matter of scaling
displayed by the common viper (Vipera berus), which he
shows to be very extensive. His main thesis is apparently
to demonstrate that squamation is an unsound feature
upon which to rely in the discrimination of reptilian
species, and consequently that the ‘small red viper” of
the British Isles is entitled to be regarded as a distinct
form. As regards mammals and birds, at. all events,
modern naturalists by no means accept it as ‘an axiom
in zoological classification that morphological characters
alone are to be taken into consideration.”
VaRIATION of another type forms the subject of a paper
by Mr. O. C. Bradley in the above-mentioned issue of
the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Physical Society. The
trapezium of the carpus of the horse is the structure dis-
cussed in this communication, and it is shown that this
bone is present, either in one or beth limbs, in about
§0 per cent. of the skeletons examined, while if each
carpus be taken separately (that is, without reference to
the condition in its fellow) the percentage is a little
more than 40. This, in conjunction with its minute
size, leads to the conclusion that in the evolution of
the monodactyle foot of the horse the bone in question
is following in the steps of the lateral metacarpal with
which it was originally connected.
Tue article on Dr. True’s recent memoir on “ The
Whalebone Whales of the Western North Adlantic *? which
appeared in Nature of November 14, 1904 (p. $4), has
led Mr. F. A, Lucas, of the Brooklyn Institute Museum,
to send us some results of measurements of whales made
by him at Balena, Newfoundland. Mr. Lucas was one of
the party sent to Newfoundland by the U.S. National
Museum in 1003 to secure the skeleton and mould of a
large sulphur-bottom whale in order that the skeleton
and a@ reproduction of the whale might be prepared for the
St. Louis Exposition. If whales grow slowly and require
many years to reach their full size, there should naturally
be examples of all sizes from small to large among those
measured. As a matter of fact, Mr. Lucas remarks that,
with the single exception of a female 6aft. long, all the
sulphur-bottom whales examined by him were fairly
large, and while some were immature and some old, the
difference between the largest and smailest was, for such
large animals, inconsiderable. With the exception noted the
females, ten in number, varied from 68ft. roin. to 75ft.,
the greatest jump being from Frft. Sin. to 74ft. gin.
Fourteen males varied from 67ft. in. to 7aft. Sin., the
greatest break being at the commencement of the series,
from 67ft. jin. to 6Sft. rin. No very small sulphur-
bottom whale was taken during Mr. Lucas’s stay, but
several young humpbacks were brought in from 24ft. to
26ft. in length. These were still nursing, and it seems
fair to assume that a sulphur-bottom whale of the same
age (a yearling?) would be from soft. to gsft. long. This
a indicate that young sulphur-bottoms keep away
coast of Newfoundland, while the fact that the
Ogtt. specimen was much younger than those 67ft. to Goft.
long would indicate that up to this point at least whales
No. 1840, VOL. 71]
from the
NATURE
[Fesruary 2, 1905
grow with great rapidity. As to the size of adult whales,
Mr. Lucas remarks that, neglecting the wild statements
of sailors and others, the length of the sulphur-bottom,
Balacnoptera musculus, is given as being from Ssft.
to sft. No whales so large as this were taken
during the season of 1903. The largest four females
ranged from 74ft. gin. to 75ft. long, the largest
three males 73ft. gin. to 74ft. Sin., the measure being —
taken from the notch of the flukes, along the body, to
opposite the tip of the nose. All these whales were not
merely adult, but, as shown by an examination of their
vertebra, were old, the largest male, taken for a skeleton,
having the epiphysial sutures obliterated save for a line
or two on the thoracic vertebra. Mr. Lucas consequently
considers that it seems fair to assume that the average
length of a fully grown sulphur-bottom is just under Soft.
Continutnc their notes on the Codiacee in the Journal
of Botany (January), Mr. and Mrs. Gepp describe with
figures a new species and a new variety of the incrusted
alga Penicillus, also a new form of Rhipocephalus Phoenix,
which were collected by Mr. M. A. Howe off the Bahamas.
Mr. G. C. Druce publishes in the same journal a long
list of flowering plants and ferns for which new localities
in Berkshire have been recorded since the “‘ Flora of
Berkshire "’ was issued, and Mr. C. E. Salmon discusses
Limonium vulgare and its varieties.
A ist of the species of Composite from the Island of
Formosa which are represented in the herbarium of
Tokio University forms the concluding part of vol. xviii.
of the Journal of the College of Science, Tokio. The
author, Mr. B. Hayate, prefaces his list with an analysis
of the genera, thirty-nine in number. Among these
Blumea furnishes seven species, including, of course,
Blumea balsamifera, the source of Ngai-camphor. Two
new species, a Gynura and a Eupatorium, are described
and figured.
Tre limit of an Antarctic phytogeographical zone is
discussed by Mr. C. Skottsberg, the botanist of the
Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1901-3, in an article in
the Geographical Journal (December, 1904). It has been
usual to include in the Antarctic flora the plants of Tierra
del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, but Mr. Skottsberg
prefers to confine the term Antarctic to a cold desert
zone which comprises Graham Land and the islands lying
north of it, also the South Shetlands and the South
Orkneys, and to distinguish another, the Austral zone, in
which the climate permits of the formation of forest or
grassland. The two zones differ also with regard to their
algal vegetation; the Austral flora contains alge with
floating fronds such as Macrocystis pyrifera and Durvillea
utilis, but these are wanting in the Antarctic zone, where
calcareous alga predominate.
AN interesting summary of the rainfall of the British
Isles for the year 1904 is given by Dr. H. R. Mill in
Symons’s Meteorological Magazine for January. Taking
the British Isles as a whole, the year may be considered
as a moderately dry one; the deficiency in the amount of
rainfall does not seem to have exceeded $ per cent.; the
extremes noted were 120.3 inches at Seathwaite, and 16.1
inches at Shoeburyness. The whole of the Atlantic border
from Cornwall to Shetland had more than the average
amount; the excess was most marked in the west of
Ireland, being as much as 18 per cent. in places, but the
east of Ireland was so dry that the whole island exceeded
the average by only 1 per cent. In England and Wales there
was a deficiency of about 12 per cent. The driest region
~
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE
327
occupied the midlands and extended to the Severn on the
south-west, the Humber on the north-east, and Yarmouth
on the east. The whole of this area had a deficiency ex-
‘ceeding 20 per cent. For the whole of Scotland there was
a deficiency of about 8 per cent.; this was due mainly to
the exceptional dryness of the east coast. Dr. Mill loses
no opportunity of enhancing the value of his published
rainfall tables, and we are glad to learn that all values
‘quoted in future will be referred to an average of thirty
years, 1870-99.
Parts xi. and xii. of vol. ciii, of the Bulletin de la
Société d’Encouragement contain a review, by M. L.
Gruner, of the metallurgical exhibits at the St. Louis
Exhibition, and a general account, by M. H. Le Chatelier,
of the uses of special steels in industry.
Tuer report for 1904 of the Board of Trade on_ its
proceedings under the Weights and Measures Act contains
particulars of a new denomination of Board of ‘Trade
standard of 50 pounds weight which has been made and
verified in consequence of representations by the Liver-
pool Chamber of Commerce and the Mersey Docks and
Harbour Board. The use in trade of this denomination
of weight authorised by an Order in Council
of October 9, 1903. During the past year a number of
““ Board of Trade”’ standards, the accuracy of which is
required by law to be re-determined once in each five
years, have been verified in relation to the imperial and
metric standards.
was
ALTHOUGH several investigations have been made during
the past six years on the deviation of the kathode rays
in an electric field, the true nature of the deviation has
not yet been satisfactorily determined. In vol. xxxv. of
the Sitsungsberichte of the Physico-medical Society of
Erlangen, Mr. I’. Schneider describes experiments from
which, by excluding disturbing factors, he is able to decide
that the deviation is of a purely electrostatic nature, and
that the dark kathode space has no influence upon it.
Variations in the deviation caused by differences of
potential and by other circumstances were carefully
measured. The same volume of the Sitsungsberichte also
contains a discussion, by Dr. A. Wehnelt, of the produc-
tion of negative ions by incandescent metallic oxides, and
an interesting account, by Dr. Ferdinand Henrich, of
Liebig’s life as a student at Erlangen and Paris.
In the December (1904) part of the Bulletin de la Société
d’Encouragement (vol. ciii.), M. H. Le Chatelier criti-
cises the method recently introduced by Mr. Gayley at
the Carnegie Steel Works of using in the blast furnaces
a current of air which has been freed from moisture by
cooling it below o° C. by means of an ammonia freezing
machine. It is contended that Mr. Gayley’s paper, recently
read before the Iron and Steel Institute, contains state-
ments which make it improbable that the alleged economy
of 20 per cent. in the fuel used in this process is due
solely to the mere desiccation of the air. The principal
advantage of drying the air for the blast probably lies
in its giving rise to a cast containing less sulphur than
ordinary pig-iron, owing to the diminished formation in
the absence of water of hydrogen sulphide capable of
attacking the spongy iron, Preliminary experiments have
shown the probability of this view.
We have received from the firm of Ferdinand Ernecke, of
Berlin, a catalogue of their lanterns for optical projection ;
this catalogue is noteworthy because of the description
which it contains of methods for demonstrating by pro-
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
jection many optical phenomena, such as_ interference,
diffraction, and the behaviour in polarised light of crystal-
line sections. Messrs. Ernecke, we notice, have acquired
the sole right of manufacturing the various forms of the
Wehnelt interrupter.
In the course of an investigation on the anomalous dis-
persion of sodium vapour, Prof. R. W. Wood (Proc. Amer.
Acad., 1904, Xl., 365) has observed that the vapour of
sodium possesses a most remarkable viscosity which makes
it possible to obtain at one part of an exhausted glass
tube a mass of the heated great density
separated by a high vacuum from the glass plates which
close the ends of the tube. The tendency of the metal to
distil into the colder parts of the tube is extraordinarily
small; even after an hour hardly a trace of sodium vapour
can be detected beyond the heated portion, The vapour
appears to possess a cohesion similar to that of a liquid,
vapour of
and even in a vacuum tube it seems to have a free surface.
Potassium, on the other hand, distils instantaneously into
the colder parts of the tube. The dispersion of sodium
vapour in the vicinity of the D,-line of helium is almost
incredibly great; if a prism could be constructed of sodium
vapour giving the same deviation as a glass prism of 60°,
two lines in the spectrum, separagd by a distance equal
to one twenty-third of that between the D-lines, would
appear separated by a distance greater than that between
the red and bluish-green of the spectrum formed by the
glass prism. But even this dispersion is small compared
with that which obtains within, say, one Angstrom unit
of one of the D-lines of sodium. The variation of the
index of refraction with wave-length is shown to conform
throughout the range A 2260-7500, except very close to
the D-lines, with the simplest form of the dispersion
formula developed from electromagnetic considerations
for a medium with a single absorption band.
MM. H. Motssan AND CHAVANNE have taken advantage
of the production of metallic calcium on a commercial scale
to re-determine some of its physical properties. The speci-
mens which they had under examination contained from
99.3 to 99.6 per cent. of the metal, and were only acted
upon slowly by water. Calcium can be easily turned into
cylinders possessing a brilliant lustre, tarnishing, however,
as might be expected, in sufficiently
drawn into
moist air. It is
tenacious to be wire as fine as o.5mm.
diameter, and these wires were utilised for the determina-
tion of the specific electrical conductivity, this proving to
The melting point
‘The metal
be about 16 per cent. of that of silver.
was found to be 810° C. and the density 1.548.
was also utilised to prepare calcium amalgam in quantity ;
this is stable in dry air at the ordinary temperature, and
does not absorb either nitrogen or oxygen. ‘The crystalline
amalgam corresponds very nearly to the compound Hg,Ca.
It is interesting to note that, whilst in a recent list of
Kahlbaum metallic calcium is quoted at 6s. 1d. for 15
grains, or about ol. per oz., since its manufacture on an
industrial scale it can be obtained at ts. 6d. per oz.
Tur January part of L'Enseignement mathématique con-
tains a number of papers which should prove of interest to
English mathematicians. Dr. J. S. Mackay, of Edin-
burgh, contributes an interesting account of the life and
works of the late Prof. Tait. Prof. Gino Loria gives an
account of the progress made and the methods adopted in
Italy in the reform of teaching of elementary mathematics,
and in particular geometry. Mathematical teaching for
engineers forms the subject of a paper by Prof. Jules
328
Andrade, based on his own experiences in the University
of Besancon, and finally, M. Louis Couturat, of Paris,
contributes a paper on ‘‘ The Definitions of Mathematics.”
A series of articles by Mr. E. Edser on the ‘ Electro-
magnetic Theory ’’ is appearing month by month in
Technics, and should prove useful to students of physics.
The article contributed to the January issue deals with the
electric circuit. A very simple method is given of deter-
mining the force on a conductor carrying an electric cur-
rent perpendicular to a magnetic field, and this result is
used to obtain an expression for the electromotive force
produced when a conductor cuts lines of force. The re-
sults, of course, are well known, and are used by every
electrical engineer, but the reasoning by which they are
obtained is not so widely understood. Most of the results
are determined directly from the properties of lines of
force, and the usefulness of the article is greatly increased
by careful scale drawings.
Messrs. R. anp J. Beck, Lrp., supply, for one guinea,
a glass trough, 4xX3%Xo0.8 inches, which can be raised or
depressed on a vertical metal upright a distance of from
13 inches to ro inches from the table. This trough forms
a simple form of light filter when filled with liquid, and
will serve not only as a‘useful adjunct to a microscope, but
for many other purposes where it is of advantage to use a
screen for monochromatic light.
Messrs. Taytor, TayLor anp Hopson, Lrtp., have
recently issued two series of rapid Cooke lenses that
should prove of great service, not only in high-speed photo-
graphy, but for the finest portraiture and for difficult
subjects under fair conditions of lighting. They are
known as the Series iv. and ii., and have full apertures
of f/5.6 and f/4.5 respectively. The makers have fully
developed in these new lenses the advantages of construc-
tion of their well-known Series iii. and v. Cooke lenses.
The leaflet, which contains details and prices of these
lenses, includes some striking illustrations of the work
accomplished by them.
We have received from Messrs. Burroughs Wellcome
and Co. their photographic exposure record and diary,
which is a most handy pocket book and contains many
new features. The monthly light tables are now placed at
the end of the book, and the order of the months has been
reversed so that the current month faces the exposure
calculator, each month being torn off as it passes. This
renders the calculation of an exposure a very simple pro-
cess indeed. There is also ample room for recording
details of plates exposed, facts relating to positive ex-
posures, and ordinary notes and memoranda, for each of
which three separate sets of pages are available. In
addition to these and other items of useful information
for photographers, there is a serviceable article on exposure,
giving complete instructions for using the calculator pro-
vided, a*concise explanation of the factors governing correct
exposure, and an up to date list of the speeds of all plates
and films, including, besides British, a number of American
and Continental brands. Bound in a neat cover,
pocket attached, this excellent, cheap, and
compact little pocket encyclopaedia of photography should
be in great demand by all workers, whether amateur or
professional.
Mr. W. B. Cutve has published new and enlarged
editions of parts i. and ii. of Dr. G. H. Bailey’s ‘‘ Tutorial
Chemistry.’’ Both have been edited by Dr.
William Briggs.
NO. 1840, VoL. 71]
with
and pencil
volumes
NATURE
(FEBRUARY 2, 1905
Tue Engineering Standards Committee has now issued
its report on pipe flanges. It is entitled ‘‘ British
Standard Tables of Pipe Flanges,’’ and is published by
Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son at 2s. 6d. net.
Tue Department of Revenue and Agriculture of the
Government of India has published the agricultural
statistics of India for the years 1898-9 to 1902-3, in two
volumes. The first part is concerned with British India
and the second with the native States. The voluminous
particulars have been compiled under the supervision of
the director-general of statistics.
SEVERAL catalogues of physical, chemical, and other
scientific apparatus have been received from Messrs. Brady
and Martin, Ltd., of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Among in-
teresting instruments described in a supplement that brings
a larger catalogue up to date may be mentioned Sodeau’s
new form of gas analysis apparatus, and Seger’s cones for
the determination of the temperature of furnaces, kilns,
&c. A special supplementary list of new apparatus for
experiments in physics includes particulars of simple ap-
pliances described in recent text-books of practical physics
which are largely used in the laboratories of schools and
colleges.
Tue story of the Zeiss works at Jena is of deep interest,
both in its scientific and sociological aspects. Prof. F.
Auerbach described the Jena enterprise in a volume pub-
lished in 1903. This work has now been translated into
English by Mr. S. F. Paul and Mr. F. J. Cheshire, and
published by Messrs. Marshall, Brookes and Chalkley, Ltd.,
under the title ‘‘ The Zeiss Works and the Carl-Zeiss
Stiftung in Jena.’’ A short account of the creation and
progress of these great cooperative works was given in
the obituary notice of Prof. Ernst Abbe which appeared
in last week’s NatuRE (p. 301). Many other interesting
particulars will be found in the English edition of Prof.
Auerbach’s book, which is a popular description of the
development and importance of a concern that offers
valuable lessons to students of physics, technology, and
social science.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN FEBRUARY :—
Feb. 5. 9h. 7m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
8. 2h. Conjunction of the Moon and Venus. Venus
3° 20’ N.
»» 5h. 56m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
9g. 18h. Conjunction of the Moon and Jupiter. Jupiter
2° 49’.
13. 5h. 12m. to 6h. 32m. Moon occults 6? Tauri
(mag. 3°6).
>» 5h. 14m. to 6h. 29m. Moon occults 6! Tauri
(mag. 3°9).
14. 12h. Venus at greatest elongation, 46° 41’ E
», Venus. Illuminated portion of disc=0°516, of Mars
=0'903.
18. 5h. 53m. to 8h. gm. ‘Transit of Jupiter’s Satellite
III. (Ganymede).
19. Partial eclipse of the Moon, partly visible at
Greenwich.
» 4h. 41m. First contact with penumbra.
>» 5h. 34m: shadow.
»” ”?
>» 7h. om, Middle of the eclipse.
>» 8h. 7m. Last contact with shadow.
» Qh tom: ee <3 penumbra.
Moon rises at Greenwich at 5h. 16m.
Magnitude of the eclipse=o"410.
21. 10h. 5m. to 10h. 4om. Moon occults » Virginis
(mag. 4°0). ;
24. Vesta 3° N. of 5 Virginis.
28. 7h. 4om. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE
329
Juriter’s SixtH Satecrire.—A further telegram respect- |
ing the recently discovered sixth satellite of Jupiter has
been received from the Kiel Centralstelle. It contains a
statement from Prof. Perrine that the object discovered by
him is not identical with Prof. Wolf’s minor planet
1905 P.V. The position of the satellite on January 17 at
8h. 44.3m. (Lick MA) eewasee RAC= th. (2mmss.,
Agile
ment to 3990 of the Astronomische Nachrichten,
states that Prof. Perrine observed the satellite on January
17-702 (G.M.T.), and found that its position with reference
to Jupiter was 266° and its distance 36’.
EPHEMERIS FOR CoMET 1904 e.—The following is the
latter part of a daily ephemeris for comet 1904 e (Borrelly)
published by Herr M. Ebell in No. 3989 of the Astro-
nomische Nachrichten.
1905 a (true) 6 (true) log 7 log A Bright-
by Bs Be ness
Feb. 1 29 8)... USeigeenO: 2002... ONSol .. O158
2 2o0T 37-5. Smo
Bee 23), 6)... + tomar
Atere2 05 7... -lyeey
Smee) 7 (O.... eye geeeOr20 33-3. OclO3G. «. .OF54.
Brightness at time of discovery=1.0 (=mag. 10.0).
From the above it will be seen that the comet is now
travelling in a north-easterly direction through the con-
stellation Aries, and is observable—although very faint—
between sunset and midnight.
Sorar EctirsE Proprems.—In an address read at the
International Congress of Arts and Sciences, held at St.
Louis in September, Prof. Perrine enumerated and dis-
cussed a number of the outstanding problems which still
confront solar eclipse observers.
The first problem mentioned was that relating to the
existence of an intra-mercurial planet, and Prof. Perrine
states that this year’s eclipse ought to settle the problem
so far as the existence of a body brighter than the tenth
magnitude is concerned. Such a body would not be above
12 or 15 miles in diameter, and it would take about a
million such to account for the anomalies in the motion
of Mercury.
The movements and velocities of coronal matter are most
important problems which should be settled, and, as
stations situated so far apart as Labrador and Egypt may
be utilised during the coming eclipse, this should offer
an exceptional opportunity of solving the problem, because
of the length of time between the passing of the shadow
at these places. Prof. Perrine suggests the employment
of cameras having focal lengths of 4o or 50 feet and
pointed directly at the sun, or, where the atmospheric con-
ditions are favourable, longer cameras, mounted horizon-
tally, might be used. The rotational velocity of the corona
as regards that of the sun’s surface is another problem
which he discusses. Finally, he points out the urgent need
for a number of well-equipped and well-organised expe-
ditions, and suggests that the interchange of plans and
ideas before the eclipse takes place might lead to results
of greater value being obtained.
THE CONDITIONS IN THE SoLaR ATMOSPHERE DURING
1900-1.—An interesting discussion of the conditions
obtaining in the solar atmosphere during the minimum
epoch of 1900-1, as indicated by the author’s eclipse
photographs taken in Spain and Sumatra, is given in the
January number of the Bulletin de la Société de France by
M. N. Donitch, of St. Petersburg. He discusses in turn
the spectra of the chromosphere, the prominences and the
corona, the form of the corona, and the solar repulsion
theory of Prof. Bredichin as applied to the latter.
In discussing the spectrum of the chromosphere, he refers
to Sir Norman Lockyer’s eclipse results, and, in directing
special attention to the lines at AA 5317-7 and 4233.8
(Donitch), he states that his results as to the non-agree-
ment of these with the monochromatic coronal radiations
incontestably confirm the conclusions arrived at from the
English observations.
The spectra obtained by M. Donitch show that the
prominences may be divided into two types, one composed
entirely of calcium vapours, the second containing in
addition hydrogen and helium.
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
TRIANGULATION OF THE PLEIADES STars.—An important
addition to the data concerning the positions, the inter-
mutual distances, and the movements of the Pleiades stars
is contained in parts vi. and vii., vol. i., of the Transac-
tions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale University.
During 1884-6 the director, Dr. Elkin, made a series
of heliometer observations for the triangulation of the
Pleiades, and published the results in part i. of the same
volume of the Transactions. Since then, however, a new
source of systematic error affecting such results has been
discovered, and Dr. Elkin has, therefore, re-reduced his
observations. The final values are given in part vi., and
are therein compared with the similar results obtained at
K6nigsberg in 1840 and those obtained during the more
recent triangulation carried out at Yale. The results of
these comparisons indicate a motion, in regard to the rest
of the group, of 9g out of the 58 stars common to the
three researches; the apparent displacements determined
from the comparison of the K6énigsberg and Yale results
are shown on a chart accompanying the present paper.
Part vii. of the publication contains an account of the
second triangulation carried out at Yale by Mr. Mason F.
Smith during the winters of 1900-1 and trgo1-2, and
shows the complete reduction of the observations, together
with a final table in which the places of 58 Pleiades stars,
for 1885.0, are given with the precession and secular
variation values for each.
A Bricut Mereor.—Mr. J. Ryan, writing from the
Manor House, Kensal Green, N.W., states that he
observed a very brilliant meteor at about 11.58 on the
night of January 27. The meteor appeared about three
degrees below Orionis as bright as a star of the first
magnitude; it travelled slowly in a path nearly parallel to
a line joining « and B Orionis, increasing in size until it
burst into a green ball when below f Orionis, and faded.
The complete path was traversed in about 8 seconds.
THE GENERAL MOTION OF CLOUDS.
“THE issue of the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteor-
ological Society for October, 1904, contains a trans-
lation of the report on the international observations of
clouds presented by Prof. H. H. Hildebrandsson to the
Permanent International Committee during its session
at Southport in 1903. It is not too much to say that
this report is one of the most important contributions to
our knowledge of the physics of the atmosphere which
the last twenty-five years have brought forth, and the
Royal Meteorological Society has rendered a substantial
service by making the report accessible to English readers.
Our knowledge, from direct observations, of the average
motion of the air over the greater part of the earth’s
surface has been in a sense complete for a considerable
number of years, but of the currents in the upper air we
have until recently had little or no direct information,
and all schemes of a general circulation of the atmosphere
as a whole have had to substitute hypothesis for fact in
dealing with this part of the subject. It therefore became
of the highest importance to see whether any direct
evidence could be obtained on this point. The most obvious
method of attacking the problem consisted in observing
the direction and speed of drift of dust or water
particles suspended in the atmosphere. Dust particles are
seldom sufficiently numerous in the upper air to be of use
in this connection, but clouds occur in all parts of the
world, and their observation is comparatively easy. Even
this method, however, has its limitations. Observations
are clearly impossible on cloudless days, and. it also fre-
quently happens that the upper clouds are obscured by
lower cloud forms.
To obtain any general results observations from every
part of the earth’s surface were essential, and to secure
these the ponderous machinery of international cooperation
had to be called into play. In the year 1878 a request
was addressed to the Permanent International Committee
to organise a comprehensive system of cloud observations.
After some preliminary consultations a scheme, in which
cloud forms were divided into two classes, viz. upper and
lower clouds, was adopted, and observations on this plan
NATERE
[ FEBRUARY 2, 1905
were made for several years during the ’eighties. Com-
parison of the results, however, showed that the adopted
classification was inadequate, and it became necessary to
agree on a more complete subdivision of cloud forms.
This task proved to be by no means an easy one, but
eventually our present international classification of clouds
into ten main types was adopted, and some years later,
early in 1896, the international cloud atlas, which contains
twenty-eight coloured plates illustrative of cloud forms,
together with explanatory text in three languages, was
published.
At the request of the committee, cloud observations were
carried out at a large number of stations during the
period from May 1, 1896, to the end of 1897. At the
more important stations the height and the direction of
motion of clouds were determined by means of the photo-
grammeter or with theodolites; at the remainder, direction
only was observed with the help of nephoscopes.
The materials thus accumulated, as well as a large
number of trustworthy observations of earlier date, are
discussed by Prof. Hildebrandsson in the present report.
The method adopted has been to work out, for each region
of the earth’s surface, the direction of the average monthly
drift of the atmosphere at various heights with a
““resultantometer ’’ devised by Mr. Sandstrém. The
results are set out in tables and diagrams, and in what
follows attention will be directed to some of the most
important points.
I.—Tropical Zone.
Observations at stations near the equator agree in show-
ing a drift of the upper atmosphere from some easterly
point at all seasons of the year. At Paramaribo (Dutch
Guiana, lat. 54° N.), out of 270 observations of upper
clouds, only 6 were from south-east and five from north-
east. This well marked easterly current in the upper-
most regions of the air near the equator was revealed in
a most singular manner during the eruption of
Krakatoa in 1883. The optical effects produced by the
fine dust, which was carried up to great heights, travelled
round the earth from east to west in about twelve or
thirteen days, indicating an upper east wind moving with
the prodigious velocity of 83 miles per hour.
II.—Trade-wind Zone.
The generally accepted theory of the origin of the trade
winds formulated by Halley and completed by Hadley
teaches us to expect upper anti-trade winds from south-
west or north-west in the northern and southern hemi-
spheres respectively, and this expectation was found to be
fully confirmed. At Mauritius, which lies in the centre
of the region over which the south-east trade wind pre-
vails, the cloud observations show a steady upper wind
from the north-west throughout the year. We may there-
fore assume the existence of an upper wind from the
south-west at corresponding latitudes in the northern hemi-
sphere.
As more temperate regions are approached this south-
westerly wind becomes deviated to the right, and at
Teneriffe, and still more decidedly at San Fernando and
Lisbon, the average drift at the cirrus level is from almost
due west. No support is afforded to the assumption made
by James Thomson and by Ferrel in their schemes of the
general circulation of the atmosphere, that the anti-trade
wind continues its course as an upper south-westerly wind
until the Arctic regions are reached.
Special interest attaches to the observations from the
region between the upper equatorial east wind and south-
westerly or mnorth-westerly anti-trade winds. On _ the
northern side of the equator, at surface level, a broad
band on the earth’s surface is alternately covered in
winter by the north-east trade wind and in summer by
the tropical belt of calms. At higher levels a similar
alternation is shown. In winter, when the trade wind
prevails at the surface, the anti-trade from south-west
blows above, but in summer the tropical upper east wind
is found above the calm region at the surface. The
observations from square No. 39 of the Atlantic Ocean,
which is situated in 10°-20° lat. N., 20°-30° long. W.,
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
form the most complete example of this alternation in
Prof. Hildebrandsson’s report; some further very striking
instances are to be found in the cloud results for the
West Indies recently published by the U.S. Weather
Bureau (Monthly Weather Review, vol. xxxii., No. 4,
p- 166).
II1.—India.
The wind circulation over India is exceedingly complex
at the surface, but at higher altitudes a much simpler
state of affairs is found to prevail. Prof. Hildebrandsson
divides his observations into two groups, those from the
north (Lahore to Calcutta) and those from the more
central districts between Bombay and Cuttack. He finds
that in the former the upper currents blow steadily from
the west from December to April, but during the remainder
of the year they tend to become easterly. Over Central
India the upper westerly wind prevails throughout the
year, except in August and September. Since the appear-
ance of the report, Sir John Eliot has dealt with the de-
tailed cloud observations taken at six Indian stations
during the years 1896-1900 (Indian Meteorological
Memoirs, vol. xv., part i.). These show a much steadier
upper westerly current in the north. At Simla and Jaipur
the average upper wind is westerly throughout the year ;
at Lahore and Allahabad an easterly component appears
in the averages for August and September only. Further
to the south we find an alternation similar to that de-
scribed above. At Madras the equatorial upper current
from the east prevails during the summer; in winter the
upper currents vary between south and south-west.
1V.—Temperate Zone.
Throughout the temperate zone the direction of the
average upper currents is from some westerly point all
the year round in both hemispheres, though few observ-
ations are available from the south of the equator. In
Europe and in North America there is thus substantial
agreement between the general drift of the atmosphere
at all levels, but when we turn to eastern Asia this is not
the case. The excellent observations taken at the Observ-
atory of Zikawei (Shanghai) show that at the surface and
at the level of the lower clouds the prevailing direction
is from the north during the winter and from the east,
i.e. towards the low pressure system over the continent
of Asia, during the summer; but already at the level of
the intermediate clouds, and still more at higher levels, a
steady drift from the west is found at all seasons. Similar
results are shown by the observations from Japan.
Though there is substantial agreement in the mean
direction of air motion over Europe at all levels, a general
tendency for a component from the north to make its
influence increasingly felt at higher altitudes is clearly
shown. Thus at Upsala, during the winter months, the
surface wind is from the south-west; the lower clouds
travel from west-south-west and the intermediate ones
from west-north-west, while at the cirrus level the direc-
tion of motion is from north-west. Further north, at
Nora, in Swedish Lapland, cirrus moves from north-west
throughout the year. Some particularly interesting results
have been obtained from those of M. Teisserenc de Bort’s
balloon ascents in which the level of the highest cloud
forms was exceeded. In all these cases the balloons were
carried towards the south-east, showing that they met
with a north-westerly wind in the uppermost layers of
the atmosphere.
North-westerly winds at the cirrus level are also very
prominent at Perpignan, Pola (Austria), Tiflis, and Madrid,
stations which lie on the northern side of the tropical belt
of high pressure, over which, as we have seen above, the
direction of the anti-trade winds has become deviated
from south-west to west.
Prof. Hildebrandsson sums up the results he has arrived
at under the following headings :—
(1) Above the thermal equator and the equatorial calms
there exists throughout the year a current from the east
which appears to have a very high velocity at great
altitudes.
(2) Above the trade winds, anti-trade winds from south-
ae
FEBRUARY 2, 1905 |
NATURE
331
west in the northern hemisphere and from north-west in
the southern hemisphere prevail.
(3) These anti-trade winds do not extend beyond the
polar limits of the trade winds; they are deviated to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern, and become currents from the west above the
tropical high pressure areas, where they descend to feed
the trade winds.
(4) The air of the temperate zones is involved in vast
“‘ polar whirlpools,’’ which rotate from west to east.
This rotatory movement appears to be similar to that of
ordinary cyclones; the air in the lower layers draws nearer
to the centre of the whirl, while that in the upper layers
recedes from it, more and more as the height above the
earth’s surface increases up to the highest regions from
which we have any observations.
(5) The layers of upper air of the temperate zones over-
flow the tropical high pressure areas, and there descend.
(6) The irregularities found at the surface of the earth,
more particularly in the monsoon areas of India, disappear,
as a general rule, at the level of the lower or intermediate
clouds.
7) The theory of a vertical circulation of the atmo-
sphere between the tropics and the poles, which has
hitherto been accepted (Ferrel, James Thomson), must be
abandoned.
The report as published in the society’s journal is very
fully illustrated by reproductions of the diagrams of the
original edition. M. Teisserenc de Bort’s charts of the
average distribution of pressure at the 4oo00-metre level for
January and July are also given, and they illustrate in
a very striking manner the scheme of general circulation
of the upper air to which the results of Prof. Hilde-
brandsson’s report point.
AMERICAN HYDROIDS.
“THE first part of this large work dealt with the plumu-
larian hydroids. After an interval of four years, the
second part, a folio of some 150 pages and 57 plates, has
been issued. It appeals exclusively and intentionally to
the student of systematic zoology; but owing to the wide
distribution of the family—the ‘‘ sea-firs’’ of our coasts—
this account, though dealing primarily with American
Species, will assist students of sertularian taxonomy in
almost any part of the world.
The plan of this book is that of the first part. There
is first an anatomical account of the stem and its branches,
then a résumé of the distribution, horizontal and vertical,
in different seas, and finally a hundred pages of specio-
graphy. The most assiduous care has been employed in
‘drawing up these descriptions and in illustrating them
‘by well selected figures; and most critical and generous
consideration is given to previous researches on this group
of animals.
For some not very obvious reason, Prof. Nutting has
‘decided to postpone the more interesting bearings of his
subject to the final volume, and confines himself in the
work before us rigidly to a consideration of the taxonomic
and diagnostic features of the Sertularidz. We look in
vain for any explanation of the mode of distribution,
though the occurrence of the majority in Alaskan and
Arctic waters suggests a polar origin. There is no
attempt to explain the absence of free medusz, nor are
we given any information as to the habits of these
hydroids, their modes of growth and of repairing injury,
‘the influence of light upon their branching and reproductive
powers. There is not a single experiment recorded in the
work, though it is to be expected from the plasticity of
such ccelenterates that continuous and _ discontinuous
variation may be induced by changes in environment.
On the other hand, differentiating anatomical characters,
such as the forms of branching, the shape of the gonidial
‘sacs, and the opercula, are described and combined into a
‘system with great care, and it is to be hoped that Prof.
Nutting has laid the foundation of a permanent and
authoritative classification.
1 ‘‘American Hydroids. Part ii. Sertularide.” By C. C. Nutting,
Smithsonian Institution. U.S. National Museum. Special Bulletin. (Wash-
dngton, 1904.)
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
| cavalry,
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Oxrorp.—The Vice-Chancellor has been informed that
at a meeting of medical graduates recently held in Lon-
don to consider the present provision in the university for
the department of pathology, it was resolved (1) that
steps should be taken to bring before the university the
necessity of permanent and adequate support being received
for the pathological department ; (2) that a fund be started
for the purpose of assisting in this object, and the primary
object of this be the establishment and endowment of a
professorship in pathology.
It was announced last term that the Rhodes trustees
have made a grant for five years to Dr. Ritchie, the present
reader in pathology, and New College has now elected
him to an ordinary fellowship for seven years, provided
that he continues his readership and does research work.
Mr. Edward Whitley, Trinity College, has very generously
given the university a thousand pounds towards the per-
manent endowment of a pathology chair.
CamBripGE.—The Vice-Chancellor announces two impor-
tant bequests which have been left to the university. The
first consists of 5o0ool., to be expended in improving the
instrumental equipment of the Newall Observatory, and
of a very valuable collection of illuminated manuscripts
and early printed books and objects of medizeval and early
art, to be placed in the Fitzwilliam Museum, left by Mr.
Frank McClean, F.R.S., of Trinity College. The second
bequest is left by the late editor of the Athenaeum, Mr.
Norman Maccoll, of Christ’s and Downing Colleges, and
consists of 5001. to form some endowment for a lectureship
in Spanish or Portuguese, together with a valuable library
of books.
The number of commissions allotted to the university,
the first half-yearly nomination to which will take place
after the examination in September next, is one in the
Royal Artillery, one in the Indian Army, and five in the
Foot Guards, infantry, or the Army Service
Corps.
The regulations for administering the Gordon Wigan
fund are announced. The revenue will be divided between
the special board of physics and chemistry and the special
board of biology and geology, to be used in promoting and
encouraging scientific education and research. The bequest
amounts to some goool.
Lonpon.—Mr. William Loring, late director of educa-
tion under the County Council of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, has been appointed warden of the Goldsmiths’
College, New Cross, and Mr. Edgar Schuster Francis
Galton research fellow in national eugenics.
The Mercers’ Company has voted a sum of toool. to
the university for the promotion of the study of physi-
ology at University College.
Mr. W. Williams has been awarded the degree of
doctor of science through a thesis on ** The Temperature
Variations of the Electrical Resistances of Pure Metals,’’
and other contributions.
Mr. H. M. Hobart has been appointed lecturer in
electrical engineering design at the Northampton Institute
in succession to Mr. E. K. Scott, who has been appointed
lecturer in electrical engineering in the University of
Sydney. Mr. M. H. Smith has been appointed chief
assistant in the mechanical engineering department in
succession to Mr. W. E. Curnock, who has been appointed
head of the mechanical engineering department of the
Technical College, Huddersfield.
MancuesterR.—The new public health laboratories, which
have been erected by the Victoria University and have cost
13,000l., were opened on January 27 by Mr. W. J.
Crossley. Lord Spencer, Chancellor of the University,
presided at the ceremony, and the large gathering included
the Lord Mayor of Manchester and the Mayor of Salford.
Honorary degrees were afterwards conferred upon Prof.
Calmelle, Lille University; Prof. Perroncito, Turin Uni-
versity; Prof. Salomonsen, Copenhagen University; and
Captain R. F. Scott, R.N.
Ir has been resolved to institute, in the United College,
University of St. Andrews, a lectureship in organic
6o=
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 2, 1905
chemistry, and to appoint Dr. James C. Irvine as the
lecturer.
Ir is reported in Science that, by the will of the late
Mr. E. W. Codman, of Boston and Nahant, Mass., an
estate which may reach 200,000l. will be equally divided
between Harvard University and the Massachusetts General
Hospital.
Tue United States ambassador, Mr. Choate, has accepted
the invitation of the governing body of the Battersea
Polytechnic to distribute the awards and deliver an address
on the occasion of the next annual distribution of prizes on
Wednesday evening, February 22.
Ir is reported in Science that Harvard University and
the University of Berlin have practically arranged a method
by which a temporary exchange of professors will occur.
It is further stated that a similar arrangement has been
made between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and the Berlin Institute of Technology.
Mr. J. D. RockereLLer has signified his willingness to
contribute to the University of Chicago for the year be-
ginning July 1, 1905, the sum of 49,o00l. for current
expenses, this being the same sum that he has contributed
during the present year. Mr. Rockefeller has also con-
tributed this year 12,0001. for the enlargement of the
heating plant of the university.
A course of lectures and discussions has been arranged
by the Childhood Society and the British Child-Study
Association, to be delivered in the Parkes Museum, Mar-
garet-street, W., and will commence on February 9. Among
the subjects are :—Some physiological problems in educa-
tion; the proposed anthropometric survey; mental faculty
of the child: its growth and culture; fatigue in children;
the health of children qua food and management; and
imitation.
Ar the annual conference of representative Mahomedans
from all parts of India, held at Lucknow a month ago, it
was agreed to form science faculties at Aligarh College.
The list of subscriptions towards this object was headed by
the Raja of Mahmudabad with a munificent donation of
Rs.35,000. The aggregate subscriptions to the fund for
promoting the advancement of Aligarh College to the
status of a university, which will be the future university
of Mahomedans in India, now amounts to Rs.1,04,000
(7oo0l.).
In connection with the fund instituted to supplement the
‘resources of the Melbourne University, the Hon. F. S.
Grimwade has given 1oool. for the purpose of founding
an annual prize at the university, to be awarded in respect
of research work in some branch of industrial chemistry.
This donation, says the Pharmaceutical Journal, raises the
fund to 11,000l., and enables the university to claim a
subscription of roool. promised by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.
The whole of the money subscribed, which, with a Govern-
ment grant of 12,000l., now totals 24,000l., is to be devoted
to the purpose of building laboratories. The Government
has promised a supplementary grant of 5oool. next year.
Tue need for a university in the south-west of England
continues to be urged locally from time to time. At the
recent ordinary general meeting of the governors of
University College, Bristol, Mr. Henry Hobhouse said that
it was unfortunate that the south-west of England was
almost the only part of England and Wales that had no
local university, and spoke of Bristol as the only possible
centre for such an institution. Principal Lloyd Morgan,
F.R.S., who returned recently from a visit to the United
States, gave it as his opinion, after inspecting the equip- !
ment and work of the American university colleges, that
when the amount of work done by the staff of Bristol
University College is compared with the amount being
done in any one of the American institutions he had visited,
and the cost of the one is compared with the cost of the
other, Bristol University College is ahead of them all. |
Several speakers urged the pressing need for more funds.
In this connection we are glad to notice that the college
ceived last year nearly 5oool. in donations outside the |
dinary income.
No. 1840, VOL. 71] |
Tue Association of Technical Institutions held its annual
general meeting on January 27 at the Manchester School
of Technology. Sir Philip Magnus was elected president
of the association for 1905, and in the course of his address
directed attention to the fact that in technical institutions the
students who attend even the most elementary technological
classes are too often insufficiently prepared to profit by
the teaching. They are deficient in power of expression;
they lack practical knowledge of arithmetic and the rudi-
ments of science and the necessary skill in drawing. Ina
word, the training in the elementary schools of the country
has not produced satisfactory results. The elementary
teaching must .be made more practical. The workroom
will supersede the class room in elementary schools, con-
tinued Sir Philip Magnus, and manual training will become
the central feature of the training around which other
studies will be grouped. Numerous papers were read.
Principal Reynolds, of Manchester, Mr. Wilkinson, of
Bolton, and Principal Crowther, of Halifax, read papers
on the co-ordination of the work of evening continuation
schools and municipal technical institutions. The co-
operation of employers in the technical training of their
apprentices was the subject of a discussion opened by
Principal Belcher, of Coventry, and Principal Gannon, of
Norwich. The registration of teachers in technical insti-
tutions was dealt with by Principal Wells, of Battersea.
THE report of the council of the Association of Technical
Institutions was presented at the annual general meeting
on January 27. The report states that,-from the point of
view of those specially concerned with technical education,
the year 1904 has been marked chiefly by the development
and coordination of local educational organisation and by
the perfecting of matters of internal administration. It
is too soon, the report states, to say what the effects of
the abolition of the Technical Instruction and Local
Taxation (Customs and Excise) Acts and the placing of
all branches of education under one local authority may
have upon the further extension of technical education.
While recognising the possible danger to these interests of
the large and growing demand for expenditure upon other
branches of education, the association views with satis-
faction the increasing recognition of the belief that
technical education can only produce the best results when
it builds upon the sure foundation of a sound secondary
education. Among matters to which the association has
given attention may be mentioned that of the possibility
of obtaining a number of research scholarships, tenable
by advanced students in technical institutions; and that of
the desirability of instituting a scheme for the issue by
technical institutions of diplomas upon some common
basis of award. This last question is of such importance
that it has been referred to a subcommittee for further
inquiry and report.
Tue annual meeting of the Mathematical Association
was held at King’s College on January 28. Prof. G. B.
Mathews, F.R.S., was elected president for the ensuing
year. Papers were read on models and their uses by
Mr. E. M. Langley, and on the new geometry by Mr.
W. H. Wagstaff, who does not think it is desirable to
make all boys learn deductive geometry, but that some
should learn logic instead, and that some training in
practical geometry should be given to all. A discussion on
the question: ‘‘ Should Greek be Compulsory for Mathe-
maticians at Cambridge?’’ was opened by Mr. A. W.
Siddons, who urged that mathematicians should not have
special arrangements made for them; that, if Greek was
compulsory for others, it should be for mathematicians also.
Prof. A. R. Forsyth, F.R.S., said it is to his mind
extraordinary that teachers of classics argue that, if Greek
be made optional, therefore the subject will become extinct.
The subject has a strong hold on the public schools and
the universities; every outside inducement to its con-
tinuation is still maintained, but in a large number of
schools in the country Greek is now extinct. If the ancient
universities maintain this barrier of Greek as a preliminary
qualification for a degree, it means one of two things—
either that all the boys in those schools where Greek is
now extinct are cut off from the universities, and so those
institutions cease to be contributing to the educational
—
IFEBRUARY 2, 1905]
NATURE
333
wealth of the country to the same extent as they used to
do, or else that many boys often proceed to get up the subject
from the point of view of satisfying a miserable minimum.
What was asked for is a relaxation in favour of education
in general and not in favour of any special class of people.
The elimination of literary training in the country is not
being sought.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, November 24, 1904.—‘* Preliminary Com-
munication on Galvanic Cells produced by the Action of
Light.”” By Dr. M. Wilderman. (From the Davy-
Faraday Laboratory of the Royal Institution.)
The author finds that there is, under the action of light,
a region of galvanic cells as wide and as varied as in
the case of ordinary galvanic cells. He finds constant and
inconstant cells, reversible and irreversible cells. The
chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium in the galvanic
combinations are now perfectly clear ; they prove, however,
to be all sui generis, all the phenomena being intermixed
and characterised by phenomena of induction and deduc-
tion, peculiar to light cells only. The author also
succeeded in placing this region of phenomena on a physico-
mathematical basis, testing and proving the fundamental
equations experimentally in all details. The principal
results obtained are :—
(1) The total E.M.F. created by light consists of an
E.M.F. produced by light at a constant temperature,
owing to the increase of the chemical potential and of
the solution pressure of the exposed plate, and of a thermo-
E.M.F. caused by one of the plates in contact with the
liquid being heated by light. Both E.M.F.’s are found to
be directly proportional to the intensity of light; both
give currents in the same direction, thus proving that
light acts on the chemical potential as well as on the
solution pressure of the electrode in the same way as
does heat.
(2) The peculiar course of the induction and deduction
periods enables one to distinguish constant and inconstant
cells showing polarisation from one another. A consider-
ation of the chemical composition and of the reactions
going on in the systems under the action of the current
leads to the same results.
(3) The induction period follows a law
adr /dt =c(9 —m) (m-7)+K),
giving at the same time also the fundamental law of
photography relating to the connection between the amount
of silver salts decomposed and the time of exposure. The
deduction period follows a similar law
— an|dr = —¢'(my—7) (mW — 7) + K’).
(4) The fundamental equation for the E.M.F. of con-
stant cells ‘‘ reversible in respect of cation ’’ (e.g. Ag plate
in light, AgNO, solution in light, AgNO, solution in the
dark, Ag plate in the dark) is
SE=0°860T (log. P,/Pa—2v/u+v log, f:/f.)10~4 volt,
and for constant cells ‘“‘ reversible in respect of the
anion’’ (e.g. Ag-BrAg plate in light, KBr solution in
light, KBr solution in the dark, Ag-BrAg plate in the
dark) is
SE=0°S860T( — log, P;/Pa+2z/¢+z7 log, 2,/f1)10~4 volt,
where P;, Pg are the solution pressures of the electrodes
in light and in dark, p;, fq are the osmotic pressures of
the cation or anion in the solution in light and in dark,
and T is the absolute temperature.
The theory of thermogalvanic cells is also given in the
paper.
December 8, 1904.—‘ The Réle. of Diffusion during
Catalysis by Colloidal Metals and Similar Substances.’
By Dr. Henry J. S. Sand. Communicated by Prof. J. H.
Poynting, F.R.S.
This paper contains a criticism of the opinion expressed
by Nernst (Zeitschrift Phys. Chem., xlvii., 55) that the
catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide due to
NO. 1840, \OL 71]
colloidal metals probably takes place practically instan-
taneously on the surface of the catalyser, so that the
concentration of the hydrogen peroxide there is permanently
maintained at zero, and the velocity of the reaction actually
measured is that with which diffusion and convection
renew the solute in contact with the catalytic particles.
As a result, it was shown that Nernst’s hypothesis
would lead us to expect the reaction to proceed as one
of the first order, a conclusion which agrees with the
experimental results found by Bredig and his pupils. The
actual values of the experimental velocity-constants are,
however, far too small to allow us to reconcile them with
Nernst’s suggestion, and the latter must therefore be
rejected.
In order to arrive at this result, minimum theoretical
values for the rate of the reaction were calculated on
Nernst’s hypothesis. For this purpose the particles were
assumed to be spheres with a diameter of o-5u, a value
which, according to Bredig, is greater than any which
was met with in his solutions. The particles were sup-
posed to be in a state of continual movement, performing
the so-called Brownian motions, but in travelling through
the solution were assumed to take with them a film of
adhering liquid. In order to obtain a minimum value for
the reaction velocity the total volume of the films was
supposed to be equal to that of the whole liquid. The
diffusion-coefficient of hydrogen peroxide at 25° was taken
as 10-° cm.?/sec., a value which is smaiier than that of
most substances with heavier molecules.
The great part played by convection due to the Brownian
motions of the particles and stirring by gases, &c., was
demonstrated, it being pointed out that the experimental
results regarding the dependence of the velocity-constants
on the concentration of the catalyser can only be reconciled
with the idea of a heterogeneous reaction if convection
plays an important part.
Lastly, it was shown that the experimental facts all
agree with the assumption that the actual velocity of the
reaction on the surfaces of the particles always has a
finite value which is proportional to the concentration of
the solute in immediate contact with them.
In conclusion, Nernst’s views regarding reaction-
velocities in heterogeneous systems were criticised from
a thermodynamical point of view, and it was shown that
whereas they may possibly be correct for the majority of
physical processes, great caution should be exercised in
applying them to processes of a chemical nature.
January 19.—‘‘ The Dual Force of the Dividing Cell.
Part i.—The Achromatic Spindle-Figure, elucidated by
Magnetic Chains of Force.’’ By Prof. Marcus Hartog.
Communicated by Sir William T. Thiselton-Dyer,
KiGavi Ge CE sb Rio:
The essential points of this research are described as :—
(1) The introduction of a convenient apparatus for the
study of the axial section of fields produced by isolated
poles of a dual force.
(2) The formation of chains of force in a viscid material,
the recognition of their character as a distinct type of
material configuration, and the study of their properties.
(3) The application of the conception of relative per-
meability, and of the recognition of chains of force to
the problem of the cell-figure.
Zoological Society, January 17.—Mr. G. A. Boulenger,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—(1) Some notes on
the cranial osteology of the mastigure (Uromastix); (2)
a contribution to the anatomy of Chlamydosaurus and
some other Agamidz; and (3) a note on the brain of
Cynopithecus niger: F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.—(1) A
collection of sipunculids made at Singapore and Malacca ;
(2) a collection of gephyrean worms from Zanzibar; and
(3) the sipunculids and echiurids collected during the
““Skeat Expedition’? to the Malay Peninsula: W. F.
Lanchester. Four new species were described in the
second paper and nine in the last.—On the oral and
pharyngeal denticles of elasmobranchs: A. D. Imms.
The author had found that these denticles were present
in varied abundance over the mucous membrane lining
both the oral and pharyngeal cavities in many of these
fishes. Out of the specimens of the nineteen species
334
NATURE
(FEBRUARY 2, 1905
(representing eighteen genera) examined, only five, belong-
ing to as many genera, were found to be totally devoid
of these structures.—The skull of a musk-ox from the
river-gravels of the Severn Valley at Frampton-on-Severn,
near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire: Dr. C. W. Andrews.
The specimen consisted of the cranial portion of the skull
of an old bull, and was found by Mr. W. T. Rennie, of
Chepstow, who had presented it to the British Museum.
Remains of this species were comparatively rare in Britain,
and the nearest previously recorded locality to that de-
scribed was Barnwood, near Gloucester.—Three new
birds obtained by Colonel Waddell, C.B., on the recent
expedition to Lhassa: H. E. Dresser. The birds ex-
hibited and described were :—Babax waddelli, nearest to,
but differing widely from, Babax lanceolatus; Garrulax
tibetanus, a much darker and more uniformly coloured
bird than Garrulax sannio, with the terminal part of the
tail white; and Lanius lama, a much darker bird than
Lanius schach, with less white on the forehead, no rufous
on the back or scapulars, and no trace of an alar speculum.
Royal Meteorological Society, January 18.—Capt. D.
Wilson-Barker, president, in the chair.—The President
delivered an address on the connection of meteorology
with other sciences. He said that meteorology and astro-
nomy were doubtless the first of the sciences to attract
the attention of men—which of the two exerts most
influence on the well-being of humanity is a matter de-
pendent on the position of the globe; in many regions
people are but slightly affected by the weather, while the
heavenly bodies, particularly the sun, exert an enormous
influence on human life. Everywhere in nature we find
the effects of meteorological agencies. After speaking upon
the effects of evaporation, winds, rain, ice, snow, and
pointing out the influence of weather on animal life,
vegetation, health, &c., he said that meteorology is a
science deserving more attention than it receives. He
thought it ought to be recognised as a preliminary to the
studies of geography, geology, and kindred subjects, and
he was of opinion that meteorological observatories might
very well be fitted up in schools, and pupils taught to
observe. This could be done at a small cost of time or
money. The tendency at present is to particularise in all
scientific work, but the true path to progress lies in keep-
ing a comprehensive outlook on the whole field of investi-
gation. The United States have devoted much attention
to meteorology with most satisfactory results. It is to be
regretted that official help and encouragement are so de-
ficient in this country. The baffling, difficult nature of
meteorological problems should but serve as an incentive
to their elucidation. The persistent observer gains much,
not only in knowledge of the subject, but in the habits of
close and accurate investigation which he _ insensibly
acquires, and all workers in this field learn to appreciate
the difficulties which confront their fellow-labourers and
to recognise the value of what has been done by the
meteorological organisations of the world.—Mr. Richard
Bentley was elected president for the ensuing year.
Entomological Society, January 18.—Frof. E. B.
Poulton in the chair.—Mr. F. Merrifield was elected presi-
dent for the session 1904-5.—The president, Prof. Poulton,
delivered an address in which he discussed the part played
by the study of insects in the great controversy on the
question, ‘‘ Are acquired characters hereditary?’’ He
argued that the decision whether Lamarck’s theory of the
causes of evolution is or is not founded on a mistaken
assumption largely depends upon evidence supplied by the
insect world, and finally concluded that the whole body
of facts strongly supports Weismann’s conclusions. At
the end of his address the president urged that the study
of insects is essential for the elucidation and solution of
problems of the widest interest and the deepest significance.
DUBLIN.
Royal Dublin Society, December 20, 1904.—Mr. W. E.
Wilson, F.R.S., in the chair.—Unrecognised factors in
the transmission of gases through water: Dr. W. E.
Adeney. The author has described in this communica-
tion an experimental investigation of the downward stream-
ing which has been met with in experiments on diffusion
of gases in water, when the gas is placed above the
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
water. Hifner has ascribed this downward streaming to
the water becoming heavier as it dissolves the gas, and
so forming concentration currents. The author shows
from his experiments that the streaming is a gravitational
effect, but that it is not due to concentrated solution
currents as understood by Hifner. He also shows that
when the surface layers of long columns of water, of
small cross section, aré continuously agitated by mechanical
stirrers, or by currents of air drawn through them, the
streaming becomes very rapid, with the result that the
columns of water are saturated with the gas in the course
of a few hours. The streaming takes place more rapidly
in sea-water than in distilled water.—Secondary radiation :
Prof. J. A. McCletland.—The partial differential equa-
tions of mathematical physics: Prof. A. W. Conway. A
new method of obtaining singular solutions of these
equations was obtained, applicable to non-homogeneous
equations. A new class of functions called ‘‘ kinetic fune-
tions’? was introduced.—The Primary rocks of Ireland
with their intrusive rocks: G. H. Kinahan. The first
part of the paper gave a general account of the rocks from
the Permian to the Cambrian, specially mentioning their
characteristic shore accumulations. The second and more
important portion treated of all the occurrences of Irish
Archzans with their exotic adjuncts, and their probable
equivalents in England, Wales, Scotland, Canada, and the
United States of America.
January 17.—Dr. W. E. Wilson, F.R.S., in the chair.
—Improvements in equatorial telescope mountings: Sir
Howard Grubb, F.R.S. The author described a new
form of slow motion for large equatorial telescopes in
which a small electric motor is used for actuating the
differential wheels, which are ordinarily worked by an
endless cord. This new form was first applied to the
24-inch photographic equatorial of the Radcliffe Observ-
atory, Oxford, and is now being applied to the photo-
graphic equatorial at the Cape Town Observatory, which
is of the same size. The working of the instrument,
which was exhibited at the meeting, was demonstrated
by the author, who also read a paper on a simplified form
of his electrical control, which has lately been applied
to several large instruments.—On the temperature of
certain stars: W. E. Wilson, F.R.S. It seems probable
that in the sun and some stars there are two quite
distinct sources from which we can receive light which
gives a continuous spectrum. First, the photospheric
clouds, which are composed of droplets of matter in the
solid form, probably carbon; secondly, layers of intensely
hot gases which are under considerable pressure. Between
these two sources of radiation lie principally the vapours
of titanium and vanadium, and other elements of suitable
atomic weight. In a sun-spot the temperature is locally
so high that the photospheric clouds are volatilised, and
we then get the radiation only from the gaseous layer
below, the spectrum being darkened by the intervening
layers, consisting principally of the vapours of titanium,
&c., the lines of which are widened and darkened. It is
then suggested that as a star like Arcturus, or type iv.
stars, have a spectrum which is very similar to a sun-
spot, in these bodies the temperature is so high that they
have no photospheric clouds, and that their want of
brilliancy is caused by their only receiving the radiations
from the gaseous layers which lie at some depth in their
atmospheres.—Mr. Richard J. Moss exhibited the absorp-
tion spectrum of liquid oxygen.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, December 13, 1904.
Mr. W. H. Johnson in the chair.—Note on the dissemin-
ation of seeds by birds: C. Oldham. The opinion ex-
pressed by Mr. F. Nicholson at a recent meeting of the
society that birds rarely act as disseminators of seeds, by
voiding them in their excrement, is not in accord with the
experience of many field naturalists. Nearly fifty years ago
Darwin proved (‘‘ Origin of Species,’’ chapter xii.) that
certain seeds extracted from the excrement of small birds
germinated, as did others from the ejected pellets and the
excrement of carnivorous and piscivorous birds. The
evidence of Wallace and other observers may be cited to the
same effect. In mid-Cheshire, during the spell of hard
weather at the end of November, 1904, an examination of
FEBRUARY 2, 1905]
the excrement of various birds showed that entire and
apparently uninjured seeds are voided constantly. Red-
wings, fieldfares, and other thrushes were compelled during
the frost to subsist largely upon hedgerow fruit, and entire
seeds of the wild rose (Rosa) and hawthorn (Crategus),
among others, might have been collected from their
droppings by thousands. From the excrement of smaller
birds the author obtained mtany undigested seeds of the
bramble (Rubus).—The Foraminifera from the coast of the
island of Delos, part ii.: H. Sidebottom. Particular
attention was directed to those species that are new to the
Mediterranean. The dimorphic structure of many of the
Foraminifera was also pointed out.
January 10.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., in
the chair.—On the supposed antagonism of Mendelian to
biometric theory: A. D. Darbishire. The author, after
referring to the conflict of the Mendelians and _bio-
metricians, explained the methods of investigation of the
two schools. The biometricians apply statistical methods
and deal with masses of individuals, and therefore with
average characters; the Mendelians devote their attention
to the study of the individual components of the mass, and
endeavour by means of experiments to ascertain the nature
and mode of modification of the characters of the units.
Mr. Darbishire sought to show that the two views are
not irreconcilable, but that the real truth was to be
arrived at from a survey of both.—The cause of the period
of chemical induction: C. H. Burgess and D. L.
Chapman.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, January 23.—M. Troost in the
chair.—New researches on the secular alterations of hydro-
carbon of organic origin: M. Berthelot. Details are
given of the chemical examination of a fatty substance
found in an Egyptian vase of about 1600 B.c.—Some
metals found in archeological excavations in Egypt: M.
Berthelot. Analyses of two specimens of bronze dating
from about the second dynasty.—On the increase of volume
of molten cast iron, saturated with carbon in the electric
furnace, at the moment of solidification: Henri Moissan.
Iron which is free, or nearly free, from carbon, in passing
from the liquid to the solid state, follows the ordinary
law, its density increasing. On the contrary, when
saturated with carbon at the temperature of the electric
furnace, it increases in volume when solidifying.—Study
of lunar photographs. Considerations on the course of
solidification in the interior of a planet: MM. Loewy and
Puiseux. As the result of an examination of photographs
of the moon’s crust, the author has been led to support the
geological view of the constitution of the earth, that of a
thin crust with a liquid core, as against the rigid solid
theory of the mathematicians.—Note on the three volumes
of the Annales de l’Observatoire de Nice: M. Bassot.
On a recent ascent of Vesuvius: J. Janssen. Numerous
specimens of gases from the fumerolles and of lava and
scoria were collected, and photographs taken of the absorp-
tion spectra of the vapours issuing from the cone during
an eruption. The description of a detailed examination
of these is reserved for a future communication.—The
calculation of ordinary and suspension bridges: M. Con-
sidére.—Observations of the Borrelly comet (1904 e) made
by F. Courty with the large equatorial at the Observatory
of Bordeaux: G. Rayet.—On families of surfaces with
plane orthogonal trajectories: S. Carrus.—Remarks on
the preceding communication: Gaston Darboux.—On the
approximation of functions by polynomials considered in
relation with the theory of partial differential equations :
application to the problem of the initial state in mathe-
matical physics: A. Buhl.—On a hyperelliptic surface: E.
Traynard.—On the integrals of total differentials belong-
ing to an irregular surface: G. Castelnuove.—On linear
differential equations of the second order containing one
parameter: M. Tzitzeica.—On a theorem of M. Borel:
F. Riesz.—On the deviation of falling bodies towards the
south and on the curvature of lines of force: Maurice
Fouche.—On the magnetic field to which a body in motion
in an electric field is submitted: H. Peltat.—On the ions
of the atmosphere: P. Langevin. The experiments of the
author lead to the conclusion that there are only two kinds
of ions present in the air, one having a mobility several
NO. 1840, VOL. 71]
NATURE
SHS
thousand times smaller than the other. The apparatus
used by Ebert only measures the first of these.—Contri-
bution to the study of ionisation in flames: Pierre
Massoulier.—On the specific coefficients of magnetisation
of liquids: Georges Meslin.—The action of very low
temperatures on the phosphorescence of certain sulphides :
F. P. Le Roux. Remarks on a paper of MM. A. and L.
Lumiére dealing with the same subject.—On a new mineral
containing radium: J. Danne. Some _plumbiferous
minerals, notably a pyromorphite, found in the neighbour-
hood of Issy-l’Evéque, have been found to contain radium,
and it is a noteworthy fact that none of these minerals
contain uranium. The amount of radium is variable, a
ton of the mineral furnishing quantities of radium bromide
of the order of a centigram.—The dissociation of strychnine
salts as measured by the rotatory power. The rotatory
power in homologous series. The influence of the double
linkage: J. Minguin. The deviations were measured in
the first place when the strychnine and acid were present
in molecular quantities, and then in presence of an excess
of acid. The differences observed point to a dissociation
taking place—On caesium methylamide: E. Rengade.
Czsium dissolves in anhydrous liquid methylamine, form-
ing at first a metal methylammonium; this soon evolves
hydrogen and the methylamide is quantitatively formed.
The amide detonates on heating, giving rise to caesium
cyanide and hydrogen. Water, allowed to act slowly, pro-
duces cesium hydroxide and methylamine.—The action of
phosphorus pentachloride upon some tertiary cyclic amines.
Syntheses of colouring matters and formation of phos-
phorus: P. Lemoult.—The products of oxidation of
anthracene octahydride: dihydro-oxanthranol and _ hexa-
hydroanthrone: Marcel Godchot.—Thymomenthol and its
derivatives: Léon Brunel. ‘This is obtained from thymol
by the Sabatier and Senderens reaction; its physical and
chemical properties are given and the preparation of several
derivatives described.—Contribution to the study of some
derivatives of benzodihydrofurfurane: A. Guyot and J.
Catel.—On the agricultural value of humic materials: J.
Dumont.—On the elliptical character of the new Borrelly
comet (e 1904): G. Fayet. It is shown that no parabola
can satisfactorily represent all the observations, an elliptical
orbit with a period of about eight years better representing
the facts.—An electrical pendulum with free escapement :
Ch. Féry. The arrangement described is remarkable for
the small expenditure of electrical energy required to work
it, less than 0.5 watt per annum. The diurnal variation
of a clock beating half seconds fitted with te apparatus
described is less than o.3 second.—On the nitrates of
potassium and ammonia and on the law of Bravais:
Frédéric Waltlerant.—The coal basin of French Lorraine :
Francis Laur.—On the diatom-bearing level of the ravine
o. Egravats, near Mont Dore, Puy-de-Déme: M. Lauby.
—On the biology and anatomy of the suckers of Osyris
alba: A. Fraysse.—On the biology of the Cestodz: L.
James and H. Mandoul.—The action of magnesium and
of magnesia on micro-organisms: F. Dienert.
New SoutH WALES
Royal Society, November 2, 1904.—Mr. C. O. Burge,
president, in the chair.—Pot experiments to determine the
limits of endurance of different farm crops for certain in-
jurious substances, part iii., barley and rye: R. Helms
and Prof. F. B. Guthrie. The authors describe experi-
ments with barley and rye in continuation of those on wheat
and maize (Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, xxxvi. p. 191,
and xxxvii. p. 165) to determine the tolerance of these plants
to certain ingredients commonly present in the soils and
water used for irrigating in certain parts of the State,
namely, ‘sodium chloride and sodium carbonate; also the
effect produced upon their growth by the presence of small
quantities of plant poisons occasionally met with in
fertilisers, such as ammonium sulphocyanide, sodium
chlorate, and arsenious acid.—The classification and
systematic nomenclature of igneous rocks: H. Stanley
Jevons. The author concludes that the most convenient
general classification for the present time would be one
constructed as follows :—(1) Based on alkali-lime-content of
principal and minor mineral constituents. Produces two
series: alkaline and calcic. (2) Based on similarity of
336 NATURE [FEBRUARY 2, 1905
principal mineral constituents. Produces seven sections, WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 8.
€.g. granitic, gabbroic, theralitic, &c. (3) Based on com- Society oF Arts, at 8.—Time Development in Photography, and Modern
munity of origin from similar parent magmas. The latter
are defined by the presence of certain index minerals in
the consolidated rocks (e.g. a granite, a granite-aplite, and
a rhyolite, &c., may all be derived from one magma; other
granites, rhyolites, &c., will be derived from similar
magmas). Produces twelve orders, e.g. granates, essexates,
&c. (4) Based on habit of mass. Produces seven families
in each order, e.g. granophites, dioromicrites, gabbro-
lavites (basalts), &c. (5) Based on nature of minor mineral
constituents. Produces a number of genera in each family,
e.g. muscbigranophite, anaugi-hyper-peridotite (harz-
burgite). (6) Based on texture, but to be applied only in
families where there is much variety of texture. Produces
subgenera, e.g. spheri-mono-rhyolite, graphi-bi-rhyolite,
&c. The system of nomenclature described is an elabor-
ation of that already proposed by the author in a pre-
liminary paper in the Geological Magazine (1901).
BENGAL.
Asiatic Society of Bengal. January 4.—Ilierarchy of the
Dalai Lama (1406-1726): Rai Sarat Chandra Das. The
author gives a history of the origin and growth of power
of the Dalai Lama.—On the prevalence of fevers in the
Dinajpur district: Dr. L. Rogers. This paper deals
with the results of a special inquiry into the causes of
the very high mortality of above forty per thousand in
the Dinajpur district. It is shown that the higher death
rates in certain places are due mainly to malaria, the
increased prevalence of which is closely related to a high
ground water level due to unalterable physical conditions
of the district. In the second part of the paper the
varieties of fever met with and distribution of the
anopheles which can carry the infection are dealt with,
and the impracticability of mosquito destruction as a
preventive measure in the district as a whole is pointed
out. The wider distribution of quinine in each village
through the agency of the primary schoolmasters so as
to reach the children, who mainly die of the disease, is
recommended as the only practicable method of lessening
the death rates from malaria among the people of Lower
Bengal.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Fesruary 2.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Compressibility of Gases between
One Atmosphere and Half an Atmosphere of Pressure: Lord Ray-
leigh, O.M., F.R.S.—On the ‘‘ Blaze Currents” of the Gall Bladder
of the Frog: Mrs. A. M. Waller—The Theory of Photographic
Processes : On the Chemical Dynamics of Development : S. E. Sheppard
and C. E. K. Mees.—On the Relation between Variations of Atmospheric
Pressure in North-East Africa, and the Nile Flood: Capt. H. G. Lyons.
—Note on the Determination of the Volume Elasticity of Elastic Solids :
Dr. C. Chree. F.R.S.—Theory of the Reflection of Light near the
Polarising Angle : Prof. R. C. Maclaurin.
Royat Institution, at 5.—Forestry in the British Empire: Prof.
W. Schlich.
Civit aND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ Society, at 8.—The Mechanics of
Flour Milling : A. R. Tattersall.
LINNEAN SOCIETY, at 8.—Descriptions of New Chinese Plants (with lantern
bole W. J. Tutcher.—European Cirolaninez (Isopoda): Dr. H. J.
ansen.
RONTGEN Society, at 8 15.—Some Points in the Construction of a High
Frequency Machine: Dr. Clarence A. Wright.
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—Studies in the Camphane Series. Part xvi.
Camphorylcarbimide and Isomeric Camphorylcarbamides: M. O. Forster
and H. E. Fierz.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 3.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 9.—Blood Pressure in Man: Prof. T. Clifford
Allbutt, F.R.S.
GEOLOGISTS’ ASSOCIATION, at 7.30.—Address on Modern Methods in the
Study of Fossils: the President, Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S.
MONDAY, Fesruary 6.
Society or CHemicat InpustTRy, at 8.—The Theory of Dyeing. Part ii.
Pseudo-solution and Desolution: W. P. Dreaper.—The Fading of Inks
and Pigments: J. W. Lovibond.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Fountain Pens: James P. Maginnis.
TUESDAY, FesRuary 7.
Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure and Life of Animals: Prof.
L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—On Abnormal Ranid Larve from North-
eastern India: Nelson Annandale.—On a Second Collection of Fishes
made by S. L. Hinde in the Kenya District, East Africa: G. A. Boulen-
ger, F.R.S.—On some Points in the Anatomy of Diademodon: Dr. R.
Broom.— Notes on the Mammals of Southern Cameroons and the Benito :
George L. Bates.
TION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion : Floating Docks:
; Clark.—Pafers: Alfreton Second Tun E. F. C. Trench.—The
Reconstruction of Moncreiffe Tunnel : Dugald McLellan.
No. 1840, VOL. 71]
Mechanical Methods of carrying it out: R. Child Bayley.
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 9.
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: (1) On the Conversion ot
Electric Oscillations into Continuous Currents by means of a Vacuum
Valve: (2) On a Kummeter for the Measurement of the Length of Long
Electric Waves, and also small Inductances and Capacities: Prof. J. A.
Fleming, F.R.S.—Report on an Area of Local Magnetic Disturbance in
East Loch Roag, Lewes, Hebrides: Captain A. M. Field, R.N.—
Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and Gamma Rays of Radium:
G. 1, Beilby.—(z) The Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to
Celestial Spectra; (2) Note on the Spectrum of « Centauri; (3) On the
Stellar Line near A 4686: Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and
F. E. Baxandall_—Qn Europium and its Ultra-Violet Spectrum: Sir
William Crookes, F.R.S.
Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—Forestry in the British Empire: Prof. W.
Schlich, F.R.S.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fuel Economy in Steam
Power Plants: W. H. Booth and J. B. C. Kershaw. (Conclusion of
discussion.)—The Value of Overhead Mains for Electric Distribution in
the United Kingdom : G, L. Addenbrooke.
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—General Theory of Transfinite Num-
bers and Order-types: Dr. K. W. Hobson.—On the Reducibility of
Covariants of Binary Quantics of Infinite Order. Part ii: Mr. P. W.
Wood.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY Io.
ovat, INSEMEUSION, at g.—The Art of the Ionian Greeks: Dr. Cecil
Smith.
Roya. ASTRONOMICAL SociETY, at 5.—Anniversary Meeting.
Macacotocicat Society.—Annual General Meeting. Address by the
President, Mr. E. R. Sykes, on Variation (including Teratology) in
Recent Mollusca.
INSTITUTION OF CIvIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Reconstruction of the
Santa Lucia River Bridge, Uruguay: P. J. Risdon.
CONTENTS.
The Quintessence of Haeckelismus . .
A Useful Book for Fruit Growers. By R. H. P. . . 314
A Traveller’s Companion. ByG.A.J.C...... 315
The TeachingjofiScience. By A. T./S: 2) 2). = .semgio
Our Book Shelf :—
Sutro: ‘*The Basic Law of Vocal Utterance”;
‘* Duality of Voice and Speech. An Outline of
Original Research”; ‘‘ Duality of Thought and
Language. An Outline of Original Research” 317
Bolton : ‘* A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-
LOO2s —emsiGe 2... a, Ge) mentee ie mT
Guiton : ‘* Hints on Collecting and Preserving Plants’ 317
Butt:) ““PracticalRetouching” - -o.e sle ee 317
Wagner: ‘‘Stories from Natural History” . . . 317
Letters to the Editor :—
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.—A. B. Basset,
Nas) fs f DO olor aawa eo 2S
Can Birds Smell ?-—Dr. Alex. Hill. ....... 31g
The Origin of Radium.—W. C. D. Whetham,
RSS S cee <<. sce ne ee en ee
Fact in Sociology.—H. G. Welis ........ 319
The Fertilisation of Jasminum nudiflorum.—Prof.
JohniGaavickKendrick, FIRSS. 20. eines O)
The Moon and the Barometer.—(With Diagram.)
Alex. B. MacDowall Povcsitimommen re a3! ose)
Reversal in Influence Machines.—Charles_ E.
Benhamieen |. |. -.. |. (ae Sona)
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books.—R. P.
Paralypyemeenci. :) . «<i wee On Omen
Super-cooled Rain Drops.—Cecil Carus-Wilson . . 320
Para Rubber. (J///ustrated.) By C. Simmonds 321
| Prehistoric England. (///ustrated.) ....... . 322
| Meeting of the British Association in South Africa 323
The Royal Commission on Coal Supplies. . . . . 324
Notes 15 Us EetS oc ioe Seda 325
| Our Astronomical Column :—
Asuonomical Occurrences in February. . . . 328
Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite iets 329
Ephemeris for Comet 1g904¢ ... . 329
Solar Melipsemaroblems. ./!. -)eenwaic > + ee)
The Conditions in the Solar Atmosphere during
1900—T eerie. =. oly cee svi! «5 SES
Triangulation of the Pleiades Stars ey 2g)
A Bright Meteor MCT OtS 6.5. SMe Dec 329
The General Motion of Clouds ........ 329
AmericantHiygroids..... . 2 ae. se 331
University and Educational Intelligence : 331
SocietiesjandgAcademies 0-6) « «|. 1 eee
Diary of Societiesie rach sic ici.) «, cere ens
NATURE B87
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 9, 1905.
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF THE BELGIAN
ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897, 1898,
1899, sous le Commandemant de A. de Gerlache de
Gomery. Rapports scientifiques. (1) Zoology and
Botany. (2) Astronomy and Meteorology. (Ant-
werp, 1902-4.)
(1) HE cruise of the steam-yacht Belgica, organ-
ised by the Belgian Government, may be
regarded as the-first of the series of expeditions fitted
out during the last few years to explore the Antarctic
and to collect systematically its zoological and
botanical products. Consequently, it fell to the lot
of this expedition to be the first to bring back speci-
mens of certain animals previously known, more or
less imperfectly, by examples obtained by the early
expeditions to the South Polar regions, such as that
of the Erebus and Terror. The most noticeable in-
stance of this is afforded by the seal known as
Ommatophoca rossi, which had been previously
known only by two skulls and a skin brought home
by the Erebus and Terror Expedition (1839-43).
Fortunately, the fasciculus of the Rapports dealing
with the seals (by Captain Barrett-Hamilton) was
published in 1902, and ante-dates the British Museum
report on the Southern Cross Expedition, thereby
securing to the Belgica the full credit for having
been the first to increase our knowledge of this
interesting species.
The comparative slowness of the rate at which it
has been found practicable to issue the result of the
Belgica’s worl will, however, necessarily have dis-
counted some of its claims to priority, seeing that
the aforesaid report on the collections made by the
Southern Cross was published in 1902, while at least
one small instalment of the zoological results of the
Discovery Expedition has already been made public.
On the other hand, in many of the groups the new
forms discovered by the Belgica expedition were de-
scribed at an early date in the form of preliminary
notices (in the case of the fishes as early as 1900),
and as the later parts of the work before us contain
reviews of the species described in the report of the
Southern Cross Expedition, an advantage rather than
a disadvantage has been gained by the delay in
publication. This is particularly noticeable in the
fasciculus devoted to fishes, which was published in
1904.
The characteristic of the reports on the Belgica
collections is the wealth of detail with which the
descriptions are worked out and the elaborate style
in which they are issued. The entire work is, for
instance, published in quarto form, in large type,
with no apparent limitations to the extent of the
letter-press, and a fair allowance of plates, most of
which are admirably executed. Each section of the
subject has been assigned to a specialist, and the
mere mention of the fact that Captain Barrett-Hamil-
ton is responsible for the seals, Mr. Racovitza (the |
NO. 1841, VOL. 71 |
naturalist to the expedition) for the cetaceans, Mr.
Dollo for the fishes, and Dr. Pelseneer for the greater
part of the molluscs, will be a sufficient indication
of the care and wisdom with which the selection of
these specialists has been made.
A total of more than sixty separate memoirs on
the zoology of the expedition is promised, and of
these no less than fourteen (ranging in their subjects
from seals and cetaceans to corals and sponges) are
now on the table before us. Within the limits of the
space at our disposal it would obviously be impossible
to attempt anything like a summary—much less a
criticism—of the vast amount of work contained in
this mass of literature. All that can be essayed is
to record a few of the more striking results of some
of these investigations, and at the same time to
express our opinion, so far as we are capable of
forming a judgment, of the high value and import-
ance of the work generally.
As regards Mammalia, perhaps the most important
result of the Belgica Expedition was a negative one,
namely, the practical demonstration that no large
forms of terrestrial mammalian life inhabit Antarctica.
In his first expedition Mr. Borchgrevink was, indeed,
inclined to attribute certain marks commonly seen on
the hides of the Antarctic seals to the teeth of a land
carnivore, but it is now believed, with much more
probability, that they are due to sharks. Mr.
Racovitza, it may be added, was the first to make
us acquainted with the peculiar gular pouch and
strange cry of Ross’s seal.
In treating of the cetaceans, Mr. Racovitza, who
(like Captain Hamilton in the case of the seals) has
no new species to describe, makes some very interest-
ing remarks with regard to the mode of life and
physiology of these animals. Especially important
are those relating to the depths to which whales are
capable of descending. These the author believes to
have been exaggerated very greatly, and he puts
the extreme limit at one hundred, and the ordinary
range at twenty-five metres. As he well remarks, it
is practically impossible to imagine an animal the
organisation of which would admit of its existence
alilke at the surface and under the pressure of abyssal
depths. His arguments are supported by certain
facts in regard to the depths at which cetaceans are
captured by the Japanese.
In the bulky fasciculus on the fishes Mr. Dollo
has incorporated the results of Mr. Boulenger’s work
on those obtained during the Southern Cross Expedi-
tion, and has thus been enabled to present his readers
with what is practically a monograph of the Antarctic
forms. The most remarkable representatives of this
fauna are those constituting the family Nototheniidz,
of which the author recognises no less than eighteen
generic types, three of these being named by him-
self. Whether he is justified in proposing the name
Cryodraco antarcticus for the fish which he apparently
admits to be identical with the one captured during
the voyage of the Erebus and Terror and named
Pagetodes, on account of the alleged insufficient de-
finition of the latter, may be doubtful. In our opinion
Q
338
the original sketch of Pagetodes is amply sufficient
for the generic definition.
Very few words must, unfortunately, suffice for the
parts devoted to invertebrates. In the fasciculus on
brachiopods, Prof. Joubin directs attention to the
apparently small bodily size of the Antarctic repre-
sentatives of the group, a feature which is the more
notable on account of the contrast they present in this
respect to the forms from the Straits of Magellan.
Another important fact in connection with the fauna
of the southern ocean is brought out by Prof.
Koehler in his description of the echinoderms
obtained to the south of lat. 69°, the furthest point
from which these organisms had at the time been
obtained. Practically all these echinoderms have
proved to be new forms, but whether they belong to
the sub-Antarctic or the true Antarctic fauna has not
yet been definitely ascertained.
The other fasciculi at present to hand include the
following monographs :—molluscs, by Messrs. Pel-
seneer and Joubin; myriopods, by Mr. C. von
Attems; collembola, by Mr. V. Willems; copepods,
by Dr. W. Giesbrecht; nematodes, by Dr. J. G. de
Man; nemertines, by Dr. O. Biirger; bryozoans, by
Mr. A. W. Waters; hydroids, by Dr. C. Hartlaub;
zoophytes, by Messrs. von Marenzeller and Carlgren;
and sponges, by Mr. E. Topsent. The botanical
memoirs include one by Dr. E. A. Wainio on lichens;
a second, by Mr. J. Cardot, on mosses; and a third,
by Mr. T. Stephani, on liverworts-
In concluding this too brief notice of a most valu-
able series of monographs, we may congratulate the
Belgian Government on its wise liberality in author-
ising their publication, and the committee of the
Belgica on the manner in which they have carried
out their share of the task. Rows
(2) In the department of astronomy we have the
discussion of the rates of the chronometers employed
and a description of the methods by which time was
ascertained during the long confinement of the
Antarctic winter. We may say, and it is admitted
by the author, M. G. Lecomte, that the astronomical
equipment was inadequate. It consisted at the out-
set of three marine chronometers, a sextant, two
artificial horizons, an astronomical telescope, and a
theodolite. The size of the telescope is not stated,
but it was a relic of the old whaleship, the Patria,
and was that which had been used by the captain
to observe seals when at some distance from the ship.
With this instrument, three phenomena of Jupiter’s
satellites were observed and one occultation. Lunar
distances were also observed, but the rates of the
chronometers were generally determined from local
observations. The accumulated error on return is not
clearly stated, but the rates and errors are worked
out apparently with great care.
Meteorology naturally claims a large part in the
scientific results. The observations were under the
charge of M. H. Arctowski, and he has presented the
details with very great clearness, and accompanied
whole with many excellent charts, showing
graphically the behaviour of the barometer, the hygro-
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
the
tn
NATURE
|
[FEBRUARY 9, 190 5
metrical measurements, and the variations of tempera-
ture. The lowest temperature recorded was —43°.1 C.
(—45°-6 F.) on September 8, 1898. The whole result
is to exhibit the factors on which the climate depended
during the sojourn of the expedition on the shifting
ice. The observations do not refer to a particular
spot, the ship drifting with the ice some sixteen
degrees in longitude and two degrees in_ latitude.
The observation of the clouds and the discussion of
the results were entrusted to M. Dobrowolski,
who had to encounter many difficulties, due to fog
and darkness, which occasion lacunz in the record.
An appendix gives a description, as complete as
possible, of a considerable number of cloud systems,
divided into three stages of cirrus, clouds at a mean
height, and of clouds at low altitudes. The greatest
care seems to have been taken in the description of
these systems during the twelve months of residence,
but here again the expedition might have been
better provided with apparatus. The observer had to
trust entirely to eye and the compass; no nephoscope
was provided, or photographic camera, or means
for determining the height of cloud.
The same author discusses the formation of snow
and hoar frost, but in this department he appears to
have been hampered by the want of instrumental
means. He had no microphotographic apparatus, and
it has been difficult and sometimes impossible to re-
produce the varied structure which he encountered.
Hand drawings have been extensively used, and the
general result of his work has been to confirm that
of modern investigators who have recognised but
two types of forms of structure.
An interesting memoir is that of M. Arctowski
discussing the optical phenomena witnessed during
the expedition. In this section he treats of the de-
formation of figure of the sun and moon crossing
the horizon, illuminations of the sky at twilight, the
green ray seen at the moment of the sun’s setting,
halos, and other phenomena, the peculiarities of which
are best studied in polar regions. The author
apologises for the popular character of some of his
notes, but though greater detail might have been
added if a spectroscope had been included in the
outfit, these notes afford very interesting reading.
The discussion of the aurore forms a volume by
itself, due to the same physicist. Only sixty-two
times in thirteen months was this phenomenon wit-
nessed, owing to the facts that the period of minimum
auroree occurred about the time of the expedition, and
the region in which the Belgica was ice-bound was
far from the locality in which aurore pass through
the zenith. Two excellent plates are given in this
section.
Oceanography is represented by two memoirs. In
the first, M. Arctowski describes the method by which
observations were made on the passage across the
Pacific to the Straits of Magellan to determine the
density of the surface water. Later during the
wintering of the expedition samples were drawn from
considerable depths below the ice, and examined in
the physical laboratory on board. In the second
memoir M. Thoulet, professor at the University of
—
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE
339
Nancy, gives the results of some experiments made
on the density of sea water in the course of an
inquiry entrusted to him by the commission in con-
nection with the results derived by M. Arctowski.
W. EeaB:
ITALIAN CHEMISTRY.
Trattato di Chimica Inorganica Generale e Applicato
all’ Industria. By Dr. E. Molinari. Pp. xxii+693.
(Milan: Ulrico Hoepli, 1905.) Price 12.50 lire.
(oa the greater part of last century the pro
gress of science in Italy was retarded by the
political troubles of the country; even after the nation
had achieved its independence and unity, scientific
education was hampered by ecclesiastical controversies
and by the poverty of the newly created Government.
Taxation has always fallen heavily on the Italian
people, and the industry and energy of the north
have been taxed unduly owing to the poverty and
thriftlessness of the south. In spite of these dis-
advantages, Italy gave to science in the last century
many names which will long be remembered in its
history. In particular, the hypothesis of Count
Avogadro, enunciated in 1811, forms the basis of the
whole of the modern development of chemistry; for
nearly fifty years, however, its importance was over-
looked, and it was the peculiar merit of another
Italian, Cannizzaro, by reviving it, to establish a new
epoch in the development of chemical science and to
introduce order where all was confused and contra-
dictory. :
In the course of the past twenty-five years a school
of Italian chemists has arisen the quality of whose
work is on a high level of excellence. Side by side
with this, an astonishingly rapid development of all
branches of the industry of Italy has occurred. The
rapidity of the advance may be gauged from a few
facts. In the six years 1893-9, the value of. the
chemical manufactures of Italy exactly doubled itself,
increasing from about 1,000,000!. to 2,000,000l. per
annum. In the twenty-five years from 1875 to 1900
the value of the raw silk annually produced tripled
itself, and that of the woven silk, which in 1890 was
600,000l., rose in 1900 to 4,000,0001. The cotton and
wool industries have developed almost as rapidly, and
a similar progress is seen in the case of new manu-
factures, such as that of steel rails, which have only
recently been introduced into the country. In some
instances Italian manufacturers have begun to com-
pete in foreign markets, and this development bids
fair to become still more rapid as Italy converts more
and more of her abundant store of water power into
electrical energy.
The author of the present treatise, who holds the
position of professor of chemistry at the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts and Crafts of Milan, has
endeavoured in it to initiate a reform in the teach-
ing of chemistry in Italian universities, a reform
which has also been recently urged by Profs. Canniz-
zaro and Ciamician. Hitherto the chemistry taught
has been of too academical a character, little attention
being given to practical applications. The title of
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
the present work defines its nature, which is that of
a treatise on inorganic chemistry, with especial refer-
ence to chemical industry. The commoner elements
and their compounds are dealt with in detail, but
instead of illustrating the text with time-honoured
drawings of lecture apparatus, the actual plant used
in the manufacture of these substances is depicted.
All the more recent processes of manufacture are
described concisely but sufficiently, but the book does
not degenerate into a mere treatise of technology.
The principal physical and chemical properties of the
substances are clearly defined, as well as the relation
existing between them: owing to conciseness and to
the character of the type employed, a large amount
of information is imparted which is not to be found
in the usual elementary text-books. A novel feature
is that the average market price of each commercial
article is stated, whilst statistics are given of the cost
of manufacture and profit of many of the more im-
portant substances. In many cases the development
of an industry is traced through the patents referring
to it, for instance, in the case of the manufacture of
sulphuric acid and of alkali.
Before undertaking the systematic treatment of the
elements, 114 pages are devoted to general chemical
theory. It is this part that is most liable to
criticism. A portion might very profitably have been
omitted. The description, for instance, on pp. 37 to
40, of as many as eight different methods of deter-
mining vapour density, serves no useful purpose in
a book of this kind, while it is doubtful whether the
method of deducing the relationship (pp. 72 to 73)
between the osmotic pressure and the freezing and
boiling points of dilute solutions will be intelligible
to the student in its present form. The historical
treatment adopted throughout the work is the cause
of a few misstatements which should have been
avoided. Why, for instance, revive the story, which
has no basis in fact, that Priestley, after languish-
ing in poverty, died of poison? In discussing the
history of valency, no mention is made of Frankland
and Kolbe, Wurtz and Graham only being referred
to. It is, moreover, so far from being the truth
(p. 136) that in 1809 Gay-Lussac and Thénard
admitted that chlorine was probably an element that
even in 1811 they contested Davy’s view of its
elementary nature. Strangely enough, the part played
by Cannizzaro in reviving Avogadro’s theory is passed
over in silence (p. 33), and the credit given to Gerhardt
and Laurent alone.
Dr. Molinari’s treatise is especially adapted and
is likely to be very serviceable to the student who
intends devoting himself to chemical industry; for
a similar text-book at an equally low price the English
student has long sighed in vain. With a few slight
alterations the work could be made equally useful to
the engineer. In particular, more space might be
given to considering materials of construction, whilst
the treatment of alloys is far too brief to be satis-
factory, considering the important part which they
now play in engineering. Several pages of part i.
might well be replaced by a general discussion of the
remarkable influence of impurities and of thermal
340
treatment on the physical properties of metals. The
phase rule, which is briefly explained, could be given
a practical application by referring to the nature of
alloys, particularly in the case of carbon-iron mixtures.
As is the case with all the works published by the
well known firm of Ulrico Hoepli, the printing and
reproduction of the illustrations leave nothing to be
desired. It is, however, a pity that so many proper
names are wrongly spelt; thus Graham is uniformly
spelt Grahm, and Van der Waals Van der Vaals.
More than ten misprints of other names are observ-
able. W. A. D.
A NEW CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
Grundztige der Kristallographie. By Prof. C. M.
Viola. Pp. iv+389. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann,
1904.) Price 11 marks; bound, 12 marks.
ff ee opinion is rapidly gaining ground that the
theory of crystallography based on the laws of
rational indices and symmetry no longer suffices
without modification for the classification and descrip-
tion of crystals. It is recognised on the one hand that
isomorphism of kindred substances shows itself (as in
the Humite group of minerals) more in similarity of
crystalline habit and angles than in identity of optical
and geometrical symmetry, and on the other hand
that vicinal faces with high indices may play an
important part in the economy of crystals. Prof. Viola
is evidently of opinion that the old methods cannot be
adapted to meet the situation, and his book is as
revolutionary as it well could be. Crystals are here
divided into 7 sygonies, 10 fundamental forms, and
29 harmonies; symmetry is but a particular case of
harmony; twins are two similar crystals with two
predominant elements in common; the number of
space-lattices is reduced to 10, and of space-groups
to 156. The basis of classification is descriptive, not
geometrical; blende, felspar, and garnet belong to the
same fundamental form, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite
to the same harmony.
If the author had merely attacked the existing theory
and advocated a classification expressing the results of
direct observation alone, independent of any hypothesis,
he might have had some success. Unfortunately, he
has tried to build up a mathematical theory of his
own, with disastrous results. The average shape of
all crystals of a substance grown under approximately
the same conditions is its “‘ habit ’’; the average shape
of all habits is its ‘‘ fundamental form.’? The rate
of growth in any direction is proportional to the
“cohesion ”’ in that direction (measured, apparently,
by the force needed to break a rod of the substance
the length of which lies in the given direction), and
cleavage tales place perpendicular to the lines in which
minima of cohesion are well marked. It follows that
the fundamental form has always a centre of
symmetry. These assumptions are hardly justified by
the cleavage and usual habit of many crystals, e.g.
fluorite and tetrahedrite, but the mathematical develop-
ment of these hypotheses is, if possible, still more un-
fortunate than the premises themselves. It is argued
(p. 14, cf. Fig. 20) that if two faces grow outwards
with velocities c, and c,, (1) their intersection moves
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[FeBRuary 9, 1905
with the velocity c,, compounded of c, and c,, (2) there-
fore the face perpendicular to c, grows with velocity
Cs, (3) ¢, is a maximum or a minimum when ¢, and c,
are minima. Of these statements (1) and (3) are un-
true, and (2) absolutely unproven. Thus the funda-
mental principles on which nearly the whole of the
book is based are wrong. Much of the reasoning is
of the same fallacious nature, or is, at best, only an
appeal to probability; but one more example must
suffice.
The author sets himself (p. 251) the impossible task
of proving that a symmetry-axis of a homogeneous —
medium is 2-al, 3-al, 4-al, or 6-al without employing —
either the law of rational indices or a molecular struc-—
ture. He accomplishes this by assuming that if the
medium is brought to self-coincidence by a rotation
through an angle 2y about an axis C, it cannot be
brought to self-coincidence by a rotation about C
through any angle less than 27.
Prof. Viola apparently considers the space-lattice as
only a convenient geometrical expression of the
physical properties of a crystal, not as corresponding
to any reality of crystal-structure. It is true that he
proves (by assuming that the densities of the molecule
and of the crystal as a whole are equal, see pp. 280,
335) that the unit of crystalline structure must be the
same as the chemical molecule; but on pp. 322 and 334
he uses arguments which would prove the existence
of an infinite number of such units in a finite volume.
Crystallographers owe a debt of gratitude to the
author for his clear and complete lists of references to
the literature of the various subjects with which he
deals ; the historical notes are also very valuable. The
chapters on the two-circle goniometer and the stereo-
graphic projection contain much that is interesting
and not in the usual text-books. The appearance of
the book is attractive, but there is a large number of
misprints, some of which quite obscure the author’s
meaning. Haroip HILTon.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
The Arris and Gale Lectures on the Neurology of
Vision. By J. Herbert Parsons, B.S., D.Sc.;
F.R.C.S. Pp; - "70. (London: Hodder and
Stoughton, 1904.) Price 2s. 6d. net.
Tue two lectures delivered by Mr. Parsons in the
spring of last year before the Royal College of
Surgeons deal with some points on the neurology of
the eye which are of extreme interest. The first
lecture has for its subject the course of the afferent
impulses from the retina to the central nervous system, ~
and their final distribution in the cerebral cortex.
Since the delivery of these lectures there have been
several important contributions to this latter subject.
The case of Dr. Beevor and Dr. Collier, reported in
the summer number of Brain, seems to go conclusively
against the more restricted visual area for which
Henschen argues. In this case, despite the fact that
the lingual lobe, the depths of the calcarine fissure, and
the lower cuneal lobe were all affected, the restriction
of the field of vision was simply quadrantic. The
truth seems to be that the limits of the visual cortical
area correspond to the limits of the layer of Gennari,
and that this varies markedly in its relations to the
surface in different cases.
The second lecture deals with an equally important
FERRuUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE :
341
subject, the nervous control of .pupillary movements.
A review of the work done on the question of the
course of the pupillo-dilator fibres is given. These
fibres pass from the cervical sympathetic as a separate
tract along the carotid towards the Gasserian
ganglion, and run thence with the ophthalmic division
of the trigeminal along the nasal branch to the long
ciliary nerves, thus avoiding the ciliary ganglion. The
final portion of the lecture is devoted to a discussion
of the cortical localisation of pupillary movements.
We agree with Mr. Parsons that a very critical spirit
is necessary in dealing with this subject. Here, more
than anywhere else, is to be found the ‘“‘ elusive
factor’’ which. upsets all hypotheses. The term
‘“synkinesis’’’ seems to have a sufficiently useful
application in neurological nomenclature to justify its
invention. The limits of this notice do not allow of
more detailed criticism. We must, however, con-
gratulate Mr. Parsons on the singularly lucid, though
necessarily inconclusive, fashion in which he has dealt
with subjects of great complexity and importance.
The Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical Petro-
graphy. Part. ii. With four plates. (London:
Thos. Murby, 1904.)
SINCE the note on this work appeared in Nature (vol.
Ixxi. p. 38), we have been informed that the ‘‘ editor ”’
of it is Mr. E. Howard Adye, who is, in fact, re-
sponsible both for the text and for the very delicate
plates. The second part includes two igneous rocks
from Edinburgh, the Carboniferous oolite of Clifton,
and the beautiful green quartzite of Ightham, de-
scribed by Prof. Bonney in 1888. This last rock, we
believe, usually contains altered glauconite in addition
to the minerals mentioned by the author. We fancy
that Mr. Adye is familiar with biological writing,
which makes his descriptions rather more severely
technical than is customary among English geologists.
We thus read of a “‘ dark brown fenestrated region at
the periphery,’’ ‘‘ hypo-odontoid outgrowths,’’ ‘ bio-
genetic formation,’ and so forth. We do not know,
moreover, what degree of extraordinary accuracy is
suggested by the phrases “‘ completely polarised light ”’
and ‘‘ fully-crossed Nicols.’’ The text, however, is
usually clear and graphic. The four rock-sections
accompanying the part, and issued through the labor-
atory of Mr. J. R. Gregory, are absolutely perfect
specimens of an art rarely cultivated in the British
Isles. Gi VA Ge
Abbildungen dey in Deutschland und den angrenz-
enden Gebieten vorkommenden Grundformen der
Orchideen-arten. 60 Tafeln nach der Natur gemalt
und in Farbendruck ausgefuhrt von Walter Miller
(Gera) mit beschreiben dem Text von Dr. F.
Kranzlin (Berlin). Pp. xiv+6o0+plates. (Berlin:
R. Friedlander und Sohn, 1904.) Price 10 marks.
Tuts is a series of sixty coloured plates representing
the orchids which occur in Central Europe. The
introduction and the text are from the pen of Dr.
Kranzlin, who tells us at the outset that the book is
not intended for professed botanists, but for those who
take an interest in botany, or who possess a love of
flowers. For this reason it is, we suppose, that the
minutiz of anatomical structure and the details of
physiology are but lightly touched on. The reader,
however, has put before him in a very clear way the
principal points in the morphology of this most in-
teresting group, together with an account of the
conformation of each species.
A general statement is made as to the geographical
distribution of the several plants, but no precise indi-
cations of particular localities are given. Most of
No. 1841, VOL. 71 |
our European orchids are terrestrial and have tuberous
roots, but Liparis Loeselii, a species very rare in
Britain, has a distinct pseudo-bulb such as charac-
terises most of the tropical epiphytes of this order, and
a similar form of stem occurs in Microstylis mono-
phyllos, so that the formation of a pseudo-bulb is not
correlated solely with the epiphytic habit. Both the
tuber and the pseudo-bulb serve as food stores for the
growing plant. In Goodyera repens there is a creep-
ing underground stem which also recalls that of its
tropical congeners. These points and others of a
similar character are well represented in the plates.
These illustrations were executed from life by Mr.
Walter Miller, and they are so truthful that we may
commend them to the notice of orchid lovers. Our
field botanists will find all the British species repre-
sented, as well as a few others that are not members
of the British Flora.
Intensification and Reduction. By Henry W. Ben-
nett. Pp. xv+124. (London: Iliffe and Sons, Ltd.,
1904.)
Tuts issue, No. 15 of the Photography Bookshelf
Series, will form a useful addition to an already
valuable set of handbooks. The author has wisely
restricted himself to setting forth in a clear and con-
cise manner the better methods employed in intensifi-
cation and reduction, and has not burdened the
beginner with an elaborate index to all possible
methods past and present. The processes dealt with
are treated in some detail, so for this reason the
reader should gain a good working knowledge of
the manipulations he has in hand. The distinctive
qualities of each method are clearly brought out,
making the selection of any one for a particular
negative quite an easy matter.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ]|
Slow Transformation Products of Radium.
IN a recent number of the Philosophical Magazine
(November, 1904), I have shown that radium, after passing
through four rapid changes, finally gives rise to two slow
transformation products, which, on the scheme of changes
there outlined, were called radium D and radium E.
These two products can be separated from each other by
suitable physical and chemical methods. Radium D, which
is the parent of E, gives out only 8 rays, while E gives out
only qrays. It was calculated that D should be half trans-
formed in forty years, and E in about one year. Evidence
was also shown that radium D was the active constituent in
the radio-active lead of Hofmann, and that radium E was
the active substance present in both the polonium of Mme.
Curie and the radio-tellurium of Marckwald.
Later work has confirmed these conclusions. I have
examined the rates of decay of the activity of radium E and
of radio-tellurium, and have found them to be identical.
Each loses half its activity in about 150 days, instead of
the calculated period of one year. The specimen of radio-
tellurium was obtained from Sthamer, of Hamburg, in the
form of a thin film deposited on a polished bismuth rod.
I find that the same value for the decay and activity of
radio-tellurium has recently been obtained by Meyer and
Schweidler (Akad. d. Wiss. Wien., December 1, 1904).
I was, unfortunately, unable at the same time to
determine accurately the decay of the activity of polonium.
A specimen of polonium (ratio-active bismuth) had been in
my possession for three years, and had during that time lost a
342
jarge proportion of its original activity. On testing it, the
activity was found to have reached a small and nearly con-
stant value. Rough observations, however, which I had
made from time to time indicated that the rate of decay
of this polonium was certainly not very different from that
of radium E. More accurate experiments will be required
to settle the question definitely, but I think there is little
doubt but that their rates of decay will be found to be
the same.
Polonium, radio-tellurium, and radium E have very
similar radio-active and chemical properties. Each gives out
only a rays, and each is deposited on a bismuth plate placed
in the active solution. The probable identity of their rates
of decay, taken into conjunction with the similarity of
their radiations and chemical properties, shows that the radio-
active constituent present is in each case the same. We may
thus conclude that the active substance present in polonium
and radio-tellurium is a decomposition product of radium
and is the sixth (or, as we shall see later, probably the
seventh) member of the radium family.
The main objection, in the past, against the identity of
polonium -and radio-tellurium has rested on the statement
of Marckwald that a very active preparation of his sub-
stance did not lose its activity to an appreciable extent in
six months. Unless very special methods were employed,
it would be difficult to determine with accuracy the varia-
tion of the activity for such very active material. The
specimen of radio-tellurium obtained both by Meyer and
Schweidler and by myself undoubtedly does lose its activity
fairly rapidly.
I have recently examined more carefully the product
radium D, and have found strong evidence that it is not a
single product, but contains two distinct substances. The
parent product, radium D, does not give out rays at all,
but changes into a substance which gives out only B rays,
and is half transformed in about six days. Unless
observations are made on the product radium D shortly
after its separation, this rapid change is likely to escape
detection. The work on this subject is still in progress, but
the evidence at present obtained indicates that the active
deposit from the emanation, after passing through the three
rapid stages, represented by radium A, B, and C, is trans-
formed into a ‘‘ rayless’’ product D, which changes ex-
tremely slowly. D continuously produces from itself another
substance—which may for the time be termed D,—which
is transformed in the course of a few weeks and emits only
B rays. This product D, gives rise to E (polonium).
Since the activity of D, reaches a maximum value a few
weeks after the production of D, and will then decay at the
same rate as D, the conclusion, previously arrived at, viz.,
that D is half transformed in about forty years, still holds
good.
The view that radium D is the active constituent present
in the so-called radio-lead of Hofmann has been very
strongly supported by some experimental results recently
obtained by Hofmann, Gonder and Wolfl (Annal. der Physik,
vol. Xv., 3, 1904).
They found that preparations of radio-lead continuously
produced an a ray product, which could be separated on a
bismuth plate. This active product is probably radium E,
for they found it lost a large proportion of its activity in
one year. They found, in addition, that by certain chemical
methods another distinct. product could be separated which
gave out only B rays, and lost much of its activity in
six weeks. This substance is probably the new radium
product D, already referred to. .
Debierne recently concluded that radio-lead and polonium
were identical, and proposed that the name _ radio-lead
should be dropped in favour of polonium. In the light of
the above results, this position is not tenable. There is no
doubt that the preparation of radio-lead in my possession,
and also that experimented on by Hofmann, contains a
distinct substance which, as the parent of polonium, has
certainly as much right to a name as its offspring. The
radio-active substance in ‘‘ radio-lead’’ has no more con-
nection with lead than Marckwald’s active matter ‘“‘ radio-
tellurium ’’ has with tellurium. The names both arose
because the active matter was initially found associated
with these substances.
In order to avoid confusion, I have called the new radium
product ‘‘ radium D,.”’ If no further intermediate products
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
; NATURE
[FEBRUARY 9, 1905
of radium are brought to light, it would be simpler to call
it radium E and to call the aray product (polonium)
radium F. : E. RUTHERFORD.
McGill University, Montreal, January 24.
Indian and South African Rainfalls, 1892-1902.
Mr. J. R. Sutton, of Kimberley, rendered a signal
service to South African meteorology in his ‘* Introduction
to the Study of South African Rainfall’’ (Trans. S.A.
Philosophical Soc., December, 1903), but when he states
that south-east winds are rare on the south-east coast of
South Africa, and that the rainfall of the greater part of
the tableland and south-east coast comes from some northern
direction (NaTuRE, November 3, 1904), it is difficult to
follow his conclusions. Most, if not all, of those who
have studied South African ,rainfall will, I think, agree
with me that the facts do not bear this interpretation.
Least of all is it the case that there has been nothing that
can properly be called a drought, in the sense of Sir J.
Eliot’s address, within the past fifteen years in South
Africa. In all the summer rainfall areas of South Africa,
viz., over the bulk of the subcontinent, drought has pre-
vailed during recent years, and in some localities it has
been terribly severe.
During twenty years I have travelled over every part of
South Africa except the desert areas, and I have resided
continuously in those parts where there is most rain and
forest. I have heard the rain and its mode of arrival
discussed in every locality and from every point of view,
and these facts have convinced me that the summer rains
have their origin in the moist winds from the Indian
Ocean. The precipitation of the moisture contained in
these humid air currents is caused by barometric depressions
with normal cyclonic wind circulation, and it is the winds
proper to these depressions that give the appearance of
rains coming from the north, north-west, west, &c.
The following gives a brief account of the various storm
types. In Cape Colony storms travel from west to east
at all times of the year. As one would expect, they are
more regular and better developed in the south than in
the north, and in Rhodesia than in the Northern Transvaal.
In the north during summer they may be replaced by
westward travelling tropical storms. Usually it is the
secondary with its thunderstorms, a whirl within a whirl,
which precipitates the greater amount of moisture. In
the southern portion of the subcontinent these storms in
most cases pass across from west to east with their centres
to the south, and thus their wind circulation shows at first
winds from the north and north-west, then from the west
and south-west, and finally from the south and south-east.
In summer, when the south-east trade blows on to the
subcontinent with a monsoon effect, the wind remains
longer in the south-east quarter, and heavy rains come
frequently from the south-east or the south-west quarter.
The portion of the barometric depression and its accom-
panying circulation which brings the wind will depend on
the position of the locality, but I have never known the
facts not to conform more or less closely to this type of
wind circulation. A range of mountains across the south-
east rain-producing wind will, of course, increase the
precipitation, and when once rain has started in the south-
east quarter it will often continue for days with a steady
south-east wind blowing like a south-west monsoon wind
in India. All this takes place on the eastern side of South
Africa. The rain is greatest in amount where the east
wind from the Indian Ocean first strikes the highest
eastern land, and the rain gradually decreases in amount
until the western deserts are reached. It is generally the
north-west wind which starts the precipitation, but it is
quite certain notwithstanding that the humid currents do
not come from the north-west. If, as Mr. Sutton has
suggested, the high upper current of the north-west anti-
trade were the source of South African rains, then it would
be natural to suppose that the rains would be best de-
veloped on the north and western sides of South Africa,
which is exactly the reverse of what actually takes place.
South Africa lies on the border of the south-east trade
area. In summer South Africa, from Cape Town to the
Zambezi, comes entirely under the influence of the south-
east trade winds; but in winter the southern portion of
——-
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NAIM OD IE
Sao
Cape Colony is subject to another type of weather, due to
the passage of storms from the South Atlantic, the ‘* roaring
forties’? of mariners. It is necessary very carefully to
distinguish between these two weather systems. In the
one the storms bring winter rains to a small part of the
subcontinent, i.e. Cape Town and the south-west; in the
other the storms precipitate the abundant moisture brought
by the trade winds from the Indian Ocean, more or less
over the whole subcontinent.
This much of explanation is necessary in order to under-
stand clearly the connection between the weather of India
and that of South Africa. In studying this connection we
have at the outset to eliminate the winter weather of the
south-west with its winter rains coming from the South
Atlantic.
Sir John Eliot, in his reply to Mr. Sutton, very properly
excludes the area of winter rains. I go further, and
exclude what Mr. Sutton has termed the area of spring and
autumn rains. The latter are areas where, with the winter
storms still prevailing and the summer south-easters com-
ing in from the Indian Ocean, there is the most marked
precipitation in spring and autumn. We are not in a
position to say how far these rains have been produced by
the tail-end of the retreating Atlantic storms or by the
head of the advancing humid south-east trade currents.
The fertile country watered directly by the south-east trade
is comprised in sections x. to xv. of Mr. Sutton’s rain-
fall areas, viz. the east of Cape Colony, Kaffraria, Basuto-
land, the Orange River Colony and Natal, and, in addition,
all the Transvaal, Rhodesia, and the Portuguese territory ;
in fact, it is the whole of fertile South Africa with the
exception of the southern and south-west coasts. In the
table below I give the mean of Mr. Sutton’s figures for
his sections x. to xv., comprising Eastern Cape Colony,
Transkei, Basutoland, Orangia, and Natal, and I add
the yearly rainfall from typical stations in the Transvaal
and Rhodesia, as correct general average figures for these
territories are not available.
.
Percentages of Rainfall in the "Summer Rainfall Areas,
1891 to 1902: Mean of Sutton’s Sections x. to xv.
1891
1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
Per cent.
136 106 132 97 103 102 74 107 89 82 98 93
And correcting Sir John Eliot’s table to purely summer
rainfalls it will read thus :—
Period of general excess of rain.| Period of general deficiency of rain.
a —————————————— | A
Percentage variation Percentage variation
Year Summer rainfall. | Year. Summer rainfall.
———__—. A
India S.. Africa. India S. Africa.
TSOZM ee Le + 6 | 1895 Re Ss ap
ES93° 3. 22) .-. + 32)5|/"S96i(famine))... —-12 + 2
1994 «2 16) -.. —/3) |pnso7 . Normal ... —26
1898 a I + 7
1899 (famine)... —27 —11
1900 ee NT -—18
190l fale POF go SS
1902 tees = "7/
These figures show more strikingly than those already
quoted by Sir John Eliot the intimate connection between
the rainfall of India and South Africa during the period
1892 to 1902, and the connection would have shown better
if seasonal instead of calendar years had been taken, since
the calendar year cuts into two unequal portions the South
African summer rainfall. It will be noted that each Indian
famine year has been followed by one or two particularly
bad years of drought in South Africa.
It is a somewhat remarkable coincidence that, while the
number of Nature containing this discussion was on the
sea on its way to the Cape, I prepared my yearly forecast
of South African weather, and in that took occasion to
point out the very close connection of the two rainfalls
during this period. I may perhaps crave your indulgence
to reproduce it, since it confirms so singularly Sir John
Eliot’s view. Speaking of certain typical stations I said :—
““Sir John Eliot’s paper shows that 1892, 1893, and 1894
were years of good rainfall in India. These were the last
No. 1841, VOL. 71]
years of general good rainfall we had in South Africa.
In 1895 the drought set in at most South African stations-
Further, in this droughty period there were two years of
bad famine, viz., 1896 and 1899. These two years of
famine in India were the two worst years of drought at
many typical South African stations. At present we are
not in a position to obtain average figures for the whole
of South Africa, but nearly the same purpose will be served
by taking certain typical stations thus:
““ At Bulawayo (Hope Fountain), in 1890-1, there was
the heaviest rain on record, viz., 45 inches; all the fol-
lowing years have been years of drought except three years
when the rainfall was barely above the average.
‘* At Johannesburg there were good rains in 1894, when
there were good rains in India, fair rains in 1895, and
then drought, when there was drought in India. 1896
(one of the Indian famine years) was the worst year of
drought in Johannesburg. The great Indian famine of
1899 was represented by a bad drought 1898-9 preceding
the failure of the Indian monsoon by four months. .. .
“Natal rainfalls correspond closely with the Indian
rainfalls. While 1899 was the worst famine for many
years in India, 1899 and 1900 were the two worst years
of drought ever experienced at Durban, in Natal, since
meteorological observations were begun there in 1866. In
1900, the Durban rainfall was only 27 inches against an
average of 41 inches. At Maritzburg, representing the
inland Natal districts, 1899 was also a year of drought,
but the greatest deficiency was registered the following
year (probably chiefly due to the calendar year dividing the
seasonal year).
‘‘ Again, at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, in 1899 there
was under 20 inches against an average of 29 inches;
at King William’s Town in 1899, only 16 inches against
an average of 25 inches; while at Graaff-Reinet in 1899)
there was only 9 inches against an average of 15 inches.
At all these South African stations, 1899, the great Indian
famine year, was the worst year of drought in recent
times ! ””
The rainfall curves for Umtata, Evelyn Valley, and’
Katberg show similar features, viz., severe South African
droughts corresponding to the years of Indian famine, and
a general deficiency of rainfall corresponding with the
years of general deficiency of Indian rainfall. The rainfall
curve of Evelyn Valley (Fig. 1), however, is very remark-
able. This is a forest station, and the observer a par-
ticularly good one. I have elsewhere compared this
station to Cherapunji, in India. I founded this station in
1887, and it has since shown the heaviest rainfall on the
summer register. It lies in a cul de sac of the mountains
facing the south-east at an elevation of 4200 feet. I have
long regarded it as the typical southern station for the
summer rainfalls. A study of its yearly rainfall curve
shows how rain failed here in the most striking manner
previous to the Indian famine of 1896, and during and
after the Indian famine of 1899.
With regard to Mr. Sutton’s statement that there has
been no severe drought during recent years in South
Africa, there is abundant evidence to the contrary.
A year ago I wrote: ‘‘ In the Karoo the present drought
is considered the worst during the last half-century. At
Hanover (Upper Karoo) during nearly a year there has
fallen only three-quarters of an inch, the normal yearly
rainfall being 15 inches. The drought has lasted on and
off since 1896-8, and during the worst years cattle and
sheep have perished in millions. In British Central Africa
the drought has lasted since about 1898; it is reported that
the Shiré Lake is now nearly dry. Last summer’s crops
in the Transvaal, so sorely needed after the war, were a
complete failure, while in Natal, Rhodesia, and the country
to the north there was in many places famine, and people
dying in places too remote to be reached by Government
aid.
“When will the drought end? is now the great question
for the country.
“Good rains have fallen recently all down
side and on the south coast of South Africa. This rain
has come as a precious mitigation of the drought. It may
be looked on as a favourable indication for a good season
—perhaps more favourable if it had come later.
“The local and other indications of an early ending of
the eastern
344
It has definitely broken up
the drought are favourable.
dated November 23,
in Australia.’’ (Weather forecast,
1903.)
Writing a year later, November 23rd, 1904, I said:
‘My weather forecast for last year (published in the
Cape Times of November 23, 1903) indicated the expecta-
tion of a more or less complete break-up of the drought.
This forecast has been fulfilled. In many parts of South
Africa, particularly towards the north, the drought has
broken, and good seasons were experienced last year. In
other parts the rains were insufficient to really break the
drought. This was the case in the fertile ‘ conquered
territory ’ of Orangia, and over wide areas in Cape Colony.
In the Transkei drought remains unbroken, It is de-
scribed as a drought of terrible severity, and one that has
stopped all ploughing and killed from 50 to 60 per cent.
of the sheep in some of the districts. As was remarked
by a correspondent in the Cape Times a few days since,
laches
my
PS
(C36
1895
NATURE
Fic, 1.—Rainfall, Evelyn Valley,
“No one not living here has any idea of the terrible
condition existing in the Karoo and Eastern Province.
The springs on most of the farms have utterly disappeared.
On one farm in the Cradock district with large lands,
orchards, and a water-mill at the junction of two kloofs
in the Sneeuwberg, the river beds are as dry as a street;
the farmer has sold all his stock, and I actually saw the
water for household use brought some distance in a barrel,
In former years the water-mill was in constant use for all
the surrounding country.’ ”’
Writing to me recently from Zomba, in British Central
Africa, Mr. Clounie, the head of the scientific department,
speaking of last summer's rains, says: ‘‘ The wet season
from November to April last has been remarkably good,
and crops everywhere have been excellent. I think every-
thing points to the end of the drought and a return to a
period of good rains.”’
As regards the drought further north, the reader may
NO. 1841, VOL. 71}
[FeBRuARY 9, 1905
turn to Nature of November 3, 1904 (p. 15).
the extract for ready reference :—
‘* Appendix iii, of a report upon the basin of the Upper
Nile, with proposals for the improvement of the river by
Sir William Garstin, contains an interesting account of the
variations of level of Lake Victoria Nyanza contributed by
Captain H, G, Lyons, the director of the Survey Depart-
ment of Egypt. This lake has a water surface of about
68,000 square kilometres, and is situated about 1129 metres
above sea-level. It is believed to be of shallow depth, and
lies for the most part of the year in the region of the
equatorial rain and cloud belt, the excess water draining
off at the Ripon Falls by the Victoria Nile. After refer-
I produce
ence to the geology and climate of the region, a brief
historical summary is given of the early lake levels as
observed by travellers and others visiting or residing by
it; this is followed by a detailed study and discussion of
the various gauges.
Some of the results obtained are as
follows :—The annual oscilla-
tion of the lake is from 0-30
metre to ogo metre. Between
1896 and 1902 there was a fall
of 70cm. in the average level,
since followed by a rise of
56cm. The epochs of high
and low levels are given
as :—1878, high level; 1880-
go, falling level; 1892-5, tem-
porary high level; 1896-1902,
talling level; 1903, rising
level.”
The kernel of this quotation
lies in the last six words: it
shows the same correspond-
ence with the Indian rainfall
figures as the summer rain-
fall figures of South Africa.
D. E. Hurenins.
Cape Town, December 8.
Compulsory Greek at
Cambridge.
SOME years ago a young
lady who was studying at
Girton came to Bristol to
spend a part of her first vaca-
tion after passing the
** Little-go.’’ She had never
learnt Greek at school, but
had been coached by an elder
brother, who was at that
/ time in residence at Cam-
bridge; in about two months
she obtained a knowledge of
Greek sufficient to meet the
requirements of the authori-
ties at Cambridge.
While she was with us we
paid a visit to the neigh-
bouring city of Bath, and I
directed her attention to the
motto which is inscribed on
the Roman baths there, viz. :
&pioroy uty Vdwp.
Remembering her recent success in the “ Little-go,’’ I
jokingly asked her the meaning of this inscription—not
imagining for a moment that Cambridge compulsory Greek
would be unequal to such an easy task; she was, how-
ever, unable to give the meaning of the words; she did
not think she had ever seen &pioroy, but was of
opinion that she had in the course of her reading met the
word #5wp, but did not remember what it meant.
It may be well to add that the lady in question has great
linguistic ability, and in due course obtained a good place
in the Modern Languages Tripos.
Do our ultra-classical friends really think that com-
pulsory ‘‘ Greek” of this type is worth preserving ?
J. WeRTHEIMER.
Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
Bristol, January 30.
I ERKUAKY 9, 1905]
NATURE
345
NOTES ON STONEHENGE,*
Il.-—ArRCHAZOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE,
1901.
OON after Mr. Penrose and myself had made our |
of Stonehenge in 1g01, some |
astronomical surve
archzological results of the highest importance were
obtained by Prof.’ Gowland, The operations which
secured them were designed and carried out in order
to re-erect the leaning stone which threatened to fall,
a piece of worl recommended to Sir Edmund Antrobus
by the Society of Antiquaries and other learned bodies,
and conducted at his desire and expense.
They were necessarily on a large scale, for the great
monolith, ‘f the leaning stone,” is the largest in Eng-
land, Cleopatra’s Needle excepted. It stood behind
the altar stone, over which it leant at an angle of
65 degrees, resting’ at one point against a small
stone of syenite. Half-way up it had a fracture one-
third across it; the weight of stone above this frae-
ture was a dangerous strain on it, so that both
powerful machinery and great care and precautions
had to be used,
the Society of Antiquaries with the conduct of the
excavations necessary in the work, The engineering
operations were planned by Mr, Carruthers, and
Mr. Detmar Blow was responsible for the local super- |
intendence. Mr. Blow thus describes the arrange-
ments (Journal Institute of British Architects, 3rd
series, ix., January, 1902) :—
‘A strong cradle of 12-inch square baulks of timber
was bolted round the stone, with packing and felt, to
prevent any marking of the stone. ‘To the cradle were
fixed two 1-inch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks
for two six-folds of 6-inch ropes. These were secured
and wound on to two strong winches fifty feet away,
with four men at each winch. When the ropes were
thoroughly tight, the first excavation was made as
the stone was raised on its west side.”’
1 Continued from p. 300.
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
The method employed by Prof. Gowland in the
| excavation should be a model for all future work of
the kind, I have to express my thanks to the council
of the Society of Antiquaries and Prof, Gowland for
permission to use the accompanying illustrations show-
| ing the operations and results,
Prof. Gowland was charged by |
Above each space to be excavated was placed a
frame of wood, bearing on its long sides the letters
A to H, and on its short sides the letters R M L, each
letter being on a line one foot distant from the next.
By this means the area to be excavated was divided
into squares, each having the dimension of a square
foot. A long rod divided into 6-inch spaces, num-
bered from 1 to 16, was also provided for indicating
the depth from the datum line of anything found.
In this way a letter on the long sides of the frames,
together with one on the short sides, and a number
on the vertical rod, indicated the position of any
object found in any part of the exeavation,
ae aos
da
oe:
The arrangements for raising the stone.
Excavations were necessary because to secure the
stone for the future the whole of the adjacent soil
had to be removed down to the rocls level, so that it
could be replaced by concrete.
All results were registered by Prof, Gowland in rela-
tion to a datum line 337-4 feet above sea level. The
material was removed in buckets, and carefully sifted
through a series of sieves 1-inch, }-inch, }-inch, and
1-inch mesh, in order that the smallest object might
not be overlooked.
From the exhaustive account of his work given by
Prof. Gowland to the Society of Antiquaries (Archaco-
logia, \viii.), I gather three results of the highest
importance from the point of view I am considering.
These were, first, the finding of an enormous number
of implements; secondly, the disposition and relative
quantities of the chippings of the sarsen and blue
stones; and thirdly, the discovery of the method by
which the stones were originally erected.
I will take the implements first. This, in a con-
346
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 9, 1905
densed form, is what Prof. Gowland says about
them:
More than a hundred flint implements were found,
and the greater number occurred in the stratum of
challk rubble which either directly overlaid or was on |
a level with the bed rock. They may all be arranged
generally in the following classes :—
Class I.—Axes roughly chipped and of rude forms,
but having well-defined, more or less sharp cutting
edges.
Class II.—Hammerstones, with more or less well-
chipped, sharp curved edges. Most may be correctly
termed hammer-axes.
Class III.—Hammerstones, more or less rounded.
Some specimens appear to have once had distinct
| bered by thousands.
|
ment. We evidently have to deal with builders doing
their work in the Stone and not in the Bronze age.
But was the age Paleolithic or Neolithic?
Prof. Gowland writes :—
““Perhaps the most striking features of the flint
implements is their extreme rudeness, and that there
is not a single ground or polished specimen among
them. This, at first sight and without due consider-
ation, might be taken to indicate an extremely remote
age. But in this connection it must be borne in mind
that in the building of such a stupendous structure as
Stonehenge, the tools required must have been num-
The work, too, was of the
roughest character, and for such only rude tools were
| required. The highly finished and polished imple-
working edges, but they are now much blunted and |
battered by use.
In addition to the above flint implements were
found about thirty hammerstones, consisting of large
pebbles or small boulders of the hard quartzite variety
of sarsen. Some have been roughly broken into con-
venient forms for holding in the hand, whilst a few
ments which we are accustomed to consider, and
rightly so, as characteristic of Neolithic man, would
find no place in such work. They required too much
labour and time for their manufacture, and, when
made, could not have been more effective than the
hammer-axes and hammerstones found in the excava-
tions, which could be so easily fashioned by merely
Fic.
have been rudely trimmed into more regular shapes.
They vary in weight from about a pound up to six
and a half pounds. To these we have to add mauls,
a more remarkable kind of hammerstone than those
just enumerated. Their weights range from about
40 lb. to 64 Ib.
How came these flints and stones where they were
found? Prof. Gowland gives an answer which every-
body will accept. The implements must be regarded
as the discarded tools of the builders of Stonehenge,
dumped down into the holes as they became unfit for
use, and, in fact, used to pack the monoliths as they
were erected. We read :—‘‘ Dealing with the cavity
occupied by No. 55 before its fall, the mauls were
found wedged in below the front of its base to act
together with the large blocks of sarsen as supports
(p. 54)-”’ Nearly all bear evidence of extremely rough
their edges being jagged and broken, just as
should expect to find after such rough employ-
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
usage,
5-—Some of the flint implements.
| rudely shaping the natural flints, with which the
district abounds, by a few well directed blows of a
| sarsen pebble.”
On this ground Prof. Gowland is of opinion that,
notwithstanding their rudeness, they may be legiti-
mately ascribed to the Neolithic age, and, it may be,
near its termination, that is, before the Bronze age,
the commencement of which has been placed at
1400 B.c. by Sir John Evans for Britain, though he
is inclined to think that estimate too low, and 2000 B.c.
by Montelius for Italy.
Prof. Gowland guardedly writes :—
““TIn my opinion, the date when copper or bronze
was first known in Britain is a very remote one, as
no country in the world presented greater facilities
for their discovery. The beginning of their applica-
tion to practical uses should, I think, be placed at least
as far back as 1800 B.c.,.and that date I am inclined
to give, until further evidence is forthcoming, as the
approximate date of the erection of Stonehenge.”’
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE
347
Now the date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself
on astronomical grounds was about 1700 B.c. It is
not a little remarkable that independent astronomical
and archzological inquiries conducted in the same
year should have come so nearly to the same conclu-
sion. If a general agreement be arrived at regarding
it, we have a firm basis for the study of other similar
ancient monuments in this country.
I have previously in these ‘‘ Notes” referred to the
fact that the trilithons of the naos and of the outer
circle are all built up of so-called ‘‘ sarsen ’’ stones.
To describe their geological character, I cannot do
better than quote, from Mr. Cunnington’s ‘‘ Geology
of Stonehenge,”! their origin according to Prest-
wich :—
“Among the Lower Tertiaries (the Eocene of Sir
Charles Lyell), are certain sands and mottled clays,
named by Mr. Prestwich the Woolwich and Reading
beds, from their being largely developed at these
places, and from these he proves the sarsens to have
been derived; although they are seldom found in situ,
been brought by man, from distant localities. Prof.
Judd inclines to the first opinion.
The distinctions between these two kinds of stone
are well shown by Prof. Gowland :—
‘©The large monoliths of the outer circle, and the
trilithons of the horse-shoe are all sarsens—sand-
stones, consisting of quartz-sand, either fine or coarse,
occasionally mixed with pebbles and angular bits of
flint, all more or less firmly cemented together with
silica. They range in structure from a granular rock
resembling loaf sugar in internal appearance to. one
of great compactness similar to quartzite.”
‘““The monoliths and trilithons all consist of the
granular rock. The examples of the compact
quartzite variety were, almost without exception, either
hammerstones that had been used in shaping and
dressing the monoliths, or fragments which had been
broken from off them.”’
‘© The small monoliths, the so-called ‘ blue stones,’
which form the inner circle and the inner horse-
shoe, are, with the undermentioned exceptions, all of
diabase more or less porphyritic. Two are porphyrite
(formerly known as felstone or hornstone). Two are
F argillaceous sandstone.”’
DATUM LINE Ave CD “Mr. William Cun-
I nington, in his valuable
2 paper, ‘Stonehenge
3 , Notes,’ records the
discovery of two stumps
GY re = b= 9% PARTY CHALE, of ‘blue stones’ now
a eG 8 Ae LE EN IEEL covered by the turf
) 3 g) ao ew oo le CHALK One of these lies in the
6 AS a Ee) LE inner horseshoe between
9 Ze, =4 < H Nos. 61 and 62, and 9g
7 Way ai EY == | ++ feet distant from the
ag “Hf |o 2 a ean latter. It is diabase.
9 to, 2 ly SS The other is in the inner
ce es 1 Aros a CHALK ROCK circle between Nos. 32
10 w= a! SR and 33, 10 feet from the
iS 2 1 : Jo former, and consists of
2 105 eae k je a soft calcareous altered
) Z aled 2 e
12 De, 4 a Fees tuff, afterwards desig-
13 3,| ee ee nated for the sake of
= brevity fissile rock.
14 a 5, esa Lae evity :
i) aaa er = : The altar stone is of
1S 4) | ie W FLINT IMPLEMENT micaceous sandstone.’’
16 Vp I pikewere oo cs @ SARSEN HAMMERSTONE I now come to the
——<_ - second point, to which I
; - shall return in subse-
ee gash NOES
= SSEEET. 0 = In studying the
3 material obtained from
Fic. 6.—Face of rock against which a stone was made to rest.
owing to the destruction of the stratum to which they
belonged.
““ The abundance of these remains, especially in some
of the valleys of North Wilts, is very remarkable. Few
persons who have not seen them can form an adequate
idea of the extraordinary scene presented to the eye of
the spectator, who, standing on the brow of one of the
hills near Clatford, sees stretching for miles before
him, countless numbers of these enormous stones,
occupying the middle of the valley, and winding like
a mighty stream towards the south.”’
These stones, then, may be regarded as closely
associated with the local geology. F
The exact nature of the stones, called ‘ blue
stones,’’ can best be gathered from a valuable ‘‘ Note ”’
by Prof. Judd which accompanies Prof. Gowland’s
paper. These blue stones are entirely unconnected
with the local geology ; they must, therefore, repre-
sent boulders of the Glacial drift, or they must have
1 Wilts Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, xxi. pp.
141-149.
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
the excavations, it was
found in almost every
case that the number of chippings and _ frag-
ments of blue stone largely exceeded that of
the sarsens; more than this, diabase (blue stone)
and sarsen were found together in the layer
overlying the solid chalk (p. 15). Chippings
of diabase were the most abundant, but there
were few large pieces of it. Sarsen, on the other
hand, occurred most abundantly in lumps (p. 20);
very few small chips of sarsen were found (p. 42).
Hence Prof. Gowland is of opinion that the sarsen
blocks were roughly hewn where they were found
(p-*40); the local tooling, executed with the small
quartzite hammers and mauls, would produce dust.
Finally, I reach the third point of importance from
the present standpoint; the excavations produced clear
evidence touching the mode of erection. Prof.
Gowland’s memoir deals only with the leaning stone,
but I take it for granted that the same method was
employed throughout. This method was this :—
(1) The ground on the site it was to occupy
was removed, the chalk rock being cut into in such a
348
NATURE
[ FEBRUARY 9, 1905
manner as to leave a ledge, on which the base of the
stone was to rest, and a perpendicular face rising from
it, against which as a buttress one side would bear
when set up. From the bottom of this hole an in-
clined plane was cut to the surface, down which the
monolith which had already been dressed was slid
until its base rested on the ledge.
tion by means first of levers and afterwards of a
ropes. The levers would be long trunks of trees, to
one end of which a number of ropes were attached
(this method is still employed in Japan), so that the
weights and pulling force of many men might be
exerted on them. The stronger ropes were probably
of hide or hair, but others of straw, or of withes of
hazel or willow, may have been in use for minor
purposes.
(3) As the stone was raised, it was packed up
with logs of timber and probably also with blocks of
stone placed beneath it.
(4) After its upper end had reached a certain eleva- |
| history of our own globe.
(2) It was then gradually raised into a vertical posi- |
| the geological history of our planet.
GEOLOGY OF THE MOON.
FOR many years past geologists have turned wist-
fully to the moon in the hope of gaining from a
study of its surface some insight into planetary evolu-
tion, and more especially into some of the stages in the
It must be confessed, how-
ever, that as yet few satisfactory data have been ob-
tained, either in the facts observed or in the deductions
| drawn from them. The great majority of those who
have studied the subject have formed the opinion that
our satellite was once a liquid mass, such as we
believe the earth itself to have also been, and that
its so-called “craters ’’ represent extensive and pro-
longed volcanic activity, when the gases and lava of
| the heated interior escaped to the surface, probably
| on a scale of magnitude greatly surpassing that on
which subterranean energy has ever been manifested in
But another ex-
planation has been proposed for these lunar features,
according to which, as worked out by Mr. G. K.
Fic. 7-—The present aspect of the monument with the leaning stone raised.
tion, ropes were attached to it, and it was then hauled
by numerous men into a vertical position, so that its
back rested against the perpendicular face of the chalk
which had been prepared for it. During this part of
the operation, struts of timber would probably be
placed against its sides to guard against slip.
As regards the raising of the lintels, and imposts,
and the placing of them on the tops of the uprights,
there would be even less difficulty than in the erection
of the uprights themselves.
It could be easily effected by the simple method
practised in Japan for placing heavy blocks of stone in
position. The stone, when lying on the ground, would
be raised a little at one end by means of long wooden
levers. A packing of logs would then be placed under
the end so raised, the other extremity of the stone
would be similarly raised and packed, and the raising
and packing at alternate ends would be continued
until the block had gradually reached the height of
the uprights. It would then be simply pushed forward
by levers until it rested upon them.
I shall deal later on with several interesting con-
lusions to which these investigations lead.
Norman LOcKyER.
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, the
moon was formed by the aggregation of a ring of
meteorites which once encircled the earth, and the
‘craters,”? instead of arising from the escape of
volcanic energy from within, were produced by the
impact of the last meteoric bodies that fell from
without. These bodies, arriving with planetary
velocity, would be melted or reduced to gas, while
a portion of the lunar surface around them would
also be liquefied. Mr. Gilbert believes that the lunar
topography bears witness to such a meteoritic bom-
bardment rather than to gigantic volcanic explosions.
The latest contribution to the discussion was
recently presented to the Academy of Sciences of
Paris by MM. Loewy and Puiseux. These eminent
astronomers direct attention to the evidence furnished
by the latest photographic charts of the ‘‘ Atlas
Lunaire’? in regard to the conditions in which a
planetary body passes from the liquid to the solid state,
and to the stage in this transformation which has
been reached respectively by the earth and the moon,
With respect to the evolution of the earth two
| opposite theories have been propounded. The great
| body of geologists have maintained that the interior
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE
349
of the planet is an incandescent mass which is slowly
cooling and consolidating from the surface inward,
and is enclosed within a comparatively thin solid crust.
Some distinguished physicists, however, have con-
tended that the first formed crust would break up,
sink down, and be re-melted; and thus that permanent
consolidation would begin at the centre, and would
gradually extend outwards, until eventually the whole
globe became practically solid, with only here and
there large vesicular spaces whence active volcanoes
are supplied. The densest and least fusible materials
would thus tend to accumulate towards the centre,
and the lightest and most fusible towards the out-
side. The geological belief rests upon a large body
of evidence from the structure of the terrestrial crust,
which it is difficult or impossible to explain except
on the supposition of an internal mass which at least
in its outer parts is sufficiently liquid to emerge at
the surface as molten lava. The physical argument
rests on certain mathematical assumptions the
validity of which has been contested. One of these
assumptions is that if the interior were liquid, tides
would be set up in its mass, and the crust would rise
and fall with the passage of the internal tidal wave.
Another objection is based on the supposition that
huge mountain-chains could not possibly be supported
by a thin crust, but would sink down into the interior.
More recently the idea has been suggested that the
internal core of the earth is gaseous. At the high
temperatures and enormous pressures in the interior
of the planet, gaseous iron or lava must be more
incompressible than steel is at the surface. On the
outside of this gaseous mass it is believed that the
materials pass into the liquid form or magma _ which
extends as a comparatively thin envelope round the
gaseous core, and shades off outward into a solid
crust which may not be more than twenty-five or thirty
miles in thickness. The most recent earthquake
observations have been quoted in support of this view.
Messrs. Loewy and Puiseux approach the subject
impartially from a study of the phenomena presented
by the surface of the moon as recorded in a series
of photographs. They accept the general belief that
our satellite was once a liquid globe, and that traces
of its passage from that condition to its present state
of consolidation can be clearly recognised. They
cannot say whether its temperature increases with
depth from the surface, or if there is any variation in
density, but they find in their photographs various
particulars which, in their opinion, show that the
solidification started from the surface.
The differences of level on the surface of the moon
are relatively greater and more abrupt than those on
the surface of the earth, and they display in many
ways the dynamic effects which a liquid when in
movement exerts on its solid containing walls, such
as the superficial outpourings which have covered two-
fifths of the visible lunar surface and have turned
these tracts into continuous plains, round the margins
of which numerous remains of the previous relief
have been left. Other effects are seen in the traces
of instability in the mountain ranges, the fractures,
sharply-defined terraces and marginal fissures so
often observable. The neighbourhood of a great
sheet of liquid material is required to account for
the undulations and horizontal displacements which
have affected large tracts of the surface, such as the.
breaking down of the crest of the Apennines, the
separation of the rectangular blocks of the Caucasus,
and the formation of the rectilinear valleys of Rheita,
the Alps, and Ariadzeus.
The most decisive argument in favour of the
gradual cooling of the moon from the outside towards
the interior appears to be furnished by some facts
which are brought out with great clearness by the
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
recent photographs. Thus the two French
astronomers have satisfied themselves that after the
first establishment of a thin crust the inward retreat
of the liquid took place gradually, until the fatal
moment arrived when it partly lost connection with
the overlying solidified crust, so that an intermediate
vacant space was left between them. This temporary
interval, being filled with gas at a high pressure,
formed a cushion which was sufficiently elastic to
prevent any falling-in, but was too limited in extent to
affect isostatic compensations, so that the internal
tides might be developed without endangering the
external figure of the moon. When, for some un-
known reason, as happens also on our globe, the
lunar eruptive forces assumed special vigour, the crust,
yielding to the pressures along its least resisting parts,
was overflowed by the liquid interior. Such local
subsidences gave rise to the great cirques and various
other features in the polar region, where the cooling
was most rapid, and where, for easily intelligible
reasons, the crust reached a considerably greater
thickness. But in the equatorial zone, where the tides
and the centrifugal force are most powerful, these
violent perturbations led to vast subsidences which
now form the lunar ‘‘ seas.’? The survival of remains
of the earlier topographical relief, still visible along
the borders of these tracts, bears witness to the nature
of the gigantic changes. Each eruptive movement
has marked, by the level bottom of the formations,
the height of the level of the subjacent liquid. Five
such stages in the subsidence of the molten matter
are displayed in the photographs. We can _under-
stand that the process would be repeated with
diminishing energy until the gradually thickening
crust presented too great an obstacle to the eruptive
action. Various striking examples are cited by the
authors; in particular one where the five platforms
are separated from each other by a step-like interval
of several thousand metres. Had the consolidation
begun at the centre of the moon, it is contended, the
result would have been altogether different, for then
only the latest level should have been seen, and the
eruptive forces would have had neither an opportunity
of manifesting themselves nor the means of leaving
permanent traces at very different stages.
MM. Leewy and Puiseux examine the argument
from the tides in favour of the consolidation of a
planet from the centre outwards, and remark that
it must be considered as doubtful, because we do not
know how far the coefficient of viscosity or internal
friction, which has been employed in the calculations,
agrees with the reality. They suggest that as the
materials in the interior are under enormous pressure
they may quite possibly have such viscosity, and
yield so slowly to planetary influences, which are con-
tinually changing in direction in consequence of the
diurnal movement, that no appreciable tidal deforma-
tion may result. In the case of the moon it is
admitted that the tides in the still liquid mass would
for a long time delay the formation of an outer
crust, which before its final establishment must have
undergone many violent disruptions, when its broken-
up sheets were overflowed by the molten matter from
within. But in the course of time it has ended by
attaining a great thickness in consequence of con-
tinual cooling and the contraction of the outer layers.
The argument that on the supposition of a com-
paratively thin crust the existence of mountainous
masses would be impossible is less applicable to the
moon, where the force of gravity is six times less
than on the earth. But in the opinion of the two
French astronomers the argument need not be
seriously considered, either for our planet or for our
satellite, inasmuch as it depends on a_ problematic
theory which is entirely based on an imaccurate
359
hypothesis of homogeneity. Mountainous ex-
crescences, so far from weakening the general stability,
really conduce to it; they are not only held up by the
tenacity of the neighbouring parts, but, as Airy sug-
gested, they probably have roots which plunge down
into material of greater density and permit them to
float.
The authors affirm, in conclusion, that their detailed
study of the moon appears to them to confirm
geologists in their preference for the theory of a thin
crust and to indicate that the transition to solidity,
still incomplete for the moon, is far from having
reached its end upon the earth. ARCH, GEIKIE.
NOTES.
WE regret to announce that Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S.,
died on Saturday last, February 4, at fifty-one years of age.
It is proposed to erect a monument at Laibach, in Aus-
tria, to the memory of Vega, author of the well-known
table of logarithms, which is now in its eightieth edition.
From the American Mathematical Bulletin for January we
learn of the death of Dr. Francesco Chizzoni, professor of
geometry at Modena, and of Prof. Achsah M. Ely (Miss
Ely), head of the department of mathematics at Vassar
College, U.S.A.
Tue Wilde medal of the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society has been awarded to Prof. C. Lapworth,
F.R.S. The medal will be presented on February 28, when
the Wilde lecture of the society will be delivered by Dr.
D. H. Scott, F.R.S., on ‘‘ The Early History of Seed-
bearing Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora.’’
For the past year, a station for solar research has been
maintained on Mount Wilson, California, by the Yerkes
Observatory, with the aid of a grant from the Carnegie
Institution of Washington. This station has now been
replaced by a new solar observatory which has been estab-
lished by the Carnegie Institution, and the following staff,
formerly of the Yerkes Observatory, has been appointed :—
Prof. G. E. Hale (director), Prof. G. W. Ritchey, Mr. F.
Ellerman, and Mr. W. S. Adams.
Pror. VALDEMAR STEIN, leader of a well known Copenhagen
analytical and chemical laboratory, where for a number of
years official and private tests and investigations in Den-
mark have taken place, died on February 1, aged 69 years.
He took over in 1863 the laboratory founded by H. C.
Orsted and altered it to its present shape, making it a
valuable public institution. Beside his work there Stein
was Government adviser in chemical agriculture, and wrote
many scientific articles on chemical and agricultural sub-
jects.
Tue Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, at the
last annual meeting, awarded the Lomonosoff prize of rool. to
Prof. N. A. Menschutkin for his well-known and extensive
researches in the domain of theoretical chemistry. The Ivanoff
prize was awarded to Prof. P. N. Lebedeff, of Moscow,
for his remarkable experimental researches on the pressure
of light. At the same meeting, Prof. S. Th. Oldenburg
declared, in his yearly review of the work of the academy,
that the Polar Committee had given up all hope of the
return of Baron Edward Toll, F. G. Seeberg, and their
two companions. The party was probably lost during the
Arctic night while trying to cross the ice-fields lying
between Bennett Island and the New Siberian archipelago.
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
NALORE.
| FEBRUARY 9, 1905
A NATIONAL exhibition of brewing materials and products
will be held in Paris during March, 1906.
At the meeting of the French Physical Society on
January 20, under the presidency of M. d’Arsonval, the
following officers were elected :—Vice-president, M.
Amagat; general secretary, M. Henri Abraham; treasurer,
M. de la Touanne. The office of president falls on
M. Dufet.
Tue Times correspondent at Colombo states that Sir
H. A. Blake, Governor of Ceylon, announced at the last
meeting of the Asiatic Society that Sinhalese medical books
of the sixth century described 67 varieties of mosquitoes
and 424 kinds of malarial fever caused by mosquitoes.
Ar the meeting of the Anthropological Institute to be
held on Tuesday next, February 14, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
F.R.S., will exhibit a series of kinematograph pictures of
native dances from the Torres Straits, taken by him when
in New Guinea. Applications for admission should be
addressed to the Secretary of the Institute at 3 Hanover-
square, W.
A LarGE and influential international committee has been
formed in Heidelberg, under the presidency of His Excel-
lency Dr. A. Freiherr von Dusch, Minister of Education,
&c., of the Grand Duchy of Baden, with the object of
honouring the memory of the late Prof. Carl Gegenbaur,
who for nearly thirty years was the director of the Ana-
tomical Institute of Heidelberg. The committee has decided
upon a life-size bust of Gegenbaur, to be executed in marble
by Prof. C. Seffner, Leipzig. The bust will be placed in
the vestibule of the Anatomical Institute, probably in the
early summer, at a date not yet fixed. The committee
invites former pupils of the deceased master, and all those
who have benefited from his epoch-making works on human
and comparative anatomy, to send monetary contributions,
with their addresses and titles, to Prof. M. Fuerbringer,
or to Prof. E. Goeppert, both in Heidelberg. Every con-
tributor will-receive a picture of the bust, and casts may
be obtained, on special application, from Prof. C. Seffner.
AFTER an interval of two years the fifth conference of
West Indian agriculturists was held at Port-of-Spain,
Trinidad, from January 4 to 13. It was attended by offi-
cial, scientific, commercial, and practical representatives
from all parts. In his presidential address, Sir Daniel
Morris gave an interesting survey of the great economic
change which is in progress. Taken in the aggregate,
sugar cultivation must still be regarded as the backbone
of the colonial industries, but in some of the islands it has
already become of comparatively little or no importance.
Trinidad is now a cacao-producing island, its exports of
this commodity having risen to the value of a million
sterling per annum. Grenada’s cacao exports are valued
at 250,o00l., and Jamaica’s at 80,oool. Cotton growing,
too, has been successfully re-established in several islands,
and remunerative prices for the raw cotton are being
obtained from Lancashire merchants. The exportations
of fruit far exceed in value those of the staple industry.
The development of the tobacco, rubber, sisal hemp, fish-
curing, and other industries also came under review, and
Sir Daniel dwelt upon the importance of agricultural shows
and on the provision made by his department for teaching
elementary science and the principles of agriculture in the
various colleges and elementary schools. Numerous papers
were read and discussed, Prof. d’Albuquerque, Dr. Watts,
Prof. Harrison, and others supplying valuable information
relating to sugar; Mr. Hart, Mr. de Gannes, &c., on
cacao; Mr. Bovell, Mr. Sands, &c., on cotton; and so on.
FERRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE.
30"
For practical purposes visits were paid to several cacao
and sugar estates. Owing to its more than usually repre-
‘sentative character the conference is declared to have been
the most successful of the series.
Tue very high barometric readings over the British Isles
during the latter part of January last are noteworthy, The
weather report for the week ending January 28 issued by
the Meteorological Office stated that on Wednesday (25)
the eastern edge of an anticyclone had appeared over the
west of Ireland; this system, moving slowly eastward, and
continually increasing in intensity, covered the whole king-
dom by Thursday, its maximum pressure being about 30-7
inches. It subsequently moved southward and south-west-
ward, and continued to increase in energy until Saturday
(28), when the barometer rose to 31 inches or more over the
south-western parts of the United Kingdom. The highest
reading was reported from Scilly, at 2h. p.m. on January 28,
31-06 inches, and appears to have been the highest on
record for that part of the kingdom. Very high readings
also occurred over the eastern portion of the North Atlantic.
Recent cases of very high readings occurred in January,
1902, January, 1896, and January, 1882. The highest
reading on record in the British Isles is 31-11 inches at
Ochtertyne (Scotland), in January, 1896, and the lowest
27-33 inches at the same place, in January, 1887. It will
be observed that all these extreme readings have occurred
in the month of January.
We have to acknowledge the receipt of a copy of the
Transactions of the Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’
Club for 1904 (vol. iii. part ii.). The most important item
in its contents is a list, with references, of the land and
freshwater molluscs of the East Riding, drawn up by
Mr. T. Petch, occupying fifty-two pages.
Tue salmon and trout of Japan form the subject of an
article by Mr. T. Kitahara in vol. v. part iii. of Anno-
tationes Zoologicae Japonensis. In place of the nine
Species of these fishes admitted by Messrs. Jordan and
Evermann, the author recognises only seven from Japanese
waters, of which the majority belong to Oncorhynchus.
THE contents of the Biologisches Centralblatt for
January 15 include an article on the structure of certain
ants’ nests, by Mr. C. Ernst, and a criticism, by Dr. C.
Schroder, of Mr. C. Schaposchnikow’s theory of the colour-
ing of the hind-wing of the butterflies of the genus Cato-
cala, to which allusion has been already made in our
columns.
Tue Zoologist commences the year well with an excellent
article on budding in animals by Prof. McIntosh, of St.
Andrews, in which the various forms of propagation by
gemmation are described in a clear and popular manner.
In the same issue appears Mr. Southwell’s account of seal-
ing and whaling for 1904. Eleven right whales were cap-
tured during the season by British vessels and at British
stations; but the Americans are reported to have taken
no less than forty-nine. The price demanded for sizable
whalebone is 2500]. per ton. Fin-whale hunting is being
pursued with great energy, and as the demand for the
products of these whales is limited, the author suggests
that the market may be glutted.
Tue Nature Study Review is the title of a journal pub-
lished in New York of which the first volume is before us.
“The aims and plans of the editorial committee,’’ it is
stated in the introduction, ‘‘ are based upon an interpreta-
tion of nature-study in its literal and widest sense as includ-
ing all phases, physical as well as biological, of studies of |
No. 1841, VOL. 71]
natural objects and processes in elementary schools.”’
Several eminent writers have united to give their views as
to the scope and limitations of nature-study ; while others
have done their best to refute hostile criticism of the move-
ment. ‘‘ Faddism,’’ the bane of the movement, is strongly
deprecated. In wishing the new venture a_ successful
career, we may take the opportunity of recording our full
sympathy with the effort to make scholars actually
acquainted with natural objects, instead of attempting to
learn about them through books alone. But the interpre-
tation of the movement must be a liberal one, and it must
be realised that a visit to a museum is just as much
nature-study as is a saunter through a country lane.
Tue double number of the American Naturalist for
November and December last contains a suggestive article
by Mr. W. D. Matthew on the arboreal ancestry of
mammals. Strong arguments have been brought forward
during the last few years by Mr. Dollo in Belgium and by
Mr. Bensley in America to show that the ancestors of
marsupials were probably arboreal; and in the present
communication the author seeks to show that the same
holds good for mammals in general. It is urged that the
mammals of the Cretaceous were all of small size and
mostly of a primitive type from which both marsupials
and placentals might well have been derived. These early
mammals were probably arboreal; and if so, the opposable
thumb and hallux of certain living types is an archaic and
not an acquired feature. Support to the view as to the
arboreal habits of the ancestral mammals is afforded by
the Upper Cretaceous upland flora, which first permitted
the existence of an extensive terrestrial land mammalian
fauna. If the theory be true, it entirely upsets the old idea
that arboreal mammals had taken to their distinctive mode
of life to escape persecution on the ground.
WE have received a copy of an important memoir by
Dr. O. Abel, published in the Abhandlungen of the Aus-
trian Geological Survey (vol. xix. part ii.), on the fossil
sirenians of the Mediterranean formation of Austria, into
the merits of which the limitations of space do not admit
of our entering so fully as we desire. The title of the
memoir scarcely does justice to its contents, for although
the prime object is the description of the species known as
Metaxytherium krahuletzi, the author also describes a
number of remains of the much more primitive genus
Eotherium, from the Eocene of the Mokattam Range, near
Cairo. The most important feature connected with the
latter (if the remains be rightly identified) is the discovery
that Eotherium possessed a complete pelvis, showing a
well-marked obturator foramen. In this respect the genus
differs from all other known members of the order, and
is thus brought into connection with less specialised mam-
mals. The three Egyptian Eocene genera Eotherium,
Eosiren, and Protosiren (new) are regarded as the earliest
known ancestors of the dugong group; and to these suc-
ceed Halitherium in the Oligocene, Metaxytherium in the
Miocene, and Felsinotherium in the Pliocene. In seeking
to illustrate the origin of the downward flexure of the
muzzle of the dugong by a malformed horse skull, we think
the author has been ill-advised, as there is a much simpler
and more natural explanation of the feature. In connection
with the memoir by Dr. Abel, we may to a
paper on the pelvis of Steller’s sea-cow (Rhytina stellert)
by Dr. L. von Lorenz, published in part iii. of vol. xix. of
the Abhandlungen of the Vienna Geologisches Reichsan-
refer
stalt. The description and figure of this rudimentary bone
supplement Dr. Abel’s account of sirenian osteology in
general.
352
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 9, 1905
Dr. STRONG, the director of the Biological Laboratory,
Manila, has published a valuable experimental study of
the subject of protective inoculation against Asiatic cholera
(No. 16, Bureau of Government Laboratories, Manila).
After detailing the various methods of producing experi-
mentally immunity against the cholera microbe, he dis-
cusses the use of Haffkine’s prophylactic, which has been
extensively employed in India with encouraging results,
but an objection to which is the marked reaction that
follows the inoculation, causing the inoculated person to
be somewhat ill for two or three days. To remove this
objection, Dr. Strong has obtained a prophylactic fluid by
suspending the cholera microbes obtained from agar cul-
tures in sterile water, keeping this suspension at 60° C. for
several hours, then incubating at 37° C. for three or four
days, and finally filtering through a porous porcelain filter.
The fluid so obtained (a product of the autolytic digestion
of the cholera microbes) was found to produce a high
immunity in animals against cholera, and when injected
into man was found to be free from danger, and to produce
practically no genera! or local disturbance.
In the Victorian Naturalist for November, 1904, it is
mentioned that, at the October meeting of the Field
Naturalists’ Club in Melbourne, a number of collections
of wild flowers were sent from State schools in the
country, including some so far away as Hawkesdale.
Dimboola, and Mansfield. These were of great interest
to teachers and children from the schools in Melbourne,
who were allowed to take away named specimens for
study. Would it not be possible to include in one of the
exhibitions, such as the Grand Horticultural Exhibition
held last June in the gardens of the Royal Botanic Society,
similar collections from country schools for the benefit of
schools in the metropolis?
Ir is remarkable how many comparative experiments
conducted in tropical countries, with some or all of the
established rubber plants, have demonstrated the superiority
of Hevea brasiliensis, the source of Para rubber. One of
the latest accounts is that by Mr. W. H. Johnson, director
of agriculture, Gold Coast, issued as one of the miscel-
laneous series of Colonial Reports. Experiments in the
Botanic Gardens, Aburi, were unsuccessful with the West
African vine, Landolphia owariensis, Ceara, Manihot
glaziovit, Assam, Ficus elastica, and Central American
rubber, Castilloa elastica; fairly satisfactory results were
obtained with the indigenous Funtumia elastica, but Hevea
excelled in quantity and quality of rubber, in its rate of
growth, and has been remarkably free from insect and
fungus pests.
THERE seems to be good reason to believe that explora-
tion of the more remote parts of Eastern Asia will add
very considerably to the number of botanical species already
known. In vol. iv. of the Records of the Botanical Survey
of India, Sir Joseph Hooker states that the number of
species of Impatiens, the second largest genus of Indian
flowering plants, recorded for India has increased from
124 to 200 in thirty years, and that many more may be
expected from the less accessible districts of Burma, Nepal,
and the Eastern Himalayas. In the hope of inducing forest
officers or other officials in India to take up the collection,
or better, the study of this genus, Sir Joseph Hooker is
publishing in the Records an epitome of the known species,
and he also directs attention to two points of interest, the
anomalous structure of the flower, and the remarkable
letails of segregation of the species.
NO 1841, VOL. 71]
| action on the closely allied substances
Ir is always of interest to note a distinct novelty in the
photographic line, but in the new Lambex system of day-
light loading and film and plate changing, which has
been introduced by Messrs. R. and J. Beck, Ltd., in a new
class of cameras called the Lambex cameras, we have
quite a new invention. The makers have sent us for
inspection one of these cameras with the so-called Lambex
skeleton and its envelope. The method of exposing is
most simple and ingenious, and is one that will no doubt
find considerable favour among photographers. The
skeleton, less than half an inch thick, is the name of the
folded strip of paper with a tag attached at each fold; in
each of the folds, twelve in number, a film or plate, of any
description or make, is held by a flap at the top and two
corner slots at the bottom, and an opaque card is attached
to the front. This skeleton is contained in a double length
opaque envelope, the unexposed films remaining in the
lower portion, and the exposed films being pulled one by
one into the upper portion by the attached tags. The lower
portion of the envelope is provided with an opening to
correspond to the size of the film through which the expo-
sure is made, and surrounding this opening is a stiff pro-
jecting edge of card into which the envelope with its
skeleton is slid into a frame in the camera. The makers
claim many adventages for this system, such as daylight
loading, any plates or films may be used, the skeletons
can be recharged, no scratching of films, no mechanism,
&c. The compactness of this system renders it applicable
to both folding, pocket, and box cameras, and the makers
have now prepared a series of well-made Lambex cameras,
constructed in several forms and sizes, and fitted with their
well-known lenses, Limitations of space prevent us from
entering more into detail, but the handbook of instructions
in the form of a neat pocket-book contains all the necessary
information.
To the February number of the Monthly Review, Sir
William Ramsay contributes an article having the title
““ What is an Element?’’ It contains a popular account of
the changes introduced into conceptions of the nature of
elements owing to the discovery of the inert gases of the
atmosphere and of radium and the radio-active elements.
Tue remarkable power of aluminium to absorb com-
pletely the vapour of mercury even when highly diluted with
air, and at the ordinary temperature, is the subject of a
paper by N. Tarugi in the Gazzetta for January 14. This
property is made the basis of an extremely delicate test for
mercury, and of a preventive measure against poisoning by
mercury vapour. A species of respirator has been patented
in which the air that is inhaled is made to pass through a
mass of finely divided aluminium; in this passage every
trace of mercury is absorbed, the action being so complete
that the dense vapours evolved by heated mercuric chloride
may be breathed with impunity. The respirator has already
been introduced with good results into the mercury mines
of Monte Amiata.
A STRIKING instance of the intimate connection existing
between the configuration of chemical substances and their
susceptibility to fermentation is to be found in a paper by
C. Ulpiani and M. Cingolani in the Gazzetta for January
14. The Bacillus acidi urici, which has the property of
decomposing uric acid into carbon dioxide and urea by a
process of successive hydrolysis and oxidation, is without
a-methyluric acid,
guanine, caffeine, and theobromine. On the other hand
the bacillus is capable of rapidly and completely oxidising
such acids as tartronic, malonic, and mesoxalic acids, which
contain the same carbon chain as that constituting the
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE
353
central axis of uric acid, whilst, in addition, the ureides
of these acids, namely, barbituric acid, dialuric acid, and
alloxan, are converted by the ferment quantitatively into
urea and carbon dioxide. Moreover, just as in the case of
the sugars only the hexoses are capable of undergoing
fermentation, the bacillus of uric acid is indifferent to
acids containing fewer or more than three carbon atoms.
Tue Psychological Bulletin (vol. ii., No. 1) for
January contains a notice of the meeting of the north
central section of the American Psychological Association
which was held at Chicago on November 26, under the
presidency of Prof. W. D. Scott, of the North-western
University. The following papers were read :—Is subjec-
‘tive idealism a necessary point of view for psychology? by
Mr. Stephen S. Colvin; the genesis of meaning, by Mr.
I. E. Miller; relation of sensation and revived mental
processes, by Messrs. T. H. Haines and J. C. Williams;
the vehicle of cognition, by Mr. B. H. Bode; psychological
method, by Mr. C. A. Blanchard; an Iowa case of complete
congenital cataracts cured after twenty-two years, by Mr.
James Burt Miner; the relations of psychology to logic, by
Miss Harriet S. Penfield; the functional theory in psy-
chology and the concept of transcendence, by Mr. J. H.
Farley; the psychology of linguistic development in the
individual, by Mr. M. V. O’Shea; is the beauty of art a
higher type than’ that of nature? by Mr. George Rebec;
the reality and the symbol in education, by Miss Julia H.
Gulliver; and a motor theory of rhythm, by Mr. R. H.
Stretton
Tue Walter Scott Publishing Company will shortly issue
a translation of ‘‘ Science and Hypothesis,’’ by Prof. Poin-
earé. Prof. J. Larmor, Sec.R.S., has written a preface to
this edition of Prof. Poincaré’s work.
A copy of the report of the librarian of the U.S. Con-
gress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, has been
received from Washington. The report runs to 600 pp.,
and includes elaborate details concerning every department
of the library’s activities. A select list of recent purchases
during 1901-1903 constitutes part ii. of the volume, and a
third section is devoted to a report on copyright legislation.
Mr. Joun A. Bercstrom, of Indiana, writing in the
Psychological Bulletin, describes a spring suspension for
laboratory motors used for driving colour mixing or other
experimental apparatus, with the object of reducing the
noise and vibration produced by motors resting on a fixed
base.
Tue third English edition of Prof. Mendeléeff’s ‘‘ Princi-
ples of Chemistry’? has been published in two
volumes by Messrs. Longmans, Green and Co. The
new volumes are a translation from the seventh
Russian edition by Mr. George Kamensky, edited
by Mr. Thomas H. Pope. There are three appen-
dices to the work. The first of these is the Royal Institu-
tion lecture delivered by Prof. Mendeléeff on May 31, 1880,
entitled ‘‘ An Attempt to apply to Chemistry one of the
Principles of Newton’s Natural Philosophy ’’; the second,
on the ‘‘ Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements,’’ is Prof.
Mendeléeff’s 1899 Faraday lecture to the Chemical Society ;
the last is entitled ‘‘ An Attempt towards a Chemical Con-
ception of the Ether,’’ and its contents were described in
an article which appeared in NATURE on November 17, 1904
(vol. Ixxi., No. 1829). The work is one of the classics of
chemical science, and the new edition will be widely
welcomed
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
”
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
EPHEMERIS FOR CoMET 1904 e.—Given below is an extract
from a daily ephemeris computed by Dr. E. Strémgren from
the elliptic elements calculated by M. Fayet for comet
1904 e.
12h. (M.T. Berlin).
1905 a ri) log x log A
ey Inte Sa aa oF
Feb. 9 2 29 38 +21 14 01582 0'0816
sp iil 2 34 23 +22 27
ye Le 2 39 14 +23 38 O'1613. ... 070940
oy 15 2 44 10 +24 47
Semel, 2 49 12 +25 54 0°1647 0'1067
On February 7 the comet was very near to, but south-
west of, y Arietis (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3991,
supplement).
EPHEMERIS FOR Comet 1904 d.—The following is an
extract from the daily ephemeris for comet 1904 d pub-
lished in No. 3991 of the Astronomische Nachrichten by
Herr M. Ebell.
12h. (M.T. Berlin).
.1905 a (true) 6 (true) log r log A Bright-
[ty Meese GS ie ness
Feb. 9 ... 19 22 32... +54 50... 0°3492 ... 0°3584 ... 0°82
5» 13-- 19 41 49... +56 28 ... 03542 ... O 3643 ... 0°78
Sy a 20M eR a45ee2. F157 57) --- 019503) --» 0 3710)... O74
pe 20a eee 2OLZZ2 Spee SOL 7) an. 0°3645 ... 0°3784 ... 0°70
Brightness at time of discovery=1-0.
An observation made by Herr Pechiile at 16h. 24-3m.
(Copenhagen M.T.) on January 14 gave corrections to this
ephemeris of —4s. and —o0'-5. |
On February 9 the comet will be to the north-west of,
and near to, « Cygni, then, travelling in a north-easterly
direction, it will pass into the constellation Cepheus.
Orpit oF Comet 1904 e (BORRELLY).—From the observ-
ations made at Kénigsberg on December 31 and at Paris on
January 11, M. Fayet has made an investigation of the
probable orbit of Borrelly’s comet (1904 e)- In the first
place three different sets of parabolic elements were com-
puted, but, although the arc traversed by the comet whilst
under observation was very small, and the results obtained
were therefore not very trustworthy, the non-agreement of the
parabolic elements with the observational results was too
great to be admitted. M. Fayet therefore computed a set
of elements on the assumption that the orbit was elliptical,
and these were much more satisfactory, indicating a short
eriod of about six years.
z The following set of elliptic elements was finally adopted
as giving a fairly satisfactory agreement between the
observed and computed positions :—
T = 1905 Jan. 1577425 (M.T. Paris)
R= 76° 6' 43 97 |
Z= 30 55 217°25 (1905
co = 351° 35, a7!11 |
log g = 0°149236
log e = 9818195
These results give a value for, of 423/915, and there-
fore indicate that the comet is of the short-period type,
making one revolution in its orbit in about eight years
(Comptes rendus, No. 4, 1905).
OBSERVATIONS OF THE LEONID SHOWER OF 1904.—In a
note published in No. 3989 of the Astronomische Nach-
richten, Mr. Denning gives a few details of his observations
of the late Leonid shower at Bristol.
a watch of about one and a half hours between
During
13h. 3om. and 15h. 45m. on November 14, 55 meteors, of
which 33 were Leonids, were seen, and Mr. Denning
| estimated that, at that time, the latter were appearing at
1 the rate of about 25 per hour, for one observer, fro a
| radiant situated at R.A.=151°, decl.=+23°. No increase
354
NADIE
[FEBRUARY 9, 1905
in the horary rate was apparent at 16h., and as the fog
became denser the observations were discontinued.
Two of the Leonids seen were as bright as Jupiter,
whilst several others were as bright as, or brighter than,
first magnitude stars. One of these flashed out in the
north-west at 14h. 38m., traversed the path 315°+57° to
318°+503°, and left a short streak which lasted for about
30 seconds,
A few slow, yellow meteors from a radiant in Aries at
43°+21°, and some swift streaking meteors from a radiant
in Leo Minor at 144°+37°, were also seen.
SPECTRA OF y CyGNi, a Canis Minoris anp e LEONIS.—
In part vii. vol. cxiii. of the Sitzungsberichte der Kais.
Akad. der Wissenschaften, Herren E. Haschek and K.
IXostersitz publish the results of the reductions of the spectra
of y Cygni, Procyon and e« Leonis. After discussing in
detail the methods of measurement and identification em-
ployed in the reduction, and the general and specific char-
acteristics of each spectrum studied, the authors give a
table of the wave-lengths and intensities of the lines for
each star. The coincidences of each line with lines in the
arc and spark spectra of terrestrial elements, as determined
by Exner and Haschek, are also given, and in the last
column of each table the ‘‘ probable origins’ of many of
the lines are set down. Amongst the latter may be noted
the rarer elements Yb, Pr, Sa, Nd, La, Pt, Wo, Gd, Eu, &c.
About 140 lines between A 4250 and A 4534, 190 lines
between A 4126 and A 4550, and about 270 lines between
A 4215 and A 4702 are given in the spectra of y Cygni,
a Canis Minoris and e Leonis respectively.
SysTEMATIC SURVEY OF DousLe Stars.—No. 99, vol. xvi.,
of the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific is devoted to an address on double stars read
before the International Congress of Arts and Sciences at
St. Louis by Prof. R. G. Aitken.
After discussing the work already performed in this field,
Prof. Aitken described a systematical survey undertaken
by Prof. Hussey and himself. All stars down to the ninth
magnitude as given in the Bonn Durchmusterung were
placed on the observing list, and the sky from the North
Pole to —22° declination was equally divided for observ-
ation between the two observers.
The programme arranged for the observation of each star
on the list on at least one good night, and all double stars
discovered with a separation of 5” or less were to be
measured on at least two nights and catalogued. On
September 10, Prof. Hussey had discovered 1035 and
Prof. Aitken more than 875 new pairs. Seventy-three per
cent. of these are separated by 2” or less, and 142 are very
close pairs in which the separation does not exceed o!-25.
Of similar pairs to the latter the previously published cata-
logues do not contain 100.
Prof. Aitken has examined, during this research, more
than 12,000 stars, and finds that the doubles discovered
form about 3 per cent. of this total. Including those pre-
viously discovered, the ratio of double stars, with distances
of less than 5”, to the whole of the stars down to the ninth
magnitude is apparently 1:18 to 1:20. This ratio is not,
however, the same for all parts of the sky, for whilst in
some regions observed double stars are very scarce, in
others the ratio increases to about 1:8.
Other details concerning the survey, its prosecution and
the reasons for carrying it out are given in Prof. Aitken’s
interesting paper.
REPORT OF THE YALE OBSERVATORY, 1900-4.—Dr. Elkin’s
reports to the board of managers of the Yale University
Observatory for the years 1900-4, inclusive, occupy eight
pages, and briefly describe the large amount of work per-
formed at the observatory during that period.
Heliometer observations are the chief feature of the
work and special attention has been paid to the deter-
mination of the parallaxes of stars having large proper
motions. Practically all the stars in the northern hemi-
sphere having known motions of o’.5, or more, have now
been observed at Yale. A second triangulation of the
Pleiades and determinations of the parallax of Arcturus
have also been made. Another feature of the work is the
photography of meteor trails, and numerous trails of
meteors from the principal showers have been obtained.
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
PRIZE SUBJECTS OF THE BATAVIAN
SOCIETY OF EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
At a recent general meeting of the Batavian Society
of Experimental Philosophy of Rotterdam the follow-
ing subjects were proposed for competition. The gold
medal of the society, of the weight of thirty ducats, or
its value, will be awarded for the best answer to one or
other of the suggested questions. Answers may be written
in the Dutch, French, English, German, or Latin
languages, in another handwriting than that of the com-
petitor, and must reach the secretary, Dr. G. T. W.
Bremer, at Rotterdam not later than February 1, 1906.
Chemistry.—An experimental investigation of the atomic
weight of an element which has not yet been satisfactorily
fixed ; a research on the causes of departure from Ostwald’s
dilution law; measurements of the osmotic pressure in
solutions at concentrations corresponding with deviations
from the simple gas laws; a study of the origin and
physiological significance of the green pigment in the
body of green articulated animals; experiments elucidating
the formation and transformations of the sap in india-
rubber plants; a re-investigation of the variations from
the laws of electrolytic dissociation observed by Kahlen-
berg in 1901; an explanation of the thallioquinic test for
quinine.
Physics.—An investigation of the electrical properties
of some metallic alloys; of the variation with temperature
of the specific heat of mercury; of the specific heat of
sulphur and phosphorus in their various allotropic forms ;
of the indices of refraction of substances showing
anomalous dispersion; of the cause of phosphorescence,
particularly in the case of the lower organisms.
Biology.—A description of the life-history and proper-
ties of one or several species of moulds, ferments, or
bacteria which are of industrial importance; the action
of sulphur and of copper salts on plant parasites, and of
mineral salts on the development of fungi; the réle of
micro-organisms in the formation of humus in the soil.
Physiology.—An investigation of the permeability of red
blood corpuscles to the ions of NaCl, NaNO,, Na,SO,; and
of the localisation of functions in the cerebellum.
Geology.—An exposition of the theory of the origin of
the Netherlands; a critical investigation of the volcanoes
of the East Indian Archipelago.
Civil Engineering.—Statistical investigations of the
Dutch ‘‘ polders’’; or an investigation of one of the
principal rivers of Holland.
THE PIC DU MIDI OBSERVATORY.
[N a recent number of La Nature, M. L. Rudaux gave an
interesting account of the present condition and opera-
tions of this important mountain station. France is well
provided with high level stations, and the observations
from seven of them are published daily in the Bulletin
International of the French Meteorological Office. An
account of the very favourable position of the Pic du Midi
station, and of the almost insuperable difficulties experi-
enced by its original founder, General de Nansouty, was
given, in considerable detail, by M. R. Radau, in his useful
little work on ‘‘ Mountain Observatories ’’ (Paris, 1876),
and has been summarised by Mr. A. L. Rotch in the
American Meteorological Journal. The summit, which has
an elevation of 2877 metres (the observatory being 17
metres lower), is situated on the outskirts of the Pyrenees,
in lat. 42° 56’ N., and long. 2° 12’ W. of Paris, and affords
one of the finest views in Europe. Towards the north an
immense plain stretches as far as the eye can see, and to
the north-west, on very clear days, the blue waters of the
Atlantic are visible, at a distance of 160 km. It lies
directly in the path of the great atmospheric disturbances
which traverse the Bay of Biscay, while the summit mostly
enjoys a clear and iuminous atmosphere, being some 200
metres above the level at which thunderstorm clouds usually
gather. These advantages early attracted the attention of
astronomers and scientific men; M. F. de Plantade died in
1741 while observing at the ridge which has since taken
his name.
The project of a permanent meteorological station was
first mooted in 1869, and provisional observations were com-
FEBRUARY 9, 1905}
NAT ORE 355
menced by General de Nansouty and his coadjutors in 1873,
at the foot of the Pic, about 2300 metres above the sea, and
were continued under great hardships, and at considerable
personal expense for about eight years. The present station
was established in 1880, by public and private subscrip-
tions. The accompanying illustration gives a general view
of the station as it now exists. On the left the thermo-
meter screen may be distinguished near the erection on
which the anemometer and actinometer are placed; at the
other end of the terrace is the equatorial building, and the
apparatus for celestial photography. The magnetic instru-
ments are placed in vaults underneath the terrace. The
meteorological observations are regularly published in the
annals of the Central Meteorological Office; useful predic-
tions have been- given to the inhabitants of the plains of
impending thunderstorms, and of probable floods owing to
the sudden melting of the snow on the mountains. Amongst
the miscellaneous observations undertaken under the able
direction of M. Marchand, we may specially mention those
relating to the zodiacal light, to solar phenomena, and the |
persons have attended the various local lectures provided,
while rooo students entered for the courses offered by
agricultural colleges. The expenditure of the counties is
given in detail, and presents some curious anomalies;
thus the London County Council assigned to agricultural
education 742/., while the authorities of one of the most
fertile divisions of Lincolnshire, in which agriculture is
practically the only industry, voted 651. for the purpose!
Again, East Sussex, with a total income from the
““ Residue Grant’’ of 77731., spent 61161. in grants to
agricultural colleges or schools, while West Sussex, with
an income of 45031., gave nothing for collegiate instruc-
tion, and was satisfied with an expenditure of 275]. upon
horticulture and poultry keeping. Conditions vary from
county to county, but differences in the needs of the agri-
culturist do not explain the widely different educational
policy of the local authorities. Under the new com-
mittees, it is to be hoped that the unsystematic and
spasmodic efforts that have been too common in the past
may disappear, and though it is probable that in the
Fic. 1.—General View of the Pic du Midi Observatory in 1904.
connection of the latter with magnetic disturbances. His
observations in this direction have shown that whenever
a terrestrial magnetic disturbance occurs, spots or faculz
exist on the central meridian of the sun. Important spectro-
scopic results have also been obtained respecting the
atmospheres of Venus and Mars.
AGRICULTURAL NOTES.
AN important new feature of the annual report on the
es distribution of grants for agricultural education and
research is a return giving the character of the instruc-
tion in agriculture provided by the county councils of
England and Wales. The return shows that most counties
are now spending considerable sums on agricultural educa-
tion—altogether 88,8931, in 1902-3, and to this sum g2o0ol.
was added by the Board of Agriculture in the form of grants
to collegiate centres. It is estimated that some 22,000
NO. 1841, VoL. 71]
immediate future less money will be spent on agricultural
education, it is likely to be expended to greater advantage.
The Board of Agriculture’s report should be studied by
all members of county education committees who are
interested in agricultural education.
A piece of work which has just been completed in the
library of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has greatly
enhanced the value of the leading Continental agricultural
journals for English-speaking students. Complete card
catalogues of ‘‘ Annales de la Science agronomique,”’
** Landwithschaftliche Jahrbiicher,’? and ‘‘ Die landwith-
schaftlichen Versuchs-stationen’’ have been prepared.
Each index card gives author’s name, title of article, and
a brief outline of the scope of the article. The catalogues
may be purchased in two series, either ‘‘ author entry ”’
sets, permitting papers to be indexed under the authors’
names, or “‘ complete ’’ sets, furnishing two or more cards
for each paper, which may then be indexed under the
author’s name, and also under the subject or subjects to
350
which the article relates. The cost of the three sets of
catalogues in the latter and more useful form is about ral.
The sets now issued bring the indexing down to 1903,
but the work will be continued, and supplementary sets
will be printed from time to time. Students who do not
desire references to all branches of agricultural science may
obtain sets of cards dealing with special subjects, such
as soils, plant diseases, or forestry. Particulars of the
eighteen subject-groups under which the cards are classified
are given in Bulletin No. 9, issued by the Catalogue
Division of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
In the fourth report on the Woburn fruit farm, the
Duke of Bedford and Mr. Spencer Pickering, F.R.S.,
discuss the results of several years’ experiments in the
manuring of fruit crops. In an introduction the soil of
the fruit station is described, and chemical and mechanical
analyses are given; the report then describes experiments
on strawberries, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, and
apples. For various reasons the experiments on currants
and raspberries were unsatisfactory, but trustworthy data
were obtained in the work on the other crops. It was
found that 12 tons of farmyard manure per acre increased
the strawberry crop by 12 per cent. to 15 per cent., and
that the size and quality of the fruit were greatly im-
proved. A mixed artificial manure supplying about the
same quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and
magnesia as the dung similarly increased the yield, but
did not improve the quality. Farmyard manure much
increased the gooseberry crop, but the artificial mixture
failed to do so, and it is explained that the increase in
the former case was probably due to the greater quantity
of moisture retained by the dunged soil. Nitrate of soda
applied in summer was found to benefit apples in certain
seasons, but with this exception no kind of manure had
any marked effect on the apple crop.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
BrrMiNGHAM.—Mr. Chamberlain, the Chancellor of the
University, presided at the annual meeting of the Court of
Governors held on February 6. Speaking after the adoption
of the annual report, Mr. Chamberlain said that when the
governors of Mason College met some five or six years ago
and came to the decision that the time had come to give
Birmingham its own university, it was thought that the
least sum of money which would justify them in applying
for a charter was 100,000]. But very shortly afterwards
they found that there was a great opportunity, not only for
themselves, but for other great provincial cities, to create
a series of universities which in the first place would bring
home to all the population the advantages of the highest
education, and in the second place, would specialise this
highest education with some more definite idea of its appli-
cation to science than hitherto had been found to be
possible. The moment they decided on a departure of that
kind they found that it meant something quite different
from what they had previously supposed. New buildings
had to be specially devised, a very large and expensive
equipment had to be provided, and new chairs had to be
created; altogether a completely new ideal had to be
developed. And then they put their demand—a demand
which, indeed, they did not strictly limit themselves to, but
they thought it would probably be sufficient for the present
generation—they put their demand at the expenditure of
one million of money. They had received at once nearly
half that sum, largely from Birmingham. And he might
say in passing that the liberality of the local contribution
was a ground for the claim which they made for some
further State support. ‘‘ It is something,’’ he said, ‘‘ that
we have found that the Government are becoming alive to
our needs and to our deserts, and that they have been able
to double the sum previously given for the university
education. But we may bear in mind at the same time that
the present Chancellor of the Exchequer has promised to
double it again in his next Budget, and, therefore, I anti-
cipate that from that source we shall receive a very con-
siderable addition. I do not at all accept it as in any way
a satisfaction of our demands, because it is my conviction
that public opinion will soon insist upon larger sums being |
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[ FEBRUARY 9, 1905
devoted to this purpose. When I think that we are spend-
ing 13 millions a year at least on primary education I
say the sum now given for the purpose of the highest
education, the most profitable of all the investments we
can make in that direction, is altogether inadequate.’’
CaMBRIDGE.—The voting on the report of the Studies and
Examinations Syndicate will take place on Friday, March 3,
and on Saturday, March 4, on both days from 1-3 p.m.
and from 5-7 p.m. No votes will be taken after 7 p.m.
on Saturday, March 3.
In view of the discussion on the report the syndicate has
issued the report in an amended form. The chief changes
include as alternatives in the papers in classical languages
(1) passages for translation from a selected book or books;
(2) unprepared passages for translation, a vocabulary of
unusual words being supplied, also the abolition of distinct
grammar papers, although questions on syntax and acci-
dence will be set in connection with the translation papers ;
further, one of the Synoptic Gospels is Greek, is now pro-
posed as an alternative to one of the Synoptic Gospels,
together with the Acts of the Apostles in English, and
logic is included amongst the optional subjects in part iii.
These proposals are embodied by the Council in five graces.
It is on the second of these, which deals with the question
of compulsory Greek, that attention will be centred.
Lonpon.—Sir Michael Foster has consented to offer him-
self for re-election to the next Parliament as member for
the University of London. He seeks re-election as a repre-
sentative of science and higher education; if re-elected he
will take his seat as a member of the Liberal Party. A
committee, with Sir Thomas Barlow as chairman, has
been formed to promote his election. This committee
comprises graduates belonging to different political parties
who are supporting Sir M. Foster on the ground of his
many public services and in the belief that his special
knowledge will continue to prove of great value to the
House of Commons.
Oxrorp.—Mr. George Longstaff, New College, has pre-
sented sol. to the Hope Department of Zoology, and has
offered to provide an extra assistant in the department for
the years 1905 and 1906.
A SHEFFIELD gentleman, who does not wish his identity
to be disclosed, has, says the Sheffield Telegraph, intimated
in connection with the Sheffield University movement that
he is prepared to subscribe 10,o00l. towards the endow-
ment fund, provided four other sums of 10,0001. are con-
tributed. As an alternative, he is willing to give 5,oo0l.
provided nine similar donations are promised. Under
either condition a sum of 50,000]. would be raised, and,
roughly, this is the amount still required to complete the
fund.
Ar a public meeting held under the auspices of the University
of Leeds on February 6th, Mr. Alfred Mosely, C:M.G.,
gave an address on ‘‘ Some Lessons learned by the recent
Mosely Commission of Educationists to the United States.”
In the course of his remarks he said: Much remains in
England to be done so that she may be brought into line
with the United States and Germany in the matter of
education. In America the people realise that if the
nation is to be made and saved it must be through the
medium of education. The time has come for us to re-
consider our position, and above all to realise that the
Board schools and the primary schools are but the prelude
to secondary education, which in the United States has
made such satisfactory strides—as it has also in Germany.
The great difference in the education of the United States
and that in our own country is the appreciation there of
everybody, from the highest to the lowest, of the value
of education. The Government has realised its obligations,
and private citizens pour out their money like water. The
University at Chicago, for instance, has been built up
through the liberality of one man, who has given millions
of pounds sterling. Why is there not the same spirit in
England ?
THE current number of the Quarterly Review contains
an article entitled ~ The Direction and Method of Edu-
cation.’’ The writer passes in review many of the official
publications of the English Board of Education and the
—
FEBRUARY 9, 1905 |
Scotch Education Department, Prof. Sadler’s report on
secondary education in Liverpool, and other publications.
Men of science would do well to note what is given as the
sum and substance of official activity in education since the
passing of the recent Education Act. The writer says,
““Tf we were asked to describe in one word the whole
tendency of English education as manifested at the present
time, we should speak of a humanistic renaissance.’’ And
again later, ‘‘ English education, we believe, is working
round to the humanistic ideal.’’ Literary studies are in-
cluded in every satisfactory scheme of elementary and
secondary education, and the man of science recognises
fully the value of the humanities in the work of schools
and colleges. But whatever ‘“‘ humanistic renaissance ”’
there may be dawning upon the world of education, it is
to be hoped that the danger of a return to the conditions
of fifty years ago, when instruction in the methods of
science was unknown in our schools, and no opportunity
to become acquainted with natural objects was offered, will
be borne in mind by all education committees and other
authorities.
Tue Hon. Maude Lawrence has been appointed to a newly-
established post of Chief Woman Inspector under the Board
of Education. Miss Lawrence will direct a staff of women
inspectors of special qualifications and varied experience,
who will assist the Board in dealing with many questions
for the treatment of which they have hitherto been some-
what imperfectly equipped. Instruction in various domestic
subjects, such as needlework, cookery, laundry work,
household management, and hygiene, has for some time
past been given under the regulations of the Board for
schools of different grades. But the report of the Inter-
Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration points
to the need of a reform in the methods now commonly
employed in the teaching of these subjects. It is con-
sidered that this instruction has been less effective than it
should have been, because it has been too theoretical and
has not been kept sufficiently in touch with the needs
and habits of daily life. The new branch of the in-
spectorate will be employed to assist local authorities in
providing, as part of their educational system, ample oppor-
tunities for girls of various ages to obtain a training for
home life simple, practical, and adapted, where necessary,
to the special circumstances of each locality. There are
also many questions of importance involving the national
physique, as affected by the studies, the life, and the
treatment of children, and especially of very young children,
from day to day in elementary schools, which women
inspectors are specially qualified to investigate and to
advise upon.
Tue council of the Association of Technical Institutions
has published its report of an inquiry, undertaken in May,
1904, as to the conditions of admission to evening classes
in technical institutions and evening continuation schools
throughout the country. The council considers that the
returns and expert opinions recorded in this report justify
the following conclusions:—(1) That it is undesirable to
establish any general system of free admission to evening
continuation schools, or of free admission or admission
at specially reduced fees to evening classes in technical
institutions. (2) That it is unnecessary to grant entirely
free admission, to evening classes in technical institutions,
to any special class or body of students or workers engaged
in skilled industries, such as apprentices or persons under
twenty-one years of age. (3) That there is need for the
establishment in all technical institutions of sufficient ‘‘ free
studentships ’’ or ‘‘ scholarships ’’ to secure the admission
of all qualified and deserving students who are unable, by
reason of their limited means, to pay the usual class fees
without more sacrifice than should reasonably be expected
of them. The plan to secure information adopted by the
council was to issue a letter and form of inquiry to the
education authorities and technical institutions throughout
the United Kingdom asking for information as to the
existence of the following conditions of admission to evening
classes: (a) entirely free, (b) at less than normal fee,
(c) by scholarships, (d) by arrangement with employers.
Replies were received with reference to sixty evening con-
tinuation school areas and from eighty-three technical in-
stitutions. Of the technical institutions, fifty-five are not
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
NATURE
357
in favour of free admission, and one only in favour of it.
The remaining institutions gave no definite answer.
Thirty-eight education committees are against free ad-
mission to evening continuation schools, two are in favour
of it, sixteen expressed no opinion, and four suggest
scholarships.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, November 24, 1904.—‘‘ The Flow of Water
through Pipes.—Experiments on Stream-line Motion and
the Measurement of Critical Velocity.”’ By Dr. H. T.
Barnes and Dr. E. G. Coker. Communicated by Prof.
Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S.
In a brief note published in the Physical Review (vol. xii.
P- 372, 1901), the authors described a thermal method of
observing the change from stream-line to eddy motion for
water flowing through pipes of different diameters.
The impossibility of heating a column of water uniformly
throughout while flowing in stream-line motion has been
previously observed: It was shown that, when water is
heated electrically while flowing through a tube of two or
three millimetres diameter by a central wire conductor,
the heat is carried off by the rapidly moving stream, which
forms a cloak of hot water around the wire, and leaves the
walls of the tube almost entirely unheated.
The change from stream-line to eddy motion can be very
clearly observed in a tube heated on the outside, since the
temperature of the emerging stream immediately increases
when the flow rises above the critical point. The point of
change is very sharp, and the disappearance of the stream-
lines instantaneous.
It is clear from a study of the work of Osborne Reynolds
that the change from stream-line to eddy motion may take
place within a wide range of velocities. Critical velocity
is measured in two ways: either by observing the velocity
at which the stream-lines break up into eddies, or by
obtaining the velocity at which the eddies from initially
disturbed water do not become smoothed out into stream-
lines in a long uniform pipe. The first change may be
at any velocity within certain limits depending on the
initial steadiness of the inflowing water, while in the
second, the change can take place at only one velocity.
Osborne Reynolds’s experiments were carried out by the
method of colour bands in a long rectangular tank. By
using a very much larger tank under a high head of water
the authors were able to obtain a higher degree of steadi-
ness than was obtained in the comparatively small tank
used by Reynolds. A large number of experiments were
obtained, an account of which forms the main part of the
present paper.
Briefly, the result of the work may be summarised as
follows :—
(1) The attainment of exceedingly high velocities of
stream-line flow for certain sizes of pipes fed by perfectly
quiet water under a high head.
(2) The re-formation of stream-lines in certain cases after
eddies had formed, with a subsequent breaking up of the
stream-lines at a very much higher velocity.
(3) A small divergence from the law of the change in
viscosity with temperature for the upper-limit of stream-
line flow.
(4) A verification of the viscosity temperature law for the
lower-limit of stream-line flow by separate methods.
January 19.—‘‘ Further Histological Studies on the
Localisation of Cerebral Function.—The Brains of Felis,
Canis, and Sus compared with that of Homo.”’ By Dr.
A. W. Campbell. Communicated by Prof. Sherrington,
F.R.S.
This addendum to a work on cerebral localisation, pre-
sented by the same author to the Royal Society in
November, 1903, aims at elucidating certain obscure func-
tional analogies and structural homologies pertaining to
the brain.
The points emphasised are as follows:—Giant cells
characterise the cortex of the lower mammalian cruciate
zone, and this represents the motor area, as defined by
Profs. Sherrington and Griinbaum in the anthropoid ape,
358
and by the author in man. The compensatory ansate and
coronal sulci are respectively interchangeable with the
upper and lower constituents of the primate fissure of
Rolando. The common sensory area forms a morpho-
logical buffer behind the cruciate zone. Quite one-sixth
of the lower animal’s brain surface is allotted to visual
cortex. The “ true calcarine’’ fissure is the antecedent of
the human anterior calcarine, the intercalary sulcus under-
goes retrograde changes, and the suprasplenial sulcus is
the derivative of the ‘‘ sulcus intrastriatus lateralis.’’ In
the limbic region, human types of cortex are repeated, and
the genual fissure is the homologue of the calloso-mar-
ginal. Parietal cortex is older, in the sense of phylogeny,
than frontal. The lateral sulcus is the forerunner of the
intraparietal. Out of the ectosylvian region of lower
animals is developed the Sylvian region, including the
insula, and much of the temporal lobe of primates.
It is concluded that the stability of the architectural plan
of any given field of cortex is directly related to the
phylogenic age of that cortex, and to the importance, as
a means to survival, of the function it subserves; and,
that while the human brain has expanded more decisively
in some parts than in others, yet that expansion, if we
except the visual and olfactory areas, has been general in
kind.
January 26.—‘ On a Method of Finding the Conduc-
tivity for Heat.’’? By Prof. C. Niven, F.R.S.
The first part of the paper contains a detailed account
of the methods employed for finding the difference of tem-
perature, and a description of the apparatus used. The
results of some experiments made with it are also given,
and compared with those found by other observers. The
second part of the paper contains a solution of the mathe-
matical problem of the diffusion of heat in an infinite solid
from a line at which it is supplied at a constant rate, and
the solution of some other allied questions. One result of
the investigation suggests a method of finding the diffusivity
directly, when the substance is of sufficiently great extent.
“The Boring of the Simplon Tunnel, and the Distri-
bution of Temperature that was encountered.’’ By Francis
Fox. Communicated by C. V. Boys, F.R.S.
February 2.—‘On the Compressibility of Gases
between One Atmosphere and Half an Atmosphere of
Pressure.’’ By Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S.
The present memoir contains a detailed account of the
observations referred to in the Preliminary Notice of
February, 1904. In addition, results are now given for
air, carbonic anhydride, and nitrous oxide. In the
following table are recorded the values of B for the various
gases at specified temperatures, B denoting the quotient
of the value of pu at half an atmosphere by the value at
the whole atmosphere :-—
Gas B. Temperature
CORSYGEMN — capenesiosedsassdoaeréodeatcn 1-00038 11-2
Hydrogen 099974 10-7
Nitrogen ....... 1-00015 14:9
Carbonic oxide 1-00026 13:8
Air 555 1-00023 11-4
Carbon dioxide 1-00279 15-0
Nitrous) (OXidG#9 pteceec-neeseneeererr 1-00327 I1-0
By means of a formula given by D. Berthelot the com-
pressibilities at o° C. are inferred, and applied to deduce
the ratio of densities as they would be observed at o° C.
under very low pressures. According to Avogadro’s law
these are the relative molecular weights. From the
densities of nitrogen and oxygen we get N 14-008, if
O = 16. Again, from the densities of oxygen and nitrous
oxide we find N 13-998. The former is probably the
more trustworthy.
Chemical Society, January 18.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Nitrogen halogen deriv-
atives of the sulphonamides: F. D. Chattaway. A number
of the nitrogen halogen derivatives of the sulphonamides,
which are obtained by the action of hypochlorous acid on
the suphonamides and the alkylsulphonamides, were de-
scribed, and the ease with which they can be prepared and
crystallised demonstrated.—Electrolytic oxidation of the
aliphatic aldehydes: H. D. Law.. The chief product of
oxidation of the lower members of the saturated aliphatic
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(FEBRUARY 9, 1905
aldehydes is the corresponding organic acid, but small
quantities of carbon dioxide and monoxide and saturated
hydrocarbons are also formed in some cases.—The diazo-
derivatives of the benzenesulphonylphenylenediamines :
G. T. Morgan and F. M. G. Micklethwait. A descrip-
tion is given of the substances produced by the interaction
of nitrous acid with the benzenesulphonyl derivatives of
o-, m- and p-phenylenediamines, illustrating the different
behaviour of these isomerides with this reagent.—The
molecular condition in solution of ferrous potassium
oxalate: S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees. Ferrous
oxalate was shown to dissolve in alkali oxalates forming
double salts, such as K,Fe(C,O,),, which dissociate accord-
ie es
ing to the scheme 2K+Fe(C,O,),. Spectrophotometric
measurements indicated that the formation of ferrous ions
at moderate dilutions was negligibly small.—A further
analogy between the asymmetric nitrogen and carbon
atoms: H. O. Jones. The author showed that, during
the formation of an asymmetric nitrogen atom in a com-
pound containing an asymmetric carbon atom, two
isomerides, which are called the a- and B-compounds, are
produced. For this purpose methyl-l-amylaniline has been
combined with allyl and benzyl iodides.—The formation of
magnesia from magnesium carbonate by heat and the
effect of temperature on the properties of the product:
W. C. Anderson. Experiments were made with native
and artificial magnesium carbonates to ascertain (1) the
lowest temperature at which the evolution of carbon dioxide
could be distinctly recognised ; (2) the comparative rates at
which the expulsion of the gas takes place at higher tem-
peratures under atmospheric pressure; and (3) the extent
to which the magnesia obtained dissolves in water after
being kept at different known temperatures for a fixed
period. It is inferred from the results that polymerisation
takes place when magnesia is heated, and that this goes
on more quickly in the ‘‘ heavy ’’ oxide than in “light ”
magnesia.—Transformations of derivatives of s-tribromo-
diazobenzenes: K. J. P. Orton.—The addition of sodium
hydrogen sulphite to ketonic compounds: A. W. Stewart.
—The reduction products of anisic acid: J. S. Lumsden.
When anisic acid, dissolved in amyl alcohol, is reduced by
sodium, the products are hexahydrobenzoic acid and 6$-keto-
hexahydrobenzoic acid.—The physical properties of heptoic,
hexahydrobenzoic, and benzoic acids and their derivatives :
J. S. Lumsden.—The influence of solvents on the rotation
of optically active compounds. Part vii. Solution-volume
and rotation of menthol and menthyl tartrates: T. S.
Patterson and F. Taylor.
Royal Microscopical Society, January 18.—Dr. Dukin-
field H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The
President delivered his annual address, the subject of
which was an inquiry as to ‘‘ What were the Carboniferous
Ferns? ”
Geological Society, January 18.—Dr. J. E. Marr.
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On the geology of Arenig
Fawr and Moel Llyfnant: W. G. Fearnsides. This paper
contains a detailed description of the succession of beds in
Sedgwick’s typical area of development of his Arenig
series. The author discusses the relationship of the various
divisions he describes to corresponding beds of other areas.
He gives a description of the intrusive igneous rocks, and
some account of the structure of the district and the nature
of its glaciation.
Physical Society, January 27.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Action of a magnetic field on
the discharge through a gas: Dr. R. S. Willows. It has
been shown previously that a transverse magnetic field, if
applied at the kathode, may in some cases reduce the
potential difference at the terminals of the tube. It is
shown in the paper that the pressure at which this decrease
commences corresponds to the pressure at which the voltage
required to maintain this discharge, under normal condi-
tions, is a minimum. This is also found to be the pressure
at which the positive column is first completely striated.
Reasons why such action takes place are given.—Action of
radium on the electric spark: Dr. R. S. Willows and J.
Peck. In certain cases the authors have found that the
spark from a Wimshurst machine is extinguished by the
| action of the radiations from radium and that the current
FEBRUARY 9, 1905]
NATURE
oor.
passing is decreased. The action is altogether different
according to the direction of the discharge. Using a spark-
gap longer than 2 cm. and making the larger knob, of
the machine used, positive, the radiations had practically
no influence. With the smaller knob positive the radium,
in most cases, extinguished the spark. The phenomenon
is found to be due to the action of the 8 rays. Réntgen
rays do not produce this effect, even if their ionising power
at the spark-gap is some thousands of times greater than
that of the radium. Lenard rays are, however, effective.—
The slow stretch in indiarubber, glass, and metal wires
subjected to a constant pull: P. Phillips. When india-
rubber is subjected to a sustained pull of constant amount
it yields at quite a large rate, the stretch at any time (t),
after the establishment of the pull, being given by
x=a+b log t, a and b being constants for the particular
pull exerted. For different pulls b is proportional to the
pull. When the pull is removed the indiarubber slowly
returns to its original length, the extension still remaining
at a time ¢, after the removal being given by
x=b log (t/t,),
t being the time which has elapsed since the pull was estab-
lished. These two results, for the slow stretching and
slow recovery of indiarubber, have also been established for
glass fibres subjected to sustained pull, but the magnitude
of the slow yielding is very much smaller. When annealed
wires of copper, silver, gold, or platinum are subjected to
a sustained pull they behave in some ways similarly to
indiarubber and glass, but there are some very decided
differences. If the pull is greater than a certain amount
(in the actual experiments about one-third to one-quarter
of the breaking weight) the stretch at any time (1) after
the establishment of the pull is given by the same law
x=a+b log t, but below this value of the pull 6 is zero.
This law obtains up to the breaking strain of the wire, b
increasing very rapidly a little before the breaking strain
is reached. When the pull is removed, there is no appre-
ciable slow recovery like that occurring in indiarubber and
glass. Iron and steel wires show themselves to be excep-
tions to these rules.—Determination of Young’s modulus
(adiabatic) for glass : C. A. Bell, with an appendix by Dr. C.
Chree, F.R.S. In this paper it is shown that errors in
the acoustical determination of Young’s modulus for glass,
due to irregularities in the rods or tubes employed, may be
eliminated by applying to the measured length of each
free-free rod a correction given by the formula
1 S
al= [ a cos 272 az,
0 ~o -
in which 6S is the difference between the cross section at
the point s and its mean value, S,, for the whole rod.—
Some methods for studying the viscosity of solids: Dr.
Boris Weinberg. The author has been carrying out in-
vestigations similar to those described by Prof. Trouton
and Mr. Andrews in their paper on the viscosity
of pitch-like substances (Proc. Phys. Soc., 1903). The
details of his experiments are, however, different. He has
worked principally with lead and has employed three dis-
tinct methods for determining the coefficient of viscosity.
Paris,
Academy of Sciences, January 30.—M. Troost in the
chair.—On some new experiments relating to the prepara-
tion of the diamond: Henri Moissan. In connection with
the study of the Cafion Diablo meteorite, it appeared desir-
able to repeat the experiments on the formation of diamonds
in rapidly cooled cast iron, with especial reference to the
effect of sulphur and silicon in the ingot. The results
obtained with an ingot to which iron sulphide had been
added immediately before cooling were similar to those of
the earlier experiments, except that the yield of diamonds
was slightly greater. The addition of silicon had the same
effect, except that the formation of the dense silicon carbide
rendered the separation of the microscopic diamonds rather
more difficult. Drawings of four typical crystals are given.
—Synthesis in the anthracene series: MM. Haller and A.
Guyot. y-hydroxy-y-triphenyl-dihydroanthracene condenses
very readily with amines and phenols, giving compounds
of the type
C,H
(CyH;\s CC + DO Cot CaH R),
6t4
NO. 1841, VOL. 71]
in which R may be N(CH,),,N(C,H,),, NH,, or OH. A
description of these substances is given.—The mixed treat-
ment of trypanosomiasis by arsenious acid and trypan-red :
A. Laveran. The injection of these substances has caused
the disappearance of the Tr. gambiense in certain animals,
and hence the author regards this disease as curable in
certain cases, the most efficacious treatment being the suc-
cessive injection of arsenious acid and trypan-red. As the
curative doses of these substances are not far removed
from their toxic doses, this toxicity being variable with the
animal. species, the doses to be prescribed must be rigor-
ously determined. This will be especially difficult for man.
—On the faculty possessed by cement strengthened with
iron of supporting large elongations: M. Considére.
Some doubt having been thrown on the earlier work of the
author on this subject by German and American writers,
details are given of some further experiments, the results
of which are in complete accordance with those of
the earlier work.—On the new short period comet
1904 e (Borrelly, December 28, 1904): G. Fayet. Observ-
ations on this comet having now been carried on for a
month, the calculation of its orbit can be made with more
certainty. The results confirm those previously published,
the time of revolution being now determined at about seven
years.—A secondary shadow observed on the rings of
Saturn in October, November, and December, 1904: M.
Amann and Cl. Rozet. Between October 20 and the end
of December, besides the shadow of Saturn projected on
its ring a second shadow, narrower and less well marked
than this, was observed. It traversed the rings through-
out in the form of a curved line, and it was noted
that the portion of the rings between the shadow of the
planet and that now described appeared to be more brilliant
than the other illuminated portions of the rings. It is not
clear to what this extra shadow can, be due.—Remarks on
a generalisation of M. Riesz: Emile Borel.—On the
zeros of integral functions of infinite order, not transfinite :
Ed. Maillet.—On the precision of geographical positions
obtained in the field with the prism astrolabe: M.
Driencourt. This instrument, invented by A. Claude, has
already been tested in the Observatory of Montsouris, with
very satisfactory results; it remained to be seen whether
the same accuracy could be maintained in field observations.
Details are given of some measurements made in Mada-
gascar showing the remarkable saving of time, without
loss of precision, resulting from its use.—On the self-regis-
tration of the ions of the atmosphere: P. Langevin and
M. Moulin. Owing to the existence of two kinds of ions
in air differing greatly in mobility, it is not possible to
register these on the same apparatus, although the same
principle is applicable. The theory of the apparatus with
some details of its construction are given.—On the temper-
ing of bronzes: Léon Guillet. The mechanical properties
of bronzes of varying content of copper, and after tempering
at varying temperatures, correspond very closely with the
changes of constitution brought out by the experiments of
Heycock and Neville-—A brown modification of colloidal
ferric oxide: P. Nicolardot.—On the chlorination of
methyl-ethyl-ketone : André Kling. After trying the various
methods of chlorination of ketones, the method found to
give the best yield is described in detail, the action of
chlorine in the presence of water and marble. The chief
product was CH,.CHCI1.CO.CH,, boiling at 114° to 117°,
and furnishing the glycol CH,.CH.(OH).CH(OH).CH, on
reduction.—The action of dilute nitric acid upon vegetable
fibres: M. Jardin. The use of a weak solution of nitric
acid, 5 parts of acid in 1000, is suggested for bleaching
flax. It presents certain advantages in regard to the time
and the amount of labour required, and leaves a fibre which
takes the dye in a perfectly homogeneous manner.—On
fiedlerite: A. de Schulten. This mineral is a hydrated
oxychloride of lead, of a composition corresponding to
2PbOHCI,PbCl,.—On the salts of the Tchad region: H.
Courtet.—On the parasitism of Osyris alba: A. Fraysse.
In a preceding note some conclusions have been given on
the biology of Osyris alba and on the anatomy of its
suckers. In the present note is an account of the general
physiology of these suckers and the relations existing
between the parasite and its host.—On the changes of com-
position of the fruit of the Cucurbitacee: Leclerc
du Sablon.—On the chemical composition and the significa-
360
NATURE
{ FEBRUARY 9, 1905
tion of the aleurone grains: S. Pesternak. The analyses
of aleurone grains obtained from four different species of
plants showed practically the same composition, noteworthy
points being the invariable presence of silicon and the
absence of sodium and chlorine. The manganese was more
variable in amount than the other elements,—The pre-
paration of practically sterile musts from apples: _G.
Perrier.—Tiie mode of dorsal fixation of Lernaeentcus
Sardinae on its host: Marcel Baudouin.—The existence of
intra-uterine rickets: MM. Charrin and Le Play.—On the
folded layers near Saint-Jean-de-Buéges (Herault): René
Nicklés.—On the ascents of captive balloons carried out
on the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic Ocean from the
yacht of the Prince of Monaco in 1904: H. Hergesell. A
study of the atmospheric conditions above the ocean,
measurements being taken of the temperature, relative
humidity, and direction of the wind at varying heights
above the sea level.—On the existence of high terraces in
the North Ural: L. Dupare and F. Pearce.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Fesruvary 9.
Roya. Society, at 4.30.—(1) On the Conversion of Electric Oscillations
into Continuous Currents by means of a Vacuum Valve: (2) On an
Instrument for the Measurement of the Length of Long Electric Waves,
and also small Inductances and Capacities: Prof. J. A. Fleming,
F.R.S.—Report on_an Area of JLocal Magnetic Disturbance in
East Loch Roag, Lewes, Hebrides: Captain A. M. Field, R.N.—
Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and Gamma Rays of Radium:
G. T. Beilby.—(1) The Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to
Celestial Spectra; (2) On the Stellar Line near A 4686; (3) Note on the
Spectrum of « Centauri: Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and
F. E. Baxandall.—Europium and its Ultra-Violet Spectrum : Sir William
Crookes, F.R.S.
Roya InsTiTuTION, at-5.—Forestry in} the British Empire: Prof. W.
Schlich, F.R.S.
INsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fuel Economy in Steam
Power Plants: W. H. Booth and J. B. C. Kershaw. (Conclusion of
discussion. )—The Value of Overhead Mains for Electric Distribution in
the United Kingdom : G. L. Addenbrooke.
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—General Theory of Transfinite Num-
bers and Order-types: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—On the Reducibility of
Covariants of Binary Quantics of Infinite Order. Part ii: Mr. P. W.
Wood.
FRIDAY, Fesrvary to.
Rovat INsTITUTION, at 9.—The Art of the Ionian Greeks: Dr. Cecil
Smith.
Rovat. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—Anniversary Meeting.
MAvacoLocicat Society.—Annual General Meeting. Address by the
President, Mr. E. R. Sykes, on Variation (including Teratology) in
Recent Mollusca.
INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Reconstruction of the
Santa Lucia River Bridge, Uruguay: P. J. Risdon.
PuysIcAL Socrery, at 8.—Address on Radiation Pressure by the President-
elect, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.
MONDAY, Fewsrvary 13.
Society oF ARTS, at §.—Internal Combustion Engines : Dugald Clerk.
Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—The Geographical Results of
the Tibet Mission : Sir Frank Younghusband, K.C.I.E.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Results of Force
Measurements with Cutting Tools, and their Application to Lathe
Design: Dr. J. T. Nicolson.
TUESDAY, FEesRuARY 14.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure and Life of Animals: Prof.
L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
SocroLoGicaL Society, at 4.—(1) Restrictions in Marriage: (2) Studies
in National Eugenics : Communicated by Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S.
{xsTITUTION OF CrviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Alfreton Second Tunnel: E. F.
C. Trench.—The Reconstruction of Moncreiffe Tunnel : D. McLellan.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Kinematograph Exhibition of
Native Dances from Torres Straits: Dr. A. C. Haddon, F-.R.S.—The
Dog-motive in Bornean Art: E. B. Haddon.
WEDNESDAY, Fesruary 15.
Society or Arts, at 8.—The Decline of the Country Town: Arthur H.
Anderson.
Roya Mricroscopicat Society, at 8.—Practical Micro-Metallography
with Experimental Demonstration : J. E. Stead, F.R.S.
RovaLt METEOROLOGICAL SociETy, at 7.30.—Report on the Phenological
Observations for 1904 : E. Mawley.—Observations made during a Balloon
Ascentat Berlin, September 1, r904 : Dr. Hermann Elias and J. H. Field.
The Winds of East London, Cape Colony: J. R. Sutton
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—The Condensation of Anilino-acetic Esters
in Presence of Sodium Alcoholate: A. T. de Mouilpied.—Nitrogen
Halogen Derivatives of the Aliphatic Diamines: F. D. Chattaway.—
Nitration of Substituted Azophenols: J. ‘I’. Hewitt and H. V. Mitchell.
No. 1841, VOL. 71 |
THURSDAY, Fesrvary 16.
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: Polarised Réntgen Radia-
tion: Dr. G. C. Barkla.—The Effects of Momentary Stresses in Metals:
Prof. B. Hopkinson.—The Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents.
Part I. The Vapour Pressures, Densities, Surface Energies, and
Viscosities of the Pure Solvents: D. McIntosh and B. D. Steele.—The
Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents. Part 1J. The Conductivity
and Molecular Weights of Dissolved Substances: D. McIntosh and
E. H. Archibald.—The Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents.
Part JII. The Transport Numbers of Certain Dissolved Substances :
B. D. Steele. —The Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents. Part IV.:
B. D. Steele, D. McIntosh, and E. H. Archibald.
Roya. InstTiTUTION, at 5.—Recent Work of the Geological Survey:
Prof. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.
Society OF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Indian Census of rgor: Sir Charles A.
Elliott, K.C.S.I.
LinnEAN Society, at 8.—A Revised Classification of Roses: J. G. Baker,
F.R.S.—The Botany of the Anglo-German Uganda Boundary Com-
mission : E. G. Baker, Spencer Moore, and Dr. A. B. Rendle.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 17.
Royvat INSTITUTION, at 9.—High Power Microscopy: John W. Gordon.
GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—Anniversary Meeting.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SocIETY, at 8.30.—The Protozoa in Relation to Disease :
Prof. E. J. McWeeney.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Annual General Meet-
ing.—Adjourned Discussion on the American Visit, rg04.—The Strength
of Columns: Prof. W. E. Lilly.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Scientific Results of the Belgian Antarctic Expedi-
tion, (By Raenand WV). Eo) oi cael oiei- tan 337
Italian’Chemistry; By W. AS Does fae ees
A New Crystallography. By Harold Hilton. . . . 340
Our Book Shelf :—
Parsons: ‘‘The Arris and Gale Lectures on the
NeurologyiofVision” . 2). 2c 5. 26) seedO
‘“The Twentieth Century Atlas of Microscopical
Petrographyg——G. A. J.C. as. ee maa
Miiller and Kranzlin : ‘‘ Abbildungen der in Deutsch-
land und den angrenzenden Gebieten vorkommenden
Grundformen der Orchideen-arten” . .. . 341
Bennett : ‘‘ Intensification and Reduction”. . . 341
Letters to the Editor :—
Slow Transformation Products of Radium.—Prof.
E. Rutherford, F.R.S. ... rae tes hoe
Indian and South African Rainfalls, 1892-1902.—
(With Diagram.)—D. E. Hutchins ..... . 342
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.—Prof. J.
Wertheimer . oo val ay SSMee ey oe el RES ESTE
Notes on Stonehenge. II. (/é/ustrated.) By Sir
Norman Lockyer) K.C.B:, ERIS.) 4). e-aeesas
Geology ofthe Moon. By Sir Arch, Geikie, F.R.S. 348
Notes). .ameee a= >. i; ceo + 350
Our Astronomical Column :—
Ephemeris for Comet 19094¢ . ....... 353
Ephemeris for Comet 19092... ..... 353
Orbit of Comet 1904 ¢ (Borrelly) ...... 353
Observations of the Leonid Shower of 1904 353
Spectra of y Cygni, a Canis Minoris, and e Leonis 354
Systematic Survey of Double Stars ........ 354
Report of the Yale Observatory, 1900-4 . 354
Prize Subjects of the Batavian Society of Experi-
mental Philosophy ..... re apres, a i!
: 4p pot 3
The Pic Du Midi Observatory. (J//ustrated.) . . . 35
Agricultural Notes ..... 355
University and Educational Intelligence
356
Societies'andtAcademies) oe s\.3 sage A
Diary, of Sacietioss ||. |) -meeearmcst> fe Meones . 360
NATURE
361
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 16, 1905.
THE HISTORY OF COAL MINING.
Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade.
Series. By R. L. Galloway. -Pp.
Second
XVi+ 409.
(London: Colliery Guardian Co., Ltd., 1904.)
Ee a former volume (noticed in Nature, vol. lix.
Pp. 337) the author carried his annals of coal
mining down to the period of the Select Committee
of the House of- Commons on Accidents in Mines in
1834. He now continues the subject to the passing
of the Coal Mines Inspection Act of 1850, and to the
establishment of the Royal School of Mines. This
volume, like its predecessor, is comprehensive and
accurate, and a monument of industry and of thorough
technical knowledge.
The period of fifteen years reviewed is one of much
interest. After ten years of stagnation came a re-
markable increase of activity in the coal and iron
industries. The chief causes that imparted the impetus
were the rapid extension of steam navigation and the
mania for constructing railways. Fresh life had been
given to the manufacture of iron by the introduction
of hot blast, and, owing to its increasing cheapness,
the metal was being more largely used in collieries.
Steel, however, was still a scarce commodity. The
chief seat of mining operations at this period was in
the Wear and South Durham district. In South
Wales a considerable development of the steam-coal
district took place, owing largely to the opening of
the West Bute Dock at Cardiff in 1839. In York-
shire the greatest depth attained in 1841 was at
Barnsley, where the coal lay 594 feet below the surface.
In Lancashire two pits were begun in 1838 at Pendle-
ton, which reached the coal at 1392 feet, whilst at
Apedale, in North Staffordshire, there was a mine
with the exceptional depth of 2177 feet. Frequent
instances of spontaneous issues of fire-damp are re-
corded. Full details of the various explosions are
given by the author, and the gradual improvements
in mining operations are traced. The author’s records
show that the men who did most to advance mining
progress at this period were John Buddle, of Wallsend
(1773-1843), Dr. W. R. Clanny (1776-1850), Sir Henry
De la Beche (1796-1855), Michael Faraday (1791-1867),
Sir Goldsworthy Gurney (1793-1875), Lord Playfair
(1818-1898), Sir Warington Smyth (1817-1890), and
James Young, of Bathgate (1811-1883).
of the Scotch mineral oil industry.
Incidentally, Mr. Galloway gives interesting etymo-
logical details of some local terms the origin of which
is uncertain. Thus, in South Staffordshire and Scot-
land the word ‘‘ butty’’ signifies a comrade or
associate. Assuming neighbourhood to have been the
original idea, a root for the word is suggested by
the author in the term “‘ but ’’ as used in the expression
‘but and ben,’’ applied to a divided house shared by
two occupants. Again, what appear to be traces of
a primitive state of servitude existed in Staffordshire,
where the labourers employed in the haulage of coal
continued to be known as ‘‘ bondsmen ’’—a name prob-
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
the founder
ably coming down from a remote period; a supposition
which receives support from a peculiar service required
of them, known as ‘“ buildases.’’ This consisted in
working at times in the morning without receiving
any payment beyond a drink of ale. This custom of
exacting labour without pay is supposed to represent
some ancient service required from their tenants by
the monks of the Abbey of Buildwas, in Shropshire,
whence the name was derived. Another etymology
would have buildas, a contraction of build-house, be-
cause the money obtained by means of this unpaid
labour enabled the butties to build rows of cottages.
Another curious term was that applied to the small
stools which in the north of England formed a
regular part of the collier’s accoutrements. This stool
was known as a “ cracket,’’ a word which appears to
be a variety of cricket.
In reviewing the history of this interesting period
it is surprising to find what a large number of recent
inventions had been anticipated. For example, the
pneumatic system of haulage, successfully applied by
Blanchet at Epinac, in France, in 1877, was patented
in 1845 by Knowles and Woodcock in Lancashire.
The use of reciprocating rods to raise vessels contain-
ing coal adopted on the Continent by Méhu, and sub-
sequently by Guibal, was made the subject of a patent
by Slade in 1836. The process of raising mineral in
successive stages, proposed for working the deep-
level mines of the Witwatersrand, appears to have been
not uncommon during the first half of the nineteenth
century. Winding by endless chain, as proposed by
O. C. von Verbo in a book published a few months
ago, was patented as early as 1789; and in 1839 an
automatic arrangement for cutting off the steam and
applying the brake, invented by John Wild, was in
operation in Lancashire. The well known ventilator
patented by W. P. Struvé was identical in principle
with the hydraulic air-pump used in the Hartz mines
since the Middle Ages. Iron props, adopted in France
in 1880, were used in Derbyshire collieries in 1811, as
were also pieces of timber built up two and two cross-
wise so as to form a square pillar. This so-called
pig-sty timbering was introduced as a novelty by the
Australian miners at the Day Dawn mine, in Queens-
land, ten years ago.
In one respect the worl is open to criticism. The
title ‘‘ Anfials of Coal Mining ”’ should more properly
have been “ Annals of British Coal Mining,’’ inasmuch
as Continental and American practice is barely men-
tioned. This is to be regretted, as during the period
under review several events happened abroad to which
reference might usefully have been made. Thus, the
first Belgian railway was opened in May, 1835, the
first German railway in December, 1835, the first
French railway in 1837, and the first Austrian railway
in 1838. The first railways made in the United States
were coal roads to the mines. In 1835 Thomas and
Laurens suggested heating boilers with blast-furnace
In 1835 Kind improved the methods of deep
boring. In 1846 Schonbein discovered gun cotton,
and nitroglycerin was invented in the following year.
In 1830 the modern mine-theodolite was invented by
F. W. Breithaupt, of Cassel, and in 1845, in France,
R
gas.
362
NATURE
{FEBRUARY 16, 1905
the trust-like company of the Loire was formed, that
the prototype of the coal trusts and syndicates
of to-day. Events such as these had a far-reaching
influence on the development of the coal-mining
industry.
Special commendation is due to the author for the
scrupulous accuracy with which references tb original
authorities are given, and for the care with which
the proof-sheets have been read. Two trifling mis-
prints have, however, escaped detection. Freiberg
appears ‘as ‘‘ Freyburg’”’ (p. 292), and Sir Marc
Isambard Brunel as *‘ M. J. Brunel’ (p. 291).
Bennett H. Broucu.
was
MATHEMATICS OF BILLIARDS.
Billiards Mathematically Treated. By G. W. Hem-
ming, K.C. Second edition. Pp. 61. (London:
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 3s. 6d. net.
ORE fortunate, or more careful, than most
authors, Mr. Hemming, whose recent death
will be regretted by many, did not find it necessary
in his second edition to make any material alterations
in his original work. He added two appendices, iii.
and iv., with which alone it is necessary to deal in the
present notice.
Appendix iii. discusses the comparative advantages
of fine and through strokes, with regard to the margin
of error permissible in the respective cases. In the
figure opposite p. 47, A is the player’s ball, O the object
ball, and the stroke is to make A, after striking O,
pass within a distance of the point P depending on
the nature of the stroke, namely, for a cannon a
distance equal to the diameter of a ball, for a losing
hazard the necessary distance from the centre of the
pocket, which may vary between different tables.
The angle AOP is given by the conditions of the
problem, and in the notation adopted is —A. The
angle of aim, OAS, is the thing to be determined. It
shall be denoted by a, as in appendix ii. of the first
edition. In the present appendix A, is also used for
the same angle. S denotes the position of the centre
of the striking ball at impact, SO being the common
normal. If ASO=z7—8, @ and a are connected by the
relation sin 6/sin a=AO/OS=AO/2 if we denote OS,
the diameter of a ball, by 2; and in the special case
considered of AO=PO=30, or 15 diameters, we might
tO a very near approximation use a instead* of sin a,
Further, the angle OPS is denoted by P,, and the
angle of deviation, —ASP, by 5. It is then shown
that as the equation connecting 6 and 6,
tan (0+5)=p tan 9,
for reasons given in the former edition,
p=3-5. From this last equation 5 may be obtained in
terms of 6 ora. In fact,
tan 3=(p—1) sin @ cos 6@/(cos? 4+ sin? 4)
is easily found.
The complete method, were it practicable, would be
to find an equation in @ or « having two roots, one of
which, say @,, should correspond to the fine, the
other, @,, to the through, stroke, and thence the margin
of error might be found for each stroke. This analysis
being difficult, a practical solution is obtained by means
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
where,
of a diagram in which the ordinate y represents sin A,
given by the conditions, and the abscissa x represents
sin @ in an actual stroke in which, for given A, the ball
A passes over or very near to P. A series of values of
sin 4 being found corresponding to a series of values
of sin A, we draw a freehand curve through them.
In general, a line parallel to x for given y cuts this
curve in two points, namely, P,, in which @ has the
smaller value (the through stroke), and Q,, in which,
it has the greater value (the fine stroke). It comes
next in order to find for any y the margin of error for
P, and for Q,. This is done by using the formula of
appendix ii., first edition. The linear error on the
object ball is (AO being 30) 308¢. The consequent
linear error at P (PO=30) is denoted by E. Then
306a/E gives the margin of error. A new curve, called
the blue curve, is then drawn, having for abscissa
x=sin @, and for ordinate y=308a/E, in the same way,
by a series of trials, as the first curve. The blue curve
has two branches. Then the margin of error for any
of the points P, or Q, of the first curve is that ordinate
of the blue curve which has the same abscissa. As
the result of this method it is found that the margin
of error is the same for the through as for the fine
stroke, when sin 4=o0.320, and sin 8=0.132 for the
through, and sin @=o0.960 for the fine stroke. For
smaller values of A the through stroke has the
advantage; for larger values of 4 the fine stroke,
until a certain maximum is reached.
In appendix iv., f, the coefficient of friction between
two balls at impact, formerly taken as zero, is assumed
to have the values o.o1 or 0-02, and it is found that,
instead of p=3.5, as above assumed, we should have
for f=o.01 p’ =3-445+0-0625 cos @
for f=0.02 p’ =3-391+0-125 cos 8.
It will be observed that both these values of p’ give
very approximately p’=3.5 when @=30°, that is, for
the half-ball stroke.
Before this notice was in type Mr. Hemming was
taken from us by death, to the sincere regret of his
many friends, including the present writer.
S. H. Burpury.
A MORPHOLOGY OF THE ALG.
und Biologie der Algen. By Dr.
Vol. i. Special part. Pp.
(Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1904.)
HE charming little university town of Freiburg
has been the birthplace of important ideas in an
obscure department of natural history. De Bary
began there his researches into the life-history of the
lower fungi, and afterwards continued them at Halle
and Strassburg. Owing to his great work and in-
spiration we botanists owe a germ-theory of disease—
a theory which was in time to bear fruit in practical,
medical and surgical form in the mighty hands of
Lord Lister. To Freiburg, then, we come again for
a morphology of the kindred group of the Algz.
There is a difficulty in understanding how even an
assiduous German professor, living so remote from the
sea as Freiburg is, can have obtained the inspiration
which has guided his research for years past. The
Morphologie
Friedrich Oltmanns.
vi+733; illustrated.
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
study of organisms, which in a living state are for
the most part many hundreds of miles from his door,
must have presented a task in conquering which his
zeal and power of work can find no better example
than the volume before us. To a great extent this
work must have been book work, and excellent book
work: it is, the purely bibliographical work especially ;
and with the aid of herbarium specimens Dr. Oltmanns
has succeeded in giving us a general morphology of
the Algze—a treatise to have been expected only from
one with abundant leisure and a microscope near the
sea. To approach, then, in a spirit of criticism an
encyclopaedic book of this kind, to try to gauge its
worth, seems in the circumstances scarcely “‘ sports-
manlilxe,’”? if I may use such a term, on the part of
one who has had so many greater opportunities of
observation.
The De Bary of the subject is, of course, Dr. Bornet,
and no student can for a moment question his pre-
eminent claims to instruct us. Schmitz, of Greifs-
wald, whose loss we can never cease to deplore, seemed
destined to employ his indomitable industry in a work
of this kind. Happily we have Dr. Oltmanns, and
happily he has had the courage to undertake a task
so full of use and pleasure to all students of this
fascinating group of plants.
I do not wish for a moment even to seem to detract
from the great performance of Dr. Oltmanns. One
irresistibly comes back to the Freiburg and De Bary
standard. One hoped for a general morphology of the
Algze as De Bary gave us one of the fungi. Dr.
Oltmanns has given us an encyclopedic book—an
admirable one—but not the reasoned work of genius
botanists have dreamt of. —
According to personal prejudice, very possibly, I
mean prejudice in the right sense of the word, I turned
first to the obscure groups of primitive Alga, groups
that I have had so many opportunities of studying on
the sea, and of which Dr. Oltmanns can have had few
chances of seeing living specimens. It so happened
that while writing this review the present writer was
engaged in describing a new generic form of pelagic
Alga obtained on the outward voyage of the Discovery.
The point was put to the test by consulting Dr.
Oltmanns’s descriptions and bibliography. From that,
of course, the original sources were taken and verified,
not so much for the immediate purpose, as was natural
in any case, as for the aim of doing justice in review-
ing Dr. Oltmanns’s book. The result was triumphant
for Dr. Oltmanns—every reference and every descrip-
tion having been pursued to its original source. It is
difficult to establish a negative, but no reference was
found wanting.
Naturally one turned next to the group Dr.
Oltmanns has made his own—the Fucacez. It may
seem presumption, but it was dutiful, and here, again,
the book stood every test. The other groups of Algze
were not made the subject of such rigorous treatment,
but they were examined with scrutiny enough to
warrant the expression of a very warm and hearty
recommendation of this great book to the consideration
of botanists and cultivated readers.
GEORGE Murray.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE : 36
ios)
OUR BOOK SHELF,
Game, Shore and Water Birds of India: with
Additional References to their Allied Species in
Other Parts of the World. By Colonel A. Le
Messurier, C.I.E., F.Z.S., F.G.S. Fourth edition.
Pp. xvi+323- (London: Thacker and Co., 1904.)
Tue first edition of this work was a modest little
volume, printed for private circulation only, on the
birds of Sind. -This appeared so far back as 1874.
Four years later, with some additions, it was issued
to the public. Hume and Marshall’s epoch-making
work on the game birds of India appearing at the
same time made a third edition imperative. This
in due time appeared, and large additions were made
thereto, taken, with acknowledgments, from _ this
formidable rival. Meeting with a well merited
success, a fourth edition has now been issued, which
differs from the earlier volumes in that it ‘‘ includes
references to all species in other parts of the world
that are allied to the Game, Shore, and Water
Birds of India.”
This addition is made on the curious plea that
“owing to the facilities of travel, Anglo-Indians are
now engaged in most countries either on business or
pleasure.’’ It is to be supposed that Anglo-Indian
sportsmen are here specially referred to, and further,
that, save for this volume, no information concerning
the avifauna of the countries they propose to visit
is obtainable. That this is not the case it is needless
to say, and the traveller-sportsman would be ill
advised who started on his journey with this volume
for his only guide and counsellor.
In so far as it concerns the birds of India likely
to interest the sportsman, this book will do very
well; but it would have been vastly improved if the
space now devoted to extra-Indian birds had been
utilised for fuller descriptions of the native species,
and for the description of the geographical and climatic
conditions of the several regions of this vast hunting
ground.
The introduction to this book contains, we venture
to think, not a little that is out of place in a work of
this kind. Much of it is admittedly compiled from
abstruse scientific treatises, or from the labels of the
Natural History Museum at South Kensington.
There can be no doubt but that the author, during
his long residence in India and his wide experience
in the field, must have accumulated a vast store of
facts concerning Indian birds which would be well
worth recording. For this reason, therefore, we
regret that he decided on including in this edition
matter really foreign to the scope of his book.
His first-hand observations would have been of in-
finitely more interest and value than the compilation
now presented.
The illustrations are numerous, and mostly very
crude. Wi. Pee Be
The Species of Dalbergia of South-Eastern Asia.
By Dr. D. Prain. (Annals of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Calcutta, vol. x., part i.) Pp. iv+114;
and plates. (Calcutta, 1904.) Price 1. 13s.
THE stages in the evolution of the genus Dalbergia
are sketched in the early pages of this memoir.
After removal of the extraneous species, the genus
was delimited by Bentham in 1851, and four sub-
divisions, Selenolobium, Dalbergaria, Sissoa, and
Triptolomea, were mapped out. Although Bentham
himself pointed out that there was overlapping in
these subdivisions, the grouping has been maintained
by later systematists down to and including Taubert,
who undertook the Leguminosze for the ‘‘ Pflanzen-
familien ’’? in 1894. Dr. Prain, who had previously
reviewed the genus when collating the Leguminose
in connection with ‘‘ Materials for a Flora of the
364
Malayan Peninsula,’ has, after a study of several
years, introduced a new arrangement with two main
sections, Sissoa, which includes the greater part of
Bentham’s Triptolomea and Sissoa, and Amerimnon,
called after an American type. Dr. Prain’s classifi-
cation differs from Bentham’s, since he adopts the
shape and orientation of the corolla and the form of
the style as the criteria of his subdivisions instead of
the characters of the inflorescence, stamens, and fruit.
The genus is distributed through the tropics of
Africa and America as well as Asia, and it seems
a pity that the author did not see his way to extend
his monograph to all the known species. The dis-
tribution in Asia is considered for five provinces,
East China, Indo-China, Indo-Himalaya, Malaya,
and Papuasia; the number of endemic species in each
is large, and amounts to 72 per cent. for East China.
Very few species are found in more than two of
these provinces; Dalbergia tamarindifolia occurs in
four, and Dalbergia torta (=D. monosperma), which
has pods well suited for dispersal by ocean currents,
is the only species found in all five provinces. Owing
to the inclusion of recent specimens from Malay and
China, the total number of authenticated species
amounts to eighty-six; a few, including the Dalbergia
laccifera of Lanessan, still remain unidentified. The
memoir is illustrated with diagrams of groupings
and maps of distribution, as well as with figures of
each species, and issued as the first part of the tenth
volume it forms a valuable addition to the Annals
of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta.
The Process Year Book. Penrose’s Pictorial
Annual, 1904-5. Edited by William Gamble.
Pp. xvit160. (London: Penrose and Co.)
Every year we receive this annual, and each time
it is our pleasure to point out the very high standard
which the volume attains. The current issue bids us to
repeat the opinions expressed in our previous notices,
and to supplement them with the statement that the
standard has again been changed to one of a higher
order.
To gain some idea of the possibilities of process
work of to-day, when the best work and materials
are employed, the reader has only to take up this
book and examine the contents, which will at once
indicate the high state of efficiency and the variety
of methods that are available. In the first place we
have a series of instructive articles, covering 160
pages, most of which are from the pens of well-known
workers. These deal with manifold portions of a
far-reaching subject, and give the advice, results of
experience, and views of these workers on numerous
points of interest. Of the illustrations, which form
such a conspicuous feature of this annual, much could
be written, for it is in them that we see the practical
results of the processes in use to-day. If we sum
up the plates, colour prints, supplement illustrations,
and illustrations in the text, we have a collection
which for variety of subjects and excellence of repro-
duction is unique. The photogravure, as a_frontis-
piece by J. J. Waddington, Ltd., the SUT DeL a
reproduced by the three-colour process of André and
Sleigh, and the interlayed half-tone by the Arthur
Cox Illustrating Co., Ltd., are three amongst a host
of other good samples that are met with.
Apart from the large number of process workers
who await annually the appearance of this year book,
this handsome volume will appeal to a wide circle of
readers who are in any way connected with the
artistic or utilitarian side of the art of reproducing
pictures. The editor and his contributors, together
with the publishers and printers, all deserve great
credit for such an admirable result of their combined
efforts.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, vejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
On a Method of Using the Tow-net as an Opening
and Closing Tow-net.
Every naturalist who has engaged in marine research
is aware of the great difficulties which attend upon research
in the intermediate depths.
Great ingenuity has been displayed in the invention of
very elaborate instruments—many of them hopeful, some
of them successful. It had appeared to me, as the result
of observations, and after conversation with Mr. J. Me
Buchanan, who had made similar observations, that a solu-
tion of this problem might be found easily in experiments
with the ordinary tow-net.
Our joint experience was this. If an ordinary tow-net
were lashed at two opposite points of the rim to a rigid
sounding-wire, and so plunged at speed into the depths,
the net would fold over and close. It might then be towed
at the required depth and afterwards reeled in by the
sounding engine at express speed—again closing in its
upward course.
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Ten
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uj
Through the great kindness and sympathy of Mr. M. H:
Gray, of the Silvertown Submarine Telegraph Company, I
was afforded an opportunity of putting this theory to the
test on board the Dacia.
The conditions of the experiment appeared to me at the
time adverse, since my tow-nets and other apparatus were
missing at Gibraltar; but this was a blessing in disguise.
I set to work and made a tow-net out of old bunting and
the rim out of a barrel hoop. This tow-net was so flimsy
that in towing it alongside at little more than mere
steerage-way it frequently burst. To plunge it into the
depths would be a supreme test, since not even No, 20
Miller’s Silk in an open net could stand the strain I
proposed. Off the north-west coast of Africa I had three
days’ opportunity of experiments, the absurd tow-net being
in ludicrous inverse proportion to the magnificent sounding
crew and sounding engine. A reference to the diagram
will show A, the descent of the net folded over; B, the
net opening at the required depth; c, the net being towed
at the required depth; and p, the net being reeled in
closed as in its descent.
1 confess that when the first experiment was made I had
faint hope of seeing that flimsy tow-net again, but it
emerged with many organisms we had not captured on
the surface. To cut matters short, these experiments were
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
NATURE
365
repeated for three days without a hitch at from 200 to | for ocean passages from west to east. Thus the scope
300 fathoms, the flimsy net emerging from its trials on
every occasion with success.
There are two practical points. The first is the art
of plunging the net at the surface, the next that of
whipping it out on reeling in, so that there may be no
contamination of surface organisms during the critical
moments.
I had at my service this was easily done.
My repeated experiments were also addressed to this
point, viz. to ascertain the best rate of descent and ascent
of the net, and my experience was 100 fathoms a minute.
The flimsy net stood all tests.
To the modern marine naturalist, whose complicated
(and expensive) opening and closing tow-net is an object
of worship, this-simple advice may seem like telling him
to ‘‘ bathe seven times in Jordan’’; he wishes to do a
great thing. GeorGE Murray.
February 5.
The S:xth Sateil te of Jupiter.
Tue author of the article on the sixth satellite of Jupiter
in Nature of January 19 has obviously made a slip in assum-
ing that the ‘‘ retrograde’’ motion ascribed to the sate!-
lite means retrograde in the sky, and not in the orbit.
According to the ephemeris, Jupiter on January 4 was moving
direct, i.e. eastward, about 225” daily. The satellite was
west of the planet (position angle 269°), approaching Jupiter
at the rate of 45" a day, and, therefore, moving eastward
(direct) about 270" daily.
The position angle on January 17, according to the latest
bulletin from Mount Hamilton, was 266°, having decreased
3°; the distance of the satellite had decreased from 45‘ to 36’.
If the object is really a satellite this necessarily indicates a
retrograde orbital motion, unless the plane of its orbit is so
much inclined to that of the other satellite-orbits as to make
the new one pass north of the planet at inferior conjunction
instead of south as the others now do.
The observations thus far published would, however, apply
equally well to an asteroid a little within or beyond the
orbit of Jupiter, and near perihelion in an orbit of some
eccentricity and with a mean distance from the sun somewhat
greater than that of Jupiter. We must wait for further
observations to determine the truth. C. A. YOuNG.
Princeton, N.J., U.S.A., February 3.
The Circulation of the Atmosphere.
I HAVE read with great interest your review of Prof.
H. H. Hildebrandsson’s report on ‘‘ The General Motion
of Clouds ’*’ (Nature, February 2, p. 329).
All his observations appear to support the theory of my
father, the late Prof. James Thomson, as set forth in the
Bakerian lecture on ‘‘ The Grand Currents of Atmospheric
Circulation ”’ (Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiii. p. 653, 1892) and in
his earlier paper read before the British Association in
1857.
Is it possible that Prof. Hildebrandsson has not seen
these papers, and-has accepted theories put forward as
Prof. James Thomson’s instead of referring to the
originals? Anyone who takes the trouble to read these
papers carefully must see that it is distinctly stated that
the main direction of the upper current of the atmosphere
is from west to east while moving steadily and gradually
towards the Poles, and that the air keeps this west to
east motion as it sinks to a lower level, and becomes the
great return current towards the equator. This motion
can hardly be termed “ vertical circulation.” As for
Prof. Hildebrandsson’s assumption concerning Hadley’s
theory, I should like to quote the following passage from
my father’s paper :—
“In 1735 George Hadley submitted to the Royal Society
the paper of which I have made mention already as
supplying for the first time a substantially true theory
of the primarily dominant conditions of atmospheric
circulation. The paper is entitled ‘ Concerning the Cause
of the General Trade Winds,’ and it is right here to notice
that Hadley applied the name ‘ General Trade Winds ’ not
merely to those winds of equatorial regions to which the
name Trade Winds is ordinarily restricted, but uses it as
including also the west to east winds known to be pre-
valent in higher latitudes, and used in trade by mariners
NO. 1842, VOL 71]
With a highly expert sounding crew such as |
of his theory must be understood as being much wider
than what would be conveyed in ordinary nomenclature by
the name Theory of the Trade Winds.” :
So far then from opposing Hadley’s theory, my father’s
amplifies and completes it. James THomson.
22 Wentworth Place, Neweastle-on-Tyne, February 6.
Remarkable Temperature Inversion and the Recent
High Barometer.
DurinG Friday and Saturday, January 27 and 28, the baro-
metric pressure over the south of England was exceptionally
high, readings of 31.00 inches being observed at 6 p.m.
on Saturday in the extreme south-west of the country. In
the neighbourhood of London the barometer rose to 30-90
during the night of January 26, and remained at about
that height.until the morning of January 29, a well marked
anti-cyclone with readings over this value being shown on
4o°co heooe
3000 3ooo
2000 fe 2ee0
fooe f- /oe0
o
¢ yo fF S07
Fic. 1.—Temperature inversion on January 28 at Oxshott, Surrey.
the morning and evening weather charts of January 27
and 28.
During such conditions it is in general impossible to raise
a kite, owing to the want or lightness of wind; but on
January 28, during the afternoon, there was sufficient
breeze from the west to start a kite carrying recording
instruments, and to take them to a height of 3600 feet.
A very remarkable temperature inversion was found to
exist, the details of which are shown in the accompanying
chart. At 3.40 p.m. the surface temperature was 47°-0 F. ;
at 4.45 p.m. it had fallen to 45°-0 F. The temperature
decreased steadily to 40° F. at 3000 feet; a little higher
a rise of 12° took place, the temperature at 3300 feet being
52° F. At 4.28 p.m., at 3600 feet, the temperature was
53° F. Unfortunately, the humidity trace on the meteoro-
graph partially failed, but it suffices to show that the
temperature inversion was, as such inversions in my ex-
perience always are, accompanied by extreme dryness of
the air.
The wind was west at the surface, and shifted gradually
to north-west at the highest point reached, but there was
no sudden change of direction at the height where the
temperature inversion occurred.
I do not wish to imply that the high barometer and the
temperature inversion are necessarily correlated phenomena,
but the coincidence is interesting. W. H. Dings.
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books.
Wir reference to the complaint of Mr. R. P. Paraiypye
(p- 320) that a big sum is still asked for Price’s ‘‘ Treatise
on Infinitesimal Calculus,’’ I should be obliged if you
would allow me to point out that the price of this work
is, and has been for some time, 5s. a volume.
Henry FROWpDE.
Oxford University Press Warehouse, Amen Corner,
London, E.C., February 8.
A National University Library.
It must be the experience of any graduate of Oxford or
Cambridge who is residing at a distance from those univer-
sity towns that a serious obstacle to the prosecution of
research arises from the impossibility of consulting the
university libraries, and the absence of any provision for
borrowing volumes, or obtaining references under arrange-
ments similar to those pertaining at the libraries of the
Royal and other scientific societies. Moreover, while Oxford
and Cambridge possess the special privilege of acquiring
free copies of books copyrighted in England, there are now
many universities in this country which are far too poor
to keep up even a decently respectable library in any branch
of science.
The conditions of modern times have created a need for
a National University Library, enjoying the same privileges
as the Oxford and Cambridge libraries, and which should
be available for graduates of any British university; per-
sons engaged in any specified branch of research to have the
opportunity of borrowing books through the post as in the
case of the Royal Society. G. H. Bryan.
Mutation.
Tue term mutation is applied in biology to that sort of
variation in which the equilibrium of the organism seems
to be disturbed, and a new position of equilibrium is found,
which is markedly different from the original one. This
may apply to a whole organism -or merely to some one
organ, so far as external appearances show.
in all the discussions regarding mutation which have
lately taken place, the difficulty has been felt that it is
impossible by any methods yet known to perceive and
measure the internal changes and influences leading to
mutability. It is certainly not supposed that mutability is
without cause, but it is obviously difficult to detect the
causes which bring it about.
It occurs to me that some help may be obtained from
analogies derived from psychology and sociology. What
mutation is in biology, conversion is in psychology, and
revolution in sociology. It may be said that to assume
such parallels is merely to beg the question, but I think
that the apparent parallelism cannot be without significance.
Now the phenomena leading towards conversion have been
studied subjectively (cf. James, ‘‘ Varieties of Religious
Experience ’’), and those leading towards revolution have
been studied objectively, with certain well-defined results.
If the supposed analogy is a valid one, it appears to follow
that mutability is due to the same general causes
as ordinary variability (just as change of opinion
and reform are due to the same general causes as con-
version and revolution), but that there is this difference—
mutability represents an explosion of energy, as it were, in
a given direction, and therefore differs from ordinary vari-
ation somewhat as the firing of a gun differs from the
explosion of a loose heap of powder. It also follows that
the cause of the explosion is not plasticity in the organism,
but in some measure the reverse ; that is, the power of being
influenced, and at the same time of withstanding the
expression of the influence until it had acquired considerable
force. This implies a certain rigidity of type, quite com-
parable with a type of mind familiar to all. It further
appears to follow that the chance of mutations succeeding
from the first is comparatively remote, though such a thing
is quite possible; but since they are the result of general
causes, the sort of changes the mutations exhibit are likely
to come about in due course, just as the sort of changes
represented by a revolution are likely to prevail ultimately,
though the revolution itself may appear to fail.
T. D. A. CockereLt.
University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, January
25-
Fact in Sociology.
Mr. WELts is a dangerous man to criticise. Such
thunderbolts as ‘‘ crude,’’ “ dull,’’ ‘“‘ balderdash,’’ come
hurtling at one’s head even from his modified letters |
(Nature, February 2). But I prefer to regard it all as
meant only for sheet lightning. Indeed, when I consider
the courtesy that characterised my article (NATURE,
December 29), plain-spoken though it was on some points,
I cannot take any other view.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[| FeBRuaRY 16, 1905
|
| Now to Mr. Wells’s points in order.
(1)‘** The Food of the Gods ’does not claim to forecast
the future.” My mistake was natural. It only shows
the risk Mr. Wells runs in appearing before the world
in two entirely different characters. Still, I hit upon a
weak point. He pictures an ideal State, but cannot show
us how it is to be realised. Archimedes had no fulerum
for the lever with which he would have moved the world.
Mr. Wells has no power to apply to his.
(2) ‘* I have mixed up‘ Anticipations’ and‘ Mankind in the
Making.’ ’’ Why keep them separate? ‘* Anticipations ”’ also
deals largely with ideals.
(3) Re the question—Which of the great national
“* syntheses ’’ will attain predominance, see ‘* Anticipations,”*
chap. viii. passim, and especially pp. 100, 101 (6d. ed.,
1904). This chapter seemed to me an interesting specula-
tion, but Mr. Wells describes what I thought, and, on
re-reading, think is to be found in it as ‘* balderdash.”*
True, through inadvertence I wrote ‘‘ Anglo-Saxon” in-
stead of ‘‘ English-speaking,’’ for which I am sorry.
(4) Re the recruiting of the upper strata of society from
the lower, nothing, he says, is known about this. Still,
those who have studied human evolution think they know
something. Prof. Karl Pearson even says that there are
“class statistics ’’ for the population of Copenhagen, and
writes, ‘‘ the population would accordingly appear to be
ultimately, and in the long run, reproducing itself from
the artisan classes’’ (Natural Science, May, 1896). Dr.
Mercier (see the Sociological Society’s papers, 1904,
p- 55) regards ‘‘a civilised community in the light of a
lamp, which burns away at the top and is replenished at
the bottom.’’ As to ‘‘ stagnant ’’ classes, I find in ‘‘ Anti-
cipations,”’ p. 121, ‘It (the new Republic) will tolerate no
dark corners where the people of the Abyss may fester,
no vast diffused slums of peasant proprietors, no stagnant
plague preserves.’’ See especially p. 117 for Mr. Wells’s
plan for getting rid of undesirable types. As to careful
parentage, see *‘ Mankind in the Making,”’ p. 99 :—‘ The
first step to ensuring them (the ends aimed at) is certainly
to do all we can to discourage reckless parentage.’’
In conclusion, let me describe myself as a much-battered
but not unfriendly critic of the New Republic.
FP. Wo ag
The Meiting of Floating Ice. r
May I suggest that Dr. Deventer, of Amsterdam, whose
letter to you is referred to in your issue of January 26
(p. 303), has discovered a ‘* mare’s nest ’’?
His observant pupil, who noticed that in a glass filled
to the brim with water and floating ice the melting of the
latter did not cause overflow, was apparently totally
ignorant of the laws of flotation, or he would not have
expected otherwise. Why should the level of the water
change? The ice in melting must of necessity just fill
with water the space that it displaced when floating, and
so the level remains unaltered. So Dr. Deventer’s state-
ment that ‘‘ when a vessel contains a solid floating in
its own liquid, the level of the latter does not change by
the melting of the solid ’’ appears quite superfluous.
As to making this a ‘‘ general ’’ law applying to solids
floating in their own liquids, surely the rule is that solids
do not do so, but sink. Why make a general law which
only applies in the case of a very few exceptional sub-
stances, such as ice, cast iron, and bismuth? Heat.
February 8th.
A Lunar Rainbow.
Last night, after 10 p.m., a thunderstorm passed over
this town, travelling from west to east. When the sterm
had passed and the rain had almost ceased, a bright quarter-
moon shone brilliantly almost overhead. To the east the
clouds were still very heavy and dark, and in that direction
there appeared a perfect rainbow. The arc of the bow was
low; it appeared as a grey band with a certain suggestion
of colour, against the dark leaden sky. *
I should be glad to know from any of your readers if
| such moon rainbows are of common occurrence, as the one
of last night is the first which I have seen.
i Pretoria, Transvaal, January 15. J. McCraz.
oe ew eee oe
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%
Powe
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
NATURE 367
NOTES ON STONEHENGE.'
11i.—Tue Earviest Crrecies.
W HEN we come to examine Stonehenge carefully
in relation to the orientation theory, it soon
becomes clear that its outer circle of upright stones
with lintels and the inner naos, built of trilithons,
oriented in the line of the ‘‘ avenue ’’ and the summer
solstice sunrise, are not the only things to be con-
sidered. These stones, all composed of sarsen, which,
be it remarked, have been trimmed and tooled, are
not alone in question. We have :—
(1) An interior circle broken in many places, and
other stones near the naos, composed of stones,
A \ ts wae nn
y gn lone
Fic. 8.—Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance Survey.
¢, Friar’s Heel; p, Slaughter stone.
““blue stones,’’ which, as we have seen, are of an
entirely different origin and composition.
(2) Two smaller untrimmed sarsen stones lying near
the vallum, not at the same distance from it, the line
joining them passing nearly, but not quite, through
the centre of the sarsen circle. The amplitude of the
line joining them is approximately 26° S. of E. and
26° N. of W. Of these the stump of the N.W. stone
is situated 22 feet from the top of the vallum according
to the Ordnance plan. The S.E. stone has fallen, but
according to careful observations and measurements
by Mr. Penrose, when érect its centre was 14 feet
from the top of the vallum. The centre of the line
joining the stones is therefore 4 feet to the S.E. of
4 Continued from p. 342.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
‘ii, ot :
Wie cucsy naa pues
tae ove aah “i
A, N.W. stone; B, S.E. stone ;
the axis of the present circles, which, it may be stated,
| passes 3 feet to the N.W. of the N.W. edge of the
| Friar’s Heel (see Fig. 8).
There are besides these two large untrimmed sarsen
stones, one standing some distance outside the vallum,
one recumbent, lying on the vallum, both nearly, but
not quite, in the sunrise line as viewed from the centre
of the sarsen circle. These are termed the ‘ Friar’s
Heel ”’ and ‘‘ Slaughter Stone ’’ respectively.
I will deal with (1) first, and begin by another quota-
tion from Mr. Cunnington, who displayed great
acumen in dealing with the smaller stones not sarsens.
| ‘The most important consideration connected with
| the smaller stones, and one which in its archeological
bearing has been too much over-
looked, is the fact of their having
been brought from a great distance.
I expressed an opinion on this sub-
ject in a lecture delivered at Devizes
more than eighteen years ago, and
I have been increasingly impressed
with it since. I believe that these
stones would not have been brought
from such a distance to a spot where
an abundance of building stones
equally suitable in every respect
already existed, unless some special
or religious value had been attached
to them. This goes far to prove
that Stonehenge was, originally a
temple, and neither a monument
raised to the memory of the dead,
nor an astronomical calendar or
almanac.
“Tt has been suggested that they
were Danams, or the offerings of
successive votaries. Would there in
such case have been such uniformity
of design or would they have been
all alike of foreign materials? I
| would make one remark about the
| small impost of a trilithon of
syenite, now lying prostrate within
the circle. One writer has followed
another in taking it for granted that
there must have been a_ second,
corresponding with it, on the oppo-
site side. Of this there is neither
proof nor record, not a trace of one
having been seen by any person
who has written on the subject.
This small impost, not being of
sarsen, but syenite, must have be-
longed to the original old circle ;
it may even have suggested to the
builders of the present Stonehenge
the idea of the large imposts and
trilithons, with their tenons and
mortices.”’
In Prof. Gowland’s examination of the contents of
the holes necessarily dug in his operations, it was found
that the quantity of blue stone chippings was much
greater than that from the sarsen stones. While the
sarsen stones had only been worked or tooled on their
surface, the blue stones had been hewed and trimmed
in extraordinary fashion; indeed, it is stated by Prof.
Judd that some of them had been reduced to half their
original dimensions in this process, though evidence of
this statement is not given.
It seems, then, that when the sarsen stones were
set up, the sarsen and blue stones were treated very
differently. This being so, the following quotation
from Prof. Judd’s ‘‘ Note ’’ is interesting (Archaeo-
logia, Iviii., p. 81) :—
368
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
‘I may repeat my conviction that if the prevalent
beliefs and traditions concerning Stonehenge were
true, and the ‘ bluestone’ circles were transported
from some distant locality, either as trophies of war,
or as the sacred treasures of a wandering tribe, it is
quite inconceivable that they should have been hewed
and chipped, as we now know them to have been, and
reduced in some cases to half their dimensions, after
having been carried with enormous difficulty over land
and water, and over hills and valleys. On the other
hand, in the glacial drift, which once probably thinly
covered the district, the glacial deposits dying out
very gradually as we proceed southwards, we have a
source from which such stones might probably have
been derived. It is quite a well- known peculiarity of
the glacial drift to exhibit considerable assemblages of
stones of a particular character at certain spots, each
of these assemblages having probably been derived
from the same source. ire
““T would therefore suggest as prob-
able that when the early inhabitants
of this island commenced the erection
of Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain was
sprinkled over thickly with the great
white masses of the sarsen-stones
(‘grey wethers’), and much more
sparingly with darker coloured boulders
(the so-called ‘ blue-stones ’ ), the last
relics of the glacial drift, which have
been nearly denuded away. From these
two kinds of materials the stones suit-
able for the contemplated temple were
selected. It is even possible that the
abundance and association of these two
kinds of materials, so strikingly con-
trasted in colour and appearance, at a
particular spot, may not only have de-
cided the site, but to some extent, have
suggested the architectural features of
the noble structure of Stonehenge.”
If we grant everything that Prof.
Judd states, the question remains
why did the same men at the same
time treat the sarsen and blue stones
so differently in the same place?
* I shall show subse quently that there
is a definite answer to the question on
one assumption.
I next come to (2). The important
point about these stones is that with the
amplitude 26°, at Stonehenge, a line
from the centre of the circle over the
N.W. stone would mark the sunset
place in the first week in May, and a line over the
S.E. stone would similarly deal with the Nov ~mber
sunrise. We are thus brought in presence of thy
November year.
Another point
not at the same distance
stone which
mound; this is why
from the mound. —
May-
that they are
centre of the
concentric
they lie at
: Further, a line drawn
from the point of the Friar’s Heel and the now re-
cumbent Slaughter Stone with the amplitude
mined by Mr. Penrose and myself for the
solstice B.c. cuts the: line
these stones is
from the
itself is
about
sarsen
with the
different
circle,
temenos
distances
deter-
summer
sunrise in 1680 joining the
stones at the middle poir suggesting that the four
untrimmed sarsen stones provided alignments both
for the May and June years at about that date.
Nor is this all; the so-called tumuli within the
vallum m merely have bec bservation mounds, for
the lines passing from tl orthern tumulus over
| N.W. stone and from 1 ther tumulus over
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
the S.E. one are parallel to the avenue, and there-
fore represent the solstitial orientation.
So much, then, for the stones. We see that, deal-
ing only with the untrimmed sarsens that remain, the
places of the May sunset and June and November
sunrises were marked from the same central point.
Statements have been made that there was the
stump of another stone near the vallum to the S.W.,
in the line of the Friar’s Heel and Slaughter Stone,
produced backwards, at the same distance from the
old centre as the N.W. and S.E. stones. This stone
was not found in an exploration by Sir Edmund
Antrobus, Mr. Penrose, and Mr. Howard Payn by
means of a sword and an auger. But the question
will not be settled until surface digging is permitted,
“road ’’ about which there is a present con-
tention passes near the spot.
But even this is not the only evidence we have for
as a
»
Fic. 9.—The rod on the recumbent stone is placed in and along the common axis of the
present circle and avenue.
the distance, would hide the sunrise place if the axis were a little further to the S.E.
It is seen that the Friar's Heel, the top of which is shown in
the May worship in early times. There is an old
tradition of the slaughter of Britons by the Saxons
at Stonehenge, known as ‘“ The Treachery of the
Long Knives’; according to some accounts, 460
British chieftains were killed while attending a ban-
quet and conference. Now at what time of the year
did this take place? Was it at the summer solstice
on June 21? | have’ gathered from Guest’s
‘Mabinogion,’’ vol. ii. p. 433, and Davies’s
Mythology of the British Druids,”’ p. 333, that the
banquet took place on May eve “ Me nteth ydd.”’ Is
likely that this date would have been chosen in
solar temple dedicated exclusively to the solstice?
Now the theory to which my work and thought have
d me is that the megalithic structures at Stonehenge
the worked sarsens with their mortices and lintels,
d above all the trilithons of the magnificent naos
represent a re-dedication and a re-construction, on
much more imposing plan and scale, of a much
der temple, NORMAN LOCKYER.
FEBRUARY 16, 1905
NATURE
369
ANIMAL LIFE.
VV the appearance of this half-volume we have
to congratulate the author and his publishers
on the completion of a work which must have involved
an enormous amount of labour, and which, in this
country at any rate, is unique. The great impulse
which has of late years been given to ‘‘ nature-teach-
ing ’’ rendered a work of this class almost essential
(for the mode of treatment could not have been
adopted in a systematic natural history), and Prof.
Davis has realised the want, and done his best to
supply what was required.
In spite of certain errors and blemishes, to some
of which we have directed attention on previous
occasions, and bearing in mind the magnitude of
Fic 1.—Mexican Poisonous Lizard (/Veloderma horridim).
the task for a single individual, it may be safely said |
that, on the whole, the author has been successful in
his efforts, and that when a second edition is called
for, and the necessary emendations and corrections
have been made. the work will tale its place as an
important popular text-book of bionomics.
The half-volume now before us includes some of
the most interesting sections of the whole subject,
discussing as it does the economic aspect of zoology,
the natural history of sport, animals as pets, geo-
graphical distribution, the palaontological record,
and the doctrine of evolution and heredity. Un-
fortunately, the author has not allowed sufficient
space for some of these subjects. Fur-bearing
animals are, for instance, very imperfectly described,
no mention being made of such important furs as
Arctic and silver fox, otter and nutria; and if only
the author had le‘t out the ‘‘ old wives’ tales ’? about
the shrew on pp. 319 and 320 he would have had
ample room for proper treatment.
Neither is the volume altogether free from down-
1 "The Natural History of Animals ; the Animal Life of the World in its
various Aspects and Relations.” By J R.A. Davis. Half vol. vii. Pp
xvili+261-555. (London: The Gresham Publishing Co., 1904.) Price 7s
net.
NO. 1842, VOL, 71]
From ‘The Natural History of Animals.”
right errors. For instance, the statement on p. 313
that Lake Baikal was recently connected with the
sea is totally opposed to modern views; and it is
equally untrue that the great Indian rhinoceros
‘““bites’’ (p. 373), while the statement (p. 421) that
there are no wild oxen in Africa at least requires
qualification. On p. 469 we find the usual
exaggerated statement of the size of dinosaurs (115
instead of 60 or 7o feet!). Among misspelt
names it must suffice to mention (p. 430) Padus for
Pudua, and (p. 432) Euneces for Eunectes (we can
guess whence the author copied the latter); but it
may be added that Saccomyide not the proper
title for the pocket-gophers, or Euspongia for the
typical sponges. An expression on p. 375 leads one
to believe that the author is unaware of the existence
of the Devon and Somer-
1S
set staghounds; while
(p. 379) the term “ hunt-
;
ing,’’? as applied to
fishes, seems somewhat
misplaced.
The section on
graphical distribution
may perhaps be best
described as feeble, the
author ‘‘ wobbling ’’ on
the subject of ‘* Wal-
lace’s line,’’? and being
apparently unacquainted
either with the works
of Max Weber or with
a certain text-book pub-
lished by the Cambridge
University Press. In
fairness to his readers
the author should have
told them that there are
distributional divisions
of the globe other than
those adopted by Dr.
Wallace; and also that
such divisions are based
on the range of mam-
mals and birds, and do
not accord with that of
several other groups.
The coloured plates
render this and_ its
fellow volumes attractive to the general reader, and
most of the other illustrations (one of which is here
| reproduced) are well chosen and well executed.
Rees
geo-
| THE CONDITION OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
IN FRANCE.
-HE results of an inquiry into the present condi-
tion of French chemical industries are described
in the Revue scientifique of January 28. The up-
shot of this inquiry is the recommendation that a
society should be founded for France, having its head-
quarters in Paris, with branches in all large towns
in France, with a council consisting of the heads of
industrial enterprises, the professors in universities
and ‘‘lycées,’’ of independent persons, and of all
interested in industrial chemistry. The duties of this
society should be (1) to suggest and press on the
| Government solutions of the great economic problems
| of importance to chemical industry; (2) to collect
| statistics abroad and to endeavour to gain markets for
| French products by aid of the consular service; and
to devise means to prevent competition between French
370
NALTORE.
(FEBRuARY 16, 1905
manufacturers, and to promote combination among
them against their foreign rivals; and (3) to act as
an advisory body to industrial chemists, and to take
steps to direct the education of young chemists into
channels helpful to the progress of chemical industry.
It is suggested that the work of the society should
be aided by congresses in certain towns, which should
be attended by the local manufacturers, as well as by
those who carry on the same or similar processes
elsewhere. In conclusion, the future president, it is
suggested, should be Prof. Haller, who has done so
much for the industrial progress of the town and
University of Nancy, and who is now professor at
the Sorbonne, the University of Paris.
Such are the recommendations of the report. The
reasons annexed to these recommendations, which
form the earlier part of the report, are derived from
numerous letters from and interviews with members
of some eighty-two representative firms. The opinions
of some of these form amusing reading. Thus we
learn from the manufacturers of “eau de Javel,’”’ the
precursor of bleaching-powder, that Monsieur B.,
““sufft a l’exploitation.’’ In another case ‘‘ The
brewery has no chemist at all, and gets all its
analyses made at the brewing-school.’? Another firm
which produces ‘‘ some rare bodies ’’ (one would like
to know what they are) dismisses the question in
almost the historical words which preceded the decapita-
tion of Lavoisier—‘‘ Aucun besoin de la collabora-
tion des savants’?! Another intelligent manufacturer,
designated as X, (1) ventures the daring statement
that *‘ the candle industry and chemistry have nothing
in common.’? Oh, shade of Dumas! X (10) does
not think that the collaboration of ‘‘ savants ’? would
be useful in the extraction of dyeing stuffs from
wood ; and a soap-maker, X (16), who confesses him-
self ignorant of chemistry, thinks that ‘* chemistry
can contribute nothing of use to the soap industry,
seeing that soap is always made in the same way”?!
These examples show that some educative action
is necessary in France. The necessity is also
apparent when recent statistics are considered. For
while the raw materials exported from Germany have
remained practically stationary for the last twenty
years, those imported have doubled in value; and
while the imports of manufactured products have
barely increased in value during the same interval
of time, the value of the exported manufactured
chemical substances has risen from 200 million marks
in 1880 to 352 million marks in 1900. The progress
in France, accordingly, is much behind that of
Germany. To add insult to injury, the red trousers,
so conspicuous in the French Army, were designed
originally to encourage the cultivation of the madder
plant; the plant is commercially as extinct as the
dodo, and the trousers are now dyed with artificial
alizarin supplied from Germany! Sacre nom de
tonnerre !
As this article is written in the hope of reaching
the ignorant, the author, M. Jean Jaubert, has taken
some pains to show how many-sided the industrial
chemist should be if he is to direct his enterprise
intelligently, and he sketches the steps taken by the
Germans to secure such general knowledge. The
collaboration of manufactories and university
professors, the give and take, the university train-
ing of the scientific heads of departments in chemical
works, account for an increase between 1887 and 1900
in the number of works in Germany from 4235 to
7169; in the number of workmen from 82,000 to
153,000; and for an increase in the average wage of
these workmen from 38l. to sol. a year; and the
average percentage dividend of 121 joint-stock
companies, obliged by law to publish their accounts,
has risen from 9% per cent. in 1888 to per cent.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
135
in 1899. Evidently .German chemical industry is
prosperous, and profitable to all classes concerned.
Indeed, the dividend of artificial colouring companies
shows a still better figure; the increase in dividend
is from 15 per cent. in 1888 to 203 per cent. in 1900.
Unfortunately, similar statistics are not furnished
for France, either because they do not exist or because
they are better concealed.
How can this distressing state of affairs be
remedied? To what is industrial France to turn?
The opinions of many manufacturers are quoted, and
some shall be adduced here. First, secondary educa-
tion is at fault; all initiative is crushed in the
secondary schools, and all pupils are turned out of
one uniform mould. But, it is acknowledged, an
attempt is being made to remedy this. Second, it is
said nearly unanimously, by all those asked for their
opinions, that the training of young chemists is not
sufficiently practical. There is in the universities
too much tendency to train teachers rather than
industrial men; and the professors often look down
on the commercial side of their science. The union
of science and industry is recommended. Like our-
selves, the French manufacturers, ignorant them-
selves, often engage a young chemist, and expect
him at once to know all about their work and to be
able to devise improvements; when they find out that
he is of little value they contemn chemistry, as we
have seen in what precedes. Others complain that
they have to pay their chemists for a year or a year
and a half while he is learning their needs; and yet
it is acknowledged that no education in a technical
school can be of any value; for the teacher cannot
teach anything worth knowing about the really im-
portant dodges employed by the manufacturer, nor
is he welcomed in the work if he lectures on any
special process. In a minority of works the German
system is followed; young men are engaged as
juniors, and work under the supervision of seniors;
according to the ability and tastes which they show
for routine work, for management, or for invention,
they are kept as analysts, made managers, or left
in the research laboratory. But it is justly remarked
that this excellent plan is impossible for small
manufacturers.
In many (most?) cases the difficulty lies in the
smallness of the remuneration. It appears common
for a chemist to receive 48]. to 72]. a year, rare for
the pay to exceed tool. Now that is little more
than workmen’s wages; and it is the reward of an
expensive education. Yet the manufacturer often
grumbles at having to teach such young men their
business, and says that they should pay for his
tuition; and on the other hand, the chemist who has
survived the kicks, cuffs and insults from the
foreman, and hard work of the first year, and has
acquired some practical knowledge, does not see why
he should not better himself if he can.
Again, German firms employ chemists in many
walks of life. A man who is a chemist makes a
much better traveller for a chemical firm than an
ignoramus who can only tout his goods; and their
chemists, if they show commercial ability, often take
to the business side of the concern, and they know
chemistry is a recommendation, not a drawback.
In spite of the low pay, France, according to all
reports, is overcrowded with chemists. Some _ pity
them; others think that this plethora will lead to the
survival of the fittest. The old-fashioned foreman is
as undying in France as here, however, and as
opposed to any attempt at innovation. Yet he is being
displaced by chemists in some works; and_ this,
common in Germany, is one of the chief causes of
her industrial prosperitv. The foreman, knowing
some tips of importance, looks askance at anyone
= Cl
FERRUARY 16, 1905]
NATURE
371
who attacks experimentally the problems of his
manufactures; for he knows if they are once dis-
covered his use is past. On the other hand, if fore-
man work is done by a chemist, trained in experi-
mental methods and anxious to improve his product
(and his position), reforms can be made, and are
willingly undertaken. We in England are in a
similar plight; one of the greatest preventives to
progress is the foreman. Why, many chemists would
be glad of his 3/. a week, and would be infinitely
more useful.
A closer intimacy between professor and manu-
facturer is strongly urged. But in France there is
apparently mutual distrust. The standing of the
professors is low, for one thing, the best paid post (at
Paris) bringing in only Sool. a year; in the pro-
vinces the salaries run from 2401. to 4ool. This
contrasts unpleasantly with German salaries, which
seldom fall below 6oo0l., and may amount to 3600l.
In France, many men have a taste for the career of
professor, and will work cheap for glory; ‘‘ that is
the French character.’”’ Most French professors,
according to one of them (rashly named in_ this
article), do nothing and care nothing for industry.
In short, collaboration between manufacturer and
chemist is wanting owing to jealousy of the latter
towards colleagues who meddle with industrial
problems, to ignorance and shyness of both parties,
and to the want of any intermediary who can bring
them into contact.
Besides the recommendations stated in the outset,
it is advised that special schools be created, e.g. for
perfumes, for colours, for soaps, where young chemists
shall receive special training.
Now what can we in England learn from this
exhaustive discussion? We have many of the same
defects; we suffer from the supremacy of the fore-
man; from the want of interest in industry of. the
professors (although this is lessening); from the want
of intelligence and scientific training of many manu-
facturers; and from the lack of special schools. In
the old days of the Le Blane soda process the works
served as schools for young chemists; now things
are too specialised. In prosperous times, the manu-
facturer does not see the need of a chemist; when bad
times come, the luxury of a chemist cannot be
afforded. What we want, what the Germans have got,
and what the Americans are rapidly getting, is a
race of scientifically trained manufacturers; combina-
tions of those engaged in the same industry, so that
common laboratories of research may be kept running ;
the replacement of rule-of-thumb foremen by
chemically trained submanagers of a better class,
who have had something in the nature of a scientific
education, and who are imbued with the spirit of
research, leading them to keep their eyes open to
every possible improvement; this they would gain
first in actual educational establishments, under the
guidance of capable professors, and later in the
special laboratories mentioned above; and _ lastly,
thorough cooperation between teachers and manu-
facturers, so that problems capable of being solved in
a university laboratory, and of scientific interest,
should be transferred there, with the prospect of an
ultimate reward should they prove commercially
useful; and a liberal attitude of mind on the part of
manufacturers, so that they would take a little trouble
to become acquainted with the progress of scientific
chemistry, with the view of its utilisation for money-
making purposes, and a readiness to consider any
problems suggested in the university laboratory, with
the view of their being worked out industrially. We
are moving slowly towards attaining this ideal. Is it
any comfort that France appears on her own show-
ing to be more backward? Until the people con-
NO. 1842, vou. 71]
cerned learn to view such problems from a scientific
standpoint, little more can be done. The only thing
is for those who can to preach, and above all to
practise. W. R.
NOTES.
Tur new session of Parliament was opened on Tuesday by
the King, who was accompanied by the Queen, with the cus-
tomary ceremonial. The King’s speech to the House of
Commons announced that provisions for amending the laws
relating to education in Scotland will again be brought for-
ward, and that a proposal for establishing a Minister of Com-
merce and Industry will be introduced.
Ar the annual meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society
on Friday last, the gold medal of the society, awarded by the
council to Prof. Boss, director of the Dudley Observatory,
Albany, New York State, was received by Mr. Choate, the
United States Ambassador, for transmission to Prof. Boss.
The president afterwards handed to the secretary the
Jackson-Gwilt bronze medal for transmission to Mr. Tebbutt,
who for many years has carried on astronomical research in
his observatory in New South Wales.
Ar a meeting of the trustees of the Percy Sladen fund,
held at the Linnean Society, Burlington House, on
February 3, grants varying in amount were made to
Mr. W. R. Ogilvie Grant, toward the expenses of a
collector for the British Museum in Central Africa; to
Miss Alice L. Embleton, to enable her to continue her
investigations in insect cytology; and to Mr. J. Stanley
Gardiner, toward the expenses of an expedition to the
Indian Ocean.
M. Rapau has been appointed president, Vice-Admiral
Fournier vice-president, and M. Bigourdan secretary of the
Bureau des Longitudes, Paris.
M. F. J. P. Four, honorary director of the Royal Ob-
servatory at Brussels, died at Liége on January 29 in his
seventy-second year.
WE regret to see the announcement of the death of Mr.
Robert Tucker, who was for thirty-five years (November,
1867-November, 1902) honorary secretary of the London
Mathematical Society.
Reuter states that the Argentine sloop of war Uruguay,
last reported at Punta Arenas, has returned to Buenos
Ayres after her voyage in the Antarctic seas, having failed
to obtain any news of the French Antarctic Expedition
under Dr. Charcot.
It is proposed to establish an International Association of
Anatomists at a meeting to be held at Geneva on August 7—10.
The initiative has been taken by the anatomists of the Swiss
universities and has the support of the anatomical societies of
Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, and America.
Tue Athenaeum announces the death, on January 29, of
Prof. H. Landois, professor of zoology and director of the
Zoological Garden at Munster, in his seventieth year. Prof.
Landois was the author of ‘‘ Der Mensch und das Tierreich,”’
‘“ Das Pflanzenreich,’? ‘‘ Das Mineralreich,’’? and other
works.
Captain JouN DoNNELL Situ, of Baltimore, has given,
says Science, to the Smithsonian Institution his private her-
barium consisting of more than 100,000 mounted sheets and
his botanical library of nearly 1600 bound volumes. Captain
Smith’s collection is probably the largest private herbarium
in America, being very rich in tropical plants.
372
A TELEGRAM has been received at the office of the Scottish
National Antarctic Expedition in Edinburgh announcing the
safe arrival at Buenos Ayres of Mr. R. C. Mossman, who was
left in charge of the meteorological station at Scotia Bay,
South Orkneys, last February. Mr. Mossman has spent two
continuous years in the Antarctic regions.
Tue Treasury has agreed to make a contribution from
public funds toward the cost of establishing and maintaining
a national museum and a national library in Wales, on the
condition that suflicient local support is forthcoming. The
Lord President of the Council has appointed a committee of
the Privy Council to consider and determine the place at
which each of the two institutions should be established and
other matters relating to their foundation and future main-
tenance.
M. Jacques Faure accomplished a successful voyage ina
balloon from London to Paris on February 12. He left the
Crystal Palace at 6.45 p.m. on February 11 with M. Hubert
Latham, and they at once rose to a height of 500 metres,
which they kept until within sight of the sea, near Hastings.
They then descended until the guide-rope touched the water,
when they travelled at the rate of 110 kilometres an hour.
At 10 p.m., seeing a lighthouse, they rose to 2000 metres,
and soon passed over Dieppe. The balloon descended at St.
Denis, outside Paris, six hours after starting.
WE regret to see the announcement of the death of Mr.
William Sellers, the eminent mechanical engineer of Phila-
delphia. When president of the Franklin Institute in 1864, he
read a paper on screw-threads and nuts, and his form of
thread subsequently became the standard for the United
States. He had many friends in this country. He was a
member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and as chair-
man of the Philadelphia committee took an active part in the
reception of the Iron and Steel Institute in its recent visit
to America.
THe new Premier diamond-mine, situated about twenty
miles W.N.W. of Pretoria, in the Transvaal, produced in
January of this year an enormous diamond far surpassing in
size the largest previously known. It measures 43 x 23
inches, is said to be of excellent quality, and weighs 3032
carats (=6763 grams, or nearly 1} Ib. avoirdupois). The
largest diamond previously discovered is the ‘ Excelsior,”
which was found in 1893 in the Jagersfontein mine, Orange
River Colony, and was valued at 1,000,000l. It was as large
as a hen’s egg, weighed 9713 carats, and has been cut into
nine brilliants. The world-famous Indian diamonds, the
“ Koh-i-noor "’ and ‘‘ Great Mogul,’’ are considerably smaller
than the ‘ Excelsior,’’ and compared with this huge latest-
found diamond their size sinks into insignificance. An
account of the Premier mine was recently published jn
the report for 1903 of the Geological Survey of the Transvaal
(NaTURE, 1904, Ixxi., p. 55). The mine was opened up in
1902, since when it has produced a rich yield. It is of the
same type as the Kimberley mines, but considerably larger
in size. The pipe containing the “ blue-ground ”? has an
oval-shaped cross-section ; its longer diameter measures just
over half a mile, and its area is estimated at 350,000 square
yards. The pipe breaks through felsitic rocks, which were
earlier intruded in the quartzites of the Pretoria series.
““ Notes on Phosphorescence in Plants and Animals“ is
the title of a paper by Miss Bage in the Victorian
Naturalist for November last, of which the author has
been good enough to send us a copy. Special attention
is directed to the occurrence of phosphorescence in
butchers’ meat, since a remarkable
been recently noticed in Melbourne.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71 |
So far as the author
NATURE
ee eee eee
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
could ascertain, no cultures have been taken from phos-
phorescent meat, so that the bacteria by which the pheno-
menon is produced are still unknown.
The Times of February 9 devotes nearly a whole column
to the collection of giraffes in the Natural History Museum, —
which has recently been enriched by examples of the Kili-
manjaro and Nigerian races. The article mentions the
names of the various donors of the series in the national
collection, which is altogether unrivalled. Brief reference
is made to the earlier specimens of giraffes brought to this
country, and to the history of the evolution of our know-
ledge of the local variations of the species. In conclusion,
special attention 1s directed to the importance of ascertain-
ing the reason for these and analogous colour-variations in
animals.
WE have received copies of Nos. 1 to 3 of the fourth
volume of the Goeldi Museum at Para, the first of which
is dated February, while the other two were published in
December, 1904. The catalogue of Para mammals in
No. 1, by Messrs. Goeldi and Hagmann, has been already
noticed in our columns. Among the contents of Nos.
2 and 3, mention may be made of a list of the mosquitoes
of Para by Dr. Goeldi, with an account of the measures
taken to exterminate Stegomyia fasciata and Culex fatt-
gans, and also of Dr. Hagmann’s synopsis of the birds
described by Spix, Wied, Burmeister, and Pelzeln. Con-
siderable interest attaches to a paper on a disease which
has recently affected domesticated animals in the Island of
Marajo.
Tue Scientific American of January 21 contains an illus-
trated account of the setting-up in the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, of a skeleton of the dinosaur
Brontosaurus, obtained from the deposits near the famous
Bone Cabin Quarry in 1898. The skeleton, which is the
largest and at the same time the least incomplete specimen
of its kind, is being set up under the immediate direction
of Prof. Osborn, and will be the only mounted example of
the bony framework of the brontosaur. Its estimated
length is sixty-two feet. Contrasted with that of Diplo-
docus, the skeleton of Brontosaurus is characterised by
its relatively shorter body and limbs, and its more massive
general structure, the arrangements for lightening its
weight being more specialised than in any other member
of the group. From the rough terminal surfaces of the
limb-bones it is inferred that the creature was largely
aquatic in its habits; and when sitting down it is sup=
posed that the weight of the body was partly supported
by the extremities of the ischia and pubes, which may
have been furnished with elastic pads of cartilage or
connective tissue.
Tue *‘ One and All’? Annual, 1905, contains a number
of articles connected with gardening, among which are
some practical notes on growing mushrooms, celery and
herbs.
Tue Japanese have a malted preparation, known as
ame, which is a kind of candy or barley-sugar, made by
the action of barley malt on glutinous rice. Midzu-ame,
or liquefied ame, a syrup, forms the subject of an article
by Prof. F. H. Storer and Mr. G. W. Rolfe in vol. iii.
part iv. of the Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Harvard
University. The preparation of ame dates back many
centuries, and it is interesting to compare it with must,
or the modern Prof. Storey also describes
some experiments made pop-corn which bear out
wort.
with
more
prevalence of this has | the opinions of previous investigators that popping is
caused by bursting of the starch grains.
——
FERRUARY 16, 1905]
WATORE
373
Tue experiments described by Dr. M. Koernicke in the
October (1904) number of the monthly journal Himmel
und Erde prove that both Réntgen and radium rays can
produce a very marked action on plants. The general
result of exposure of seedlings was to cause retardation
and eventually cessation of growth of stem and root; in
some cases growth was resumed after an interval, in
others the plants never recovered. ‘The first effect of the
rays on dry bean and turnip seeds was to accelerate
germination, but while the beans ceased to develop after
a time, the turnips did not even show signs of retardation ;
had the exposure been longer, then undoubtedly the turnips
would also have reacted.
Tue latest number of the Isvestia of the Russian Geo-
graphical Society (1904, i. and ii.) contains a further report
by Colonel Novitsky on his explorations of the range of
Peter I., and an interesting and detailed geographical
sketch by A. Dunin-Gorkavitch of the northern portions of
the government of Tobolsk and its inhabitants. The latter
paper is accompanied by a new map of the province, on a
scale of 27 miles to the inch, which gives with special detail
the inhabitable portions of this immense M.
Dubyago gives the results of new pendulum observations in
the Urals.
region.
A “CONFERENCE NUMBER”’ of the West Indian Bulletin
has just been published (46 pp.). It relates to the agri-
cultural conference held at Trinidad on January 4-13, and
contains the list of the representatives from the several
West Indian colonies who attended; an account of the
reception by Sir Henry Jackson, the Governor of Trinidad ;
a verbatim report of the presidential address by Sir Daniel
Morris; and an abstract of the proceedings at the con-
ference and social gatherings. A full account of the
papers and discussions will form No. 4 of vol. v. and No. 1
of vol. vi. of the Bulletin, and afford valuable information
on the great progress made in scientific agriculture in the
colonies since the Imperial Department was called into
existence by Mr. Chamberlain a few years ago.
WE have received a copy of the meteorological observa-
tions made at the Adelaide Observatory and other places
in South Australia during the years 1900-1901, under the
direction of Sir Charles Todd, Government astronomer.
Although the rainfall of some districts is still unrepresented,
the monthly and yearly results are published for 463
stations in 1900, and for 474 in 1901, and these are com-
pared with the averages for previous years. This re-
presents a very large amount of valuable work, in addition
to that entailed by the usual tables of meteorological results
for a large number of stations distributed over the colony.
A table is given showing the approximate mean monthly
rainfall over the whole of the agricultural districts from
the year 1861, and the average yield of wheat per acre.
It is pointed out that wheat-growing can only be success-
fully prosecuted where the percentage of winter rains is
largely in excess of that for the summer months, which
is only usually the case in the southern districts.
WE are glad to be able to announce the issue of part i.
of the new edition of Dr. Hann’s excellent ‘* Lehrbuch der
Meteorologie.’’ Although so short a period has elapsed
since the publication of the first edition, the science has
made such important advances, owing to the results ob-
tained from international balloon and kite observations, and
from the study of the movements of the upper air by
means of cloud observations, that some of the older theories
have to be modified, and a new edition has been rendered
necessary. We learn from the notice accompanying the
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
part in question that while many details not considered
essential to ordinary readers will be omitted, the principles
of the theories adopted in recent investigations by men of
science, e.g. Prof. Bigelow, in the United States, Dr. Shaw,
in this country, and Dr. Hildebrandsson, in Sweden, will be
included. The work will consist of about six parts; the first
deals with air-temperature generally, and with the amount
of heat received by and radiated from the solid and fluid sur-
face of the earth. From a communication from Dr. Hann
which we lately published we learn that elaborate
meteorological charts will, so far as possible, be extended and
include the important additions to our knowledge made by
his
recent expeditions to the Antarctic regions.
From Dr. Carmelo Scrivanich we have received a short
pamphlet, printed by the Tipographia sociale of Spalato
(Italy), dealing with the question of the origin of matter,
a subject on which the author invites discussion.
At the present time investigations of the law of force
between two elements carrying currents (Ampére’s and
allied laws) are commonly regarded as chiefly of academic
interest. Several papers on this subject have been written
at various times by Dr. Franz Kerntler, of Budapest, and
” as claimed by
a further paper dealing with the “* correct law
the same author has just been issued by him. It is pub-
‘lished by the Budapester Lloyd Press, and bears the date 1905.
scientific literature is well
in the Proceedings of the
Tue internationalisation of
illustrated by the publication
Academy of Amsterdam of a paper in English by Prof.
Sommerfeld, of Aachen, on a simplified deduction of the
field and the forces of an electron moving in any given
way. The paper is supplementary to one published in the
Géttinger Nachrichten, and leads to the conclusion that
the motion of an electron with velocity exceeding that of
light is impossible, as it would require an infinite expendi-
ture of force and energy to maintain it, if the electron be
regarded as a sphere with a uniform surface-charge. On
the contrary, in the case of a sphere with a bodily-charge
the force remains finite. In this problem the electron moves
faster than the field of force which it propagates outwards,
and a ‘‘ shadow of motion’’ is produced. A simple illus-
tration might be afforded by comparison with the effects
produced on a sheet of still water by a disturbance moving
with a velocity greater than that with which the ripples
which it produces radiate outwards.
In the ‘‘ Publicationen des astrophysikalischen Observa-
torilum zu Potsdam,’’ No. 41, Dr. Lohse gives the results
of a detailed study of the photographic spark spectra of
the metals titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese,
iron, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, palladium, tungsten,
iridium, bismuth, lead, uranium, zirconium, lanthanum,
cerium, thorium, and didymium. In the majority of cases
the region investigated is from A 340 to A 4oo, but for a
few metals the record is extended towards the red. Thus,
the record for iron goes to A 446, uranium to A 431, zir-
conium to A 471, lanthanum to A 567, cerium to A 467,
and didymium to A 569. The wave-lengths are given to
the nearest hundredth of a tenth-metre, and a comparison
of these with Rowland’s wave-lengths for corresponding
solar lines indicates that they probably correct to
within 0-03 tenth-metre in the mean. Lohse has adopted
the awkward intensity scale of 0.1 to 10, thus allowing for
a hundred gradations. Such neither
necessary nor practicable, and it
better purpose to have kept to the scale 1 to 10 which
are
a large range is
would have served a
he used in a previous publication on the same subject.
A thorough and detailed knowledge of the spark spectra
NATLORE.
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
of the chemical elements is of primary importance in the
proper study of celestial spectra, and Dr. Lohse’s record
will be very useful in that connection. It seems to us,
however, that his work would have been greatly enhanced
in value if he had confined his attention to the same region
of spectrum for each metal, and had included the portion
from A 400 to A 486 (F), say, especially as that is the
region of stellar spectra most ordinarily investigated.
INDEXES to the literature of gallium (1874-1903) and
germanium (1886-1993), prepared by Dr. P. E. Browning,
have been issued as parts of vol. xlvi. of the Smithsonian
Collections.
THE general occurrence of radium in association with
uranium has formed an important argument in connection
with current views relative to the formation of radium.
In a recent note M. Danne states that certain plumbiferous
earths in the neighbourhood of Issy-l’Evéque contain
radium, but are completely free from uranium. Certain
facts seem, however, to indicate that the radium has made
its appearance in the pyromorphite at a comparatively
recent date through the medium of radio-active water from
springs in the neighbourhood.
Tue International Committee on Atomic Weights has
issued its annual report-and a table of numbers for use
during 1905. On the basis of new determinations, changes
are recommended in the atomic weights of indium,
iodine,
rubidium, and samarium.
As the result of several in-
dependent investigations on the atomic weight of iodine,
there can now be no reasonable doubt that the value 126.85
given by Stas is too low, and 126-97 is adopted in the new
table. The atomic weight of nitrogen would also appear
to be much closer to the round number than is represented
by the value 14-04 at present in use, and further in-
vestigations of this element are needed.
AN interesting paper on the production of calcium
cyanamide and its employment in agriculture as fertiliser
was recently read by Prof. Frank before the “ Klub der
Landwirte”’ in Berlin. As manufactured at present, 250
kilograms of atmospheric nitrogen can be obtained per
year in the form of calcium cyanamide for each electric
horse-power. The efficiency of the substance as fertiliser
has been established by experiments at a large number of
agricultural stations, and the combined nitrogen is stated
to be as effective as an equal quantity in the form of
ammonium sulphate or Chili saltpetre.
THE much discussed question as to the nature of the
hydrosulphites has been subjected to further experimental
investigation by Messrs. Baumann, Thesmar, and Frossard,
and an account of these experiments is given in the Revue
générale des Matiéres colorantes, vol. Wiliewep:9353-. “Dhe
view of Schiitzenberger that hydrosulphurous acid is to be
represented by the formula H,SO, receives strong con-
firmation. As is pointed out, the crystalline sodium salt
Na,S,O,2H,O obtained by Bernthsen may be written
NaHSO,-NaHSO,-H,O, and the behaviour of the mother
liquors, from which this salt separates, corresponds with
this view. In fact, two formaldehyde compounds corre-
sponding to NaHSO,.CH,O.2H,O and NaHSO,.CH,0.H,O
have been separated and analysed.
A NEW booklet has been added by Messrs. Dawbarn and
Ward, Ltd., to their ‘‘ Country House ”’ series of practical
It is by Mr. D. Grant McIver, and is entitled
“Pruning, Training, and Trimming Trees and Shrubs.’’
NO. 1842, VoL. 71]
handbooks.
Mr. Joun Murray has published an attractive English
edition of Prof. W. H. Pickering’s work on ‘‘ The Moon,”’
the American edition of which was reviewed in NaTuRE of
May 5, 1904. The work contains a summary of the existing
knowledge of our satellite, and the statement of Prof. Picker-
ing’s observations and arguments in favour of lunar activi-
ties, illustrated with a complete photographic atlas of the
moon. The price is two guineas net. ¥
THE second volume of ‘‘ Papers of the British School at
Rome ”’ has been published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd. The volume is by Mr. T. Ashby, jun., and is con-
cerned with sixteenth-century drawings of Roman buildings
attributed to Andreas Coner. The drawings are preserved in
Sir John Soane’s Museum at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London.
The contents of the sketch-book in which the original draw-
ings are preserved include ground plans, plans and elevations
of tombs, elevations, architectural details, Doric entablatures,
Ionic and Corinthian entablatures, plain mouldings (cornices
and plinths), Doric capitals, and plain and ornate bases.
The reproductions of these sixteenth-century drawings which
are now available will be of great service for the purposes
of study and criticism.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
EPHEMERIS FOR BRooks’s CoMET, 1904 I.—On a photo-
graph obtained at Greenwich in January the image of
Brooks’s comet (1904 I.) was quite strong, and indicated that
the object was, probably, not fainter than the eleventh mag-
nitude. The following is an ephemeris for this object as
given in No. 354 of the Observatory.
Ephemeris 12h. M.T. Greenwich.
1905 R.A. Dec.
h. ms. A ia
Feb. 17 9 55 56 +64 37
23 9 34 55 - +64 25
Mar. I emeeees (9). 15 34 +63 55
ah Te eee. 58) 27 +63 II
This ephemeris required corrections of —5s. and —o!.8 on
December 7, and shows that the comet is travelling ina
westerly direction through the constellation Ursa Major. On
March 7 it will be very near to, but S.W. of, + Ursze Majoris.
OBSERVATIONS OF CoMETS.—A number of photographic
and visual observations of Encke’s comet were made by M.
Quenisset at Nanterre during December. The photographs
obtained show that the comet gradually became brighter
during the period covered by the observations, and that the
coma was extensive and fan-shaped, its extension being in a
W.S.W. direction, i.e. turned away from the sun. On the
photographs this coma was about 4’ in diameter and con-
tained a nucleus which was not at the centre. Visual
observations made on December 7 showed the fan-shaped
coma to be 5’ or 6’ in diameter with the nucleus situated
near to its E.N.E. edge and having a position angle of about
7o°, reckoned from the centre of the coma. On this date
the comet was at the limit of naked-eye visibility, its esti-
mated stellar magnitude being about 6.5.
Borrelly’s comet (1904 e) was also observed, photo-
graphically and visually, on January 1 and 2 by M.
Quenisset, and was seen as a faint nebulosity of 1.5 to 2
diameter with ill-defined boundaries. A very faint nucleus
of magnitude 11.5 occupied the centre of the coma, and the
photograph obtained on January 2 showed a faint tail ex-
tending in an E.S.E. direction (Bulletin de la Société
astronomique de France, February).
AppitionaL PERIopIcaL Comets DUE THIS YEAR.—In addi-
tion to those periodical comets previously mentioned by
Mr. W. T. Lynn as being due at perihelion this year, Mr.
Denning, writing to the Observatory, mentions Tempel’s
1867 comet, which should pass through its perihelion point
in April. This object has suffered considerable perturbations
from Jupiter, which have lengthened its period from 5.982 to
6.539 years, and have changed its perihelion distance from
FEBRUARY 16, 1905].
NATURE
375
1.56 to 2.07. The comet was re-observed on its return in
1873 and in 1879, but has not been seen since.
Wolf’s 1884 comet is also due at perihelion in April, but
the conditions for its observation will be very unfavourable.
Another comet which may return towards the end of this
year is the faint one discovered by Prof. Barnard in 1892.
It was not seen, however, in 1899, and, as its exact period is
doubtful, although probably about 63 years, it may again
escape detection.
CasTOR A QuADRUPLE StaR.—In a communication to the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific (Publication No. 99)
Prof. Campbell discusses the multiple character of Castor,
and states that Dr. Curtis, using the Mills spectrograph
attached to the 36-inch refractor of the Lick Observatory,
recently discovered that the brighter component of the sys-
tem is attended ‘by a faint companion. The fainter com-
ponent was shown by M. Belopolsky, in 1896, to be similarly
double, so that in Castor we have a quadruple system in
which each component of a visual double is attended by a
faint companion. The period of the fainter system is about
three days, but further observations of the brighter double
will have to be made before its period can be determined.—
(Popular Astronomy, No. 2, vol. xiii.)
The lecturer in the next place dealt with the pulse,
contrasting the travel of the wave with the travel of the
blood itself. The wave due to the shock of the heart beat
travels, ordinarily, about twenty times as fast as a given
particle of the blood itself. The tenser the walls of the
arteries the faster the wave travels along the taut vessels,
but the slower the passage of the blood itself. Herein lies
one of the chief evils of a morbid rise of arterial pressure ;
more stress on the vessels, less distribution of their contents.
Many of these processes were illustrated by lantern slides and
demonstrations by Dr. Dixon, demonstrator of pharmacology
in Cambridge.
After these principles Dr. Dixon exhibited the various
instruments in use for measuring blood pressures in man,
and the means by which their curves may be recorded on a
revolving drum (kymograph). ‘
The lecturer then entered upon the vital properties of
the arteries—that they are not only elastic, and so ac-
commodate themselves to the varying pressures, but are
endowed also with nervous governance, whereby they effect
a large economy in work and material. Several functions
of the human body cannot, save within small limits, work
together. If we are digesting we are not apt for thought;
the Alpine climber is mercifully unable to worry over affairs
BLOOD PRESSURES IN MAN.*
“THE lecturer began by contrasting Galen’s conception of
the oscillation of the blood, about the liver as a centre,
with the cardiac circulation of Harvey. The pulmonary
circulation—for the purposes of this lecture—was omitted,
and attention directed exclusively to that in the systemic
arteries.
The physical characters of the flow of fluids were briefly
described by the example of water in an open stream.
A stream might well up from a spring in a flat country,
and swim with very low pressure to its mouth; or, falling
from a mountain, might have pressure enough to carry
men and horses off their legs. If the volume were also
great, as in the sea, it might exercise a pressure of many
tons to the square vard, and smash great bulwarks to
pieces. But in the higher animals the blood flows in
closed channels, so that in such a scheme as theirs the
dimensions of the channels assume a very important value.
Moreover, in mammalia the circulating fluid is not water,
but a thicker fluid—the blood—which (in man) has at least
four times the viscosity of water. The enormous value of
friction in the circulation was then considered, and it was
shown that in this factor the kind of vessel wall does not
signify much, as the wall is lined by a practically stationary
layer of the fluid; friction, therefore, which uses up
99/1o00ths of the heart’s power, depends on the factor of
viscosity together with that of the dimension of the
channels, or closed bed. It may be said that the blood
pressures—that is, the arterial pressures—in man depend
on viscosity and dimension of stream bed.
Now so far the closed tubes had been regarded as rigid.
But if in animals the tubes were rigid the circulation
would be carried on under great difficulties. For instance,
there would be no accommodation; only so much blood
could be driven into the system as issued at the periphery ;
the stream, too, would be quite intermittent, with very
high maximum and very low minimum pressures, which
would not serve for continuous nutrition, and by its ex-
tremes of pressures would soon wear down the arteries. For
instance, in the bagpipes, were it not for the air reservoir
the sound would issue in spasmodic screams; whereas the
air-bag turns the intermittent blowing into a continuous
feed of air. In the arterial system of man the same pro-
vision is made; its tubing is highly elastic, and a chief
part of it—namely, the aorta—being relatively wider than
other branches of the tree, contains, like the bagpipe
reservoir, accommodation for very variable supplies of
output from the heart pump. Thus a very large part of
the heart power is used in dilatation of the vessels, and
by these is given back to the blood. The valves of the
heart serve a like purpose of regulating the pressure of the
supply to the vascular system.
1 Abstract of a lecture delivered by Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S., at )
the Royal Institution on February 3. |
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
many injurious conditions,
his mind is put into abeyance; and so on. Thus the
arterial system, by the means of its nervous connections,
contracting in some areas and dilating in others,
automatically diverts its fertilising streams hither or
thither as needs arise. Moreover, it can enlarge or
diminish its bed according to the total quantities of blood
temporarily in circulation—a quantity which is very vari-
able. By contracting the arteries in considerable areas
and correspondingly dilating them in others, the fields of
the various functions of the body can be used alternately, as
We see in the irrigation of Alpine meadows. By the same
means the very various pressures of the blood can be
counteracted. | When under muscular effort, for instance,
the pressure is raised, a corresponding area outside the
muscles is dilated, and pressure more or less equalised ; thus
the heart is enabled to do the most worl with the least dis-
turbance of stresses. So in a bath, cold or very hot, the
crimping up of the large cutaneous areas is compensated
by large dilatations in internal areas, and pressures return to
the normal in two or three minutes. The chief area in which
blood can be accommodated, and thus for a time put out of
circulation, is a large abdominal area.
By these considerations the lecturer was led to explain why
the blood in the body does not drop down into our feet and
legs, and leave the brain and other vital parts. Indeed,
the blood has a strong disposition thus to obey the action
of gravitation, and one of the events of approaching death
is the falling of the blood into lower parts of the body,
deserting the heart and brain. Obviously this is especially
the case in upright animals, as in man chiefly, and in apes
in some measure. It is by the vigilance of the nervous
governance that the blood is held up, by the contraction of
the abdominal vascular fields; and it is the failure of these
mechanisms which appears as shock, syncope, or collapse.
The lecturer, assisted by demonstrations by Dr. Dixon,
illustrated these dispositions, citing especially the researches
of Prof. Leonard Hill on the distribution of the blood in
various positions of the body. He also referred to the
bearing of these principles on the researches of Prof.
Waller and others on the dangers of anesthetics. By some
most interesting experiments by Dr. Cushing he showed
how enormously the arterial pressures may be raised in
case of danger of failure of supply of blood against gravity
when, as in apoplexy or a depressed fracture of the skull, the
blood-vessels, in the parts of the brain where all these
mechanisms find their centres, are compressed and thus more
or less liable to be emptied.
In the last part of the lecture the lecturer apologised for
occupying time with so much physiology, in which subject
he is not an investigator. But it was necessary to make
manifest to his audience how great is the importance of the
integrity of the arteries themselves, and of their nervous
governance in function, an integrity which is a matter of life
and death; for if the circulation fails in the nervous centres
or heart, life must cease. Now the arteries are subject to
as of certain poisons and infec-
376
tions, or of hard muscular labour; there are also the unex-
plained deteriorations of age. His personal investigations
had been into the effects on the arteries of gradual increases
of blood pressure. Normally, arterial pressures, as taken
in the arm, rise somewhat from childhood to age—say from
80-90 mm. Hg. to 140° or perhaps 150°. These upper limits
are not inconsistent with health at the age of three score,
though no doubt they signify some loss of mechanical
efficiency. A demonstration was given by Dr. Dixon of
the difference in vascular efficiency under muscular effort
between a young and an elderly man. Into the effect of
certain poisons and infections on the arteries he could not
enter. Senile degenerations of the arteries are not essenti-
ally allied to rise of blood pressure, though in such subjects,
as in others, high pressures may arise, and must be, of course,
the more dangerous. Still, senile arterial degeneration is
compatible with very long life, even if with diminution
of function, as the vessels silt up rather than burst.
The lecturer’s own observations, now extended over many
years, had been upon rise of pressure in middle life beyond,
often very far beyond, that which he had regarded as
normal for elderly persons. The reasons of this morbid
tendency cannot yet be given, but fortunately, by medicinal
and dietetic means, it can be abated, and in early stages
abolished. If permitted to persist, and it is not rarely
consistent with fair general health or but vague indis-
position, it slowly ruins the vascular system by over-
stretching it. It is in such persons that the arteries may
break, as in apoplexy, a catastrophe which, by timely pre-
cautions, can be prevented. The lecturer strongly urged
upon all persons of middle and advancing years to have
their arterial pressures tested by their physicians every four
or five years, so that any disposition to excessive pressures
may be averted and the integrity of the arterial tree pre-
served.
RADIATION PRESSURE.
A HUNDRED years ago, when the corpuscular theory
held almost universal sway, it would have been easier
to explain the pressure of light than it is to-day, when it is
certain that light is a form of wave-motion. The means at
the disposal of early experimenters were inadequate to detect
so small a quantity; but if the eighteenth century philoso-
phers had been able to carry out the experiments of Lebedeff
and of Nichols and Hull, and had they further known of the
emission of corpuscles revealed to us by the kathode
stream and by radio-active bodies, there can be little doubt
that Young and Fresnel would have had much greater diffi-
culty in dethroning the corpuscular theory and setting up
the wave theory in its place. The existence of pressure due
to waves, though held by Euler, seems to have dropped out
of sight until Maxwell, in 1872, predicted its existence as a
consequence of his electromagnetic theory of light. The first
suggestion that it is a general property of waves is probably
due to Mr. S. T. Preston, who in 1876 pointed out the
analogy of the energy-carrying power of a beam of light
with the mechanical carriage by belting, and calculated the
pressure exerted on the surface of the sun by the issuing
radiation. It seems possible that in all cases of energy
transfer, momentum, in the direction of transfer, is also
passed on and that there is, therefore, a back pressure on the
source. Though there is as yet no general and direct dy-
namical theorem accounting for radiation pressure, Prof.
Larmor has given a simple indirect mode of proving the
existence of the pressure which applies to all waves in which
the average energy density for a given amplitude is inversely
as the square of the wave-length. He has shown that when
a train of waves is incident normally on a perfectly reflecting
surface, the pressure on the surface is equal to E(1+2u/U),
where E/2 is the energy density just outside the reflector in
the incident train, U is the wave-velocity, and u the velocity
of the reflector, supposed small in comparison with U. Ina
similar manner it can be shown that there is a pressure on
the source, increased when the source is moving forward,
decreased when it is receding. It is essential, however, that
we should be able to move the reflecting surface without dis-
turbing the medium except by reflecting the waves.
1 Address delivered before the Physical Society on February 10 by Prof.
J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., president of the society.
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE
- train.
{KF eBRuARY 16, 1905
Though Larmor’s proof is quite convincing, it is interest-
ing to realise the way in which the pressure is produced in
the different types of wave-motion. In the case of electro-
magnetic waves, Maxwell’s original mode of treatment is
the simplest. A train of waves is regarded as a system of -
electric and magnetic tubes transverse to the direction of
propagation, each kind pressing out sideways, that is, in the
direction of propagation. They press against the source
from which they issue, against each other as they travel, and
against any surface on which they fall. In sound-waves
there is a node at the reflecting surface. If the variation of
pressure from the undisturbed value were exactly propor-
tional to the displacement of a parallel layer near the surface,
and if the displacement were exactly harmonic, then the
average pressure would be equal to the normal undisturbed
value. But consider a layer of air quite close to the surface.
If it moves up a distance, y, towards the surface, the pres-
sure is increased. If it moves an equal distance, y, away
from the surface, the pressure is decreased, but to a slightly
smaller extent. The excess of pressure during the compres-.
sion half is greater than its defect during the extension half,
and the net result is an average excess of pressure on the
reflecting surface. Lord Rayleigh, using Boyle’s law, has
shown that this average excess should be equal to the
average density of the energy just outside the reflecting sur-
face. In the case of transverse waves in an elastic solid, it
can be shown that there is a small pressure perpendicular to
the planes of shear, that is, in the direction of propagation,
and that this small pressure is just equal to the energy density
of the waves. The experimental verification of the pressure
of elastic solid waves has not yet been accomplished, but the
pressure due to sound-waves has been demonstrated by
Altberg, working in Lebedeff’s laboratory at Moscow, the
pressure obtained sometimes rising to as much as 0.24 dyne
per sq. cm. By means of a telephone manometer it was
found that through a large range the pressure exerted on a
surface was proportional to the intensity of the sound.
Both theory and experiment justify the conclusion that
when a source is pouring out waves, it is pouring out with
them forward momentum which is manifested in the back
pressure against the source and in the forward pressure
when the waves reach an opposing surface, and which, in
the meanwhile, must be regarded as travelling with the
It was shown that this idea of momentum in a wave-
train enables us to see the nature of the action of a beam of
light on a surface where it is reflected, absorbed, or refracted
without any further appeal to the theory of the wave-motion
of which we suppose the light to consist. In the case of total
reflection there is a normal force upon the surface, in the
case of total absorption there is a force normal to the surface
and a tangential force parallel to the surface; while in the
case of total refraction there is a normal force which may be
regarded as a pull upon the surface or a pressure from
within. In any real refraction there will be reflection as well,
but with unpolarised light, in the case of glass, a
calculation shows that the refraction-pull is always
greater than the reflection-push, even at grazing incidence.
An experiment, made by the president in conjunction with
Dr. Barlow, was described to serve as an illustration of the
idea of a beam of light being regarded as a stream of
momentum. A rectangular block of glass was suspended by
a quartz fibre so that the long axis of the block was hori-
zontal. It was hung in an exhausted case with glass win-
dows, and a horizontal beam of light was directed on to one
end of the block so that it entered centrally and emerged
centrally from the other end after two internal reflections.
Thus a stream of momentum was shifted parallel to itself, or
in this particular case a counter-clockwise couple acted on
the beam. By suitable means the clockwise couple on the
block, due to the pressures at the two internal reflections,
was distinctly observed and approximately measured. The
result obtained was of the same order as that deduced from
the measurement of the energy of the beam by means of a
blackened silver disc.
The extreme minuteness of these light forces appears to
put them beyond consideration in terrestrial affairs, but in
the solar system, where they have freer play, and vast times
to work in, their effects may mount up into importance. On
the larger bodies the force of the light of the sun is small
compared with the gravitational attraction, but as the ratio
of the radiation pressure to the gravitation pull varies in-
1
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
NAT ORE
ED
versely as the radius if the density is constant, the pressure
will balance the pull on a spherical absorbing particle of
the density of the @arth if its diameter is about a hundred-
thousandth of an inch. The possible effects of radiation-
pressure may be illustrated without going to such fineness
as this. In the case of a particle of the density of the earth,
and a thousandth of an inch in diameter, going round the sun
at the earth’s distance, there are two effects due to the sun’s
radiation. In the first place, the radiation-push is 1/100 of
the gravitation-pull, and the result is equivalent to a diminu-
tion in the sun’s mass. In the second place, the radiation
absorbed by the particle and given out again on all sides is
crushed up in front as the particle moves forward and is
opened out behind. There is thus a slightly greater pressure
on the advancing hemisphere than on the receding one, and
this appears as a small resisting force in the direction of
motion. Through this the particle tends to move in a de-
creasing orbit, spiralling in towards the sun. As there is
good reason to believe that some comets, at least, are com-
posed of clouds of dust, there is hope that some of their
eccentricities may be explained by the existence of radiation
pressure. If the particles of a dust cloud circling round the
sun are of different sizes or densities, the radiation acceler-
ations on them will differ. The larger particles will be less
affected than the smaller, will travel faster round a given
orbit, and will draw more slowly in towards the sun. Thus
a comet of particles of mixed sizes will gradually be de-
graded into a diffused trail lengthening and broadening, the
finer dust on the inner and the coarser on the outer edge.
If a planet, while still radiating much energy on its own
account, captures and attaches to itself, as a satellite, a
cometary cloud of dust in which there are several different
grades, with gaps in the scale of size, it may be possible that
in course of time the radiation-pressure effects will form the
different grades into different rings surrounding the planet.
Such may possibly be the origin of the rings of Saturn.
GEOGRAPHICAL-RESULTS OF THE TIBET
MISSION.
THE paper read by Sir Frank Younghusband at the Royal
Geographical Society on Monday, February 13, was
one of the most interesting and instructive that the fellows of
that society have been privileged to listen to for many years.
It afforded a striking exemplification of the advantages of
a due coordination of geographical facts and their com-
bination, by a master-hand, into a well-arranged whole. The
country traversed by the Tibet mission was by no means a
terra incognita to the geographer, for its main features had
long been known through the labours of the zealous native
explorers of the Survey of India. But it is none the less
true that Sir Frank Younghusband’s admirable descriptions
of the conditions of nature and man in that romantic region
enabled his audience to realise those conditions in a way that
was never before possible, and brushed away many false
ideas which had been previously entertained. The speaker
was also able to touch briefly upon some of the results ob-
tained by the scientific experts who accompanied the mission,
as well as by the survey party under Captains Rawling and
Ryder, which in the late autumn did excellent work along
the whole course of the Upper Brahmaputra, proving de-
finitely that no peaks higher than Everest exist on this flank
of the Himalayas.
In regard to the general nature of the country traversed,
Sir F. Younghusband was able to correct the current idea
that the whole of Tibet is more or less barren and worthless.
This may be true for northern Tibet, the part traversed by
recent European explorers, but not for the southern third,
which is dotted over with thriving villages and well-built
residences. The valleys in which Lhasa, Gyantse, and
Shigatse are situated, as well as that of the Brahmaputra,
are neither barren plateaux nor narrow, V-shaped
gorges, but flat valleys covered with good soil, well
irrigated, and richly cultivated. The passage to Tibet, as
made by the Kongra-lama Pass, involves, however, a sudden
change from the deep-cut valleys and luxuriant vegetation
of Sikkim to wide plains on which not a tree is to be seen,
while if, in some secluded nook, a plant a foot high is met
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
with it is a curiosity. The summer climate of Khamba-
jong was described as charming, while the unrivalled pano-
rama of the Himalayas, at the very culminating point of
their grandeur, is a full compensation for anything that may
be otherwise lacking. Sir Frank Younghusband’s eloquent
descriptions of the snowy range as seen from the north, with
the ever-varying atmospheric effects, are of special interest as
the first ever given by a European capable of appreciating
adequately the glories of the prospect.
The discovery by Mr. Hayden, of the Indian Geological
Survey, of a bed of fossil oysters, permitted an accurate de-
termination of the age of the hills in this part of Tibet, show-
ing them to be geologically quite recent, though somewhat
older than the main axis of the Himalayan range. The
Chumbi Valley, through which the final advance was made,
is less wide and open than the valleys in Tibet proper, of
which, in fact, it is not considered a part. The passage
hence into Tibet, made during the height of winter by the
Tang-la Pass, 15,200 feet high, involved much suffering from
the effects of the great cold (18° below zero Fahr.) combined
with the rarity of the air. The subsequent march over the ele-
vated plateau was made in the teeth of bitter winds and
blinding blizzards, which continued through January,
February, and March. But on arrival at Gyantse (April 11)
the picr ing cold was left behind. Willow and poplar trees
were bursiing into foliage, and the banks of the river were
covered with masses of iris-plants, which later on became
sheets of purple. On July 14, the day of the start for Lhasa,
heavy rain destroyed the delusion that Tibet is a rainless
country. Frequent rain was experienced until September, and
the size of the rivers showed that this part of Tibet receives
—probably up the Brahmaputra Valley—a quite considerable
rainfall. Finally, in a lovely valley covered with trees, rich
with cultivation, and watered by a river as broad as the
Thames at Westminster, the mysterious city which no living
European had seen before was at last reached, hidden away
by range after range of snowy mountains. It proved any-
thing but a dreamland city, and its streets were horribly
muddy, but the grand lama’s palace was an imposing, mas-
sive structure. Even the leading men were of low mental
calibre, having much of the nature of children. The Ti
Rimpochi—the leading lama—though benevolent and
genial, had few intellectual attainments, and was firmly con-
vinced that the earth was triangular; while the religion of
the Tibetans was described as the most degraded form of
Buddhism in existence.
CONFERENCE ON SCHOOL
HYGIENE.
HE conference on school hygiene, organised by the
Royal Sanitary Institute, met on February 8, 9, and 10
at the University of London. Sir Arthur Ricker, who was
installed as president of the conference, delivered an address
in which he insisted that the elements of education should
include some knowledge of the dangers by which mankind is
surrounded and of the means to keep them at bay, and that
those to whom young lives are entrusted should learn the
main outlines of hygiene.
The ignorance of household management and of the prin-
ciples of hygiene among the poor is responsible in no small
measure for their high preventable mortality, their inferior
physique, their intemperance and their poverty. How pos-
sible it is to better the conditions of modern life, and thus to
improve the health, happiness, and physical powers of the
people, and thereby their mental vigour and _ industrial
efficiency, is generally recognised, and to this end a suitable
hygienic education, moral and material, of the future parents
seems essential. Not only have 15,000 medical men and the
Commissions on Physical Degeneration recommended that
such teaching should be made compulsory, but the English
Board of Education and the Scotch Education Department
have accepted that recommendation. It is important that
from the earliest years of school life children should be taught
by example as well as precept the elements of healthy living.
The knowledge that may be procured subsequent to that age
is often gained at the price of a needlessly costly personal ex-
perience. The object, then, of school hygiene is to secure for
THE LONDON
the physical life its maximum possibility of sound health, and
to develop the mental life side by side with this. The need
of bodily health as the foundation of sound mental work is
largely recognised at the present day, and we must not rest
content until in the homes as well as in the schools there is
sound knowledge of what may be done to give the proper
environment for healthy life and work.
At the conference considerable prominence was given to
the subject of the physical development and physical inspection
of the scholar. Fresh air, good light, wholesome food. and
abundant sleep are essentials of development. These should
form, as it were, the compulsory subjects in childhood. The
co-relation between the healthy mind and the healthy body
is disputed by no one, and yet it is necessary still to plead
against the unimportant position which is given to physical
education in the curriculum of a large majority of schools,
particularly ‘in those for girls. The responsibility of the
education authority may be said to be of a dual nature, viz.
the responsibility not to injure the child’s health during
school life either by bad building or furniture, by the dis-
cipline or curriculum of the school, or by preventable risks
of infection, and the responsibility to take the consequence
of its own defective training of the future parent. The rela-
tive merits of systems and methods of physical training were
not discussed, but free play was held to be preferable to
gymnastics for physical training. The methods in the former
are more spontaneous and thorough, and the most enthu-
siastic disciple of gymnastics does not wish the gymnasium to
take the place of our great games. Discipline, prompt and
unquestioning obedience to command, is perhaps the greatest
gain derived from class drilling. But the lesson in physical
exercise is not the only opportunity for paying attention to the
needs of the growing child. If the best results are to be
produced, the necessary standing and sitting positions of the
pupils throughout the rest of the school routine must not be
treated with indifference.
The early age at which children commence education and
the length of the school day were both objects of adverse
comment. It was pointed out that in primary schools
children at three years of age pass the same number of hours
in school as those of fourteen years of age: and in secondary
schools a child of fourteen has allotted to him the same
number of hours of work as the youth of nineteen. Longer
intervals of rest and recreation and the abolition of home-
work for young children were advocated, and it was pointed
out that, in the experience of many authorities, the beginning
of the day after a night’s rest, the commencement of the
week after the Saturday and Sunday rest, and the beginning
of a term after the rest of the vacation, are the times when
the best work is accomplished.
It is at present by no means unusual in many first-grade
a physical one based on a medical inspection. Before a
scholarship can be held, physical as well as mental fitness
should be required to be shown. It is a waste of public
money to allot scholarships to those who are physically unfit
to make use of them. But while we may discuss the physical
inspection of children as specially referable to the school
period of life at which, for convenience, it is conducted, we
should keep in mind the bearing of the facts thereby dis-
closed on the periods of life which precede and follow it.
Much educational energy is at present misspent in endeavour-
ing to educate children who are physically unfit, as
evidenced in Glasgow by the small proportion of underfed
children who reach a reasonable standard of proficiency
according to the master’s estimate. In this important work
of physical inspection the school teacher should be able to co-
operate intelligently with the medical man.
Owing to various artificial and economic,
thousands of children three years of age are found in English
elementary schools. It is a question whether taking the
child out of the mother’s hands for the greater part of the
day, at so tender an age, may not have weakened the
causes,
maternal instinct. It is certain, on the other hand, that,
owing to the high susceptibility to certain infectious diseases
amongst such young children, the practice is dangerous ; and
the conference passed a resolution to the effect that no child
should be permitted to begin formal instruction in school
classes under the age of six.
The subject of school buildings and equipment is one
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| must ever bear
[FEBRuARY 16, 1905
of great importance. The school premises often need to be
improved if they are to illustrate the sanitary precepts which
it is necessary to inculcate and if they are to enable the child
to pursue its education under the best hygienic environment.
The requirements of the Board of Education with reference
to the floor space and air space given to each child were sub-
ject to some adverse criticism. Surely it may be claimed
that as 15 feet is generally recognised as the healthy
minimum floor space per child, 10 feet should no longer be
officially recognised as sufficient. The school furniture, more-
over, generally leaves much to be desired. Observation has
shown that the difference in height of the children of the
same age may vary from 6 to 11 inches, and this difference
in height and growth ought to be provided for in the
| seats and desks of every class-room if physical deformities
are to be prevented. That is to say, the desks and seats
should be adjusted to the pupils’ bodies, and not the bodies to
the desks and seats. Teachers, moreover, must be taught
to realise that, though their effective administration may
be aided by efficient inspectors, actual daily care in provid-
ing fresh air, including cleanliness and teaching the children
to use all sanitary appliances with cleanly decency, is a re-
sponsibility which cannot be shifted to other people’s
shoulders. | Unfortunately, however, the local authorities
themselves need stimulating and educating. Nor is this to
be wondered at when one recalls the fact that the English
Board of Education, though responsible for the compulsory
attendance at school of some 6,000,000 children, is 2bso-
lutely without expert assistance where problems of health and
sanitation are concerned.
The last day of the conference was devoted to discussions
upon the training of teachers and scholars in hygiene. Not
only must the teacher have a knowledge of hygiene, but he
must also be made responsible for the supervision of the
hygienic environment of the pupil while at school, and he
in mind the circumstance that he will
probably do most to create a sanitary conscience among the
rising generation by example and personal influence. The
training in the observation of sanitary precepts is a form of
moral training, and if the home influences are antagonistic
to those of the school the home influences will often prevail.
The dirty and neglected child indicates the necessity of
attempting to do something to improve the parent. The
teaching of hygiene to the scholars must be suitably
graduated to the age and capacities of the scholars ; whereas
from the very commencement of school life the object lessons
of a sanitary environment should always be presented to the
child, it is not before he at least reaches the age of seven—
and several authorities prefer a later age—that he should
commence to receive definite instruction in domestic and per-
i | sonal hygiene.
girls’ schools to make the first test which a pupil undergoes |
Subsequent to the age of ten or eleven, the scholar may be
taught some of the more elementary scientific principles in-
volved in hygiene precept and practice, but in the whole
-scheme of teaching hygiene it is only from the broadest point
| of view the simple and essential laws of health that require to
be taught. It is almost sufficient to give to the scholar rules
regarding health and reasons for them. If the teacher is to
have an intelligent appreciation of the significance of hygienic
principles, he must be taught the elements of physiology.
The two subjects naturally go hand-in-hand and must be
taught together. Their interests mutually reinforce. Physi-
ology gives the basis and hygiene the application.
Reference was made at the conference to the circumstance
that it had been repeatedly urged that there is no room for
extra subjects such as “‘ hygiene ’’ to be taught at our
| schools ; but surely hygiene, if properly taught, need not con-
| tribute to further over-pressure.
The subject of hygiene has
a great educative value in itself, and there is no subject
which can be so easily co-related to many other branches of
knowledge. Hygiene could be introduced as the practical
outcome of the whole of the science teaching in the school,
and, if the subject is properly taught to the teachers, an enthu-
siastic and intelligent teacher could prepare his or her own
scheme of work and obtain the necessary results without the
displacement of a single subject at present being taught.
| The great requirement for success in whatever may be
attempted is an enthusiasm which will stimulate both the
| teacher and scholar to convert knowledge into conviction and
conviction into conduct.
FEBRUARY 16, 1905}
NATURE
Syfs)
In connection with the conference there was a trade ex-
hibition of school building and furnishing appliances, which
consisted chiefly of school furniture ; and the Board of Educa-
tion, the Scotch Education Department, the Technical In-
struction Department for Ireland, the London County
Council, Home Office, &c., contributed loan exhibits.
A conference upon school hygiene, international in char-
acter, is to be held in London in 1907.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CamBRIDGE.—The subject selected for the Adams Prize in
1906 is ‘* The inequalities in the moon’s motion due to the
direct action of the planets.’’ The successful candidate will
receive about 225].
The syndicate appointed to draw up a scheme of instruction
and examination in mining engineering has issued a second
and amended report to the Senate. It is proposed that a
diploma in mining engineering be granted to students who
have passed the previous examination and have kept nine
terms, and who have attained an honours standard in
geology and chemistry in part i. of the natural sciences
tripos and a second class standard in certain of the papers
in the special examination in mechanism. The candidates
have also to produce a certificate in mechanical drawing.
This amended scheme meets the objections which had at one
time been raised to the recommendations of the syndicate,
and it was warmly welcomed at the discussion in the
Senate house a week or two ago.
Mr. WittiamM LorinG, formerly fellow of King’s College,
Cambridge, and late director of education under the County
Council of the West Riding of Yorkshire, has been ap-
pointed warden of the Goldsmiths’ College, New Cross.
Science states that the Emperor of Germany has directed
the German Ambassador to the United States to lay before
President Roosevelt in official form the suggestion for an
exchange of professors between German and American univer-
sities which he made to the American Ambassador on New
Year’s Day.
THE administration of the Board of Education in respect
of secondary schools under the board’s regulations for
secondary schools, as also of charitable trusts and endow-
ments connected therewith, will be conducted in future in
the board’s offices at Whitehall, and not at South Ken-
sington. All correspondence on these matters should therefore
be addressed to the Secretary, Board of Education, Whitehall,
London, S.W. This change does not apply to the board’s
administration under the regulations for evening schools,
technical institutions, and schools of art and art classes,
which will remain for the present at South Kensington.
In the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society for
‘December 31, Mr. L. L. Price contributes a paper on
the accounts of the colleges of Oxford, 1893-1903,
with special reference to their agricultural revenues.
An interesting feature of the discussions was the reference
to the disastrous results arising from the new statutes
drawn up by the last commission, consequent on the fact
that the work of the commission was done at a time when
agriculture was prosperous, and no sooner had the sittings
ceased than agricultural depression came on the country,
and the resources of the colleges were seriously hampered.
THE trustees of the Peabody Education Fund have, we
learn from Science, voted to dissolve their trust. An appro-
priation of 200,0001. for the George Peabody School for
Teachers in Nashville, Tenn., was made by a unanimous
vote, the State and city having together voted an equal
sum for the school. This appropriation leaves a fund of
approximately 240,o00l., which will be distributed later
among other educational institutions. From the same source
we learn that the trustees of Syracuse University are about
to construct, with the bequest made to the university by the
Jate Mr. John Lyman, which is said to amount to 40,000I., a
NO. 1842, voL. 71 |
building to be known as the John Lyman Laboratory of
Natural History. Mr. Adolph Lewisohn, of New York, has
given 1oool. for the reconstruction of the chemical labora-
tories at Dartmouth College.
Tue following recent appointments are announced :—
Dr. Ernst Neumann, associate professor of physics at
Marburg; Dr. Emil Wiechert, professor of geophysics at
Bonn; Dr. Holleman, of Gréningen, professor of inorganic
chemistry at Amsterdam; Dr. Bernhard Dessau, of Bologna,
professor of physics at Perugia; Dr. C. Russjan, of
Cracow, professor of mechanics at Lemberg; Dr. L. Cour-
voisier, of Heidelberg, observer at the Berlin Observatory ;
Dr. Ferdinand Henrich, associate professor of chemistry
at Erlangen; Dr. Boehm, associate professor of mathe-
matics at Heidelberg: Dr. Kueser, professor of mathe-
matics at Breslau; Dr. Th. Vahlen, of KGnigsberg, asso-
ciate professor of mathematics at Greifswald; Dr. M.
Weber, professor of mechanics at the Hanover Technical
College; Mr. B. H. Camp and Dr. G. D. Richardson,
instructors in mathematics at Wesleyan and Yale Uni-
versities respectively.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, June 16, 1904.—‘*On the Influence of
the Time Factor on the Correlation between the Barometric
Heights at Stations more than 1000 Miles apart.’’ By
F. E. Cave-Browne-Cave, Girton College, Cambridge.
Communicated by Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S.
The conclusions drawn from the results given in this
paper are as follows :—
(1) The correlation between the barometric readings at
two stations upwards of 1000 miles apart depends upon the
interval between the readings. In the case of Halifax and
Wilmington, the correlation is sensible for at least nine
days, and it reaches a maximum for an interval of about
sixteen hours in summer and twenty-three in winter. For
these stations, and also for St. Helena and Cape Town,
the observation at the more easterly station should be taken
later for maximum correlation.
(2) There is a considerable correlation between the daily
rise at Halifax and Wilmington, and this correlation
changes with the interval in a manner somewhat analogous
to that in which the correlation between simultaneous
heights at two stations approximately on the same meridian
depends upon the distance between them.
(3) There are considerable differences between the sum-
mer and winter correlations, and these differences are of the
same general nature for both pairs of stations considered.
(4) It is possible to predict the barometric height at one
station from an earlier height at a second station more than
tooo miles away, with a fair degree of accuracy, the mean
observed error for forty dates, taken at random, for Halifax
and Wilmington, being o!-15.
January 19.—‘ On the Comparative Effects of the Trvy-
panosomata of Gambia Fever and Sleeping Sickness upon
Rats. By H. G. Plimmer. Communicated by C. J.
Martin, F.R.S. y
The organisms used in these experiments were given to
the author by Col. Bruce, F.R.S., and they were taken
from monkeys which had been inoculated in Africa from
cases of the respective diseases; so that when the author’s
experiments were commenced each organism had been
through one monkey, and they were therefore similar as
regards conditions. ‘
Rats inoculated with the Trypanosomata from Gambia
fever lived about two and a half months; the Trypanosomata
were present in the blood from about four weeks after
inoculation until death. Post mortem the organisms were
present in the blood and in all the organs; the spleen was
very much enlarged, and the liver and kidneys were con-
gested. The lymphatic glands were enlarged. '
Rats inoculated with the Trypanosomata from sleeping
sickness lived without any symptoms for a period of from
six to nine months, when they became paralysed, first in
one hind leg and then in the other, and they died in from
AQ
380
two to eight weeks after the paraplegia was complete, living
altogether up to eleven or twelve months. At no time were
any Irypanosomata found in the blood, nor post mortem
in the viscera. or glands. But in the spinal cord they were
present in small numbers, and inoculation of the cord
into other rats has produced similar symptoms, whilst in-
oculation of the organs has been negative. In sections of
the spinal cord amoeboid and adult forms of the Trypano-
soma have been found, and also those lesions which Dr.
Mott found in the nervous system of man in cases of
sleeping sickness, viz., a considerable cellular exudation
around the vessels. This is not found in monkeys, in which
the organisms become generalised, and do not get localised
in the nervous system as is the case in rats.
These experiments go to show that the organisms asso-
ciated with the diseases of Gambia fever and sleeping
sickness, which are thought by some to be the same disease
in different stages, are quite distinct in their effects, and
they are also distinct morphologically ; that the Trypano-
soma of sleeping sickness can be inoculated into rats, which
has been denied; and that there is a great similarity in
the lesions produced in the nervous systems of man and of
rats, and in the localisation of the disease to the nervous
system.
From experiments made, a double infection would seem
to be quite possible, and to be a likely event in these
diseases.
January 26.—‘ On the Modulus of Torsional Rigidity oi
Quartz Fibres and its Temperature Coefficient.’’? By Dr. Frank
Horton, St. John’s College, Cambridge, late Mackinnon
Student. Communicated by Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
In this research the dynamical method of experimenting
was employed, and the investigaton was divided into three
parts :—
(1) The determination of the absolute value of the torsion
modulus.
(2) The variation of the modulus between 15° C. and
100° C.
(3) The variation of the modulus between 20° C.
1000° C.
The radii of the fibres used were determined by measur-
ing their circumferences, the fibres being rolled between
two fine glass capillary tubes and the number of revolutions
made in travelling a distance of 5 mm. counted. By this
method fibres of diameter 0.001 cm. were measured to
0.01 per cent.
In the second part of the research the jacket enclosing
the fibre was heated by using the vapours of various liquids
boiling under atmospheric pressure. The modulus of
rigidity was found to increase as a linear function of the
temperature, but the values of the temperature coefficient
of the modulus obtained from different fibres were con-
siderably different. In the experiments between 20° C. and
1o00° C. the fibres were suspended inside a platinum tube,
which was heated electrically. Jt was found that the
modulus of rigidity increased with the temperature, at
first as a linear function of it, but as the temperature rose
the rate of increase gradually diminished and a maximum
rigidity was attained at about 880° C. After passing this
point the rigidity decreased very rapidly with increase of
temperature.
and
“Note on the Cause of the Period of Chemical Induction
in the Union of Hydrogen and Chlorine.”’ By D. L.
Chapman and C. H. Burgess. Communicated by Prof.
H. B. Dixon. ;
The induction period in the union of hydrogen and
chlorine exposed to light, which has been ascribed by
various authors either to a change in the physical con-
dition of the chlorine or of the mixture of hydrogen and
chlorine, or to the primary formation of an unstable inter-
mediate compound, has been shown by the authors to be
due to impurities. The impurities are those which react
with chlorine, such as ammonia and sulphur dioxide. At
the ordinary temperature in the dark the reaction between
these substances and chlorine is not completed. In the
light or by raising the temperature these impurities can
be entirely removed by the chlorine. The time required
for their removal .is the induction period during which
NO. 1842, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
the chlorine is rendered incapable of combining with the
hydrogen.
It has been hitherto supposed that an induced mixture
of hydrogen and chlorine if left to stand for some time in the
dark must be again induced before combination will proceed
at its normal rate. This is not the case if a quartz actino-
meter is substituted for a glass one.
‘The Theory of Symmetrical Optical Objectives.—Part
Il.’’? By S. D. Chalmers. Communicated by Prof. Larmor,
Sec.R-S-
In photographic objectives, consisting of two similar
lenses symmetrical to a central stop, the back member is
generally corrected for spherical and chromatic aberra-
tions, astigmatism, and curvature of field for distant
objects, and thus the whole system is perfectly corrected
for unit magnification. The present paper discusses the
aberrations for distant objects. In part i. it was proved
that, to the first approximation, the above defects are
corrected in the whole system when they are corrected in
the single member. By geometrical constructions, using
the symmetry with respect to the axis and to the stop,
these results are extended to practical systems. The paths
of parallel rays, incident on the combined system, are
obtained from those of two sets of parallel rays incident
on the single system; the aberrations of the combined
system are expressed in terms of the single system with
small errors—negligible in practical systems—due to the
image of the stop being imperfect.
‘“ Exterior Ballistics.
Corrections to Naval Range Tables.”
Forbes, F.R.S.
Gun-sights are always marked for standard conditions
of muzzle velocity (m.v.) and air density (a.d.). When
either of these change the sights must be corrected. The
author finds from theory that if a.d. is increased m fold,
and the range is diminished m fold, then the elevation
and time-of-flight must be diminished m fold; and, em-
pirically, that up to 10° of elevation (10,000 yards for a
12” gun) elevation varies very closely as 1/[m.v.]?, as in
vacuo. On these laws he calculated from the naval
range table of a 12” gun, 8s5olbs. shot, 2463 m.v., at 2,
4, 6, 8, and 10 thousand yards, the table for a 6” gun,
1oolb. shot, 196o0ft. secs. The elevations only differed
from the Naval 6” table —I, —4, —2, +2, and +4
min. of are.
The laws, therefore, may be applied with perfect con-
fidence for the comparatively small variations that occur
in any one gun.
Error of the Day and other
By Prof. Geo.
by
Linnean Society, January 19.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The Rev T. R. R.
Stebbing exhibited and explained specimens of Crustacea,
in various ways remarkable for structure, habits, habitat,
or colouring.—Botanical collecting: Dr. A. Henry. The
actual methods were briefly alluded to, stress being laid on
truthful labelling of the specimens at the moment of col-
lection, instead of months afterwards, when _ identical
numbers were often given to plants of different provenance.
Dr. Henry described observations made by him in China.
He alluded to mimicry in plants, in the case of two species
of Lysimachia (a protomorphic genus in China), one of
which mimicked Paris quadrifolia, with 4 leaves, while the
other recalled another species of Paris with 10-12 leaves.
He referred also to the extraordinary richness of species
on calcareous soils as compared with other soils, a fact
constantly seen in China, and well marked also in France,
and asked for some explanation. In China, as elsewhere,
pure woods were rare, being only formed by a few
conifers, like Abies Fargesii at high altitudes in Hupeh,
Cupressus funebris in the same province at lower levels
(the home of the Reeves’s pheasant), Pinus Massoniana
(almost everywhere in the central and southern provinces),
other species of Pinus more local; also certain species of
oak widely distributed; and Almus nepalensis in Yunnan.
rhe explanation of the occurrence of pure forests was also
a subject not completely understood: e.g. in this country
ash seeded freely, and in some places for a time looked as
if it would grow into a pure wood; but apparently pure
:
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
NATURE
381
forests of ash only occurred on extremely rich soil in some
districts in Russia. With regard to botanical collecting,
three stages had occurred. At an early period plants were
collected to be merely named and classified; in fact, they
were treated like postage stamps. The second period
began with Sir Joseph Hooker, who inaugurated the study
of the geographical distribution of plants. The third
period, that of the present day, was a step forward, in
that attention should be paid to the plants themselves as
social organisms, living in harmony and yet in competition
together; and Dr. Henry urged that the time had come
when the hunt for new species should cease to be the
sole aim of the collector, and the study of the known
species be taken in hand in their living conditions. He
advocated map-making of small areas, census-taking,
measurements, records of natural seedlings, soil, shade,
&c., and to illustrate this plan showed a series of slides
taken in France, the idea of which was to explain how the
commoner species of trees behaved at different altitudes
and on different soils—Cranial osteology of the fishes
of the families Osteoglosside, Pantodontide, and
Phractolemide: Dr. W. G. Ridewood. ‘This paper is
a fourth instalment of the results of an extensive investi-
gation upon the skull of the lower teleostean fishes begun
in 1896. Descriptions are given of the skulls of Osteo-
glossum, Heterotis, Arapaima, Pantodon, and Phracto-
lamus; and in a summary Dr. Ridewood points out that
the evidence of the skull goes to show that the three
genera Osteoglossum, Heterotis, and Arapaima, first
brought together into the family Osteoglossida by Dr.
Giinther, constitute a perfectly natural group; that the
Pantodontidz are more closely related to the Osteoglossida
than to any other family of fishes, as has been suspected
since the first discovery of the genus Pantodon in 1876;
and that the Phractolemidz do not in their cranial oste-
ology offer any evidence of close alliance with either of
these families.
February 2.—Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., president,
in the chair.—Descriptions of some new species and notes
on other Chinese plants: W. J. Tuteher. The species
in question had been found on the island of Hong Kong,
with one from Kowloon and one from Wei-hai-wei.
Bentham’s ‘‘ Flora Hongkongensis’’ in 1861 enumerated
1053 species from the island, 159 of which had not at that
time been found elsewhere, but at the present time only
about 50 of these remain peculiar to the island. The flora
as now known amounts to about 1400 species, of which
roo are regarded as endemic, though probably many will
be found natives of the mainland Ferns amount to 100;
grasses about as many; Leguminosze nearly as many ;
between 70 and 80 Cyperaceze ; Compositze more than 60, and
orchids 60. Quercus Eyrei, first found by Capt. Champion, was
not collected by any recent collector until the author re-found
it in quantity; even Hance had declared that Champion
must have been mistaken in his locality. The lIuxuriance
usually associated with tropical vegetation is here wanting,
due to the poverty of the soil, which is almost exclusively
disintegrated granite. The new territory leased to Great
Britain in 1898 has an area of about 300 square miles,
that is, ten times the area of Hong Kong. Lantao is an
island resembling Hong Kong, but its highest peak is
3050 feet, with many well-wooded ravines, and when ex-
plored will doubtless prove rich in plants.—Revision of the
European marine forms of the Cirolanine, a subfamily of
Crustacea Isopoda: Dr. H. J. Hansen. Three new species
are described—Cirolana gallica, C. Schmidtit, and Eurydice
affinis. Comparative tables of the genera and species are
supplied, distinguishing eight European species of Cirolana,
one of Conilera, and six of Eurydice.
Challenger Society, January 25.—Sir J hn Murray in
the chair._Mr. E. W. L. Holt exhibited and made remarks
on some rare and interesting deep-water fish and Crustacea
from West Ireland.—Dr. R. N. Wolfenden exhibited and
made remarks upon some Copepoda from the Gauss (Ger-
man Antarctic) expedition; their large size, up to 1omm.,
was remarkable, as also the fact that, of the 42 species
from the Gauss and Belgica, five were common to the
subpolar seas and continuous by way of the mesoplankton.—
NO. 1842, voL 71]
Sir John Murray spoke on the relation of oceanography
to other sciences. He pointed out that recent expeditions
had made only inconsiderable alterations in the contour
lines of the sea-bottom published in the Challenger reports,
and was of the opinion that no great changes were likely
to be made by the soundings of future expeditions. He
expressed his belief that the great ocean basins had been
practically unaltered through geological time, but that the
continents, including a zone of not more than 200 miles
seaward of their present outline, had frequently altered their
levels, supporting this belief by the fact that all known
sedimentary rocks are of ‘‘ terrigenous’’ character, to the
exclusion of deep-sea materials. The meteorology of mid-
ocean, where the diurnal temperature range of the water
is about 2° F., was contrasted with the meteorology over
land-masses, where absorption and radiation are high, and
the diurnal atmospheric range may amount to 80° F. As
an example of the far-reaching effects of temperature, Sir
John Murray cited the range of annual variation where
hot and cold currents are at war, amounting in some cases
to 40° F.; in such regions the animal death-rate is very
high, and the dead organisms decomposing on the bottom
start the formation of glauconite, a well-known constituent
of sedimentary rocks. As another result of temperature, it
has been estimated that a tropical Copepod lives twenty-
four times as fast as an Arctic Copepod in the same period
of time; this may explain the predominance of specimens
and paucity of species in the Arctic as compared with the
Tropical fauna. In connection with chemistry, he pointed
out the gradual transference of lime from the poles to the
tropics by organic agency; and, in connection with
physiology, the possible relation between the serous and
similar fluids of existing organisms, and the constitution
of the primzeval sea in which life first began on our earth.
Faraday Society, January 30.—Prof. A. K. Huntington
in the chair.—Mass analysis of Muntz’s metal by elec-
trolysis, and some notes on the electrolytic properties of
this alloy: J. G. A. Rhodin. The first portion of the paper
describes an apparatus which was specially designed by
the author for the purpose of the accurate and rapid
determination of the copper content (which should lie
between 60-5 and 61-5 per cent.) of Muntz’s metal. The
author also discusses the electrochemical properties of
Muntz’s metal. The metal is largely used as a sheathing
to protect ships’ bottoms from certain mollusca and alge,
and to be successful it should dissolve in sea-water just to
a sufficient extent as to render the surface poisonous, the
best conditions being the equal dissolution of the copper
and zinc. The author shows how these may be calculated
approximately by supposing that the electrolytic dissolution
rate is proportional to the heat of formation of the
ultimate compounds (zinc and cuprous chlorides), and to
the conductivities of the metals which dissolve.—The
equilibrium between sodium sulphate and magnesium
sulphate : R. B. Denison. Experiments conducted from the
are described, the object of
standpoint of the phase rule
the double salt of sodium
which was to determine whether
and magnesium sulphates, 2MgSO,.Na,SO,, which has
been described as a naturally occurring mineral, is capable
of existence in contact with solution, that is, whether it
has been formed in nature by the evaporation of saline
waters. The corresponding potassium compound is known
to occur in Stassfurt as langbeinit, and it was thought
that a detailed investigation might result in the isolation
of the sodium langbeinit from solution. Dilatometer and
tensimeter experiments pointed fairly conclusively to the
assumption that the compound sodium-langbeinit cannot
exist in contact with solution, at Teast below 100° C yang
hence this substance, if found as a mineral, must be a
product of a higher temperature.—Refractory materials for
furnace linings: E. K. Seott.
Mineralogical Society, January 31.—Prof. H. A. Miers,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Danalite from Wheal
Maudlin, Cornwall; crystallographic characters of barium-
radium bromide: Prof. H. A. Miers.—Epidote from Inver-
ness-shire: H. H. Thomas. The crystallographic and
optical characters were described. A chemical analysis made
by Dr. Pollard showed that the mineral contained a very low
382
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 16, 1905
percentage of ferric oxide (6.81). In this respect it was similar
to epidotes from Huntington, Mass., and the Zillerthal, and
like them showed correspondingly low refractive and double
refractive power and large optic axial angle, as compared
with epidotes containing higher percentages of iron.—Pre-
liminary note on the regular growth of crystals of one
substance upon those of another: T. V. Barker. The
observations of previous investigators were in general con-
firmed with regard to the growths of KI, KBr, KCl and
NaNO, upon mica, and of NaNO, upon calcite. In all
cases a clean surface is necessary. Attempts to get a
regular deposition of NaNO, upon other rhombohedral
carbonates of the calcite group and upon dolomite were
without any positive result, although the rhombohedral
angle of some of them is much nearer to that of NaNO,
than is that of calcite. The topic axes, however, are in
order of magnitude as follows:—NaNO,, calcite, rhodo-
chrosite, dolomite, chalybite, so that if the regular growth
depend on the fitting together of similar structures, the
experiments point to the usefulness of the conception of
topic axes. The author is continuing his observations.—
Apparatus for determining the density of small grains:
Kk. A. K. Hallowes. The method is by hydrostatic
weighing, and the grain is held under water (or prefer-
ably alcohol) in a spring-clamp, made of brass wire and
two cover-glasses, which is suspended from the beam of
the balance by a fine hair.—Exhibits : Specimen of phenacite
and one of aurichalcite from Cornish localities: A. Russell.
—Specimens of sulphide of lead and oxide of zinc artificially
produced in furnaces at Laurium: H. F. Collins.
Geological Society, February 1.—Dr. J. E. Marr,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On the sporangium-like
organs of Glossopteris Browniana, Brongn.: E. A. Newell
Arber. Some specimens from New South Wales, on which
scale-fronds of Glossopteris occur, also exhibit impressions
of minute bodies, not unlike the sporangia of certain recent
and extinct ferns and cycads. They have never been found,
except in the closest association with the scale-leaves of Glos-
sopteris, and this is regarded as an indication that they may
be attributed to that genus, a conclusion supported by the
evidence of the scale-fronds, which show scars of attachment
and fragments of the sac-like bodies still apparently in con-
tinuity. It is impossible to be quite certain that these bodies
are sporangia, but there is much to be said for this view.
The closest analogy may probably be found in the micro-
sporangia of cycads. A historical sketch is given of the pre-
sent evidence on the subject of the fructification of Glos-
sopteris. If the present conclusion be correct (that the
sporangia were borne on the smaller scale-fronds),
Glossopteris cannot be included in any recent family of the
true ferns.
Chemical Society, February 2.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The following papers were
read :—Camphorylcarbimide: M. O. Forster and H. E.
Fierz. The authors described this substance and some of
its derivatives and reactions.—Configuration of isonitroso-
camphor and its unstable modification: M. O. Forster.
It is proposed to represent isonitrosocamphor and its unstable
isomeride by the configurations
C.Hy4 C,Hy,
ON Vix
(AEN and CZ ING
N.OH Oo OU.N oO
Sya-form Antzform
respectively. The evidence for this view is principally based
upon the behaviour of the two isomerides towards magnesium
methyl iodide.—The determination of molecular weight by
lowering of vapour pressure: E. P..Perman. The author
has worked out the details of a simple method by which
molecular weights can be determined with moderate accuracy
from measurements of the lowering of vapour pressure of the
solvent in which the substance under investigation is dis-
solved.—Note on $-NH-ethenyldiaminonaphthalene: R.
Meldola and J. H. Lane. The ethenyldiaminonaphtha-
lene, obtained by Prager in 1885 by debrominating the
NO. 1842, VOL. 71 |
bromo-anhydro-base prepared by the reduction of 4-bromo : 2 :
nitroaceto-a-naphthalide, is now shown to be identical with
the anhydro-base obtained from Markfeldt’s ethenyltriamino-
naphthalene by the diazo-method.
Mathematical Society, February 9.—Prof. A. R. Forsyth,
president, in the chair.—The president seferred to the loss
sustained by the society by the death of Mr. R. Tucker,
who was honorary secretary of the society from 1867 to
1902. A resclution of condolence with Mr. Tucker’s sur-
viving relatives was passed.—The following papers were
communicated :—General theory of transfinite numbers and
order types: Dr. E. W. Hobson. The paper deals with
the well-known contradiction which arises in the theory of
aggregates, and is expressed in the statements :—The
aggregate of all ordinal numbers has an ordinal number
which must be the greatest of all ordinal numbers, that is,
the last of the series; but the series cannot have a last
element. The source of the contradiction is traced to the
assumption that an ordered aggregate necessarily possesses
a definite order-type which can be regarded as an object,
viz. the ordinal number coming immediately after all those
which are the elements of the aggregate of which it is
the order-type. The author proposes to deny this principle,
and points out that those parts of the theory of aggregates
which are of importance for the general purposes of mathe-
matical analysis would not be affected by this denial.—The
Maclaurin sum-formula: Rev. E. W. Barnes. The paper
contains a new form for the remainder, and a fresh
demonstration of the conditions in which certain generalisa-
tions of the formula are valid.—The asymptotic expansion
of integral functions of finite non-zero order: Rev. E. W.
Barnes. The object of the paper is to investigate the
asymptotic expansions of functions of the class in question
without making any appeal to the theory of divergent
series. It is shown that the most general type of integral
function of finite non-zero order with a single sequence
of non-repeated zeroes admits, when the argument is large,
an asymptotic expansion valid everywhere save in the
neighbourhood of the zeroes of the function, and all the co-
efficients of this expansion can be built up from the simple
Riemann Zeta function. Expansions are also found in
the case of integral functions of multiple linear sequence.—
co -
On the function = x"/n*: G. H. Hardy.—On the re-
u=I1
ducibility of covariants of binary quantics of infinite order,
part ii.: P. W. Wood. :
EDINBURGH.
Royal society, January 23.—Dr. Traquair in the chair.—
On deep water ship waves: Lord Kelvin. The waves were
supposed to be produced by a floating or submerged body
of proper form moving forward with a given speed in a
canal of rectangular section. A solution of the approxi-
mate equations was first obtained for a particular form of
surface wave associated with a definite distribution of pres-
sure over part of the surface and moving forward with a
given speed of propagation. The vanishing of the pressure
distribution or ** forcive ’’ occurred for a given speed which
coincided with the speed of propagation of the free sinus-
oidal wave. When the forcive did not vanish it acted with
or against the displacement according as the speed of
propagation was less or greater than this critical velocity.
By a suitable synthesis of a series of distributed forcives
with their associated surface displacements, the solution was
put in a form which lent itself towards the elucidation of
several important problems. ‘Thus in certain cases it was
possible to imagine a cover fitting part of the water surface
and moving forward with the proper speed associating this
form of surface with a definite forcive, and in this way a
solution was obtained of the train of waves accompanying
the passage of a suitably shaped pontoon over the fluid
surface. Again, by superposition of two exactly equal for-
cives half a wave-length apart, the surface outside the
region over which the forcive acted was reduced to rest.
The disturbed surface within the region of the acting
forcive and moving forward with it could then be imagined
as fitted with a cover; and thus was solved the problem
FEBRUARY 16, 1905]
of finding the form of pontoon which, advancing through
. the fluid at a given speed, would be unaccompanied by any
displacement of fluid surface either before or behind.—A
comparison of the lakes of Denmark and Scotland: Dr.
Wesenberg-Lund. Dr. Lund had visited Scotland on the
invitation of Sir John Murray with the view of making
this comparative study. The greatest possible contrasts
existed between the lakes of Denmark and the typical High-
land lakes of Scotland, the Danish lakes being, for ex-
ample, comparatively small and shallow, with great varia-
tions of temperature from season to season, the water being
rich in lime, and the littoral region being characterised in
most cases by luxurious vegetation forming the home of
numerous animals. Scottish lakes like Loch Leven, how-
ever, approximated more closely in character to the lakes
of Denmark. The paper contained an important discussion
of the fauna of the two types of lakes, and of its influence
on the lakes themselves and their surroundings. The
Danish lakes are gradually being silted up, and will before
long disappear, while the lochs of Highland Scotland will
remain practically unaltered through long ages.—On a new
family and twelve new species of Rotifera of the order
Bdelloida: J. Murray. The great uniformity of structure
hitherto observed throughout the order Bdelloida gives
much interest to the discovery in the Scottish lochs of an
animal showing great divergence from the general type.
The new family, which is called Microdinadz, is peculiar
in the structure of head and jaws. The discs and wreaths
are quite absent, so that there is no corona, unless the
terminal cilia of the throat are regarded as such. The
rostrum and toes are as in the genus Philodina. The jaws
of all other Bdelloida are ramate; those of Microdina are
between ramate and malleo-ramate or malleate. The
large teeth are all towards the anterior end of the jaws,
and there are usually from one to two loops on the manu-
brium. A remarkable feature of the animal by which alone
it could be distinguished from all other Bdelloida is a large
crimson gland attached to the cesophagus.—Variations in
the crystallisation of potassium hydrogen succinate due to
the presence of other metallic compounds in the solution :
A. T. Cameron. The crystals were obtained from solu-
tions containing small quantities of ferric and chromic
compounds, and may be described as oblique elliptic double
cones showing curved surfaces only. The crystals belong
to the same system as those of the acid succinate, and are
evidently modifications due to the presence in small variable
quantities of the other metallic compounds possibly in a
state of solid solution.—(1) Continuants whose main
diagonal is univarial ; (2) the eliminant of a set of general
ternary quadrics: Dr. Thomas Muir.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, January 24.—
Rigidity of gelatin: H. Morris-Airey. After describing
some of the properties of aqueous solutions of gelatin,
the results of a series of measurements of the rigidity of
these media were given.—The cause of the period of
chemical induction: C. H. Burgess and D. L. Chapman
(see p. 380).
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, February 6.—M. H. Poincaré in
the chair.—On the stability of ships: E. Bertin.—On the
action of hail cannons: J. Vielle. There are in the Beau-
jolais twenty-eight societies for breaking up the hail-storms
common in that region by means of the hail cannon. A com-
parison of the damage done during the period 1891-1900 with
the losses through hail subsequent to the introduction of the
cannon (1900-1904) shows marked evidence in favour of the
use of this means of dispersing the hail clouds. It has been
frequently noticed that both lightning and thunder are sup-
pressed within the protected zone, although they may be
raging just outside this area.—Syntheses in the anthracene
series. Symmetrical diamido-tetra-alkyl derivatives of the
dihydride of y-tetraphenyl-anthracene: A. Haller and A.
Guyot. As a result of the condensation of y-diphenyl-y-di-
hydroxy-anthracene dihydride with dimethylaniline two
stereoisomeric compounds are produced, which, on account
of the wide differences in their properties, are very readily
separated. A similar reaction takes place with diethylaniline,
but the stereoisomers are more difficult to separate.—The sub-
No. 1842, VOL. 71]
NATURE 383
3
stances producing softness in wine: A. Muntz. A discus-
sion of the effect of the gummy matters present in wine on
its taste.—On the extension of the Cretaceous seas in Africa :
A. de Lapparent. Traces left by the seas of the Upper
Cretaceous have been recognised for some time in the Sahara
and the Soudan, but up to the present there has been no
direct proof of a communication between this and the
Atlantic. Fossils recently collected by Lieut. Desplagnes
and Capt. Théveniaud make the existence of this communica-
tion highly probable—On the three methylcyclohexanones
and the corresponding methyl-cyclohexanols : Paul Sabatier
and A. Mailhe. The three cresols are readily reduced to the
corresponding cyclohexanols by hydrogen in presence of
reduced nickel at 200°-220° C. These were converted by
heating with zine chloride into methylcyclohexenes, and by
oxidation into methyleyclohexanones. The latter substances
are more conveniently obtained from the alcohol by the
reaction discovered by Sabatier and Senderens, passing the
vapours of the alcohol over copper heated to 300° C., the
yield by this method being nearly theoretical—On a measure-
ment of the height of thé reversing layer obtained with the
aid of the large telescope of the Observatory of Mont Blanc:
M. Millochau. Measurements of two calcium lines under
good conditions gave a thickness of o’.15.—Observations of
the zodiacal light made at the summit of Mont Blanc: A.
dansky. A detailed account of observations taken under
very favourable conditions on September 21-22.—On solu-
tions of systems of linear differential equations with mono-
drome coefficients : Ed. Maillet.—On Poisson’s integral and
singular lines of analytical functions: P. Fatou.—On the
whole of the curves traced on an algebraic surface, and on
the Picard integrals of this surface: Francesco Severi.—
On the deviation of freely falling bodies: M. de Sparre.
Reply to a paper of M. Maurice Fouché on the same sub-
ject—On a new mechanical clutch: M. Hérisson.—An
integrating thermometer : Ch. Féry.—A synchronising elec-
tromagnetic brake: Henri Abraham. The axis of the
motor carries a toothed wheel of copper, the teeth of which
pass between the poles of an electromagnet, actuated by
the same current as the motor. If synchronism is estab-
lished, each tooth passes this space at the instant when the
electromagnetic field is nil, and there is no braking action.
If the synchronism is imperfect, the brake absorbs the whole
of the extra energy of the motor.—Magnetic hysteresis at
high frequencies in nickel and nickel steels: Ch. Eug. Guye
and A. Sehidlof.—On the direct fixation of ethero-organo-
magnesium derivatives on the ethylene linkage of unsaturated
esters: E, E, Blaise and A. Courtot. Ethyl methacrylate
reacts with magnesium-methyl-iodide giving the tertiary
alcohol dimethylpropenylcarbinol, the ketone methyl-ethyl-
acetone, and diisopropenyl. The conditions giving a
maximum yield of either of these have been worked out.—On
the cryoscopy of the sulphates: Albert Colson.—A new
method of testing for ammonia: application to the examin-
ation of water for sanitary purposes: MM. Trillat and
Turchet. In presence of potassium iodide and sodium
hypochlorite, ammonium salts develop a black coloration, due
to iodide of nitrogen, which can be estimated colorimetri-
cally. The coloration appears to be less liable to be inter-
fered with by certain substances commonly present in natural
waters than is the case with Nessler’s reagent.—On the
evolution of carbon in combustibles: Isidore Bay and Just
Alix.—Some hereditary anomalies provoked by traumatisms :
M. Blaringhem.—On the use of leucine and tyrosine as
sources of nitrogen for plants: L. Lutz. These two nitro-
genous substances can be assimilated both by phanerogams
and fungi. The difference noted in a previous paper be-
tween these two classes of plants was due to the use of sand
as a medium for the growth of the former.—On the cause of
the impoverishment of springs in plains: M. Houllier. The
author draws the conclusion that the progressive impoverish-
ment of the springs in the basin of the Somme during recent
years is the result of the increased use of the land for agri-
cultural purposes, leading to a very considerable increase in
the amount of water evaporated by plant transpiration.—The
proportions of the gases in arterial blood during the course
of anzesthesia due to chloroform, remaining invariable so
long as the pulmonary respiration -remains very nearly
normal : J. Tissot.—The mechanism of accommodation: H.
Bertin-Sans and J. Gagniére. The experiments described,
which were carried out with rabbits’ eyes, support
84
o
Tscherning’s theory, as opposed to that of Helmholtz.—
Observations on the absorption bands of blood and oxyhe-
moglobin: MM. Piettre and Vila.—Myelitis produced by
tuberculous toxins: E. Clément.—On the constitution of
Djebel Hadid: Paul Lemoine.—On the Eocene strata in
Western Morocco: A. Brives.—On the mode of formation
of high glacial valleys : Paul Girardin.
New Soutn WaALes.
Royal Society, November 16, 1904.—Mr. C. O. Burge,
president, in the chair.—On the occurrence of isolated crystals
of augite in the tufaceous mudstones near the top of the
upper marine series at Gerringong: H. G. Foxall. The
author gives the results of crystallographical and chemical
examinations of isolated crystals of augite, together with a
note on their occurrence.
December 7, 1904.—Mr. C. O. Burge, president, in the
chair.—Mr. C. O. Burge delivered his presidential address
on the connection between engineering and science. Among
the future triumphs of engineering helped by science were
mentioned the application of electricity to main line railways.
Then there are promises as regards conveyance of power by
electricity without wires. Increased economy in the utilisa-
tion of heat units in the ordinary steam engine will be a work
of the future, thus saving our rapidly diminishing fuel supply.
Other subjects mentioned as fit ones for the future were the
direct utilisation of the sun’s rays for power, and of the rise
and fall of the tide for the same purpose; the diminution of
skin friction in ships; and of the resistance to air in ships
and trains; the dispersion of fog by electricity ; the further
investigation of fatigue in metals used for construction ; and
the application of single phase electricity to traction.—The
approximate colorimetric estimation of nickel and cobalt in
presence of one another: R. W. Challinor. Use is made of
the complementary colours of Ni and Co solutions. The
method is to be applied to the solution of the weighed Ni and
Co deposited by electrolysis. The mixed metals are dis-
solved in HNO,, the solution evaporated and diluted to a
definite volume and a fraction taken. Standard Ni (NO,).
or Co (NO,), solution is added until the colour matches a
neutral tinted solution of known strength; both solutions
are brought finally to the same dilution, the colours being
compared by looking vertically down the tubes.—Note on a
combined wash-bottle and pipette: J. W. Hogarth.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Fesrvary 16.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.— Polarised Réntgen Radiation: Dr. C. G.
Barkla.—The Effects of Momentary Stresses in Metals: Prof. B. Hop-
kinson.—The Halogen Hydrides as Conducting Solvents. Parts I.—IV.:
B. D. Steele, D. McIntosh, and E. H. Archibald.—Further Observations
on Slip-bands. Preliminary Note: W. Rosenhain. :
Rovat Institution, at 5.—Recent Work of the Geological Survey:
Prof. J. J. H. Teall, F.RS.
Society or ARTs, at 4.30.—The Indian Census of 1901: Sir Charles A.
Elliott, K.C.S.1I.
LinnEAN Society, at 8.—A Revised Classification of Roses: J. G. Baker,
F.R.S.—The Botany of the Anglo-German Uganda Boundary Com-
mission: E. G. Baker, Spencer Moore, and Dr. A. B. Rendle.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 17.
Rovat InsTiTUTION, at 9.—High Power Microscopy: John W. Gordon.
Geovocicat Society, at 8.—Anniversary Meeting.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SociETY, at 8.30.—The Protozoa in Relation to Disease :
Prof. E. J. McWeeney.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Annual General Meet-
ing.—Adjourned Discussion on the American Visit, tcog.—The Strength
of Columns: Prof. W. E. Lilly.
MONDAY, Fesrvary 20.
Society or Arts, at 8.—Internal Combusticn Engines: Dugald Clerk.
Vicrorta INsTITUTE, at 4.30.—Biblical Astronomy: Lieut.-Colonel G.
MacKinlay.
TUESDAY, Fesruary 21.
NATURE
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Structure and Life of Animals: Prof. |
L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
Rovat STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
InsTITUTION oF Civit ENG) NEERS, 21 8.—Continuation of Discussion :—
Alfreton Second Tunnel: E. F. C. ‘Tsench.—The Reconstruction of
Moncreiffe Tunnel: D. McLellan.—/afer: Surface-Condensing Plants,
and the Value of the Vacuum Produced: R. W. Allen.
ZOOLOGICAL Society, at 8.30,
WEDNESDAY, Fesrvary 22.
GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8
Slates in their Northern Half, and its Bearing on the Origin of the
NO. 1842, VOL. 71]
—On the Order of Succession of the Manx |
| FEBRUARY 16, 1905
Schistose Breccia: Rev. J. F. Blake-—On the Wash-outs in the Middle
Coal-measures of South Yorkshire: F. E. Middleton.
Society oF ARTs, at 8.—Some Misconceptions of Musical Pitch : John
Borland.
THURSDAY, Fesrvary 23-
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Pagers: On some New Species of —
Lagenostoma : a Type of Pteridospermous Seed from the Coal-measures :
E. A. Newell Arber.—On a New Rhabdosphere: G. Murray, F.R.S.—
On Changes observable in the Liver Cells during Digestion, and their
Relation to Hepatic Secretion: Prof. E. Wace Carlier.—The Colour-
Physiology of the Higher Crustacea. Part III.: F. Keeble and Dr.
F. W. Gamble.—Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and Gamma Rays
of Radium. Part 1I.—G. T. Beilby.
Roya InstituTIon, at 5.—Recent Work of the Geological Survey: Prof.
J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.
InstituTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Continnuation of Dis-
cussion :—The Value of Overhead Mains for Electric Distribution in the
United Kingdom : G. L. Addenbrooke.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 24.
Roya INsTITUTION, at 9.—Fungi: Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
PuysicaL Society, at 5.—On the Curvature Method of teaching
Ge- metrical Optics: Dr. C. V. Drysdale.—Exhibition of Dr. Meisling’s
Colour Patch Apparatus: R. J. Sowter —A Method of illustrating the
Laws of the Simple Pendulum, and an Exhibition of String Models of
Optical Systems: J. Schofield.
INSTITUTION OF Crvit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Morecambe Sewerage : Method
of Laying a 15-inch Cast-iron Sewer under the London and North-
Western Railway: F. D. Flint.—The Reconstruction of Bow Bridge
over the River Lea: H. M. Rootham.
SATURDAY, Fesruary 25.
Roya InsTiTuTIon, at 3.—Archzxology : D. G. Hogarth.
CONTENTS. PAGE
The History of Coal Mining. By Bennett H. Brough 361
Mathematics of Billiards. By S. H. Burbury, F.R.S. 362
A Morphology of the Alge. By George Murray,
F.R.S. MC s+ + «ys eet. alley ana are
Our Book Shelf :—
Le Messurier: ‘Game, Shore and Water Birds of
India: with Additional References to their Allied
Species in Other Parts of the World.”"—W. P. P. . 363
Prain: ‘* The Species of Dalbergia of South-Eastern
Asia”. 30am =... + > ou) sbpinae (a
Gamble: ‘‘The Process Year Book. Penrose’s
Pictorial Anmoals, 1904-57 9. eae. ee 364
Letters to the Editor : :
On a Method of Using the Tow-net as an Opening
and Closing Tow-net.—(J/é/ustrated.) —George
Murray, F.R.S. . . : ‘i p+ ¢ nl Sain
The Sixth Satellite of Jupiter.—Prof. C. A. Young 365
The Circulation of the Atmosphere.—James
‘EHOMSON Eee =. i: see pieced 7. aes
Remarkable Temperature Inversion and the Recent
High Barometer.—( With Diagram)—W.H.Dines 365
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books. —Henry
Frowde . eae + 3.3 o> yee
A National University Library. —Prof. G. H. Bryan,
F:R.S: eee: a er na
Mutation.—Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell . . . . 366
Fact in Sociolegy.— F. W. Ho. =... 2 « 4 308
The Melting of Floating Ice.—Heat . 366
A Lunar Rainbow.—J. McCrae _.... = .. 366
Notes on Stonehenge. III. The Earliest Circles.
({ilustrated.) By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
FRCS. fo Se s+ ~ se, pol ae Ga ee (och CE
Animal Life. (Z/lustrated.) By R.L. ....... 369
The Condition of Chemical Industries in France.
By WR. ose.) cae sat spre os geet oh ance
Notes seit? ee «Shee ucts ate | nls ae
Our Astronomical Column :—
Ephemeris for Brooks's Comet, 19041. . 374
Observations of Comets “es - 374
Additional Periodical Comets due this Year 374
Castor a Quadruple Star . eh - ae rai Be 2S
Blood Pressures in Man, By Prof. T. Clifford
Allbutt) FL RoSae. . . : MO i * oeRE Me a cee fe 7hS
Radiation Pressure. By Prof. J. H. Poynting,
PERS ees. = ces 4 + alate he ena
Geographical Results of the Tibet Mission 377
' The London Conference on School Hygiene . 377
University and Educational Intelligence . . «e570
Societies and Academies ........ eres i)
Diary or Sociehes. . scone 384
4 RECENT ENGLISH. HISTORY.
Social England. Edited by H. D. Traill and J. S.
Mann. _Vol v., pp. lii+864; vol. vi., pp. lvi+948.
(London: Cassell and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 14s.
net each volume.
An Introductory History of England. By C. R. L.
Fletcher. Pp. xvii+397- (London: John Murray.)
Price 7s. 6d.
Studies _on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. By H. M.
Chadwick. Pp. xiii+420. (Cambridge University
Press, 1905.) Price 8s. net.
N the fifth and sixth volumes ** Social
England,”’ lately re-issued in an_ illustrated
edition (1904), considerable prominence is given to
subjects of scientific as well as of historical interest.
Thus Mr. T. Whittaker (rather more adequately
than in earlier stages) writes on philosophy and
natural science in the eighteenth century and the
Napoleonic age, and for the same period Mr. D’Arcy
Power discusses medicine and public health, Mr.
-Raymond Beazley exploration and the advance of
geographical knowledge, and Mr. G. T. Warner
manufacturing progress, machinery, and the trans-
formation of industry (v., 31-47, 56-73, 145-55, 292-
307, 321-33, 408-35, 543-6, 560-84, 625-45, 756-60,
805-22).
In the final or nineteenth century volume, geology,
chemistry, astronomy, physics, biology, anthropology,
engineering, mining and metallurgy, applications of
electricity, and the railway system of the United
Kingdom are also treated, in addition to our old
friends philosophy, medicine, and exploration. The
list of scientific writers is much enlarged, and com-
prises Prof. T. G. Bonney, Mr. Robert Steele, Mr.
H. C. Jenkins, Lord Farrer, Miss A. M. Clerke, Mr.
W. G. Rhodes, Mr. O. G. Jones, and Dr. J. Scott
Keltie (vi., 76-95, 239-90, 413-48, 675-793, 892-927).
Among these contributions we may _ especially
notice, for the sake of illustration, that of Dr. Keltie
on British exploration, 1815-85. Here we have a
good, clear, business-like summary (very well illus-
trated, especially by contemporary maps) of a great
and significant chapter in the life-history of the
English people. But the amount of matter to be
treated is so vast, and Dr. Keltie is so con-
scientious in his determination not to omit a refer-
ence, however brief, to every important personage
and event within the limits of his subject, that the
narrative becomes at times a chronicle of the nature
of “materials for history.” Thus, in tracing the
course of British explorations in Central Asia and
the Far East alone, the work of Moorcroft, Wood,
Shaw, Forsyth, Hayward, Trotter, Carey, Bell,
of
James, Younghusband, Basil Hall, Collinson, Fortune, |
Blakiston, Ney Elias, Sladen, Margary, Gill, Baber,
Colquhoun, McCarthy, Williamson, Gilmore, Alcock,
and Mrs. Bishop is summarised in two pages.
is no doubt difficult to avoid such treatment, and the
secretary of our Geographical Society is an excellent
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
4 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 23, 1905. | chronicler; but it is perhaps open to question whether
It |
385
a more selective and less annalistic method might
not have been followed in this as in certain other
articles, such as the ‘‘ Engineering’ of Mr. O. G.
Jones, where a more philosophic style is adopted with
marked success.
The British history of the nineteenth, or even of
the eighteenth, century in one volume, even though
that volume run to 930 pages, is an undertaking
of no small difficulty; as the assistant editor—and
true chief pilot—of the venture, Mr. J. S. Mann,
himself admits. Intellectual and industrial achieve-
ments are now so multifarious that they can hardly
be dealt with in the same book as the political and
social history. Science has become more than ever
cosmopolitan; processes in the great staple trades
have undergone developments far too specialised for
the ordinary reader; to a vast number of secondary
and miscellaneous industries and interests it is im-
possible to assign any adequate recognition; a bare
enumeration, the recognition of an allusion, is all
that can be spared for whole chapters of national
progress during the last age. To such themes as
railways, merchant shipping, the machinery of com-
merce, the new developments in social organisation,
art, and literature, it seems almost useless to devote
a few pages; while the subject of colonial history
has only to be mentioned for the most casual reader
to recognise the increased complication which the
nineteenth century has brought to the national
story.
Even since 1885, where the editors originally drew
their line (evidently with some later regrets that this
boundary could not be shifted down to the close of
the Victorian reign), the local government of the
United Kingdom has been profoundly modified; new
methods have been introduced into industry; ship-
building has taken a fresh start; legal reform has
made notable progress; labour questions have been
attended by many fresh developments; and an
Imperial and Conservative movement (or reaction)
of the most far-reaching character has influenced
every side of national life and consciousness.
All the more heartily, then, we can congratulate
the editors, contributors, and publishers of ‘‘ Social
England’’ on the measure of success they have
realised, on the immense body of valuable inform-
ation (sometimes a trifle unsifted, sometimes marred
by error, but on the whole highly creditable) which
is presented in these volumes, on the impartiality
and truly scientific spirit which pervade almost the
whole of the work, and by no means least, on the
suggestive and representative illustrations by which
the best of all possible commentaries is afforded to
the text.
Mr. Fletcher's “‘ Introductory History of England ”
| down to the accession of the Tudors, where the author
fixes, for his purpose, the close of the Middle Ages,
| is a brave and vigorous attempt to get away from
| dulness without losing touch of truth, to invest the
story of medizval England with an interest which
is lacking in such arid text-books as have become
| only too plentiful of late. As we might expect from
=
386
NATURE
_ [| Fepruary 23, 1905
Mr. Fletcher, the book he has now given us is
eminently characteristic, full of his own energetic,
practical activity, his love of health, fresh air, and
good exercise.
““ When I began,’’ he tells us, ‘‘ I had foolish hopes
that it might be a book some boys would take up
for amusement, but I soon discovered that twenty-
three years of teaching had made it impossible for
me to do more than smear the powder with a thin
layer of jam. We cannot render our dreams of the
past (however convinced we may be of their truth)
into an intelligible consecutive story.’
Here, it seems to us, there is both truth and un-
truth. Mr. Fletcher’s story is, in the main, highly
intelligible and adequately consecutive (though one
may make an exception of the Anglo-Saxon period,
where the author seems at times almost to sink
to Milton’s notions of ‘‘kites and crows’); but
how can any true student regard English history as
if it were a nauseous drug, to be made palatable by
some device? Should one not rather look at it as
a storehouse from which a good judgment is needed
to draw forth those treasures best suited to the
audience one addresses—to the specialist this, to
the general reader that, to the working man one
thing, to the merchant, the professional man, or the
politician another ?
Yet though Mr. Fletcher anxiously disclaims the
idea of pouring information into anyone, and still
more anxiously repudiates the ambition of helping
anybody to pass any examination, he has certainly
given us here a sketch of living men by a living
man, and everyone who is not a pedant, everyone
who desires to remember that history is the life-
record of humanity, will be grateful to him for this
book. Peculiarly interesting is the picture attempted
of an imaginary village in pre-Norman, Norman, and
post-Norman times, with its three fields, for wheat,
barley, and pasture, its arable strips, its green
common or waste, its water-meadows, its pig-grazing
woods, its no-man’s land, and its bull-croft—as
successful an attempt to realise the township-manor
as any popular treatise has supplied in English of
recent years; while a word must also be said in
praise of the capital little chapter of geological
history, illustrated by a serviceable map of N.W.
Europe in the Old Stone age, with which Mr.
Fletcher commences.
Mr. Chadwick’s ‘‘ Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institu-
tions ’’ supplies a useful corrective to the studied vague-
ness with which Mr. Fletcher treats our English
history. Here a careful re-examination of the
evidence bearing on some of the most interesting
problems of early English history and sociology is
attempted with distinct success. The writer’s object
has especially been to call attention to those branches
the subject which have hitherto suffered from
comparative neglect. Thus he has dealt very lightly
with Mercian and Northumbrian history because he
had nothing of importance to add to previous ‘work ;
but evidence relating to Kent, Sussex, Essex, and the
Hwiccas has been reviewed and re-stated with great
care, and with the belief that some fresh results have
attained. The most valuable portion of the
NO. 1843, VOL. 71 |
of
been
volume seems to be that dealing with the old English
monetary system (accompanied by a useful excursus
on Frankish coinage, pp. 1-75). And next to this
the reader may be recommended to the chapters deal-
ing with the history of the older counties (Kent,
&c., pp. 269-307) and with the origin of the nobility
(pp. 378-411). Great caution marks all Mr. Chad-
wick’s work, and this quality is mever more
useful than in such a difficult period as the Anglo-
Saxon. But his treatment of our early charters is
also noticeable for its courage; when, even in
obviously spurious documents, names and titles other-
wise unknown are met with, the author, with a
daring that will perhaps greatly shock some
dogmatists, ventures to think that such names and
titles are not necessarily products of imagination.
To find one who will say this, and who will appeal
moreover for a fairer hearing in the examination of
tradition, popular as well as ecclesiastical, is certainly
refreshing at the present moment.
STEREOCHEMISTRY.
Materialien der Stereochemie. (In Form von Jahres-
berichten.) Band i., 1894-1898; Band ii., 1899-1902-
By C. A. Bischoff. Pp. cxxxvi+i1977. (Bruns-
wick: Vieweg and Son, 1904.) Price 90 marks.
N the course of his reply to a letter from the
Chemical Society of London congratulating him
on the completion of the twenty-fifth year of his
doctorate, Prof. Emil Fischer writes as follows :—
“The time when the fundamental principles of
our science were laid down, and when it was possible
for the individual investigator to stamp the impress
of his own mind upon it, is long since past, and im
the gigantic structure, which it now represents, each
fellow-worker can only finish some small fragment,
or it may be, if he is fortunate, a pretty balcony or
a striking turret.”
The two ponderous tomes, in which Prof. Bischoff
records the advances made in stereochemistry from
1894 to 1902, illustrate in a very striking manner this
ever-increasing tendency to specialism in chemical
research, which Fischer emphasises in the sentence
just quoted.
Although Pasteur, in 1861, by his classical experi-
ments with the isomeric tartaric acids, may be said
to have laid the foundation of stereochemistry, the
growth of this branch of chemical science was at first
slow, since it was not till 1873 that Wislicenus
pointed out as a consequence of his work with lactic
acid that differences between compounds of identical
structure must be ascribed to differences in the spacial
arrangement of their atoms within the molecule.
The publication in the following year by van’t Hoff
and Le Bel of their theory of the asymmetric carbon
atom gave an immense impulse to experimental work,
so that optically active compounds, which in those
earlier days were numbered by tens, may now be
counted by thousands.
The rapid development of stereochemistry is not,
however, restricted to the field of optically active
compounds. The researches of Victor Meyer and of
Bischoff are fundamental in that branch where the
Ferrruary 23, 1905]
normal and abnormal courses of many reactions are
interpreted from a stereochemical standpoint. Then
again, the study of geometrical isomerides, such as
substances of the ethylene type with the so-called
double linkage between carbon atoms, of poly-
methylene and heterocyclic compounds, of compounds
with a double linkage between a carbon atom and a
nitrogen atom, and finally of compounds with a
double linkage between two nitrogen atoms, has
engaged the attention of many prominent contem-
porary workers.
The well-known ‘“ Handbuch der Stereochemie,”’
by Walden and Bischoff, gives a comprehensive survey
of stereocheniical literature up to the year 1894.
Owing to the rapid developments of the last ten years,
however, this work has lately lost much of its initial
value as a source of reference. This defect is now
remedied. In the ‘ Materialien der Stereochemie ”’
we have an addendum to the ‘‘ Handbuch,”’ the
literature of each successive year from 1894 to I902
being classified in a manner which cannot fail to
prove of the utmost service. The subject matter for
each year is treated under four sections, namely,
general stereochemistry, optical isomerism, geo-
metrical isomerism of optically inactive compounds,
and interdependence of spacial relationships and
chemical reactions. A brief description of each paper
quoted is usually given. The first section on general
stereochemistry, in addition to the bibliography of
special monographs published during the particular
year, embraces references to chemical dynamics,
crystallography, spectroscopy, &c., in so far as those
subjects have any stereochemical bearing. In the
three other sections the papers of more general interest
are first quoted; then follow references to the more
special papers which are not quoted chronologically,
but are conveniently classified according to their
subject matter.
The field reviewed in the first subdivision of the
fourth section deals with ring systems, and is so vast
that, as a rule, only references are given to the
innumerable papers quoted. On the other hand, the
papers on polymerisation, substitution, addition re-
actions, hydrolysis, &c., included in the same section
are dealt with in more detail.
The general student will find this work unreadable.
The author contents himself with the abstract he
gives, and hardly ever ventures on any criticism.
Little or no attempt is made to differentiate between
the important and the unimportant, and in this
respect it seems to the present reviewer that more
prominence might with advantage have been given
to such research as is acknowledged by all to be
outstanding. From the point of view of the specialist,
however, the work is admirable. Its value lies not
so much in the information actually afforded by the
abstracts themselves as in the remarkably complete
bibliography which it presents. The ardent stereo-
chemist, who in his own particular sphere may be
tempted to exclaim, ‘“‘ Zwar weiss ich viel, doch
mocht’ ich alles wissen,’’ will assuredly find in this
work an aid to the realisation of his desire.
A. McK.
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
3
NATURE 387
A TRAVELLER’S GUIDE TO INDIA.
The Imperial Guide to India, including Kashmir,
Burma and Ceylon. Pp. xi+244; with illustrations,
maps, and plans. (London: John Murray, 1904.)
Price 6s. net.
Res large and constantly increasing number of
tourists and sportsmen who visit our Indian
Empire during the winter, together with the smaller
section who extend their trip so as to include a summer
sojourn in Kashmir or some other Himalayan district,
must create an extensive demand for a work like the
one before us, and the wonder is that an attempt has
not been made long ago to supply such a manifest
want. In the present volume, which is got up in con-
venient size and shape for the pocket, and printed in
small although clear type, with the chief items in
caps. or block type, the anonymous author seems, on
the whole, to have discharged a by no means easy
task in a thoroughly satisfactory and painstaking
manner. Indeed, so far as a somewhat extensive
personal experience of the country permits of our form-
ing a judgment, we may say that, as a viaticum and
itinerary, which is, of course, its main purpose, the
work is well-nigh all that can be desired so far as its
somewhat limited space permits. Although neces-
sarily brief, the descriptions of the towns, cities, and
stations, and of the railway or other routes by which
they are reached, are in the main excellent, and convey
a very large amount of useful and necessary inform-
ation. The various routes are also carefully planned
and thought out, and will enable the tourist to find
his way about and to visit much of what is most worth
seeing with the least amount of discomfort and diffi-
culty. Whether, however, the ‘“ selected Hindustani
phrases’? at the end of the volume will enable the
tourist to make himself understood by the natives of
even the Hindustani-speaking provinces may be more
than doubtful.
But the author has not been content to make his
work a mere itinerary. On the contrary, he treats his
readers to brief dissertations on the ethnology, natural
history, and geology of the Indian Empire, with
scrappy pieces of information with regard to the sport
to be obtained. With respect to this aspect of the
volume, we are compelled to say, in the first place,
that the author has not allowed himself sufficient space
to make the information he attempts to convey of any
real value, and secondly, that it would have been well
had he taken expert advice and assistance.
One fault about the introductory chapter is that it
is too ‘‘ parochial.’? The volume professes to treat of
India, Ceylon, Burma, and Kashmir, but this chapter,
although the reader is not told so, seems to refer only
to India proper. For instance, we are told that shoot-
ing licences are not required (p. 10), and yet we find
(p. 186) that these are necessary in Kashmir. Again,
in the ethnological paragraphs we find no reference
under the heading of non-Aryan races to either the
Veddas of Ceylon, the Burmese, or the Mongoloid
tribes of the north-east frontier, while the classification
of the natives of the peninsula merely by religion
leaves much to be desired. The general description
of Indian scenery—inclusive of natural history and
388
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905
geology—is, moreover, little short of ludicrous.
What, for instance, are we to say of a writer who
describes the rocks of the Himalaya as Archean,
although he does qualify this by stating later on that
a band of Cretaceous (which is incorrect) and Tertiary
rocks skirts the foot of the range? The reference to
the Mesozoic rocks of the peninsula is also mislead-
ing, and we should like to know what “ similar
scenery in Europe ”’ is recalled by the traps of the
Ghats. A few colouréd plates of more or less
characteristic Indian mammals and birds relieve the
necessarily dry details of the work, but it would have
been better if the author had made up his mind what
name to employ for the Indian antelope, instead of
calling it Antelope (in error, by the way, for Antilope)
bezoartica on p. 12 and A. cervicapra on the plate.
When a future edition of this otherwise excellent little
work is called for it may be hoped that the introductory
chapter will be re-written with the aid of some one
who has at least a smattering of elementary inform-
ation with regard to the geology and zoological pro-
ducts of the country. Ie Ib.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Bacteriology and the Public Health. By Dr. George
Newman. Third edition. Pp. xx+ 497. (London:
John Murray, 1904.) Price 21s. net.
Dr. GEORGE NEWMAN is well known as a public health
expert and bacteriologist, and his contributions to the
literature of preventive medicine have attracted con-
siderable attention both in this country and abroad.
The present volume may be regarded as an elaboration
of his previous writings, and is, in most respects,
thoroughly up to date.
There are thirteen chapters, dealing with subjects as
follows :—the biology of bacteria, bacteria in water,
bacteria in the air, bacteria and fermentation, bacteria
in the soil, the bacteriology of sewage and the bacterial
treatment of sewage, bacteria in milk and milk pro-
ducts, bacteria in other foods, bacteria in disease,
tuberculosis as a type of bacterial disease, the etiology
of tropical diseases, the question of immunity and anti-
toxins, and disinfection. There is also an appendix
on technique and a welcome index.
The chapters dealing with some of the pressing
administrative problems of the day are specially worthy
of commendation.
The chapter on bacteria in milk is an admirable
dissertation, and the author deserves much credit for
his judicious handling of a mass of conflicting opinion
and apparently irreconcilable facts. For the benefit
of those who regard the bacterial diseases of animals,
some of which are preventable, as of little economic
importance, the following quotations (p. 324, p. 319,
Pp. 203, p. 204) may be given :—
‘“Tn 1903 there were in Great Britain as many as
1463 Outbreaks of glanders in which 2490 horses were
attacked. This is the highest number of outbreaks
since 1892, when they numbered 1657. The prevalence
of this disease is localised often to certain counties and
districts. In 1903, 855 of the 1463 outbreaks occurred
in the county of London.”
“Tn 1903 there were 761 outbreaks of anthrax in
Great Britain, in which 1127 animals were attacked.
This is the largest return recorded since the passing
of the Anthrax Order in 1886.”
“Tt is a well known fact that tuberculosis is a
common disease of cattle. Probably not less than 20
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
to 30 per cent. of milch cows in this country are affected
with it.”
“In the United Kingdom in
4,102,000 milch cows. If we take 2 per cent. of these
as having tuberculous udders, it gives us 80,000. The
average annual yield of milk per cow may be taken
as, at least, goo gallons, which means that from these
80,000 tuberculous udders 32,000,000 gallons of milk
are obtained.”’
It is perhaps unnecessary to add that glanders,
anthrax, and tuberculosis afflict man as well as the
lower animals.
The book, judged as a whole, is a most valuable
contribution to the literature of preventive medicine.
It will prove most useful to medical officers of health,
medical men, bacteriologists, veterinary surgeons,
trade experts, and many others. The lay reader will
find it replete with information, and written in a lucid
and agreeable style.
In a sense, the present volume is a later edition of
“ Bacteria,’’ which was noticed by the present writer
in these columns in 1899; but the new publication is
amplified and improved to such an extent as fully to
merit this second notice. A. C. Houston.
1gor there were
Die bisherige Tétigkeit der Physikalisch-technischen
Reichsanstalt. (Brunswick: Vieweg and Son,
1904.)
Die Tétigkeit der Physikalisch-technischen Reichs-
anstalt im Jahre 1903. (Berlin: Springer, 1904.)
In these publications is given an interesting account
of the progress of the Reichsanstalt from its found-
ation in 1887 to the present time. From the first
pamphlet by the president, Dr. Kohlrausch, we find
that the total number of instruments tested up to the
end of 1903 was 290,000, an average of nearly 20,000
a year. If, however, we deduct from this the number
of clinical thermometers and of safety fusible plugs
for boilers, the aggregate is reduced to 50,000, or
an average total of about 2800 a year for all other
instruments. Against this figure we may compare
the totals taken from the report of the National
Physical Laboratory for 1903, from which it appears
that the aggregate for the year for instruments and
tests of all kinds was 30,817, or, excluding clinical
thermometers, 11,424.
An interesting recent development of the Reichs-
anstalt is the opening at various towns throughout
Germany of five branch stations, where electro-
technical instruments can be verified. The report
concludes with a long list of the recent original
papers published by the members of the staff.
It is not possible to give in the space here available
anything like an insight into the manifold contents
of the second publication—the report of the Reichs-
anstalt for the year 1903. The researches mentioned
include the expansion of water between o° C. and
too® C., and of numerous materials from liquid air
temperatures upwards, the laws of radiation, light
units, and magnetic permeability. Full details are
given as to the numerous instruments tested.
Ate Ets
The Principles of Inorganic Chemistry. By Wilhelm
Ostwald. Translated by Dr. Alexander Findlay.
Second edition. Pp. xxxi+799. (Macmillan and
Co., Ltd., 1904.) 18s. net.
| Tur best proof of the excellence of this work and its
| appreciation by English-speaking students is that a
new edition has been found necessary after such a
comparatively short time as two and a half years.
The work, unlike many text-books on chemistry,
forms interesting reading, and this is greatly caused
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
389
by the excellence of Dr. Findlay’s translation. The
present edition is practically a reprint of the first,
except in so far as a few pages have been added on
radio-active phenomena, in connection with the metals
thorium and uranium; a necessarily short description
is given of compounds of radium, and a sketch of the
transiormations undergone by that curious element in
arriving at a stable condition. W. R.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
A Contemplatcd Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific
Ocean by the Carnegie Institution.
A project for a magnetic survey of the North Pacific
Ocean by the Department of International Research in
Yerrestrial Magnetism has been favourably acted upon by
the executive committee of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, and authorisation has been given to begin
the work this year. An initial allotment of 20,000 dollars
has been made to cover the expenses for the current year.
As is well known, the state of our knowledge of the
distribution of the magnetic forces over the greater portion
of the earth—the oceanic areas—owing to the paucity of
precise data, is exceedingly unsatisfactory. This fact is
especially true for that great body of water the Pacific
Ocean, rapidly developing in great commercial importance.
Captain Creak, for many years superintendent of the
Compass Department of the British Admiralty, now retired,
says :—‘‘ The North Pacific Ocean is, with the exception of
the voyage of the Challenger, nearly a blank as regards
magnetic observations, and J therefore think the Magnetic
Survey proposed will be of great value.”’
Hence, except for data from occasional expeditions and
such as were acquired in wooden vessels a long time ago,
the present magnetic charts used by the navigator over this
region depend largely upon the observations on islands
and along the coasts. Such land observations, however,
are rarely representative of the true values because of
prevalent local disturbances. It is, therefore, impossible to
make any statement as to the correctness of the present
charts. The demands of science, as well as those of com-
merce and navigation, require a systematic magnetic survey
of this region under the most favourable conditions possible,
and that the work be done under the auspices of some
recognised research institution in order to ensure that the
scientific aspects of the work receive their adequate recog-
nition.
The eminent physicist and magnetician Prof. Arthur
Schuster states as his opinion :—‘‘ I believe that no material
progress of terrestrial magnetism is possible until the mag-
netic constants of the great ocean basins, especially the
Pacific, have been determined more accurately than they
are at present. There is reason to believe that these con-
stants may be affected by considerable systematic errors.
It is possible that these errors have crept in by pwying
too much attention to measurements made on islands and
along the sea coast. What is wanted is more numerous
and more accurate observations on the sea itself.’’ Further-
more, the superintendent of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Mr. O. H. Tittmann, says :—‘‘ There is no
doubt in my mind that a survey for that purpose would
result in obtaining data of great and permanent value, and
that it should be undertaken.”’
Additional quotations could be given; the above, however,
are representative, and show sufficiently the great import-
ance of the proposed work and the fruitful results that may
confidently be expected. It is hoped that upon the com-
pletion of the magnetic survey of the North Pacific the
means will be forthcoming for extending the survey so as
to include other oceanic areas. An effort will furthermore
be made to secure the interest and cooperation of all
civilised countries, so that we may look forward to the
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
completion of a general magnetic survey of the accessible
portions of the globe within about fifteen years. Thanks
to the awakening and renewed interest in magnetic work
shown on ali sides, I fully believe that this hope will be
realised.
The matter of prime consideration in magnetic work at
sea is the elimination of the effects resulting from the ship’s
own magnetism as due to her construction and equipment.
Such effects are especially troublesome to eliminate when
it is proposed to obtain not only the magnetic declination
at sea, but also the other magnetic elements (the dip and
the intensity of the magnetic force). The plan therefore
to be attempted this year, as worked out by Mr. G. W.
Littlehales, Hydrographic Engineer of the United States
Hydrographic Office, and Consulting Hydrographer of the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Insti-
tution, is, in brief, as follows :—‘‘ To charter a wood-built,
non-magnetic, sailing vessel of about six hundred tons dis-
placement, which starting out in summer from San
Francisco, shall pursue a clockwise spiral course embracing
the entire North Pacific Ocean. The object of planning
such a course is to gain continuous advantage throughout
the survey of the dynamical agencies of the atmosphere and
the ocean, in passing in succession into each of the five
degree quadrangles into which the chart’ is divided, and
in which observed values of the three magnetic elements
need to be obtained.
‘““The seasonal shifting of the permanent centres of
barometric pressure will cause a variation from month to
month of the conditions of wind and current that are repre-
sented on this particular chart, but if the departure from
San Francisco be taken in the summer, the chain of
meteorological events will contribute toward the maximum
progress over the course passing thence along the west
coast of America to the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands,
thence across the Pacific in latitude between two and three
degrees north, thence along the eastern side of the Philip-
pine Archipelago and the Empire of Japan, thence east-
ward in about latitude fifty-two degrees north, thence to the
latitude of San Francisco, and thence continuing through
the series of areas, bounded by parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitude each five degrees apart, lying next
on the mid-ocean side of the circuit last made, and pro-
ceeding gradually and by successive circuits into the central
region of the North Pacific.’’
The total length of the course marked out is about
70,000 knots; however, each of the first circuits practically
closes at San Francisco, so that, if it is found that the
method pursued is not the best, the work can readily be
terminated or modified. From inquiries made, it would
appear that the entire work of observation and reduction
can be accomplished in three years. The cost per month of
the field work, inclusive of all expenses and services, will
be approximately fifteen hundred dollars. Counting eight
months of continuous service per annum, the total annual
outlay is estimated at about twelve thousand dollars.
This project, as a result of careful consideration and
solicitation of expert opinion, is believed to be thoroughly
feasible. It permits of useful comprehensive results being
immediately obtained, and is one which can be interrupted
without any important waste of antecedent expense when-
ever circumstances may render a discontinuance or a modi-
fication of the original plan advisable.
The region it is proposed at present to survey fortunately
contains magnetic observatories in requisite number and
proper distribution for furnishing the necessary corrections
to be applied to the observed magnetic elements in order to
reduce them to a common epoch. Thus continuous records
of the magnetic variations required for this purpose will be
available from the following stations :—Sitka, Mexico, Hono-
lulu, Manila, Shanghai, Tokio. In addition, it is hoped
that there may be soon a magnetic observatory in Cali-
fornia or vicinity for lending effective cooperation, and that
the German Government will continue its magnetic observ-
atory at Apia throughout the period of the survey. Also
excellent opportunities for controlling instrumental con-
stants and obtaining required additional data will be
afforded by stations on the coasts and on islands.
It should also be pointed out that the plan of the courses
1 The course to be followed was shown in red ink on a U.S. Hydro-
graphic Office Pilot Chart of the North Pacific.
399
NATURE
(FEBRUARY 23, 1905
as mapped permits ready adjustment of the observed quan-
tities for closed areas, in accordance with the potential
hypothesis, and it may even permit, to a certain degree, the
testing of the accuracy of this assumption, though as
regards the latter more can be said at the end of a year’s
work.
While it is not anticipated that any marked irregularities
in the distribution of the earth’s magnetism will manifest
themselves over the deep waters of the Pacific, it may con-
fidently be expected that in the neighbourhood of the islands
and along the coasts distortions and irregularities will be
revealed. With the aid of the results of the detailed mag-
netic survey of the United States and Alaska, opportunity
will therefore be afforded of studying the effect of the
configuration of land and water upon the distribution of
the magnetic forces. The first circuit, passing as it does
along the American and Asiatic coasts, will yield especially
interesting results in this respect. Thus, for example, along
the Aleutian Islands marked local disturbances will be
disclosed. Reports are received frequently from mariners
in this region regarding the unsatisfactory behaviour of the
compass; it is therefore greatly to be desired that a sys-
tematic magnetic survey of the waters in this region be
made.
L. A. Baur.
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C.
Recently Observed Satellites.
In reply to Sir Oliver Lodge’s letter in Nature of
January 26 (p. 295), it may be said that while it is perfectly
possible that the newly discovered satellites are captured
comets (see Harvard Annals, liii., p. 60), yet the chances
against the actual occurrence of the required conditions at
exactly the right times, even in one case, are exceedingly
large; in two cases they are practically prohibitive.
With regard to a possible meteoric constitution, it is
known that the density of the four larger satellites of
Jupiter is extremely small—but little above that of water.
That their discs are frequently found to be elliptical when
seen under favourable conditions has now been noted by more
than a dozen different astronomers. The regularly recur-
ring changes in their ellipticity, noted by several observers,
taken in connection with the small density of these bodies,
can hardly be explained in any other manner than by a
meteoric constitution. Such being the case, it is highly
probable, as Sir Oliver Lodge suggests, that the newly
discovered satellites are similarly constituted.
A reply to his further suggestion that they are now in
process of dissolution is impossible in the present state of
our knowledge. If formed according to the nebular hypo-
thesis, however, as seems most probable, and if they have
accordingly existed through the zons during which their
primaries have been contracting to their present dimen-
sions, it seems highly unlikely that they should not yet
have reached a permanent condition.
Wittiam H. PickerInG.
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., February 9.
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.
Tue proposals of the Studies and Examinations Syndicate
in regard to certain changes in the Previous Examination
are to be submitted to the Senate on’ March 3 and 4.
Members of the Senate may record their votes on either of
these days between 1 and 3, or between 5 and 7 p.m. The
controversy has chiefly turned on the proposal to abolish
compulsory Greek, and it is mainly on this question that
the issue will be decided.
All the five Graces are important, but Grace II., which
raises the main issue, is the most important of all.
The secretaries of the committee in support of the recom-
mendations of the syndicate will be glad to hear from
non-resident members of the Senate who have not already
intimated their intention of supporting the proposed reform.
It is believed that amongst resident members of the Senate
a majority will vote in favour of the new scheme, but
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
the decision is largely in the hands of non-resident voters.
As it is proposed to issue a final list of supporters shortly
before March 3, it will be a convenience if additional names
are sent to Mr. A. C. Seward, Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge, at once.
R. VERE LAvuRENCE,
H. Rackuam, ;
A. C. SEwarpb.
Cambridge, February 21.
THE experiences of Mr. Willis and others suggest that
mine may be in point. Mr. Willis was behind in classics.
He wasted 1053 hours on Greek and passed. His present
knowledge of Greek, he adds, is nil.
Mathematics were my difficulty. Being destined for-
Cambridge, I was specially coached in mathematics at
school. Arrived here I was again coached, but failed.
Coached once more I passed, having wasted, not one, but
several hundred hours on that study. Needless to say, my
knowledge of mathematics is nil.
My case is that of hundreds. Why, then, are not com-
pulsory mathematics to be reformed away? Because they
can be used in trades and professions for the making of
money. But the things that put one touch of art in the
life of a dull boy, that open his eyes for once to another
world, where “‘ utility ’’ does not count—they, forsooth,
must be dispensed with because in the market they have no
value. And, verily, they are without price. aia
Away from Cambridge, an intelligent lady was lately
speaking to me of her nephew at the University of Birming-
ham. Knowing nothing of our pending ‘“‘ reform,’’ she
said: “‘ He is going to be an engineer. But he has got to
waste his time passing in French, and German, . and
English. He will never want them again in his whole
course. It is absurd.’ W. Bateson.
_Cambridge, February 17.
Secondary Radiation.
In a paper recently published (Transactions Royal
Dublin Society and Phil. Mag., February) I described some
work on secondary B radiation given off by substances when
exposed to 8 (and y) rays from radium. The paper gave the
relative intensity of this secondary radiation for only a few
elements, but the results from these few indicated that the
greater the atomic weight the greater was the secondary
radiation.
I have since tested a large number of elements, and found
this rule to hold without a single exception. The list of
substances tested was a very varied one, including carbon,
magnesium, aluminium, chromium, iron, nickel, copper,
zinc, arsenic, selenium, molybdenum, silver, tin, antimony,
tungsten, platinum, mercury, lead, and bismuth.
The secondary radiation is not proportional to the atomic
weight; it increases less rapidly than the atomic weight.
This very general result appears to be of interest as bear-
ing on the subject of radio-activity and atomic structure in
general, but cannot be further discussed here.
J. A. McCcecranp.
University College, Dublin, February 13.
Tenacity to Life of a Grass-snake.
A GRASS-SNAKE which the writer had in his possession
for eighteen months has just died.
A fact which seems worthy of note is the length of
time during which this snake fasted. The last time
the snake fed was June 11, 1904, the meal consisting of
a small. frog. From that time until the date of its death,
February 2, it took no food, although constantly offered
it. The animal thus existed for close on eight months with-
out food. During the whole of this time it appeared in good
health, and was, at times, most animated. No approach to
hibernation was observed, and only for a little more than a
week before its death did the snake seem out of health. The
body was not unduly thin. E. V. Winpsor.
Barnet, February 7.
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE 391
NOTES ON STONEHENGE.*
1V.—Tue Earviest Crrcies (continued).
HE conclusion at which I have arrived is that the
older temple dealt primarily, but not exclusively,
with the May year; the newer temple represented a |
change of cult, and was dedicated primarily to the
solstitial year. In both, however, the sunrises and
sunsets of the June-December and May-November
years could be, and doubtless were, observed. I direct
attention to the following considerations in support of
this theory.
(1) The blocks of unworked sarsen, perhaps dating
from a time when the use of stone tools for working
stone in Britain was unknown, are precisely those
which give us the alignments, both for the May and
June years.
those I postulate. They have now almost entirely dis-
appeared. The central observing place, a cove, in
the northern circle still remains with some of the
stones of the outermost circle; all the rest have been
taken up, broken, and used for building. Truly the
English are a ‘“‘ practical ’’ people.
(3) At the reconstruction, about 1680 B.c., the
solstitial cult was made predominant, and for some
reason or other it was determined to change the
centre of the circles in the new structure, and throw
the N.E. alignment nearer the north, still remaining
parallel to its old direction.
There may possibly have been two reasons for the
reconstruction of the temple about the time I have
named. At the date mentioned the place of sunrise
from the old centre, which I have indicated, was
hidden by the Friar’s Heel, unless the observer, the
high priest, were raised some few feet
Fic. to —The vertical rod is placed in the axis, and marks the common direction of the present
temple and avenue, which passes about 3 feet to the N.W. of the Friar’s Heel.
(2) The blue stones, unworked for the same reason,
may have originally composed two circles and a central
stone as a start point for these alignments. The
central stone, marking the centre of the two concentric
circles, would naturally stand half-way between the
N.W. and S.E. exterior sarsen stones.
In this first simplest form we should have the
equivalent of the ancient temple described by Virgil,
with the uncovered altar at the centre after the
Etruscan fashion.
“ 7Edibus in mediis, nudoque sub ztheris axe,
Ingens ara fuit.”’
It is sad to think that at Avebury not so very
many years ago there were two such double circles as
1 Continued from p. 368.
No. 1843, VOL. 71]
above the ground at its present level.
It may have happened, then, that the
difference of the sunrise place,
brought about, as we now know, by
the gradual reduction of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, had shown itself in a
very unmistakable way to the priests;
in 2680 B.c. it was certainly well to
the north of the Friar’s Heel, and
occupied an uninterrupted horizon, so
that they might well wish to secure a
clear horizon for the future; this they
found by moving the centre of the
circles, and therefore the solstitial line,
a few (about 4) feet further to the N.W.,
still preserving their ancient pointer.
But this is not all. Colonel John-
ston, the director of the Ordnance
Survey, has obligingly pointed out to
me that the present centre of Stone-
henge, Sidbury Hill to the N.E., and
the earthworks at Grovely Castle and
Castle Ditches to the S.W., all lie
exactly on the soistitial line in 1680
n.c. The top of Sidbury Hill may,
then, have been taken for the new
pointer, in which case the earthwork
camp some 30 feet high on the top
had not been built, for it lies a little
to the north-west of the line.
(4) While it was determined to erect
a temple on a much larger scale by
the addition of a larger exterior circle
of sarsens and a naos also of trilithons,
it was also determined to utilise the
unworked blue stones composing
the two circles. But while the new
sarsens were shaped where they were
found (for the very good reason stated
by Prof. Judd), the blue stones were
taken up and trimmed sur place as the new more
northerly line and the new centre, to say nothing of
the new naos, necessitated their re-arrangement. In
this way the excess of blue stone chippings found by
Prof. Gowland is simply and sufficiently explained.
(5) {t is quite possible that the rebuilding of the
temple in 1680 P.c. was part of a very large general
plan which could only have been undertaken by a
large, powerful and comparatively civilised tribe
or peopie under strict government, commanding the
services of skilled mathematicians, for Colonel John-
stone’s revelations do not stop at the continuation of
the Stonehenge solstitial line to Sidbury and Grovely
Castle.
The absolute straightness of this line might have
been secured by fires at night, but there is more in
Grovdy
a
392
it than this. Stonehenge, Old Sarum, and Grovely
Castle occupy the points of an equilateral triangle of
exactly six miles in the side, and the three sides are
continuations of the entrances at Stonehenge and Old
Sarum and of a ditch running through the centre at
Grovely Castle.
Further, the centre of the triangle
6 Miles
SS
Fic. 11.—The equilateral triangle formed by Stonehenge, Old Sarum, and
: Grovely Castle.
= on the oldest cross roads in that part of Salisbury
ain. -
The figures will show this, and also the curious
position of other earthworks, as well as the fact that
the
line Stonehenge—Old Sarum passes exactly
asidbury
NATURE
Yhedral Spire
S
Clearoury
Fic. 12.—Showing the prolongations of thes des of the equilateral triangle.
through Salisbury spire, which again is exactly two |
miles from Sarum.
name, Solisbury.
(6) It is probable that the avenue and vallum were
added when the line of orientation was moved to
the N., placing the new centre to the N.W. of its
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
We ought to restore the old
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905
original position. In this way we can explain how it
is that the Friar’s Heel lies to the S. of the central
line of the avenue, and that the N.W. and S.E. stones
are situated at different distances from the vallum.
(7) The number and spacing of the sarsen stones in
the new great circle were so chosen that the use of
the N.W. and S.E. stones to mark the May new year’s
day originally could be replaced by observations
through one of the trilithons. This was necessary if
the May year was to be considered at all, as the use
of the N.W. and S.E. stones was blocked by the new
outer circle.
Now, on the hypothesis of an earlier temple, it
becomes quite clear, from the method of erecting the
sarsens revealed by Prof. Gowland’s excavations, that
the stones comprising the two concentric circles must
have been removed, even if there were no other
reason.
In the case of the leaning stone, we have evidence’
that it was erected from the inside of the circle, as
the perpendicular wall of chalk is on its S.W. side.
If all the other naos sarsens were erected in the same
way, there could have been no upright blue stones
in the naos. They must have been set in the places
they occupy afterwards, because the upright members
of the naos trilithons are well over 20 feet long, and
this about represents the distance to the central
portion of the naos.
The relation between the naos and outer circle
trilithons also shows that the naos must have been
built first, and further that the outer circle sarsens
must have been raised from the inside. Those fallen
are about 18 feet long; the average distance between
the two systems of naos and outer circle trilithons
is about 23 feet. Supposing the outer sarsens are
4 feet in the ground, and that there was a slope for
them to slide down some 6 feet long, there would
just be room, but none to spare, between the naos
and the outer circle. There certainly would not be
room enough to pull the stones upright unless the
intervals between the naos sarsenms were used, and
the positions of the stones show that they could not
have been conveniently so used, in some cases at all
events; we may assume that to pull the stones finally
into their perpendicular positions ropes at least as
long as those employed by Mr. Carruthers would be
needed.
In any case the blue stone circles must have been
away, whether removed from their old positions or
not, when the naos and sarsen circle were put up.
On this point Prof. Gowland is quite clear.
He writes: ‘‘ That the stones of the central trilithon
were erected from the inside of the circle has been
conclusively demonstrated by the excavations, hence
| the ‘blue stones’ in front cannot have been erected
before them. Moreover, the ‘ blue stone,’ No. 68, the
base of which was laid bare in Excavation V., was
found to be set in the rubble which had been used to
fill up the foundation of No. 56, and further, in a
| lower layer than its base, there were two small blocks
of sarsen with tooled surfaces.
‘‘ Whether the outer sarsens were set up from the
inside of the circle like the trilithons, or from the
outside, is a point which can only be settled by future
excavations. If from the inside their erection must
have preceded that of the trilithons, and hence of the
“blue stones.’
““On the other hand, should the outer sarsens have
been raised from the outside, it would not be possible
for the ‘ blue stones’ to have been placed in position
before them, as they would then have seriously inter-
fered with if not altogether prevented the erecting
operations. ”’
We may take it, I think, that the ring was erected
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
393
from inwards, sufficient ground only being available
outside for ‘‘a long pull and a strong pull.”’
In former notes I have referred to Mr. Cunning-
ton’s remarks on the remains of the syenite trilithon,
and his suggestion that it formed part of an older
temple. He expressed the view that the structure of
Stonehenge as we know it with its trilithons was,
in fact, suggested by it.
Now if we attempt to find the place it occupied
before it fell by seeing where it would be most
symmetrically placed in relation to the adjacent stones
of the blue stone circles still standing, we are led to
an interesting result. Using the old centre as
determined from the N.W. and S.E. stones we find
that the May sunrise would be seen through the
small syenite trilithon. In this way also we can
account for the fact that so far as is known this is
the only trilithon which existed in the old blue stone
circle; it may well have been that the centre and
diameter of the new blue stone circle were so regulated
as to retain it in position; I have already remarked
that this was done in the case of the older unhewn
sarsens, as a memorial of the past.
Norman LOcKYER.
THE APPROACHING TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE
OF AUGUST 30.
“THERE are many special features about the total
solar eclipse of August of the present year.
In the first place, perhaps the chief of these is that
it will occur about the time when the solar atmo-
sphere is greatly disturbed, or in other words, at
a time when the number of sun-spots is about a
maximum. Second, the localities from which it may
be observed are well distributed over land surfaces,
and some are easily accessible from the British Isles.
Thirdly, observers will have to wait many years
before another favourable eclipse occurs. That in
1907 will be visible in Central Asia, but its occurrence
in January will deter many from seeing it. The two
eclipses in 1908 willbe visible only from the Pacific
and South Atlantic. The eclipse of 1909 will occur in
June in Greenland, while that in 1910 will be visible
only from the Antarctic regions. In 1911 only a short
portion of the end of the eclipse track will pass
through a part of South Australia. It is therefore
the eclipse of 1912, that will take place in April in
Spain, which will be the next easily accessible one to
observe; but as totality will only last 60 seconds, its
duration will be brief compared with that of this year,
which will last for more than 33 minutes.
Further, the fact that the approaching eclipse
occurs in a month, such as August, when a great
number of people are taking their summer holiday,
and therefore can more easily leave these shores,
should ensure the presence of many volunteer
observers at the more easily reached stations. In
the present instance the zone of totality commences
in Canada towards the south of Lake Winnipeg,
skirts the extreme south of Hudson’s Bay, passes a
little to the north of Nova Scotia, and then crosses
the Atlantic. In Europe it strikes Spain (Fig. 1) on
its north-west coast line, and leaves the eastern
coast, enveloping the islands of Majorca and Iviza.
Reaching Africa in the neighbourhood of eastern
Algeria (Fig. 2), it passes through Tunis, Tripoli,
Egypt, and the Red Sea, and finally terminates in
Arabia.
In Spain an opportunity is afforded of making
observations at some stations of high altitude, for
the eclipse track includes several lofty mountains.
For instance, Penas de Europa, south-west of
Santander, and 8000 feet high, is one of numerous
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
possible observing peaks, and advantage should be
taken of this or some other elevated region.
It will thus be seen that there is plenty of scope
for observers to scatter themselves along the line of
totality, and this should be done as much as possible.
The low altitude of the sun during totality at
Labrador (27°) and Egypt (24°) renders both these
regions somewhat unfavourable for the best observ-
ations, but there parties should at any rate be present.
The former region can undoubtedly be left to
Canadian and American observers, for it does not
seem necessary that European observers should
journey so far when more favourable stations are
nearer at hand. The close proximity of Egypt to
many European countries renders this part of the
zone of totality easily accessible. Here the central
line of totality passes just a little north of Assuan,
the outer limits enclosing Edfu on the north and
Darmut on the south.
The probable weather conditions at the different
stations form an important item in eclipse matters,
for clouds can easily mar the work of even the best
°
MAORID
(2) alas
Fic. 1.—The path of totality across Spain. The duration of totality and
the altitude of the sun at that time are given for four different stations
along the line.
organised expedition. Omitting Labrador, a station
that will not be occupied by observers from this
country, the north-western portion of Spain does
not seem to be particularly favoured with the re-
quired weather conditions. According to Sefor
F. Ifiguez, the director of the Astronomical and
Meteorological Observatory of Madrid, this locality
during August is not only cloudy and damp, but
storms are of frequent occurrence. Such a report,
however, should not prevent one party at least from
taking up a position there, but it should suggest to
many who had up to the present made up their
minds to observe in that locality to seelx stations
further along the line, and not congregate at a
very probably unfavourable station such as this
appears to be. At stations towards the east the con-
ditions seem to be more suitable the closer the
Mediterranean side is approached, and, according to
the authority mentioned above, the probability of fine
weather on this coast is very high. Inland stations
will probably have the disadvantages of dust and
heat combined.
94
a
Perhaps one advantage of the north-west over the
east coast is that the former will be very much the
cooler, but in eclipse matters sky conditions precede
temperature considerations.
With regard to such matters as suitable sites for
instruments, their safety, guards for camps, build-
ing materials, &c., the Spanish Government can be
depended upon to render every assistance to those
who apply through the proper channels, and_ the
valuable aid they gave to parties during the eclipse
of 1900 is still in the memory of many observers.
Those who wish to know something about the
routes to Spain, the methods of travel and approxi-
mate cost, will find some interesting and useful in-
formation in an article recently writen by Mr. G. F.
Chambers, and published in the Journal of the British
Astronomical Asociation (vol. xv., No. 2, p. 93).
Another source of information specially useful to
those visiting Spain is a publication just received from
the Astronomical Observatory of Madrid, entitled
NATURE
[FEBRUARY AIee 1605?
2
sky covered by 10, then 2 or 3 would represent the
condition of cloudiness at Philippeville.
As regards temperature, the diurnal variation has
an amplitude of 9° C. or 10° C., the mean tempera-
ture being 24° C. (75° F.). By night the are
ture would thus be about 18° C. or 19° C. (64~
or 66° F.), and at two hours after noon the aes
day temperature would reach 29° C. or 30” C.
(84° F. or 86° F.).. For stations situated some tens
of miles inland there is a very rapid increase of day
temperature.
The prevailing winds in August vary from N.E.
to N.W., i.e. are sea winds; they are not strong,
and are not much augmented by the sea breeze.
In Egypt the prospect of fine weather in August
is also very great, so that observers who go to that
region need not be very anxious, at any rate about
clouds.
It is impossible at present to give a full or even
final statement regarding the distribution of parties
Fic. 2.—The path of the totality track ia northern Africa.
“* Memoria sobre el Eclipse Total de Sol del dia 30
de Agosto de 1905.’’ This has been prepared by the
director, Sefior Francisco Ifiguez, and contains details
about climate and many useful maps, in addition to
data about the eclipse itself.
The weather conditions
in Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli seem to be very favour-
able, and should be made the most of. For Algeria,
and more especially for the neighbourhood of
Philippeville,
been communicated through M. Mascart by M. A.
Angot, of the Bureau Central Météorologique, Paris.
Dealing first with cloud and rain,
during the months of July and
is the clearest and driest of all the coast stations in
Algeria, the mean rainfall for these months amount-
ing to 4 and 1o millimetres respectively out of a
total of 807 millimetres for the whole year. . The
for the stations situated |
we have some useful facts which have |
For three stations the duration of totality and the altitude of the sun during the eclipse
are marked on the map.
along the line of totality, but the following pre-
liminary, but incomplete, list may be of interest, and
indicates not only the regions that will be occupied
by most of the British “expeditions, but the chief
types of observations that are proposed during the
brief interval of totality. For the greater part of
this information I am indebted to Major E. H. Hills,
| C.M.G., secretary of the Joint Permanent Eclipse
Committee of the Royal Society and Royal Astro-
nomical Society :—
Labraaor.
we learn that |
August Philippeville |
average number of rainy days for each month totals
o or three. Storms are rare, but increase towards
interior. If we represent clear sky by o and
J ws \
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
| Search for intra-mercurial
Lick Observers planets. Large scale
| corona photographs.
(Canadian parties probably.)
Spain.
Prismatic reflector photo-
graphy of chromosphere
Mr. Near Burgos... ;
| and corona.
John Evershed -
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE. 395
Experiments on coronal
radiation. Photography
of the red and green
regions of the spectrum
of the chromosphere and
corona.
Prof. Callendar |
Prof. A. Fowler
-. Near Oropesa.
Mr, W. Shackleton. |
Search for intra-mercurial
planet. Large scale
corona _ photographs.
Polarisation observa-
tions. Spectroscopic
photographs of chromo-
sphere and corona.
Lick Observers ...
Algeria.
‘Prismatic camera (three
: prisms) photographs of
Sir Norman Lockyer chromosphere & corona.
Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer /Near Large scale prismatic
Philippe-
le ... ...) reflector photographs of
chromosphere & corona.
Small scale photographs
of corona.
Mic Cre butler! ,...)
NeawRots f Spectroscopic and polari-
Mr. H. F. Newall... . -
\. scopic observations.
Tunis.
Photographs of the corona
The Astronomer on 4-inch and 14-inch
IROVAEe cr. 6 SF ) scales. Spectra of
Mir. BW era Pe pee ater chromosphere & corona
Mr. Davidson with Major Hills’s spec-
troscopes.
Egypt.
Polariscopic observations,
Corona photographs
with Abney doublet.
(Large scale photo-
graphs of the corona 2)
Prof. Turner ...
Mr. Bellamy ...
——
Search for int ra-mercurial
planets. Large scale
corona photographs. In-
tegrating spectroscopic
photographs.
Lick Observers ...
One of the novelties that will be attempted during
this eclipse will be the photography of the eclipsed
sun by means of the three-colour process. The
camera that will be employed will probably be one
having three lenses, so that the exposures through
the three coloured screens can be made simultaneously,
the correct ratio of the exposures being obtained by
adjusting the apertures of the lenses.
When it is considered that in addition to these
parties there will most probably be expeditions from
several other countries, such as Spain, Portugal,
Holland, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Egypt,
&c., and probably one or two more United States
expeditions, there is a great opportunity not only for
occupying a large number of different stations along
the line, but of gaining a quantity of valuable
material to enlarge our knowledge of solar physics.
Witiiam J. S. Lockyer.
THE CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES."
jee! 2 enough is done by the State in this country
in the matter of aiding scientific research, and
this is especially true of biological science. To this
attitude of indifference, or aloofness, we have grown
accustomed ; abroad it is a subject for uncomplimentary
comment. This attitude cannot be due to the convic-
tion on the part of our ministers that ‘‘ science is
bankrupt,’’ since when some great industry is
threatened by injuries which legislation is powerless
1 ‘‘ Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of
the Gulf of Manaar.” By W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S., &c. Part ii.
Pp. viii+300. (London: The Royal Society, 1904.)
NO. 1843, VOL. 71 |
to check, or some pest is threatening the welfare of
the community, the aid of the man of science is at
once invoked.
The Pearl Fishery Commission is a striking example
of the intervention of the State to aid a crippled in-
dustry by calling in the aid of the biologist.
The series of barren years alternating in some
mysterious way with years of plenty puzzled those
engaged in this fishery for more than two centuries,
and, moreover, seriously reduced the profits of the fish-
ing. To fathom this strange uncertainty, and if
possible to find means whereby more uniform harvests
could be ensured, the Government submitted the matter
to a commission of inquiry, which has been held
under the auspices of the Ceylon Government. The
results of this inquiry have abundantly justified those
responsible for its inception, and should do much to
establish the advisability of instituting inquiries into
other problems to which we could point that can only
be dealt with by trained and experienced biologists.
The second part of Prof. Herdman’s report to this
commission in no wise suffers by comparison with the
first volume. It is a very mine of information, yield-
ing rich lodes of fact without the trouble of any pre-
liminary crushing or sifting.
This report opens with a luminous review of the
history of the principal fisheries from 1801 to the pre-
sent time, and should prove of the highest value to
those engaged in pearl fishing in future, for the causes
of the rise, zenith, and decline of the different fisheries
between these dates have been analysed and tabulated.
It is now established beyond doubt that the normal
life of the pearl oyster does not average more than
five years, and that these, especially to an animal so
peacefully disposed as an oyster, are full of catastrophes
and rumours of catastrophes !
By way of illustration as to the truth of this, we may
well select an instance or so from this report. On the
“ Kondatchi Paar’ in March, 1902, there were about
5,750,000 oysters. By March, 1903, these had been
almost entirely wiped out of existence—eaten by star-
fish! File-fishes and enormous rays also show an in-
satiable appetite for oysters, and in the course of a
few months will devour millions! Not seldom these
oysters are smothered or killed by the invasion of
hordes of young of their own species. But this is not
all. Shifting sands may overwhelm incredible hosts,
and millions are swept away by currents.
Man, says Prof. Herdman, ‘ can do comparatively
little to mitigate the severity of such influences as tell
against the life and prosperity of the Pearl Oyster.”
But it is just because he can do so little that there
is so great a need of a vigilant and intelligent watch
being constantly kept on the different fishing grounds.
To a very considerable extent, Prof. Herdman has
shown that man can make good these ravages, or
snatch the remnant at least of a disappearing host
from destruction. His plan is to transplant young
oysters from beds known to be dangerous into more
sheltered areas. This rescue work is to be further
turned to account by using the waifs and strays, which
are to be garnered by the inspection vessel, for re-
stocking old beds, where they may grow and thrive—
and become infected by the chosen parasite to keep up
the growth of pearls of great price!
To ensure this infection is one of the problems which
Mr. Hornell, the inspector of fisheries, is to solve.
The life of the pearl oyster is, as we have remarked,
about five years, and it is from those of this age that
the finest pearls are obtained. Herein lies a danger,
since there is always a strong temptation to delay fish-
ing as long as possible to’ ensure big pearls. Unless,
as Prof. Herdman points out, these beds be carefully
watched, one of the many catastrophes which attend
pearl oysters may carry off this precious crop before
396
NALPURE
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905
it can be gathered. A case in point is given by Prof.
Herdman. The Mutuvaratu Paar, which lies to the
south-west of Karativo Island, yielded during 1889,
1890, and 1891 some 117,000,000 oysters, which realised
very nearly 1,000,000 rupees—the only fishery since
1814 that has returned so large a sum. The oysters
raised during these three years steadily increased in
value, those lifted in 1891—the oldest—being by far
the most valuable. ‘‘ But the record,’’ he remarks,
“shows the risk there is in trying for the enhanced
value by delaying the fishery once the oysters are over
5 years of age. In 1891 this bed must have been
6 years old, and they are described as rapidly dying
off, many being dead and putrid.”’
There are prospects of a good fishing for next year
and 1906, but the results of 1907 and the succeeding
years depend largely, it is pointed out, on extensive
measures of transplantation being undertaken without
delay. This Mr. Hornell will doubtless accomplish.
Prof. Herdman’s memoir on the anatomy of the
pearl oyster adds much to our knowledge of the sub-
ject, and contains some valuable observations on the
living animal. As an instance of the latter we may
Fic.
cite his remarks on the functions of the foot. These,
he points out, ‘‘ are three-fold: the distal ventral sur-
face subserves locomotion; the median and posterior
parts effect attachment by means of the byssal fibres;
and lastly, on account of the general mobility of the |
organ, and probably of its sensory nature, the tip is
of great use in clearing the gills and mantle from the
intrusive particles that cannot otherwise be got rid of.”’
It is concerning the latter function that we would
direct special attention here. In the living animal
Prof. Herdman has observed the foot ‘‘ pushed
between the gill-plate, and over the inner surface of
the mantle gently stroking the surface and insinuating
itself into the crevices, thus freeing the parts from any |
foreign bodies . . . that might cause inconvenience.”’
Mr. Hornell observed one oyster, which had sustained
an injury to the mantle, pass the foot-tip gently around |
the edges of the wound so as to work off the particles
of dirt collected there.
through the wound to make the cleansing the more
thorough.
Concerning the byssus, it is interesting to notice
that the operation of dredging for oysters for trans-
plantation in no wise injures the animal when
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
The tip was even passed |
1.—Pearl-fishing Fleet at work on the Cheval Paar.
anchored by the threads of which this is composed.
Under a great strain these break, and are renewed
again within an hour or so, the root of the old byssus.
being sloughed off. t
Some interesting points concerning gill structure are
given, especially with regard to the passage from inter-
filamentar junctions by ciliated discs to junctions by
organic union.
With regard to sense organs, the pearl oyster is
not very well provided. But a distinct response is
shown to the stimulus of light and shadow— a sensi-
bility which may be termed dermatoptic,’’ and appears
to be located in the edges of the mantle and the sur-
face of the foot, where patches of more or less deeply
pigmented epithelial cells are met with.
All kinds of creatures seem to find the pearl oyster
a particularly ‘‘ toothsome ’’ morsel, man alone ex-
cepted, who prefers to make manure of their bodies
for the sale of possible pearls contained therein.
No less than seven different kinds of parasitic worms
are now known from the pearl oyster, six of which are
new species described in this volume. Of these, only
one, a cestode larva (Tetrarhynchus unionifactor),
appears to be concerned in
the formation of cyst
pearls. This fact is inter-
esting, inasmuch as the
formation of similar pearls
in European mussels is
due to the cercaria of
trematodes.
As to the sequence of
hosts called upon to nurse
this precious cestode of the
pearl oyster to maturity
much uncertainty prevails.
It was thought that file-
fishes and elasmobranchs
were the intermediate ver-
tebrate hosts, and this will
probably prove to be the
case.
Certain novel features
seem to be foreshadowed
in the life-history of this
parasite when the chain of
evidence is complete.
To begin with, it would
appear that it enters its
first host—the pearl oyster
—as a free-swimming planaria-like larva, inasmuch
as certain larvee of this type, but containing calcareous
corpuscles recalling those of cestodes, were taken in
plankton, and these bear, in many features, a close
resemblance to the earliest encysted larvae found in the
pearl oyster.
It is assumed that these free-swimming forms are
tetrarhynchids, though hitherto it has been believed
that tetrarhynchid larvae make their way into their
first hosts while still encased within the egg-shell. The
bothriocephalids have free-swimming larvee, but these
are ciliated. That the larve in question must be
tetrarhynchids seems certain, since older larvae, show-
ing several stages of development, belonged un-
questionably to the genus Tetrarhynchus.
It was believed that these larvae were next ingested
by file-fishes (Balistes), but it now appears that the
tetrarhynchid larvee of Balistes, of which three species
are described in this report, are quite distinct forms,
distinguished by the presence of a vesicle, which is
wanting in the pearl oyster larve. Further, the more
advanced larvae of the pearl oyster have arrived at a
later stage of development than the larvae found in
Balistes.
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
BIS V3
The final stage of the pearl oyster cestode was sup-
posed to be undergone within the body of an elasmo-
branch which fed upon Balistes. But, so far, the only
elasmobranch tetrarhynchid which the authors have
examined was obtained from the spiral valve of a sting
ray (Taeniura melanospilos), and this larva was of a
species quite distinct from either the Balistes or oyster
larve. It is to be noted, however, that from this ray
two perfect specimens of Balistes were taken. .
Thus, though we may yet find that the sequence of
hosts is as was indicated in the first volume of this
report, we are at present left somewhat in doubt. In
due time, doubtless, Messrs. Shipley and Hornell, the
authors of this really fascinating section, will solve
the riddle.
We have déalt at some length on this matter be-
cause, apart from its interest as a sequence of stirring
events in the life-history of a very humble organism,
it has considerable importance from an economic
point of view: since, when the chain of evidence is
complete, it may be possible, as was first suggested
by Keelart in 1857, to raise the percentage of pearls
by infecting oysters in other beds with their parasites.
Prof. Jeffrey Bell contributes some notes on the
echinoderms, appended to a description of the species
collected, by Prof. Herdman. Although these notes
barely fill three pages, Prof. Bell has crowded into this
space some trenchant criticisms and some really
valuable facts.
The reports on the arthropods are full of interesting
matter, and deal with a large number of new species;
but we venture to think that a longer summary of the
principal results arrived at would have added to the
usefulness of these chapters. Dr. Calman’s work on
the Cumacea will be welcomed, inasmuch as no species
of this group have hitherto been described from any
part of the Indian Ocean.
The collection of cephalopods has been worked out
by Dr. W. E. Hoyle. Though small, it contained one
new species of unusual interest. This was a small
octopus, which has been named Polypus arborescens
on account of the presence of curious branched pro-
cesses scattered all over the body, some of which are
surmounted by a tuft of fibrils. After a most careful
study Dr. Hoyle is still uncertain as to their purpose.
He dwells at considerable length upon their micro-
scopical structure. He is satisfied that they are not
parasitic organisms, nor are they, he considers,
glandular or phosphorescent organs. The fact that no
nerves have been traced to them would seem to show
that they are not tactile bodies, yet on the whole he
considers that it is this function which they perform.
Prof. Herdman, who has studied the living animal in
a small tank, describes these mysterious processes as
being contractile, and ‘‘ kept frequently moving—un-
coiling to a considerable length and then curling up
again suddenly.’’ This seems to suggest that they
may be alluring organs comparable to the waving flag
of the angler-fish or the long, worm-like tongue of
the ‘‘ mata-mata ”’ tortoise.
The fishes collected during this investigation have
been described by Mr. J. Johnstone. Twelve species
in all are dealt with.
The most interesting feature of this report is that
concerning the supposed naso-pharyngeal passage in
Cynoglossus. Kyle, in 1900, described in this genus
a curious nasal sac, which, he believed, communicated
with the mouth by means of a pore in the floor of the
sac, a feature which he regarded as of considerable
morphological importance.
Mr. Johnstone examined several species belonging to
this genus, and in no case did he find this naso-
pharyngeal passage. But what is really interesting
is the fact that he found this cavity, on more than one
occasion, inhabited by a copepod. Since this creature
NO. 1843, Vou. 71]
anchors itself by hooks, the presence of an occasional
nole in the floor of this chamber is not to be wondered
at!
There is a wealth of plates in this volume, all of
which are as good of their kind as one could wish.
The same cannot be said of one or two of the text
figures, however, which leave much to be desired—
notably the figure of the dissection of a pearl oyster
on p. 43. :
Yet another volume is required to complete this re-
port; this is promised early next year. Judging by
the standard set by the two volumes now issued, the
complete work will form one of the most valuable
commentaries on a great industry yet Bares Es
NOTES.
Ar the invitation of the British Association, the local
committee in Johannesburg has nominated the following
as vice-presidents and secretaries respectively of the different
sections for the meeting in South Africa, the general
arrangements of which were described in Nature of
February 2 (p. 323) :—Mathematics and Physical Science—
vice-president, Dr. Breyer ; secretary, Mr. R. T. A. Innes.
Chemistry—Mr. J. R. Williams, Mr. W. A. Caldecott.
Geology—Dr. Corstorphine, Dr. Molengraaff. Zoology—
Dr. Gunning, Dr. Pakes. Geography, Mr. E. H. V. Mel-
vill, Mr. F. Flowers. Economic Science and Statistics—
Mr. S. Evans, Mr. Robert A. Ababrelton. Engineering—
Mr. S. Jennings, Mr. E. Williams. | Anthropology—Dr.
Schonland, Mr. A. von Dessauer. Physiology—Sir Kendal
Franks, Dr. A. Mackenzie. Botany—Mr. Burtt Davy,
Prof. Pearson. Educational Science—Mr. E. B. Sargant,
Prof. Hele-Shaw.
Tue Hunterian oration delivered by Mr. John Tweedy
at the Royal College of Surgeons on February 14, and
abridged elsewhere in this issue, contains several interest-
ing references to the growth of natural knowledge by the
use of the experimental method, with illustrations from
John Hunter’s work. It has been said that though Hunter
had never read Bacon, his method was as strictly Baconian
as if he had. Mr. Tweedy pointed out that this view is
based upon a complete misinterpretation of the Baconian
system. Francis Bacon himself neither knew nor under-
stood the physical sciences, and his spirit was much less
modern than that of his illustrious namesake, Roger
Bacon, who lived three hundred years before him. John
Hunter did not follow the mechanical methods of the
Baconian system, but he possessed every moral and intel-
lectual qualification for useful scientific research—a fertile
imagination ready to suggest possible relations of facts,
openness of mind, and a conscientious scientific spirit that
submitted every hypothesis to the test of observation and
experiment, taking nothing on trust. Mr. Tweedy occu-
pied the chair at the festival dinner held at the college in
the evening of February 14, when there were present,
among others :—Prof. C. Allbutt, Sir W. Broadbent, Sir
Lauder Brunton, Sir D. Duckworth, Sir Harry Johnston,
Sir Norman Lockyer, Sir W. Ramsay, Prof. C. Stewart,
Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. W. A. Tilden, and
Sir F. Treves.
Tue death on February 9, at the age of forty-four, of
Mr. F. O. Pickard-Cambridge makes a break it will be
impossible to fill in the ranks of British arachnologists.
From boyhood he had devoted himself to the study of
English spiders, and was rightly regarded as the leading
authority upon this subject. He completed, moreover, in
1904, his monograph of the Central American spiders for
398.
Godman and Salvin’s ‘‘ Biologia,’? and this work, supple-
mented by the determination of specimens in the British
Museum and of the collections made by himself on the
Amazons, gave him a quite special knowledge of the
Neotropical species. He unfortunately left unfinished
his revision of the generic nomenclature of spiders, and
also the county records of Arachnida he was compiling for
the ‘‘ Victoria History.’’ Mr. Cambridge was an admir-
able draughtsman, as is testified by the plates illustrating
the many papers he contributed to scientific societies and
periodicals.
MartHematicians will have heard with regret that Mr.
Robert Tucker died on January 29. He received his uni-
versity education at St. John’s College, Cambridge, of
which he was a scholar, and was placed among the
wranglers in 1855. He became a schoolmaster, and was
for many years head mathematical master at University
College School. His original contributions to mathematics
deal chiefly with configurations of points, lines and circles
related in special ways to a fixed triangle, and one system
of circles, which he discovered, is called after his name.
He was also the editor of Clifford’s ‘‘ Mathematical
Papers.’’ In 1867 he became one of the secretaries of the
London Mathematical Society, founded in 1865. From that
time forward he made the society his peculiar care, and
the success which it has attained is almost entirely due to
him. He retained the office of secretary for thirty-five
years, editing the Proceedings, and conducting the corre-
spondence with authors and referees—a delicate duty in
respect of which he established an admirable tradition.
He also wrote an account of the early history of the
society. In all his work he was business-like and
thorough, and at the same time modest and unselfish.
THE new wing which is to complete the Armstrong
College of Science in Newcastle-on-Tyne will be opened by |
the King next year.
Tue Société nationale d’Agriculture de France has
awarded to Prof. Wm. B. Alwood, of Charlottesville, Va.,
a diploma and silver medal for his recent work in pomology,
especially as relates to the fermentation of by-products
from apples.
THE anniversary meeting of the Geological Society was
held at Burlington House on Friday, February 17. Dr.
J. E. Marr, F.R.S., was elected president. After the pre-
sentation of the medals and prizes already announced
(p. 253) the president delivered his anniversary address,
which dealt with the classification of the sedimentary rocks.
ARRANGEMENTS have been made whereby messages may
be sent to Cunard mail steamers at any stage in their
voyage across the Atlantic. During the first three or four
days after the vessels ieave Liverpool the messages will be
sent from Poldhu, Cornwall, direct to the steamer. During
the next three or four days the messages will be forwarded:
by cable to the North American Continent, and repeated
thence to the approaching ship.
We learn from the Times that the Treasury has agreed
to place at the disposal of the Board of Trade sool. per
annum for four years for the purpose of taking practical
steps to encourage and investigate the development of the
cotton-growing area of the Empire. This sum will be
used (1) for the payment of scientific assistants, who
would themselves do part of the proposed work and would
also set free members of the existing staff of the Imperial
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905;
Institute for the purpose; and (2) for defraying the cost of
equipment. It has also been notified, in connection with
the mineral survey which the Government of Northern
Nigeria has in contemplation, that a sum of 300l. per
annum will be paid to the Imperial Institute in order to
defray the expenses of examining specimens of minerals,
&c., sent to the scientific and technical department so long
as the survey is in progress, probably a period of three
years.
On Saturday next, February 25, Mr. D. G. Hogarth
will begin a course of two lectures at the Royal Institution
on “‘ Archzology.’’ On Tuesday, February 28, Prof. Karl
Pearson will deliver the first of three lectures on ‘‘ Some
Recent Biometric Studies.’’ On Thursday, March 2, Prof.
H. H. Turner will commence a course of three lectures on
““Recent Astronomical Progress,’? and on Saturday,
March 11, Prof. J. J. Thomson will begin a course of
three lectures on ‘“ Electrical Properties of Radio-active
Substances.’” The Friday evening discourse on March 3
will be delivered by Chevalier G. Marconi, on ‘‘ Recent
Advances in Wireless Telegraphy,’? and on March 10 by
Prof. J. J. Thomson, on the ‘“‘ Structure of the Atom.”’
Mr. Perceval Landon will give two lectures, on April 4
and 11, on “‘ Tibet,’? Mr. A. Henry Savage Landor’s lec-
tures on ‘‘ Exploration in the Philippines’’ having been
deferred until after Easter.
THE annual report of the council of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers was read at the annual general meet-
ing of the institution on February 17. The first report, by
Prof. David S. Capper, to the steam-engine research com-
mittee, has now been completed, and, together with a pre-
liminary report on progressive speed and pressure trials
carried out previous to March, 1896, will be presented at
the March meeting. Since the presentation, in January,
1904, of the late Sir William Roberts-Austen’s last report,
the alloys research committee has continued its work at the
National Physical Laboratory. Dr. Glazebrook, director of
the laboratory, has arranged a series of investigations on
specimens of nickel steel presented by Mr. R. A. Hadfield.
It is anticipated that a further report will be presented this
year by the committee, communicating the results of these
researches. Further investigations having great practical
importance are now being considered. Prof. F. W. Burstall
reports that the two specially constructed large gas-engines
and a gas-holder erected in the new power house of the
Birmingham University are now available for the gas-
engine research committee’s experiments. A scheme of
experiments, indicating the methods of working, is under
consideration, and it is hoped that the next report will be
ready for presentation at the opening of next session. A
gift of rool. towards the expenses of carrying on the re-
search has been received from Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
The series of experiments on initial condensation in steam
cylinders, which Prof. T. Hudson Beare is carrying out
with special apparatus for the purpose, are in active pro-
gress, but are still incomplete. The results obtained so
far, however, justify the hope that the committee will be
able to present, during the year 1905, an interim report
dealing with the results obtained in the experiments on
non-jacketed cylinders. It is intended to hold the next
summer meeting in Belgium, in view of the International
Exhibition to be held at Liége this year.
We_ have received from Messrs. John Wheldon and Co.,
of Great Queen Street, a copy of a catalogue of zoological
and sporting books and papers arranged geographically.
To, those who are working on faunas and distribution the
list will be distinctly useful.
FEBRUARY 23, 1905 |
NATURE
397.
In vol. v., No. 5, of the Records of the Australian
Museum, Mr. R. Etheridge describes the remains of a ple-
siosaurian reptile of the genus Cimoliosaurus from the Upper
Cretaceous of White Cliffs, New South Wales, which have
been completely opalised. This is the second skeleton of the
genus which has been obtained from these deposits in an
opalised condition. Precious opal occurred only here and
there—more especially in the transverse processes of the
neck—in the second specimen, the richness of the colour of
which bore no comparison to that in the example first
obtained.
Mr. W. E. Crarke, of the Edinburgh Museums, sends us
a paper from the Annals of Scottish Natural History for
January on the vole and the shrew of Orkney. The vole,
which it will be remembered was recently discovered and
named by Mr. Millais, turns out to be remarkably interest-
ing, for it appears to come nearest to the water-vole,
although its dentition is of the type of the common field-vole.
The shrew, Mr. Clarke believes, will probably turn out to be
the pigmy species. Mr. Clarke has been assisted in his
investigation into the structure of the vole by Prof. O. C.
Bradley.
Dr. Gitcnrist’s presidential address to the South African
Philosophical Society at the meeting in August last, which
is reported in the latest issue of the Transactions of that
body, deals with certain features of the marine fauna of
South Africa. It is shown that as the Cape seas receive
currents from different parts of the ocean, so the fauna is of
a particularly varied type, containing North Atlantic, Ant-
arctic, and Indian types, and even an element from the Far
East.
Tue subject of the affinity of the endothiodont reptiles is
resumed by Dr. R. Broom in part iv. of vol. xv. of the
Transactions of the South African Philosophical Society.
The author emphasises their relationship to the dicyno-
donts, and shows that, while in the endothiodonts the ten-
dency has been to increase the development of the molars, in
the dicynodonts the latter teeth completely
eliminated. In our own opinion, Dr. Broom’s work tends
to show that both groups should be included in a single
family.
have been
THE report of the director of the botanic gardens and
domains, Sydney, for 1903 refers to the changes in the
gardens consequent upon the extension into the inner
domain. Tree-planting in the Centennial Park has been
continued, the additions during the year being principally
Acacia binervata, Eucalyptus botryoides, woolly-butt, Tris-
tania conferta, brush-box, and species of Casuarina. Many
of the various species of Eucalyptus have suffered from the
attacks of a coccid identified as Eriococcus coriaceus.
Tue Philippine Islands are yielding a number of interest-
ing plants. A second list by Mr. E. D. Merrill has been
issued as a publication, No. 17 of the Bureau of Government
Laboratories, Manila. The author distinguishes twelve
species of Terminalia in his synopsis of the genus, three
being new. Among other new plants are four species of
Pandanus, three of Illipe (=Bassia),
Dischidia belonging to the section Conchopyllum
the leaves flattened against the supporting tree trunk serve as
a shelter for ants.
and a _ climbing
in which
A PROGRESS report on the strength of structural timber by
Dr. W. K. Hatt forms Circular-No. 32 of the forestry series
published by the United States Department of Agriculture.
made with long-leaf pine, Pinus palustris,
loblolly, Pinus taeda, and a red fir, known also as Oregon
NO. 1843, vol. 71]
Tests were
pine, Pseudotsuga taxifolia. Long-leaf pine is the standard
timber of construction, but is not always obtainable in long
pieces, when red fir takes its place; red fir produces
long, straight timber, but shows considerable variation in
quality ; loblolly being principally sap-wood has to be treated
Ex-
periments were also made with sweet gum, Liquidambar
styraciflua, to ascertain whether the timber could be bent
with preservatives if it is required for external work.
and put to the same uses as hickory, but the results were
not favourable.
WHEN we consider the enormous mass of material which
has been accumulated regarding the quantity of rain which
falls, it is remarkable how little attention appears to have
been given to the number and size of the drops. A very
simple and ingenious method of studying raindrops is de-
scribed in a paper in the Monthly Weather Review for
October, 1904, by Mr. W. A. Bentley. The raindrops are
allowed to fall into a layer of dry flour one inch deep, which
is exposed to the rain for a few seconds. The flour is
allowed to stand for some time, and the pellets of dough,
each representing a raindrop, are then picked out and may
be preserved. The method was tested by allowing measured
Complete set of samples from the great
Duration of storm, filteen hours.
One raindrop sample per hour was taken throughout the storm.
Fic. 1.—Forms of raindrops
general storm of August 20, 1904.
drops of water to fall from a height into the flour; it was
found that the dough pellet differed but little in size from
the drop which produced it. In the paper a series of interest-
ing photographs of such dough-pellets is given, illustrating
the variation in the size of the raindrops during the course of
showers of different [he drops met with
somewhat exceeded a fifth of an inch in diameter ; this is in
Wiesner (quoted by
types. largest
with the observations of
which gave 7 mm. as an upper
agreement
Hann in his ‘‘ Lehrbuch ”’),
limit. Mr. Bentley
frequency of occurrence of drops of various sizes in rain
gives tables showing the relative
from various kinds of clouds.
WE have from the
Ceramic Society a copy of its Transactions for the session
received secretary of the English
1903-4. The society, which has its headquarters at
Tunstall, Staffordshire, is still in its infancy, but it would
appear that its existence is likely to exert considerable in-
fluence for good on the future development of the English
potteries. The describing
attempts to solve special problems in the industry, and the
keen discussion which followed their delivery is indicative
There can be
Transactions contain papers
of the interest with which they were received.
400
NATURE
Lee 3, 1905
little doubt that such a society must tend to the spread of
knowledge and the improvement of method in pottery manu-
facture.
An interesting paper by R. Kremann on the melting point
of dissociating substances and the degree of dissociation
during melting is contained in the Sitzungsberichte (1904,
vol. ciii., part vii.) of the Imperial Academy of Sciences
of Vienna. From theoretical considerations involving the
law of mass action, melting-point curves are deduced for
substances, such as the compounds of phenol with aromatic
bases and with picric acid, at different degrees of dissoci-
ation. By comparing the shape of these curves with those
obtained, for instance, on adding aniline to the compound of
aniline and phenol, the actual degree of dissociation of these
substances during melting may be very approximately ascer-
tained. Incidentally, the important result is established that
the addition of one of the products of dissociation of the
compound may in many cases cause a rise in the melting
point without there being question of the formation of an
isomorphous mixture. The results obtained are applied to
an investigation of the additive compounds of nitroso-
dimethylaniline with various aromatic bases.
In an inaugural dissertation for a doctorate at Bonn
University, Herr Jacob Steinhausen presents the results
he has obtained during a research on “‘ enhanced lines.”’
Adopting the English name originally proposed by Sir
Norman Lockyer, the author gives a detailed description
of the enhanced lines and their different appearances in
various spectra, and then describes the apparatus and
methods employed by him in his own research. Using a
small grating of 1 metre radius, which produced a dis-
persion such that 1o Angstrém units extended over
0.595 mm. on the plate; he photographed and compared
the arc and spark spectra of the elements Al, Sb, Pb, Cd,
Mg, Hg, Bi, Sn, Zn, Ba, Ca, Sr, and Tl, using in most
cases metallic poles for the spark, and powdered metal, or
salt, on carbon poles for the arc. The wave-lengths are
only given to the nearest unit, and will, therefore, need
re-determining, with a larger dispersion, before they become
of any great use for stellar identifications. In discussing
the nature of the lines the author adopts an error made
by Prof. Kayser (‘‘ Handbuch der Spectroscopie’’), viz.
that in accounting for spectral variations Sir Norman
Lockyer has always considered only the temperature of
the spark as the cause; yet it is now more than thirty
years since the discoverer of enhanced lines explicitly
stated that the possible effects of electrical variations must
be included in the general term ‘‘ temperature.”’
Some ten years ago Prof. H. Moissan, in the course of
his work on the production of carbides in the electric
furnace, prepared aluminium carbide and showed that in
contact with water pure methane was evolved, thus giving
a new and direct synthesis of this important hydrocarbon.
In the current number of the Comptes rendus (February 13)
Prof. Moissan and M. Chavanne give an account of their
determinations of the physical constants of pure marsh gas
prepared in this way. The methane, after being freed
from traces of moisture and less volatile impurities by
passing through a tube cooled to —8s5° C., is solidified by
cooling with liquid air, and any more volatile gases pre-
sent pumped away. The gas allowed to boil off from the
crystals was proved to be pure by a combustion analysis,
and possessed at o° C. and 760 mm, pressure a density of
0-5547, the theoretical density being 0-555. The melting
and boiling points were measured by means of an iron-
Constantin thermocouple, previously standardised against
a petroleum ether thermometer, the crystals melting sharply
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
at —184° C. and boiling at —164° at atmospheric pressure.
The authors add that the methane, purified in this way,
always possessed a sweet, faint garlic odour, which cannot
be attributed to impurities, and must be regarded as due
to the gas itself. The reaction between solid methane and
liquid fluorine was studied at the same time; the two sub-
stances instantly combined, the reaction being accompanied
by a bright flash and a violent explosion, completely pul-
verising the glass tubes.
A TWELFTH edition of Mr. W. T. Lynn’s booklet on
*“ Remarkable Comets’’ has been published by Messrs.
Sampson Low, Marston and Co., Ltd.
Tue Cambridge University Press has published the first
number of a new scientific periodical entitled the Journal
of Agricultural Science. The magazine is edited by
Messrs. R. H. Biffen, A. D. Hall, T. H. Middleton, and
T. B. Wood, in consultation with Messrs. W. Bateson,
F.R.S., J. R. Campbell, and W. Sommerville. It is
intended to circulate among agricultural teachers and
experts, and will be issued, as material accumulates, in
parts of about one hundred pages. Each volume will con-
sist of four parts. The first number appeals to workers
in many departments of agricultural research, and among
the articles it contains may be mentioned those on Men-
del’s laws of inheritance and wheat breeding, by Mr. R. H.
Biffen; the influence of pollination on the development of
the hop, by Mr. A. Howard; the importance of the removal
of the products of growth in the assimilation of nitrogen
by the organisms of the root nodules of leguminous plants,
by Mr. J. Golding; the analysis of the soil by means of
the plant, by Mr. A. D. Hall; variation in the chemical
composition of the swede, by Mr. S. H. Collins; soil
analysis as a guide to the manurial treatment of poor
pastures, by Messrs. T. B. Wood and R. A. Berry; and
the improvement of poor pastures, by Prof. T. H. Middle-
ton. The magazine should prove of interest and help to
all teachers of agricultural science as well as to those
engaged in research in this field of knowledge.
Tue third part of Herr C. K. Schneider’s ‘‘ Illustriertes
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde ’’ has just been published by
the firm of Gustav Fischer, Jena. The first two parts
were reviewed in Nature of November 24, 1904 (vol. Ixxi.,
p- 76), and a further notice will appear after the work,
consisting of about nine parts, has been completed.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
EPHEMERIS FOR Comet 1904 e.—The following is an
extract from a continued ephemeris for comet 1904 e, as
calculated from M. Fayet’s elliptical elements by Dr. E.
Strémgren, and published in No. 3994 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten :—
Ephemeris 12h. (M.T. Berlin).
1905 a (true) 6 (true) log x log A Bright-
m. Ss. : 4 ness
Feb. 25 ... 3 10 47... +30 7 ... 0°1669 ... 0°1233 «.. 0746
Mar.) I) nib 22009)...'-+ 32. O)... OvL7Zs c. OT 350). snerag
» 5 ++ 3 33 44--- +33 47 .-. O'1757 -.. 01486 ... 0:39
598 BOL aoe EO! +35 25... o'1805 ... O'161I ... 0°36
ns 3 58 16 .. +36 56.. -- O°1855 ... 0°1736 ... 0°33
The comet is now Hearenan very faint, and is travelling
in a north-easterly direction ‘through the southern part of
the constellation Perseus. On March 11 it will pass near
to & Persei.
RevIsED ELEMENTS FOR BorRELLY’s COMET (1904 €).—
When publishing the previous set of elements for comet
1904 e, M. Fayet explained that, as his computations were
based upon the results of only. a few observations, they
could only be regarded as approximate. . Now, however,
- FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
the observations extend over nearly a month, and M. Fayet
has made another research regarding this comet’s orbit,
obtaining the following set of elements as his result :-—
T = 1905 Jan. 1665370 (M.T. Paris)
B= 76° 41’ 34-49
= seh sy 58°75 19050
= 352° 13' 58"°98
log g = 0145175
log e = 9°792206
& = 503'°932
These elements give a close agreement.with the places
determined by independent observations, and indicate that
Borrelly’s 1904 comet is, really, of the short-period type,
completing its orbital revolution in about seven years,
instead of six years as given by the previous elements
(Comptes rendus, No. 5, 1905).
THE Sun’s Rotation.—During the years 1899, 1900, and
tgor Prof. N. C. Dunér made a further series of observ-
ations of the rotation velocity of the sun at different helio-
centric latitudes. Combining the results with those
obtained by him during a similar research prosecuted in
the years 1887-1889, and now corrected, he found the values
given in the following table :—
ob v n Ecos é
re km. 2 °
o'74 +2°08 183 14°770 14°77
15'0 +1'97 180 13989 14°48
30°1 +1°70 184 12072 13°95
450 +1°27 181 9018 12°75
60°0 +0'8I 183 5°752 I1I‘50
750 +0°39 184 2°769 10°70
wherein ¢ =the heliocentric latitude, v =the rotational
velocity of the sun’s edge, n = the number of observations,
and =the daily rotation angle (Astronomische Nach-
richten, No. 3994).
SECONDARY SHADOW ON SaTuRN’s Rincs.—During a
series of observations of Saturn made at Aosta (Italy) in
October, November, and December, 1904, Signors M.
Amann and Cl. Rozet observed a secondary shadow, other
than that of the planet, projected on to the illuminated
surface of the rings. First seen on October 20, this
shadow was thinner and much less accentuated than that
of the planet, whilst its curvature was in the opposite sense
to that of the latter body. From October 20 to November
15, despite the fact that mumerous opportunities of
observing it occurred, the shadow was not seen, but from
the latter date until the end of December it was shown on
twenty-six drawings of the system. Onseven drawings made
between December 22 and 27, the shadow appeared bifur-
cated where it traversed the inner ring, and on November
28 and 29 a third line of shadow, narrower and feebler
than the preceding and much further from the planet, was
seen (Comptes rendus, No. 5, 1905).
OBSERVATIONS OF THE ZopiAcaL Licut.—During a so-
journ on the summit of Mont Blanc on September 21
and 22, 1904, M. A. Hansky made a number of observ-
ations of the Zodiacal Light, and found that its form was
that of a spherical triangle having its apex near to the
ecliptic. At 3h. 4om. (M.T. Paris) the altitude of the apex
was 52°, the length of the triangle, reckoned from the
centre of the sun, was 80°, and its breadth was, at the
horizon, 25°, and in the plane of the sun’s axis 30°. The
latitude of the apex was +2°, and three zones were distin-
guishable in the light. The first of these had the form of
a spherical triangle and was very feeble, the second was
more parabolic, whilst the form of the third was a parabola.
In his paper, published in the Comptes rendus (No. 6,
1905), M. Hansky indicates the points of resemblance be-
tween this phenomenon and the corona, and makes a
number of speculations as to the true nature of the light.
He concludes by saying that he believes it to be an elec-
trical phenomenon of the same type as the corona, and
that it is, probably, simply a prolongation of the coronal
streamers.
PERMANENT NuMBERS FOR THE MINOR PLANETS DISCOVERED
DURING 1904.—In No. 3994 of the Astronomische Nach-
richten, the permanent numbers allotted to the minor
planets discovered during 1904 are given. The list con-
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
NATURE
401
tains the numbers 522 to 548, inclusive, thereby showing the
number discovered during last year to be twenty-seven. The
provisional designation, the name of the discoverer, the
date of discovery, and the authority for the orbit are also
given for each planet. A number of notes explain the
absence, for various reasons, of several bodies, to which
provisional designations were allotted, from the final list.
STUDIES IN EUGENICS.
At a meeting of the Sociological Society on February 14
Mr. Francis Galton communicated two papers :—
(1) restrictions in marriage, and (2) studies in national
eugenics.
In the first paper he remarked that marriage, as one of
the social agencies that influenced the racial qualities of
future generations, came within the purview of eugenics.
It belonged to the practical policy arising out of eugenic
science, to promote such choice in marriage as should
tend to the reproduction of the higher types of individual.
Anthropological investigation had shown marriage to be
one of the most modifiable of social institutions. Hence
the assumption was warrantable that with the gradual
incorporation of eugenic conceptions in the social ideal,
there would proceed a concomitant change in the customs
and conventions affecting marriage. The paper then pro-
ceeded to illustrate by actual examples the modifiability
of marriage customs. In one or other of its many forms
polygamy was now permitted—by religion, customs and
law—to at least one-half of the population of the world,
though its practice might be restricted, on account of cost,
domestic peace, and the insufficiency of females. In
Christian nations the prohibition of polygamy, under severe
penalties, by civil and ecclesiastical law had been due, not
to any natural instinct against the practice, but to con-
sideration of social well-being. Hence it might be inferred
that equally strict limitations of freedom of marriage
might, under the pressure of worthy motives, be hereafter
enacted for eugenic and other purposes. Endogamy, or
the custom of marrying exclusively within one’s own tribe
or caste, had been sanctioned by religion and enforced by
law in all parts of the world, but chiefly in long-settled
nations, where there was wealth to bequeath and where
neighbouring communities professed different creeds.
Endogamous systems of marriage rested on customs deter-
mined by a certain religious view of family property and
family descent. Eugenics dealt with what was more valu-
able than money or lands, namely, with natural inherit-
ance of high character, capable brains, fine physique and
vigour, in short, with all that was most desirable for a
family to possess. It aimed at the evolution and preser-
vation of high races, and it well deserved to be strictly
enforced. In every society there existed conventional re-
strictions of the nature of ‘‘ taboo,’’ though not necessarily
called by that name. If non-eugenic unions were pro-
hibited by such taboos, none would take place. Marriage
selection was very largely conditioned by motives based on
religious and social convention. Persons who were born
under the various marriage systems lived under such rules
without any objection. They were unconscious of their
restriction.
Under the heading ‘‘ Studies in National Eugenics,’’ Mr.
Galton communicated what he described as “‘an un-
authorised programme ’’ of what he conceived to be the
duties of the Francis Galton research fellowship in
national eugenics. The topics to be considered he classified
under the following headings :—(1) Estimation of the aver-
age quality of the offspring of married couples from their
personal and ancestral data.. This included questions of
fertility, and the determination of the probable error of
the estimate according to the data employed. (2) Effects
of action by the State and by public institutions. (3) Other
influences that further or restrain particular classes of
marriage. (4) Heredity. The facts, after being collected,
should be discussed, for improving our knowledge of the
laws both of actuarial and of physiological heredity, the
recent methods of advanced statistics being of course used.
(5) Bibliographical compilations. (6) Extension of eugenic
studies by wider cooperation. (7) Certificates. With re-
gard to the last named, he said that in some future time,
dependent on circumstances, he looked forward to a suit-
402
able authority issuing eugenic certificates to candidates for
them. They would imply more than an average share of
the several qualities of at least goodness of constitution,
of physique, and of mental capacity.
The discussion on the papers was opened by Dr. Haddon,
who said Mr. Galton sought to establish a science of
eugenics, he took it, because the postulates of eugenics
were an inevitable corollary from the general doctrine of
organic evolution—in the building up of which Mr. Galton
had played a notable part. The evolution of the species
having reached a self-conscious stage in man, it followed
of necessity that increasingly rational and coordinated
attempts should be made to guide and direct the evolu-
tionary process towards definable and verifiable ideals. It
was, as he understood it, the aim of eugenic studies to
ascertain the means available for this rational guidance
of human evolution, and the defining of the ideals towards
which it should be directed. There was ample warrant in
anthropological data for the assumption that in the de-
velopment of marriage customs there was a_ tendency
towards adaptation to higher social purposes.
Dr. F. W. Mott said there were two general ways
towards the rational improvement of the stock :—(1) by
checking the reproduction of the unfit, and (2) by
encouraging the reproduction of the fit. For the former
purpose the readiest means would be the segregatton of
defective children while quite young, and the curtailment
of their social privileges as they grew to maturity. As
regards means towards the encouragement of fertility in
the higher types, he suggested as an initial tentative in
practical measures a further development of the present
system of marriage registration. Why, for instance,
should not medical as well as legal certificates of marriage
be procurable at registry offices? The former would be
of the nature of a bill of health, certifying that the con-
tracting parties reached a certain standard of hygienic
requirement. Such certificates would of course be volun-
tary, but since they would be valuable not only to their
possessors but also to their children, they would tend to
come into general usage. In any case he considered it a
matter of national importance that Mr. Galton’s concep-
tion of eugenics should be most seriously considered. The
first desideratum ‘was to get it accepted as a legitimate and
hopeful study.
Mr. Ernest Crawley said Mr. Galton’s paper showed how
anthropological studies could be made fruitful in practical
politics. Sociology should be founding its science of
eugenics upon anthropology, psychology, and physiology.
He hoped that while chiefly considering the normal in-
dividual’ it would not forget the special claims of those
abnormal persons whom we call geniuses. In a _ well
ordered State they should be considered before the de-
generate and the diseased. As regards marriage customs,
he took it as an assured generalisation of anthropological
science that there are two permanent polar tendencies in
human nature, first against unions in the same home, and
secondly against too promiscuous marriage. Many customs
assumed by early anthropologists as normal types were,
he believed, mere sports—such as group-marriage, and
marriage of brother and sister. Polygamy he believed to
be an example of a certain tendency in man to confuse
sexual (i.e. organic), with matrimonial (i.e. social) concerns.
They must beware of this confusion, and therefore be on
their guard against its possible effects in studying eugenics.
Mr. Galton’s suggestion that religion was called upon
to play a part in the development of eugenics he con-
sidered to be a sound deduction from history and anthro-
pology. In the sanctification of marriage, religion had
one of its earliest and greatest functions; and as primitive
religion, in this as in other respects, was based upon the
best knowledge of primitive times (i.e. upon primitive
science), so the most developed form of religion should be
illuminated by the most advanced form of knowledge (i.e.
by contemporary science).
Dr. E. Westermarck said he entirely agreed with Mr.
Galton’s contention that restrictions in marriage as they
existed in the simpler social formations, so they might be
further modified and developed for eugenic purposes
amongst the most highly civilised peoples. The germ of
eugenic intentions was well seen amongst savage and
barbarian peoples in those customs which imposed a test
NO. 1843, VOL 71]
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905
of fitness on the husband before marriage. In Kaffir
tribes, for instance, a man may not marry until he has
demonstrated his strength and courage and competence
in the chase by killing a rhinoceros. In the Malay Archi-
pelago there are peoples where the marriage test consists
in the collection of a number of skulls from hostile tribes.
Among the Arabs of Upper Egypt, the young aspirant to
marriage must evidence his courage and self-control by
suffering—with smiling countenance—a severe ordeal of
whipping by the relatives of the bride. He considered that
on this question of marriage, whereby the individual was
brought into beth organic and social relation with the
species, moral teachers had before them one of the greatest
of tasks, in inculcating a keener sense of foresight in the
individual. There was perhaps hardly any other point in
which the moral consciousness of civilised men stood in
greater need of intellectual training.
As contributions to the discussion, a considerable number
of written communications were received, from the follow-
ing amongst others:—Dr. Havelock Ellis, Mr. A. H.~
Huth, Dr. Max Nordau, and Profs. Yves Delage, J. G.
McKendrick, Posada, Sergi, Steinmetz, Tonnies, and
Weismann. The last named raised the question whether,
when a hereditary disease like tuberculosis has made its
appearance in a family, it is afterwards possible for it to
be banished entirely from this or that branch of the family,
or whether, on the contrary, the progeny of those members
who appear healthy must not sooner or later produce a
tuberculous progeny. He himself considered that a tainted
stock might produce a branch entirely free from that
specific disease.
Mr. Galton, in the course of his reply, said it gave him
satisfaction to find that no one amongst his critics had
impugned the conclusion which his memoir on “ Restric-
tions in Marriage ’’ was written to justify.
THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT BY THE
ATMOSPHERE.
“THE great attention that has been paid during the last
few years to the subject of photometry has brought
into prominence the problem of the amount of light absorbed
by the atmosphere. At the same time, the improvement
that has taken place in the instrumental means, which
renders possible the detection of minute changes in lustre,
has required the use of accurate corrections by which the
effect of the earth’s atmosphere can be eliminated from
the observations. The corrections which have been applied
to photometric measures have been based generally on
empirical or interpolation methods rather than on a strictly
physical basis. There are several reasons which have con-
tributed to this unsatisfactory condition of the problem.
The difficulty of computing the length of the path of the
ray of light in its passage through our atmosphere, the
want of homogeneity in the constitution of the atmosphere
itself, our ignorance of the law of the temperature gradient
at considerable heights above the surface, and of the dis-
tribution of water and dust particles near the surface, have
all complicated a subject the theory of which under ideal
limiting conditions may not be very difficult. Bouguer left
a very satisfactory theory, based, however, on the assump-
tion that the path of the ray was rectilinear. Laplace
attacked the subject from: the side of the theory of refrac-
tion, but practically did not much advance it. From that
time onward, the question has rather been left in the hands
of observers, who have been content to make their observ-
ations homogeneous by the employment of an interpolation
formula, based on the results of their actual practice.
Dr. A. Bemporod thinks that the time has come for the
discussion of a physical theory of the extinction of light in
the atmosphere, and certainly his pamphlet bearing this
title is a most welcome contribution to this subject. It
may be that in some sense it is a premature effort. That
is to say, that the data for a complete solution of the
problem do not exist. The series of observations which are
now being conducted by means of kites and balloons, and
which have for their object the examination of the different
1 ‘* Zur Theorie der Extinktion des Lichtes in der Erdatmosphare."’ By
Dr. A. Bemporod. Pp. 78. (Mitteilungen der Grossh. Sternwarte zu
Heidelberg.)
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
403
strata of the atmosphere at various distances remote from
the surface, may be expected to throw some additional light
upon the constitution of the gaseous envelope through which
the light passes, and, moreover, there is the troublesome
and disturbing question of selective absorption, the import-
ance of which the author fully admits, but does not consider
numerically in his work, which may play a very important
part in the future theory of atmospheric extinction. But
any improvement which may hereafter be made will not
invalidate the calculations, so far as they refer to the mass
of the air through which the light beam penetrates.
Dr. Bemporod divides his work into five sections. In the
first he presents the problem in its most general form, and
defines the function F(z), the so-called path of the ray in
the atmosphere. Chapter ii. exhibits a critical examination
of the theories of Bouguer, Lambert, Laplace, and of some
others less well known. In the next the author discusses
the hypotheses of Ivory and Schmidt on the constitution
of the atmosphere. Of the two, Schmidt’s hypothesis of a
uniform decrease of the temperature with the height above
the surface gives the best agreement with the observed
temperatures derived by Assmann and Berson from balloon
ascents. The latter hypothesis is the one therefore selected
for development, but both Ivory and Schmidt give prac-
tically the same values for extinction, while Laplace’s theory
at the zenith distance of 87° appears to be a tenth of a
magnitude in error. Chapter iv. explains the formation
of the extensive numerical tables that accompany the work,
and in the last the author has some remarks on the in-
fluence of geographical position on the absorption, as well
as of the effects of oscillations in temperature and pressure.
The whole forms a valuable addition to a subject of great
interest and importance.
JOHN HUNTER AND HIS INFLUENCE ON
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.'
AS the history of philosophy, considered from one point
of view, is the record of the development and growth
of ideas and of the formation of beliefs and doctrines re-
specting man and the universe accomplished through the
thinking of a few great minds, so the history of medicine
is a record of the observations, thoughts, and achievements
of a few great personalities—Hippocrates, Celsus, Galen,
Paré, Harvey, and John Hunter, to name only the greatest.
John Hunter is the theme which has been assigned to me.
Throughout the ages of civilisation the growth of know-
ledge has been slow and often irregular, but it has been
continuous and it has been sure. How slow and yet how
sure we may realise by comparing the dialectic notions of
Aristotle respecting weight and motion with the direct
appeals to the evidences of the senses afforded by the
demonstrations of Galilei, whereby it was shown that, so
far from there being in nature bodies possessing positive
levity, all matter is equally affected by gravity, irrespective
of its form, magnitude, or texture. By the simple experi-
ment of dropping objects from the Tower of Pisa, Galilei,
who began life as a medical student, laid the foundation
of modern physical science, and especially of dynamics.
This expedient was one of the first appeals, at least in
modern times, to the use of direct experiment in physical
science, and the truth thereby established became a deter-
mining factor in Newton’s great discovery of the law of
gravitation. From Aristotle to Galilei an interval of more
than eighteen centuries had elapsed. Galilei and Harvey
were contemporaries.
John Hunter was born exactly a century after the publi-
cation of Harvey’s ‘‘ Exercitatio De Motu Cordis.’’ It is
one hundred and eleven years since John Hunter died. Yet
how modern Hunter is! Inventions and discoveries now
crowd upon us so thick and fast that we are apt to forget
how recently modern physical science began, and especially
modern medicine. In the order of time medicine, in its
rudest and simplest forms, must have been one of the first
of the empirical arts, but in the order of ideas it was one
of the last to enter into the hierarchy of the sciences. As
a system of organised knowledge medicine presupposes and
1 Abridged from the Hunterian oration, delivered before the Roval
eolleee of Surgeons, February 14, by Mr. John Tweedy, president of the
college.
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
requires not only centuries of clinical observation and
a complete logical apparatus, but it also requires an
advanced state of all the other natural sciences. It con-
cerns itself with the recondite problems of life in the most
complex and the most highly differentiated of its manifest-
ations, whether under the conditions of health or under
those of disease. Until physics and chemistry had advanced
from the conjectural and the aprioristic to the scientific
stage, medicine could only be conjectural and aprioristic
too, however useful it may have been as a practical art.
The thoughts and labours, the experiments and discoveries
of the great pioneers of modern knowledge in the physical
sciences were the necessary prelude to a scientific progress
in biology, which, in its turn, was a condition precedent
to any real advance in the science of medicine, surgery,
and pathology. Harvey, in the order of time and of
thought, was the necessary antecedent of Hunter.
The starting-point of John Hunter’s career as anatomist,
biologist, and surgeon was in the year 1748, when he came
to London with a receptive and intelligent mind, a quick
and observant eye, and a well-trained hand, to collaborate
with his brother William in the anatomical school which
had been started two or three years before.
Considering the important*part that human anatomy now
plays in medical education, it is difficult to conceive that
there was no systematic teaching of anatomy in England
before the middle of the eighteenth century. During the
many centuries which elapsed between, say, the time of
Hippocrates and the middle of the sixteenth century, the
dissection of the human cadaver was almost unknown.
Forbidden alike by the laws and customs and religion of
the ancient Greeks, and by the creed of Mohammed, the
study of human anatomy was placed under a civil and
religious ban until the end of the thirteenth century. In
ancient Greece the laws relating to immediate burial were
very stringent. Even victorious generals had been con-
demned to death because they neglected to bury the slain.
The pathos of Sophocles’ tragedy of ‘‘ Antigone’ turns,
it will be remembered, upon the sacredness of the dead,
and of the necessity, higher than imperial commands, of
immediate burial.
When the tradition of Greek medicine passed—in the
seventh and eighth centuries—into the hands of the
Mohammedans, human anatomy was equally neglected, the
practice of dissection being implicitly forbidden by the
Quran. Even after the dissection of the human cadaver
received the sanction of the civil authorities in southern
Europe, the teaching of anatomy was cursory and
occasional, and merely descriptive. Mundino of Bologna,
in the fourteenth century, who was the first in modern
times to dissect the human cadaver, seems to have dis-
sected only two bodies. So little was known of human
anatomy, and so strong was the tyranny of tradition, that
when Vesalius, in the middle of the sixteenth century,
alleged that the anatomical descriptions of Galen could not
be adapted to man, there were not a few who, in their zeal
to repel the accusation that Galen had used animals in
dissection, did not hesitate to maintain that the human
organisation had changed since Galen’s time.
In England, notwithstanding Harvey lectures on anatomy
in the first quarter of the seventeenth century, there was no
organised teaching of anatomy before William Hunter’s
time. In this matter William Hunter has not received all
the credit he deserves. Had his ambition been realised, he
would, nearly a century and a half ago, have solved a
problem in early medical education in London which is
still perplexing the minds of many thoughtful persons. He
desired to establish an anatomical school in London upon
an extensive scale. With this object in view, he offered to
erect a building at the cost of 7oool. for the study and
teaching of anatomy provided the Government would grant
him a piece of ground to build upon. It was also his in-
tention to give to this institution all his preparations and
his books. With a lamentable lack of sympathy which
British Governments have too often manifested in their
dealings with science and education, William Hunter’s
offer was declined. Smarting under a keen sense of dis-
appointment and full of resentment, he determined to
transfer his favours to Glasgow, which now enjoys the
possession of his priceless museum and his library. Beati
possidentes.
404
After John Hunter had worked at human anatomy for
ten years, he manifested his intellectual growth by direct-
ing his thoughts to the higher and more scientific disci-
pline of comparative anatomy and physiology. He realised
that human anatomy alone was an insufficient guide to
pathology and surgery. He collected all manner of
animals at his house and grounds at Earl’s Court in order
to study their ways and habits, and from every available
source he acquired animals, living or dead, for the pur-
poses of observation, experimentation, or dissection. In
his use of the lower animals for the elucidation of physio-
logical problems he followed while amplifying the practice
of Harvey, who in his turn adduced the authority of Aris-
totle. There was, however, a striking and characteristic
difference between the use which Aristotle made of the
dissection of animals with reference to human anatomy
and that of Hunter. There is no trustworthy evidence that
Aristotle or Hippocrates or even Galen dissected the human
body, certainly not in the sense we understand by the term
““ dissection.’ They dissected the bodies of animals instead
of those of man, and transferred their observations of
animals to the corporeal organisation of man. Hunter, on
the other hand, practised the dissection of lower animals
in addition to that of man, ang transferred his observations
to the embryology and morphology of man and to the
elucidation of the problems of human and comparative
physiology and pathology.
John Hunter was a philosopher in the strict and primary
sense of the word. He had a passion for knowledge.
“Let no man presume to call himself wise,’”? says Pytha-
goras; “God alone is wise. Man can never get beyond
the passion for wisdom.’”’ John Hunter had this passion.
He devoted himself to the pursuit of knowledge, searching
for it in every department of the organic world, animal and
vegetable. In one of his letters to Jenner he says: ‘I
have but one order to send you, which is, to send every-
thing you can get, either animal, vegetable, or mineral,
and the compound of the two, either animal or vegetable
mineralized.’’ And, again: ‘‘ Have you any large trees
of different kinds that you can make free with? If you
have, I will put you upon a set of experiments with regard
to the heat of vegetables.’’ With respect to the observ-
ations and experiments which he directs Jenner to make, he
says, “Be as particular as you possibly can.’? These
sentences express briefly and in epitome, as it were,
Hunter’s habits of mind and his attitude towards the
problems of organic life.
John Hunter may have lacked the power of clear exposi-
tion, and he may have disliked routine teaching. He was,
however, full and overflowing with ‘ideas, new and
original, to which he often found it difficult to give dis-
tinct shape and utterance. In contrast with William
Hunter’s didactic powers, John had the suggestive, the
constructive, the creative faculty, the faculty of discovery,
of coordinating knowledge, and he had the art of stimu.
lating thought and calling forth effort from others. He
taught by example rather than by precept.
Ottley, the first and one of the best of Hunter’s bio-
graphers, remarks that in pursuing his researches Hunter
strove, not like many of his more learned and less philo-
sophical predecessors, to unravel the mysteries of nature
by taking up principles a priori and seeking for facts to
support his theory, but that, on the contrary, he followed
in the strictest manner the inductive method laid down by
Bacon as the only sure though arduous road to knowledge ;
and Babington, in his Hunterian oration, remarks of him:
““He had never read Bacon, but his mode of studying
nature was as strictly Baconian as if he had.’? Other
critics and historians of Hunter’s work, and not a few
Hunterian orators, have written or spoken in a similar
strain. In my judgment this view is entirely erroneous
with respect to Hunter’s method, and it is a complete mis-
interpretation of the Baconian system. Bacon’s eloquence
and influence undoubtedly did much to attract men to the
observation and study of natural phenomena. He directed
attention to the necessity of studying the powers and forces
of the world as a means of subjecting the world to the
human mind, and so far his message was appropriate and
opportune. The significance of that message is probably
greater now than at the time he delivered it. The future
belongs to the nation which understands best the forces
of nature, and which can most skilfully and economically
NO. 1843, VOL 71]
NATURE
[FEBRUARY 23, 1905,
employ them. But Bacon himself neither knew nor under-
stood the physical sciences. His spirit was essentially
medizval, and much less modern than that of his illustrious
namesake Roger Bacon, who lived three hundred years
before him. Francis Bacon’s aim was purely utilitarian.
He had no idea of knowledge for its own sake, and he
cherished the hope that by increasing our knowledge of
nature the secret of the transmutation of substances would
be learnt, and probably the knowledge of the making of
gold. He not only had no practical acquaintance with
natural science, but he lacked insight into the true methods
of its investigation. He understood very imperfectly the
value of experiment, and he assigned quite a subordinate
position to quantitative determination, the precise quality
which is the most striking characteristic of modern science,
and which constituted the most original and perhaps most
brilliant of the reasonings which Harvey employed in his
famous induction. So far from being the founder of the
modern scientific method, Bacon’s writings were themselves
one of the products of the intellectual awakening which
began at the end of the sixteenth century. Notwithstand-
ing his affectation of scientific knowledge and _ scientific
methods, Bacon had an unscientific weakness for super-
stitions. He believed in natural and judicial astrology,
though not without some hesitation and discrimination.
He believed in the transmutability of elements and of the
metals, in charms and signatures as remedies, and so com-
pletely did he ignore Harvey’s discovery of the circulation
of the blood that in one of the latest of his writings he
ascribes the pulsation of the heart and arteries to the
dilatation and contraction of the spirits. Well might
Harvey say, in disparagement of Bacon’s scientific
writings: ‘‘ He writes philosophy like a Lord Chancellor.’”
Bacon’s ruling idea was the collection of masses of facts
and then the employment of processes of arrangement, and
separation, and exclusion, so artificially contrived that a
man of common intelligence should be able to announce the
truth sought for. This method has been slightingly de-
scribed as a kind of scientific bookkeeping. ‘“‘ It is diffi-
cult,’’ says Stanley Jevons, ‘‘ to imagine a less likely way
of arriving at great discoveries. The greater the array of
facts the less is the probability that they will by any
routine system of classification disclose the laws of nature.’”
The answer to the claim that Bacon was the philosophic
father of modern methods of scientific investigation is that
none of the scientific truths established by the great
masters of science can be made even to appear in corre-
spondence with Bacon’s methods. Whether we look to
Copernicus, who preceded him, or to Kepler, Galilei,
Torricelli, Pascal, Gilbert, and Harvey, or to Newton,
Descartes, or Huygens, or to Thomas Young, or to the
chemists Black, Priestley, Scheele, and Lavoisier, we find
that discovery was achieved by a method quite different
from that advocated by Bacon. So dispassionate a critic
of philosophy as John Grote remarks: ‘‘I have not the
smallest belief in Bacon’s having reformed the method of
discovery, believing rather that if he had had any success
in that way, in the manner he wished, it would have been
most calamitous for science.’? And even with regard to
the claim of Bacon to be the founder of inductive philo-
sophy, Ellis, one of the ablest of his editors, asserts that
the nature of the act of induction is as clearly stated by
Aristotle as by any later writer, while Aristotle himself
ascribes the credit to Socrates. Perhaps the Baconian claim
has never been more convincingly refuted than by Augustus
De Morgan, at once one of the profoundest and subtlest
thinkers of the nineteenth century. ‘‘ Modern discoveries, ’*
he says, “‘ have not been made by large collections of facts,
with subsequent discussion, separation, and resulting de-
duction of a truth thus rendered perceptible. A few facts
have suggested an hypothesis which means a supposition
proper to explain them. The necessary results of this sup-
position are worked out, and then, and not till then, other
facts are examined to see if these ulterior results are found
in nature. Wrong hypotheses rightly worked from
have produced more useful results than unguided observ-
ation. But this is not the Baconian plan. . . . What are
large collections of facts for? ‘To make theories from,”
says Bacon; ‘ To try ready-made theories by,’ says the
history of discovery.”’
Bacon’s plan was purely mechanical. He ignored the
work of the mind in the constitution of knowledge. He
FERRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
405
imagined that he had discovered a method by which scien-
tific truth might be determined with absolute certainty,
and by a mechanical mode of procedure such that all men
were capable of employing it. ‘* Our method of discover-
ing the sciences is,’’ he says, “‘ one which leaves not much
to sharpness and strength of wit, but nearly levels all wits
and intellects.’ And this opinion is endorsed by most
writers of the empiricist school in complete disregard of
the teaching of history. Those who imagine that science
requires nothing but the registering and classification of
facts forget that the facts observed can only be connected
and related by the mind, and that the laws of nature are
after all mental products from given data.
Not only did John Hunter not follow the mechanical
methods of Francis Bacon, but it is the work of the mind
which is the peculiar characteristic of his method and its
chief glory. Others could do as well as he the more
mechanical part of his task—indeed, much of it was done
by others; but the suggesting, controlling, coordinating
mind was Hunter’s, which, amidst the multiplicity of
phenomena and of data apparently conflicting, discovered
unity amidst multiformity, which is the special function of
science.
John Hunter’s constant aim was to arrive at principles,
and he was distrustful of so-called facts. ‘‘ The principles
of our art,’’ he said, ‘‘ are not less necessary to be under-
stood than the principles of other sciences; unless, indeed,
the surgeon should wish to resemble the Chinese philo-
sopher whose knowledge consisted only in facts. In that
case the science must remain unimproved until new facts
arise. In Europe philosophers reason from principles, and
thus account for facts before they arise.’
Hunter possessed every moral and intellectual qualifi-
cation necessary for useful scientific research. He had a
large knowledge of facts based on an intimate acquaintance
with the phenomena of organic nature. He had a fertile
imagination ready to suggest possible relations of those
facts. He had openness of mind, and a conscientious
scientific spirit which submitted every hypothesis to the
test of observation and experiment. Scepticism is the first
condition of reasoned knowledge. Hunter was not only
observant, but he was rationally sceptical and critical, and
he himself ascribed his success as a scientific investigator
to the sceptical qualities of his mind. He took nothing on
trust. He was always careful to distinguish between mere
conjecture and reality, and drew a sharp distinction between
the actual results of an experiment physically performed
and what might have been mentally anticipated. ‘‘ In pur-
suing any subject,’’ he says, ‘‘ most things come to light
as it were by accident, that is, many things arise out of
investigation that were not at first conceived, and even
misfortunes in experiments have brought things to our
knowledge that were not, and probably could not have
been, previously conceived ; on the other hand, I have often
devised experiments by the fireside or in my carriage, and
have also conceived the result; but when I tried the experi-
ment, the result was different, or I found that the experi-
ment cou!d not be attended with all the circumstances that
were sug:tested.’’ Here, in a sentence, we note the wide
difference between the modern and the medieval spirit in
science. The alchemists performed experiments innumer-
able, but with them theory ranked above experiment, and
if experiment gave an unexpected result, this was forced
into an artificial conformity with the aprioristic theory. It
was therefore, says Lange in his ‘‘ History of Mate-
rialism,’’ “‘ essentially directed to the production of this
previously anticipated result rather than to free investi-
gation.””
While Hunter was intolerant of a state of doubt in small
things as in great, if by any means decision was possible,
he ever held his judgment in suspense if certainty was not
attainable. Like all strong characters, he cared little for
systems Or consistencies of opinion. He followed wherever
Truth should lead, and by his very nature was always open
to new and higher knowledge. To a pupil who asked with
surprise whether he had not the year before stated an
pinion on some point directly at variance with one he had
just put forth, he boldly replied: ‘‘ Very likely I did; I
hope I grow wiser every year.’? And again: ‘‘ Never ask
me what J have said, or what I have written; but if you
will ask me what my present opinions are I will tell you.”’
In attempting an appreciation of John Hunter’s method
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
I have suggested rather than explained the development and
growth of the modern knowledge of physics, chemistry,
and biology under the influence of the experimental
method; but it has not been my purpose or intention to
offer any defence of this method. Yo defend the use of
experiment in physics and in chemistry would be manifestly
absurd, and I assume that in this place and before this
audience it is equally unnecessary to offer an apology for
its use in physiology and pathology. I opine, however,
that it is within my province as Hunterian orator to antici-
pate the possible censure of some who would not hesitate
in the sacred name of religion to traduce the memory of
Hunter because he practised experiments in physiology.
John Hunter did employ the method of experiment. He
employed it no less with zeal than with intelligence. He
employed it not from idle curiosity, not from the prompt-
ings of vainglory, or for the purposes of worldly advance-
ment; all that he had he gave to science. He employed it
in the service of humanity and in the study of the nature
and laws of life; and the knowledge which he thereby
acquired he transferred to the domain of medicine and
surgery, and applied to the alleviation of sickness and
suffering among animals no less than among men.
I pretend not either impiously to affirm or not less
impiously to deny all the purposes of infinite wisdom in
giving man dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth
upon the earth; but we do know that throughout historic
time man has not hesitated to capture, to subjugate, and
to slay, beast and bird and fish, for his pleasure, his
sustenance, and his service. Was the lordship over the
animals given to man only for the satisfying of his physical
and sensuous needs? Is not the life more than food? Was
it only with reference to man’s bodily well-being that the
question was asked: Are ye not of much more value than
the birds of the heaven? Does the mind need no aliment?
And is the veto to be applied only when animals are to be
used for the purposes of elucidating the kindly functions
of physiology, or of disclosing the baneful secrets of
disease ?
The vicarious suffering and sacrifice of animals for the
service and the salvation of man have obtained throughout
the ages, and constituted the basis of the elaborate cere-
monial system of the ancient Israelites. In anticipation of
the great Passover, Moses directed the Israelites each to
kill a lamb according to their families, and to sprinkle
its blood upon the lintel and the two side posts. ‘* For
the Lord will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and
when He seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two
side posts, the Lord will pass over the door, and will not
suffer the destroyer to come into your houses to smite
you.’’ The complete purification of one leper and his re-
ception back into society involved not only the slaughter
of three lambs, but the convalescent had to appear with
two living clean birds, one of which was slain, while the
other, still living, was baptised in the dead bird’s blood,
and then allowed to fly away free. The principle of sub-
stitution was actualised in the ceremony of the scapegoat.
At the annual Feast of Expiation, a young bullock, two
kids, and one ram were slain; and two goats were taken
upon which lots were cast, one lot for Yahwé, the other
for Azazel. The goat on which the lot fell for Yahwé
was sacrificed for a sin offering; but the goat upon which
the lot fell for Azazel was presented alive, and when the
high priest had symbolically placed upon its head the sins
and transgressions of all the people, the goat was led
into the desert, there to become the victim of hunger and
thirst, and the prey of ravenous bird and beast.
Are these hecatombs to be regarded as of Divine origin
and sanction, while the inoculation of a cat or dog, or it
may be a rat, is to be denounced as a desecration and a
violation of the purposes and will of God? Who will say
but that in our day, as the Angel of Death passes through
the land, seeing upon us the sprinkling of the immunising
blood, takes that for a token, and is not suffered to come
into our houses to smite us? ‘* Dipt in his fellow’s blood
the living bird went free’’; and so we, dipped in blood,
aye, the blood of our fellow-man, as the annals of medical
martyrology bear witness, we enjoy a growing freedom
from plague and pestilence and noisome disease, and in the
fulness of knowledge the measure of our freedom will be
full.
406
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CaMBRIDGE.—The sum of 1600]. has been recently con-
tributed to the University Benefaction Fund for the endow-
ment of a lectureship in special pathology. The collection
of this fund is largely due to the activity of Prof. G. Sims
Woodhead, and the lectureship will be known as the
Huddersfield lectureship, in recognition of the town which
has largely supplied the capital sum. The general board
will proceed shortly to elect the lecturer. Applications
should be sent in to the Vice-Chancellor, on or before Tues-
day, March 7.
The general board has approved Mr. J. J. H. Teall, of
St. John’s College, Director of the Geological Survey, for
the degree of Sc.D.
The Smith’s prizes have been awarded to Mr. H. Bate-
man for his essay on ‘‘ The solution of linear differential
equations by means of definite integrals,’’ and to Mr. P. E.
Marrack for his essay on ‘‘ Absorption by matter of
Rontgen and y rays.’’ Both the students belong to Trinity
College.
Mr. F. J. M. Stratton, of Caius College, has been elected
to an Isaac Newton studentship.
Lonpon.—At the South-Western Polytechnic Miss Gladys
Martyn has been elected to the free studentship in the
physical training department. She will devote part of her
time to the scientific study of anthropometric measurements
and eugenics. Mr. L. D. Coueslant, lecturer in the
engineering department of the polytechnic, has been elected
to be head of the mechanical and civil engineering depart-
ment of the Technical Institute of Sunderland. Mr. A. J.
Makower has been elected head of the electrical engineering
department in succession to Mr. C. F. Smith. .
The Fishmongers’ Company has granted a sum of
1oool. toward the funds necessary for the incorporation of
University College in the University of London. By this
grant the amount still required to complete the funds
necessary for incorporation is reduced to 17,000l., a total
of 183,0001. having now been raised for the purpose. Dr.
A. R. Cushny, of the University of Michigan, U.S.A., has
been appointed to the chair of pharmacology and materia
medica in the college. Prof. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt has
resigned the chair of civil engineering and surveying.
WE learn from Science that Mrs. Goldwin Smith has
given 4oool, to Cornell University ; and that by the will of
the late Mr. E. A. Goodnough, of Worcester, gifts are
made as follows :—soool. to Mount Holyoke College, 3000l.
to Iowa College, 5oool. to the Huguenot Seminary in South
Africa, roool. to Washburn College in Kansas, 2000l. to
Drury College in Missouri.
Tue Engineering and Mining Journal of New York pub-
lishes the views of Prof. H. M. Howe, the eminent American
metallurgist, on the vexed question whether technical schools
serve the interests of the community better if they are parts
of great universities or if they are isolated institutions.
Wisely guided association, while it need not deprive the
technical school of character and individuality, should, he
thinks, benefit the community through the broadening inter-
action of the teachers of pure science and the technical
teachers, with their closer contact with active life. The
grand scale should effect great economy, not so much in
saving salaries and in widening the use of the more expen-
sive instruments, as in fitting work to worker, and in sup-
plying more fully the eminent with work on their own plane.
Iv a paper on ‘* Architectural Education ’’ read before a
meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects on
Monday, Mr. R. Blomfield described the report and sylla-
bus prepared by the Board of Architectural Education
appointed by the institute. The following is the syllabus
proposed by the board :—(1) Building materials; (2) con-
struction, including (a) applied mechanics, strictly in prac-
tical relation to construction, and (b) the practical methods
of the building trades; (3) architectural drawing, including
working and freehand drawings, solid geometry, and
measured drawings of historical examples of architecture ;
(4) geometrical projection and rudimentary perspective, this |
latter to be studied as an aid to the shaping and modelling }
of buildings, not as a means of elaborating architectural |
NO.'1843, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| against the waves.
[ FEBRUARY 23,.1905
drawings; (5) design and the history of architecture as
supplemental to and elucidatory of the study of construction.
It is pointed out that these subjects should be taught by
class work in the schools and by demonstration in the
laboratory or lecture theatre of practical work. The
laboratory or workshop for training in practical work is an
essential feature of the scheme. The demonstrations given
in the laboratory should be in intimate relations with the
lectures given in the class-rooms of the schools, and the
course must be arranged so that the training in the class-
rooms and in the workshops proceed together. In
moving a vote of thanks to Mr Blomfield, Sir Arthur
Riicker said that, if the great movement which is taking
place in technical education is to have a sound foundation,
it is absolutely necessary that it should be carried out by
those who are themselves the professional members of the
great professions and trades which they wish to carry to a
point of higher education.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, January 26.—‘‘ On the Drift produced in
Ions by Electromagnetic Disturbances, and a Theory of
Radio-activity.’”” By George W. Walker. Communicated
by Prof. A. Gray, F.R.S.
Electromagnetic waves produce certain mechanical
forces on an electrically charged particle, and the
equations of motion of such a particle can be formed.
When the particle is regarded as exceedingly small and
endowed with a charge e and inertia m, which includes
electrical inertia, the equations take a comparatively simple
form. When the small viscous term due to radiation from
the particle is neglected the equations can be integrated in
certain cases, and it is found that the continued propagation
of waves involves an alteration of the position of the particle
in space.
The case which suggested the general result was that in
which the waves form an infinite simple harmonic train,
and the solution showed that while the passage of a com-~
plete wave restored the initial velocities of the particle, its
position in space was altered.
This alteration of position is not completely accounted for
by the change due to the initial velocities had there been no
waves. In particular, if the particle is initially at rest, the
passage of a complete wave restores the state of rest, but the
particle now occupies a new position in space. This curious
result has an analogue in the case of a simple pendulum
making complete revolutions, where the elapse of a com-
plete period restores the velocity while the angle described
has increased by 27.
The continued propagation of the waves thus involves the
result that the particle appears to drift through space in a
manner which can be completely determined when the initial
circumstances are given and the constants of the train of
waves are known.
Similar results are found to hold for any kind of plane
disturbances propagated in a straight line. Several cases
are worked out where the disturbance is of a simple char-
acter. The disturbance is that in which the electric force is
X,, with the appropriate magnetic force X,/V at right
angles to X,, for a time d/V succeeded by zero force for a
time d/V, and this again succeeded by electric force —X,
for a time d/V, and zero force for a time d/V, after which
the disturbance recurs. In one case where the particle is
initially at rest it appears to drift with the waves, while in
another case where the particle has a certain initial velocity
at right angles to the direction of propagation it drifts
If radiation from the particle is neg-
lected, the passage of a complete pulse in which the in-
tegrated effect of electric force is zero involves a restoration
of the original energy of the particle, and thus the trans-
ference of the particle is accomplished without abstraction
of energy from the pulse. The expressions for the apparent
velocity of drifting in the direction of propagation of the
waves are found to depend on the squares of the charge, so
that it is probable that an electrically neutral system will also
be made to drift. :
It is pointed out that if the equations held up to velocities
of the charged particle equal to that of radiation, a particle
FEBRUARY 23, 1905]
NATURE
407
originally moving in the direction of propagation with a
velocity slightly less than that of radiation may be picked
up by the waves and carried forward with the velocity of
radiation.
The conclusion is that the propagation of disturbances of
any form in a straight line involves a sorting of free ions
and molecules according to their initial circumstances, and
streaming of these both with and against the waves must
take place.
These results are general, and are limited only by the
limits of the electrodynamic equations. They suggest, how-
ever, a possible explanation of the action of all kinds of
ionising agents.
In particular, it is suggested that if a radio-active sub-
stance is an origin from which electromagnetic disturbances
are radiated, these disturbances probably ionise the gas in
the immediate Vicinity and produce streaming of ions and
molecules with their associated properties both outwards
from and inwards to the substance. This view does not
necessarily involve the supposition that there is a continual
diminution of the substance.
The results may also throw some light on the question of
the energy sent out. For, suppose that there exist a posi-
tive and a negative ion which, in the absence of the pulses,
would recombine at some point A, thereby radiating a certain
amount of energy, then the directive action of the pulses
may make them recombine at some other point B. Thus the
radiated energy will proceed from the point B instead of
from the point A. The transference of a single free ion can
be accomplished without the expenditure of energy, and it
is possible that the transference of the positive and negative
ions may take place without any abstraction of energy from
the pulses. Since, however, in general the transference may
involve a relative displacement of the two ions, abstraction
of energy from the pulses may be involved, so that the ques-
tion is one about which the greatest caution must be exer-
cised. It cannot be decided without further investigation.
These considerations are in general agreement with the
views that have been expressed by Lord Kelvin and Prof. and
Madame Curie.
The question whether the apparent velocity of drifting may
be of the order indicated by experiment is considered; and
it is shown that in order to give velocities comparable with
that of radiation, the theory leads us to expect that the fre-
quency of vibration of the waves radiated by the particles
should be of the order for visible or ultra-violet light.
The differences between ionising agents would turn to a
considerable extent on the character of the disturbances
radiated.
Since the propagation of waves through a region of space
containing matter involves streaming of the matter, the con-
tinued propagation cannot be quite independent of any
statical, electric or magnetic field present.
February 2.—‘ Note on the Determination of the Volume
Elasticity of Elastic Solids.’? By Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S.
Paris.
Acadeniy of Sciences, February 13.—M. Troost in the
chair.—On the existence of an ellipsoid of absorption in all
translucid crystals, even when without a plane of symmetry
or a principal axis: J. Boussinesq.—Study of the silicide
of carbon from the Cafion Diablo meteorite : Henri Moissan.
In the residue left after dissolving a block of this meteorite
weighing 53 kilograms in hydrochloric acid, a hexagonal
crystal of silicon carbide was noticed. It was completely
identified by its appearance, density (3-2), and indifference
to most chemical reagents. Fused caustic potash gave
potassium silicate, and fused lead chromate, carbon dioxide.
The origin of this block of iron may be terrestrial or
sidereal, but the existence of silicon carbide in the midst of
the metal shows that the products prepared with the elec-
tric furnace are met with in nature.—On some constants of
pure methane, and on the action of solid methane on liquid
fluorine: H. Moissan and Chavanne (see p. 400).—The
eruptive basic rocks of French Guinea: A. Lacroix.
Besides biotite granite, numerous basic eruptive rocks have
been found in French Guinea, especially gabbros, peridot-
ites, and diabases, a detailed account of which is given.
Attention is directed to the difference in the mode of weather-
ing in tropical and in temperate climates, as exemplified
in these samples.—On the use of photography as an aid to
NO. 1843; VOL. 71}
topography: A. Laussedat. An account of an application
of the photographic method to the survey of the region
round Mount Argée, in Cappadocia, on a scale of 1/80,000.
The use of photography has the advantage of reducing very
considerably the time required as compared with the
ordinary methods of surveying, and is especially advan-
tageous in mountainous regions.—Observations of the
Borrelly comet (1904 e) made with the Brunner equatorial
at the Observatory of Lyons: J. Guillaume. The apparent
position of the comet was measured on January 3, together
with the positions of two comparison stars. The comet
appeared as an object of the tenth magnitude, and possessed
a small nucleus.—Observations of the sun made at the
Observatory of Lyons with the 16-centimetre Brunner
equatorial during the fourth quarter of 1904: J. Guil-
laume. The results are summarised in three tables giving
the number of spots, their distribution in latitude, and the
distribution of the faculz in latitude.—Actinometric observ-
ations made at the summit of Mont Blanc: A. Hansky.
The observations were made in the observatory at the
summit of Mont Blanc with the instruments of M. Crova.
The conditions in 1900 were more favourable than in 1897
and 1898, and the results for this year are given in detail,
the most probable result for the constant being between
3-0 and 3-5.—On linear partial differential equations: M.
Hadamard.—On the deviation of falling bodies: Maurice
Fouche. A reply to a criticism of M. de Sparre on a
former paper by the author.—The thickness of transparent
sheets of iron: L. Houllevigue. After trying unsuccess-
fully various methods for estimating the thickness of thin
films of iron, a colorimetric estimation with sulphocyanide
was found to give trustworthy results. The transparency (T)
of these films was determined before dissolving in acid for
the colorimetric test, and for films varying in thickness
from 0.024 to 0-056 milligram per square centimetre the
thickness was found to be a linear function of log T. This
curve being established, the thickness of any given film
could be quickly determined by the photometer.—The auto-
matic registration of atmospheric ionisation: Charles
Nordmann. The charge introduced by the ions is removed
from the condenser plate by falling drops of water, the
constancy of flow being secured by a Marriotte’s bottle.
The deviations of the electrometer in the arrangement
described, a diagram of which is given, are proportional
to the number of ions per unit volume of the gas.—On the
heat given off by paraffin submitted to the action of a
rotating electrostatic field of high frequency: Ch. Eug.
Guye and P. Denso.—On a new reaction of aldehydes and
the isomerism of their oxides: A. Conduché. The alde-
hyde is added to a dilute aqueous solution containing equi-
molecular proportions of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and
potassium cyanate. Well crystallised compounds separate
out, the melting points of which characterise the aldehyde.
The discussion of the composition of these compounds throws
light on the constitution of the isomeric aldoximes. No
corresponding compounds are obtained when a ketone is
substituted for the aldehyde in the reaction.—The action of
hydrocyanic acid on epiethyline: M. Lespieau. The
nitrile C,H,.O.CH,—CH(OH)—CH.,,.CN is obtained in this
reaction, and the preparation and properties of several sub-
stances derived from this are described.—On the non-exist-
ence of two stereoisomeric ethyl dioximidobutyrates: L.
Bouveault and A. Wahl. The supposed existence of two
stereoisomers indicated by Hantzsch and by Nussberger is
shown to be erroneous.—On the transformation of amylo-
cellulose into starch : Eugéne Roux.—On the electrolysis of
organic acids by means of the alternating current: André
Brochet and Joseph Petit. The electrolysis of formic and
oxalic acids can be easily effected with the alternating
current ; the results are the same as with the direct current,
but the yields are much higher.—On the phosphorescence
of phosphorus: E. Jungfleisch. It is shown that an inert
gas, saturated with the vapour of phosphorus, contains an
extremely small weight of phosphorus, the oxidation of
which gives rise to scarcely appreciable light effects. The
author regards his experiments as proving that a lower
volatile oxide is first produced, and that it is the oxidation of
this which gives rise to the luminous phenomena.—On
isodimorphism; Frédéric Wallerant.—On the extension
of the alkaline rocks in the basin of Aouache: H. Arsan-
daux.—Two species of Dalbergia in Madagascar produc-
408
NATURE
{ FEBRUARY 23, 1905
ing a variety of ebony wood : Henri Jumelle.—On the
biology of the Saprolegnia: Paul Dop.—The utilisation of
the essential oils in the etiolated plant: Eug. Charabot
and Alex. Hébert. It is shown that in the absence of
light the plant is capable of consuming the essential oil
which it contains, especially the terpenic compounds.—The
relations between Bougainvillia fruticosa and Bougain-
villia ramosa: Paul Hatlez. The author regards these as
one and the same species, the one belonging to calm
water, the other to rough water, the slight difference be-
tween the two being due to this difference in the surround-
ings.—Experimental researches on the relations between
arterial pressure and the amounts of chloroform absorbed :
J. Tissot. In the case of subjects under chloroform the
examination of the arterial pressure gives indications of
approaching trouble earlier than the respiratory modi-
fications, the latter only appearing when the dangerous
condition is already set up.—A comparative study of the
auto-conducting cage and the condensing couch in the
treatment of arterial hypertension by d’Arsonvalisation: A.
Moutier and A. Challamel. The results obtained with
the solenoid are better than with the couch, the commonly
accepted view that the two are equivalent being erroneous.
—The action of radium on the torpedo fish: Maurice
Mendelssohn.—On the tectonic of the region north of the
Montagne Noire: Jules Bergeron.—The daily variation of
temperature in the upper regions of the atmosphere: L.
Teisserenc de Bort.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 23-
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On some New Species of Lagenostoma; a Type
of Pteriduspermous Seed from the Coal-measures ; E. A. Newell Arber.—
On a New Rhabdosphere: G. Murray, F.R.S.—T'wo Cases of Tri-
chromic Vision: Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green.—On Changes observable
in the Liver Cells during Digestion, and their Relation to Hepatic
Secretion: Prof. E. Wace Carlier.—The Colour-Physiology of the
Higher Crustacea. Part I[I.: F. Keeble and Dr. F. W. Gamble.—
Phosphorescence caused by the Beta and Gamma Rays of Radium.
Part 11.—G. T. Beilby.
RoyacInstitutTron, at 5.—Recent Work of the Geological Survey : Prof.
J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.
{NSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Continuation of Dis-
cussion :—The Value of Overhead Mains for Electric Distribution in the
United Kingdom: G. L. Addenbrooke.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 24
Rovat INsTITUTION, at 9.—Fungi: Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
PuysicaL Soctety, at 5.—On the Curvature Method of teaching
Geometrical Optics: Dr. C. V. Drysdale.— Exhibition of Dr. Meisling's
Colour Patch Apparatus: R. J. Sowter.—A Method of illustrating the
Laws of the Simple Pendulum, and an Exhibition of String Models of
Optical Systems : J. Schofield.
INSTITUTION OF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.— Morecambe Sewerage : Method
of laying a rs-inch Cast-iron Sewer under the London and North-
Western Railway: F. D. Flint.—The Reconstruction of Bow Bridge
over the River Lea: H. M. Rootham.
SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 25.
Roya INSTITUTION, at 3.—Archzxology : D. G. Hogarth.
Tue Essex FIELD CLUuB, at 6.30 (at the Essex Museum of Natural History,
Stratford).—Straw Plait; a Lost Essex Industry, I. : Chalkley Gould.—
Family and Life of Gilberd, of Colchester : Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson,
F.R.S.—Reyvised List of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of Essex: Dr.
M. C. Cooke and George Massee.
MONDAY, FEbRUARY 27.
Rovat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—The Scientific Results of the
National Antarctic Expedition: Capt. R. F. Scott, C.V.O., RN.
Society oF ARTS, at 8.—Internal Combusticn Engines: Dugald Clerk,
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Changes in Pure Premium Policy-
Values consequent upon Variations in the Rate of Interest or the Rate of
Mortality, or upon the Introduction of the Rate of Discontinuance :
G. J. Lidstone.
TUESDAY, Frpruary 28.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—Some Recent Biometric Studies: Prof. K.
Pearson, F.R.S.
Society OF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Manufactures of Greater Britain. I.
Canada: C. F. Just.
[INSTITUTION OF CIvIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Surface-Condensing Plants,
and the Value of the Vacuum produced: R. W. Allen.
WEDNESDAY, Marcu 1.
Society or Pusiic ANALysTs, at 8.—The Estimation of Oxygen in
Copper: S. Dickson.—(r) Some Conditions affecting the Ether Value
of Brandies ; (2) The Determination of Higher Alcohols in Spirits. I.:
Dr. Philip Schidrowitz and F. Kaye.
ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—New Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera
from Northern Rhodesia: Herbert Druce and Hamilton H. Druce.—
On Three Remarkable New Genera of Microlepidoptera: Sir George F.
Hampson, Barr.
Critica. Socrety. oF UNiversity CoL_itece (Gower Street, W.C.), at 5.
—{yolution and Speculation: Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart. Visitors
invited.
NO. 1843, VOL. 71]
THURSDAY, MAaAkcu 2.
Rovat Scciery, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: Further Researches on the
Temperature Classification of Stars. No. 2: Sir Norman Lockyer,
K.C.B., F.R.S.—On the Radio-active Minerals: Hon. R. J. Strutt.—
Atmospheric Electricity in High Latitudes: G. C. Simpson.—On the
Spectrum of Silicon, with a Note on the Spectrum of Fluorine: J. Lunt.
—On the Electric Resistance to the Motion of a Charged Sphere in
Free Space or ina Field of Force : G. W. Walker.
CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—The Latent Heat of Evaporation of Benzene
and some other Compounds : J. Campbell Brown.—The Relation between
Natural and Synthetic Glycerylphosphoric Acids: F. B. Power and
F. Tutin.—The Reduction of Isophthalic Acid : W. H. Perkin. jun., and
S. S. Pickles.—The Transmutation of Geometrical Isomers: A. W.
Stewart.
Roya. InstTiTuUTION, at 5.—Recent Astroncmical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S.
RONTGEN SOCIETY, at 8.15.—A discussion on “‘ The Necessity of Accurate
Measurement in X-ray and High Frequency Work,” opened by Dr.
W. D. Butcher.
Civic anp MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SOCIETY, at 8.—Engineering Expert
Evidence : J. F. Reade.
LINNEAN SOCIETY, at 8.—Zoological Nomenclature ; International Rules
and Others (to be followed by a discussion): Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
F.R.S.—Biscayan Plankton, Part 1V. The Thaliacea: Dr. G. Herbert
Fowler.
InstiruTION oF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Type-setting by Tele-
graph: D. Murray.
FRIDAY, Marcu 3.
Rovat InsTITUTION, at 9.—Recent Advances in Wireless Telegraphy :
Chev. G. Marconi.
SATURDAY, Marcu 4.
Roya. InstTiITUTION, at 3.—Archeology : D. G. Hogarth.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Recent English History ae BPE
Stereochemistry. By A. McK. i lf 386
A Traveller’s Guide to India. By R.L.. 387
Our Book Shelf :—
Newman: ‘‘ Bacteriology and the Public Health.”—
Dr. A. C. Houston : 388
“* Die bisherige Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-technischen
Reichsanstalt ;’’ ‘t Die Tatigkeit der Physikalisch-
technischen Reichsanstalt.’’—J. A. H. | A BOS
Ostwald : ‘* The Principles of Inorganic Chemistry.” —
W.R. >) PER tcc dat. ate Oe
Letters to the Editor :—
A Contemplated Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific
Ocean by the Carnegie Institution.—Dr. L. A.
Bauer a. 0 iy ee Pee cs ole)
Recently Observed Satellites. —Prof. William H.
Pickering PMN oo Seti oS 390
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.—R. Vere
Laurence, H. Rackham, A. C. Seward,
F.R.S. ; W. Bateson, F.R.S. sce yap et OO
Secondary Radiation.—Prof. J. A. McCleliand . 390
Tenacity to Life of a Grass-snake.—E. V. Windsor 390
Notes on Stonehenge. IV. The Earliest Circles
(continued). (Z//ustvated.) By Sir Norman Lockyer,
PROSE s), | A See ss sa SN
The Approaching Total Solar Eclipse of August
30. (With Maps.) By Dr. William J. S. Lockyer . 393
The Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. (J///ustrated.) By
W.. PP ee ot Laces ch a eS ee
Notes. (Jlélustrated.) Hits 397
Our Astronomical Column :—
Ephemeris for Comet 1904¢ . «+. ~~... . = 4G0
Revised Elements for Borrelly’s Comet (19042) . . . 400
The Sun's Rotation + eee 401
Secondary Shadow on Saturn’s Rings « (os OX
Observations of the Zodiacal Light + nol ON
Permanent Numbers for the Minor Planets discovered
duxingaroonmee. = Si; en eel re : 401
Studiestinviagemes . . . 1. heen. te +, « /4QE
The Absorption of Light by the Atmosphere 2 she
John Hunter and his Influence on Scientific
Progress. By John Tweedy awe oe Go aOR
University and Educational Intelligence 406
Societies and Academies ay a5 406
Diary of Societies 408
NAFU RE
499
“THURSDAY, MARCH 2, 1905.
A TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTROMAGNETISM.
Elements of Electromagnetic Theory. By S. J.
Barnett, Ph.D. Pp. 480. (New York: The Mac-
millan Company; London: Macmillan and Co.,
Lid.) 1903.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
WiCeeeN electromagnetic theory is so full of
interest, and yet at the same time so full of
difficulties, that every fresh attempt to present an
elementary account of it in a systematic and con-
nected form is sure to attract the attention of
students who are endeavouring to gain a grasp of
the fundamental principles of the subject. Such
students are always looking out for a “ good text-
book,’’ hoping that this book, when found, will be
better adapted to their needs than those they already
possess. Their desire for something better probably
arises, in part, from the difficulty of the subject, and
the large number of new ideas which it presents to
their minds. It is perhaps too much to expect that
a student should be able to gain from any _ single
book really vivid physical conceptions of electric and
magnetic phenomena and principles, for perhaps,
after all, these can only gradually grow in the mind.
The author of the treatise under review has, it is
clear, made a serious attempt to supply the student’s
want, so far, at least, as the more formal theory is
concerned. : :
The book is meant to give an introduction to the
subject, and thus the author does well to keep the
analytical processes within the limits which are
suitable for students whose mathematical attainments
do not go beyond some knowledge of the differential
and integral calculus and of simple differential equa-
tions.
In the first part of the book, general electrostatic
theory is treated in a fairly complete way, many
problems being solved. The chapters on the con-
duction current, on electrolysis and on thermal and
voltaic E.M.F.’s, which then follow, will be found
useful. The author next introduces magnetism, the
magnetic action of currents, electromagnetic induc-
tion and the magnetic effects of moving charges, and
concludes with a chapter on the transference of
electromagnetic energy and on_ electromagnetic
waves.
Throughout the book the system of rational units
originated by Mr. Oliver Heaviside is employed. On
this system, if two unit charges are placed at unit
distance apart in a vacuum, each exerts a force of
1/4m dynes upon the other. The adoption of this
system banishes the great 4m from many important
formule; for instance, on the rational system, the
magnetomotive force in any circuit is numerically
equal to the total current linked with the circuit, and
the energy per unit volume in an electrostatic field
is 3cE*, where E is the electric’ force and c the
specific inductive capacity. But though the 47 is
driven from some formule it finds a refuge in others,
with the result that every one of the rational units
corresponding to the practical units, i.e. to the
NO. 1844, VOL. 71
Coulomb, Volt, Farad, Ampere, Ohm, Gauss, Max-
well and Henry, differs from the practical unit by
some power of 47. Yet the rational system is doubt-
less an advantage from the point of view of pure
theory, and would probably have been adopted in
practice if only there had been someone. to suggest
it in the early days of the science. The student must
remember that he is using the rational system when
he compares the formulze in this treatise with those
in most other text-books.
The magnetic properties of currents are deduced
from Ampére’s result that the mechanical action
experienced by a circuit carrying a current I is the
same as it would experience if each element of length
dL were acted on by a force IB sin @.dL, where B
is the magnetic induction and @ is the angle between
dL and B; the direction of the force is at right
angles to both dL and B. In this way the idea of
the equivalent magnetic shell is avoided, and, in fact,
we have found no mention of a magnetic shell in the
book. Yet the ideas which group themselves round
a magnetic shell and the solid angle subtended by it
are of real assistance, and are not easily replaced.
The book, for the most part, goes over well worn
ground, and thus the reviewer’s attention is naturally
directed more to the treatment of the various proposi-
tions than to the propositions themselves. The
treatment is generally fresh and vigorous, but in a
few instances is hardly satisfactory. Taking the
electrostatic field due to a point-charge, the author
considers the equilibrium of a portion of the field
bounded by an elementary circular cone and two con-
centric spheres, and shows that the tension along the
lines of force requires a pressure of equal amount
at right angles to them. The result is extended to
the general case by the remark that ‘‘ since the field
within the element of volume is uniform when the
element is made indefinitely small, and since this is
true of any electric field, the result just obtained for
a radial field holds universally.”’
The attempt to establish a general result by the
consideration of a single special case is seldom satis-
factory. In the present instance the student would
not fail to notice that the method which succeeds for
the non-uniform field within the conical element will
not apply if the tube of force is a circular cylinder
so that the field within the element is really uniform.
In chapter xiii. “‘ the coefficient of self induction
(L) of a coil or circuit is defined to be the quotient
of the coil flux, N, due to the coil’s own magnetic
field divided by the current I in the coil.’’ This is
the way in which the coefficient is usually defined,
but it is an exceedingly unsatisfactory way, for unless
the conductivity of the wire be infinite, lines of
magnetic induction penetrate the wire, and then it
becomes difficult to understand what is meant by the
“coil flux.’’ It is impossible to escape from the
difficulty by supposing the wire to become infinitely
thin, for the only result of this is to make L become
infinite.
Later in the chapter the coefficient of self induction
is defined by means of the expression ($LI*) for the
energy of the system. It would be preferable to follow
T
410
NATURE
{Marcu 2, 1905
Maxwell and to adopt this definition at the outset,
for it is from the value of the energy that the co-
efficient is always calculated.
The methods of vector analysis are so useful in
electromagnetic theory and present so little difficulty
that the reader naturally expects to find them used in
a book which is intended to present a ‘‘ thoroughly
modern introduction’’ to that theory. The author
makes a slight use of this analysis in his later
chapters, but in the case of vector products adopts
a hybrid notation. In the true vector analysis, as
used by Heaviside, if the vector product of the two
vectors A and B, which make an angle @ with each
other, be the vector €, the result is denoted by
Cc—VAB,
while the magnitude (C) of the product is given by
C=AB sin 4,
In the author’s notation the relation between C, A
and B is expressed by
C=VAB sin @,
the letter V serving to indicate that © is at right
angles to the plane of A and B. It is difficult to see
that this hybrid notation has any advantage over
Heaviside’s.
A few misprints have been noticed in a list sent
out by the author; only a few others have been
detected.
The reader has probably already gathered from
this review that the treatise can hardly be described
as that ‘‘ good text-book ’’ for which the student
searches. Yet it is undoubtedly a useful book, and
with a little modification and revision would be one
of the best books of its class. The student who is
fortunate enough to have it at hand will often turn
to it with profit. G. F. ©. SEARLE.
ASTRONOMICAL LECTURES AT CHICAGO.
Astronomical Discovery. By Herbert Hall Turner,
D.Sc., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Oxford. Pp. xi+225. With
plates. (London: Edward Arnold, 1904.) Price
tos, 6d. net.
ies object of this book and the reason for its
appearance are explained in a short preface. The
purpose is ‘‘to illustrate by the study of a few
examples, chosen almost at random, the variety in
character of astronomical discoveries.’’ The words
‘* almost at random ”’ seem a little out of place, for
we learn that the book comprises the matter that
was originally delivered in a series of lectures to the
University students of Chicago, at the hospitable
invitation of President Harper. The expression is
probably not to be taken too seriously. It is not
likely that a distinguished astronomer, enjoying what
may be regarded as a cathedral position, would be
careless in the preparation of his material. He
would be anxious to give his best, both for the credit
of English astronomy and for his own reputation.
There is ample internal evidence, not only that the
lectures were carefully prepared, but also of judicious
selection.
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
The subjects chosen are about equally distributed
between those that are made at the telescope and
those that have resulted from the discussion of the
observations so made. This will be seen from a list
of the several chapters or lectures—(1) Uranus and
Eros, (2) discovery of Neptune, (3) Bradley’s dis-
coveries of aberration and nutation, (4) accidental
discoveries, (5) the sun-spot period, and (6) the
variation of latitude. Some subjects which might
have been expected to find a place, such as the dis-
coveries resulting from the application of the spectro-
scope, have been omitted, but the list is sufficiently
varied, and we gratefully acknowledge having received
a considerable amount of pleasure from reading the
well-known and familiar tales, treated, as they are,
with the brightness and acuteness characteristic of
the author.
The choice of the discovery of Uranus permits a
well-deserved tribute to be paid to the memory of
the elder Herschel for the keenness, assiduity and
patience which mark the work of that astronomer ;
while the mention of Eros allows something to be
said of the problem of the sun’s distance and of the
history of those times when the discovery of a small
planet added something to the reputation of the lucky
discoverer. The Savilian professor has some amus-
ing remarks on the subject of naming the host of
small planets that diligence has added to our cata-
logues. He quotes the case of Victoria as giving
rise to an outcry by foreign astronomers, who objected
to the name of a reigning sovereign being found in
the list. But the real struggle of the purists was,
we believe, over the christening of Fortuna, which
Airy happily settled in favour of the discoverer’s
choice, by aptly quoting the well known lines of
Juvenal :—
““Nullum numen habes si sit prudentia
Sed nos te facimus fortuna deam, czloque locamus.”’
The second chapter or lecture is probably the least
satisfactory in the book. The tale might have been
told without parading the old scandal of sixty years
ago to such wearisome length. Controversy seems
out of place in lectures of this character. Prof. Turner
in reopening the old sore has apparently two objects,
the one, the whitewashing of Airy, and the other,
the besmirching of Challis’ reputation. Very hard
things are said of the latter to which we do not wish
to give further currency by repeating, but on the
subject of Challis’ lectures we doubt whether the
words given in Airy’s ‘‘ Life ’’ will bear the construc-
tion put upon them by Prof. Turner. There is no
evidence to show, or at least the author has not
produced it, that Airy’s opinion was different in 1844
from what it was in 1834, when he wrote to the Rev.
T. J. Hussey: ‘“‘ 1 am sure it could not be done (pre-
dict the place of the disturbing planet) till the nature
of the irregularity was well determined from several
successive revolutions’ (of Uranus), p. 43. Airy, it
may be suggested, did not believe the problem soluble
until he received Le Verrier’s memoir in 1846.
The account of Bradley’s discoveries is excellent,
and the feature in it which will be especially valued
is the brief history given of the Rev. James Pound,
MarcH 2, 1905]
NATURE
AI
Bradley’s maternal uncle. The reputation of Pound
has been overshadowed by that of his more brilliant,
but perhaps less versatile, nephew, and it is most
desirable to give the uncle his proper position. The
whole chapter constitutes a most delightful piece of
biography.
The accidental discovery of a ‘‘ new star ’’ does not
differ materially from that of a planet, and the author
admits that this fourth chapter might very well have
been the first of the series, but we agree with him
that it is not a matter upon which to lay any par-
ticular stress. The particular discovery is only a peg
on which to hang the remarks that the author wishes
to make on certain subjects. In this case the dis-
covery of the ‘‘ new star”? in Gemini, at Oxford, by
means of photography, serves to introduce an account
of the International Chart of the Heavens, and some
remarks connected with the behaviour of Nova Persei.
This chapter presents a careful examination of the
facts and suggestions that have been brought to light
by observation. The history of Schwabe and his
work on sun-spots do not call for any particular
remark. The chapter is not long, and it covers the
ground very satisfactorily. In the last lecture, Prof.
Turner gives an account of the variation of latitude,
wherein he is seen quite at his best. The subject is
not so hackneyed as some,of the other selections,
but to speak to Americans of the work accomplished
by Mr. Chandler was, no doubt, inspiring, and the
successive steps by which Mr. Chandler established
his case are described with clear, logical sequence.
Usually the author ends his lecture by pointing out
what particular lessons are to be drawn from the dis-
covery under examination, and they generally amount
to this, that there is no line of research, however
apparently unimportant or monotonous, which can be
safely neglected. Some inquiries seem to offer a
more immediate prospect of success, such as the
establishment of observatories in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, to make accurate observations on the motion
of the Pole; but at the same time unexpected dis-
coveries may lie in a direction precisely opposite to
that indicated by the most educated opinion at
present available. The conclusion may be obvious,
but the remark is not unnecessary. To be led too
strictly by authority is unwise, to neglect the teach-
ings of experience is a crime. W. E. P.
ZOOLOGICAL RESULTS.
Zoological Results based on Material from New
Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands and Else-
where, collected during the Years 1895, 1896, and
1897, by Arthur Willey, D.Sc.Lond. Parts i.—vi.
Pp. vi+83o; illustrated. (Cambridge: University
Press.)
HIS splendid series of ‘‘ zoological results ”’
should have been recognised at an earlier date
in our columns, but the six volumes have appeared
through a lustrum of five years, and the fine series of
memoirs has mounted up to a total which baffles re-
viewing. As Balfour student of the University of
Cambridge, Arthur Willey went in 1894 to the Pacific
NO. 1844, VoL. 71]
in search of the eggs of the pearly nautilus. He found
these, but so much more of great interest, e.g. as to
Peripatus, Amphioxus, Balanoglossus, Ctenoplana,
that his tenure of the Balfour scholarship was on two
successive occasions judiciously extended for a year
beyond the allotted triennium. In his arduous but
well rewarded explorations, Dr. Willey was aided by
the Government Grant Committee of the Royal
Society, who may congratulate themselves on the fact
that the money at their disposal was never better spent
than on this enterprise. It has seldom been the happy
fortune of a single zoologist to bring together in a
short span such rich material, including some of the
most interesting zoological types.
In part i. Dr. Willey describes the structure and
development of Peripatus novae-britanniae, n.sp., and
in so doing throws some fresh light on the hetero-
geneity of the class Onychophora, which this ©
‘delightful creature’? represents. Dr. Paul Mayer -
describes a new caprellid; Mr. G. A. Boulenger dis-
cusses a very rare sea-snake (Aipysurus annalatus)
from the South Pacific; Mr. R. I. Pocock reports on
the centipedes, millipedes, scorpions, Pedipalpi, and
spiders; and Dr. Sharp gives an account of the
phasmids, with notes on their remarkable eggs.
In part ii. Prof. Hickson reports on Millepora, show-
ing that the single species (M. alcicornis) illustrates
that great variability in the form of growth which is
a characteristic feature of the genus. Prof. Jeffrey
Bell discusses the echinoderms (other than holo-
thurians, which are dealt with separately by Mr. F. P.
Bedford). Mr. Arthur E. Shipley reports on the sipucu-
loids, Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner on the solitary corals and
on the post-embryonic development of Cycloseris, Mr.
Beddard on the earthworms, and Miss Isa L. Hiles on
the Gorgonacea, which includes some interesting new
species.
In part iii. Dr. Gadow has an interesting essay on
orthogenetic variation in the shells of Chelonia, that
is to say, cases in which the variations from the normal
type seem to lie in the direct line of descent; Dr.
Willey describes three new species of Enteropneusta,
and develops several theories, e.g. that the gill-slits
arose originally as perforations in the inter-annular
grooves for the aération of the gonads which occupied
the dividing ranges; and Mr. A. E. Shipley reports
on the echiurids, making a welcome attempt to revise
the group and to determine its geographical range.
In part iv. Mr. Stanley Gardiner describes the struc-
ture of a supposed new species of Ccenopsammia from
Lifu, and comes inter alia to the striking conclusion
that the so-called endoderm in Anthozoa, giving rise
to the muscular bands and generative organs, and
performing also the excretory functions, is homologous
with the mesoderm of Triploblastica. In terms of the
layer theory, of whatever value it may be, the actino-
zoon polyp must be regarded as a triploblastic form.
Dr. Sharp reports on insects from New Britain, Mr.
L. A. Borradaile on Stomatopoda and Macrura from
the South Seas, Mr. Walter E. Collinge on the slugs,
Mr. E. G. Philipps on the Polyzoa, Miss Laura Roscoe
Thornely on the hydroid zoophytes, and Mr. J. J.
Lister describes a remarkable type of a new family
A12
of sponges (Astroclera willeyana), a very interesting |
novelty. Mr. W. P. Pycraft discusses the pterylo-
graphy of the Megapodii, Prof. Hickson and Miss
Isa L. Hiles the Stolonifera and Alcyonacea, and Dr.
Ashworth the Xeniidae.
In part v. Mr. Arthur E. Shipley gives a description
of the Entozoa which Dr. Willey collected during his.
sojourn in the western Pacific, including Parocephalus
tortus, Shipley, a member of the interesting family
Linguatulide. Mr. R. C. Punnett discusses some
South Pacific nemertines, Mr. L. A. Borradaile has
an interesting note on the young of the robber crab,
Miss Edith M. Pratt describes the structure of Neohelia
porcellana, Mr. Boulenger reports on a new blind
snake from Lifu, and the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing deals
with the Crustacea.
Part vi. contains Dr. Willey’s contributions to the
natural history of the pearly nautilus—a fine piece of
work—and his personal narrative, which is not less
creditable. In his narrative, amid interesting details
of how he went about his collecting business, he dis-
cusses, as a zoologist, his new Peripatus, the Ascidian
Styeloides eviscerans, which readily throws out its
entrails in holothurian fashion, the interesting inter-
mediate type Ctenoplana, ‘‘ which no zoologist could
encounter without experiencing a momentary thrill
of satisfaction,’’ the lancelets and enteropneusts which
he observed, some of the remarkable new forms which
he discovered, such as Astroclera, and the egg-laying
of nautilus—his main quest. The whole story reflects
great credit on the indefatigable explorer himself and
on those who have assisted him in working up the
descriptions which form this imposing six-volume
series of zoological results.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Flora of the County Dublin. By Nathaniel Colgan.
Pp. Ixx+ 324. (Dublin: Hodges, Figgis and Co.,
Ltd., 1904.)
In many respects this district is an interesting one,
and the floral distribution not quite what might have
been expected from a consideration of the adjacent
counties. The flora resembles that of southern rather
than northern Britain, but the somewhat unexpected
result is arrived at that the western Irish flora has
a considerably larger proportion of northern plants
than has the corresponding eastern flora. The book
Opens with a summary of previous work in the dis-
trict from the fifteenth century to the present day.
The physical features are then described, and a section
headed ‘“‘ Relations of Plants and Soils ’’ lays par-
ticular emphasis on the distinction between ‘ calci-
fuges ’’ and “‘ calcicoles.’’
Some plants curiously absent from the county are
mentioned, one of which, Nymphaea alba, L., occurs
in Meath, Kildare, and Wicklow. Both Trifolium
repens, L., and T. dubium, Sibth., are stated to do
duty as the shamrock or shamrogue. Probably Oxalis
acetosella, L., has ‘never served as the Irish national
badge, this erroneous impression apparently dating
from a paper by J. E. Bicheno published in 1830. Mr.
Colgan cannot add Epilobium tetragonum, L., to the
Irish list, although £. obscurum, Schreber, is common
in the upland districts. A description of that interest-
ing hybrid Senecio Cineraria, D.C., x S. Jacobaea, L.,
NO. 1844, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
is given. The belief that one of its forms is identical
with the Italian S. Calvescens must be abandoned if
Sig. Sommier’s conclusion that this last plant is
S. Cinerariax S. erraticus, Bertolini, be accepted. It
is decidedly suggestive to find that our common
S. Jacobaea hybridises so much more readily with
an alien species than with its fellow Senecios of the
British Isles. Another curious fact concerning
hybrids deserves mention. The common cross Primula
veris x vulgaris, as found in Kenmure Park and in
several other localities, approaches very nearly to
the primrose, while the Ballinoscorney plant closely
resembles the cowslip. This curious state of affairs
demands experimental investigation. Space limit-
ations forbid mention of any more of the numerous
points of general botanical interest contained in the
volume.
The author is to be congratulated on having pro-
duced something far more useful than the mere cata-
logue of names and places sometimes dignified by the
title ‘‘ County Flora.’’ Particularly pleasing is the
attention paid to local names, given in the Irish-Gaelic
characters. It is rather surprising that philologists
do not devote more study to local and often rapidly
disappearing dialects. The botanist working a
country district is exceptionally well placed for collect-
ing information on such subjects, and might with
advantage make use of his opportunities.
Exercises in Practical Physiological Chemistry. By
Sydney W. Cole, M.A. Pp. viit+152. (Cam-
bridge: W. Heffer atid Sons; London: Simpkin,
Marshall and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 5s. net.
Practical Exercises in Chemical Physiology and
Histology. By H. B. Lacey and C. A. Pannett,
B.Sc. Pp. 112. (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons;
London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., Ltd., 1904.)
Price 2s. net.
NoruinGc more forcibly illustrates the growing im-
portance attached to the chemical side of physiology
than the institution of practical courses dealing with
this branch of the subject in centres of physiological
teaching. Accompanying this is a multiplication of
practical guides. Every teacher has his idiosyncrasies
in the exercises he selects for his classes, but one is
inclined to doubt whether these are always sufficiently
pronounced or important to justify him in issuing a
fresh handbook. Competition, however, is not to be
despised, and will in the end lead to the survival of
the fittest. In the struggle, Mr. Cole’s little book,
which represents the Cambridge course, will doubt-
less maintain its own. Though short it is admirably
clear, and the practical exercises are judiciously
selected. The author is well known for his researches
in physiological chemistry, and possesses that pre-
liminary knowledge of pure chemistry which is so
necessary nowadays for a successful pursuit of its
physiological application,
The book is free from illustrations; the student is
required to make his own drawings of crystals,
absorption spectra, and so forth in the blanks left
for the purpose. This is an admirable idea, and one
hopes that the zealous and interested care that Mr.
Cole asks from the students in his preface will be
responded to in the manner he desires.
The book does not pretend to be complete, but as
an elementary introduction to more advanced work it
is excellent. I do not propose to direct attention to
faults of omission, for these are obviously intentional;
the only fault of commission I have discovered is on
p. 78, where the statement made implies that
potassium ferricyanide contains oxygen.
The second book, that by Messrs. Lacey and
Marcu 2, 1905]
NATURE
413
Pannett, demonstrates that practical classes in
physiology are mot confined to universities and
colleges of university standard. The book itself is
not a serious contribution to scientific literature, and
its authors have neither the requisite training nor
knowledge to make it such. It is a mere compilation
or rechauffé from other well known text-books. One
notes that one of the authors blazons upon the title-
page that he has obtained a_ scholarship at the
inter. M.B. examination at the University of London,
and this is a fair index of what the reader may
expect in the interior of the volume. A note-book
carefully kept by any moderately good medical student
would be equally worthy of publication. pee
Laboratory Notes on Practical Metallurgy: being a
Graduated Series of Exercises. Arranged by Walter
Macfarlane, F.I.C. Pp. x+140. (London: Long-
mans, Green and Co., 1905.) Price 2s. 6d.
Tuts little book is apparently intended as a first
course for beginners in practical work in a metal-
lurgical laboratory, and especially for those who are
preparing for the examination of the Board of
Education in stages 1 and 2 of practical metallurgy.
For these classes of students it will be useful and
deserves commendation.
It consists of a series of practical exercises, all
well within the grasp of the average boy, graduated
and arranged with the view of developing the habit
of observation, and the instructions given for doing
them show a much more intimate acquaintance with
the simpler operations of a metallurgical laboratory
than is generally found in works of this class.. In
the first eighteen pages the student is introduced to
furnace work by simple experiments on the melting
of metals under various conditions, to prepare him
for the subsequent more difficult operations.
The preparation of the ordinary common alloys
follows, and then a series of well-chosen exercises
illustrates the oxidation of metals and the reduction
of metallic oxides and sulphides. Later, the more
complex subject of the principles on which the pro-
cesses for the extraction of copper, lead, gold, and
silver from their ores depend is dealt with.
The book concludes with a few elementary exercises
in assaying gold and silver ores, and the analysis of
coal and coke. In the appendix are several tables,
the most important being one giving the percentage
composition of some of the common alloys.
There are a few slips and blemishes in the text,
but they are for the most part trivial, one of the
chief being in the table just mentioned, in which
the composition of the British gold coinage is given
as gold 91.66, silver 8:33; the latter should of course
be ‘copper.’’? The book contains much useful in-
formation for junior students, and can be recom-
mended for their use.
Le Liége. Ses produits et ses sous-produits.
Martignat. Pp. 158. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars and
Masson et Cie.) Price 2.50 francs.
Tue latest addition to the ‘‘ Encyclopédie Scientifique
des Aide-Mémoire ”’ is divided into two parts. The
first part is concerned with the formation of cork in
Quercus suber, the distribution of the tree, its treat-
ment, its maladies and enemies, &c., and concludes
with an account of prices and other commercial con-
siderations. The second part describes how the natural
product is treated in the manufacture of corks of
all kinds, and how it is utilised in the production of
linoleum and other materials.
NO. 1844, VOL. 71 |
By M.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Charge carried by the a Rays from Radium.
No special difficulty has been experienced in showing that
the B particles (electrons), expelled fron: radium, carry with
them a negative charge of electricity. The positive charge
left behind on the vessel containing the radio-active material
is simply and strikingly illustrated in the arrangement de-
vised by Strutt, which is now popularly known as the
“radium clock.’’
Since the a particles are deflected by a magnet as if they
carried a positive charge, it is to be expected that this
charge should be easily detected; but all the initial experi-
ments made for this purpose resulted in failure. Since there
are four products in radium which give out a particles, and
only one which gives out 8 particles, it is theoretically to
be expected that four a particles should be expelled from
radium for each f particle.
In the Bakerian lecture (Phil. Trans., series A, vol. cciv.,
p. 212, 1904) I described some experiments that were made
to determine the charge carried by the a particles. About
half a milligram of radium bromide was dissolved in water,
and spread uniformly over a metal plate and evaporated to
dryness. With a plate of 20 sq. cm. in area, the absorp-
tion of the @ rays in the thin film of radium bromide is
negligible. The solution of the radium released the emana-
tion, and, several hours after removal, the activity of the
radium fell to about one-quarter of its maximum value, and
the B and y rays from it practically disappeared. The ex-
periments were made with the radium film at this mini-
mum activity, in order to avoid the complication which
would ensue if the 6 particles were present. An insulated
plate was placed parallel to the radium plate and about
3mm. away from it. The apparatus was enclosed in an
air-tight vessel, which was exhausted to a very low vacuum.
The current between the plates was measured by an electro-
meter. The saturation current between the plates rapidly
fell with decrease of pressure, but soon reached a limiting
value—about 1/1000 of the initial—which could not be re-
duced further, however good a vacuum was obtained. No
certain evidence that the a particles carried a positive charge
could be obtained. It was thought possible that the in-
ability to reduce the current below this value might be
due to a strong secondary radiation, consisting of slow-
moving electrons, which were liberated by the impact of the
a particles on matter. Strutt (Phil. Mag., August, 1904)
has also observed a very similar effect, using a plate of
radio-tellurium, which is well suited for this purpose, as it
gives out only a rays.
J. J. Thomson (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., November 14,
1904; see Nature, December 15) has recently shown in a
striking manner that a large number of slow-moving elec-
trons are liberated from a plate of radio-tellurium, although
this substance is supposed to emit only a particles. These
electrons could be readily bent back to the plate from which
they came by the action of a magnetic field. No indication,
however, that the o particles carried a charge was
obtained.
I have recently attacked this problem again, using the
methods and apparatus previously described, but, in addi-
tion, employing a strong magnetic field to remove the
slow-moving electrons present with the a particles. The
apparatus was placed between the pole-pieces of an electro-
magnet, so that the field was parallel to the plane of the
plates. In such a case, most of the escaping electrons de-
scribe curved paths and return to the plate from which they
set out. On application of the magnetic field, a very striking
alteration was observed in the magnitude of the current.
The positive and negative currents for a given voltage were
ereatly reduced. The upper plate, into which the a par-
ticles were fired, rapidly gained a positive charge. In a
good vacuum, this was the case whether the lower plate
was charged positively, or negatively, or connected to earth.
The magnitude of the charge, deduced from these experi-
414
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
ments, was found to be practically independent of the
voltage between o and 8 volts. When once a magnetic field
had been applied, of sufficient strength to stop all the slow-
moving electrons, a large increase in its value had no effect
on the magnitude of the positive charge. I think these ex-
periments undoubtedly show that the a particles do carry
a positive charge, and that the previous failures to detect
this charge were due to the masking action of the large
number of slow-moving electrons emitted from the plates.
Observations were made under different experimental con-
ditions, and with very concordant results. In one set of
experiments a weight of o-19 mg. of radium bromide was
used, spread on a glass plate, which was covered with a
thin sheet of aluminium foil; in the other 0.48 mg., spread
on an aluminium plate. The saturation current due to the
latter plate, measured between parallel plates 3-5 cm. apart
by means of a galvanometer, was found to be 7-8 X 107
amperes. It is possible that the failure of Prof. Thomson
to detect the positive charge carried by the a rays from
radio-tellurium was due to the smallness of the effect to be
measured ; for with the plate of radio-tellurium in my pos-
session, the current was only about 1/40 of the above value.
Since the film of radium bromide is so thin that all the
a particles escape from its surface, it is easy to deduce from
the observed charge from a known weight of radium the
total number of a particles expelled per second from one
gram of radium bromide. Taking into consideration that
half of the a particles were projected into the radium plate,
and assuming that the a particle carries the same charge
as a gaseous ion, it was deduced that one gram of radium
bromide emits 3-5 X 107° particles per second. Now the
activity of radium bromide in radio-active equilibrium is
four times this minimum, and contains four products which
emit a particles at the same rate. It is thus probable that
one gram of radium bromide in radio-active equilibrium
emits 1-4X10'! particles per second. I had previously de-
duced (loc. cit.), from indirect data, the value about
r-1X10'', so that the theoretical and experimental numbers
are in very good agreement.
I have also made experiments, by a special method, to
determine the total number of 8 particles emitted from one
gram of radium bromide in radio-active equilibrium, and
have found a value about the same as the number of a par-
ticles emitted at its minimum activity. It is thus seen that
four a particles are expelled from radium for each § par-
ticle.
much smaller than this, but, in his experiments, a large
proportion of the more slowly moving 8 particles was ab-
sorbed in the radium itself and in the envelope enclosing it.
The number of a particles expelled per second from one
The number of B particles obtained by Wien was |
gram of radium is a most important constant, for on it |
depends all calculations to determine the volume of the
emanation, and of helium, the heat emission of radium, and
also the probable life of radium and the other radio-
elements. E. RUTHERFORD.
McGill University, Montreal, February 1o.
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.
Tue conclusion to be drawn from Mr. Bateson’s letter
seems to be that it is useless to compel candidates to get up
subjects for which they have no aptitude, or in which they
take no interest. The glories of ‘‘ another world,’’? whether
in science or art, are reserved for those that can see them,
and a bright boy, not to say a dull one, is unlikely to discover
the beauties of compulsory Greek, if he happens to have a
distaste for dead languages. But is it not rather a narrow
view which recognises only one new world and the entrance
to it through compulsory Greek? It is said of a great
creative mathematician that surveying his subject from a
high pinnacle of abstract thought, he exclaimed, ‘‘ And we
too are poets’’; but the most enthusiastic would scarcely
expect this feeling to be aroused by compulsory mathematics
in a dull boy ; it does not seem to have occurred even to an
exceptionally bright one.
Sullied, as Mr. Bateson seems to consider mathematics, by
a degrading usefulness to ‘‘ trade and professions,’’ it never-
theless remains of essential importance to nine-tenths of our
ientific work, and most of those of us who have but little
it sigh that we have not more. Mr. Bateson himself has
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
not disdained its assistance in his work on breeding and
heredity.
The point of previous letters is not that the writers had
no aptitude for Greek, but that they found it useless to
them in the studies to which they devoted their life. German
is indispensable; soon we shall have to read Russian too,
and if a man is to keep abreast of his subject he must not
only read German, but read it with ease, so great is the
bulk of literature to be got through. Arbitrarily to compel
a boy to learn Greek, which, if he does not appreciate it, will
be perfectly useless to him, when he might be learning
German, which, whether he likes it or not, is indispensable
for the full pursuit of his scientific studies, seems to be one
of the cruellest conceivable tyrannies of pedantic folly. Could
there be greater intellectual waste, and could any means
be designed more likely to defeat the end for which it is
designed? Compulsion and education are terms as opposed
philosophically as they are etymologically; let the student
be encouraged to work at the subjects he has really at heart
and he will proceed from one success to another, and may
even find his training in natural science leading him to the
higher things in Greek literature.
But since the most natural classification of candidates
would seem to be into those having a tendency to exact
thought—who will naturally gravitate towards mathematics,
and those with a love of art—who will naturally aspire to
literature, and those with a little of both—who will be given
over to natural science, why not allow a first class in any
two of the three to count as a pass? such a measure would
prove a great relief both to congenital non-mathematicians
and non-linguists.
Finally, why should a want of sympathy with Greek, the
noblest language of the noblest literature the world has
known, be imputed to those who think that it is too good a
thing to be wrested to injurious purposes? xX.
Ir Mr. Bateson’s case is that of hundreds, I make bold to
say the case of the boy who wastes hundreds of hours on
Greek grammar is that of thousands.
We do not want to abolish compulsory Greek because it
has no value in the market, but because, stopped where the
boy who takes it no further than the Little-Go stops it, the
study of Greek has no value, ninety-nine times out of a
hundred, in the forming of an active, living intelligence.
Mathematics may have contributed nothing to the forma-
tion of Mr. Bateson’s mind; it is not unlikely, though it is
deplorable. But if Mr. Bateson seriously thinks that
elementary mathematics contributes no more than elemen-
tary Greek to the sound training of an average mind, surely
he is curiously destitute in experience of the run of faculties
in a young human being. This explanation of Mr.
Bateson’s astonishing argument suggests itself the more
readily, because his idea that Greek is one of the things that
put ‘‘ one touch of art in the life of a dull boy, and open
his eyes to another world,’’ appears absolutely grotesque.
The narrow (and conspicuously unintelligent) utilitarian
idea of education represented by Mr. Bateson’s “‘ in-
telligent lady ’’ must be fought with all our strength, but it
cannot be fought successfully with the rusty sword of Mr.
Bateson’s reactionary classicism. That is a weapon which
will break in our hands and leave us defenceless to the
spoiler. A. G. TANSLEY.
New University Club, London, S.W., February 23.
May I be permitted to suggest, with all deference, that
Mr. Bateson’s statement that his knowledge of mathematics
is ‘‘ nil’? must be taken cum grano! He is now, I believe,
largely engaged in the business of counting chickens before
they are hatched. How could he do this without some
mathematics? As a matter of fact, the research in which
he is engaged involves mathematical conceptions of no mean
order, yet I presume he knows something about his subject.
Mr. Bateson’s letter might be a good argument in favour
of lowering the mathematical standard in the previous
examination. But, as he uses it, it is merely an unusually
frank example of the reasoning which is the real support
of compulsory Greek, vis., “‘ When I was a little boy the
big boys bullied me; now that I am a big boy myself I
mean to take it out of the little ones!”
Epwarp T. Dixon.
Racketts, Hythe. Hants, February 24.
Marcu 2, 1905]
NATURE
415
_ A Large Indian Sea-Perch.
Tue dimensions and weight of a sea-perch caught in
December last by some native fishermen near Diamond
Harbour in the River Hooghly seem to me to be worth
recording.
Its length is nearly seven and a half feet, its girth just
behind the shoulder is a little more than five feet nine
inches, and its weight, the day after its capture, was four
hundred and sixty pounds.
The fish is so old and worn that its specific iden-
tity must remain in doubt, but it agrees fairly well with
Day’s description, in the ‘“‘ Fauna of British India,’’ of
Epinephelus lanceolatus, Bloch.
The largest Indian sea-perch of which I can find any
record is the one mentioned by Russell (quoted by Day
under Epinephelus pantherinus and malabaricus), which
was taken at Vizagapatam in January, 1786, and measured
seven feet in length, five feet in girth, and weighed up-
wards of three hundred pounds. .
The scales of the Diamond Harbour monster are so
altered by deposit that their accretion lines are very difficult
to follow; but in a large scale from the shoulder I can
count between 500 and 600 such lines, which are sometimes
grouped in series of about eight, but oftener show no
grouping at all. A. ALcock.
Indian Museum, Calcutta, February 2.
Attractions of Teneriffe.
THOSE members of the British Association who visit South
Africa this year will probably desire to spend as much time
as they can near their journey’s end. But it is just worth
mentioning that some of the oceanic islands en route have
very special attractions. For instance, I write from
Teneriffe, which has igneous rocks, cinder cones, and lava
streams for the geologist; and for the botanist all zones
of vegetation from the subtropics to the snows. The
scientific literature of the island jis at present more in Ger-
man than in English. A single day’s excursion, 2000ft. up
into the hills by electric tram, is possible whilst the steamer
waits to coal. A week would allow of a short tour to
Orotava and across the mountains to Guimar, through some
of the most interesting parts of the island.
Hucu RIcHarDsoNn.
SAMUEL PEPYS-AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
AGDALENE COLLEGE, Cambridge, with
a which the name of Samuel Pepys is indis-
solubly associated, held in his memory at the
college on Thursday last, his birthday, a reunion
which may become an annual event. Some of the
institutions with which he was more especially con-
nected were invited to send delegates to this gather-
ing. Thus the Royal Society was represented by
one of its secretaries and its foreign secretary.
From the immortal Diary it appears that the first
proposal that Pepys should join that Society was
made to him in the spring of the year 1662 by his
friend Dr. Timothy Clerke, who offered to bring
him “into the College of Virtuosos and my Lord
Brouncker’s [P.R.S.] acquaintance, and to show me
some anatomy; which makes me very glad, and I
shall endeavour it when I come to London.”” Two
years, however, elapsed before his election. From
the minute-books of the Society it appears that he
was unanimously elected and admitted on the same
day (February 15, 1664)—a rapidity of procedure
which contrasts with the much more leisurely action
of the present day. He records that he ‘‘ was this
day admitted by signing a book and being taken
by the hand by the President, my Lord Brunkard,
and some words of admittance said to me. But it
is a most acceptable thing to hear their discourse
and see their experiments. ... After this being
done they to the Crowne Taverne, behind the
Change, and there my Lord and most of the
company to a club-supper.”’
NO. 1844, voL 71]
The meetings of the Royal Society in those days
must have been a good deal more lively than they
are at present. Robert Hooke, the most fertile and
inventive genius of his time, was then ‘‘ Curator of
Experiments,’’ and brought forward at each meeting
either some ingenious contrivance of his own or
some device provided by one of the members. This
constant and exciting variety of practical demonstra-
tion would be entirely after Pepys’ heart, gratifying
his spirit of curiosity and his keen desire to increase
his knowledge in every direction. Another feature
of the meetings could not but gratify one of his
most characteristic proclivities—his sociability and
love of congenial company. The evening adjourn-
ments to the ‘‘ club-supper ’’ at the Crowne Taverne
behind the ‘Change or to the Devil Taverne in
Fleet Street would end off his day as he always
delighted that it should end. These meetings for
supper contained the germ of the Royal Society
Club, the oldest extant records of which do not go
back further than 1743. This club consists of a
limited selection of fellows of the Society who still
dine together at some restaurant on the evenings of
the Society’s meetings.
At the time of Pepys’ election the Society met at
Gresham College, but a few years afterwards moved
to Arundel House. An effort was then being made
to raise money for the purpose of building a house
in which the “ virtuosos’? might hold their meetings
and place their library and apparatus. Among the
other fellows, Pepys was applied to for a subscrip-
tion. Under date April 2, 1668, he writes, “ with
Lord Brouncker to the Royall Society, where they
were just done; but there I was forced to subscribe
to the building of a College and did give 4ol.”—
certainly a generous donation at that time. He
evidently had some reluctance to join in the scheme,
for he thought that this canvassing for money “ may
spoil the Society for it breeds faction and ill will,
and becomes burdensome to some that cannot or
would not do it.”
The Royal Society held its annual meeting for the
election of the council and officers on St. Andrew’s
Day, November 30—a date which is still kept sacred
for the same purpose. But some of the usages that
were formerly in vogue have disappeared. Thus
Pepys writes on November 30, 1668, “‘ To Arundel
House and there I did see them choosing their
Council, it being St. Andrew’s Day; and I had
his cross in my hat, as the rest had, and cost
me 2s.” The diarist himself had already been
nearly selected to serve on the council, so well did
he stand in the esteem of his fellow members. Only
three years and a half after his admission into the
Society he records that ‘““I was near being chosen
of the Council, but am glad I was not, for I could
not have attended, though, above all things, T could
wish it; and do take it as a mighty respect to have
been named there.”’
At last, at the end of twenty years from the time
of his entry into the Royal Society, his associates
showed the estimation in which they held him by
electing him President on December 1, 1684. He
was the sixth who filled that office in the history of
the society. The council minute-book shows that he
obtained twenty-nine votes out of thirty-nine, and
that he was sworn in upon December 10. The
council included at that time Sir Christopher Wren,
Dr. Martin Lister, Robert Hooke, E. Halley, John
Flamsteed (Astronomer Royal), John Evelyn, and Sir
John Hoskyns. The difficulty which Pepys would have
had in attending the meetings of council appears to
have still continued after his election to the presidency,
for he was only occasionally able to be present. Un-
fortunately, the Diary, which gives such a full and
416
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
faithful record of his daily life, stops short long before
the date of his election to the chair of the Royal
Society, so that we are without any memoranda of
his own regarding what took place during his tenure
of the office. The minute-books of the Society, how-
ever, furnish some interesting particulars.
One of the undertakings of the Royal Society
during the time that Pepys presided over its business
was the publication of the elaborately illustrated
work of Francis Willughby, the ‘‘ Historia Piscium.”’
It was a somewhat costly production, so that several
members of the Society agreed to subscribe for one
or more plates, which were to be supplied at the cost
of one guinea each. Pepys far surpassed all other
subscribers in his generosity, seeing that he paid for
no fewer than sixty plates. The book is appropriately
dedicated to him, and when it was ready for issue
the council, to mark its appreciation of his assist-
ance (June 30, 1686), ‘‘ordered that a Book of
Fishes, of the best paper, curiously bound in Turkey
leather, with an inscription of dedication therein,
likewise five others bound also, be presented to the
President.’’ On the same occasion the following
amusing entry was made on the minutes :—‘‘* Ordered
that the Society to encourage the measuring a Degree
of the Earth do give E. Halley 5ol., or fifty Books
of Fishes(!) when he shall have measured a degree
to the satisfaction of Sir Christopher Wren, the
President and Sir John Hoskyns.’’ There is no
record to show which alternative the future
Astronomer Royal accepted.
Undoubtedly the most important event which
occurred at the Royal Society during Pepys’ term
of office was the acceptance and publication of
Newton’s immortal ‘‘ Principia.””’ In the MS.
journal-book of the Society under date April 28, 1686,
it is recorded that Dr. Vincent ‘‘ presented the Society
with a manuscript Treatise intituled Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia mathematica, and dedicated to
the Society by Mr. Isaac Newton wherein he gives
a mathematical demonstration of the Copernican
hypothesis, as proposed by Kepler, and makes out
all the phenomena of the celestial motions by the
only supposition of a gravitation towards the centre
of the sun, decreasing as the square of the distances
therefrom reciprocally. It was ordered that a letter
of thanks be wrote to Mr. Newton and that the
printing of the book be refer’d to the consideration
of the Councell; in the mean time the book to be put
into the hands of E. Halley, who is to make a report
thereof to the Councell.’? On May 19 it was ‘ ordered
that Mr. Newton’s book be printed forthwith in a
quarto of a fair letter, and that a letter be written
to him to signifie the Societye’s resolution, and to
desire his opinion as to the print, volume, cutts and
so forth.’”’ On June 30 the council ordered “ that
the President be desired to licence Mr. Newton’s
book, dedicated to the Society.’’ Accordingly the
title-page of the famous quarto bears the licence in
conspicuous print—‘‘ Imprimatur, S. Pepys, Reg.
Soc. Praeses, Julii 5, 1686.”’
Pepys held the office of president for two years,
and was succeeded on St. Andrew’s Day, 1686, by
the Earl of Carbery, by whom he was named one of
the vice-presidents. Though not in any sense a man
of science, he was distinguished among his con-
temporaries for his keen interest in scientific progress
and his eager desire to acquire as much as he could
of ‘‘ natural knowledge.’? Though careful of his
money, he could be generous where the interests of
science appealed to him. The absorbing character
of his work at the Admiralty and the enthusiastic
devotion with which he applied himself to it no doubt
prevented him from taking as active a share in the
business of the Royal Society as he would have
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
wished to do. But among the distinguished men who
during two centuries and a half have occupied the
presidential chair there have been few more entitled
to kindly remembrance than Samuel Pepys.
ARCH. GEIKIE.
COMPULSORY GREEK AT CAMBRIDGE.
T is earnestly to be desired that every member of
_ the Senate who is on the side of the Studies and
Examinations Syndicate will record his vote in favour
of their proposals on either Friday or Saturday,
March 3 and 4, between the hours of 1-3 p.m. or
5-7 p-m.
The proposals of the syndicate have been in many
places misrepresented. The committee which is
opposing them heads its manifestoes ‘“‘ Defence of
Classical Studies at.Cambridge,’’ but no one has yet
attacked these studies. It is true that the proposals
allow a modern language instead of either Greek or
Latin, but every candidate must take one ancient
language, and whichever he elects to offer for the
Previous Examination he will have in the future to
show a really respectable knowledge of that tongue.
At present, as is demonstrated by the students of
Newnham and Girton, and many others, and as letters
in Nature have shown, a mere smattering of Greek
which can be “‘ got up” in a couple of months is
all that can be demanded in view of the existing state
of education in our public schools.
Those who think no man can be cultivated with-
out Greek (they do not say the same about women)
often forget that the Greeks, who are held to have
been incomparable educators, dispensed entirely with
the study of dead or foreign languages. They did
not educate their sons on a basis of ancient
languages, they educated them on their own
language and their own literature. The Romans,
again, got on very well without studying dead
languages. It is true that the educated men in
ancient Rome studied the Greek authors, but Greek
was to them a living language, and the intercourse
between the thinkers and the doers of classical times
was at least as close as between the French and
British of our own day.
The supporters of the present proposals are often
charged with encouraging undue specialisation. But
what do we mean by specialisation? The term is
usually used to denote the study of one subject to
the exclusion of others. If this definition be sound
it is the advocates of what is called compulsory
Greek who are the culprits. A boy begins Latin, say,
at eight or nine, and shortly afterwards takes up
Greek, and for the next nine or ten years, at many
of our public schools, does comparatively little else.
He has specialised to such an extent, and _ his
intellect is so cramped and dulled by the process, that
he not unfrequently fails to reach the low standard
of the Previous Examination when he leaves school.
Even if he has a real gift for classics he is often but
a narrow specialist. Fifty-five years ago a Mr. John
Smith published in his ‘‘ Sketches of Cantabs ’’ an
appreciation of the classical man of the middle of the
last century. ‘‘ He seldom reads an English work,
and of the history of his native country is strangely,
almost supernaturally, ignorant. Passing occur-
rences do not affect him. He doesn’t care how many
men are slaughtered on the banks of the Jhelum.
His heart is at Marathon, his sympathies with the
great Hannibal at Cannae.’? We have improved
since then, but the type is not extinct.
It is to be regretted that the proposals do little to
encourage science. It must distinctly be understood
that the alternative to Greek or Latin is not science,
MarcH 2;°1905]
but French or German. The papers on experimental
mechanics and other parts of elementary physics, and
the paper on elementary inorganic chemistry are, with
three other papers, alternatives of which two must
be talxen.
The case for additional recognition of science has
been put so well by a distinguished naturalist who
was a member of the syndicate, and one of the three
who did not sign the report, that we cannot do better
than quote his words. ‘‘ The real substitute for Greek,
and the only worthy substitute as it seemed to him, was
science. If they are not to meet art let them at least
meet truth. Let the boys know the place man had
in nature. It seemed to him shocking that they
should turn out hundreds of men every year who
had not the faintest idea of what was going on in
nature, in combustion or chemical decomposition,
and who knew nothing of the relation of man to the
animal world.”
The present issue does not lie between the friends
of science and the friends of letters. Nearly one-
third of the classical staff at Cambridge are on the
side of reform, and amongst them are many of the
men who have built up the present classical tripos
until it is amongst the biggest of the Cambridge
schools. A majority of the university professors and
readers other than those in mathematics and natural
science are on the side of the syndicate. The head
masters are half-heartedly with the syndicate, a
majority of the Head Masters’ Conference and the
Head Masters’ Association desiring the exemption
from Greek of candidates for honours in mathematics
and science. A very large majority of the assistant
masters in secondary schools are in favour of the
change, and it must not be forgotten that the
assistant masters have a far more intimate experience
of the actual teaching of the boys than have the head
masters.
A certain number of the resident members of the
Senate have declared their intention of not voting.
Some of these are tutors and coaches, who, while
agreeing with the general principles of the report.
fear that the proposed examination will be so difficult
that their pupils will fail to pass. Amongst the
residents who intend to vote there is now a majority
in favour of the report. If the matter rested upon
the Cambridge vote there is little doubt which way
it would go. The result, however, rests on the vote
of a large electorate of which the resident members
form roughly one-tenth. From the fact that the
committee for supporting the proposals has issued
a very long list of supporters, and from the fact that
the committee opposed to the proposals has thought
it more politic to publish but a short, select list,
there is a strong feeling of confidence that reform
may this time win. But the duty of voting cannot
be too strongly urged. A single vote may decide the
issue.
FOLK-TALES OF PLAINS INDIANS.
NOTICEABLE addition to the literature of
American follk-tales has been made by two recent
publications of the anthropological series of the Field
Columbian Museum Publications. Vol. v. of this
valuable series is devoted to the traditions of the
Arapaho by Drs. G. A. Dorsey and A. L. Kroeber,
collected under the auspices respectively of the Field
Columbian Museum and of the American Museum of
Natural History. The authors worked independently,
and in many instances collected variants of the same
tale; but they have published all as they were collected
rather than amalgamate the two versions of the one
legend. Certain incidents in the tales are translated
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
NATURE
ATT
into Latin, and even some whole tales are similarly
translated. A synopsis is given at the end of the
volume of each of the hundred and forty-six tales, a
feature that will prove of great use to the student,
There are one origin-myth and three or four culture-
myths; a large number of the stories refer to an in-
dividual called Nihangan, whose doings were fre-
quently of a reprehensible nature. No. 1 of vol. vii.
of the same series contains a collection of forty folk-
tales of the Osage by Dr. Dorsey, who admits that this
collection does not adequately represent the traditions
of the tribe. The Osage are of Siouan stock, and are
now degenerating rapidly, as they are very lazy and
much addicted to drink; further, the use of the peyote,
or mescal, among them is rapidly increasing, and for
these reasons there was great difficulty in engaging
the attention of the old men for any length of time.
In No. 20, ‘‘ The Rabbit and the Picture,’’ we have a
tar-baby episode. An abstract is given of each tale.
A third collection of folk-tales by Dr. Dorsey is
entitled ‘‘ Traditions of the Arikara’’; these were
collected under the auspices of the Carnegie Institu-
tion at Washington, and the eighty-two tales con-
stitute Publication 17 of that institution. The
Arikara belong to the Caddoan linguistic stock, and
were formerly closely allied with the Skidi band of
Pawnee. Like the Skidi, they constructed the earth-
lodge, and their social organisation and religious
ceremonies in general were also similar. An examin-
ation of the tales shows, as might be expected, many
points of resemblance with those of the Skidi (cf.
‘ Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee,’’ by G. A. Dorsey,
Memoirs of the Am. Folk-Lore Soc., vol. viii., 1904),
but it is apparent that the mythology of the Arikara
contains many elements not found among the Skidi;
possibly it will be found that there are Mandan
affinities, but material for this comparison is not yet
available. Two tales narrate the creation of the
earth by the Wolf and Lucky-Man, and the creation
of people by Spiders through the assistance of the
Wolf. The variant tales of the emergence of the
Arikara from the earth are undoubtedly original. In
several tales a poor boy is a culture hero; in one case
he was the son of a woman who climbed to heaven
and’ married a star; his greatest work was freeing
the land of four destructive monsters. The Sun-Boy
made long life possible after a series of contests with
his powerful father. Another boy, Burnt-Hands,
saved his tribe from despotism and famine, and
furnished by his life a perpetual example to the poor
of the Arikara of the value of honest and long-con-
tinued effort. Some tales are rite-myths, as they refer
to the origin of a ceremony or rite, or to incidents
connected with a ceremony. In one tale is found an
interesting account of the origin of the well known
ring and javelin game of the plains, which is really
part of the ceremonial calling of the buffalo (bison) ;
the tale also relates the origin of the buffalo dance.
Eleven tales relate to animals; in all of them the
coyote plays a prominent part, always as a mean
trickster, and committing deeds that generally result
disastrously to himself. Several are ordinary tradi-
tions, in some of which the supernatural crops up.
Abstracts are given of all the tales.
Another memoir on folk-tales, entitled ‘‘ The
Mythology of the Wichita,” by Dr. Dorsey, forms
Publication No. 21 of the Carnegie Institution. The
Wichita are a small and dwindling tribe of Caddoan
stock who differ somewhat from the surrounding
plains tribes; both men and women tattoo, they are
very moral and good natured, and their home life is
extremely well regulated. The pursuit of the bison
was secondary to that of agriculture, and, as among
the Pawnee, many of their most important ceremonies
AI8
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
were concerned with the cultivation of their fields.
All the details of the grass-lodges were symbolic. The
social organisation was by villages, at the head of
each of which was a chief and a subchief. Election
to the chieftainship was never through heredity alone;
it was possible for the youngest and meanest-born boy
of the village to rise to this position through bravery,
generosity, and kindness. In general, the gods of the
Wichita are spoken of as ‘‘dreams.’’ The sixty tales
refer to the first period or Creation, the second period
or transformation, and the third period or the present.
A few tunes are given by F. R. Burton. Three long
Wichita tales by the same indefatigable observer will
be found in the Journal of American Folk-lore (vol.
XV. Pp. 215, XVi. p. 160, xvii. p. 153). Legends of
ancient time were related that the listeners might
realise that evil creatures and monsters and evil spirits
no longer exist; they were removed from the earth
and their destructive powers taken from them by
Wonderful Man, who knew that the world was
changing, so that human beings might be human
beings, and animals exist as animals to serve as food
for man. But, above all, the value of many stories
for the young lay in the lesson taught by example
Fic. 1.—Hupa woman soaking acorn meal on the river shore.
The meal
is placed in a crater of sand, water is heated in the basket to the right
by dropping hot stones into it, and the hot water is ladled out by means
of a basket-cup and poured over the meal until it loses its bitter taste.
that bravery and greatness depended solely upon
individual effort, and that there might befall him the
same longevity and good fortune as was possessed by
the hero of the tale.
In the handsome volume which contains the ninety
traditions of the Skidi Pawnee collected by Dr.
Dorsey, there are fifteen plates and some interesting
ethnological and explanatory notes. The village was
the basis of the organisation of the Skidi, no trace of |
the clan having been found. Each village possessed
a sacred bundle, and marriage was endogamous in
each village. The religion of the Pawnee reached a
higher development than that of any other of the
plains tribes, and its ceremonial side was especially
developed among the Skidi.
and each dance was accompanied, not only by its
ritual, but by its tale of origin, and all of these are
regarded as personal property. Dr. Dorsey makes
some interesting remarks upon the ownership and
telling of the tales. Of these some are cosmogonic;
‘ number tell of boy heroes in which the path to re-
nown is due to fixity of purpose and a humble spirit. |
merous tales relate to the tricky coyote; these are
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
Each bundle ceremony |
told whenever the men assemble during the winter
months, but never during the summer, or rather
during those months when snakes are visible, for at
such times the Coyote-Star directs the Snake-Star to
tell the snakes to bite those who talk about the coyote.
In one group of tales there is a marriage between
humans and animals, or the transformation of a man
into an animal.
The first volume of the University of California
Publications, American archeology and_ ethnology,
contains a study of the Hupa by Mr. P. E. Goddard.
The Hupa Indians occupy the beautiful lower valley
of the Trinity River; so secluded was it that sixty
years ago the news of the coming of the white man
had not reached the inhabitants. The people seem
to have lived a simple, peaceable life; their social
organisation was very simple, but more information
is required. A family consisted of a man, his wife
or wives, his sons and their wives, the unmarried
and half-married daughters and unmarried or
widowed brothers and sisters of the man and of his
wife. There appears to have been a classificatory
system of relationship. The next social unit was the
village; a man lived and died where he was born;
the women married into other villages. Each village
was ruled by the richest man. There seem to have
been no formalities in the government of a village
or tribe. There was a deep undercurrent of religious
feeling, and a great reverence for the spoken word.
The texts are word for word translations and
anglicised versions of fourteen myths and tales, and
thirty-seven texts relating to the dances and feasts,
the majority of which are formule. The latter are
of especial value, as it is usually so difficult to get
the exact words of a magical formula. Thirty excel-
lent heliotype plates embellish the volume.
Mr. Goddard and the university authorities are
alike to be congratulated on this excellent piece of
work, which augurs well for the success of the new
department of the University of California.
A Ge
A NATURALIST’S JOURNAL.
IS daily journal of an observant field-naturalist
may be heartily welcomed by every lover of
country life and country scenes. It is true the style
is somewhat scrappy and staccato, but this is to a
great extent unavoidable in a work of this nature,
and is, after all, no great drawback, although we
think it might have been somewhat modified during
the revision for press. Mr. Robinson, who is
already no stranger to the reading public, has the
good fortune to be a resident in Norfollx, the county
par excellence of redundant bird-life and of
enthusiastic bird-lovers; and he is therefore practically
assured of a number of sympathetic readers, for every
dweller in Norfolk likes to be acquainted with all that
| is written about his own district.
To the general reader the most attractive feature
of the book will almost certainly be the large series
of exquisite reproductions from photographs of animal
and plant life, taken, we infer, by the author him-
self. Where all are of such high excellence, it is
difficult to make a selection; and the illustration
we present to our readers as a sample must not be
regarded as either better or worse than its fellows.
It has been chosen on account of its depicting an
interesting phase of bird-life.
As a rule, the author has nothing specially new to
‘TH
1 ‘The Country Day by Day.”” By E. K. Robinson.
Pp. xix+371
illustrated. (London: W. Heinemann, rg05.) Price 6s.
Marcu 2, 1905]
NATURE
419
tell, and his book may be regarded as a guide to
what the observant country resident ought to see and
notice, rather than as an exponent of fresh facts. In
places, indeed, he forsakes his usual style for what
we suppose must be called ‘‘ word-painting,’’ but
we can scarcely congratulate him on the result of
the change. Neither, we think, is he altogether
happy in his theory that bird-song is largely due to
rivalry and jealousy; although his eagerness to trace
out the reason of every phenomenon in natural life
is a trait deserving of the highest commendation.
The reader who follows in Mr. Robinson’s foot-
: RK ~~ 4 #
Fic. 1.—Young Peewit hiding. From ‘‘ The Country Day by Day.”
steps and takes him as guide will not have much to
learn about the animals and plants of his native
district after a year’s diligent apprenticeship.
PROF. G. B. HOWES, F.R.S.
EORGE BOND HOWES, whose state of health
for the past two years had been the cause of
grave anxiety, passed away on February 4. Born in
London on September 7, 1853, his active and useful
life was cut short at the age of fifty-one.
Howes was of Huguenot extraction; his father, the
late T. J. Howes, married the daughter of the
late Captain G. H. Bond—a member of a
talented family. While attending a private school
he spent his spare time in making microscopical
slides, and a prize of one of J. G. Wood’s books
helped to arouse further his interest in natural history.
His parents at first intended that he should prepare
for entering the Church, but this plan was given up,
and on leaving school he was for a short time in
business, which proved very distasteful to him.
Having worked out the anatomy of the house-fly,
made careful drawings of his preparations, and given
a lecture on the subject, his talent was recognised
by a friend of the family—a clergyman—who intro- |
duced him to Mr. Walter White, then secretary to |
the Royal Society. Through Mr. White’s instru-
mentality an introduction was obtained to Prof.
Huxley, and this resulted in an appointment under
the Science and Art Department.
NO. 1844, VOL 71]
A short time previously, Huxley, assisted by T. J.
Parker, had begun to organise his pioneer practical
classes in biology at South Kensington, and Howes’s
first scientific work consisted in making a series of
enlarged coloured drawings illustrating the anatomy
of various animals, and thus further developing his
powers as a draughtsman. These drawings now
form the well known series hanging on the walls of
the laboratory at the Royal College of Science, copies
of which were subsequently made by Howes for use
in various universities and colleges in this country
and abroad. Although he had no previous scientific
training, he rapidly became
an expert anatomist, and
many of his exquisite dissec-
tions are still to be seen on
the shelves of the laboratory.
All this time, Howes was
taking every advantage of
his opportunities for study-
ing under our greatest bio-
logical teacher in a_ school
of high tradition, where
students are able to devote
themselves to one subject
at a time, and are fortunate
in being unhampered by
syllabuses. He was soon
appointed assistant _demon-
strator, and on Parker’s
election to the chair of biology
in the University of Otago,
Howes succeeded him as
chief demonstrator, so that his
originality, zeal, and en-
thusiasm had full scope for
development. The wide
knowledge he gradually ob-
& tained of his subject, his
valuable contributions to
zoological _literature, and
more especially his power
and influence as a teacher, soon made it apparent
that he was to take an important place in the
scientific world. On Huxley’s partial retirement in
1885, Howes was appointed assistant professor,
and in 1895—when the chair of biology was sub-
divided—professor of zoology. During his career as
demonstrator, he had also for two years held the post
of lecturer on comparative anatomy to the St. George’s
Hospital Medical School.
In 1897, Howes was elected
the Royal Society. He was a vice-president
Zoological Society, honorary zoological secretary to
the Linnean Society, honorary treasurer of the
Anatomical Society, ex-president of the Malacological
Society, president of Section D of the British Associ-
ation at the Belfast meeting, corresponding member
of the New York Academy of Science, and an
honorary member of the New Zealand Institute. He
also took an active interest in the work of several
locai natural history societies, of which he was a
member. In 1902 he acted on the committee for the
reorganisation of the Zoological Gardens, and in the
same year received the degree of D.Sc., honoris
causa, in the Victoria University, having previously
in 1898—received that of LL.D. at St. Andrews.
He had held examinerships in several universities,
e.g. London, Oxford, Victoria, and New Zealand.
The veneration and affection which Howes felt for
his great chief were unbounded, and apparent in all
his work, to carry on which on the lines laid down
by Huxley was the summit of his ambition.
His publications are too numerous to be mentioned
detail; they consist of some fifty papers and
to the fellowship of
of the
in
420
addresses, as well as numerous reviews and articles,
all written in a characteristic style; apart from the
two editions of his well known ‘“ Atlas,’’ and the
revised and extended editions of Huxley and Martin’s
‘‘ Elementary Biology ’’ (in collaboration with Prof.
D. H. Scott). He also edited the translation by
Bernard of Wiedersheim’s ‘‘ Bau des Menschen,’’ and
had undertaken to prepare a new edition of Huxley’s
“Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,’’ which he had
mapped out in his mind, but never actually began.
His original work deals mainly with vertebrate com-
parative anatomy, and all shows the same thorough-
ness and accurate knowledge.
Considerable and important as his direct contribu-
tions to science have been, they only represent a part
of his life’s work in this direction, for he considered
it his duty to devote much time to the business of
scientific societies and in helping any serious workers
who applied to him; he spared no trouble in assisting
others.
Never a robust man, Howes’s power of work was
extraordinary. He never seemed to be in a hurry,
and did not give one the impression that he spent an
excessive amount of time in reading the current
literature of his subject, although his knowledge and
memory in this direction were quite unique. His
mind was of a remarkable type, and was, one may
say, almost overburdened with details, though he
never lost sight of the main issue, and was always
clear and stimulating. He absorbed everything which
had the remotest bearing on his science, and would
talk by the hour on almost every branch of zoology;
one had only to ask him some question and he would
either have the point at issue at his finger-ends, or
would at once give references to the most recent
Papers on the subject. When giving a lecture-or an
address, he would put so much into an hour’s dis-
course as to make his hearers marvel at his memory
and grasp of the subject. His presidential address
to the zoological section of the British Association in
1g02 contains no less than 186 references to original
authorities, and its preparation must have cost him
an enormous amount of labour at a time when he was
already over-fatigued.
_ Howes was a man of high moral standard and
ingenuous nature, generous and unselfish in all he
did, and his death is mourned by a wide circle of
scientific friends, who will long cherish the memory
of his friendship and hospitality. He carried out his
own belief that “‘ higher ambition than that of adding
to the sum of knowledge no man can have; wealth,
influence, position, all fade before it; but we must
die for it if our work is to live after us.”
WuiN; P.
NOTES.
Tue following fifteen candidates have been selected by the
council of the Royal Society to be recommended for election
into the society:—Mr. J. G. Adami, Mr. W. A. Bone,
Mr. J. E. Campbell, Mr. W. H. Dines, Capt. A. Mostyn
Field, R.N., Mr. M. O. Forster, Mr. E. S. Goodrich, Mr.
F. G. Hopkins, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. E. W. MacBride,
Prof. F. W. Oliver, Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, I.M.S., Mr.
G. F. C. Searle, Hon. R. J. Strutt, and Mr. E. T. Whittaker.
THE piercing of the Simplon Tunnel was completed at
7-20 a.m. on February 24. At the time of piercing, the
north gallery was inaccessible on account of the accumulation
of water. The south gallery is on a lower level than the
north, and the final connection was made by the explosion of
arges placed in holes driven into the roof of the south
lery, which left a large hole on a level with the floor of
NO. (844, VOL. 71]
Nya PoE © voedaty?
[Marcu 2, 1905
the north gallery. No sooner was the piercing effected than
the accumulated water flowed rapidly away down the
southern side, and was discharged into Italy without doing
damage. It is unnecessary again to direct attention to the
particulars of this triumph of engineering skill, for a
detailed account of the difficulties with which the engineers
have had to contend, and the expedients utilised to surmount
these obstacles, will be found in an article by Mr. Francis
Fox in Nature for October 27, 1904 (p. 628, vol. 1xx.). The
work that now remains to be done is to put in place the
masonry arching, to cover over the water channel beneath
the floor of the tunnel, and to lay the permanent way. It
is expected that within three months trains will be running,
and the railway will prove a vital link in the line of com-
munication between the Italian cities and mid-Europe.
On Friday, March 17, Senor Manuel Garcia, the inventor
of the laryngoscope, will complete his hundredth year, and
the anniversary will be celebrated by a meeting of laryngo-
logists at the rooms of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society,
Hanover Square. We learn from the British Medical Journal
that the Spanish Ambassador will attend to congratulate
the illustrious centenarian in the name of the Government
of his native country, and among the addresses will be one
from the Royal Society, before which Senor Garcia read his
paper entitled ‘‘ Physiological Observations on the Human
Voice ’’ just fifty years ago. The Berlin, Vienna, French,
Dutch, Belgian, and South and West German Laryngological
Societies will send special deputations. Most of the addresses
will be taken as read, and the proceedings will conclude
with the presentation of a portrait of Senor Garcia, painted
by Mr. John Sargent, R.A., together with an album con-
taining the names of all the subscribers. In the evening a
banquet will take place at the Hotel Cecil, at which it is
hoped that Senor Garcia himself will be present.
Tue death is announced, on February 6, of Father Timoteo
Bertelli. Father Bertelli was born in Bologna in 1826, and
was the son of the professor of astronomy at the University
of Bologna. At eighteen he joined the Order of the
Barnabites, and taught physics in various colleges of the
Order. In 1871 he joined the Collége de la Querce in
Florence, with which institution he appears to have been
associated continuously until the time of his death, except
for the three years 1895-7, when he was called to Rome
by Leo XIII. to succeed Father Denza at the Vatican
Observatory. But his state of health did not permit him per-
manently to accept this position, and in 1897 he returned to
Florence. Father Bertelli first devoted himself to meteor-
ology, and later was attracted by the study of seismic
phenomena, inventing the tromometer to assist in his ob-
servations. He gave much attention to researches into the
history of the sciences and especially to that of the mariner’s
compass. The results of his life’s work are contained in
some sixty memoirs, the first of which is dated 1859.
Dr. A. S. Packarp, professor of zoology and geology at
Brown University, died on February 14, at the age of
sixty-six years. The death occurred, on February 22, of
Dr. Ernst F. Diirre, formerly professor of metallurgy at
Aix-la-Chapelle, and author of several important treatises on
the metallurgy of iron and steel. Dr. Guido Hauck, professor
of mathematics at the Berlin Technical College, died on
January 14. The deaths are also announced of J. C. V.
Hoffmann, founder and editor of the Zeitschrift fiir mathe-
matischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, Dr.
T. H. Behrens, professor of microchemistry at Delfdt, Prof.
Ludwig von Tetmeyer, principal of the Vienna Technical
College, and Prof. Ditscheiner, of Vienna.
MarcH 2, 1905] A06
We learn from the Times that Prof. Adolf Bastian, director
of the Berlin Ethnographical Museum, has died at Port of
Spain, Trinidad, in his seventy-ninth year, while on a
scientific expedition. Prof. Bastian, who was a distinguished
traveller for many years, enjoyed a wide reputation as the
author of numerous ethnological and anthropological works,
of which the best known is ‘‘ The Peoples of Eastern Asia.”
Tue council of the University of Birmingham recently
assigned a plot of land on the new university site at Bourn-
brook in order to enable Mr. Walter E. Collinge, the lecturer
in zoology, to continue his experiments and observations
upon the life-histories of the black-currant gall-mite and
the plum aphis,- with the view of obtaining remedies for
exterminating or holding in check these pests to fruit-
growers.
Tue annual dinner of the Institution of Civil Engineers
will be held on Wednesday, March 22, at Merchant Taylors’
Hall, Threadneedle-street, E.C. Sir Guilford Molesworth,
president of the institution, will occupy the chair.
AN interesting excursion has been arranged by the
American Institute of Mining Engineers. In the first
week in July a meeting will be held at Victoria, British
Columbia, and this will be followed by a three weeks’ trip
to the mining districts of Alaska. }
A VALUABLE contribution to economic geology is afforded
by an article on the Hauraki goldfields of New Zealand
published by Mr. W. Lindgren in the Engineering and
Mining Journal of New York. The occurrence of gold is
very similar to that in Transylvania. The gold is met with
in quartz veins traversing andesite altered into propylite.
The minerals accompanying the gold are dolomite, pyrites,
blende, galena, and ruby silver ore. Near the surface the
sulphide ores are oxidised; and the greatest yield of gold
has been obtained at points where the veins cross.
In the Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries, No. 18
(1905), Dr. James Buchanan discusses the use of various
modifications of Simpson’s rule in the performance of the
integrations involyed in the calculation of survivorship
benefits.
In the Physikalische Zeitschrift for February 1, Profs.
Elster and Geitel discuss the radio-activity of certain sedi-
ments from the German mineral springs, and Messrs. A.
Herrmann and F. Pesendorfer describe experiments indi-
cating traces of radio-activity in the gases from the
Sprudel spring at Carlsbad.
AN interesting feature of the Johns Hopkins University
Circular is the series of ‘‘ Notes in Mathematics,’’ edited by
Prof. Frank Morley, appearing in the January number.
These notes deal with ‘‘ A system of parastroids’’ and ‘‘ A
curve of the fifth class ’’ (Mr. R. P. Stephens), ‘‘ Applications
of quaternions to four dimensions’? and ‘‘ Some invariant
relations of linear correspondences’? (Mr. H. B. Phillips),
““A closed system of conics ’’ (Mr. Charles C. Grove), and
““The normal form of a collimation and the reduction of
two conics to normal form ’’ (Mr. A. B. Coble).
Pror. Hans Lanpott, of Berlin, has received the Prussian
Imperial Goid Medal for Science.
Tue city of Lincoln is now suffering from a serious out-
break of typhoid fever. The epidemic started at the begin-
ning of January, and up to date nearly 800 cases have been
notified. The epidemic is plainly a water-borne one, milk
No. 1844, VOL. 71]
WVATURE
42d
and other articles of diet being excluded as channels of
diffusion by the extent of the outbreak and its regular dis-
tribution over the whole area. The water supply of Lincoln
is derived from the River Witham, the water being passed
through sand filters before distribution. Attention has been
directed from time to time to the unsatisfactory quality of
the water, and in 1901 the boring of a deep well into the
sandstone was commenced, but after the bore had reached a
depth of 880 feet in 1903 the: boring tool was lost, and has
not been recovered, thus entailing serious delay. The
epidemic, it is surmised, has been caused by pollution of the
Witham or its tributaries above the intake. It is un-
fortunate that works were in progress in the autumn to
improve the filter beds by deepening the layer of fine sand,
but were put a stop to by the early frost, and the same
event caused many of the consumers to leave their taps
running, and thus to necessitate an increase in the rate of
filtration to meet the increased demand.
Tue Fishmongers’ Company has published a preliminary
report by Dr. Klein, F.R.S., on experiments undertaken for
the company to ascertain the duration of vitality of the
typhoid bacillus when introduced into shell-fish. The main
conclusions arrived at are :—(1) Oysters readily take up into
their interior the Bacillus typhosus which has been introduced
into their shell or into the surrounding sea-water. (2)
Oysters, clean at starting, rapidly clear themselves of the
ingested typhoid bacilli if they are kept in clean water which
is frequently changed. (3) Oysters, clean at starting, clear
themselves of the ingested bacilli to a less extent and slower
if they are kept in a ‘‘ dry ’’ state—i.e, out of the sea-water.
(4) Oysters, from a polluted locality, clear themselves of the
ingested bacilli to a less extent, and at a slower rate, even if
kept in clean sea-water, than oysters clean at starting.
(5) Oysters from a polluted locality, containing a large
number of the Bacillus coli, very rapidly clear themselves of
this microbe, whether kept in or out of the water. This
shows that Bacillus coli is foreign to the oyster and is
rapidly destroyed by it. When, therefore, it is present in the
oyster, it must have been derived from the surroundings.
(6) However largely infected with typhoid bacilli, the oysters
at no time present to the eye any sign of such infection ;
they remain in all parts of normal aspect. (7) Cockles and
muscles similarly take up the typhoid bacillus, but clear
themselves’ much more slowly, particularly in the case of
cockles, than do oysters.
Tue geographical results of the National Antarctic Ex-
pedition, in so far as they relate to the distribution of land,
water, and ice within the area allotted to the expedition for
exploration, were described by Captain R.F. Scott before
the Royal Geographical Society on Monday. He remarked
that the main geographical interest of the expedition was
the practical observation of a coast-line from Mount Mel-
bourne, in lat. 742°, to Mount Longstaff, in lat. 83°, and
of the conditions which lie to the east and west of this
line. The coastal mountains are comparatively low be-
tween Mount Melbourne and the Ferrar glacier, and it was
the tabular structure of these that first indicated the hori-
zontal stratification of the mainland. But low as the
mountains are, in one place only does the internal ice-sheet
seem to pour any volume of ice into the sea. It is certain
that the ice-cap is of very great extent, and there is evidence
that it maintains a great and approximately uniform level
over the whole continent. The greater portion of this great
ice-sheet is believed to be afloat. The soundings made by
the expedition show that some hundreds of fathoms of water
still intervene between the bottom of the ice at the barrier
edge and the floor of the sea; but the barrier edge sixty
422
years ago was in advance of its present position, in places
as much as 20 or 30 miles, and therefore the soundings lie
directly beneath Sir James Ross's barrier, and a considerable
distance from its edge. The ice-sheet, and the curious and
often vast ice-formations met with in the Ross sea, are there-
fore regarded, not as the result of present-day conditions,
but the rapidly wasting remnants of a former age.
Senor A. Arcimis informs us that Mr. Valderrama,
director of the Municipal Meteorological Observatory at
Santa Cruz (Canaries), observed a fall of dust on January
29 and January 30. During all the former day a very fine
dust fell continuously, but not in great amount. On January
30 a rain of a yellow and very fine dust began at 15h. The
wind-vane pointed to the S.S.W., and the atmosphere was
charged with the very fine dust, the horizon being invisible
through a kind of dry fog that introduced itself into the
mouth and throat, producing the same effect as when march-
ing on a dusty highway in a hot summer day. All the in-
struments exposed freely out of doors were covered with
the nearly impalpable dust.
At the recent annual meeting of the Glastonbury Anti-
quarian Society, Prebendary Grant gave an account of the
exploration at the ancient British Lake Village at Glaston-
bury during the summer of 1904. Three new mounds were
examined, and the exploration of four others was
completed. The “‘ finds’’ included amber and glass beads,
spiral finger-rings of bronze wire, a massive bronze buckle
(taken to have been connected with horse-harness), a bronze
object which is supposed to have been some part of horse-
trapping, a variety of bone objects, wool combs, hammers,
pertion of horses’ bits, and a roedeer antler, pointed and
used as a modelling tool for decorating pottery. Several
pieces of pottery were dug up. Flint flakes and knives were
found, proving that flint implements were made at the
village. With respect to wooden articles, two wheel-spokes,
finely turned and finished, were found, and a fragment of
an axle-box belonging to the same wheel. Iron bars were
found also at the Lake Village, and after minute investiga-
tion the conclusion has been arrived at that these bars are
iron currency bars used by the ancient Britons at the time
of Czsar’s invasion.
A LARGE number of new types of Japanese land-shells of
the Clausilia group are described by Mr. Pilsbry in the
December issue of the Proceedings of the Philadelphia
Academy.
Tue shore fishes of the Galapagos and other Pacific
islands are described by Messrs. Snodgrass and Heller in
part xvii. of the publications of the Hopkins-Stanford
Expedition (Proc. Ac. Washington, vi., pp. 333-427). “Iwo
species are described as new.
Tue Emu for January contains Captain Hutton’s presi-
dential address to the Australasian Ornithologists’ Union,
which deals with the geographical origin and subsequent
development of the land birds of New Zealand. An
teresting feature of the issue is the reproduction of a photo-
graph of a red gum-tree containing the nests of seven
species of birds.
in-
Naturen for January and February contains two illus-
trated articles on whales and whaling. In the former issue
Prof. G. Guldberg describes the method of hunting the Green-
land right whale, illustrating his article with reproductions
from two old prints. In the February number Mr. E.
Koefoed records the capture of a Biscay right whale, or
“nordkaper,’’ at Mjofjord, on the west coast of Iceland,
and also of a cachalot in northern waters. Two photo-
graphs of the former cetacean are reproduced.
NO. 1844, VOL 71]
NATURE
’
[Makcu 2, 1905
STEPNEY has published a handbook to the vivaria and
aquaria in the Borough Museum, the text of which is
reproduced, with certain alterations and additions, from the
handbook to the Horniman Museum. It is to be hoped
that the descriptive portion, when read in the museum,
may aid visitors to a right appreciation of the exhibits,
but as it stands the guide is admirably calculated to
puzzle beginners in systematic zoology. For instance,
from the headings on pp. 24 and 25, the reader would be
led to infer that while Argyroneta is the scientific desig-
nation of the water-spider, and Podura aquatica that of the
water-springtails, Blattidae is the name for the cockroach,
and from p. 50 that Lacertilia is the generic title for the
typical lizards. Again, from p. 17 he would be led to
suppose that Gastropoda is the generic term for snails, and
that these rank in classificatory value with the viviparous
pond-snail (Paludina vivipara). Careful study of the text
may in some cases put matters right, but the muddle is
as bad as bad can be for beginners.
Tue address on morphology generally, its modern ten-
dencies and progress, and its relation to other sciences,
delivered by Prof. A. Giard before the Congress of
Sciences and Art at the St. Louis Exhibition in September
last, is published in the Revue Scientifique of February 4
and 11. After referring to the revolution in biology
effected, first by Lamarck and subsequently by Darwin,
the author proceeds to sketch the gradual evolution of
modern biological conceptions and theories, dwelling espe-
cially on Wolff’s hypothesis of epigenesis. Reference is
then made to the importance of the study of variation,
both among living and extinct types, after which the
author passes on to review the influence that palzontology
has exerted on biology and the doctrine of evolution.
Abiogenesis next claims attention, while the author con-
cludes his discourse by reference to some of the evils
attendant on the extreme specialisation of scientific work at
the presenc day. It is time, he urges, that a general
organisation to direct scientific work should replace the
present state of anarchy, whereby much energy that is now
practically wasted would be diverted towards the attain-
ment of a common end and object.
Tue fifth part of Mr. J. H. Maiden’s ‘‘ Critical Review
of the Genus Eucalyptus’’ includes three species. Euca-
lyptus stellulata receives its name from the disposition of
the buds, and is known as black Sally, or muzzlewood ; the
leaves show longitudinal lateral veins similar to those of the
next species, Eucalyptus coriacea, which is distinguished by
its clean white stem. The third species, Eucalyptus
coccifera, confined to Tasmania, is sufficiently hardy to
have been planted in parts of the United Kingdom.
Tue alien problem is not unknown to botanists, and the
genus Sisymbrium has added two foreign species to the
flora of Lancashire. Sisymbrium pannonicum is definitely
naturalised along the coast from St. Anne’s to Crosby, and
according to a recent account by Mr. C. Bailey in vol. xlix.
part i. of the Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Sisymbrium strictisst-
mum, a native of continental Europe, has obtained a foot-
hold near Heaton Mersey, where it has been observed for
fifteen years.
In a paper only recently published in vol. ii., No. 3, of the
Contributions from the botanical laboratory of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, but which represents work done two
years earlier, Dr. O. P. Phillips maintains that the central
body in the cells of the Cyanophycez represents a true
| nucleus, but he failed to obtain complete stages in its
Marcu 2, 1905]
WALURE
423
mitotic division. Dr. Phillips is of opinion that the
movement of the filaments of Oscillaria and Cylindro-
spermum is due to protoplasmic processes or cilia which,
the says, are to be observed around all the cells. The
chromatophore, containing cyanophycin granules, was iden-
tified as a peripheral zone.
An interesting address on the present problems of
meteorology was given by Mr. A. I- Rotch to the section
of cosmical physics of the International Congress of Arts
and Sciences at St. Louis, and was printed in Science on
December 23 last. The author pointed out that although it is
nearly fifty years since the first commencement of weather
telegraphy, and-much has been done to complete and extend
the area under observation, the methods employed in the
preparation of weather forecasts are still essentially em-
pirical, and practically little or no progress has been
made. This is mostly due to the fact that until recently
observations have been carried on solely at the bottom of
the atmosphere. Even the observations made at mountain
stations still pertain to the earth and do not represent the
conditions prevailing in free air. The still more recent use
of unmanned balloons and kites has led to the acquirement
of a knowledge of the vertical gradients of meteorological
elements which contradicts previous conceptions, e.g. that
the temperature diminished with increasing altitude more
and more slowly, whereas the results show that it decreases
more and more quickly with increasing altitude. The
international cloud observations at various altitudes dis-
cussed by Dr. Hildebrandsson also show that theories held
heretofore are untenable, and that there is no exchange of
air between poles and equator. With regard to cosmical
relations to meteorology, the author points out that neither
the effects of the periods of solar or lunar rotation upon
the earth’s meteorology can be claimed to have been
proved. But coincidences—if nothing more—have been
shown by Sir Norman and Dr. Lockyer to exist between
sun-spot frequency and atmospheric changes, especially as
manifested by barometric pressure, rainfall, and tempera-
ture. It does not seem impossible, therefore, that the
discussion of meteorological observations from the point of
view of their relation to solar phenomena may eventually
lead to seasonal predictions of weather possessing at least
the success of those now made daily.
_ Tue Survey Department of the Egyptian Public Works
Ministry has sent us the meteorological report for the year
1902. This volume indicates that the Director-General of
the Survey Department, Captain H. G. Lyons, is making
rapid strides, not only in increasing the number of stations
which send in records, but in publishing a considerable
amount of valuable information which should prove of
great value. We are told that arrangements are in pro-
gress for commencing a systematic measurement of rainfall
in the Delta and western part of the Mediterranean coast ;
that a monthly résumé of the weather has been started ; and
that forecasts during the early and late months of the year
have been issued. All these show the activity that is being
displayed in the collection and dissemination of meteor-
ological data. The present report includes magnetic as well
as meteorological observations, and also Nile gauge read-
ings. At the end are given numerous curves representing
the variations of the meteorological elements as registered
at the Abbassia Observatory.
Tue Journal of the Réntgen Society (vol. i., No. 2) con-
tains a note by Mr. J. H. Gardiner on the new ultra-
violet glass manufactured by Messrs. Schott and Genossen,
of Jena; it is illustrated by photographs of spectra showing
the transparency of the glass in the ultra-violet region.
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
FLUORESCENT substances are usually regarded as excep-
tions to Kirchhoff’s law of absorption on account of their
being able to emit light which in ordinary circumstances
they do not absorb, but hitherto no investigation has been
made of the absorptive power of such substances during
active fluorescence. In the Physical Review for December,
1904, Messrs. E. L. Nichols and Ernest Merritt show that
substances such as fluorescein, when caused to fluoresce
strongly in solution, produce a decidedly different. absorp-
tion from that of the feebly illuminated material, and that the
absorption curve obtained in this way is intimately con-
nected with the curve of fluorescence. In the case of five
different substances, moreover, there is conclusive evidence
of a slight increase in electrical conductivity accompanying
the phenomenon, and on this account a dissociation hypo-
thesis is brought forward to explain the nature of
fluorescence.
An address delivered by Prof. Edward B. Rosa at the
opening of the John Bell Scott Memorial Laboratory of
Physical Science at Wesleyan University, Connecticut, is
printed in Science for February 3. It deals with the
National Bureau of Standards, which commenced work in
the United States in 1901, and defines its functions and
ideals. It is to be noted that research plays a prominent
part in the programme of the bureau. We have already
had occasion to refer to Dr. Guthe’s critical investigation
of the various forms of silver voltameter (NATURE, vol. Ixx.,
p- 583), and to the determinations by Drs.. Waidner and
Burgess of the temperature of the electric are (NATURE,
vol. Ixxi., p. 132). Both these researches were carried out
under the auspices of the bureau, and in addition to these,
the Physical Review for December, 1904, contains a valu-
able communication by Drs. Waidner and Burgess on
“Radiation Pyrometry,’’ in which the degree of accuracy
of several radiation pyrometers is discussed. The bureau
does not confine itself entirely to physical and mechanical
measurements, but contains a department devoted to
chemistry, one of the purposes of which is to attempt to
secure uniformity in technical analyses. A characteristic
of the bureau which deserves particular notice is its aim
not only to conduct investigations through its own staff,
but also to afford facilities for research to others who may
come to work for a limited period as scientific guests. In
this way it is hoped that ‘‘ the output of original research
in America will be materially increased.”’
Tue remarkable catalytic power of reduced nickel, dis-
covered some years ago by MM. Paul Sabatier and J. B.
Senderens, has been applied by them in many directions,
and has been especially fruitful in the addition of hydrogen
to cyclic compounds. Applying this reaction in another
direction, the authors in the current number (February 20)
of the Comptes rendus describe the reduction of nitriles to
amines. The nitrile, with an excess of hydrogen, is passed
over reduced nickel at temperatures between 250° and 300° C.
Hydrocyanic acid might be expected to yield methyl-
amine, but, as a matter of fact, the nickel was
found to exert a further action, both dimethylamine
and trimethylamine being produced, together with ammonia
and the primary amine. With acetonitrile all three
amines are likewise produced, the diethylamine, which
forms about three-fifths of the mixture, predominating.
Dipropylamine was similarly the chief product of the
reaction with propionitrile; with capronitrile, derived from
ordinary amyl alcohol, besides the three amines, two of
which were new, an appreciable proportion of the hydro-
carbon a-methyl-pentane was obtained. The yields were in
all cases good with fatty compounds, but the reaction was
less satisfactory when applied to the aromatic series, there
being a tendency for the hydrocarbon and ammonia to be
the chief products.
Globus for February 23 is a special number containing
contributions by friends and admirers of Prof. R. Andree,
who reached his seventieth birthday on February 26.
THE third part of the British Journal of Psychology, pub-
lished by the Cambridge University Press, has been
received. The number contains five papers in addition to
a report of the proceedings of the Psychological Society.
Mr. Norman Smith discusses Malebranche’s theory of the
perception of distance and magnitude; Mr. F. N. Hales
considers the materials for the psychogenetic theory of
comparison; Mr. W. G. Smith makes a comparison of
some mental and physical tests in their application to
epileptic and to normal subjects; Prof. Mary W. Calkins
defines the limits of genetic and of comparative psychology,
and Mr. C. Spearman makes an analysis of ‘‘ localisation,”
illustrated by a Brown-Séquard case.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN MARCH :—
March 5. 17h. Sun eclipsed ; invisible at Greenwich.
7- 13h. Juno in conjunction with Moon, Juno
merase
9. Jupiter in conjunction with Venus. Venus 5° 30° S:
» Ith. Jupiter in conjunction with Moon. Jupiter
Seis NB
12, 10h. Iim. to 1th. 6m. Moon occults y Tauri
(mag. 3°9).
17. 12h. 34m. Minimum of Algol (6 Persei).
20. 9h. 2m. to gh. 49m. Moon occults B - Virginis
(mag. 3°8).
»» 9h. 23m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
21. 12h. Venus at maximum brilliancy.
24. 7h. Mars in conjunction with Moon. Mars 3° 40'S.
Vesta in opposition to Sun.
Reportep Discovery oF A SEVENTH SATELLITE TO JUPITER.
—A telegram received from the Kiel Centralstelle announccs
the discovery of a seventh satellite in the Jovian system.
The description reads :—16 magnitude, position on February
25 62 degrees, distance 21 minutes, daily motion 60 seconds
south-easterly.
PLANETARY TIDES IN THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE.—In a com-
munication published in the Bulletin de la, Société astro-
nomique de France (February, 1905), M. Emile Anceaux
discusses the question as to whether the undecennial
periodicity of sun-spots may not result from the fluctuations
of tides set up in the solar atmosphere by the concerted
action of Jupiter, the earth, Venus, and Mercury. He
classifies the tides as binary, ternary, and quaternary,
according to the number of planets acting in their produc-
tion by being in, or near, opposition or conjunction. The
ternary tide due to the combined action of Jupiter, Venus,
and the earth is supposed to be the most important factor
in regulating the appearance of spots, and a curve showing
the fluctuations in the strength of this tide, as calculated
from the knowledge of the planetary positions, agrees
fairly well with the sun-spot curve for the years 1891 to
1905.
Finally, the author arrives at a number of conclusions of
which the more important are :— (a) That sun-spots are
the indirect consequences of such tides; (b) that the com-
bined action of the three planets especially mentioned
governs the fluctuations of the spot period; (c) that this
ternary tide obeys an eleven-year period; (d) that the
variation of the sun-spot period is due to the eccentricities
of the planets, chiefly Jupiter.
Tue Bruce Puotocrapnic TELescopr.—The Bruce photo-
graphic telescope, with which a number of beautiful photo-
graphs of nebulw, Milky Way regions, &c., have already
been obtained at the Yerkes Observatory, is described in
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
NATORE
| able fundamental data are of great interést.
[MArcu 2; r905
detail in an illustrated article by Prof. Barnard published
in No. 1., vol. xxi., of the Astrophysical Journal.
The telescope was erected, at the cost of Miss Catharine
Bruce, at Yerkes in April, 1904, but has now been dis-
mounted and shipped to Mount Wilson, Pasadena, where
it is to be used for photographing those regions of the
Milky Way not attainable at the former observatory.
It consists of a 5-inch guiding telescope firmly bolted to
two other tubes, which carry photographic doublets of
1o-inches and 6}-inches aperture respectively. The focal
length of the 10-inch is only 50 inches, and the polar
axis of the instrument has been formed by bending the
upper part of the iron pier to the required inclination so
that the camera may make a complete revolution about the
axis without having to be ‘‘ reversed.’’ For use in different
latitudes an iron wedge-shaped section may be introduced
between the upper and lower parts of the pier in order
to produce the required change of inclination, whilst a
special arrangement, whereby the clock motion may be fe-
versed in two minutes, has been introduced into the
driving gear so that the same mounting may be used in
the southern hemisphere.
The 10-inch doublet, by Brashear, gives excellent defini-
tion over a field 7° wide, and the scale is such that
1 inch=1°-14, or 1°=0.88 inch. The ratio aperture/focal
length=1/5.03 is that which Prof. Barnard believes to
be the best for the purpose for which this instrument was
designed. The 64-inch Voigtlander doublet has a_ focal
length of 31 inches, and is used in conjunction with the
10-inch for the purpose of verification. Specimen photo-
graphs accompany the description, and these testify
eloquently to the satisfactory performance of each of the
doublets.
PuysicaAL CONDITIONS OF THE PLANETS.—In a communica-
tion to No. 3992 of the Astronomische Nachrichten Prof.
T. J. J. See deals exhaustively with the methods that he has
employed and the results he has obtained in a research on
the internal densities, pressures and moments of inertia of
the principal bodies in the planetary system. Some of the
results obtained in the preliminary discussion of the avail-
For example,
he arrives at the conclusion that the most probable values
for the rotation period and for the oblateness of Uranus
are toh. 6m. 40.32s. and 1: 25 respectively, whilst for Nep-
tune the similar yalues are probably 12h. 50m. 53s. and
I: 45-
r the case of the earth, Laplace’s law of densities
appears to be a natural law, for the value obtained for the
oblateness of the outer stratum, or surface, of the globe
agrees very well with that obtained as a mean of the most
trustworthy of the determinations by more direct methods.
The probable value obtained for the pressure acting at the
earth’s centre is 2383-152km. of mercury, a quantity so
enormous that Prof. See attempts to render it more com-
prehensible by suggesting that it is 7838 times as great
as a column of mercury equal in height to the Eiffel Tower.
The probable pressure at the sun’s centre is nearly 212
billion atmospheres. A column of mercury acting solely
under terrestrial gravitational acceleration would have to
be high enough to extend beyond the sun in order that it
might exert such a pressure.
Similar results for the density and pressure at different
levels in the planets and satellites are given in two of
the tables accompanying Prof. See’s paper, and are also
shown diagrammatically, whilst a third table shows the
ratios of the actual moments of inertia to those of corre-
sponding homogeneous spheres.
Discussion OF CENTRAL EvropEAN LoncitupEs.—In a
series of tables published in Nos. 3993-4 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten, Prof. Th. Albrecht brings together, weighs
and tabulates all the longitude results, affecting central
European observatories, hitherto obtained. In the first
table the longitude differences between 176 pairs of observ-
ing stations, as determined since 1863, are thus dealt with,
whilst in the second the longitude differences between
Greenwich transit circle and numerous other important
circles or observatories are brought together. In the third
table the corrections to be applied to the differences given
in table i., as determined from the discussion of the whole
set, are shown.
MarcH 2, 1905]
NATURE
425
THE SCOTTISH NATIONAL ANTARCTIC
EXPEDITION.*
A FIER getting free from the winter quarters in the
South Orkneys on November 23, 1903, the Scotia left
for the Falkland Islands and Buenos Aires to get into com-
munication with home and obtain a fresh stock of coals and
Fic. 1.—Gough Island, showing hanging valley truncated by shore cliff.
provisions. During the ship’s absence a party of six men
was left at Scotia Bay under the charge of Mr. R. C.
Mossman to carry on the systematic meteorological, mag-
netic, and biological work.
Perhaps the most interesting discovery made by the
summer party was the egg of the Cape pigeon (Daption
laid—a pure white egg, deposited in a nest which consists of
a few angular fragments of stone raked together on a
bare ledge of the cliff.
While at Buenos Aires Mr. Bruce arranged for the
Argentine Government to take over and continue the
meteorological and magnetic observatory at Scotia Bay,
South Orkneys. On January 21, 1904, the Scotia left
Buenos Aires with three Argentine men of
science on board in addition to her own
staff, and on February 22 they were left
on the South Orkneys under the leader-
ship of Mr. Mossman, who had consented
to remain for a further period of twelve
months.
This season the distribution of the pack
ice was very different from that of
the previous year. Almost no ice was
met with near the Orkneys, and very
little until reaching the Antarctic circle
in about 32° W. long. In the beginning
of March the previous year’s southern
record, and also that of Ross in 1843, was
passed, but in 72° 18’ S. 17° 59’ W. a
sudden change of conditions was met
with. The water suddenly shallowed
from about 2500 fathoms to 1131, and at
the same time land was reported ahead.
Steaming towards this we found a lofty
ice-barrier stretching in a north-easterly
and south-westerly direction, effectually
barring further progress to the south.
Close, heavy pack ice prevented a nearer
approach than two miles. This barrier
was traced for a distance of 150 miles to
the south-west. In 73° 30’ S. 21° 30/
W., a depth of 159 fathoms was met with,
the barrier being then two and a half
mulessoffis In 74° 1! S) 22° of Wi the
Scotia was nipped by the ice in a heavy N.E. gale, and was
preparing to spend the winter there; but on March 13 the
floe broke up and the ship was released. During the six
days’ imprisonment collections of the marine fauna were got
from a depth of 161 fathoms, and a splendid view was ob-
tained of the inland ice. Although no actual bare rock was
Fic. 2.—Glacier at head of bay, north coast of Laurie Island, South Orkneys.
capensis). Although known to breed on South Georgia and
Kerguelen, its eggs had never hitherto been obtained. As is
the case with the majority of petrels, only a single egg is
1 Abstract of a paper on the ‘‘ Second Antarctic Voyage of the Scotia,”
by Mr. J. H. Harvey Pirie and Mr, R. N. Rudmose Brown in the Scottish
Geographical Magazine.
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
seen, there can be no doubt we were really on the edge of the
Antarctic continent—off ‘‘ Coats Land,’’ as it has been
named after Mr. James Coats, jun., and Major Andrew
Coats, the two chief subscribers to the expedition. In this
connection we quote the words of Mr. Bruce :—‘‘ I have
been asked by several if I am sure that this great ice-
426
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
barrier was really part of the Antarctic continent. I have
no hesitation in saying ‘ yes,’ and my reasons are these:
All our soundings between 60° and 70° S. were 2500 to 2700
fathoms. In 72° S. they shoaled to about 2300, fifty miles
from the barrier. Thirty-five miles from the barrier they
shoaled to 1400 and 1200 fathoms, and two miles from the
barrier to 160 fathoms. This alone should answer the
question in the way which I have done. Secondly, from
the vertical cliff of ice 100 to 150 feet in height which
bordered the ocean, the ice rose high inland in undulating
slopes and faded away in height and distance into the sky.
It was impossible to estimate the height of this field of
ice—the true inland ice of Antarctica—but probably it was
many thousands of feet. Thirdly, seals and birds, which
up till now had become few in numbers, were seen in
myriads—penguins, especially emperors, many petrels, and
terns swarming in every direction—the inhabitants of the
beaches and rocky cliffs of some actual land not very far
distant.”’
After the escape from the ice the Scotia turned north-
eastwards to continue the oceanographical survey of the
Weddell Sea, and had some very successful deep-sea
trawling in high southern latitudes—one haul in 71° 22! S.
16° 34’ W. (1410 fathoms) yielding more than sixty species
of animals. Ross’s reported deep of 4000 fathoms no bottom
was shown conclusively not to exist, the whole Weddell Sea
Fic. 3.—Weddell Seal—off Coats Land.
being apparently an almost level plain submerged between
2400 and 2700 fathoms.
Pursuing a track northwards along the meridian of
10° W., although encountering very heavy weather between
45° and 55° S. lat., some very interesting soundings were
obtained demonstrating the extension of the mid-Atlantic
ridge southwards as far as 52° S. lat. The diatom ooze
band-extends between 48° and 58° S.; to the south of this is
blue-mud, the detritus of the Antarctic ice-sheets, to the
north, globigerina ooze.
On April 22 a landing was effected with considerable
difficulty on Gough Island, a previously unexplored outlier
of the Tristan da Cunha group. This apparently entirely
volcanic island is richly clad with vegetation, but the ex-
tremely precipitous nature of the ground prevented any
extensive survey being made, though two new species of
plants were obtained—a Cotula and an Asplenium; and
amongst the birds two entirely distinct and new species of
finches. Shallow water collections were got off the shore
by means of the dredge and trap. Between Gough Island
and Cape Town several soundings were taken between the
parallels of 39° and 40°.
On February 8 of the present year, the Argentine sloop
Uruguay returned to Buenos Aires from the South Ork-
neys, having brought back safely Mr. Mossman and his
party, and landed a fresh staff there. The station is being
continued for meteorological and magnetic work, and a
complete outfit of self-recording magnetic instruments has
been installed. This work is in connection with the
systematic magnetic survey of Argentina which is at pre-
sent being undertaken.
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
THE EARLY HISTORY OF SEED-BEARING
PLANTS, AS RECORDED IN THE CARBONI-
FEROUS FLORA.
A LARGE number of the fern-like fronds of Carboniferous
age, including many whole genera, as Neuropteris,
Alethopteris, Callipteris, Linopteris, &c., have never been
found to offer any satisfactory indications of a fern-like
fructification. Some suspicion was thus awakened that such
fronds may have belonged to plants other than true ferns.
Positive evidence first came from the anatomical side.
The vegetative structure of Lyginodendron Oldhamium was
completely worked out, chiefly by Williamson, and proved to
present a combination of filicinean characters with those of
cycadaceous gymnosperms. Similar results were attained
in other genera, as Heterangium, Medullosa, Calamopitys
and Protopitys, and hence the class Cycadofilices was founded
to embrace these apparently intermediate forms. Decisive
evidence as to the fructification was first obtained in 1903,
when it was shown by Prof. F. W. Oliver, in collaboration
with the lecturer, that the seed Lagenostoma Lomaxi agreed
so closely in certain structural features with the associated
Lyginodendron Oldhamium as to leave no doubt that the one
belonged to the other. Observations on other Lagenostomas
support this conclusion and show that the seeds were borne
on modified fronds. It thus appears that the family Lygino-
dendrz consisted of seed-bearing
plants, allied to the cycads, but re-
taining filicinean characters; their
foliage was of a sphenopteroid type.
In another extensive family, that
of the Neuropteridez, precisely
analogous conclusions have been
reached. Here, too, the anatomical
evidences indicated a position inter-
mediate between ferns and cycads.
In the case of Neuropteris hetero-
phylla it has been proved by Mr.
Kidston that large seeds, referred by
him to the genus Rhabdocarpus of
Goeppert.and Berger, were borne on
the frond. There are reasons for be-
lieving that Trigonocarpon was the
seed of Alethopteris, and M. Grand-
*Eury, on the ground of extensive
observations on the distribution of
fronds and seeds, is led to conclude
that the Neuropterideze generally
were seed-bearing plants, of cycadean affinity.
It has been proposed to group these fern-like seed-plants,
which in Carboniferous times probably exceeded the ferns
themselves in number, under the name Pteridospermez.
Their relation to the fern-phylum is evident from many
points in their structure, apart from the relatively un-
important external characters.
Other seed-bearing plants of the Carboniferous flora have
long been known, notably the Cordaitez, great trees with
large simple leaves, totally different from the Pterido-
spermez in habit, and with little indication of fern-like
structure. The fructifications also are of a more advanced
character than those of the pteridosperms. In the structure
of the seeds, however, and in some anatomical points, a
certain affinity, though a distant one, with that family. is
suggested. It is probable that the Cordaitee ultimately
sprang from the same stock as the Pteridospermez, though
at a very remote period. On the other hand, there is reason
to believe that the Coniferze, appearing at the close of the
Palzozoic period, were related to the Cordaitee. It is thus
indicated as probable that the gymnosperms generally were,
in a wide sense, of monophyletic origin, as having been
ultimately derived from a common stock allied to the ferns ;
in a narrower sense they may be termed polyphyletic, as
having sprung from this common stock at different points.
Althougn, as we now know, certain of the Palzozoic
lycopods had likewise attained to the production of a seed-
like fructification, there is at present no satisfactory evidence
for connecting the members of this phylum with any of the
groups of seed-bearing plants which have come down to our
own day.
1 Abstract of the Wilde Lecture delivered before the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society on February 28 by Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
i alana
MARrcE 2, 1905]
NATURE
427
FORESTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.
V E have lately received five publications from the United
States Bureau of Forestry, viz. Bulletins Nos. 46,
52 and 53, together with Circulars Nos. 30 and 31. Bulletin
No. 46 is entitled ‘‘ The Basket Willow,’’ by Mr. William
F. Hubbard. The author has evidently made a special
1.—Twisted Furrows in Bark of Chestnut from Seed.
Fic.
study of willow cultivation from every conceivable point of
view. At the outset, he gives the general history of willow
culture, together with the distribution and characteristics
of the willow. This is followed by a most interesting
account of willow-growing in the United States from its
commencement down to the present time. The present
practice is fully described, and much valuable advice is
given, showing where improvements can be made on the
existing methods of planting and tending the willow holts,
choice of species, harvesting, cutting, sorting and packing
the rods. The paragraphs which deal with expenditure
and returns in American willow culture should go a long
way to encourage and increase the development of what
is at the present time a somewhat neglected industry in
the United States.
The Bureau of Forestry is actively engaged in carrying
out field experiments which are yielding, and will yield in
the future, information of the utmost importance to willow-
growers. The bulletin is not entirely confined to willow-
growing in the United States, as the author gives a most
interesting account of the development of scientific willow-
culture in Europe, which he adds as an object lesson for
the guidance of the American cultivator. The manufacture
of willow ware in the United States is an important feature
of the bulletin, which is replete with suggestions for beth
grower and basket-maker. A chapter on insects injurious
to the basket-willow has been added, by Mr. F. H.
Chittenden. A useful appendix at the end of the bulletin
gives the production and consumption of willow in the
United States.
Forest planting in western Kansas, by Mr. Royal R.
Kellogg, constitutes Bulletin No. 52. The object of the
paper is to show the species of tree best adapted for western
IXansas, and the methods of treatment which have proved
most successful. It seems, from the nature of the climate,
that forestry on large areas is impracticable, but neverthe-
less, with an intelligent selection of species and a proper
method of treatment, it may be possible to raise sufficient
timber to exercise a marked effect upon the landscape, and
to supply wood for domestic purposes. Among other
things, the bulletin shows the enormous importance and
influence tree-growth has on agriculture, not only in break-
NO. 1844, VOL. 7 1|
|
ing and tempering the effect of cold, dry winds, but also in
increasing the available supply of moisture in the soil.
The bulletin is practically a condensed volume on sylvi-
culture. It shows the most suitable species for western
Kansas, and the site, soil, method of planting and subse-
quent treatment, together with the rate of growth and
possible returns, are all gone into in a most thorough and
workmanlike fashion. Plate iv. in the bulletin shows a
| row of Russian mulberry, and illustrates how the proper
treatment of this species might be turned to the greatest
use by the farmer. The above row extends more than
20 rods, and contains 200 trees 3 inches in diameter and
20 feet in height. Its total value, if converted into posts
and stakes, would amount to 36.40 dollars, and, as the
author remarks, a well-cared-for plantation at this place
would evidently be a profitable investment.
Bulletin No. 53, entitled ‘‘ The Chestnut in Southern
Maryland,”’ is by Mr. Raphael Zon. This species is evi-
dently of great commercial importance in Maryland. It is
apparently used principally for railway ties and telephone
poles. As the result of his investigations, the author has
arrived at the conclusion that pure coppice is the sylvi-
cultural system to which the chestnut is best suited. Among
other things, the report brings out clearly the difference
between trees grown from seed and those from the stool.
It is interesting to note that coppiced trees have thicker
bark than trees from seed. The author further finds, from
careful measurements and observations, that coppiced trees
grow faster than seed trees during the first twenty years,
and finally vield better and earlier returns than trees from
seed. The illustrations reproduced show the interesting
fact observed by the author that the furrows in the bark of
coppice chestnut are straight, while those in the bark of
chestnut from seed show the characteristic spiral twist.
The report also contains many tables, showing the rate of
growth and dimensions of trees from seed and coppice at
various ages.
Circular No. 30, by Mr. Gifford Pinchot, is a description
of an exhibit of forest planting in woodlots at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition. The exhibit is intended to illustrate
the different methods of planting with different species and
mixtures suitable for the different parts of the United
Fic. 2.—Straight Furrows in Bark of Coppice Chestnut.
States. There are in all forty-eight plots, representing
different regions to which the various mixtures and density
of planting are best adapted. This should form a valuable
guide to sylviculturists all over the United States.
Circulay No. 31, by the same author, is a description of
a forest nursery exhibit at the above exposition. The most
suitable form of bed, different methods of sowing, and
428
various kinds of shelter screens
coniferous and deciduous nurseries are for obvious reasons
treated separately.
This batch of literature gives some idea of the value of
the work which the United States Bureau of Forestry is
doing, and, on the whole, its value to the country cannot
be over-estimated.
PROGRESSIVE BUDDHISM.
HE handsomely got-up and well-printed review, Buddhism,
is an interesting sign of the times. The Buddhist
community is apparently realising that it is advisable, so far
as possible, to bring itself into line with modern develop-
ments, and to the monthly periodicals appearing in Ceylon,
Japan, and (strange to say) San Francisco, has now added
this quarterly journal appearing in Burma.
The present venture is edited by Ananda Maitreya, the
name, in religion, of a Scotchman who has entered the
Buddhist Order ; and he has secured the cooperation for this
number not only of Indian, Burmese, and Sinhalese, but also
of American and English writers.
In the editor’s article on ‘‘ The New Civilisation,’’ he
maintains that the new civilisation which is beginning, in a
way that no ancient civilisation did, to permeate mankind
should be heartily welcomed by Buddhists as being based on
that conception of the inviolable sequence of cause and effect,
of the reign of law, which was, indeed, the main tenet in the
teaching of the Buddha. And he ventures on a glowing
prophesy of what the future of humanity will be when this
conception of law, claimed by him as a special mark of
Buddhist teaching, shall have worked out its effect in the
daily lives of men by an increased deference to knowledge,
and to the men of knowledge, by the growth of a spirit of
wide toleration and humanity. The courageous optimism
of this article is in striking contrast with ideas usually held
about Buddhist teaching; but it is interesting to see how
thoroughly the party represented by this newest Buddhist
journal is in sympathy with the teachings and the spirit of
science.
Dr. Paul Carus, of Chicago, follows with an article on
‘* The Philosophy of Buddhism,’’ in which he claims that the
latest, as well as the earliest, Buddhism, rests upon the be-
lief in a universal reign of law, and on the idea that nothing
is but everything becomes. Mr. Chandra Das has an in-
teresting historical paper on the foundation of Lhassa, and
Mr. Tau Seng Ko another on the introduction of Buddhism
into Burma, each of them writing with special expert know-
ledge of his subject. There are shorter articles by other
writers, paragraphs of notes and news, and some scholarly
reviews. The journal would be useful to those who desire
to follow the tendencies in the forward movement among the
Buddhist communities ; whether it is entitled to speak for all
Buddhists is another matter.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Campripce.—Mr. A. W. Hill, of King’s College, has
been appointed University lecturer in botany until Michael-
mas, 1909.
The degree of Sc.D. honoris causa is to be conferred on
Prof. E. B. Tylor, of Oxford, at a congregation held to-day.
At the same congregation Mr. J. W. Willis, director of the
Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon, will proceed by
proxy to the same degree.
Mr. C. Shearer, advanced student of Trinity College, has
been re-nominated to the university table at the zoological
station at Naples.
The Board of Geographical Studies has published the
following schedule for the special examination in geography
and for part i. of the examination for the diploma in
geography :—(1) Physical Geography.—Form and motions
of the earth. Elementary climatology and oceanography.
Typical forms of land configuration, their distribution and
modes of formation. (2) Historical and Political Geography.
The historical development and political partition of the
1 ** Buddhism.”
XX1i-+- 170.
An Illustrated Quarterly Review.
(Rangoon ; Hauthrawaddy Press, 1904.)
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
Vol. i., No. 4.
NATURE ; f
are described. The |
[MaRcH 2, 1905
different regions of the world, with a consideration of the
influence of their physical features. A more detailed know-
ledge of the geography of a selected region (for 1905 and
1906, Europe). (3) Economic and Commercial Geography.—
The economic growth of the different regions of the world,
and the main lines of commerce and communication by land
and sea in past and present times. A more detailed know-
ledge of a selected region (for 1905 and 1906, Europe).
(4) Cartography.—The construction and use of maps. A
general knowledge of the methods of exploratory surveying :
plane tabling, latitudes ‘and azimuths by the sun, latitude
and azimuth traverses, route traverses and compass sketch-
ing. Heights by barometer and boiling-point thermometer.
The candidate will be examined orally and practically on
maps and on the ordinary surveying instruments. Any
candidate who can produce a sketch made by himself of a
route traversed by compass, and checked by observations
for latitude and azimuth with the necessary computations,
will be examined thereon and will receive special credit for
good work. (5) History of Geographical Discovery.—The
outlines of the history of geographical discovery, with special
questions on a selected region or period (for 1905 and 1906,
The Fifteenth Century). (6) Elements of Ethnology.—The
principal races of mankind, their migrations and present
distribution.
Lonpon.—At the annual meeting of University College
on February 22, the following resolution, moved by Lord
Reay, on behalf of the council, was unanimously adopted :—
That the Bill now submitted, entitled ‘‘ A Bill for Trans-
ferring University College, London, to the University of
London and for other matters connected therewith and for
Amending ‘the University of London Act, 1898,’’ be and the
same is hereby approved subject to such additions, altera-
tions, and variations as Parliament may think fit to make
therein.
Dr. MicHELE CANTONE, of Pavia, is to succeed Prof. E.
Villari as professor of physics and director of the physical
laboratory at Naples. At Gottingen, Prof. F. Dolezalek has
been appointed head of the department of physical and
electrical chemistry. Dr. H. Kneser has been appointed
professor of mathematics at Breslau. Dr. Ludwig Claisen
late professor of chemistry at Kiel, has been appointed
honorary professor at Berlin, and Dr. Karl Stéckl professor
of mathematics and physics at Passau.
In his last report President Eliot recommends, says
Science, the collection of 500,000]. as an endowment for the
college of Harvard University, and it is said that the alumni
are making efforts to collect this sum before the next com-
mencement day. The class of 1880 expects to contribute
20,0001. on the occasion of its twenty-fifth anniversary.
From the same source we learn that Mr. Andrew Carnegie
has given to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy
25,0001. toward rebuilding the main building which was
burned last June. He has also given 20,o00l. to Tufts
College for the erection of a library building.
THE committee appointed by the Prince of Wales, as
president of King Edward’s Hospital Fund, to inquire into
the financial relations between the hospitals and medical
schools has now issued its report. The committee has formed,
it is to be noted with satisfaction, the opinion that a broad
line of distinction ought to be drawn between the pre-
liminary and intermediate studies of a medical student on
one hand, and the final studies on the other ; and that whilst
the final studies can be pursued with advantage only within
the walls of a hospital, the earlier scientific studies have
no real relation with a hospital, and are pursued more
properly in an institution of university character. The
committee expresses satisfaction that the statutes of the
University of London direct the Senate to ‘‘ use its best
endeavours whenever practicable to secure such common
courses of instruction for internal medical students in the
preliminary and intermediate portion of their studies under
appointed or recognised teachers at one or more centres.”
To do this effectively will mean a great expenditure, and
the Senate of the university is appealing for funds to
assist it in carrying out the work. The conclusions
arrived at by the committee appointed by the Prince of Wales
should prove of advantage both to the hospitals and to the
Marcu 2, 1905]
NATURE
429
university. The hospital should be a school only in the
sense of being a school of applied science where general
principles of science are applied to a specific technical
purpose. But if the medical student is to be no longer
provided with instruction in scientific fundamentals at the
hospitals, there must be forthcoming—if London is to remain
a great medical and surgical centre—funds enough to pro-
vide other institutions where this teaching may be given.
University College and King’s College have long done work
of this kind, but the accommodation which they are able
to provide is quite inadequate for the instruction of the
students of all the hospitals, and other colleges are required
where general education of a university standard may be
obtained.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, January 26.—‘‘On the Comparison of the
Platinum Scale of Temperature with the Normal Scale at
Temperatures between 444° and —190° C., with Notes on
Constant Temperatures below the Melting-point of Ice.’’
By Prof. Morris W. Travers, F.R.S., and A. G. C. Gwyer.
The authors conclude that, as might be expected, it is
possible to apply the parabolic formula of Callendar and
Griffiths to the re-calculation of the differences between the
platinum scale of temperature and the scale of the gas
thermometer, though the range through which it is ap-
plicable, and value of the constant 9, precludes the possi-
bility of employing it except for interpolation. A standard
scale of temperature, based on Callendar’s three fixed points,
using standard wire, and taking 1.5 for the value of 4,
would lead to absurd results at low temperatures; and the
converse may be said of the authors’ own observations. The
results referred to in this paper may be summed up as
follows :-—
Observer.
Callendar and Griffiths
Nature of gas thermometer.
Constant pressure air (0° to 444°)
1°50
Constant volume nitrogen (-23°to 445°) Chappuis and Harker 1°54
Constant volume nitrogen standard-
ised by constant pressure air at 444°
(Geoltarrocas)) =... 0. ee Marker s+. I°5I—I"49
Constant volume hydrogen (—190° to
de tt eo ses) c02) sas, eee Travers and Gwyer ... I"90
February 2.—‘‘ On the ‘ Blaze-currents’ of the Gall
Bladder of the Frog.’” By Alice M. Waller. Communicated
by Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S. (From the Physi-
ological Research Laboratory of the University of London.)
This investigation was made in continuation of Dr.
Waller’s work on blaze-currents. A blaze-current, as defined
by Dr. Waller in previous communications to the Royal
Society and in his lectures on the signs of life, is a current
of action, an electric current aroused in living tissues by
stimulus; the term ‘‘ blaze ’’ has reference to the vitality of
the tissue, to a chemical exchange going on within it; a
muscle at rest is smouldering, a muscle in action is blazing.
Dr. Waller’s apparatus and method of work were employed ;
the apparatus consists essentially of a keyboard containing
four keys, opening respectively to an induction coil, a com-
pensator, the object to be studied, and a galvanometer or
electrometer. Any accidental current in the object is com-
pensated so that the galvanometer key can be opened
without altering the zero, then the object is stimulated by a
single break induction shock, the galvanometer key is
opened, and the after-effect observed.
As seen in previous work by this method, the direction of
blaze-current varies in different living objects or tissues, e.g.
in a plant the blaze-current is either post-anodic or homo.
drome or it runs from younger to older tissue, in the crystalline
lens from anterior to posterior surface, in skin from within
outwards. The tissues and organs of the frog were systematic-
ally examined, and it was found that the liver gave responses
either antidrome or from surface to hilum, and the gall
bladder gave surprisingly large electrical variations, as much
as 1/10 volt, always antidrome, in a way that one is accus-
tomed to regard as due to polarisation currents in non-
living matter. These polarisation currents were proved to
be physiological by their abolition on submitting the organ
to strong chloroform, boiling or electrocution by tetanisa-
tion. The effect is local, it can be destroyed by tetanus at
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
two spots, and was found to persist at other parts of the
round bladder.
Employing Waller’s A. B. C. method, in which a three-
way switch is employed so that the anode and kathode of the
exciting current can be separately interrogated, it is found
that the blaze at each pole is post-kathodic or antidrome.
The blaze lasts about two minutes; it is often diphasic or
triphasic ; a single break shock with coil at 5000— (Berne
scale) gave +0.0125 volt, then —o.o110, then +0-co10.
The bladder was washed out and filled with salt solu-
tion, and the same effect obtained; a piece was snipped off
and electrodes applied to mucous and serous surfaces, and
still antidrome blaze obtained, though there- was a tendency
to exhibit the usual mucous to serous blaze.
The simplicity of structure of the gall bladder—a sphere
having a single row of columnar epithelium on the mucous
interior surounded by layers of smooth muscle fibre cells—
may account for the large and definite blaze-currents ob-
tained, but why the cells should exhibit negative polarisation,
antidrome rather than homodrome or positive polarisation,
is not yet apparent.
Entomological Society, February 1.—Mr. F. Merrifield,
president, in the chair.—Exhibitions :—Specimens of Oligota
granaria found in a granary at Holborn, the only other
localities reported hitherto being Shoe Lane, London, and
Scarborough: H. St. J. Donisthorpe.—An Erycinid
butterfly Mesosemia eumene pinned in its natural
position of rest to show its resemblance to the head of a
small mammal, such as a mouse: W. J. Kaye.—A variety
of the female of Lycaena melanops named by him
var. wheeleri: Dr. T. A. Chapman. As a mere
aberration it was interesting, but it was of value as
showing that the position in the genus for long accorded
to the species, whether by accident or design, close to the
Arion-Euphemus group, was correct. The considerable ex-
tension of the blue in this specimen showed up certain black
spots on the upper surface of both upper and lower wings,
strictly similar to these characteristics of the Arion-
Euphemus group.—A living 2 H. defoliaria, taken as late
as February 1, at rest on north side of oak-tree, and another
2 taken January 28 in the same wood at Bexley. A
Gd Notodonta sicsac x Q WN. dromedarius, with two
hybrids, the colour of the hybrids being that of drome-
darius, while the markings were those of ziczsac: F.
Enock.—A living specimen of Acridium aegyptium, L.,
found in a cauliflower in Bloomsbury, and probably im-
ported from Italy: O. E. Janson.—Two specimens of
Malachius barnvillei, Puton, captured by Mr. Thouless at
Hunstanton, Norfolk, in June, 1899, a recent addition to
the British list: G. C. Champion.— J and 9 specimens of
Machimus rusticus, Mg., a rare Asilid, taken in cop. at
Freshwater, Isle of Wight, on August 13, 1903: H. W.
Andrews.—A © example of Panorpa cognata taken at
Byfleet Canal on August 23, 1904: W. J. Lucas. The
insect occurs at Folkestone, and is said to be found in the
New Forest. It is a little difficult at times to identify the Q
alone, but Mr. K. J. Morton also had identified the specimen
exhibited as P. cognata. For comparison he also exhibited
22 of P. communis and P. germanica.—Papers :—A
revision of the genus Criocephalus, with notes on the
habits of Asemum striatum and Criocephalus ferus: Dr. D.
Sharp, F.R.S., and T. G. Smith.—Another entomological
excursion to Spain (with descriptions of two new species of
Hemiptera by Dr. O. M. Reuter): Dr. T. A. Chapman
and G. C. Champion.—On the matrivorous habit of the
species of Heterogynis, Ramb., and on the pupal suspen-
sion of Thais: Dr. T. A. Chapman.—Notes on New
Zealand Lepidoptera: E. Meyrick, F.R.S.
Zoological Society, February 7.—Mr. Howard Saunders,
vice-president, in the chair.—A second collection of fishes
made by Mr. S. L. Hinde in the Kenya District of East
Africa: G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. Examples of five
species were contained in the collection, three of which
were new to science.—On some points in the anatomy of a
theriodont reptile: Dr. R. Broom.—Field-notes on the
mammals of Southern Cameroons and the Benito: G. L.
Bates.—A collection of Heterocera from the Fiji Islands :
G. T. Bethune-Baker. Of the species enumerated eleven
were new to science.—A contribution to the knowledge of
430
the arteries of the brain in the class Aves: F. E.
Beddard, F.R.S.—The function of the antenne in
insects: M. Yearstey. After reviewing the litera-
ture on the subject the author pointed out that Lowne,
in his work on the blowfly, suggested that the antennz
were probably balancing rather than auditory organs.
Lord Avebury and Latreille were cited in favour of this
view, and the work of Yves Delage on Crustacea and of
Clemens upon a moth (Samia cecropia) as confirmatory
experiments. The author then gave details of experiments
upon thirty wasps (Vespa vulgaris) in which the antennz
had been removed. The results of this mutilation were :—
(1) Loss of power of flight; (2) loss of sense of direction ;
(3) noticeable slowness in all movements. The conclusion
arrived at was that in wasps, the antenna were equilibrat-
ing in function. This supported Lowne’s surmise and
.orroborated the experiments of Clemens on Samia cecropia.
Anthropological Institute, February 14.—Prof. W.
Gowland, president, in the chair.—Exhibition of native
dances and ceremonies from the Torres Straits: Dr. A. C.
Haddon, F.R.S. The exhibition was illustrated by lantern
slides and kinematograph films, and dealt with the
‘““Malu’’ ceremony, secular dances, and _fire-making
by a rotary method. Dr. C. S. Myers sang several
of the native songs, which are sung at the dances,
and accompanied himself on a _ native drum.—Dog-
motive in Bornean design: E. B. Haddon. The methods of
tattooing are constant among the tribes of Borneo, and most
of the patterns are derived from the Kenyah and Kayan
tribes. The different patterns are all derived from the dog-
motive. The rosette pattern, for instance, which is tattooed
on the shoulders of the men, is directly derived from the eye
of a dog, although the Iban tribe, who have adopted the
pattern, call it by the name of various fruits and flowers.
The conventional tattoo pattern found on the firearms of
Kenyah and Kayan men in Sarawak, although modified out
of all recognition, is also clearly derived from the same
source, as it is named asu, which means dog; from this
same pattern a series can be traced to the Iban pattern,
which is said to represent a scorpion, Kala, but was clearly
originally a dog. Similarly the so-called prawn pattern,
Udang, was shown to be derived from the dog-motive.
Royal Meteorological Society, February 15.—Mr. R.
Bentley, president, in the chair.—Report on the phenological
observations for the year 1904: E. Mawley. The weather
of the phenological year ending with November, 1904, was
chiefly remarkable for the persistent rains in January and
February, the absence of keen frosts in May, the long con.
tinuance of hot and dry weather in July, and the small rain-
fall during the autumn. Throughout the year wild plants
came into flower behind their usual dates, but at no period
were the departures from the average exceptional. Such
spring migrants as the swallow, cuckoo, and nightingale
made their appearance in this country at as nearly as pos-
sible their usual time. The yield of wheat per acre was the
smallest since 1895, while those of barley, beans, and peas
were also deficient. On the other hand, there were good
crops of oats, potatoes, and mangles. .The best farm crops
of the year were, however, those of hay, swedes, and
turnips. Both corn and hay were harvested in excellent
condition. Apples were everywhere abundant, and all the
small fruits yielded well, especially strawberries, but there
was only a moderate supply of pears and plums.—Ob-
servations of meteorological elements made during a balloon
ascent at Berlin on September 1, 1904: Dr. H. Elias and
J. H. Fietd.—The winds of East London, Cape Colony:
J. R. Sutton.
Linnean Society, February 16.—Prof. S. H. Vines, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—A_ revised classification of
roses: J. G. Baker, F.R.S. The author dealt with the
genus by dividing it into three groups. In the first group
primary species were enumerated; in the second, sub-
species and varieties; in the third, the principal hybrids.
The primary species as estimated by the author are sixty-
nine in number, and they are classified under eleven groups.
The geographical distribution can be very briefly stated as
follows :—Five species are found south of the Tropic of
Cancer in elevated situations, two in Abyssinia, one in the
Neileherries, and two in Mexico. There are six geographical
NO. 1844, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905
regions in the North Temperate Zone, each with a con-
siderable proportion of endemic species. (1) Europe, with
twenty-nine species; (2) Northern Asia with China and
Japan, twenty-six species; (3) Western Asia, with eighteen
species; (4) India, with nine species; (5) Western North
America with the Rocky Mountains, with ten species; (6)
Eastern North America, six species.—The botany of the
Anglo-German Uganda Boundary Commission—Polypetale,
E. G. Baker; Gamopetalz excl. Convolvulacez, S. Moore ;
Convolvulacez, Apetala, and Monocotyledons, Dr. A. B.
Rendle. The Commission commenced demarcating the
boundary in the Uganda Protectorate in December, 1902,
H.M. Commissioner on the British side being Lieut.-Col.
Delmé-Radcliffe. The collections which are the subject of
this paper were made by Dr. A. G. Bagshawe, the medical
officer. They contain a considerable number (some fifty) of
novelties, as also of known plants not hitherto recorded
from the Uganda Protectorate. For the Angolan plant pre-
viously known as Asystasia africana, C. B. Clarke, which
also is in the collection, a new genus, Styasasia, is pro-
posed. A considerable percentage of West African coast-
plants is a feature of the Protectorate flora as now made
known, and worthy of mention is the presence of a small
South Afri an element.
CAMBRIDGE.
Philosophical Society, January 30.—Prof. Marshall Ward,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On the non-electrification of
y rays ; Prof. Thomson, F.R.S. Experiments were described
in which the electrifications imparted to two equal cylinders
made of thin brass, one of them hollow and the other filled
with lead, were measured. The cylinders were in electrical
connection and were symmetrically placed in a large vessel
from which the air was exhausted. The cylinders were ex-
posed alternately to the y rays of radium, and from the
measurement of the charges received by them it was con-
cluded that the electrifications observed when y rays fall on
a body are not due to a charge on the y rays, but to the
charge carried by secondary 8 rays excited by the y rays when
they fall on the body or on the walls of the vessel containing
it.—Are metals made radio-active by the influence of radium
radiation? Prof. Thomson, F.R.S. From experiments
made on lead, brass, and tin it was shown that these bodies,
after exposure to radium radiation, exhibit no trace of radio-
activity four minutes after the radiation has ceased to fall
upon them; there was no evidence of induced activity of any
kind, but the method used was not adapted for testing the
existence of a very short-lived radio-activity ; this has been
done by Prof. Bumstead by a method described in the next
paper.—Are metals made radio-active by the influence of
radium radiation? Prof. Bumstead. The experiments
described formed a continuation of those reported by Prof.
Thomson, and were designed to ascertain whether the
secondary rays given out by a surface exposed to the 6 and y
rays of radium persisted for a very short time after the
exposure to the exciting rays had ceased. A rotating disc
was used and four substances were tested, viz. copper, lead,
tin, and blotting-paper which had been soaked in a solution
of uranium nitrate and then dried. The interval between
exposure to the rays from 30 mg. of pure radium bromide
and the subsequent test for residual activity was less than
0-009 second; and no rays capable of penetrating 7 mm. of
air and 0.00005 cm. of aluminium were detected. If any
were present they must have been considerably less intense
than those given out by a layer of potassium uranium sul-
phate with a surface-density of one milligram per square
centimetre.—Note on the positive leak from hot platinum in
air: O. W. Richardson. Experiments showing that the
rate of discharge of positive electricity by a platinum wire,
which had been heated in air long enough for the current to
become steady, consists of two parts, one proportional to,
and the other independent of, the pressure.—Some methods
of increasing the spark length of the Wimshurst machine :
B. J. Patmer.
February 13.—Prof. Marshall Ward, president, in the
chair.—Orthogonal and other special systems of invariants,
part i.: Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S. In this paper
orthogonal concomitants are discussed by means of a sym-
bolic calculus with imaginary umbra. For a binary quantic
of any given order, the author finds an inferior limit to the
maximum degree of an irreducible covariant of given order
MarcH 2, 1905]
NATURE 431
belonging to it: a superior limit is also found in certain
cases. For the first three degrees of the concomitants, for
a quantic of any order, the actual number of irreducible
concomitants is found; and hence the number of funda-
mental syzygies is inferred. Tables of ground-forms are
given for quantics of order 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 respectively.—
Reduction of generating functions by means of complex
integration: G. B. Mathews, F.R.S. It is shown in this
note how aclass of generating functions which occur in the
theory of invariants, and in that of the partition of num-
bers, may be reduced by means of Cauchy’s calculus of
residues.
DUBLIN.
Royal Irish Academy, February 13.—Prof. R. Atkinson,
president, in the chair.—Verb functions or _ explicit
Operations, with notes on the solution of equations
by operative division: Major Ronald Ross, C.B., F.R.S.
If any expression is being considered as the result of an
operation performed on one of its elements, the actual
operation can be separately and explicitly represented in
the following manner. ‘The place occupied by the subject-
element is called the base of the operation and is always
denoted by 8. Thus, B cos~’8 is the operation performed
on x in order to produce the function x cos—'x. As B has
no quantitative value, such an expression as 6 cos—'B de-
notes, not a quantity, but an action, and may be called a
verb function. Before applying such an expression to a
subject it must be placed in special (square) brackets in
order to distinguish operation from multiplication. The
method may be applied to the solution of a complete equa-
tion of the nth degree in 2n ways, and applies equally to
the solution of linear differential equations.
EDINBURGH.
Royal Society, February 6.—Dr. Traquair in the chair.—
On Penella, a Crustacean parasitic on the Finner Whale
(Balaenoptera musculus) : Sir William Turner. This cope-
pod was originally recognised by Koven and Danielssen as
parasitic on Balaenoptera rostrata. The author’s specimens
were obtained in 1903 from B, musculus. The memoir com-
prised an account of the external characters and internal
anatomy of the female, which, being from 10 to 12 inches
long, varying in different specimens, is a giant amongst
copepods. A comparison of the species with other species
of Penella was made, and the great length of the thoracic
in comparison with the genito-abdominal segment was re-
ferred to. The male of this species has not yet been recog-
nised.—The ontogeny of the neuron in vertebrates; a
cytological study of the embryonic nucleus: Dr. John
Cameron. The results of the investigation tend to show
that the so-called neuroblasts of the central nervous system
in the early vertebrate embryo are really nuclei, from which
the rudiments of the axis cylinder are formed as delicate pro-
trusions. The neuroblast nuclei are found to exhibit re-
markable structural changes, as evidence of the formation
of these processes. The results attained in this research
support the central theory of nerve-genesis as formulated by,
among others, His and von Kolliker. They also tend to
throw fresh light on the properties and functions of the cell-
nucleus.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, February 7.—
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F-R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—
A new direct-vision spectroscope: T. Thorp. In Mr.
Thorp’s instrument the dispersion is effected by means of
a transparent grating of about 14,500 lines to the inch,
mounted on the long face of a light crown prism having a
refracting angle of about 37° to secure direct vision. This
prism-grating is mounted in a hinged frame and adjusted
so that the grating face is at an angle of 45° with the axis
of the instrument when the frame is at the centre of its
range of motion. A spring holds the frame tightly against
the end of a micrometer screw having a graduated head,
this head being in the focus of a lens placed near the
ocular of the spectroscope so that it can be read off without
taking the instrument away from the eye. The D lines
can just be separated in the pocket instrument, and read-
ings can be made by taking the mean of several to about
one Angstrom unit.—Leaden weights found at Melandra
Castle, an old Roman edifice near Glossop, among them
No. 1844, VOL. 71]
being the uncia, or ounce, and other weights related
thereto: F. A. Bruton.—A direct determination of the
atomic weight of chlorine by burning a known weight of
hydrogen in a known weight of chlorine: Prof. H. B.
Dixon, F.R.S., and E. C. Edgar. The hydrogen was
occluded in palladium and so weighed; the chlorine was
prepared by the electrolysis of silver chloride, and was
weighed in the liquid state. The atomic weight comes out
about 35-192, higher than the accepted number by o.or2.
This higher value is of interest in view of the recent (un-
published) work of Prof. Theodore Richards, of Harvard,
who obtains a value o.o1g higher than the accepted
atomic weight.—On the occurrence in Britain of the Pacific
eider (Somateria v-nigrum, Gray), a species new to the
European avifauna: C. Oldham.—Some habits of bats,
with special reference to the lesser horse-shoe bat (Rhino-
lophus hipposiderus): C. Oldham. Proofs were given that
the hibernation of these animals is not continuous, but
interrupted by transient periods of activity.
Paris.
Acadeniy of Sciences, February 20.—M. Troost in the
chair.—Observation of the partial eclipse of the moon on
February 19: G. Bigourdan. Owing to the cloudy con-
dition of the sky no observations were possible before 7.50
p-m.—On a new method of synthesis of allxyl derivatives of
certain cyclic saturated alcohols: A. Haller and F. March.
The sodium derivatives of propyl, isobutyl, and isoamyl
alcohols, heated to 200° to 225° C. in an autoclave with
8-methylcyclohexanone, act partly as reducing and partly as
alkyl substituting agents. Homologues and isomers of men-
thol result from the reaction.—On the examples of Pali-
nuridz and Eryonidz collected in the eastern Atlantic by
the French and Monaco expeditions: E. L. Bouvier. The
study of the collections brought home by the two expeditions
has resulted in the discovery of some new interesting
species, among others two types belonging to the genera
Puer and Eryonicus, examples of which are extremely
rare. These two forms show their distinctive morphological
characters very early.—The application to the nitriles of the
method of direct hydrogenation by catalysis; the synthesis
of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines: Paul Sabatier
and J. B. Senderens (see p. 423).—The large solar spot of
February, 1905: Th. Moureux. On February 2 this spot,
which was clearly visible to the naked eye, had a length of
180,200 kilometres. Its area was 1/2ath of the solar disc, and
hence it is greater than any sun-spot previously observed.—
On Taylor’s series on the circle of convergence: Paul
Dienes.—On differential equations of the second order con-
taining a single parameter: G. Tzitzeica.—On, the
approximate integration of differential equations: Emile
Cotton.—On the mode of working of the differential gear
of automobiles : A. Petot.—On the coefficient of magnetisa-
tion of bismuth and on some fixed points in the diamagnetic
scale: Georges Meslin. The coefficient found for mercury
was —o-185.10-°, taking water as —o.79.10-°. For
crystallised bismuth the value, with the additive correction
for the air, was —1-39-10-°, whilst a slightly higher result,
--I.42.10—°, was obtained for the fused metal.—On the per-
borates: P. Melikoff. A claim for priority as against M.
Jaubert.—On lactyllactyllactic acid and the dilactide of the
inactive acid: E. Jungfieisch and M. Godchot.—On the
carbimide of natural leucine: MM. Hugouneng and Morel.
The leucine ethyl ester was heated to 130° C. with carbonyl
chloride in toluene solution, and the mixture submitted to
fractional distillation in vacuo. The carbimide sought for
was readily separated in this way from the substituted urea
formed at the same time.—On the perborates: J. Bruhat
and H. Dubois. A description of the preparation and pro-
perties of the perborates of potassium, sodium, and am-
monium.—Assimilation outside the organism: Ch. Ber-
nard. It has been stated by Friedel and confirmed by
Macchiati that the enzyme extracted from leaves by
glycerine in the presence of chlorophyll and light was
capable of decomposing carbonic acid and setting free
oxygen. The author has not been able to obtain any trace
of oxygen under these conditions, and on repeating an ex-
periment exactly in accordance with Macchiati’s instructions
found that the gas evolved consisted of methane and other
inflammable gases, arising from the anaérobic decom-
position of the plant tissue, this change not taking place
' 432
NATURE
[Marcu 2, 1905,
in the presence of antiseptics, such as camphor. The
author therefore regards the decomposition of carbonic acid
outside the plant as unproven.—On the composition of
brandy from wine: X. Rocques. A table is given show-
ing the results of analysis of twenty-two samples of brandy
arising from the distillation of wine, and it is pointed out that
a brandy containing a relatively small amount of esters con-
tains an increased amount of higher alcohols.—The pre-
diction’ of a chemical reaction forming a monovariant
system: Camille Matignon.—On two plants producing
rubber: E. de Wildeman. A description of two plants,
Bassea gracillima and Periploca nigrescens, the rubber pro-
ducing properties of which have not hitherto been recog-
nised.—On a new coffee plant in Central Africa: Aug.
Chevalier. A detailed account of Coffea excelsa, with
analyses of the soil in which it flourishes and of the coffee-
bean produced from it. The amount of caffeine and the
taste and aroma of the coffee are good, and would be worth
cultivating in the French Congo.—On the secreting ap-
paratus of Dipterocarpus: P. Guérin.—On the effect of low
temperatures on the zoospores of the Alge: E. C.
Teodoresco. The spores of Dunaliella salina were found
to retain their activity in a salt solution even after exposure
to a temperature of —30° C.—On a new cellular type with
metamerised cytoplasm, Taenicystis mira: Louis Léger.—
Geographical variations of the Pleuronectide: A. Cligny.—
The extension of the functional states of the auricle to the
ventricle: H. Kronecker. The author’s experiments lead
him to regard this effect as being entirely due to nervous
elements.—Variations in morbid processes according to the
composition of the organs: MM. Charrin and Le Play.
Hydrolysis of the hepatic glycogen produced by the injection
of amylase into the portal vein: M. Pariset.—On the
stimulation of the nerves by very short electric waves : Louis
Lapicque.—The experimental reproduction of leprosy in
the ape: Charles Nicolle.—The geology of the Pyrenees of
Haute-Garonne and Ariége: Léon Bertrand.—On the
Amana meteorites: G. D. Hinrichs.—The cave lions:
Marcellin Boule.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Marcu 2.
Royat Society, at 4.30.—Further Researches on the Temperature Classi-
fication of Stars. No.2: Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.—On
the Radio-active Minerals: Hon. R. J. Strutt.—Atmospheric Electricity
in High Latitudes: G. C. Simpson.—On the Spectrum of Silicon, with
a Note on the Spectrum of Fluorine: J. Lunt.—On the Electric Resist-
ance to the Motion of a Charged Sphere in Free Space or in a Field of
Force : G. W. Walker.
Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—Recent Astronomical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S.
CuHEMICAL Society, at 8.—The Latent Heat of Evaporation of Benzene
and some other Compounds: J. Campbell Brown.—The Relation between
Natural and Synthetic Glycerylphosphoric Acids: F. B-. Power and
F. Tutin.—The Reduction of Isophthalic Acid : W. H. Perkin, jun., and
S. S. Pickles.—The Transmutation of Geometrical Isomers; A. W.
Stewart.
RONTGEN SOCIETY, at 8.15.—A discussion on ‘‘ The Necessity of Accurate
Measurement in X-ray and High Frequency Work,” opened by Dr.
W. D. Butcher.
Civit AnD MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ Society, at 8.—Engineering Expert
Evidence: J. F. Reade.
LINNEAN SOCIETY, at 8.—Zoological Nomenclature ; International Rules
and Others (to be followed bya discussion): Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
Eo eae Plankton. Part IV. The Thaliacea: Dr. G. Herbert
owler.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Type-setting by Tele-
graph: D. Murray.
FRIDAY, Marcu 3.
Roya InsTITUTION, at 9.—Recent Advances in Wireless Telegraphy :
Chev. G. Marconi.
Ggo.oaisTts’ AssociaTION. at 8.—The Diamond Mines of South Africa :
Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.
SATURDAY, Marcu 4.
Royvar INsTITUTION, at 3.—Archzology : D. G. Hogarth.
MONDAY, Marcu 6.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Internal Combustion Engines: Dugald Clerk.
Society or CuHEmicat INnpustrRy, at 8.—Mechanics of Fire: Prof. H.
E. Armstrong, F.R.S.—On the Estimation of Arsenic in Fuels—A
Shortened Method: Dr. G. McGowan.and R. B. Floris.
Vicroria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—Geological Exterminations: Dr. C. B.
Warring.
Farapay SOcIETY, at 7.50.—Annual general meeting.—-At 8.15.—Recent
Developments in Electric Smelting in Connection with Iron and Steel :
F. W. Harbord.
TUESDAY, Marcu 7.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—Some Recent Biometric Studies: Prof. K.
Pearson, F.R.S.
ZOOLOGICAL SociETy, at 8.30.
IwsTITUTION OF jCIviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Surface-Condensing Plants,
and the Value of the Vacuum produced: R. W. Allen. (Continuation of
Discussion.)
NO. 1844, VoL. 71]
WEDNESDAY, Marcu 8. -v
GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—(1) Observations on some of the Loxonema-
tidze, with Descriptions of two New Species: (2) On some Gasteropoda
from the Silurian Rocks of Llangadock: Miss Jane Donald.
Society OF Arts, at 8.—Ethics of Japanese Society : Baron Suyematsu.
THURSDAY, Marcu 9g. 5
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: The Rate of Transmission of
the Guatemala Earthquake of April 19, 1902: R. D. Oldham.—Ionic
Sizes in Relation to the Conductivity of Electrolytes: W. R. Bousfield.
—Explosions of Mixtures of Coal Gas and Air in a Closed Vessel:
L. Bairstow and A. D. Alexander.
Royat Institution, at 5.—Recent Astronomical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S. é
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Report on Experiments
carried out at the National Physical Laboratory : On the Effect of Heat
on the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Dielectrics, and on the
Temperature Distribution in the Interior of Field Coils: Dr. R. T.
Glazebrook, F.R.S.—On Temperature Curves and the Rating of
Electrical Machinery : R. Goldschmidt.
FRIDAY, MARCH to.
Rovat INsTITUTION, at 9.—The Structure of the Atom: Prof. J. J.
Thomson, F.R.S.
Roya. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
MAaLacoLocicaL Society, at 8.—On a Dibranchiate Cephalopod from the
Eocene of Arabia: G. C. Crick.—Note on the Horizon and Locality of
the Type Specimen of Plewronautilus pulcher: G. C. Crick.—New
Marine Mollusca from the Collection of the late Admiral Keppel: G. B.
Sowerby.—On the Occurrence of Internal Septa in Glyftostoma new-
berryanum : G. K, Gude.—Note on a Dart found in the Body Cavity of
Helix aspersa: R. G. Barnes.
_InsTiruTION oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Purification of Sewage :
F. G. Helsby.—The Purification of Sewage by Hydrolysis and Oxida-
tion: F. O, Kirby.
PHYSICAL Society, at 8.—On the Stresses in the Earth’s Crust before and
after the Sinking of a Bore-hole: Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S:—On the Lateral
Vibration of Bars of Uniform and Varying Sectional Area: J. Morrow.—
On Direct Reading Resistance-Thermometers, with an Appendix on
Composite Thermocouples: A. Campbell.
SATURDAY, Marcu 11.
Roya. InsTITUTION, at 3.—Electrical Properties of Radio-active Sub-
stances : Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
CONTENTS.
A Text-book of Electromagnetism. By G, F. C.
Searle
PAGE
cho, > pee fourrenred dey < 42l
Astronomical Lectures at Chicago. By W. E. P. . 410
Zoological Results . . et Hwasoa ss C 411
Our Book Shelf :—
Colgan: ‘‘ Flora of the County Dublin”... .. . 412
Cole: ‘‘ Exercises in Practical Physiological Chem-
istry ;’’ Lacey and Pannett : ‘‘ Practical Exercises in
Chemical Physiology and Histology.”—W. D.H.. 412
Macfarlane: ‘‘ Laboratory Notes on Practical Metal-
lurgy : being a Graduated Series of Exercises” 413
Martignat: ‘‘Le Liege. Ses produits et ses sous-
produits ” ona. ae cetera gs re hep iar
Letters to the Editor =
Charge carried by the a Rays from Radium.—Prof. ~*
E. Rutherford, F.R.S.
a en NS ee
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge.—X. ; Prof. A. G. ;
Tansley ; Edward T. Dixon. .... ... 414
A Large Indian Sea-Perch.—Major A. Alcock,
FURGS ee sf seis Oe cee ae
Attractions of Teneriffe.-—Hugh Richardson . . . 415
Samuel Pepys and the Royal Society. By Sir
Arch, Geikie aks, .. << -§n ssn Sa mnnememmmnr ag
Compulsory Greek at Cambridge ......... 416
Folk-Tales of Plains Indians. (JZ//ustrated.) By
AC. (Figo. ss Sh ake ee Cy ee
A Naturalist’s Journal. (J///ustrated.) ByR. L. 418
Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. By W.N. P.. + 419
Notes Se! 5 Sie ds HRTEM
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrencesin March. ....... 424
Reported Discovery of a Seventh Satellite to Jupiter . 424
Planetary Tides in the Solar Atmosphere . + 6 424
The Bruce Photographic Telescope ee
Physical Conditions of the Planets See by ool,
Discussion of Central European Longitudes 424
The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. (Tilus-
trated.) By J. H. Hatvey Pirieand R, N. Rudmose}
Brown
The Early History of Seed-bearing Plants, as ie
Recorded in the Carboniferous Flora. Dr. D. H.
Scott, Hokaseaae- eye Reece os, sane
Forestry in the United States. (J///ustrated.) . 427
Progressive Buddhism... 9). yi 7 2) Ss 428
University and Educational Intelligence . ey: |
Societies and Academies ; - 429
Diary of Societies? .. 2. esr: 2 RR age
NEAT URE
ai)
THURSDAY, MARCH og, 1905.
THE ORIGIN OF MAN.
Morphology and Anthropology. A Handbook for
Students. By W. L. H. Duckworth, M.A. Pp.
xxvii+546. (Cambridge: University Press, 1904.)
Price 15s. net.
Studies from the Anthropological Laboratory, the
Anatomy School, Cambridge. By W. L. H. Duck-
worth, M.A. Pp. x+291. (Cambridge: Uni-
versity Press, 1904.) Price tos. net.
HE publication of Mr. Duckworth’s text-book for
students, bearing on its title page the rather
vague terms, ‘‘ Morphology and Anthropology,”
marks the culmination of the remarkable movement
initiated by the publication of Huxley’s ‘‘ Man’s
Place in Nature ’’ in 1863, and quickened in 1871
by the appearance of Darwin’s ‘‘ Descent of Man.”
At the commencement of this movement the subject
of man’s origin had its abode in the divinity schools;
it was taught by theologians; the opening chapters
of Genesis constituted the accepted text-book; now,
in 1905, the subject is assigned to the anthropological
laboratory; the lecturer on physical anthropology is
its custodian, and the text-book is the work now
under review.
In a clearly written introductory chapter Mr. Duck-
worth defines the subject-matter of his book as an
inquiry into (1) man’s zoological position; (2) the
nature of his ancestry. That such a work is needed
there can be no doubt. Ever since Darwin and
Huxley gave this. subject a legitimate place in the
hands of biologists, experts have been busy as ants,
seeking, collecting, and storing facts in the tome
upon tome that annually come to crowd our book-
shelves. The embryological history of man, anthro-
poid and ape have become known; important addi-
tions have been made to the geological record; our
knowledge of the structure of the Primates has in-
creased twenty-fold; all the additional evidence of
thirty years thus lay at Mr. Duckworth’s disposal
awaiting systematisation. He has every qualification
for the task; he has devoted many years to examin-
ing and extending the evidence on which our con-
ception of man’s origin rests. ‘‘ Studies from the
Anthropological Laboratory,’ the second work in-
cluded in this review, containing thirty-six papers
dealing with various aspects of primatology,
guarantee his industry and first-hand knowledge.
He has the advantage, too, of having at his disposal
the great anthropological collections accumulated by
Prof. Macalister, and free access to one of the best
libraries of the world.
It is natural to expect that Mr. Duckworth, having
so much additional evidence at his command,
is able to define man’s position in the animal
kingdom with a greater degree of precision than
was possible at the time when Huxley and Darwin
wrote. Huxley, it will be remembered, restored man
to the position originally assigned to him by Linnzus,
namely, that of a family in the order of Primates,
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
because, on the evidence he was able to adduce, man
differed less in point of structure from the family of
anthropoids than the anthropoids from the family
of the Old World monkeys. Further, Huxley re-
garded the chimpanzee and gorilla as the animal
forms most nearly related to man. In these two re-
spects Darwin agreed with Huxley. In the classifi-
cation adopted: by Mr. Duckworth, man retains the
position assigned to him by Huxley. Mr. Duck-
worth’s style in producing evidence and conflicting
theories is open, frank, and impartial, but in setting
forth his conclusions he is so eminently non-committal
that it is difficult to cite a passage which concisely
expresses his conception of the exact position which
man holds with regard to other families of Primates.
On p. 226 the following passage occurs :—
“But no single example among the larger
Simiidze can be pointed out with confidence, as
embodying the characters of the human ancestor at
the simian stage of evolution more completely than
any other, though there is a slight margin of evidence
in favour of the Chimpanzee, anes than the Gorilla
or the Orang-utan.’
Thus it will be seen that the
zoological position remains where Huxley left it.
Huxley had an incomparable faculty of drawing
just conclusions from limited data, but few men who
are experts on this matter will agree that Mr. Duck-
worth has utilised the evidence at his disposal to
the fullest extent possible.
Nor has the evidence which has accumulated in
the last thirty-three years permitted Mr. Duckworth
to make a more definite statement as to the ancestral
chain or phylogenetic path of man than was made
by Darwin in his first edition of the ‘* Descent of
Man ”’ in 1871.
“The Simiadez,’’ wrote Darwin, ‘‘ then branched
into two great stems, the New World and Old- World
Monkeys; from the latter, at a remote period, Man
the Wonder and Glory of the Universe proceeded ”’
(Volemie peels steeds):
Mr. Duckworth’s conclusions in
summed up at p. 542 as follows :—
matter of man’s
this matter are
““But while it is shown that the Hominid have
in their evolution passed through a stage which is
better reproduced by the Simiidze (anthropoids) than
by any other of the Primates; it is practically certain
that the modern Simiidz did not themselves figure
in the ancestry of man and that they are themselves
specialised in a high degree, more specialised in many
ways than the Hominid and more specialised than
their own ancestors. As Klaatsch puts it, the
ancestors of the modern Simiidze were more anthro-
poid than the actual Simiida, just as the ancestor of
the Hominidz was more pithecoid than modern Man.
And the balance of evidence indicates that the line
of human ancestry would, were the material still
available, be traceable down to the lowest Primates
(Lemuroidea) and even to the lowest Mammals.
Moreover, it is undeniable that the Hominidz have
retained in hand and foot some features of an early
ancestor, from which they have departed less in type
than have the (modern) Cercopithecidze and Simiide.
But detailed information on these points is still lack-
ing.”
U
434
NATURE
(Marcu 9, 1905
Leaving out of account the oracular statement quoted
from Klaatsch, there can be no question that Mr.
Duckworth’s inference as to man’s line of ancestors
is much less definite than that of Darwin, and
certainly, in the opinion of many well qualified to
judge, less in keeping with the evidence at our dis-
posal. What the peculiar primitive characters of the
human hand and foot may be the writer cannot guess,
but it is certain that there are numerous characters in
the human hand and foot which can be accounted
for only on the supposition that at one time they
were used functionally as are now the hands and
feet of anthropoids. Mr. Duckworth states his
opinion guardedly, but it is evident from the state-
ment just quoted that he believes the line of ancestors
that connect modern man with a primitive lemuroid
(Eocene) stock is extinct and unknown, and that this
line of ancestry runs an independent and parallel
course to the ancestral stock of the anthropoids.
Now man shares with the chimpanzee and gorilla
some three hundred structural features which are not
possessed by any lemuroid form of which we have
any knowledge, nor can the common possession of
these characters be accounted for except on the sup-
position that man and these two anthropoids are
derived from a common stock. A full investigation
of the evidence will show that Darwin was not far
from the truth when he supposed that the gorilla,
the chimpanzee, and man have their origin from a
common stock. Modern man differs from the
Miocene anthropoid Dryopithecus in structure no
more than does the modern horse from its
Miocene ancestor. In Dryopithecus, characters
are recognisable which link it with the gibbon
on the one hand and the chimpanzee on _ the
other. Palaopithecus, a Pliocene anthropoid, in the
characters of its teeth and jaw, which are the only
parts yet found, links the chimpanzee to the orang.
The modern gibbon differs in an incredibly small
degree from its Miocene ancestor, and shares many
characters in common with the great anthropoids,
man, the Old World monkeys, and New World
monkeys, and is by far the most generalised form of
higher Primate now extant, in spite of many adaptive
features. In short, the evidence points to the common
origin of man and the great anthropoids from a
gibbon (Hylobatian) stock; this in turn, with
monkeys, must be traced to a lemuroid origin.
Mr. Duckworth deals very justly with the evidence
yielded by embryological investigation. Thirty years
ago, when it was believed that the embryo recapitu-
lated its ancestral stages in utero, it was thought
that the history of man could be written when his
development became known. ‘‘ Paleontology is
good but Embryology is better,’ wrote Kitchen
Parker, but now we know, and Mr. Duckworth
states the case fully, that the embryological phases
are so obscure that they can only be construed by
the help of comparative anatomy and paleontology.
It has come to be recognised that every mammal is
adapted to two separate lives—an intra-uterine life
and an independent life; the features of the one
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
existence mask those of the other. Yet Mr. Duck-
worth makes the important fact stand out that the
intra-uterine life of man is exactly similar, so far as
we yet know, to that of the anthropoids, and in that,
while it resembles in most points the lower Primates,
yet differs from all other mammals.
It must be admitted that Mr. Duckworth’s task
Was not an easy one ; yet no essential or important
contribution has been passed unnoticed by him. His
statements are clear and impartial; he has even a
kindly word to say for some notions, such as the
temporary fissures of the brain, which most
anatomists, in common with himself, now regard
as post-mortem artefacts. In another edition, which
this work is certain to attain, the statements made
in the following sentence (p. 201) will require some
amendment :—
‘“Selenka thus regards the syncytium (a peculiar
tissue) as derived neither from the chorion-entoderm
(Kollmann), nor from the submucous uterine decidual
connective tissue cells (Minot, ‘Human Embry-
ology,’ pp. 13 and 375) nor from the foetal ecto-
derm (Robinson, ‘ Hunterian Lectures,’ Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xxxviii. p. 493), but
from the epithelial lining of the uterus.”
Mr. Duckworth unwittingly does the late Prof.
Selenka a double injustice; in the first place he
reproduces an acknowledged modification (Fig. 148,
p- 203) of a figure by Selenka, in which the syncytium
is made to appear as a continuation of the lining
epithelium of the uterus, whereas in Selenka’s figure
it is clearly shown not to be continuous; secondly,
Selenka (‘‘ Studien ueber Entwickelungsgeschichte,””
Heft viii., pp. 190, 193) expressly states that he is
uncertain of the origin of the syncytium, but that the
evidence is rather in favour of its origin from the
cells of the uterine glands. Expert opinion regards
it as settled that the syncytium does not so arise,
but springs from the ectoderm of the embryo, a
conclusion which seemed to Selenka not improbable.
He does Kollmann also an injustice, for in his text-
book (p. 201) that author expressly states that it arises
from the lining epithelium of the uterus—the opinion
ascribed by Mr. Duckworth to Selenka. Nor will
Minot acknowledge the opinion ascribed to him, for
on p. 322 of a text-book on human embryology
he states that he is convinced that the syncytium is
derived from the embryonic (chorionic) ectoderm, the
opinion here ascribed to Prof. Robinson. Nor will
Prof. Robinson be willing to accept priority for the
theory of the ectodermal origin of the syncytium ;
probably Hubrecht has the greatest claim to be
accounted the pioneer in this matter.
It would not be just to close this review without
acknowledging the number of original facts and
fresh opinions that mark the pages of this work.
The opening chapters are perhaps too condensed; the
long lists of characters enumerated are rather apt to
lead to mental dyspepsia even in the pages of a
text-book, and one misses a statement of their func-
tional meaning, which would greatly assist the
memory in ranking them together. The chapters on
Marcu 9, 1905]
NATURE
435
the cerebral organisation are specially well done, and
contain the best exposition yet published of our know-
ledge of that part of the Primate organisation.
Special prominence is deservedly given to the
brilliant work of Prof. Elliot Smith. There can be
no doubt, too, that this work will lead to a renewed
vigour in the search for evidence bearing on the
origin and relationships of the higher Primates.
AS
CHEMISTRY FOR YOUTHS: MRS. MARCET
REDEVIVA.
Die Schule der Chemie. By W. Ostwald. Zweiter
Teil—Die Chemie der Wichtigsten Elemente und
Verbindungen. Pp. viii + 292. (Brunswick :
Vieweg and Son.) Price 7-20 marks.
BOUT a year ago, the first volume of Prof. Ost-
wald’s dialogues on chemistry was noticed in
these columns. We have now the second volume,
written in as lively a strain as the first, and conveying
the author's views, which bid fair to become in the
main everybody else’s views, as regards the presentation
of the elementary facts of chemistry. It would be wrong
to say that in this volume, consisting of 292 pages,
there is more system; but in it we come to a dis-
cussion of chemical facts and theories which are
generally treated in school text-books. The pupil is
introduced to chlorine, its preparation and properties;
its behaviour with water; acids and bases, and
elements; combining weights, and multiple propor-
tions; the atomic hypothesis, and the laws of volume
combination; electrolysis and salts. Chlorine is
again considered as regards its compounds with
oxygen, and then follow bromine and iodine; sulphur
and its compounds; nitrogen, ammonia, phosphorus,
and so on through the commoner elements and their
compounds.
Throughout the volume we find neat remarks which
sustain interest, at least, when it is glanced through,
for I do not think that anyone who is already a
chemist will read the volume as carefully as he
may have read the first volume. For example, on
the first page is an aphorism, too often neglected,
but none the less true:—*‘ When much has_ been
learnt, time must be given for digestion.’’ In
English ‘‘ cramming doesn’t pay in the long run.”’
Everyone knows that Prof. Ostwald does not hold
by the atomic theory. Yet he does not escape from
it. His presentation of it is, however, ingenious, as
indeed are all his methods. Discussing the facts of
multiple proportion he gives the following illustra-
tion :—
“Think of a collection of coins, where German
marks, English shillings, French francs, Russian
roubles, and other coins are to be found. You can
combine these coins in twos and threes; each com-
bination, however, has the value of the sum of the
individual value of the coins, and you cannot obtain
any other values, combine them as you _ will.
Similarly, no other compounds can be formed but those |
obtained by bringing the elements together according |
to their combining weights.”’
No. 1845, VOL. 71]
The pupil then draws the required conclusion :—
“That is as if each element consisted only of equal
pieces, just as all francs or marks are equal among
themselves.’’ ‘‘ Yes,’? answers the teacher; ‘‘ that is
the picture which has represented the state of affairs
to men’s minds for long. It is supposed that each
element consists of minute particles, named atoms,”’
and so on. When the boy asks, ‘‘ Is all this true? ’’
the teacher replies, ‘‘ No one has seen an atom, nor
weighed one. This is therefore a hypothesis, but a
very convenient one, because the various applications
of the laws of combining proportions can be better
realised (merken) when the picture of atoms is simple
and clear.’’ ‘‘ But we can do without it! ’’ says the
pupil. ‘‘ Certainly,’’ says the teacher. ‘* But just as
you found it easier to count on your fingers than in
your head, so it is easier to think of atoms, than of
the abstract and general laws of combination.’’ So
we have to teach by means of atoms. Indeed, few
of us would go further, especially in these later days,
when even atoms are failing us. The hypothesis is,
however, ignored a little later, when it is stated that
“the rule has been made never to write fractional
parts of combining weights.’”? The doctrine of the
indivisibility of atoms would appeal more readily to a
young mind. Yet in fairness, it must be
acknowledged that the writer makes the pupil suggest
that each chemical symbol stands for an atom, and
acknowledges, in the mouth of the teacher, that ‘‘ the
atomic theory can be easily grasped ”’ (‘‘ etwas sehr
eingangliches hat ?’).
When electrolysis is discussed, the author’s
ingenuity in devising analogies is at its best. The
pupil has difficulty in picturing a positive and a
negative current going in opposite directions through
the same wire. He is reminded of waves crossing
each other in a pond, and of the upper and under parts
of a driving-belt travelling in opposite directions.
Heats of combustion, discussed under the heading
““carbon,’? are measured in kilojoules, instead of
calories. This is perhaps logical, but it appears to
the reviewer that the older unit might have been
retained until a later stage. It is easy to make the
reduction when required; and it is easier to realise
heat as heat than as work, at first, at least.
While acknowledging that the subject of chemistry
is here well treated, and that the author has main-
tained his lively style and faculty of lucid present-
ment, it may be questioned whether this method of
discussing chemistry should have precedence over the
ordinary text-book. A youth who advances so far as
to grasp the contents of volume I., will, I thinks, tire
of the plan of question and answer. Yet perhaps
there are some who prefer to take their food, as they
do medicine, in spoonfuls, and to whom the form
of dialogue has its attractions. In old days ‘‘ Pleasant
Pages ’’ was widely read, and no doubt conveyed
valuable lessons. And at any rate, teachers of
chemistry may learn much from this volume in hints
as to how best to present the very numerous facts
of the science to their students, whose digestive
powers are as a rule limited. Weak
436 NATURE
[Marcu 9, 1905
FLORAL MORPHOLOGY.
fiir morphologische und systematische
By Dr. Karl Schumann. Pp. viii+6ro.
Price 13 marks.
Praktikum
Botanik.
(Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1904.)
HE morphology of the flower, although an
important item in the curriculum of the advanced
student of botany, is not infrequently compressed into
a period quite insufficient for obtaining a knowledge
of more than a few cohorts or families. But the
relegation of this branch of botany to an uncertain
stage is easily explained, since, as a course for train-
ing students, and this is the first object of a scientific
curriculum, floral morphology does not offer the same
scope as vegetative anatomy or physiology. Never-
theless, the art of discovering all the essential points
of a flower is by no means easily acquired, while the
ability to distinguish between critical genera and
orders requires intuition, based upon experience and
practice.
Dr. Schumann has prepared his book, in the first
instance, for botanists who are dependent upon their
own unaided efforts, thereby providing for that large
class of enthusiasts who can only devote their leisure
time to botany; but he had also in view the much
higher object of leading those who use his book on
to the plane, if not to the work, of systematists, and
the final chapters deal with determination of species
and the essentials of floral monographs.
The book contains two courses, of which the first
is the easier, but it includes certain types, such as
Phaseolus and Iris, which require some experience to
explain thoroughly; the arrangement is according to
the order of flowering. There are approximately 130
types of flowers, most of them common varieties, or
easily obtainable, and these represent about 8o orders,
which are, for the greater part, indigenous to Europe.
There is a natural tendency to form a misleading con-
ception of the importance of those orders which pre-
ponderate in the flora of one’s own country, and for
this reason it would have been advantageous to include
representatives of more exotic orders, but since the
aim of the author has been to present specific instances
of floral variation and not systematic types, the choice
seems to be very suitable. The keynote to the book
lies in the author’s inspiring enthusiasm for the study
of foliar and floral morphology, and those who use
the book will regret that Dr. Schumann did not
live to see it completed. To Dr. Max Giirke was
entrusted the responsibility of completing the book and
of seeing it through the press. The discussion of each
type includes general foliar arrangement, branching,
inflorescence, floral parts, and methods of pollin-
ation, and each chapter has been made self-complete ;
in addition the author has contrived in a number of
cases to derive from the specimen an illustration of
some special theoretical point; thus the examination
of the pine and fir cones introduces phyllotaxis, the
balsam flower leads to the consideration of empirical
diagrams, and the origin of double flowers is discussed
in the case of the chrysanthemum. In dealing with
questions for which different explanations have been !
offered, Dr. Schumann has carefully avoided dogmatic
NO. 1845, VOL. 71 |
statements, and, as a rule, gives the arguments, but
leaves it to the student to form his own conclusions.
There are several allusions to the rules of botanical
nomenclature adopted in various countries, and the
author inclines towards English practice in the matter ;
but the instances which he quotes, e.g. Succisa
pratensis and Ampelopsis hederacea, are not the names
adopted in the Kew lists for the plants in question.
Mention is made of the botanical congress which will
be held in Vienna this year, when the subject will be
again under discussion.
It has hitherto been a difficulty to obtain a thoroughly
trustworthy and full presentation on the subject of
floral morphology except in Eichler’s ‘ Blutendia-
gramme ’’—copies of which are few and expensive—
so that teachers and students will do well to note this
book, since it contains a number of careful analyses
of every-day types with a particularly clear account of
inflorescences and bracts, and it may therefore be used
for reference to confirm or correct the deductions based
upon personal examination. The illustrations were
drawn by Dr. Schumann’s daughter, and these, like
the descriptions, may well be taken as models which
the student should emulate.
SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF LAWN TENNIS.
Lawn Tennis. By J. Parmly Paret. Edited by
Caspar Whitney. American Sportsman’s Library.
Pp. xiv+419. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.,
1904.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
Great Lawn Tennis Players: their Methods
illustrated. By George W. Beldam and P. A.
Vaile. Pp. xxix+4o03. (London: Macmillan and
Co., Ltd., 1905.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
N the first of the above books we have an ex-
cellently illustrated and interesting volume
dealing with the early history, development, and
present condition of !awn tennis, the author having
produced a treatise which will be heartily welcomed
by all lovers of this healthy game.
The author quite rightly deals only with the play
of those who have attained a very high order of
execution, and are past masters as regards the
manipulation of a rapidly moving ball. A plan of
campaign, quick decision, and still quicker action on
the part of the player are necessary for success, and
when these are accompanied by accuracy of execu-
tion, steadiness, easiness of style, and good condi-
tion, greater achievement is attained. Modern lawn
tennis is undoubtedly a combination of skill and
science of a high order, and the reader will find
described in these pages the different ways in which
well-known players employ’ these fundamental
desiderata. By an ingenious application of photo-
graphy it has been possible to record the start, stroke,
and finish of individual strokes on one plate, to
illustrate the positions of the body, hand, wrist, and
racket during the movement. Many illustrations of,
this kind are given, serving as valuable guides to
correct action. Numerous other snapshots of posi-
tions of play taken singly or on three plates with
brief intervals form a special feature of this volume.
Marcu 9, 1905]
NATURE
437
The physiological side of the game is not lost sight
of, and is dealt with by the author in three short
chapters, while Part iv. is devoted to ‘‘lawn tennis
encyclopeedia,’’ containing much miscellaneous in-
formation useful to players, including a bibliography
of the literature on the subject, which, by the way,
is very considerable.
The volume concludes with an account of the
history and growth of the game of lacrosse, by
William Harvey Maddren.
The very complete index adds considerably to the
utility of this publication, which should form a
welcome addition to any sportsman’s library.
In the second of these volumes, which is the com-
bined work of Messrs. G. Beldam and P. A. Vaile,
we have another valuable contribution to the
literature of lawn tennis. Mr. Beldam presents us
with 229 of his action photographs, all of which are
here beautifully reproduced. In his book on ‘‘ Great
Golfers’? he showed how much could be learnt by
closely studying action-photographs, and in the
present volume on great lawn tennis players a
similar attempt is rewarded with equal success in
spite of the greater difficulties involved, since both
player and ball are in rapid motion. The photo-
graphs here given are not casual snapshots, but taken
specially to illustrate the positions occupied by
players for particular strokes. Mr. Vaile, writes, so
to speak, round these pictures, and in his breezy and
straightforward style points out which in his estima-
tion are the good or bad points. This author is of
the opinion that the true science of the game is but
dimly appreciated in this country, and it is his main
endeavour throughout these pages to indicate in
which direction progress can be made. The lawn
tennis reader will find, therefore, much to think over
in these pages, and particular attention is drawn to
the first chapter, in which the racket, per se, and the
methods of holding it are discussed. Mr. E. G.
Meers contributes an interesting chapter on ‘ Ad-
vanced Tactics of the Single Game,’’ while ‘‘ The
Half-Volley ’’ is treated by Mr. G. A. Caridia.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
wWew Streets: Laying Out and Making Up. By
A. Tayler Allen. Pp. 175. (London: The Sanitary
Publishing Company, Ltd.) 3s. net.
THIS is not the sort of book that anyone but a proof-
reader could read straight through, not even a
reviewer Or a surveyor or architect, for whom
especially it is written. This statement is not made
by way of disparagement, quite the reverse, and the
author would be the first to agree to it.
In these days, with a multiplicity of petty and of
local bye-laws and regulations, all put together
primarily and ostensibly to prevent scamping of
different kinds, but often, and the more so the more
petty the authority, used as weapons to compel public
spirited parties to go to unnecessary and extravagant
expense so that the members of the petty body or
their friends may be the more prosperous, it is above
all essential that the surveyor or architect or engineer
or even private individual, who has occasion to make
a new street or a cottage or a side-walk or a retro-
spective drain should act warily, and have before him
NO. 1845, VOL, 71]
the several acts and bye-laws that regulate or hamper,
as the case may be, the particular work he has in
hand. The author, judging by this, and by the titles
of his previous works, seems to be a good Samaritan
and to take pleasure in pointing out the numerous
pitfalls that must be avoided *by the man who would,
if possible, live at peace. The present book is
largely filled with a recitation of laws and of district
council requirements which no one would wish to
read unless under compulsion. The latter part con-
tains examples of work in very full detail and with
illustrations.
However, the author has not, as might have been
expected, lost all interest in the progress of his subject
in wrestling with these dismal details. For instance,
on p. 2 he says :—
““The author is one of a few surveyors who believe
that all wide carriageways (where traffic is consider-
able), should have the channel in the centre instead
of at the sides, thus obviating the tendency of
vehicles to slide down the haunches of the road
towards the kerb. The gradient to the centre channel
from the kerb need not exceed 1 in 40.”
Whatever advantages or the reverse there may be
in this plan, spectators on the pavement would no
doubt prefer to see this sliding in the direction
desired by the author, especially if the vehicles
happened to be quick motor-cars going in opposite
directions,
The author is to be complimented on performing a
tedious and uninteresting task for the general good.
Cc.
A Popular Guide to the Heavens. By Sir Robert S.
Ball, LL.D., F-R.S. | Pp. xii+o96; 83 plates
(London: George Philip and Son, Ltd., 1905.)
Price 15s. net.
TuHIs is a new edition of the ‘‘ Atlas of Astroismy,’’
by the same author, which appeared in 1892, the
revision having extended even to the title of the book.
As before, star maps and pictures of the heavenly
bodies are the chief feature, but in many cases
drawings have been replaced by admirable reproduc-
tions of some of the finest celestial photographs at
present available. The star charts, comprising
twelve maps indicating the aspect of the heavens
in the different months, and twenty others showing
much greater detail, are excellent in every respect,
and will meet the needs of those making a first
acquaintance with the stars as well as of those who
may wish to observe interesting objects with tele-
scopes of moderate aperture. A valuable feature in
connection with the maps is an index to the planets,
whereby the positions of these bodies in each month
during the next fifty years may be approximately
ascertained. A very complete guide to observations
of the moon is also provided by the maps and cata-
logues of lunar formations. So far, the book
justifies its title, but the remaining parts give the
impression of a scrap-book with pages still remaining
to be filled, and pages which would have been filled
differently by different owners. The sun, for
example, is inadequately represented; the only photo-
graph of a sun-spot which is given conveys no indica-
tion of the dimensions of the spot, and there are no
illustrations of facula or photographs in mono-
chromatic light. A more serious omission, in a book
which is styled a ‘‘ guide,’’ is the absence of all refer-
ence to the modes of observing the sun, although
careful drawings of the paths of spots at different
times of the year are included. Again, there is an
elaborate chart of the planet Mars, but nothing to.
show what the planet looks like in an ordinary
telescope.
438
The text amounts to little more than a description
of the plates and is too scrappy to give a connected
view of the subject. The book, however, is well
produced, and will be valued for its excellent star
maps and examples of celestial portraiture.
Denkmiiler mittelalterlicher Meteorologie. No. 15
(Schlussheft). Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten
iiber Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus heraus-
gegeben von Prof. Dr. G. Hellmann, Pp. lvili+
269. (Berlin: Asher and Co., 1904.)
Tuus is the final volume of a valuable series of publi-
cations which we owe to the energy of Prof. Hell-
mann, In them we have had brought before us the
more interesting abstracts and reprints of early works
dealing with meteorology and terrestrial magnetism.
Prof. Hellmann has thus made available to those
interested in these subjects, the records of ancient
times, which to many would have remained unread
and possibly unknown. '
In the present volume, which deals more especially
with meteorology, we have presented to us a set of
twenty-six separate parts ranging from the seventh
to the fourteenth century. Many others have been
taken from printed works, but some of them, as we
are told in the preface, are here published for the
first time.
Further, many of these old texts have here been
translated into German so that those who are not
familiar with old Saxon, old English, old Norwegian,
or Arabic will still be able to gain a good insight
into the ideas of the Middle Ages.
In the introduction to this volume Prof. Hellmann
gives a brief sketch of the character of meteorology
at these periods, and adds a short and interesting
summary of biographical facts relating to the writers
of the texts to which reference is here made. An
appendix contains additions and corrections to the
earlier numbers.
For the labour involved in bringing together and
preparing this collection of old texts a large debt of
gratitude is due to Prof. Hellmann, and it is hoped
that from time to time, when further ancient writings
are brought to light, he will render them in like
manner so conveniently available.
The Birds of Calcutta. By F. Finn. Second edition.
Pp. vit+136. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, and Go;
London: Thacker and Co., 1904.)
Tur fact of a work reaching a second edition may
generally be taken as an indication that it has re-
ceived the seal of public approval, and that it accord-
ingly needs no commendation from us. In the present
instance, a ready reception would seem to be assured
to the new edition, since many additions and im-
provements have been made. The most important
addition is undoubtedly the series of life-like cuts
of Indian birds, which adds very largely to the
interest of the little volume; but it is also satisfactory
to find that the arrangement and nomenclature have
been revised so as to bring the work into harmony
with the volumes on birds in the ‘ Fauna of British
India,” to which it may serve in some degree as an
introduction. Mr. Finn has a vivacious, if some-
times flippant, style, which removes his works from
the ‘‘dry-as-dust’’ category; but in some cases,
as in the application of the term ‘‘ disreputable ’’ to
the babbler, we venture to think some of his epithets
might be better selected. To a former resident the
omission of the adjutant stork from the list of Calcutta
birds seems strange, but it appears that for many
years these weird birds have ceased to visit the city
of palaces. Riek
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| Marcit 9, 1905
Toning Bromide Prints. ‘‘ Photography *’ Bookshelf
Series, No. 16. By R. E. Blake Smith. Pp.
xv+104. (London: Iliffe and Sons, Ltd., 1904.)
Price 1s, net.
InstEAD of producing a black and white bromide
print it is often desirable to change the normal tone
to suit the subject photographed. There are many
methods by which this change of tints can be ob-
tained, and these pages are devoted to describing the
various processes that are available. The material on
which this book is based first appeared in a series of
articles in Photography, but in the present handy
form it will be found more convenient for workers.
The author gives a good detailed account of each
case, and discusses the probable effect of the different
processes on the permanence of the finished picture.
Workers with bromide papers will find this book of
considerable service.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NatuRE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Charge on the a Particles of Polonium and Radium.
Wirn reference to the interesting letter on this subject by
Prof. Rutherford in last week’s Nature, I should like to
point out that in my paper ‘‘ On the positive electrification
of @ rays and the emission of slowly moving kathode rays
by radio-active substances *’ (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., xiii.,
p. 49) I have described experiments which demonstrate
the communication of a positive charge of electricity to
bodies struck by @ rays from polonium or radium. I
had considerable difficulty in disentangling this positive
charge from the copious streams of slowly moving
negatively electrified corpuscles which I found were
given out by these substances, and the experiments
in which I finally succeeded in doing this were not
completed until a few days after the reading of the paper on
November 14, and are not referred to in the abstract quoted
by Prof. Rutherford. A description of them will be found in
the paper which has lately been published. I may take this
opportunity of saying that I have recently found that
uranium also gives out slowly moving corpuscles, so that
this effect seems a general property of radio-active sub-
stances. The velocity of these corpuscles is very small com-
pared with that of the 6 rays, and is more nearly of the
order of the velocity of the corpuscles emitted by metals
when exposed to light. J. J. Tuomson.
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, March 4.
A conversation I had with Prof. Bragg, of the Adelaide
University, in passing through Adelaide last summer
suggested some thoughts in regard to the nature of the
a rays which may be of interest in view of Prof. Rutherford’s
letter in last week’s Nature. Prof. Rutherford announces
that he has at last succeeded in detecting the positive charge
carried by the a rays of radium by using a magnetic field
to deflect and remove the slow-moving electrons present with
the a particles. He says, ‘‘ I think these experiments un-
doubtedly show that the @ particles do carry a_ positive
charge, and that the previous failures to detect this charge
were due to the masking action of the large number of
slow-moving electrons emitted from the plates.’’ These
results, while they afford a welcome confirmation of the con-
clusions drawn from the evidence of the magnetic and electric
deviation suffered by the a rays, do not, to my mind, finally
settle the question.
It must be admitted that the @ particles in ordinary cir-
cumstances do carry a positive charge. Certain evidence,
however, seems to point to the conclusion that the a particle
at the moment of its expulsion from the parent atom is
uncharged, and that it derives its positive charge from
secondary causes, independently of, and subsequent to, the
expulsion process. To devise a crucial experiment which
Marci! 9, 1905 |
SS
would decide between the two views would be far from easy,
but as | interpret Prof. Rutherford’s letter, the results there
given do not definitely disprove the view that the a particle
is initially uncharged.
I recently directed attention (‘‘ Radio-activity,’’ p. 181)
to the importance of the fact that in certain well-established
cases there appeared to be a simultaneous production of two
positive charges in the disintegration of an_ electrically
neutral atom, Thus in the disintegration of the emanation
atom a positively charged @ particle is expelled, and the
residue of the atom—the matter causing the excited activity
—is also positively charged, and is concentrated on the
negative electrode in an electric field. In a recent paper by
Bragg (Phil. Mag., December, 1904, p. 721), the following
sentence occurs :—*‘‘ It is easy to see that even if the a particle
is uncharged when it leaves the parent body, it must imme-
diately become positive, since in traversing an atom it is
just as lilely to lose one of its own electrons as to take one
away from the atom traversed.’’ As | am unaware that
this consequence has received the attention it deserves,
perhaps I may be allowed to direct attention to its bearing on
the present question. There is a fundamental distinction
between the ionisation of the atom of a gas molecule by
radiant electrons or B particles, and radiant atoms or «@
particles. For in the latter case, if the atom struck suffers
ionisation, the radiant atom is just as likely to be ionised
in the process also. ‘The ionisation of a neutral atom
consists in the detachment from it of an electron which
forms the negative ion, the atom thereby becoming positively
charged and forming the negative ion. Hence the radiant
particle, if uncharged initially, will become positively charged
on collision with the atoms of the gas or other obstacle
in its path, and at the same time will lose an electron. ‘The
“* slow-moving electrons present with the @ particles,’’? which
Rutherford describes as ‘‘ emitted from the plates,’’ may
therefore in reality be derived from the « particles them-
selves in the act of becoming positively charged. ‘The fact
that they, unless deflected by a magnetic field, exactly
neutralise the charge carried by the @ particles seems to
point in the same direction.
In further support of the view that the positive charges on
both the radiant particle and the residue of the atom after
disintegration are derived by collision with the gas molecules,
Prof. Rutherford’s results on the distribution of the excited
activity in an electric field at low pressure may be cited
(Rutherford, ‘‘ Radio-activity,’”’ p. 282). If the excited-
activity-matter particle gains its positive charge in its recoil
by collision with the gas molecules, it is to be expected that
at low pressures it will not become charged, and will not,
therefore, be concentrated on the negative electrode, as is,
in fact, the case. : Freperick Soppy.
The Pressure of Radiation.
Tue success of Lebedeff and Nichols and Hull in recog-
nising and measuring the pressure of radiation has aroused
much interest in radiation pressure generally, real or ap-
parent. It has some interesting and sometimes somewhat
difficult theoretical aspects. In the first place, if the ether
is really absolutely at rest (this rigidity is a very difficult
idea), the moving. force on it has no activity, and its time
integral VD® can only be called momentum out of compli-
ment. The force becomes active in a moving ether, with
interesting consequences not now under examination. The
present question is rather how to interpret the pressure of
radiation on the assumption of a fixed ether, in the measure
of its effects on matter which is either fixed or moving
through the ether.
The following is striking in what it proves. Let plane
radiation fall flush upon a perfect reflector moving in the
same direction at speed u, a case considered by Larmor. Let
the energy density p=p,+p,, the incident being p,, the
reflected p,. Assume, which seems reasonable at first, that
p,, the pressure in the reflector, is zero, then the moving
force p,+p,—p, reduces to p,+p,. Therefore
Pi(¥ — 2) — Plu + 2) = (Py + po)et, (1)
because the left side is the rate of loss of energy from the
waves, and the right side the activity of the force on the
reflector. So
<=—_____ =", say, (2)
Pi I+2u/v
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
NATURE
439
and s=H,/H, is the ratio of magnetic forces in the electro-
magnetic case. Now (2) asserts that the reflected wave gets
smaller as the mirror goes faster, and vanishes when u=4v.
Or if the mirror be pushed against the radiation, the re-
flected wave gets stronger, and the resisting force stronger
until w=—4v, when it is infinite. The mirror could not be
pushed against the radiation faster than 4v.
An immediate objection is that when u has risen to 42, if
it be maintained at that speed it acts like a perfect absorber
to the incident energy. Moreover, since there is the pressure
p, left, why should it not accelerate the mirror? But, if
it does, p, becomes negative, and s becomes imaginary.
Considered mechanically only, say by f=ma, the motion
of m is quite determinate when u>4v, up to v, in fact.
But electromagnetically it means that the energy in the
reflected wave is negative. Now although there is nothing
to object to quantitatively in a continuous transition from a
Maxwellian stress consisting of a tension along an axis
combined with equal lateral pressure, to its negative, a
pressure along the axis with equal lateral tension, still the
negativity of the energy in the reflected wave causes diffi-
culty. The stress for both the electric and magnetic energy
becomes of the gravitational type. ‘That is, like imaginary
electrifications attract, and unlike repel, or matter is
imaginary electrification in this comparison. The moving
forces and energies are real. But let a real charge and an
unreal one co-exist, the energy density becomes imaginary.
That is out of all reason in a real universe.
We should, I think, regard (2) as a demonstration that
(1) is untrue, in that (p,+p,)u is not the activity of the
force on the mirror, although p,+p, may be actually the
pressure of the radiation. In fact, in the electromagnetic
case, the variation of p constitutes a force on the ether
itself. We must find the force on the mirror in another way.
Let radiation fall flush upon the plane surface of a dielectric,
which call glass, moving the same way at constant speed u,
and let the circuital equations in the glass be
~dU/dx=cE+01/0t, -—dE/dx=B=pH ; (3)
that is, the same as for the ether, with the addition of the
electric current of polarisation OI/Ot. The reference space
is the fixed ether, and 0/dt is the moving time differentiator.
Now if the relation between I and E is such as to permit of
an undistorted plane wave, we shall have
Ey =v, E,= ~ pvlH,, B,=nw,, (4)
(incident) (reflected) (transmitted)
if v is the speed in the ether, and w the wave speed referred
to the ether in the glass. This w is a function of u. Also,
the boundary conditions,
E,+E,=E;, H,+H,=H;, (5)
combined with (4), give
H,/H,=(v-w)((v+w), H,/H,=20/(v+). (6)
An incident pulse of unit depth is stretched to depth
(1—u/v)-? in the act of reflection; the reflected pulse is of
depth (v+u)(v—u)-', and the transmitted pulse of depth
(w—u)(v—u)-'.
The rate of loss of energy from the waves in the process
of reflection is
Div - 1) — pvt) —fy(w-), (7)
where the p’s are the energy densities. But, by the above,
Di =p + Px 5 (8)
therefore the rate of loss of energy is
(Pa- Di ~Pa)tts (9)
and the moving force on the mirror is
F=)5-~1— po (10)
This is, in its expression, exactly the negative of the
previous pressure difference. It is in the direction of the
rise of energy density. Its amount is
F=2uH,H,=2/, (v-w)/(v+w)=4nHj -4cE5=Uy, (11)
The first form in terms of H,,H, is useful. The second is
in terms of the wave speeds. The third is in terms of the
ethereal energy inside the glass. All these come out of the
ratios H,/H,, &c. Now the electric energy equals the
magnetic energy in the transmitted wave. Consequently
U, means the energy of the polarisation I. And the activity
is U,u, the convective flux of energy.
440
NATURE
[Marcu 9, 1905
These properties are true for various relations between
I and E. The first approximation is I=c,E. The second,
introduced by Lorentz, is l=c,(E—wB), that is, the polarisa-
tion is proportional to the moving force on a moving ion.
Other forms allowing of undistorted pulse propagation may
be proposed. All give special relations between w and uw.
In Lorentz's case,
U,=4eq E5(1 — 2e/w)?. (12)
To pass to perfect reflection, reduce w to u, its least value.
U, does not vanish, but has the value given by (10), (11)
still, with w=u. But the transmitted wave is reduced to a
surface film, moving with the glass. The moving force on
the glass is now
F=24, (w—)/(v+z),
and finally, if w=o, F=2p,.
Here we come right back to the pressure of radiation.
It does measure the force on the glass when at rest, when
it reflects perfectly, and it looks as if (13) were merely the
form p,+), a little modified by the motion. But appear-
ances are very deceitful here, for (10) above is the proper
formula. :
As regards the distribution of F. With an actual trans-
mitted wave consisting of a pulse of uniform intensity all
through, F is entirely at the wave front. So, with total re-
flection, it is just under the surface of the glass. Again, if
E, varies continuously in the transmitted wave, F is dis-
tributed continuously, to the amount B(@I/d¢) per unit volume.
What F means in (11) now is the total of this volume force,
t.e. the integral from the surface up to the wave front, ex-
pressed in terms of the momentary surface state.
After a pulse has left the surface there is an equal opposite
force at its back, so there is no further loss of energy or
moving force on the glass. The obscurities and apparent
contradictions arise from the assumption that the ether is
quite motionless. If we treat the matter more compre-
hensively, and seek the forces in a moving ether, with
moving polarisable matter in it as well, if this is a com-
plication one way it is a simplification in another, viz. in
the ideas concerned. There is harmony produced with the
stress theory. To illustrate, (6/0t)VDB- is the moving force
per unit volume when the ether and polarised matter have a
common motion, D and B being the complete displacement
and induction. (The variation of u is ignored here.) But
if we stop the ether, a part of this force becomes inactive.
If the matter is unmagnetisable, the only active part is that
containing the polarisation current, for that is carried along.
Besides this electromagnetic force, there is also a force
due to a pressure of amount U,. But it does not alter
the reckoning of the moving force on the glass, because
the. pressure acts equally and oppositely at the front and
back of a pulse.
Some other illustrations of the curious action between
electromagnetic radiation and matter can be given. For
example, two oppositely moving plane pulses inside moving
glass. Say E,=mw,H, one way with the glass, and
E,=—yw,H, against the glass. If H,=—H,, work is done
upon the glass when they cross, ceasing the moment they
coincide, so that the energy of the momentary electric field
is less than the wave-energy. On separating, the loss is
restored. If, on the other hand, E,=—E,, work is done by
the glass on the waves when uniting, so that the momentary
magnetic energy, together with the polarisation energy, is
greater than the wave energy. In this second case, too, it
is noteworthy that the solitary waves are of unequal energy,
whereas they are equal in the first case. But details must
be omitted, as this communication is perhaps already too
long. OLIVER HEAVISIDE.
February 21.
(13)
Secondary Réntgen Radiation.
In a paper read before the Royal Society on February 16,
I described experiments demonstrating the partial polarisa-
tion of R6ntgen radiation proceeding from an X-ray bulb,
and at the same time verifying the theory previously given
of the emission of secondary X-rays from gases and light
solids subiect to R6éntgen radiation.
Later experiments have shown that beams of X-radiation
may be produced exhibiting a greater amount of polarisa-
tion than there was evidence of in the original experiments.
No. 1845, VOL. 71]
Vie
This discovery has proved useful in the investigation of
secondary radiation proceeding from solids.
It has been found that while the intensity of secondary
radiation from light substances varies considerably in
different directions owing to the partial polarisation of the
primary radiation, the amount of this variation diminishes
with an increase in the atomic weight of the radiator, and
ultimately is inappreciable. The radiations from air, carbon,
paper, aluminium, and sulphur vary in intensity in different
directions by a considerable amount. From calcium the
variation is much less, while from iron, copper, zinc, and
lead it is inappreciable. This must be connected with the
fact that the radiation from. light substances differs in
character only very slightly from the primary, while the
heavier substances emit radiations differing more from the
primary producing them. The radiation from the heavier
metals was found not to consist of an easily absorbed radia-
tion superposed on a radiation such as proceeds from light
substances, and of intensity given by the law found for that
from light substances, but is as a completely transformed
radiation. This is strong evidence that the freedom of
motion of the electrons which permits what may be called
a simple scattering in substances of lower atomic weight is
interfered with in the heavier atoms, for we find from them
a more absorbable radiation in place of, not simply super-
posed on, a more purely scattered radiation.
With this change in character, the polarisation effect dis-
appears. No special absorption of the radiation proceeding
from a substance by plates of the same substance has been
observed.
A considerable variation in the penetrating power of the
primary radiation incident on heavy substances is accom-
panied by a smaller change in that of the secondary
(measured by change of absorbability).
Radiation from compounds appears to be merely a mixture
of the radiations which proceed from the separate elements
in the compound, both the absorbability and polarisation
effects being what would be given by such mixtures.
Atomic weight, not molecular weight or density, thus seems
to govern the character of the radiation produced by a given
primary.
These results may be accounted for by considering the
electrons constituting the atoms as the radiators. In light
atoms the electrons are far enough apart, and have sufficient
freedom to move almost entirely independently of one another,
under the influence of the primary pulses, consequently to
emit a secondary radiation similar to the primary, but the
intensity of which depends on the direction of propagation
with regard to that of electric displacement in the primary
beam. In heavier atoms considerable inter-electronic forces
are probably brought into play by small displacements, and
the resultant acceleration of motion of an electron is then
not in the direction of electric displacement of the primary
beam, and evidence of polarisation of that beam vanishes.
Also there ceases to be a simple connection between the
time for which the electron is accelerated and that of passage
of the primary pulse. ;
In atoms of greater weight we would expect appreciable
inter-electronic forces to be called into play sooner, and to
attain a much greater intensity than in lighter atoms.
The precise connection between the atomic weight of the
radiator and the absorbability of the radiation is being
investigated. Cartes G. BaRKLaA.
University of Liverpool, March 1.
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books.
I uAVE just bought a copy of ‘‘ A Treatise on Slate and
Slate Quarrying, Scientific, Practical, and Commercial,”’ by
D. C. Davies, F.G.S., fourth edition, dated 1899 (Crosby
Lockwood and Son). :
To my astonishment, I find no statistics of later date in
it than 1876, e.g. p- 33, Statistics of 1872 and 1873, p. 58,
list of quarries in 1873, p. 59, production in 1876, p. 64, pro-
duction last year (1876), p. 170, prices of slates in London
last year (1876).
As the Home Office publishes annually a general report
and statistics of mines and quarries, and also a list of mines
and quarries, there is no excuse for the book being so out
of date in its statistics. B. Hopson.
The Owens College, Manchester, February 21.
MarcH 9, 1905]
NATURE
441
SOME SCIENTIFIC CENTRES.
VII.—Tue PuystotocicaL RESEARCH LABORATORY OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.
HE seat of the University of London was trans-
ferred to the Imperial Institute in 1900, and in
the same year the University received a new constitu-
tion, and commenced its career as a_ teaching
university. In May, 1902, a laboratory devoted to
research physiology was housed within the same
Imperial building, and the secretariat of the University
of London was for the first time brought into contact
with one of the sources of knowledge, which it
had been newly arranged not only
also to foster.
The laboratory occupies the upper floor of the
eastern wing of the Imperial Institute, and has already
been described in the pages of this Journal (NarurE,
vol. Ixvii., pp. 441, 442). It covers a space of about
3000 square feet.
There are special rooms for experimental psychology,
experimental physiology, electrical and chemical work,
a lecture theatre fitted up for the delivery of the special
courses of lectures in advanced
physiology, and a departmental
library. The work carried on has
been of the double character
indicated in the scheme originally
adopted by the University Senate.
In the first place courses of lec-
tures have been*given by a large
number of the physiologists who
form the professorial staff of the
University in this subject. It
should not be forgotten that this
cooperation has been obtained
without an offer of the most
trifling award. The professorial
staff, by this free gift of its labour,
has once more shown its loyalty
to interests which are really
wider than the interests of any
local scheme, but which, never-
theless, are well expressed as the
interests of the University of
London.
All these lectures, as was
originally intended, have been of a
peculiarly living type—lectures
delivered upon subjects on which
each lecturer was actually en-
gaged in research at the time.
After submission to referees, they are published for
the University by Messrs. Murray ; a volume entitled
‘* Signs of Life,’’ by Dr. Waller, and another on the
oe Biochemistry of Muscle and Nerve,’’ by Prof.
Halliburton, have already appeared, and a volume on
the Blood, by Dr. Buckmaster, is in the press.
In the second place, room and facilities are afforded
to workers in the prosecution of research whether for
their doctoral theses or for other purposes. The re-
searches carried on since May, 1902, have resulted
in thirty published papers ; among them, and specially
noteworthy as regards their “immediate practical
bearing, are the contributions of Captain Leonard
Rogers, I.M.S., to our knowledge of the physio-
logical action of the poison of the Hydrophide and
the physiological action and antidotes of colubrine
and viperine snake poisons; of Waller and Plimmer |
on the physiological action of a ptomaine extracted
from commercial beet sugar; and of Waller on the
quantitative estimation and graduated administration
of chloroform. In physiological psychology, work is
continuously carried on by Miss Edgell, who has pub-
lished a paper on time judgment, and whose work on
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
to control but |
memory and grasp of the meaning of words is opening
out a most important subject.
The output of work from most laboratories bears
the stamp of the Director, for in his hands mainly
lies the attraction of workers, and their useful em-
ployment in the earlier stages of their career. It is
his constant patient interest in the problems under
investigation in the laboratory which largely
| determines their direction, and serves to weld them
into a solid phalanx of advancing facts. An examin-
ation of the list of papers shows the presence of such
an influence here, an influence which has already
| started several workers upon paths of independent
inquiry. Acknowledgments of this fact may, for
| instance, be found in the papers of Drs. Alcock,
Collingwood, Legge Symes, Wells, from all of whom
| valuable contributions have come. Dr. Alcock has
| carried out several excellent researches upon the
electrical response of mammalian medullated and
non-medullated nerve. Boldly selecting material
offering, as it was thought, almost insuperable
difficulties, he has been able to make many observ-
ations of value, and in doing so has also extended
Fic. 1.—Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S., Director of the Laboratory.
the general field of inquiry. Dr. Collingwood has de-
signed an apparatus for the exact dosage of chloro-
form, and elaborated a method for the estimation of
percentage of chloroform vapour in expired air. Mr.
Legge Symes has published work on the respiratory
quotient, estimation of chlorides in blood, and is carry-
| ing on work on the physiological action of chloroform
| and betaine. Mrs. Waller has continued the work
upon the distribution and meaning of “ blaze
currents.’”
That the many-sided industries of this laboratory
are by no means completely stated in the last para-
| graph is at once seen from the fact that its walls
have also looked out upon the work of several
investigators who have obviously been attracted by
its conveniences and equipment alone. Ligeeds
sufficient to mention the names of Drs. Brodie, Buck-
| master, Goodall, Locke, Macdonald, Mummery, See-
| mann. Dr. Pavy is engaged in work on the meta-
bolism of the carbohydrates, and will give a course
| of three lectures in the summer on the results of his
investigations. Dr. George Oliver is now working
in the laboratory on the effects of various organic pro-
442
NATURE
[Marcu 9, 1905
ducts on the blood-pressure of animals and man, and
on the improvement of blood-pressure apparatus for
physiological and clinical observation on man. He
will shortly also be engaged with Dr. Samuel Rideal
in investigating the influence of various gases on the
blood-pressure in man. Some of this work has already
found expression in this term’s course of lectures by
Sir Lauder Brunton. Mr. G. P. Mudge is engaged
in work which will bear on the theory of transmission
of acquired characters. The laboratory is, in fact, not
only a consistent school making its influence rapidly
felt in work of a particular character, but also a
laboratory offering highly appreciated advantages to
independent workers.
The laboratory owes no small share of the fact
of its existence and present energetic life to the
director, Dr. Augustus Waller. His prescience and
alertness, and the confidence felt by the authorities
and by his colleagues and friends in a scheme which
had obviously enchained the full measure of his
personal interest, must in this connection remain
accountable for many things. The value of his services
is best assessed after a consideration of the inde-
fatigable years which he has spent in fruitful
furtherance of the science of physiology. His first
paper, a contribution to the study of cardiac and vas-
cular innervation, was published from Ludwig’s
laboratory in 1878. His remaining contributions,
many and all well known, have been published as
a consequence of work carried out within London
itself; and with the scientific life of this city
Dr. Waller has been identified since 1879. ‘The
graphic record of the propagation rate of the pulse
wave,’’ ‘‘ The recurrent pulse,’’? ‘‘ Measurements of
the length of systole and diastole with different pulse
frequencies,’’ are titles of some of these earlier
papers, reminding us of our indebtedness to Dr.
Waller for valuable contributions to our knowledge
of the circulation. In 188r he secured the thanks
of all workers upon the phenomena of the central
nervous system by his contributions to the study of
tendon-reflex. In 1881 he devised and first made use
of the method, now generally adopted, for the photo-
graphic record of electrical currents. His work upon
electrotonic currents in the nerves of the human body,
carried out with the assistance of Dr. De Watteville,
1882, forms one of the foundation-stones of the art
of electro-therapeutics. This and_ his subsequent
record of the electrical changes accompanying the
beat of the human heart, 1887, serve to render the
first decade of Dr. Waller’s experimental work ever
memorable in the annals of ‘‘ Animal Electricity,”
and were made the basis of two ceremonies of
mutual honour. Dr. Waller was invited to Berlin
by Du Bois-Reymond to demonstrate the electrical
changes due to the heart-beat, and the Academy of
Science at Bologna—the birthplace of animal elec-
tricity—presented him with the award of the Premio
Aldini sul Galvanismo. The Academy of Science of
Paris also showed its recognition of the interest of
these observations by its award of the Prix Montyon.
: In 1885, Dr. Wailer laid a basis for the study of
‘fatigue,’ by recording his discovery of the site of
peripheral fatigue. He again facilitated the study of
this phenomenon by the invention and use of the
dynamograph,”’ and contributed important papers
upon the ‘* Sense of Effort.’? In these papers Dr.
Waller dealt with matters on the border-line between
physiology and psychology, and here also is placed
other work of his of admitted importance upon
colour contrast, hearing, weight discrimination, the
functional attributes of the cerebral cortex. In 1891,
Dr. Waller published his ‘‘ Text-book of Human
Physiology.’”? This book marked an era in the
methods of physiology classes throughout the
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
country, and served as a standard for the increased
extent of scientific training rendered possible by the
changes then taking place in physiological staffs and
laboratories. In writing this book Dr. Waller
rendered an important service not only to physiology
but also to medical education.
In 1895 began a series of researches based on the
Weber-Fechner law, the electrical response of the
retina to the stimulus of light, the mechanical re-
sponse of muscle to electrical stimulation, the electrical
response of medullated nerve to electrical stimulation,
leading to the general conclusion that where we can
plot physical cause along an abscissa, and physio-
logical effect along ordinates, an S-shaped curve is the
result.
The foregoing experiments involved an examination
of the electrical response of nerve under the influence
of anaesthetics, and led to the systematic employment
of nerve to gauge the activity of a large number of
reagents, a method having been devised for exciting
the nerve at regular intervals and recording its nega-
tive variation by photography.
Three mainly important conclusions resulted from
this method of work—that CO, is evolved in nerve
during tetanisation, that the inexhaustibility of nerve
and retina is due to an extremely rapid disintegration
and reintegration in their tissues, that the effect of
anesthetics on nerve may be taken as a measure of
their effect on the human subject, and the method may
therefore be employed for studying the limits of safety
of chloroform dosage. The important fact was educed
that safe anzesthesia requires the continuous adminis-
tration of a mixture of chloroform and air at an
average percentage of 1-5—not below 1 per roo and not
above 2 per 100. Many of the facts of physiological
interest made known by these researches are to be
found in a course of lectures delivered by Dr. Waller
at the Royal Institution, and published in 1897 under
the title of ‘‘ Animal Electricity.’? Short, and freed
from technicalities as it is, this book is unique and
permanent, and, as a classic, needs no commendation.
The ‘‘ Characteristic of Nerve,’’? ‘‘ Veratrine and
Protoveratrine,’’ are titles of other papers of physical
and physiological interest.
From a study of the electrical response of the eye-
ball (retina) to the admission and exclusion of light
Dr. Waller passed to a consideration of its response
to electrical stimulation. This very marked and
vigorous response he named the retinal blaze, and this
led to a general study of the ‘‘ blaze-currents ’’ of the
eyeball and of other living plant and animal tissues;
the importance of this phenomenon as an exact and
critical measure of the processes occurring in living
tissues can scarcely be overestimated. As a sign of
life, its observation (e.g. for vitality of seeds) may be
of practical advantage.
Within recent years Dr. Waller’s energies have also
been largely directed towards the problems connected
with chloroform anzesthesia, and the apparatus de-
signed and inspired by him promises to lead not only
to a further knowledge of the subject, but also to checl:
the lamentable waste of human life so often caused
by faulty and inaccurate methods of chloroform
administration.
The little that has been said may serve to show
that in this Institution and its officers the University
has already much upon which it may be con-
gratulated. It is surprising to examine the financial
basis upon which this scheme has already been
carried to such a pitch of usefulness. When the
scheme was first mooted, in March, 1901, no funds
were available for its support. The only asset was
the promise made by the foremost physiologists in
London to deliver courses of lectures, without
emolument, upon the branches of physiology with
MakCcH 9, 1905]
NATURE
443
which they were most conversant. The Senate
favoured the scheme, and Sir Walter Palmer, by a
timely gift of 2000l., rendered available the space
which the Senate had assigned for the laboratory.
The University supported the scheme with a grant
of 5ool., and has since provided an annual grant of
4ool, for five years, conditional upon the acquisition
of 6001. per annum from other sources. Upon this
annual subsidy of troool., it is estimated that the
present activity of the laboratory can be sustained.
So far the support obtained from outside sources, the
30ool. required for the five years, 1904-1909, is
represented by 2000l, subscribed by Mr. G. W. Palmer
and Mr. A. Palmer. The sum asked for has there-
fore not yet been collected; when collected, it should
be noted, it will not serve to maintain the laboratory
upon a ‘Scale commensurate with its activity and
promise. Thus the estimated expenditure of “1oool.
per annum includes no provision for the honoraria
of lecturers, or for additional assistants, or for
research scholarships. The sum of 50,000l., it is
estimated, would suffice for the accomplishment of
this greater object.
THE MONTE ROSA AND COL D’OLEN
INTERNATIONAL LABORATORIES.
Same time ago (Nature, April 17, 1902, vol. Ixv.
p- 568) I directed the attention of the readers of
Nature to the international laboratory, the Capanna
Regina Margherita, which had been established on
the Gnifetti peak of Monte Rosa by Prof. Mosso, |
of Turin, through the generous aid of the Regina
Madre of Italy. Already much valuable work has
been done in that laboratory, and if this has been |
chiefly of a physiological kind, though provision
is made in the laboratory for physical and meteor-
ological as well as other investigations, the reason is |
to be sought partly in the fact that Prof. Mosso is
a physiologist, partly in the special interest attaching
to the physiological problems presented by living
beings at high altitudes. i
In August and September, 1903, two physiological
expeditions were carried out at the Capanna Regina
Margherita, one under the direction of Prof. Zuntz,
of Berlin, the other by Prof. Mosso, several observers
taking part in each. The records of some of (not of
all) the results obtained in these two expeditions are
now brought together by Prof. Mosso in a volume !
of some 300 pages, elegantly bound in such a way
as to be easily itself carried to high altitudes, and
appropriately dedicated to that Mzecenas of science
M. Ernest Solvay, who has so freely given back to
science of the good things which science has given
to him.
I do not propose, in this notice, to deal in detail
with the twenty-one memoirs which make up the
volume. One, that by Durig and Zuntz, is given in
German; all the others, though written by Italian
observers, with that generous abnegation of their own
tongue which it is to be hoped will not be considered
necessary for them in the coming years, appear in
French. I may here perhaps be allowed to express
my regret that no memoir by any English observer,
either in his own or any other language, is to be
found among them. All of them treat, more or less
directly, with one or other of the many problems of
metabolism which are presented by life at such a high
altitude as 4560 metres. At that height the responses
which internal chemical, metabolic, processes and the
expenditure of energy make to changes in the en-
‘ 1 Laboratoire Scientifique Internatioral du Monte Rosa. Travaux de
Vannée 1903. Publiés par A. Mosso. (Turin: Loescher, 1904.)
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
vironment are so different from those which take place
at lower levels as to raise great hopes that persistent
researches in such Alpine laboratories may carry us
far towards solving the intricate problems of the
relation of chemical and physical changes of living
substance to the energies of life. It may be added
that such researches may be expected to explain, and
so to afford practical guidance as to, the beneficial
sanitary effects of life at high altitudes on many
diseases.
Most of the memoirs, as might be expected, record
studies on the respiratory exchange and on the con-
dition of the blood at the high altitude as compared
with what is found at an ordinary low level; and in
some of them the effects of artificially lowering baro-
metric pressure at Turin are compared with the effects
of the natural low pressure on Monte Rosa, accom-
panied as the latter is with other conditions. All
these are of great interest to the physiologist, and to
him chiefly; but one memoir may perhaps attract the
attention of the general reader, and that is the one
by Mosso and Galeotti on the physiological effects of
alcohol at high altitudes. These observers found that
a dose of alcohol, 4o c.c. of absolute alcohol
adequately diluted, which at Turin brought about a
condition bordering on drunkenness produced, on
Monte Rosa, so far as subjective sensations were con-
cerned, hardly any effect at all. I may add that the
present volume does not record all the observations
made in the expeditions of 1903, a second volume
being about to appear shortly. Nor are physiological
researches the only ones which have been carried out;
important meteorological and physical inquiries have
also been conducted.
In spite of every effort to make the accommodation
at the Gnifetti laboratory as complete as possible in
the circumstances, those circumstances offer many
obstacles to continued successful observations. The
eriod during which study is possible is short, and
the hardships of living and working at such a high
altitude are such as cannot easily be borne by many
persons otherwise capable of carrying out fruitful in-
vestigations. Hence Prof. Mosso conceived the idea
of establishing in connection with the Gnifetti labor-
atory a supplementary laboratory at a lower but
still high level, where work could be carried on in
connection with the higher laboratory, but under
easier conditions, and for a longer period of the year.
Visitors to the southern slopes of the Monte Rosa
group probably know well the little wooden inn at
the Col d’Olen at the height of about 3000 metres,
reached by a long but easy wall or mule ride from
Alagna, and most admirably kept by the well_ known
enterprising hotel proprietors Guglielmina. From it
one may, when the air is clear, see afar off the Duomo
of Milan, while at one’s feet alongside the path to
Gressonay lies an Alpine garden which Kew may
envy, brilliant in late summer with sheets of gentian
and other lovely flowers. Close by the inn, Prof.
Mosso has secured a plot of ground on which he is
building the new laboratory; this he hopes to have
finished next autumn, but it will not be ready for
actual use until the summer of 1906.
It is to be a laboratory fully equipped for researches
in physiology, meteorology, physics, and botany; but
in addition to this it will have sixteen comfortable
bedrooms, so that sixteen workers carrying on investi-
gations will have each a bedroom to himself; and if
the number of observers should happen at any time
to exceed sixteen, accommodation can be obtained at
the inn close by. At such altitudes success in investi-
gation is largely dependent on personal comfort, in-
cluding suitable food; and probably there are not a
444
NATURE
{Maxcu 9, 1905
few to whom research at the high Gnifetti labor-
atory would be impossible, but who could do solid
worl at a somewhat lower level provided that the life
was not too rough, and especially if they had no fear
of being hampered by indigestion caused by too rude
or monotonous a diet.
Col d’Olen Laboratory intended; and unless things
have altered sadly in the last few years, such need
have no fear for their stomachs. I still have a vivid
recollection of a stay at the inn at Col d’Olen during
which the efforts of a talented cook produced results
which would have satisfied tastes of a far higher
epicurean level than my own.
The new laboratory, like the old, is to be carried
out as an international institution. It received warm
support from the International Physiological Congress
at Turin in 1901, and again at Brussels this year.
After the plan of the Stazione Zoologica at Naples, its
maintenance is to be provided by subsidies which will
give the right to occupy working places. Already the
Italian Ministry of Instruction has secured accom-
For these especially is the |
be on a safe basis, and especially that an annual in-
come should be provided sufficient to ensure at the
laboratory adequate service and assistance, which, as
might be expected from the circumstances, have to be
well paid. The existence of such a laboratory offers
unusual opportunities for investigation, not only to
those who are interested in the general problems of
physiology, of meteorology, and of the physics of the
earth, but also to the perhaps larger class who desire
a wider and more exact knowledge of the manifold
fascinating phenomena of the High Alps. Is it too
much to hope that Prof. Mosso will find no great
difficulty in obtaining the further funds which he
needs ? M. Foster.
NEOLITHIC DEPOSITS IN THE NORTH-EAST
OF IRELAND.
uu
E recent changes of level in the north-east of
Ireland attracted a considerable amount of public
interest during the year 1903, in consequence of the
Fic. 1.—Wind excavated Pit in Portstewart Sand-dunes, showing “black-layers.”
modation for two investigators, the Italian Alpine
Club for one, and the German Government for two.
M. Solvay, who has otherwise been a lavish bene-
factor to the whole enterprise, has taken two places
for Belgium, and, through the generosity of Dr.
Ludwig Mond, our own Royal Society has the right
of nominating two investigators. The undertaking,
therefore, is well on the way to success; but much
remains yet to be done. Prof. Mosso informs me
that though he has obtained 70,000 lire, he still
ds some 50,000 lire in order that everything should
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
From Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, December, 1904.
lawsuit, known as the ‘‘ Gold Ornaments Case a
(Attorney-General v. the Trustees of the British
Museum). A golden boat, collar, and other objects
were found in ploughing at Broighter, on the exten-
sive flat that stretches around Limavady Junction in
county Londonderry. They were buried eighteen
inches deep in stiff clay soil, at a spot which is four
feet above ordinary high-water mark. The British
Museum authorities rested their claim to the retention
of the objects in part on the theory that the ornaments
in question constituted a votive offering, which was
Marcu g, 1905]
NATURE
445
deposited in Lough Foyle about the beginning of the
Christian era, the spot where the objects were sunk
having since become dry land, owing to upheaval of
the coast-line. The claim of the British Museum was,
however, not sustained.
In connection with this contention, Messrs. George
Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger made special investiga-
tions into the evidence of recent geological changes,
and these they have brought forward in an essay on
““The Larne Raised Beach: a Contribution to the
Neolithic History of the North of Ireland’ (Proc.
R. Irish Acad., vol. xxv., December, 1904). To this
essay we are indebted for the preceding statement.
After dealing generally with the phenomena indicative
of changes of level in Glacial and post-Glacial times,
the authors treat particularly of the post-Glacial his-
tory, which began with a long period of emergence,
and a land-level at least 30 feet higher than at present.
The evidence obtained near Larne and Belfast tells of
subsequent submergence, re-elevation (the amount of
which increased northward), and of a final slight
movement of submergence in recent times that has
left the surface as we now find it. The raised beach
of the Curran at Larne was accumulated over estuarine
muds during the period of submergence, and it is of
peculiar interest owing to the occurrence in it from
top to base of worked flints of Neolithic type. <A
detailed account, with figures of the flints, is given.
The evidence is talken to indicate that man was on the
ground during the submergence that allowed of the
continued laying down of 20 feet of gravels in shallow
water or between tides. Moreover, the abundance of
flint flakes in the surface-layers renders it probable
that Neolithic man persisted after that movement of
elevation had set in which made the top of the gravels
a land-surface. Attention is directed to further evidence
at Whitepark Bay, east of the Giant’s Causeway, and
again in the neighbourhood of Portstewart, which lies
only 13 miles E.N.E. of Broighter. At Whitepark
Bay, Neolithic ‘‘ black layers ’’ or land-surfaces occur
at various levels among the sand-dunes, while near
Portstewart old surfaces with Neolithic remains are
found in deep wind-excavated hollows in the dunes.
(see Fig. 1). This evidence proves conclusively that
the ground on which the gold ornaments were found
has been a land-surface, with an elevation at least as
great as at present, since Neolithic times, the whole
of the movement of elevation, which formed the post-
Glacial raised beach of the north-east of Ireland,
having been accomplished during Neolithic times.
NOTES.
Tue president of the Royal Society, and Lord Rayleigh,
chairman of the general board of the National Physical
Laboratory, have issued invitations to a visitation of the
laboratory on Friday, March 17, when the various depart-
ments will be on view and apparatus will be exhibited.
Tue thirteenth ‘‘ James Forrest ’’ lecture of the Institution
of Civil Engineers will be delivered by Colonel R. E. B.
Crompton on Monday, April 10, upon the subject of ‘* Un-
solved Problems in Electrical Engineering.”
Pror. W. J. Sottas, F.R.S., has been elected a member
of the Atheneum Club under the rule which empowers
the annual election by the committee of nine persons “‘ of
distinguished eminence in science, literature, the arts, or
for public services.’’
Mr. J. E. S. Moore has been appointed director of the
Cancer Research, which is carried out in connection with
the Royal Infirmary.
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
Iv is stated that the Madras Government has sanctioned
the establishment of an experimental garden in Malabar for
the investigation of pepper vine disease.
Tue second annual dinner of old students of the Royal
College of Science, Ireland, will be held on St. Patrick’s
Day, Friday, March 17, at the Holborn Restaurant, London.
Pror. K. Mosius has retired from the directorship of the
Berlin Museum of Natural History. The position has been
offered to Prof. H. H. Schauinsland, director of the museum
at Bremen.
Sir WiLi1am BroapBENT will preside at a medical con-
ference on the teaching of hygiene and temperance, to be
held at the Examination Hall, Victoria Embankment, on
Friday, March 24.
Tue British Medical Journal states that Prof. E. A.
Minchin, F.R.S., has undertaken to conduct—on the spbt—
further investigations, under the auspices of the Royal
Society’s Committee, into the causation of sleeping sickness
in the Uganda Protectorate.
Tue fifteenth German Geographentag will be held at
Danzig on June 13-15. The chief subjects of papers and
discussions will be south polar exploration, vulcanology,
coast morphology and formation of dunes, and school
geography.
ArTER a pause of many years France has again entered
the list of gold-producing countries. In December, 1904,
the first gold mill in France was started at the La Lucette
antimony mine, near Laval. A 1o-stamp mill is running
steadily, the daily production amounting to about 1 kilo-
gram of gold in the form of a rich concentrate.
WE learn from the Chemist and Druggist that two prizes,
one of 5000 francs (2001.) and the other of 3000 francs (120l.),
have been offered by Dr. Henri de Rothschild to the Scientific
Society of Alimentary Hygiene, Paris, for the best treatises
written in French on the rational food for man. The prizes
will be awarded in 1906, and the papers must be sent in by
December 31, 1905.
THE experiments with wireless telegraphy between
Diamond Island and the Andamans are, says the Pioneer Mail,
giving most satisfactory results. A recent message transmitted
from Port Blair reached Calcutta in nineteen minutes, though
it had to come over the land-lines after being received at
Diamond Island.
Tue Paris correspondent of the Times reports that a
telegram has been received from M. Jean Charcot, the
explorer in command of the French Antarctic expedition,
dated Puerto Madryn, March 4. It is stated that scientific
work was carried on under good conditions while wintering
on Wandel Island. Several parts of Graham Land hitherto
unknown have been explored, and by following the coast
continuously its outline has been determined.
Tue Times states that the French Ministry of Public
Works has commissioned M. Jacquier to project plans for a
railway between Chamonix and Aosta. It is considered that
the difficulty would not be so great as with the Simplon
tunnel ; the tunnel would be 42 miles shorter, and the rock
gives no indication of subterranean reservoirs of water. The
tunnel would commence at Chamonix, 3415 feet above sea
level, and end at Entréves (4550 feet), a distance of 82 miles.
The Dora Baltea would give ample water power for the
boring work, and afterwards for locomotion.
446
NATURE
[Marcu 9, 1905
Tue preliminary programme has been issued for the Inter-
national Congress of Botany to be held at Vienna in Whitsun
week, June 11-18. The formal opening of the congress
will take place on Monday, June 12, in the large hall of the
University of Vienna. A conference on the nomenclature
question will be opened on the same day, and will be con-
tinued on other days. ‘The chief subject of papers on June 13
will be the development of the European flora since the
Tertiary period. On June 14 a general meeting of the
botanical societies assembled for the conference will be
held, as well as a conference of agricultural botanists. The
subjects of discussion for the scientific. meetings on June 14
will be (1) the present condition of the theory of the assimila-
tion of carbonic acid, and (2) regeneration. Among the
papers to be read on Friday, June 16, may be mentioned
one by Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., on the fern-like seed-plants
of the Carboniferous flora. The organising committee has
arranged for excursions before, during, and after the
congress, and these will afford visitors an opportunity of
learning to know botanically interesting regions under the
guidance of specialists. In connection with the conference,
too, an international botanical exhibition has been arranged,
and will take place in the orangery of the Imperial Chateau
at Sch6énbrunn. Full particulars of the conference can be
obtained by intending visitors on application to the general
secretary, Dr. A. Zahlbruckner, I., Burgring, Vienna.
A sHoRT time ago we chronicled the death of Prof. Emilio
Villari, of Naples. Some interesting biographical details
relating to this well-known physicist have now been published
by Prof. A. Roiti in the Memorie of the Italian Spectro-
scopists’ Society (Catania, December, 1904) and the Atti of
the Lincei Academy, xiv. (i), 1. As in the case of the late
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, there can be no doubt that Villari’s
death was largely due to overwork, a result in both instances
brought about by the great amount of teaching work which
these physicists were required to undertake in their pro-
fessorial duties, and which, when combined with research
work, left them no time for rest. From his birth, in 1836,
Villari suffered from epilepsy, and, partly in consequence of
this, his early education was obtained at private schools.
He graduated in medicine at Pisa. In 1860 he taught in the
medical school of Naples; the next year he returned to
Pisa as professor of physics and chemistry; in 1864 he
studied in the laboratory of Magnus at Berlin. From 1865
to 1871 he occupied chairs at Florence; he was then, by
competition, appointed to the chair at Bologna, which he
held until 1889, when he went to Naples. His duties at the
latter place involved the conducting of three separate Uni-
versity courses of lectures, and it is not surprising that in
the session 1902—3 he broke down under the stress of work,
and after a long and painful illness died on August 20 of
last year. In the forty years from 1865 to 1904, Villari pro-
duced a long series of papers, which might advantageously
be collected and published in a volume. His most recent
work refers to the properties of air and gases which have
been rendered radio-active by Réntgen rays, and to which
he gave the name “ aria ixata,’’ or, literally, “‘ X’d air.”’
He was an honorary member of our Royal Institution and
the Physical Society of London, and for some time previous
to his death was president of the Lincei Academy.
Yue usual prize announcements of the Royal Lombardy
Institution are given in the Rendiconti, xxxviii., 1. The
triennial gold medal for industry is awarded to Messrs.
Vermot and Rejna for carriage springs and axles. The
Cagnola prizes for velocity of kathode rays, steering of
balloons and prevention of forgery, as well as several other
prizes, remain unawarded, while for cure of pellagra a
No. 1845, VOL. 71]
premium is awarded to Dr. Carlo Ceni, of Reggio (Emilia),
and for miasma and contagion the full prize and a gold
medal are conferred on Dr. Adelchi Negri, of Pavia. As
usual, there is keen competition for the Brambilla industrial
prize, and the institution has awarded three first prizes with
gold medals and four second prizes with gold medals to Lom-
bardy manufacturers. Under the Fossati foundation an
award is made to Dr. Giuseppe Pagano for a thesis on
cerebral localisation. The Kramer prize for an essay on
electric traction is awarded to Giovanni Giorgi, engineer, of
Rome, and three awards under the Ciani prize are given
for books on modern Italy.
Tue following list of prize subjects now issued by the
Lombardy Institution for 1905 and following years includes
the announcements made last year. Institution prizes, for
1905, on the ophiolitic formations of the Apennines; for
1906, On modern psychiatry. Cagnola prizes, for 1905, on
phenomena of catalysis; for 1906, on pathology of supra-
renal capsules. Fossati prizes (open to Italian subjects), for
1905, On our present knowledge of neurology; for 1906, on
visual centres of higher vertebrates; for 1907, on nuclei of
cranial nerves; for 1908, on the central nervous system.
Kramer prize, for 1905, on the resistance of cement
structures. Secco Comneno prize for a discovery on the
virus of rabies. In addition, the triennial medals, Cagnola,
Brambilla, Pizzamiglio, Tommasoni, Zanetti, and Ciani
prizes are offered under the usual conditions, which have
been referred to in previous years in the columns of NATURE.
Ix the West India Committee Circular, Mr. Kenrick
Gibbons suggests that mosquitoes are largely destroyed in
Barbadoes by swarms of small fish, locally known as
‘© millions,’’ which prey on the larva.
Ix the February number of the Zoologist Mr. E. Ber-
groth, of Tammerfors, Finland, gives a list of generic
zoological names not included in the supplement to the
““Index Zoologicus ’’ compiled by Mr. C. O. Waterhouse
and published in 1902. While the number of names in the
latter is about 250, no less than about 300 are recorded by
Mr. Bergroth, all dating before r1gor.
Some months ago Schaudinn published some interesting
observations on the development of trypanosome forms from
Halteridium, a protozoan blood parasite of birds. Novy and
MacNeal now criticise Schaudinn’s work, and ascribe his
results to a double infection with Trypanosoma and Hal-
teridium, and not to the development of the former from the
latter.
WE have received the Transactions of the Epidemiological
Society for the session 1903-4 (vol. xxiii.). It contains a
paper by Prof. Simpson on the epidemiology of plague, in
which he shows that the domestic animals and birds may
contract plague by feeding on plague-infected offal, and
important discussions on sleeping sickness, the etiology of
scurvy, industrial anthrax, and enteric fever and cholera in
Hamburg, together with an obituary notice of the late
Sir John Simon.
SoME interesting notes on the habits of Natterer’s bat
(Myotis nattereri) are contributed by Mr. T. A. Coward to
the Zoologist for February. From these it appears that in
certain habits this bat is to some extent intermediate between
other members of the Vespertilionida and the horse-shoe
bats (Rhinolophidz). It has, for instance, the habit of
turning in the air, characteristic of the latter. Again,
whereas in the horseshoe-bats the short tail is carried bent
over the back, while in most British Vespertilionide this
Marcil 9, 1905 |
MWATORE
447
appendage is usually carried beneath the body, in Natterer’s
bat, despite the fact of its being used as a pouch to contain
the insect-food, it is borne extended in the line of the body.
To the complex subject of nuclear changes is devoted
the greater portion of the February issue of the Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science, Messrs. Farmer and Moore
discussing the ‘‘ maiotic’’ phase (reduction divisions)
animals and plants in the first article, while in the second
Prof. Farmer and Miss Shove describe the structure and
development of the somatic and heterotype chromosomes of
Tradescantia. The term ‘‘ maiotic’’ phase is a new one,
proposed to cover the whole series of changes formerly
Iknown as heterotype and homotype; as being derived from
welwots (reduction) its orthography should apparently be
“* miotic.’’ “Of the other two articles, one, by Messrs. Moore
and Robinson, describes the behaviour of the nucleolus in
the spermatogenesis of Periplaneta, while the other, by
Mr. G. Wagner, is devoted to certain movements and
reactions of Hydra.
From a letter which Mr. P. Olsson-Seffer has written to
Science, we learn that a Danish botanist, Mr. M. P. Porsild,
has sought the help of his Government in founding an
Arctic laboratory, which it is proposed to establish near
Godhavn (lat. 69° 15’ N.), on Disko Island, North Green-
land. Such a laboratory would be the first institution of
its kind for investigating Arctic problems, and would form
a counterpart in the cold regions to the tropical stations at
Buitenzorg and Ceylon. The power of plants to withstand
intense cold, and their nutrition under the peculiar conditions
of light, will probably be among the earliest researches.
Mr. J. H. Maipen has contributed to the Proceedings of
the Linnean Society of New South Wales (August, 1904) an
account of the plants collected by Mrs. David on Funafuti,
one of the Ellice group of coral islands. ‘The list agrees very
closely with those of collections made on similar islands,
notably Samoa, Fiji and Keeling Islands, and consists of
fifty flowering plants representing thirty-three orders. The
native names are very similar to the Samoan. Although the
plants include various edible products, such as the almonds
of Terminalia Catappa, the sword-bean, and fruits of Pan-
danus, the islanders subsist chiefly on taro and bananas.
Tue second part of Prof. E. C. Jeffery’s treatise on the
comparative anatomy and phylogeny of the Coniferales claims
attention not only for the facts which he has observed in
examining various genera of the Abietineze, but more
especially on account of the deductions which, evolved from
the consideration of certain formulated canons of comparative
anatomy, by their evident consistency go far to establish
the validity of these canons. It is possible to trace in the
Abietineze a sequence from forms such as Tsuga and
Cedrus, in which resin-canals are absent from the wood of
all normal stem parts, through certain species of Abies, in
which the resin-canals occur only in the wood of the re-
productive axis, to Picea, Larix, and Pinus, where they are
formed normally in the wood of the vegetative axis. Among
the former, resin-canals are freely produced in the vegetative
shoots as a result of injury. From these and other facts
Prof. Jeffery concludes that the Abietineze are a very ancient
order, older than the Cupressinez, and by the possession
of a double leaf-trace are allied to the Cordaitales. The
treatise forms the first number of vol. vi. of the Memoirs of
the Boston Society of Natural History.
We have received the report of the Meteorological Com-
mission of Cape Colony for the year 1903. A comparison of
the number of ordinary stations shows a fair increase over
NO. 1845, voL. 71]
that for 1902, except in the case of purely rainfall stations,
where there is a decrease of 31. This is partly due to the
fact that owing to severe drought many farmers have had
to trek with the remains of their cattle to adjoining terri-
tories, leaving their homesteads entirely unoccupied. The
report contains useful monthly and yearly average rainfall
data, for districts, over Cape Colony for the ten-year period
1894-1903.
Pror. H. HERGESELL, president of the International Aéro-
nautical Committee, has favoured us with a summary of the
monthly ascents made during the last six months of the
year 1904 for the exploration of the upper air by means of
manned and unmanned balloons and kites. The average
number of ascents per month was eighteen, and some re-
markable altitudes were attained by the unmanned balloons,
seven of them exceeding 15,000 metres, and eighteen exceed-
ing 10,000 metres, the extremes being 24,970 metres, at
Strassburg, and 19,750 metres, at Pavlovsk, both in the
month of September. Special mention may be made of some
important kite ascents from the yacht of the Prince of
Monaco last autumn, during which a height of 4510 metres
was attained to the north-west of the Canary Islands, and
4360 metres south of the Azores. We hope shortly to refer
to some valuable results obtained from the discussion of
these observations in the region of the trade winds.
WE have received a copy of the fifth edition of Jelinek’s
excellent ‘‘ Instructions for taking Meteorological Observa-
tions,’ issued under the superintendence of Dr. J. M.
Pernter, the present able director of the Austrian Meteor-
ological Service. The first two editions (1869 and 1876) were
written by Dr. Jelinek, the third and fourth (18?4 and 1893)
were revised by Dr. J. Hann, who is justly recognised as
the foremost of living meteorologists. Not forgetting the ex-
cellent meteorological instructions issued in Russia by the late
Dr. H. Wild, in France by M. Angot, and in Germany by Dr.
van Bebber, nor the useful handbooks of smaller pretensions
by Dr. Scott (late of the Meteorological Office) and Mr.
Marriott (Royal Meteorological Society), we can have no
hesitation in asserting that the work now under notice is
second to none among works of a similar kind. It is
thoroughly up-to-date, and contains all that is necessary to
be known in connection with the recent considerable ad-
vances made by the introduction and more general use of
various self-recording instruments, and with the more
systematic observations of clouds. It contains good repre-
sentations of eight of the principal forms of clouds, repro-
duced from the International Cloud Atlas, and 37 other
illustrations, with sound advice in the choice of necessary
instruments and the establishment of stations of all classes,
whether first-order observatories or stations intended to
record merely rainfall and temperature. Any observers in
our own country who may be conv ersant with the German
language would, we think, be much interested by a careful
perusal of this very instructive work.
Tre current number of the Fortnightly Review contains
an article by M. A. Santos-Dumont on “ The Future of
Air-Ships.”’ “The difficulties against which the nagivator
of the air has to contend are explained, and the means
various aéronauts to overcome these obstacles
The two great obstacles to ballooning, M.
are contraction and expansion.
ballast must be thrown out, to
adopted by
are described.
Santos-Dumont points out,
To counteract contraction
compensate for expansion, gas must be allowed to escape.
The skill of the aéronaut of a spherical balloon consists in
maintaining his desired altitude with the greatest economy
of gas and ballast. But in any case repeated contractions
448
must mean the loss of the last lot of ballast, and repeated
expansions must result in the loss of so much gas that
the balloon sinks eventually to earth. The latest plan pro-
posed to overcome this weakness is described at length in
the article. Steam circulating in a long aluminium worm
will be used to heat the gas of the balloon, and contraction
will mean merely the condensation of so much steam into
water, while expansion will be brought about by its recon-
version into steam. ‘The difficulty consists in preventing
any loss of water, and M. Santos-Dumont explains how he
proposes to effect this. The successful use, at an early
date, of air-ships in Arctic exploration is predicted, anc
the part that air-ships will take in the warfare of the
future is outlined.
WE have received from Messrs. A. Gallenkamp and Co.
specimens of some new spectrum tubes which we have
tested with very satisfactory results. The tubes, three in
number, contained argon, helium, and a mixture of argon
and helium, and the trial showed that they are a great
advance on any other forms that have previously been ex-
amined. For spectroscopic work they should be of the
greatest service, for the exceeding brilliancy of the gases,
when only a small coil, with or without a jar in circuit, is
used, will render them particularly useful in research work.
The tubes themselves are of rather novel construction, the
main point being the insertion of a short capillary tube in
a tube of larger dimensions, the latter being connected
with two other tubes fixed at right angles, and containing
the electrodes. The current passing from one electrode to
the other has to pass through the capillary, and the gas
in this space is rendered very brilliant. When placed end on
to the slit of a spectroscope, the bulb end of the tube con-
taining the capillary being on the slit side, a method first
adopted by Monkhoven to obtain the maximum of brilliancy
of the illuminated gas on the slit, the result is a brilliant
concentration of light which can be examined with large
dispersion. The tubes are strong, compact, and well made,
and can be strongly recommended both for student and
research use.
Pror. A. H. R. BuLter, writing from the University of
Manitoba, describes some striking electrical effects due to
the dryness of the atmosphere at Winnipeg. The air
during the winter months contains so little water-vapour
that bodies charged with electricity lose their charges re-
latively slowly. When the thermometer is low, ranging as
it often does for a week or more at a time from o° to
—4o° F., very little friction, such, for instance, as may
be produced by walking along a carpet, causes a person
to become charged with sufficient electricity to produce a
visible and audible spark on touching an iron bedpost, the
radiator, the gas-tap, or any other conductor. It is a
favourite amusement of some children to take sparks from
each other’s noses after running about a carpeted room. In
the Manitoba Hotel, now burnt down, there was a ball-
room with some iron pillars in it. Prof. Buller was told
by a trustworthy eye-witness that after a dance dancers on
several occasions have been “‘ severely stung ’’ by accident-
ally coming into contact with one of the pillars. Many ladies
have considerable difficulty in combing their hair ; for during
the process it becomes so charged with electricity that it
stands out in the most astonishing manner. Even the short
hair of a man, when being combed, often ‘‘ crackles,’’
““ stands on end,’’ arid in the dark produces a display of
sparks. It is quite easy to light the gas with a spark
from the finger when matches are not handy by merely
shuffling a few paces over the carpet and then holding a
finger to the burner. On February 6, at 1 p.m.,
NO. 1845, VOL. 7 y
when a
NATURE
[MARcH 9, 1905
thermometer in the shade out of doors registered — 5° F.
and indoors 62° F., Prof. Buller found that a spark half
an inch long could be obtained between his finger and an
earth-connected iron pipe after sliding his feet smartly for
twenty paces along the maple-wood floor of his laboratory.
In the chemical laboratory calcium chloride may be ex-
posed to the air for some weeks without showing the least
apparent signs of deliquescence. In order to demonstrate
the deliquescence of this substance to the students, the pro-
fessor of chemistry is obliged to use a damp-chamber.
No. 2 of vol. ii. of Le Radium contains an account by
M. J. Danne of the deposits of pyromorphite containing
radium which have recently been discovered at Issy-l’Evéque
(Saone et Loire), and the first part of a study of phosphor-
escence by M. L. Matout. A description is also given by
Dr. Robert Abbe, of St. Luke’s Hospital, New York, of
several cures of external tumours and cancerous growths
which were effected by means of radium.
An investigation of the effect of temperature on the
magnetisation of steel, nickel and cobalt by Prof. H. Nagaoka
and S. Kusakabe constitutes article 9 of vol. xix. of the
Journal of Science of the University of Tokio. The most
interesting results were obtained with cobalt and with
tungsten-steel. The former is characterised by undergoing
several remarkable changes of magnetisation as the
temperature is raised, whilst with tungsten-steel, between the
temperature of disappearance of magnetism on heating and
that of its reappearance on cooling, there exist at least five
corrugations in the curve of magnetisation in a constant
field. When once the magnetisation has disappeared it
cannot be recovered until the temperature has been lowered
by about 240° C., and the cooling curve again exhibits
peculiar sinuosities. In addition to these peculiarities,
tungsten-steel shows a very pronounced recalescence at
660° C., this temperature practically coinciding with that
at which magnetism reappears in the cooling metal.
In No. 3 of vol. vi. of the Physikalische Zeitschrift
Messrs. Elster and Geitel describe further investigations of
the highly radio-active muds from the thermal springs of
Nauheim and Baden. These sediments are completely
soluble in hydrochloric acid, and on adding dilute sulphuric
acid to the solution, a precipitate of radio-barium sulphate is
obtained having an activity many times as great as that of
an equal quantity of the original mud. The oxides pre-
cipitated by ammonia from the filtrate of the barium
sulphate are also radio-active, the character of the emana-
tion indicating the presence of thorium, although this sub-
stance could not be separated by chemical methods. Prof.
G. Vicentini and M. Levi de Zara, in the Atti of the
Royal Venetian Institute (vol. Ixiv., ii., 95), also deal with
the question of radio-active sediments. The radio-activity
of the mud and of the incrustation formed by the thermal
springs of Battaglia, Abano, Montegrotto and the Lake of
Lispida has been measured. The Cittadella spring at Monte-
grotto is particularly noteworthy on account of the high
value of its radio-activity and of the fact that this appears
to be due to radium only. The air in the vicinity of the
springs was in all cases found to contain notable quantities
of a radio-active emanation.
Tue latest addition to the Philosophische Bibliothek pub-
lished by the Diirr’schen Buchhandlung, Leipzig, is a
translation of Spinoza’s ** Ethics,’’ with an introduction and
notes, by Dr. Otto Baensch. The volume is No. 92 of the
series of philosophical manuals in which it is published,
and its price is three marks.
Marcu 9, 1905] _
WAT ORE
We have received from Mr. A. C. Cossor, of Farringdon-
road, E.C., an illustrated catalogue of Réntgen ray tubes,
electrical instruments and fittings, and small electric lamps
for all purposes. The catalogue should be of interest to
physicists, medical men and others interested in high
vacuum work.
Tue fourth part of the second volume of ‘‘ The Fauna and
Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes :
being the Account of the Work carried on and of the Ccl-
lections made by an Expedition during the years 1899 and
1900,’’ edited by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, has been pub-
lished by the Cambridge University Press. This part con-
tains reports on the Alcyonaria of the Maldives by Prof.
S. J. Hickson, F.R.S.; on marine crustaceans by Major
Alcock, F.R.S., and Prof. H. Coutiére; on hydroids by
Mr. L. A. Borradaile ; on Rhynchota by Mr. W. L. Distant ;
and notes on parasites by Mr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S.
Messrs. TEuBNER, of Leipzig, have just issued a fifth
edition of Schlémilch’s ‘‘ Uebungsbuch zum Studium der
hoheren Analysis,’’ part i., of which the first edition appeared
in 1868, and a second edition of Dr. A. Foppl’s ‘‘ Einftthrung
in die Maxwell’sche Theorie der Elektrizitat,’’ the first
edition of which appeared in 1894. Of these, the former,
which in England would be called a “‘ treatise on the cal-
culus,’’ has been revised by Prof. E. Naetsch, of Dresden,
and several new paragraphs on transformation of coordinates
have been added. The work of editing Dr. Foppl’s treatise
has been undertaken by Dr. M. Abraham, who is preparing
a second volume dealing with “‘ theory of electromagnetic
radiations.’ :
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Jupirer’s SEVENTH SATELLITE.—Circulay 74 from the Kiel
Centralstelle confirms the telegram received last week con-
cerning the discovery of a seventh satellite to Jupiter.
It contains a message from Prof. Campbell in which he
states that the object was discovered by Prof. Perrine, using
the Crossley reflector. The position previously given, viz.
position angle=62°, distance from Jupiter 21’, was that
occupied by the satellite on February 25.6 (G.M.T.). The
apparent motion was direct, and the orbit is considerably
inclined to the ecliptic. This latest satellite has been under
observation, with the Crossley reflector, since January 2,
but no particulars of the observations, other than those for
January 25, are given in the circular.
LoNGITUDE OBSERVATIONS OF Points ON Mars.—Bulletin
No. 14 from the Lowell Observatory contains the results of
the longitude determinations of nearly sixty features on the
surface of Mars made at Flagstaff during 1903. For each
point the times of the several observations and the resulting
longitudes are given, and these are followed by the mean
value for the longitude and its probable error; the mean
value for the latitude of each point is also given.
The longitudes were determined by noting the time of
transit of each marking across the micrometer thread when
the latter was placed parallel to the position angle of the polar
axis, as given in Mr. Crommelin’s ephemeris, and passing
through the polar cap. As the thread obliterated the mark-
ings it became easier in practice to record the time at which
the marking and the cap were equidistant from the thread.
Mr. Lowell has allotted a number to the result of each
determination showing the relative weight to be attached
to the value obtained.
OBSERVATIONS OF CoMETS.—The comets 1904 e (Borrelly),
1904 d (Giacobini), and 1904 a (Brooks) have been regularly
observed, at Lick, by Dr. R. G. Aitken, and the results are
published in No. 69 of the Lick Observatory Bulletins.
Observations of comet 1904 e were made during the end
of December and the beginning of January, and two sets
of parabolic elements were computed from the results.
Subsequent observations did not confirm these, and conse-
quently Dr. Aitken computed elliptic elements from his
NO. 1845, VOL. 71 |
observations of December 31, 1904, January 17 and 27, 1905.
When the observational values were compared with the places
calculated from these elements, the agreement was found
to be satisfactory, and it seems probable that the comet
is moving in an elliptical orbit with a period of about
7.3 years. An ephemeris based upon these elements and
extending to March 31 is given, and shows that on March 11
the comet will be only 0.27 as bright as at the time of
discovery, when it was variously estimated as being of the
tenth or eleventh magnitude.
Comet 1904 d was observed on January 28, and the ob-
servation showed that the orbit published in Bulletin No. 67
needs very little correction. From the comet’s appearance
on that date it is evident that this object will soon be beyond
the reach cf all but the most powerful telescopes. An
ephemeris extending to April 3 is given.
Observations of comet 1904 a were made with the 12-inch
refractor by Messrs. Maddrill and Aitken during the period
June 21-September 4, 1904, and the results are given in the
same circular. A footnote by Dr. Aitken states that the
comet was still visible in the 12-inch telescope on January
26, and an observation made on that date showed that Prof.
Nijland’s ephemeris is very nearly exact.
Tue GOVERNMENT OBSERVATORY AT VicToRIA.—We have
received the annual reports of the board of visitors and the
director of the Victoria (Australia) Observatory for the years
ending March 31, 1903, and 1904. ?
The reports show that the routine work connected with
the meridian observations, the time service, the meteor-
ological, magnetic, and seismological observations, and
instrument testing was carried out as usual.
On the later date the taking of the catalogue plates for
the astrographic chart, to the number of 1149, had been
completed, whilst satisfactory progress had also been made
with the other sections of the work. The measurement of
both the Sydney and the Melbourne plates is being carried
out at Melbourne, and on March 31, 1904, 239 Sydney plates
containing 137,812 stars, and 522 Melbourne plates contain-
ing 151,343 stars, had been completely measured. A new
measuring machine designed by Mr. H. C. Russell was
finished, and its fitness was being investigated when the
report was issued.
The director, Mr. P. Baracchi, states that the work of
measuring the magnetograph curves and reducing all the
magnetic observations made since 1868 is progressing satis-
factorily, and that he hopes the results will be published
within the next two or three years.
OBSERVATIONS OF SATURN’S SATELLITES.—The results of a
series of observations of the relative positions of the seven
inner satellites of Saturn are published in Bulletin No. 68
of the Lick Observatory. The observations were made by
Prof. Hussey with the 36-inch refractor between August 3
and December 2, 1904, and in each case the position angle
and distance of the satellite in regard to one of the other
satellites are given.
Bricut Metrors.—Mr. R. L. Jones, writing from 3 King’s
Bench Walk, Temple, E.C., refers to three bright meteors
observed on the nights of February 27 and 28. All the three
appear to have started from the constellation Monoceros, and
to have tracked thence in a north-westerly direction. A
brilliant meteor was also seen at 12.10 a.m. on March 1, its
brightness far exceeding that of Venus.
THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF THE UNITED
STATES.
THE report for the year ending June 30, 1904, on the
magnetic survey of the United States and its out-
lying territories has lately been issued by the authorities
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and contains a long list
of field observations of the magnetic elements made with
the usual completeness, supported by results obtained in
five fixed observatories. Two of the latter are at Porto
Rico and Honolulu respectively.
The new feature in the present report is that the survey
has been extended to the neighbouring seas both on the
Atlantic and Pacific sides of North America, and it records
| the successful observation at sea of thirty-four values of
the Dip, and thirty-two of the Intensity, with fifty-two of
the Declination.
The observations of the Declination were made with
the ship’s standard compass in the process of ‘* swinging.”
Those for Dip and Intensity at the same time with the
Lloyd-Creak (shortly L.-C.) dip circle, an instrument origin-
ally designed for sea observations of those elements, but
which in field work on land has also been found to give
results hardly inferior to those of the specially designed
land instruments. The degree of accuracy hitherto obtained
at sea as compared with land observations with the same
instrument is also given.
The accompanying illustration shows the L.-C. circle
mounted for observations on land and fitted on top with an
arrangement proposed by the U C. Survey for observing
the Declination, but which also serves the purpose of
placing the circle in the magnetic meridian. At sea the
circle is mounted on a gimbal stand with the declination
fitting removed, as the angle between the direction of the
ship’s head and the magnetic meridian then obtained
from the ship’s standard compass.
A detailed description of the L.-C.
is
circle is given in the
Fic. 1.—Lloyd-Creak Dip Circle, mounted for Observations on Land.
report with the methods adopted for observing therewith at
sea in the U.S. surveying vessels, which are, however,
not specially adapted to the work. A wood-built vessel,
specially designed and devoted to magnetic work as a
primary object, is required to obtain the full value from
this instrument, and it is therefore pleasant to record that
the magnetic survey of the North Pacific Ocean in such a
vessel will be commenced this year by the United States.
THE NEST OF THE FIGHTING FISH.
most, if not in all, the members of the group of Oriental
[8
fishes typified by the so-called climbing perch (Anabas
scandens), the males take charge of the eggs as they are ex-
tracted from the females and place them in a ‘“‘ nest’”’ of
mucus-covered bubbles, which they have previously pre-
pared. A well-known representative of the family is the
fighting fish
he
” (Betta pugnax),
circumstance
e Siamese
which takes its name from
that a semi-domesticated breed is kept by
for the sake of the sport offered by the combats
Of this fish living from Pinang
been in the possession of Mr. E. H. Waite,
NO. 1845, VOL. 71 |
males.
recently
specimens
NATURE
|
[Marcu 9, 1905
of the Sydney Museum, who has published an illustrated
account of their nesting habits in the Records of the Aus-
tralian Museum for December last (vol. v. No. 5). Mr-
Waite has obligingly sent us a copy of his original photo-
graph of the nest, which is herewith reproduced.
Mr. Waite states that he received these fish early in April
last year, and that the male almost immediately proceeded
to blow bubbles, which it produced by rising periodically to
the surface and taking in gulps of air. A circular mass
of mucus-clad bubbles, about 3 inches in diameter, was soon
produced ; and in course of time several other layers were
formed, which resulted in the final production of a large
dome-shaped structure, as shown in the photograph. The
structure was completed on the third day, when the female
commenced to lay her eggs, which were received between the
pectoral and ventral fins as the y were extruded, and were them
suffered to sink slowly in the water. Here they were col-
lected by the expectant male, decked in his resplendent breed-
ing colours, and placed, after being coated with mucus,
below the mass of bubbles, to whichl they adhered. From
three to seven eggs are extracted at a time, and the process
is continued until there are from one hundred and fifty to
two hundred. When the laying is over, the female is
kept away from the nest to prevent her devouring the eggs,
which are carefully tended by the male, being constantly
moved and from time to time re-coated with slime.
On the third day the eggs hatched, the larve remaining
beneath the shelter of the bubbles. From time to time some
fell off, when they were immediately replaced by the watch-
ful male, but in a day or two the numbers which became de-
Fic. 1.—Nest of the Fighting Fish.
From a photograph by Mr. Waite.
About two-thirds natural size.
tached were too many for him to secure, although he fre-
quently had seven or eight in his mouth at once. Some were,
however, recovered ani the bottom of the tank and returned
to the shelter of the nest, but many were devoured by the
female. Eventually all the lar, died, and, although the
fishes bred on two other occasions, none of the offspring were
reared.
SOME RECENT WORK
LOGICAL SURVEY
STATES.*
F it be possible for envy to lurk in the breast of the
OF THE U.S. GEO-
IN THE WESTERN
scientific worker, then surely might we look for it
in the geologist of these islands when he regards the
lot of his fellow-worker across the Atlantic. In the breadth,
of field open to research, in the freshness of the land, and
in the public support accorded to his labours, the geologist
of the present day in the United States may justly claim
preeminence. In the four memoirs before us, a mere
random selection from the recent publications of the U.S.
1 ** Zinc and Lead Deposits of Northern Arkansas.” By G. I. Adams
and others. Pp. 118; with 17 plates and 6 figures.
“The Copper Deposits of the Encampment District, Wyoming.”
A. C. Spencer. Pp. 107 ; with 2 plates (maps) and 49 figures
‘* Economic Resources of the Northern Black Hills.” By J.
and others. Pp. 222; with 20 plates and 16 figures.
“4 Geological Reconnaissance across the Bitterroot Range and Clear-
water Mountains in Montana and Idaho.” By W. Lindgren. Pp. 123 >
with 15 plates and 8 figures.
Being ‘‘ Professional Papers”
logical Survey.
By
D. Irving
Nos. 24, 25, 26 and 27 of the U.S. Geo-
(Washington, 1904.)
Marcu 9g, 1905]
NATURE
451
‘Geological Survey, all these stimulants are conspicuous. | termed
The memoir on the Bitterroot Range alone deals with an
area of about 12,000 square miles, respecting which our
scientific knowledge has been hitherto of the scantiest ;
while the other three, though professedly more limited in
scope, treat in detail of areas ranging from about 450
to 560 square miles which may be taken as selected
illustrations of parts of the vast region west of the
Mississippi.
Of course, it is not area only that counts in geology ;
and in considering the magnificent distances of the Great
West, we may take heart in that our own shreds of land
have not been carved out of some wide monotonous tract
covered by a single formation within which it might be
the fate of an ardent geologist of limited means to find
himself hopelessly tethered! It is, indeed, fortunate that
in the geological map of the world the British Isles
lie, as it were, athwart the index.
It is less easy to find consolation when we compare
even the most presentable of our British geological publi-
cations with these beautifully printed and liberally illus-
trated memoirs, wherein the native asperities of the
technical treatise are so smoothed and adorned that they
are hardly perceptible. Take, for
example . . but comparisons are r
proverbially odious, and, moreover,
the one in mind has been frequently
made, with no good result, so let it
pass !
It is noteworthy that all four
treatises give the results of investiga-
tions which, although essentially
scientific in scope, have centred
around the economic resources of
the specified districts. In all cases,
also, the prospector and miner, work-
ing more or less at haphazard, had
made considerable progress in de-
veloping the metalliferous deposits
before the advent of the geologist,
whose function has been to explain
the general principles deducible from
the discoveries already made, and to
indicate the lines along which further
exploration may proceed with the
best chance of success. This is the
proper course, for it is not until the
average ‘* practical man’ begins to
feel the need for professional advice
that he is likely to pay much heed to
such advice if it be proffered him.
All the memoirs, and more especially
that on the northern Black Hills,
give full descriptions and many illustrations of
principal mine-workings, to which we need not further
refer.
First on our list stands the description of the zinc and
lead deposits of northern Arkansas, by G. I. Adams,
assisted by A. H. Purdue and E. F. Burchard, with
a paleontological appendix on the correlation of the
formations by E. O. Ulrich. Though occurring mainly
at a lower stratigraphical position, these metalliferous de-
posits appear to be very similar in mode of occurrence
and in character of vein-stuff to the lead-ores of the
Carboniferous Limestone of the north of England.
The principal locus of the deposits is in ‘‘ the Yellville
formation,’’ a dolomitic limestone of Ordovician age; but
they also range upward, less abundantly, into Lower
Carboniferous Limestones. The Silurian system appears to
be absent from the district described, and the Devonian
is represented only by impersistent sandstone and shale, of
which the maximum thickness does not exceed 4o feet. The
region has been little disturbed; igneous rocks are absent ;
and the Ordovician rocks still maintain their nearly hori-
zontal position. Nevertheless, there has been in some
places much differential movement among the strata, prob-
ably as the result of compressive forces, whereby the
thinner and more brittle beds have been brecciated and the
fragments made to rotate or to shear past each other,
producing the structure that in this country has been
NO. 1845, VOL. 71 |
|
|
|
| occupied for the
|
Fic. t.—Trapper Peak, showing gradual slope of Gneiss Zone to the left and Glacial Amphitheatre
“ec y
crush-conglomerate.’’ These breccias have per-
mitted the percolation of the ore-bearing solutions, and
are sometimes enriched by metalliferous deposits, though
usually only in the vicinity of the nearly vertical fissures
which appear to have formed the principal channels of the
mineralised waters. It is suggested that the ores repre-
sent the concentration of minerals originally disseminated
in the country rock, and more especially in the
Mississippian (Carboniferous) limestones, this concentration
having been effected by waters which, after circulating
through the upper belt of weathered rock, have passed
downward to the “ belt of cementation.’’
The next memoir carries us some 700 miles north-west-
ward, to the southern border of Wyoming, and to a
geological province of utterly ditferent character. ‘‘ The
Copper Deposits of the Encampment District,’’ by A. C.
Spencer, describes a hilly region on the Continental Divide,
ranging in altitude from about 6650 feet to 11,007 feet,
most part by a complex mass of pre-
Cambrian rocks, broken into and altered by igneous
intrusions, with Mesozoic formations lying upon the flanks
of the ancient massif as foot hills and dipping away
beneath the surrounding prairie. The pre-Cambrian group
in Granite at centre.
the | includes hornblende-schists derived from bedded volcanic
rocks, limestones and shales, quartzite and slate, and a
thick conglomerate, with intrusions of quartz-diorites,
granites, and gabbros in great variety. The structure of
the sedimentary rocks of this group is interpreted as a
| synclinorium, striking east and west, with its component
strata dipping invariably to the south. With respect to
the conglomerate, it is noted that though locally almost
unchanged from its original condition, it is more frequently
metamorphosed, and that this metamorphism, both
mechanical and chemical, has often been carried so far
that the contained boulders and pebbles have been mashed
into disc-like plates, and the rocks, by re-crystallisation,
converted into a gneiss the origin of which would be
entirely indeterminate except through the study of its
gradual passage from the unaltered condition. Certain
mineral transformations described in the gabbros are
assigned to dynamic pressures insufficient to inaugurate
actual crushing, and also unaccompanied by a notable
degree of hydration. The copper-ores which constitute
the chief mineral wealth of the district occur under diverse
conditions, which are carefully described and classified.
It is believed that a large part, though not all, of the
metalliferous deposits had their original source in
the gabbros, of which eighteen samples, representing
various phases of the rock, were tested in the laboratory
of the survey, and in each case yielded traces of copper.
452
In the richest lodes the ores appear to have been con-
centrated by ascending solutions.
In the third memoir we are transported some 500 miles
north-eastward to consider the economic resources of the
northern Black Hills of South Dakota. A brief sketch
of the general geology of the district is given in part i.
(28 pages) by T. A. Jaggar, jun., and the rest of the
volume, forming part ii., by D. Irving and S. F.
Emmons, deals fully with the economic resources. The
dome-like structure of the Black Hills, with their laccolitic
intrusions of igneous rock, is already well known. ‘‘ They
rise like an island in the midst of the Great Plains, with
culminating peaks of pre-Cambrian granite intrusive in
Algonkian schists, and these same schists and granite
may be followed outward from the centre of the Hills
to an encircling escarpment of Palzozoic rocks dipping
away on the northern, southern, and eastern sides, and
mantling over the schists to form an extensive forested
limestone plateau on the west.’’ The limestones have been
crushed in places into ‘‘ pseudo-conglomerates,’’ and Dr.
Jaggar suggests a similar origin for many supposed con-
glomerates or “‘ intraformational breccias ’’ that have been
described in other parts of the continent.
The picture of the region presented in the first few
pages of part i. is remarkably clear and impressive.
The Cambrian series of shales, quartzite, sandstone, and
Fic. 2.—Upper Valley of Mill Creek, Bitterroot Range, looking East from Main Divide.
pronounced U-shape of Valley narrowing toward the lower part.
thin limestones, 200-400 feet thick, which rest in
unconformity upon the upturned edges of the Algonkian
schists, include at their base an irregular con-
glomerate, evidently an ancient beach-deposit. This
basal Cambrian conglomerate contains detrital gold,
derived from the erosion of auriferous lodes in the
Algonkian rocks, and, according to the present authors,
has been further enriched by later infiltration. It thus
constitutes in favoured localities a gold-producing ore
second only in importance to the lodes in the underlying
Algonkians. The last-mentioned lodes are usually fissured
belts of rock along which the precious metal, accompanied
by other minerals, has been more or less irregularly de-
posited by permeating solutions. Another important source
of gold is described under the heading of ‘‘ Refractory
Siliceous Ores.’’ These ores represent the replacement of
portions of the Cambrian dolomitised limestones by silica
and other minerals, including gold, that appear to have
been carried upward in solution by waters ascending along
vertical joints. These waters, when checked by a com-
paratively impervious bed, tended to spread out laterally
along the dolomites, which were partially dissolved and
replaced by other substances. This part of the memoir is
illustrated with some beautiful plates of microscopic slides.
Besides gold, the district has yielded ores of silver-lead,
lframite, and a little copper, with some traces of tin.
NO.18 45, VOL 71]
NATURE
—(—
[Marcu 9, 1905
The last memoir of our series, which takes us again
goo miles to the westward, is the description of a geo-
logical reconnaissance across the Bitterroot Range and
Clearwater Mountains in Montana and Idaho, by
Waldemar Lindgren, and is in some respects the most
instructive of the series; but unfortunately we have no
space in which to do it justice. It deals with a vast tract
| of mountainous country, for the most part exceedingly
difficult to traverse, and as yet very imperfectly explored. A
huge “ batholith ’’ of granite or quartz-monzonite 300 miles
in length from north to south, and 50 to 100 miles in
width, occupies the central part of this region, and has
been locally pressed and deformed, especially along its
eastern margin, into gneiss. Sedimentary rocks are com-
paratively restricted in their range, and the age of most
of those which are exposed is doubtful, as no well defined
fossils have been found; but it is believed that, along
with complexes of pre-Cambrian age, the Triassic, Carbon-
iferous, and possibly older Palzozoic systems are repre-
sented. In the west the country is overspread by the
great Columbia River lavas of Tertiary age. The physio-
graphic features of the region are of extreme interest, and
are carefully discussed. It is shown that the Clearwater
Mountains had already acquired a sharply accentuated
topography before the outpouring of the Columbia River
basalts, and that the lower portions of the principal valleys
were flooded and dammed by the
lava-flows. The most important
structural feature of the region, how-
ever, is the great fault by which the
Bitterroot Mountains have been ele-
vated on the west and the Bitterroot
valley carried down on the east. This
fault-plane is described as being re-
markably flat, though apparently
normal. It is supposed to represent
a twofold movement, by which the
foot-wall has been raised and the
hanging wall depressed. It indicates
a vertical movement of from 4000 to
6000 feet, and the horizontal com-
ponent is estimated to be at least
two miles. The schistose belt of the
granite underlies this plane, and the
structure is considered to be an out-
come of the disturbance. Move-
ment appears to have continued
along the fault up to recent
- times.
Gawels
Notice
The prevailing rock is granite. — —____—— -
bold ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES.
AN interesting paper by A. L. Kroeber on the types of
Indian culture in California is to be found in vol. ii.
of the Publications of the University of California—
‘““American Archeology and Ethnology, 1904.’’ Ethno-
| logically, California is characterised by the absence of agri-
culture and pottery, by the total absence of totemism or
gentile organisation, by an unusually simple and loose
| social organisation in which wealth plays a rather im-
portant part, by the very rude development of all arts
except basketry, by the lack of realism in art, by a slight
development of fetishism and by the conspicuous lack of
symbolism and ritualism, by the predominance among
ceremonials of mourning and initiation rites, and by a con-
siderable development of true conceptions of creation in
mythology. The natives are of an unwarlike nature, and
lack intensity and pride. It will therefore be seen that in
almost every instance the Californian Indians are among
the least characteristic of the Indians of North America,
being lacking in the typical qualities of that race, and
thus they are the most generalised of the peoples of that
continent. In the same volume Dr. Kroeber gives an
account of the languages of the coast of California south
of San Francisco.
Drs. A. Bloch and P. Vigier have re-examined the hair
MarkCH 9, 1905]
NATURE
453
follicles of negroes (Bull. et Mém. Soc. d’Anth., Paris, 1904,
p- 124), and have obtained interesting results. The follicle
forms at least half a spiral and is not flattened; the
distribution of hair on the scalp is uniform, but all the
hairs of the same spiral tuft have the intradermic portion
of their curves orientated in nearly the same direction, and
it is apparently this uniformity of the neighbouring follicles
that determines the formation of spiral tufts; a semi-
circular oblique crest ridge of fibrous tissue constricts the
upper portion of the hair bulb, and thus causes the flatten-
ing of the hair and its spiral twist.
Mr. E. H. C. Walsh, in an illustrated note on stone
implements found in the Darjeeling district (Journ. As.
Soc. Bengal, Ixxiii. p. 21), states that all the implements
he found were polished ‘‘ celts,’’ with the exception of a
dumb-bell shaped hammer head. ‘The general belief of the
people is that these axe-heads are thunderbolts which have
fallen from heaven; they are chiefly found with the medicine
men, who use them as charms in their incantations to
drive out or cure disease, and also on account of their
reputed medicinal properties when mixed with water; on
several specimens the scraping or rubbing on stones to
obtain medicine is very noticeable. Numerous references
to other papers dealing with the subject are given. On
p- 27 of the same Journal P. O. Bodding describes some
shoulder-headed and other forms of stone implements in
the Santal Pargans; it is not yet clear who were the
makers of these distinctive implements—possibly they were
Mon-Kmer and Munda peoples. The Journal also contains
some interesting folklore.
Some time ago M. Verneau directed attention to some
skulls from Palzolithic interments at Mentone with a re-
markable negroid aspect, and M. Hervé has noted two
somewhat similar Neolithic skulls from Brittany. Prof.
Manouvrier points out in the Bull. et Mém. Soc. d’Anth.,
Paris (1904, p. 119), that all these “‘ negroid’’ characters
occur in European or other non-African skulls, but they
are very rarely found in conjunction. All the skulls of
this type are female; in following out this hint Dr.
Manouvrier discusses the “‘ negroid ’’ characters, and comes
to the conclusion that in a dolichocephalic population in
which the prognathism of the men is so marked, a corre-
sponding degree of prognathism in the women, combined
with other characters that are characteristic of female
skulls, would give a negroid appearance without any need
to conclude that there was a negro element in the popula-
tion. The same author describes (p. 67) a remarkable tre-
panned Neolithic skull, and (p. 101) some senile Neolithic
skulls.
As the result of a long and careful comparative study
of the skeletal variations of the foot in primates and in
the races of man, Th. Volkov (Bull. et Mém. Soc. d’Anth.,
Paris, 1903, 1904) arrives at the following conclusions :—
The skeleton of the foot of the prosimians bears many
traces of the primitive type of foot of the ancient mammals,
and presents many intermediate forms between this type
and that of the foot of monkeys. The skeleton of the foot
of the lower primates appears to be the result of adaptation
to arboreal life of ancestors whose foot resembled that of
existing rodents. The skeleton of the foot of anthropoids
represents the extreme of this adaptation, but at the same
time (among the hylobates and partly in the gorilla) the
beginning of adaptation to standing and to bipedal pro-
gression. The skeleton of the foot in the lower races of
man presents as a whole, and for each bone in particular,
evident and numerous traces of adaptations characteristic
of climbers antecedent to the assumption of the erect atti-
tude and bipedal progression. The ethnical characters
range from the oblique and flat foot to the straight and
arched foot. Consequently the arch of the foot represents
the most essential character from an anthropological point
of view. The index of curvature, that is to say, the re-
lation between the height and length of the foot, or
especially the tarso-metatarsian length, should be con-
sidered as a very important anthropometric datum. The
skeleton of the foot of the new-born infant reproduces
primitive and transitory forms in the development of the
human foot in general, and thus its study possesses a very
great anthropological importance.
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CampriIDGE.—The following is the speech delivered by the
Public Orator, Dr. Sandys, on Thursday last, in presenting
Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., professor of anthropology in the
University of Oxford, for the degree of Doctor in Science
honoris causa :—
Adest vir et propter aetatis dignitatem et propter studia in
rerum originibus primis exquirendis praeclare posita inter
primos merito numerandus, quem iamdudum admirati, nunc
demum honore diu debito decoramus. Abhine annos quinque
et quadraginta consuetudines Mexicanas antiquas diligenter
exploravit. Deinde de prisco hominum cultu, opere in
maximo et doctrinae variae plenissimo, plus quam semel
disputavit. Illo vero in opere, animarum praesertim in
regno perlustrando aliorum antecursor constitutus, success-
oribus omnibus facem splendidam praetulit. Denique de
anthropologia universa egregie disseruit, hominum ipsorum
studium hominibus imprimis proprium esse iure optimo
arbitratus. Nemo fortasse magis merito liberalitatem illam
Terentianam prae se ferre potest :—
“homo sum, humani nil a me alienum puto.”
The proposals forwarded by the Studies Syndicate
have been rejected by the Senate by, roughly speak-
ing, three to two. The poll taken was the largest on
record, and on the Grace affecting Greel the ‘* non-placets ’’
were 1559 and the “‘ placets’’ 1052. The result is ex-
tremely disappointing to all those who wish to see
Cambridge take its rank as a leading university in the
Empire. There is, however, a strong consensus of opinion
that the matter should not be allowed to rest where it is.
Perhaps a consultation between the two opposing bodies
might lead to some plan acceptable to the more moderate
members of both parties.
The Vice-Chancellor announces that he has appointed
Colonel Sir Frank Younghusband, K.C.I.E., to the office
of reader on Sir Thomas Rede’s foundation for the present
year.
Mr. E. H. Hankin, Fellow of St. John’s College, and
analyst and bacteriologist to the North-West Provinces and
Oudh, has been approved by the general board of studies
for the degree of Doctor in Science.
Mr. H. O. Arnoip-Forster, M.P., Secretary of State
for War, has consented to give away the prizes to the
students at the Woolwich Polytechnic on April 1.
Tue Huxley lecture of the University of Birmingham will
be delivered by Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., in the large
lecture theatre of the Midland Institute, on Thursday,
March 23.
In the Engineering and Mining Journal, Mr. G. S.
Raymer gives an illustrated description of the Simpkins
laboratory at Harvard. It is designed for the study of
continuous ore-dressing operations on a considerable scale,
the plant consisting of a 5-stamp battery and additional
apparatus of the most recent type.
Tue formal opening of the new building of the Ecole poly-
technique of Montreal, in affiliation with Laval University,
took place on January 28. This school was founded in 1874
to give French-Canadian youths an opportunity of obtaining
a training in practical science. Its sphere has been limited,
but with the new building and improved equipment better
results are anticipated.
Mr. Cuartes H. Hacktey, of Muskegon, Mich., has made,
we learn from Science, a bequest of 50,0001. to the Hackley
Manual Training School of Muskegon, which, added to
72,0001. already given by Mr. Hackley, makes the school’s
total endowment 122,o00ol1. Mount Holyoke College will
receive, we learn from the same source, 34,400]. as the
residuary legatee of the late Mr. Edmund K. Turner.
In an article entitled ‘‘ The Lesson of Coopers Hill,’’ the
Indian Daily Telegraph of February 1 institutes a com-
parison between the methods of government in the cases
of Coopers Hill and the City and Guilds of London technical
colleges. The success of the latter is traced to adaptation
in them of the methods followed in the great German poly-
technics which is shown by their senates or college boards
454
NATURE
[Marcu 9, 1905
responsible for their educational systems. The article pro-
ceeds to direct attention to the Thomason Civil Engineering
College at Rurki in connection with a proposal at a recent
meeting of the Allahabad University to abolish the faculty
of engineering, and favours the introduction in the college
at Rurki of the method of government which has assured
the success of the colleges of the City and Guilds.
Tue Berlin correspondent of the Times states that in the
course of a debate on the estimates for the Ministry of
Education in the Prussian Chamber on March 2, an official
of that Ministry, Geheimrath Reinhardt, gave some interest-
ing information with regard to the success of the so-called
“reform schools,’’ in which the study of the classics is
begun at the age of twelve, and Greek not until the age of
fourteen. One great advantage of this system is that the
decision to assign a pupil to the modern (Realschule) or to
the classical school (Gymnasium) can be postponed to a
stage when his abilities and tastes can be better estimated.
Geheimrath Reinhardt stated that the system of this ** reform
school ”’ had hitherto been adopted at three classical Gym-
nasia, and the result was that of 123 pupils in the highest
form who presented themselves for the leaving examination
only four failed to pass, and of these four three succeeded
six months later. Experience had shown that as a result
of beginning Latin and Greek at a later age than was
customary, the interest of the pupils in their work was ren-
dered keener, and their diligence was certainly in no wise
inferior to that of the pupils of the ordinary Gymnasia.
Tue fourth annual report of the executive committee of
the Carnegie Trust states that sums amounting to 38,1141.
have been claimed and handed over to the four Scottish
universities during the year. The grants for library purposes
and for provisional assistance in teaching, amounting in all
to 6400l., have been fully paid. The grants for buildings
and permanent equipment available for 1904, including a
balance of 12,635/. unexpended in 1903, amount to 33,035].
Of these, the sum of 20,1461. has been claimed. Claims for
grants towards teaching endowments amount for the year
to 11,568]. These include contributions to the foundation
of two chairs—that of history in the University of Aberdeen,
and that of geology in the University of Glasgow. The
scheme of endowment of post-graduate study and research
has now entered upon its second year. ‘The total expenditure
for 1903-4 under the scheme was 33861. The estimated
outlay for the current academic year is 51771. Applications
for fellowships, scholarships, and grants for 1905-6 must
be lodged on or before May 1 with the secretary to the
trust, from whom application forms and regulations can
be obtained. In the research laboratory of the Royal College
of Physicians, the purchase of which was announced in the
previous annual report, the superintendent reports that the
past year has been one of steady and satisfactory work in
all departments. Thirty-five workers have held places in
the laboratory, and have been engaged in forty-seven in-
vestigations.
THE twenty-seventh annual general meeting of the In-
stitute of Chemistry was held on March 1. In the course
of an address Mr. David Howard, the president, referred to
the steady growth of the institute, saying that he thought
there was still a wide field for those possessing the highest
chemical knowledge and skill, and that those who had to
call in the aid of such knowledge and skill were becoming
more and more alive to the importance of employing only
the properly trained and competent. He emphasised the
importance of requiring all candidates to produce evidence
of a high standard of general education. The professional
chemist should be a professional man as well as a chemist,
and must, therefore, possess that general culture which is
essential if he is to deal with his work in a professional
spirit. Referring to the position of the institute in con-
nection with the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, he mentioned
that 94 per cent. of the public analytical appointments were
held by fellows of the institute. The president alluded to
the action of the Board of Agriculture in encouraging pro-
vincial technical and agricultural colleges to undertake pro-
fessional chemical work gratuitously, or at purely nominal
In the endeavour to help dairy farmers, the board has
induced the colleges, which are maintained by grants for
technical education, for the benefit of a particular class, to
compete with professional chemists, particularly those re-
No. 1845, VOL. 71]
fees.
tained by the agricultural associations, at the expense of
the general public. The president held that the colleges
need the grants for the promotion of the education of
farmers in the science and practice of agriculture, without
diverting them to other purposes. It is for them to instruct
the farmers in agricultural chemistry.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, February 2.—‘‘ The Theoryiof Photographie
Processes: on the Chemical Dynamics of Development.”
By S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees.
If a photographic plate be exposed to light and
developed, the transparency to light of the silver de-
posited is related to the mass thereof by the equation
D=-—log,,T, where D (termed the density) is proportional
to the mass of silver per unit area. This relation has been
confirmed with great care for densities varying from 0.5 to
3-5, and for the plates and developer used a density of 1.00
corresponded to 0.01031 gram of silver per 100 sq. cm.
This quantity is termed P, the ‘* photometric constant ’’ of
the deposit.
A study of the relation of the density to the time of
development resulted as follows :—
(a) The silver deposited increases rapidly at first, then more
slowly, and finally tends to a limit.
(b) This limit depends only on the exposure.
(c) The velocity depends on the concentration of the
reducer.
(d) A soluble bromide reduces the velocity, but the **
ing off ’’ with time is not so rapid.
A theoretical investigation of development based on the
theory of reaction-velocities in heterogeneous systems led
under certain conditions to the equation dD/dt=x(D, —D),
slow-
w D. is the limiting density, D that at the time t. On
integration this leads to the expression
1/t log De/Dx —-D=k;
(D, —D) is then the reacting surface.
k was experimentally shown to be constant.
Further, as « is theoretically A/5 a, where A is a
diffusion-constant, 6 the diffusion path, and a the concen-
tration of the reducer, the velocity should be proportional
to this, which was experimentally found.
The addition of alkaline bromides gradually alters the
course of the reaction, introducing an induction period, but
for the ‘‘ maximum”? velocity «log Br=a constant.
The value of « depends greatly on the physical condition
of the plate, diminishing with keeping, probably from
lowered diffusivity.
An important deduction from the development formula is
that the ratio of the densities due to two exposures is con-
stant and independent of the time of development, which was
confirmed.
For a series of increasing exposures for a certain range
Hurter and Driffield showed that D=+y(log E/i), where y is
development-constant.
Hence as ¥ is proportional to D, and as
—-D=k,
therefore 1/t log Yo/Yoo —Y=*, aN expression which may
be used to compare the velocities of different developers. For
ferrous oxalate, citrate and fluoride the following table was
obtained :—
1/t log Dy /Da
Developer Relative efficiency
Ferrous citrate 1.00
Ferrous fluoride 2.95
Ferrous oxalate 48.7
Further communications are to be made on the influence
of temperature, of soluble bromides, on the reversibility of
the reaction, on the microscopy of, and on the exposure and
development, nature and destruction of the ‘‘ latent image.’
The object of the investigation is to make the study of
development quantitative and to bring it in line with general
physicochemical theory.
MARCH 9, 1905] _
Chemical Society, February 15.—Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Nitrogen halogen deriva-
tives of the aliphatic diamines: F. D. Chattaway. The
compounds ethylenetetrachlorodiamine, ethylenetetrabromo-
diamine, and other similar bodies derived from diamines or
their diacyl derivatives were described.—The nitration of
substituted azophenols: J. T. Hewitt and \V. H. Mitchell.
The authors have systematically studied the action of dilute
nitric acid and of a mixture of concentrated nitric and
sulphuric acids on the three nitrobenzeneazophenols.—The
estimation of saccharin: C. Procter. The process described
by E. Emmet Reid for the estimation of saccharin has been
tested and found to be convenient and trustworthy. The paper
also described a simple volumetric process by means of
which the combined percentage of o-benzoicsulphinide and
p-sulphamidobenzoic acid in commercial saccharin can be
determined.—The analysis of samples of milk referred to
the Government Laboratory in connection with the Sale of
Food and Drugs Acts: T. E. Thorpe. This paper contained
the results of an inquiry into the changes which occur in the
** souring ’’ of mill, and especially as to the effects of these
on the usual analytical constants of milk.—The condensation
of anilinodiacetic esters in presence of sodium ethoxide :
A. T. de Mouilpied.—The basic properties of oxygen at
low temperatures ; additive compounds of the halogens with
organic substances containing oxygen: D. Mcintosh. A
continuation of previous work on the combination of organic
compounds containing oxygen with the halogen hydrides to
form definite compounds.—Organic derivatives of silicon: F.
S. Kipping. The preparation and reactions of a number of
these compounds were described. For the purpose of
systematic nomenclature these compounds are regarded as
derivatives of silicane, SiH,, or of silicol, SiH,,.OH.—Photo-
graphic radiation of some mercury compounds: R. de J. F.
Struthers and J. E. Marsh. The mercury compound
HgC,N,,2(NH,.NH.C,H,) was found to act on a photo-
graphic plate through paper and aluminium foil, and slightly
through sheet zinc. Phenylhydrazine and a number of
mercury salts were also found to exert a similar action.
Royal Microscopical Society, February 15.—Dr. Dukin-
field H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The Finlay-
son ‘‘ comparascope’’’: Mr. Finlayson. The arrangement
exhibited provides a means of examining two slides simu!-
taneously.—An optical bench for microscope illumination,
microphotography, micro-projection, lantern projection, &c.,
and a large photomicrographic and enlarging camera, both
bench and camera being on rigid iron tables provided with
castors and fixing pedestals: C. Beek.—Practical micro-
metallography: J. E. Stead, F.R.S. Mr. Stead described
the machinery by means of which metals may be cut and
polished rapidly, and explained the various operations of
cutting, grinding, and polishing. Many specimens shown
by means of the epidiascope exhibited clearly the details
of the surface, and especially the coloration. ‘The beautiful
colours produced by the heating process, by which some
portions became oxidized more quickly than others, were
very striking, especially in the case of a specimen of
a polished section of a meteorite, which almost equalled in
brilliancy and colour that well-known microscopic object the
wing of Morpho menelaus.
Physical Society, February 24.—Prof. J. H. Poynting,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—On the curvature method
of teaching geometrical optics: Dr. C. V. Drysdale. The
paper has been undertaken with the two-fold object of giving
a systematic exposition of the method of teaching elementary
optics which the author has found most suitable, and of
giving an introduction to a subsequent paper on the treat-
ment of aberrations by curvature methods.—Dr. Meisling’s
colour-patch apparatus: R. J. Sowter. The apparatus is
simple in its principle and construction, and is specially
adapted for testing colour-blindness.—A method of illus-
trating the laws of the simple pendulum: J. Schofield.
A pendulum is fitted at its lower end with a narrow hori-
zontal framework carrying vertical transverse wires. During
the oscillations of the pendulum these wires are caused to
cut a jet of mercury, and time signals are sent to the re-
cording mechanism of a chronograph. The distances
between the wires are known, and together with the time-
measures they yield a displacement-time curve of the motion.
From this the kinematical curves and equations of the
No. 1845, VOL. 71]
NATURE
455
moving system may be deduced by the usual methods. In
the actual apparatus a tuning-fork arrangement with an
accuracy of about 1/200 of a second is used as the chrono-
graph, and the results obtained from the pendulum are
accurate to about three per cent. The principle has also been
applied to torsion pendulums.—String models of optical
systems: J. Schofield. In these models the lenses and
prisms are made of celluloid, so that the paths of rays
through them can be shown. ;
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, February
chair.—The precautions necessary in the mode of execution
of certain researches requiring high precision: M. Loewy.
A lengthened study as to the cause of some systematic errors
in the circle of a meridian instrument, wrongly attributed
to flexure of the circles, showed that these effects were due
to bad definition of the images of the lines, and could be
remedied by increasing the definition of the reading micro-
scopes and improving the lighting. In the determination
of the constant of aberration, and of refraction, by means
of a double mirror cut out of one block of glass, a deforma-
tion of the image was observed which rendered accurate
readings difficult. The form to be given to the two re-
flecting surfaces to get regular stellar images has been
worked out.—On the observation of the partial eclipse of the
moon of February 19: M. Puiseux. The twelve photo-
graphs taken are discussed in detail, and in some respects
are not in agreement with descriptions given before 1866.
Recent observations render improbable any new changes in
the moon’s crust.—On an application of the iris diaphragm
in astronomy: M. Salet. An iris diaphragm, introduced
into the plane of the micrometer wires of an eyepiece, has
the effect of suppressing diffused light, and thus facilitating
observations on faint objects.—Families of Lamy with plane
orthogonal trajectories : G. Carrus.—On algebraic surfaces :
Federigo Enriques.—On functions with an infinity of vari-
ables: Maurice Fréchet.—On some theorems of Riemann:
P. Fatou.—The theory of the limiting trajectory of an
aeroplane: Marcel Brillouin.—On the intensity of photo-
graphic impressions produced by feeble illuminations: C.
Gutton. It is shown experimentally that in a photographic
negative the contrasts are exaggerated in the faintly illu-
minated regions and attenuated in the more strongly lighted
parts. On a positive, on the contrary, the differences of
lighting are faithfully reproduced.cOn the kathode rays
emitted by the anode: E. Rogovsky.—The surface tension
of a dielectric in the electric field: Ch. Fortin. In an
electric field of 20,000 volts per centimetre, normal to the
surface, the relative variation of the surface tension of the
petroleum, if it exists, is less than 1/450th. If the variation
of the surface tension with the strength of the field be
regarded as negligible, the arrangement of apparatus
described serves as a new method of measuring the specific
inductive capacity of the liquid—On the spectra of the
fluorides of the alkaline earths in the electric arc: Ch.
Fabry.—On the ionisation due to the radium emanation :
William Duane.—On the purification of gadolina and on
the atomic weight of gadolinium: G. Urbain. The method
of purification adopted was the fractional crystallisation of
the double nitrate of gadolinium and nickel from nitric acid
of density 1.3. The purity of the product was established
by the constancy of the ratio between the crystallised sulphate
and the oxide, and the mean atomic weight is given as
157-23 (O=16). The spark spectrum of this product is being
specially studied by Sir William Crookes, and the are
spectrum by Dr. Eberhard, who will publish their results
shortly.—On some osmionitrites and on a_ nitrite of
osmium: L. Wintrebert.—A special constituent obtained
in the tempering of an aluminium bronze: Pierre Breuil.
On B-decahydronaphthol and the octahydride of naphthalene :
Henri Leroux. f-naphthol, reduced by means of the
Sabatier and Senderens reaction, gives rise to several sub-
stances, from which the decahydride was separated in the
pure state. That it is an alcohol was clearly shown by the
preparation of the acetate and the phenylurethane, and
also by its dehydration to naphthalene octahydride by potass-
ium bisulphate.—On the glycol of anethol: E. Varenne
and L. Godefroy.—The characters of the polygastric
muscles: J. Chaine.—On the salivary, cephalic and meta-
glands of some Hemiptera: L. Bordas.—The
27.—M. Troost in the
on
4
4
6 NATURE
_ [Marcu 9, 1905
phagoeytic resorption of the reproductive elements in the
seminal vesicles of Lumbricus herculeus: Louis Brasil.—
On the practical importance of the determination of the
arterial pressure to avoid accidents in anesthesia: L.
Hallion. Remarks on a recent note of M. Tissot, and
directing attention to a paper published by the author and
M. Duplay in 1900 on the same subject.—The influence of
the radium emanation on the toxic power of snake poison :
C. Phisalix. Cobra poison, which is distinguished by re-
sistance to destruction by heat, is readily destroyed by the
radium radiations. On the other hand, the poisons from
the salamander and toad are unaffected by the emanation.—
The application of the vowel siren to the study of deafness :
M. Marage. Each kind of deafness gives a special curve
with this instrument, the form of which is characteristic
of the seat of the lesion.—The glandular atrophic action of
the X-rays: Foveau de Courmelles. The ovaries, the
breasts, and the lymphatic ganglions can be atrophied under
the action of the X-rays.—On the application of thermometry
to water supply : E. A. Martel.—The coal formation in the
Balkans: L. De Launay.—On the uniformity of composi-
tion of the Amana meteorites: G. D. Hinrichs.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Marcu 9.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—The Rate of Transntission of the Guatemala
Earthquake of April 19, 1902: R. D. Oldham.—Ionic Sizes in Relation
to the Conductivity of Electrolytes: W. R. Bousfield —Explosions of
Mixtures of Coal Gas and Air in a Closed Vessel: L. Bairstow and
A. D. Alexander.—On some Continuous Observations on the Rate of
Dissipation of Electric Charges in the Open Air: C. Coleridge Farr.
Roya InstituTion, at 5.—Recent Astronomical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Report on Experiments
carried out at the National Physical Laboratory : On the Effect of Heat
on the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Dielectrics, and on the
Temperature Distribution in the Interior of Field Coils: Dr. R. T.
Glazebrook, F.R.S.—On Temperature Curves and the Rating of
Electrical Machinery : R. Goldschmidt.
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—On the Weddle Quartic Surface: Mr.
H. Bateman —On the Projective Relations between Two Planes: Prof.
M. J. M. Hill, Dr. L. N. G. Filon and Mr. H. W. Chapman.—On the
Theory of Perpetuants: Mr. P. W. Wood.
FRIDAY, Marcu to,
Roya INSTITUTION, at 9.—The Structure of the Atom: Prof. J. J.
Thomson, F.R.S.
Rovat. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—Theory of the Motion of the Moon.
Part LV.: Prof. E. W. Brown —The Great Nebula of w Eridani: Pr.
Max Wolf.—Observations of Uranus and Saturn: C. J. Merfield.—Ob-
servations of Uranus at Windsor, New South Wales: John Tebbutt.—
The Spectroheliograph of the Solar Physics Observatory: W. J. S.
Lockyer.—Nebular Photography; a Suggestion: W. S. Franks.—The
Late Leonids of November, rg04: Rev. S. J. Johnson.—Magnetic Dis-
turbances and their Association with Sun-spots; a Reply: E. W.
Maunder.—Promised Papers: On the Large Sun-spot of 1905, January
29-February 11, and the Contemporaneous Magnetic Disturbances, ob-
served at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (communicated by the
Astronomer-Royal).—Notes on the Siderostat and Ccelostat: H. C.
Plummer.
MaLacococicat Society, at 8.—Ona Dibranchiate Cephalopod from the
Eocene of Arabia: G. C. Crick.—Note on the Horizon and Locality of
the Type Specimen of Pleurvonautilus pulcher: G. C. Crick.—New
Marine Mollusca from the Collection of the late Admiral Keppel: G. B.
Sowerby.—On the Occurrence of Internal Septa in Glytostoma new-
berryanum : G. K. Gude.—Note on a Dart found in the Body Cavity of
Helix aspersa: R. G. Barnes.
INSTITUTION OF CrvIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Purification of Sewage :
F. G. Helsby.—The Purification of Sewage by Hydrolysis and Oxida-
tion: F. O. Kirby.
PHYSICAL SociEry, at 8.—On the Stresses in the Earth’s Crust before and
after the Sinking of a Bore-hole: Dr. C, Chree, F.R.S.—On the Lateral
Vibration of Bars of Uniform and Varying Sectional Area: J. Morrow.—
On Direct Reading Resistance-Thermometers, with an Appendix on
Composite Thermocouples: A. Campbell.
SATURDAY, Marcu 11.
Roya InsTiTUTION, at 3.—Electrical Properties of Radio-active Sub-
stances: Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
MONDAY, Marcu 13.
Society or Arts, at 8.—Telephony: H. L. Webb.
Rovat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—The Anglo-German Boundary
Expedition in Nigeria: Colonel Louis Jackson, R.E.
TUESDAY, Marcu 14.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—Some Recent Biometric Studies: Prof. K.
Pearson, F.R.S.
INSTITUTION OF CiIvIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Shipbuilding for the Navy:
Lord Brassey, K.C.B.
AERONAUTICAL Society, at 8.—Some Recent Experiments in Aéro-
dynamics : P. Y. Alexander.—The Shape of Navigable Balloons: Eric
Stuart Bruce.—Automatic Stability: E. C. Hawkins.—Note on an
Aluminium Kite: Alan H. Burgoyne.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Manners and Customs of the
Melanesians ; Lantern Illustrations: Rev. W. H. Edgell.
NO. 1845, VOL. 71]
WEDNESDAY, Marcu ts.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—The Velocity of Oxime Formation in Certain
Ketones: A. W. Stewart.—Catechin and Acacatechin ; Supplementary
Note: A. G. Perkin.—The Action of Ethyl Dibromopropanetetracarb-
oxylate on the Disodium Compound of Ethyl Propanetetracarboxylate ;
a Correction: W. H. Perkin, jun.—On Glutaconic Acid and the Con-
version of Glutaric Acid into Trimethylenedicarboxylic Acid: G. Tatter-
sall.—The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of Certain Enol-keto Tauto-
merides: E. C..C. Baly and C. H.. Desch.—Esterification Constants of
Substituted Acrylic Acids: J. J. Sudborough and D Roberts, —
a-Chlorocinnamic Acids: J. J. Sudborough and T. C. James.—Di-ortho-
substituted Benzoic Acids. Part VI. Conversion of Methyl into ithyl
Esters: J. J. Sudborough and ‘I. H. Davies.—Simple Method for the
Estimation of Acetyl Groups: J. J. Sudborough and W. Thomas.—
Gynocardin, a New Cyanogenetic Glucoside: F. B. Power and F. H. Lees.
ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 8. .
Royat Microscopicat Society, at 8.—A Review of Work done by
Metallographers: J. E. Stead, F.R.S.
Royat METEOROLOGICAL SocIETY, at 7.30.—On the Growth of Instru-
mental Meteorology : R. Bentley.
MINERALOGICAL Society, at 8..-On Some New Mineral Localities in
Cornwall and Devon: A. E. I. M. Russe!l.—On a Crystal of Phenakite
from East Africa: L. J. Spencer.—(1) Notes on Various Minerals from
the Binnenthal, Switzerland.—(2) A New Oxychloride of Copper from
Sierra Gorda, Chili: G. T. Prior and G. F. Herbert Smith.
THURSDAY, Marcu 16,
Roya. Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: A Preliminary Note upon
the Question of the Nutrition of the Early Embryo: E. Emrys-Roberts.
—On Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles. Seventh Note:
Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S.—On the Absence or Marked Diminution
of Free Hydrochloric Acid in the Gastric Contents, in Malignant Disease
of Organs other than the Stomach: Prof. B Moore, with W. Alexander,
R. E. Kelly, and H. &. Roaf.—On the Heterogenetic Origin of certain
Ciliated Infusoria from the Eggs of a Rotifer: Dr. H. C. Bastian,
F.R.S.
Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—Recent Astronomical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S.
Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—Manipur and its Tribes: T. C. Hodson.
LINNEAN Society, at 8.—Contributions to the Flora of Liberia: Dr.
Otto Stapf.—Zxhrbitions: Penguins and other Birds from the Falkland
islands, and Scratched Rocks from a Rockhopper’s Rookery: R. Val-
entin.
CONTENTS. PAGE
The) OriginjofiMan. + By A. K: «29.7.0. oo. 1 ees
Chemistry for Youths: Mrs. Marcet Redeviva. By
W.. RE ac, (2, --. s,s) Wee SaaS
Floral, Morphology) ...-... . «tous asin oe AO
Scientific Aspects of Lawn Tennis ........ 436
Our Book Shelf :—
Allen: ‘New Streets: Laying Out and Making
Up Ceavelsc.,. : .. |. Snape ieennnn Ceieaanana es
Ball: ‘‘ A Popular Guide to the Heavens”. . . . . 437
Hellmann: ‘‘Denkmaler mittelalterlicher Meteor-
Co) fof, GCE ORCS) ect Gee Chace iste
Finn: ‘‘ The Birds of Calcutta.”,—R. L. ..... 438
Smith: ‘‘ Toning Bromide Prints” ........ 438
Letters to the Editor :—
Charge on the a Particles of Polonium and Radium.—
Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.; Frederick Soddy 438
The Pressure of Radiation.—Oliver Heaviside,
DORE SS bo: cy cee ois. Go eye
Secondary Réntgen Radiation.—Dr. Charles G.
Barklateeeee) |... = «scat lene ee
Dates of Publication of Scientific Books.—B.
Hobson EMC 6 noch Oo Scr LY)
Some Scientific Centres. VII.—The Physiological
Research Laboratory of the University of
London. (J/é/ustrated.) .. Sis et se nek ome Re ee TR
The Monte Rosa and Col D’Olen International
Laboratories. By Sir M. Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S.. 443
Neolithic Deposits in the North-east of Ireland.
CUO Mot). 3) bbe Sac bys co hee cee
Notes). ae ee eects fumes oC 8
Our Astronomical Column :—
Jupitersiseventh Satellite. . 1. 2) hese es.) emeraa
Longitude Observations of Pointson Mars . . . . . 449
Observations of Comets eh) Seem es. 449
The Government Observatory at Victoria 449
Observations of Saturn’s Satellites 449
Bright Meteors. . . cee id cS Pe SG)
The Magnetic Survey of the United States. (///us-
trated.) te f+). siveh, is kee ny ye. > le
The Nest of the Fighting Fish. (///ustrated.) . . . 450
Some Recent Work of the U.S. Geological Survey
in the Western States. (///ustrated.) By G. W. L. 450
AnthropolopicaleNotes. i). users) teen aS
University and Educational Intelligence eae
SocietiesiandvAcademies’ . 5.7) Sas 4) cece) eda
Diary of/Soecieties) 2. 1% Saeco seas 456
NATURE
THURSDAY, MARCH 16, 1905.
MODERN OPTICAL THEORY.
An Introduction to the Theory of Optics.
A. Schuster, F.R.S. Pp. xv+340.
Edward Arnold, 1904.) Price 15s. net.
ROF. SCHUSTER has done excellent service
to teachers and students alike by publishing
this book, which fills a very obvious gap. It is an
introduction to the theory, and purposely does not deal
with details of methods of measurement or instru-
mental appliances; these are properly left to courses
of laboratory~ instruction. At the same time the
necessity for experiments and observations is every-
where present to the author’s mind. The book is not
a mere mathematical treatise on simple harmonic
motion; indeed, the analysis is generally easy, and
purely mathematical difficulties are avoided. Prof.
Schuster writes as a physicist. The physical meaning
of the steps and processes employed is everywhere
insisted on, and the student is made to think through-
out.
The standpoint of the author is best explained by
two short extracts from his preface. After stating
that the elastic solid theory of optics as developed
in England by Green and Stokes has _ proved
insufficient, he continues,
By Prof.
(London :
“Those who believe in the possibility of a mechani-
cal conception of the universe, and are not willing
to abandon the methods which from the time ot
Galileo and Needham have led uniformly and ex-
clusively to success, must look with the gravest
concern on a growing school of scientific thought
which rests content with equations correctly repre-
senting numerical relationships between different
phenomena, even though no precise meaning can be
attached to the symbols used.’’
And again,
‘““The equations which at present represent the
electromagnetic theory of light have rendered
excellent service, and we must look upon them as a
framework into which a more complete theory must
necessarily fit, but they cannot be accepted as
constituting in themselves a final theory of light.
““The study of physics must be based on a
knowledge of mechanics, and the problem of light
will only be solved when we have discovered the
mechanical properties of the ether. While we are
in ignorance on fundamental matters concerning the
origin of electric and magnetic strains and stresses,
it is necessary to introduce the theoretical study of
light by a careful treatment of wave propagation
through media the elastic properties of which are
known. A study of the theory of sound and of the
old elastic solid theory of light must precede there-
fore the introduction of the electromagnetic equations.”
The book proceeds on these lines; the first part is
almost entirely kinematical; the second part deals with
theories of light, starting first from an analysis of
the equations of motion of an elastic medium; then
passing to those of the electromagnetic field, and
developing the two theories side by side as far as
possible.
To turn now to some details. In the earlier
chapters, in accordance with the views expressed in
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
457
the preface, the author deals with the properties of
vibrating mechanical systems, e.g., the air in a
closed space, or a stretched string. After some dis-
cussion as to periodic motion in general, the equation
of motion for an elastic body, propagating plane
waves of distortion, is found in an elementary
manner, and certain fundamental results are shown
to follow from its similarity to the equation for a
stretched string. Huyghens’ principle of the super-
position of small motions is explained, and then the
reader, after a chapter on the nature of light, is
introduced to the principle of interference.
The problems of diffraction are treated very fully,
making use of the method of Fresnel’s zones; the
method is modified by the author in a manner which
permits numerical results of a high order of accuracy
to be obtained without the introduction of Fresnel’s
integrals.
After an interesting chapter on diffraction gratings
we come to one on the theory of optical instruments,
in which the resolving power of telescopes and
spectroscopes is carefully discussed. The theory of
the microscope does not find a place in Prof.
Schuster’s book; perhaps it belongs rather to the
domain of geometrical optics.
Fresnel’s theory of double refraction is given very
fully, and it is based not on any unsound dynamical
reasoning, but on the observed experimental fact
that the velocities of wave propagation of a plane
wave moving through a crystal are given by the
axes of the section of a certain ellipsoid by the plane
of the wave; this is clearly the right way to deal
with this problem. When the laws of the propaga-
tion of light in a crystal are once determined the dis-
cussion of the rays and brushes due to the interfer-
ence of polarised light follows easily, and thus we are
led to Part II., which, as has been already said, deals
with theories of light.
The equations of motion are found both on the
elastic solid and electromagnetic theory, and the
simpler phenomena are considered from both stand-
points.
The weak points of the elastic solid theory, how-
ever, soon manifest themselves, and for the rest of
the book the equations of the electromagnetic theory
are mostly used; in dealing with dispersion
Sellmeyers’ hypothesis of sympathetic vibrations is
applied to the electrons of a molecule, following
Drude, and the usual expression connecting the
refractive index and the frequency obtained; the same
method is applied to explain the rotatory effects of
sugar and other active substances, and in a most
interesting series of sections the Zeeman and other
allied effects are dealt with. In the last chapter
we have a discussion on the nature of light as the
resultant disturbance arising from the individual
vibrations of the molecules of the source. Enough
has probably been said to show the nature of the
book, but one characteristic should not be omitted.
Prof. Schuster has included short historical accounts
of the men who have made the science of physical
optics. Among them we find the names of Young,
Fresnel, Cauchy, Stokes, and Maxwell; the interest
x
458
of the book is increased by this course, and the
subject made more human.
In conclusion, it is perhaps sufficient to say that
the treatment is marked throughout by the author’s
well-known and admirable lucidity of style. Take,
for example, the last paragraph in the book
discussing the result which follows from the fact
that as an extreme case for the green thallium light
the periods of 88 per cent. of the vibrating molecules
are identical within about one part in two millions.
“If you had a great many clocks, and found that
taking their average rate to be correct, not more
than one in eight would be wrong by a second in
twenty-three days, that would represent the maximum
amount of variation which one interpretation of the
experiment allows us to admit in the case of
molecular vibrations. But would any maker under-
take to supply you with a number of clocks satisfying
that test? If, further, it is considered that the limits
we have chosen for the possible variations of
molecular vibrations are far too great, we see that
though Sir John Herschel’s saying that atoms
the essential character of manufactured
articles is still correct, yet no manufactured article
approaches in accuracy of execution the exactitude
of atomic construction. We may conclude with
Maxwell that ‘Each molecule therefore throughout
the universe bears impressed on it the stamp of a
metric system as distinctly as does the metre of the
archives at Paris or the double royal cubit of the
Temple at Karnac.’ ”’
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS.
Alanual of Chemical Analysis. By E. Prost, D.Sc.
Translated by J. C. Smith, B.Sc. Pp. iv+ 300.
(London: Maclaren and Sons, 1904.) Price 12s. 6d.
net.
Techno-Chemical Analysis. Dro 7G.) unge:
Translated by A. I. Cohn. Pp. vit136. (New
York: Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and
Hall, Ltd., 1905.) Price 4s. 6d. net.
R. PROST’S manual contains a number of
selected methods dealing more particularly with
mineral and metal analysis which have been compiled,
so the preface states, for the use of the ‘‘ industrial
chemist,’? and which the author assures us are the
result of his own experience or that of specialists
with whom he is in touch.
The analysis of mineral products—silicates, phos-
phates, clays, cements, iron and iron ores, and the
assaying of lead, silver, gold, &c., have been so
fully elaborated that no analyst deserving the name
would be satisfied without knowing the latest im-
provements in the methods connected with his own
industry. A chemist in an iron works, for example,
wants all the information he can obtain from the
specialist who has made a minute study of iron and
steel analysis, including the character of etched
surfaces, and through whose hands a large variety
of specimens have passed The same, of course,
applies to raw materials and finished products of other
manufactures. The works analyst is not a student,
and though he may wish to be informed on analysis
in general, it is not essential to his business.
Does Dr. Prost’s book as a whole fulfil its
Whilst there is no doubt that many of the
No. 1846, VOL. 71]
By
promise ?
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
methods answer to the description given in the
preface, and will be found serviceable to the works
analyst, it must be confessed there are also many
others which fall short of it. In too many instances
there is a lack of descriptive detail, an absence of
reference to recent improvements, and the omission
of recognised and standard methods. The common
fault of this class of book is to be too discursive;
to cover too much ground. The small treatise on one
subject by an expert like Blair or Ledebur on iron
and steel analysis, Brown on gold and silver assaying,
Lunge on the alkali manufacture, is the sort of thing
one would like to see multiplied.
The writer has no wish to deal unfairly with the
manual under review. It is not uniform in
character, and if the above criticism applies to certain
sections, it is also abundantly evident that other
portions have been carefully and conscientiously put
together by one who possesses a thorough knowledge
of his subject. Moreover, the introduction of
mechanical tests, which are too frequently overlooked,
is a feature deserving mention. The translator’s
attention should be directed to the mis-spelling of
Stanfurt for Stassfurth, p. 41, Vollard for Volhard,
p. 106, and Spiegal for Spiegel, p. 206. The illustra-
tions suffer very much from the rough surface of the
paper.
The name of Dr. G. Lunge on the title page of any
book, and especially one connected with technical
analysis, would command a careful perusal and a
thoughtful judgment. It must be confessed that in
the present case the author has not done himself
justice. Anyone who purchased the volume in the
hope of obtaining practical information on techno-
chemical apalysis (the translator’s rendering of
chemisch-technische Untersuchungsmethoden) would,
to say the least, be disappointed.
When it is stated that in 128 small octavo pages,
in addition to ‘‘ general operations,’’ and gas, water,
and fuel analysis, the analysis of about eighty
technical inorganic and organic products is described,
further comment seems superfluous. The subject of
glycerine, which comes under the section of soap,
may be taken as a _ specimen of the method of
analytical treatment.
‘* Glycerine is found in large quantity only in toilet
soaps. The method of determining it is given here,
because it must be examined by itself as an individual
commercial article, and the glycerine yield of raw
fats in the manufacture of stearin must also be
determined. The determination is effected either by
oxidation with potassium-permanganate solution in
alkaline solution, precipitating the oxalic acid formed
as a lime salt, and titrating the latter, or by oxidation
with normal potassium-dichromate solution, with the
addition of an excess of ferrous sulphate solution of
known effective value, and then titrating the di-
chromate solution. ’’
This occupies half a page, sugar is elaborately
treated in four pages, tanning in two and a half,
dyeing in as many as seven, mineral oils, vegetable
oils, and fats in seven, and so on. The most useful
page in the volume is the bibliography of important
works of reference at the beginning, though it is
scarcely worth the price of the book. | Epa oat C4
Marcu 16, 1905]
NAIURE
459
THE ZOOLOGICAL RECORD.
. The Zoological Record, Volume the Fortieth; Relat-
ing Chiefly to the Year 1903. Edited by D. Sharp.
(London: The Zoological Society, 1904.) Price
30s.
EAR by year this invaluable publication appears
with commendable regularity, and year by year
its bulk steadily increases, the bulk of the present
issue being nearly double that of its predecessor of
forty years ago. Hitherto the subscribers have yearly
obtained more for their money, but there are limits
beyond which even the generosity of a great scientific
society cannot go, and it has consequently been
decided, although with reluctance, that in future the
price of the annual volume must be increased. The
bullk of the present volume has been somewhat
diminished by printing it on thinner paper than its
predecessors; and, although this innovation may have
been unavoidable in order to bring the weight within
the limits laid down by the Post Office for transmis-
sion abroad, it cannot be said to be altogether an
improvement, as in places the type shows through
in a decidedly obtrusive manner.
Whether such a radical alteration was really
inevitable may perhaps be doubtful, for it is quite
evident that a large amount of space might be saved
if a uniform plan were adopted throughout the work.
For instance, in the section on mammals 385 titles
are recorded and their subjects epitomised in a
space of forty-two pages, whereas in the section on
echinoderms no less than 105 pages are taken up in
dealing with 339 papers.
If such prolixity is necessary in the one case, it is
equally essential in the other; and, conversely, if the
brief mode of treatment will suffice in one instance,
it should be adopted in the other. Much space might
also be gained, without any loss, in the sections on
reptiles and fishes, as well as in certain others.
This lack of uniformity in treatment is, in our |
opinion, the one point in which this ‘‘ Record ’? com-
pares unfavourably with the one issued by the com-
mittee of the ‘‘ International Scientific Record ’’; and it
is high time that it was amended. Surely the editor is
strong enough to keep his contributors in hand, and
to male them do the work his way and not their
own. As an instance of this slackness of the guid-
ing hand we may refer to the fact that in one of
the sections the recorder has been allowed to adopt
the spelling Meiocene and Pleiocene, which is both
wrong (on the supposition that we form our scientific
names through the Latin) and pedantic. If any
alteration in orthography of this nature were per-
mitted, it should be the substitution of Plistocene for
Pleistocene; but if such a change were made _ it
should run through the entire volume.
The comparatively early date at which many of the
sections are now sent to press renders it impossible to
include so many of the papers for the year to which
they specially refer as was formerly the case, but this
is a matter of no great moment, so long as such
papers make their appearance in the volume for the
following year.
NO. 1846, VoL. 71]
Mistakes and omissions there must of course be;
but these seem to be few and far between. We notice,
however, in the mammal part that Condylarthra has
been put in place of Amblypoda, while in the con-
cluding paragraph of the first page of his introduction
to the insects the editor is guilty of a blunder which
should cause him to be lenient to the shortcomings of
his contributors. Whether he can escape blame for
errors likke the omission of a reference number in the
penultimate line of p. 21 of the mammal part
may, however, be open to question.
Taken all in all, the volume is a marvellous pro-
duction, both as regards accuracy, fulness, and the
comparatively early date of its appearance; and the
editor and his staff are entitled to the best thanks
of the zoological world. When we have said that
the ‘* Zoological Record ”’ still stands without a rival,
we have said sufficient. Reet.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
A Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera. By W. F.
Kirby. Vol. i. Orthoptera Euplexoptera, Cur-
soria, et Gressoria. (Forficulide, Hemimeride,
Blattida, Mantide, Phasmidz.) Pp. x + 501.
(London: the Trustees of the British Museum,
1904.)
Tue value of such a general synonymic catalogue as
this work is obvious, but the increased interest which
has been taken in Orthoptera in recent years, and the
rapidly accumulating mass of literature, has made a
complete and systematic catalogue of this order an
urgent necessity. The work is upon the same model
as the author’s previous catalogue of dragon-flies.
The species are numbered, though no particular
order appears to have been followed; the distribu-
tion is given in the margin, and synonymy is
attached, although a complete list of references is
not given in every case. One of the most prominent
features of the list is the conscientious manner in
which the author refuses to admit as synonymous
such names as to the absolute identity of which he
is not personally convinced, resulting in an apparent
multiplication of species. Thus, on pp. 30 and 31,
we find Spfongiphora parallela, S. lherminieri, S.
dysoni, and S. croceipennis all entered as separate
species, though nowadays there are few who doubt
their identity, and fewer still who can discriminate
between them. Again, on p. 2, Diplatys gerstaeckeri
and D. longisetosa are regarded as separate, although
it is impossible to distinguish them. To sich an
extent does the author carry this principle, that he
admits names published with figures only, such as
Pygidicrana huegeli, Sharp, and even Ancistrogaster
petropolis, Wood, based upon a reference and an
illustration in a popular work. But yet he relegates
Psalis indica, Hagenb., var. minor, Borm., as a
synonym of P. guttata, Borm., although the describer
insisted upon the extreme variability of the older
known species. But questions of nomenclature and
classification are of necessity controversial; many
may disagree with the author’s arrangement of the
genus Labidura, in which a number of insufficiently
described so-called species are regarded as valid,
only on account of the difficulty of proving their
identity with the excessively variable and universally
distributed Labidura riparia, Pallas.
Otherwise, changes of well-known names are few.
We are glad to see Blatta retained, at the expense
of Stylopyga for orientalis and not for germanica.
460
NATURE
{MarcH 16, 1905
Hololampra, Saussure, 1864, replaces the more
familiar Aphlebia, Brunner, 1865. F
But this catalogue should be received less with
criticism than with gratitude to the painstaking
author, and we hope the second volume will appear
at an early date; it will doubtless include such
omissions as have been unavoidable in the first
volume, owing to the time necessary for publication.
¢B:
Percentage Tables for Elementary Analysis. By Leo
F. Guttmann, Ph.D. Pp. 43. (London: Whittaker
and Co., igo4.) Price 3s. net.
Tuis book is only intended to facilitate the calcula-
tion of the results of an ordinary organic analysis,
and its title, therefore, is somewhat misleading. It
is stated that ‘“‘the tables have been carefully
calculated and checked, they are therefore absolutely
accurate.’’ After this statement,\nothing is left to
us but to see if they are likely to be useful. After
careful consideration of this question we are com-
pelled to give an unfavourable reply. If we have
the analytical result that 0.1173 gr. of a substance
gave o2869 gr. carbon dioxide, we can, in the
ordinary course of things, by looking out the
logarithm of 0-2869, adding the easily remembered
logs. of 12/44 and of 100, and subtracting the log. of
0-1173, get the log. of the percentage. But according
to the tables before us, we look out a number
corresponding to 0-117 and 0.28. We then look again
for a number corresponding to 0.118 and 0-28. We
subtract the two numbers, multiply by 0.3 by means
of another table, and subtract this result from
the first number looked out. We next find a
number corresponding to 0.117 and o-69, divide by
too and add this result, and thus, after four
references to tables, two arithmetical operations in
the head, one subtraction and one addition on paper,
we get our percentage. Appeal to a _ chemist
constantly engaged in organic analysis has only
confirmed the view that these tables are unlikely to
save time or to promote exactitude in the calculation of
organic analyses.
How to Photograph with Roll and Cut Films. ‘‘ The
Amateur Photographer’ Library, No. 30. By
John <A. Hodges. Pp. xviii+120. (London:
Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd., 1904.) Price 1s.
net.
THE ever increasing number of photographers and
more especially amateurs, who work with either roll
or cut films, will find in these pages all the necessary
information for the production of pictures. The
author does not pretend to have written a treatise on
the whole art and science of photography, but he has
given a straightforward account of the various oper-
ations that have to be completed to ensure good
results. The treatment is well suited for amateurs,
and the numerous well reproduced illustrations serve
admirably to render many points clear.
The Telescope. By Thomas Nolan. (New York .
D. Van Nostrand Company, 1904.) Price 50 cents.
Tue first edition of this small treatise on the
elementary principles of optics as applied to telescopes
appeared in 1881. In the present issue the author has
left this matter practically as it first appeared, with
only one or two minor corrections, but has added a
chapter describing in a brief manner the advances
that have since been made. At the end is also given
a bibliography relating to the telescope, which will be
of service to those who wish to study more in detail
different branches of the subject to which slight
references only have been given. The book is
published in the Van Nostrand Science Series, and
hould prove a useful addition.
NO. 1846, VOL. 71 |
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]|
The Infection of Laboratories by Radium.
In a recent attempt in the physics building of McGill
University to make electroscopes with a very small natural
leak, repeated failures were encountered. The rate of dis-
charge of several instruments, carefully made, was found
to be about sixty to one hundred times as large as that
obtained by Mr. H. L. Cooke two years earlier in the same
building. At first it was supposed that the insulation of
the sulphur bead was defective. But the natural leak was
large and unaffected when the upper support of the sulphur
bead was raised to a higher potential than the gold leaf
system, so that the insulation was not at fault. Nor was
the rate of discharge altered when the electroscope was
entirely surrounded by lead one inch thick. Removal to
another building produced no effect on the leak of the
electroscope. [t appeared probable that the trouble was
due to the radio-activity of the materials from which the
electroscope was made. A rude instrument, made in a
private house with a tobacco tin, the amber mouthpiece of
a pipe, and a cork, was found to give better results than
the most carefully constructed instrument in the physics
building. Some electroscopes were next made in _ the
chemistry building, using materials which had never been
into the physics building. Instruments with a very slow
rate of discharge were now easily manufactured. These
were used to test materials from various parts of the physics
building, and it was found that all were infected with
excited activity. Sheets of mica, lead foil, iron, zinc and
tin were all active, even when taken from drawers or
cupboards.
Of the substances tested, the only one which showed no
activity was some thin Dutch metal leaf kept between tissue
paper in a closed drawer. About go per cent. of the excited
activity could be removed from the metal sheets by strong
hydrochloric acid, but the activity was transferred to the
solution. It was also possible to volatilise a portion of the
deposit by raising the metal sheet to a red-heat in a Bunsen
flame. Both a and B rays were detected, but it was diffi-
cult to measure their exact proportion. The natural leak
of an electroscope was increased to a measurable extent
when a mica window was replaced by one cut from a sheet
of mica kept in the physics building.
The difficulty of conducting radio-active experiments in
rooms where strong preparations of radium were present
was early observed by Madame Curie, and later by Elster
and Geitel, but the present experiments seem to show that
the effect may be widely spread. The emanation from
radium used in the large physics building has passed by
convection and diffusion into various rooms. In a few days
each fresh supply of emanation is transformed into the rapidly
changing substances radium A, B, and C. The further
changes of the products of radium have been investigated by
Prof. Rutherford, and described by him in his Bakerian
lecture (Phil. Trans., vol. cciv., pp. 169-219), and in a
recent letter to NatuRE (February 12). In the former he has
pointed out that bodies exposed to the air in the open will
be covered with an invisible film of radio-active matter of
very slow rate of change, and that the strong radio-activity
observed in a room in which radium preparations have
once been used is probably due to the deposit on the walls
of the room of this slowly decaying matter from the emana-
tion. In his letter to NAtuRE, he has shown that radium
C gives rise to radium D, and that the further change to
E is rayless in character and attains half value in forty
years. The further change to F emits 8 rays, and reaches
half value in six days, whilst the change from F to the
final product is accompanied with a rays, reaching half
value in 150 days.
The a and B rays emitted by the coating on the materials
in the physics building are doubtless due to the changes
above mentioned. If the supply of emanation were arrested
at the present date, the activity already deposited would
rise to a maximum in two or three years, and then gradu-
Marci 16, 1905 |
NATURE
461
>
ally decay, following an exponential law, and reaching half
value in forty years. But should the supply of emanation
in the future equal that in the past, the activity would
continue to increase in magnitude for the next hundred
years or so, until the supply and decay of radium D attained
a steady value. By that time radio-active experiments of a
delicate nature would become difficult or impossible, as the
excited activity would rapidly discharge a gold-leaf electro-
scope.
As the excited activity can be largely removed by acid,
the infection will at present cause no serious difficulty in
the majority of experiments on radio-activity, particularly
as the leak arising from it remains almost constant for
weeks or months. But when an electroscope with a very
small natural leak is required, it will be necessary to employ
fresh materials which have not been exposed to emanation.
It appears desirable, in the case of laboratories not yet
infected, to keep radium in sealed vessels, and to blow the
emanation into the open air, and not into the rooms of the
laboratories. A. S: EVE.
McGill University, Montreal, February 25.
International Atomic Weights,
Tue committees engaged in revising the tables of atomic
weights have now sent in their reports for 1905. The one
which appeared in the Berichte is, of course, printed in
German, and that which has just been circulated by the
Chemical Society is in English. ;
Unfortunately, there is a want of uniformity in the naming
of the elements. Thus, in the English table we find
Glucinum, Gl, and Columbium, Cb, whereas in the German
table these elements are called Berylium, Be, and Niobium,
Nb, respectively. Historically, no doubt, the names adopted
in the English table are more accurate. But in all text-books
the names and symbols employed in the German tables are
used, and have been for many years.
It is difficult to see where the advantage in making the
change comes in, but, on the other hand, the disadvantages
of having two forms of nomenclature are obvious.
F. Motiwo PERKIN.
London, March 8.
The Planet Fortuna.
Peruars Airy —quoted his Juvenal correctly, which
“W. E. P.”’ (p. 410) has failed to do. The poet was so
well satisfied with the lines that he gives them twice, in
his tenth and fourteenth satires. And they run thus :-—
Nullum numen habes, si sit prudentia; nos te
Nos facimus, Fortuna, deam czloque locamus.
W. T.
THe lines are variously quoted, and I cannot say what
version Airy favoured. I believe he spoke from memory.
Wiki P:
COSTA RICA.}
U P to 1540, Spain had reserved for the crown that
part of the territory of Veragua lying west of
the portion which had been granted to the heirs of
Columbus ; but, in that year, it was erected into a
province and called Costa Rica. It lies between
Nicaragua and the newly hatched, but featherless,
republic of Panama, and is the smallest State of
the New World except Salvador. But it is one of
the most interesting, for, with Panama, it forms
the connecting link between North and South
America, not only physically but ethnologically. If
more were known of its ancient inhabitants, their
type, character, modes of life, habits and customs,
inter-tribal relations and forms of worship, and of
the ruins of ancient towns and burial places which
are silently dotted over the country, one might go
1 “ Archeological Researchesin Costa Rica.” By C.V.Hartman. The
Royal Ethnological Museum in Stockholm. Pp. 195; map+8 lates.
(Stockholm: C, E. Fritzes, rg0r.) rhe ; a oe
NO. 1846, von. 71]
far towards a solution of many vexed problems as to
the relation betwen early Mexican culture and that of
the Andean peoples—Chibchas of ancient Cundina-
marca, the Quitos and Cajfiaris of Ecuador, the
Quichuas and Aymards of the Inga empire. Much
of the data necessary to the formation of a just
conclusion are buried on the slopes of the volcanoes
of Turrialba, Irazi, Barba and Pods, and, in that
richest of fields for archeological research, the
district lying between Lake Nicaragua and the Gulf
of Nicoya on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, while
the lowlands lying between Nicaragua and the
Atrato River of Colombia probably hide, under their
densely matted and almost impenetrable vegetation,
whatever evidences may exist of their occupation by
man, not only in the far-remote past, but even at
the date of the Spanish conquest.
Hence we may welcome a scientific examination
of any section of the region outlined above, but
especially when the results are so carefully and
clearly set forth as they are in the work under
review—a large quarto volume richly illustrated. Its
publication, as well as the explorations of which it
treats, have been made at the expense of Mr. Ake
Sjogren, who has presented to the Royal Ethno-
logical Museum of Stockholm the valuable
archeological collection with which Mr. Hartman
returned home. This gentleman, whose studies had
well equipped him for his task, proceeded to
Costa Rica in 1897, where he remained more than
a year in the territory once occupied by the Guétare
race. He commenced his researches in May (the
beginning of the rainy season) near the hacienda
of Mercedes, which is situated on the Guapiles
branch of the Costa Rica Railway, about fifty miles
from Port Limon.
““On the Atlantic side, the moisture-laden atmo-
sphere and tropical heat have clothed the mountain
chains and the low swamp lands with eternal verdure,
with forests which are almost impenetrable, woven
together as they are by lianas passing from tree to
tree. Neither aboriginal nor Spanish culture ever
made great inroads on the primeval forests of the
Atlantic coast.”’
Near Mercedes is a mound about roo feet in
diameter at the base, 65 feet at the top, and
20 feet high. It is in a partially walled en-
closure, and probably served as a platform on which
to erect statues facing the rising sun. The mound
may have been covered with a wooden structure
with a thatched roof. Among the many human
figures found there, all mutilated, were two of life
size, one of which is notable as having ear plugs.
The chest and back are crossed by two thick ropes,
which pass over the shoulders and reach to the hips.
The right wrist supports a human head. The other
large statue has its hands resting on the hips. The
heads of both figures are covered with conical hats.
Rudely sculptured representations of alligators, pumas,
and other animals were found, but in fragments.
All of these, including the statues, were cut from
hard, basaltic lava.
Mr. Hartman also examined the extensive burial
places of the ancient inhabitants of this district, and
opened a great number of cists. These varied in
dimensions, but it is apparent that they were rarely
intended for the interment of more than one person.
They had side and end walls of cobble stones, but
the bottom and top were of slabs o° limestone. The
horizontal section of the cists was very irregular.
Only in one did he find traces of bone, but the * dark
soil near the bottom seemed to prove that the body
or bodies’ had been placed there.”
Many vessels: of burnt clay, sometimes -roughly
462
were lying in the cists, but a great part
f them, covered with soot, appear to have served
cooking utensils. Several contained charred
maize and fragments of corn cobs. In one was
found some Millefiori beads, the manufacture of
which was an important industry in Venice during
the latter part of the fifteenth century, and the
author says that, ‘‘ Later on, I discovered a number
of this kind in a grave at Osori in the highlands.”’
Thus it appears that these Indian towns were still
in existence at the time of the Spanish invasion.
Mr. Hartman also opened a cache, similar to a
cist, but there was no proof that it had ever been
used as a grave; in fact, it was too small. It con-
tained sixteen clay vessels, some of them ornamented,
and much broken pottery. There were _ several
globular bowls and vases.
ing household articles as well as food in pits or in
caves has from early days been observed among
widely disseminated tribes of North America.’’
The work-yard of the ancient stone-cutters was
happily discovered, and many unfinished idols were
lying about.
decorated,
as
In June, 1895, I roughly examined the mounds
and some of the graves near the hacienda of
Mercedes, and especially remember the two great
statues described by Mr. Hartman. People resident
NATURE
““The practice of secret- |
[Marcu 16, 1905
decayed for removal. Summarising his year’s work,
he says of the culture of the Guétares ‘‘ that it
proves to be that of a stone-age people of high stand-
ing, possessed of ornaments of gold and copper, but
with no tools or weapons of metal at all, We have
no data whatever to enable us to determine how far
back into the past this culture reaches, but the
presence of beads of glass in the graves goes to show
that it continued to exist after the arrival of the
Spaniards. No traces of a more primitive culture
were met with.’
Similar cists are to be found on the slopes of
Popocatapetl in Mexico, Zaculen in Guatemala,
Chiriqui in Panama, and at Arayo in the Cauca
valley of Colombia. In outline and elegance, the
clay vessels of the Guétares are inferior to those
found in Chiriqui, but the objects in stone from the
two sources closely resemble each other.
It is to be regretted that Mr. Hartman has not
given us his views as to the ethnological relations of
the Guétares to the other aboriginal tribes of Central
America. No doubt, in his travels subsequent to the
researches so elaborately detailed in his valuable
volume, he must have formed opinions of much im-
portance to the student of aboriginal America. Costa
Rica was a debatable ground between the Mexican
Chircot
Heizit, 12°8cm.;
From “‘ Archeological Researches in Costa Rica.”
Ftc, 1.—Shallow, tripod bowl found in Field LI.,
Diameter, 22 cm.
in the vicinity, who know much of the region, said
that the whole Santa Clara district, occupying the
slopes of Turrialba, Irazi and Barba, and _ the
heavily forested lowlands to the north and east, are
dotted with ancient burial grounds.
From the coast lands, Mr. Hartman ascended to
the highland plains near Cartago, one and a half
miles west. of which town is the water divide,
5100 feet elevation, between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. Cartago is about 4800 feet above sea-level,
and lies upon the southern slope of the volcano of
Irazu, the only one of Costa Rica which has ejected
compact lavas. In its eruptions of 1841 and 1851 it
almost completely destroyed Cartago, which was
the former capital of Costa Rica. In its vicinity Mr.
Hartman uncovered numerous cists similar to those
of Mercedes, but they contained a greater variety of
potsherds and ornamental pottery. He made
especially rich collections at a spot called Chircot,
where he observed that a favourite figure of
ancient artists was a flute-playing god. In the
stone-bordered necropolis at this place he found 205
cists, many of them in three layers. In about thirty
here were skeletons, or fragments of skeletons, which
raged five feet in length. The skulls were doli-
phalic, but most of the remains were too
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
the |
Fic. 2.—Seat of Stone. Found in the forest in the neighbourhood of the
large mound, Mercedes. From ‘‘ Archzeological Researches in Costa
Rica."”
race and the warlike Carib of the northern shore of
South America. It may, perhaps, be conceded that
an offshoot of the highland people of Mexico pressed
south and east from Chiz ipas into and through the
long strip of the Pacific coast occupied by the
Chorotegas or Mangues, followed the Pacific slope of
the Cordillera and the narrow belt of land between
Lake Nicaragua and the ocean, penetrated into
north-western Costa Rica, settled and helped the
Mangues to develop a considerable civilisation in the
Guanacaste and Nicoya districts, and in part subdued
all the mountainous area lying north and west of the
river Reventazon. The culture which was
characteristic of the region indicated was _ infinitely
superior to anything attained by the Guétares, for
the Mangue-Nahua people carried some of the arts,
such as pottery, sculpture, weaving,. and tilling the
ground, to greater perfection than any of the tribes
occupying the territory between theirs and that of
the Chibchas of the plateau of Bogota. In_ their
graves are found examples of the ceramic art and
gold ornaments showing taste in design superior to
any that the present civilised Indian of Costa Rica
can equal. Their graves produce beautiful specimens
of obsidian, greenstone, and finely wrought nephrite
‘MARCH 16, 1905]
NATURE
463
tools and jade ornaments, knives, hatchets, arrow-
heads, armlets, rings, and a multitude of stone seats
and idols.
Let us hope that Mr. Hartman may follow up his
good and useful work by an exploration of the north-
western slope of the country which has been the
scene of his labours. GeEorRGE Eart CHURCH.
PROGRESS IN AERIAL NAVIGATION.
"THE problem of aérial navigation has been
attacked by direct methods for so many
centuries that the results of the recent aéronautical
competition at St. Louis can scarcely be regarded as
a matter of surprise. It is doubtful whether the
offering of large prizes for the achievement of a
result which has been attempted for years without
success is the best means of promoting progress.
As will have been learnt from the daily Press the
great prize of 20,000]. was not even competed for,
and a much more useful purpose would have been
served by a systematic and organised attempt to
encourage, by means of prizes, investigations
calculated to throw an indirect light on the general
question of aérial navigation, such, for example, as
improvements in the efficiency of propellers, diminu-
tion of the angle of gliding of gravity-propelled
machines, reduction of air-resistance of motor-pro-
pelled balloons, solution of the difficulties connected
with longitudinal stability, especially in gliding
machines travelling at low speeds, and what is still
more important, the discovery of new results in any
direction whatever calculated to open up _ fresh
methods of approaching the whole question.
If we chronicle merely the attempts that have
successfully been made in striking out on new lines,
leaving out of account improvements subsequently
made on the same lines, and also omitting early
attempts such as those of Dante of Perugia and Le
Bris, a history of aérial navigation will be summed
up in the following short list :—(1) Montgolfier’s dis-
covery of the balloon; (2) application of mechanical
power to the propulsion of balloons by Renard and
Krebs; (3) introduction of gliding experiments under
gravity by Lilienthal; (4) the introduction of explo-
sion engines and other light motors theoretically
capable of maintaining a flying machine in the air.
Each of these innovations has brought the goal more
distinctly in view, and yet experiments so far have
left a wide gap between the results of actual per-
formance and what is necessary to render aérial
navigation practically useful. The special difficulty
connected with aérial navigation is that it is not
easy to see how to approach the problem except by
direct methods of attack, while the great majority
of scientific discoveries have been made indirectly as
the result of observations originally undertaken for
some entirely different object that has been known
from the very outset to be possible of attainment.
By analogy with fishes and birds, respectively, the
two forms of machine experimented on, involving as
they do the use of gas bags and aéroplanes or aéro-
curves, might not inappropriately be described as the
aérial swimming machine and the flying machine
proper. It is somewhat remarkable in the face of
natural evidence that the swimming machine has up
to the present proved by far the most tractable of
the two, and has undoubtedly led to the best results.
It is the safest to experiment with. That accidents
have frequently occurred is perfectly true, but they
have all been attributable to causes not beyond the
ken of an ordinary practical but intelligent mechanic.
Of aérial swimmers constructed within the last few |
years the most notable ones are undoubtedly the |
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
Santos Dumont series, the ill-fated De Bradski air-
ship, the Lebaudy, Barton, Spencer, Baldwin, Ben-
bow, Beedle, and Deutsch forms. A few details of
these, collected for comparison, may be of interest.
M. Santos Dumont’s No. 7 is 160 feet long and
23 feet in diameter, and is provided with a four-cylinder
motor capable of developing 60 horse-power and
making 1200 revolutions per minute. Its prede-
cessor, No. 6, was 108 feet long and 20 feet in
diameter, with a motor of 16-20 horse-power. This
was the machine which won the Deutsch prize, and
its speed relative to the air was probably about 19
miles an hour. No. 7 was originally intended to
compete at St. Louis, but M. Santos Dumont did not
enter.
The De Bradski airship is now a thing of the
past. It was 111 feet long and weighed about
1923lb., and a special feature was that the machine
was not quite light enough to raise itself, the ascent
being effected by a screw revolving in a horizontal
plane. The experiment ended in October, 1902, with
a fatal accident, the airship becoming unmanage-
able, and the car breaking away owing to the weak-
ness of its supporting wires.
The experiments of MM. Lebaudy have been
remarkably successful in spite of an accident which
destroyed their first machine in November, 1903.
This did not deter these indefatigable aéronauts from
constructing, partly out of the wreckage of the old
one, a new machine of the following dimensions :—
Length 58 metres, greatest diameter 9.8 metres,
volume of gas 2600 cubic metres, or about 94,000 cubic
feet; motor, a four-cylinder Daimler of 40 horse-power
running at 250 to 1200 revolutions per minute; pro-
pellers, two screws 2-44 metres in diameter running
at 800 to 1000 revolutions per minute. Of the thirty
voyages made with this ‘‘ aérial cruiser ’’ in 1904, the
following appear to have been the most successful :—
August 16, a distance of 16 miles in 41 minutes;
November 22, a run of 1 hour 33 minutes. An
accident occurred on August 28 owing to the
“swimmer ’’ breaking loose, but it floated away to
a distance and finally got caught in a wood 70
kilometres distant, whence it was brought back with
slight damage. The present model is remarkably
like a fish in shape, and the resemblance is further
accentuated by the tail-like double horizontal rudder
in the stern. The balloon has a flat base with a
long vertical keel, and all these arrangements are
well calculated to make it travel steadily.
Beyond the mere rumour of an accident last spring
the Barton airship seems to have lapsed into oblivion
of late, but it must not be forgotten that a year is ;
small interval of time in the construction of aéro-
nautical machines. The dimensions given are as
follows:—Length of balloon 170 feet, diameter
40 feet, total estimated weight 15,7o0olb.; number of
propellers, six, each consisting of six blades arranged
tandem fashion, placed in pairs, one on_ each
side of each motor; motors, three in number, develop-
ing 50 horse-power each, and running at 1600 revolu-
tions. A peculiarity of Dr. Barton’s design is the
series of aéroplanes, thirty in number, employed to
raise the machine. The shape of the balloon and
the structure of the underlying framework and car
suggest the possibility of considerable head resist-
ance,
Of the performances of Messrs. Spencer’s air-
ship satisfactory records were given in the Press at
the time. The dimensions are:—Length 093 feet,
diameter 24 feet; propeller, a single screw 12 feet in
diameter, placed in front; engine of 24 horse-power
running at 1050 revolutions.
Mr. Baldwin’s and Mr. Benbow’s airships, ex-
hibited at St. Louis, appear not to have made any
464
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
noteworthy performances, the former having failed
to stem a wind of six to eight miles an hour, and
the latter having made progress at the rate of three
miles an hour. We have before us a brief descrip-
tion of the machine with which Mr. Beedle made a
successful preliminary trial in November, 1903, and
further trials were promised ‘for last spring. Mr.
Beedle proposed to dispense with rudders and steer
by means of a screw fan in front which could be
turned in any desired direction, an arrangement
calculated to leave much to be desired in the ‘matter
of steadiness. The particulars are:—Length go feet,
diameter 24 feet, horse-power 12. Of the Deutsch
““swimmer ’’ only a model was exhibited at St. Louis.
A comparison of the figures of several of these air-
ships gives the impression that the Lebaudy balloon
is far ahead of most of its rivals in its well designed
proportions. The only questionable feature is the
presence of horizontal rudders at the back of the car,
in a place where they might prevent the stream lines
of air from closing round the balloon, and thus
increase the resistance. About this point MM.
Lebaudy are best able to judge.
The limits of speed of the aérial swimmer attain-
able by existing methods are now pretty well known,
and fall far short of the amount necessary to travel
in the teeth of a high wind. Still, the navigable
balloon offers the most promising field of experiment
for those who are not prepared to devote themselves
to a long course of purely mathematical and experi-
mental researches, or to run blindfold into the
dangers which such a course of study would enable
them to predict.
For the successful realisation of mechanical flight
proper, what is most wanted is a complete and ex-
haustive investigation, both by mathematical and
experimental methods, of the longitudinal stability
of various forms of machine gliding at various angles
either under gravity alone or when mechanically pro-
pelled.
The small fluctuations of a gliding machine about
steady motion are determined by exponential functions
of the time the coefficients of which are the roots of
an equation of the fourth degree. If these roots
determine oscillatory motions there will be, not one,
but two different oscillations of the machine in a
vertical plane. Either of these oscillations may
increase or decrease with the time, and unless they
both tend to decrease the pitching will become
dangerous and the machine will overturn. Photo-
graphs of the paths of gliders taken by Mr. Williams
some time ago with magnesium light distinctly
showed the two oscillations, and in several cases the
final overturning in a manner perfectly consistent
with theory. ;
Now it is possible to determine experimentally for
any given machine the coefficients of stability when
gliding at every different angle. To do this it would
be necessary to measure, by means of dynamometers,
the force and couple components acting on either a
full-sized machine or a model when moved through
the air in different directions in its plane of symmetry.
It is necessary also to take account of the small
changes in these forces and couples when the machine
has a small rotational motion, such as occurs when
it is turning upwards or downwards in the course of
its oscillations. These small changes may, and in all
probability do, play an important part in affecting the
stability. A whirling table gives exactly the kind of
small rotation required in addition to the necessary
translatory motion. By reversing the model experi-
nented on, the direction of this rotation may be
versed, and the differences of the two sets of
imometer readings will give three of the coefficients
of stability.
NO. 1846, voL. 71]
If observations of this kind were made it would
be possible to work out on paper the oscillations, and
to ascertain the lowest velocity at which a machine
would glide safely.
But experimenters have hitherto confined their
attention to measurements of the air resistance, and
very few have up to the present given much atten-
tion even to the variations in the position of the
centre of pressure except for a few cases such as a
square lamina. The object in most cases has been
merely to find out the speed at which a flying machine
would travel under favourable conditions, and not its
powers of extricating itself from the most unfavour-
able positions which it might assume on a gusty day.
‘“ Stability of motion’ is a phenomenon which rarely
enters into practical problems. In the flying
machine it is of paramount importance.
A similar mathematical investigation has been
made by Signor G. A. Crocco in Italy, in connection
with stability of airships, but the author obtains
an equation of the third instead of the fourth degree.
He, however, takes no account of the fluctuations in
the horizontal motion, which are certainly of
importance in the case of gliders.
Meanwhile the artificial balancing of gliders under
gravity has been the subject of a considerable number
of experiments in America, and more recently in
France, and the initial success of Mr. Orville Wright
in rising from the ground on a motor-driven machine
in the face of a wind and landing safely constitutes
the first achievement of an actual flight. It is a
matter of congratulation that Mr. Wright was not so
emboldened by his success that he became reckless,
and pushed the experiments on to a _ premature
end.
The large curved surfaces of the disastrous
Lilienthal and Pilcher experiments have now given
place to a pair of narrow superposed rectangles, first
introduced by Chanute and Herring. The tail has
since, in the hands of Messrs. Wilbur and Orville
Wright, been replaced by a front rudder, and the
adoption of a horizontal position ‘fa plat ventre ”’
shows that the maintenance of balance has been
reduced to a matter of steering.
These types of gliders have been taken up in
France by Captain Ferber, of the Artillery, and
subsequently by Mr. Ernest Archdeacon, both of whom
have become enthusiastic ‘‘ aviators,’’ and have in
their turn brought gliding experiments into consider-
able popularity in that country. As Captain Ferber
remarks, a sloping hillside with a wind blowing
straight up it are necessary, and a convenient experi-
menting ground has been found at Meudon. With
the object of experimenting on larger motor-driven
models Captain Ferber constructed an aérodrome
consisting of a column eighteen metres high, support-
ing a rotating beam thirty metres across. This
apparatus would be very useful for determining the
stability coefficients of an actual machine firmly
attached to its beam, but it must not be forgotten
that any kind of suspension may seriously modify
the longitudinal oscillations. So, too, may the rota-
tion about the vertical axis; it is much easier to make
a glider describe a corkscrew path than glide in a
straight line. A kite illustrates the same properties.
Its oscillations also depend on a biquadratic equa-
tion, but the supporting string modifies their
character, and Mr. Cody claims that a man has
been lifted 1600 feet by kites, though how the photo-
graph of *‘ the Cody man-lifting kite 800 feet high ”’
was taken, which appears in the Aéronautical Journal,
is not explained. The use of kites for saving
life at sea might well receive more attention than
has been bestowed on this question up to the present.
The clumsy’plan of sending up rockets in the teeth
Makcu 16, 1905 |
NATURE
465
of a gale such as would just blow a kite line from
ship to shore needs reconsideration.
Little has been published about Prof. Langley’s
experiments beyond a reference to the accident which
gave Prof. Manley a premature bath in the Potomac.
The idea of combining a glider and boat was tried
initially with success and ultimately with failure by
Herr Kress on a reservoir a few miles out of Vienna,
near the main railway line from Germany. Major
Baden-Powell has adopted the same plan at the
Crystal Palace. The machine descends a kind of
chute from a height of about thirty feet, and is shot
off into the air about six feet above the water. With
this small height it is not unlikely that successful
glides might be made even if the steady motion were
longitudinally unstable, for by careful projection
several wave-lengths might safely be described in
the air before the pitching became dangerous.
It is probable that a motor driven machine
travelling at high speed would be much more stable
than a gravity machine, but to understand the
management of the machine is a necessary condition
of success, and the more this can be made the subject
of mathematical study the easier will the task be for
an aéronaut who is perfectly familiar with the equa-
tions of motion. In regard to the effect of speed on
stability, the pretty butterfly-like ‘‘ helicoptera ”’
driven by elastic must not be quoted as instances.
They raise themselves nearly vertically; we are
concerned with machines moving nearly horizontally.
From all that has been said above it will be seen
that there is plenty of work to be done in connection
with aérial navigation. At the present time, careful
quantitative measurements of the coefficients of
stability of actual machines by attaching them to
whirling tables are even more needed than further
balancing experiments in mid-air.
G. H. Bryan.
PHAISTOS AND HAGIA TRIADA, CRETE.
He the south of Central Crete, a day’s journey from
Candia on a good horse, lies the scene of dis-
coveries no less important than those of Dr. A. J.
Evans at Knossos. They consist of the ruins of two
palaces, one large and one small, but both built on
the same general plan and with the same materials
(stone and concrete) as that which has made Dr.
Evans famous. There can be no doubt that all three
belong to one age and one social system; that they
were under one Government is clear from the fact
that none of the three were fortresses. Crete was,
in fact, as Thucydides told us long ago, a sea-power
which had no fear of assault by land. With the
architectural or historical interest of these remains
we need not concern ourselyes at present, nor with
the general character of the articles found in them.
In all three we meet with vessels of use and ornament,
painted frescoes, inscribed blocks or tablets, seals,
human and animal figures, and articles of domestic
or religious character. But in or near Hagia Triada
there came to light a number of objects of special
interest which distinguish that palace, smallest of
the three, above the others.
First there is a sarcophagus of stone, painted upon
all four sides. Each of the two ends bears a chariot
in which are two female figures; a pair of horses
draws one, a pair of griffins the other. The two sides
bear a representation of sacrifice to the dead. Men
leading animals—bull, goat, or sheep—women with
baskets of fruit, others with bowls apparently full of
wine or some other liquid, which is being poured
into a large jar; a flutist and a harper, playing upon
NO. 1846, VOL. 71 |
a lyre of seven strings (which are therefore older
than Terpander by a thousand years); men carrying
animals in their arms; and lastly the dead man
himself, standing beside a tree before his own tomb
and receiving the pious offerings. A most noteworthy
fact in this representation is that the men wear
women’s skirts.
Next come three vases of steatite, each bearing a
scene carved in relief. The workmanship of these
carvings is astonishing for its finish, and the designs
are full of life, reminding us not distantly of good
Attic work. On one vase a couple of youths stand face
to face, one leaning upon a spear or staff, the other
bearing over his shoulders a staff and a whisk of some
sort. Both are naked, save for the familiar loincloth
of the Mycenzans (which the Greeks never wore, ex-
cept in the very earliest times at the Olympian games),
and high boots of the same kind which are still worn
in Crete and always have been. The second vase repre-
sents several pairs of men, some wrestling and some
boxing, and a bull-hunt or bull-baiting. The boxers
have their hands bound about with straps of leather,
or something like a fingerless glove. Some of these
men wear helmets, which in part at least seem to be
made of metal; and helmets hitherto have been un-
dreamt of at this period.
But the last vase is the most striking of all. It
bears a procession of men marching two and two, led
by a personage clad in a stiff bell-shaped tunic covered
with scales. He is bareheaded and carries a long
staff or sceptre resting upon his shoulder. The men
behind him wear flat caps something like to a turban,
and loincloths, and each carries over his left shoulder
a long pole branching out into three long flexible
wands at the end. In the middle of the procession
are four men singing, one bearing the sistrum of
Isis; these have no wands. Some see in this a
triumphal procession of soldiers after war. The lack
of arms or shields makes this unlikely; the three-
pronged objects can hardly be weapons, for they seem
to be flexible, but what they are it is impossible to
say. Those are more likely to be right who believe
it to be a harvest festival of some kind, and the three-
pronged implement an implement used in some
harvesting process. If we may assume that these
objects have no use at all, but are ornamental (which
is not likely), the whole might be a religious procession
without regard either to war or husbandry.
NOTES.
Tue Bakerian lecture of the Royal Society will be
delivered by Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S., on March 23,
upon the subject of ‘‘ The Reception and Utilisation of
Energy by the Green Leaf.”
Ir is proposed to erect in Jena a memorial to Prof. Ernst
Abbe, so that all who see it may be reminded of his great
services to optical science and industry, and his sterling
qualities as a man. Abbe’s work and influence are ap-
preciated wherever physical science and sociology are
studied, and there should be no difficulty in obtaining
sufficient funds to raise a noble monument to his memory.
The committee organised for this purpose includes the
names of Dr. Czapski, Dr. Eggeling, Dr. G. Fischer,
Prof. Rosenthal, and Prof. Winkelmann. Subscriptions for
the memorial should be sent to the treasurer, Dr. Gustav
Fischer, Jena.
Science states that the Prussian Academy of Science has
awarded its Helmholtz medal to Prof. Ramén y Cajal,
professor of neurology at Madrid.
466
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
Ir is announced that Prof. Albert B. Prescott, professor
of organic and applied chemistry, dean of the school of
pharmacy and director of the chemical laboratory of the
University of Michigan, died on February 26 in his seventy-
third year.
WE learn from the Times that negotiations are in active
progress for the amalgamation of the Society of Arts and
the London Institution. A scheme has been prepared by a
joint committee, and it only remains to be submitted to
the general body of the members, whose assent in all
likelihood will be given.
A comMiTTEE of the French Physical Society has arranged
to have a medal struck in commemoration of M. Alfred
Cornu.
Tue Royal Society of Naples (mathematical and physical
section) has awarded its prize of gol. to Prof. E. Pascal,
the subject being the theory of the invariants of the ternary
quartic with special reference to the conditions for splitting
into inferior forms. A prize of 20]. is now offered for the
best essay in Italian, Latin or French on ‘‘ The theory of
electrons and the dispersion of light.’’ The last day for
sending in is June 30, 1906, and the essays are to be sub-
mitted under a pseudonym.
SINCE our note on the late Prof. Emilio Villari appeared
in last week’s Nature, we have received a copy of the
Rendiconto of the physical and mathematical section of the
Neapolitan Royal Society (x., $—11) containing another
notice of Prof. Villari by Prof. L. Pinto. It differs from
the previous notices in containing a general summary
of the scope of Villari’s works, classified under the
various headings of acoustics, molecular mechanics, heat,
light, electricity, and Roéntgen rays, and it will be found a
very useful notice for purposes of reference, especially for
physicists, whose time is limited, interested in Villari’s
researches.
Tue Lancet states that’ the King has acceded to a
suggestion that the skeleton of Ambush II., the famous
steeplechaser from the Royal Stables which died some
weeks ago, should find a place in the Museum of Veterinary
Anatomy at the University of Liverpool. The skeleton will
be mounted and placed in a prominent position at the
University museum, and a plate will be affixed giving a
short history of the well-known horse.
It is announced in the Electrician that Lord Kelvin will
be the recipient of the first John Fritz gold medal awarded
by the joint committee of the four national American
engineering societies, under the deed of gift, to the man
most representative of, and eminent in, scientific advance
in the engineering field. This medal was founded three
years ago on the occasion of the eightieth birthday of John
Fritz, the famous inventor and engineer in the iron and
steel industry, who is still enjoying excellent health.
On Tuesday next, March 21, Prof. W. E. Dalby will
deliver the first of a course of two lectures at the Royal
Institution on “‘ Vibration Problems in Engineering,’’ and
on Thursday, March 23, Mr. Thomas G. Jackson will begin a
course of two lectures on ‘‘ The Reasonableness of Architec-
ture.’” The Friday evening discourse on March 24 will be
delivered by Sir Oliver Lodge, his subject being “‘ A Per-
tinacious Current,’’? and on March 31 by Prof. J. Wright on
““The Scientific Study of Dialects.’’ Prof. Meldola will
give the first of his two lectures on ‘‘ Synthetic Chemistry ”’
(experimental) on Thursday, April 6.
The Liverpool correspondent of the Lancet states that
r. J. E. S.-Moore, who become director of
r research in succession to Prof. A. S. F. Griinbaum,
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
has
has also been appointed a member of the staff of the Royal
Infirmary, Liverpool, in accordance with the terms of the
donation that the research work in cancer should be carried
on at that infirmary. From the same source we learn
that, in response to an appeal made for funds to initiate a
permanent memorial to the late Sir W. M. Banks, the
sum of 5523/. has been subscribed. Of this amount, the
sum of rsool. is to be devoted to founding a lectureship, to
be attached to the University of Liverpool, and to be called
the ‘* Mitchell Banks lectureship.’’ The University author-
ities will be enabled to invite yearly a distinguished
surgeon, pathologist, or anatomist to treat of the latest
investigations and discoveries in medical science.
Ar the Optical Convention to be held in May next at
the Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, to which attention
has already been directed in these columns, the following
amongst other papers will be read. Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S., will deliver the presidential address. Mr. H.
Dennis Taylor will read a paper on some properties of
lens systems ; Mr. Walter Rosenhain will deal with two sub-
jects—the mechanical design of instruments, and some
problems relating to optical glass; Dr. C. V. Drysdale
will discuss binoculars, and, in collaboration with Mr.
S. D. Chalmers, will introduce a discussion on aberration ;
Mr. J. Gordon will take up the question of diffraction in
optical instruments; Mr. J. Blakesley, some _ optical
measurements; Mr. J. H. Sutcliffe, ophthalmometers; Dr.
R. M. Walmsley, education in optics; Prof. Forbes, spectro-
scopic vision; Prof. Poynting, F.R.S., a parallel plate
micrometer ; and Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S., fused quartz for
optical purposes. Full particulars of the convention can be
obtained from the secretary, Mr. C. L. Redding, at the
Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.
Tue March number of the American Journal of Science
contains a short account of the work of Prof. A. S.
Packard, who died in Providence, R.I., on February 14,
at the age of nearly sixty-six years. Prof. Packard was
graduated from the Maine Medical School and the Law-
rence Scientific School in 1864. At Cambridge, Mass., he
was one of that remarkable group of students—Hyatt,
Morse, Packard, Putnam, Scudder, Shaler and Verrill—
associated with the elder Agassiz in the early ’sixties. He
served for a time in 1864-5 as assistant surgeon in the
U.S. Army, but never became a regular practitioner of
medicine, his life being devoted to his chosen work in
zoology and geology. He was specially distinguished as
an entomologist, and he was an enthusiastic field naturalist,
collector, and explorer, and a voluminous author who wrote
on a remarkably wide range of subjects. He will probably be
longest remembered for his original work on insects and
his several text-books. on entomology and zoology. Early
in his career he accepted the theory of evolution and later
became an ardent neo-Lamarckian. One of his last works
was ‘‘ Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution, his Life and
Work.’’ He was one of the founders of the American
Naturalist, for twenty years its chief editor, and a constant
contributor to its pages. Prof. Packard was a member of
the National Academy of Sciences and of many other
scientific societies.
THE of transferring the museum of the
Hastings and’ St. Leonards Museum Association to the
Corporation of Hastings took place on March 1. The
museum is a representative one, and is divided into several
sections. The anthropological section includes a cosmo-
politan ethnological collection, geographically arranged. In
it are some good local bronze and bone obiects, a series o7
ceremony
Marcu 16, 1905]
NATURE
467
Neolithic stone implements from many parts of the world,
an ethnological collection from New Guinea and the South
Sea Islands, the relics recovered from the Hastings kitchen
middens—numbering many thousands of specimens—and
many worked flints of the Paleolithic period. The gec-
logical section is remarkable for its collection of animal
remains of the Pleistocene period from the Lewis Abbott
collection, and a collection of Wealden fossils from the
neighbourhood. The biological section has a representative
collection of the local fauna. After the museum had been
accepted by the Mayor on behalf of the Corporation of
Hastings, Sir Arthur Ricker, F.R.S., delivered a short
address, in which he emphasised the value of museums in
the study of natural science, and commended the active part
municipal authorities are now taking in educational work.
Dr. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., expressed the opinion that local
museums should illustrate local natural history, and out-
lined a plan which would secure this end. Sir Harry
Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., also spoke on the value of
museums.
A pBoTtLe thrown overboard in latitude 29° 30’ N., long-
itude 68° 10’ W., by Colonel Swalm, U.S. Consul at South-
ampton, in May, 1903, has just been found on the Donegal
coast, Ireland, near Arranmore. The bottle had apparently
been carried by the Gulf Stream along the North American
coast, then across the Atlantic to the Irish coast. To travel
this distance it had taken 662 days at an approximate speed
of five miles a day.
AccorDING to a Reuter despatch from St. Petersburg,
dated March 9, the North Pole Commission has officially
declared that the expedition under Baron Toll to the new
Siberian Islands, in the Arctic Ocean, has ended with the
death of all the members of the party. The party sent in
search of the expedition found in Benett Island a letter
written by Baron Toll saying that the members of the
expedition had continued on their journey though having
only eighteen or twenty days’ provisions left. It is there-
fore believed that Baron Toll and his companions perished
of hunger.
Tue Weekly Weather Report of March 11 issued by
the Meteorological Office showed that the rainfall from
the beginning of the year was still deficient in all districts
except the north of Scotland and the north of Ireland;
the deficiency amounted to 2 inches and upwards in
several parts of England and in the south of Ireland.
During the recent severe gales, however, falls of about
an inch in twenty-four hours have been recorded in several
localities. In the neighbourhood of London the rainfall
during the part of the present month already elapsed has
exceeded the mean for March, which is 1-5 inch.
An exhibition of meteorological instruments with photo-
graphs and records of meteorological phenomena, under the
auspices of the Royal Meteorological Society, was opened
on Tuesday at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great
George Street, Westminster, and the exhibition will remain
open until 5 p.m. to-morrow, Friday. The instruments ex-
hibited represent all branches of meteorology, and show
clearly the great advance which the science has made in
recent years. Continuous records can now be secured in
nearly all branches, and in many of these ample choice is
provided. There are several forms of self-recording rain-
gauges, notably the Beckley and the Richard patterns,
while Halliwell’s improved float pattern pluviograph is of
more recent invention, and of exceptional scientific value.
The thermometer exhibits are fairly numerous, and of
various designs, from Callendar’s electrically recording
No. 1846, VoL. 71]
thermometer to instruments of an ordinary character.
There are to be seen the thermometers in use in Sir J. C.
Ross’s Antarctic Expedition, 1839-43, and in the Arctic ex-
peditions
National Antarctic Expedition 1901-4.
show the greater degree of accuracy obtainable in manu-
facture now than was the case, say, half a century ago.
Barometers and barographs exhibit considerable advance.
An instrument of considerable value is Dines’s self-recording
mercurial barometer ; and a microbarograph, for the study
of minor variations of atmospheric pressure, under the joint
names of Mr. W. H. Dines and Dr. W. N. Shaw, is likely
to prove of much value. A typical climatological station is
shown, its enclosure containing all the necessary instru-
ments in position for observation. A prominent position
is given to aéronautics, and there are specimen kites with
meteorograph in position. There are anemometers of very
varied description, many of these being self-recording.
Sunshine recorders, past and present, are to be seen, from
the wooden bowl, by Campbell, used as early as 1853, to
the almost perfect instrument known as the Campbell-
Stokes. Among the drawings and photographs
may be mentioned the water-colour drawings made during
the recent National Antarctic Expedition, exhibiting sky and
cloud effects. The Royal Meteorological Society is to be
congratulated on the thoroughly interesting character of
the exhibition.
1850-59, as well as thermometers used by the
These instruments
many
Pror. H. HercEsett has communicated to the Comptes
yendus of the Paris Academy of Sciences, January 30, some
of the preliminary results of the kite ascents made on the
yacht of the Prince of Monaco in the Mediterranean and
North Atlantic Ocean in the summer of 1904. Altogether,
twenty-five ascents were made, eight in the Mediterranean,
one in the Baltic, and sixteen in the Atlantic. The principal
object of the latter was the exploration of the meteorological
conditions in the region of the trade winds. The results
show that in the lowest strata of the air there is a con-
siderable decrease of temperature with increas2 of altitude ;
the adiabatic gradient (1° C. per 100 metres) is always
attained, and even exceeded in the lowest stratum. The
depth of this adiabatic stratum varies from 100 to 600
metres: the relative humidity at the sea-level is 70 or 80
per cent., and rises gradually to 95 or 100 per cent. At
the upper limit of this stratum a sudden change occurs ;
the temperature rises quickly by several degrees, and the
humidity suddenly diminishes to below 50 per cent. The
temperature continues to rise, through a stratum some-
times extending to a depth of 1000 metres, and the humidity
decreases to to or 20 per cent.; at a height of 1000 metres,
temperatures of 30° C. are experienced, while at the sea-
level only 22° or 23° are recorded. Above this stratum the
adiabatic gradient again holds, but the humidity is low,
compared with that of the first adiabatic stratum. In the
lower stratum the N.E. trade is experienced, the velocity
being about sixteen miles an hour; with increasing eleva-
tion the wind gradually shifted through N. to N.W., and in
two instances it shifted through E. to S.E. and S. A
south-westerly current, which would correspond to the
theory of anti-trades, was never exhibited by the kites,
although they several times exceeded the height of the Peak
of Teneriffe. The velocity of the N.W. or S.E. winds ex-
perienced in the highest strata did not exceed seven or nine
miles an hour, and was generally still less in the inter-
mediate strata.
Tue latest issues of the Proceedings of the U.S. National
Museum include a description, by Dr. Steineger, of a gecko
and three frogs from the Philippines, and an article by Mr.
468
NATURE
| Marcit 16, 1905
Gill on the gurnard commonly known as Prionotus stearnsi,
which is made the type of a new genus.
Tue structure of the squamoso-parietal crest in the skulls
of the horned dinosaurs of the Cretaceous of Alberta is
deemed by Mr. L. M. Lambe of sufficient interest to merit
a paper by itself, and he has accordingly described this part
of the skeleton in a recent issue of the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada (vol. x., sect. iv.).
Our weekly budget includes copies of Nos. 3 and 4 of
the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy for the current
year. Among the notes is one by Prof. Molisch on phos-
phorescence in eggs and potatoes after cooking, and a
second by Dr. F. Werner on the Orthoptera of the Egyptian
Sudan.
In the January number of the American Naturalist, Mr.
J. Stafford discusses the larva and spat of the Canadian
oyster, the latter of which is extremely minute and very
difficult to discover. Unlike the later stages, the very young
spat presents a dark metallic lustre. When once recognised,
the young spat is, however, by no means difficult to discover,
and the sailors soon became adepts in the search. Although
found on many kinds of shells, and sometimes on stones,
the spat displays a preference for the young of Crepidula
fornicata and colonies of Ralfsia verrucosa.
To the Biologisches Centralblatt of February 15, Mr.
J. P. Lotsy contributes an article on ‘‘ X-generation and
2X-generation,’’ in which he proposes a theory to explain
certain features connected with cell-development and heredity.
In the second article in the same issue Mr. E. Wasmann
seeks to explain the origin and development of slavery among
ants, showing the manner in which a colony of Formica
truncicola may have been gradually modified from a’ type
in which a certain number of stranger ants were received
as guests, to one in which a host of captives are maintained.
Tue Otago Daily Times of January 6 contains an article
on the marine fish-hatchery at Portobello and the progress
recently made there. The institution was nominally opened
a year ago last January, but it was by no means in good
working order, having to contend with such difficulties as
leaky tanks. Work during the past year has been to a
great extent confined to observing the behaviour of a few
kinds of food-fishes in captivity. Many of these died off
quickly when introduced into the tanks, some, apparently, on
account of having been injured in their capture, and others
owing to a difference in the temperature of the water. Blue
cod, however, thrive well, although the endeavours to rear
the fry Were unsuccessful. The introduction of the European
lobster is contemplated.
Mr. L. Freperico, director of the class of science in the
Belgian Royal Academy, sends us a copy of an essay (from
the Bulletin of the Academy for December last) on the Glacial
fauna and flora of the plateau of Baraque-Michel, the
culminating point of the Ardennes. The boreal conditions
of climate have, it appears, preserved on this exposed plateau
a small colony of animals and plants of an essentially arctic
type, the nearest relatives of which are to be met with
only in the extreme north, and on certain much higher
mountains in central Europe. This assemblage seems to
be at the critical stage as regards temperature, a very slight
elevation of which would lead to its disappearance. We
thus have a definite refutation of the prevailing idea that
the temperature of this part of Europe has been higher at
some date since the Glacial epoch than it is at the present
aay.
NO. 1846, vat. 71 |
Tne February number of the Johns Hopkins Hospital
Bulletin (vol. xvi., No. 167) is mainly devoted to anatomy.
The teaching of anatomy is discussed by Mr. Mall, who
also writes on the working of the Anatomy Act (U.S-A.)
and preservation of material, and the anatomical department
of the University of California is described by Dr. Flint.
Three papers dealing with points in the development of the
kidney, a review of Flechsig’s researches on the brain, and
an article on body-snatching in England complete the
contents of an excellent number.
On the subject of the mandrake or mandragora, Mr.
C. B. Randolph has collated, in the Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences (vol. xl., No. 12),
a number of references from the classics, from which he
concludes that, on account of its narcotic qualities, it was
employed as an anesthetic about the first century of the
Christian era.
EXPERIMENTS by Mr. E. S. Salmon showing that ** biologic
forms ’’ of Erysiphe graminis can be identified according to
their power of infecting different species of cereals have
been previously referred to. Pursuing his investigations on
the subject, Mr. Salmon states, in the Annals of Botany
(January, 1905), that portions of a host plant which is
normally immune, become susceptible to infection by the
fungal conidia if they are injured or subjected to heat or
the action of anzsthetics, but the conidia produced as a
result of such infection cannot attack a healthy plant of
the same species. The practical application of this fact is
far reaching, as a wheat-rust can in this way spread to
barley leaves which have been injured by animals or storms.
Wirn the object of arousing interest in the subject of
the giant trees of Victoria—all species of Eucalyptus—Mr.
N. J. Caire has collected data as to size, neight, and
localities of specimens known to him in a paper published
in the Victorian Naturalist (January, 1905). Big Ben, a
specimen of Eucalyptus amygdalinus, possessing a trunk of
57 feet girth, was destroyed by a bush fire in 1902, and
Billy Barlow, a blackbutt of the same circumference, was
sacrificed for the Paris Exhibition; both these veterans
were probably more than a thousand years old. Most of
these trees of enormous girth present signs of senile decay,
as shown by broken tops or later by hollow stems.
Tue results of recent experiments have proved con-
clusively, says the Pioneer Mail, that silk of excellent quality
can be raised in Ceylon, and samples of cocoons raised at
Peradeniya from European seed have been classed by a
European expert as second only to the best Italian silk.
Hitherto all experiments have been on a small scale, limited
partly by the comparative scarcity of mulberry trees. The
time seems now to have arrived when more extensive opera-
tions might be undertaken with advantage; and, with this
object, it is proposed that an experimental silkworm rearing
establishment be created. A scheme is under consideration
by the Ceylon Board of Agriculture.
Some interesting observations of the spark discharge from
a Holtz machine are described in a paper by Dr. L.
Amaduzzi in the Atti of the Italian Electrotechnical Asso-
ciation for 1904. Marked variations in the character of the
discharge were observed with varying atmospheric condi-
tions.
Tue peculiar photographic activity of hydrogen peroxide
has recently been considered by Graetz to be due to a
special radiation, in virtue of the fact that its influence
is capable of penetrating solid bodies, particularly thin
Marcu i6, 1905]
WATORE
469
sheets of metals. It is, however, shown by J. Precht and
C. Otsuki, in the Verhandlungen of the German Physical
Society (vol. vii. p. 53), that hydrogen peroxide itself is
capable of penetrating thin films of gelatin, celluloid, india-
rubber and black paper, the peroxide being subsequently
capable of detection by titanic acid. Metals in the form
of the thinnest sheet are, nevertheless, impervious to hydro-
gen peroxide, if small holes be not present; the same is
true of thin films of paraffin, glass, and ebonite.
Two papers dealing with the accurate measurement of
coefficients of expansion are contained in the January num-
ber of the Physical Review. Mr. H. McAllister Randall
describes the determination of the coefficient of expansion of
quartz betwéen the temperatures of 36° and 500° C. by
means of Pulfrich’s optical method, and shows that up to
about 250° C. the expansion of quartz follows a straight-line
law ; between 250° and 470° C. it is necessary to include a
term involving the square of the temperature, whilst at
500° C. a sudden large increase in the expansibility becomes
visible. At this temperature it is probable, as suggested by
Le Chatelier, that quartz undergoes a change into a second
modification having very different physical properties from
those of the ordinary form. The second paper, by Mr.
H. D. Ayres, deals with the measurement by Pulfrich’s
method of the coefficients of linear expansion of the metals
aluminium and silver at temperatures between 100° and
—184° C,
Tue firm of Leybolt Nachfolger in Cologne has recently
issued a very complete and interesting catalogue of physical
apparatus and fittings sold by them. The book starts with
a history of the instrument trade in Cologne during the
last century. In its second section we find an account of
the construction and fittings of various chemical and
physical institutions. It is noteworthy, perhaps, that while
the students’ laboratory, with its work tables and appliances
for experiments, figures prominently in the chemical institu-
tions, the arrangements for practical work by the students
in the physical laboratories are distinctly less complete.
After this follows the catalogue proper, filling some 800
large pages, profusely illustrated and admirably arranged.
The book will be most useful to the teacher, and is a
striking illustration of German enterprise and go. At the
same time it is observable throughout that the apparatus
is intended chiefly for demonstrations and the lecture-room.
The list of electrical measuring instruments, for example,
is comparatively meagre, while there are not many examples
of the simpler forms of apparatus supplied to an English school
laboratory for use by the students. It is probably the case
that such apparatus is less used in Germany than here, but
though this is absent the book is full of apparatus of the
greatest value and utility.
A sEcoND edition of Prof. Luigi de Marchi’s ‘* Meteor-
ologia generale’’ has been published by the house of
Hoepli, of Milan. The book has been revised and en-
larged. -
“cc
A SECOND edition of the *‘ Rural Calendar,’’ fully revised
and enlarged, has been prepared by Dr. A. J. Ewart and
published by Messrs. Davis and Moughton, Ltd., Birming-
ham. The book is a helpful index to observations of
animate nature throughout the year, and a guide to
gardening and farming operations. It includes an arti-
ficial key to the commoner wild British herbs, giving
description, common name, scientific name, and natural
order. By using this key as plants become available, a
good knowledge of common flowers may be obtained.
The price of the book is one shilling net.
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
OUR ASTRONOMICAL: COLUMN.
STRUCTURE OF THE Corona.—In an interesting paper pub-
lished in No. 3 (1905) of the Revue générale des Sciences,
Dr. Ch. Nordmann discusses the structural details of the
solar corona and their causes. In the first place, he shows
that the incurvation of the coronal rays cannot be due solely
to the action of gravitation, for the angles which they make
with the normals to the limb at the points of their pro-
jection are far too small for this theory.
He then shows that the ‘‘ minimum ’’ corona, which ob-
tains at the time when the solar surface is least disturbed
simply assumes the form natural for it to assume under the
action of centrifugal force, if it be granted that the parti-
cles forming the coronal streams are exactly balanced in
the solar atmosphere—that is to say, if their weight is
counterbalanced by the force of the light-repulsion. At
times of ‘‘ maximum,’’ when the solar surface in the sun-
spot (i.e. equatorial) region is most disturbed, the
local disturbances, and their consequent convection currents,
modify the action of the normal centrifugal forces, and thus
produce the abnormal coronas observed at eclipses occurring
during periods of maximum solar activity, which, although
of the same general form, vary greatly in their detailed
features.
Rapiant Point oF THE Bretip MetEors.—From a num-
ber of observations of the Bielids made on November 21,
1904, Herr K. Bohlin, of Stockholm, has calculated the
radiant point of the shower.
The resulting position is only about 3° from y Andro
medz, and has the following coordinates :—
1904 November 21-33 (Mid-European time).
b= we 2)
5=+43° 10'f
(Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3997-)
BRIGHTNESS OF ENCKE’S CoMET.—The results of a number
of magnitude observations of Encke’s comet, made by Herr
J. Holetschek, at Vienna, during the present apparition,
are published in No. 3997 of the Astronomische Nachrichten.
The observations covered the period November 25—December
27, and, in the table wherein the results are shown, the
vertical diameter, the magnitudes of the nucleus, and the
magnitudes of the whole comet are given. From the last-
named values we learn that on November 25 the magnitude
of the comet was 9-0, on December 10, 6, and on December
23, 5-3. The value obtained on December 27 was
mag.=5.0, but this is queried.
January Firepatts.—A note from Mr. Denning to the
Observatory (No. 355) shows that the appearance of fireballs
during the predicted dates in January was well sustained.
On January 14 a bright object was seen by several ob-
servers, and on combining the records a radiant point
situated in Monoceros at 119°+3° was obtained. The
height of this fireball ranged from 60 miles over Brecon to
29 miles over Aberystwith. Two fireballs were seen on
January 27 and one on January 29, thus corroborating the
January 28 epoch. One of those on the former date was
very bright, and was apparently stationary at 118°—18°.
In February, bright fireballs were seen on February 11,
13 and 18, the time of the apparition on the last-named date
being 7h. 15m. a.m., i.e. in daylight.
1900.
Rotation OF JupiteR’s SareLyites I. anp I1.—During
the period January 13-20, Dr. P. Guthnick, of Bothkamp
Observatory, made a series of magnitude observations. of
Jupiter’s first and second satellites, the period of observation
covering about four revolutions of the former and two
revolutions of the latter round the planet.
The measurements were made with a Zollner photometer
attached to the 11-inch refractor. Plotting the values ob-
tained on curves having the ‘‘ anomaly ’’ of each satellite
as abscissa and the corresponding apnarent magnitude as
ordinate, it was seen that the period of the light-variations
coincided with that of the revolution about Jupiter, and as
a consequence it seems probable that the periods of revolu-
tion and rotation are coincident in each case (Astronomische
Nachrichten, No. 4000).
Orsits of Minor PiaNets.—In No. 4000 of the Astro-
nomische Nachrichten, Prof. J. Bauschinger publishes the
470
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
elements of the orbits of those minor planets discovered |
during 1904 of which the paths have been computed at the
Berlin Astronomischen Recheninstitut. | The list contains the
orbits of 28 minor planets, 24 (523-549) of which are
referred to the epoch 1904.0, and 4 (550-553) to 1905.0,
and is followed by a series of remarks which name the
observations on which the computations were based, and the
corrections to some of the orbits as obtained from sub-
sequent observations. A note concerning (526) NQ says
that that object is probably identical with 1901 HA.
An additional list of five asteroids discovered during
November and December, 1904, and to which the per-
manent numbers 549-553 are now allotted, brings the total
number discovered during last year up to thirty-two.
EFFECT OF AUTUMNAL RAINFALL UPON
WHEAT CROPS.
BY
autumn, in this note, is to be understood the period
from the thirty-sixth to the forty-eighth week,
both inclusive, of the year, as represented in the
Weekly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office ;
it covers the months of September, October, and
November, approximately. The rainfall to be re-
ferred to
is the average amount in inches, for the
[a a aa WE
ade Sa
ANS
Rainfall of previous Onin (Sep-Stov) +14 Wheat -producng Diotucts
(Juverted curve)
’
“Principal Wheat Producing Districts,’’ for the period
mentioned, in successive years. The amounts are taken
from the summaries of the Weekly Weather Report.
The yield of wheat is that given for successive years in
the annual summaries of the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries as the average yield in bushels per acre for
England, since 1884, or more strictly since 1885, as that
is the first year for which the figures for England are given
separately. In 1884 the figure for Great Britain, which
generally differs but little from that for England, is used.
These are the only figures in the official publications which
are immediately available for the purposes of comparison.
The totals of rainfall for the thirteen weeks have been com-
piled from the weekly amounts, otherwise the figures are
taken as they stand in published returns. The areas referred
to are not exactly coterminous, but they are more nearly
so than if the rainfall values had been taken for the whole
of England, or the wheat yield for Great Britain.
When the autumn rainfall and the yields of wheat for
successive years from 1884 to 1904, as thus defined, are
plotted, the rainfall curve being inverted, i.e. rainfall being
measured downward on the paper while yield is measured
upward, there is a very striking similarity between the
curves, so much so as to suggest that if the scales were
suitably chosen the two curves would superpose and show |
1 “Ona Relation between Autumnal Rainfall and the Yield of Wheat of
the following Year.—Preliminary Note.” By Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S.,
Secretary of the Meteorological Council. Read before the Royal Society
bruary 2
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
|
|
|
general consonance, with exceptions, more or less striking,
in a few of the years. In other words, the yield of wheat
in any year seems to depend mainly on the absence of
piel in the previous autumn, and but little on any other
actor.
The obvious algebraical expression for such a condition
as the curves represent is a linear equation, and the equation
which represents the relation between yield of wheat for
England and the previous autumn rainfall is :—
Yield=39.5 bushels per acre—5/4 (previous autumn rain-
fall in inches).
If we call the yield obtained from the rainfall by this
equation the ‘‘ computed yield,’’ a comparison with the
actual yield for the twenty-one years shows that the com-
puted yield agrees with the actual yield within half a bushel
in seven years out of the twenty-one. In fourteen years
the agreement is within 2 bushels; in the remaining seven
years the difference between computed and actual yield ex-
ceeds 2 bushels. The extreme variation of yield in the
twenty-one years is 9 bushels, from 26 bushels per acre in
1892 and two other years to 35 bushels per acre in 1808.
Of the seven years for which the formula gives yields
differing from the actual by upwards of 2 bushels, 1896 is
the most conspicuous ; its actual yield exceeds the computed
yield by 4.5 bushels.
These seven years all show anomalous seasons. Taken
4900
X Quomalous
for corloimweoks.
seriatim, they are 1887, 1888, 1893, 1895, 1896, 1899, and
1903.
In 1888 and 1903 the crops were washed away by 10
inches of rain in the summer ; 1893 is the year of phenomenal
drought, and the crop was below the computed figure by
2.5 bushels. The years 1892 and 1899 are interesting,
because though the amounts of rain were up to the average,
the former had eight dry weeks and the latter ten dry
weeks out of the thirteen included in the conventional
autumn. They were thus dry autumns, the average amount
of rainfall being made up by a few exceptionally wet weeks.
The yields correspond with dry autumn values. They are
above the average and above the computed figures by some
2 or 3 bushels per acre. ;
There remain 1895 and 1896. 1895 was the year of re-
markably cold weather, and in that year the yield fell short,
but in the following year the deficiency was made up by a
yield as much above the computed value as the previous
one fell short. It would appear that in this instance the
productive power not utilised in the year of the great cold
was not lost, but stored. On the other hand, it must be
remarked that 1896 had the advantage of a specially dry
winter.
It appears from these considerations that the dryness of
autumn is the dominant element in the determination of the
yield of wheat of the following year. The averages of
yield and of rainfall are taken over very large areas, and it
may be taken for granted that the investigation of the
question for more restricted areas would introduce some
Marcu 16, 1905]
NATURE
47
modification in the numerical coefficients, if not in the form
of the relation.
The data for making such an investigation are not yet
in an available form. A comparison has been made between
autumnal rainfall for ‘‘ England, East,’’ and the average
yield for the counties of Cambridge, Essex, Norfolk, and
Suffolk, which shows a similar relation but a magnified
effect of autumnal rainfall upon the crop, and also two
exceptional years which have not yet been investigated.
GEOLOGICAL NOTES.
ROM the Geological Survey we have received a memoir
on the water supply of Lincolnshire from underground
sources, with records of sinkings and borings, edited by
Mr. H. B. Woodward, with contributions by Mr. W.
Whitaker, Dr. H. F. Parsons, Dr. H. R. Mill, and Mr. H.
Preston. In the introduction a description is given of the
various geological formations with especial reference to the
water-bearing strata. The bulk of the work is taken up
with records of borings, among which we note particulars
of a new boring in progress at Boultham for the supply
of Lincoln; many records from the prolific locality of
Bourn, where from one bore-hole five million gallons of
water a day have been obtained; and other records from
Scunthorpe, Skegness, Woodhall Spa, &c. Many analyses
of water are given, and Dr. Mill contributes a useful
section on rainfall, with a colour-printed map.
The Geological Survey has issued a memoir on the
geology of West-Central Skye, with Soay, in explanation of
sheet 70 of the geological map of Scotland. The memoir is
written by Mr. C. T. Clough and Mr. Alfred Harker. The
area is mainly occupied by the Tertiary igneous rocks of
the Cuillin Hills, but it includes also some Torridonian
rocks, and small tracts of Trias, Lower Lias, and Cre-
taceous. The occurrence of Cretaceous strata, probably cf
Upper Greensand age, is of especial interest. The Glacial
and post-Glacial accumulations, the physical features and
scenery are duly described. The memoir, in short, is in a
handy form (pp. 59, and price ts.), well suited as a guide
on the ground, and as an introduction, as regards the
volcanic rocks, to the larger work by Mr. Harker (lately
noticed in Nature) on the Tertiary igneous rocks of Skye.
Another memoir issued by the Geological Survey is on
the geology of the country around Bridgend, being part vi.
of the ‘‘ Geology of the South Wales Coal-field,’’ by Mr. A.
Strahan and Mr. T. C. Cantrill, with parts by Mr. H. B.
Woodward and Mr. R. H. Tiddeman. The district here
described includes the Vale of Glamorgan, for the most
part an area of Lias with irregular scatterings of Drift;
an agricultural district, famed also for its Blue Lias lime,
. so well known in old times at Aberthaw, and now largely
manufactured at Bridgend. The basement portions of the
Lias at Sutton and Southerndown, conglomeratic in char-
acter, are duly described, as well as the ijittoral portions of
the Keuper and Rhzetic Beds. A small tract of the main
coalfield enters the area, bounded by Millstone Grit and
Lower Carboniferous Rocks, and the Old Red Sandstone
appears in inliers. The bulk of the work is.taken up with
a description of the Keuper, Rhzetic Beds and Lias, which
furnish many points of interest.
The fifteenth report by Prof. W. W. Watts on photo-
graphs of geological interest in the United Kingdom (Brit.
Assoc., Cambridge, 1904) is of a most satisfactory character.
A clear profit of 130/. has been made. This shows that the
work of collecting and storing typical photographs of
geological features and phenomena, and of supplying copies
to teachers and others in various parts of the world, has
proved a great success, and a distinct service to geological
and perhaps also to geographical science. This success is
due to the indefatigable energy of Prof. Watts.
In his address to the Liverpool Geological Society, Mr.
T. H. Cope took as his subject types of rock-flow in the
Ceiriog valley and their analogies with river structure
(Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol. ix., part iv.). The author
points out the evidence of flow structures and other terres-
trial movements in igneous and metamorphic rocks, and
compares them with the known movements of water.
We have received No. 37 of vol. v. of ‘‘ Spelunca’’
(Bulletin and Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie).
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
This contains a number of articles on caves and on under-
ground waters, on prehistoric remains from caves, on the
present subterranean flora, on contamination of waters, and
on the use of fluorescence in detecting the flow of under-
ground streams. A report on the sources of the water of
Arcier, with special reference to the water-supply for the
town of Besancon, is contributed by Prof. E. Fournier to
the same periodical (No. 38), and he concludes that the
supply from Arcier must at all costs be abandoned. The
subject has excited much controversy owing to the fact that
the probable sources of contamination through porous and
fissured limestones are at a distance from the outlet of the
stream at Arcier.
In the ninth report of the periodic variations of glaciers
by Dr. H. F. Reid and M. E. Muret (Arch. des Sc. phys.
et nat. Genéve, xviii., 1904), the general record is one of
decrease.
The records of the Geological Survey of India (vol. xxxi.
part ili.) contain an article by Mr. R. D. Oldham on the
glaciation and history of the Sind Valley, Kashmir, a
subject illustrated by six excellent photographic views,
which exhibit features produced respectively by glaciers and
by rivers, and afford support to the view of the author of a
diversion of the drainage since the glaciers attained their
greatest dimensions.
A report on the Jammu coal-fields has been written by
Mr. R. R. Simpson, mining specialist to the Geological
Survey of India (Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. xxxii.
part iv.). The coal-fields lie in a mountainous country,
varying from three thousand to nine thousand feet above
sea-level, and the strike of the coal-bearing rocks does not
conform to any of the main natural features. The prospects
of working the coal with profit are not considered good, in
present circumstances, as the expenses would be great on
account of the inclined and broken character of the rocks,
the possibility of landslips, and of trouble from water.
Otherwise a fairly good steam-coal may be obtained.
A geological map of Cyprus, by Mr. C. V. Bellamy, has
been issued by Mr. Stanford (price 6s.). It is accompanied
by a key or short explanation, in which the author
describes the physical features and the varicus geological
formations which range from Cretaceous to Pliocene and
Pleistocene. Between the Oligocene and Pliocene there is
a break, marked by the occurrence of basic igneous rocks,
which have baked and altered the Oligocene (Idalian) lime-
stones. These igneous rocks, which comprise serpentine,
variolite, gabbro, &c., form a broad belt of mountainous
ground in the south-central portion of the island. The
map, which is produced on a scale of 53 English miles to
one inch, is printed in colours, and clearly shows the extent
of the main geological divisions. It will be a useful guide
to those interested in the geology, whether from a scientific
or practical point of view. The economic products include
building stones, marble, pottery clay, gypsum, &c.
Our knowledge of the geology of South Africa proceeds
apace. We have received vol. vii., part iii., of the Trans-
actions of the Geological Society of South Africa, which
contains among other articles an essay by Dr. F. H. Hatch
and Dr. G. S. Corstorphine on the petrography of the
Witwatersrand conglomerates, with special reference to
the origin of the gold. The original explanation was that
the Rand conglomerates were ancient placer deposits, in
which the gold was as much a product of denudation as
the pebbles which accompany it. The authors show that
the theory of the subsequent infiltration of the gold is most
in accordance with the facts. The gold is practically con-
fined to the matrix of the conglomerate, and occurs there
in crystalline particles in association with other minerals of
secondary origin.
Mr. E. Jorissen, in the same Transactions, deals with
some intrusive granites in the Transvaal, the Orange River
Colony and in Swaziland. These old granites, mostly grey
in colour, penetrate the crystalline schists which are re-
garded as of Archean age, but they do not intrude into
the Witwatersrand series. Mr. J. P. Johnson contributes
further notes on some pigmy stone implements from Elands-
fontein No. 1. They are regarded as scrapers belonging
to the Neolithic stage of culture.
In his address to the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science (Johannesburg meeting, 1904), Dr.
Corstorphine took for his subiect the history of strati-
472
graphical investigation in South Africa, and in a table he
gives the groupings successively introduced by A. G. Bain,
A. Wyley and others up to those of G. A. F. Molengraait
and F. H. Hatch.
We have received from the Minister of Mines, Victoria, a
diagram, compiled and drawn up by the director of the
Geological Survey, Mr. E. J. Dunn, showing the yield of
gold and other statistics from 1851 to 1903. ‘he gross
value of the gold is stated to be 266,945,344!. The
greatest yield was in 1856.
We have received the annual progress report of the
Geological Survey of Western Australia for 1903, by Mr. A.
Gibb Maitland, Government Geologist. This includes ob-
servations on the Pibara and Murchison gold-fields, on the
Arrino copper deposits, the Irwin River coal-field, &c., mis-
cellaneous notes on minerals, including gypsum and
diatomite, and notes on water supply. The report is
accompanied by several maps.
The progress of vertebrate paleontology in Canada forms
the subject of an essay by Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe (Trans.
Roy. Soc. Canada, series 2, vol. x.). As he remarks, our
knowledge of this life-history began when Sir William
Logan, in 1841, discovered amphibian footprints in the
Lower Coal-measures at Horton bluff in Nova Scotia.
Since then remains of vertebrates have been found in rocks
from the Silurian to the Pleistocene, and a full list is given,
together with a bibliography of the subject.
In the American Journal of Science (December, 1904) two
new species of reptiles from the Titanothere Beds (Oligo-
cene) of Dakota, are described by Mr. F. B. Loomis. These
are Crocodilus prenasalis and Chrysemys inornata. Some
derived Cretaceous fossils are recorded also from the same
strata, which form a part of the White River formation, and
the author is led to regard the beds as of fluviatile origin.
The American Journal of Science for January contains an
article on the submarine great canyon of the Hudson
River, by Dr. J. W. Spencer. The early work of the Coast
Survey brought to light a depression extending from near
New York to the border of the continental shelf, and
J. D. Dana was the first to recognise this feature as the
submerged channel of the Hudson River, formed when the
continent stood at a greater altitude above the sea than it
does now. Later on, Prof. A. Linden Kohl discovered that
the channel became suddenly transformed into a canyon
near the continental border, reaching to a depth of 2400 feet
below the surface of the submerged plain, which was then
about 400 feet beneath sea-level. Following on to these
observations, Dr. Spencer has pointed out that the channel
was traceable to much greater depths—the ‘canyon section
having sunk from 6000 to 7ooo feet, and the valley beyond
to gooo feet. He maintains that the period of great eleva-
tion coincided with the early Pleistocene. Since then there
has been a subsidence to somewhat below the present level,
followed by a re-elevation of 250 feet, as seen in the shallow
channels of the shelf.
The American Journal of Science for February contains
an important essay on the isomorphism and thermal pro-
perties of the feldspars, by Mr. Arthur L. Day and Mr.
E. T. Allen. To the same journal Dr. Albrecht Penck con-
tributes an interesting article on climatic features in the
land surface, and indicates how the features of past as well
as present climates may be discerned. Instances are seen
in areas that were formerly covered by ice and are now
exposed to river action. They are seen in desert regions,
as in those of the Great Salt Lake and of the Sahara,
where ancient shore lines and old river valleys have been
traced. In some mountain areas evidence of river action,
preceding glacial action, has been noticed. Dr. Penck points
out that a study of the oscillations in the situation of the
climatic belts of the earth is fraught with interest, and that
observations on the erosional forms of rocks and on the
corresponding deposits derived from them assist in the inter-
pretation of climatic conditions.
In the Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History
of the State University of lowa (vol. v., No. 4) there is
a series of papers on the loess by Prof. B. Shimek. The
loess of Natchez and of the lower Mississippi valley is of
special interest, inasmuch as in that region loess was first
recognised in America by Lyell in 1846. The researches
of the author afford arguments against both the aqueous
NO. 1846, vou. 71]
NATURE
[MAkCi 10, 1905
and glacial theories of its origin. The characteristic fossils
are terrestrial upland species of land snails. Even the ex-
tremely delicate shells of snails’ eggs are preserved in the
loess. Natchez lies far south of the limits of glaciation,
and the molluscan fauna does not support the notion of a
glacial climate. The zxolian theory offers the best explana-
tion. The discovery of human remains in a deposit re-
garded as loess near Lansing, in Kansas, is discussed, and
Prof. Shimek concludes that the deposit is not loess, but a
talus. Considering, again, the relations of loess to the
Iowan drift, the author points out that there were several
periods of loess formation, inter-Glacial and post-Glacial.
Far beyond the border of the newer drift sheets, however,
the sharp lines of distinction between the successive accu-
mulations disappear, and there the deposits of loess probably
represent the combined accumulation of several inter-Glacial
and later drift periods. The essays are illustrated by
pictorial views and figures of the mollusca. In another
article Mr. F. J. Seaver describes and illustrates the Dis-
comycetes of eastern Iowa.
The *‘ Materials and Manufacture of Portland Cement,’’
by Mr. E. C. Eckel, with an essay on the cement resources
of Alabama, by Mr. E. A. Smith, form the contents of
Bulletin No. 8, Geological Survey of Alabama. In that
State there is found an extensive series of limestones capable
of furnishing material for the manufacture of Portland
cement, while clays and shales necessary to complete the
mixture are abundant.
In an article on the genesis of the magnetite deposits in
Sussex Co., New Jersey (Mining Magazine, December,
1904), Mr. Arthur C. Spencer concludes that they are con-
nected in origin with intrusive dioritic pegmatites. To the
same magazine Mr. W. H. Heydrick contributes a paper
on the physical and commercial conditions of the Kansas
oil-fields. The area extends over more than ten thousand
square miles. In 1889 the yield was 500 barrels of oil,
while in ten months during 1904 the yield was more than
four million barrels.
A reconnaissance in Trans-Pecos Texas, by Mr. G. B.
Richardson (Univ. of Texas, Mineral Survey, Bulletin
No. 9), was undertaken mainly to determine the conditions
of occurrence of underground water. The author was
enabled, however, to make general observations on the suc-
cessive formations from the pre-Cambrian to the Cretaceous
and Quaternary, and on the occurrence of coal, salt,
petroleum, and sulphur. The presence of underground
water was found to be widespread, but in a number of
places the wells contain much gypsum and other salts.
The report is accompanied by a geological map and _ pic-
torial views.
Some account of the exploration of the Potter Creek
Cave in California, is given by Mr. W. J. Sinclair (Univ.
of California Publications, Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol.,
vol. ii., No. 1). The cave is about one mile south-east of
the United States fishery station at Baird, on the McCloud
River, and it lies in a belt of carboniferous limestone at an
elevation of 1500 feet above sea-level, and about Soo feet
above the river-level at the mouth of Potter Creek. Remains
of various vertebrate animals were obtained from fan-like
deposits of earth and stalagmite-cemented breccia, which
formed the floor in a large chamber, above which there
were vertical chimney-like openings. With the exception
of the stalagmitic growths and fallen blocks, the entire
cave deposit was brought in through the vertical chutes.
Apart from fragments, more than 4600 determinable speci-
mens were collected of dissociated limb bones, jaws, and teeth.
Complete skeletons were not common. Associated parts of
the skeletons of squirrels and wood-rats, of a snake
(Crotalus), and a bat were found; also several complete
limbs of Arctotherium simum, remains of Megalonyx, Masto-
don, Elephas primigenius, and a new genus named Eucera-
therium, a member of the cavicorn division of Artiodactyla,
which combines characters of several groups. Of the fifty-
two species listed, twenty-one belong to extinct forms. No
human remains were found, but some very doubtful
‘«jmplement-like bone fragments ”’ are described and figured.
The cave-fauna is older than the Glacial period in Cali-
fornia, and it is remarked that the 1500 foot contour marks
approximately the present elevation of an earlier valley
stage beneath which the existing cafions are trenched.
Marcu 16, 1905]
NATORE
473
FORTHCOMING BOOKS OF SCIENCE.
MESSRS: BAILLIERE, TINDALL AND COX an-
nounce :—* Mucous Membranes,’’ by W. Stuart-Low ;
** Conjunctivitis,’ by N. Bishop Harman; ‘“ Surface
Anatomy,” by T. Gillman Moorhead ; ‘‘ Elementary Micro-
scopy,’’ by F. Shillington Scales; ** Lectures on Appen-
dicitis, Hernia, and Perforating Ulcers,’ by G. R. Turner ;
“* Surgical Diagnosis,’’ by H. W. Carson; ‘‘ Medical Diag-
nosis,’’ by Dr. A. J. Whiting; ‘‘ Manual of Anatomy,’’ by
Prof. A. M. Buchanan; ‘‘ Manual of Midwifery,’’ by Dr.
H. Jellett; ‘‘ Psychiatry,’’ by Prof. Bianchi, translated by
Dr. J. MacDonald ; ‘‘ Manual of Practical Sanitary Science
and Laboratory Work,’’ by Dr. D. Somerville ; ‘‘ Asepsis,”’
by Dr. A. S. Vallack ; ‘* Dictionary of New Medical Terms,”’
by Dr. A. M. Gould; ‘‘ Military Hygiene,’’ by Maior R.
Caldwell; ‘‘ Veterinary Toxicology,’ by Lieut.-Col. J. A.
Nunn; ‘“Lecturés on Clinical Surgery,’’ by Dr. H. C.
Hinder; ‘‘ Diseases of the Foot of the Horse,’’ by H.
Caulton Reeks; ‘‘ Artistic Anatomy of Animals,’’ by E.
Cuyer, translated by G. Haywood ; ** Coroners’ Duties,’’ by
Dr. R: H. Wellington; ‘‘ Pathology,’’ by Dr. W. D’Este
Emery; and new editions of ‘‘ Rontgen Rays in Medical
Work,’’ by Dr. D. Walsh; ‘‘ Manual of Veterinary
Hygiene,’”’? by Lieut.-Col. F. Smith; and ‘‘ Animal Para-
sites,’’ by Prof. G. Neumann, translated by Dr. G. Fleming,
and edited by Prof. J. Macqueen.
In Messrs. A. and C. Black’s list we notice :—‘‘ The
Metaphysics of Nature,’’ by Carveth Read, and a “‘ Treatise
on Zoology,’’ edited by Dr. E. Ray Lankester, F-.R.S.,
part v., ‘* Mollusca.”
The announcements of the Cambridge University Press
include :—‘‘ The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate,’ by
G. Le Strange; ‘‘ Trees, vol. iii., Inflorescences and
Flowers,’’ by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. ; ‘* The Origin
and Influence of the Thorough-bred Horse,’’ by Prof. W.
Ridgeway; ‘‘ The Plague,’’ by Dr. W. J. Simpson; and
“* Immunity in Infectious Diseases,’’ by Prof. E. Metchnikoff,
authorised English translation by F. G. Binnie, illustrated.
The list of Messrs. Cassell and Co., Ltd., contains :—
““The Book of Photography, Practical, Theoretic, and
Applied,’’ edited by P. N. Hasluck, illustrated ; ‘* Cassell’s
Popular Gardening,’’ edited by W. P. Wright, illustrated ;
““Nature’s Riddles, or the Battle of the Beasts,’’ by
W. H. Shepheard-Walwyn, illustrated ; “‘ Cassell’s Physical
Educator,’’ by E. Miles, illustrated ; and ‘* Pictorial Practical
Tree and Shrub Culture, by W. P. Wright and W. Dalli-
more, illustrated ; ‘‘ Certificate Geometry,’’ by W. P. Work-
man and A. G. Cracknell; and ‘‘ General Elementary
Science, part ii., Plant and Animal Life,’’ by W. S.
Furneaux.
Messrs. Chapman and Hall, Ltd., promise :—‘‘ The
Principles of Heredity,’’ by Archdall Reid.
The Clarendon Press list contains :—Schiaparelli's
“* Astronomy in the Old Testament,’’ authorised English
translation, with additions by the author ; ‘‘ The Faroes and
Iceland,’’ by N. Annandale; ‘‘ The Farther East,’’ by A.
Little; ‘‘ Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum,
supplementum secundum, nomina et synonyma omnium
generum et specierum ab initio anni 1896 ad finem anni 1900
complectens,’’ pars. i., fasc. ii; Goebel’s ‘‘ Organography
of Plants,’’ authorised English translation, by Prof. I.
Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., vol. ii., ‘‘ Special Organography ”’;
Knuth’s ‘* Flower Pollination,’’ authorised English trans-
lation, by Prof. J. R. Ainsworth Davis; Solereder’s
““ Anatomical Characters of the Dicotyledonous Orders,”’
authorised English translation, by L. A. Boodle; and ‘*‘ The
Masai: their Language and Folklore,’’ by A. C. Hollis.
Messrs. Archibald Constable and Co. will publish :—
“* Leprosy and Fish Eating,’’ by Dr. J. Hutchinson, F.R-S. ;
““ Principles of Practical Microscopy,’’ by Dr. A. E. Wright;
“* Physiology of the Nervous System,’’ by J. P. Morat, trans-
lated and edited by Dr. H. W. Syers; ‘‘ The Lymphatics,”’
by G. Delamere, P. Poirier, and B. Cunéo, translated and
edited by C. H. Leaf; ‘‘ Surgical Anatomy of the Lymphatic
Glands,” by C. H. Leaf; ‘‘ The Prevention of Disease,”’
translated from the German by Dr. W. Evans; ‘‘ Steam
Boilers,”’ by H. H. Powles, illustrated; ‘‘ Steam Pipes,”’
by W. H. Booth, illustrated; ‘‘ The Economic and Com-
mercial Theory of Heat Power Plants,’’ by Prof. R. H.
Smith ; ‘‘ Motor Vehicles and Motors,”’ by W. W. Beaumont,
No. 1846, VoL. 71]
vol. ii., illustrated ; ‘‘ Compressed Air: its Production, Uses
and Applications,’’ by G. D. Hiscox, illustrated ; ‘‘ Reinforced
Concrete Construction,’’ by A. W. Buel and C, S. Hill,
illustrated ; ‘‘ Cotton Seed Products : a Manual of the Treat-
ment of Cotton Seed for its Products and their Utilisation
in the Arts,’’ by L. L. Lamborn, illustrated; ‘‘ Plat and
Profile Book for Civil Engineers and Contractors,’’ by H. F.
Dunham ; ‘* Engineering Contracts and Specifications,’’ by
Prof. J. B. Johnson; ‘‘ Earthwork and its Cost,’’ by H. P.
Gillette, illustrated ; ‘‘ The Elements of Water Supply Engin-
eering,’’ by E. S. Gould; ‘‘ Tables of Squares,’’ by J. L.
Hall; ‘* Mechanics—Problems for Engineering Students,”’
by Prof. F. B. Sanborn, illustrated ; ‘* The Railway Trans-
ition Spiral,’’ by Prof. A. N. Talbot; ‘* Tables for Obtaining
Horizontal Distartces and Differences of Level from Stadia
Readings, ’’ by Noble and Casgrain ; ‘‘ Technic of Mechanical
Drafting,’’ by G. W. Reinhardt, illustrated; ‘‘ Surveying
Manual,’’ by W. D. Penee and M. S. Ketchum; ‘“‘ Earth
Dams,’’ by B. Bassell, illustrated; ‘‘ The Design of Steel
Mill Buildings, and the Calculation of Stresses in Framed
Structurcs,*’ by M. S. Ketchum, illustrated ; ‘‘ Topographical
Record and Sketch Book for use with Transit and Stadia,’’
by D. L. Turner; ‘‘ Cleaning and Sewerage of Cities,”
by Prof. R. Baumeister, illustrated; ‘‘ Field Practice of
Railway Location,’’ by W. Beahan, illustrated; ‘* Tables
of Logarithms of Lengths up to 50 Feet, varying by 1/16
of an Inch,’’ by T. W. Marshall ; ‘‘ Economics of Road Con-
struction,’? by H. P. Gillette; ‘‘ Maxwell’s Theory and
Wireless Telegraphy,’’ part i., ‘‘ Maxwell’s Theory and
Hertzian Oscillations,’? by H. Poincaré, translated by K.
Vreeland ; part ii., ‘‘ The Principles of Wireless Telegraphy, i
by K. Vreeland; and new editions of ‘‘ Gas Engine Con-
struction,’’ by H. V. A. Parsell, jun., and A. J. Weed,
illustrated ; ‘‘ Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines,”’ by G. D.
Hiscox, illustrated; ‘‘ Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of
Gases,” by Dr. T. O’Conor Sloane, illustrated; * Shop
Kinks,’ by R. Grimshaw, illustrated ; ‘‘ Railway Track and
Track Work,’ by E. E. R. Tratman; “‘ City Roads and
Pavements Suited to Cities of Moderate Size,’’ by W. P.
Judson, illustrated. ; ‘
Messrs. J. M. Dent and Co. announce :—* Physiological
Psychology,’ by Dr. W. McDougall. ;
Messrs. Duckworth and Co. promise :—‘ Metapsychical
Phenomena,” by Dr. J. Maxwell, with prefaces by Sir Oliver
Lodge and Prof. Ch. Richet, translated by Mrs. Finch.
Messrs. R. Friedlander and Son (Berlin) announce :—
‘© Annales Mycologici,’’ vol. iii.; “* Die Vogel der
palaarktischen Fauna,’’ by Dr. E. Hartert, Heft iii. ; “ Die
Vogel Islands,’’ by P. Hantzsch; “ Analytische Ubersicht
der palaarktischen Lepidopterenfamilien,’’ by C. v.. Hor-
muzaki; ‘ Wissenschaftl. Ergebnisse einer zoologischen
Expedition nach dem Baikal-See 1g00-2,’’ by A. Korotneff,
i. Lief., by W. Michaelsen, “ Die Oligochaeten ”’ ; “ Mitteil-
ungen aus dem zoologischen Museum in Berlin,” ii. Band,
iv. Heft, by J. Thiele, ‘‘ Beitrage z. Morphologiss. Arzu-
liden ”’; ‘‘ Abbildungen der in Deutschland und den angrenz-
enden Gebieten vorkommenden Grundformen der Orchi-
deen,’ by W. Miiller and F. Kranzlin, illustrated; ‘‘ Das
Tierreich,’’ edited by F. E. Schulze, Lief. oy. Te RY
Stebbing, ‘‘ Aphipoda,’’ i.; Lief. 22, H. Stichel and H.
Riffarth, ‘‘ Heliconiide ’?; Lief. 23, L. v. Graff, “‘ Turbel-
laria, i. Accela”’; ‘‘ Catalogus Mammalium tam viventium
quam fossilium,’’ by E. L. Trouessart, Quinquennale Sup-
plementum, Anno 1904, Fasc. iii. ; ‘‘ Die neue Losungs- und
elektrochemische Theorie,’’ by L. Zeschko.
Messrs. Gauthier-Villars (Paris) promise :—‘‘ Précis de
Photographie générale,’’ by E. Belin, tome ii., “ Applica-
tions scientifiques et industrielles ’’; “* Traité d’Analyse,’’ by
Prof. E. Picard, tome iv., ‘* Equations aux Dérivées par-
tielles’’; and ‘‘ Lecons de Mécanique céleste,’’ by Prof.
H. Poincaré, tomes ii. and iii.
Mr. Henry J. Glaisher announces :—‘ Mucomembranous
Entercolitis,’’ by Dr. Froussard, edited by Dr. E. Blake ;
“©The Westminster Hospital Reports, 1903-4,’’ vol. xiv.,
edited by Drs. E. P. Paton and P. Stewart ; ‘‘ The Intestinal
Catarrhs,’’ by Dr. E. Blake; ‘‘ X-Ray Charts,’’ by Dr.
R. J. Cowen; ‘‘A Short Essay on Insanity,’’ by C.
Williams; and ‘‘ Ethyl Chloride in Surgical and Dental
Practice,’’ by A. de Prenderville.
The announcements of Messrs. Charles Griffin and Co.,
Ltd., are:—‘‘ An Introduction to the Design of Beams,
474
Girders, and Columns, in Machines and Structures, with
Examples in Graphic Statics,’? by W. H. Atherton, illus-
trated ; ‘‘ Smoke Abatement,’’ by W. Nicholson, illustrated ;
and new editions of ‘‘ Electrical Practice in Collieries,’’ by
D. Burns, illustrated; ‘‘ The Principles and Construction of
Pumping Machinery (Steam and Water Pressure),’’ by H.
Davey, illustrated; ‘‘ The Metallurgy of Steel,’’ by F. W.
Harbord, illustrated; ‘‘ Gas, Oil, and Air Engines,’’ by
B. Donkin, illustrated; and ‘* Properties of Matter ’’ (vol. 1.
of ‘‘ A Text-Book of Physics ’’), by Profs. J. H. Poynting,
F.R.S., and J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., illustrated.
Mr. Heinemann directs attention to :—*‘ Publications of an
American Archeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900,
part iv., Semitic Inscriptions,’’ by Dr. E. Littmann, illus-
trated.
Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton’s list includes :—‘‘ Nerves
in Order, or the Maintenance of Health,’? by Dr. A. T.
Schofield ; ‘‘ Modern Electricity,’ by J. H. and K. J. Hora;
““Woodmyth and Fable,’? by E. Thompson Seton; ‘* The
Lure of the Labrador Wild, a Story of the Exploring Ex-
pedition conducted by Leonidas Hubbard, jun.,’’ by D.
Wallace ; and ‘‘ The New Knowledge, a Simple Explanation
of the New Physics and the New Chemistry in their Relation
to the New Theory of Matter,’’ by Prof. R. K. Duncan.
Mr. U. Hoepli (Milan) announces :—‘‘ Contribuzioni alla
Storia della Botanica,’’ by O. Penzig; and ‘‘ La Flora
Legnosa del Sottoceneri,’’ by A. Bettelini.
In Messrs. Longmans and Co.’s list we notice :—‘‘ A
Systematic Course of Practical Organic Chemistry,’’ by
L. G. Radcliffe; ‘‘ Elementary Steam Engineering,’’ by
H. W. Metcalfe, illustrated; and ‘‘ An Atlas of Derma-
tology,’’ by Dr. M. Dockrell ; ‘* A Common Humoral Factor
of Disease, and its Bearing on the Practice of Medicine,’’
by Dr. F. Hare, 2 vols. ; “ Ice or Water, another Appeal to
Induction from the Scholastic Methods of Modern Geology,”
by Sir H. H. Howorth, K.C.1.E., F.R.S.
Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., direct attention to :—
“The Life History of British Flowering Plants,’’ by Lord
Avebury, F.R.S.; ‘‘ The Historical Relations of Medicine
and Surgery,’’ being the address delivered at the St. Louis
Exhibition by Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S.; ‘* Tribes
of the Malay Peninsula,’’ by W. W. Skeat, illustrated ; ‘ A
Treatise on Chemistry,’’ by Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., and
Prof. C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S., i., ‘‘ The Non-Metallic
Elements,’’ revised by Drs. H. G. Colman and A. Harden;
‘“ Stonehenge Astronomically Considered,’’ by Sir Norman
Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., illustrated; ‘‘ The Theory of
Light,’’ by Dr. C. E. Curry; ‘‘ Magnetism and Electricity
for Students,’? by H. E. Hadley; ‘* Lectures on the Phil-
osophy of Kant, and other Lectures and Essays,’’ by the late
Prof. H. Sidgwick; ‘‘ Philosophical Studies,’’? by D. G.
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‘“A Handbook of Metallurgy,’’ by C. Schnabel, translated
and edited by Prof. H. Louis.
Messrs. Masson and Co. (Paris) promise :—‘‘ Traité de
Chimie minérale,’’ edited by H. Moissan, tome ii., fase. i. ;
tome iv., fasc. i.; ‘* Le Chauffage des Habitations, par
Circulation d’Air chaud, de Vapeur ou d’Eau chaude,’”’ by R.
Périssé; ‘‘ Le Chauffage électrique,’’ by Lévylier; ‘‘ Les
Moulins a Vent,’’ by Prof. Hérisson; ‘‘ Le Vinaigre,’’ by
Astruc; ‘* Procédés de Commande mécanique par 1’Electri-
cité,’’ by Capt. Frilley; and ‘‘ L’Industrie de 1’Or,”’ by
L. M. Granderye.
Messrs. Methuen and Co. announce :—‘‘ Archeology and
False Antiquities,’’ by Dr. R. Munro.
Mr. John Murray’s list includes :—*‘ Lhasa
Mysteries,’’ by Lieut.-Col. L. A. Waddell, C.B., illus-
trated; ‘‘ Our Sudan, its Pyramids and Progress,’’ by
J. Ward; ‘‘ An Expedition into the Central Tian Shan,
carried out in the Years 1902—1903,’’ by Dr. G. Merzbacher.
illustrated ; ‘* An Account of the Rothamsted Experiments,’’
by A. D. Hall; ‘‘ Recent Development in Biological
Science,’? by W. B. Hardy, F.R.S.; ‘‘ Descartes: his Life
and Times,’’ by E. S. Haldane, illustrated; ‘‘ Artillery and
Explosives,’’ essays and lectures written and delivered at
various times, by Sir A. Noble, K.C.B., F.R.S., illustrated ;
‘Growth and Spread of Culture,’’ by Prof. E. B. Tylor;
F.R.S., illustrated; and new editions of ‘‘ Marine Boilers,
their Construction and Working,’’ dealing more especially
with tubulous boilers, based on the first edition of the work
by M. L. E. Bertin, edited by L. S. Robertson, illustrated ;
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
and its
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
‘The Vegetable Garden, or the Edible Vegetables, Salads
and Herbs Cultivated in Europe and America,’’ by W.
Robinson.
Messrs. George Newnes, Ltd., promise :—‘‘ Reptile Life,’’
by W. P. Pycraft.
Messrs. Oliver and Boyd (Edinburgh) direct attention to :—
“Structural and Field Geology for Beginners in Geology
and Students of Mining, Civil Engineering, Agriculture,
Public Health, &c.,’’ by Prof. J. Geikie, F.R.S., illustrated.
Messrs. G. P. Putnam’s Sons give notice of :—'' The Case
for Physical Culture,’ by H. JI. Hancock, illus
trated; ‘The Jordan Valley and Petra,’’ by Prof.
W. Libbey and Rev. F._ E. Hoskins, illustrated ;
‘Physical Regeneration,’’ by J. Cantlie, illustrated ; ‘* The
Trees of North-Eastern America,’’ with introduction by
N. L. Britton; and new editions of ‘‘ The Shrubs of North-
Eastern America,’’ by C. S. Newhall, illustrated; ‘* An
Introduction to Vertebrate Embryology based on the Study
of the Frog and the Chick,’? by Dr. A. M. Reese, illus-
trated; ‘‘ Materia Medica for Nurses,’”’ by L. L. Dock;
and ‘‘ Thinking, Feeling, Doing,’”’ by Dr. E. W. Scripture,
illustrated.
The list of the Walter Scott Publishing Co. includes :—
““ Diet and Hygiene for Infants,’? by Dr. F. H. Alderson.
Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., announce :—
“The History of Philosophy,’’ by Dr. J. E. Erdmann, fifth
German edition, revised by W. B. Erdmann, an English
abridgment, translated and edited by W. S. Hough;
‘“Student’s Text Book of Zoology,’’ by A. Sedgwick,
F.R.S., vol. ii., illustrated; ‘‘ The Races of South
Africa: their Migrations and Invasions, showing the
Intrusion of the Stronger Races into Hunting Grounds
of the Ancient Abatura or Bushmen, the Aboriginal
Cave Dwellers of the Country,” by G. W. Stow,
illustrated; ‘‘ Physiological Psychology,’’ a translation
of the fifth and wholly re-written (1902-3) German
edition, by Prof. E. B. Titchener, vol. ii., illustrated ; and
new editions of ‘‘ Introduction to the Study of Organic
Chemistry,’’ by J. Wade; ‘‘ Sanatoria for Consumptives
in Various Parts of the World,’”’ by F. R. Walters, illus-
trated; and ‘* Handbook of Systematic Botany,’’ by Dr. E.
Warming, edited by Prof. M. C. Potter, illustrated.
The list of the University Tutorial Press, Ltd., com-
prises :—‘' Chemistry, First Stage, Theoretical Organic,”
by Dr. R. A. Lyster; ‘‘ Chemistry, Junior,’’ by R. H.
Adie; ‘ Technical Electricity,’’ by Prof. H. T. Davidge
and R. W. Hutchinson; ‘‘ Magnetism and _ Electricity,
School,” by Dr. R. H. Jude; ‘‘ Practical Physics,” by
W. R. Bower; ‘‘ Properties of Matter,’? by C. J. L. Wag-
staff ; ‘‘ Elementary Science of Common Life (Chemistry),’’
by W. T. Boone; ‘‘ Physiography, Section One ’’; ‘ Gro-
metry, Junior,”? by W. P. Workman and A. G. Cracknell;
‘* Geometry, Preliminary (Part i., Junior Geometry),’’ by
the same authors; ‘‘ Geometry, Theoretical and Practical,’”
by the same authors; ‘‘ Scholarship Geometry,’’ by W. P.
Workman and A. G. Cracknell; ‘* Scholarship Elementary
Science, Section i.’’; ‘‘ Scholarship Elementary Science,
Section ii., (a) Chemistry, (b) Astronomy, (c) Biology ’’;
and new editions of ‘‘ Chemical Analysis,’’ by Drs. W.
Briggs and R. W. Stewart; ‘‘ Light, Text-Book of,”’ by
Dr. R. W. Stewart; ‘‘ Inorganic Chemistry, Second Stage
(Theoretical)? by Dr. G. H. Bailey; and ‘‘ The New
Matriculation Physics: Heat, Light, and Sound,’’ by Dr.
R. W. Stewart.
Mr. T. Fisher Unwin announces :—‘‘ Travels of a
Naturalist in Northern Europe,’’? by J. A. Harvie-Brown ;
‘* Siberia, a Reeord of Travel, Exploration, and Climbing,’”
by S. Turner; ‘‘ The Age of the Earth, and other Geological
Studies,’’ by Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; and ‘‘ Gardening
for the Million,”’ by A. Pink.
Messrs. W. Wesley and Son promise :—An authorised
English edition of the ‘‘ Atlas of Emission Spectra of most
of the Elements,’’ by Prof. A. Hagenbach and H. Konen,
translated by Dr. A. S. King.
The following are Messrs. Whittaker and Co.’s announce-
ments :—‘‘ Steam Turbines,’’ by H. M. Hobart and T.
Stevens; ‘‘ Armature Construction,’’ by H. M. Hobart;
‘* Concrete-Steel, a Treatise on the Theory and Practice of
Reinforced Concrete Construction,’’ by W. Noble Twelve-
trees; ‘ Practical Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony,’’ by
Prof. Mazzotto, translated by S. R. Bottone; and new
Marcu 16, 1905}
NATURE
475
s -— z eee
editions of :—‘‘ Electricity in its Application to Telegraphy,”’
by T. E. Herbert ; ‘‘ Central Station Electricity Supply,” by
A. Gay and C. H. Yeaman: “‘ The Alternating-Current
Circuit and Motor,’’ by W. P. Maycock; and ‘‘ Radium,”’
by S. R. Bottone.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Campripce.—An Arnold Gerstenberg studentship will be
offered for competition in the Michaelmas term of 1906,
The studentship will be awarded by means of essays.
Every candidate must send on or before October 1, 1906, an
essay on one of the subjects printed below addressed to
Dr. James Ward, Trinity College. The studentship, which
will be of the annual value of nearly gol., will be tenable
for two years, upon the condition that at the end of the
first year the student’s progress in philosophical study is
deemed satisfactory by the board of managers. The subjects
for essays are :—(1) a philosophical discussion of the doctrine
of energy and particularly of the new theory of energetics ;
(2) a critical examination of Descartes’ philosophy of
nature; (3) the relation of mathematics and the theory of
probability to physics; (4) the theory of psychophysical
parallelism; (5) the scope and methods of comparative
psychology ; (6) the philosophical import of post-Darwinian
theories of natural selection.
The principal and the professors at McGill University,
Montreal have nominated Mr. L. V. King, a student in the
faculty of arts, to the Canadian scholarship lately estab-
lished at Christ’s College.
An exhibition of sol. a year tenable for two vears is
offered by the governing body of Emmanuel Ccllcge to an
advanced studenf commencing residence at the college in
October, 1905. Applications should be sent to the master
of Emmanuel (from whom further particulars may be ob-
tained) not later than October 1.
The local examinations and lectures syndicate is about
to elect an assistant secretary for the department of the
local lectures. The appointment will be in the first instance
for one year. ‘The stipend will be 15o0/. in an ordinary year,
and 20o0l, in those years in which summer meetings are
held. Graduates of the university who desire to offer them-
selves as candidates are requested to send their names
before May 8 to the Rev. D. H. S. Cranage.
Tue London School of Tropical Medicine has been ad-
mitted as a school of the University of London in the
faculty of medicine in tropical medicine only.
The committee of the Liverpool School of Tropical
Medicine has appointed Mr. R. T. Newstead lecturer in
economic entomology and parasitology.
Tue fourth annual students’ soirée of the Sir John Cass
echnical Institute will be held in the institute, Jewry Street,
Aldgate, E.C., on Saturday, March 18. Exhibits and
demonstrations referring to the work of the various depart-
ments form part of the programme.
Iv is reported, says Science, that Mr. Andrew Carnegie
has offered to give 100,000l. to the University of Virginia
on the condition that the authorities of the institution raise
a similar amount from other sources, and that the late
James C. Carter, the eminent New York lawyer, has be-
queathed 40,o00l. to Harvard University. Science also
states that at the first of the winter convocations of the
George Washington University a gift of property, estim ited
to be worth 20,o00l., was announced for the establish nent
of a chair and course of graduate study on the history of
civilisation. Various sums of money raised by the trustees
and alumni association, aggregating 55,o00l., were also
announced.
A ComMMIssion was appointed a few years ago to inquire
into the condition of manual and practical instruction in
Irish primary schools, and, as the result of the recom-
mendations made by this Commission, instruction in ele-
mentary experimental science was introduced into the
primary schools of Ireland. The results of this teaching
have, in the opinion of competent authorities, been in every
way satisfactory. Not only has the educational value of
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
experimental science again been demonstrated, but its bene-
ficial effects on the progress of Ireland’s industries and
agriculture have been made clear. Notwithstanding the
success which naturally has followed the introduction of
practical instruction in scientific principles into Irish ele-
mentary schools, the Treasury has refused to renew the
small grant required to meet the necessary expenditure, and
the work of organising science instruction in the schools—
after four years—is being stopped. It is difficult indeed to
understand so retrograde a policy. The incompleteness of
all schemes of education which ignore the claims of prac-
tical instruction in the fundamental facts of science has been
demonstrated repeatedly ; the connection between American
and German industrial success and the scientific systems of
education established in these countries has become familiar
to all interested in their country’s welfare, so that no
excuse—not even the urgent need of economy in national
expenditure—can justify this action of the Treasury. It is
to be hoped earnestly that steps may yet be taken to avert
what would be nothing short of a calamity to Ireland, and
that the work, which has begun so auspiciously under the
present organisers of science instruction, instead of being
stopped may be broadened and extended.
Ir is stated in the Times that the committee, presided
over by Mr. Haldane, M.P., appointed to consider the allo-
cation of the increased grant-in-aid of education of a
university standard in arts and science has now finished
its inquiry. Excluding goool. to be allotted later in the
financial year, the committee proposes that the sum of
45,0001. (making a total grant of 54,0001.) be allotted as
follows :—Manchester, 6oool.; University College, London,
5000l.; Liverpool, « so00l.; Birmingham, 4500l.; Leeds,
4oool. ; King’s College, London, 39001. ; Newcastle-on-Tyne,
30001.; Nottingham, 2900l.; Sheffield, 2300l.; Bedford
College, London, 2000l.; Bristol, 200ol.; Reading, 1700l. ;
Southampton, 1700l.; Dundee, toool. The committee ex-
presses the view that the time has come for making a new
departure in the principle on which State assistance is to
be given to the highest education. It is recommended that
a moderate sum should be set aside for distribution by way
of payment to post-graduate students from the university
colleges who devote themselves for one, two, or three years
to special problems; and that to ensure the money being
applied most efficiently to the stimulation of individual
study, as distinguished from the general purposes of the
college to the development of which other sums out of the
grant are directed, the distribution should assume the form
of a grant made directly to the student on the advice of
some impartial authority. It is also suggested that the
grant-in-aid should in future be made to a committee,
instead of to the colleges direct, and that this committee
should make an annual report to the Treasury, to be laid
before Parliament. In conclusion the committee urges the
necessity of leaving to the advisory committee discretion
to deal with particular circumstances as they arise.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonvon.
Royal Society, February 9.—‘‘On the Stellar Line near
A 4686.’’ By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and
Ff, EK. Baxandall, A.R.C.Sc.
In this paper the authers direct attention to a _ well-
marked line of unknown origin which appears in one of
the Kensington photographs of the helium spectrum near
A 4686.
It is shown that a conspicuous line near the same wave-
length occurs in the spectra of the chromosphere, nebula,
bright-line stars, certain Orion stars, and in ¢ Puppis, the
star the spectrum of which was found by Prof. Pickering to
contain a new series of lines which he considered to belong
to hydrogen.
The mean wave-length of the stellar line, as derived
from the available published records, is shown to agree very
closely with the wave-length of the line in the laboratory
spectrum, and the authors conclude that the identity of the
two lines is probably a real one.
Rydberg has shown that the line near A 4686 is the first
line in the principal series of hydrogen, and the authors
of the present paper consider that the ‘‘ strange’? line in
47
NATURE
[Marcu 16, 1905
the helium spectrum is probably none other than the same
line. ‘They can, however, assign no reason for its appear-
ance in only one of the numerous photographs of the
helium spectrum taken at Kensington.
“* Note on the Spectrum of » Centauri.’’ By Sir Norman
Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., and F. E. Baxandall,
A.R.C.Sc.
In this note the authors give an analysis of some of the
bright lines in the spectrum of w Centauri. This star not
being available at Kensington, an excellent reproduction
by Prof. Pickering was used as a basis for the analysis.
The chief bright lines belong to hydrogen, as Pickering
and other observers have pointed out. The minor bright
lines, however, have hitherto had no origin suggested for
them. In this note it is shown that the most marked of
the minor bright lines agree very closely in position with
the strongest enhanced lines of iron, and the authors con-
clude that the stellar and terrestrial lines are probably
identical in origin. It is pointed out that the same lines are
conspicuous in the spectra of Novz in their earlier stages.
“The Arc Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to
Celestial Spectra.’’ By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., and F. E, Baxandall, A.R.C.Sc.
In this paper a record is given of the lines in the arc
spectrum of the rare element scandium between A 3900 and
A 5720. The photograph used for reduction was taken with
a large Rowland concave grating, having a ruled surface
of 5%x2 inches (1435 cm.) and a radius of 21 feet 6
inches. The scale of the photograph is such that the
distance between K and D is 303 inches, or 77 cm. This
is equivalent to 2-6 tenth-metres per millimetre.
An analysis of the lines is given with regard to their
appearance in the Fraunhoferic spectrum. It is shown that
nearly all the stronger lines occur as solar lines, but the
great maiority of the lines weaker than intensity 6
(maximum intensity 10) are missing from the solar spectrum.
Short analyses are also given of the relation of the
scandium arc lines to the lines in the spectra of the
chromosphere, sun-spots, and stars. The strongest scan-
dium lines are shown to be specially prominent in the
chromospheric spectrum, the same lines being conspicuous
in stellar spectra of the Polarian type (e.g. y Cygni). In
the higher stellar type Cygnian (a Cygni), the strongest
scandium lines are present, but only weak. At the still
higher stages of stellar spectra the scandium lines are
lacking.
With regard to sun-spot spectra, the only solar-scandium
line (A 5672-047) given by Rowland in the region F to D,
is found to be nearly always well affected, and it often
occurs amongst the twelve most widened lines recorded at
Kensington in spot spectra.
““On Europium and its
William Crookes, F.R.S.
Exner and Haschek
lengths of the europium
plied by Demargay. A comparison of their lines with
the present author’s shows that the material was by
no means pure. Urbain’s europia is not quite so free from
impurities as his gadolinia. The author has been able to
detect in his photographs the following lines :—Gadolinium
is represented by very faint lines at 3450.55, 3481-99, 3585-10,
3646.36, 3654-79, 3056.32, 3664-76, 3697-90, 3699-89, 3743-62,
3768.52, 3796.58, 3805-70, 3850.83, 3851.16, 4050.08, 4225.33.
Yttrium is represented by the line at 3774.51, lanthanum by
the line at 3988.66, and calcium by the two lines at 3933-825
and 3968.625.
Ultra-violet Spectrum’: Sir
have measured the
lines’ from material
wave-
sup-
February 9 and February 23.—‘‘ Phosphorescence caused
by the Beta and Gamma Rays of Radium.’’ By G. T.
Beilby. Communicated by Prof. Larmor, Sec. R.S. Part
i. read February 9, part ii. read February 23.
The conclusions arrived at in these papers may be sum-
marised as follows :—
(1) Certain types of phosphorescence are due to the
molecular movement or displacement which is produced by
heat, by mechanical stresses, or by radiant energy.
(2) Certain other types are distinguished by their appear-
ance in three stages, called here primary, secondary, and
4 ‘*Wellenlangen-Tabellen fiir Spektralanalytische
¥. Deuticke. (Leipzig and Vienna, 1902.)
No. 1846, VOL. 71]
Untersuchungen,”
revived phosphorescence. These can be explained as due to
atomic changes in which chemical affinity is the controlling
factor.
(3) The phenomena of this type appear to support the
view that a species of electrolysis occurs in solids exposed to
the 6 or kathode rays; that the products of electrolysis are
insulated from each other, as in a viscous electrolyte; and
that it is the breaking down of this insulation with the
re-combination of the ions which causes revived phosphor-
escence.
When the canary-yellow crystals of barium platinocyanide
are exposed to the B and vy rays for some hours, they turn
red, and their phosphorescence in the rays falls to 8 per cent.
of its original value. Neither the colour nor the phosphor-
escence is restored by exposure to sunlight or to diffused
daylight. The only way completely to restore these qualities
is to dissolve the salt in water and re-crystallise it. In this
way the reddened salt is completely re-converted into the
yellow form, and there are no signs that the reddening has
been associated with any permanent chemical change. The
possible physical changes were, therefore, investigated.
When the crystalline structure of the yellow salt is impaired,
either by mechanical flowing or by dehydration by heat,
there is a very conspicuous colour change, the canary-yellow
giving place to an intense brick-red colour, while the phos-
phorescence in the radium rays falls to 2 per cent. of its
original value. By solution and crystallisation these
amorphous forms are restored to the yellow crystalline state
with its full phosphorescent value. The effects produced by
the 6 rays are, therefore, closely analogous to those produced
by the change from the crystalline to the amorphous state-
In the light of the author’s earlier observations on the
phase changes A=*C in metals and salts, it was to be
expected that the change C—-A, produced by mechanical
flow, would be reversed by raising the temperature of the
substance to the stability point of the A phase. Making due
allowance for the difficulty caused by the presence of water
of crystallisation and its partial loss on heating the salt, it
was found that the change A—-C could be brought about
in the mechanically-flowed salt at a temperature of about
go°, the colour being thereby changed from red to yellow, and
the phosphorescence raised frorn 2 per cent. to 33 per cent.
of its original value. It was found that the crystals reddened
by the rays could also be partially restored to their former
condition of colour and phosphorescence by quickly heating
them in a sealed capillary tube to about 120°. By this treat-
ment the phosphorescence was raised from 8 per cent. to
33 per cent, of its original value in the yellow crystals.
The analogy between the phase changes caused by
mechanical flow and the change which results from ex-
posure to the B rays is thus complete, and it is concluded
that the over-stimulation to which the vibrating melecules
of the platinocyanide crystals are subjected under the action
of the B rays during the preliminary stage of bright phos-
phorescence results in a state analogous to that of elastic
fatigue in vibrating metal wires or glass fibres. Up to a
certain point, this fatigue may be recovered from, that is
to say, if the relative displacement of the molecules from
their proper crystalline relations has not passed beyond a
certain stage; but beyond this stage there is no power of
self-recovery, and heat is necessary to endow the molecules
with freedom of movement sufficient to enable them to return
to their crystalline positions. The final stage of permanent
fatigue or over-strain in the salt corresponds with the
amorphous condition which results from mechanically-pro-
duced flow. The comparative instability of the crystalline
structure in this salt has thus been the means of directing
attention to the part which may be played by physical
structure in phosphorescence. But the persistence of phos-
phorescence, even in the amorphous state, gives an equally
clear indication that a more general explanation of these
phenomena is still needed.
This further explanation was reached by a study of the
action of the 8 and y rays on quartz, glass, calespar, and
the haloid salts of potassium. In these substances, in
addition to a primary phosphorescence, the rays produce
certain well-marked coloration effects; quartz is turned
brown, calcspar faint yellow, glass purple or brown,
potassium chloride reddish-violet, and bromide and iodide
blue to green. Further, whether the coloration lasts for
months or only for a few moments, it is found that phosphor
Marcu 16, 1905]
NATURE
477
escence is revived when the substance is heated, while the
colour fades or disappears. In quartz, glass, and calcspar
it is easy to locate the seat of phosphorescence within the
layers which have been penetrated and coloured by the rays.
This penetration may take place to the depth of several
millimetres, and in materials like quartz, glass, or calcspar
it is certain that whatever changes occur in these layers
must be chemically self-contained and quite removed from
atmospheric influences. The view, therefore, that coloration
is due to the reduction of one of the elements of the sub-
stance, e.g. potassium in glass, affords only a partial ex-
planation of the phenomena. It is necessary to suppose that
the separation and retention of the metal ions must equally
involve the separation and retention of the ions of the acid
radicle with which the metal had been combined. Further,
in order that the different ions may be kept apart, the un-
altered molecules must act as barriers or insulators to prevent
their re-combination. But the molecules are not always
immovable barriers, for, as the temperature is raised, their
mobility is increased, and their insulating power is corre-
spondingly diminished. Experiments were made on the
storage of latent phosphorescing power at all temperatures
between —100° and +300°. While for each substance there
is a range of temperature over which its storage capacity
is at a maximum, yet the range over which storage can
take place is sometimes very wide. In calcspar, storage
occurs over the whole range investigated, while in crystal-
lised platinocyanide of barium it was only observed between
—100° and —50°.
February 16.—‘ Polarised Réntgen Radiation.’’ By Dr.
Charles G. Barkla. Communicated by Prof. J. J. Thom-
son, F.R.S.
Experiments on secondary radiation from gases and light
solids subject to X-rays led to the theory that during the
passage of R6ntgen radiation through such substances each
electron has its motion accelerated by the intense electric
fields in the primary pulses, and consequently is the origin
of a secondary radiation which is most intense in the
direction perpendicular to that of acceleration of the electron,
and vanishes in the direction of that acceleration. The
direction of electric intensity at a point in a secondary pulse
is perpendicular to the line joining that point and the
origin of the pulse, and is in the plane passing through the
direction of acceleration of the electron.
A secondary beam the direction of propagation of which
is perpendicular to that of the primary will, according to this
theory, be plane polarised, the direction of electric intensity
being parallel to the pulse front in the primary beam. If
the primary beam be plane polarised, the secondary radiation
from the electrons has a maximum intensity in a direction
perpendicular to that of electric displacement in the primary
beam, and zero intensity in the direction of electric displace-
ment.
In these experiments the secondary radiation from light
substances was too feeble to allow accurate measurement of
the intensity of the tertiary radiation.
A‘ consideration of the method of production of primary
R6ntgen rays in an X-ray tube, however, leads one to expect
partial polarisation of the primary beam proceeding from
the antikathode in a direction perpendicular to that of pro-
pagation of the impinging kathode rays, for there is
probably at the antikathode a greater acceleration along the
line of propagation of the kathode rays than in a direction
at right angles; consequently, in a beam of X-rays proceed-
ing in a direction perpendicular to that of the kathode
stream, there should be greater electric intensity parallel to
the stream than in a direction at right angles.
Using such a beam as the primary radiation, and a light
substance, as air, paper, or aluminium, as the radiator, the
intensity of a secondary beam as indicated by an electroscope
was found to reach a maximum when the direction of the
kathode stream was perpendicular to that of propagation of
the secondary beam, and a minimum when these two were
parallel. ;
A number of experiments made this evidence of partial
polarisation of the primary radiation conclusive.
When heavier metals, such as copper, tin, and lead, which
emit a secondary radiation differing considerably in character
from the primary. producing it, were used as the radiators,
no variation in intensity of secondary radiation was observed
No. 1846, VoL. 71 |
as the bulb was rotated, though experiments were made
with primary radiations varying considerably in penetrating
power. <
Geological Society, February 17.—Dr. J. E. Marr,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Annual general meeting.—
In his anniversary address, the president directed attention
to the classification of the sedimentary rocks, pointing out
that the arrangement of the events which, taken together,
constitute earth-history, according to their proper sequence
in time must ever remain the territory of the geologist in
which he will pursue his labours by exclusively-geological
methods. He pointed out that, since the time of William
Smith, and mainly by the adoption of his principles, the
classification of the strata had progressed towards perfection
by the method of successive approximations. He directed
attention to the many similarities between the records of the
geological column and the records preserved in the ‘* meteoro-
grams ’’ of meteorologists. In each case the records were
impressed as zigzag and broken lines, though an additional
difficulty occurred in the case of the geological records owing
to their frequently-blurred nature. Further, the meteoro-
logist had his chronometer, whereas the geologist must con-
struct his time-scale from the records on what might, for
purposes of comparison, be referred to as the ‘‘ geograms,”’
or strips of the geological sediments. In some cases the
lines of the geograms closely coincided with time-lines, in
other cases they departed therefrom more or less widely, and
it was one of the tasks of the geologists, from study of the
geograms, to attempt to draw in the time-lines. It was
to be remembered, however, that however closely the time-
lines and lines of the records coincided, they were not the
same lines. The principal variations in the records of the
geograms are due to alternate formation and cessation cf
deposit ; to the differences in character of the deposits owing
to various local conditions; to accumulation of contempor-
aneous volcanic material ; to variations in the nature of the
earth-movements ; to changes in the nature of the included
organisms ; and lastly to climatic changes, and proceeded to
consider the significance of these records as bearing upon
the classification of the sediments. The president advocated
the adoption of a triple classification, such as had been
already tacitly adopted in the case of some of the sediments,
as, for instance, those of Jurassic age, where divisions were
made according to (1) lithological change, (2) organic
change, and (3) time; and pointed out how such a classifica-
tion could be adopted without any violent changes in an
existing nomenclature or in the rules of priority. He illus-
trated the suggested changes by a more detailed discussion
of the classification of the Ordovician strata, and pointed
out that we had names which might be used with chrono-
logical significance in the case of the divisions of the rocks
of most of the great systems; and maintained that, as our
knowledge increased, we could refer beds of new areas to
their places among the different series, marking periods of
time with a confidence similar to that with which we have
long assigned strata of remote regions to one or other of the
great systems.
February 22.—Dr. J. E. Marr, F-R.S., president, in the
chair.—Exhibition of a series of Danish rocks illustrating
(1) the share that Echinoderms may take in rock-building ;
(2) the transition from the Secondary to the Tertiary Era in
the Baltic basin near Denmark ; (3) the special conditions at
the close of the Glacial Period, in the limited area where
alone these rocks are now found as erratic blocks: Dr. F. A.
Bather.—On the order of succession of the Manx slates in
their northern half, and its bearing on the origin of the
schistose breccia associated therewith: Rev. J. F. Blake.
On the wash-outs in the Middle Coal-measures of south
Yorkshire: F. E. Middleton. The opinion of the author
is that the wash-outs occupy the sites of winding streams,
meandering through the alluvial tracts in which the coal-
seams were being formed.
Zoological Society, February 21 - Mr. Howard Saunders,
vice-president, in the chair.—A contribution to our know-
ledge of the varieties of Lacerta muralis in western Europe
and North Africa: G. A. Boulenger.—The Nigerian giraffe
(Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) and the Kilimanjaro Giraffe
(G. camelopardalis tippelskirchi) : R. Lydekker.—Dolphins
from Travancore: R. Lydekker, In this paper the author
made special reference to two specimens of the genus
478
NALTORE’ *
[Marcu 16, 1905
Tursiops, drawings and particulars of which had been
supplied to him from the Trevandrum Museum.—A second
collection of mammals made by Mr. C. H. B. Grant for
Mr. C. D. Rudd’s exploration of South Africa: Oldfield
Thomas and Harold Schwann. The collection, which
has been presented to the National Museum by Mr. Rudd,
was made in the Wakkerstroom district of the South-eastern
Transvaal, and includes examples of twenty-six species.
Several local subspecies were described, besides a new shrew
from Zululand.—The greater kudu of Somaliland: R. I.
Poceck. The author pointed out that the northern form
of Strepsiceros strepsiceros differed from the southern in
having only about five white stripes instead of nine or ten
on each side of the body. The northern form should thus
rank as a distinct subspecies, for which the name chora
was available. The difference in coloration seemed to be
correlated with a difference of habitat, the northern form
frequenting more mountainous and less thickly-wooded
country than the southern, which was frequently found in
the thick jungle along river-banks as well as in the hills.
Anthropological Institute, February 28.—Prof. W.
Gowland, president, in the chair—Group marriage. with
especial reference to Australia: N. W. Thomas. In the
course of his remarks the author pointed out that the
theories of Lewis Morgan were without sufficient basis. _In
the place of Lewis Morgan’s fifteen stages, later theorists
had postulated first a period of promiscuity, and following
on that group marriage, so-called, which in Australia is
only now being transformed into individual marriage. But
here too no sufficient account had been given of the causes
which led to the abolition of promiscuity. The grounds on
which it was assumed that promiscuity and group marriage
were stages in human development were first philological
and secondly sociological. The philological grounds were
shown in the paper to be wholly insufficient, and the facts
of present-day Australian life to be susceptible of other ex-
planations.
Chemical Society, Merch 2 —Prof. W. A Tilden, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—
The relation between natural and synthetical glycerylphos-
phoric acids: F. B. Power and F. Tutin. The authors
have shown that the discrepancies of statement respecting
the properties of the glycerylphosphates are due to con-
tamination with salts of the di-ester. They have prepared
and analysed a number of these salts in pure condition.
Proof is also adduced that the conclusions of Willstatter
and Liidecke that the differences between the salts of
natural (derived from lecithin) and artificial glycerylphos-
phoric acids are not those existing between mere optical
isomerides are not justified—The transmutation of geo-
metrical isomerides: A. W. Stewart. The author assumes
as a phase of the reaction the formation and disruption of
a tetramethylene compound, which in the case of fumaric
and maleic acids would be tetramethylene-r : 2 : 3 : 4-tetra-
carboxylic acid, and this by disruption in two different
directions would give rise to either fumaric or maleic de-
rivatives. Illustrations of the applicability of this ex-
planation to other cases are also given.—Linin: J. S. Hills
and W. P. Wynne. Linin, C,,H,,O,, a crystalline sub-
stance obtained by hydrolysis of a glucoside present in
Linum catharticum, melts at 203°, contains four methoxyl
groups, and is physiologically inactive.—The constitution of
phenylmethylacridol: J. J. Debbie. Hantzsch’s view that
the substance formed when phenylacridine methiodide is
treated with an alkali is a carbinol is confirmed by the
fact that the absorption spectra are different from those of
the parent methiodide, and similar to those of dihydro-
phenylacridine.—The ultra-violet absorption spectra of
certain diazo-compounds in relation to their constitution :
J. J. Dobbie and C. K. Tinkler.—The latent heat of
evaporation of benzene and some other compounds: J. C.
Brown.—The reduction of isophthalic acid: W. H.
Perkin, jun., and S. S. Pickles. When isophthalic acid
is reduced with sodium amalgam at 45° it yields two
tetrahydro-acids, A* and cis-A*°, and from these two others
may be obtained, so that the four possible tetrahydroiso-
phthalic acids have now been prepared. The properties and
reactions of these are described.—The influence of tem-
perature on the interaction between acetylthiocyanate and
certain bases. Thiocarbamides, including carboxy-aromatic
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
groups: the late R. E. Doran (compiled by A. E. Dixon).
—The influence of solvents on the rotation of optically
active compounds. Part viii. Ethyl tartrate in chloro-
form: T. S. Patterson.—A further note on the addition
of sodium hydrogen sulphite to ketonic compounds: A. W.
Stewart.—Action of hydrogen peroxide on carbohydrates
in presence of ferrous sulphate: R. S. Morrell and A. E.
Bellars. In this work attempts have been made to trace
the disappearance of different sugars by optical measure-
ments during oxidation, and from the initial and final
reducing powers of the solutions. The simpler acids, formic
and oxalic, resulting from the oxidation, were detected, but
the more important keto-acids could not be isolated, though
evidence of their presence was obtained.—Studies in chlorin-
ation. The chlorination of the isomeric chloronitrobenz-
enes: J. B. Cohen and H. G. Bennett. It is shown that
when the first two hydrogen atoms of benzene or toluene
have been substituted either by two chlorine atoms or by
one chlorine atom and one nitro-group the positions occu-
pied by subsequent chlorine atoms or nitro-groups are the
same.
Linnean Society, March 2.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The Ashe-Finlayson
‘* Comparascope ’’: D. Finlayson. The instrument displays
two objects in the same magnified field, this being attained
by a secondary stage and objective at right-angles to the
primary instrument, the rays being transmitted up the body
of the microscope through a right-angled prism, and clear-
ness of the two images preserved by means of a diaphragm
placed longitudinally in the microscope-tube.—Zoological
nomenclature : international rules and others: Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing. The author’s paper, intrcductory to a discussion,
insisted on the paramount importance of obtaining agree-
ment among zoologists on this subject. Incidentally, Mr.
Stebbing ventured to ask whether there were not many rules
of nomenclature on which it would be satisfactory and ad-
visable for zoologists not only to agree among themselves,
but also to come to terms with their botanical colleagues.
In this regard he offered some remarks in favour of adopting
the year 1751 and the ‘‘ Philosophia Botanica ’’ as starting-
point and basis for what might be called the Linnean era.
A section of the paper was devoted to the ‘‘ Nomenclator
Entomologicus ’’ of F. Weber, published in 1795, with the
object of showing that the generic names in that catalogue
are without value in questions of priority. While consign-
ing various smaller details to an appendix, the body of the
paper concluded with a proposal to get rid of tautonymy
(as in Trutta trutta, Apus (Apus) apus, or other comical
arrangements) by a plan distinguishing what was legal in
the past from what is to be legal in the future.—Biscayan
plankton collected by H.M.S. Research in 1go1, part ii.,
Thaliacea: Dr. G. Herbert Fowler.
Mathematical Society, March 9. — Prof. Forsyth,
president, and temporarily Dr. Hobson, in the chair.—The
following papers were communicated :—On the projection
of two triangles on to the same triangle: Prof. M. J. M.
Hill, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, and Mr. H. W. Chapman. A
construction is given for projecting two given triangles on
to the same third triangle when the plane of the latter is
given, and this construction makes it possible to determine
the projective relation between two planes when four points
in the one and the four corresponding points in the other
are given. The lines joining corresponding vertices of the
two given triangles are generators of one system of a
regulus, and the possible points of projection when both are
projected on to the same triangle lie on a generator of the
other system. As this line describes the regulus, the locus
of the point in the plane of the second triangle which
corresponds to a given point in the plane of the first triangle
is a cubic curve with a double point. A construction for
the points of the cubic is obtained.—The Weddle quarti-
surface: H. Bateman. The surface is the locus of pairs
of points which are conjugate with regard to all quadrics
passing through six given points. Any chord of the twisted
cubic which passes through the six given points is cut
harmonically by the surface. This result leads to a para-
metric representation of the points of the surface. The
reciprocal of the surface belongs to a family of surfaces,
described by Darboux, which possess conjugate systems of
plane curves.—On the complete reduction of any transitive
permutation group, and on the arithmetical nature of the
MARCH 16, 1905]
NATURE
479
coefficients in its irreducible components: Prof. W.
Burnside. The first part of the paper contains a deter-
mination of the number of times that any given irreducible
component occurs, when any representation of a group of
finite order as a transitive permutation group is completely
reduced. The second part of the paper is occupied with the
actual reduction of the permutation group. ‘The reduction
takes two forms according as the domain of rationality is
defined by the characteristics, or by the roots of unity of
which the characteristics are functions.—On the theory of
the logarithmic potential: Prof. T. J. VA. Bromwich.
The paper is occupied with the conditions for the existence
of the second differential coefficients of the potential within
an area carrying surface-density, and of the first differential
coefficients of the potential on a curve carrying line-density.
At a corner of the area in the first case, or of the curve
in the second, the differential coefficients in question do not
exist unless the axes of coordinates have certain special
directions.—Alternative expressions for perpetuant types:
P. W. Wood.—An informal communication on the theory
of geodesics was made by Prof. Forsyth.
CAMBRIDGE.
Philosophical Society, February 27.— Mr. F. H. Neville
in the chair.—Soluble forms of metallic dihydroxytartrates :
H. J. H. Fenton, F.R.S. Sodium dihydroxytartrate is re-
markable for its very sparing solubility in water, and it
has previously been shown by the author that this property
may be made use of for the qualitative and quantitative
estimation of sodium. When equivalent quantities of
dihydroxytartaric acid and sodium ethylate are mixed in
alcoholic solution a semi-transparent gelatinous precipitate
is obtained which is altogether unlike the salt above
mentioned and is extremely easily soluble in water. Its
aqueous solution after standing for a few minutes deposits a
white, crystalline precipitate of the sodium salt in its ordinary
hydrated form. The calcium salt shows a similar behaviour,
and it would appear that the ordinary metallic dihydroxy-
tartrates must be regarded as derivatives of a hydrated form
of the acid C,H,O,.—Studies on unsaturated ketonic com-
pounds: S. Ruhemann. The author has continued his re-
searches on the combination of mercaptans with unsaturated
ketones (see Trans. Chem Soc., 1905, Ixxxvii., 17). In the light
of previous researches, an explanation is given of the catalytic
action of organic bases in the formation of additive products
of mercaptans with unsaturated ketonic compounds.—Some
compounds of guanidine with sugars: R. S. Morrell and
The addition of guanidine to a solution of
A. E. Bellars.
any sugar in absolute alcohol causes a precipitate of an
addition product of the sugar and the base. The compounds
are only slightly hydrolysed in aqueous solution, but they
are easily decomposed by acids. Their optical properties
are peculiar; in some cases the rotation angle is opposite
in sign to that of the parent sugar, in others there is a
marked multi-rotation.—The influence of strong electro-
magnetic fields on the spark spectra of some metals: J. E.
Purvis. The electromagnet is an exceptionally strong one.
The pole pieces are conical, and the strength of the field
between the two poles with a current of 25 amperes is
40,000 C.G.S. units. It was placed in such a position that
a line joining the poles was perpendicular to a line drawn
from the slit to the grating. The metals of which an
account is given are gold, bismuth, antimony, lead, and
tin. The results so far show that amongst the various lines
a considerable number aré divided into triplets; whilst, of
those which do not show any division, some seem to be
widened when the spark is in the field. By analysing the
divided lines by means of a calcite crystal, the components
do not seem to be polarised in the same way ; i.e. the outside
components of one triplet are vibrating perpendicular to the
lines of force, whilst those of another are parallel to the
lines of force, and the same applies to the inner component.
Some lines appear as doublets; but in many cases most
probably the doublets are reversals, and these phenomena
are particularly marked amongst the lines of antimony and
bismuth. It will be necessary to study these with the
magnet placed ‘‘end on.’’ Two lines may be very close
together, one stronger than the other, and the stronger line
will be divided into three, whilst the weaker one is slightly
widened only. The work is still in progress, and with other
metals.
NO. 1846, vor. 71]
Paris.
Acadenty of Sciences, March 6.—M. Troost in the chair.
—The president read a telegram from Dr. Jean Charcot
concerning the work of the Antarctic Expedition.—On the
orthogonal trajectories of a family of surfaces: Gaston
Darboux.—A rational formula for the coefficient of ab-
sorption of light by a translucent body: J. Boussinesq.
—The study of 1-methyl-4-benzylcyclohexanol and 1-methyl-
4-dibenzylcyclohexanol: A. Haller and F. March. Methyl-
cyclohexanone reacts with sodium derivatives of alcohols in
a manner resembling camphor, the sodium derivative of
benzyl alcohol giving a mixture of methyl-benzyl- and
methyl-dibenzyl-hexanol, separable by fractional distillation
in a vacuum.—Eumedon convictor, a crustacean accom-
panying a sea-urchin: E. L. Bouvier and G. Seurat.
The Eumedon occupies a pouch near the anal region of
the sea-urchin, and is well protected by the long spines
of the latter. The crustacean is not parasitic on its host,
the relations between the two closely resembling those
holding between Pionodesmotes phormosoae and the sea-
urchin Phormosoma uranus:—On the constitution of sun-
spots: Th. Moreux. A discussion of the penumbra of the
large sun-spot of January, 1904, of which a drawing is
given. The second penumbra, attributed by some observers
to irregularities in the nucleus of the spot, is clearly shown,
and the author regards this as an additional proof of the
theory advanced by him in June, 1900.—On sliding friction :
L. Lecormu. The author considers that the law of
Coulomb cannot be regarded as rigorously true, but is
rather an empirical rule only roughly approximate.—The
oscillations of railway carriages on their springs: Georges
Marié. The author has deduced a relation between the
periodic variations in level of the permanent way, the
friction of the spring, and the deflection of the spring, and
has applied this experimentally to various classes of rolling
stock. Asa rule, the condition of convergence was realised,
but there were a few faulty vehicles in which this was not
the case.—On the determination by the chronometer of
differences of latitude at Madagascar and Réunion: M.
Driencourt. The data given have a probable accuracy
of o-1 sec. This precision is rarely attained in such
measurements, and details of the working methods are
giyen.—On the determination of gaseous densities and the
accuracy possible in such measurements: A. Leduc. For
the more permanent gases the author regards the possible
accuracy in the density as about 1 in 10,000; for the more
easily condensable gases the probable accuracy is lower.
The results recently published by MM. Moissan and
Chavanne, Moissan and Binet du Jassoneix, Guye and
Pintza, and Jacquerod and Pintza are criticised.—The
action of radium bromide on the electrical resistance of
metals: Bronislas Sabat. Bromide of radium, placed near
wires of bismuth, iron, steel, copper, platinum, brass and
German silver, increases their electrical resistance. This
effect cannot be wholly attributed to the rise of temperature
caused by the radium salt.—Contribution to the study of
ionisation in flames: Pierre Massoulier. Previous ex-
perimenters have employed electrodes placed one above the
other in the flame, and the dissvmmetry thus necessarily
introduced partially masks the results. The author employs
vertical electrodes placed symmetrically in the flame, and
the reversal of the field is then without effect on the course
of the phenomena. Curves are given showing the relation
between the distances from the electrodes and the fall of
potential.—The variations of the equivalent spark of an
X-ray tube: S. Turchini.—On the time that appears before
precipitation appears in solutions of hyposulphites: Gaston
Gaillard.—On the electrolytic solution of platinum in
sulphuric acid: André Brechet and Joseph Petit. Plat-
inum is dissolved in sulphuric acid under the action of a
variable current, and the action of the alternating current
is not specially due to the change in the sense of the
current. In the presence of an oxidising agent the solution
of the platinum is impeded.—A comparison of the physical
properties of pure nickel and cobalt: H. Copaux. Nickel
and cobalt have been obtained practically free from other
metals, and containing only one or two thousandths of
non-metallic impurities. They are magnetic, very crystal-
line metals, not malleable in the cold. They differ in ap-
pearance, cobalt being bright, resembling silver, whilst
nickel is dull. Determinations of the density, hardness,
480
melting point, electrical resistance, and breaking load are
given.—The action of potassium permanganate on salts of
hydroxylamine: L. J. Simon. A study of the oxidation
of the nitrate, phosphate, and arsenate of hydroxylamine.—
On quadrivalent oxygen: E. E. Blaise. The author has
succeeded in obtaining a zinc compound,
(C,H,),.O.(1).Zn.(1).O.(C,H,).,
erystallising in fine prisms, and corresponding in com-
position to the magnesium compound previously described.
The bearing of this compound on the theory of quad-
rivalent oxygen is discussed.—On the decomposition of
orthonitrobenzyl alcohol under the influence of aqueous
and alcoholic soda: P. Carré.—On the comparative as-
similability of ammonia salts, amines, amides, and nitriles :
L. Lutz. Experiments with Aspergillus and Penicillium
show that of all nitrogenous compounds amides are the |
most easily assimilated; ammonia salts come next, then
amines and nitriles.—The distribution of estragol and
terpene compounds between the various parts of an annual
plant: Eug. Charabot and G. Laloue.—On the so-called
physicochemical analysis of arable earth: H. Lagatu.
A description of a graphical mode of representing the
analysis into three proximate constituents of an arable
earth.—On some facts relating to the development of the
kidney in Elasmobranchs: I. Borcea. A detailed study,
illustrated with four diagrams, of the development
of the renal system of Acanthias vulgaris—On a
form of scales peculiar to the Pandalide: H. Coutiére.
—On some anomalous forms of amitosis in the epithelium
of mammals: M. Pacaut.—On some diseases of the
tobacco plant: Georges Delacroix.—An experimental study
of the conditions which determine the penetration of the
vapours of chloroform into the blood during chloroformic
anzesthesia, and on the influence of the variations of the
pulmonary ventilation on this penetration: J. Tissot. It
is shown that, contrary to the view generally accepted,
during anesthesia with mixtures containing between 7 and
12 per cent. of chloroform there is no possibility of es-
tablishing an equilibrium between the blood and_ the
mixture, since this equilibrium would correspond to a fatal
dose of chloroform. The variable equilibrium which is
actually produced depends largely on the pulmonary ven-
tilation.—On the secreting power of the kidney: Henri
Lamy and André Mayer.—The spectroscopic study of
oxyhaemoglobin: M. Piettre and A. Vita.—The action of
ammoniacal salts on the nitrification of sodium nitrite by
the nitric ferment: E. Boullanger and L. Massel.—On
the distemper of dogs: H. Carré.—On a geological section
of the High Atlas in the region of Glaoui, Morocco: Paul
Lemoine.—Examination of the fossils brought from the
Yunnan by the Lantenois expedition: H. Mansuy. The
study of these fossils confirms the analogies previously
recognised between the primary and secondary fauna of the
Indo-Chinese region and the synchronic fauna of India and
Central Asia.—The Bishop’s circle of Mt. Pelée, Mar-
tinique: F. A. Forel.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Marcu 16.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—A New Radio-active Element, which evolves
‘Thorium Emanation. Preliminary Communication: Dr. O. Hahn.—A
Determination of the Amounts cf Neon and Helium in Atmospheric Air:
Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.—A Preliminary Note upon the
Question of the Nutrition of the Early Kmbryo: E. Emrys-Roberts —
On the Absence or Marked Diminution of Free Hydrochloric Acid in the
Gastric Contents, in Malignant Disease of Organs other than the
Stomach : Prof. B. Moore (with W. Alexander, R. E. Kelly, and H. ts.
Roaf).—On the Occurrence of certain Ciliated Infusoria within the Eggs
of a Rotifer, considered from the Point of View of Heterogenesis : Dr. H.
C. Bastian, F.R.S.—On the Dimorphism of the English Species of
Nummulites, and the Size of the Megal-sphere in Relation to that of
the Microspheric and Megalospheric lests in this Genus: J. J. Lister,
F.R.S.—Observations on the Brains of Man and Animals with Trypano-
some Infection. Preliminary Note: Dr. F. W. Mott, F.R.S.
Rovav INsTITUTION, at 5.—Recent Astronomical Progress: Prof. H. H.
Turner, F.R.S.
Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—Manipur and its Tribes: T. C. Hodson.
LINNEAN Society, at 8.—Contnbutions to the Flora of Liberia: Dr.
Otto Stapf.—A xhibitions: Penguins and other Birds from the Falkland
Islands, and Scratched Rocks from a Rockhopper's Rookery: R. Val-
lentin.
FRIDAY, Marcu 17.
i. P1DEMLOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
InstituTION OF MEcHANICaAl. ENGINEERS, at 8,—First Report to the
Steam-Engine Research Committee : Prof. David S. Capper.
NO. 1846, VOL. 71]
NATURE
{Marcu 16, 1905
SATURDAY, Marcu 18,
Rovavt InsTITUTION, at 3.—Electrical Properties of Radio-active Sub-
stances: Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
MONDAY, Marcu 20.
Society or Arts, at 8.—Telephony: H. 1. Webb.
Victoria INsTITUTE, at 4.30.—The Nebular and Planetesimal Theories
of the Earth's Origin : Warren Upham.
TUESDAY, MARCH 21
Rovat InsTITUTION, at s.—Engineering Problems: Prof. W. E. Dalby.
Roya STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
ZOOLOGICAL SociETY, at 8.30.
INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Déscussion : Shipbuilding for
the Navy: Lord Brassey, K.C.B.—Pafer: }Coolgardie Water-Supply :
C. S. R. Palmer.
WEDNESDAY, Marcu 22.
GroLocicat. Society, at 8.—An Experiment in Mountain-Building.
Part II.: Lord Avebury, P.C., F.R.S.—The Rhztic Rocks of Mon-
mouthshire: L. Richardson.
Society or Dyers AND Cotourists, at 7.30.—The Dyeing and Finishing
of Leather for Bookbinding ; with remarks on Preparatory Manufacturing
Processes: F. W. Colin Robinson.—A Dyeing Drum Door, removable
and replaceable without stopping the Drum: H. W. Ley.
THURSDAY, Marcu 23.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Bakerian Lecture: The Reception and
Utilisation of Energy by the Green Leaf: Dr. Horace T, Brown, F.R.S.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Report of Experiments
carried out at the National Physical Laboratory : On the Effect of Heat
on the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Dielectrics, and on the
Temperature Distribution in the Interior of Field Coils: E. H. Rayner.
—Discussion: On Temperature Curves and the Rating of Electrical
Machinery: R. Goldschmidt.
Roya INsTITUTION, ats.—The Reasonableness of Architecture : Thomas
G. Jackson.
FRIDAY, Marcu 24.
sch saad SE at 9.—A Pertinacious Current: Sir Oliver Lodge,
Puysicat Society, at 5.—Note on the Voltage Ratios of an Inverted
Rotary Converter: W. C. Clinton.—On the Flux of Light from the
Electric Arc with varying Power Supply : G. B. Dyke —The Application
of the Cymomieter and the Determination of the Coefficient of Coupling
of Oscillation Transformers: Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S.—Exhibition
of Cymometers and other Instruments.
INSTITUTION OF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Wanki to Victoria Falls
Section ; Victoria Falls Railway : C. T. Gardner.—Design of a Double-
Line Plate-Girder Railway-Bridge : H. S. Coppock.
SATURDAY, Marcu 25.
Roya InstiTUTION, at 3.—Electrical Properties of Radio-active Sub-
stances : Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Modern Opticalenneory . .< .. «meee a ee ee
Technical Analysts, By J: B.C: .. 29) - « seaemeage
The Zoological Record. By R.L. 505 eee)
Our Book Shelf :—
Kirby: ‘‘ A Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera.”—
M.B 5
ee a ee ee
Guttmann: ‘‘ Percentage Tables for Elementary
Analysis Acie > ++) cee ee 460
Hodges: *‘ How to Photograph with Roll and Cut
IMGs. 6 Sess vac et OMB. 6s
Nolan':/<“ithemmelescope”’. . . .oeus posure 460
Letters to the Editor :—
The Infection of Laboratories by Radium.—A. S.
E\ Ve Ss > os a, ol . . 460
International Atomic Weights.—Dr. F. Mollwo
Perkinye so. nie chair 461
The Planet Fortuna.—W. T. ; W. E. P. . 4 461
Costa Rica. (J//ustrated.) By Colonel George Earl
Church ...
Progress in Aérial Navigation. By ‘Prof. G. H.
Bry.any) Hobe. say ce, ss cae, es
Phaistos and Hagia Triada, Crete ...., . 465
Notes be). yr 465
Our Astronomical Column :—
Structure of the Corona Sart < 469
Radiant Point of the Bielid Meteors . neh 469
Brightnessof Encke’s Comet ....... 469
January Fireballs aerial é- < e 469
Rotation of Jupiter’s Sate'’lites I. and II. . 469
Orbits of Minor Planets 469
Effect of Autumnal Rainfall upon Wheat Crops.
(With Diagram.) By Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. . 470
Geological Notes 3 a ee : < Somer
Forthcoming Books of Science. ......... 473
University and Educational] Intelligenc ete AS
Societies and Academies .... . oe ye oi. fet pO
Diary of Societies 480
NEEPORLE
481
THURSDAY, MARCH 23, 1905.
THE KALAHARI DESERT.
Die Kalahari. Versuch einer physisch-geographischen
Darstellung der Sandfelder des siidafrikanischen
Beckens. By Dr. Siegfried Passarge. Pp. xvit+
$22; illustrated; and with a ‘‘ Kartenband ”’ contain-
ing 11 maps and 1o sheets of sections, sketches, &c.
(Berlin: Dietrich Reimer [Ernst Vohsen], 1904.)
Herausgegeben mit Unterstiitzung der kdéniglich-
preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Price
80 marks (unbound).
OW if we could imagine that Mr. Shandy the
elder were alive, this is a book that, like many
another of its class, would have delighted him.
Hereby he could have proved triumphantly to Yorick
the potency of that great scheme of education—that
‘‘north-west passage to the intellectual world ’’—
which he propounded so enthusiastically upon a memor-
able occasion. His scheme, it will be remembered,
was that upon every substantive in the dictionary the
Auxiliaries (so gravely misunderstood by the Corporal
and Uncle Toby) should be brought to bear ex-
haustively :—‘‘ Every word, Yorick, by this means,
you see, is converted into a thesis or an hypothesis :—
every thesis and hypothesis have an offspring of pro-
positions;—and each proposition has its own con-
sequences and conclusions; every one of which leads
the mind on again, into fresh tracts of enquiries and
doubtings.—‘ The force of this engine,’ added my
father, ‘is incredible... .’”
Even up to the numberless “ tracts of enquiries and
doubtings,’’ it is in this spirit that Dr. Passarge has
attacked ‘‘ Die Kalahari’’; and the book before us,
with its mass of spacious solidly printed pages, is the
result. It is a work which compels our admiration,
not only for the thorough and painstaking manner in
which its author has carried out his personal investi-
gations, often in circumstances of great difficulty; but
also for the acumen with which he has grasped the
bearing of his observations upon problems of world-
wide range; and for the astounding industry with
which he has pushed his researches into all the ramifi-
cations of his subject. In giving us, for the first time,
an adequate knowledge of a large part of that hitherto
little known region of South Africa, the Kalahari
Desert, he has also contributed most significantly to
our earth-knowledge in general. Hence his book,
besides forming the basis for all future work in the
Kalahari, must have a weighty influence in many
questions pertaining to the geological history of the
continent of Africa and to the changes of climate
that are recorded in the rocks of many other parts of
the globe.
We feel that it is a forlorn hope to attempt within
the limits of our space to present in true proportion
even an outline of the contents of this great mass of
information with its leaven of speculative deduction.
But let us to the attack!
Dr. Passarge was attached, as mining expert, to an
expedition of the British West Charterland, Ltd.,
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
organised to explore the Kalahari, under the leader-
ship of Sir Frederick Lugard, during the years 1896-9.
Of the main expedition and its personnel we hear very
little throughout the book. It had left Palapye some
time before Dr. Passarge reached that place, at the
beginning of October, 1896. He followed with a small
party, and a few days after starting he was stricken
with fever. A woful month ensued, during which,
with a dying prospector as his companion in mis-
fortune, he lay in or under the wagon as it trekked
slowly north-westward across the eastern part of the
desert.
Not until the middle of November did he regain
his feet; but his recovery thereafter was rapid, and
his field-work in various parts of the Middle Kalahari
was carried on subsequently without serious interrup-
tion until its termination in October, 1898. During
the two years thus spent, his traverses extended east
and west over a breadth of about 700 km., and north
and south for about 500 km., the site of the desiccated
Lake Ngami lying roughly central to these journeys.
His official investigations were directed chiefly to the
islands of ancient rocks with which the region is
sparingly studded, mainly in the form of subdued hill-
chains but occasionally in comparatively low-lying
tracts that have remained uncovered by the superficial
formations of the desert. To reach these islands it
was necessary to cross the level sandy veldt for longer
or shorter distances—traverses that were often very
difficult and full of hardship—and Dr. Passarge had
thus the opportunity to carry out that careful study
of desert conditions in the Kalahari which forms what
we must regard as the main subject of his book. The
ancient rocks were found to consist of two great series
of unfossiliferous greywackes, schists, and lime-
stones, often much altered by dynamic and thermal
agencies, and probably in the main pre-Cambrian,
though possibly ranging down into Cambrian times.
Among these ancient sediments there are many
intrusions of acid and basic igneous rocks. The
thin superficial deposits, though incomparably more
recent, are believed by Dr. Passarge to include beds
that may date back to Eocene times. By their com-
position and structural alteration through weathering,
these desert-formations held to indicate the
successive conditions that have ruled in the region
since Mesozoic times; and it is in his discussion of
these deposits that the author gives the fullest play
to his powers.
To take the contents of the book in their given
order :—After a modest preface, the author deals,
in chapter i., with the explorations of his pre-
decessors in the Kalahari. The list of references
added at the end of the chapter constitute his biblio-
graphy of the subject—a convenient arrangement
that is followed throughout the book. In the second
chapter Dr. Passarge gives a consecutive account and
itinerary of his travels and experiences. This account
is to a large extent repeated and amplified in the topo-
graphical descriptions of later chapters. The third
chapter is occupied with a short description and cate-
gorical formulation of the topographical and hydro-
graphical conditions of South Africa generally, through
Ws
are
482
all its divisions and subdivisions. In chapter iv. the
author deals in the same manner with South African
NATURE
:
:
(Marcu 23, 1905
The two chapters already mentfoned as forming an
interlude to the topographical details are comparatively
geology, with the literature of which he appears to be | amusing. The first (xvi.) describes the geological
well acquainted. Respecting this literature, he re-
marks (p. 39) :—
“So ist denn die Geschichte der geologischen
Forschung in Stidafrika eine wahre Komédie der
Irrungen. So viel Forscher, so viel Ansichten! Ja,
ein und derselbe Forscher . . . haben ihre Auffassung
wiederholt gewechselt. . . .”’
He debates anew the many doubtful points in the |
correlation of the rocks, and expresses his views
thereon. This chapter with its bibliographical
appendix might be used as a general introduction to
the study of South African geology. It is illustrated
_ by a geological map of Africa south of 10° S. lat.
(Blatt ii. in the ** Kartenband ”’), which, though rough
in execution and crude in colouring, serves to give at
a glance the main lines on which the rocks of this part
of the continent are arranged. The climate of South
Africa and of the Kalahari afford material for
chapter v., which includes a summary of the author’s
personal observations on the weather, and concludes
with some very acceptable notes on the rapidly pro-
gressive desiccation of the country, based on a com-
parison of the experiences of the earlier and later
explorers.
Then follows a solid block of chapters—vi. to xxiv.,
pp. 105-530—devoted, except for an interlude in
chapters xvi. and xvii., to the detailed account of the |
author’s investigations in the several districts visited—
the Kwebe and neighbouring hill ranges; the region
bordering on Ngami and the Botletle River; the Haina
Veldt; the Chanse Veldt and the adjacent German
frontier; the western part of the Okavango basin with
its rapidly perishing river-system, of which the de- | sentences 2—
scription is of extreme interest; the Kaukau Veldt; |
the Kung Veldt; and the Mahura Veldt.
an ‘‘ Uberblick ”’ and ‘‘ Riickblick,’’ ‘* Ubersicht ’? and
“ Folgerung,’’ the author pursues his way through
masses of detailed observations, all carefully classified,
subdivided, and marked with sign-posts in the form
of head-lines; and many a pertinent’ interrogative
sentence, spaced out in the text, is conscientiously
answered or as conscientiously evaded by further
questions. It is in these chapters that the operation of
the Auxiliaries is most forcefully felt. To the general
reader the greater part of these details must be arid, as
befits the description of a desert, yet not without
refreshing oases here and there. Nor can it be denied
that in a region undergoing such rapid changes in
respect to rainfall and drainage-systems, the full par-
ticulars as to the exact condition of all the water-pans
at the time that they were examined are certain to
prove of value in the future for purposes of compari-
son; while to the geological traveller who may here-
after visit the Middle Kalahari the whole of these
chapters are likely to prove of service. Indeed, when
we remember how much more might have been written
from the impressions of a trained observer at work in
a new country during two whole years, we feel, on
the whole, inclined to be grateful to Dr. Passarge for
his moderation.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
With many
effect of the burrowing animals of the desert, both
mammals and insects, upon the superficial formations,
with numerical calculations as to its efficacy in pro-
ducing large results. The second gives a summarised
description of the structure of the deposits found on
the sites of the desiccated lakelets or ‘* Kalkpfannen ’”
of a certain district, with a particular inquiry into the
origin of the water-holes (‘‘ Pfannenkrater ’’) that in
many cases still persist within them. After stating
the problem in his favourite manner, under various
headings in interrogative form, the author proceeds
to show that all the peculiar features of the water-
holes may be assigned to the agency of the wild
animals that have used them as drinking places and
bath-tubs. He enumerates these animals; shows from
the records of the first white travellers how multi-
tudinous they once were; gathers data from the Berlin
Zoological Gardens as to the drinking capacity of most
of the larger herbivores ; supplements this with observ-
ations on the drinking of his draught animals when
trekking in the desert; calculates the amount of dis-
solved and suspended matter in the water of the
“pans,” and how much would be carried away in
the interiors of the beasts that drank it; and also how
much they removed on their exteriors after their
occasional mud-baths. Then, the cubic space of the
water-hole being known, and the number of its former
visitants estimated, a simple calculation brings out
the number of years in which, by this agency, the
hole could have been produced.
Is there not the germ of a glorious question for
some future examination paper in the following
‘““Nehmen wir die Oberflache eines Nashorns auf
6 qm an und die Kruste nach jedem Schlammbad auf
I mm, so tragt jedes Tier 6 1 Schlamm fort. Wenn
| also 10 dieser Tiere wahrend der Trockenzeit (180
| Tage) taglich baden, tragen sie im Jahr 10.8 cbm
Schlamm fort, im Laufe von weniger als 2000 Jahren
also den Inhalt einer Pfanne von 20,000 cbm. Das
wiirden 10 Nashorner allein fertig bringen! ”’ (p. 321).
Let us acknowledge, however, that from this
singular line of research a very important deduction
is drawn, and is in keeping with all the other
evidence :-—
““Denn diese Zahl besagt, dass vor dieser Zeit—
sagen wir rund 6000-7000 Jahren—das Chansefeld ein
wesentlich anderes Klima gehabt haben muss ”’
(p. 322).
After giving, in chapter xxx., a summary of our
scanty knowledge of the vast area of the Kalahari
beyond the regions which he visited, the author pro-
ceeds to epitomise his own observations and to deal
with the broader aspects of his subject. The oro-
graphic and hydrographic conditions of the Kalahari
as a whole are briefly stated in chapter xxxi., with a
summary of the evidence for the rapidly progressive
desiccation of the land in a definite direction. Then
follow chapters on the basement-rocks (das Grund-
gestein) of the region; on the development and
Marcu 23, 1905]
™=
antiquity of the South African land-mass; and on the
superficial formations (die Deckschichten). In chapter
xxxv., entitled ‘‘ Die Mesozoische Wiisten-periode,”’
the author discusses the different stages of alteration
shown both by the older rocks and by the superficial
formations, through “ einkieselung ’’ or cementation
by infiltrated silica, and ‘‘ verkieselung ”’ or replace-
ment of carbonates by silica; and he gives his reasons
for recognising successive periods of alteration and
deposition consequent upon changes in the physical
conditions of the land. He goes far afield in his
argument, touching upon the various effects of rock-
weathering under almost every climate of the globe,
but with especial reference to desert-conditions. He
brings this information to bear upon the South African
geology generally, where he recognises evidence for
desert-conditions of great antiquity and long duration,
but with occasional intermission. Whether these
speculations are well founded it will remain for the
keen investigators now working in South Africa to
decide.
In the same strain of more or less hypothetical de-
duction following upon an epitomised re-statement of
the main facts, are the next two chapters—xxvi. ‘‘ Die
Periode der Brackwasserkallke und der Laterite,’’ and
xxvii. ‘“‘ Die Pluvialzeit und ihr Abklingen bis zur
Gegenwart ’’—in which the probable condition of the
interior of South Africa is traced through Tertiary and
post-Tertiary times. It seems somewhat hazardous to
correlate the isolated and widely scattered patches of
thin sandstone and limestone by their lithological
characters alone, and to assign them to successive
periods. One line of argument by which the author
reaches his conclusions with respect to the age of
the desert-beds of the Kalahari is by comparing them
with the more readily determinable Tertiary succession
of Egypt. On questionable grounds he suggests that
his ‘ Pfannensandstein’’ may be assigned to the
Eocene, his ‘‘ Kalaharikalk ’’ to a somewhat moist
episode in Miocene and Lower Pliocene times; after
which he recognises a period of dry conditions in the
Middle Pliocene, and then a Pluvial period of late
Pliocene and early post-Pliocene times. This Pluvial
period may be accepted with some confidence as being
in close relation to the occurrence of the Glacial period
in northern Europe. Evidence from many other parts
of the world tends to show that the progressive
desiccation that has gone on since that period has
not by any means been confined to the African
continent.
Among the interesting side-issues raised or re-
capitulated in these later chapters of the book are
questions as to the antiquity of the Kalahari fauna;
the geological effect of wind-action; the obliteration
of dry river-beds; ‘‘ zoogene erosion ’’; the change of
climate in North Africa during historic times; and
others that we have no space even to catalogue.
The next—and last—chapter gives a review of the
plant-life of the Kalahari, with especial reference to
the evidence which it bears as to the changing con-
ditions of the land. Then follow various appendices,
occupying one hundred pages. These contain a few
astronomical observations ; a petrographical description
No. 1847, VOL. 71]
NATURE
483
of 447 rock-specimens and slides by Prof. Kalkowsky ;
twelve chemical analyses of rocks; an account of the
land and freshwater shells from the newer superficial
deposits by Prof. E. v. Martens; a full account of the
diatoms by H. Reichelt; and a list of plants. The last
twenty-seven pages of the book are occupied by the
classified indices.
There is no attempt at artistic embellishment in the
text-illustrations; and the same may be said of the
numerous sheets of maps, plans, and sections con-
tained in the ‘‘ Kartenband,’’ some of which, indeed,
appear scarcely to justify their reproduction, while in
many the scale seems to be unnecessarily large.
And now that we have growled our way through
the book, and have earned the concluding pipe of
peace, let us add that when a capable and earnest
worker is willing, in publishing his results, to under-
| go the severe labour that a production of this kind
must have entailed, our sense of gratitude toward
him should be paramount, and should stifle all minor
complaints and especially the impatient grumbling
that arises in the main from our own unrealised
indolence. G. W. L.
ANIMAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
Photography for the Sportsman Naturalist. By
L. W. Brownell. American Sportsman’s Library.
Pp. xviiit+311; illustrated. (New York: The Mac-
millan Company; London: Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
Ce several previous occasions we have had the
pleasure of noticing some of the admirable
volumes belonging to that series of the ‘‘ Sportsman’s
Library ’’ which deals exclusively with the various
animals constituting the sportsman’s quarry. In the
volume now before us we have, on the other hand,
one of a second series devoted to different aspects
of sports and matters connected therewith. In re-
garding practical photography as an essential element
in the education and outfit of every modern sports-
man who desires to be something more than a mere
slayer of game, the editor has undoubtedly been well
advised; and he also has been exceptionally fortunate
in securing the services of an expert with the ex-
perience and reputation of Mr. Brownell to make
known to the beginner the mysteries of the camera
and the technique of outdoor animal photography.
If the reader is careful to bear in mind that when
the author refers to ‘our animals’? he means the
members of the North American and not of the
British fauna, the book will, we venture to think,
prove as acceptable to sportsmen and field-naturalists
on this side of the Atlantic as to the countrymen
of the author; and if this turn out to be the case, a
wide circulation would seem to be assured.
In his introduction Mr. Brownell gives a concise
and yet comprehensive sketch of the history of photo-
graphy, dwelling especially on the enormous strides
it has made during the last half-dozen years. The
loss of time that he himself experienced in having to
learn everything for himself when first taking up
animal photography is alluded to as a kind of justifi-
cation (if one be needed) for the appearance of his
484
NATURE
| Marcu 23, 1905
volume, while the value of accurate photographs of
animals as a means of instruction in natural history
is noticed in the concluding paragraphs of the intro-
duction.
Possibly, and if so pardonably, the author is in-
clined to over-rate the importance of photographic
illustrations in zoological work. In many respects,
such as representing birds in their natural surround-
ings, its importance cannot, indeed, be over-estimated.
But when the author goes on to deride the work of
the pencil of the artist as a means of illustrating
books on natural history, and to declare that the
wood-cut and the ‘ process-block ”’ are things of the
past in this connection, we take leave to differ from
such a sweeping assertion. Nor are we alone in so
doing, for Mr. W. T. Hornaday, in his recently
issued ‘‘ American Natural History,’ takes occasion
to point out that photography has its limitations in
the portrayal of animals, and that some illustrations
demand the artist’s pencil in order to become satis-
factory zoological portraits. It is quite true, as Mr.
Brownell urges, that the sketch, as compared with
the photograph, may be crude and unfaithful to
nature, yet it will nevertheless often accentuate or
display essential features which are scarcely per-
ceptible or absolutely hidden in the sun-portrait.
With this reservation, we are absolutely at one
with the author in regard to the extreme importance
and value of photography in natural history work,
and, like him, we look forward to the time when
real colour-photography will have been discovered
and made available for everyday use. After de-
scribing in full detail the general technique of the
photographic art and the kinds of camera and other
apparatus best suited to the outdoor photographer
of animal life, the author proceeds to discuss the
mode of procedure in the case of different subjects,
devoting one chapter to the larger mammals, another
to the small mammals, a third to birds, and so on.
So far as we can judge, all his advice is to the point,
and the illustrations given as samples are in most
cases admirable animal portraits. Not that attention
is confined to animated nature, for we have a chapter
on plant-photography, and another on the use of the
camera in depicting sporting scenes and incidents,
each as charmingly illustrated as their predecessors.
Above all, the book is by no means dry reading, the
technical details being enlivened with numerous and
appropriate anecdotes. Mr. Brownell has, in fact,
succeeded in producing a treatise on practical field-
photography which it will be very hard to beat.
Re L:
A POPULAR STAR ATLAS.
Popular Stay Maps. A Rapid and Easy Method of
Finding the Principal Stars. By Comte de Miremont,
F.R.A.S. (London: George Philip and Son, Ltd.,
1904.) Price tos. 6d. net.
ies is by no means an easy task to construct a
series of charts of the principal stars in the sky
that will at once be of service to those wishing to
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
make themselves familiar with the chief constellations
or star groupings. Many, if not the majority, of
star atlases printed for beginners are so belaboured
with lines indicating right ascensions and declina-
tions, names of constellations, Greek letters or
numbers against each star, different notations for
variable stars, &c., that when the beginner turns his
eyes from the starry heavens towards a chart in
order to find out the particular grouping in question
he is unable to recognise it among the innumerable
markings. For this reason many who have made
valiant attempts to learn the stars have given up
trying, and it is the atlases that are to blame and
not the seekers after knowledge.
The ideal set of charts for a beginner should in the
first place represent the appearance of the starry
heavens as near as possible, and consist of maps show-
ing small white discs or stars on a dark background,
the discs or stars varying in size according to the
magnitude of the star; secondly, a fairly large region
should be included in each map; thirdly, only stars to
the third or fourth magnitude should be inserted; and
lastly, each map should have an accompanying
duplicate chart or key-map on the same scale, but with
dark dises or stars on a white background, on which
as much information as may be useful should be given.
In this way the beginner can at once find his par-
ticular stars on the first map, and learn their names,
&c., on the accompanying key-map. This seems to
be the logical method of aiding those who are not
accustomed to deal with star charts, and it is a
pleasure to find that such a series of maps is now
available for those who wish to take advantage of
them.
The charts is question, ten in number, and each
accompanied by a key-map, have been prepared by
Comte de Miremont, one who is _ thoroughly
acquainted with the stars from the navigating point
of view, and is familiar with the desire of sailors and
others for a simple star atlas. Stars to the fourth
magnitude only are inserted, and these are repre-
sented, on charts 10 inches square, as white stars
on a dark blue background; in the accompanying
but separate key-maps, of the same size, the stars are
black on a white background. Great care has been
taken to ensure accuracy in the star positions.
The method of projection, namely, the gnomonic,
is*also one which lends itself well to this type of
atlas, for the whole of the celestial sphere can be
projected on six plates, each plate thus representing
one side of a cube enveloping the sphere. The upper
and lower sides of the cube enclose the north and
south polar regions respectively, and the other four
sides the equatorial regions. To render more
clearly the relations to each other of star groups near
the edges of each of these equatorial sides in contact,
four additional overlapping maps are added. Thus
there are ten charts in all, and there is this advantage,
that each one with its corresponding key-map can be
taken out of the portfolio and used in the observatory,
in the field, or on board ship by itself. On each chart
and its key is a scale of right ascensions with the
seasons of the year when each of the constellations is
MakCH 23, 1905]
NATURE
485
visible in these longitudes ; the declinations are omitted
from the maps, but this information, and the right
ascensions of every star marked, are given in the table
showing the mean places (and annual change) for
January, 1904. Other lists include the names of
the constellations and the principal stars in each,
and a complete alphabetical list of stars in the
maps.
With regard to the general get-up of the maps,
letterpress, and portfolio which encloses them, more
could not be desired, and great credit is due to both
compiler and publisher for producing such a service-
able and handsome set of star charts for the use of
beginners, and at such a low price. W. J. Sa
A CONTRIBUTION TO MUSEUM HISTORY.
The History of the Collections contained in the
Natural History Departments of the British
Museum. Vol. i. Pp. xviit+442. (London :
Museum, 1904.)
VERY museum of the first rank has two histories,
one of which is usually written but rarely pub-
lished—the history of the gradual accumulation of the
museum material, by purchase, exchange, or donation,
and another, which can hardly ever be written—the
history of the internal metabolism, the arrangement
and re-arrangement, the differentiation and integra-
tion, the ‘‘ Kampf der Theile im Organismus.”’ It
may not be difficult to indicate how various museums
have adapted themselves to the advance of science
and to their growing constituency under the influence
of effective directors, how nature has crept in between
the teeth of the abstractive scientific fork, how
evolutionary series have replaced static taxonomic dis-
plays, how problems of practical human interest have
been recognised, how a mere chamber of horrors has
become an introduction to a rational study of patho-
logical variation, and so on; but who can ever tell
the detailed physiological story of the metamorphoses ?
For the great museum is an organism of many parts,
each with its spiritus rector, each developing inde-
pendently, and yet in cooperation with the rest. It
may not be difficult to show how a museum has
changed or is changing as the various objectives—
for instruction, for investigation, for inspiration—
have become more clear to the organisers; when, for
instance, the simple step is taken of discriminating
between what can be usefully exhibited and what
should be as usefully concealed; but who can ever tell
how much even this simple step costs? Is the price-
less connecting link to be shown with blinds up or
with blinds down, or not at all? But we must not
intrude further into the real history of a great museum;
it is an intricate story of thrust and parry between
keepers and their environment, both animate and in-
animate. The history before us is a history, not of
the British Museum (Natural History Departments)
as a growing organism; it is the history of the collec-
tions—a story of accretion.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
The first volume of the history of the collections
preserved in the four natural history departments of
the British Museum deals with the botanical, geo-
logical, and mineralogical material, and also with the
libraries. It has been produced at the suggestion of
the director, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, by the officers
in charge of the collections. Mr. B. B. Woodward
has written the history of the libraries; Mr. George
Murray, assisted by Mr. Britten, that of the depart-
ment of botany; Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, with
valuable help from the late keeper, Dr. Henry Wood-
| ward, and from Dr. Bather, assistant keeper, that of
the department of geology; and Mr. Fletcher that of
the department of minerals. The second volume will
deal with the department of zoology.
It need hardly be said that the various histories of
the collections are scholarly productions; they tell of
the foundation-stones and of the additions made from
year to year, and they give an annotated alphabetical
list of the numerous benefactors and vendors. The
| result is not adapted for fireside perusal, but it is very
Printed by Order of the Trustees of ¢the British |
impressive, giving us a correct idea of the variety,
extent, and importance of the immense series of
collected specimens which are carefully guarded and
ordered, *‘ not only’? (according to the terms of Sir
Hans Sloane’s will) ‘‘ for the inspection and entertain-
ment of the learned and curious, but for the general
use and benefit of the public to all posterity.’’ And
it is also interesting to turn over the leaves and observe
how many famous names occur on the honourable
lists. Many of the short biographical notes in the
geological and mineralogical sections supply valuable
historical material. A useful addendum, we think,
would have been a series of references to the cata-
logues and memoirs in which the collected material has
been described.
The book will be of great value to investigators who
wish to trace collections and specimens, or who wish
to know beforehand what to expect in the British
Museum; and everyone will agree that it furnishes
abundant documentary proof of the carefulness and
business-like methods of the great museum, which is
one of the national assets that we have most reason
to be proud of.
SCIENCE AND METAPHYSICS.
Scientific Fact and Metaphysical Reality. By Robert
Brandon Arnold. Pp. xxiii+360. (London: Mac-
millan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price ros. net.
F this book does not conform to the adage
“Nonum prematur in annum’’—for Mr.
Arnold’s undergraduate career is no distant memory
—that is no ground for complaint. The work is not
only one of great promise, but a notable performance.
In originality of conception, vigour and clearness of
statement, width of outlook and fairness to all the
aspects of experience, it would be with difficulty sur-
passed. At the same time it is quite unpretentious;
there is no parade of learning; there is not a single
foot-note. The one digression of any length—on
486
modern militarism—is as interesting as it is pardon-
able.
The following are some of the main characteristics
of the author’s point of view :—(1) While defending
metaphysics from the charge of being “ built upon
air or quicksands,’’ he readily admits that it has not
always taken full advantage of the science which it
knows, and that greater accuracy of scientific detail
ought to be displayed if it is to appeal to the “‘ plain
man?’ with some knowledge of physics, chemistry,
and biology. In the same spirit the chapters on God
and the Absolute and Human Immortality attempt
to do something like justice to the religious aspira-
tions of the ‘‘ plain man,’’ which are so severely
neglected in such a work as ‘‘ Appearance and
Reality.’’ (2) Mr. Arnold prefers activity to existence
as a basis for investigation. The lower animals, in
his view, display only “‘ teleological activities ’’; the
entity ‘‘mind’”’ (self-conscious and _ introspective)
belongs only to men. And perhaps not even to all
men: “a human being might theoretically pass
through life and never be actual mind; possibly with
some savages this is almost the truth.” (3) Again,
Mr. Arnold is fond of the contrast between the in-
dividuation (real and objective in every sense) by
means of the atom or the electron—‘‘ the true physical
entities ’"—and the individuation by means of colour,
sound, and the like which depends on our “ particular
sensuous evolution.’? The latter form of individu-
ation, which finds expression particularly in the
‘“ material totalised image,’’ seems therefore to show
that in mind (including “ teleological activity ’’) there
is something new in principle. ‘‘ But by asking
whether it is a new entity we merely confuse matters.
For we should thus assume that the physical world
is once and for all limited to atomic activities, whereas
all observations tend to show that the various entities
are continually changing and re-organising them-
selves, and developing new relations and qualities.”
In one sense Mr. Arnold claims that his view of mind
in the non-introspective animal is as materialistic as
it could be, since mind under such conditions ‘‘ is
matter totalised in a special manner in relation to an
external crisis.’”’ But he hastens to add that ‘‘ pre-
mental matter was not merely the matter of physics
and chemistry.’”’ And mind in man he certainly re-
gards as something very different.
It is impossible to do justice to this suggestive work
in a short notice, and we are well aware that the
above is only a hasty and somewhat arbitrary selec-
tion of a few of the topics treated. The views of
matter and ether, in particular, might well have a
notice of their own; so might the chapter on psycho-
physical interaction, which is almost a model of philo-
sophical discussion. In this last the theory is stated
that the initial impulse required to liberate the energy
of the muscular system comes ultimately from ‘ ex-
ternal sources,’’ e.g. when the sight of some object
moves us to pursue it, from the ethereal vibrations
which we apprehend as light. But for the author’s
defence (in many ways successful) against the obvious
objections to this view, we must refer to the book
tself.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71 |
NARORT
[MARCH 23, 1905
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Index of Spectra. (Appendix O.) By W. Marshall
Watts, D.Sc. (Lond). Pp. 40. (Manchester: Abel
Heywood and Son, 1904.) Price 3s.
Tuts is the latest addition to the very useful series of
appendices which Dr. Marshall Watts has given to
his well-known ‘‘ Index of Spectra.’? In it he has
brought together the arc spectrum of molybdenum by
Hasselberg, the spark spectra of calcium, scandium,
indium, beryllium, lithium, thallium, antimony, and
arsenic, by Exner and Haschek; of calcium, lithium,
thallium, and antimony, by Eder and Valenta; of
radium, by Runge and Precht; and the oxy-hydrogen
flame spectra of lithium, potassium, rubidium, and
cesium, by Ramage. Hasselberg’s comprehensive
record of the arc lines of molybdenum takes up about
half the pages of the appendix. In the cases of
metals investigated both by Exner and Haschek, and
Eder and Valenta, the records are compared in
parallel columns. The oscillation frequencies cor-
responding to the wave-lengths of all the lines given
have been reduced by the compiler.
La Matiére, l’Ether et les Forces physiques. By
Lucien Mottez. Pp. 236. (Paris: Gauthier Villars,
1904.) Price 4 francs.
Tue time is fast coming when the qualification which
will play the most important part in determining a
man’s reputation as a physicist will be that he shall
abstain from writing books on the philosophy of
ether, matter, and the universe. The present book
discourses pleasantly about gravitation, heat, electri-
city and magnetism, polarisation of light, chemical
action, and such like matters. It is hardly the
kind of book to which a beginner would turn to
get his first lessons on physics, as the style is too
discursive, and it contains little but what an
average physicist either knows or has probably
thought of already; and yet we can only say about
books of this kind, “ still they come.’’ Who reads
them ?
The Uses and Wonders of Plant-hairs. By Kate E.
Styan. Pp. iv+65; with plates. (London: Bemrose
and Sons, Ltd.) Price rs.
Tue nature and purpose of plant-hairs will have
occurred to many teachers as a favourable subject for
a course of nature-study. The presence or absence of
hairs in allied plants, even in the same plant when
growing under different conditions, their position and
form, their mechanism and use, afford plenty of
opportunity for consideration and deduction. The
book offers a fair résumé of facts, but it is not obvious
that the writer is recording personal observations,
and the appendix of illustrations loses some of its
value as no allusion is made to it in the text.
LETTER TO THE EDITOR,
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. |
The Planet Fortuna.
ALTHOUGH NATURE is scarcely the proper place for a
disquisition on a Latin quotation, perhaps you will admit
‘of a further correction of ‘‘ W. T.’s’’ correction (p. 461) of
the lines quoted by “‘W. E. P.’’ Numen is, I believe,
never used except in the sense of good luck, being derived
from nuo, and signifying the nodding approval of the
gods; hence ‘‘ Nullum numen habes, si sit prudentia,”’
would mean just the opposite to the obvious sense of the
passage. The best editions give, in hoth the satires where
the line occurs, ‘* Nullum numen abest,’’ and this makes
sense. Except for this word, ‘‘W. T.’s’’ version is
correct. SPENCER PICKERING.
Marcu 23, 1905]
WATORE
487
STATE AID FOR HIGHER EDUCATION.
| ae announcement that the committee, presided
over by Mr. Haldane, M.P., appointed to con-
sider the allocation of the Treasury grant to the uni-
versity colleges has finished its inquiry, was made in
our issue of last week. In the note dealing with the
subject on that occasion the part of the grant to be
received by each college was specified, and the fact
remains to be recorded that goool. has been allotted
to the purchase of books, apparatus, specimens,
instruments, &c., to form equipment for teaching
of a university character. As will be known already
to most readers of Nature, the Treasury this year
has doubled its contribution to the university col-
leges, and in this way has acknowledged the national
services which these institutions are rendering. The
total Treasury grant to the fourteen university colleges
is now 54,000.
That the grant has been increased in this substantial
manner is certainly a matter for congratulation, and
men of science will view with satisfaction the evidence
this additional State aid for higher education affords
that the Government is beginning to realise the
important part played by higher education in securing
national efficiency—especially by higher education in
science, using that term in its most catholic sense.
But, even at the risk of appearing to be ungracious,
it must be pointed out at once that the amount is
even now ludicrously small and altogether inadequate
when regarded as the contribution of the State to
the pressing work of placing our system of higher
education upon a satisfactory basis. As has been
consistently and persistently urged in these columns,
there is an enormous amount of leeway to be made up
before the facilities for education of university
standard in Great Britain can be compared with those
in several European countries and with those
in the United States, compared, that is, with any
chance of a satisfactory result. The reason is a simple
one. Great Britain alone among the first-class nations
of the world has not learnt that the reign of muscle
is over, that success, whether in commerce or war,
will be always with the most highly trained and
scientifically educated people. Other nations have
taken this truth to heart, and believe enthusiastically
that what is worth having is worth paying for, and
paying for well. Surely, in view of the object-lesson
that events in Manchuria afford, it will not be long
before our own country will be prepared to make
great sacrifices to secure as efficient a system of
higher education as that of any other nation on the
face of the earth. ;
The total grant to the fourteen university colleges
is, as has been said, 54,000l., and this is a large sum
compared with what the colleges have received in
previous years. But the State endowment of the
University of Berlin in 1891-2 amounted to very nearly
169,000l.; that is to say, one university in Germany
receives from the State in a year more than three
times as much as our fourteen university colleges
receive together from the Treasury. A single fact
of this kind is enough to convince the student of
educational problems that while Germany takes
higher scientific education seriously, and reaps the
advantages of her sacrifices, Great Britain has still
to understand that commercial success and educational
efficiency stand in the relation of effect and cause.
If at the present day there still exist sceptics as to
our educational inefficiency and our national parsi-
mony towards universities and colleges, the_ presi-
dential address of Sir Norman Lockyer to the British
Association at Southport in 1903 may be commended
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
to them. Though men of science who have at
heart the true welfare of their country are at pre-
sent rather like ‘‘ voices crying in the wilderness,”’ it
is clearly their duty to continue to urge the paramount
importance of higher scientific education and of
scientific research, and to petition the Government to
act more generously on their behalf.
But it is not enough to provide large and adequate
State grants for education in order to secure efficiency
in the face of modern needs. It is just as important
so to choose the subjects of study and to arrange the
curricula of schools and colleges that our boys and
young men may begin life as well and as suitably
trained as the youths of other countries. The kind of
education suited to the conditions of the days of the
Renaissance is not in harmony with the needs of the
twentieth century. The work of men of science in the
last century has revolutionised life, and our system of
education must be adapted to existing circumstances.
The custodians of English education are still too
much actuated by medizval ideals. The entrance
of the student of science to the older universities is
still obstructed by an obsolete and ludicrous test
in Greek. There is a tendency even yet among
those in charge of our Department of Educa-
tion to discourage and hamper the instruction in
science in our elementary and secondary schools.
The Prime Minister is reported once to have said
that the only knowledge our boys have of natural
phenomena is that obtained on the cricket and foot-
ball fields, and on the river. The man of science
has still much to teach his fellow citizens. The
work to which Huxley gave so much of his
energy is not yet done, and it is the duty of his
successors to continue his efforts, and to take every
opportunity of advocating the application of the
principles of science to educational administration.
It must be recognised that there are many ways of
obtaining culture. The idea of the Middle Ages that
culture was obtainable only by studying Latin and
Greek, though true enough then, is to-day hopelessly
narrow and indicative rather of the state of mind of
the Philistine. The scholar steeped in classical lore,
yet ignorant of nature’s laws and of modern literature,
is but an uneducated pedant. The scientific specialist
with a complete knowledge of some restricted sub-
division of science, yet knowing nothing of the ideas
of ancient and modern poets and philosophers, is but
a narrow technical registrar. Culture is something
broader and higher than anything with which the
pedant or cataloguer is acquainted. The man of
science desirous of producing cultured men and women
will strive so to arrange school and college time-tables
that they contain in due measure subjects designed to
cultivate and develop all the faculties of the healthy
human mind; and in this work the heritage which
has been left us. by the nineteenth century will not be
ignored. The teachings of science, the love of truth
wherever it may lead, will be inculcated consistently,
so that a race may be produced able to deal with
modern problems in a modern way.
Though the Government moves but slowly, and per-
ceives so incompletely the unsatisfactoriness of our
supply of higher education, there is cause for satisfac-
tion in another direction. There are growing
evidences that the broad-minded policy. of wealthy
men in the United States, which leads them to give
of their millions to colleges and universities, is being
emulated in a measure by our merchant princes. We
have on several occasions lately been able to record
noble instances of private munificence on behalf of
higher education, and it may be that before long
the Government will recognise its imperative
duty.
488
NATURE
[Marcu 23, 1905
CAVE HUNTING.
INCE the memorable researches of Dr. Buckland
in the early part of last century, the exploration
of British caves has had a great fascination for many
investigators. This is no matter for surprise, for
there are many points of interest which await elucid-
ation regarding prehistoric man and the animals by
which he was surrounded in very early times, and
there is a great probability that some of these
problems will be solved by cavern researches. When
we remember, also, how much has already been re-
vealed by cave hunting, we are led to hope for more
in the future, and consequently investigations in this
direction raise our expectations.
The current number of the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society contains an _ interesting
account of a cave discovered about two years ago
near Brassington, Derbyshire. Shortly after its
discovery the cave was visited by a number of
““ardent collectors,’? and many bones and teeth were
carried away; but very soon permission was given
by Major Nicholson, the owner, for the deposits to
be carefully investigated on behalf of
the Derbyshire Archaeological and soe
Natural History Society, the work
falling almost wholly on the authors
of this paper.
The cave is in a quarry situated
on the south-eastern edge of the
Mountain Limestone plateau, and its
floor is about t1ogo feet above
Ordnance Datum, the top of the
quarry being some 30 feet higher.
The highest part of the plateau in
the neighbourhood is formed by the
Harbro Rocks, which at some little
distance, and with a _ depression
between, rise to a height of 1244 feet,
that is, about 120 feet higher than
the entrance to the swallow hole
which opened into the top of the
cavern.
The cavern itself was a master joint
in the limestone, enlarged by the
action of water, and when found (it
is now entirely destroyed) extended
about 120 feet from the S.S.E. to the
N.N.W., and in this direction it
deepened considerably. Much care
seems to have been taken to keep
separate the bones from each layer,
and fifteen spots are marked on the section given to
indicate distinct layers or places where bones were
discovered. Eventually, however, these were grouped
into three series:—(rt) The upper inclined layers
which had accumulated to the S.S.E. of the swallow
hole, and from which they were evidently derived.
By far the greater number of the specimens were
found in this part of the cave. To the N.N.W. of
the swallow hole very few bones were met with, and
the deposit was of a more irregular character, seeming
to indicate a different mode of origin.
(2) The second division included all that was
obtained in a stratum about three feet in depth
excavated below the level of the quarry floor, and
extending throughout the length of the cave. Very
few bones were found, but these included remains of
hyzena and of a small deer which it was important
to know were present at this early stage of the cave’s
history. :
“On. an Ossiferous Cave of Pleistocene Age at Hoe Grange Quarry,
Longcliffe, near Brassington (Derbyshire)."". By H. H. Arnold Bemrose,
J.P. M.A., and E. T. Newton, F.R.S. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol.
Ixi. Pp. 43, 1904.)
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
Fic. 1.—Hoe Grange Quarry, showing entrance to Cave.
(3) The third, and oldest series of deposits, were
some highly inclined beds at the N.N.W. end of
the cave, which were explored to a considerable
depth in the hope of meeting with Pliocene mammals,
such as were recognised by Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins
in the cave at Doveholes in 1903, but unfortunately
without finding any such remains. We wish the
explorers had had more success in this deeper ex-
ploration; however, it is satisfactory to know that
the search was made, even though the results were
negative.
The number of bones yielded by this cave could
scarcely have been less than 10,000, for the authors
have accounted for 8000, and many were carried
away before they began work. Nearly half these
remains belonged to bovine and cervine animals,
while between six and seven hundred of them are
referable to hyanas. It seems pretty certain that
this cave was a hyzena-den, and although no entrance
was found except the swallow hole, yet it is possible
that this was the means of access.
Some twenty-seven species of mammals, birds, and
amphibia have been identified from Hoe Grange
From photograph by H. Arnold-
Bemrose.
cave, but about half of these belong to the smalle
forms of vertebrates, which as a rule have not been
recorded in cave researches. The rich harvest of
these small creatures which rewarded the patient
labour of Mr. Lewis Abbott some ten years ago in
the rock fissure at Ightham, Kent, has caused more
careful search to be made for them in recent re-
searches, and with good results, such as those of
Mr. R. S. Ussher in his cave hunting in Ireland
during the last two or three years, only a part of
which have yet been published. Search was made for
these smaller animals at Hoe Grange, but with only
partial success. Among the larger animals repre-
sented in the cave, the lion will perhaps attract most
attention, and one of the few specimens obtained is
part of the lower jaw of a cub with some of the milk
teeth still in place. The hyzena, wild cat, wolf, fox,
grisly bear, and badger are the other carnivores which
have been identified.
Rhinoceros remains occurred in some abundance,
and the teeth show that they belong to the Rhinoceros
leptorhinus, not to the woolly rhinoceros, the form
hitherto found in Derbyshire. The elephant is re-
MarcH 23, 1905]
NATURE
489
presented by a single specimen, part of a milk molar
of Elephas antiquus; this again is peculiar, the
elephant previously met with in Derbyshire being
the mammoth (E. primigenius). The presence of
Elephas antiquus and Rhinoceros leptorhinus, as we
learn from the discussion following the paper, led
Prof. Dawkins to regard the deposits at Hoe Grange
as belonging to the older Pleistocene group of caves.
Among the numerous bovine remains there are
no horn-cores and frontal bones to indicate the
species to which these remains belong, and the
measurements of several metacarpals given in the
paper show that limb-bones alone are not sufficient
to indicate whether the remains are those of Bos or of
Bison. ;
The Cervidee are represented by four species, the
Fic. 2.—Mammalian Bones from Hoe Grange Cavern. 1, Lion-cub, lower
Jaw ; 2. Wild Cat, femur ; 3, Wild Cat, humerus ; 4, Bear, molar tooth ;
5, 54, Alephas antiguus, milk tooth ; 6, Fallow-deer, three molar teeth.
great Irish deer (Cervus giganteus), the red deer
(C. elaphus), the roebuck (Capreolus caprea), and
another form, intermediate in size between the last
two, which is regarded by the authors as fallow deer
(Cervus dama). Bones and teeth of the last-named
form were very numerous, nearly 1600 specimens
having been found. If these remains are indeed
parts of Pleistocene fallow deer, and we see no way
to any other conclusion, they are of the greatest
interest. The fallow deer has not hitherto been
accepted, at least by modern writers, as a member of
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
the British Pleistocene fauna, but is thought to have
been introduced to this country probably by the
Romans,
There are two points, however, which have to be
settled before we can accept this addition to our
Pleistocene mammals :—(1) Are these remains cer-
tainly those of fallow deer? and if so (2) Is the
Sepese in which they were found really of Pleistocene
age?
It is to be regretted that there are no sufficiently
well preserved antlers to define the species clearly,
but the limb-bones and teeth are of such a size that
if there had been no question of age there would
have been little or no doubt in referring them to
fallow deer. In the circumstances the authors
have carefully measured the teeth and made com-
parisons with both fallow and red deer, and feel
compelled to regard these remains as parts of fallow
deer or of a closely allied species. The only
Pleistocene species of a size which might compare
with these bones and teeth is the Cervus Brownt
described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins from Pleistocene
beds at Clacton, and this is only known by its antler,
which is distinguished from that of the fallow deer
by the presence of an additional tine. It has been
shown, however, that modern fallow deer sometimes
have this additional tine (see Nature, vol. xi.,
p- 210), and it thus becomes very doubtful whether
C. Browni is really a distinct species. Although
there are no antlers from Hoe Grange cave that can
be compared with C. Browni, yet it seems almost
certain that the authors are correct, and that these
Hoe Grange remains are representatives of the fallow
deer.
We have now to consider the age of the Hoe
Grange deposits. There can be no question as to
the Pleistocene age of the elephant, rhinoceros,
hyzena, and lion, and there is no doubt as to the
fallow deer bones being found with the remains of
those animals; but it is just possible that the fallow
deer was living in the neighbourhood at a time when
a previously existing Pleistocene deposit was washed
into this cave, and so the more modern animal got
mixed with the older forms. In order that such a
re-deposition of large bones might take place there
must have been a considerable supply of water, and
seeing that the cave at the present time is near the
top of the plateau there is no collecting ground for
water; and it becomes necessary to suppose that, at
the time of the re-deposition of the bones, the land
was much higher than it is now, and that it has
since been denuded. But it must be remembered
that this would mean a very large amount of denuda-
tion, and, if we are to accept the fallow deer as a
Roman importation, _ this denudation must have
taken place since Roman times, which seems
extremely improbable. We think, therefore, that
the authors are justified in regarding these particular
cervine remains as those of fallow deer, and as good
evidence that the species lived in this country in
Pleistocene times.
A fallow deer’s antler has been recorded recently
by Dr. Herlaf Winge from an interglacial deposit in
Denmark; and this early extension of the species so
far north on the Continent makes its occurrence in
England in Pleistocene times still more probable.
It is remarkable that Cervus dama, or rather its
equivalent, C. Browni, should have been so rarely
found, hitherto, in Pleistocene deposits, seeing that
it is so abundant in the Hoe Grange cave.
A word regarding the illustrations accompanying
this paper, two of which, by the courtesy of the
council of the Geological Society, we are able to
reproduce. The views of the cave are very credit-
490
able reproductions, but we have nowadays become
accustomed to good things of this kind. It is rarely,
however, that we have seen such satisfactory repro-
ductions of photographs taken directly from the
fossils as we have in the two plates. Most of the
good collotype reproductions of fossils that have
recently appeared are from photographs of water-
colour drawings, and some of them are certainly very
effective; but there is the artist’s equation to allow
for. In the present case, no such allowance has to
be made, and the figures of the lion’s jaw as well as
of the teeth of the fallow deer and elephant are
admirable. These plates do credit to all concerned in
their production.
FIJIAN FOLK-TALES2
> THNOLOGISTS have all along suspected that
Mr. Fison has plenty of unpublished information
concerning Fiji. They are grateful to him for what
he has already published in the Journal of the
SOOT RLS OIE £8 8
Fic. 1.—Bau, Fiji.
Anthropological Institute, but they clamoured for
more, and even now they will not remain satisfied
with the handsome book that has just been issued by
the De La More Press. This new book contains a
dozen folk-tales capitally told; ‘each contains a
genuine legend as its skeleton, for the flesh with
which that skeleton has been covered, the most that
‘Tales from Old Fiji.”
By Lorimer Fison, Pp. xlv+175; illustrated.
( n: A. Mering, Ltd.,
the De La More Press, 1904.) Price 7s. 6d.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
NATURE
A
23;
[Marcu
1905
can be claimed is that it is of the native pattern.’’
The tales are interesting as stories, and have increased
value when compared with other tales from Oceania,
but their greatest importance rests in their value as
evidence of the ideas and actions of the natives before
the white man came. In the introduction Mr. Fison
gives a long discussion concerning cannibalism, and
he sums it up thus :—
‘“Tt is impossible to establish a certainty as to the
origin of cannibalism, and the question resolves itself
into a comparison of probabilities, the balance being
in favour of the strongest motive. This is un-
doubtedly Hunger. It is stronger than Superstition ;
it is stronger than Revenge. Man is a carnivorous
animal, whatever the vegetarians may say; and in a
savage state of society, if he cannot get the food for
which his stomach craves, he will ‘ kusima’ (crave,
or hunger after flesh) until he eats his brother.’
For, as Mr. Fison argues, the Fijians were formerly
scantily supplied with animal food. The serious
student is occasionally tantalised by hints of further
From Fisons ‘‘ Tales from Old Fiji.’’
information, and by allusions to possible discussions
of social and other questions, all of which are passed
by as not being suitable for a popular book ; doubt-
less Mr. Fison was wise in restraining himself, but,
for the sake of science, it is sincerely to be hoped that
he will give all his information to the world in some
form or another. In the meantime we thank Mr.
Fison for this publication, which can be recommended
to those who like interesting information about real
savages told in a pleasing manner.
Marcu 23, 1905]
NATURE
491
NOTES.
Ow Friday last, March 17, the worlds of science and art
combined to do honour to a man who has rendered to both
services of the utmost value and of a nature that time
cannot diminish—for so long as the human throat is eap-
able of emitting musical sounds, and so long as throats are
liable to disease, the great invention of Manuel Garcia
will hold its place among vocalists and laryngologists.
The celebration of Sefior Garcia’s centenary was held in
the hall of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society,
Hanover Square, under the direction of Sir Felix Semon,
chairman of the Garcia committee. Sefior Garcia sat
alone on a dais, while in front of him were ranked the
representatives of kings, governments, universities, scien-
tific societies, and his old pupils who had gathered to do
him honour. Sir Felix Semon announced that that morn-
ing the King had invited Sefior Garcia to Buckingham
Palace, and with his own hands invested him with the
insignia of Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, and
had expressed a desire to be represented at the banquet in
the evening by his Lord-in-Waiting, Lord Suffield. The
Marquis de Villalobar then delivered a congratulatory
message from the King of Spain, and added, ‘In the
name of His Majesty and your motherland, I invest you
with the Royal Order of Alfonso XII. as a reward of your
merits and the services you have rendered to manksind. I
desire also to make public the sentiments of my beloved
Sovereign and of his Government to King Edward VII. for
the distinction he has conferred upon our compatriot, and
the hearty gratefulness of Spain to all who have come
here to-day to honour Don Manuel Garcia.’’ Other tributes
followed thick and fast during a crowded hour. Prof.
¥rinkel presented on behalf of the German Emperor the
great gold medal of science. Sir Archibald Geikie, Mr.
Francis Darwin, and Prof. Halliburton, representing the
Royal Society, presented an address, recalling the fact
that their Proceedings for March 22, 1855, contained the
epoch-making paper im which Sefior Garcia laid the found-
ations of the experimental study of the voice. The Royal
Prussian Academy of Sciences, the University of K6nigs-
berg, the Victoria University, the Medical Faculty of
Heidelberg, the Royal Academy of Music, and the Royal
College of Music sent distinguished representatives, who in
rapid succession laid before the maestro illuminated
addresses in rich profusion, until the table in front of
him was heaped. We have not space to give the long list
of public institutions and societies, laryngological and other,
which brought tribute; but every quarter of the globe was
represented, and during the proceedings a constant stream
of telegrams poured in. After the addresses a portrait of
Sefior Garcia, painted by Mr. Sargent, R.A., and sub-
scribed for by friends and admirers in all parts of the
world, was unveiled and presented to him by Sir Felix
Semon. The proceedings were concluded by a remarkably
eloquent speech by Sefior Garcia. In the evening Senor
(now Don) Garcia was entertained at a banquet held in
his honour at the Hotel Cecil.
We learn from the Times that further papers have been
published by the Government of India in respect to the
late Mr. J. N. Tata’s offer of an endowment in the shape
of properties valued at 200,000l. for the creation of an
institute of Indian research at Bangalore. Certain con-
ditions in respect to Government assistance were attached
to the offer, which was first made six years ago, and these
have been the subject of prolonged discussion and corre-
spondence between the Government, Mr. Tata during his
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
lifetime, and his representatives. The papers now pub-
lished show that the difficulties in the way of a settlement
have been removed. Guarantees have been offered by the re-
presentatives of the donor to secure the full income estim-
ated from the endowment properties, and the management
of the latter is vested in a board the chairman of which is
to be an officer selected by the Bombay Government. In
addition to making a grant of 24 lakhs of rupees (16, 6601.)
towards the construction of the necessary buildings and
provision of scientific apparatus, the Government will make
an annual grant to the institute of half the local assets up
to a limit of 1} lakhs of rupees, provided that the institute
is conducted on lines approved generally by the Govern-
ment. ‘The scheme will provide for the reference of certain
questions to the advisory committee of the Royal Society,
or to such other scientific authority as may be appointed
for the purpose. The Council dis-
avows any desire to be intimately associated with the
actual administration of the institute, or to claim a deter-
mining voice in the settlement of the lines of research to
be followed or the methods of instruction to be employed.
The Government will exercise no more than that degree
of influence and control which is justified by the grant-in-
aid that has been promised.
Governor-General in
Pror. Emi Wareurc, of Berlin, has been appointed
president of the National Physical Laboratory at Charlot-
tenburg, and his place in the university is to be taken by
Prof. Paul Drude, of Giessen.
Tue magnificent collection of birds’ eggs possessed by the
British (Natural History) Museum has been largely aug-
mented by the gift of the splendid series brought together
by Mr. W. Radcliffe Saunders, of High Bank, ‘Tonbridge.
This collection comprises close on ten thousand specimens
of the eggs of together with one
hundred and sixty-five nests.
Palearctic species,
We regret to record the death at the age of seventy-six
of Mr. Jeremiah Slade, one of the founders of the Geo-
logists’ Association. Mr. Slade had for many years been
a teacher of geology, mineralogy, zoology, and botany at
the Working Men's College, the Birkbeck Institution, and
the City of London College. He was an ardent micro-
scopist and member of the Quekett Microscopical Club.
Tue anniversary dinner of the Chemical Society will be
held on Wednesday, March 29.
Tue sixth International Congress of Applied Chemistry
will be held at Rome next year, probably during the week
following Easter.
Tue French Société l'industrie
nationale has awarded the Lavoisier medal to M. Héroult
in recognition of his electrometallurgical researches. In
recommending the award the committee refers to his work
in connection with the manufacture of aluminium, and the
preparation of steel in the electric furnace.
d’Encouragement pour
Orrictat statistics show that the production of natural
gas in the United States in 1903 was greater than in any
previous year. The production had a value of 7,143,000l.,
or 16 per cent. than that of Four States,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Indiana, and Ohio, furnished
together 94 per cent. of the supply of gas. The total
volume of the gas at atmospheric pressure was 6757 million
cubic metres, representing in heating value 12,129,468 tons
of bituminous coal.
more 1902.
Reurer’s Agency has received some details of an expedi-
tion which went to British New Guinea in September, 1903,
492
NATURE
[Marcu 23, 1905
and has lately returned to England. The expedition was
organised by Major W. Cooke-Daniels, an American
traveller, and it also included Dr. C. G. Seligmann, Dr.
W. M. Strong, and Mr. A. H. Dunning. The objects were
primarily ethnographical, but studies were also made in
other branches of science, and a number of general patho-
logical observations were made. A collection of photo-
graphs was secured by Mr. Dunning, and the travellers
have brought back kinematograph pictures and a selection
of phonographic records.
A CORRESPONDENT writing to the Times from Florence
directs attention to the fact that the famous Tower of
Galileo, on the hill of Arcetri above Florence, is now
practically destroyed. This historic thirteenth century
building—known locally as the Torre del Gallo—has for
some months past been concealed in scaffolding set up for
the purpose of raising its castellated tower by a third of its
former height, of placing in its walls new windows, of
adding a loggia, and, in fine, of converting the world
famous ‘‘ Star Tower ’’ into a pretentious modern erection.
To the Anglo-Saxon race Galileo’s Tower possessed a
special interest, in that it was the scene of the classic meet-
ing between Milton and Galileo.
In No. 1395 of the Proceedings of the U.S. National
Museum, Mr. C. D. Walcott continues his account of
American Cambrian brachiopods, describing several new
genera and species. It is explained that these notes and
their forerunners are published in the hope that they may
be of service to students prior to the appearance of the
full monograph promised on the subject.
We have received the reports of the Wellington College
and of the Felsted School science societies for 1904. The
former, which is illustrated, contains summaries of a
number of lectures delivered before the society, among
which one by Mr. H. W. Monckton on the geology of the
London district deserves special mention. In the Felsted
report attention is directed to the lack of keenness displayed
by the members of the zoological section, who failed to
take nature-study seriously. Although one prize was offered
for an account of the birds of the district, and a second for
the best collection of butterflies and moths, there were no
competitors.
In addition to the Bulletin on the fauna and flora of the
plateau of Baraque-Michel, already noticed (from an
author’s copy) in Nature of March 16 (p. 468), No. 12 of
the Bulletin of the Belgian Royal Academy contains two
biological articles of considerable interest. In the first of
these, Miss J. Wery discusses the attractions offered to
bees by flowers, and, as the result of direct experiments,
arrives at the following conclusions. Brilliantly coloured
flowers offer much greater attraction when entire than
when the petals, &c., have been cut away; honey has no
attractive power ; artificial flowers are just as attractive as
natural ones if both are under glass shades; flower perfume
by itself offers but little attraction; while colour and form,
apart from scent, are powerfully attractive; the mingling
of the three factors, form, colour, and scent, constitutes the
most powerful attraction of all. Finally, if the latter item
be reckoned as 100, the attractive power exerted by form
and colour will be 80 per cent., while the other factors
(pollen, nectar, and scent) will only rank as 20 per cent.
In the second of the two articles from the Bulletin of the
Belgian Academy referred to above, Prof. A. Lamcere
discusses Darwin’s theory of female sexual selection as the
primary factor in the production of secondary sexual
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
characters in the male, and comes to the conclusion that
such an hypothesis offers an inadequate and untenable ex-
planation of the phenomenon. In place of this, the author
suggests that such features in the male are the equivalents
of maternity in the female, that is to say, the products
which in the female are required for generative purposes
are superfluous in the male, and are accordingly employed
for sexual ornament. If we mistake not, the same theory
has been already promulgated by Captain Barrett-Hamil-
ton.
WE have received copies of four articles from the third
volume of ‘‘ Marine Investigations in South Africa.’’ In de-
scribing, in two of these, the polychztous annelids collected
by Dr. Gilchrist, Prof. McIntosh directs attention to the
community of type between South African and European
marine annelids generally, many of the types from the two
areas being specifically identical, while others, in a more
or less modified form, extend eastwards into the Indian and
Pacific Oceans, and westward to America. A nearly similar
feature has been recorded in the case of crustaceans, and it
thus seems that the distribution of invertebrates in these seas
is governed by very different laws from those which obtain,
for instance, in the case of the commoner food-fishes. The
anatomy and variation of the Flabellum-like corals form
the subject of the third article, in which Mr. J. S. Gardiner
has found himself compelled to dissent from the classification
of corals proposed by the late Prof. P. M. Duncan. In
the fourth fasciculus Dr. Gilchrist continues his investigation
into the development and life-history of South African fishes,
describing and figuring a number of larva, some of which
cannot at present be specifically identified.
In the Monthly Review for March, Mr. W. E. Hodgson
discourses very pleasantly on certain problems connected with
salmon-fishing. After pointing out the inaccuracy of the
common opinion that the north of Scotland in spring is
necessarily colder than the south of England, the author
proceeds to discuss the reason why loch-fishing for salmon
is carried on with a minnow instead of with a fly. One
reason seems to be that salmon lie deeper in the water
than trout, and will consequently, owing to the set of their
eyes, see the approach of a boat at a greater distance. A
minnow trolled behind a boat is probably, therefore, the
best lure for Salmo salar; but whether the boatmen are
right in giving a sinuous course to the boat is very ques-
tionable. In the first place a boat may be rowed right over
a deep-lying salmon without being seen by the fish;
secondly, there is considerable reason to believe that dis-
turbed water is conducive to the salmon biting ; and thirdly,
it is not unlikely that the fish which takes the trailing lure
has not been lying in the wake of the boat, but may have
made a dash from the side. Mr. Hodgson, who is by no
means convinced that salmon fast during their sojourn in
fresh water, thinks they take the minnow for a wounded
fish, and dash at it owing to the impulse which makes most
animals attack a cripple.
Part iv. of the third volume of Biometrika contains
several memoirs of interest. Mr. Punnett contributes a
careful study of variation in Spinax niger, showing, from
an analysis of the characters of 263 adults and 304 em-
bryos, that a well-marked sexual dimorphism exists in this
shark, and that the variability of male embryos considerably
exceeds that of male adults, this pointing to a more
stringent selection in the case of the male. Homeeosis
rather than intercalation or excalation is held by the author
to be the more feasible explanation of the various relative
positions occupied by the structures examined—this sup-
NATURE
493
Marcu 23, 1905] _
porting Gegenbaur’s theory of the origin of limbs. The
same material is thought by Mr. Punnett to favour the
hypothesis of gametic purity—a view from which Prof.
Pearson dissents for reasons given. Dr. Beddoe’s cranio-
metric formula, lately published in L’Anthropologie, is
vigorously impugned by M. A. Lewenz and Prof. Karl Pear-
son, who produce in evidence the ‘‘ auto-icon’’ of Jeremy
Bentham preserved at University College. In another
paper, Prof. Edmond Gain deals with variation in the flower
and heterostylism in Pulmonaria officinalis. Local races are
shown to present significant differences in the former
respect. The miscellanea include interesting applications
of a new method of determining correlation.
Tue Bureau of Forestry of the United States Department
of Agriculture has erected an extensive plant on the grounds
of the St. Louis Exposition for carrying out a series of
experiments under the direction of Drs. von Schrenk and
Hatt on the value and methods of preserving timber.
According to the general programme, which is outlined in
the Press Bulletin, No. 62, the timber will be subjected
both to static and impact tests. Preliminary results indicate
that steaming reduces the strength of the timber in pro-
portion to the pressure and duration of the process.
Unper the title ‘‘ Place-constants for Aster prenan-
thoides,’’ Mr. G. H. Shull has contributed to the Botanical
Gazette (November, 1904) a biometric article based upon
the number of bracts and florets which were counted on the
inflorescences of this plant as collected in a specified area
during the autumn of 1903. In general, the first head to
bloom on any stem had the highest number of parts, and
the last to bloom the lowest, but precocious flowering on
the part of the weakest individuals produced a low mean at
the beginning of the season, and the belated. flowering of
a few vigorous specimens caused a rise towards the end.
A PRACTICAL and detailed comparison of the cost of
production of sugar on a muscovado estate and in a
central factory using the vacuum pan with triple effect,
such as that given by the Hon. R. Bromley, administrator
of St. Kitts, in vol. v., No. 3, of the West Indian Bulletin,
should carry conviction to the planters of Barbados and
other islands, who, trusting to the high saccharose yield
of their canes, and the profit on molasses, have preferred
to retain their simple process of manufacture. Apart from
the advisability of manufacturing a product of the best
quality, the figures show that the profit per ton of sugar
prepared in a central factory is four times that obtained
on a muscovado estate.
THE Société Helvétique des Sciences naturelles cele-
brated, at its eighty-seventh congress at Winterthur, the
fiftieth jubilee of the discovery of ancient pile dwellings,
described by Dr. Ferdinand Keller. The report and appre-
ciation of the work of Keller and others is written by
M. F. A. Forel. The same authority lately directed
attention (Gazette de Lausanne, January 19) to the dis-
covery at Boiron, near Morges, by the Lake of Geneva, of
a tomb or place of burial of the Bronze Age—the age of
the old lake-city of Morges. Human bones, cinders and
burnt earth, bronze trinkets, vases and other pottery were
found, but of special interest was the discovery alongside
the calcined human bones in the burial chamber, of leg-
bones of a goat uninjured by fire, and evidently deposited
with the flesh as an offering to the shades of the departed.
M. Forel concludes from the evidence that a belief in the
resurrection of the dead was held in the Bronze Age.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
WE have received a copy of the results of the meteor-
ological observations made at the stations in connection
with the Deutsche Seewarte (Hamburg) for the year 1903.
The stations number sixty-nine, and include hourly read-
ings at four first-order observatories. The tables are ar-
ranged as in previous years, and leave nothing to be desired
either in thoroughness of discussion or in detailed ex-
planation of the methods employed. Mid-European time
was adopted in Germany in April, 1893, but the observa-
tions are recorded according to local time as before, with
the exception of the occurrences in the remarks column,
which are stated in Mid-European time. A table is given
showing the difference of these times for each of the
stations.
Tue last published Bulletin of the Philippine Weather
Bureau (for August, 1904) contains, in addition to the usual
useful summaries of meteorological and seismological ob-
servations at various stations, a valuable discussion of the
cyclones which affected the archipelago, with a map show-
ing their tracks. The director of the central observatory at
Manila, the Rev. J. Algué, S.J., author of the valuable
work, ‘‘ The Cyclones of the Far East,’’ makes a special
study of these interesting phenomena, and his discussion of
their behaviour is most instructive. During the month in
question five typical cyclones are dealt with. One of them
(August 17-21) moved at the rate of thirty miles an hour ;
this storm was experienced by the U.S. Army transport
Sherman, near Formosa, and an interesting account of it
is given by the second officer of that vessel.
A summary of the present state of knowledge in regard
to long range weather forecasts, by Prof. E. B. Garriott,
has been published by the Weather Bureau of ‘Washington.
It is accompanied by a paper by Prof. C. M. Woodward on
the planetary equinoxes. Prof. Garriott finds that at the
present time practically no value is to be attached to
weather predictions based on astronomical phenomena or
observations of birds, animals or plants. At the same time,
every attention is being given to the advancement of
meteorology on such a basis as may lead to substantial
improvements in weather forecasting. In his prefatory
report Mr. Willis L. Moore remarks :—‘It is to be re-
gretted that so many newspapers not only give space to
these harmful predictions, but actually pay for them. Fore-
casts of this description may properly be classed with ad-
vertisements of quack medicines—they are both harmful in
the extreme.”’
In the February number of the Bulletin de la Societé
astronomique de France, M. J. Loisel presents his annual
summary of the climatology of the past year. On one chart
he shows the rainfall, the daily temperatures, the humidity,
the barometric pressure, the insolation, the amount of
cloud, and the declination and phase of the moon. Each
of the atmospheric elements is then discussed in detail
month by month. Among other outstanding features, one
sees that the temperature during July, 1904, was ab-
normally elevated, whilst that of December was higher than
that obtaining during November. The figures and the
curve indicating the number of hours of sunshine are
especially interesting, and show that in each of the months
May, June, July and August there only occurred one day
when the sun was completely obscured at Juvisy, whilst
in July the number of hours of effective sunshine amounted
to 72 per cent. of the theoretical number. A comparison
of the solar radiation during 1903 and 1904 shows an
increase of about 23,134. calories, or rather more than
16 per cent., in the latter year.
494
NATURE
([MaRcH 23, 1905
More than ten years ago Prof. Landolt described a series
of experiments which were considered to throw doubt on the
law of the conservation of mass in chemical action, and in
1901 Heydweiller concluded that a change in the total mass
had been experimentally established in a number of cases.
In a paper published by Antonino Lo Surdo in the Nuovo
Cimento (1904, series 5, vol. viii.), the question is re-inves-
tigated. By excluding all possible sources of error, such,
for instance, as a difference of temperature in the two arms
of the balance, differences of volume of the vessels used, it
is established that the change of mass due to the interaction
between iron and basic copper sulphate, which by Heyd-
weiller was considered to be about 0-2 milligram, in reality
falls within the limits of the error of weighing, being cer-
tainly less than 0.02 milligram, In the experiments de-
scribed, the sealed tubes in which the interaction took place
were not removed from the balance during the whole of the
series of weighings, and an ingenious mechanism was de-
signed by which the tubes and weights were manipulated
within the case.
THE operations of the Smithsonian Institution during the
year ending on June 30, 1904, and the work of the U.S.
National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the
International Exchanges, National Zoological Park, and the
Astrophysical Observatory, are described in Dr. S. P.
Langley’s report which has just reached us. Among the
matters mentioned is the removal of the remains of James
Smithson, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, from the
British cemetery at Genoa to America, at the beginning of
last year. The report states that the remains rest tem-
porarily in a room at the Smithsonian Institution containing
a few personal relics of Smithson, awaiting their final dis-
posal by the Regents. Dr. E. W. Scripture, of Yale Uni-
versity, has been awarded a grant from the Hodgkins
fund for the construction of a “‘ vowel organ.’’ Dr. Scrip-
ture expects to be able to construct an organ which can
sing the vowels, or a vowel register which, attached to a
pipe organ, may be used effectively in church music. An
exploration of some of the glaciers of British Columbia has
been undertaken by Dr. W. H. Sherzer, under the auspices
of the Smithsonian Institution, for the purpose of gathering
definite information regarding glacial phenomena, such as
the nature and cause of the ice flow, the temperature of
the ice at various depths, and its relation to air tempera-
tures, the amount of surface melting, and the possible
transference of material from the surface to lower portions.
Reference is made in the report to the new building of the
National Museum in course of erection in the Smithsonian
Park. The floor area in the four stories of the new build-
ing will be about 94 acres. The accessions to the museum
in the year covered by the report amount to 241,547 speci-
mens, which bring the total number of objects in the
collections up to nearly six millions. The work of the
astrophysical observatory has been chiefly concerned with
solar radiation, and its possible variability. The investi-
gations point to the conclusion that the radiation supplied
by the sun may perhaps fluctuate within intervals of a few
months through ranges of nearly or quite 10 per cent., and
that these fluctuations of solar radiation may cause changes
of temperature of several degrees centigrade nearly simul-
taneously over the great continental areas of the world.
The latest report issued by the Engineering Standards
Committee deals with British standard specification for
structural steel for marine boilers. Copies may be obtained
from Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son at 2s. 6d. net.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
Messrs. Henry SoOTHERAN AND Co. have issued a new
catalogue of second-hand books, containing works on
mathematical, astronomical, physical, and chemical sub-
jects. The works catalogued include the library of the late
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., and many important
foreign works on the exact sciences published within the
past twenty years.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Tne ALTERNATING VARIABILITY OF Martian CaNaLs.—
During 1903 Mr. Lowell observed an apparent alternation
in the visibility of the Martian canals Thoth and
Amenthes, which he suggested might be due to the arti-
ficial regulation of a deficient water supply for irrigation
purposes (Nature, vol. Ixix. p. 496).
In a telegram, dated March 10, communicated to Prof.
E. C. Pickering and published in No. 4003 of the Astro-
nomische Nachrichten, Mr. Lowell announces that he has
again observed ‘‘a functional alternative visibility ”’ of
these two canals, both of which are double.
Discovery OF JUPITER’S SIXTH SATELLITE.—In No. 100
of the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Profs. Perrine and Aitken describe the first ob-
servations of Jupiter’s sixth satellite, and abstracts of their
communications are published in No. 4002 of the Astro-
nomische Nachrichten.
Prof. Perrine states that several years ago it was pro-
posed that the Crossley reflector, when reconstructed, should
be employed in a search for additional satellites to the
outer planets. In accordance with this programme, photo-
graphs of Jupiter were taken on December 3, 8, 9 and 10,
1904, and a comparison of them showed that the planet,
which was slowly retrograding at the time, was apparently
accompanied by an object of the fourteenth magnitude.
Photographs taken on January 2, 3 and 4 showed that the
newly discovered object was following Jupiter in such a
manner as to suggest its dependence on that body. The
greatest elongation (west) of the new satellite, about 50’,
seems to have been passed on December 25, and the in-
clination of its orbit to the ecliptic appears to be greater
than those of the inner satellites. The direction of the
satellite’s motion, although apparently retrograde, cannot
be determined until further observations have been made.
On January 28, Prof. Aitken, using the 36-inch re-
fractor under unfavourable atmospheric conditions, found
the satellite quite easily, using the position predicted from
the Crossley photographs, and, after a few minutes’ ob-
servation, the identification was confirmed by the motion in
right ascension. Following the object for nearly an hour,
he found it to have an hourly motion’in R.A. of about
+20", and this agrees with the photographic result. A
comparison with neighbouring faint stars showed that the
satellite was about as bright as a star of the fourteenth
magnitude.
ForTHcoMING Oppositions or Mars.—As_ during the
oppositions of Mars in 1905, 1907, and 1909 the planet
will become successively more favourable for observation,
Mr. R. Buchanan has communicated to Popular Astronomy
(No. 3, vol. xiii.) the following figures, showing the re-
spective conditions for each opposition :—
Mars passes Distance
Year perihelion Opposition from Earth __ Brilliancy
1905 Nov. 7 May 8 0°543 368
1907 Sept. 22 July 5 o'41r 75°4
1909 Aug. 13 Sept. 25 0°390 86°6
The sun’s distance from the earth is taken as the unit
of the mean ‘‘ distance from earth.’’ In the oppositions of
1g01 and 1903 the respective apparent brilliancies of the
planet were 20-0 and 23-4.
VaRiaABLE RaptaAL VELocity oF Sir1us.—In No. 7o of the
Lick Observatory Bulletins, Prof. Campbell discusses the
spectrographic observations of the bright component of
Sirius made at Lick since 1896, thirty-one plates in all.
Before treating the main subject, however, he discusses
the difficulty experienced in binary star work through the
employment of numerous different systems of nomenclature
to define the orbital elements, and then propounds a new
Marcu 23, 1905]
NATURE
495
system which would be readily adaptable to all require-
ments, visual or spectroscopic.
The observations of Sirius have been made under varying
conditions, instrumental and otherwise, and a better ac-
cordance in the individual results might be obtained by
making the observations under uniform conditions. The
resulting value, obtained from all the plates, gave the
velocity of the system of Sirius as —7-36 km. per second.
There is a marked progression among the individual values
obtained for the velocity of the primary which is attributed
to the effect of orbital motion. The sense of this pro-
gression indicates that the positive value of 7 (the inclin-
ation of the plane of the orbit) should be used. The above
value, whilst disagreeing with others, agrees very well
with the value obtained by Profs. Frost and Adams in
1901-2.
The values of- the radial velocities of the centre of the
system and of the primary and secondary components are
given in a table, with yearly intervals, for a whole re-
volution, i.e. from 1870-09 to 1918-09, the time of the
apastron passage being 1918-5110.
Constant Errors IN MERIDIAN OBSERVATIONS.—In an
address delivered to the astronomy section of the St. Louis
International Congress of Sciences and Arts, Mr. J. G.
Porter discussed the various sources of error to which
meridian observations are peculiarly subject, and proposed
various methods whereby the constant errors might be
eliminated.
Among other methods for eliminating the magnitude
error which affects right ascension determinations, he re-
commends the one proposed by Prof. Turner wherein the
transits would be registered on a regularly moving photo-
graphic plate, the reticule wires being replaced by spots of
light projected on to the plate at regular intervals from a
fixed source.
Regarding declination observations, the error due to vary-
ing refraction is the most important, and Mr. Porter
suggests that this might be eliminated by having a per-
fected system of fundamental stars well distributed over the
sphere, from observations of which, on any evening, the
deviation of the actual refraction from the assumed law
might be determined and used to correct the observations.
Another, more costly, method would be to have a number of
observatories widely distributed in latitude, so that zenith
observations, where refraction is non-effective, of more
stars might be made. Mr. Porter considers the solution of
this constant error difficulty in meridian observations to be
one which is eminently suitable for international coopera-
tion (Popular Astronomy, No. 3, vol. xiii.).
THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY.
N Friday last the annual general meeting of the govern-
ing body of the National Physical Laboratory was
held at that institution, when the report of work done
in 1904 was received and the programme of work pro-
posed for the forthcoming year approved. A number of
guests were invited to meet the members of the general
poard and inspect the laboratory. Among those present
were about thirty Members of Parliament, several colonial
agents-general, and a representative gathering of leading
physicists and engineers.
In the 45-page report submitted by the director,
Dr. Glazebrook, are found particulars regarding the various
researches and tests carried out during the past year, with
‘special reference to the newer developments. The test work
at Bushy for the year shows a marked growth, the total
number of separate tests made having increased from 1330
in 1903 to 1906 in 1904, the increase being spread over
almost all the different departments of the laboratory.
These figures are distinct from the work of Kew Ob-
servatory, where in all more than 26,000 instruments were
verified during the year.
In the engineering department, Dr. Stanton has made
considerable progress with the research on the distribution
‘of wind pressure over large areas, which forms a con-
tinuation of the important work embodied in his paper read
at the Institution of Civil Engineers last session. A steel
tower fifty feet high has been erected in the grounds,
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
‘oi metres radius.
carrying large and small pressure plates with the necessary
gauges. From the general results of the observations
made it would appear that the distribution of pressure on
the windward side of a large plate in the open air falls
off more rapidly from the centre to the sides than in the
case of a small plate, but that the ratio of the pressures
on the windward and leeward sides appears to be practic-
ally the same in both cases.
The research on the specific heat of superheated steam
by the continuous flow method has been continued by Mr.
Jakeman, who has been mainly occupied in contending with
certain experimental difficulties, such as the attainment of
sufficiently high insulation between the various parts of the
electrical superheater, especially at low superheats. Some
preliminary figures have been obtained which do not appear
to confirm the rapid rise in specific heat shown by the
results of some recent observers.
A testing machine for studying the effect of alternating
stresses of varying periodicity on engineering materials has
been constructed and was described in last month’s
Engineering by Dr. Stanton. It has already been used on
a set of nickel-steel specimens, which are the basis of a
research in the metallurgical department.
A new building has been erected to house the new
standard leading-screw machine, which is now at work.
Several standard screws have been cut and measured for
use in Government arsenals.
Dr. Chree, at the observatory department, has been
occupied with some important investigations on terrestrial
magnetism, and the measurement and tabulation of some of
the old Kew magnetic records. The men of science of the
British Antarctic Expedition have, since their return in
September last, had the opportunity of again comparing
with recognised standards many of their instruments, and
arrangements have been made for cooperation with them in
the reduction of the mass of magnetic and meteorological
data they brought home with them.
In the physics department numerous researches have been
in progress. We have only space for mention here of
some of the more important. Dr. Harker, in the ther-
mometry division, has been occupied with preliminary work
on which it is hoped may ultimately be based some new
direct electrical method of very high temperature measure-
ment. With this object he has undertaken a study of the
resistance and thermoelectric properties of solid electrolytic
conductors such as are used in Nernst lamps. The exist-
ence at high temperatures of large thermoelectromotive
forces between rods of the various earths made up as
ordinary thermojunctions has been securely established by
direct electrometric methods, and a new form of electric
furnace has been designed capable of continued use at
temperatures above 2000° C. By means of these furnaces
and a number of thermojunctions of widely different pro-
perties, a careful re-determination of the melting point of
platinum was made. More than sixty determinations con-
corded in giving a value which differs considerably from
that now accepted. The results of this work are embodied
in a paper just sent in to the Royal Society.
The research on the specific heat of iron, which has
been extended to temperatures above 1100° C., is complete,
and will shortly be published.
In the electrical standards department, Mr. Smith has
been mainly occupied with work on the standard ampere
balance designed by the late Prof. Viriamu Jones and Prof.
Ayrton for the British Association committee on electrical
standards. The weighing mechanism was constructed by
Mr. Oertling, and the four marble cylinders carrying the
coils have been successfully wound and insulated at the
laboratory. On each cylinder are two double helices of
bare copper wire. Though the air space between the con-
secutive turns is less than 0-006 inch, an insulation resist-
ance over 30,000 megohms was finally secured for each
of the coils. Many accessories have been constructed, and
the outlook for a speedy determination of the absolute unit
of current to at least one decimal place further than hitherto
attained is very hopeful.
In electrotechnics, Mr. Paterson has installed large cells
for ammeter verification, and for alternate current measure-
ments a specially constructed set of Mr. Addenbrooke’s in-
struments, and a Kelvin voltmeter with circular scale of
In photometry have been included in-
496
vestigations on several Harcourt r1o-candle pentane lamps
and a number of Fleming large bulb standard electric glow
lamps, which now form the working standards of candle-
power. Intercomparisons have been made by means of
glow lamps with the National Standards Bureau of Wash-
ington, the Electrical Standardising Laboratories of New
York, and the Berlin Reichsanstalt.
In the general electrical department, Mr. Campbell has
devised a method for obtaining for inductance measure-
ments alternating currents having very high frequencies
and a wave form almost a pure sine-curve. A large amount
of new apparatus has been set up for testing purposes,
much of it of a novel character.
The standard current balances and electrostatic voltmeters
have been studied, and it has been found that the allega-
tion that the Kelvin balance, when used with alternating
current, is affected by eddy currents in the metal parts
near the coils is without foundation for all ordinary
frequencies.
Researches on the distribution of temperature in field coils
of dynamos and motors, and on the behaviour of insulating
materials under heat treatment, have been made by Mr.
Rayner, and form the subject of a report to the engineering
standards committee communicated to the Institution of
Electrical Engineers at their last meeting.
In the department of metallurgy, Dr. Carpenter and Mr.
Keeling, during the early part of the year, completed their
work on the range of solidification and critical ranges
of iron-carbon alloys, and an account of the work was read
at the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in May last.
The value of Dr. Carpenter’s work was recognised by his
election as Carnegie scholar. On Mr. Keeling’s leaving
the laboratory, Mr. Longmuir, also a Carnegie scholar,
was appointed on the staff, and Dr. Carpenter and he have
since been carrying on, in cooperation with Mr. Hadfield of
Sheffield, an elaborate systematic research on the properties
of the nickel-steels. In all, seventeen different kinds of
physical, mechanical, and chemical tests have been per-
formed on the different samples used, which contained
varying amounts of nickel up to 16 per cent. The results
obtained will shortly be submitted to the alloys research
committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
An investigation on modern high-speed tool steels, such
as those shown in use in the engineering department on
Friday last, has also been completed by Dr. Carpenter, cool-
ing curves and photomicrographs having been obtained
showing clearly the various modifications in ‘structure after
different heat treatment.
The optical department is rapidly being organised, and,
in addition to lens testing, the work has included the
accurate measurement of the angles of prisms and deter-
mination of the optical constants of numerous samples of
glass.
In the weights and measures department, the chief work
has been the study of the master screw of the new leading-
screw lathe, which has been carefully calibrated throughout
its entire length.
The foregoing serves to indicate the substantial progress
made by the laboratory, and to prove that though it has
only been at work a little more than three years, it has
already begun to make its mark on the science and industry
of the country, and to justify in a large measure the ex-
pectations of its promoters.
FUNGI.
AVING pointed out that the attempts to derive the
word fungus from funere, or funus and ago, fungor,
&c., have been shown to be failures—that it comes from
the Greek omoyyos, and is the same word as sponge, the
lecturer proceeded to give illustrations of the fungi known
to the ancients. These were, of course, all of the larger
kinds, since no knowledge of micro-fungi was _ possible.
Nevertheless, references in the Old Testament show that
certain diseases—mildew, smuts, &c.—were known to the
Hebrews, but of course their connection with fungi was not
suspected.
1 Abstract of a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on February
24 by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(Marcu 23, 1905
The Greeks and Romans not only knew several forms of
Amanita, Agaricus, Boletus, Polyporus, and of Truffles,
Morels, &c., but they discriminated clearly between the
poisonous and wholesome species.
Their ideas as to the nature and origin of such fungi
seem childish to us, but they were consistent with the naif
attitude of the Greeks towards natural objects. Theo-
phrastus, about 320 B.c., Dioscorides, about 60 B.c., and
Pliny, for example, argued that since truffles and other
fungi had no roots, leaves, stems, &c., they are objects
apart. They arise spontaneously from earth, or by fermenta-
tion from the sap of trees, or from water.
It is interesting to note that Polyporus officinalis was im-
ported and used as an article of medicine not only during
classical times, but also for centuries afterwards.
In mediaeval times the herbalists chiefly copied from
Galen, Theophrastus, &c., and as they had no figures the
early herbals give us little information. In 1576, however,
Clusius gave a series of wood-cuts which are well worth
looking at, and in 1601 he made a series of water-colour
sketches of eighty-two of the fungi of Austria—the first
drawings of the kind known. Figures in Dalechamps,
1536, Dodoens, 1583, and Parkinson, 1640, may also be
compared.
The next step forward was only possible after the micro-
scope had come into use as a scientific instrument.
It is a curious point that abundant and conspicuous as
the powdery spores of the fungi are, no one seems to have
observed their importance until Micheli, in 1729, collected
and sowed a series of them, and with results, for he obtained
mycelia, and in a few cases even sporophores; but it was
not until a century later, 1820, that Ehrenberg, in his classical
““De Mycetogenesi,’’ traced the larger fungi to their my-
celial filaments, collected and sowed spores, and grew several
species of Moulds, and especially discovered the sexual act
in Zyzygites. For although Micheli’s ideas had been con-
firmed by Gleditsch in 1753 and by Schaeffer in 1762,
Rudolphi and Persoon had more or less denied the ger-
mination of spores, and insisted on the spontaneous genera-
tion of the moulds.
However, before 1840 Nees von Esenbeck had cultivated
a Mucor from spore to spore, and Dutrochet, 1834, and
Trog, 1837, had seen the “* puffing ’’ of asci and practically
established the doctrine of wind-distribution of spores.
By these and similar successes the era of the Mould-fungi
was initiated, and the labours of Corda, Tulasne, Prings-
heim, Cohn, and De Bary soon introduced system into their
study, and especially the exact study of life-histories showed
what important results for morphology lay in the biological
investigations of these micro-fungi.
The lecturer here gave illustrations of the commoner types
of mould fungi, with notes on their botanical importance,
and some remarks on the points he wished to emphasise
later.
An early outcome of the investigations of the moulds and
their allies was the discovery of what curious substrata some
of them grow upon. A rapid survey of all saprophytic
fungi shows that while the majority grow on the soil, on
plant remains, or on dung of various kinds, peculiar forms
or species occur on such bodies as resin, cork, bees’ and
wasps’ nests, bones, limestone, insect-remains, horn, hair,
feathers and hoofs, fats, and in chemical solutions such
as picric acid, copper sulphate, arsenic, and poisons such
as atropin, muscarin, and so forth.
Here, also, the lecturer gave some notes on details, of
which the most striking was, perhaps, his own proof that
the horn-destroying fungus will not act until its spores have
been passed through the alimentary tract of an animal, or
subjected to the influence of gastric juice.
In 1866, the year of publication of De Bary’s book on
mycology, a revolution in the study of fungi was brought
about by the first morphological proof of parasitism and in-
fection, and the clear distinction drawn between the sapro-
phytic micro-fungi or ‘‘ moulds ’’ and the parasitic fungi
which induce ‘‘ diseases.’ The matter was of especial
importance as explaining away prevalent erroneous ideas
according to which these disease-fungi were outgrowths
(exanthemata) from the moribund tissues of the host-plant
itself.
De Bary’s great service was to prove that a spore of a
fungus arrived from outside, and after germinating on the
MARCH 23, 1905]
NATURE
497
leaf or other organ of a plant, bored its way in, or through
a stoma, and entered the tissues. Here it lived, as does a
plant in any other medium, at the expense of the substances
in the tissues, which it eventually kills. It then emerges
and develops its spore on the outside.
Thus was founded the ‘‘ germ theory ’’ of disease.
The lecturer here gave illustrations of the kinds of para-
sites referred to, and showed how the spotting of leaves is
brought about by various epiphytic and endophytic forms,
such as Oidium and Erysiphe, Phytophthora, Ustilaginez
and Uredinez, &c., and directed attention to certain special
genera, such as Botrytis, Aspergillus, &c.
That the ancients were acquainted with the phenomena
of rot in timber is attested by remarks of Theophrastus on
hollow trees and the decay of oak ; but it was not until about
1830 that any idea of connecting the phenomena with fungi
can be traced, and even then Theod. Hartig, who dis-
covered hyphz in the rotten wood, thought they originated
from the wood-fibres themselves. Schacht, in 1850 and 1863,
figured many instances of hyphz in wood, and showed that
the fungus fed on the starch, pierced the cell-walls, and in
some way induced their putrefaction; and to these and
Willkomm’s researches, in 1864, we may trace the origin of
our knowledge of fungi as the causes of decay in timber.
Meanwhile the paleontologists also were bringing
forward examples of fungus-hyphz in fossil woods.
But the real founder of this important subject was R.
Hartig, who in his works, 1874 and 1878, proved that not
only are there several kinds of wood-rots in different species
of trees, each induced by different forms of fungi, but that
the different woods show special markings, and break up
in peculiar manner for each case, so that particular kinds
of rot can be recognised by particular symptoms. Hartig,
moreover, showed how the fungi got into the tree, and that
these wound-fungi have special peculiarities. He traced
their hyphze into the vessels and wood-elements, showed how
they pierce the cell-walls, and, most important of all, proved
that they dissolve out from the wood-elements the lignified
constituents to which their fundamental physical properties
—as wood—are due, and either leave the delignified walls
soft and cellulose in character or dissolve them to a jelly.
Here the lecturer showed illustrations of the mode of
action of dry rot, of Polyporus igniarius, and of other wood-
destroying fungi, and referred to Czapek’s recent discovery
of Hadromal, the probable uniform constituent of wood
hitherto vaguely known as Lignin.
In another direction activity was turned to the fungi
which attack insects, and which are now known often to
become epidemic, to the great advantage of areas devastated
by locusts, cockchafers and other grubs, caterpillars, &c.
It is a remarkable fact that whereas the diseases of plants
due to fungi are numbered by their thousands, only some
two hundred or so of animal maladies due to fungi proper
are known. Whether this is due to the more acid nature
of vegetable sap, to the high temperature of animal tissues,
or to the greater abundance of the anti-bodies in animals
cannot be decided.
The lecturer gave illustrations of caterpillars with their
destroyers, Cordyceps, Isaria, &c., growing from their
mummified bodies, and referred to Torrubia’s ‘‘ Vegetable
Wasp ”’ legend of 1749. He also showed photographs of the
““plant-worms ’’ used in Chinese medicine, and _ rapidly
surveyed the work of Cesati, Pasteur, De Bary, Cohn, &c.,
on Muscardine, Entomophthora, Empusa, Saprolegnia, and
other insect-killing fungi.
But these entomophagous fungi are merely particular
cases of mycoses. Every group of animals from the Protozoa
and Infusoria upwards have their fungus parasites ; hyphe
penetrate the ceratin of sponges and the calcareous walls of
corals, and fishes and amphibia are by no means immune.
Birds and mammals suffer particularly from certain
mycoses due to fungi which we have been in the habit of
regarding as harmless moulds, e.g. Aspergillus, and even
man is sometimes in danger from such fungi.
When, in 1869-70, Grohe and Block showed that small
doses of the spores of Penicillium and Aspergillus are fatal
to kittens, their statements were emphatically disbelieved ;
but Grawitz confirmed them, and the body of evidence show-
ing that Aspergillus contains poisons toxic to birds and
higher animals can no longer be overlooked. Some of these
forms of aspergillosis are very serious diseases indeed.
NO. 1847, vol. 71]
While the new era of mycology was stimulating observers
to new investigations into the life-histories of moulds, and
of the parasites of animals and plants, and into the etiology
of the timber-destroying fungi, and so forth, on the one
hand, it was, on the other, gradually attracting to its
domain areas of investigation which had grown up inde-
pendently out of the past, and which the older thinkers
could never have dreamed of associating with fungi.
A conspicuous example was the study of fermentation,
which, since Janssen in 1590 had brought forward a micro-
scope of several lenses, and Leeuwenhoek had applied an
improved form of it to the animalculze in putrefying liquids,
had undergone the initial stage of passage into the hands
of the naturalists.
The lecturer then sketched in rapid outline the history of
the theory of fermentation, from the early days when the
lees or sediment (yeast) were known as the ‘‘ Faeces Vini’’—-
apparently owing to the shrewd suggestion of a Venetian
doctor, who, in 1762, said putrefactive and fermentation
processes are due to the vital activity of minute worms, the
excreta (faeces) of which induce the turbidity and mal-odour
of the liquid—to the days when the living plant-nature of
these “‘ faeces’’ was gradually established by the work of
Astier, 1813, Desmaziéres, 1826, Quevenne, 1838, and Per-
soon, and especially by Erxleben, 1518, Kiitzing, 1834,
Cagniard Latour and Schwann, 1837.
At the same time, the sketch included an outline of the
first great controversies regarding abiogenesis or spontan-
eous generation, brought forward from its ancient strongholds
in the ignorance of the classical and medizval writers—e.g.
Pliny, Bock, Van Helmont—by Needham in 1745, and
confuted by Spallanzani, 1765-76, Schultze, 1836, Schroder
and Dusch, 1854; and to which the coup de grdce was given
by the work of Pasteur, 1862, Cohn, 1870-75, and Tyndall.
Information derived from the brewing of quass, saki,
pulque, kava, toddy, koumiss, mead, metheglin, spruce
and other beers and wines by peoples all over the world has
only confirmed the ideas, of Pasteur especially, that all such
fermentations are due to the presence of fungi; and although
the discussions as to the process itself being due to catalytic
actions and the communication of internal movements to the
molecules of sugar broken up, initiated by Stahl in 1697, and
revived in various forms by Liebig, 1839, and Naegeli, 1879,
culminating in Buchner’s views on the discovery of zymase
in 1896-97, have modified the older forms of the vitalistic
theory of Cagniard Latour and Pasteur, they have not
dissociated fermentation from the life of the cell.
The lecturer then passed to a survey of the enzymes,
those remarkable bodies which, though not themselves living,
are capable of breaking up organic substances apart from
the protoplasm of the cells which secrete them, and showed
that since the discovery of diastase in malt by Payen and
Persoz in 1833, of pepsin in gastric juice by Schwann in
1836, and of invertase in yeast by Berthelot in 1860,
numerous other special enzymes have been isolated, and all
the principal forms of sugar-inverting, starch-saccharifying,
cellulose-dissolving, fat-splitting, proteid-converting, and
oxidising enzymes occur in the fungi. Bourquelot has
shown the presence of nine such enzymes in Polyporus sul-
phureus and of seven in Aspergillus alone. :
The presence of certain deadly poisons in putrefying fish,
flesh, &c., and the researches consequent on the increasing
knowledge of septic poisoning of wounds—with which Lister
dealt so practically at the time—led to researches which, in
the hands of Brieger, Sonnenschein, Armand Gautier,
Selmi, and others resulted in the isolation of more or less
specific bodies, such as sepsin, cadaverine, ptomaines, leuco-
maines, &c. In 1876 Neucki obtained an unusually pure
form, and the doctrine of ptomaine poisons may be regarded
as thereby established. :
For us, the point of interest here is that these poisons
proved to be analogous, if not identical as a class, with a
number of vegetable poisons, such as atropine, brucine,
nicotine, strychnine, or at any rate presented striking re-
semblances to them in their physiological actions.
As close, or even closer, resemblances were found in the
poisons extracted from the fungi; amanitin, bulbosin, cor-
nutin, sphacelotoxin, &c., all came under the same general
category. In 1880 Pasteur showed that fowl cholera could
be produced by means of the poison excreted by the bacilli,
from which the bacilli themselves had been removed; and
498
NATURE
[Marcu 23, 1905
Brieger, in 1885, then showed the same to be true for
tetanus and typhoid. L6ffler, 1887, and Hankin, 1890,
then showed the same to be true for diphtheria and for
anthrax, and the toxins of tetanus, cholera, &c., were ob-
tained shortly afterwards.
Thus was founded the doctrine of toxins. The bacilli
of disease do not merely induce the formation of ptomaine
poisons in the decomposing tissues; they form the toxins
in their own cells, and then excrete them.
The lecturer then referred to the similarities of the
venenenes of snakes, scorpions, and spiders; of the toxins
in eels’ blood; and of the vegetable toxins ricin, robin, &c.,
emphasising the fact that all these bacterial, animal, vege-
table, and fungal poisons belong to one and the same great
family of toxic bodies.
The horribly intoxicating and poisonous drink made
by certain Siberian and Kamschatkan peoples from the
fly Agaric, the dry gangrene and paralysis due to
ergotism, now a rare disease in western Europe, and
the effects of the toxins of tetanus, diphtheria, and other
bacilli, all have points in common with the poisons of
snakes, of certain seeds, and so on—certain Australian
species of Swainsonia impel horses which have eaten it to
behave as if trying to climb trees, or to refuse to cross a
twig as if it were a large log, reminding one of the effects
of Amanita muscaria on man.
In great part, if not entirely, owing to an experiment of
Nuttall’s in 1888, in which he found that normal blood has
bactericidal properties, researches were undertaken which
resulted in the discovery that the sera of animals, either
normally or if rendered immune by minimal doses of toxins,
contain antidotal substances to the toxins. Behring and
Kitasato, in 1890, who demonstrated the antitoxic power of
blood immunised with diphtheria or tetanus to the toxins
of these bacilli, were followed in rapid succession by Brieger,
Ehrlich, Pick, and others, and the doctrine of the anti-
enzymes and antitoxins was established.
The lecturer then gave two illustrative cases. Dunbar, in
1903, showed that hay-fever, as already maintained by
others, was not only due to the pollen of grasses, but he
isolated from the pollen-grains a toxin which itself induces
all the symptoms of the malady.
Not only so. He showed that the serum of horses, &c., to
which the hay-fever is communicated becomes antitoxic
to the malady. This antitoxin has been distributed, and the
statistics uphold the accuracy of Dunbar’s views.
That pollen-grains contain enzymes has long been known,
and the experiments of Darwin and others have shown that
some pollens are poisonous to the stigmas of the wrong
plant. Another suggestive illustration is that given by
Woron, in which, bees having conveyed pollen, together
with the spores of a Sclerotinia, to the stigmas of certain
species of Vaccinium, the pollen-tubes and the fungus-hyphz
race each other down the style, and the latter usually win,
and destroy the ovules. Moreover, everyone knows how
corrosive and destructive the pollen-tubes of pines, &c., are
in the tissues, and we must not forget that pollen-grains are
spores.
The second case dwelt on by the lecturer is that of pellagra,
a disease to which the ill-nourished peasantry of maize-
growing countries are liable in bad seasons, when the crops
are poor and mouldy.
Cene and Beste, in 1902, referred the malady to the
presence of an Aspergillus in the bad grain. They also ex-
tracted from this mould a highly toxic body. Mariani, in
1903, then showed that the blood of patients cured of
pellagra is antitoxic to the poison of the disease.
The lecturer pointed out that, without committing our-
selves to any premature opinion as to the absolute accuracy
of these views, there are two increasing classes of evidence
which support his suspicion that numerous as yet insuffici-
ently examined cases of this kind will turn out to be due
to what he calls ‘‘ lurking parasites’? in bad grain and
fodders.
The first is the large class of mycoses now referred to the
poisonous action of such a ‘‘ mould ”’ as Aspergillus, a fungus
shown to abound in enzymes and toxic bodies. The second
is the increasing number of cases of poisoning by fodder
and grain-plants, normally wholesome, but found to be
deleterious in certain circumstances or years.
Cases of poisonous wheat, oats, &c.—the
NO. 1847, VOL. 71 |
“* Taumel-
Getreide,”’ ‘“‘ Taumel-Roggen *’ of the Germans—have long
been known, and the lecturer quoted cases where similar
noxious effects are traced to the presence of Ustilaginez,
Helminthosporium, Cladosporium, and other fungi.
A notable case is that of the Darnel, a tiresome weed in
some countries. The ancients—e.g. Galen—knew that darnel
in bread causes dizziness, headache and sickness, and
thought that neglected wheat, &c., was transformed into
darnel. Hofmeister, in 1892, examined and extracted the
toxic bodies, and confirmed the repeated statements as to
their deleterious and even fatal action on animals.
Yet it was not until 1898 that Vogl discovered the
existence of a mycelium in the seed-coats of the poisonous
darnel, and in the same year this was confirmed by Hanausek
and Nestler, though they did little beyond recording the
presence of a fungus.
In 1903, Freeman, in the lecturer’s laboratory at Cam-
bridge, worked out the details, and left no doubt that the
poisonous property is due to the fungus.
The lecturer then pointed out that a whole series of
questions concerning these and similar diseases now being
investigated in his laboratory lie under suspicion of con-
nection with grain-poisoning, or at any rate with poisoning
of fungi introduced as food.
To say the least, we want further and extensive researches
from this point of view into the ztiology of Acrodymia in
Mexico, Algeria, &c., and of the Colombian Pelade, of the
““trembles ’’ of cattle and sheep, and of the ‘‘ milk sick-
ness ’’ of the North American prairies, and even diseases
like beri-beri, &c.
The conclusions, the lecturer pointed out, to which we
are driven may be thus summarised :—
(1) Fungi, like animals and other plants, including
bacteria, excrete enzymes, and utilise them in the same way
and for the same purposes.
(2) The poisons of the fungi are toxins, not only similar
in character to the poisonous alkaloids, toxalbumens, &c., of
the bacteria, and of the higher plants, the venenenes of the
snakes, &c., but their poisonous actions in the paralysis of
nerve-ends, &c., are essentially the same.
(3) These poisons, &c., introduced into the blood of
animals, call forth the activities of ‘antitoxins and anti-
enzymes, as do the toxins of animals, bacteria, &c., in
similar circumstances.
(4) The presumption is, therefore, justified that the action
of the enzymes and toxins of parasitic fungi on the proteid
cell-contents of their plant-hosts is similar in principle to
that on animal proteids, and that the host reacts by means
of anti-enzymes and antitoxins.
The lecturer then adverted to the difficulties of obtaining
the toxins and antitoxins from sap, and concluded by
showing in specific cases—the rusts of wheat and grasses—
how probable it is that, since no anatomical features explain
the facts of predisposition and immunity, and the latter
cannot be referred to climatic conditions or to peculiarities
of soil, &c., the above considerations will be found to apply, .
a matter dealt with elsewhere by the lecturer.
TRYPANOSOMIASIS AND EXPERIMENTAL
MEDICINE.
“THE greater portion of the first Report deals with the
subject of human trypanosomiasis, particularly in the
Congo district. The trypanosomata are flagellated pro-
tozoa, which have been found to be parasitic in many
animals, sometimes causing no symptoms, as in the rat,
but sometimes associated with serious effects, as in the
tsetse-fly disease of the horse. During the last few years try-
panosomata have been found to be parasitic in man in
various districts of West and Central Africa. If the
infected person shows irregular fever without other marked
symptoms the condition has been termed trypanosomiasis ;
if in addition there is somnolence and stupor, and later
wasting, convulsions, and fatal coma, the condition is the
1** Reports of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to the Congo, 1903-1904."
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Memoir xiii. Pp. 111. (1904.)
Price 155. ; : q
‘The Thompson-Yates and Johnston Laboratories Report.” Vol. vi-
(New Series), Part i., January, 1905. Pp. 205. (University Press of Liver-
pool ; London: Williams and Norgate.) Price 12s. 6¢.-
MARCH 23, 1905]
NATURE
499
dreaded sleeping sickness which has destroyea tens of
thousands of lives in Central Africa. Much of the matter
in the volume under review deals with the relationship
between these two diseases.
The first article is a report by Messrs. Dutton, Todd,
and Christy on an expedition into the Congo Free State,
undertaken at the request of the King of the Belgians.
-At the hospital at Boma, and during a journey into the
cataract region, a number of patients were seen who were
regarded by the district medical officers as cases of sleeping
sickness, but in whom the somnolence, so characteristic of
the disease in Uganda, was completely absent. Neverthe-
less, trypanosomes were found in the blood both of those
cases in which the diagnosis of sleeping sickness was
certain and of those which were atypical. But in addition
trypanosomes were frequently seen in the peripheral blood
of apparently healthy individuals.
In the next ‘article, the relationship of human _ try-
panosomiasis to Congo sleeping sickness is discussed by
Pupa
Fic. 1.—Flies, pupa and larve (nat. size) of the Congo Floor Maggot.
the same observers. The conclusion is arrived at that the
Tr. gambiense of the first-named condition is the probable
cause of Congo sleeping sickness; but it must be admitted,
in spite of the positive statements which have been made
on the subject, that something remains to be cleared up.
This view is confirmed by Dr. Christy’s researches on the
cerebro-spinal fluid in sleeping sickness. He considers
that all that can definitely be stated is that (1) on the
whole the presence of the trypanosome parasites in the
cerebro-spinal fluid tends to increase the gravity of the
case, (2) in many cases trypanosomes never find their way
into the cerebro-spinal fluid, and (3) in the vast majority
of cases death is the result of complications, mainly
bacterial infections.
The identity or non-identity of the various trypanosomes
of man has been investigated by Dr. Thomas and
Mr. Linton, who conclude that the parasites found (a) in
the cerebro-spinal fluid of Uganda sleeping sickness, (b) in
that of Congo Free State sleeping sickness, (c) in the blood
of Uganda trypanosomiasis cases, and (d) in the blood of
NO. 1847, VOL. 71 |
Congo Free State trypanosomiasis cases, are all identical
in morphology and animal reactions with the Tr.
gambiense.
In an interesting paper, Messrs. Dutton, Todd, and
Christy describe the Congo floor maggot, a blood-sucking
dipterous larva extensively found in various parts of the
Congo Free State, and identified by Mr. Austen as the
Auchmeromyia luteola, Fabr. These larve seem to lurk
in the cracks and crevices of the mud floors of the native
huts, from whence they emerge at night and attack the
persons sleeping there. The volume concludes with a note
by Mr. Austen on tsetse-flies. Since his monograph on
the tsetse-flies was issued, further observation has con-
vinced Mr. Austen that the Glossina tachinoides, regarded
by him as a variety of G. palpalis, must be reckoned
as a distinct species.
The volume of the Thompson-Yates and Johnston
Laboratories Report contains the reports on trypanoso-
miasis, &c., described above, and several additional papers
of interest. Dr. Stephens describes a new hemo-
gregarine from an African toad, two cases of intestinal
myiasis (fly larvae) observed in children in Liverpool, a
note on swellings of uncertain ztiology in a tropical patient,
and a note on non-flagellate typhoid bacilli. The last named
were from an old laboratory strain which had been sub-
cultured for some years, and seemed completely to have lost
their flagella and motility. Mr. Shipley describes a new
human trematode parasite from German West Africa, and
Mr. Dutton defines the intermediate host of a lymph worm
(filaria) of an African swift; this is found to be the louse
which infests these birds. Prof. Moore and Mr. Roaf con-
tribute an important experimental study of the physical
chemistry of anzesthesia, from which they conclude that
chloroform forms an unstable chemical compound or physical
aggregation with proteid and haemoglobin, and is carried
in the blood in such a state of combination, the compounds
so formed limiting the chemical activities of protoplasm
and inducing anzesthesia. Mr. Edie describes the action of
chloroform on serum proteids and hemoglobin, and, lastly,
Mr. Roaf and Mr. Edie describe a simple method for the
preparation and determination of lecithin which seems to be
a great improvement on the methods hitherto in use. Both
volumes are beautifully printed and illustrated, and appear
in a new cover, which, artistically, is a great improvement
on the old one. R. T. HEWLETT.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
CamBripGE.—The General Board of Studies has appointed
Mr. T. S. P. Strangeways, St. John’s College, Huddersfield
lecturer in special pathology, from Lady Day, 1905, until
Michaelmas, 1909, and the appointment has been confirmed
by the Special Board for Medicine. Mr. R. P. Gregory,
of St. John’s College, has been appointed senior demon-
strator in botany for four years, until June 24, 1909.
The list of successful candidates for open scholarships
at Downing College is so far unusual that all the winners
are natural science students. It is as follows:—A. W.
Bourne, Rydal Mount School, Colwyn Bay, s5ol.; A. C.
Johnson, Merchant Taylors’ School, 4ol.; W. G. Stevens,
The Leys School, Cambridge, 4ol.; I. K. Matthews, Mer-
chant Taylors’ School, Crosby, Liverpool, 4ol.
Oxrorp.—The university has resolved to contribute a
sum not exceeding 1000]. towards the printing of that
portion of the British section of the International Astro-
graphic Catalogue which has been executed at the uni-
versity observatory.
By a statute passed in 1904, the university established
a “diploma in scientific engineering and mining sub-
jects,’’ and the committee appointed to arrange the details
of the scheme has now issued the regulations concerning
the diploma. Members of the university will be eligible
for the diploma who have passed at the examinations re-
quired for the degree of B.A., and have satisfied the
examiners in certain special subjects mentioned in the
following list, after an approved course of study in those
subjects extending over two years, and have also gone
500
through an approved course of practical training lasting
four months, either at a mine or in engineering works.
The subjects that may be offered are :—(a) mathematics
for applied science; (b) physics and chemistry; (c) French
and German translation; (d) engineering principles and
machine drawing; (e) surveying; (f) geology; (g) miner-
alogy; (hk) mining and engineering, hygiene and mine-
ventilation ; (i) electricity; (j) assaying. For the ordinary
diploma candidates will be required to pass in (a), (b), and
(c), and in not less than three of the remaining subjects,
provided that (f), (g), and (i) are not taken together with-
out one or more of the others. Candidates who propose to
become colliery managers and desire to obtain exemption
from two of the five years’ underground work required by
the Home Office as a qualification for a certificate as
colliery manager, must obtain a special diploma by passing
in the subjects (a), (b), (c), (k), and three (not being
f, g, i) of the remainder, and by taking their four months’
course of practical training at a mine.
Pror. W. James, of Harvard University, has accepted,
Science reports, the acting professorship of philosophy at
Stanford University. He will lecture at Stanford during
the second half of the next academic year, and will organise
a department of philosophy for the university.
A GENERAL meeting of the Association of Teachers in
Technical Institutes will be held on Saturday, March 25, at
the Regent Street Polytechnic, London, when an address,
to be followed by a discussion, will be delivered by Mr.
W. J. Lineham, head of the engineering department,
Goldsmiths’ Institute, entitled ‘‘ Technical Training—a
Teacher’s Views.’’
In connection with the International Exposition to be
held at Liége, Belgium, from April to November during
the present year, it is proposed to hold an International
Congress of Childhood on September 17-20. The congress
will be organised in four sections, as follows :—(1) educa-
tion of children; (2) study of children; (3) care and train-
ing of abnormal children; (4) parents’ associations,
mothers’ clubs, and other supplementary agencies for the
improvement of youth.
THE council of Liverpool University has accepted an
offer from the president, Mr. E. K. Muspratt, to provide
for an extension and equipment of the chemical labor-
atories at an estimated cost of 10,5001. The following con-
tributions for the extension and maintenance of the chemical
department have also been acknowledged by the council :—
tool. per annum for five years from the United Alkali
Company, Ltd., rool. each from Mr. George Wall, West
Kirby, and Mr. T. Threllfall, London.
A NEW technical college and secondary school at East
Ham was opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales
on Saturday. The building has been erected and equipped
at a cost of about 24,o00l., towards which the Essex County
Council has contributed 6000l., and the remainder has been
made up by the East Ham Corporation. The accommoda-
tion includes a botanical room, chemical class-room and
laboratory, physics laboratory, carpenter’s shop, and pro-
vision for the pursuit of various crafts—plumbing, metal-
work, brickwork, Xc. In replying to the address presented
by the Mayor of East Ham, the Prince of Wales said :—
It is difficult to realise that only ten years ago these
crowded streets were green lanes, that your population has
multiplied nearly twentyfold in the last thirty years, and
that within your borough one industry alone employs more
than 10,000 men. You have very rightly recognised that
this remarkable growth carries with it serious responsi-
bilities. The vast and rapidly increasing population of
the borough necessitates the provision of suitable secondary
and technical education, and in this institution you are
furnishing that educational equipment for the rising gener-
ation which is indispensable if we intend to maintain our
place in the great struggle for commercial supremacy. My
heart is with you in all such undertakings as that which
ve are about to inaugurate, and I trust that every success
lay attend your useful and patriotic efforts. A
NO 1847, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[Marcu 23, 1905
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, February 16.—‘‘ Further Observations on
Slip-Bands.—Preliminary Note.’’ By Walter Rosenhain,
Communicated by Prof. Ewing, F.R.S.
The paper describes what the author believes to be a
novel method of investigating the micro-structure of metals,
and some preliminary results obtained by its aid. The
method was devised in order to throw further light on the
true nature of slip-bands, and the preliminary results relate
mainly to this question.
A direct means of examining the surface configuration of
a piece of metal upon which slip-bands have been produced
would be presented by a transverse section of such a
specimen, provided that the section could be produced with
an absolutely sharp edge, but no useful result can be ob-
tained by cutting the specimen through and simply polish-
ing the exposed section. The edges of specimens prepared
by the usual methods of polishing are always rounded off,
so that it becomes impossible to focus upon any definite
edge with high-power lenses; and even apart from this
defect, there would be no guarantee that the edge re-
presented a true section of the pre-existing surface.
Fic. 1.—Transverse Section of Slip-bands. Vertical illumination X 1000
diameters.
The author has adopted the principle sometimes used in
optical work of supporting the surface, which in section
becomes the edge, by means of an adherent layer of hard
material ; but the conditions which such a layer must satisfy
for the purposes of metallography are very stringent. In
order to satisfy them, the author uses a deposit of another
metal obtained by electrolytic means, and this method has
proved satisfactory.
The specimens used consisted of strips of the mildest
steel, and after preparation an electro-deposit of copper was
applied to them. By first bending the strips into a flat U
shape, short portions of their length could be polished in
the usual manner for microscopic examination ; subsequently
the strips could be readily strained in tension. The slip-
bands and other features of the specimens having been
satisfactorily observed, electro-deposition was proceeded
with, care being taken to avoid chemical action on the
prepared surface by the preliminary use of a bath of copper
cyanide.
The specimens were then cut across. In order to obtain
a satisfactory polish, the ordinary method of polishing had
to be modified; it was found that polishing with rouge
rapidly eroded a deep groove between the copper and iron,
Marcu 23, 1905]
NATURE
501
thus defeating the object of the method. A satisfactory
polishing medium for this and other purposes where surface
erosion is undesirable was found in calcined oxide of
magnesium, the magnesia powder being used in the same
way as rouge.
The section, when polished by means of magnesia, is
not yet ready for examination, as it is found that a con-
siderable amount of metal is smeared or dragged over the
surface, more or less obliterating the true boundary line
which it is desired to examine. To overcome this obstacle,
it is arranged that the last rubbing on emery paper shall
be done in a direction approximately parallel to the
boundary of the two metals; the direction of rubbing
during the final polishing should then be at right-angles
to the boundary, the unavoidable tendency to drag or
smear then being such as to draw the iron over the copper
on the side where the boundary is to be examined.
The film of metal smeared over the boundary in these
circumstances is extremely thin, and can be removed by
slight etching with picric acid. This treatment leaves a
clearly defined boundary line appearing under a certain
incidence of ‘‘ vertical’’ illumination as a narrow black
line, and under other illumination being visible merely by
the colour-contrast between the iron and copper.
When a previously polished and etched specimen of iron
which has had slip-bands developed upon its surface by
strain is treated and examined in this way, the boundary
line shows well-marked stéps or serrations, readily visible
under a magnification of rooo diameters. To show that
these steps were not due to any of the processes gone
through by the specimen, such as the initial etching of the
prepared surface or the electro-deposition itself, a series of
test specimens was prepared and treated in a similar
manner, except that either the preliminary etching, or the
deformation, or both, were omitted. The stepped boundary
was always found in specimens where slip-bands had been
produced, but not otherwise.
The author therefore feels justified in concluding that the
steps seen in transverse sections of strained specimens are
the sectional views of slip-bands. It will be seen that the
steps, although very minute, are perfectly distinctive, and
that they could not be mistaken for generally rounded
foldings of the surface; they possess, in fact, a general
geometrical character, which the author regards as con-
clusive evidence that they are caused by slip on cleavage or
gliding planes of the crystals, and not by any folding or
crumpling of the metal.
“The Effects of Momentary Stresses in Metals.’? By
pol Benne Hopkinson. Communicated by Prof. Ewing,
If a wire be hung from a firm and massive support, and
if a falling weight strike a stop at the lower end of the
wire, with a velocity V, it is easy to calculate the strain
at any point in the wire at any subsequent time, if it be
assumed to be perfectly elastic. When the weight strikes,
a wave of extension starts up the wire and travels with a
velocity a= VE/p, where E is Young’s modulus, and p is
the density. For steel a is about 17,000 foot-seconds. When
the wave reaches the top end, it is reflected down the wire.
The history of the strain at any point of the wire is as
follows :—When the wave reaches it, the strain, which was
zero, suddenly becomes V/a; it then diminishes as the wave
passes over it, according to an exponential law, until the
reflected wave reaches it, when it again increases by V/a.
Each bit of the wire is, therefore, subjected to strain which
rises suddenly, and then very rapidly diminishes. The
maximum strain at any time or place occurs at the top of
the wire, where it is 2V/a at the moment when the wave
arrives there. For a height of fall of 10 feet, and an iron
wire, 2V/a is 0-003, and the corresponding stress is about
42 tons per square inch, so that momentary strains greatly
exceeding the elastic limit may be produced in this way.
In the experiments described in the paper, the momentary
extension in the top 20 inches of the wire, produced by
a blow, was measured by electrical means, and compared
with that given by the elastic theory. Where the two
agree, and not much permanent extension is left, it follows
that the theory is correctly applied, and that the material
is substantially elastic up to the maximum stress, so cal-
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
culated, if applied for the time given by the theory. In
this way it is proved that a metal wire will stand a load,
momentarily exceeding that which (steadily applied) would
break it, with but very small permanent extension. In the
case of the iron wire, the elastic limit was 17.8 tons per
square inch, and the breaking stress 28.5 tons; and it was
found that a load reaching 334 tons, and exceeding the
elastic limit for 1/1000 sec., produced very little permanent
extension. Similar results were found for copper wire.
February 23.—‘‘ On a New Rhabdosphere.”’
Murray, F.R.S.
The author refers to the interest which the rhabdospheres
and coccospheres possess, not only to naturalists, but to
geologists and students of deep-sea deposits. He names it
R. Blackmaniana, after Mr. V. H. Blackman, his fellow
author in an exhaustive study of such organisms (Phil.
Trans., B., vol. cxe., 1898). It was obtained by Mr. Murray
on the outward voyage to the Cape of the Discovery,
in lat. 28° 25’ S., long. 23° 56’ W., and differs from the
only other forms, two in number, known to science in
possessing tapering, acute, spinous processes in contrast
to the trumpet-shaped and club-shaped processes of the two
known species. No sign of the new form has yet been
detected in the deep-sea deposits or geological formations,
Mr. Murray accounting for this by the minuteness and
extreme tenuity of the spines.
By George
March 2.—‘‘ Further Researches on the Temperature
Classification of Stars, No. 2.’’ By Sir Norman Lockyer,
K.C.B., F.R-S:
The paper contains a discussion of the more recent photo-
graphs obtained with a calcite-quartz prismatic camera.
Each negative contained the spectra of two stars, obtained
under identical conditions of altitude, exposure and de-
velopment, the relative temperatures of which were
estimated by comparing the relative intensities of their
ultra-violet and their red radiations. The term “ tem-
perature’ is understood to include the possible effects of
electrical variations. In a previous paper, communicated to
the society in February, 1904, the author showed that by
thus comparing the relative temperatures of those stellar
genera which were placed on different levels of the
chemical classification temperature curve, their arrange-
ment on that curve was vindicated. In the recent re-
search the relative temperatures of the genera placed on the
same horizons, but on the opposite sides, of the curve were
similarly compared, with the result that their equality of
temperature, as suggested by the chemical classification,
was confirmed. The results also indicate that specific
differences exist which will necessitate the subdivision of the
previously proposed ‘‘ genera ’’ into “* species.”
Entomological Society, March 1.—Mr. F. Merrifield,
president, in the chair.—Exhibitions.—(1) An example of
Oxypoda sericea, Heer, taken in Dulwich Wood, June 17,
1904, a species new to Britain; (2) O. nigrina, Wat., with
a type lent by Mr. E. A. Waterhouse, to demonstrate that
it is not synonymous with sericea as stated on the Con-
tinent; (3) O. exigua, which is also regarded there as
synonymous with nigrina: H. St. J. Donisthorpe.—Series
of Colias edusa, with var. helice, bred from one 9 helice,
sent by Dr. T. A. Chapman from the South of France,
to show the proportion of type and variety obtained: H.
Main and A. Harrison. The results of similar experi-
ments with Amphidasys betularia, bred from a var.
doubledayaria, and a type Q taken in cop. at Woodford,
Essex, in 1903, were also shown.—Specimen of Helops
striata, showing an abnormal formation of the right an-
tenna, which was. divided into two branches from the fifth
joint: R. Priske.—(1) Examples of Hydrotaea pilipes,
Stein, ¢ and Q, the latter sex being previously unknown ;
(2) several specimens of Hydrotaea tuberculata, Rond, not
hitherto recorded as British, captured in various localities ;
P. H. Grimshaw.—Cocoons, and perfect imagines of
hybrid Saturniids, including Q and ¢ of S. pavonia, loos
x S. pyri, Scheff., with added specimens of both sexes of
the parent forms for comparison, the cross product re-
sembling a large S. pavonia rather than a small S. pyri.
The exhibit further included three ¢ G and three Q Q, of
which the @ parent was S. pavonia, and the G parent a
502
NATURE
[MarcH 23, 1905
eee a Soltl
hybrid between S. pavonia, G, and S. spimt, Q, viz.
the cross product to which Prof. Standfuss has given |
the name S. bornemanni: Dr. F. A. Dixey.—(1) Groups
of synaposematic Hymenoptera and Diptera captured by
Mr. A. H. Hamm, of the Hope Department, Oxford
University Museum; (2) three much worn specimens
of Papilio hesperus, taken at Entebbe in 1903, by
Mr. C. A. Wiggins, to show that the tails of a Papilio, if
untouched by enemies, can endure a great deal of wear; |
(3) Nymphaline butterflies from northern China, apparently
mimetic of the male Hypolimnas misippus, which is not
known to occur in this region: Prof. E. B. Poulton,
F.R.S.—Examples of Pyramets atalanta and Aglais urticae,
illustrating the effects of cold season breeding by Mr. Har-
wood, of Colchester, some of them lent by Mr. R. S. Mit-
ford: the President.—Papfers :—Butterfly hunting in British
Columbia and Canada: Mrs. De la B. Nicholl.—On three
remarkable new genera of Microlepidoptera: Sir George
Hampson.—Descriptions of some new species of diurnal
Lepidoptera, collected by Mr. Harold Cookson in northern
Rhodesia in 1903-4. The Lycenidz and Hesperiidae de-
scribed by Hamilton H. Druce: H. Druece.—Descriptions
of some new species of Satyridz from South America:
F. Du Cane Godman.—Additions to a knowledge of the
homopterous family of Cicadide: W. L. Distant.
Faraday Society, March 6.—Recent developments in
electric smelting in connection with iron and steel: F. W.
Harbord. The paper embodies the principal results of the
investigations made by the commission sent to Europe last
year by the Canadian Government for the purpose of re-
porting upon the different thermoelectric processes for the
smelting of iron ores and the manufacture of steel at work
in Europe, together with some additional information
bringing the subject up-to-date. The author acted as
metallurgist to that commission. The following general
conclusions are stated in the paper :—(a) Steel, equal in
all respects to the best Sheffield crucible steel, can be pro-
duced even in this country, either by the Kjellin, Héroult,
or Keller proceses, at a cost considerably less than the cost
of producing a high-class crucible steel, assuming electric
energy to cost 1ol. per E.H.P.-year. (b) At present,
structural steel, to compete with Siemens or Bessemer steel,
cannot be economically produced in the electric furnaces,
and such furnaces can be used commercially for the produc-
tion of only very high-class steel for special purposés.
(c) Speaking generally, the reactions in the electric smelting
furnace are similar to those taking place in the blast
furnace. By altering the burden and regulating the tem-
perature by varying the electric current, any grade of iron,
grey or white, can be obtained, and the change from one
grade to another is effected more rapidly than in the blast
furnace. (d) Pig iron can be produced on a commercial
scale at a-price to compete with the blast furnace, only
when electric energy is very cheap and fuel very dear.
Under ordinary conditions, where blast furnaces are an es-
tablished industry, electric smelting cannot compete; but
in Special cases, where ample water-power is available, and
blast furnace coke is not readily obtainable, electric smelt-
ing may be commercially successful.
Zoological Society, March 7.—Dr. W. T. Blanford,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Pictures of the zebra in
** Aldrovandus ”’ (1640) and the ‘‘ Commentarius ”’ of Ludol-
phus (1691): H. Scherren. In the course of his remarks
Mr, Scherren said that in the seventeenth century zebras (now
known as Equus grevyi) had been sent by the ruler of
Abyssinia. to the governor of the Dutch East India
Company at Batavia, and to the Sultan of Turkey, so that
the species was seen in Europe two centuries before th
type of Equus grevyi reached France in 1882. In proof,
passages were cited from Philostorgius Ludolphus, Jean de
Thévenot, and other writers.—A series of spirit-specimens
of fishes from Lake Chad and the Chari River, collected
and presented to the British Museum by Captain G. B.
Gosling: G. A. Boulenger.—Exhibition of hybrid ducks
bred at Cambridge: J. L. Bonhote. The crosses exhibited
dealt chiefly with four species, of which the following were
shown :—Anas boschasx A. poccilorhyncha, Anas boschas x
1. poecilorhynchax Dafila acuta, Anas boschasx A. poecilo-
rhynchax A, superciliosa, Anas boschasx A. poecilorhyncha
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
x A. superciliosax D. acuta.—QCicology and deposits of the
Cape Verde marine fauna: C. Crossiand. The author
pointed out that so far as the Cape Verde group was con-
cerned there was no evidence of any common tropical
marine fauna, though certain species were found in both
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Reef animals were re-
markably few in number, the fauna in their place having a
considerable subtropical constituent. Rock simulating coral-
rag was formed at the low-tide level by serpulid tubes fused
together by Lithothamnion, and by the latter and Foram-
inifera between 5 and 20 fathoms. The absence of reefs
might be due in some degree to the remarkably steep coasts
of the islands, but it was more especially owing to the
extraordinary dominance of boring sponges, worms, and
molluscs. Beach sandstone was formed by the deposition
of calcareous cement where the fresh water met the salt;
it was only found in certain situations, and was everywhere
being slowly eroded away by the sea.—A revision of the
South-American cichlid genera, Crenacara, Batrachops, and
Crenicichla: C. Tate Regan. Twenty-three species were
described, four of them new to science.—A new antelope
from British East Africa: Captain R. Meinertzhagen.
Royal Astronomical Society, March 10 —Mr. W. H. Maw,
president, in the chair.—Description of the spectrohelio-
graph of the Solar Physics Observatory: Dr. W. J. S.
Lockyer. The complete instrument consists of a siderostat
to throw the solar beam in a horizontal and southerly
direction, a lens placed in this beam to form the solar
image, and the spectroheliograph itself to photograph in
monochromatic light the image thus formed. The apparatus
was fully explained and illustrated by photographs on the
screen. Specimens of results obtained were also exhibited,
the photographs of the sun showing the fine network cover-
ing its surface, becoming thicker and more agglomerated
in middle and low latitudes to form the calcium flocculi.
The sun-spots appear to be closely related to these flocculi,
but the prominences bear no relation to them, though
they give brilliant images in the “‘K” or calcium
light.—The large sun-spot of January 29 to February 11,
and the contemporaneous magnetic disturbances: Astro-
nomer Royal. A series of photographs, taken at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was shown on the screen.
—Spectroscopic observations of the recent great sun-spot
and associated prominences: A. Fowler. The paper dealt
with the reversed lines, the widened lines, &c., and the
spectra of the chromosphere and prominences overlying the
spot on the western limb.—Observations of the great sun-
spot made at Stonyhurst, and photographs of the spectra:
Father Cortie.—Reply to criticisms of a paper on sun-
spots and the associated magnetic disturbances: E. W.
Maunder.
Physical Society, March 10 —Dr. R. T. Glazebrook,
past-president, in the chair—On direct reading resistance-
thermometers, with a note on composite thermocouples: A.
Campbell. The paper describes two methods by which
the reading of a resistance-box in connection with a
platinum resistance-thermometer gives directly the actual
temperature without the use of any formula or table-——On
the stresses in the earth’s crust before and after the sinking
of a bore-hole: Dr. Chree. In Nature, October 20, 1904,
there appeared letters by Mr. G. Martin and the Hon.
C. A. Parsons dealing with the size of the stresses in the
earth’s crust and speculating as to what would happen if
a hole were bored to a depth of 12 miles. The present
paper discusses the subject, treating the earth as an
elastic solid, and points out the various uncertainties that
exist. Solutions are presented of a number of mathematical
problems having a bearing on one or other of the possi-
bilities discussed. The principal novel case considered is
that of a composite earth, consisting of a core of incom-
pressible material and of a crust which may be compressible
or incompressible.—On the lateral vibration of bars of
uniform and varying sectional-area: J. Morrow. Lord
Rayleigh has given a method by which the approximate
period of vibration of a rod can be calculated without the
use of transcendental equations. The question has recently
been further discussed by Mr. Garrett and Dr. Chree. The
object of the paper is to show that, by assuming a type
of vibration consistent with the conditions obtaining at the
ends of the bar, the period can be obtained approximately
Marcu 23, 1905]
Wea ORL
593
in a simple manner, and that by a process of continuous
approximation the period and the type of the vibration may
be determined, in a large number of cases, with great
accuracy.
Royal Meteorological Society, March 15.—Mr. Richard
Bentley, president, in the chair.—The growth of instru-
mental meteorology: President. After briefly touching
on the historic and non-instrumental era of meteorology,
reference was made to the seven great weapons of meteor-
ology—the thermometer, and of later years the heliograph,
for temperature, the hygrometer and rain-gauge for moisture,
the barometer for pressure, and the anemometer and kite
for the study of the upper air—and of the great foundation
of instrumental meteorology laid by Galileo, Torricelli, Wren
and Hooke. The president, in dwelling upon our indebted-
ness to Italy in seience (as well as in art) from Galileo to
Marconi, pointed out that the theory of rainfall was
correctly enunciated as early as the beginning of th
fourteenth century by Dante. He also dwelt on the great
services rendered to the community by meteorologists,
largely by volunteers at their own expense, and referred to
the close observation kept by rain-gauges on the steadily
diminishing water supply of the country, by anemometers
protecting the traffic over some of our lofty and more ex-
posed railway viaducts, by the use of the barometer for
storm warnings and for the safety of miners in our pits,
by the heliograph with relation to the ripening of fruits
and crops, and regretted how much of the immense mass
of information daily accumulating had still to be analysed
and put to use. It was disappointing to find in so wealthy
a country as this, and where the results could not fail to
be of the greatest practical utility to the nation, that the
means of digestion of this vast data are so meagre, and
the aid given by the Government is so slender as to be a
constant source of reproach when compared with the large
provision made for the same purpose in other countries for
their own benefit.
DuBLin.
Royal Dublin Society, February 21.—Dr. W. E. Adeney
in the chair.—(1) On the transmissibility of tuberculosis of
the monkey to the ox and goat; (2) on the use of tuberculin
in the detection of tuberculosis: Prof. A. E. Mettam.
(1) The tuberculous material was obtained from a drill
monkey. After passage through guinea-pigs, emulsions of
the organs of the latter were inoculated into a bull and into
a goat. Both animals have been infected with tuberculosis,
though free from the disease prior to injection, local lesions
having been established and reaction to tuberculin being
pronounced. (2) Experiments were carried out with the
object of determining if an increased dose of tuberculin
would reveal tuberculosis in an animal which had already
a short time previously received a dose of tuberculin, and
if any immunity to tuberculin was established as to how long
it lasted. It was shown, as Vallée maintains, that a double
dose of tuberculin would reveal tuberculosis even if the
animal had received a prior dose a few days before, and
that the immunity to an ordinary dose was evident for ten
days to a fortnight after injection.—Secondary radiation and
atomic structure: Prof, J]. A. McClelland. Every substance
gives off a secondary radiation of B particles when acted upon
by the B rays of radium. The intensity of this secondary
radiation, in the case of elementary substances, depends on
the atomic weight; the greater the atomic weight the
greater is the secondary radiation. This very general law
has been found to hold true for all the elements tested, which
were twenty-one in number. The paper further discusses
this result from the point of view that all atoms are groups
of similar electrons.
Royal Irish Academy, February 27.—Prof. R. Atkinson,
president, in the chair.—A list of the Irish jelly-fishes, corals,
and sea-anemones: being a report from the R.I.A. fauna
and flora committee: Jane Stephens. This is a catalogue
of all the species of Coelenterata hitherto recorded for the
coast of Ireland. The list, containing about 250 species,
includes the fresh-water hydroids. In a prefatory note a
short account of the Irish Coelenterates is given; there is
also a bibliography of the papers (which date back to the
year 1755) dealing with the subject.—Notes on the homo-
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
taxial equivalents of the beds which immediately succeed the
Carboniferous Limestone in the west of Ireland : Dr. Wheel-
ton Hind. The counties of Clare and Limerick contain the
Carboniferous sequence of the west of Ireland in the form
of a basin, the western side of which has been cut off by the
sea, and consequently the geological structure is well seen
in the line of cliffs from Black Head, co. Clare, to Bally-
bunion, co. Kerry. In the north of Clare the beds dip
gradually at 5°, and there are few or no faults. In the south
of the county and in co. Limerick there have been stronger
earth movements, and faulting is more frequent. The
sequence shows Coal-measures (Foynes coalfield), olive
grits, flags and sandy shales, black shales with bullions,
Carboniferous Limestone without shales or detrital beds. The
whole series is conformable and fossiliferous. The Car-
boniferous Limestone is characterised by the same fossils
as occur in the Carboniferous Limestone and Yoredale
rocks of England, and at the top of this series is a great
faunal change. The black shales with bullions, which overlie
the Carboniferous Limestone, contain Posidoniella laevis, P.
minor, Posidonomya membranacea, Pterinopecten papy-
vaceus, Glyphioceras diadema, G. spirale, G. davisi, G. re-
ticulatum, Dimorphoceras gilbertsoni, G. descrepans, Nomis-
moceras spirorbis, and many others which characterise the
Pendleside series and the Lower Culm of England. The
marine bands intercalated in the olive grit and flag series,
and the shales, recall the marine bands in the Millstone Grits.
Hence it is interesting to find the same faunal sequence in
the west of Ireland as exists in the midlands of England,
and it is erroneous to classify the beds which succeed the
Carboniferous Limestone in the west of Ireland as either
Yoredales or Coal-measures, but they are the homotaxial
equivalents of the Pendleside series and Millstone Grits.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, March 13.—M. Troost in the chair.
—On surfaces applicable to the paraboloid of revolu-
tion: Gaston Darboux.—On the laws of sliding friction .
Paul Painlevé. A discussion and extension of a paper
on the same subject by M. Lecornu.—-On the pressures
developed at each instant in a closed vessel by colloidal
powders of different forms: R. Liouville. The work of
M. Vieille on the explosion of gun-cotton powders in a closed
vessel led him to conclude that the speed of combustion is
proportional to a power of the pressure, about 2/3. On
account of the difficulty introduced into ballistic calculations,
it is usual to consider the speed of combustion as pro-
portional to the pressure. An investigation is given show-
ing the accuracy of Vieille’s exponent, and indicating where
further experimental work is required.—On the explosive
wave: E. Jouguet. The numerical data given in a pre-
vious note were calculated on the assumption that the
combustion was total in the explosive wave, and that the
dissociation could be neglected. In the present paper the
dissociation is taken into account, the formula of Gibbs
being adopted. Figures are given for. mixtures of oxygen
with acetylene, cyanogen, and methane, and it is shown that
the dissociation may be considerable without seriously affect-
ing the velocity of the explosive wave..—On the emptying of
systems of reservoirs: Ed. Maillet.—On the dangers of
atmospheric electricity for balloons and the means of
remedying them: A. Breydel.—On halation in photo-
graphs: Adrien Guébhard.—On the atomic weights of
hydrogen and nitrogen, and on the precision attained in
their determination: A. Leduc. The value obtained by the
author for the atomic weight of nitrogen from his density
measurements was 14-005, but the figure still adopted by the
International Committee on Atomic Weights is 14-04. It is
pointed out that the lower number is confirmed by the
recent experiments of Guye and Bogdan, and Jaquerod and
Bogdan.—On dextrorotatory lactic acid: E. Jungfileisch
and M. Godchot. The preparation of d-lactic acid in a
pure state from its salts is complicated by the tendency to
pass over into the inactive acid and by the formation of
lactyl-lactic acid. The precautions necessary to avoid both
these changes are given in detail, and the properties of the
pure acid described.—The action of magnesium amalgam
upon dimethylketone: F. Couturier and L. Meunier.
The chief product of the reaction is pinacone. By the dry
distillation of the magnesium compound there is produced
504
NATURE
[Marcu 23, 1905
acetone, isopropyl alcohol, pinacoline (the principal pro-
duct), and mesityl oxide. The yield of pinacoline is 21
per cent., and this forms the most rapid and advantageous
method of preparing this substance.—On oxyethylcrotonic
acid and ethylerythric acid: M. Lespieau.—On a method
for the volumetric estimation of hydroxylamine: L. J.
Simon. The method is based upon the conversion of the
hydroxylamine salt into the oxalate by the addition of
sodium oxalate, and titration in neutral solution by potas-
sium permanganate. The influence of dilution and of excess
of the sodium oxalate has been studied.—The glycerophos-
phates of piperazine: A. Astruc. A description of the pre-
paration of the acid glycerophosphate of piperazine, and
a method for its estimation based on the use of two in-
dicators, phenol-phthalein and methyl orange.—On the ex-
perimental bases of the reticular hypothesis: G. Friedel.
—The requirements of the tobacco plant in fertilising
materials: A. Ch. Girard and E. Rousseaux. The
average amounts of lime, potassium, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen required per 1000 kilograms of dried leaves are
given.—The genesis of the gametes and anisogamy in
Monoeystis: Louis Brasil.—On the Alpheidz of the Lac-
cadive and Maldive Islands: H. Coutiére.—Sterility and
alopecy in guinea-pigs previously submitted to the influence
of ovarian extracts of the frog: Gustave Loisel. The
ovarian extracts of the frog contain a poison which acts
by causing the atrophy of a certain number of ovules.
Other effects of the poison are noted.—On the antidote
to nicotine: C. Zalackas. Experiments on rabbits and
guinea-pigs show that strychnine has not the effects as
an antidote to nicotine usually attributed to it. The effects
of eserine are more favourable, and an extract of Nastur-
tium officinale led to still better results, the effects of a
mortal dose of nicotine being entirely removed by the
injection of the latter substance.—On the lowering of the
arterial pressure below the normal by d’Arsonvalisation : A.
Moutier and A. Challamel. In certain cases the use of
high frequency, high tension currents leads to a lowering
of the blood pressure under the normal. It is therefore
necessary to measure this pressure with great care when
d’Arsonvalisation is being used therapeutically—A modi-
fication of the spectrum of methzmoglobin under the
action of sodium fluoride: J. Ville and E. Derrien.—On
the Middle Eocene deposits in Senegal: J. Chautard.—
On the phenomena of the deviation of water courses dating
from -the seventeenth, eighteenth, and the commencement
of the nineteenth centuries, proved my maps: E. Fournier.
In a series of five maps of a valley near Lons-le-Saunier,
dated 1658, 1748, 1790, 1841, and the present day, the
various changes undergone by the water courses can be
traced.—The results of a year’s study of the electrical
conductivity of the water of the Rhone at Lyons: M.
Chanoz. The water supply of Lyons, obtained from the
Rhone, contains mineral matter in relatively constant
amounts throughout the year, as indicated by the freezing
point and electrical conductivity. 4
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Marcu 23.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Bakerian Lecture: The Reception and
Utilisation of Energy by the Green Leaf: Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.
InstiTuTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Report of Experiments
carried out at the National Physical Laboratory : On the Effect of Heat
on the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Dielectrics, and on the
Temperature Distribution in the Interior of Field Coils: E. H. Rayner.
—Discussion: On Temperature Curves and the Rating of Electrical
Machinery : R. Goldschmidt.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at5.—The Reasonableness of Architecture: Thomas
G. Jackson.
FRIDAY, Marcu 24.
Rovat InsTITUTION, at 9-—A Pertinacious Current: Sir Oliver Lodge,
F.R.S.
Puysicat Society, at 5.—Note on the Voltage Ratios of an Inverted
Rotary Converter: W. C. Clinton —On the Flux of Tight from the
Electric Arc with varying Power Supply : G. B. Dyke —The Application
of the Cymometer and the Determination of the Coefficent of Coupling
of Oscillation Transformers: Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S.—Exhibition
of Cymometers and other Instruments.
rivuTion or Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Wanki to Victoria Falls
ion ; Victoria Falls Railway : C. T. Gardner.—Design of a Double-
ine Plate-Girder Railway-Bridge ;: H. S. Coppock.
NO. 1847, VOL. 71]
[ns
SATURDAY, Marcu 25.
Royat Institution , at 3.—Electrical Properties of Radio-active Sub-
stances: Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.
MONDAY, Marcu 27.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Telephone Exchanges: H. L. Webb.
Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SocieTY, at 8.39.—Liberia: Sir Harry Johnston,
G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Bonuses in Model Office Valuations and
their Relations to Reserves: Dr. James Buchanan.
TUESDAY, Marcu 28.
InsTITUTION OF CrviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Coolgardie Water-Supply,
C. S. R. Palmer. cf
Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—Vibration Problems in Engineering: Prof.
W. E. Dalby. gineering of.
SocieTY OF ARTS. at 4.30.—The Manufactures of Greater Britain—
Australasia: The Hon. W. H. James. a :
WEDNESDAY, Maxcu 29.
soos oF Arts, at 8.—British Woodlands : Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart.,
M.P.
THURSDAY, Marcu 30.
Roya. Society, at 4.30.—Pyrobable Papers : On the Observations of Stars
made in some British Stone Circles (Preliminary Note): Sir Norman
Lockyer, K.C.B., F-R.S.—On the Distribution of Velocity in a Viscous
Fluid over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and on the Action at the Critical
Velocity : J. Morrow.—The Direct Synthesis of Ammonia: Dr. E. P.
Perman.—The Determination of Vapour Pressure by Air Bubbling : Dr.
E. P. Perman and J. H. Davies.—Note on Fluorescence and Absorption :
J. B. Burke.—The Determination of the Specific Heat of Superheated
Steam by Throttling and other Experiments: A. H. Peake.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.
FRIDAY, Marcu 31.
Royat InsriruTion, at 9.—The Scientific Study of Dialects: Prof. J.
Wright.
SATURDAY, Apri x.
Rovat INsTITUTION, at 3.—Some Controverted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Kalahari Desert. By G. W.L. . . 481
Animal Photography. ByR.L. ..... 483
A Popular Star Atlas. ByW.J.S.L.. 484
A Contribution to Museum History . - 485
Science and Metaphysics. . -. Jeautneeee ea ares 485
Our Book Shelf :—
Watts: ** Index of Spectra. (Appendix O.)” 486
Mottez.: ‘La Matiére, I’ Ether et les Forces physiques” 486
Styan : ‘‘The Uses and Wonders of Plant-hairs”. . 486
Letter to the Editor :—
The Planet Fortuna.—Spencer Pickering, F.R.S. 486
State Aid for Higher Education. .... . 487
Cave Hunting. (///ustrated.). ....... 488
Fijian Folk-tales. (Jé/ustrated.) .. 490
Notes... 49t
Our Astronomical Column :—
The Alternating Variability of Martian Canals . . . 494
Discovery of Jupiter’s Sixth Satellite . 494
Forthcoming Oppositions of Mars... .. . 494
Variable Radial Velocity of Sirius. . .. . . 494
Constant Errors in Meridian Observations 495
The National Physical Laboratory .... . 495
Fungi. By Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. 496
Trypanosomiasis and Experimental Medicine.
(Zilustrated.) By Prof. R. T. Hewlett 498
University and Educational Intelligence - 499
Societies and Academies. (///ustrated.). . . . . . . 500
Diary. of: SQclemesmmers . «2 clic fea 2 ile 504
NATURE
595 |
THURSDAY, ;:MARCH. 30, 1905.
. --THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES.
"Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum and a History of
Classifications of the Sciences. By Robert Flint,
D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Pp. x+340. (Edinburgh
and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1904.)
Price ros. 6d. net.
Te relation of science to philosophy is, in theory,
filial. It is, perhaps, no contradiction of the
filial relationship that in practice it has an un-
fortunate tendency to run to mutual recrimination.
The man of science too often ignores the philosopher,
or despises him as an obscurantist who habitually
confounds abstraction with generalisation. To the
metaphysical philosopher, on the other hand, the
typical specialist in science is a variety of day-
labourer, dulled by the drudgery of occupational
routine. Amidst such conjugal plain-speaking on
both sides, it is no wonder that we hear much of
what is called the divorce of philosophy and science;
and yet there are many problems which for their
adequate treatment surely require the combined
resources of both science and philosophy. Is not the
problem of the classification of the sciences one of
these? Yet the comparative isolation of the scientific
and philosophic approaches to this subject is a con-
spicuous fact, well attested by some recent instances.
One of the most eminent of European men of science
quite recently brought forward, as an original con-
tribution, a scheme of classification which. the
philosophical critics at once detected as almost
identical with that of Auguste Comte. Another very
eminent man of science not long ago published a
critical survey @f some of the best known schemes of
classification. His criticsm of Comte’s scheme was
apparently based upon an allusion in the practical
treatise (the ‘‘ Positive Polity’), the critic himself
being presumably in ignorance that Comte’s treatment
of the subject can only be adequately studied in the
““ Positive Philosophy,’’ where indeed the general
theory of science is so elaborately worked out as to
extend over several volumes.
Then again, there is that stupendous work, the
** International Catalogue of Scientific Literature,”
itself a classification of the (natural) sciences in being.
For the taxonomic preparations antecedent to this,
the Royal Society was mainly responsible. It would
be interesting to know if the Royal Society, in
preparing its scheme, consulted either the Aris-
totelian Society (as the leading corporate re-
presentative of philosophy in England), or any
individual philosopher, known, like Herbert Spencer,
to have made a special study of the classifica-
tion of the sciences. Had a precedent been wanting
for the explicit and formal cooperation of science and
philosophy, a not unworthy one might have been cited
in the collaboration of Whewell, sought and obtained
by Lyell, for the classification and nomenclature of
Tertiary geological strata.
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
Prof, Flint’s new book should serye as a mediating
influence between philosophical and scientific interests.
It brings together into one convenient source the
leading attempts made, from Plato to Karl Pearson,
towards a classification of the sciences. This, it
seems, is the first time in the history of the subject
that an exhaustive endeavour has been made to
collect these data. How invaluable a service Prof.
Flint has thus rendered to future investigators, can
be appreciated only by those who have tediously toiled
at the scattered literature of this subject. Its biblio-
graphy appears hitherto to have been left unorganised
—having escaped even the ubiquitous zeal of German
scholarship. As a special study, the classification of
the sciences has been singularly little cultivated in
Germany, though Wundt went too far when, first
taking up the subject himself, about a generation
ago, he declared that German sources were nil.
In point of purely taxonomic requirement, the first
questions evoked by the problem of classification of
the sciences are :—(1) What order of phenomena is
it that falls to be classified? (2) Which (if any)
amongst existing sciences deal with this particular
order of phenomena? Can we, without leaving the
assured ground of scientific method, adequately
determine the first of these two questions? Does
science itself yield criteria for determining its own
order of phenomena? Science, to be sure, when self-
contemplative, is more often in a postprandial mood
than in a critical one. But when the man of science,
in a metaphysical moment, does critically turn his eye
inwards, and surveys the whole scientific domain,
does he not see a manifold complexity of very partially
analysed phenomena? Truth to tell, the evolution of
science itself—i.e. its rationalised history and _ its
methodology—considered as a department of scientific
research, is one that has scarcely begun to be
cultivated. It would be interesting, incidentally, to
inquire whether the establishment of a chair of the
‘ History of Science ’”’ in the College de France (due
to positivist advocacy) has been followed by any
similar initiative elsewhere; while as to methodology,
what chance would even the most eminent amongst
men of science have as a candidate for a chair of
logic?
The few great men of science who have contributed
to these departments of study have done so as
philosophers rather than as men of science. Personal
and individual views on the history and the methods
of science—views of the first value and significance
—have time and again been emitted, but there has
scarcely yet been initiated in this field, that system
of cooperative, impersonal, detached research which
ensures continuity and consensus—the essential
criteria of science. Not far short of a hundred
systems of classification come within Prof. Flint’s
survey. The great majority of these have been put
forward explicitly in the name of philosophy.
Perhaps less than a dozen may be counted as having
issued from professed men of science; and of these,
each is, like the philosophical schemes, a personal
and individual production, generated in comparative
Z
506
NATURE
[Marcu 30, 1905
isolation from other similar endeavours. Hence it
is, that while there is no generally recognised system
of arranging the sciences in any rational order, there
is a whole series of competing pseudo-classifications,
each characterised by the particular qualities and de-
fects of its individual originator. One of the un-
fortunate results, is that the problem itself has fallen
into some disrepute. Prof. Flint’s book will help
substantially to rescue the problem both from neglect
and obloquy.
With existing resources, what tentative lines of
orderly development may be discerned in the evolu-
tion of science which may help towards this pre-
liminary problem of classification? Looking at the
sciences collectively, and their field of investigation
as a whole, we may without transcending scientific
limits take several standpoints in turn. These may
be held to include the following :—
(1) Science, collectively considered as a body of
knowledge, differentiated from other bodies of
knowledge (c.g. common knowledge on the one side
and philosophy on the other) by its more systematic
character, its greater quantitative precision, its more
fully and explicitly known sources of origin and
methods of growth, the more certain verifiability of
its generalisations, the greater exactitude of its fore-
casts. Here, from this standpoint, science appears
as a system of symbolism, a methodised scheme of
notation, an organisation of interdependent formulz
—in short, a well-made language, as Condillac said.
(2) Science considered as a psychological process—
i.e. as a power or faculty which, under certain defin-
able conditions of heredity, training, and environ-
ment, the individual mind may acquire and utilise in
the course of its normal growth. Here, from this
standpoint, science appears as an artificial Psychic
Organ, a portable illuminant like the miner’s lamp,
a racial eye adjustable to the individual brain—an eye
that discerns the obscurities of the present, penetrates
the past, and reveals the future. In short, science is
here a rational development of instinct, by means of
which the individual may be educated to possess him-
self more fully of the accumulated social heritage;
and, in turn, more fully contribute to it, from his
personal experience—the individual being here
postulated as unique.
(3) Science considered as a social process, i.e. as
a growth of racial experience, accumulated by an
infinitude of contributions from cooperating individuals
and generations in endless succession. It is a social
process differing in its development from parallel
growths of racial experience, chiefly in being more
capable of consciously directed control and guidance,
and therefore able to yield more verifiable ideals.
Here, from this third point of view, science appears
as a Social Institution, aiming at the organisation
of communitary experience by a collective process in
which the intervention of any given individual is a
negligible quantity. The personality of the individual
man of science is here to be observed as a social fact
of a definitive order, and interpreted as itself the
product of past and contemporary social evolution.
The individual is here postulated, not as unique, but as
No. 1848, VOL. 71]
a type. The existing body of men of science make up,
at any given moment, the temporary and evanescent
personnel of one amongst abiding social institutions.
They constitute one of a number of competing and
cooperating social groups, composed of types of
personality which are material for observation and
study, like any other commensurable objects of natural
history. And in this observational study of types of
scientific personality would, of course, be included the
corresponding study of their mental products—i.e.
their contributions to science.
Here, then, are three aspects of science, under
which it may approach the problem of its own
structures and functions, its own history and ideals.
The first approach is that of the nascent science of
methodology (inheriting the philosophical traditions
of logic and epistemology); the second is that of
the well-established science of psychology; and the
third, that of the nascent science of sociology (inherit-
ing the traditions of philosophy of history and social
philosophy). As each of these three sciences develops,
| it must, in pursuit of the first of scientific ideals—
that of an_ over-evolving order—work out an
increasingly natural classification of the phenomena
with which it deals. The whole field of science would
be surveyed from each of these points of view, and
it would follow that in course of time there must
emerge several classificatory schemes, each with a
scientific status and validity of its own. But, given
these several taxonomic systems—logical, psycho-
logical, sociological, and perhaps also zsthetic and
ethical—there would, of course, remain the problem of
their unification. Here surely would be scope for the
activities of the philosopher ; and yet the man of science
would presumably decline to delegate that supreme
taxonomic survey of his own domain. As sociologist,
he may even propose a scientific survey of the
philosophical field! For are not systems of
philosophy themselves to be observed and classified
as sociological facts, and interpreted as products and
factors in social evolution ?
What, then, is the right division of labour between
science and philosophy? Is it not expressed in the
simple and homely ideal—every man of science his
own philosopher? Does not the existing fashion of
exclusive devotion, either to speculation or to observ-
ation, tend to a multiplication of individuals who are
neither philosophers nor men of science, but
degenerate variants known to American psychologists
as respectively “‘lumpers’’ and ‘splitters’’? Is it
not an alternation of speculation and observation, of
the philosophical and the scientific mood, that most
prolongs and intensifies each of these two comple-
mentary phases of mental activity? That surely is
the lesson to be learned from the lives of the great
initiators in science—of Faraday and Darwin, of
Virchow and Helmholtz, of Bichat and Claude Ber-
nard. The ordinary working man of science is ready
enough, like Claude Bernard, to put off his imagina-
tion with his coat when he enters the laboratory.
Only let him remember, like Claude Bernard, to put
it on again when he leaves, for without it he cannot
cultivate philosophy.
Marcu 30, 1905]
NATURE 507
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS.
(1) Elementary Pure Geometry, with Mensuration.
By E. Buddon, M.A., B.Sc. Pp. vilit284.
(London and Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 3s.
(2) Lessons in Experimental and Practical Geometry.
By H. S. Hall, M.A., and F. H. Stevens, M.A.
Pp. viiito4+iii. (London: Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd., 1905.) Price 1s. 6d.
(3) The Elements of Geometry, Theoretical and
Practical. By B. Arnett, M.A. Books i., ii., and
iii. Pp. viiit395, vilit238, and viii+242.
(London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent and
Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 2s. each volume.
(4) The Elements of Trigonometry. By S. L. Loney,
M.A. Pp. xii+339+xiv. (Cambridge : The Uni-
versity Press, 1904; London : Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd., 1904.) Price 3s. 6d.
(5) Elementary Algebra, Part II. By W. M. Baker,
M.A., and A. A. Bourne, M.A. Pp. viii+277 to
46S+Ixxvi. (London: George Bell and Sons,
1g04.)
(6) Clive’s Shilling Arithmetic. Edited by W. Briggs,
LL.D., M.A., &c. Pp. viiit 154. (London: W. B.
Clive, 1905.) Price 1s.
(7) Graphic Statics. By T. Alexander, G:B.; wand
A. W. Thompson, D.Sc. Pp. viii+50. (London :
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 2s.
(1) {pee geometry of Mr. Buddon is a notable addi-
: tion to the elementary text-books which owe
their appearance to the freedom of the last few
years. The subject is introduced by experimental
work, very suggestive in character, and leading by
induction to fundamental definitions and theorems.
Thus from the sliding and folding of flat cards and
the like the author arrives at his definition of a plane
as ‘a surface, infinite in extent, which can be folded
about any two points of the surface so that one part
lies entirely on the other.’’ The definition of a
straight line naturally follows as the infinitely
extended fold of a plane. A plane angle is clearly
and rationally defined. Parallel lines are those having
the same direction in a plane, direction being measured
by the angle made with any reference line. It is
pointed out that a plane, a plane angle, and a
straight line can in each case be reversed on itself,
and thus symmetrical properties are satisfactorily
established in which the two halves are alike but of
opposite aspect. Then follow general cases of
congruence. In dealing with ratio and proportion
the idea of a continually subdivided decimal scale is
introduced; this enables all numbers which can be
expressed as continuous decimal fractions, e.g.
1.4142. ..., to be included, and to any degree of
approximation. In later chapters the subject-matter
comprises a very full treatment of the properties of
circles; elementary trigonometry; an introduction to
projective geometry; conic sections treated by modern
methods; and solid geometry with the mensuration
of the simple geometrical solids. The book con-
tains in profusion sets of graphical and deduc-
tive The figures drawn with
No. 1848, VoL. 71]
exercises. are
thick, thin, and dotted lines on a systematic plan
to distinguish more readily between the data, the
construction lines, and the result. The use of variable
type serves to differentiate parts of greater or less
importance. In fact, the book on every page bears
witness to the great care and thought bestowed
on its production. There is a stimulating freshness
in the matter and its method of presentation. Some
will doubt the wisdom of carrying on at school the
study of pure geometry to the extent covered in the
book: others may wish that the geometry of vectors
had been included; but all will agree that the author
has produced one of the most important of the new
elementary text-books, and one that should be known
to every teacher interested in the subject.
(2) The ‘Lessons in Experimental and Practical
Geometry’ by Messrs. Hall and Stevens might very
fittingly be incorporated in the authors’ “ School
Geometry,’’ to which it forms an excellent introduction
as well as supplement. The subject is treated in the
masterly way that is found in the mathematical text-
books of these writers. Young pupils are fortunate
who obtain their first notions of geometry from a
course such as the one outlined in its pages. They
will become accustomed to the use of compasses,
squares, scales, and the protractor by interesting
quantitative and experimental work, fundamental
propositions being at the same time inductively
established. They will have practice in the applica-
tion of geometrical problems; will learn how to
measure areas; and will be introduced to the simpler
geometrical solids. The authors make good use of
tracing paper. The list of instruments and apparatus
which they give might with advantage have included
the drawing and compass pencils, with a caution
added against the employment of soft blunt leads.
(3) In the preface of his elementary geometry Mr.
Arnett states that the work ‘‘ has been written for
the use of candidates who are being prepared by a
master for the different examinations conducted by the
universities and the Civil Service Commission.’’? The
subject-matter is confined to plane geometry, and is
almost wholly deductive. The first book gives
definitions and axioms, and investigates some of the
properties of lines, angles, parallels, triangles, and
quadrilaterals. The second book deals mainly with th:
circle and with ratio and proportion, and the last book
treats of areas and of similar figures.
The principal
feature of
the work is the very large number of
exercises provided, a few of which are numerical or
graphical, the great bulk, however, being of the nature
of geometrical riders. The text-book is not at all suit-
able for beginners, for general school work, or for
private study except under the direction of a tutor
who could direct the student as to which parts should
be read and which omitted, and who would probably
re-arrange the order in which the
problems should be taken.
(4) Mr. Loney’s ‘‘ Elements of Trigonometry ”’ is
mainly taken from part i. of the author’s ‘** Plane
Trigonometry,’’ and is designed as an easier text-book.
The subject is treated in the usual way, and there
is nothing to call for special The first
chapters relate to acute right-angled
theorems and
mention.
angles and
508
NATURE
[Marcu 30, 1905
triangles. The definitions are then extended to angles
of any magnitude, and formule are established for
the sum and difference of angles, and for multiple
and submultiple angles, &c. There is a chapter on
logarithms, and a number of four-figure tables are
given. This work leads up to the properties and solu-
tion of triangles with applications. Inverse functions
are introduced, and general expressions established for
angles having given trigonometrical ratios. There are
a large number of examples, any necessary answers
to which are given at the end of the book.
(5) Part ii. of Messrs. Baker and Bourne’s excellent
algebra begins by formally establishing the laws of
operation of algebraical symbols. It contains chapters
on surds and indices, proportion, logarithms, pro-
gressions, series, scales of notation, permutations and
combinations, the binomial theorem, interest and
annuities, exponential and logarithmic series and
partial fractions. There are numerous groups of
examples, and special sets of revision papers at
intervals, the answers being all given in an appendix.
A special feature of the book is the frequent use of
graphs and of geometrical illustrations. This text-book
must give satisfaction wherever used.
(6) Clive’s shilling arithmetic is intended for the use
of teachers who adopt almost entirely the oral method
of instruction, and who only require a class-book con-
taining concise statements of rules, with graduated
sets of exercises, and with the formal proofs of theorems
omitted. Thus a small volume is sufficient to cover
the range of subjects usually taught in schools, and
which this manual contains. The book can be ob-
tained with answers included at an extra cost of
threepence,
(7) In the graphical statics of Messrs. Alexander |
and Thompson the authors first give a set of sixteen
graduated problems on coplanar forces, solved by
means of force and link polygons; these include
couples, centres of area and moments of inertia of
beam sections. Then follows a set of seventeen ex-
amples showing applications to roof trusses, girders,
walls, and masonry arches. The treatment is some-
what fragmentary and arbitrary, but, if supplemented
by the teacher, the course would prepare a student
for a systematic study of graphic statics, and the
book is intended more particularly as an introduction
to the author’s ‘‘ Elementary Applied Mechanics.”
SALT-BEDS AND OCEANS.
Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen. By
J. H. van ’t Hoff. Pp. vi+8s5. (Brunswick :
Vieweg and Son.) Price 4 marks.
HIS work will be welcomed alike by chemists,
geologists, and oceanographers. It forms the
first instalment of the collection into one publication
of the results of some forty memoirs of the author
and his collaborators on the formation of double salts.
The principal object of the work was the study of
the problem of the natural salt beds. As these beds
have in all probability been formed by the evaporation
of a body of water comparable with the existing oceans,
which certainly contain some of everything, it was
No. 1848, voL. 71]
necessary to set limits to the investigation. This
was effected by confining attention to the principal
constituents of the ‘salt-beds. These are chloride
of sodium, in great preponderance, and the chlorides
and sulphates of magnesium and potassium with
their ,water of crystallisation. The latter form a
series of more complex bodies which appear and dis-
appear with the changing equilibrium of the solution.
After these come the calcium salts, such as anhydrite
and polyhalite; but they are held over for treatment in
the next fascicule.
The work is a gigantic exercise in physical chemistry,
which the author carries through on strictly scientific
lines, while at the same time touch is kept with the
important applications of his results in the economy
of nature, and chemistry is thus vindicated as a branch
of natural history.
The experimental part of the work is of especial
interest to physical chemists, and the publication of
it in a connected and condensed form will be welcomed
by them. It is proposed here to notice only the ap-
plication of it to the occurrence of salts in nature in
beds and in solution.
The experimental basis of the work is the deter-
mination of the solubility, at certain temperatures, of
the common salts of the sea, in water and in solutions
of each other. With the information so obtained, it
is possible to follow exactly the crystallisation of a
solution containing all these salts, as it gradually
loses water by evaporation at the temperature of the
experiment. The temperature most used is 25° C.,
which is fairly representative of the temperature of
sea water evaporating in salt gardens, such as those
of Hyeres or Cadiz in summer.
When average sea-water has been evaporated down
to the point at which chloride of sodium begins to
crystallise, the liquor contains (in molecular propor-
tions) too NaCl, 2:2 KCl, 7-3 MgCl,, 3:8 MgSO,;
and this mixture of salts is associated with, roughly,
tooo mol. H,O (exactly 1064). On allowing this
liquor to evaporate at 25° C., the crystallisation follows
a definite route, which can be traced exactly, and
without difficulty, on one of those marvellous charts
representing the march of physical and chemical
phenomena with which the resourceful inventiveness
of van ’t Hoff has familiarised us.
The crystallisation takes place in four acts corre-
sponding to the regions in the chart.
(1) Rock-salt: separation of chloride of sodium in
great abundance. Of the too NaCl present when
crystallisation began, only 4.6 NaCl remains dissolved ;
the remainder, 95 NaCl, has been deposited.
(2) Kieserite region: separation of chloride of
sodium, sulphate of magnesium, and kainite
‘ (MgSO,KCI3H,O).
The salt separated in this act consists of 4.42 NaCl,
2-02 KCl, and 3:07 MgSO, ; or, 4-42 NaCl, 1.05 MgSO,,
and 2.02 kainite.
(3) Carnallite region: separation
sodium, carnallite (KMgCl,,6H,O), and_ kieserite
(MgSO,.H,O), and the amounts separated are
0-03 NaCl, o.1 carnallite, and 0-35 Ixieserite.
(4) Final liquor: what remains solidifies to 0-15
of chloride of
Marcu 30, 1905]
NATURE
509
NaCl, 7-62 MgCl, (bischofite), 0-08 carnallite, and 0:38
kieserite.
Rock salt Kieserite Kainite Carnallite Bischofite
(HRROSrAS s-: | — es
(2) 4°42... =TL'05 NO Bieni) = case
(3)... 0°03 0135 ic lee or! "ra
(4)... O715 0°38) — 008 7°62
100°00 1°78 2°02 o'18 7°62
38 2°2 78
NaCl MgSO, KCl MgCl,
Within the limits of a notice of this kind it is im-
possible to give an adequate account of so important
a work. It is-hoped, however, that the above extract
wul show that it has an interest for others as well
as for chemists. Ifo Née 183;
EVOLUTION FOR BEGINNERS.
An Outline of the Theory of Organic Evolution;
with a Description of some of the Phenomena
which it Explains. By Dr. Maynard M. Metcalf,
Professor of Biology in the Woman’s College of
Baltimore. Pp. xxii+20g4. (New York: The
Macmillan Company; London: Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd., 1904.) Price ros. 6d. net.
ee is one of the best popular accounts of the
theory of evolution that have come under our
notice. The author makes little or no claim to
originality, but he has on the whole succeeded in his
aim of providing a clear and intelligible statement
of evolutionary doctrine in most of its recent de-
velopments. Technicalities have been largely avoided ;
but, as the author truly says, ‘‘ the subject is some-
what intricate, and cannot be presented in so simple
a manner as to require no thought on the reader’s
part.’’ With regard to controverted points, the posi-
tion taken is generally sound; Dr. Metcalf has no
difficulty in recognising the supreme importance of
natural selection, or in rating at their true value
the speculations of the Lamarckian school, whether
new or old. He rightly lays stress on the great
fact of adaptation as affording the most conclusive
evidence of the controlling power of selection;
‘‘adaptation,’? as he remarks, ‘‘is the key-note of
organic nature.’’ To some readers his faith in the
beneficial character of certain modifications will seem
a trifle too robust; but for the most part he treats
this branch of the subject with sound judgment and
the force born of reasoned conviction.
An excellent feature of the book is its wealth of
pictorial illustration. Many of the figures are already
well known, but it is of great advantage to the
ordinary reader to have them grouped together in
such a way as to throw fresh light on each other,
and thus materially to assist his comprehension of
the subject. Many of the reproductions of original
photographs are particularly good; to “find the
woodcock ”? in plate 1. makes an interesting puzzle.
The representation of the snow grouse in plate lvii.,
and of the sargassum fish in plate Ixv. are also
admirable, while the copies in colour of Tegetmeier’s
figures of fancy poultry, though a little rough in
execution, are amply sufficient for their purpose.
NO, 1848, VoL. 71]
A few points call for criticism. The author is
occasionally betrayed into a slipshod or unmeaning
expression, as when he speaks of the sun ‘‘ moving
along its appointed daily course under the control of
gravitation.’’ A sentence on p. 31 is entirely mis-
leading, unless the word “‘ artificial ’’ be substituted
for ‘‘ natural.’’ The factors to which special atten-
tion has been directed by Osborn, Baldwin and
Lloyd Morgan, though not ignored, are rather in-
adequately treated; the author, moreover, falls into
some confusion between individual and specific plas-
ticity. On p. 134 Fritz Miuller’s interpretation of
‘‘synaposematic’’ resethblances is erroneously
attributed to Bates. Indeed, the whole subject of
common warning colours, which is one of the most
interesting and complicated in the entire range of
evolution, deserves more extended and more accurate
treatment than it receives at Dr. Metcalf’s hands.
On plate Ixxvi. Papilio merope (caeneae) is somewhat
uncritically assumed to be edible, and on plate Ixxvii.
we meet with the astonishing statement that. the
male of Perrhybris (Mylothris) pyrrha is edible, and
‘““imitates the inedible Heliconidz,’’ while the female
of the same species ‘‘ is not a mimic’; the fact being
that it is one of the best mimics known, probably of
the Miillerian kind. The lettering of many of the
plates stands in need of revision. 1s, Ja\5 1D)
OUR BOOK SHELF.
By Prof. Allyre
Précis de Chimie physiologique.
(Paris :
Chassevant. Pp. iv + 424; illustrated.
Félix Alcan, 1905.) Price 1o francs.
Tuts is a very excellent text-book of physiological
chemistry, and it presents the subject in an attractive
way. It treats first of the chemical substances found
in the body, then of the various liquids and tissues
of the organism, and finally of function.
The work contains all the essential facts of this
branch of science, without going exhaustively into
details; references are given throughout to the names
of investigators, but not, as a rule, to their writings.
The subjects treated most fully are the urine, the
milk, and diet, for the work aims at being not only
academic, but also of practical use to the clinical
investigator.
The author is well known for his original worl: in
chemical physiology, and he will be personally known
also to many in London, as he was one of those who
joined in the recent visit of French medical men to
London. He possesses what is rarely absent in
French writers, a power of clear and lucid exposi-
tion. He is fully conversant with recent progress in
science, as evidenced by the way he deals with
questions in which physical chemistry is involved.
The line between physiology and pathology is never
a well defined one, and thus we find in the book
subjects like immunity, serum diagnosis, and serum
therapy to the fore. It is inevitable that this should
be so, for a proper understanding of ferments and
anti-ferments, the prime factors in animal chemistry,
cannot be attained except through the knowledge and
new ideas which were in the first instance the out-
come of study in pathological fields.
M. Chassevant is to be congratulated on his interest-
ing work. He has furnished the student, the
investigator, and the teacher with what will be useful
to all of them. W. D. H.
510
Unsere Pflanzen. By F. Sohns. Dritte -Auflage.
Pp. iv+178. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1904.) Price
2:60 marks. =
Children’s Wild Flowers. By Mrs. J. M: Maxwell.
Pp. viiit+171. (Edinburgh: David Douglas, 1904.)
Price 7s. 6d. net. .
Tue derivation of many botanical names being very
uncertain, it is probable that the subject appeals
more to the philologist than the botanist. Who shall
say, for instance, whether the speedwell takes its
name from a saint Veronica, or should be derived
from ‘vera icon’? or ‘‘ vera unica’? ? Vernacular
names are perhaps. more easily explained, but vary
greatly in different districts. Similar difficulties
occur with German popular names, so that Mr. Séhns
has a number of problems of an indeterminate nature
to solve in his bools, which deals with the nomenclature
of plants and their place in mythology and folklore.
Generally the author’s arguments are care.ully
deduced and convincing, and, as might be expected,
the correct - derivation is not always _ obvious.
Tausendgueldenkraut, the popular name of Erythraea
centaurea, suggests a connection with ‘‘ centum
aurum,”’ but the specific name is undoubtedly given in
honour of the Centaur Chiron, who was skilled in
medicine, and the German name, which was at first
hundert guelden Kraut, has apparently given place to
Tausendgueldenkraut, where thousand is used in a
hyperbolic sense, and thus the Centaur’s plant has
become associated with a fanciful expression. In
addition to etymology, the book contains many
references to popular superstitions. On account of
the dissimilarity between German and _ English
popular names it cannot be expected that the book
will appeal strongly to English readers, but a third
edition points to its success in Germany.
The book by Mrs. Maxwell is intended to interest
vhildren in wild flowers by narrating the legends and
stories connected with them. Scientific description is
practically limited to habitat and comparative
characters for distinguishing between the species of a
genus, and coloured illustrations are provided as a
means of identification of the plants. Obviously the
purpose of the writer is not to train the powers of
observation or inculcate accuracy, but rather ‘to
stimulate the faculties of imagination.
Superstitions about Animals. By Frank Gibson.
Pp. 208. (London and Newcastle-on-Tyne: Walter
Scott Publishing Co., 1904.) Price 3s. 6d.
Tuis is an unpretentious little book which will interest
many people. It brings together some of the most
common superstitions about animals, ‘‘ dealing with
them in a light and popular way,’’ with copious quota-
tions from the poets. One of its aims is to sweep
away those superstitions that are foolish and de-
grading, to clear the air for a free appreciation of the
real wonders of nature. For ‘‘ there is no subject
under heaven which will give more pleasure or lasting
and real profit than that of Natural History.’? Mr.
Gibson deals first with omens, such as the ticking of
the death-watch and the baying of a dog; he goes on
to distortions of facts of natural history, such as
““ salamanders in the fire,’’ ‘‘ crocodile’s tears,*’ ‘‘ the
hibernation of swallows ’’; he ends up with creatures
of the imagination, like the ‘basilisk,’ the
“‘ phoenix,’? and the ‘‘ griffin.”” The author is a
devout admirer of the real things of nature with an
unusual knowledge of the poets both great and small.
He has not seriously tackled the difficult side of his
subject—the attempt to account historically and psycho-
logically for the origin and persistence of the more
important superstitions. He has forgotten the salt.
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[Marcu 30, 1905
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]|
A Great Oxford Discovery.
In a recent study of some eighteenth century naturalists’
writings I was a good deal struck by the amount of atten-
tion devoted to the problem of whether the white man
was a sport from negroid stock or the negro a sport from
a white race. The matter was discussed from every stand-
point, physiological, geographical, and theological, but the
consensus of opinion, based chiefly on the existence of
albinotic and pied negroes, and on the misunderstood
effects of leucoderma, was that the white might be a
negro sport, but that there was no evidence of a black
sport in the case of the white races. If such an opinion
were correct, and the white man only a negro sport, we
should certainly expect to find the negroid cranial type com-
mon among the white races. Two distinguished Oxford
men of science have just thrown remarkable light on this
problem. They have given a very simple series of con-
ditions by which crania can be classed into skulls of
negroid, non-negroid, and intermediate types. These con-
ditions depend entirely on a classification of nasal and
facial indices, and by their processes our authors are able
to distinguish between the negroid, non-negroid, and
intermediate types among prehistoric Egyptian crania.
Not being an anatomist, I am quite unable to judge of
the processes by which they have reached their criteria,
and the photographs which accompany their volume are
of so obscure a character—indeed, in the present state of
cranial photography somewhat unworthy of a university
press—that they hardly allow the uninitiated even with a
lens to appreciate the justification which the authors
find for their classification in the outward appearances of
their cranial groups. I think, however, we may safely
give the greatest weight possible to a judgment formed
by the Oxford professor of human anatomy and the Oxford
reader in Egyptology in a folio volume just issued by the
syndics of the University Press.
Taking their classification as beyond discussion, I have
applied it :—
First, to a fairly long series of admittedly negro crania,
all males. I find 7-3 per cent. are non-negroid, 39-0 per
cent. are truly negroid, and 53-7 per cent. are inter-
mediate. It is clear that we only need to let the negroes
change their skins, and a sensible percentage will be non-
negroid.
Secondly, to a fairly long series of English skulls, male
and female. I find of Englishmen 20 per cent. are negroid,
46 per cent. non-negroid, and 34 per cent. are intermediate
in type. Among Englishwomen 11 per cent. are negroid,
48 per cent. non-negroid, and 41 per cent. are of inter-
mediate type. Thus of the whole English population
slightly more than 50 per cent. are either pure negroid or
partially negroid; while in an outwardly pure negroid
group, upwards of 60 per cent. are non-negroid or mixed
with non-negroid elements.
I have not yet had time to apply Prof. Thomson and
Mr. Randall-Maciver’s test to Asiatic races, but I have not
the least doubt that I shall find there also pure negroid
and intermediate negroid elements. But that the English-
man should have as large a negroid element in his con-
stitution as the pvrehistoric Egyptian. and only half as
little pure negroid element as admitted negroes. is to my
mind an epoch-makine discovery, which will at once
attract attention to Oxford as a centre for a novel school
of craniometrv and anthropology. Kart. Pearson.
University College, London.
Inversions of Temperature and Humidity in Anti-
cyclones,
In Nature of February 16 Mr. W. H. Dines cited an
;example of a large temperature inversion, observed with
kites during the prevalence of very high barometric
pressure in England, and remarked on the possible connec-
‘tion between the two phenomena.
|
MARCH 30, 1905]
NATURE
511
Observations with kites at Blue Hill during the past
ten years, and with balloons elsewhere, show that in-
versions of temperature occur at some height in the free
air under almost. all weather conditions. In a discussion
of the kite observations at Blue Hill, published in 1897 in
part i., vol. xlii., Annals of the Astronomical Observatory
of Harvard College, Mr. H. H. Clayton probably first
pointed out that marked inversions of temperature at
heights of from a quarter to half a mile in the free air
occur in the rear of anti-cyclones. He gives one example
of a rise of 26° F. between 2180 feet and 2530 feet, accom-
panied by a corresponding fall of 50 per cent. in the relative
humidity, this rise of temperature being more than twice
that mentioned by Mr. Dines.
Prof. Hergesell’s soundings with kites on board the
Prince of Monacq’s yacht last July, in the permanent high
barometric pressure south of the Azores, showed a decrease
of temperature of 6° F. up to about 1800 feet, when the
temperature suddenly rose 14° F., and so remained
throughout a stratum 3000 feet thick, above which it fell
at the adiabatic rate, the relative humidity decreasing 50
per cent. with the rise in temperature. It would appear,
therefore, that such inversions of temperature and relative
humidity at a moderate height are characteristic of areas
of high barometric pressure, both over the land and water.
A. Lawrence Rortcu.
Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Hyde Park, ,
Mass, U.S.A., March 13.
The Planet Fortuna.
OnE point of interest to Airy’s brother men of science
has not been noticed—that he either misunderstood or
wilfully misapplied the lines of Juvenal. The ‘‘ Purists ”’
urged that planets had always been named after deities,
and that Fortuna was not a deity. Airy said that she
was, and quoted ‘‘ nos te, nos facimus, Fortuna, deam.”’
What did Juvenal really say? He said, ‘‘ the wise see no
divinity in Fortune; it is only human folly that calls her |
”
goddess, and assumes for her a place in heaven.’’ As
Gifford renders it :—
“We should see
If wise, O Fortune, nought divine in thee ;
But we have deified a name alone,
And fixed in heaven thy visionary throne.’
’
‘““Nullum numen abest’’ belongs to a numerous class
of misquotations, and spoils the whole tenor of the passage.
The supreme authority on Juvenal, J. E. B. Mayor, does
not even condescend to cite it. W. T.
CITY DEVELOPMENT.*
HE elegant volume under notice was written by
Prof. Patrick Geddes in response to an invita-
tion by the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The report
is copiously illustrated, and embodies a very great
amount of valuable and important information, plans,
and suggestions as to the laying out of the public
park, and as to the buildings, in or around it, needed
or desirable for carrying on the work of the trust.
The author set to work by having a complete photo-
graphic survey made of the park and its environ-
ments. All those photographs, however, could not be
incorporated in the report, but they will be preserved
as a permanent record of the appearance of the park
and its surroundings before any changes were
inaugurated by the trust. Not content with mere
photographs and maps, the author strongly recom-
mends the construction of a relief model of the park,
bearing on its surface pasteboard models of the new
buildings proposed, in order that the general effect of
these buildings on their surroundings may be clearly
anticipated, and thus the erection of structures out of
harmony with their surroundings may be avoided.
1 “City Development, a Study of Parks, Gardens, and Culture Insti-
tutes.” A Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. By P. Geddes.
Pp. 232. (Westminster: Geddes and Co., 5, Old Queen Street.) Price
21s. net.
no. 1848, VOL. 71]
At the beginning of the report a general plan of
the park is given, showing the proposed improve-
ments. At first sight the plan appears’ very
elaborate and overcrowded with detail, but this is due
Fic. 1.—View down House Dene, showing back of old Mansion-house to
left (south), and on opposite bank, a little nearer than the large tree,
Wallace's Well, falien in. Old paths effaced. From ‘‘City Develop-
ment '
to the fact that its designer has endeavoured to show
all the essential details in the plan, in order to reduce
the number of blocks in the text, and a little study
is all that is required to show that the proposed im-
provements are not of such a radical nature as a
first impression might convey. The proposed treat-
ment is essentially a conservative one, and _ the
suggested changes and improvements have been
designed to interfere as little as possible with the
existing features, views, and even details of the park
and glen.
About one-half of the report is devoted to a detailed
consideration of the park, its environs, gardens, and
nature museums. The possible approaches and
entrances are carefully considered and_ selected.
These must render easy access to, and be in keeping
with, the important centre to which they lead. The
park must not end abruptly where the town begins,
but its environs or setting should be such that a
harmonious blending—one with the other—is secured,
and in this connection the author seems to have made
the most of the material at his disposal.
Fis.
2.—The same view, with Wallice’s Well simply re built, and roughly
rustic foot-bridge, uniting old paths now renewed. The Mansion-house
sbows also one of the proposed new turrets. From ‘‘ City Development.
As regards the laying out of the park, the proposed
lakes, gardens, tennis courts, cricket pitches, bowl-
ing greens, and other recreation grounds, its
pavilions, band-stands, museums, walks, and groves,
S12
NATURE
[Marci 30, 1905
are too numerous to be noticed individually here.
Shortly stated, the author has given the benefit of his
extensive knowledge and wide experience in the
planning, equipment, and arrangement of parks and
all their accessories. Every practical expedient that
ingenuity can suggest to encourage that open-air life
and physical exercise so necessary and beneficial for
young and old has been adopted in the schemes and
plans submitted by the author of the report.
A word or two about the nature palace may not be
out of place. This very important building has been
designed to serve several different purposes, such as a
winter garden adapted to receptions and _ conver-
saziones, and it also could be used as a promenade
and popular assembly room, and as a centre for
bazaars, periodic industrial exhibitions, flower shows,
&c. The author further proposes to give this building
the additional and educational interest of a great
museum—a ‘museum which, however, should not aim
at having a large general collection of geological,
botanical, zoological, and anthropological material,
such as those which already exist in larger cities.
Indeed, the author points out that it would be cheaper
for the trust to send whole schools to the museums of
Edinburgh than to attempt to possess an. independent
institution containing, say, the sixth best collection
of skeletons in Scotland or the like. This museum
in the nature palace is to be something apart from
any existing type of museum; in the words of the
author, “‘ A museum not primarily of geology, botany,
natural history, anthropology, and so on, yet the
whole of these within the living unity of nature,
scene by scene-~in short, a museum of geography.”’
So far as the special requirements of the various
natural sciences are concerned, the author recommends
as a model the Perth Museum, with its well chosen
collection of types.
The latter half of the report, forming book ii.,
deals with the culture uses of museums and institutes,
In this part of the volume, art, music, history, and
science are all provided for and suitably housed, with
a view not merely to their immediate wants, but
ample allowance and provision are made for the future
development and expansion of each and every phase
of human activity bearing on culture and industry.
In this handsome volume, the author has included a
vast amount of detailed information and convincing
arguments to show the value of parks, gardens,
museums, and culture institutes in the social
advancement, education, and well-being of com-
munities.
NATURE’S WAYS.
U NLIKE the great majority of works of the same
class, this little volume takes no notice of birds,
but, as its title implies, is entirely devoted to the lower
forms of life which may be met with during rambles
in different parts of the country, including both
animals and plants.. As in the case of his earlier
book, all the articles have previously been published
in various periodicals and journals; and the oppor-
tunity for revision given by their re-publication ought
to have enabled the author to correct certain deficiencies
in style and expression by which the present issue is
disfigured.
For example, on p. 29, Mr. Ward manages to
introduce the word ‘‘ which ”’ three times in the course
of a single sentence without the use of any higher
stop than a comma. On p. 2 we find an obtrusive
instance of the ego et rex meus class; and on
Pp. 172 we are told that occasionally examples of a
1“ Peeps into Nature's Ways;
lute Life.” By J. J
rand Co., 1905.)
NO. 1848, voL. 71
being Chapters on Insect, Plant, and
Ward. Pp. xviii + 302; illustrated. (London:
ceftain organism are not uncommonly met with.
Again, on p. 204 the reader, owing to the misuse of
the pronoun “‘ they,’’ is informed that the jaws of a
snail possess neither jaws nor teeth; while in the
Fic. 1.—Magnified egg of the orange-tip butterfly, on a flower-stalk. From
“Peeps into Nature's Ways.”
second paragraph on p. of! we observe a_ plural
pronoun used in connection with a substantive in the
singular. The misprint in the first sentence on p. 181
is perhaps excusable; but the statement (p. 186) that
> & %
>
A sprig of broom, showing fertilised and unfertilised flowers.
From ‘* Peeps into Nature’s Ways.’
Fic. 2
carbon chemically combines with the water sucked up
by plants is scarcely an exact definition of what takes
place. :
Apart from blemishes like the above, the author may
Makcu 30, 1905]
NATURE
513
be heartily congratulated on his work, which is
interesting and readable from start to finish; while
the illustrations, reproduced from his own photo-
graphs, aré in most cases exquisite, as our readers
may see for themselves from the two examples
furnished herewith. Although he appears to have
little or nothing new to record, Mr. Ward is evidently
a careful and accurate observer, with the faculty of
recording his facts in language that “‘ can be under-
standed of the people.”
With the exception of one chapter on the hydra and
a second on the “ tongues ’’ of molluscs, Mr. Ward’s
work is restricted to insects and plants. In his open-
ing chapter he details the fascinating life-history of
the orange-tip butterfly, showing how its coloration
harmonises with the plants it frequents, and how the
beautiful green mottling on the hind wings is pro-
duced by the blending of dots of black and yellow.
As an example of the author’s skill in. microscopic
photography, we reproduce from this chapter his en-
larged figure of the egg of the butterfly in question.
Another chapter we have read with special interest
is the one on the gorse, in which the author points
out how this plant retains evidence of its relationship
to the clovers in the form of its seed-leaves; while h«
also suggests that the broom may be regarded as in
some degree representing a plant in course of evolu-
tion to the gorse type, but that its career to this
goal has been checked by the fact of its having a
bitter taste, which renders its leaves, unlike those of
the gorse, uneatable by cattle, so that a protective
panoply of spines is superfluous. As a specimen of
the author’s exquisite photographs of plants, we re-
produce the one showing the broom in blossom. Of
the other chapters dealing with plants, one is devoted
to their hairs and scales, in the course of which the
author expresses his belief that he has brought to
notice a hitherto undescribed type (in the Auricula) ;
a second chapter is accorded to the sensitive plant, a
third to the flowers of woodland trees, a fourth to
plant-battles, and a fifth to plants that catch flies.
Reverting to the zoological series, it may be
mentioned that the devotion of two chapters to the
biographies of a couple of nearly allied species of
hawk-moth is perhaps an ill-judged arrangement, as
giving too much importance to one group... Be this
as it may, the chapter entitled ‘‘ Living Files and
Rasps,”’ in which are described and figured the lingual
ribbons of a number of species of gastropods, can
scarcely fail to be generally interesting, although it
would have been better had the author in every case
particularised the genus and species to which his
specimens pertain, instead of merely labelling them
““snails.’’ In the chapter on mosquitoes and gnats
the author does his best to clear up the popular mis-
conception with regard to these insects, and shows
how the female, so far as mankind is concerned, is
the source of all harm and evil.
While, as already stated, it is somewhat marred by
errors and inelegances of style, the book as a whole
may be pronounced decidedly interesting and
attractive, and free from all cant and faddism.
GERMAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT ST.
LOUIS.
ts | ‘HE German educational exhibit at St. Louis was,
as is usual with German exhibits, remarkably
complete, and to enhance its value a_ series of
descriptive catalogues was issued. Among the science
catalogues were three on _ scientific instruments,
chemistry, and medicine respectively which have
special interest for readers of Nature. They are all on
the same plan, and include a general introduction ex-
NO. 1848, VOL. 71
planatory of the scope of the work, and a detailed
account of the apparatus, &c., exhibited. They served
a twofold purpose, that of informing visitors to the ex-
hibition as to what there was to see, and also that of
bringing together an account of the best products of
German workmanship in the respective subjects of
the catalogue.
In the catalogue of scientific instruments the intro-
ductory description is very full and of real use;
special reference is made to novel instruments. Dr.
Lindeck, of the MReichsanstalt, who edited the
catalogue of the German exhibit in Paris in 1900, is
responsible for this, while Dr. Kriiss had charge of
the section.
The description of the instruments which follows is
arranged alphabetically according to the names of
the exhibitors. The system of classification with cross
references is somewhat less complete than that
adopted in the 1900 catalogue, but by aid of the intro-
duction it is easily possible to find any given kind of
apparatus. A glance through the catalogue is
sufficient to show its utility, and it is to be hoped that
the support given to the proposed optical convention
and exhibition in May next will be sufficient to justify
the committee in issuing a catalogue of English
optical goods which will serve the same purpose.
The chemical section at the exhibition contained a
reading-room and library, and in this an interesting
collection of alchemistic work was shown. Besides
these most of the important modern German works
on chemistry were to be found on the shelves. Two
very interesting exhibits were the alchemistic labora-
tory, containing partly original apparatus, partly
copies of old examples from the museum in
Nuremberg, and the Liebig laboratory, a faithful
copy of the well-known laboratory at Giessen. The
rest of the exhibition illustrated modern chemical
apparatus, methods and preparations.
The object of the medical exhibit is said to have been
“to show how the German universities deal with the
subject of medical instruction,’’ and this was attained by
judiciously grouping the articles shown, and by care-
fully selecting the apparatus. Naturally, various
methods are adopted in the different branches; thus,
in the department of internal medicine a complete
clinical lecture on the diagnosis and therapeutics of
tuberculosis is included, the objects required for
demonstrating it being exhibited.
Among the apparatus, the microscopes and projec-
tion apparatus of Karl Zeiss occupy a prominent place.
It is noteworthy that among the infectious diseases
and disease germs tuberculosis comes first.
The catalogue contains a full list of the exhibits
with some account of the principal among them, and
it is clear that great pains have been taken to secure
that the primary object of the exhibition should be
carried out.
The three catalogues, in their completeness and
orderly arrangement, are examples of the German plan
of carrying the teaching and method of science into
everyday life.
NOTES.
Tue council of the Linnean Society has appointed a com-
mittee to consider the question of zoological nomenclature.
Pror. LANCEREAUX has been elected president for 1905
of the Société internationale de la Tuberculose.
Tue Canadian Government decided
Marconi wireless telegraph station on Sable Island.
station will come into operation by August 1 next.
has to place a
The
M. Paut Lassf has been appointed general secretary of
the Paris Society of Commercial Geography in success on
to the late Ch. Gauthiot.
514
Mr. Atrrep Beir has informed the honorary treasurers
of the Institute of Medical Sciences Fund, University of
London, that he has decided to increase the amount of
his donation to the institute from 5o00ol. to 25,0001.
Senor Don Icnacio Botivar, of Madrid, has been
elected an honorary fellow of the Entomological Society.
Profs. W. G. Farlow, H. S. Jennings, E. B. Wilson, and
R. B. Wood have been elected honorary fellows of the
Royal Microscopical Society.
Tue King’s Institute of Preventive Medicine was opened
at Madras on March 11. The institute supplies animal
vaccine to the whole of the Presidency, besides preparing
curative and prophylactic sera. On the opening day there
was an exhibition of bacteriological and sanitary engineer-
ing appliances.
A MOUNTED specimen of the great auk, formerly in the
Hawkstone collection, has been sold by Rowland Ward,
Ltd., of Piccadilly, to one of the American museums for
450l. This is the ‘‘ record’ price, the next highest being
350l. obtained some years ago by the same firm for a
specimen now in a private museum.
Dr. A. R. Wattace recently presented to the British
Museum a number of pencil drawings of fishes from the
Rio Negro which were saved some fifty years ago at the
time the veteran explorer’s collections were burnt at sea
on his return from the Amazonian journey. These draw-
ings, some fifty in number, were exhibited at one of the
meetings of the Zoological Society, when it was stated
that while some of the species depicted had been identified,
others appeared to be still unknown to science. This
should stimulate investigation of the fish fauna. of the
Amazonian system.
M. JuLes VERNE, whose works are better known in this
country than those of any other French writer, died on
March 24 at seventy-seven years of age. Jules Verne was
one of the first novelists to recognise and utilise the store
of scientific knowledge as a source of material from which
attractive romances could be constructed. The charm of
his style and the realism of his pictures have done much
to encourage the study of science among boys and girls.
Few writers, indeed, have produced healthier and more
stimulating stories, or weaved fancy and fact together so
successfully.
On Saturday next, April 1, Lord Rayleigh will deliver
the first of a course of three lectures at the Royal Institu-
tion on some controverted questions of optics. On Tues-
day, April 4, Mr. Perceval Landon will give the first of
two lectures on Tibet, and on Thursday, April 6, Prof.
Meldola will commence his course of two lectures on
synthetic chemistry, experimental. The Friday
evening
discourse on April 7 will be delivered by Mr. Alfred Mosely
on American industry, and on April 14 by Lord Rayleigh
on the law of pressure of gases.
Tue Estimates for Civil Services for the year ending
March 31, 1906, provide for education, science, and art, the
total sum of 16,328,9471., being an increase of 533.4001.
over the grants for 1904-5. There is an increase of
46,1001. for university colleges, the grant being raised from
54,0001. to 100,000]. Of the increase 416,790l. under Board
of Education, the greater proportion must be described as
automatic in character, due to the anticipated growth in
the number of scholars in average attendance, and to the
larger number of teachers for
vision is State.
NO. 1848, VoL. 71]
whose training pro-
made by the The principal increase,
NATURE
opened with an address from the president, Dr.
[Marcit 30, 1905
262,7041., is in respect of the elementary education grants.
With a view to the further development of the National
Physical Laboratory, Parliament is being asked to sanc-
tion an increase of r500l. on the grant in aid of salaries
and other expenses of the laboratory, and also an additional
grant of 5oool. in aid of new buildings and equipment for
the same institution. Further provision is also included
for investigations in connection with the North Sea
fisheries.
Tue fourth International Ornithological Congress will
be held in London in Whitsun week, June 12-17. The
organising committee has been able to obtain from the
University of London accommodation for the meeting at
the Imperial Institute, and from the trustees of the British
Museum the use of the Natural History Museum for the
purpose of a conversazione on one evening of the week of
the congress. The Prince of Wales has consented to be-
come the patron; and the two honorary presidents are
Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria and Dr. A. R. Wallace,
F.R.S. The president-elect of the congress is Dr. Bowdler
Sharpe. The congress will be divided into general meet-
ings and meetings of sections, of which there will be five,
as follows :—(1) systematic ornithology; general distribu-
tion, anatomy and paleontology; (2) migration; (3)
biology, nidification, oology ; (4) economic ornithology and
bird protection; and (5) aviculture. It is proposed to de-
vote one day to an excursion to Tring to inspect the col-
lection of birds belonging to Mr. Walter Rothschild. On
June 16 the congress will be received by the Lord Mayor
of London at the Mansion House. At the close of the
proceedings in London, on the invitation of the Duke of
Bedford, an excursion will be made to Woburn to view
the collection of live animals in Woburn Park, and the
following day will be spent at Cambridge, where Prof.
Newton will welcome the members at Magdalene College.
Finally, a journey has been planned to Flamborough Head,
in Yorkshire, of special interest to ornithologists.
THE programme of arrangements for the Optical Con-
vention shortly to be held in London is now beginning to
assume a definite shape. The convention will be formally
Ro
Glazebrook, F.R.S., on the evening of Tuesday, May 30,
and the gathering will extend over the four following days
up to and including Saturday, June 3. The mornings will
be devoted to papers and discussions, and in view of the
interesting series of papers already announced; there is no
doubt that this most important section of the proceedings
will result in valuable contributions to optical science, and
will fulfil the aims which those who have been active in
promoting the convention have set before them. In addi-
tion to the papers, demonstrations of apparatus of special
interest will be given in the afternoons in the laboratories
of the department of technical optics of the Northampton
Institute. An exhibition of optical and scientific instru-
ments will be held at the Northampton Institute, and will
be open from May 31 to June 3, both dates inclusive. The
catalogue is now in active preparation. The arrangement
made by the ‘‘ exhibition and catalogue ’’ subcommittee
that each section should be dealt with by an expert in the
construction of the instruments represented in the section,
together with an independent scientific member of the
committee, will ensure that all classes of instruments shall
be adequately dealt with and described. In addition to the
presidential address to be given on the evening of May 30,
there will be an evening lecture by Prof. S. P. Thompson,
F.R.S., on the polarisation of light by Nicol prisms and
their modern varieties. On a third evening it is proposed
Marcu 30, 1905]
NATURE
515
to hold a conversazione, and for Saturday afternoon,
June 3, a visit to the National Physical Laboratory is pro-
posed. Further particulars will be announced later, when
the programme is more definitely settled. The hon.
secretary, Mr. F. J. Selby, Elm Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex, will be glad to hear from those wishing to join
the convention.
In an account of a journey to Lake San Martin, Pata-
gonia, published in the Geographical Journal for March,
Captain H. L. Crosthwait directs attention to the mag-
netic and meteorological observatory established by the
Argentine Government on New Year Island—a small island
situated in lat. 54° 59’ S., and about five miles off the
north coast of Staten Island. The observatory, which is
complete in every respect, is superintended by four Argen-
tine naval officers, and is here illustrated from Captain
Crosthwait’s paper. The observatory was opened in
February, 1902, and during the time which has since
elapsed, the temperature conditions recorded there by the
officers temperature Bela) iad
are :—highest recorded,
the Slate form
subject of a paper by Mr. E.
BEAVER-DAMS River, Colorado, the
R. Warren in the Proceedings
on
of the Washington Academy (vol. vi. p. 429), in the course
of which the author shows how largely these rodents have
altered the features of the valley.
In the Biologisches Centralblatt of March 1, Mr. S. J.
Wasmann continues the account of his theory of the origin
of slavery among ants, Mr. H. Prandt discusses reduction
processes ““karyogamy ’’ among while
Prof. von Hansemann reviews the so-called heterotype cell-
and infusorians,
formation in malignant tumours, more especially in con-
nection with the recent cancer investigations of Messrs.
Farmer, Moore, and Walker.
To the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History (vol. xxxii., No. 3) Miss Emerson contributes an
account of the anatomy of Typhlomolge rathbuni, the blind
salamander first made known by specimens thrown up by
an artesian well in Texas in 1894. Despite its external
resemblance to the olm (Proteus) of the Carniola caves,
the author is of opinion that the crea-
Fic. 1.—Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, New Year Island.
lowest temperature,
41° F. The magnetic observatory is kept at an almost
constant temperature of 64° F. Many facts
about Tierra del Fuego are given by Captain Crosthwait
in his paper. He directs attention to the
number and variety of the glaciers, and to the fact that
Of San
Martin Lake he says it undoubtedly occupies what was
once a strait joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The
level of the water of the lake rises and falls in a peculiar
manner. Exact measurements of these ‘‘ seiches’’ show
that the movements are irregular, but on an average they
amount to about five inches, having a period of about four
minutes between two successive high waters. The surface
of the water to the eye is perfectly smooth.
°o
16°-4 F.; annual mean temperature,
interesting
astonishing
most of the larger ones show signs of shrinkage.
“ce
Tue “‘ Fauna of New England,’’ in course of publication
by the Boston Society of Natural History, has reached its
fourth part, which is devoted the the
author being Mr. H, L. Clark.
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
to echinoderms,
ture is a member of the family Sala-
mandridz, and most nearly related to
the American Spelerpes.
1 Turee American publications on
| fishes have reached us this week. In
the first Messrs. Jordan and Starks
(Proceedings U.S. Nat. Mus., No.
1391) describe a collection from Corea,
new and
containing several generic
specific types, while in the second (loc.
cit., No. 1394) Mr. T. Gill discusses
the generic characters of Synanccia
and its allies. Of more general in-
terest is the much larger memoir by
Dr. S. E. Meek on the fresh-water
fishes of Mexico north of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, issued in the zoo-
logical series of the publications of the
Field Columbian Museum (vol. v.). In
this memoir, which is very fully illus-
trated, the author discusses the physio-
graphy of Mexico in connection with
its fish fauna in considerable detail.
1902, Dr. Merkel, of Wies-
fortunate enough to
In July,
loch, was dis-
cover in an overflow of the
phyllopod crustacean
veimbach a
large number of the generally rare
Limnadia lenticularis. The specimens then collected form
the basis of a paper on the anatomy of this species by
Mr. M. Nowikoff, which appears, with numerous illus-
trations, in vol. Ixxvili., part iv., of the Zeitschrift fur
wissenschaftliche Zoologie. In the same issue Mr. L.
Cohn describes the subocular tentacle of the remarkable
frog Dactylethra calcarata, the function of which, in the
absence of living specimens, cannot yet be definitely deter-
mined. The third article in this part forms the completion
of the account by Mr. F. Voss of the anatomy of the
thorax of the house-cricket, with special reference to the
mechanism of the organs of
comparative anatomy and
flight in insects generally.
In the second part of an on the structure and
relationships of the opisthoccelian, or sauropod, dinosaurs,
issued in the geological series of the Field Columbian
6), Mr. E. S. Riggs dis-
gigantic creatures were
essay
Museum publications (vol. ii., No.
sents from the view that these
516
NATURE
[MaRcH 30, 1905
semi-aquatic, or at least marsh-haunting in their habits.
Although the massiveness of their vertebrz recalls cetaceans,
yet there is no trace in the latter group of the lightening
of this part of the skeleton by means of hollowing and
fluting which is so characteristic of these reptiles. More
important evidence is afforded by the structure of the
limbs, which appears to conform strictly to the terrestrial
type. The species described in this paper, Brachiosaurus
altithorax, is regarded as the. type of a family characterised
by the great relative length of the fore-limb, the humerus
in this genus being as long as the femur.
From Dr. Florentino Ameghino we have received a copy
of a paper published at Buenos Aires entitled ‘‘ Nuevas
Especies de Mamfferos, Cretaceos y Terciarios, de la
Republica Argentina,’’ and purporting to be a reprint from
vols. lvi.-lviii. of the Anales of the Scientific Society of
Argentina. It contains a large.number of new generic and
specific names, which in the absence of illustrations can
scarcely be regarded as of much scientific value; and it
may be suggested that, despite their admitted richness,
the Argentine extinct faunas can scarcely include such a
number of forms as the author would have us believe.
Moreover, we feel sure that naturalists will display great
reluctance in admitting the occurrence of ancestral forms
of Tragulus and Galeopithecus in the Argentine Tertiaries,
while they will most certainly refuse to follow the author
in regarding the latter genus as a member of the Typo-
therium group of ungulates.
WE have been favoured with a copy of the Schriften of
the Philosophical Society of Danzig for 1904 (new series,
vol. xi., parts i. and ii.). To the naturalist the most
interesting of its contents is perhaps the long article by
Dr. W. Wolterstoff, director of the Magdeburg Museum,
assisted by several specialists, on the fauna of the districts
of Tuchel and Schwetz, in west Prussia (‘‘ Beitrage zur
Fauna der Tucheler Heide”). A systematic zoological
survey of this well-wooded area appears to have been
undertaken in 1900, and the general results of this are
summarised in the introductory chapter. Specialists are
responsible for the determination of the specimens collected,
Captain Barrett-Hamilton having undertaken this duty in
the case of the mammals, represented only by three mice
and one vole. The amphibians receive special attention, a
coloured plate indicating the distinctive features of Rana
esculenta and R. arvalis.
Tue nuclear divisions in the embryo sac of Fritillaria
imperialis have been studied by Dr. B. Sijpkens, who has
published his results in the Recueil des Travaux botaniques
neerlandaises, No. 2.
THE scope of plant morphology, and the nature of the
fundamental problems in this subject which await investi-
gation at the present day, could have no better exponent
than Prof. Goebel, who has expressed his views in the
Biologisches Centralblatt (February). Distinction is drawn
between — structural originally based upon
systematic study, but later concerned with comparison and
phylogeny, and causal morphology, which, inquiring into
circumstances and conditions, can only be determined by
experiment. The question whether a sporophyll is a modi-
fied leaf, or a vegetative leaf a sterilised sporophyte, is
not without interest to botanists, but whether it is possible
to control development and produce at will a vegetative life
or a sporophyll is a problem of much greater significance.
morphology,
Amoncst American horticulturists engaged in plant
breeding with the object of improving certain definite
characters of flowers and fruit, Mr. L. Burbank, of Cali-
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
fornia, holds a high position. The improvement of plums
by hybridisation and selection is a subject which has re-
ceived much attention, and by crossing the Japan plum
with American species he has produced such fine varieties
as the Golden, Climax, and the Wickson. More remarkable
are the raspberry-blackberry hybrids, of which the Primus,
a cross between the western dewberry and the Siberian
raspberry, ripens its fruit several weeks before either of
its parents, and is superior in productiveness and size of
fruit. The first part of an appreciative article by Mr.
W. S. Harwood appears in the Century Magazine for
March. . y
WE have received a copy of the observations made at
the Hong Kong Observatory in the year 1903. In addi-
tion to the usual tables for the year in question, the report
contains a valuable summary of hourly and monthly results
of the various elements for the ten-yearly period 1894—
1903. During this period the maximum shade temperature
recorded was 77°, in August, and the minimum 37°-5, in
January, and the highest solar radiation was 160°1, in
September. The greatest daily rainfall was 10-19 inches,
and the maximum hourly fall was 2-86 inches. A com-
parison of the daily weather forecasts with the weather
subsequently experienced gave a total and partial success
of 92 per cent." The extraction of observations from the
logs of ships for the construction of trustworthy pilot
charts has been continued; the number of days’ observ-
ations collected during the year was 9428. This useful
work is undertaken by Miss Doberck.
Tue rainfall of the six months September, 1904, to
February, 1905, is summarised in Symons’s Meteorological
Magazine for March, and forms an interesting supplement
to the account we published last week from the official re-
ports of the Meteorological Office. The results obtained
from fifty-five representative stations are tabulated, and
referred to the average rainfall of the thirty years 1870-
1899, and although, as Dr. Mill points out, the circum-
stance is not unprecedented, it very rarely happens that
the general rainfall of the country remains below the
average for each of six consecutive months. The great
advantage of graphical representation in dealing with such
data is clearly shown by the map which accompanies the
discussion ; from that it is seen at a glance that while the
rainfall for the six months reached, and even slightly
exceeded, the average over a narrow strip in the west of
Scotland, and amounted to 75 per cent. in the north of
that country, in the north-west of Ireland, in the English
Lake district, and a small part of the Welsh coast, all the
rest of the British Isles had less than three-quarters of
the usual fall. In two large areas it fell short of 50 per
cent. of the average, viz. in the south-east of Scotland
and in the midland counties of England. Taking each
country separately, the rainfall of the six months was :—for
England and Wales 60 per cent., Scotland 78 per cent.,
and Ireland 75 per cent. of the average for the thirty
years referred to. The necessity of economising the water
supply had already made itself felt in several large towns
within the dry area before the end of February.
Pror. G. Toretui, of Palermo, contributes to the Naples
Rendiconto (physical and mathematical section), x., “12,
some new formule for calculating the totality of prime
numbers below a given limit. The formule are non-
asymptotical, and they are applicable to ‘an arithmetical
progression as well as to natural numbers.
In the Annals of Mathematics for January, recently re-
ceived, Prof. G. A. Bliss discusses the proofs of the exist-
ence of solutions of the differential equation of the first
MARCH 30, 1905] ©
NATURE
517
order in terms of initial values, and Prof. L. Wayland
Dowling discusses the conformal representation of triangles,
with special reference to cases in which the solution can be
represented by hyperelliptic integrals of given deficiency.
In a contribution to the Berlin Sitzungsberichte (1904,
lii.), read December 8, Prof. Leo Koenigsberger discusses
the extension of the principle of energy to a system having
a kinetic potential of any order, and any number of vari-
ables dependent and independent. The paper forms a con-
tinuation of Prof. Koenigsberger’s researches on the
dynamics of systems in which time, instead of being one
dimensional, may be of two or more dimensions.
Pror. Garpisso has published a short note (Genoa,
Angelo Ciminago, 1904) in which he proposes a new theory
to account for the duplication of lines in the spectra of
variable stars. According to this theory, it is assumed that
the phenomena are due to the presence of an element the
atoms of which are formed of two separate conductors, and
that these atoms are mostly in a state of dissociation. The
paper consists of a mathematical investigation of the
periods of a system of electric oscillators forming a model
of the supposed atoms.
In 1890 a paper was presented to the Lincei Academy by
Prof. Filippo Keller entitled ‘“‘ An itinerary guide to the
principal magnetic rocks of Latium,’’ of which only an
abstract was printed. Since Prof. Keller’s death in 1903
the complete paper has been brought out by Dr. G. Fol-
gheraiter as No. 11 of his series of Frammenti dealing
with the geophysics of the environs of Rome. It is ac-
-companied by a map of the district and a portrait and bio-
graphical notice of Keller, the latter by Prof. S. Giinther.
It is printed by Panetto and Petrelli, of Spoleto.
Tue Revue générale des Sciences for February 28 con-
tains a reprint of the paper read at Breslau by Dr. A.
Kohler (Jena) on photomicrography by ultra-violet-light. It is
illustrated by figures showing the arrangement of the micro-
scope and camera, and the illuminating apparatus. It is
pointed out that, independently of the increase of resolving
power, ultra-violet light often affords a method of differ-
entiating between organic tissues in virtue of their different
degrees of transparency to the rays, and, further, it in
some cases can be used to excite interesting phenomena of
fluorescence in microscopic objects.
Tue Atti dei Lincet, xiv. (1) 3, contains a short account
of some experiments by Mr. Alessandro Artom on wireless
telegraphy with the use of circular or elliptically polarised
waves. The experiments were divided into four groups,
and in every case established the predicted property that it
would be possible to send methods in definite directions by
the use of these waves. Thus, in the last series of experi-
ments, signals were sent from Monte Mario (Rome) to the
island of Maddalena without any effects being noticed at
the island of Ponza, which is situated some way off the line
joining the first two stations. Further, it appears that with
the use of circular waves the height of the aérial conductors
can be reduced.
Tue ninth supplement to the present series of Communi-
cations from the Physical Laboratory of the University of
Leyden contains an address delivered in commemoration of
the 329th anniversary of the University of Leyden by Dr.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, Rector Magnificus of the university.
It deals with the importance of accurate measurements at
very low temperatures, a need which, it is pointed out, was
first appreciated by Boyle. An important application of such
observations has arisen in connection with van der Waals’s
NO. 1848, voL. 71]
theory of corresponding states, and Dr. Onnes points out
that further researches at low temperatures are required for
the problems of the mechanism of the atom that have been.
forced upon us by recent discoveries. Dr. Onnes empha-
sises the very important work done by Dewar in rendering
such low temperature observations possible.
““MatTnuematicaL Progress in America ’’ forms the subject
of Prof. Thomas B. Fiske’s address to the American
Mathematical Society published in the Bulletin of the
society for February. Prof. Fiske divides the history of
pure mathematics in America into three periods, the first
extending up to the foundation of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity in 1876, the second extending from 1876 to 1891,
when the New York Mathematical Society was converted
into the present American Mathematical Society and began
to issue the Bulletin, and the third covering recent times.
The Bulletin contains, further, the continuation of the re-
port on last summer’s congress at Heidelberg by Dr. E. B.
Wilson, and a report of the meeting of the Deutsche Mathe-
matiker Vereinigung by Mr. R. E. Wilson. The Bulletin
thus furnishes a summary of mathematical progress of a
cosmopolitan character such as does not exist in this
country.
Or the increasing attention which is being devoted on
the Continent to the history of the sciences, and in particular
to that of mathematics, abundant proof is afforded by vol.
xii. of the Atti of the International Congress of Historical
Sciences, which met in Rome in April, 1903. This volume
is devoted entirely to the proceedings of the section which
dealt with the history of mathematical, physical, natural,
and medical sciences, and it occupies 330 pages. It includes
general discussions by Prof. Elia Millosevich on the icon-
ography of solar eclipses, by M. Paul Tannery dealing with
proposals for advancing the history of science, some remarks
by Messrs. D. Barduzzi, P. Giacosa, and Gino Loria on
the introduction of university courses on history of sciences,
and proposals by Prof. Gino Loria for the publication of
Torricelli’s works, and by Prof. Pietro Giacosa for a cata-
logue of the scientific manuscripts in Italian libraries and
archives. Among the papers read, the two mathematicians
associated with the solution of the cubic, Tartaglia and
Cardan, receive mention at the hands of Mr. Tonni-Bazza
and Prof. Moritz Cantor; Prof. M. Darvai deals with the
life of Bolyai; Prof. A. von Braunmiihl contributes an
interesting paper on the history of the integral calculus;
Prof. R. Amalgid writes on early theories of the tides;
Prof. Icilio Guareschi on the alleged plagiarisms of
Lavoisier. Altogether the volume contains no less than
thirty-four papers.
ATTENTION has already been directed to the important
series of papers on applied mathematics now being issued
by Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., under the title “‘ Drapers’
Company Research Memoirs.’’ Two further numbers have
now reached us. One of them is the fourteenth of Prof.
Pearson’s mathematical contributions to the theory of ev6-
lution, and deals with skew correlation and non-linear re-
gression. The highly specialised character of the work may
be inferred by quoting one of four conclusions on p. 53 :—
“The correlation between auricular height of head and age
in girls is cubical, of nomic heteroscedasticity and of
anomic heteroclisy. It is probably really a case of isocur-
tosis.’’ The other paper is by Mr. L. W. Atcherley and
Prof. Pearson, and deals with the graphics of metal arches.
In it the authors point out the impossibility of applying
purely graphical constructions with any degree of accuracy
to the very flat metal arches used in modern bridges, and
they propose a kind of ‘* semi-graphical ’’ method, depend-
518
NATURE
[Marci 30, 1905 -
ing partly on analysis and partly on graphics. Some in-
teresting conclusions are drawn as to the relative merits of
doubly pivoted, three pivoted, and doubly built in arches.
These memoirs are rendered more accessible by being issued
with their pages cut. They show what a lot of good work
may be done by the expenditure by a public body of a very
moderate sum on the endowment of mathematical research.
We have another example of the same fact in the Cam-
bridge Smith’s prizes and the large number of former
winners of these prizes who are now Fellows of the Royal
Society.
Tue widely extended use of the freezing point and boil-
ing point methods of molecular weight determination has
been to a large extent rendered possible by the manufac-
ture of sensitive thermometers of the now familiar
Beckmann type. In the current number of the Zeitschrift
fiir physikalische Chemie is a very interesting paper by
Mr. Ernst Beckmann giving a complete history of the
differential mercury thermometer, with especial reference
to the modifications it has undergone since its first use in
freezing point work. He mentions the fact that ‘the
original Beckmann thermometer was due to an accident.
A costly instrument, divided into 1/1ooths of a degrée, was
being carried in the hand down a corridor when it was
broken in half by the sudden opening of a door. In order
still to be able to use the thermometer, a small bulb was
blown on above the capillary, and from this the present
type was evolved through a series of instruments illustrated
in the present paper. Some of the thermometers figured
are masterpieces of glass-blowing, notably one combining
a Beckmann and ordinary thermometer on one instrument.
Messrs. JOHN WHeELDON AND Co. have sent us their
latest catalogue of scientific books they have for sale. The
catalogue includes many scarce sets of Journals and
Transactions, as well as selections from the libraries of
the late Prof. Everett, Dr. C. W. Siemens, and others.
THE most recent addition to the report being issued by
the Engineering Standards Committee is the ‘‘ British
Standard Specification and Sections of Flat-bottomed Rail-
way Rails.’’ Copies of the publication may be obtained
from Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son.
The price is
10s. 6d. net.
WE have received from Mr. Nasarvanji J. Readymoney,
of Bombay, a copy of a publication he has prepared en-
titled ““ An Outline of Descriptive, Defining Nature-History
Tables, Illustrated; or Nature-History Research Thinking
Tables; or Work of Genesis Minutely Tabulated.’? The
object of the tables is to enable the student to summarise
and classify “‘ all events in nature or creation ”’ in a philo-
sophical manner.
Tue February number of the Journal of the Straits
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society has reached us from
Singapore. Among other important Papers we notice con-
tributions by Dr. Charles Hose on various methods of
computing the time for planting among the races of
Borneo, by Mr. P. Cameron on descriptions of new species
of Iphiaulax and Chaolta (Braconidae) from Sarawak,
Borneo, and by Mr. H. W. Firmstone on Chinese names
of streets and places in Singapore and the Malay Peninsula.
A NEW and revised edition of the volume of Prof. W.
Schlich’s ‘‘ Manual of dealing with forest
management has been published by Messrs. Bradbury,
Agnew and Co., Ltd. The mathematical problems have
been simplified, and some of the calculations have been
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
Forestry '
shortened. The appendices have been considerably altered.
In the preface to the new edition Prof. Schlich directs
attention to the fact that the most urgent need of British
forestry is the collection of statistics, which will enable
the proprietor and his forester to gauge the economic value
of forest operations. He insists that the fully equipped
forester must have a good knowledge of mathematics if he
is to secure the best results.
A NEW encyclopedia, prepared and printed by Messrs.
T. Nelson and Sons, is to be published in forty fortnightly
parts under the title of the ‘* Harmsworth Encyclopedia.”
Three of these parts, each of 160 pages, have been re-
ceived, and judging from these we do not hesitate to say
that the complete work should be a useful aid to students
and a responsive friend to general readers. So far as we
have tested the parts received, we have found the inform-
ation accurate and confined to essential points. Of course,
it must be understood that within the limited space allotted
to any subject only bare outlines can be described; but as
references are in many cases given to authoritative works,
inquiring readers may be led to pursue their search for
information, inspired by what they find in this encyclo-
pedia. The work is liberally illustrated, and as a con-
venient guide to information which men and women often
seek to know it will be of service.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN APRIL :—
April 4. 2h. Mercury at greatest elongation (19° 11’ E.).
5. 23h. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon.
(Mercury 7° 28’ N.).
6. 6h. Jupiter in conjunction with Moon. (Jupiter
3°35°N.).
g. Ith. 4m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
12. 7h. 53m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei)
15. Venus. Illuminated portion of disc=o'049; of
Mars=0'975.
17. 8h. 18m. to gh. 12m.
(mag. 4'C). : ji :
20-22. Epoch of Lyrid meteors (Radiant 271° + 33°).
Moon occults » Virginis
Discovery OF A NEw Comet, 1905 a.—A telegram from
the Kiel Centralstelle announces the discovery of another
new comet by M. Giacobini. at Nice on March 26. _—
The position of the comet at 8h. 11-8m. (M.T. Nice)
was R.A.=sh. 44m. ‘14s., dec.=+10° 56’ 56”, and its
daily movement in R.A.=+3m., in dec.—1° 15’.
This shows the object to be in the constellation Orion,
about 6m. W. and 3° 34’ N. of Betelgeuse, or a little
more than one-fourth the distance from Betelgeuse to
¢ Geminorum, along a straight line joining the two.
Apparently the comet passed very near to Betelgeuse on
March 29.
Comet 1904 e (BoRRELLY).—A continuation of the daily
ephemeris for comet 1904 e is given by Dr. E. Stroémgrert
in No. 4004 of the Astronomische Nachrichten.
The ephemeris extends from March 29 to May 4, and
from it we see that on the first named date the comet
will apparently be situated very near to ¢ Auriga, and
will have a brightness of 0-24. ‘Travelling thence in an
E.N.E. direction it will enter the constellation Lynx, its
computed position on May 4 being R.A.=7h. om.,
dec.= + 45° 17’, whilst its brightness on that date will be
0-12. The brightness at time of discovery (about mag. 10)
is taken as unity.
OBSERVATIONS OF THE RECENT EcLipsE OF THE Moon.—
In No. 9 (1905) of the Comptes rendus is published a paper
by M. Puiseux wherein he discusses a series of twelve
photographs taken between 7h. 32m. and Sh. 12m. on the
oceasion of the partial lunar eclipse which occurred on
February 19.
Amongst other conclusions he states that the apparent
changes in the aspects of the circles Messier and Messier A
are simply due to differences of illumination and not té
Marcu 30, 1905]
actual variations, and that, whilst the recent observations
of these two circles and of Linné are not in accordance
with the records obtained prior to 1866, there is no sub-
stantial evidence for recent changes in these features such
as have been announced by several selenographers. M.
Puiseux believes that many of the circles are undoubtedly
of later origin than certain systems of divergent streaks
seen on the lunar surface.
New VARIABLE STARS IN THE REGION aBouT 5 AQUILA.—
In No. 4005 of the Astronomische Nachrichten Prof. Wolf
publishes a list of thirty-six newly discovered variable stars
in the region about 6 Aquila. Their variability was de-
tected by the comparison of two plates taken with the
Bruce telescope on July 12, 1902, and July 6, 1904, re-
spectively. The positions (1875-0) of the new variables are
given in the catalogue, and, together with the positions
of four others which are also probably variable, are shown
on thirty-two circular charts accompanying the paper, each
chart including a field twenty-one minutes of are in
diameter. In a second table the magnitudes of the stars
on the two plates mentioned above are compared with the
Pipe nitudes as shown on a third plate taken on August 11,
1898.
Orbit OF THE Binary Star Cetr 82.—The orbit of the
binary star Ceti 82 (designated 395 in Prof. Burnham’s
catalogue) is discussed by Prof. Aitken in Bulletin No.
71 of the Lick Observatory.
The Lick observations confirmed the rapid orbital
motion, but have also indicated a very different orbit from
that previously published by Prof. See (Astronomische
Nachrichten, vol. cxliv., p. 359, 1897).
The elements obtained by Prof. Aitken show a period of
24-0 years, and give the G.M.T. of periastron passage (T)
as 1899-7. The elliptical orbit is graphically presented, and
shows the differences between the observed and computed
places. The eccentricity of the ellipse is 0-15, and the
apparent length of its semi-major axis 0’.66 of arc. Prof.
Aitken also gives an ephemeris extending from 1905-7 to
1910-7.
RapiaL VELocITIES OF CERTAIN Stars.—In No. 70 of the
Lick Observatory Bulletins Prof. Campbell and Dr. H. D.
Curtis discuss the radial velocities of Polaris, 4 Piscium,
e Auriga, and Rigel from the spectrograms obtained at
Lick during the last eight years.
In the case of Polaris, the measurement of groups of
plates taken during the last four years indicated that the
velocity of the centre of mass of the rapid pair in this
triple system is changing very regularly with a period of
at least eleven or twelve years, but the period may be
found to be much longer when further observations are
completed.
The radial velocity of 7 Piscium was suspected by Prof.
Lord to be variable with a long period, but as no spectro-
grams of this star were secured at Lick during the period
covered by him, the Lick observations do not settle the
question, although the values obtained only range from
+16-6 to 13-3 km. per second, whilst Prof. Lord’s range
was from +9-5 to 25-4 km.
The spectrograms obtained of « Aurigz fully confirm
Prof. Vogel’s conclusion that this star is a spectroscopic
binary with a period of several years.
Prof. Vogel’s view that Rigel has a variable radial
velocity is not confirmed by the Lick observers, who rather
favour the conclusion arrived at by Profs. Frost and
Adams that the apparent variation is only a function of the
difficulty experienced in measuring the wide lines.
STAR PLAcEs IN THE VuLPEcuLA CLustTeR.—In No. 4004
of the Astronomische Nachrichten Dr. H. Meyer gives a
catalogue of the positions of thirty-five stars in the
Vulpecula cluster. The catalogue contains the B.D.
number, the magnitude, and the positions, the latter re-
ferred to the equinox of 19000 for the epoch of observ-
ation 1901-6. The precession and the secular variation in
each coordinate are also given for each star, and in the
case of fourteen of the brighter ones the proper motion,
as determined from the discussion of previous catalogues,
is likewise given.
No. 1848, VoL. 71]
NATURE
519
THE U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY.
HE report of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1904
is a record of manifold labours and results which
have for their theatre of action an area practically coter-
minous with that of the United States and all its island
possessions. The main body of the report contains a
detailed account of the wide range of duties devolving
upon this bureau, and in the appendices we have a pre-
sentation of discussions and results which must prove of
great economic value and interest to surveyors, engineers,
navigators, and physicists.
The re-surveys and developments imperatively required
to show the changes in harbours and approaches due to
works of improvement or the ceaseless action of natural
causes along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts of the
United States, and to meet the ever-increasing demands of
commerce and the Navy for up-to-date charts, particularly
of the waters of Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the
Philippines, gave constant employment to the eleven vessels
available for these duties.
In Alaska the work included the continuation of the
survey of Prince William Sound, the survey of Con-
troller Bay, and a deep-sea examination from the Strait
of Juan de Fuca to Prince William Sound, preliminary to
the laying of a deep-sea cable from Seattle to Valdez. The
Porto Rico work was continued in certain bays and
harbours as well as in the development of the conditions
in the off-shore waters. In the Philippine Archipelago
the Survey has secured the cooperation of the Insular
Government, and a detailed résumé shows a most satis-
factory progress of the triangulation, hydrographic, topo-
graphic, magnetic, and astronomical operations.
The reconnaissance for the primary triangulation along
the 98th meridian was completed to the Canadian border,
and a scheme was extended eastward connecting this work
with the triangulation of the Mississippi River Commission.
The execution of the primary triangulation in the Dakotas
and Texas was prosecuted at a rate which surpassed even
the notable record which had already secured an enviable
reputation for the geodetic operations along the 98th
meridian, the total extension amounting to 300 miles
(500 kilometres). An equal distinction must be accredited
to similar work in California and Oregon, whereon remark-
able progress has been made in connecting the Trans-
continental Arc work with Puget Sound.
The: progress of the magnetic work is shown in detail
in Appendix No. 3, which includes a table of results of the
magnetic declinations, dip and intensity of force observed
on land and sea during the year, this being supplemented
with full descriptions of the magnetic stations occupied
and meridian lines observed. (This report has been noticed
separately, Nature, March 9, p. 449-) i
The determination of the longitude of Manila from San
Francisco, thus completing the first longitude circuit of
the earth, was one of the astronomical events of the year,
and in Appendix No. 4 is a comprehensive illustrated report
on the various instruments and operations used in the
undertaking, with a comparative résumé of the various
links and results from which the longitude of Manila had
been determined from the westward. The generous co-
operation of the Commercial Cable Company, through the
patriotic enterprise of which the work was made feasible, is
gratefully acknowledged. The results of the determinations
from the eastward and westward differ only by 0-006s., or
about 8-8 feet. The other results of this expedition are
the determinations by the telegraph method of the longi-
tudes of Honolulu and Midway and Guam Islands.
The third attempt at representing the tide for the world
at large, the first having been made by Whewell and
Airy and the second by Berghaus, is described in Appendix
No. s. The advancement in recent years of the general
use of the harmonic analysis, and the greatly improved
tidal data that are now obtainable for such a great part
of the globe, coordinate to make a new presentation of this
subject very opportune. The theoretical discussion of the
problems involved, the wide range of data and authorities
consulted and referred to, the graphic presentation of the
cotidal lines, the results presented, and the conclusions
deduced, make a most suggestive paper, and one which
will be highly interesting to all students of the subject.
The results of the precise levelling operations for the
year are published in Appendices Nos. 6 and 7, which
submit them in a detail that makes them immediately
available for the requirements of surveyors and engineers.
These extend the precise level net, as previously published,
six hundred miles to the westward, from Red Desert,
Wyoming, to Owyhee, in eastern Idaho, and from Holland,
Texas, two hundred miles south-west, to Seguin, Texas.
An interesting feature is an account of the change in the |
manner of support for the levelling rods, with the com-
parative discussion of the old and the new methods, and
the consequent confirmation of the importance of the new
system.
The account of operations submitted by the assistant in
charge gives the story of the work of the various com-
puting, drawing, engraving, and chart divisions
are placed at the service of the public.
A full account of the first recording transit micrometer
devised for use in the telegraphic longitude determinations
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is submitted in Appendix
No. 8, with an account of the exhaustive tests
ence with this form of instrument, mainly in Europe,
during the last thirteen years. The results of these ex-
periments indicate that with the transit micrometer the
accuracy of telegraphic longitudes may be considerably
increased if desirable, or the present standard of accuracy
may be maintained at much less cost than formerly.
The results of all triangulation in California south of
the latitude of Menterey Bay are printed in the con-
cluding appendix in full, including descriptions of stations
as well as their latitudes and longitudes and the lengths
and azimuths of the lines joining them. In compact and
convenient form there is given all the information in regard
to this triangulation that is needed by an engineer or
surveyor who wishes to utilise the results in controlling
and checking surveys or in constructing maps or charts.
The locations of more than 1300 points are accurately
fixed by this triangulation.
The report, in addition to the details of the foregoing
operations and results, contains a record of a wide range
of important work for which the aid of the Survey was
sought because of the special training of its officers.
PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE,
“
AN interesting paper on “‘ Protective Resemblance in the
Insecta,’’ by Mr. Mark L. Sykes, is La in the
Proceedings of the Manchester Field Club (vol. part ii).
After briefly describing the law of natural seietan as
propounded by Darwin, the evolution of new _ species
through variations, and the elimination of the least fit
during long periods of time, reference is made to the
colours of insects, to the advantage of conspicuous adorn-
ment, and the consequent easy identification of those of
them which possess some feature repellent to the insect-
eating animals. The absence in young animals of an in-
tuitive faculty of discrimination between edible -and_ in-
edible material in the selection of food is emphasised, and
reference is made to authors who have experimented on the
subject.
Miiller’s theory of mutual protection, through similarity
of colours and patterns, amongst inedible Lepidoptera, and
Bates’s explanation of the ‘‘ mimicry’ or simulation of
distasteful species by edible species, are described, and the
superficial resemblances between entirely different species
and genera are attributed to the influence of natural
selection and elimination, and the transmission and accumu-
lation of variations. The method by which many of these
likenesses are produced is shown by a number of camera
lucida drawings of the wing scales of many of the butter-
flies and moths referred to and illustrated in the article;
and the scale variations, in colour, size, pattern and ar-
rangement, which produce a common resemblance in the
insects, are described. Another branch of the subject,
treated in some detail, is protective resemblance of environ-
ment, as seen in the striking similarity of many insects,
NO. 1848, VOL. 71]
NATURE
of the)
office in which the results of the field work are discussed |
or prepared for the publications and charts wherein they |
it was
subjected to, and a recapitulation of the results of experi- |
[MarcH 30, 1905
amongst the Lepidoptera and Orthoptera, to
especially
moss, &c.; and a number of illustrations are
leaves, twigs,
given of resemblance to natural surroundings, three of
which we select as examples.
Fic. 1.—Eméusa gongylodes (Ceylon) at rest on twi
, Among the many curious and interesting insects which
| are found in Ceylon, Empusa gongylodes is one of the most
| singular. It is a brown insect. The thorax is like a long
|
}
Fic. 2.—Eurybrachis Westwoodi: (Ceylon) with the wings expanded, and
at rest upon a piece of bark.
thin twig, with a wide leaf-like expansion immediately
behind the head. The wings are broad, veined and
crumpled, like dried leaves, and the long legs, which are
spread out in any direction as the animal is at rest, har-
MarCH 30, 1905]
NATURE
521
monise so closely with the twigs to which they cling that
it is difficult to see where one begins and the other ends.
Fig. 1 illustrates this insect in the attitude in which it was
resting before being captured.
Another interesting insect from Ceylon is one of the
moths, Eurybrachis westwoodii. The fore wings of this
insect are marked in a mottled pattern of green, grey and
brown, the hind wings being white, with deep claret-
coloured marks near their base, and when it is on the wing
the moth is an attractive-looking creature. But its appear-
ance alters when it is at rest, with the mottled wings folded
over the back. In Fig. 2 it is shown with the wings
expanded as it appears when flying, and below is a piece
of bark with the same insect resting upon it, where
it was discovered by the keen sight of the collector—a
clever capture, as will be admitted when it is noticed how
excellently the wings and bark harmonise, and how they
seem almost to merge one into the other.
There is found in Madagascar a small beetle which,
looked at apart from its natural surroundings, has nothing
specially interesting about it except that it is a conspicu-
ous, rugged-looking, pure white and black insect, about
three-quarters of an inch long. It feeds upon a species of
fungus, which grows upon the bark of trees in mixed cream
and black coloured patches. The beetle is shown at the
_ as 14,
The upper figures show
beetle and bark separately, and in the lower figure ¢/e beetle is on the
bark.
Fic. 3.—Lithinus nigrocristatus (Madagascar).
top of Fig. 3, and beneath it a piece of twig with the
fungus growing upon it. At the bottom of the same illus- |
tration the same piece of fungus-covered twig is shown,
but here the beetle is resting right in the middle of the
fungus, effectually concealed amongst the vegetation upon |
which it feeds.
The paper is very fully illustrated by more than two |
hundred figures of the insects described, with the localities |
in which they were taken, covering the whole subject |
treated by Mr. Sykes.
Exception is taken to the use of the words “‘ imago ”’ and
imagine,’’ introduced by Linnzus, as representing the |
final ‘stage of insect metamorphosis, and ‘‘ matura”’
(maturo=to ripen) is suggested and employed as a sub- |
stitute, conforming conveniently with the accepted terms
|
|
se |
|
|
|
for the earlier stages—tarva and pupa. The word
‘“mimicry ’’ is also adversely criticised, as implying con-
scious resemblance, which is not known to exist, and
“‘simulism,’’ ‘“‘ simulation,’ ‘‘simulating,’’ are sub-
stituted ‘‘as being at once expressive, explanatory and
euphonious, and free from the inference of designed and
cognitive resemblance.’’
No. 1848, voL. 71]
| age.
REPORT OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION,
1904.*
N Nature for January 7, 1904, a list was given of the
awards made by the Carnegie trustees for the prosecution
of inquiries in various scientific directions. The third year
book, just published by the board of trustees, contains
reports upon most of these researches, but the time is far
too short to gather in the full harvest, which may hereafter
be expected, from so lavish and, presumably, judicious ex-
penditure. There is abundant evidence that many well-
known men, engaged in every department of science, have
been enabled to attack problems which must otherwise have
been neglected, or pursued with inadequate material and less
energy. Beyond this general fact, the present volume does
not, in most instances, enable us to estimate the results.
The balance sheet attached shows that the trust is in a very
flourishing condition, and that 267,000 dollars have been
provided for inquiries, which the management discuss under
the three heads of large, special, and minor grants.
Under the division of large grants, we have a description
of the station erected, or adapted, for the study of experi-
mental evolution at Cold Spring Harbour, some twelve
miles from New York. Plans of the building are given, and
a full account of the opening ceremony, at which Dr. Hugo
de Vries gave a scientific address. The objects sought to
be gained by such an institution are typical of the uses of
the trust, and legitimately appeal to a liberal consideration.
The investigations must be long continued, the results may
be doubtful or negative, and it is a research which no in-
dividual or institution is likely to undertake on a scale
sufficiently broad to produce decisive results.
Another far-reaching scheme, the Marine Biological
Laboratory at Dry Tortugas, Florida, under the care of
Dr. H. G. Mayer, is quite in its first stages of development,
but one whose usefulness may be confidently predicted in
due time. The buildings that have been erected consist of
a main laboratory, 100 feet long, one story high, and with
special arrangements for keeping the building cool in the
hot weather of those latitudes. A feature in the construction
of the laboratory and of the smaller buildings connected with
it, is that all are made portable, so that they can easily be
removed from their present site and erected elsewhere if
thought desirable. Attached to the station is a sea-going
vessel of light draft, fifty-seven feet over all, and sixteen
feet beam, with a 20 h.p. naphtha engine. There is suffi-
cient accommodation for seven men on board, and the vessel
is specially designed to dredge in depths of 500 fathoms or
less. Among other projects for which large grants have
been made is the subject of economics, whose many sub-
divisions include, among others, population and immigra-
tion, mining and manufactures, banking and finance, social
legislation and the labour movement, &c. Reports on all
these subjects have been added, showing the scope of the
respective inquiries and the progress that has been made.
Historical research and terrestrial magnetism are the re-
maining two subjects which come under the division now
being considered. On the latter subiect we have some of the
results of the discussion of the magnetic disturbance ob-
served during the eruption of Mont Pelée, which are of
special interest, since the inquiry discloses the fact that in
certain respects the disturbance resembled those storms which
are believed to be of cosmic origin.
The Transcaspian archeological expedition and geo-
physical research are the subjects of special grants. The
former is under the charge of Prof. Pumpelly, who left
America in December, 1903, and began excavations in the
following March, first attacking Anau, in Turkestan. By
means of excavations in tumuli and by shafts sunk in the
city of Anau, the exploring party has traversed some 170
feet of the accumulations of successive generations of
peoples, extending from recent times, through the iron and
bronze civilisations, and some 45 feet deep into the stone
Among the objects of this investigation is the hope
of throwing some light on the source of our domestic
animals.
The reports on the subjects of the so-called smaller grants
cannot be particularly referred to here. The inquiries cover
1 Carnegie Institution of Washington. Year Book, No. 3, 1904. (Wash-
ington: Published by the Institution, 1905.)
522
NATURE
(MARcH 30, 1905 |
the whole ground of physical science, and are in many
instances of the greatest importance, but generally have
reference to definite researches undertaken by individuals
not calling for wide cooperation. A list of papers, prepared
possibly to pave the way for future applications, is added, in
which are discussed the conditions of solar research at
Mount Wilson, by Prof. Hale; the southern observatory
project, by Prof. Boss; fundamental problems of geology,
by T. C. Chamberlin; plans for obtaining subterranean
temperatures, by G. K. Gilbert; magnetic survey of the
Pacific Ocean, by L. A. Bauer; and geological research in
Eastern Asia, by B. Willis.
THE RECEPTION AND UTILISATION OF
ENERGY BY A GREEN LEAF.
THE subject of my lecture is derived from the series of
papers laid before the society to-day by my colleagues
and myself, dealing with some of the physiological pro-
cesses of green leaves. In giving an account of some of
these investigations I shall dwell mainly on their relation
to the energetics of the leaf, and shall endeavour to show
how the leaf behaves under various conditions when re-
garded from the point of view of the exchange of energy
between itself and its surroundings.
One of the problems which we attempted to solve was
to draw up a ‘‘ revenue and expenditure account’’ of
energy for a green leaf, showing the proportion of the
incident energy absorbed, the amount of this absorbed
energy which is used up for the internal work of the leaf,
and the proportion which is dissipated by re-radiation and
the losses due to the convective and conductive properties
of the surrounding air under varying wind-velocities.
Of these various factors, the one I have last mentioned,
which presupposes a knowledge of the thermal emissivity
of the leaf-surface, presented by far the greatest difficulty ;
but during the past year Dr. W. E. Wilson and I have
been able to devise a suitable method for determining the
thermal emissivity of a leaf-surface in absolute units, so
that our story is now fairly complete.
The discussion of the thermal relations of a leaf to its
surroundings will be simplified if we first consider the case
of a leaf when it is shielded from solar radiation. We
will assume that a detached leaf, freely supplied with
water, is placed in an enclosure the walls of which are
non-reflective and are maintained, along with the enclosed
air, at a perfectly uniform temperature t. We will further
assume that the air is saturated with water-vapour.
Under these conditions the system would remain in
thermal equilibrium if it were not for the respiratory pro-
cesses going on within the leaf-cells. These are exothermic
in their final result, so that the state of complete thermal
equilibrium can only be attained when the temperature
of the leaf has risen to a point t’, somewhat higher than
t. The magnitude of the difference t’—t, representing the
maximal thermometric disturbance between the leaf and
its surroundings, will depend on three main factors :—
(1) On the rate of evolution of the heat of respiration.
(2) On the rate at which this heat is dissipated by the
thermal emissivity of the leaf-surface, and,
(3) On the magnitude of the slight rise of partial
pressure of the water-vapour in the interspaces of the leaf,
which gives rise to a certain amount of diffusion of water-
vapour through the stomata.
The rate of evolution of the heat of respiration can be
deduced with sufficient exactness from the amount of
carbon dioxide liberated per unit area of the leaf-lamina in
unit of time, since there is evidence that the carbon
dioxide proceeds from the oxidation of a carbohydrate with
a hea. of combustion which cannot be far removed from
3760 calories per gram. Taking the concrete example of
a leaf of the sunflower respiring at the rate of 0:70 C.c.
of carbon dioxide per square decimetre per hour, it can
be shown that the heat of respiration in this case amounts
to about 0-00582 calorie per square centimetre of leaf-
lamina per minute. From the known weight of a square
centimetre of the leaf-lamina, and its specific heat, this
1 The Bakerian lecture, delivered at the Royal Society, March 23, by
Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.
NO. 1848, VoL. 71]
spontaneous liberation of energy within the leaf might
conceivably raise its temperature through 0°-033 C. per
minute, provided there were no simultaneous losses due to
radiation, conduction and convection of the surrounding
air, and internal vaporisation of water. All these sources
of loss, of course, become operative immediately the
temperature of the leaf exceeds that of its surroundings.
We shall see presently that the thermal emissivity of this
leaf in still air is 0-015 calorie per square centimetre of
leaf-surface per minute, for a difference of temperature of
1° C. between the leaf and its surroundings, so that the
temperature of the leaf, under the conditions postulated,
cannot exceed that of its surroundings by more than
0-00582/2 0-015=0°-019 C.
But this is assuming that transpiration has been in abey-
ance, which is certainly not the case, so that this small
temperature difference of o°-o19 C. will be still further
reduced.
The main point which I wish to bring out here is that
the thermometric disturbances due to the processes of re-
spiration are very small, so small, in fact, that they may
be neglected in considering the large disturbances induced
by other causes.
Let us now suppose our leaf to be placed under the
same conditions as before, but in air which is not fully
saturated with aqueous vapour for the temperature t.
The conditions are manifestly unstable owing to the
excess of the partial pressure of the water-vapour in the
saturated air of the interspaces of the leaf over that of
the vapour in the unsaturated air outside.
The diffusion-potential thus set up will result in water-
vapour passing outwards through the stomata, and the
temperature of the leaf will fall. This fall will continue
until the gradient of temperature between the surroundings
and the leaf is sufficiently steep to allow energy to flow
into the leaf from without at a rate just sufficient to pro-
duce the work of vaporisation, at which point a steady
thermal state will be established which will remain con-
stant so long as other conditions are unaltered. The leaf
will then have assumed a temperature #’, which in this
case will be lower than that of its surroundings.
Now it is manifest that when this steady thermal con-
dition has been attained, the amount of water vaporised
per unit of area of the leaf in unit of time must be a
measure of the energy flowing into the leaf for the
gradient of temperature represented by t—t’, and _ pro-
vided we determine the amount of water lost by the leaf,
and the temperature difference between the leaf and its
surroundings under the steady conditions, we have all the
data necessary for finding the coefficient of thermal
emissivity of the leaf-surface in absolute units, that is to
say, the rate at which a leaf-surface will emit or absorb
energy from its surroundings in still air for a difference
of temperature of 1° C.
Following out this idea, Dr. Wilson and I have success-
fully determined the constants of thermal emissivity for
leaves of different kinds, both under “* still-air ’’ conditions
and in air-currents of determinate velocity. The results
are interesting from several points of view, since amongst
other things they enable us to estimate the rate at which
the excess of solar radiant energy falling on a leaf is
dissipated by mere contact with the air moving at any
ordinary wind-velocity, and they also give us, under certain
conditions, a means of deducing the actual rate of trans-
piration from mere observations of temperature-differences-
Before proceeding to show more in detail the manner in
which the thermal emissivity of a leaf is determined, we
will turn for a moment to the magnitude of the difference
of temperature between a leaf and its surroundings which
may be expected from a given rate of transpiration. We
will assume that the leaf of a sunflower, transpiring into
the unsaturated air of the enclosure, when the steady
thermal condition is attained, is losing water at the rate
of o-5 gram per square decimetre per hour, or 0-0000833
gram per square centimetre per minute.
The heat required to vaporise this amount of water at
20° C. is 0-0000833 X 592-6=0-04938 calorie, which, on the
theory of exchanges, must represent the amount of energy
entering and leaving a square centimetre of the leaf-
lamina per minute. The thermal emissivity of this leaf
Marcit 30, 1905]
is 0-015 calorie per square centimetre of leaf-surface per
minute, for a temperature gradient of 1° C., so that the
temperature difference t—t’ will be represented by
0.04938/2 X0-015=1°-64 C.
For the simultaneous determination of the temperature
difference t—t’ and the amount of water transpired, we
employed two differential platinum-resistance thermometers
each consisting of about 2-4 metres of fine wire arranged
in a mica and ebonite plate so as to form a flat grid,
against the two sides of which two similar leaves were
lightly pressed and held in position by ebonite frames
furnished with cross-threads of silk. The two leaf-laminz
were thus in close apposition to the resistance-coils, which
were favourably placed for rapidly acquiring the mean
temperature of the leaves, which were supplied with water
from two small fubes attached to the frames. A definite
area of leaf-surface was exposed, amounting in each case
to 139-4 square centimetres. The loss of the water of
transpiration was determined by weighing the apparatus
at suitable intervals.
The difference in temperature between the two coils was
determined by means of a Callendar’s recorder. Instead
of determining the difference of temperature between the
leaf and the surrounding air, it was found more con-
venient to clothe both coils with leaves, but to arrange
them in such a manner as to produce differential transpira-
tion between the two pairs, a result which can in most
cases be brought about by arranging one pair of leaves
with their dorsal sides turned to the platinum coils, and
the other pair with their dorsal sides facing outwards.
Owing to the comparatively rapid thermal adjustment
which takes place, the results are not affected by the
gradual closing of the leaf stomata during an experiment,
provided the record is correctly integrated so as to give
the mean difference of temperature. From this mean
difference of temperature between the two pairs of leaves,
and the differential transpiration corresponding to this,
the thermal emissivity of the leaves is readily calculable.
As an example, we may take an experiment with the
leaves of Liriodendron tulipifera, in which the experiment
lasted 129 minutes. The difference in the amount of water
transpired by the two pairs of leaves was 0-510 gram, and
the mean temperature difference was 1°-41 C. Taking the
latent heat of water at 593-6 calories, it follows that
0-510 X 593-6=302-7 represents in calories the excess of
energy which must have entered the cooler pair of leaves
from their surroundings, an excess which is conditioned
solely by the temperature gradient of 1°-41 representing
the difference of temperature between the two sets of
leaves. The surface area of the leaves exposed was 139-4
square centimetres, so that the thermal emissivity of a
square centimetre of leaf-surface per minute for a 1° C.
temperature gradient will be
302-7/129 X 139-4 X 1-41=0-01194 calorie.
As examples of the extent to which the thermal emis-
sivities of leaves of various plants differ, the following
may be given. They represent the emissivity under con-
ditions of still air :—
Thermal Emissivity of Leaves of Various Species of
Plants, under Still-air Conditions.
Therma emissivity in calories
per sq. cm. of leaf-surface for a
Species of Plant 1° C. excess of temperature
Per minute Per second
Liriodendron tulipifera (a) 0-0119 0-000199
se * (b) 0:0127 0-000212
Helianthus multiflorus oa 0-0150 0-000249
Tropoeolum majus 0-0142 0:000237
Tilia europoea 0-0159 0:000266
Under ordinary outdoor conditions we never have to deal
with perfectly still air, and the inquiry had therefore to
be extended to the influence of moving air currents on the
thermal emissivity of leaves.
This was investigated by observing the differential
temperature and differential transpiration when the two
pairs of leaves were placed in a shaft through which a
current of air was passed having a definite and steady
No. 1848, von. 71]
NATURE
523
velocity. [he results of two such experiments with leaves
of Liriodendron tulipifera and Helianthus multiflorus are
given in the figure. It will be seen that the effect of the
cooling or heating due to the air is a linear function of
the velocity, the coefficient of thermal emissivity of the
leaf-surface increasing at the rate of o-o17 calorie per
square centimetre per minute for an increased velocity of
the air current of 100 metres per minute. This effect of
moving air in dissipating the excess of radiant energy
falling on a leaf is a very important fact in. the economy
of some plants in which transpiration is reduced to a
minimum, and it is one of nature’s means for preventing
the rise of temperature in strongly insolated plants from
reaching a dangerous point.
We must now turn our attention to the thermal relations
of a leaf to its surroundings when it is receiving direct
solar radiation, and here again, for the purpose of simplify-
ing my argument, I must ask you to imagine an ideal set
of conditions under which a healthy leaf, well supplied
with water, is exposed to sunlight of constant intensity,
and that there is no variation in the temperature, humidity,
or degree of movement of the surrounding air, or in the
dimensions of the leaf stomata.
As in the previous case, a state of thermal equilibrium
will be speedily established between the leaf and _ its
environment, when the simultaneous loss and gain of
energy will just balance.
When this condition is attained, let R represent the
total radiation falling on 1 square centimetre of the leaf
ny
a 6
—
Emissivity in calories per sq.c.m. per minute for
¥ 19 GMemp. duces’ x 10h.
o bob 20 3 4 30 7° 30 tO 110
Air velocities in metres per minute.
Fic. t.—Influence of moving air on the thermal emissivity of leaves.
in one minute, and, further, let the “‘ coefficient of absorp-
tion ’’’ of the leaf for this radiation be represented by a;
then Ra will represent the radiant energy absorbed per
square centimetre of leaf-lamina per minute.
At this stage it is of some interest to
values to R and a in order to see what
thermometric effect produced on a leaf by
shine in default of there being some ready
sipating the absorbed energy.
If we denote the mass of a square centimetre of the
leaf-lamina by m, and its specific heat by s, then on the
above assumption the rise of temperature of the lamina
per minute will be represented by Ra/ms.
Let R=o-8 calorie per square centimetre per minute,
which represents the intensity of ordinary summer sun-
shine in these latitudes.
Let a, the coefficient of absorption, be 0-78, a value
which is determinable by a method presently to be de-
scribed; further, let the mass, m, of a square centimetre
of leaf be 0-020 gram, and its specific heat s=o-.879, then
the rise of temperature of the leaf under the conditions
postulated will be at the rate of
give absolute
would be the
ordinary sun-
means of dis-
0-8 X 0-78/0-02 X 0-879 =35°-4 C. per minute,
a result which would be speedily fatal to the leaf.
The dissipation of the absorbed energy necessary to keep
the temperature of the leaf within working limits is pro-
vided for, on the one hand, by the internal work of the
leaf, consisting mainly of the vaporisation of water, and
524
to a less extent of the endothermic process of photo-
synthesis, and on the other hand by the losses due to
thermal emissivity, which even in still air are consider-
able, and may assume large dimensions if the air is in
movement.
First, as regards the energy used in internal work, that
portion which produces the vaporisation of water, and
which I will denote by W, is determinable from the weight
of water lost by a given area of the leaf in a given time,
and from the known latent heat of water-vapour. On the
other hand, the amount of the absorbed energy which is
used up in the photosynthetic process, and which I will
denote by w, is deducible from the actual amount of
carbon dioxide which enters the leaf, on the legitimate
assumption that the synthesised product is a carbohydrate,
the heat of formation of which is approximately known.
The generalised form of the thermal equation of a leaf
which is receiving solar radiation, and has acquired
a state of thermal equilibrium, may therefore be repre-
sented by Ra=(W+w) ¥r.
When Ra is greater than W+w, that is to say, when
the energy absorbed by the leaf in a given time is more
than sufficient to perform the whole of the internal work,
r is a positive quantity, and represents in absolute units
the sum of the losses due to radiation and convective cool-
ing, and it is the only portion of R which can produce
a rise of temperature in the leaf.
Provided we know the thermal emissivity of the par-
ticular leaf which we are using, the actual rise of tempera-
ture of the leaf-lamina above its surroundings can be de-
termined from r; for if e is taken to represent the
emissivity, then the temperature difference between the
leaf and its environment, that is to say, t’—t, will be
r/2e.
On the other hand, when Ra is less than W+w, that
is to say, when the absorbed radiant energy is insufficient
to perform the whole of the internal work, 7 is a negative
quantity, and the excess amount of energy requisite to
perform the internal work must be drawn from the
surroundings of the leaf; in other words, when thermal
equilibrium is established the temperature of the leaf under
these conditions must be below that of its surroundings.
Here again, however, the thermometric difference expressed
by t—t’ will be r/2e.
The true measure of the photosynthetic work effected by
suitable radiation is, strictly speaking, not given exactly
by the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide absorbed by
the leaf, but by this amount plus the small amount of
carbon dioxide which would have been evolved by re-
spiration if photosynthesis had been in abeyance. This is
a correction which has to be taken into account in certain
special cases, but it does not affect the generalised thermal
equation I have given, since the heat of respiration is
opposite in sign to that of the heat of re-formation of the
carbohydrate, and these values, representing a concurrent
gain and loss of energy by the leaf, must exactly balance
each other if the carbohydrates standing at the two ends
of the reversed process are identical, and if they are not
identical the difference in their thermal relations must be
so small as to be inappreciable.
Before proceeding to show how these general views can
be applied to the construction of a revenue and expenditure
account of energy for a leaf, I must briefly refer to the
mode in which the various factors have been determined.
We have already considered the manner in which the
thermal emissivity of the leaf e is determined, a value
which is all-important in considering the temperature of
the leaf, and I have also sufficiently indicated how we
can determine the work of transpiration, and consequently
the value of W.
R, the intensity of the solar radiation falling on the
leaf-surface, was measured by means of a specially con-
structed Callendar’s radiometer, the coils of which were
enclosed in a flat rectangular case mounted on an adjust-
able stand so that the orientation of the receiving surfaces
could be made to correspond with that of the leaf under
experiment. The radiometer was connected with a
Callendar’s recorder furnished with a planimeter which
automatically integrated the curve recorded on the drum.
The constants for the instrument were determined for
us by Prof. Callendar, and the planimeter readings were
No. 1848, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
~ [Marcu 30, 1905
readily convertible into water-gram-units of energy in-
cident on unit area of surface in unit of time, thus giving
a mean value of R.
The proportions of the radiant energy of sunlight re-
spectively absorbed and transmitted by the leaf-lamina
were determined with the same instrument by observing
in steady sunlight the amount of radiation which reaches
the radiometer with and without the interposition of the
leaf. This gives a measure of the coefficient of absorp-
tion of the leaf a with a close approach to accuracy, if we
neglect the amount of reflected radiation, which is very
small in cases of perpendicular incidence.
The coefficient of absorption, as might be expected, varies
considerably with leaves of different species of plants, as
shown in the following table, and there are also small
individual differences in leaves of the same plant.
Coefficients of Absorption (a) and Transmission (1—a) of
the Radiant Energy of Sunlight for Leaves.
Coefficient ot Coefficient of
Plant absorption transmission
(a) (a-a)
Helianthus annuus “ 0-686... 0-314
Polygonum Weyrichii... 0:647 Toc. “22. O:G5S
Polygonum Sachalinense 0-69) <1. <2: 0-309
Petasites officinalis aco SORBET sae ons) (Ones
Silphium terebrinthaceum ... 0-699 ... «.. 0391 :
Arctium majus... ... 0-728 os. Lt. Onze
Verbascum olympicum 0-758 x.‘ O42
Senecio grandifolius 0-774 «2. «. 0-226
In the generalised thermal equation the value w, repre-
senting the amount of energy expended in photosynthesis,
measures the effective internal work of a useful and con-
structive kind, for the due performance of which the leaf
may be said to exist, and the relation which this bears
to the total energy flowing into the leaf gives an estimate
of the true economic coefficient when the leaf is regarded
as a thermodynamic engine.
In the five or six years during which these researches
occupied Mr. Escombe and myself at the Jodrell Labora-
atory, a large share of our attention was given to deter-
mining the best means of estimating the rate of photo-
synthesis in green leaves exposed to sunlight in air con-
taining the normal amount of carbon dioxide.
At the time we commenced our experiments the only
practical method was a gravimetric one introduced by
Sachs, by which the amount of material assimilated by a
leaf in a given time is deduced from variations in the
dry weight of known areas of the leaf-lamina. Unfor-
tunately, we found that the errors to which this method
is liable tend on the whole too much in one direction,
and their sum, which frequently exceeds the value we are
trying to estimate, is swept into the final result.
The method which we finally adopted was one based
on the measurement of the intake of carbon dioxide at a
partial pressure somewhere near that at which it exists
in normal air, t.e. 3/10,000 of an atmosphere.
It is evident that such experiments must be conducted
on a relatively large scale, both as regards the area of
leaf-surface exposed and the volume of air passed over it.
(The nature and disposition of the apparatus were shown
in a diagram on the screen.)
The leaf, which, if desired, may still remain attached to
its plant, is enclosed in a glazed case through which a
stream of air is drawn by a _ water-pump,_ the
volume of the air being measured by a_ suitable
meter. Between the leaf-case and the meter there
is a Reiset’s absorption-tube filled with a solution of
caustic soda, which ensures the complete absorption of the
carbon dioxide remaining after the air has passed through
the case.
A duplication of the meter and absorption apparatus
allows of a simultaneous determination of the carbon
dioxide in the air before it passes over the leaf, and the
difference between these values measures the carbon dioxide
taken up by the leaf. This is referred to unit area of the
leaf by measuring, by means of a planimeter, the area of
the photographic impression of the lamina on sensitised
paper.
A very delicate method was used for titrating the
absorbed carbon dioxide in the alkali, and when all proper
precautions are taken the errors of experiment are small,
- Marci 30, 1905]
NATURE
525
and with certain modifications there is practically no limit
to the scale on which the experiments can be conducted.
It is evident that with this apparatus the mean carbon-
dioxide content of the air in contact with the leaf must be
somewhat less than that of the entering air, so that a
correction of some kind is necessary in order to obtain
an estimate of the rate of assimilation under free-air con-
ditions. This is afforded by the fact, established early in
our work, that when all other conditions are the same,
the rate of assimilation by the leaf is directly proportional
to the partial pressure of the carbon dioxide, provided this
does not exceed five or six times that of the carbon dioxide
of normal air.
In deducing the amount of energy used up in the photo-
synthetic work from the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed
by the leaf, we have assumed, as we are entitled to do, that
the product of assimilation is a carbohydrate. If the par-
ticular form of carbohydrate is known, the amount which
corresponds to a definite mass of carbon dioxide absorbed
by the leaf is of course determinable; and, further, the
energy used up in synthesising this amount of carbohydrate
will be represented by its heat of combustion.
No sensible error will be introduced into this calculation
by selecting one of the carbohydrates existing in a leaf in
preference to another. We have based our calculations on
the assumption that we have to deal with a hexose having
a heat of combustion of 3760 calories per gram. On this
basis the assimilation of 1 ¢.c. of carbon dioxide corre-
sponds to the absorption of 5-02 water-gram-units of
energy; hence by multiplying this value by the number
of c.c. of carbon dioxide assimilated per unit area of leaf
in unit of time we obtain the value of w for the generalised
thermal equation.
In using the apparatus I have just described we found,
amongst other things, that the actual rate of photo-
synthesis induced in a leaf which is bathed by ordinary air
remains practically constant within very wide limits of in-
solation. This is due to the fact that the special rays which
produce photosynthesis are present in solar radiation of
even moderate intensity far in excess of the demands of the
assimilatory centres for dealing with the atmospheric
carbon dioxide which reaches them by the process of
diffusion. The proof of this is afforded in the first place
by the enhanced assimilatory effect which is produced by
increasing the partial pressure of the carbon dioxide in
the air surrounding the leaf, and, secondly, by the fact that
we can reduce the intensity of ordinary summer sunlight
to a very considerable extent by using revolving radial-
sectors placed in front of the leaf, without sensibly affect-
ing the rate of photosynthesis.
It follows from this that the economic coefficient of the
leaf, which is the ratio of the energy utilised for photo-
synthesis to the total radiation falling on the leaf, must
necessarily increase with diminished insolation, until a
point is reached at which practically the whole of the
special rays which are active in producing assimilation are
utilised. At this point the economic coefficient of the leaf
must be at a maximum with respect to a given partial
pressure of carbon dioxide; in other words, the leaf re-
garded as a thermodynamic engine is then working with
the least possible waste of energy.
In order to illustrate this I will take the case of a leaf
under the influence of moderate sunlight of an intensity
of o-50 calorie per square centimetre per minute, and
assimilating at the rate of 2-07 c.c. of carbon dioxide per
square decimetre per hour. This corresponds to an
economic coefficient of 034 per cent. On gradually
diminishing by’ suitable means the radiation falling on the
leaf, it was found possible to reduce it to 1/12 of the
original amount before any appreciable difference in the
rate of assimilation was observed. The economic co-
efficient was thereby raised to the maximum of a little
more than 4-0 per cent. This 4 per cent. will also
approximately measure the proportion of the special grade
of energy in the original radiation which is capable of
inducing photosynthesis.
It is, however, only under very exceptional conditions
that we can obtain anything like this maximal ‘‘ duty ”’
from the leaf.
The following table, showing the results with leaves of
Polygonum Weyrichit under varying degrees of insolation,
NO. 18348, VOL. 71]
will give some idea of the values of the economic co-
efficient ordinarily met with :—
The Economic Coefficient of Leaves of Polygonum
Weyrichti under Various Degrees of Insolation.
Radiant energy falling
on 1 sq. cm. of leaf per
minute, in calories Economic coefficient
R
w/RX 100
0-612 0-42
0-194 1-59
0-150 1-66
0-143 1-32
Turning once more to the generalised thermal equation
Ra=(W+w) =r,
we must not lose sight of the fact that this represents a
set of conditions in which all the determining factors, both
internal and external, remain constant for a sufficient time
to allow of the attainment of steady thermal equilibrium
between the leaf and its surroundings.
In practice this ideal state is never attainable. In the
first place the incidence of solar radiation is subject to
rapid oscillations of considerable magnitude, even under
the most fair-weather conditions, and every variation of
this kind necessarily alters the value of Ra, the energy
absorbed by the leaf, and will produce its effect on 7, on
which the temperature of the leaf depends. This, again,
will influence the amount of water-vaporisation, and so
affect the value of W. In addition to this, complex dis-
turbances may be introduced by the automatic opening or
closing of the stomata, by variations in the hygrometric
state of the air, and, perhaps more important than all,
by changes in the velocity of the air blowing over the leaf,
which will alter its rate of emission.
With all these varying factors acting and reacting on
each other in endless complexity, it will be readily under-
stood that under natural open-air conditions the thermal
relation of a leaf to its surroundings must be undergoing
constant re-adjustment, and that the point of thermal
equilibrium must change from moment to moment with
every passing cloud, with every gust of wind, and with
each change of inclination of the leaf-lamina to the in-
cident radiation.
In the absence of means for instantaneously recording
all these variations, it is manifestly impossible to deter-
mine the thermal conditions for any particular moment of
time, and perhaps there would be no special advantage in
doing this even if it were possible. It is, however, quite
practicable to determine the mean values of the varying
factors and the average effects which they produce during
a period of time, say of several hours’ duration, and we
can then introduce these mean values into our equation,
which will thus give us all the information we require.
I will now proceed to illustrate the application of these
general principles by the consideration of a few concrete
examples.
The first is that of a leaf of the sunflower, in which the
experiment lasted for about four hours. The results are
expressed in water-gram-units (calories), and the units of
area and of time are the square centimetre and the minute
respectively. ’
The conditions were such that the total solar radiation
absorbed by the leaf was in excess of that required to
perform the internal work of transpiration and photo-
synthesis; in other words, Ra was greater than W+w.
Hence ry was a positive quantity, and the temperature of
the leaf was consequently somewhat higher than that of
its environment.
Case A.—Leaf of Helianthus annuus.
Total solar radiation ont Pfc ... R=0'2569 calorie.
Coefficient of absorption, a=0°686, .*. solar
energy intercepted, Bae ee iO 7 OZ mans
Water vaporised=0'000209 gram, .*. W,
the internal work of vaporisation =
0000209 x 592 6... ba ay re O712437 43
Rate of photosynthesis =0'000355 c.c.CO,,
hence w, absorption of energy due to
assimilation =0'000355 x 5°02 ... = O'0O1I7 ,,
Rice Writs.) oe
0°1762=0'1243 +0'0017 +0'0502
526
NALORE
[Marci 30, 1905
Velocity of wind=25-7 kilometres per hour=428 m. per
minute.
Thermal emissivity of leaf-surface in still air=o.o150 cal.
Thermal emissivity (e) in air of velocity of 428 m. per
minute =0-0150+0-00017 X 428=0-0577 calorie.
Hence mean temperature of leaf above that of surround-
ings=r/2e=0.0502/2 X 0-0577=0°-43 C.
The disposal of the incident radiant energy deduced from
these data is given in the next table, the total incident
energy R being taken at 100.
Case A.—Disposal of Incident Solar Energy by leaf o}
Helianthus annuus.
w Energy used for photosynthesis 0°66
W ” wn transpiration 48°39
W+w Total energy expended in internal work ... *05
R-Ra_ Solar energy transmitted by leaf 31°40
a Energy lost by thermal emission 19°55
100 00
We will not consider another case in which the facilities
for the performance of the internal work of vaporisation
of water were more than sufficient to use up the whole
of the direct solar radiation absorbed by the leaf, i.e. Ra
was less than W+w.
Such conditions are afforded by fully opened stomata,
high temperature, and a low degree of humidity of the
air. The leaves used were again those of the sunflower,
but in this case one-half of the solar radiation was inter-
cepted by the revolving sectors.
Case B.—Helianthus annuus.
Solar radiation incident on leaf R -. =0°2746 calorie
Coefficient of absorption, a=0°686, .*. solar
energy intercepted, Ra F 55 «- =0°1884 5,
Water vaporised=0'000618 gram, .*. W, the
internal work of vaporisation 7600618
5O2'6) .2 -=0"3668 3
Rate of photosynthesis —o 000657 c.c. E05,
hence w, absorption of ueuerey due to assimi-
lation -=0°0033 sy
Ra = (W +2) - +r
0°1884 =0°3668 + 0°0033 —0°1817
Velocity of wind=12 kilometres per hour=200 m. per
minute.
Thermal emissivity of leaf-surface in air of this velocity
=0-015+200 X 0-00017=0-0490 calorie.
Hence mean temperature of leaf below that of surround-
ings =r/2e=0-1817/0-0490=1°-84 C.
Case B.—Disposal of Energy Received by Leaf from Solar
Radiation and from Heat Conveyed from Surroundings.
R+r=100.
w Energy used for photosynthesis 0°72
Ww transpiration 80°38
” ”
W+w Total energy expended in internal work 81°10
R-Ra_ Solar energy transmitted by lea 18 90
100°00
During the time at my disposal I have only been able
to give a brief outline of the general principles under-
lying an attempt to deal with the main functions of a
foliage leaf from the point of view of its energetics, and
I must refer those of my hearers who are specially in-
terested in the subject to the papers themselves for the
further elaboration of the argument and for the facts on
which it is based. I trust, however, that this short
account of the work may be sufficient to indicate that we
have experimental means of studying quantitatively the
reception of various grades of energy by a leaf, the pro-
portion of this which is utilised for the two main kinds of
internal work, and also the thermal relations of a leaf to
its surroundings under given conditions.
In conclusion, I wish to anticipate a possible objection
which may be raised on theoretical grounds to some of
the views I have expressed. I have assumed throughout
xo. 1848, voL. 71 |
that the second law of thermodynamics is applicable to
the phenomena we have been discussing. The statement
of that law by Lord Kelvin limits its application to
“inanimate objects,’’ and doubtless if the living elements
of the leaf-cells possess any power of dealing with the
individual molecules of the surrounding medium so as to
select and utilise the kinetic energy of those which are
moving faster than the ‘‘ mean square speed,’’ it may well
happen that a leaf may be able to perform some kind of
internal work without there being any difference of mean
temperature between it and its surroundings. In this
event the views I have put forward would doubtless require
some slight revision, but I think we may well wait until
this restriction of the second fundamental principle of
thermodynamics has received some experimental support.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Mr. H. O. Arnovp-Forster, M.P., will distribute the
medals, prizes, and certificates at Woolwich Polytechnic
on Saturday, April 1.
Dr. E. O. Lovett, professor of mathematics of Prince-
ton University, has been elected professor of astronomy in
succession to Prof. C. A. Young.
Tue Prince of Wales is to visit Cardiff toward the end of
June, when he will lay the foundation stone of the Welsh
University College in Cathays Park.
Dr. PETER THompson has been appointed professor of
anatomy, and Prof. Arthur Dendy, of the South African
College, Cape Town, professor of zoology, at King’s
College, London.
Tue celebration of the jubilee of the Cheltenham Ladies’
College and the opening by Sir Henry Roscoe of the new
science laboratories and lecture rooms will take place on
Friday and Saturday, May 12 and 13. The Marquis of
Londonderry, President of the Board of Education, has
promised to be present.
PrivaTE munificence has provided further sums for the
promotion of higher education in the United States. We
learn from Science that by the death of Mrs. George L.
Littlefield, Brown University becomes the recipient of the
bulk of the Littlefield estate, estimated at 100,0001. The
will provides that the corporation shall apply the money
as it sees fit, except that 20,0001. shall be used for the
establishment of the George L. Littlefield professorship
of American history. By the will of the late Mr. William
F. Milton, of New York, his estate will go to Harvard
University on the death of Mrs. Milton. The daily papers
state that it is worth between 200,000l. and 400,000l.
Columbia University has received 20,0001. from Mr. Jacob
H. Schiff to endow a chair of social work, and the new
professorship has been filled by the appointment of Dr.
Edward T. Devine.
In the House of Commons on Monday Mr. Clancy asked
the First Lord of the Treasury whether there are any
requirements, statutory or otherwise, in the case of grants
in aid of university colleges in England, that four times
the amount is required from local subscriptions before any-
thing is derived from the public funds. In reply, the
Chancellor of the Exchequer said that there has been such
a requirement in regard to the grant in past times. But
proposals in regard to the future allocation of the grant
are now under the consideration of the Government. Mr.
Clancy asked whether it was not proposed that there should
be a grant of 100,000]. a year to the university colleges
mentioned in the report; and whether there was any re-
quirement, statutory or otherwise, in regard to this grant.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer answered: There is a
proposal by the committee that the distribution should be
governed by the amount of voluntary subscriptions obtained
by these colleges. The Gov ernment has not yet come to a
decision on the subject.
At a meeting of the Association of Teachers in Technical
Institutes on March 25, Mr. W. J. Lineham, chairman of
the association, delivered an address on technical training in
MAkCH 30, 1905]
England. He insisted that in considering the future educa-
tion of a boy who has completed his primary education—
say, at thirteen—the subject must be regarded from the
point of view of his future livelihood. Mr. Lineham
sketched what he called an ideal scheme of technical educa-
tion. After the child has followed a good primary
education from the ages of six to thirteen, his education
must be continued with some idea of his future occupation.
If he is to be educated for a commercial pursuit he should
now attend a purely secondary school; but if he is to
enter a trade or technical profession he should attend what
is known as a day technical school until the age of
sixteen, having spent three years therein, the first part of
which should be mainly literary, the middle scientific, and
the last technical. His apprenticeship should then begin.
But the apprentice must not now lose the lessons learnt in
the technical day school. On the contrary, he must con-
tinue his studies to an even higher level by attendance
at an evening technical school simultaneously with his
apprenticeship. As to the apprenticeship itself, its
character should entirely depend upon the trade or pro-
fession to be followed.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Anthropological Institute, March 14.—Sir T. H. Holdich,
K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., in the chair.—Manners and customs
of the Melanesians: Rev. W. H. Edgell. The ethno-
graphical objects and lantern slides shown included views
of the different types of people, and illustrated the de-
velopment of canoes and houses. One of the finest of the
slides illustrated a Melanesian waiting to shoot a fish. He
was poised on one leg, and the lecturer stated that he
had seen natives waiting motionless for hours by the side
of the rivers waiting for an opportunity to shoot. Of
particular interest was the lecturer’s statement that some
of the natives have entirely lost the art of canoe making,
although they still make paddles, which they use to propel
rafts made of bamboos.
Entomological Society, March 15.—Mr. F. Merrifield,
president, in the chair.—Exhibits.—Butterflies from Natal
presented by Mr. G. A. K. Marshall to the Hope Depart-
ment at Oxford: Dr. F. A. Dixey. Dr. Dixey read a
note upon his experiments conducted with a view to
ascertaining whether the assumption of the wet or dry
season form of various African butterflies could be con-
trolled by exposure in the pupal state to artificial conditions
of temperature and moisture—Drawings of the genitalia
of noctuid moths, and also a number of slides showing the
respective peculiarities of many members of the genus:
F. W. Pierce. Among other things, attention was
directed to the fact that in the case of the Taniocampide
the genitalia were widely dissimilar, while the author’s
investigations had led him to conclude that Ashworthii, at
present ranked as an Agrotis, should more properly be
included in the Noctua group.—A specimen of the North
American longicorn, Neoclytus erythrocephalus, discovered
in a sound ash tree in the neighbourhood of St. Helens,
Lancashire: W. E. Sharp. Some palings of American
ash in the vicinity suggested the origin of the progenitors
of the colony, but it was not known how long they had
been erected. The beetles were taken in their galleries
in the summer dead, which seemed to indicate a weaken-
ing of the species under the conditions in which they
found themselves. Mr. Sharp also showed examples of
Amara anthobia, Valle, new to the British list (with a
series of A. familiaris, Duf., and A. lucida for compari-
son) from Leighton-Buzzard, where they occurred not in-
frequently at the roots of grass in sandy places.—Muti-
lated Stenobothrus from the Picos de Europa, Spain: M.
Burr. These grasshoppers were taken at a height of
about 1300 metres, on turfy ground exposed to north wind
from the Atlantic, and covered with tufts of a short,
dense, tough, and spiky shrub, together with heather.
Of the grasshoppers occurring on this spot, almost every
specimen had the wings and elytra more or less mutilated,
sometimes actually torn to shreds, entirely altering their
appearance. A notable exception was St. bicolor, of which
no single specimen was found mutilated.
No. 1848, voL. 71]
WAT ORL
527
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, March 20.—M. H. Poincaré in the
chair.—Thermochemical researches on brucine and strych-
nine: MM. Berthelot and Gaudechon.—A determination
of the heats of combustion and formation of the two alka-
loids, together with measurements of the heats of neutral-
isation with various acids. The equilibrium between
strychnine and ammonium salts was also studied thermo-
chemically.—On the variations of brightness and the total
eclipses of primary images formed on the retina by very
feeble luminous sources of constant value: A. Chauveau.
A discussion of a recent paper by M. Lullin, in which the
latter describes an experiment with phosphorescent screens,
the visibility of which depends on the visual angle, and on
the duration of the observation.—On the valency of the
atom of hydrogen: M. de Forcrand. A discussion of the
assumptions upon which the monoyalency of hydrogen is
based. The author brings forward the cases of
Ag,F, Ag,O, ICI,, and others, and suggests that the
difficulty of explaining these can best be met by adopting
the convention that the hydrogen atom is divalent.—On
the; photography of the solar corona at the summit of
Mont Blanc: A. Hansky. Hitherto, attempts to photo-
graph the solar corona at other times than during a total
eclipse have not met with much success. By the use of a
disc of blackened brass, the diameter of which is a little
larger than that of the image of the sun at the focus of
the telescope used, combined with coloured screens capable
of absorbing the spectrum about up to A=660 pum, photo-
graphs of the solar corona have been obtained.—Remarks
on the preceding note: J. Janssen. Reproductions of
two of the photographs mentioned in the preceding paper
are given.—The notion of distance in the functional
calculus: Maurice Fréchet.—On the calculation of closed
arcs: M. Pigeaud.—The distribution and control of
actions produced at a distance by electric waves: Edouard
Branly. The three effects chosen for control at a distance
by means of electric waves are the starting of an electric
motor, lighting incandescent lamps, and producing an ex-
plosion. Details are given of the apparatus by which this
has been done in the laboratory. The succession of the
effects can be varied at will.—On the variation of the
specific inductive power of glass with the frequency: André
Broca and M. Turchini. Glass Leyden jars may be used
in the production of currents of high frequency, between
the limits 10° and 3xX10° per second, on condition that
the capacity introduced into the formule is about one-half
that measured with charges of o-1 sec., or 0-7 of the
capacity measured with the frequency of an ordinary
rotating sector.—On the coefficient of specific magnetisa-
tion and magnetic susceptibility of salts: Georges Meslin.
The results of measurements for a considerable number
of paramagnetic and diamagnetic salts are given.—On
photographic halation. Reply to a note of M. A. Guéb-
hard: P. Villard. The author regards the explanation of
his experiments given by M. A. Guébhard as inapplicable.
Particulars of an experiment are given for which an ex-
planation is at present wanting.—On the ionisation pro-
duced between parallel plates by the radium emanatioa:
William Duane.—The diazoamines of diphenylamine,
derivatives of the homologues of aniline and naphthyl-
amines: Léo Vigmon and A. Simonet.—The character-
isation of lactones by means of hydrazine: M. Blaise and
A. Luttringer. The lactone is heated on the water bath
with a slight excess of hydrazine hydrate. The crystalline
mass which separates on cooling is re-crystallised from
boiling ethyl acetate, and its melting point, which is
usually well defined, serves to characterise the lactone.
The melting points of six of these compounds are given.—
On menthone derived from the hexahydrothymols: Léon
Brunel. In a preceding note the preparation of two
thymomenthols has been described; the present paper de-
scribes the thymomenthone obtained by the oxidation of
these products.—On monobromoacetal: P. Freundier and
M. Ledru. By attention to some details the yield of
bromoacetal by Fischer’s method has been raised from 50
per cent. to 115 per cent. of the acetal employed. Mag-
nesium reacts violently on this bromine compound at 110°,
giving rise to vinyl ethyl ether.—Remarks on the diphenyl-
amine reaction with nitric acid: Isidore Bay. The blue
coloration is produced by a large number of oxidising
528 NATURE
agents, and is not characteristic of nitric acid—On the
antiseptic properties of certain kinds of smoke and on their
utilisation: A. Trillat. In previous papers the author has
shown that formaldehyde is a constant constituent of
chimney smoke, He now finds that a polymerised form-
aldehyde is always present in soot, in proportions varying
from 0-28 per cent. to 0-34 per cent.—The effects of phos-
phorus on the coagulation of the blood. The origin of
fibrinogen: M. Doyon, A. Morel, and N. Kareff.—The
duration of the process of stimulation for different muscles :
M. and Madame L, Lapicque.—On the anatomical and
functional independence of the lobes of the liver: H.
Sérégeé. The arguments from the anatomical and physio-
logical points of view are summarised and shown to be all
in favour of the independence of the lobes.—An_ experi-
mental study of the relations between the arterial pressure
and the pulmonary circulation in anasthesia by chloro-
form. The determining cause of chloroform accidents: J.
Tissot.—On the measurement of disposable energy by a
self-registering integrating dynamometer : Charles Henry.
The apparatus consists essentially of a rubber ball filled
with mercury, The pressure of the hand on this raises a
mass of iron up and down a graduated tube, this iron
being connected with the registering apparatus. The area
registered measures the statical work done by the pressure
of the fingers.—The cardiac area in cured consumptive
cases: H. Guilleminot.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Marcu 30.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Observations on Stars made in some
British Stone Circles (Preliminary Note): Sir Norman Lockyer,
K.C.B., F.R.S.—On the Distribution of Velocity in a Viscous
Fluid over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and on the Action at the Critical
Velocity : J. Morrow.—The Direct Synthesis of Ammonia: Dr. E. P.
Perman.—The Determination of Vapour Pressure by Air Bubbling: Dr.
E. P, Perman and J. H. Davies.—Note on Fluorescence and Absorption :
J. B. Burke.—The Determination of the Specific Heat of Superheated
Steam by Throttling and other Experiments: A. H. Peake..—The Réle
of Diffusion in the Catalysis of Hydrogen Peroxide by Colloidal Platinum ;
G. Senter.—The, Theory of Photographic Processes. Part IJ. On the
Chemical Dynamics of Development, including the Microscopy of the
Image: S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.
FRIDAY, Marcn 31.
Roya INsTITUTION, at 9.—The Scientific Study of Dialects: Prof. J.
Wright.
SATURDAY, Apri 1.
Roya. INSTITUTION, at 3.—Some Controverted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
MONDAY, Apri 3.
Socrety or CHEMICAL INpusSTRY, at 8.—On the Formation of Sulpkuric
Esters in the Nitration of Cellulose and their Influence on Stability;
C. Napier Hake and R. J. Lewis.—The Proof of Percussion Caps: H.
W. Brownsdon.
Society oF Arts, at 8.—Telephony: H. L. Webb.
Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.
TUESDAY, Apri 4.
RovaL INSTITUTION, at 5.—Tibet : Perceval Landon.
FakabAay Society, at 8.—Alloys of Copper and Antimony ‘and Copper and
Bismuth: A. H. Hiorns.—Refractory Materials for Furnace Linings:
E. Kilburn Scott.—Electrically Heated Carbon Tube Furnaces. Part 1.:
R. S. Hutton and W. H. Patterson.
INSTITUTION OF CiIviIL ENGINEERS, at
Coolgardie Water-Supply: C. S. R. Palmer.
WEDNESDAY, Aprit 5.
GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—On the Divisions and Correlations of the
Upper Portion of the Coal-measures, with Special Reference to their
Development in the Midland Counties of England: R. Kidston, F.R.S.—
On the Age and Relations of the Phosphatic Chalk of Taplow: L.
Treacher and H. J. O. White.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.
Society oF Pusiic ANALYsTs, at 8.—The Determination of Higher
Alcohols in Spirits. I.: Dr. Philip Schidrowitz and F. Kaye.—The
Action of slightly Alkaline Waters on Iron: C. H. Cribb and F. W. F.
Arnaud.—Notes on Preservatives: E. G, Clayton.
Society or Arts, at 8.—Ancient Architecture of the Great Zimbabwe:
R. N. Hall.
THURSDAY, Apri 6.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: On Reciprocal Innervation
of Antagonistic Muscles, Seventh Note : Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S.
—The Influence of Cobra-Venom on the Proteid Metabolism: Dr. James
Scott.—Further Experiments and Histological Investigations on In-
tumescences, with some Observations on Nuclear Division in Pathological
Tissues : Miss E. Dale.—On the Toxin-Antitoxin Reaction, with Special
Reference to the Neutralisation of Lysin by Antilysin: J. A. Craw.—On
the Nature of the Silver Reaction in Animal and Vegetable Tissues : Prof.
\: B. Macallum.
8.—Continued Discussion:
No. 1848, VOL. 71]
[ Marcu 30, 1905
Cuemicat Society, at 8.—The Basic Properties of Oxygen at Low
Temperatures. Additive Compounds of the Halogens with Organic
Substances containing Oxygen: D. McIntosh.—Note on the Interaction
of Metallic Cyanides and Organic Halides: N. V. Sidgwick.—The
Chemical Dynamics of the Reactions between Sodium Thiosulphate and
Organic Halogen Compounds. Part II. Halogen-substituted Acetates :
A. Slator.—The Chemical Kinetics of Reactions with inverse Reactions.
The Decomposition of Dimethylcarbamide: C. E. Fawsitt.—The
Tautomerism of Acetyl Thiocyanate: A. E. Dixon and J. Hawthorne. —
A Method of Determining the Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts by
Displacement in their own Mother Liquor, and its Application in the Case
of the Alkaline Halides : J. ¥Y. Buchanan.—The Combination of Mercap-
tans with Unsaturated Ketonic Compounds: S. Ruhemann.—A new
Formation of Acetylcamphor: M. O. Forster and Miss H. M. Judd.—
Preparation and Properties of 1:4 :5-Trimethylglyoxaline: H,. A. D.
Jowett.—Bromomethylheptylketone: H. A. D. Jowett—On the Exis-
tence of a Carbide of Magnesium: J. T. Nance.—The Action of Carbon
Monoxide on Ammonia: H. Jackson and I). N. Laurie.—Isomeric Salts
of the T'ype NR;RoH3. A Correction. Isomeric Forms of ¢@-Bromo- and
d-Chloro-camphorsulphonic Acids: F. S. Kipping.—Isomerism of
a-Bromo- and a-Chloro-camphor : F. S. Kipping.—/Phenylethylamine :
F. S. Kipping and A. E. Hunter.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion of the
Report to Council on the International Electrical Congress at St. Louis,
by W. Duddell, and of Papers on Systems of Electric Units Published in
Part clxx. (last issue) of the J/oxrad.
Rogar Nessim aioe at 5-—Synthetic Chemistry: Prof. R. Meldola,
R6NTGEN SoctEety, at 8.15.—Exhibition Evening.
LiInNEAN Society, at 8.—Intra-axillary Scales of Aquatic Mono-
cotyledons: Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson.—A further Communication on
the Study of Pelomyxa palustris : Mrs. Veley. .
Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Prospects of the Shan States: Sir J.
George Scott.
FRIDAY, Apri 7.
Rova_ INSTITUTION, at 9.—American Industry: Alfred Mosely.
InsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Cofferdams for Dock Use:
R. G. Clark.—Bath Corporation Waterworks Extension : J. R. Fox.
SATURDAY Aprriv8.
Royat INsTITUTION, at 3.—Some Controverted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
Tue Essex Fietp Crus, at 6.30. (At Essex Museum of Natural History,
Stratford).—Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting.—Natural History Museums:
F. W. Rudler.
CONTENTS. PAGE
The Classification of the Sciences. . ...... . 505
Elementary@Matnematics . . 2) meaner te 507
Salt-beds/andj@ceans., By. J. Y¥- Beane) © 508
Evolution for Beginners. by F. A.D. ..., 509
Our Book Shelf :—
Chassevant: ‘‘Précis de Chimie physiologique.”—
We Di bie 509
Sohns: ‘* Unsere PAlanzen » 3, Maxwell : ‘ee Children’s
Wildiblowersaaine > + ©. ip lo gens Sere mel
Gibson; ‘‘ Superstitions about Animals” ... . . 510
Letters to the Editor :—
A Great Oxford Discovery.—Prof. Karl Pearson,
AER, 3 Atal 5 UB ob 6 Be
Inversions of Temperature and Humidity in Anti-
cyclones.—Dr. A. Lawrence Rotch...... 510
The Planet Bortuna,—W.T. . 0S chee) le eae
City Development. (J///ustrated.) ......... 5K
Nature’s Ways. (Jélustrated.) ByR.L.. ..... 512
German Educational Exhibits at St. Louis .... 513
Notes; (Z//straieaamemn = ss. cm) «) alot tien. ol RNS ES
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrences in April ....... . 518
Discovery of a New Comet, I905a@ ....... . 518
Comet 1904 ¢ (Borrelly) ist dy EES «ce 518
Observations of the Recent Eclipse of the Moon. . . 518
New Variable Stars in the Region about 6 Aquile . . 519
Orbit of the Binary Star Ceti82.......... 519
Radial Velocities of Certain Stars... ...... 519
Star Places in the Vulpecula Cluster. . . ... . . 519
The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ...... 519
Protective Resemblance. (///ustrated.) .... . . 520
Report of the Carnegie Institution, 1904. . . . . . 521
The Reception and Utilisation of Energy by a
Green Leaf. (With Diagram.) By Dr. Horace T.
Brown, FF Rashes : PAs: cr hacer ce ne Gay ck! SS
University and Educational Intelligence - enn 20
Societies and Academies); | 2285. 6 is. 1. eee ey,
Diary of Societiesmermen-n. i. »)/s bee clsas 528
— ——
NAPURE
529)
THURSDAY, APRIL 6, 1905.
PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Grundstige der physiologischen Psychologie. Von
Wilhelm Wundt. sth edition. Vols. ii. and iii.
Pp. viii+ $65, ix+796 and 133; and Gesamtregister.
(Leipzig: Engelmann, 1902-3.) Prices 135., 145.,
and 35.
Principles of Physiological Psychology. By Wilhelm
Wundt. Translated from the fifth German edition
by E. B. Titchener. Pp. xvi+347. (London : Swan
Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 12s.
Ay ITH these two volumes Prof. Wundt concludes
what in all probability is the last edition of
this great work prepared by his own hand. The
single volume of the first edition of 1874 is now
expanded to three large volumes comprising 2168
pages. Founded, as it is, chiefly upon the author’s
own researches and those of his pupils, the treatise
forms a splendid monument to his life-long labours
in a field in which he has been for long a pioneer and
the most prominent figure.
The main part is an expansion and development
of the views expounded in earlier editions in accord-
ance with the data that have accumulated so rapidly
in recent years. For, as Wundt points out, psychology
has now happily achieved methods of research by
which any intelligent and industrious worker may |
add something, however small, to the mass. of
empirical data on which the future science is to be
built up, and in so doing has assured its place among
the progressive sciences. To this edition a final
section is added, in which the veteran thinker sets
forth his matured—conclusions on the general
sciences. To the exposition of one of the most im-
portant of these principles this article may profitably
be devoted. Not many years ago most writers who
discussed the functions of the brain postulated what
they called a sensorium commune, a central nervous
organ or “‘ centre’ in which the afferent nerves of all |
the sense-organs were supposed to come together,
and to the substance of which each such nerve was
supposed to communicate its specific mode of activity,
generally assumed by those writers to be some
peculiar form of molecular vibration. It was
supposed, therefore, that when two or more sensory
nerves of different functions are simultaneously stimu-
lated, this ‘‘ centre’’ becomes the seat of a complex
resultant physical process, embodying the specific
characters of the two or more kinds of neural process.
And this hypothetical physical resultant was held
to be the immediate correlate or excitant of
complex affection of consciousness. In this way it
was sought to explain the unitary character of the
state of consciousness resulting from the simultaneous
stimulation of different sensory nerves. To every
part of the brain that is median and therefore has
no symmetrically disposed duplicate, this position of
honour has been assigned by one or other writer—to
the pineal gland by Descartes, to the pons by Spencer,
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
the |
to the basal ganglia in general by Maudsley and
Carpenter, to the septum lucidum and to the third
ventricle by others, to some undefined region by
Herbart and Lotze. Under the powerful impulse of
this supposed necessity others, notably G. H. Lewes,
E. v. Hartmann and Ed. Montgomery, have made
the whole brain the sensorium commune, assuming
that the specific mode of vibration initiated in each
kind of sensory nerve thrills throughout the whole or
the greater part of the mass of the brain.
In the Psycho-physik (1860) Fechner clearly exposed
the untenable character of all such assumptions and
showed that ‘‘ the psychically unitary and simple are
resultants from physical manifolds, the physically
manifold gives rise to a unitary or simple (psychical)
resultant.’’? This principle was accepted by Helmholtz,
and by Lotze in his later writings; and the progress of
our knowledge of the brain achieved since that time has
made patent to all the impossibility of assigning the
psycho-physical processes, the processes immediately
correlated with psychical processes, to any one part or
“centre ’’ of the brain.
Nevertheless, in dealing with concrete instances of
unitary psychical resultants from multiple sensory
stimulations, as in the case of the compound colour
sensations or of the fusion of the effects of stimuli
applied simultaneously to corresponding areas of the
two retinze, many, perhaps most, physiologists and
psychologists still postulate a fusion of the underlying
neural processes to a unitary physical resultant. It is
more difficult to refute this view in such special cases
than to prove the erroneousness in principle of the
conception of a sensorium commune, but fortunately
Prof. Sherrington’s recent research on the functional
relations of corresponding retinal points! demonstrates
| in the clearest manner the separateness of the physio-
principles of psychology and on its relations to other |
logical effects in the brain-cortex of stimuli simul-
taneously applied to corresponding retinal areas, the
instance of fusion of effects to which the doctrine of
physiological fusion has been most confidently and
plausibly applied; and many pathological and experi-
mental observations bear out this view, both in this
case and in other similar cases of fusion of effects of
sensory stimuli. The principle laid down by Fechner
in the words quoted above may therefore be regarded
as well established. This principle Wundt adopts, and
he extends its application in a thorough-going manner
to the relations of neural and psychical processes in
general. Assuming that every ‘‘ psychical element ”
is related in a constant manner to an accompanying
neural process, he asks (vol. ill., p. 775), Is there any
corresponding constant relation between the connec-
tions (Verbindungen) of those elements and the con-
nections of these processes ? ‘‘ It goes without say-
ing that this question must be answered affirmatively
in the sense that to all the psychical elements that are
comprised in a complex affection of consciousness, the
corresponding physical processes must also be given
in simultaneous connection.’? But that is by no
means to say that these physical correlates will
constitute a unitary resultant, which would correspond
to the psychical resultant. ‘‘ The complex psychical
1 See British Journal of Psychology, parti. 1004.
AA
30
on
formations are further removed from their physio-
logical correlates (than the psychical elements), and
this removal-is greater the more complex the
psychical compounds become. And it is just at
this point that psychology as an independent science
in the proper sense of the word takes up its task.”
That is to say, it is the task of psycho-physics to dis-
criminate the elements of our psychical processes and
to discover their physiological correlates, but it is the
task of psychology proper to discover the purely psy-
chical laws of the synthesis of these elements—a task
which would remain to be carried out, though the
workings of the brain ‘‘ stood as clearly exposed to
our eyes as the mechanism of a watch.”’
Wurdt then formulates four such fundamental
psychical laws or principles, of which the first and most
important is the ‘‘ principle of creative resultants,’’ the
principle ‘‘ that the product arising from any number
of psychical elements is more than the sum of those
elements . . . . itis a new formation incomparable in
all its essential attributes with the factors that con-
tribute towards it.’? So ‘‘a clang is more than the
sum of its partial tones.’? ‘‘In the same way every
spatial percept is a product in which certain elements
(the local signs) have yielded up their independence to
impart to the product an entirely new property,
namely, the spatial ordering of the sensations.
In binocular vision the separate images of the
two organs of vision disappear, to give rise in
the common resultant image to the immediate per-
ception of solidity and depth.”’ On the other hand,
the neural correlates of these elements remain a
spatially ordered manifold, exhibiting no corresponding
fusion or synthesis. The acceptance of this principle
is of the first importance for the progress of physio-
logical psychology, but whether it is compatible with
adhesion to the doctrine of psycho-physical parallelism,
as Wundt maintains, may be seriously questioned,
as also whether it can properly be called a principle
of psychical causation. It seems clear that if with
Wundt we recognise this and the other psychical laws
that he formulates, whether or not we admit them
as principles of psychical causation, we cannot main-
tain the principle of psycho-physical parallelism in
the rigid form in which it is so widely current at the
present time.
It is a pleasure to welcome the appearance of the
first part of an English translation of this great work.
Prof. Titchener has accomplished this part of his
difficult task with all the care and skill which his
previous labours in this line have prepared us to expect.
In spite of the title of this work, it is as much a
treatise on experimental as on _ physiological
psychology, and in view of the common misconcep-
tions of the relations of experimental to other methods
in psychology the following quotation may fitly con-
clude this brief notice :—‘* We now understand by ‘ ex-
perimental psychology’ not simply those portions of
psychology which are directly accessible to experiment,
but the whole of individual psychology. For all such
psychology employs the experimental method:
directly, where its direct use is possible; but in all
other cases indirectly, by availing itself of the general
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
MATORE
-[ApRIL 6, 1905
results which the direct
has yielded, and of the
observation which their
employment of the method
refinement of psychological
employment induces.’’
W. McD.
RADIUM AND RADIO-ACTIVITY.
Radium Explained. By Dr. W. Hampson, M.A.
(Jack’s Scientific Series.) Pp. x+122. (Edinburgh
and London: Tf. C. and E. GC. Jack, 1905.) Price
Is. net.
HIS little book, which is sold for the modest
price of one shilling, will, we think, serve a
useful purpose in giving an elementary acquaintance
with the subject of radio-activity, so far as that is
accessible to those with little scientific knowledge.
The explanations given of the experimental properties
of radium are, so far as we have observed, clear and
accurate, and the get-up of the book, though not
superb, is respectable. Probably one of the most
valuable chapters in the book is that on the medical
aspects of radium, and its possible uses in the cure
of disease, for few writers on radio-activity generally
are competent to discuss this part of the subject. Dr.
Hampson is of opinion that the medicinal value of
mineral waters is connected with their radio-activity.
This question, we think, should easily be susceptible of
a definite and conclusive answer. There would not be
the slightest difficulty in giving baths of weak radium
solution more potent by far than the richest mineral
waters. Why not test the medicinal value of these?
It is really urgent that this experiment should be tried
by competent hands.
It is, we think, to be regretted that Dr. Hampson
has plunged into an attack on modern views of the
constitution of matter, as expounded by Prof. J. J.
Thomson, Sir Oliver Lodge, and others. We have read
these criticisms with the attention due to a worker
like Dr. Hampson, who has done good service in the
cause of science, but cannot admit that they possess
any validity. To go fully into the questions which
he raises would take us beyond the limits of this
notice, but we may briefly discuss one or two of the
points. At the outset, Dr. Hampson objects to the
definition of mass by means of inertia. Mass, he
says, is quantity of matter; inertia is dependent on
velocity as well as on mass.
It is true, no doubt, that the definition of mass
as quantity of matter may be found in some old-
fashioned text-books of repute. But such a defini-
tion has no value, for how is the quantity of
matter to be ascertained? The choice practically
lies between defining mass by inertia at a given speed
or by gravity. So far as is known, exactly the same
ratio between two masses of ordinary matter will
result, whichever method of comparison is adopted.
As, however, gravity depends on local circumstances,
while inertia (at given velocity) does not, the latter
property is preferred for the definition of mass, as
being more fundamental.
No doubt, before it can be granted that the electron
theory fully accounts for the observed properties of
matter, it will be necessary to show that it will explain
the phenomena of gravitation. This, at present, it
ApRIL 6, 1905]
NATURE
So
makes no pretence of doing, as, of course, its dis-
tinguished authors would at once admit. But mass,
as we have seen, is not conventionally defined with
reference to gravity, but by means of inertia, or
momentum at unit velocity. As a moving electric
charge can be shown to possess this momentum, it is
a strictly correct use of words to say that the electron
theory explains the property of mass.
Dr. Hampson argues, in the second place, that
electricity is a form of energy, and that it cannot there-
fore be identified with matter.
“When an electrical machine . .
. is used to charge
a Leyden jar...
there is no change in the quantity
of material substance with which operations were
started; it is the mechanical energy driving the
machinery that has been converted into electricity ”’
(p. 87).
The misconception here lies in confusing the separa-
tion of positive and negative electricity with the
creation of either. Take the case of a Leyden jar.
The coatings of the jar, according to modern views,
initially both contain a number of chemical atoms, all
with their normal complement of constituent electrons.
The operation of charging consists in the removal
of some of these electrons from the outer coating,
say, and their transference to the inner one. This
leaves the outer coat with a defect of electrons, and
therefore positively charged, while the inner one
acquires an excess of them, and consequently becomes
negatively charged. The transference involves the
expenditure of energy on the electrons, but no alter-
ation in their number, and therefore no change in
the amount of matter concerned.
We are sorry to have had to dwell principally on
the parts of the book with which we disagree, as
these are but a small portion of the whole, and do
not detract from the usefulness of the rest.
Reales.
OIL FUEL.
Oil Fuel: Its Supply, Composition and Application.
By S. H. North. Pp. viiit3152. (London: Chas.
Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1g05.) Price 5s. net.
R. SYDNEY H. NORTH has utilised the store
of data collected whilst he was editor of the
Petroleum Review to supply a most valuable addition
to Griffin’s scientific text-books in his work on ‘ Oil
Fuel’ and to give his readers a concise and valuable
record of the developments in the use of liquid fuel
for the generation of power.
In the first chapter of the book he deals with the
distribution and sources of supply of petroleum, and
points out that the chief sources are now so geo-
graphically situated as to place the United Kingdom
at a disadvantage in case of war, should the use of
liquid fuel be largely adopted in the Naval Service,
a fact which accentuates the importance of develop-
ing such fields as those of Canada and Burmah, and
also of opening up new areas where possible in British
Possessions,
In concluding this portion of the work, the author
expresses his opinion that recent developments and
extensions of oil-bearing areas are now progressing
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
so rapidly that it is quite within the bounds of
possibility that the liquid-fuel question may in the
near future be placed above the control of price and
geographical position.
In dealing with the economic aspect of liquid fuel
it is pointed out that although the enormous
advantages accruing from its use were early
recognised, the prohibitive price prevented any great
advance in its use, but that with the increase in out-
put its utilisation now comes within the range of
practical possibility, and that the advantages in
winning, transporting, and storing and using the
oil, especially for marine purposes, are so great that
the supply of the liquid fuel is now the only factor
checking its universal introduction,
In considering the absolute economy as a fuel, the
author very properly leaves out the extravagant
claims made by some of the early experimentalists,
and only gives the best authenticated values, which
vary from 12-5 to 16 lb. of water evaporated per Ib.
of liquid fuel. Variations in the use of oil as a fuel
are of course largely dependent upon the method by
which the oil is burnt, and too little stress is put upon
the importance of the space factor, which is a most
essential one, as, given plenty of combustion space in
the boiler, the smokeless burning of liquid fuel is a
perfectly simple problem, which, however, increases
enormously in difficulty as the available space becomes
more and more cramped.
The chapter on the chemical composition of fuel
oils gives an excellent summary of analytical results,
and this ends with a table showing the composition,
calorific value and evaporative power of different
descriptions of British coal. This, however, is liable
to lead to misconception, as the value expressed in
Ib. of water evaporated per lb. of fuel is calculated,
and not that obtained in practice, so that the reader
who finds that by this table 1 lb. of Welsh coal will
evaporate 14-98 lb. of water will be a little puzzled
to see where the large economy comes in, when 1 Ib.
of oil only evaporates from 12-5 to 16 lb. of water.
As a matter of fact, all recent work points to the
relative evaporative results under the best conditions
being 9 lb. of water per Ib. of coal, or 15 lb. of water
per lb. of oil, whilst the theoretical results give
14-98 lb. of water for coal, and 20 to 21 Ib. for oil.
The section dealing with the conditions of com-
bustion in oil furnaces is a useful reproduction of the
views expressed by Messrs. Ord, Paul, and Lewes,
and the author does not venture on any generalisation
of his own.
Turning from consideration of the oil itself to the
methods of burning it, the author gives a very useful
historical summary of the early experiments down to
the year 1883, when Mr. James Holden, whose name
will always be inseparably connected with the subject
of liquid fuel, introduced his method of consuming the
oil on the Great Eastern Railway.
A cchapter is then devoted to modern burners
and methods, and steam, air, and mechanical
injectors are discussed. The author very properly
concludes that
“for the
to be a
successful
use of liquid
sine qua
fuel it appears
non that
auxiliary apparatus.
3a
NATURE
{AprIL 6, 1905
and extraneous sources of heat must be avoided, and
the furnaces made practically self-contained, if any-
thing approaching perfection is to be attained. It
must be upon simplicity, ease of working, and free-
dom from complicated parts that the progress of liquid
fuel must chiefly depend.
“The direct pulverisation of the oil is now coming
to be recognised as the proper method ; it is the most
efficient and the most economical.”
The next two chapters are devoted to discussing the
use of oil fuel for marine and naval purposes, but the
division into two chapters is hardly needed, as the
naval side of the question is scarcely touched upon, the
bulk of the matter in that chapter being taken up
with the trials of liquid fuel on the s.s. Mariposa, and
the tests made on land by the American Liquid Fuel
Navy Board.
The chapter on oil fuel in locomotives is an
excellent summary of the work of Urquhart and
Holden, whilst the use of oil fuel for metallurgical
and domestic purposes also receives some attention.
The whole work compares very favourably indeed
with the far more pretentious treatise on the subject
which until now has been the only book of reference,
and everyone interested in this important question will
welcome Mr. North’s excellent text-book.
THE DYNAMICS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE.
Chemical Statics and Dynamics. By J. W. Mellor,
D.Sc. (N.Z.), B.Sc. (Vict.). Pp. xiiit+538. (Lon-
don: Longmans, Green, and Co.) Price 7s. 6d.
OR some years past a marked increase of atten-
FE tion on the part of English chemists towards
the rapidly developing physical chemistry has been
observable. Until recently, however, the available
English literature on the subject was confined to
German translations, a state of things which is now
being in a large measure remedied.
The present work forms one of the series of text-
books of physical chemistry edited by Sir William
Ramsay. According to the table of contents, four
chapters are devoted to the consideration of homo-
geneous reactions, and in succeeding sections the
initial periods in chemical change, heterogeneous
reactions, “equilibrium and dissociation, electrolytic
dissociation, catalysis and the theory of chemical
change, fermentation, the influence of temperature
and pressure in chemical reactions, and finally ex-
plosions, are dealt with.
Since the appearance of van ’t Hoff’s ‘‘ Etudes de
Dynamique Chimique’’ a vast amount of work has
been done in connection with the problems involved
here, and the necessity for a summary of newly dis-
covered facts, a criticism of recent theories, and an
unbiased statement of our present position in regard
to the dynamics of chemical change and _ allied
problems must have been felt by many. Dr. Mellor’s
work will, therefore, receive an undoubted welcome.
The accumulated evidence on the nature of chemical
change resulting from kinetic studies leads the author
to favour the view that the ‘ association or
‘intermediate compound ’’ theories describe in the
most rational manner the mechanism of the majority
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
”
of reactions. Simple consecutive changes determine
the character of many apparently complex reactions.
In connection with the determination of the number
of molecules taking part in reactions in gaseous
systems the author sounds a very necessary warning
note. The rate of decomposition of phosphine or
arsine is a frequent text-book illustration of one of
the methods employed, and the experimental data fit
in with the assumption that the reaction is unimole-
cular and non-reversible. But there is another side
to this and similar problems. It is not improbable
that the reaction takes place on the surface of the
walls of the containing vessel, and that its rate is
conditioned solely by the rate of absorption of the gas
by this surface. The course of the reaction will in
this case also be that of a unimolecular change.
In the section on the measurement of chemical
affinity we meet old and familiar friends in the illus-
trations of the thermal and density methods of com-
paring the affinities of two acids. The very moderate
accuracy attainable in these methods, which involve the
small difference between two experimental quantities,
and in which corrections have frequently to be intro-
duced in consequence of secondary changes, is
scarcely ever sufliciently emphasised, and attention
might have been directed to this point. A method
depending upon the measurement of a_ property
possessed by only one component of a system has
obvious advantages, even if such methods are of
limited application. Whether Thomsen’s relative
avidities and the relative ionic affinity coefficients are
always identical conceptions is left for the reader to
infer.
Chapter x., dealing with catalysis and the theory
of chemical change, is most attractive reading. Here
the processes of slow combustion or autoxidation are
discussed in the light of the theories of Brodie,
Schénbein, Clausius, van ’t Hoff, Traube, Bach,
Engler and Wild, and the interesting phenomena
included under induced or sympathetic reactions are
treated. In the chapter on explosions the account of
older work is supplemented by many new and interest-
ing facts.
In the reviewer’s opinion Dr. Mellor’s work is to be
warmly recommended. The fact that it contains three
thousand or so references to original papers is in
itself evidence of its utility to the teacher, to the
advanced student, and to the physical chemist en-
gaged in research. H. M. Dawson.
RECENT EARTHQUAKES.
A Study of Recent Earthquakes. By Charles Davison,
Sc.D., F.G.S. Pp. xii+ 355; 80 illustrations.
(London:, Walter Scott Publishing Co., Ltd.)
Price 6s.
| feo this copiously illustrated volume Dr. Charles
Davison, whose seismological investigations,
especially those relating to British earthquakes, are so
well known, gives a popular account of the results
which have been arrived at by modern seismology.
The method in which he treats his subject is one that
appeals to the general reader. Rather than grouping
:
interest.
ApRIL 6, 1905]
NATURE
BIS)
seismic phenomena, as we should expect to find them
in a text-book, the author has given a concise history
of eight disturbances, each of which has a special
The Neapolitan earthquake is of interest
from an historical point of view, the Ischian earth-
quakes illustrate the relationship between volcanic and
seismic activities, a Japanese earthquake is described
on account of the fault line which was produced at the
time of its occurrence and the numerous after shocks
by which it was followed, whilst a British earthquake
illustrates the growth of a fault. From the work of
Robert Mallet upon the first of these earthquakes,
which in 1857 devastated a district to the south-east
of Naples, and when upwards of gooo people lost their
lives, the scientific world learned that out of ruins much
might be learned respecting the direction and intensity
of the movements which had caused them. Although
his methods of investigation, as, for example, those
relating to the determination of the depths of seismic
foci, may have been modified by new observations,
Mallet directed attention to new problems for the solu-
tion of which he employed scientific methods.
The Andalusian earthquake in 1884, we are told, is
chiefly remarkable from the fact that it was recorded
at very distant stations, as, for example, by magneto-
graphs near Paris, at which city the movements of the
ground could not be felt. For this disturbance the
depth of its origin is determined by means of angles of
emergence calculated from the directions of fractures
in masonry walls. That the direction of these fractures
might be due to the varying steepness of the earth
waves which produced the shattering is not con-
sidered
The peculiarity of the Charleston earthquake is that
it occurred in a region where such disturbances are
almost unknown, that it had two foci about thirteen
miles apart, and that it illustrated the behaviour of
different races when confronted by a terrible disaster.
With the negroes there was wild fear, panic, and a
“selfish rush for safety.’? With Europeans in similar
circumstances similar conditions prevail, but we are
told that with Japanese there is calmness. Our own
idea is that Japanese like to save their necks as well as
other people. They will bolt at the time of an earth-
quake, to return, not with hysterical and shattered
nerves, but chattering and laughing as if earthquakes
were very fine jokes.
A subject attractive to the general reader which is
referred to in several chapters is an account of signs
which have given warning of a coming earthquake.
Underground sounds have been heard, springs have
varied in their flow, horses, birds, dogs, and even
human beings have been restless for some time before
great earthquakes. In his reference to the Riviera
earthquake in 1887, Mr. Davison remarks that as pre-
monitions were noted at 130 different places within the
central area, ‘‘ there can be little doubt that they were
caused by microseismic movements for the most part
insensible to man.’’ In these days of psychical research
we think that the author has lost an opportunity for
romantic speculation.
Although the book is intended more for the person
No. 1849, VOL. 71]
of ordinary intelligence than for the specialist, here
and there we come upon information of an uncommon
kind. For example, it is pointed out that the areas
over which earthquake sounds are heard is variable in
different countries. One reason for this is that the
limits of audibility vary with different races. From
illustrations given it would appear that for certain
sounds the Anglo-Saxon ear is more acute than the
Neapolitan, and very much more than that of the
Japanese. This relationship between the physiological
structure of the human ear and earthquake music is,
to say the least, extremely interesting, but while dis-
cussing the same the fact must not be overlooked that
in the same country districts may be found where
seismic sounds are frequent, whilst there are other
districts where Pluto shakes the ground but mutterings
are never heard.
Dr. Davison’s book is well worth reading, whilst the
manner in which its contents have been arranged
should obtain for it a circulation amongst those who
seek for general information.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
A German-English Dictionary of Terms used in
Medicine and the Allied Sciences. By Hugo Lang
and B. Abrahams. Pp. vi + 598. (London: J.
and A. Churchill, 1905.) Price 15s. net.
THERE is undoubtedly a vacant place which would be
filled by a well-compiled work bearing the above title.
The book now under review has a certain claim on our
regard in this connection, and in some respects is a
useful work. It purports to be, in the first place, a
medical dictionary, and, so far as we can judge, fulfils
this promise in a satisfactory manner. With a few
minor blemishes there is a complete vocabulary of
medical terms, and as a rule these are very fairly
rendered by their English equivalents. But in the
allied sciences, which are also supposed to be included,
there are curious lacunae. Chemistry is pretty well
represented—for example, we found most of the
technical terms in Biedermann’s ‘‘ Chemiker Kalen-
dar ’’ duly set down—but the pathological vocabulary
leaves much to be desired, and apparently physiology is
not considered an allied science at all—at any rate,
physiological terms are very seldom to be met
with.
The authors have generally avoided the pitfalls set
for the unwary in works of this kind, and there are
few actual mistakes ; occasionally it is difficult to ascer-
tain the real meaning of a word without extraneous
assistance. For example, the word “‘ typhus ’’ by it-
self is not correctly translated by ‘‘ typhus ’’; it in-
variably means “ enteric ’’ (typhoid), and the English
typhus fever is “‘ fleck-typhus,”’ the latter being, how-
ever, correctly entered in its place. The medical mean-
ing of ‘‘ Belastung ”’ is given; the completely different
signification when the word is applied to muscle is
omitted. But the cardinal fault of the dictionary is the
treatment of compound words. These are separately
set forth at length instead of being collected under
their first components, and this increases the bulk and
cost of the work (already too great) without conferring
any real ease of reference. The courteous way in which
the authors in the preface invite suggestions disarms
too caustic comments, and we merely hint gently that
in the next edition the space that could be saved by the
course indicated could be profitably employed by the
534
insertion of a few additional pathological and physio-
logical terms, and that it would be unwise to trans-
late these in the fashion adopted at present in such
words as “‘ luftweg.”’
Régles internationales de la _ Nomenclature szoo-
logique. Pp. 63. (Paris: F. R. de Rudeval,
1905.)
Ir has frequently been remarked that it is not of
much use making laws and regulations unless you |
have the power to enforce their observation; and this
trite saying applies, in our opinion, very forcibly to
this code of regulations for zoological literature, drawn
up by an international committee the deliberations of
which have extended over some years. The code,
which is published in three languages, is admirably |
drawn up, and for the most part free from ambiguity ;
but the question is, will naturalists agree to abide by
it? In our opinion, a large number will refuse to
accept it, since a rigid and slavish adherence to the law
of priority is enjoined, and to many this is anathema.
The rule that when a genus-name is changed this
entails the change of the family title will be generally
regarded as satisfactory. As regards emendation in
names, this is held to be justifiable only when an
error in transcription, a /apsus calami, or a misprint
is apparent; but in the interpretation of this diffi-
culties may arise, as in the well-known case of
Neurogymnurus, which is believed to be an error
for Necrogymnurus. Differences of opinion, again,
are likely to arise with regard to the rejection of
names on account of unsuitableness or similarity to
others already in use. The retention of such names
as Polyodon and Apus when applied to animals which
do not properly come under such designation will,
no doubt, be generally accepted; but what is to be
said when, for instance, an essentially African species
is named asiaticus? Such names as _ Polyodus,
Polyodon, Polyodonta, Polyodontus, &c., are held not
to come under the category of synonyms, although
the converse rule is followed in many systematic works
and catalogues, such as Dr. Trouessart’s ‘‘ Catalogus
Mammalium.”’
As a “ pious’ expression of opinion on the part of
the International Committee the ‘‘ Regles”’ are, no
doubt, valuable; but they would have been much more
so had a plebiscite of zoologists and paleontologists
agreed to accept and abide by the ruling of the com-
mittee. RL:
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaturE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
A New Thallium Mineral.
Tue element thallium, discovered by Sir W. Crookes
in 1861, has up to the present been known as an essential
constituent of only two minerals, viz. crookesite, a selenide |
of copper and thallium, and lorandite, a sulpharsenite of
the latter element. To these minerals a third must now
be added in hutchinsonite, a new sulpharsenite from the
Binnenthal, which also contains thallium as an important
constituent. The crystallographic characters of hutchin-
sonite were described about a year ago by Mr. R. H.
Solly, who, of late years, has been particularly successful
in discovering new mineral species in the Binnenthal. At
the time of its discovery very little in the way of chemical
investigation was possible owing to the extreme scarcity
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[APRIL 6, 1905
————
of the mineral, but during the past year additional crystals
have been acquired for the British Museum, and from
these about eighty milligrams of fairly pure material have
been obtained for chemical analysis. Thallium is present
(up to nearly 20 per cent.), together with lead, silver, and
copper, in combination with arsenic and sulphur. A full
description of the mineral will appear shortly in the
Mineralogical Magazine. G. T. Prior.
The Legendary Suicide of the Scorpion.
| I HAVE recently come across the following passage in the
Rev. John Campbell’s ‘* Travels in South Africa ’’ (London,
1815), p- 38 :—‘* Having caught a scorpion near our tent,
we tried whether naturalists were accurate in relating, that
if that animal be surrounded with fire, and sees he cannot
| escape, he will sting himself to death. However, it died
| as quietly as any other animal, only darting its sting from
it, as if to oppose any ordinary assailant.’’ The experi-
ment was made near Zwellendam, Cape Colony, on
February 20, 1813. Epwarp B. Poucton.
Oxford, March 31.
Propagation of Earthquake Waves.
A FEW days ago I read Major C. E. Dutton’s book on
““Earthquakes in the Light of the New Seismology.”
While acknowledging the high merits of this book, I take
the liberty of pointing out some statements which seem
misleading.
I refer to chapter xiii., where the author, quoting the
results of the experimental investigations of Mr. Nagaoka,
gives the speeds V, and V, of the normal and transverse
waves. Now a glance at the table on pp. 230 and 231
shows that for many rocks the two moduluses E, and E,
| perpendicular and parallel to the bedding planes are far
from being equal; on the contrary, the quotient E,/E,
varies so much as from 1-43/2-49 for rhyolite tuff to
32-1/17-5 for rhyolite. Hence the physical properties of
the rocks in question are different in different directions,
and the speeds of propagation of waves are also different
in different directions, so that the speeds V, and V, of
the table being the same for all directions have no real
meaning for many rocks.
| Again, in chapter xiii. and in other chapters of the
book, the author refers to normal and transverse waves
in rocks. It would be better, perhaps, to speak of dila-
tational and torsional waves; but leaving the question of
terminology out of consideration, I observe that it is only
for perfectly elastic homogeneous and isotropic bodies that
the separation of the dilatational (normal) from _ the
torsional (transverse) wave takes place with certainty.
We have no right to extend this property to zolotropic
bodies. When the body is zolotropic the deformation of an
element on the passage of a wave need not be of a purely
dilatational (normal) or of a purely torsional (transverse)
character ; it is rather of a mixed nature.
I will not say that zolotropic bodies able to propagate
purely dilatational and purely torsional waves cannot exist,
| but I observe that such bodies are to be considered rather
| as possible exceptions, inasmuch as certain special con-
| ditions must be fulfilled in order that the generation of
purely dilatational and purely torsional waves should be
rendered possible. So, for example, the elastic potential of
a perfectly elastic homogeneous uniaxial body implies five
independent constants. When we introduce the condition
that purely dilatational waves may be propagated apart
| from torsional ones, we find that two definite relations
between the constants must be satisfied so that the number
of independent constants is reduced to three. But we
have no reason to maintain a priori that the conditions in
question must be always satisfied.
’ Of course it is to be understood that a perfectly elastic
| homogeneous uniaxial body cannot be considered as an
exact ‘‘ model’ of stratified rocks; it is only very similar
to them; but it is more than highly improbable that the
effect of internal friction would neutralise the effect of
| zolotropism. M. P. Rupzxr.
K. K. Sternwarte, Krakau (Austria), March 24.
APRIL 6, 1905]
NATURE
235
NOTES ON STONEHENGE.)
V.—ON THE StaR OBSERVATIONS MADE IN BritISH
STONE CIRCLES.*
“1° HE work I have tried to do so far on our British
stone circles has dealt with the observations of
the sun made in connection with them, and the
attempt to determine a date has been based upon the
slow change in the obliquity of the ecliptic which is
continually taking place.
In continuation of my work in Egypt in 1891, and
Mr. Penrose’s in Greece in 1892, I have recently
endeavoured to see whether there are any traces in
Britain of the star observations which I found con-
nected with the worship of the sun at certain times
of the year. We both discovered that stars, far out of
the sun’s course, especially in Egypt, were observed in
the dawn as heralds of sunrise—** warning-stars ’’—so
that the priests might have time to prepare the sunrise
sacrifice. To do this properly the star should rise
while the sun is still about 10° below the horizon.
I stated (‘‘ Dawn of Astronomy,’’ p. 319) that Spica
was, the star the heliacal rising of which heralded
the sun on May-day 3200 B.c. in the temple of Min
at Thebes. Sirius was associated with the summer
solstice at about the same time. The equinoxes were
provided for in the same way in Lower Egypt, but
they do not concern us now.
Mr. Penrose found this May-day worship continued
at Athens on foundations built in 1495 B.c. and
2020 B.C., on which the Hecatompedon and older
Erechtheum respectively were subsequently built, the
warning star being now no longer Spica, but the
cluster of the Pleiades.
It is generally known that Stonehenge is associated
with the solstitial year, and I have recently suggested
that it was originally connected with the May year;
but the probable date of its re-dedication, 1680 B.c.,
was determined by Mr. Penrose and myself by the
change of obliquity.
Now if Stonehenge or any other British stone circle
could be proved to have used observations of warn-
ing stars, the determination of the date when such
observations were made would be enormously facili-
tated. Mr. Penrose and myself were content to think
that our date might be within 200 years of the truth,
whereas if we could use the rapid movement of
stars in declination brought about by the precession
of the equinoxes, instead of the slow change of the
sun’s declination brought about by the change of the
value of the obliquity, a possible error of 200 years
would be reduced to one of 10 years.
In spite of this enormous advantage, so far as I
know no one has yet made any inquiry to connect
star observations with any of the British circles.
I have recently obtained clear evidence that some
circles in different parts of Britain were related to
the May year, a vegetation year, which we know was
general over the whole of Europe in early times, and
which still determines the quarter-days in Scotland.
If the Egyptian and Greek practice were continued
here, we should expect to find some indications of
the star observations utilised at the temple of Min and
at the Hecatompedon for the beginning or the other
chief months of the May year. — i
Following the clue given me in the case of the
Egyptian temples, such as Luxor, by successive small
changes of the axis necessitated by the change in |
a star’s place due to precession, I have looked out for |
this peculiarity in an examination of many maps and
plans of circles. ;
I have already come across two examples in which |
F 1 Continued from p. 393. |
> This article is generally based upon a note communicated to the Royal |
Society on March 15.
NO. 1849, VOL, 71]
the sight line has been changed in the Egyptian
manner. The first is the three circles of the Hurlers,
near Liskeard, a plan of which is given in ‘“ Pre-
historic Stone Monuments of the British Isles : Corn-
wall,’’ by H. C. Lukis, published by the Society of
Antiquaries, who were so good as to furnish me with
a copy, and also some unfolded plans on which sight
lines could be accurately drawn and their azimuths
determined. I am anxious to express my obligations
to the council and officers of the society for the help
thus afforded me.
The second is at Stanton Drew, in Somerset, con-
sisting of three circles, two avenues, and at least one
outstanding stone. These were most carefully sur-
veyed by Mr. C. E. Dymond some years ago, and
he was good enough to send me copies of his plans
and levelling sections.
How can such plans help us? The easiest way for
the astronomer-priests to conduct such observations in
a stone circle would be to erect a stone or barrow
indicating the direction of the place on the horizon
at which the star would rise. If the dawn the star
was to herald occurred in the summer, the stone or
barrow itself might be visible if not too far away,
but there was a reason why the stone or barrow
should not be too close; in a solemn ceremonial the
less seen of the machinery the better.
Doubtless such outstanding stones and barrows
would be rendered obvious by a light placed on or
near them. Cups which could hold oil or grease are
known in connection with such stones, and a light
thus fed would suffice in the open if there were no
wind; but in windy weather a cromlech or some
similar shelter must have been provided for it.
Now if these standing stones or barrows were ever
erected and still remain, accurate plans—not the
slovenly plans with which Ferguson and too many
others have provided us, giving us either no indica-
tion of the north or any other point, or else a rough
compass bearing without taking the trouble to state
the variation at the time and place—will help us in
this way.
The work of Stockwell in America, Danckworth in
Germany, and Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer in England has
provided us with tables of the changing declinations
of stars throughout past time, or enough of it for our
purpose.
An accurate determination of either the azimuth
(angular distance from the N. or S. points) or ampli-
tude (angular distance from the E. or W. points) of
the stone or barrow as seen from the centre of the stone
circle will enable us to determine this declination.
This, of course, only gives us a first approximation.
The angular height of the point on the horizon to
which the alignment or sight-line is directed by the
stone or barrow from the centre of the circle must
be most accurately determined, otherwise the declin-
ations may be one or two degrees out.
To come back to the two cases to which I have
referred, the Hurlers and Stanton Drew. I will begin
with a reference to the available descriptions of the
circles.
The three circles of the Hurlers, some five miles
to the north of Liskeard, are thus referred to by
Lukis in the valuable monograph which I have
| already mentioned.
‘““On the moor, about a mile to the south of the
singular pile of granite slabs, which rest upon and
overlap each other, and is vulgarly called the
Cheesewring, there are three large circles of granite
| stones placed in a nearly straight line in a north-
north-east, and south-south-west direction, of which
the middle one is the largest, being 135 feet in
diameter, the north 110 feet, and the south 105 feet.
““The north Circle is 98 feet, and the south 82 feet
536
NATURE
[ApRIL 6, 1905
|
from the central one. If a line be drawn uniting the |
centres of the extreme Circles, the centre of the |
middle ring is found to be 12 feet 6 inches to the
west of it.
““These Circles have been greatly injured. The
largest. consists of g erect and 5 prostrate stones;
the north Circle has 6 erect and 6 prostrate, and a
fragment of a seventh; and the south has 3 erect and
8 prostrate. In Dr. Borlase’s time
they were in a slightly better con-
dition. A pen-and-ink sketch made
by him, which is extant in one of
Dr. Stukeley’s volumes of original
drawings, represents the middle
Circle as consisting of 7 erect and
Io prostrate stones; the north of 10
erect and 6 prostrate; and the south
of 3 erect and g prostrate. The
stone to the east of that marked C
in the plan of the middle Circle is
the highest, and is 5 feet 8 inches
out of the ground, and appears to
have been wantonly mutilated re-
cently. Two of the prostrate stones
of the north Circle are 6 feet 6
inches in length.
“About 17 feet south from the
centre of the middle Circle there is
a prostrate stone 4 feet long and 15
inches wide at one end. It may
possibly have been of larger dimen-
sions formerly, and been erected on
the spot where it now lies, but as
Dr. Borlase has omitted it in his
sketch it is probably a displaced
stone of the ring.
“Tf we allow, as before, an
average interval of 12 feet between
the stones, there will have been Os Late / @
about 28 pillars in the north, 26 in of, UE Bey fi:
the south, and 33 in the middle Manor Hofises
Circle. K\
“At a distance of 4o9 feet west-
wards from K in the middle Circle
there are 2 stones, 7 feet apart,
both inclined northwards. One is
4 feet 11 inches in height out of the
ground, and overhangs its base 2
feet 7 inches; the other is 5 feet
4 inches high, and overhangs 18
inches.’ 1
I next come to Stanton Drew.
I will begin by giving a short
account of the stones which remain,
abridged from the convenient pam-
phlet prepared for the British Asso-
ciation meeting at Bristol in 1898
by Prof. Lloyd Morgan.
The circles at Stanton Drew,
though far less imposing than those
of Avebury and Stonehenge, are
thought to be more ancient than are
the latter, for the rough-hewn up-
rights and plinths of Stonehenge
bear the marks of a higher and pre-
sumably later stage of mechanical
Taken
development. as a group,
the Somersetshire circles are in
some respects more complex than their better known
rivals in Wiltshire. There are three circles, from two
of which ‘‘ avenues ’’ proceed for a short distance in a |
more or less easterly direction ; there is a shattered but |
large dolmen—if we may so regard the set of stones
1“ The Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles : Cornwall” By
William Collings Lukis, M.A., F.S.A., Rector of Wath, Yorkshire. P. 4.
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
Fic. 13.—The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew
called ‘* the cove ’’; and there are outlying stones—the
““ quoit,’? and those in Middle Ham—which bear such
relations to the circles as to suggest that they too
formed parts of some general scheme of construction.
The ‘* quoit,’’ lying in an orchard by the roadside,
has nothing very impressive about its appearance—a
recumbent mass of greyish sandstone; but it seems
to be a brick in the Stanton Drew building. By some
Soe “Ta
Mauldilte’s\ Quo
tanto
. Mary’ Ghurch \ u
Prearngs) See \«
sary we 2 eee Ep
: Pe Farig
) a ht,
‘ A
— Sa a2
> 3 Dreivicae ale “ey zy t <9
de 3 ae Bee
% 3.
S
s\
is a rassnbiuansd
<
ess =
} Meta}
Photograph of 25-inch Ordnance Map,
giving approximate azimuths of sight-lines.
regarded as a sarsen block from Wiltshire, it is more
probably derived from the Old Red Sandstone of Men-
dip. In any case it is not, geologically speaking, in
situ; nor has it reached its present position by natural
agency. :
With regard to two of the megalithic circles, at first
sight the constituent stones seem irregularly dotted
APRIL 6, 1905]
about the field; but as we approach them the unevenly
spaced stones group themselves.
The material of which the greater number of the
rude blocks is composed is peculiar and worthy of
careful examination. It is a much altered rock con-
sisting, in most of the stones, of an extremely hard
silicious breccia with angular fragments embedded in
a red or deep brown matrix, and with numerous cavi-
ties which give it a rough slaggy appearance. Many
of these hollows are coated internally with a jasper-
like material, the central cavity being lined with
gleaming quartz-crystals.
The majority of the stones were probably brought
from Harptree Ridge on Mendip, distant some six
miles. Weathered blocks of Triassic breccia, showing
various stages of silicification, there lie on the surface;
and there probably lay the weathered monoliths which
have been transported to Stanton Drew. It is im-
portant to note that they were erected unhewn and un-
touched by the tool. A few stones are of other material
—sandstone, like the ‘‘ quoit,’’ or oolite from Dundry.
In the great circle, of the visible stones some retain
their erect position, others are recumbent, several are
partially covered by accumulation of grass-grown soil.
Others are completely buried, their position being re-
vealed in dry seasons by the withering of the grass
above them.
To the east of this circle a short avenue leads
out, there being three visible stones and one buried
block on the one hand, and two visible stones on the
other. But one’s attention is apt to be diverted from
these to the very large and massive megaliths of the
small N.E. circle. This is composed of eight
weathered masses, one of which (if indeed it do not
represent more than one), Prof. Lloyd Morgan tells us,
is recumbent and shattered. From this circle, all the
stones of which are of the silicious breccia, a short
avenue of small stones also opens out eastwards.
The third or S.W. circle lies at some little distance
from the others. The average size of the stones is
smaller than in either of the other circles, and not
all are composed of the same material.
“The Cove,’’ which has been variously regarded
as a dolmen, a druidical chair of state, and a shelter
for sacrificial fire, is close to the church.
The dimensions and number of stones are as
follow :—
Great Circle, diameter 368 feet, 30 stones.
N.E. 33 ” 97 ” 8 ”
S.W. ” ” 145 5 I2 ”
We now pass from general descriptions of the
circles to the azimuths of the sight lines already re-
ferred to, so far as they can be determined from the
published Ordnance maps.
To investigate them as completely as possible with-
out local observations in the first instance, I begged
Colonel Johnston, R.E., C.B:, the Director-General
of the Ordnance Survey, to send me the 25-inch maps
of the sites giving the exact azimuth of the side lines.
This he obligingly did, and I have to express my
great indebtedness to him.
Of the various sight lines found, those to which
I wish to direct attention in the first instance, and
which led me to the others, are approximately, read-
ing the azimuths to the nearest degree, ‘
Horlers Stanton Drew
Lat. 50° 31’ N. Az. Lat. 51° 10’ N. Az.
S. circle to central Great circle to Quoit N. 17° E.
circle... ... .. N.12°E. S.W. circle to great
Central to N. circle N. 15° F. circle
N. circle to tumulus N. 19° E.
N. 20° E.
For the purposes of a preliminary inquiry in antici-
pation of the necessary local observations with a
theodolite, for which I am making arrangements;
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
NATURE
537
assuming hills half a degree high, which roughly
compensate the refraction correction so that we may
use sea-horizon values, we have the following de-
clinations approximately :—
The Hurlers. Lat. 50° 31’ Stanton Drew. Lat. 51° 10
Dec. N. 383° Dec. N. 37°
roe sis 55: GOR:
wn al
Here, then, we have declinations to work on,
but declinations of what star? To endeavour to
answer this question I prepared a _ diagram
showing the declination of the three brightest stars
in the northern heavens, having approximately the
declinations in question for the period 0 to 2500 B.c.
The calculations for 0 to 2000 B.c. are taken from
the tables published by the Astronomisches Gesell-
schaft,! and have been completed from 2000 to 2500
B.c. by Dr, Lockyer.
Vega is ruled out as its declination is too high.
The remaining stars Capella and Arcturus may have
been observed so far as the declinations go. For
time limits we have :—
Dec. N Capella. Arcturus.
384° 500 B.C. 1550 B.c.
36° 1050 ,, TG Olas
The interesting fact must be pointed out that about
tooo B.c. the declination of the two stars was very
nearly the same.
Now there is no question as to which of these
two stars we have to deal with, for I find by the use
of a precessional globe that for about 1400 B.c. and
800 B.c. the warning stars were as follows for the
critical times of the year, i.e. May, August,
November, February.
1400 B.C. Az. 800 B.C. Az.
May Pleiades rising Pleiades rising
Aug. Arcturus rising N. 14° E. Sirius rising
Nov. Capella setting Betelgeuse rising
Feb. Capella rising N. 29° E. Capellarising N. 21° FE,
Dec. 34° N. WEG: 37naNs
It is quite clear, then, that we have to deal with
Arcturus, and this being so, the approximate dates
of the use of the three circles at the Hurlers can be
derived. They are :—
B.C.
Southern circle aligning Arcturus over centre of central circle 1600
Central % aD N. circle 1500
Northern AA Ae oe tumulus 1300
I have already pointed out that Mr. Penrose found
the warning star for May morning at the date of
foundation of the Hecatompedon, 1495 B.c., to be
the group of the Pleiades. As the foundations of the
Hecatompedon were only built some few years before
the stones of the central circle of the Hurlers were
used, we ought to find traces of the observations of
the same May morning stars. We do; there is a
stone with amplitude E. 15° N., which, when aligned
from the S. circle, would have pointed out the rising
place of the Pleiades in 1300 B.c., that is, the date
the observations of
we have already found from
Arcturus. I regard this as an important confirm-
ation of the time of the use of the temple, all the more
as the high situation of the circles, not generally
dominated by higher levels for some miles, renders it
probable that large corrections for hills will not be
required to be made.
There are alignments in connection with the N.
circle which indicate the introduction of the solstitial
year, but these and some others may wait until local
observations have been made before more is said
about them.
With regard to Stanton Drew, it is clear that we
are there also dealing with Arcturus. Mr. Dymond’s
1 Dr. O. Danckworth, Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft,
16 Jahrgang 1881, p. 9.
$5
=
re)
oO
NATURE
[ApRIL 6, 1905
levels give an idea of the height of the hills, so with
the Ordnance map azimuths, read to 1°, the dates
of the use of the great and S.W. circles are approxi-
mately as under :—
B.C.
Great Circle ... 1260
S.W. Circle ... Ae 2s 1075
We seem, then, to have made a step in advance.
More accurate readings of the Ordnance maps and
accurate determination of the heights of hills may
vary the above values slightly. But that is an un-
important detail if it can be shown that we have a
new method of dating what went on in prehistoric
Britain at the time when the Athenians were building
the Hecatompedon.
A great amount of local theodolite work has to be
done, for while Mr. Lukis only referred to two out-
standing stones at the Hurlers, there are many more
marked on the Ordnance map; there are also others
besides the ‘‘ quoit ’ at Stanton Drew.
I am more rejoiced than I can
say to know that this local work I
has already been begun under
the best possible conditions. As .
it was impossible for me to leave ce
London when the significance of
the alignments was made out, I
appealed to the authorities of
University College, Bristol, and
of the Royal Cornwall Poly-
technic Society for aid. The
principal of the college, Prof.
Lloyd Morgan, together with
Prof. Morrow and his engineer-
ing class, have already made
observations at Stanton Drew,
and Captain J. S. Henderson, of
Falmouth, an accomplished sur-
veyor, sent me last week from
the Hurlers the angular heights
along some of the alignments,
the means of eight readings ob-
tained with a 6-inch theodolite,
both verniers and reversed tele-
scopes being employed. Other
students of science besides my-
self will, I am sure, feel their
indebtedness for such opportune
help. Norman Lockyer.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION GEOLOGICAL
PHOTOGRAPHS.
HE geological photographs committee of the |
British Association and its indefatigable secre-
tary, Prof. W. W. Watts, are to be congratulated |
on the third issue, which completes the first series, of
their admirable photographs. There are twenty-four
photographs in this issue, all of great interest, showing |
much skill in technique, and considerable artistic power
in the choice of the point of view from which the
objects were taken. They treat of a variety of sub-
jects, chiefly the action of wind and rain, frost and
ice, and sea-waves, igneous intrusion, the character of
sedimentary rocks, and structures due to faulting and
folding. ;
There are two good pictures of the remarkable rain- |
eroded pillars of Old Red Conglomerate which occur at
Allt Dearg, on the Spey, Morayshire, and remind us
of the similar forms which may be seen in much
younger deposits on the right side of the Brenner as |
we travel towards Italy. They were first figured by
Sir Archibald Geikie, who provides a description to the
photographs, in which he directs attention to the com-
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
Fic. 1.—Keuper marl re
parative rapidity of their formation, as shown by the
fact that ‘‘some of these isolated stacks of con-
glomerate are capped by boulder clay, and their
capitals may here and there be seen to have retained
their covering of thick peaty soil.”
The photograph of the tower of Eccles Church, an
object made so familiar by Lyell’s ‘‘ Principles,’’ is
the last that was taken (in 1886), and the last that will
be taken, for the tower itself was destroyed in 1895.
Prof. Reynolds’s photograph of the great Axmouth
landslip gives a good view of the ‘‘ mighty chasm
which separated the foundering mass from the land.’’
The original describers of this were Buckland and
Conybeare, and a water-colour copy by Ruskin of Mrs.
Buckland’s drawing still hangs in the University
Museum at Oxford. Of queer forms the ‘‘ Rock and
Spindle,’’ St. Andrews, Fifeshire, photographed by Mr.
G. Bingley and described by Prof. Bonney, and ‘‘ Lot’s
Wife,’’ Marsden, Durham, a ‘‘ breccia gash ”’ trans-
formed into a sea-stack. described by Prof. Lebour, are
sting on terraced granite surface ; Mountsorrel Quarry, Leicestershire.
Photographed by Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.
among the quaintest; they would be good puzzles to
set a student in examination. The most novel subject
is the wind-worn surface of granite disclosed beneath
the Keuper marl in the Mountsorrel quarry, one of the
several proofs discovered by Prof. Watts of the desert
conditions which prevailed in these islands and else-
where during a part of the Trias period. We have
selected this for reproduction. oe
As this is the last issue of the first series it is use-
fully accompanied by some introductory letterpress,
which includes the names of the committee, a preface,
table of contents, and other information. We learn
from the preface that the idea of forming a systematic
collection of geological photographs originated with
Mr. Osmond W. Jeffs in 1889; to carry it out a com-
mittee of the British Association was appointed in 1890,
and Mr. Jeffs acted as secretary until 1896, by which
time 1412 photographs had been contributed. In 1895
Prof. W. W. Watts became secretary, and by 1903 the
collection had grown to the magnificent total of 3754.
It is housed in the Museum of Practical Geology, 28
Jermyn-street, S.W. The series issued to subscribers
and just completed consists of a selected number (72)
of these photographs, taken from negatives generously
lent by their owners, and furnished with descriptions
by many of the leading geologists of the day.
APRIL 6, 1905]
NALOR LE
539
The success of the scheme is shown by the fact that
it has resulted in a considerable profit; of this one half
has been returned to the subscribers in the form of
additional whole-plate photographs, and the other half
will provide funds for carrying on the work of the
committee for at least four years. In a strictly business
undertaking it is to be presumed that a good slice of
the profits would disappear in ‘‘ wages of superintend-
ence,’’ and subscribers may therefore regard their
additional photographs as a gift from Prof. Watts.
THE SOCIETY OF ARTS AND THE LONDON
INSTITUTION.
‘ON Wednesday next a special meeting of proprietors
of the London Institution will be held to consider
a scheme for its amalgamation with the Society of
Arts. Founded in 1805 by merchants and bankers of
the City of London, given a charter two years later, and
housed in its present imposing, if rather sombre, pre-
mises in 1819, the London Institution has done good
work in its day. The object of its founders was to
maintain, in what was then a central position, an ex-
tensive general library of reference, comprising works
of intrinsic value and utility in all languages; to pro-
vide reading rooms for periodical publications and
interesting contemporaneous pamphlets; and to pro-
mote the diffusion of knowledge by lectures and con-
versazioni. But since the foundation of the institution
circumstances have greatly changed, and not to the
advantage of the institution. In 1817, and for many
years afterwards, the City contained a large residential
population, which for a long time past has been
gradually disappearing, until now the number of pro-
prietors who use the institution as a centre of intellec-
tual culture is comparatively small, and is more likely
to grow smaller than toincrease. In these circum-
stances the board of management has recognised that
if the institution is to live and thrive some scheme
must be devised for increasing its usefulness, and the
proposal to amalgamate with the Society of Arts is the
outcome of prolonged consideration of a difficult
problem.
The Society of Arts carries on to a large extent work
of the same nature as that for which the London Insti-
tution was founded, but whereas the institution has
suffered from residential changes, the society was never
more prosperous. But it, too, has had its ups and
downs. In the early ’forties of the last century it
began to show signs of decrepitude, and in 1841 a
committee was appointed to examine its position and
make recommendations. But little seems to have been
done until measures were taken for obtaining a Royal
Charter of Incorporation, which was granted in 1847.
Then it was proposed to hold an exhibition of English
industry. Prizes for modern industrial art were offered,
and eagerly competed for, and by 1850 the membership
had risen again to r500. An exhibition of ancient and
mediaeval art was held which was very successful, and
a proposal to hold an international exhibition cul-
minated in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Since then
the Society of Arts has done much good work in pro-
moting industrial art and encouraging inventive
genius. The prosperity of the ‘fifties was followed by
some lean years, but for a generation past it has been
highly prosperous, largely owing to the sagacious
guidance of its present secretary. Sir Henry Wood has
always attached great importance to the constitution of
the council of the society. He has not only sought for
and found eminent men, he has got those who were
willing to give time and attention to the affairs of the
society, men like Sir Frederick Bramwell, Sir F. Abel,
Sir W. Siemens, Sir Douglas Galton, Lord Alverstone,
Sir J. W. Barry, Sir W. Preece, the Duke of Abercorn,
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
and Sir W. Abney. All these gentlemen have served
as chairmen of the council, and the society owes them
much.
Both institutions are financially strong. The London
Institution possesses a site which is worth at least
150,000l., besides a fund invested in consols of the
present value of 31,0001. Its income in 1903 was
3583!., and its expenditure was 36161. The Society of
Arts has an annual income which last year exceeded
11,000l., a capital fund of about 20,000/., which has
accumulated from surplus income during the last
twenty years, and trust funds amounting to nearly
15,0001. What, then, are the inducements to the one
institution and the other to consent to an amalgama-
tion? It is not proposed that either should absorb the
other. The suggestion is amalgamation into a single
body for the promotion of science, art, and literature,
and their practical applications, the members of each
corporation preserving all their present rights, and
sharing in the government of the new institution and
in the direction of its future action.
The determining consideration with the Society of
Arts is that the amalgamation would give it a per-
manent local building. The society does not own its
premises. They were built for it by the Brothers Adam
in 1774, but the lease has run out, and it is now
practically a tenancy at will. Moreover, the building
is inadequate for the growing needs of the society, and
the funds at its disposal are not sufficient to enable it
to build for itself, whereas by amalgamation with the
London Institution, which would sell its Finsbury pre-
mises, ample funds would be available. It is believed
that the accommodation required could be got for a
sum of 100,000l., and a suitable site found “ east of
Charing Cross and west of Chancery Lane.”’ If it
were decided to erect a building of sufficient size there
are several other societies who would probably be pre-
pared to join in the scheme, separate and distinct
accommodation being provided for each, much as
Burlington House now accommodates a number of
independent institutions. ,
The amalgamation would give the London Institu-
tion a large accession of annual income, and the
revenues of the new institution would justify the ex-
tinction in perpetuity of the annual payment of two
guineas now required from the proprietors of the
London Institution, while leaving them a permanent
property in their shares disposable by will, or otherwise,
as heretofore, the Society of Arts having approved of
this as one of the terms of amalgamation. It would
be part of the arrangement that any proprietor pre-
ferring to withdraw from the scheme and to surrender
his share would be enabled to do so, and be paid 251.
in discharge of his rights and interests in such share.
Those who remained would be members of an institu-
tion of very great importance and influence, well en-
dowed, and in a position to carry into effect many
objects of the highest public, scientific, and economic
importance.
It is not to be supposed that the proposed amalgama-
tion will be carried through without encountering
opposition, but it will probably be found that a very
large majority of both institutions is prepared to accept
it. In the opinion of eminent counsel, the effect of its
charter is to constitute the London Institution in a
legal sense a charity, with the result that its property
and funds are impressed with a charitable trust, and
cannot be divided or applied to any other purpose than
that prescribed by the charter. Consequently, the
property could not be divided up without serious risk.
If the amalgamation is to be carried through, the
most convenient and least costly way of carrying it into
effect would be to promote an Act of Parliament for
the purpose, and, granted the authorisation of general
meetings, this will be done. But an Act cannot be got
540
NATURE
(APRIL 6, 1905
until next year, and a site for the new building can
hardly be secured before the Act is got, so that if all
goes smoothly, a year or two must elapse before the
united societies, to be known as ‘The Society of
Arts and the London Institute,’ can receive their
friends under the altered conditions, and in their new
premises.
The idea of thus combining into a single body two
scientific institutions, each of considerable importance,
is a bold and novel one, and it is to be hoped that it
may not fail of success. It would be a pity if any
narrow views or selfish considerations hindered the
carrying out of a very interesting experiment. Each
of the two corporations can supply much of what the
other lacks. The constitution of the London Institu-
tion is unfortunate. It consists of a body of share-
holders, the descendants or heirs of. the original
founders, many of whom are naturally out of sympathy
with the objects of the institution, and no means exist
of introducing fresh blood or attracting to its member-
ship the men who would most fitly carry on its proper
work. Very early in its career the kindred Royal
Institution altered its constitution, disendowed its pro-
prietors, and adopted a more popular and democratic
organisation. Its unfailing success ever since has
proved the wisdom of the change. But the Finsbury
institution possesses considerable property. It has a
magnificent library. Its list of members is still
a showy one. It only requires the infusion of fresh
blood ; it wants new life and vigour. The Society of
Arts is a very popular and vigorous body, full of life
and energy. It does much really useful public work.
Its examinations, for instance, attract more candidates
than that of any other private body in the kingdom.
Its Cantor lectures (which are always freely open to
London students) are a valuable educational agency.
But it is hampered by want of larger offices, its library
is far from being a credit to it, and it might well devote
more attention and more funds to purposes of research
and investigation.
A new institution such as should be formed ought to
possess the good points of both its parents, while avoid-
ing the weaknesses of either. It might also form a
nucleus round which might gather many of the smaller
societies, now often inadequately housed. In a suit-
able building accommodation might well be provided
for many other societies, scientific, literary, and
artistic, which are now scattered about in ‘various
quarters of London.
Even a larger scheme is conceivable.
House can find room for but a small proportion of the
scientific bodies of London. Why should not this pro-
posed amalgamation lead to the erection of a second
Burlington House, of which those of our larger and
richer societies who are not satisfied with their premises
should erect each their own part, independent certainly
of te another, and yet combined under a common
roof?
Burlington
NOTES.
Lorp KeEtvin, who has been out of health for some
time, underwent a serious operation on March 29. He
passed a restless night on March 30, but has much im-
proved since then, and appears to be making satisfactory
Progress toward recovery. The King and the Prince and
Princess of Wales have made special inquiries as to his
condition; and there have been numerous callers.
Sir Wirtiam. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., has been elected
a member of the Athenzeum Club under the provisions of
the rule which empowers the annual election of nine
persons “‘ of distinguished eminence in science, literature,
the arts, or for public services.’
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
author of a number of metallurgical
It is reported by the Exchange Telegraph Company that
a violent earthquake occurred at Lahore on Tuesday,
April 4, causing serious loss of life and great damage to
public buildings and other property. ;
A GRanT of 30,000/. has been authorised by the Carnegie
Institution, Science states, for the solar observatory on
Mt. Wilson. It is expected that the first equipment will
cost about twice this sum.
We learn with sincere regret that Prof. Pietro Tacchini,
formerly director for many years of the astronomical
observatory of the Collegio Romano, and of the Central
Office for Meteorology and Geodynamics at Rome, died
on March 24 at sixty-seven years of age.
Tue Times states that the Chartley herd of white cattle
has just been purchased by Mr. J. R. B. Masefield, of
Cheadle, Staffordshire, on behalf of the Duke of Bedford,
who has come forward and saved the herd from leaving
the country or falling into the hands of the taxidermist.
AN agricultural education and forestry exhibition will
be held in connection with the show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society at Park Royal on June 27-30. Any offers
of exhibits, or inquiries, should be addressed to the secre-
tary of the society, at 13 Hanover Square, London, W.
Tue Easter excursion of the Geologists’ Association will
be to mid-Lincolnshire. The party will leave London for
Grantham on Thursday, April 20, and after visiting several
places of geological interest will leave Lincoln for London
on Wednesday, April 26. The excursion secretary is Mr.
W. P. D. Stebbing, 8 Playfair Mansions, Queen’s Club
Gardens, London, W.
A Great historical pageant is in active preparation at
Sherborne, Dorsetshire, to commemorate the 1200th anni-
versary of the founding of the town, bishopric, and school
by St. Ealdhelm, a.p. 705. The pageant, which will be
presented in the ruins of Sherborne Castle on June 12-15,
will take the form of a folk-play written by Mr. Louis N.
Parker and dealing with the chief historical events of
the town. ‘
Tue death of Dr. L. Bleekrode, of the Hague, is
announced in the Chemical News. Dr. Bleekrode’s work
was principally connected with electrical matters, his first
paper, in 1867, being on the influence of heat on electro-
motive force. In 1870 he wrote a paper on a curious
property of gun-cotton; other papers dealt with electrical
conductivity and electrolysis in chemical compounds,
observations on the microphone, Xc.
We regret to see the announcement of the death, on
March 25, of the eminent German metallurgist, Prof.
Bruno Kerl, at the age of eighty-one. He was professor
of metallurgy at the Clausthal School of Mines, and sub-
sequently at the Berlin School of Mines, and was the
works. His first
book, on the smelting processes of the Upper Hartz,
was published in 1852. His important treatise on metal-
lurgy was translated into English by Sir W. Crookes and
E. Rodhrig in 1868. His books on assaying were also
translated.
Tue importance of the application of mathematics to
engineering problems has frequently been insisted upon in
these columns. Another instance of the close connection
between pure and applied science is afforded by an in-
vestigation of some disregarded points in the stability of
masonry dams, by Prof. Karl Pearson and Mr. L. W.
Atcherley, referred to by Sir William Garstin in connec-
tion with the scheme for raising the Nile dam, in a recent
APRIL 6, 1905]
NATURE
541
report to the Egyptian Council of Ministers. It appears
that the theory of stresses upon masonry dams requires
important modifications, which will have to be taken into
consideration in all future designs for such works. We
understand that much experimental work on the subject is
at present in progress, and that results of great interest
to hydraulic engineers may be expected.
Tue anniversary dinner of the Chemical Society was held
at the Whitehall Rooms, Hétel Métropole, on March 29,
when the president, Prof. W. A. Tilden, was in the chair,
and many leading representatives of the physical sciences
were present. Sir William Church, in giving the toast of
“Prosperity to the Chemical Society,’’ spoke of the
advances which Chemical science has made, and declared
that the advantages which have accrued to the United
Kingdom, as a result of the work of chemists, cannot be
over-estimated. Prof. Meldola submitted the toast of
“* Scientific Institutions,’’ which was responded to by Prof.
J. Larmor and Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. Sir William
Ramsay proposed the toast of ‘‘ The Guests,’’ and in re-
plying Mr. Haldane said that as science never stood still,
‘but progressed continually, so the Government of this
country must, if the nation is to hold its own, make an
increasing use of science in all departments of the State
service. He expressed the belief that in the course of
the next few years the position of science in the Govern-
ment of the country will be much more prominent, and
that scientific methods will become much more general.
Prof. Perry also spoke.
A MEETING of the Institution of Naval Architects will be
held at the Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, on
April 12-14. Lord Glasgow, president of the institution,
who will occupy the chair, will deliver his address on
April 12; and Mr. W. E. Smith, C.B., Colonel N. Soliani,
and Mr. Herbert Rowell will submit papers for discussion.
On April 13 Prof. J. H. Biles will read a paper on the
strength of ships, with special reference to experiments
and calculations made upon His Majesty’s ship Wolf, and
other papers will be submitted by Mr. F. H. Alexander,
Mr. J. Bruhn, Mr. R. E. Froude, Mr. C. E. Stromeyer,
Mr. A. W. Johns, and Herr S. Popper. Among the papers
to be read on April 14 is one on the Admiralty course
of study for the training of naval architects by Mr.
E. L. Attwood, and another on submarine signalling by
means of sound by Mr. J. B. Millet, of Boston, U.S.A.
Tue Royal medals of the Royal Geographical Society
for this year have been awarded to Sir Martin Conway "
(founder’s medal) for his explorations of various moun-
tain regions of the world, and his work among the islands
of Spitsbergen; and to Captain C. H. D. Ryder, R.E.
(patron’s medal), for the important and extensive work
which he accomplished while acting as principal survey
officer on the recent Tibet Mission. The Victoria research
medal, for distinguished service to the cause of geo-
graphical research, as distinguished from exploration, has
been awarded to Mr. J. G. Bartholomew. The Murchison
grant goes to Mr. William Wallace, C.M.G., Deputy High
Commissioner of the Northern Nigerian Protectorate.
Colonel F. R. Maunsell, R.A., has been awarded the Gill
memorial for his explorations during many years’ resi-
dence in Asia Minor; Mr. F. J. Lewis the Cuthbert Peek
grant for contributions to the knowledge of botanical dis-
tribution by his researches into the geographical distribu-
tion of vegetation in the north of England; and Captain
Philip Maud, R.E., the Back grant for survey work in
1903 along the southern border of Abyssinia.
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
Tue concluding issue of the Proceedings of the Phila-
delphia Academy for 1904 contains the reports of the
secretaries and curators for that year, from which it
appears that the society continues to be in a flourishing
condition, both as regards its publications and its museum.
In an article published in Naturen for March, Mr. J.
Rekstad shows the value of photography to illustrate the
secular variation in glacier terminations, the respective
differences. between two glaciers in August, 1899, and
September, 1903, being admirably exhibited. In both in-
stances, it may be remarked, there has been very decided
shrinkage in the length of the glacier: The value of
photographs of this nature as a basis of comparison in
the years to come will be very great.
We have been favoured with a copy of No. 17 of the
Boletin of the Institute of Mining Engineers. of Peru,
which contains an account of certain annelid remains and
ammonites. in the Salto del Fraile and Morro Solar dis-
tricts by Mr. C. I. Lisson. Both formations appear to be
of Neocomian age, the higher beds of Salto del Fraile
remarkable for the number of borings of annelids
of the genus Tigillites they contain, while the lower Morro
Solar noteworthy for its the
group
being
stratum is ammonites ° of
Sonneratia.
In the Report and Transactions of the East Kent Scien-
tific and Natural History Society for the past year, the
secretary takes occasion to direct attention to the ‘general
apathy towards matters scientific prevailing in that portion
of the county he Owing to this cause, the
season’s excursions were practically a failure, and there
may be some connection between this apathy and the
fact that it has hitherto been found impracticable properly
to arrange and display the natural history collections in
the Roval Museum.
represents.
Tue Zoologist for March opens with an article by Mr.
Lydekker on the small Asiatic mountain antelopes known
as gorals. The main object of the article was to describe
the Burmese species; but in,the course of his investigation
the author was led to believe in the existence of two
Himalayan representatives of this group, one of which he
names Urotragus bedfordi, on account of the type speci-
men having lived in the park at Woburn. In the pen-
ultimate line on p. 84 we notice that the word “‘ eastern ay
should be ‘‘ western.’? The second article, by Mr. John
Gurney, is devoted to Norfolk bird-life in 1904, and it is
interesting to note that in the spring of that year the
author had the good fortune to see two avocets and seven
spoonbills on Breydon Broad.
From the fisheries branch of the Department of Agri-
culture and Technical Instruction for Ireland we have re-
ceived a copy of No. 4 of Scientific Investigations, contain-
ing an account by Messrs. Holt and Tattersall of schizopod
crustaceans from the north-east Atlantic slope, and a note
on one genus of the same group by Dr. Calman. In
proposing several new generic types, the authors of the
first paper suggest that these may prove of only temporary
value, and add the remark that these, if not forgotten,
‘“ will, at least, cease to be harmful whenever the fashion
of reviving deservedly forgotten names has its due
course.’? Dr. Calman proposes the name Nematobrachion
to replace his Nematodactylus of 1896, which he regards as
preoccupied by Richardson’s Nemadactylus. Evidently
neither of the three authors are in sympathy with the
rules for nomenclature in zoology drawn up by the Paris
run
committee.
542
Dr. T. H. Montcomery, in the Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society for the last quarter of
1904, runs a tilt at the generally accepted view as to the
morphological superiority of the male sex in animals.
Among invertebrates, he urges, it is always the male which
is of inferior size and development, while as regards verte-
brates, although the males have in many cases secured
superiority in the matter of bodily size and secondary
sexual characters, yet, as regards the generative organs
(notably the suppression in certain instances of one
ovary), the advantage, from the point of view of specialisa-
tion and development, is largely on the side of the female.
While admitting that different morphologists might esti-
mate the value of these characters differently, the author
is inclined to give the greatest morphological value to the
higher development of the reproductive organs.
In discussing in the same issue the origin of the mark-
ings of organisms, the late Prof. Packard arrived at the
conclusion that these are dependent on the physical rather
than on the biological environment. The alleged instances
of “ Miillerian’’ mimicry he explained, ‘for example,
by convergence due to the action of similar physical and
climatic causes, since he regarded the attacks of birds as a
negligible factor. Again, the frequent instances of colour
and pattern resemblance between different animals he
attributed to pigmentation caused by exposure to sun-
light and shade, due to the repetition of fundamental
colours. ‘‘ To claim that Miillerian mimicry,’’ he added,
“is due to the attacks of birds, is to overlook the fact of
the existence of stripes, bars, and spots on the wings of
palaozoic insects which flourished before the appearance
of birds, and even of modern types of lizards.”
Tue Report on the third outbreak of plague at Sydney
in 1903 by Dr. Ashburton Thompson is interesting as
showing how an epizootic of plague among the rats pre-
ceded the two cases of human plague. From July 15, 1902,
to April 30, 1903, 31,075 rats were caught, of which 17,160
were examined and found to be free from plague. On
May 12 a rat was found on certain premises which on
examination proved to be infected with plague, and up to
August 15 14,671 rats and
I1r rats and 50 mice were ascertained to be infected with
plague. From then until December, 1903, 13,389 rats and
mice were captured of which none was infected. The two
human cases occurred on June 20 and July 4, i.e. during
the period when the epizootic existed among the rodents.
mice
Tue February number of Indian Public Health (i., No. 7)
contains several papers of interest, notably one criticising
the plague policy of the Indian Government, in which it
is concluded that the only way to grapple with the plague
problem is the formation of a properly organised and
equipped permanent public health service for the country.
In the course of a report on the characters and analyses
sweet potatoes cultivated in Jamaica, Mr. H. H.
writing in the West Indian Bulletin (vol. v.,
No. 3), records the fact that the process of cooking in-
creases the sugar content of sweet potatoes very consider-
ably. Further experiments are being undertaken to ascer-
tain the exact chemical nature of the change. A com-
parison of tubers freshly dug with others that had been
stored for some weeks indicated that during storage there
is also a development of sugars at the expense of other
substances in the tubers.
of
Cousins,
Various kinds of citrus fruits, including oranges, pome-
loes, grapefruit, and more particularly lemons and limes,
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
were caught, of which |
NATURE
| by the Peruvian Corps of Mining Engineers.
[APRIL 6, 1905
are liable to suffer from the ravages of a parasitic fungus,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which attacks the leaves,
causes spot or canker on the fruit, or brings about
abscission of the inflorescence. The fungus has been re-
ported from various orange-growing countries, and on
account of its partiality for limes, planters in the West
Indies will do well to consult the account by Mr. P. H.
Rolfs which is published in the Bulletin, vol. iii., part ii.,
of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica.
Tue publication of pamphlets dealing with the cultiva-
tion, varieties, and market requirements of well known
commercial plant products, as instituted by the director
of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, is a practical and
important phase in the development of economic botany.
In vol. ii., Nos. 23 and 25, of the Circulars of the gardens,
Mr. H. Wright takes up the subjects of ground nuts and
castor oil plants. The best quality of ground nuts, and
these can be grown in Ceylon, are bought for eating, but
the demand is limited; on the other hand, the require-
ment of the nuts for oil-crushing, although ‘the price is
less remunerative, is practically unlimited, and the cake
furnishes an excellent cattle food. In the castor seed trade
it does not appear that Ceylon will become a formidable
rival to India.
Tue Cerro de Pasco silver mines are the most remark-
able in Peru, having been worked since the year 1630. At
the present day operations are chiefly confined to the re-
working of old slags and waste heaps. On March 21,
1902, a Government Commission was appointed to make
a survey of these mines, and the report of the commission
has now been published in the form of a Boletin issued
Illustrations
and descriptions of the smelting works are given, and it
is noted that the output in 1903 amounted to 7213 tons of
matte containing 4071 tons of copper. It is curious that
these ancient silver mines should develop as copper mines
in depth.
A note in Nature for January«26 (p. 305) referred to
Adelaide, in South Australia, and Coolgardie, Western
Australia, as the places having the highest maximum
temperatures recorded in the British Empire. Mr. W. E.
Cooke, Government astronomer of Western Australia, writes
to say that Marble Bar, in the north-west division of that
State, is very much hotter than Coolgardie. The mean
of the daily maximum temperatures for January, 1905, was
109°-8, and the highest reading 120°-5. He adds that at
Jacobabad, in India, the average daily maximum tempera-
ture is 111°-6 in May, 112°-7 in June, and 107°-8 in July,
and at Duem, in the Egyptian Soudan, the mean maximum
for March, 1902, was 114°-4, and the absolute maximum
oe)
127°-4.
We have received from Mr. J. van Breda de Haan a
copy of a valuable series of meteorological observations
made during the year 1901 at the State Botanical Gardens
at Buitenzorg, Java. The observations are made with the
view of explaining certain problems connected with vege-
table physiology, and consequently special attention is given
to air and underground temperature, humidity and sun-
shine, and more particularly to the intensity of rainfall
Observations and monthly means are given for
several hours of each day, in addition to daily means.
showers.
Tue Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological
Society for January last contains an interesting paper on
the decrease of fog in London during recent years. The
results are given for months and for seasons for each of
ApRIL 6, 1905]
NATURE
543
the thirty-three years 1871 to 1903, based upon the observ-
ations for London (Brixton) published in the daily weather
report of the Meteorological Office. The mean annual
number of foggy days is 55, of which 45 occurred in the
winter half of the year. Dividing the thirty-three years
into three equal periods, the result is, for the first period,
a mean of 55, for the second 69, for the third only 41.
Since the year 1888 a steady and uninterrupted decrease
is shown in the mean annual number of fogs. Among the
principal agencies which may have conduced to this desir-
able result must be mentioned the efforts of the Coal
Smoke Abatement Society and the London County Council,
also the use of incandescent gas light and electricity ;
but, as pointed eut by Captain A. Carpenter and Mr. C.
Harding, the increase of wind in recent winters is prob-
ably chiefly responsible for the decrease of fog. As we
have remarked before, the geographical situation of
London is, from a purely meteorological point of view,
eminently favourable to the development of fog, and the
only permanent improvement we can hope for is an abate-
ment of its more injurious effects caused by the imperfect
consumption of coal and gas.
WE have received a copy of part i.
der Bibliothek der Naturforschenden’ Gesellschaft in
Danzig,’’ published at Danzig in 1904. Although the
list of books included is not completely representative, this
publication, containing the sections mathematics and
astronomy, may be found useful to those desiring to refer
to the works of certain authors on these two subjects.
The range of subiects is a wide one, and the books are
entered under the names of the authors.
of the ‘* Katalog
HAVING occasion recently to devise a short-focus spectro-
graph, Prof. Wood, of the Johns Hopkins University,
found it necessary to make a study of the distribution of
light (monochromatic) in the different orders of a typical
grating. His method, a beautifully simple one, is de-
scribed and illustrated in No. 2, vol. xxi., of the Astro-
physical Journal. The result showed that, in the typical
grating experimented with, half the reflected light was
concentrated in one spectrum, and as the grating re-
flected about 76 per cent. of the total incident light, this
means that about one-third of this total was found in the
one spectrum, which was one of the two first orders. It
was also found that the ruling makes little or no difference
to the total reflecting power of the speculum. Two flint
prisms of 60° would give about the same average dis-
persion as that produced, and, according to Pickering’s
table in Kayser’s ‘* Handbuch,” they would transmit a
little more than twice the light reflected, in the first order
of the grating used.
Tue Psychological Bulletin, ii., 2, contains reports of
the proceedings of the thirteenth annual meeting of the
American Psychological Association and of the fourth
annual meeting of the American Philosophical Association,
which were both held at Philadelphia on December 28-30.
Abstracts of the papers are given. Invitations on behalf of
Harvard University to hold the next annual meeting in
Cambridge, Mass., to signalise the opening of the Emer-
son Hall of Philosophy were accepted by both associations,
and it is proposed that the Western Philosophical Associ-
ation and the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psycho- |
logy shall also meet at the same time and place.
A coLourepD plate of a new species belonging to a new
genus of Hydrachnidz is given in the Rendiconti of the
Lombardy Institution, xxxviii., 3, in illustration of a note by
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
| Mr. R. Monti on the new ‘‘ find.’’ This water mite was
obtained in cold springs on the right bank of the Anza,
near Ceppomorelli, and has been named Polyxo placophora.
The same writer in another number of the same journal
discusses the horizontal migrations of lacustrine plankton,
and finds in mountain lakes that, in addition to the known
vertical movements, there are well-marked diurnal migra-
tions of the small crustacea to different parts of the lake
depending on sunshine and shade.
In the March number of the American Journal of Science
Mr. Charles S. Hastings utilises some observations of the
power of accommodation of the eye for light of different
wave-lengths to make a complete determination of the
optical constants of the eye for all conditions of accom-
modation and for all colours. The results are given in
two tables, by the use of which all problems connected
with the purely optical properties of the schematic eye
may be solved.
In the course of an investigation of radio-active muds
which is published by Prof. G. Vicentini in the Atti of
the Royal Venetian Institute (vol. Ixiv., ii., 535), the con-
nection existing between the ionisation produced by the
mud and the quantity of material used is experimentally
ascertained. When the mud is spread uniformly over a
definite area, the intensity of the radiation increases as
the thickness of the layer is increased, but a direct pro-
portionality does not exist between them. After a certain
point, moreover, the radio-activity not increased by
adding fresh material. Mr. H. S. Allen, in a paper read
before the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow on
January 25, also deals with radio-active water and mud,
the material in this case being derived from the springs
of Bath and Buxton. An interesting point which is
established incidentally is that the fluorescence excited in
a sensitive plate by the radium rays plays only a very
minor part in the production by these rays of a photo-
graphic effect.
is
AN interesting investigation of the secondary radiation
produced when the 8 and y rays of radium impinge on
metallic plates is published by Prof. J. A. McClelland in
the Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society (vol. viil.,
No. 14). It is shown that the secondary rays are not pro-
duced merely at the surface of the plate struck by the
primary rays, but that they come from all parts of a layer
of considerable depth. Apparently the less penetrating
B rays are more efficient in producing a secondary radi-
ation than the y or highly penetrating rays. The nature
of the secondary radiation depends largely on the character
of the metal employed; the greater the atomic weight’ of
the latter the greater is the amount of the secondary radi-
ation produced by it. Of all the substances experimented
with, lead gives rise to the greatest effect, both as re-
gards the quantity of the secondary radiation and its pene-
trating power. The secondary radiation consists, appar-
ently entirely, of a species of 8 rays, that is, of negatively
charged particles capable of deflection in a magnetic field.
Perhaps the most important feature of the paper lies in its
directing attention to the necessity of considering secondary
radiations in all measurements of the absorptive power of
substances with regard to the rays produced by radio-
active bodies.
WE have received a copy of a memorandum on the con-
struction and verification of a new copy of the imperial
standard yard, by Mr. H. J. Chaney, superintendent of
the Standards Department of the Board of Trade. Since
the original standard yard of bronze was made some sixty
544
NATURE.
[APRIL 6, 1905
it has been found that bars which are con-
structed of copper alloys do not retain their original length
with that degree of accuracy now demanded for scientific
purposes. The new copy (I.P.) is made of an alloy con-
taining 89-81 per cent. of platinum and 1o-1o per cent. of
iridium, such an alloy being little affected by changes of
temperature and not at all by oxidation; as the alloy
admits of a high specular polish, the fine lines marking
the extremities of the yard can be traced directly on the
bar without the intervention of gold plugs or pins as in
the older type. Instead of using the old solid 1-inch
section, for the purpose of lightness the so-called
““Tresca '’ section has been adopted. The memorandum
gives full details of the verification of the length and a
description of the apparatus used, including the thermo-
meters by which temperature was measured and a new
microscopic ‘‘ comparator ’’ similar to that used at Paris
by the Comité international des Poids et Mesures. This
instrument has been purchased by the Board of Trade and
mounted in a special chamber at Old Palace Yard, West-
minster.
years ago,
VessELs of fused quartz can now be obtained com-
mercially, and on account of the remarkable properties of
this substance, a wide field of research at high temperatures
would appear to be opened up by their use. In high
temperature gas thermometry, for example, where glass is
excluded on account of its comparatively low melting point,
and platinum on account of its permeability to hydrogen,
fused quartz promised to be an ideal envelope. Unfortunately,
Villard has found that fused quartz is also permeable to
hydrogen at high temperatures, well below its melting
point, and Jacquerod and Perrot have proved that helium
resembles hydrogen in this respect. In the current number
of the Comptes rendus (March 27) M. Berthelot shows that
the use of quartz vessels is still further limited, as both
oxygen and nitrogen can penetrate into hermetically sealed
quartz bulbs at 1300° C. Thus carbon, heated in sealed
vacuous quartz tubes for half an hour at 1300° C., gave
a mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide on cooling
the tube and extracting the gases. Experiments were
made on other substances, and all the facts pointed to the
conclusion that at a high temperature fused silica behaves
towards gases like an animal membrane, susceptible of
endosmosis and exosmosis, the phenomenon depending
partly on the thickness of the wall. It is clear, therefore,
that before this substance can be used with confidence in
high temperature work, a further study will have to be
made of its defects in this direction.
Tue Comptes rendus for March 27 contain an interest-
ing paper on the cryoscopic behaviour of hydrocyanic
acid, by M. Lespieau. According to the views of Nernst
and Thomson on the relation between the dielectric capacity
and the power of electrolytic dissociation, the fact that the
dielectric constant of prussic acid is higher than that of
water should give the acid a higher dissociating power.
M. Lespieau has accordingly carried out a series of ex-
periments on the lowering of the freezing point of this
substance by the addition of alcohol, chloroform, benzene,
water, trichloracetic acid, sulphuric acid, potassium iodide
and nitrate, and has found that for the first six substances
the cryoscopic constant is between 19 and 20, whilst for
the two latter it is approximately double. Hence the two
acids, which are strongly dissociated in water, are not
sensibly dissociated in prussic acid solutions of the same
strength, and this is in accord with the experiments of
Kahlenberg, who found that these solutions were bad con-
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
cuctors, these facts being in contradiction with Nernst’s
theory. On the other hand, the solutions of potassium
salts in hydrocyanic acid were found by Kahlenberg to be
better conductors than aqueous solutions of the same con-
centration, and this agrees with the eryoscopic results,
according to which the two salts are nearly completely
dissociated into their ions in prussic acid.
Mr. W. Woops Smytu will give a lecture on ‘‘ The
Bible in the Light of Modern Science ’’ at Stafford Rooms,
Tichborne Street, Edgware Road, to-morrow, April 7,
at 5 p.m.
Messrs. Watts anp Co. will shortly publish, for the
Rationalist Press Association, Prof. Haeckel’s ‘‘ Evolution
of Man,’’ being a translation of the recently issued fifth
edition of ‘* Anthropogenie.”’
OUR. ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Comet 1905 a (Gracopini).—A second telegram from
the Kiel Centralstelle announces that comet 1905 a was
observed by Prof. Aitken at Lick on March 27. The
position at March 27d. 7h. 57-1m. (Lick M.T.) was
R.A.=5h. 48m. 55s., dec.=+12° 35’ 43”.
Apparently, then, the northern declination is increasing,
and not decreasing as previously stated. An error in the
key by which the code telegrams are translated substituted
declination for N.P.D., so that the daily movement. in
declination should be read as plus 1° 15’.
The following elements have been computed by Dr. E.
Strémgren from observations made on March 26, 28, and
30, and are given in Circular No. 76 of the Kiel Central-
stelle, together with a bi-daily ephemeris extending from
March 30 to April 23 :-—
Elements.
T =1905 April 3:2098 (M.T. Berlin).
ony) 9,49 |
B=156° 7'-94 ; 19050
= 41° 37/48 J
2
log g= 0°05232
Ephemeris 12h. (M.T. Berlin).
1905 a ri) log A Bright-
Nee jut & - ness
April 7 6 31 16 +25 26°9 98661 0:98
9 640 5 +27 39:9
II 6 49 13 +29 481 9°8745 0°93
13 6 58 39 ST SOD)
15 7 8 22 +33 479 9°8855 0°87
Brightness on March 26 =1-0.
PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE CORONA wiTHouT A TorTaL ECLIiPsE.
—<According to a note communicated to the French
Academy of Sciences, and in the opinion of M. J. Janssen,
M. A. Hansky has succeeded in photographing the corona
of the uneclipsed sun. The photographs were taken with
a 12-inch telescope in the exceptionally transparent atmo-
sphere which obtains at the observatory situated on the
summit of Mont Blanc.
After a number of preliminary experiments on the
selective absorption of screens dyed with various aniline
colours, M. Hansky obtained a combination which absorbed
all radiations more refrangible than 660 mu, and, as the
red radiations of the corona are very intense and do not
suffer absorption or dispersion in passing through the
terrestrial atmosphere, he used this screen in obtaining
twelve negatives, The individual screens were prepared
by soaking a fixed undeveloped Lumiére film in each of
the suitable dyes, and, between each exposure, they were
re-arranged inter se so that no false effect due to any
particular disposition of the ‘‘ grain’’ ntight affect the
resulting picture. The direct photospheric and chromo-
spheric rays were prevented from reaching the plate by
APRIL 6, 1905 |
NATURE
545
the interposition of a blackened brass disc slightly larger
than the solar disc.
The resulting negatives showed distinct halos around
the disc, and, notwithstanding the fact that some time
elapsed between the successive exposures, these halos ex-
hibited the same form, thus testifying to their solar
origin. Some of the negatives were photographically
intensified by repeated copying, and reproductions of them
were submitted to the academy. In presenting the com-
munication M. Janssen—to whom M. Hansky acknow-
ledges his obligations for assistance and advice—stated
that ‘‘the photographs actually show the solar corona
with an intensity and a perfection only known on the
photographs obtained during total eclipses’? (Comptes
rendus, No. 12).
SEARCH-EPHEMERIS FOR TEMPEL’S First PERIODIC COMET
(1867 II).—Although Tempel’s first comet has not been
seen during its last three perihelion passages, t.e. since
1879, M. A. Gautier, of the Geneva Observatory, thinks
that the probability of its re-discovery this year is great
enough to justify a careful search. For this reason he
re-publishes, in No. 4008 of the Astronomische Nach-
richten, the elements he prepared for the 1898 apparition,
reduced to the mean equinox of 1905-0. As the probable
time of perihelion is somewhat uncertain, he gives three
ephemerides, extending from March 31 to July 13, in
which this time is reckoned as May 2-5, April 20-5, and
April 8-5 respectively, the mean date being the most prob-
able. The declination varies from —16° to —31°, so that
the more southerly observatories are more likely to be
successful in the research.
RicHt ASCENSIONS OF 2120 SOUTHERN StTars.—In an
appendix to ‘‘ Observations made at the Hong Kong
Observatory during 1903,’’ Prof. W. Doberck, the director,
publishes the right ascensions of 2120 southern stars for
the epoch 1900, as determined from observations made by
Mr. J. I. Plummer and himself during the years 1898 to
1904.
The observations were made with a 3-inch Simms semi-
portable transit instrument, which, together with the
method of reduction and the comparisons with other cata-
logues, is briefly discussed in the director’s preface.
In the catalogue itself, the number of the star as given
in Lacaille, or Stone, or both, the R.A., epoch and magni-
tude, the variation of the R.A. from ,Stone’s correspond-
ing value, the proper motion, and several other particulars
are given for each star.
Tue Iris DiapHraGM IN Astronomy.—In a communi-
cation to the French Academy of Sciences, M. Salet states
that he has recently and usefully adapted the iris
diaphragm to a telescope in which the magnification em-
ployed is 500. The diaphragm is placed very near to the
plane of the micrometer wires in front of the field lens,
and its raison d’étre is to prevent the light from the sky,
and from the illumination of the wires, from reaching the
eye when feeble objects are being observed, the diaphragm
being closed by an external cylinder when the object has
been brought to the centre of the field. By reducing the
extent of the micrometer wires, the diaphragm also re-
duces, or eliminates, the effect of astigmatism when
observations of double stars are being made (Comptes
rendus, No. 9).
Constancy OF ‘‘ SpARK’’ WAVE-LENGTHS.—A question
which is of first importance to those observers engaged in
stellar line-of-sight work, viz. that of the constancy of
wave-lengths in spark spectra taken under various con-
ditions of discharge, has recently been re-investigated by
Mr. G. W. Middlekauff at the Johns Hopkins University.
A detailed description of the apparatus and methods em-
ployed, together with the results obtained, appear in No. 2,
vol. xxi., of the Astrophysical Journal.
Mr. Middlekauff used a concave Rowland grating of
20,000 lines to the inch and a focal length of 21-5 feet.
The self-induction in the spark circuit could be varied from
0:00007 to o-0012 of a henry, and the capacity from 0.0085
to 0-0739 of a microfarad, and the results obtained afford
strong evidence that in the case of a spark discharge in
air, at atmospheric pressure, no “‘ shift ’’ in wave-length
is produced by variations of self-induction or capacity
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
within the above limits. A further result obtained was
that the analogous wave-lengths in the arc and the spark
spectra of the same elements are not measurably different.
SZTATISTICS OF VARIATION?
PAPER consisting mainly of a large number of
elaborate records bearing on the important subject
of variation has recently been issued by the Washington
Academy of Sciences. The data, which have been collected
with much care and industry, cannot fail to be of high
interest to all students of evolution. They afford an
excellent example of the peculiar value of insect studies in
reference to many difficult problems in biology—a point
which has lately received fresh emphasis from _ Prof.
Poulton’s valedictory address as President of the Entomo-
logicai Society of London.
The authers start with an “ Introduction,’’ in which
they declare their ‘‘ belief in the marked betterment and
effectiveness of practically all variation study when pursued
from the point of view of the biometrician ’’; adding, how-
ever, that ‘‘ from the writers’ point of view the study of
variation is a phase of biology, and not of mathematics.”
Dealing with the special advantages presented by insect
data in this inquiry, they assert that the phenomena of
complete metamorphosis afford u ready means of distin-
guishing ‘‘ variations which are strictly blastogenic from
others which may be in large part acquired.”” This, it
may be remarked, is only true under certain limitations.
It is not the case, for instance, as the authors appear to
think, that the imaginal colour-patterns of lepidoptera are
uninfluenced by the conditions obtaining during individual
development.
Coming now to the main substance of the paper, we
find a series of short articles or sections giving statistics of
variation in some two dozen species of insects. Among the
structures thus dealt with are the venation and costal
wing hooks in bees and ants, the venation in gnats, the
colour-patterns of sundry beetles, wasps and bugs, the
eye-spots of certain butterflies, the tibial spines, tarsal and
antennal segments, tactile hairs and elytral striae of other
insects of various orders. In the case of the hive bee it
is incidentally shown that the parthenogenetically pro-
duced drones are as subject to variation in their wings as
are the workers of biparental ancestry. The results are
in many cases graphically summarised in the form of the
frequency polygon; and the ‘‘ mode,” “ standard devia-
tion,” ‘index of variability,’: and ‘‘ coefficient of varia-
tion’? are duly reckoned and recorded in accordance with
approved biometrical methods. It is interesting but not
surprising to observe that the frequency curve is usually
in fair correspondence with the law of error.
The paper ends with a section devoted to ** general
results.’’ Here we think that too much is made of the
difficulty of distinguishing between congenital variation
and acquired modification. For practical purposes the
distinction is usually obvious enough. A little later the
authors observe, ‘‘ The most satisfactory answer to the
question of the hereditary transmission of acquired char-
acters will come as the result of a quantitative (statistical)
study of variations known to be blastogenic compared with
a similar study of variations known to be acquired, both
studies to be made on complete sertes of individuals bred
under quantitatively determined life conditions.’’ This
seems to us somewhat like using a steam-hammer to crack
an egg. It is not astonishing to find that there is little
or no evidence of differing selection-value in the variable
number of spots on the elytra of a ladybird; but it hardly
seems clear that the authors are justified in claiming this
fact, together with an apparent change of “* mode ”’
between the years 1895 and 1go1, as evidence in favour
of ‘‘ determinate variation.’’ Before any such inference
can properly be drawn, the question of possible correlation
ought at least to be considered. The authors, however,
arrive on the whole subject at the satisfactory conclusion
that natural selection “is after all a logical necessity and
undoubtedly an actual actively-regulative factor ’’ in the
formation of species. F. A. D.
1 “Studies of Variation in Insects.’ By Vernon L. Kellogg and Ruby
G. Bell, of Leland Stanford Junior University. From the Proceedings of
the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. vi. (Washington, D.C., 1904 )
546
NATURE
[APRIL 6, 1905
INTERRUPTERS FOR INDUCTION COILS.
T has been thought that an account of the more im-
portant forms of interrupter would not be unwelcome
to readers of Nature.
A rotating air-break interrupter is shown in Fig. 1.
An accurately balanced brass fly-wheel, Fw, driven
by a small motor, is fitted with two insulating segments,
1s, let into its periphery. Bearing on the fly-wheel are two
copper gauze brushes, B, and B,; the circuit is interrupted
as each brush slips over from the brass to the insulating
Fic. 1.
portion of the rim. It is evident that the arcing which
occurs at the break necessitates the use of a fire-proof in-
sulator. A small piece of slate (s in Fig. 1) is fitted imme-
diately behind each brass segment, and this takes the spark ;
it is easily renewed, the remainder of each insulating
segment consisting of vulcanised fibre.
So far as the writer is aware, this type of interrupter
was first described by Wadsworth in 1894, and was used
by Prof. Michelson in some Geissler-tube experiments
(American Journal of Science, pp. 496-501, December, 1894).
As might be expected, the suddenness of the break depends
HH | 7
<
-
v
on the speed of the motor (or frequency of interruption). In
Fig. 2 are plotted the results of some experiments bearing
on this point. It will be seen that for a given value (root-
mean-square) of the primary current, an enormously greater
spark-length—especially with the larger currents—is
obtained at the higher speed.
This form of interrupter is not very expensive, and works
very satisfactorily so long as the primary current does not
exceed about 5 amperes. It shares with the platinum in-
terrupter the advantage of cleanliness. Renewals and repairs
cost very little, as the only parts which are subjected to
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
any considerable wear are the slate distance-pieces; the
rim of the fly-wheel may occasionally require truing-up.
It is important to keep the edges of the brass contact-
segments and the surfaces of the slate distance-pieces clean
by the occasional application of fine sand-paper.
In Fig. 3 are shown the essential parts of the mechanism
of a ‘‘ double-dipper’’ interrupter. The double motor-
driven crank, Cc, carries two connecting-rods, cR, each of
which is attached to a cross-head, cu. Each cross-head is
fixed to the top of a stiff rod, r, which passes between the
guide-springs, Gs, and through the guide-block, Gs. The
latter is supported by a strong bracket, B, screwed to the
stand supporting the motor. Each reciprocating rod ends
in an amalgamated copper wire, Cw, which dips into the
mercury. It will be readily seen that by the adoption of the
two-crank arrangement the frequency is doubled for a given
speed as compared with the single-crank interrupter; for
while with the latter there is only a single break per revolu-
tion, the former gives two breaks per revolution, one of the
contact-rods or ‘‘ dippers’’ entering the mer-
cury shortly after the other has left it. The
mercury cup itself is made adjustable in a
vertical direction, and is, as usual, immersed
in alcohol.
The curve marked ‘‘ double dipper’’ in
Fig. 4 gives the results of a test with this
form of interrupter. The frequency of inter-
ruption was 22. The results correspond fairly
well with those plotted in Fig. 2 for the
rotary air-break interrupter at a frequency
of 4o.
This type of interrupter is comparatively
cheap and simple, and works very steadily.
There is no complicated mechanism to get
out of order, and only a small quantity of
mercury is required (about 2lb.).
One of the most successful types of rotary
interrupter is the mercury jet interrupter.
Several varieties of this have been used. One
of the best known is shown in Fig. 5. The
vertical motor-driven shaft, s, carries a
cylinder, c, the lower portion of which is cut
up into a number of teeth, 1. The shaft s
is continued downwards, and passes through
the mercury pump casing. The mercury
pump is of very simple construction, and is
shown in Fig. 5 (b). Inside a flat oval box,
which forms the pump casing, are arranged
two thick toothed wheels. One of these is
mounted on the lower end of the shaft s,
which carries the toothed cylinder, Fig. 5 (a),
and drives the other. The wheels fit the
inside of the casing very closely, and are
arranged to rotate as indicated by the arrows
in Fig. 5 (b). The -mercury imprisoned
between the teeth of the wheels and the
casing is consequently carried round and
forced through the nozzle. The issuing fine
jet of mercury, MJ—Fig. 5 (a)—is directed
against the rotating teeth, the break taking
place at the vertical edge of a tooth. The height of the
nozzle N is adjustable, and by this means the magnitude of
the current may be regulated, as by raising the nozzle the
jet will be directed against a tooth for a longer period,
and the current will attain a larger value before the break
takes place. The entire mechanism of this interrupter is
contained in a strong cylindrical glass vessel, the lower
portion of which contains mercury, in which the pump is
immersed, and with which the pump chamber freely com-
municates by means of a suction orifice, while above the
mercury is the usual alcohol filling the bulk of the vessel.
If in good working order, the mercury jet interrupter
gives excellent results, as may be seen by referring to the
curve marked ‘‘ mercury jet’? in Fig. 4, which corresponds
to a frequency of interruption=4o0. A comparison of this
curve with that given in Fig. 2 for the rotating air-break’
interrupter at once shows the superiority of the jet inter-
rupter. The mercury jet interrupter is much more expensive
and complicated than the ‘‘ double-dipper ’’ type, and requires
a larger amount of mercury; but it yields somewhat better
results.
Fic. 3-
ApriL 6, 1905]
NATURE
547
In Fig. 6 is shown the Wehnelt interrupter. A large rect-
angular glass vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid is
fitted with an ebonite cover, EC, which supports the elec-
trodes. The terminal tT, is in connection with the lead
plate, Lp, which forms the kathode. The bridge-piece, B,
1S)
3S
4)
SPARK—LENGTH
MAR Y
COUR RE N T
Fic. 4.
supports two rack rods, R, and the anode terminal 1T,. Each
rack rod is geared with a pinion by means of which it
may be raised or lowered as required, Mu being the milled
heads for turning the pinions. The rack rods are continued
downwards in the form of thinner rods encircled by glass
Fic. 5.
tubes, GT, and finally end in stiff platinum points, p Pp, around
which the tapered ends of the tubes fit very closely. By
raising or lowering either anode, a smaller or greater surface
of it may be exposed to the surrounding electrolyte. The
density of the acid depends on the voltage at which the
Th
5
Fic. 6. Fia. 7
interrupter is to be supplied. The interrupter is connected
in series with the primary of the induction coil, and, if
necessary, with an additional self-inductance. As soon as
the circuit is closed, and provided the area of anode surface
exposed to the electrolyte is not excessive, and the self-
NO. 1849, voL. 71 |
inductance not too small, the interrupter begins to act. A
pink glow appears around the extremities of the anodes, the
interrupter emits a loud note of definite pitch, and a shower
of sparks is produced across the space between the secondary
terminals of the coil. Bubbles of gas rush up each glass
tube, G7, the electrolyte rises in each tube, and may overflow
through the side openings, 0.
Another form of electrolytic interrupier, originally due to
Caldwell, but subsequently improved and modified in various
ways by others, is shown in Fig. 7. The terminal T, is,
as in the Wehnelt interrupter, connected to a lead plate.
But instead of a platinum anode, a lead plate is also used
for the other electrode. This second lead plate is surrounded
by a glass tube, G1, which completely separates it from the
remainder of the electrolyte except for a small perforation
at the bottom of the tube, through which passes the pointed
end, p, of a long glass rod, G, supported in a tubular rack
rod, R, which may be raised or lowered by means of a; pinion
fitted with the milled head, mu. The area of communication
between the electrolyte in the tube and that outside is con-
trolled by raising or lowering the conical glass plug. Either
electrode may be used indifferently as anode or kathode.
The break takes place at the perforation of the glass tube.
In conclusion, thanks must be expressed to Mr. A. C.
Cossor, of 54 Farringdon Road, E.C., who very kindly
provided an induction coil and a number of interrupters
required to carry out the tests recorded in this article.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
It is stated that Sir William MacDonald, of Montreal,
has decided to give 800,000]. toward the erection of a
normal school at St. Anne de Bellevue, a few miles distant
from Montreal, and the erection and endowment of an
agricultural college at the same place.
Tuere is no sign of diminution in the interest shown
by public authorities and by private benefactors for higher
education in the United States. We learn from Science
that by the will of Mrs. Stanford about 400,000l. is be-
queathed to Leland Stanford Junior University. The uni-
versity also comes into possession of the house built by
Senator Stanford at San Francisco and its contents, which
are valued at more than 400,o00l. The legislature of
North Carolina has appropriated 10,o00l. for the erection
of a chemical laboratory at the University of North
Carolina.
We have received a copy of the prospectus of courses
of instruction in poultry-keeping held at University College,
Reading, and the college poultry farm at Theale. The
farm, which is of about 40 acres, largely meadow land, is
used ‘also as an experimental station. The courses are of
varying lengths and different degrees of difficulty to meet
the requirements of all grades of students. The practical
work is exhaustive, and due attention is given to kindred
technical subjects such as carpentry. It appears that this
branch of the work of the college has had an important
influence on the development of scientific poultry-keeping
in Berkshire and neighbouring counties.
A STRONG committee has been formed for the purpose of
securing suitable conditions of work, and providing oppor-
tunities for development, of Bedford College for Women in
London. An appeal to the public on behalf of the college
has just been issued. The college, which is a school of
the University of London, must before long come to an
end unless it can obtain a large amount of public support.
A freehold site and a new building are essential, and it is
estimated that their cost may amount to 150,0001, Ex-
perience has shown that the fees of the students and the
allotted share of the Treasury grant to university colleges
are not sufficient without considerable additional support
to carry on the higher education supplied by the college,
the cost of which is constantly increasing. To make the
work of the college fully effective, it is therefore desirable
to obtain further endowment to the extent of 100,000!., or
the equivalent income. The Senate of the University of
London has shown approbation of the scheme for re-
548
housing and endowing the college by passing the following
resolution :—‘ That the authorities of Bedford College in
issuing an appeal for funds in accordance with the scheme
submitted to the Senate be permitted to state that the
appeal is made with the knowledge and full approval of
the Senate.’? The Princess of Wales has promised a
donation to the funds, and Lady Tate has promised
10,0001. for a library to be called after the late Sir Henry
Tate. Donations to the fund may be sent to Major
Darwin, hon. treasurer of the college, or to Miss Henrietta
Busk, hon secretary of the appeal fund, at Bedford College,
Baker Street, W. Friends of higher education for women
are urged to help in placing the college on an adequate
and permanent basis.
Mr. Arnotp-Forster, M.P., Secretary of State for War,
distributed the prizes to successful students of the Wool-
wich Polytechnic on Saturday last. In his speech which
followed the presentation of the prizes Mr. Arnold-Forster
emphasised the importance of sound scientific and technical
education. He said that the great lesson this country has
to learn is the importance of scientific organisation. There
was a time, not so long ago, when we were in the habit
of laughing at the methods and ways in vogue on the
Continent, and of considering ourselves immeasurably
superior to Germany and other nations. But a change
has taken place, and these other nations—not by following
our example, but by organising on scientific lines—have
become immeasurably more advanced and fit to succeed
than those who preceded them one or two generations
ago; and we have to exert ourselves to protect ourselves
from defeat in the industrial contest. Referring to the
importance of scientific organisation, Mr. Arnold-Forster
spoke of an instance in which he discovered that the
electric carbons in use by the Admiralty were largely
manufactured in France. Realising the importance of
this in case of war, he made inquiries, and, as the result
of these and of experiment, it has been found possible to
produce electric carbons in this country of the same per-
fection and accuracy as those formerly brought in from
abroad. He expressed his pleasure that a great step for-
ward has been made in the matter of standardising and
testing, and that in both these departments this country
is abreast of the times. A good deal could be done by
scientific organisation, and he looked to such institutions
as the polytechnics to accomplish much in that direction.
Tue address delivered by Prof. Henry T. Bovey, F.R.S.,
at the Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904, on the funda-
mental conceptions which enter into technology, has been
reprinted as a pamphlet from the McGill University
Magazine. After defining the “‘ technologue ’ as an inter-
mediary between the savant and the mechanic, translating
the discoveries of the former into the uses of the latter,
Prof. Bovey tries to ascertain the controlling ideas common
to all technical experts. These, he says, have all observed
that nature works in no arbitrary manner, but by fixed
laws; that if these laws could be brought into right re-
lation with us, we might be able to gear our small
machines to the vast wheel of nature; that in the study
of the laws of nature there is certainly revealed more of
the infinite possibilities of our environment. In order to
study to advantage, workers in pure and applied science
must get into line with psychological laws, when it will
be found that the apprehension of a fact by the mind re-
quires the exercise of the power of observation, and the
observations must be of a special character, minute,
accurate, and selective. Observation, he says, means to
see with attention, and as soon as concentration takes
place, a process of analysis begins and the worker passes
to classification and generalisation. Throughout this pro-
cess the training of the hand stimulates the brain centres.
Technology has a two-fold nature; first, learning by
specialised study how to understand and apply the prin-
ciples of mechanics to the construction of works of utility,
and, secondly, training the mind to work easily along
lines of scientific thought. The idea of utility, he main-
tains, seems to be the key to the distinction between pure
science and technology; indeed, technology may be called
he child of science on one hand, and of industrial progress
on the other.
No. 1849, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| APRIL 6, 1905
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, March 16.—‘‘On the Occurrence of
Certain Ciliated Infusoria within the Eggs of a Rotifer,
considered from the Point of View of Heterogenesis.”’
By H. Charlton Bastian, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
The weight of preconceptions against the possibility of
the occurrence of heterogenesis has hitherto been so
strong as to have made it almost impossible to obtain any
adequate consideration for the actual evidence adduced in
favour of this or that alleged instance. But of late, pre-
conceptions in the domain of physics and chemistry have
received severe shocks, and when we are told that a so-
called ‘‘ element ’’ is daily being transformed and another
is actually originating therefrom, there appears more
chance of attention being paid to the alleged existence of
phenomena in the organic world which would seem to be
but the carrying on into a higher platform of the familiar
but important phenomena known as allotropism and
isomerism.
Hitherto, alleged instances of heterogenesis have, with-
out adequate consideration of evidence, been almost always
assumed to be results of ‘‘ infection,’’ but the writer claims
that in the cases with which the present memoir is con-
cerned, any such explanation is quite impossible in regard
to one of the cases, at least, in which we have masses of
living matter so large that they average 4 mm. in
diameter, being converted in the course of three days into
great ciliated Infusoria of equal bulk.
The communication (which is illustrated by a large
number of photomicrographs) deals with two sets of hetero-
genetic transformations occurring in the great eggs or
“ cemme ’’ of one of the largest of the rotifers, namely,
(1) the transformation of the entire contents of a Hydatina
egg into a single great Otostoma; and (2) the segment-
ation of the Hydatina egg into twelve to twenty spherical
masses, and the development of these sometimes into
embryo Vorticellaz and sometimes into embryo Oxytriche.
(1) The Transformation of the Entire Contents of a
Hydatina Egg into a Great Otostoma.—Having witnessed
on very many occasions the stages of this remarkable
transformation of the contents of a rotifer’s egg into a
ciliated infusorium, the author is desirous of acquainting
the Royal Society with the simple procedure needful to en-
able zoologists to study for themselves the series of changes
leading to a result which many of them may be disposed
to deem incredible.
All that is necessary is to procure a good stock of these
large rotifers by placing some surface mud, having a
coating of Euglenz, from a ditch in which Hydatinz are
known to exist, into a glass bowl, and to pour thereon
water to a depth of about 4 inches. In the course of two
or three days (with a temperature of 16° C. or 17° C.), if
the Hydatine are abundant, a good crop of their large
eggs will be seen at the surface of the fluid, where it is
in contact with the glass.
By the aid of a scalpel passed along their track for a
short distance, groups of twenty or thirty eggs may be
taken up at one time, and gently pressed off the edge of
the blade into a small, white stone pot full of water.
Some of such small masses of eggs (mixed, perhaps, with
a few Euglenz) will float, and others will sink. After
seven or eight of these masses have been gathered and
deposited, the cover should be placed upon the pot so as
to cut off from the eggs all light rays, both visible and
invisible. Two other pots should be similarly charged.
When the pots have remained covered for thirty-six
hours, one of them may be opened, and some of the small
masses of eggs from the bottom of the pot should be
taken up with a tiny pipette and placed in a drop of water
on a microscope slip.
On examination by a low power it will be seen that
there are many empty egg-cases, that within some eggs
there are embryo Hydatinz in different stages of develop-
ment, while within the remaining eggs the contents will
be wholly different, consisting of an aggregate of minute
pellucid vesicles, each containing a few granules, together
with a variable amount of granules interspersed among
the vesicles.
ApRIt 6, 1905 |
When a second pot is opened two and a half or three
days after the eggs have been placed therein, and portions
of its contents are examined in the same way, a larger
proportion of empty egg-cases will be seen. There may
be very few or even no developing rotifers still within
the eggs, and in other egg-cases, instead of the motion-
less vesicular contents previously seen, great ciliates may
be found slowly revolving, or, under the influence of the
light, rupturing the egg-case, struggling out, and swim-
ming away with rapid movements, partly of rotation.
Some of the Infusoria before they emerge undergo
segmentation into two, four, or rarely, even into eight
smaller ciliates.
The large undivided Infusoria have their bodies densely
packed with large corpuscles (modified representatives of
the vesicles of an earlier stage), and a large elongated
nucleus which can be readily seen in some of them. They
possess the characteristic ear-shaped mouth indicated by
the name Otostoma, and cilia are distributed all over
the body in longitudinal lines, so as to give the appear-
ance of a delicate longitudinal striation.
As a control experiment it will be well at the time that
the pots are charged to place two or three batches of the
eggs with some of the same water into a watch glass,
which is left exposed to light; and at the expiration of
three or four days, as well as at later periods, to search
among its contents for any of the same large ciliates, and
also for any eggs in the intermediate vesicular stage above
referred to. The author has invariably found that such a
search yielded only negative results.
In taking batches of eggs, in the manner indicated,
to be placed in the pots, individual eggs will necessarily
be of different ages. It is only eggs that have not begun
to develop which, under the cutting off not only of
ordinary light, but probably of some invisible light rays,
become speedily transformed into great ciliated Infusoria.
Cutting off ordinary light rays alone from the eggs, by
placing them in a small covered glass dish shut up in a
cupboard or box and maintained at the same temperature
as before, seemed at first not to lead to similar results, but
it was subsequently ascertained that the transformation will
occur under such conditions, though only after the lapse
of about nine days. It looks, therefore, as if the stoppage
of some invisible rays, capable of passing through wood
but not through stone, notably hastens the process.
During the time that these observations were being
made, and previously, no Otostomata had ever been seen
in association with Hydatinz, except those that had been
taken from the experimental vessels. On two occasions
since, though from wholly different localities, Otostomata
had been found in association with Hydatine. The adult
forms have been found to be much larger, having from
two to three times the length of the great embryos which
issue from the egg-cases, and also to be more highly
organised.
Many of these adult specimens the author has been able
to keep for two months, and he has seen them pass into
an encysted condition, when they constitute masses the
bulk of which is several times greater than that of Hyda-
tina eggs. They are, likewise, enclosed in thick cyst
walls, wholly unlike the thin egg-cases of the Hydatina.
A Hydatina egg could not possibly be confounded with
an adult encysted Otostoma, and the embryo Otostoma
which emerges from the egg-case embodies the whole of
the transformed substance of the egg. No minute
Otostoma is ever to be seen within an egg, devouring its
contents. No ciliate is seen until the total contents of the
egg having been transformed, the whole mass begins to
revolve within the egg-case as a great embryo Otostoma.
(2) The Origin of Twelve to Twenty Vorticellae or
Oxytrichae from the Substance of a Single Hydatina Egg.
—These are most remarkable variations, which at different
times have been occasionally met with in Hydatina eggs
taken from the experimental vessels.
If the egg-substance is found to have segmented into
twelve to twenty more or less equal spherical masses, there
is at first no means of knowing whether such masses are |
to be developed into embryo Vorticelle or into embryo
Oxytriche. But if either of the masses is seen to be re-
volving within its own delicate cyst, we may be sure that
this particular egg will not yield Vorticelle, as these
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
549
embryos do not revolve before rupturing their cysts, and
the Hydatina egg produces either the one or the other
form—never a mixture of the two.
It cannot be supposed that twelve to twenty of either
of these ciliates in an embryo condition could penetrate
the egg-case, could devour its contents without being seen,
and would then, as embryos, encyst themselves (all in two
days, or less)—only, almost immediately after, again to
pass out of their encysted condition, and to appear as the
active young Vorticelle or Oxytriche the development
of which the author has traced.
In its normal development the Hydatina egg never
goes through changes in which it is converted into an
aggregate of minute vesicles, or into a smaller number of
separate and larger spheres, such as occurs as a prelude
to the transformation of the egg-contents into ciliated In-
fusoria of this or that kind.
Geological Society, March 8.—Dr. J. E. Marr. F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—Exhibits——A series of photo-
graphic views illustrating the geological structure and
physical features of the mountains of Skye: A. Harker.
The ‘‘ Cullinan’’ diamond: Dr. F. H. Hateh. By means
of lantern slides from photographs the diamond was shown
from four points of view. The stone was a_ por-
tion (probably less than half) of a distorted octahedral
crystal. As it now existed, the stone was bounded by
portions of four original octahedral surfaces and by four
cleavage-planes. The former showed in places a slight
curvature, a mammillary structure, striations, and tri-
angular pittings, while the cleavage-surfaces were dis-
tinguished by greater regularity and smoothness. The
stone weighed 3024% carats. Its greatest linear dimension
was 4 inches. It was of remarkable purity for so large
a stone, approaching ‘‘ blue-white’’ in colour. It was
found at the beginning of the present year, in the “‘ yellow
ground *’ of the Premier Mine, at a depth of 18 feet below
the surface. The Premier Mine was a true “ pipe,”
situated on the farm of Elandsfontein, twenty miles north-
east of Pretoria (Transvaal).—Papers.—Observations on
some of the Loxonematidz, with descriptions of two new
species: Miss J. Donald. Shells having more convex
whorls, or less sigmoidal lines of growth than L.
sinuosum, cannot be left within the genus Loxonema.
The two new species described resemble the type in form
and in the sinuosity of the lines of growth; but the whorls
are ornamented with spiral striz, two of which frequently
stand out and give the shell a banded appearance.—On
some Gasteropoda from the Silurian rocks of Llangadock
(Caermarthenshire): Miss J. Domald. These fossils occur
almost entirely in the state of casts and moulds. Eleven
distinct forms have been made out, referable to seven
genera; but only seven are sufficiently well preserved for
specific determination. Five of these are new, including
one described in the previous communication; a new genus
is described, for the reception of Euomphalus funatus.
Chemical Society, March 15.—Prof.W. A. Tilden, F.R-S.,
president, in the chair.—It was announced that Prof.
Percy Frankland had presented to the society the eudio-
meter made and used by the late Sir Edward Frankland
for the analysis of ethyl in 1849; that Prof. Retzius, of
Stockholm, had presented an engraving of Berzelius; and
that Mr. Oscar Guttmann had presented a bronze medal
struck in honour of Roger Bacon in Paris in 1818. The
council, on behalf of the society, had expressed its
thanks for these gifts.—The following papers were read :
The velocity of oxime formation in certain ketones: A. W.
Stewart. The results of measurements of these velocities
are generally in agreement with those already found
for the addition of sodium hydrogen sulphite to ketonic
compounds, and since the two reactions belong to different
types, it seems probable that the hindrance to the re-
actions in the case of ketones containing many methyl
groups near the carbonyl is due to stereochemical and
not to purely chemical causes.—The ultra-violet absorp-
tion spectra of certain enol-keto-tautomerides, part ii. :
E. C. C. Baly and C. H. Desch. The results indicate
that the absorption band in these compounds is due to
change of linking taking place when one tautomeric form
passes into the other. It is possible to account for the
formation of the absorption bands by adopting the physical
55°
NATURE
[APRIL 6, 1905
conception of the atoms as a system of electrons, and in
this way the formation of the bands is placed in the same
category as other spectral phenomena.—Esterification
constants of substituted acrylic acids: J. J. Sudborough
and D. J. Roberts. The esterification constants of some
twenty-two substituted acrylic and allied acids with methyl
alcohol have been determined. The results indicate that a
substituted acrylic acid is esterified less readily than the corre-
sponding saturated acid, and more readily than the corre-
sponding acetylenic acid, and that the effect of introducing
substituents into acrylic acid is to lower the rate of esterifi-
eation.—a-Chlorocinnamic acids: J. J. Sudborough and
T. C. James.—Diortho-substituted benzoic acid, part vi.,
conversion of methyl into ethyl esters: J. J. Sudborough
and T. H. Davies.—Simple method for the estimation of
acetyl groups: J. J. Sudboreugh and W. Thomas. The
acetyl derivative is hydrolysed with benzenesulphonic acid
and the mixture subjected to steam distillation.—Gyno-
cardin, a new cyanogenetic glucoside: F. B. Power and
F. H. Lees. This substance, obtained from the seeds of
Gynocardia odorata, has the formula C,,H,,O,N, and is
readily hydrolysed by gynocardase, the enzyme present in
the seeds, and with difficulty by boiling 5 per cent. hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid yielding d-glucose, hydrogen
cyanide, and an undetermined aldehyde or ketone. With
alkalis it yields gynocardinic acid, C,,H,,O,.CO,H.—
Catechin and acacatechin. Supplementary note: A. G.
Perkin.—The action of ethyl dibromopropanetetra-
carboxylate on the disodium derivative of ethyl propane-
tetracarboxylate. A correction: W. H. Perkin, jun.—
Glutaconic acid and the conversion of glutaric acid into
trimethylenedicarboxylic acid: W. H. Perkin, jun., and
G. Tattersall.—The transformations of highly substituted
nitroaminobenzenes: K. J. P. Orton and A. E. Smith.—
An asymmetric synthesis of quadrivalent sulphur: S.
Smiles. It is shown that the two isomeric d- and I-methyl-
ethylthetine ]-menthyl ester bromides are produced in equal
amount from the interaction of methylethyl sulphide and
I-menthyl bromoacetate.—The action of a-halogen ketones
on alkyl sulphides: S. Smiles. It has been found that
certain a-halogen-substituted ketones interact with alkyl
sulphides, forming the halides of sulphine bases. Descrip-
tions of the products formed in several cases are given.—
Pinene isonitrosocyanide and its derivatives: W. A.
Tilden and H. Burrows. Pinene isonitrosocyanide is
shown to be a nitrile, and from it has been obtained the
corresponding pinene isonitrosocarboxylamide,
C,,H,,(: NOH).CO.NH,,
which on hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid yields an oily
substance which is probably the ketonic acid
OC, H,,.CO,H.
—Some interactions of metallic cyanides with organic
bases: R. de J. Fleming-Struthers. Descriptions of a
number of compounds produced by the interaction of
phenylhydrazine with various metallic cyanides are given.
Royal Microscopical Society, March 15.—Mr. A. D.
Michael in the chair.—A review of the work done by
metallographers: J. E. Stead, F.R.S. Illustrations were
shown of the changes produced in metals by strains, a
diagram of the apparatus by which rapid reversals of
strains were effected being exhibited in illustration of this
portion of the subject. The effect of the continued heating
of an alloy of copper and tin in boiling mercury, and also
that produced by immersion in liquid air, were demon-
strated. Slides were also shown to illustrate ‘‘ surface
flow’’ in antimony, and the microscopic structure of the
new silver standard.
Linnean Society, March 16.—Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Exhibits—Animated
photographs of plants taken by the kammatograph, show-
ing the natural movements of the plants accelerated so
as to be followed readily by the eye: Mrs. D. H. Scott.
-A series of thirty lantern-slides, from photographs, of
bird-life in the Falkland Islands: R. Vattentin.—Paper.—
Contributions to the flora of Liberia: Dr. Otto Stapf.
Descriptions of 3 new genera and 56 new species, in a
collection of about 260 species, collected by Mr. Alexander
Whyte in the neighbourhood of Monrovia, in three different
localities. The flora shows a specific likeness to that of
Sierra Leone, and the new genera are not endemic.
NO. 1849, VOL. 71]
Physical Society, March 24.—Prof. J. H. Poynting,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Note on the voltage
ratios of an inverted rotary converter: W. C. Clinton.
The values of the voltage ratios usually given for an
inverted rotary converter make no allowance for the resist-
ance of the armature. In this note terms due to the effect
of armature resistance are introduced into the ordinary
theoretical equations. The resultant voltage on the
alternate current side is found to be less than that given
by the usual rule. The calculation is only made for open
circuit conditions on the alternate current side——On the
flux of light from the electric are with varying power
supply: G. B. Dyke. The paper records the results of
experiments made on the electric arc with the following
objects :—(1) To obtain a series of curves for alternating
and continuous arcs of different lengths showing the re-
lation between the mean spherical candle-power and the
power supplied to the arc; (2) to compare the efficiencies
of the alternating and continuous arcs under different con-
ditions of arc-length and power-supply.—On the application
of the cymometer to the measurement of coefficiencies of
coupling of oscillation transformers: Dr. J. A. Fleming.
This paper deals first with the latest pattern of instrument
called by the author a cymometer, designed for the
measurement of the frequency of electric oscillations, and
also the length of long electric waves.
CAMBRIDGE.
Philosophical Society, March 13.—Prof. Marshall Ward,
president, in the chair.—On the relation in size between
the megalosphere and the microspheric and megalospheric
tests in the Nummulites: J.J. Lister. At the meeting of the
society on October 31, 1904, the author directed attention
to the fact that in the three English species of Nummu-
lites, viz. N. laevigatus, variolarius and “‘ elegans,’’ both
megalospheric and microspheric forms were represented
and associated in the Bracklesham and Barton beds of the
Hampshire basin. A comparison of the sizes of the
megalospheres in these species suggested that a definite
relation might exist between them and the sizes of the
whole microspheric tests. To examine this question several
species have been studied. Arranging these species in
order of the sizes of the megalospheres, this is found to
coincide with the order of the volumes of the microspheric
tests (with the exception of the variety obesus of N. per-
foratus, the microspheric test of which falls one place out
in the series)—The penguins of the Antarctic: E. A.
Wilson.—The old moraines of South Victoria Land: H. T.
Ferrar. The paper first dealt with the topography of
South Victoria Land, a land consisting of a range of
mountains some 800 miles long in a north and south direc-
tion, with a steep eastward face on an average 10,000 feet
high, facing the sea and buttressing a vast interior ice-
field. Details were given of the stranded moraines on
Cape Adare, on the Possession Islands and on Franklin
Island, as well as those high on the slopes of Mount
Erebus and Terror. The latter could only have been landed
there by the Ross ice-sheet being thicker than it is at
present. Reversed glaciers, glaciers not reaching the sea,
and beheaded glaciers were mentioned, all pointing to the
same conclusion, a retreat of the ice. This retreat is now
going on, so that increase of cold could not produce a
greater glaciation. If this former greater extension was
due to a warmer climate, why have the New Zealand
glaciers decreased of late, and what is the connection of
the ‘‘ Ice-age ’’ of Europe with the ‘‘ Great Glacier Epoch ’”
of New Zealand and Patagonia?—Notes on a collection of
parasites from the museum of University College, Dundee :
A. E. Shipley. The collection consisted of fifteen species
of Nematoda and ten Cestoda, and came mainly from
marine animals of the northern seas, as might have been
expected from the importance of Dundee as a whaling
centre.—On the maturation of the egg and early develop-
ment in certain sawflies (Tenthredinide): L. Doncaster.
In the eggs of sawflies which produce males when un-
fertilised (Nematus ribesti, N. lacteus, N. pavidus), the
second polar nucleus conjugates with the inner daughter
nucleus of the first polar body. The conjugating nuclei
then break up into a group of chromosomes which contain
twice the number that is found in the maturation mitoses.
These chromosomes persist for some hours, but finally dis-
APRIL 6, 1905]
NATORE
55!
appear. In the species which produce females from un-
fertilised eggs (Poecilosoma luteolum, Hemichroa rufa,
Croesus varus) no conjugation between polar nuclei takes
place.
and gives rise to the cells 6f the embryo, and the chromo-
some number remains the same as that observed in the
maturation divisions. Centrosomes were never seen in the
maturation mitoses, but are present in the division-spindles
of the yolk-nuclei and blastoderm of both fertilised and
virgin eggs.—Densities of the earth’s crust beneath con-
tinents and oceans compared: Rev. O. Fisher.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, March 27.—M. Troost in the chair.
—On vessels of fused silica, their employment in chemistry,
and their permeability: M. Berthelot (see p. 544).—The
construction in” an opaque homogeneous medium of
luminous rays which penetrate by a plane face: J.
Boussinesq.—On surra and the differentiation of try-
panosomes: A. Laveran and F. Mesnil. An experimental
comparison of the trypanosomes of surra arising in the
island of Mauritius and in India shows that they are
morphologicaly the same, but the pathogenic action upon
animals in the laboratory showed some differences between
the two trypanosomes. It seems clear that the trypano-
somes of surra of Mauritius and of India are the same
species. There are three species which differ in their viru-
lence, the order of activity being India, Mauritius, and
Mbori.—On the plants from the Coal-measures found in
the borings at Eply, Lesménils, and Pont-a-Mousson: R.
Zeiler. The impressions of plants found at Eply corre-
spond to a well marked Westphalian flora. Of the speci-
mens from the Lesménils boring two, Lonchopteris
Defrancei and Cingularia typica, have hitherto been
observed in the Sarre coal basin, and hence would appear
to point to the beds now being explored being a prolong-
ation of this field. The specimens from Pont-a-Mousson
also point to the Sarrebriick stage of the Westphalian
Coal-measures.—On the monochloro-derivatives of methyl-
cyclohexane: Paul Sabatier and Alp. Mailhe. Chlorine
acts readily upon methyleyclohexanone at the ordinary
temperature, giving rise to numerous chlorinated deriva-
tives. Of these a special study has been made of the
monochlor-derivatives, the main product being shown to
consist of two of the five possible isomers.—Prof. van ’t
Hoff was elected a correspondant for the section of
mechanics in the place of the late Prof. Willard Gibbs.—
The search for Tempel’s periodic comet (1867, 2) in 1905 :
R. Gautier. This comet, first seen in 18607, and again
in 1873 and 1879, did not make its reappearance as pre-
dicted in 1885, 1892, and 1898. The date of its possible
appearance in 1905 is discussed, and its elements calcu-
lated. The author expresses the hope that a special search
will be made over the regions indicated by observatories
possessing instruments of sufficient power or equipped with
photographic apparatus.—On Coulomb’s law : L. Lecornu.
A reply to some remarks of M. Painlevé on the same
subject—On a new arrangement for the use of the
methods of interferential spectroscopy: Ch. Fabry. The
method is specially adapted for the study of a spectrum
formed of numerous brilliant lines, such as that of iron, in
the electric arc. The apparatus is a modification of one
previously described by the author. Instead of the inter-
ference bands being observed directly, they are viewed
through a spectroscope, the slit of which may be left
fairly large, unless rays very close together are under
observation. The arrangement possesses several. advan-
tages over the earlier form, the chief being that there is
no possibility of mistaking the radiation under examin-
ation.—An electrometer with sextants and a_ neutral
needle: M. Guinchant. The theory of the instrument is
given, together with its experimental verification. The
instrument gave a deflection of 310 mm. for a potential
difference of one volt, and the delicacy can be increased
three times by a slight modification of the arrangements.
—The oxidation of metals in the cold in presence of
ammonia: C. Matignon and G. Desplantes. In the
presence of ammonia the slow oxidation by oxygen at the
ordinary temperature of a large number of metals takes
place, including mercury, silver, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum,
tungsten, and copper.—Cryoscopic studies made in hydro-
NO. 1849, VOL. 71 |
In all cases the egg-nucleus sinks into the yolk
cyanic acid: M. Lespieau (see p. 544).—Ferric ethylate :
Paul Nicolardot. The author has repeated the experiments
of Grimaux, and concludes that the soluble ferric ethylate
described by the latter does not exist. The compound
always contains sodium.—On_ substituted ureas from
natural leucine: MM. Hugouneng and Morel. From the
carbimide of the ethyl ester of leucine the authors have
prepared leucine-hydantoic acid, the mixed urea of leucine
and aniline, and symmetrical leucine urea.—On some
iodomercurates of pyridine: Maurice Frangois.—On the
heat of formation of calcium hydride and nitride: A.
Guntz and Henry Basset. By distilling commercial
calcium in a vacuum, with rapid cooling of the vapour,
the authors succeeded in obtaining the metal in a pure
state, and in a finely divided condition suitable for its
conversion into the hydride and nitride. The calorimetric
results show that all the heats of formation of calcium
compounds, based on Thomsen’s data, ought to be in-
creased by 20-4 calories. This gives a positive instead of
a negative heat of formation for calcium carbide.—Some
applications of Watt’s principle to the dissociation of the
carbonates of lead and silver: Albert Colson.—The heat
of formation of oximes: Ph. Landrieu. The amount of
heat given off by the reaction between aldehydes and
ketones has been studied in two ways: firstly, by the
interaction of the two substances in aqueous solution in
presence of soda, and secondly, indirectly, by the bomb
calorimeter. Figures are given for oximes derived from
acetone, acetaldehyde, methyl-ethyl-ketone, benzaldehyde,
acetophenone, camphor, and diphenyl-ketone, good agree-
ment being obtained between the two methods.—On the
origin and composition of the essence of herb-bennet root :
Em. Bourquelot and H. Hérissey. It is found that the
essential oil does not exist preformed in the plant, but is
the result of the interaction of a new enzyme upon a
glucoside. The smell is due to the presence of eugenol,
the latter being identified by conversion into its benzoyl
ester.—On the experimental bases of the reticular hypo-
thesis: G. Friedel.—On a case of commensalism between
a species of Balanoglossus and Lepidasthenia Digueti:
Ch. Gravier.—On the cause of the variations in the
length of the intestine in the larvae of Rana esculenta:
Emile Yung. It is shown that the shortening is retarded
by the presence of undigested substances, the shortening
taking place when the intestine is empty.—On the growth
in weight of the guinea-pig: Mlle. M. Stefanowska.
The relation found between weight and age is shown in
the form of two curves, algebraic expressions for which
are also given.—On the heats of combustion of the nervous
and muscular tissue of the guinea-pig, expressed as a
function of the age: J. Tribot.—Contribution to the study
of acid dyscrasia: M. A. Desgrez and Mlle. BI. Guende.
—The action of calcium permanganate upon the toxins of
tetanus, diphtheria, and tuberculosis: J. Baudran.—On a
case of osteomalacia causing extreme deformation of the
skeleton, and terminated by a spontaneous retrocession
of the lesions: P. Berger.—On the favourable action of
the X-rays in some cases of non-suppurating tuberculous
adenopathy: J. Bergonieé.—The palzontological dis-
coveries of M. de Morgan in Persia: H. Douvillé.—On
the discovery of coal at Meurthe-et-Moselle: C. Cavallier.
—On the boring for coal at Meurthe-et-Moselle: R.
Nicklés.—The discovery of a workable seam of coal in
French Lorraine: Francis Laur.—On the course of the
solidification of the earth: A. Leduc. A discussion of the
views on this question recently put forward by MM. Lewy
and Puiseux.—On the influence of eclipses on the move-
ment of the atmosphere: W. de Fonvielle and Paul
Borde.—tThe relation between the density and salinity of
sea-water: A. Chevallier.
INpDIA.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, March 1.—Earwigs of the
Indian Museum: M. Burr. A list of the specimens in the
Indian Museum, with descriptions of four new species.—
On the fresh-water polype of the Calcutta tanks, with
exhibition of living specimens: N. Annandale. The
polype of the Calcutta tanks is identical with Hydra
viridis, Linn. It varies considerably in colour. What is
probably the same species has been seen in the botanic
gardens at Penang.—The composition of the oil from Bir
n
2
2 NATORE
{APRIL 6, 1905
Bahoti or the ‘‘ rains insect’? (Bucella carniola): E. G.
Hill. An oil extracted from this mite is used medicinally
by the Mohammedans of Allahabad. Analysis shows that
its chief constituent is myristodiolein, with small quanti-
ties of stearin, cholesterol and colouring matter.—Con-
tributions to Oriental herpetology, ii., notes on the lizards
in the Indian Museum, with descriptions of new forms
and lists of species recorded from British India and
Ceylon, and of specimens collected on Sinkip Island (East
Sumatra) by the late Prof. Wood-Mason’s collector (part
i.): N. Annandale. The present contribution deals with
the collection of Oriental geckos, eublepharids, agamids,
slowworms and monitors in the Indian Museum. Three
new forms and a doubtful fourth are described, while notes
on the distribution and systematic position of a number of
others are given.—Customs in the trans-border territories
of the North-West Frontier Province: H. A. Rose. A
contribution to the customary law of the trans-border
tribes on the North-West Frontier of India.—The Agraharis
of Sasaram: L. S. S. O'Malley.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Aprrit 6.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—On Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic
Muscles, Seventh Note : Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S.—The Influence
of Cobra-Venom on the Proteid Metabolism: Dr. James Scott.—Further
Experiments and Histological Investigations on Intumescences, with
some Observations on Nuclear Division in Pathological’ Tissues : Miss
E. Dale.—On the Toxin-Antitoxin Reaction, with Special Reference to
the Neurralisation of Lysin by Antilysin: J. A. Craw.—On the Nature
of the Silver Keaction in Animal and Vegetable Tissues: Prof. A. B.
Macallum.—On Endophytic Adaptation shown by E7rysiphe Graminis
DC. under Cultural Conditions: ES. Salmon.—Ovulation and De-
generation of Ova in the Rabbit : Walter Heape.
CrEMICAL SociETy, at 8.—The Basic Properties of Oxygen at Low
‘Temperatures. Additive Compounds of the Halogens with Organic
Substances containing Oxygen: D. McIntosh.—Note on the Interaction
of Metallic Cyanides and Organic Halides: N. V. Sidgwick.—The
Chemical Dynamics of the Reactions between Sodium Thio-ulphate and
Organic Halogen Compounds. Part II. Halogen-substituted Acetates :
A. Slator.—The Chemical Kinetics of Reactions with inverse Reactions.
The Decomposition of Dimethylcarbamide: C. E. Fawsitt.—The
Tautomerism of Acetyl Thiocyanate: A. E. Dixon and J. Hawthorne. —
A Method of Determining the Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts by |
Displacement in their own Mother Liquor, and its Application in the Case
of the Alkaline Halides : J. Y. Buchanan.—The Combination of Mercap-
tans with Unsaturated Ketonic Compounds: S. Ruhemann.—A new
Formation of Acetylcamphor: M. O. Forster and Miss H. M. Judd.—
Preparation and Properties of 1:4 :5-Trimethylglyoxaline: H. A. D.
Jowett.—Bromomethylheptylketone: H. A. D. Jowett —On the Exis-
tence of a Carbide of Magnesium: J, IT. Nance.—The Action of Carbon
Monoxide on Ammonia: H. Jackson and ID. N. Laurie.—Isomeric Salts
of the ‘I'ype NR,RoHs. A Correction. Isomeric Forms of d-Bromo- and
d@-Chloro-camphorsulphonic Acids: F. S. Kipping.—Isomerism of
a-Bromo- and a-Chloro-camphor : F. S. Kipping.—/-Phenylethylamine :
F. S. Kipping and A. E. Hunter.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion of the
Report to Council on the International Electrical Congress at St. Louis,
by W. Duddell, and of Papers on Systems of Electric Units Published in
Part clxx. (last issue) of the Joxrnal.
Rone NNT oETON, at 5.—Synthetic Chemistry: Prof. R. Meldola,
F.R.S.
R6NTGEN Society, at 8.15.—Exhibition Evening.
LinNEAN Society, at 8.—Intra-axillary Scales of Aquatic Mono-
cotyledons: Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson.—A further Communication on
the Study of Pelomyxa palustris : Mrs. Veley.
Society oF ArTs, at 4.30.—The Prospects of the Shan States: Sir J.
George Scott.
Civit anp MEcHANICcAL ENGINEERS’ Society, at 8.—The Design of Con-
crete-Steel Beams : W. Noble Twelvetrees.
FRIDAY, Apri 7.
Roya InsTITuTION, at 9.—American Industry: Alfred Mosely.
InsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Cofferdams for Dock Use:
Rk. G. Clark.—Bath Corporation Waterworks Extension : J. R. Fox.
GrEoLoaisTs' ASSOCIATION, at 8.—The Relative Ages of the Stone Imple-
ments of the Lower Thames Valley: M. A. C. Hinton and A. S. Ken-
nard.
SATURDAY: Avric8.
Royat Institution, at 3.—Some Controverted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
Tue Essex Fietp Civs, at 6.30. (At Essex Museum of Natural History,
Stratford).—Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting.—Natural History Museums:
F. W. Rudler.
MONDAY, Aprrit xo.
INSTITUTION OF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8,—‘‘James Forrest” Lecture:
Unsolved Problems in Electrical Engineering : Colonel R. E. B. Cromp-
ton, C.B.
Royal GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8 39.—The Problem of the Upper
Yangtse Provinces and their Communications: Colonel C. C. Manifold.
TUESDAY, Aprit 11.
RovaL INSTITUTION, at 5.—Tibet : P. Landon.
InsTITUTION oF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The
Strengthening of Karly Iron Bridges : W. Marriott.
xo. 1849, VOL. 71 |
Maintenance and
WEDNESDAY, Apriu 11.
Society or Arts, at 8.—The Industrial Resources of the State of Matto
Grosso, Brazil: G. T. Milne.
THURSDAY, Apri 13.
Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probabie Papers: A Quantitative Study of
Carbon Dioxide Assimilation and Leaf-temperature in Natural Illumina-
tion: F. F. Blackman and Miss G. Matthaei.—On Colour Vision by
Very Weak Light: Dr. G. J. Burch, F R.S.—On a New Type of Elec-
tric Furnace, with a Redetermination cf the Melting Point of Platinum:
Dr. J. A. Harker.—The Refractive Indices of Sulphuric Acid: Dr.
V. H. Veley, F.R.S., and J. J. Manley.—(1) The Improved Electric
Micrometer: (2) The Amplitude of the Minimum Audible Impulsive
Sound: Dr. P. E. Shaw.—On the Intensity and Direction of the Force of
Gravity in India: Lieut.-Colonel S. G. Burrard, R.E., F.R.S.
aL USE at 5.—Synthetic Chemistry: Prof. R. Meldola,
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL FNGINEERS, at 8.—The Alternating Cur-
rent Series Motor: F. Creedy.—Discussion of Mr. Bion J. Arnold’s
address to the joint meeting at St. Louis. :
INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8.—The Kedabeg Copper
Mines : Gustav Kéller —Refining Gold Bullion and Cyanide Precipitates
with Oxygen Gas: T. Kirke Rose.—Wood Gas for Power Purposes and
Gas Generator: G. M. Douglas.—Notes on the Prestea District, Gold
Coast Colony: P. Poore.—Notes on the New Dharwar Gold Field of
India: R. O. Ahlers.—The Cause of Border Segregation in some
Igneous Magmas: J. Park.
MaTHEMATICAL SociETy, at 5.30.—On Irreducible Jacobians of Degree
Six: P. W. Wood.—On Fermat's Numbers and the Converse of Fer-
mat’s Theorem: A. E. Western.—On the Strains that accompany Bend-
ing: Prof. A. E. H. Love.
FRIDAY, Avrit 14.
Roya. InsTITUTION, at9.—The Law of Pressure of Gases below Atmo-
sphere : Lord Rayleigh.
PuysIcaL Society, at 8.—On Ellipsoidal Lenses : R. J. Sowter.—(1) The
Determination of the Moment of Inertia of the Magnets used in the
Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field: (2)
Exhibition of a Series of Lecture Experiments illustrating the Proper-
ties of the Gaseous Ions produced by Radium and other Sources :
Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S.
Roya. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
Mavacotocicat Socirry, at 8.—Anatomical and Systematic Notes on
Dorcasia, Trigonephrus, Corilla, Thersites, and Chloritis: Henry A.
Pilsbry.—Some Account of the Anatomy of Cassidaria rugosa, L.:
Alexander Reynell.—Notes on a small Collection of Shells from the
Victoria Falls, Zambesi River: H. B. Preston.—Descriptions of Six
New Species of Land Shells from South Africa: H. Burnup.
SATURDAY, Arrit 15.
Roya INnsTiTUTION, at 3.—Some Controyerted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Psychology and Physiology. By W. McD... . . 529
Radium and Radio-activity. By R.J.S. .... . 530
OilRuel: (eee ine | ieee os een
The Dynamics of Chemical Change. By Dr. H. M.
Dawson S060 OME on co eek a 6 oo
Recent Earthquakes haters = Neem S32
Our Book Shelf :—
Lang and Abrahams : ‘‘ A German-English Dictionary
of Terms used in Medicine and the Allied
Sciences ” Ri) c+ + ie Pea eee ae
“Régles internationales de la Nomenclature zoo-
logique.”—R. L.. . - 534
Letters to the Editor :—
A New Thallium Mineral.—G. T. Prior .. . . 534
The Legendary Suicide of the Scorpion.—Prof.
Edward B. Poulton, F-R.S.... . 2... . 2 534
Propagation of Earthquake Waves.—M. P. Rudzki. 534
Notes on Stonehenge. V. On the Star Observa-
tions made in British Stone Circles. (/i/ustrated.)
By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. . . . . 535
British Association Geological Photographs. (///us-
traled:)\ 0m! . «2 (2a, ae
The Society of Arts and the London Institution . 539
Notes do. 7 oo Se S0ch 7 540
Our Astronomical Column :—
Comet 1905i7(Giacobini) . . 2. ne) oe ee
Photography of the Corona without a Total Eclipse . 544
Search-ephemeris for Tempel’s First Periodic Comet
(186700) Semen +6. ae eee cy cS
Right Ascensions of 2120 Southern Stars... . . . 545
The Iris Diaphragm in Astronomy ....... . 545
Constancy of ‘*Spark” Wave-lengths .. 2... . 545
Statistics of Variation. By F. A.D. ..... 545
Interrupters for Induction Coils. (///ustrated.) . 546
University and Educational Intelligence 547
Societies and Academies . Sone Sade
Diary of Societies 4 : 552
NOAL ORL:
53
DEHURSDAYeABIRIE, rs, Ig05.
A DOCTOR’S VIEW OF THE EAST.
The Other Side of the Lantern. By Sir Frederick
Treves, Bart. Pp. xvi+424. (London: Cassell
and Co., Ltd., 1905.) Price 12s. net.
HAN admirable book; a book written in terse and
epigrammatic style, as full of cleverness as any-
thing written by Kipling, and intensely interesting as
illustrative of the first impressions conveyed to a
highly trained and observant mind by the familiar and
superficial details of eastern life. But there is nothing
deeper in the book than first impressions, and it was
perhaps inevitable that to the student of human nature
under those aspects of sorrow and suffering which
shadow the sick bed and the hospital, those first im-
pressions should be tinged with the pathos and sad-
ness rather than with the brightness and fulness of
the east, and that the general tone of the book should
be almost pessimistic. It is as if the lantern had
proved to be no better than a common “ bull’s eye,”’
with nothing on the far side but deep shadow and the
policeman. Not that the book is wanting in humour
by any means. On the contrary, some of the quaint
outlines of men and things sketched in by the artist’s
hand are as full of humour as anything drawn by
Phil May ; but it is the grim humour of the man who
complained in South Africa of the ‘‘ plague of women
and flies’’ rather than that of the ordinary holiday
tourist infected with the light and sunshine of the
eastern world.
The fascination of the book lies in the strength of
it, and its appeal to ordinary experience. What Sir
Frederick Treves describes with a few powerful and
graphic touches of the pen is what we all know and
have seen thousands of times for ourselves, and it is
the reproduction of our own unwritten (and perhaps
unrecognised) sensations that gives such pleasure to
the understanding. The keen power of observation
possessed by men who are trained by medical ex-
perience to judge character by the small superficial
details of every-day action is sometimes almost un-
canny to those who have eyes to see but see not,
passing from country to country well wrapped up in
a layer of self-satisfied insularity, regarding the
changeful world of human existence as a sort of
variety show with no reality at the back of it.
Occasionally, no doubt, Sir Frederick permits an
artistic fancy to introduce embellishments into the
arena of actual observation; but where this occurs one
cannot but recognise that he shares with Turner the
great faculty of rendering his picture all the more
truthful in realising the impression which he seeks
to convey.
From the very start at Tilbury the author displays
a powerlul conception of all those minor features of
the voyage eastward which are the framework and
making of the voyager’s daily experience. He begins
with his fellow passengers :—‘‘ As an arena for the
display of the resources of selfishness a departing ship
has great advantages,’’ and follows this up with a
record of the mean little stratagems in which
NO. 1850, VOL. 71 |
travellers will permit themselves to indulge on such
occasions, and (it should be fairly admitted) on such
occasions only. If there was anything of the usual
good fellowship and interchange of little kindnesses
which usually distinguishes the fellow voyagers of a
P. and O. ship (many of whom are necessarily well
acquainted with each other), Sir Frederick does not
seem to have remarked them. He is impressed with
the aspect of selfishness only. He is deeply interested
in Gibraltar (the Rock of the past rather than of the
present) ; charmed with the vision of Crete ; inclined
to relieve Port Said from the weight of universal
anathema with which it is invested; and disappointed
with India. At least, so one gathers from his book.
He is profoundly impressed with the multitudes of
India, and with the melancholy which tinges their
whole existence. The truth is that the multitudes
would not so much signify if they were equally dis-
tributed over the whole continent; and a comparison
with France in the matter of population is ineffective
for the reason that France much wants more people
than she possesses. It is, however, the growing of
the multitudes (checked even though it be by periodic
famines over vast areas) that affords most serious
consideration to Indian administrators.
The general prevalence of an atmosphere of
melancholy pervading native life in India is real
enough, and it is this which tends greatly to discount
the chequered pleasures of European existence in that
country. For it is an undoubted fact that in spite of
isolation and exile in this “land of regrets’’ (the
land of ‘* grim extremes ”’ Sir Frederick calls it), and
the absence of so much that makes life worth living
under European skies, life in India has more in it of
pleasure than of pain. There are few who leave India
quite of their own free will, and many who would
gladly end their days there were it not for the dis-
jointing of all ties of friendship by the departure to
England of those whom they know best and love best
in their own social circle.
Sir Frederick (perhaps naturally) appears to asso-
ciate melancholy with misery. The association is by
no means true of India whatever it may be in other
lands; nor does he, with all his profound knowledge
of human nature and the effect of environment and
occupation thereon, quite appreciate the point of view
from which the native looks at the conditions of his
own existence. For instance, he finds in the Pahari
(the hill men of the Himalayas) a class of people
condemned to work as beasts of burden all their lives.
Visiting Simla in the ‘‘ off ’’ season, he finds these
men of the hills pervading the Tibet road, toiling
painfully towards the Simla market loaded with
planks of sawn wood. ‘‘ They move slowly and they
walk in single file, and when the path is narrow they
must move sideways. In one day I met no less than
fifty creeping wretches in this inhuman procession . . .
if there were but a transverse beam to the plank, each
one of these bent men might be carrying his own
cross to a far-off place of crucifixion.’’ If the author
had waited until the ‘‘ wretches ’’ had stacked their
planks for the evening, lit their fires for cooking, and
gathered round for the day’s ending, he would have
BB
554
found no cheerier, happier hearted follk on the face
of the earth than they. There is nothing melancholy
about the Pahari. It is perhaps extraordinary that any
people who are content (for there is no necessity in
this case) to take the place of beasts of burden should
be so absolutely unaware of the depth of their own
miserable degradation. But so it is, and they would
no more thank Sir Frederick for drawing them as
central figures in a picture of a ‘ circle in Purgatory 4
than would the bare-backed inhabitants of the bazaar
thank the good missionary for calling them indecent.
If he tried to turn a Pahari into a hospital orderly,
and to wean him from his mountains and his planks,
the contract would not last for a week !
But it is necessarily only with the outward aspect of
things Indian that the casual traveller can possibly
deal, and it is the freshness and vigour of Sir
Frederick’s descriptions of native life, his love of
colour and nature, that make the charm of
his book. Can anything be better than his
description of the small shopkeeper of the bazaar?
He ‘lives in the street coram populo, and his inner
life is generously laid open to the public gaze. In
the morning he may think well to wash himself in
front of his shop, and to clean his teeth with a stick
while he crouches amongst his goods and spits into
the lane. He sits on the ground in the open to have
his head shaved and watches the flight of the barber’s
razor by means of a hand glass. The barber squats
in front of him and from time to time whets his
blade upon his naked leg. The shopkeeper will
change his clothes before the eyes of the world when
so moved, He also eats in the open, and after the
meal he washes his mouth with ostentatious publicity
and empties his bowl into the road.”
In moving amongst the historical cities of India
and in describing them in detail there is, of course, a
danger of treading on the skirts of the guide book.
Sir Frederick only escapes the peril by the strength
and beauty of his descriptions of these relics of the
past and his keen appreciation of the stories that these
stones can tell; his power of investing palaces and
forts with all the movement and glitter, the coming
and going, of past races of kings, making these old
walls live once more under the light of an India which
shall never be again, It is all delightful reading, and
the stirring India of Sir Frederick’s imaginings owns
an enchantment which is wanting in the shadowed
India of his latter day observation, There is not much
said about Caleutta. The flavour of the place, that
*‘ essence of corruption which has rotted for a second
time ’’ (Kipling), seems to have been too much for
the author; and yet we know that Calcutta is reckoned
(statistically, at least) to be one of the wholesomest
cities of the world, even when judged by the Euro-
pean standard,
Passing from India to Burma one is not surprised
at the air of relief which pervades his book when deal-
ing with that bright and Jaughter-loving land, Not
even the stern critic of woman’s mission in camp and
hospital resist the fascination of the Burmese
coguette; and his description of Burma and Ceylon
(where, en passant, the eminent surgeon was intro-
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
can
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
duced to the devil of appendicitis
‘“unreasonably noisy ’’) includes
brightest chapter in the books.
China falls again within the shadows cast by the
far side of the lantern. The “ nightmare city of
Canton,” where “such peace as is to be found in
the city lies only on the green hill side without the
walls, where the dead are sleeping,’’? gives the key
note of the almost morbid view of Chinese social
existence which is taken by the author; and yet
throughout his story of China and Japan (which
country he also finds somewhat disappointing) there
is the same brilliancy of description, the same fertile
power of supplying precisely the right touch that is
required to complete the sketch, that marks the work
as original from beginning to end, It is almost
Kiplingesque (to coin a word) in its epigrammatic
summary of the usually complicated view of eastern
humanity and its environment. It is the best bool
of travel that has been written for years; and yet
when one lays it down regretfully (regretfully because
it has come to an end), a feeling of thankfulness
steals over one that the endless procession of human
life and all the sweet variety of nature in the east
is usually ranged for view before our eyes untinted by
the medium of medical spectacles. T. H. H.
and found him
the best and
A BOOK ON MUSEUMS.
Museums, their History and their Use; with a
Bibliography and List of Museums in the United
Kingdom. By D. Murray. 3 Vols. Vol. i., pp.
XV+339; VOl. ii., pp. xiii+339; vol. ili, pp. 363.
(Glasgow : MacLehose and Sons, 1904.) Price 32s.
net.
W E have read the text of the first volume of this
work (the second and third are devoted to
bibliography, &c.) from title-page to index with the
greatest pleasure and satisfaction, and can therefore
recommend it to the best attention of those interested
in the history and progress of museums. The book
itself offers an illustration of an evolution somewhat
similar to that of many of those institutions, for it is
based on an address delivered by the author, in his
capacity as president, to the Glasgow Archzeological
Society so long ago as the winter of 1897, and from
this slender foundation it has gradually grown to its
present dimensions. Much of the original address
appears to remain in the final chapter of the text,
where we find the author comparing the state of
museums in 1897 to what it was half a century earlier,
and what he presumes it will be in the future,
The work, which claims to be the first really full
and approximately complete account of museum his-
tory in general, is confessedly written from the stand-
point of an archeologist rather than of a naturalist;
and it is none the worse for this, although, as we
shall point out, there are a few instances where it
would have been well had the author taken counsel
with his zoological colleagues. Before proceeding to
a brief notice of some of the leading features of the
text, it may be well to mention that the list of
museums in the British Islands is based on the one
prepared by the Museums Association in 1887, and
APRIL 13, 1905]
that in the bibliographical and ‘‘ museographical ”’
lists forming the subject of the second and _ third
volumes, reference is made only to museums of which
there are printed catalogues or descriptions, or to
which reference is made in other works. Conse-
quently, many museums, including a few of some
importance, are not referred to at all. In the case
of large institutions like the British Museum, only
such publications as refer directly to the building and
its contents are quoted, so that the strictly scientific
‘catalogues ’’ find no place in Dr. Murray’s lists.
That these lists, which must have involved an
immense amount of labour in their preparation, will
prove of great interest to ‘‘ museographists ’’ in the
future can scarcely be doubted. We are unable, how-
ever, to find any reference to Dr, A. B. Meyer’s well
known survey of European and American museums.
In his first chapter the author discusses what we
may call rudiments of museums, directing special at-
tention to curiosities and rarities preserved in churches
and cathedrals. Among these we miss a reference to
the horn of the aurochs, or extinct wild ox, preserved
in the cathedral at Strassburg up to the time of the
French revolution. ‘‘ Some Old Exhibits ’’ forms the
title of the sixth chapter, in which reference is made
to our ancestors’ extraordinary belief in the medicinal
value of mummy, ‘‘ unicorn’s horn,’’ and such like.
In discussing the so-called giants’ bones, the author
makes a strange mistake (pp. 46 and 47) in regard
to the bones which were assigned early in the seven-
teenth century to Teutobochus Rex, stating that they
turned out to be those of a giant salamander, whereas
they were really those of a mammoth. Dr. Murray has
evidently confused these remains with Scheuchzer’s
Homo diluvii testis, based on the fossil salamander of
the Giningen Pliocene.
Here we may take the opportunity of alluding to
certain other errors in connection with zoological
matters. On p. 58, for instance, we find the name
of the red deer given as Cervus elephas, which might
well be attributed to the ‘‘ printer’s devil’? were it
not that a few lines later the author deliberately states
that this animal was the €Aebas of the Greeks!
Again, in discussing the barnacle-goose myth, the
author makes the following statement (p. 76) :—
“Sir Robert Sibbald, about the same time, ex-
amined the whole subject personally, and showed that
the Barnacle goose (Bernicla leucopsis) was a bird
produced from an egg, and that the Barnacle shell
(Concha anatifera) instead of being that egg was a
pholas; the Scots piddocks.”’
If Sibbald made this misidentification, the mistake
should have been pointed out—we scarcely dare think
the author believes it to be true. As a minor error,
it may be pointed out that the skeletons referred to
on p. 187 as those of the mammoth are really refer-
able to the mastodon. Finally, the statement on
p. 136 that the Sloane herbarium ‘‘ has recently been
transferred from Montague House to the Natural
History Museum ”’ is scarcely exact or up to date.
Reverting to our survey of the contents of the first
volume, we find in chapter vii. an account of some
of the earliest museums, while in the eighth chapter
NO. 1850, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
555
those in existence at or about the date of the found-
ation of the Royal Society (1660) are discussed in
considerable detail. A whole chapter is devoted to
the history of the collections which formed the basis
of the British Museum, and the gradual development
of that institution. Museums for the exhibition of
special subjects and the museums of Scotland next
claim attention. From these the author passes on to
museums which were ‘‘run’’ for profit, such as the
well known museums of Lever and Bullock in
London. Incidentally, it is mentioned how the former
of these was disposed of en bloc by means of a
guinea lottery; and from this there is an easy tran-
sition to the breaking-up of museums, with, in certain
cases, the total loss of some of the most valuable of
their contents.
In the fifteenth chapter Dr. Murray describes the
arrangement—or rather want of arrangement—
of the old style of museum, and takes occasion to
express regret that a sample of one of these has no}
been preserved to our own day, as an illustration of
museum evolution. Thence we pass on to modern
museum arrangement, local museums, and the use
of museums in general. In connection with museum
buildings, it is interesting to note that Haltman, a
pupil of Linnzeus, advocated the importance of having
a north light to the main galleries—advice which has
been strangely neglected in the planning of many of
our modern institutions. Of the importance of local
museums, if run on right lines, and not made into
mere curiosity shops, the author is fully convinced;
but he is also equally convinced that they should not
be left to the administration of local bodies, the
members of which, as a rule, have but little concep-
tion of their true needs and purpose.
With regard to public museums in general, and
especially those of the metropolis and our larger
cities, Dr. Murray insists that modern methods of
conservation and exhibition, and especially the labour
of writing descriptive labels (which have to be from,
time to time renewed to keep pace with scientific
progress), must entail constantly increasing expendi-
ture, both in respect to the staff and to the upkeep
of the whole establishment. In one passage (p. 280))
he incidentally mentions that specimens shown in
a museum do not grow out of date, apparently
oblivious of the terrible effects of light in destroying
so many zoological exhibits. His arguments for the
increase of expenditure in the upkeep of museums
are therefore, to a certain extent, understated rather
than overestimated.
In regard to the general awakening of the country
to the necessity of adequate training in every branch
of culture and every department of industry, Dr.
Murray writes as follows :—
“One of the most potent engines by which this
is to be secured is the museum. Some of our
museums are among the finest in the world; many
are lending valuable assistance to the advancement
and appreciation of art and science. A large number,
however, are still content to be mere holiday resorts.
All, even the best, must advance, and for this end
enlightened and sympathetic administration and a
liberal income are required. The museum of 1897 is.
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
far in advance of the museum of 1847; but it in turn
will be old-fashioned by the end of twenty years, and
when the coming (= present) century is half-way
through, its methods and arrangements will probably
be wholly superseded by something better.’’
With these words we take leave of a very instruc-
tive and fascinating book, which it may be hoped
will in some measure serve to awaken greater public
interest in museums, and thereby enable them to
receive adequate financial support from those re-
sponsible for their management. R. L.
ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY.
(1) A Primer of Physiology. By Prof. E. H. Star-
ling, F.R.S. Pp. viiit+128. (London: John
Murray, 1904.) Price rs,
(2) Elementary Practical Physiology. By John
Thornton, M.A. Pp. viiit+324. (London: Long-
mans, Green and Co., 1904.) Price 3s. 6d.
(1) A SSUMING an elementary knowledge of the
a main facts of chemistry and physics on the
part of the readers, Prof. Starling has endeavoured to
present with as few technical terms as possible the
leading ideas which make up present-day physiology.
It is clear that within the limited space of about
120 short pages the accomplishment of such a task
is well-nigh impossible, and except in the accuracy
of the stated facts due to the author’s mastership of
his subject, we do not think that the present attempt
is more successful than those of others which have
preceded it.
The great difficulty in writing such diminutive
primers does not lie in the direction of finding matter
to insert, but in a superabundance of material which
must be left out if the reader is not to be stifled by
a congested mass of facts crammed together into the
shortest possible space, and as a consequence expressed
in the tersest and baldest of language.
It is the difficulty of freeing the mind from the
bondage of detail and dealing only with broad out-
lines which makes such primers dry and uninterest-
ing reading, and causes one to sympathise with the
children who are forced to read and to attempt to
digest them mentally.
The primer at present under consideration is no
worse, and perhaps somewhat better, in this respect
than many similar productions; still, it would have
served its purpose better if much of the detail had
been left out, and room so provided for more ample
treatment of the prominent and important aspects
of the subject.
In the small amount of space at his disposal the
author deals not only with the anatomy and physiology
of the mammal, but finds room for some instruction
regarding toxins and antitoxins, and a short chapter
upon the defence of the body against micro-organisms.
The introductory chapter takes up the consideration
of the animal as a thermodynamic machine, includes
the famous candle-burning experiment and the use
of the calorimeter, and then passes rapidly to
adaptive reactions, adaptation to poisons, and finally
to antitoxins, thus showing that the whole of life
is a series of adapted reactions.
NO. 1850, vou. 71]
In this chapter even the junior chemist who may
read the primer will object to the illustration which
shows him soda-lime as a fluid in bottles 1 and 4
of the illustration on p. 5, and it is to be feared that
the junior physicist will be inclined to regard the
calorimeter shown in section on p. 8 as a somewhat
impossible piece of apparatus.
The remaining chapters furnish accounts of
structure, food, digestion, circulation of the blood,
breathing, exertion, the skin and its uses, the history
of the food in the body, the chemical factories of the
body, the defence of the body against micro-organisms,
the physiology of movement and the muscles, the
central nervous system, feelings—the whole contained
in 112 brief pages, and forming a veritable multum
in parvo.
(2) It is somewhat difficult on first glancing
through Mr. Thornton’s book to understand why the
word practical appears on its title-page, for by far
the greater part of the text is purely descriptive,
although at intervals directions for simple dissec-
tions and experiments are interspersed in an un-
obtrusive manner.
On looking at the page opposite to the descriptive
title page, however, one discovers that it is a member
of the ‘* Practical Elementary Science Series ”’ issued
by the publishers, and intended, as the author states
in his preface, to meet all the requirements of stage 1
(the elementary stage) as set forth in the syllabus
issued by the Board of Education, and in similar
syllabuses of other examining bodies. Hence both
the ‘elementary ’’ and the “‘ practical ’’ of the title
form, so to speak, the ‘‘ class name ’”’ of the series,
and are suggested by the syllabus and examination
which have evidently given rise to their existence.
It is, in the opinion of the reviewer, a pity that
even elementary text-books of science should have to
be written to suit the requirements of syllabuses and
examinations, but it appears to be inevitable in view
of the artificial manner in which a love of science is
propagated in this country that the majority of our
text-books must be so written.
It accordingly becomes a problem whether such
books can best be written by experts engaged upon
the particular subject treated, or by the school-
masters engaged in teaching that subject along with
others.
The schoolmaster can claim the advantage in that
he is a teacher of children, and knows best how to
put the subject so that they will understand it; also,
being engaged year after year in preparing pupils for
the examination, he knows the requirements of the
situation so far as success in the examination is
concerned; but his knowledge of the subject and his
presentation of it must be chiefly second-hand, since
the prosecution of the study is not his daily occupa-
tion. On the other hand, the specialist, while he can
give a review of the subject from a living acquaint-
ance with it, may fail signally in writing to suit the
requirements of the syllabus and the examination,
disappoint both teacher and scholars in this respect,
and leave his publisher without a market.
The book before us will lead to no disaster in
APRIL 13, 1905]
NATURE
55%
examination results, as a comparison of the sets of
examination papers included at the end of the volume
with the text of the book amply demonstrates, and
it must be added that if an observant student carries
out the simple experiments so clearly described at
various places in the volume, he will have acquired a
very desirable knowledge of the more important
features of physiology. But so much cannot be said
of the remainder of the text, which aims at far too
much statement of detail for the space available, a
matter in which the syllabus may be much more to
blame than the author.
For example, the student who has learnt no
chemistry previously will not be able to digest much
from the description of the chemical elements given
in a single page, and the same is true of the descrip-
tion of the chief inorganic compounds and the organic
compounds of the body, each dismissed in less than a
page.
The valuable habit of coordinating knowledge in
the form of tables is visible at places in the bool, but
summaries have a way of becoming either too sweep-
ing or too inexact, and we fear that the pupil,
especially after such a concise training in chemistry
as we have just indicated, may be in danger of con-
cluding from a perusal of the table on p. 13 that the
body contains ‘‘ mineral salts’’ formed from a very
strange combination of elements, or, from the table
on p. 162, that these same ‘‘ mineral matters ’’ share
only ‘‘in forming bene and assist in digestion,’’ and
not that they are found in every cell and tissue in the
body, and form as essential a constituent there as
the all-important proteids, which are in the same table
represented as the only tissue formers.
B. Moore.
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.
Terrestrial Magnetism and its Causes. By F. A.
Black. Pp. xii+226. (London and Edinburgh:
Gall and Inglis, 1905.) Price 6s. net.
ITH regard to the earth’s magnetism, the
general conclusions from observations made
on its surface are that it is partly permanent, partly
induced, and subject to the effects of electric currents
in the earth’s crust and the surrounding atmosphere.
Moreover, that the direct action of the sun plays a
comparatively subordinate part in producing the
observed phenomena.
In this book, however, various reasons are sub-
mitted for the belief that the general magnetism of
the earth, and the constant changes thereof as shown
by the hourly variations of the needle, are due to
causes external to the earth. In short, that the earth
is to be considered as an electromagnet excited by
electric currents proceeding from the sun and im-
pelled towards the earth with inconceivable rapidity,
the orbital and axial movements of the earth through
these currents producing magnetic effects in a manner
similar to the winding of an electromagnet through
which a current passes.
In order that we may believe this to be the case, we
must agree that the sun gives out electric waves
continuously in every direction equal to the work of
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
maintaining the earth as an electromagnet. For
example, that during the forty-five years of the last
century, when, according to computation from
observed facts, the earth’s magnetic moment hardly
changed, these emanations were continuous. At pre-
sent there does not appear to be any ground for such
a belief.
In an endeavour to explain the hourly angular
variations of the needle, it is submitted that the
earth’s magnetic poles probably occupy a consider-
able area round the centre of which certain centres
of primary attraction in them make a daily circuit,
due to the action of the sun as the earth rotates on its
axis. In addition to the ‘ primary ’’ magnetic pole
in North America, it is suggested that a ‘‘ secondary ”’
pole of a similar nature must exist in northern
Siberia. The daily variations of the needle, both in
declination and dip, in the northern hemisphere are
then attributed to a battle for the mastery between
the revolving centres of attraction in the two poles
mentioned, modified as the magnetic equator is
approached by the attraction of the south magnetic
poles.
As one reads through several of the first chapters
the fully expressed acceptance of the idea that the
attraction of the needle by the magnetic poles is the
immediate cause of its variations seems unaccount-
able, until a fundamental error is reached. This is
when the author takes it as generally agreed that, in
the same way as steel is attracted by the poles of an
ordinary artificial magnet, the magnetic needle is
attracted by the poles of that great natural magnet,
the earth. Such a statement vitiates whole pages of
the arguments adduced.
On the question of the position of the magnetic
equator with regard to the terrestrial equator, the
results of observation have also been too much
ignored. There have not been four crossings of the
two equators during the last sixty years, neither are
the two known points of crossing regulated by the
position of the magnetic poles as suggested. In the
Atlantic region, the point of crossing seems to be
chiefly regulated by local causes. below the earth’s
surface.
It may be finally remarked that the chapter on
magnetic storms is the most acceptable in the book.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and
Novelties of Construction. By Gardner D. Hiscox.
Pp. 396. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1905.)
Price 12s. 6d. net.
Tuts book is luxuriously printed, with clear figures, but
it is difficult to say more in its praise. It consists of
a series of short paragraphs, each with its illustration,
describing some mechanical or constructional device.
It is similar in plan to those ‘‘ Centuries of Invention ”’
of which the Marquis of Worcester’s was the earliest
(1746). The devices described are of the most hetero-
geneous character, old and new, important and un-
important, useful and useless. They are arranged in
the roughest way in sections which have no relation
to any natural order of classification. It is difficult
to see to whom such a work appeals, but in fairness
to the author it should be stated that a previous work
58
on
NATIT RE
[APRIL 13, (1905
of which this is a continuation appears to have reached
a tenth edition.
Section ii. is on the transmission of power. The first
example is a screw-driver, and the second a sewer rod
coupling. Another example is a cash conveyor, which,
as money is power, is no doubt an example of trans-
mission of power.
is less obvious. Nor would one naturally expect four
examples of acoustic telephones to be found under this
heading.
Section vii., on hydraulic power and appliances, com-
mences with some very sketchy ideas for wave motors,
and then describes a fog-horn buoy. There is no
reasonably good account of any one of the important
class of water turbines, but there is a quite impossible
design for a ‘ multinozzle turbine,’”? and next to this
a duplex steam feed pump. There is a figure of a Ven-
turi meter, but the description does not explain its
action, and the curiously inaccurate statement is made
that the differential velocity produces a differential
pressure in two tubes with mouths turned in “ oppo-
site’? directions, and ends with the very misleading
statement that ‘‘the measurement is made by a
meter.’” The reader would not realise that the
Venturi tube is the meter, and that what the author
probably mistakes for a meter is a recorder.
Section viii., on air power, motors and appliances,
contains the ‘‘ pneumatic ball puzzle,’? an “ aérial
top,” “‘ grain elevators,’ ‘a magic ball,” a “ mega-
scope,’’ a “‘ sailing wagon,” a “‘ tail-less kite,’’ and a
“ sail-rigged merry-go-round ’’; but nothing about the
air-compressors, air-motors, and pneumatic tools
which are now so important.
Enough has been said to indicate the general char- |
acter of the work. Many useful and important devices
are described amongst many others which are mere
inventors’ schemes. There may be readers who like
an olla podrida of this kind. ~
Perhaps the most curious section, and we think the
longest, is that on perpetual motions. About these the
author does not seem to have quite made up his own
mind. He does warn the reader in the preface that
the problem is ‘ unsolvable.’’ But later, p- 363, he
remarks that ‘‘ attempts to solve this problem would
seem, so far, only to have proved it to be thoroughly
paradoxical,’ a statement which would hardly get
many marks in a science examination. Further, we
are told on the next page that, although admitting
difficulties in the way of its discovery, ‘‘ many
eminent mathematicians have favoured the belief in
the possibility of perpetual motion ”; also that ‘it is
evident, therefore, that even mathematicians are not
agreed.’’
Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena, Radio-
activity, Tons, Electrons. By Augusto Righi.
Authorised translation by A. Trowbridge. Pp. xiii
+ 165. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London :
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 5s. net.
Ir is an interesting sign of the times that so many
books have appeared during the last few months with
the object of explaining in non-technical words the
recent development of physical science. Part of the in-
terest shown in these subjects by the general reading
public is, r r r
seeking order, which classes the more striking dis-
coveries of natural science with the latest sensation
of the law courts, or the cost of the flowers at a Trans-
atlantic ball. But it is fair to hope that some, at all
events, of those who read of the advance of knowledge
do so with a desire to comprehend the method, as well
as to admire the results, of scientific research. A
more widely spread application of the open-minded and
truth-seeking methods of science to the problems of in-
No. 1850, VOL. 71]
On the next page is a viscosi- |
meter, though what power is transmitted in this case |
no doubt, of the unintelligent and wonder- |
| dividual and collective life is, for the sake of the com-
| munity, greatly to be desired.
The little book before us deals in a light and in-
teresting manner with the conceptions of the physical
| world which have been used of late in investigating
the phenomena of light, electricity, and radio-activity.
It states the results of recent inquiries in a clear and
used in reaching the results sometimes seems in-
adequate, the difficulty of explaining those methods to
non-scientific readers may be urged as an excuse.
After an introduction, the book contains chapters on
electrolytic ions and electrons; electrons and the
phenomena of light; the nature of the kathode rays;
the ions in gases and solids; radio-activity; mass,
velocity, and electric charge of the ions and of the
electrons; and the electrons and the constitution of
matter. The volume ends with a useful bibliography
of the subjects considered.
The translation, on the whole, is well done, though
a certain want of crispness in the literary style is felt
in places. :
In a future edition one or two corrections would be
advisable. The period of vibration of light cannot be
““ expressed by a fraction whose numerator is unity
and whose denominator is a number of fifteen places ”’
unless it is understood that ‘‘ a fraction ’’ is a fraction
of a second. The usual figure given to illustrate the
opposite deflection by a magnetic field of the a and 8
rays from radium exaggerates greatly the deflection
of the « rays compared with that of the 8 rays. This
exaggeration is legitimate, in fact, mecessary, in a
diagrammatic representation; but it should be pointed
out in the text, or misconception of the relative mag-
nitudes of the two effects is sure to follow. In Thom-
son’s method of determining the properties of the ions
produced by the incidence of ultra-violet light on a
metallic surface, the exactness is limited not only by the
differing velocities of the ions, as stated in the book.
Probably the ions are produced, not solely at the
metallic surface, but also in a layer of the gas of
finite thickness in its neighbourhood. Thus the dis-
tance from the surface reached against the influence
of a magnetic field may be different for different ions
even if their velocities be the same.
The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. Vol.
Ixv. Pp. clxvi +392. (London: Murray, 1904.)
THE Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society makes
its appearance this year in a rather slimmer form than
usual, due, however, more to the use of a thinner
paper than to a curtailment of the printed matter. The
affairs of the society bulk largely as usual, taking up
more than half the present volume, while the mis-
cellaneous articles, to which the ordinary reader turns,
only occupy about 150 pages. The volume is, in fact,
burdened far too much with reports of council meet-
ings and committees, which have lost all interest for
the members by the time the annual volume reaches
| them, and which would be much more to the point if
circulated as “ proceedings ’’ immediately after the
meetings and not reprinted here.
The volume opens with a vivacious and readable
| account of Sir Humphry Davy by Mr. H. B.
Wheatley, who well brings out the charm and fascina-
tion of Davy’s personality. But we cannot help
thinking Mr. Wheatley rates Davy’s agricultural work
altogether too highly; if any man is to be called
“father of the science’? it is De Saussure, and not
Davy, who can be identified with no new discovery or
novel point of view in agricultural science. In this
respect Davy was somewhat like Liebig; both were
great men who had the power of getting the world to
listen to them, and when they turned their attention
to agriculture the influence they wielded, each in their
intelligible manner, and, if the account of the methods
—
APRIL 13, 1905]
NATURE
509
generation, and the stimulus they gave to the progress
of agriculture were out of all proportion to the value of
the knowledge’ or even of the ideas they contributed to
the subject. Davy gave dignity to the study of agri-
cultural science; where Davy had laboured no man in
future need be ashamed to work. Two articles follow
on fruit farming, by Mr. Charles Whitehéad, and on
vegetable farming, by Mr. James Udale. Both are
sound enough, but they are rather jejune perform-
ances for the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society, since from the inevitable limitations of space
they are too lacking in detail to be of service to any-
one but the amateur. When it comes to reproducing
pictures of the wireworm from the Society’s text-book
of agriculture, instructions for making Bordeaux mix-
ture, and similar elementary matters, the farmer
reader may well wonder where the editor’s blue pencil
has been lying.
ing question of the day, the cost of labourers’ cottages,
and gives a number of sensible plans, bringing out the
cost of a brick and tile cottage with three bedrooms
at about 15ol., including the land and the cost of a
well.
Mr. A. D. Hall writes on the agricultural experi-
ments of Mr. James Mason, the well-known founder
of the firm of Mason and Barry, who spent his later
leisure in attempting to apply science to agriculture
with some success, while the rest of the volume is
occupied with the last Park Royal show, with reports
of the experiments in progress at the Woburn Farm,
and with other society matters.
Mediaeval Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus. By
Robert Steele; with preface by William Morris.
Pp. xv+195. (London: Alexander Moring, Ltd.,
1905.) Price rs. 6d. net.
Tuts beautiful addition to the ‘‘ King’s Classics,”’
of which Prof. Gollancz is the general editor, is
likely to prove of interest to students of science.
Written by an English Franciscan, probably before
1260, to explain the allusions to natural objects met
with in the Scriptures and elsewhere, it is really an
account of the properties of things in general so far
as they were understood by an educated writer of the
Middle Ages. After studying the quaint and pleasant
accounts of medizval science, medicine, geography,
and natural history which the book contains, the
student will begin to realise that during the Middle
Ages science was not stagnant, but, by gradual de-
velopment, was making possible the rapid growth of
scientific knowledge characteristic of the nineteenth
century. The reprint deserves to be read widely.
Ergebnisse und Probleme der Zeugungs- und
Vererbungs-lehre. By Prof. Oscar Hertwig. Pp.
31. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1905.) Price 1 mark.
Pror. Oscar Hertwic is well known as a pioneer
in the researches on fertilisation. In 1875 he made
the important discovery that the essential fact in the
process lay in the fusion of a single male with a
female cell, and he also saw and recognised the fusion
of the nuclei. It was fitting that at the congress
held at St. Louis last year he should choose this
subject as the text of his lecture. The reprint forms
a clear statement of the chief details of fertilisation,
and also indicates some of the theoretical conclusions
towards which modern cytology is tending. The
sketch of the so-called ‘reduction divisions ”’ is
specially good, and the author shows how clear a
light they throw on the modern experimental results
obtained from the study of heredity. The lecture will
be welcomed by all who are interested in these and
kindred questions, and those who know Prof. Hert-
wig’s writings will not be surprised to find that if the
ieabneee is of necessity brief, it is masterly of its
<ind.
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
Mr. Dudley Clarke writes on a burn- |
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
The Dynamical Theory of Gases,
In Mr. Jean’s valuable work upon this subject he attacks
the celebrated difficulty of reconciling the “‘ law of equi-
partition of energy ’’ with what is known respecting the
specific heats of gases. Considering a gas the molecules
of which radiate into empty space, he shows that in an
approximately steady state the energy of vibrational
modes may bear a negligible ratio to that of translational
and rotational modes.
I have myself speculated in this direction; but it seems
that the difficulty revives when we consider a gas, not
radiating into empty space, but bounded by a perfectly
reflecting enclosure. There is then nothing of the nature
of dissipation; and, indeed, the only effect of the appeal
to the zther is to bring in an infinitude of new modes of
vibration, each of which, according to the law, should
have its full share of the total energy. I cannot give the
reference, but I believe that this view of the matter was
somewhere expressed, or hinted, by Maxwell.
We know that the energy of ztherial vibrations, corre-
sponding to a given volume and temperature, is not in-
finite or even proportional to the temperature. For some
reason the higher modes fail to assert themselves.’ A full
comprehension here would probably carry with it a solu-
tion of the specific heat difficulty. RAYLEIGH.
The Physical Cause of the Earth’s Rigidity.
Since publishing the paper in the Astronomische Nach-
richten (No. 3992), the investigations there outlined have
been considerably extended, and lead to some remarkable
results. My only purpose in this letter is to direct atten-
tion more particularly to the physical cause of the earth’s
rigidity. This seems to have remained rather obscure, and
I am not aware that any definite theory has been adopted
to account for the remarkable fact established by the re-
searches of Lord Kelvin and Prof. G. H. Darwin.
It was pointed out in the Astronomische Nachrichten
(3992) that the physical cause of the earth’s high effective
rigidity is to be found in the great pressure existing
throughout the interior of our globe. This may be made
somewhat more obvious by remembering that in any con-
centric spherical surface the resistance of the enclosed
nucleus must be just equal to the pressure of the surround-
ing shells resting upon it, and thus the strain upon the
matter of the globe increases towards the centre according
to the same law as the curve of pressure given in the
Astronomische Nachrichten (3992). This pressure is
sustained by the increasing density and rising temperature
of the matter in the earth’s interior, which is thus under
an inconceivable strain, far surpassing the strength of any
known substance. As the matter is above the critical
temperature of every element, it is essentially a gas re-
duced by pressure to a hardness greater than that of steel,
and with an elasticity and rigidity infinitely near to per-
fection. The result is that the explosive strain upon the
matter of our globe from within, which is everywhere
just equal to the pressure sustained by the enclosed nucleus,
renders the interior matter more rigid than any known
substance; and even the outer layers, which are but
slightly compressed, yield so little under the action of
external forces that the globe as a whole is more rigid
than steel, as Lord Kelvin and Prof. G. H. Darwin found
from their profound researches on the long-period tides of
the ocean.
It was these considerations which led to the conclusion
that all the heavenly bodies of considerable mass when con-
densed to moderate bulk have nuclei of great effective
rigidity, and experience no sensible circulation at great
depths. tele Ale Siar
U.S. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, Cal., March 20.
1 Compare ‘‘Remarks upon the Law of Complete Radiation” (PAiZ
Mag., xlix. p. 539, 1900).
560
The Lyrid Meteors.
TuHouGH in the present vear the light of the full moon
will impede observations of these meteors, yet it is not
improbable that the shower will be sufficiently strong to
manifest its presence, provided that the atmospheric con-
ditions prove favourable for the occasion. In 1905 the
calculated maximum will fall on the night of April 19, as
was the case last year, when Lyrids were found to be
somewhat more numerous at Utrecht on the night of
April 19 than on the succeeding night, both nights having
been clear; observations at Dublin, made, however, under
less favourable conditions, tended also to confirm this
result.
On the present occasion the shower will extend through-
out the night of April 19, and of its three constituent
maxima two at least will be visible to Cisatlantic observers.
The calculated time of the first of these maxima is April 19,
tth. 15m. G.M.T., while the second occurs at, 15h.; the
third may occur shortly after 14h., but owing to an un-
certainty respecting some of the data requisite for its
calculation, it is liable to arrive two or three hours later,
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
Dr. Nordenskjéld sailed from Buenos Aires on
Christmas Eve, 1901, with the Swedish expedition.
The object of the expedition was not to make a dash
for the Pole, but, in conjunction with the English,
Scottish, and German expeditions, to pursue certain
scientific studies in the unknown Antarctic, the special
sphere of operations being that section known as the
Weddell Quadrant. Dr. Nordenskjéld appears to
have succeeded in carrying out much of his pro-
gramme, although he was unable to push far south,
indeed, not so far as the Antarctic Circle, and notwith-
standing disasters and hardships without a parallel in
the history of Antarctic exploration.
The narrative is divided into two parts. The first,
by Dr. Nordenskjéld himself, deals with the cruise of
the Antarctic in the summer of 1901-1902, and with
the two consecutive winters spent on shore near Sey-
mour Island. The second part is by Dr. Andersson
and Capt. Larsen, and describes the attempt of the
| Antarctic to reach Nordenskjéld’s winter quarters in
Fic. 1.—The loss of the Antarctic.
and consequently elude the vigilance of observers of the
first two maxima.
The conditions under which the anticipated display will
take place indicate that it will be much above the average
in brightness, and probably, notwithstanding the presence |
of the full moon, several brilliant meteors will be observed
on April 19, owing to the meteoric concentration that
characterises this night. Joun R. Henry.
ANTARCTICA.?
E have entered upon a new era of South Polar
literature, since each of the recent expeditions
bears the promise and the potency of several books.
Of these the recent publication of Dr. Otto Norden-
|
|
|
skj6ld’s ‘‘ Antarctica’? is an addition to our know- |
ledge of southern regions.
1 ** Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the Ice of the South Pole.”
N. Otto G. Nordenskjéld and Dr. Joh. Gunnar Andersson.
«London: Hurst and Blackett, Ltd., 190s.) Price r8s. net.
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
By Dr.
Pp. xviii+608.
From Nordenskjéld and Andersson's ‘‘ Antarctica.’ The original illustration is slightly larger than the above,
the summer of 1902-1903, and the loss of the ship in
the ice-pack off Louis Philipp Land near the entrance
of Erebus and Terror Gulf.
Geographically, the summer of i1go0I-1902 was
perhaps the most prolifie in discoveries. Louis
Philipp Land was found to be continuous with Danco
Land, and Gerlache Channel nothing but a continu-
ation of D’Urville’s Orleans Channel. Indeed, D’Ur-
ville is the real discoverer of the whole island. It
appears that the Belgica maps of this locality present
many difficulties and differences. The illustrations
of this land from about lat. 63° S. to 65° S. bear a
strong resemblance to Victoria Land, and seem as
desolate and as heavily glaciated as land in lat. 75° S.
in the Ross Quadrant.
Continuing southwards down the east coast of
King Oscar I]. Land, the Antarctic was at last
stopped by a perpendicular wall of ice about rgoft.
high. This was in about the 66th degree of latitude
south, and it grew clear to Dr. Nordenskjéld ‘‘ that
APRIL 13, 1905]
the chief aim of the expedition to penetrate to un-
known regions along the coast of King Oscar’s Land
was utterly annihilated by powers of nature against
which it would be fruitless to combat.”’
Sailing eastwards along the barrier some trawl
hawls were made in deep water, a fairly constant
depth of 2000 fathoms found, and indications of a
layer of warm water at about 300 fathoms. This layer
of warm water at a certain depth is characteristic of a
great part of the polar sea.
On February 1, 1902, in lat. 633° S. and long.
45° 7' W., it was decided to return westwards and
seek a suitable place for winter quarters. The spot
selected was Snow Hill, a little to the south of
Seymour Island, where Capt. Larsen first discovered
fossils in 1892. A party of six, including Nordens-
Kkjéld, was landed, with a strong, comfortable log
hut, a few dogs, and provisions and equipment for
two years. Before finally leaving the party an attempt
was made by Capt. Larsen to establish a depét farther
south, but it was unsuccessful on account of the close
conditions of the ice.
The two winters seem to have been passed cheer-
fully and harmoniously. The party was too far north
to feel the terrors of a real polar night, for even at
midwinter the sun remained four hours above the
horizon, but the weather, common to all parts of
Antarctica, was most boisterous; storm followed
storm, and made outdoor work only too frequently
impossible and the carrying out of scientific observ-
ations most arduous. Perhaps we do not thoroughly
realise what physical hardships attend the taking of
scientific observations in the Antarctic regions.
The magnetic work was undertaken by Dr. J.
Bodman. There were no self-recording variometers
like those of the Discovery, and there is therefore no
continuous magnetic record, but the conditions of the
International Term Days were fulfilled by means of
the ordinary method of eye readings.
Bacteriological investigations were undertaken by
Dr. Ekel6f, and chiefly concerned the bacterial flora
of the surface soil. The result seems to show that
“in these regions the surface soil must almost be
considered as the place of origin of bacteria, and
the results which were pursued during different
seasons and with regard to different kinds of earth
have given rise to wholly new ideas concerning the
conditions of bacterial life within the polar regions.’’
The taking of the meteorological observations was
shared by all alike. At first readings were taken
only at 7 and 8 a.m. and 2 and g p.m., but towards
the middle of April night observations were also
taken.
August 6 was the coldest day, when the thermo-
meter registered —42°3 F. (—41°.3 C.). At Cape
Adare (lat. 71° S.) the lowest temperature observed
was —43°-5 F., also in August, and with the Dis-
covery in Jat. 78° S., —67°.8 F.
Dr. Nordenskjéld expresses the opinion that the
summer of 1902-3 was exceptionally cold, and points
out that the German ship Gauss alone succeeded in
extricating itself from the ice, but no figures are
given to prove the statement. Fewer heavy storms
in the summer of 1902-3 were more likely the direct
cause of the ice not breaking up.
On October 1, Dr. Nordenskjéld set out with
Lieut. Sobral and a sailor on a sledge expedition
southwards along the coast of King Oscar II. Land.
The one sledge drawn by Nordenskj6ld and Sobral
weighed in all 200 lb., and the other, drawn by five
dogs, 485 lb. The total length of route traversed in
thirty-four days was 400 miles. As a result of this
journey the chart of this coast has become completely
changed.
During the summer of 1902-3,
NO. 1850, VOL. 71 |
while waiting for
NATURE
5601
the return of the Antarctic, important fossil finds
were made on Seymour Island. The first were bones
belonging to a species of penguin considerably larger
than the largest now living—the Emperor penguin.
This demonstrates that even at such a distant epoch—
probably the beginning of the Tertiary period—the
penguin was an inhabitant of the Antarctic regions.
The other was that of numerous large and quite dis-
tinct leaves in a brown, coarse, hard, tuff-like rock,
belonging to different forms of exogenous trees, firs,
and ferns. The leaves are small and narrow, and
call to mind similar fossils from the Tertiary form-
2 4+
Fic. 2.—Tertiary plant fossils from Seymour Island (drawings by Prof.
A, G. Nathorst). From Nordenskjéld and Andersson's ** Antarctica. *
ations of Central and Southern Europe, but also
certain South American types of leaves.
Dr. Nordenskjéld writes: ‘‘ If there was one hope
whose fulfilment or non-fulfilment was, in my
thoughts, almost synonymous with the success or
failure of this expedition, it was just that of being
able to discover in these regions determinable Tertiary
vegetable fossils.”’ ;
Dr. Andersson also discovered a fossil flora from
the Jurassic system in Hope Bay, about a degree
farther north, and some very fine illustrations of the
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
Cladophlebis, Pterophyllum, and Otozamites are
given.
Some form of fossil plant was found by the:
geologist of the Discovery as far south as Jat. 78°,
but it has been found quite impossible to identify it
on account of the imperfect nature of the specimen.
The second part of the book makes some thrilling
reading, but adds very little to our knowledge. ' The
attempt of Dr. Andersson, Lieut. Duse and seaman
Grunden to reach Nordenskjéld across the ice from
the Antarctic in the summer of 1902-3, their failure
either to reach the winter quarters or to regain the
ship, and subsequent lonely winter in Hope Bay, is
given in detail. The Antarctic foundered on February
12, 1903, as the result of a severe ice ‘‘ nip,’”? and the
crew succeeded in reaching Paulet Island across the
ice, where they spent the winter under extremely try-
ing conditions. Fortunately, both Dr. Andersson and
Captain Larsen and their parties succeeded in
reaching Nordenskjéld’s winter quarters in the fol-
lowing summer, and, with the exception of a sailor
who died on Paulet Island, all were rescued by the
Argentine ship Uruguay in November, 1903. ~
The book consists of about 600 pages, and there
are a large number of illustrations, some of which
are from crude drawings and are indifferently repro-
duced. The coloured plates might have been advan-
tageously omitted, as they give no idea of the extreme
delicacy and beauty of Antarctic colour. Here and
there are slight slips, such, for instance, as appears
on p. 119, where the velocity of the wind is given
as forty-five miles per second! However, there are
no serious blemishes. The field of operations was,
geographically, a limited one, and well outside the
Antarctic Circle. Scientifically we may look forward
to more interesting results. No attempt has been
made to give an account of the scientific work, and
Dr. Nordenskjéld hints that several years must elapse
before the results of the voyage of the Antarctic can
be published in full. LO CeB.
A NEW BRITISH MARINE EXPEDITION.
THE hydrographical and biological investigation
of the central and western parts of the Indian
Ocean will this year be the object of a special cruise
of H.M.S. Sealark, which is fixed to leave Colombo
for the purpose about April 20. This yacht, which
is the latest addition to the survey vessels of the Navy,
is under the command of Captain Boyle Somerville,
who will be accompanied by two scientific civilians,
Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner and Mr. C. Forster Cooper.
It will be remembered that the Indian Ocean was
not visited by the Challenger Expedition in the
famous cruise around the world, the course then taken
lying further to the south, almost within the Ant-
arctic circle. Meantime, however, knowledge of the
region has been steadily increased by the exertions
of individual explorers and by special Admiralty
surveys. To the east there has been continuous
progress, culminating in the Dutch Siboga Expedi-
tion of 1899-1900 through the East Indies, while
other explorers have investigated Keeling Atoll,
Christmas Island, and parts of Torres Straits and
Western Australia. To the north, the Indian survey
vessel Investigator has been active from the Persian
Gulf almost to the Straits of Malacca, while individual
explorers have borne their full share. Prof. Ortmann
examined the reefs of Ceylon, and Prof. Herdman
is now publishing a full account of the marine fauna
and flora of that region. In addition, Mr. Stanley
Gardiner, with Messrs. Borradaile and Forster
Cooper, devoted sixteen months in 1899-1900 to the
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
examination of the Laccadives and Maldives, being
followed through the same region in 1go1 by Prof.
Alexander Agassiz, who devoted himself mainly to —
the coral reefs,
pelagic fauna.
The Red Sea and the coast of East Africa is
largely a German zone, but to the south a regular
systematic investigation of the hydrography and
with the surface and the deeper
| biology is being undertaken by Cape Colony in con-
nection with its sea fisheries. The French have
accumulated much knowledge of Madagascar (mainly
of the land), while Rodriguez and Mauritius have be-
come fairly well known, to a large extent owing to
the Royal Society Expedition of 1874. Of greater
importance, however, were the Admiralty surveys of
the numerous islands and banks to the north of and
around Madagascar, carried out for the most part
by Captain (now Admiral Sir Wm.) Wharton.
Lastly, the German Valdivia Expedition in 1898-9 ran
a rapid traverse from St. Paul to Nicobar, Ceylon,
Chagos, Seychelles, and up the East African coast.
Its work showed the existence of a pelagic fauna at
all depths, and of practically the same deep-sea fauna
as exists in other oceans. A relatively shallow bank
was found between Chagos and the Seychelles, an
important discovery which ought to have been
followed up by an extended investigation of the
region.
The present expedition, organised by Mr. Stanley
Gardiner, is an attempt to correlate in some degree —
the work of all these different expeditions and ex-
plorers by a thorough investigation of the oceano-
graphy and biology of the region between India and
Madagascar, and is the direct outcome of the Maldive
and Laccadive expedition of 1899-1900. As at present
proposed, H.M.S. Sealark, after leaving Ceylon, will
proceed to the Chagos Archipelago, situated to the
south of the Maldives in lat. 7° S. This group, for
the topography of which we are at present depending
almost entirely on a survey made by Captain Moresby
in 1837, consists of a series of atolls and submerged
banks, of which Great Chagos, an irregular circle
upwards of seventy miles in diameter, is the most
conspicuous, being the largest existing circular coral
reef with a basin in the centre. It is, however,
perhaps better known through the atoll of Diego
Garcia to the south-east, at one time used as a coal-
ing station by the Orient Line between Aden and
Australia. That there will be plenty of hydro
graphical work in the group is quite clear, for there
are at present no bottom soundings between any of
the banks, and considerable changes may reason-
ably be expected to have taken place in the last
seventy years owing to the growth of the reefs. The
expedition will endeavour to fill in these omissions,
and while this work is proceeding a close biological
and geological survey of the reefs will be under-
taken.
From Chagos the Sealark will proceed to Mauritius,
which should be reached about August 1. Here fresh
stores will be taken in, and the collections so far
obtained sent home. No extensive work around the
island will be possible, but it is hoped to visit some
of the reefs. The Sealark will then proceed to
Cargados, a surface reef to the south of the sub-
merged Nazareth Bank, and the line will be con-
tinued along to the Seychelles group over the like-
wise submerged Saya da Malha Bank. Both these
banks may well lie on a crescent of relatively shallow
water (less than 1500 fathoms) connecting the
Seychelles with Mauritius, but the actual depths
should be settled by the expedition. In any case, the
examination of these two great submerged banks
should throw much-needed light on the formation of
APRIL 13, 1905]
NATURE
563
coral reefs, The Agalegas group may also be sur-
veyed, and the nature of its land ascertained. From
the Seychelles the Sealark will return to Colombo,
while the civilian members of the expedition will
spend some months in that group and its vicinity,
returning home in January, 1906.
The scientific work of the expedition will be of a
varied nature. In the first place, the soundings and
temperature observations taken by H.M.S. Sealark
should settle such questions as the existence or non-
existence of any relatively shallow banks connecting
India and South Africa, and also of any bank from
Mauritius to the Seychelles. They should also give
an accurate knowledge of the rise and relationships
of the various Chagos atolls and banks to one
another, and show whether they are really isolated
by deep sea or arise on some shallow plateau as do
the greater number of the Maldive atolls. Inci-
dentally, also, the soundings may reasonably be ex-
pected to indicate what changes, if any, have talxen
place in the reefs and banks since the last surveys.
At the same time it is hoped to examine the currents
at various depths, so as to see as far as possible the
actual influences at work. In the same connection
an investigation has already been commenced on the
waters of the Indian Ocean. By the kind assistance
of the Meteorological Council, cases of bottles have
been sent out to many captains of the British India,
P. and O., Orient, Bibby, Clan, and other lines for
daily samples of the surface waters, while the ex-
pedition itself will obtain samples both from the
surface and from various depths during the whole of
its sojourn in the Indian Ocean. Mr. D. Matthews,
English hydrographer to the North Sea investigation,
has undertaken the analyses of these samples, and it
is hoped that by continuing the collection for twelve
months a more accurate knowledge may be obtained
of the movements of the waters of the Indian Ocean.
In meteorology a careful log and graphic records will
be kept, which, coming from such a little known
region, should be useful for comparison with the more
regular steamer routes.
In biology, the expedition will everywhere take
samples of the bottom and of the pelagic fauna at
various depths. The coral reefs will be examined,
both surfaces and slopes, while the currents and other
factors, possibly influencing the same, will be care-
fully investigated. The dredges and trawls will be
let down as frequently as possible, both to ascertain
the general characters of the bottom off the islands
and banks, and also to sample the flora and fauna.
The deep-sea fauna will not be collected, work being
for the most part devoted to intermediate depths (50
to 500 fathoms), within which light tails off into
absolute darkness. At the same time, the fauna at
lesser depths, both in the Chagos and Seychelles, will
be investigated as completely as possible. By these
means some clear idea should be obtained of the
vertical distributions of both animals and plants, and
the comparisons of the marine fauna and flora of the
Seychelles and Chagos, together and with those of
the surrounding slopes of the Indian Ocean, should
at least illuminate the question as to how far the
horizontal distribution of such is of value in tracing
the former connections of continents and lands. The
land flora and fauna can scarcely be expected to be
of great interest—it will not at present be attempted
in the Seychelles—but it will nevertheless be col-
lected in view of the gradual peopling of oceanic
islands.
On the whole, this most recent British exploring
expedition may be said to be conceived in the interests,
not of one, but of many sciences, and all who sym-
pathise with the advancement of knowledge may be
grateful to the Admiralty for detailing a vessel for
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
|
such work, The hydrographic results alone should
more than justify the dispatch of H.M.S. Sealark,
while any discovery which may be made of the laws
which govern the formation and growth of coral and
other reefs—and to which we seem to be tending—
would make navigation in tropical waters appreciably
safer. The scientific members of the expedition have
been required to find all the extra gear and instru-
ments necessary for their work. In this they have
been materially assisted by grants from the British
Association and from the Balfour memorial fund at
Cambridge; but the bulk of the expense has been
undertaken by the Trust recently founded by Mrs.
Percy Sladen in memory of her late husband—to
whom, it is felt, the objects of this expedition would
have very closely appealed, and whose name will
appropriately appear upon the publications issued as
a result of the investigation.
THE INDIAN EARTHQUAKE OF APRIL 4.
A LARGE part of north-western India was severely
shaken by an earthquake which occurred on
Aprii 4, shortly after six o’clock in the morning,
causing the destruction of numerous buildings and
the loss of many lives—the number being estimated
at twenty thousand. The last great earthquake in
India, in June, 1897, was one of the most violent of
which there is any historical record, but the casualties
and damage due to that disturbance were compara-
tively small, because the earthquake occurred at five
o’clock in the afternoon, when many people were out
of doors, and there were no large cities within the
area of maximum violence. In the case of the earth-
quake on April 4, most people were indoors at the
time of the shock, and the area of greatest disturb-
ance included, unfortunately, several centres where
fairly large towns have grown up, chiefly round the
official settlements, cantonments, and sanatoria of the
British Government. Dharmsala, Dalhousie, Simla
with several neighbouring cantonments, Mussoorie,
Dehra Dun, Almora, Ranikhet, and Naini Tal are the
chief of these; and the many substantial stone build-
ings in them have naturally suffered much damage
from the earthquake shocks.
The -reports so far available show that the earth-
quake, like that of other great disturbances of the
same kind, was of Himalayan origin, the centre being
about Dharmsala. Its intensity decreased through
the Punjab and the United Provinces, while fiom
Rajputana to the north it decreased rapidly. There
appears to have been no wide extension of the disturb-
ance towards Assam or Afghanistan, but information
from the west is very imperfect.
The whole area where serious damage is known
to have been done is included within a line drawn
to Jawalamukhi,
from Shahpur through Kangra m
thence east to Sujanpur, and then to Baijnath ;
but what occurred eastwards of this area is not
known. #
It is clear from the Viceroy’s telegrams that the
towns of Dharmsala, Kangra, and Palampur are
virtually destroyed, that the loss of life has been very
ereat, and that the full measure of catastrophe, owing
to difficulty of communication, cannot be ascertained
for some time.
The King has sent to the Viceroy a telegram ex-
pressing his ‘ profound concern at the news of the
calamity which has befallen Lahore and surrounding
district’? and a message of sympathy with all who
have suffered from the earthquake has been sent by
the Prince and Princess of Wales.
No news about the earthquake has been received
564
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
from the regions north of Kashmir, but two days
before the first shock was felt in India the Punjab
stations reported the arrival of storms bearing large
quantities of dust and ash. Natives arriving at Simla
from the interior declare that a volcanic eruption has
occurred in the hills in Bashahr State.
The earthquake was clearly registered by the seis-
mograph in the observatory at Gé6ttingen, and a
record was also obtained at the Royal Observatory,
Edinburgh. The record began with some very
minute tremors about 1 a.m., while the larger waves
began about eight minutes later. The maximum
disturbance was recorded about 1.30, and was
followed by one of almost equal severity a minute and
a half later. From that point the tremors were
gradually reduced until 4.43 a.m. The difference of
time between Edinburgh and Dharmsala is about five
hours. Seismograms recording the earthquake were
also obtained by Prof. Milne at Shide, Isle of Wight,
and at the hydrographic station at Pola.
A severe earthquake shock, lasting six seconds, was
felt at Benevento, Italy, at 8.20 p.m. on April 9, and
fresh shocks were experienced at Simla on April 10
and 11.
The following particulars of the effects produced
by the earthquake in various parts of India have been
extracted from the extensive reports which have
appeared in the daily papers.
Dharmsala.—All houses and buildings throughout the
entire station, including cantonment and bazaars, totally
destroyed, with loss of many lives. About 80 per cent.
of the population killed or injured, and from 20 per cent.
to 30 per cent. in the neighbouring villages.
Kangra Valley.—Kangra and Jowala Mukhi and other
villages in Kangra Valley reported totally destroyed, and
many hundred lives lost. Every building, without excep-
tion, in Kangra and Bhawan in ruins. Of a total popu-
lation of nearly 5000 in Kangra town it is believed that
only about 500 remain alive. Similar state of affairs in
most other villages in the neighbourhood. At Palampur,
in the Kangra district, all the houses, including the
Government buildings, reported totally destroyed, and
many hundred lives lost.
Lahore.—A succession of violent shocks caused a panic.
The inhabitants rushed from their houses to seek safety
in the open. Almost every house suffered by the earth-
quake, and much serious damage was done to public and
private property, and twenty-five people were killed. The
shock created an extraordinary uproar at the zoological
gardens. The shrieks of the pea-fowls were heard all over
the station, while crows and other birds flew in alarm from
the swaying trees. '
Mussooree suffered severely. Two slight shocks were
felt during the night of April 3. A succession of shocks
began at 6.10 a.m. on April 4, the first, which lasted three
minutes, being the severest. In all eleven shocks were
felt. Every house in the city more or less injured. Several
small landslips occurred, and many casualties reported.
This is the fourth severe earthquake that has happened
at Mussooree, and the second worst as regards its effects.
Four or five slight shocks were felt during the night of
April 4-5.
Simla.—Much damage done to buildings. The Vice-
regal Lodge is so badly damaged that the re-building will
occupy several months. Other estate houses have been
seriously damaged. Delhi.—The shock was severely felt,
and damage was done to buildings, but no reports of injury
to monuments. A further shock occurred at midnight on
April 4-5. Agra.—A_ violent shock lasting several
minutes, and travelling from west to east, was experienced
at 6.10 a.m. No reports of injury to architectural monu-
ments.
Jalandhay.—Much damage done. Amritsay.—Extensive
damage, and several lives lost. Ambala.—A large number
of houses thrown down. Srinager.—Much damage, and
several lives lost. Mudki.—Serious damage. Sialkot.—
Not a house escaped damage of some sort, but no lives
lost. Dalhousie.- Property damaged, but no deaths.
NO. 1850, von. 71]
Kashmir.—Communication interrupted by landslips and
accidents to telegraph lines.
Slight tremors appear to have been recorded at Calcutta
and Bombay, but no decided disturbance was felt.
PROF. PIETRO TACCHINI.
pire death of Prof. P. Tacchini on March 24, at
the age of sixty-seven years, has caused much
regret among men of science interested in celestial
and terrestrial physics. Italy has thus lost a re-
presentative man of science who especially devoted
himself to the cause of astronomy with zeal and
patience. For many years, as director of the
Observatory of the Collegio Romano, he proved
himself an indefatigable observer of planets and
comets; but recently this position has been filled by
Prof. Millosewich, and Prof. Tacchini had been known
as the director of the Central Office of Meteorology
and Geodynamics. But the especial work with which
his name will ever be connected has been upon lines
that have long commended themselves to Italian
observers. Secchi made his reputation in the domain
of spectroscopy and solar observation, and the example
he set has been followed with no less eagerness and
success by the distinguished astronomer whose death
we have now to regret. All that related to sun-spots,
facula, or protuberances had a_ fascination for
Tacchini, and for years past our columns have borne
witness to his continuous devotion to this subject.
He was particularly interested in the heliographical
distribution of solar phenomena, and every three
months, in the pages of the Mem. degli Spettro-
scopisti Italiani or the Comptes rendus, he recorded
the variations and gave comparative tables showing
the growth or decline of solar activity as testified by
these outbursts. Researches carried on so long and
so industriously cannot but prove of eminent service,
and we may well hope that the work he inaugurated
will be carried on with equal zeal by his successors.
Prof. Tacchini’s work in this direction well deserved
the Janssen prize which was awarded him by the
Paris Academy of Sciences in 1892.
To a solar observer of such ardour, eclipses of the
sun especially appealed, and he took part in several
expeditions to observe these phenomena. He was
present on the Caroline Island reef, where he associ-
ated himself with the French party organised by
Janssen. Again in Egypt, and later on in 1886, he
visited the American continent for the purpose of
observing the great eclipse in that year. On this
occasion he showed, by comparing the forms and
appearances of the prominences seen during the
eclipse with the images ordinarily seen in the spectro-
scope, that it is only the vaporous cores of these
objects which are rendered visible by the usual
methods of observation. In many other ways he
showed not only his skill as a spectroscopist, but
his anxiety to promote astronomical knowledge. He
laboured long and diligently in the cause of science,
and left a reputation that his countrymen will cherish;
while his memory will be held in esteem by the
astronomers of many nations. He was elected a
foreign member of the Royal Society in 1891, and was
awarded the Rumford medal of the society. He was
also a foreign associate of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1883, and many other societies have been
proud to enrol his name among those of their
honoured fellows.
The progress of solar physics is largely due to Prof.
Tacchini’s unremitting labours; and the numerous
papers published by him on solar phenomena stand
as an enduring monument of work done by a pioneer
in a fruitful field of scientific inquiry.
APRIL 13, 1905]
NOTES.
We are glad to see the report that Lord Kelvin’s con-
dition continues to improve. It was stated on Monday
that he now takes nourishment fairly well, and that his
medical advisers are well satisfied with the progress he
is making. It is expected that he will be able to leave
his bed in about a fortnight’s time.
Tue Irish branch of the Geological Survey has been
transferred from the Board of Education to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
The work will be carried on under the immediate direction
of Prof. G. A. J. Cole.
We regret to learn that Mr. H. B. Medlicott, F.R.S.,
formerly director of the Geological Survey of India, 1876—-
1887, died on April 6, at seventy-six years of age.
AmonG the portraits recently added to the National
Portrait Gallery are those of Sir Charles Lyell, painted by
Lowes Dickinson, Charles Darwin, and Prof. W. Whewell.
Revuter’s Agency is informed that the Duc d’Orléans
has organised a North Polar expedition, which will leave
for the Arctic under the Duc’s personal leadership next
month. For the purposes of the expedition the Belgica,
the vessel of the recent Belgian Antarctic Expedition, has
been secured, together with the services of Lieut. Gerlache,
who will again command the ship on the present occasion.
The object of the expedition is not to reach the North
Pole, and, according to present arrangements, the Duc
will not winter in the Arctic, although the Belgica will
be provisioned for the event of her being closed in by the
ice. The expedition will leave Norway probably on May 1
and proceed direct to Franz Josef Land, where it is believed
that an attempt will be made to push northwards by way
of a new channel. The Duc’s staff will include some
French men of science and a number of Norwegian
sailors.
At the annual meeting of the Australasian Ornitho-
logists’ Union, held at the end of last year, Captain F. W.
Hutton, F.R.S., submitted a presidential address dealing
with some interesting problems in connection with New
Zealand’s avifauna. The evidence he has obtained during
his years of research leads him to think that the ancestors
of many New Zealand birds went south along a land
ridge which connected New Zealand with New Caledonia
and New Guinea, probably in the early Eocene period.
New Zealand ornithologists, Captain Hutton pointed out,
have special advantages for studying the effects of the
absence of enemies on development, and New Zealand
itself offers more examples of degeneration in the wings
of birds than does any other country in the world.
Pror. J. Macmittan Brown, of Christchurch, New
Zealand, recently paid a visit to the Maoris who live in the
fastnesses of the great King country and Urewera country,
in the heart of the North Island of New Zealand. He
went specially to visit the ‘‘ Uru-kehu,’’ or red-headed
Maoris, who are often seen in those districts. He had
previously come to the conclusion that the Maoris’
ancestors, in their migrations, crossed with a white race,
and he informed a representative of the Lyttelton Times
that his visit has strengthened his opinion. He states
that in one assembly at which he was present at least
25 per cent. of the children had brown, or even flaxen, hair,
a complexion which resembled that of the Italians, and
fine European features.
Dr. W. J. Hottanp, director of the Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburg, has arrived in London for the purpose of super-
intending the setting-up of the plaster model of the
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
NATURE
565
skeleton of the gigantic herbivorous dinosaur Diplodocus
carnegii, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie to the British
(Natural History) Museum. The restoration, which is
described by the late Mr. J. B. Hatcher in No. 1 of the
Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, is mainly based upon
two incomplete skeletons discovered respectively in 1899
and 1900 in the Upper Jurassic beds of Sheep Creek,
Albany County, Wyoming. As restored, the skeleton is
nearly 80 feet in length. Whether this dinosaur is really
specifically distinct from the typical Diplodocus longus may
be a question.
DurinG a violent thunderstorm on March 31 the second
pyramid of Ghizeh was struck by lightning slightly below
the apex of the monument. Several of the immense stones
of which the pyramid is built were dislodged and rolled
down the sides to the sands below, The storm was the
most violent experienced in Egypt for the past fifteen years.
This is the first recorded instance of any of the pyramids
having been struck by lightning.
Ir is announced in Science that the first John Fritz gold
medal will be conferred upon Lord Kelvin. This medal is
awarded by a joint committee of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, and
the American Institute of Mining Engineers to the man
most representative of, and eminent in, scientific advance
in the engineering field.
Tue following are the lecture arrangements at the Royal
Institution after Easter :—Prof. L. C. Miall, three lec-
tures on the study of extinct animals; Sir James Dewar,
three lectures on flame; Prof. J. A. Fleming, three lec-
tures on electromagnetic waves (the Tyndall lectures) ;
Prof. H. Marshall Ward, two lectures on moulds and
mouldiness; Dr. J. G. Frazer, two lectures on the evolu-
tion of the kingship in early society; and Mr. A VEL.
Savage Landor, two lectures on exploration in the Philip-
pines. The Friday evening meetings will be resumed on
May 5, when a discourse will be delivered by Prof. H. E.
Armstrong on problems underlying nutrition.
A prancu of L’Alliance Francaise, an association for the
spread of the French language, is to be established in
London and Paris under the title of ‘‘ Alliance littéraire,
scientifique et artistique Franco-Anglaise.’’ Information
as to membership of the new association can be obtained
from 186 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris. The first sotrée
will take place in London in the course of the present
month. The presidents of the association are M. Paul
and M.
Delombre, previously Minister for Commerce,
Pierre Foucin, Inspecteur-Général de 1’Instruction pub-
lique. Among those who have promised their support to
the new society are Lord Avebury, Sir William Crookes,
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. Meldola,
Sir William Ramsay, Sir Henry Roscoe, and Sir William
White.
Tur Limes correspondent at Athens reports that the
proceedings in connection with the Archeological Congress
began on April 7 with a reception at the university, at
which the King and the Crown Prince were present. The
opening ceremony took place at the Parthenon under the
presidency of the Crown Prince, the King and Queen
being also present. On April 8 Prof. Lambros delivered
an address of welcome, recapitulating the achievements of
foreign and Greek research in recent years. The cere-
mony of inauguration of the Penrose Memorial Library
took place on April 8 in the British School. The King
and Queen and all the members of the Royal family were
566
present. After Mr. George Macmillan had given an
account of the past history of the school, a marble tablet
to the memory of Penrose was unveiled by the Crown
Prince, who delivered an address in English. Speeches were
then delivered by Mr. Cecil Smith, a former director of the
school, M. Homolle, secretary to the congress, who paid
an eloquent tribute to the amiable and noble character of
Penrose, as well as to his great scientific attainments, and
by Profs. Conze, Wheeler, Waldstein, and Bosanquet
(director of the school). The various sections of the con-
gress met for the reception and discussion of papers on
April 9 and 10.
A MEETING of the Association of Economic Entomologists
will be held at Birmingham on April 19 and 20, in the
large medical theatre of the university. The president of
the association is Mr. F. V. Theobald, and the secretary
Mr. W. E. Collinge, University of Birmingham.
Tue London Geological Field Class, conducted by Prof.
H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., will begin its twentieth year’s
season on Saturday, April 29, with a visit to the north
downs at Betchworth. The field class, which is carried
on continuously on the Saturday afternoons in May, June
and July, affords practical teaching in geology by study-
ing direct from nature the structure and modes of occur-
rence of the rocks in the basin of the Thames and adjacent
country. Further particulars may be obtained from the
secretary, Mr. J. W. Jarvis, St. Mark's College, Chelsea,
S.W.
Ar the annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute,
to be held on May 11 and 12, the Bessemer gold medal
for 1905 will be presented to Prof. J. O. Arnold. The
awards of the Andrew Carnegie gold medal and research
scholarships will be announced; and the president, Mr.
R. A. Hadfield, will deliver his inaugural address. The
following is a list of papers that are expected to be
submitted :—experiments on the fusibility of blast furnace
slags, Dr. O. Boudouard; recent developments of the
Bertrand-Thiel process, Mr. J. H. Darby and Mr. G,
Hatton; the application of dry-air blast to the manufacture
of iron, Mr. James Gayley; the effect produced by liquid
air temperature on the mechanical and other properties of
iron, Mr. R. A. Hadfield; the cleaning of blast furnace
gas, Mr. Axel Sahlin; the failure of an iron plate through
fatigue, Mr. S. A. Houghton; the continuous steel-making
process in fixed open-hearth furnaces, Mr. S. Surzycki ;
accidents due to the asphyxiation of blast furnace workmen,
Mr. B. H. Thwaite; and the behaviour of the sulphur in
coke in the blast furnace, Prof. F, Wiist and Mr. P. Wolff.
Reuter’s correspondent at Rome reports that the draft
scheme for the organisation of the International Agri-
cultural Institute, which will be considered by the con-
ference to be held in May, is as follows :—(1) The con-
stitution and organisation of the institute. (2) Functions
of the institute:—(a) To report periodically information
concerning agricultural production, the conditions of labour
in rural districts, and the diseases of plants and live stock.
(b) To facilitate the organisation and working of cooper-
ation between the rural communities of different countries,
and to provide insurance and banking facilities for the
benefit of agriculture. (c) To propose on its own initiative
or at the invitation of Governments interested, inter-
national measures and institutions for the protection of the
common interests of the agriculturists of all countries, and
at the same time to consider the resolutions passed by
international congresses on agriculture. (d) To exercise
other functions which are already exercised by the great
NO. 1850, VoL. 71]
NATURE
(AprIL 13, 1905
———
agricultural associations, which the institute could dis-
charge independently of the action of the different Govern-
ments. (3) The financial resources of the institute.
In the House of Commons on April 5 Sir W. Palmer
asked the President of the Board of Agriculture whether
his attention has been directed to experiments which have
been carried on in America with a view to the propagation
and use upon the land of nitrogen-producing bacteria;
whether he is aware that certain rights relating to the
method of preparation of these bacteria are the property
of the United States Government, and that that Govern-
ment is distributing packets of these bacteria free of charge
to any farmers who apply for them, and that the result
of such distribution has been beneficial for farming; and,
if so, could he say whether any rights relating to the
preparation of these nitrogen-producing bacteria prevent
His Majesty’s Government from adopting a similar course ;
and, if not, whether he is prepared to recommend that a
similar free distribution be adopted in this country. In
reply, Mr. Fellowes remarked that some articles on the sub-
ject have appeared in the Board's monthly journal. Experi-
ments as to the value of nitrogen-producing bacteria are
now being carried out under the auspices of the Board by
several of the agricultural colleges in this country, and so
soon as the results are known the Board will consider
what further action in the matter can be taken in the
interest of British agriculturists. The process of pro-
ducing and cultivating the bacteria has been patented by
the United States Department of Agriculture, but it appears
that the department does not propose indefinitely to con-
tinue its gratuitous distribution. There appears to be
nothing to prevent the manufacture and sale of the material
in this country.
AccorDING to the report of the Australian Museum,
Sydney, for 1903-4, remarkable fluctuations occur in the
annual number of visitors. In 1900, for instance, the
total was 85,474, in 1901 123,326, in 1902 106,704, and in
1903 118,372. The general condition and progress of the
museum appear to be satisfactory
No. 3 of the Johns Hopkins University Circular for the
current year contains an account of observations and ex-
periments with regard to the abnormally elongated form
assumed by a considerable percentage of American oysters
during the early stages of growth. The author, Mr. O. C.
Glaser, concludes that this is due to crowding, and that
it is a premature assumption of the normal adult con-
dition. The crowded condition of these prematurely old
oysters makes it impossible for them to expand and grow
to the normal width, but if removed to a more favourable
situation they quickly assume the ordinary shape.
Tue second portion of the article by Mr. F. Voss in
part iii. of vol. Ixxviii. of the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaft-
liche Zoologie, on the thorax of the house-cricket, with
especial reference to the articulation of the wings and
their movements, and thus to the mechanics of insect
flight in general, is devoted to the musculature, and is
illustrated with several diagrams and text figures. The
other article in the same issue, by Mr. F. Fuhrmann, of
Gratz, is devoted to the history of the adrenal bodies of
the guinea-pig. The internal tissue of these organs is
subject to very rapid post-mortem degeneration, .so that the
investigation is one of considerable difficulty.
AccorpDING to its report for the past year, the Rugby
School Natural History Society continues to do steady
work, and its permanent collections are making satis-
factory progress. During the year two important additions
APRIL 13, 1905 |
have been made by gifts to the museum, namely, a collec-
tion of British butterflies and one of birds’ eggs, the
latter including many rare specimens. The conservatory,
containing the greater part of the vivarium, has been re-
built, and a new case is in course of construction for the
geological collection. On the other hand, the secretary
deplores the lack of interest in microscopy, and also the
few competitors for prizes.
In the report of the Northumberland Sea Fisheries on
the scientific investigations conducted in 1904, it is stated
that there has been a decided decrease in the number of
flat fish, especially plaice, in Cambois Bay, although in
this respect the other stations do not depart materially
from the satisfaetory results of the last few years. A
number of flat fish, chiefly dabs, were marked and re-
turned to the sea. Those re-captured apparently indicate
that plaice do not usually leave the inshore waters until
they are approaching maturity (four or five years old), but
that dabs show a separation of the sexes, the females
remaining near the shore while the males migrate to
deeper water twenty or thirty miles to the south. Legis-
lation for the protection of lobsters does not work well, as
the fishermen are in the habit of stripping and selling
the “‘berried’’ females instead of returning them to the
sea.
In the first part of vol. xxxiii. of Gegenbaur’s Morpho-
logisches Jahrbuch is continued Dr. A. Fleischmann’s
article on the skull of the Amniota, Dr. O. Hofmann con-
tributing a section on the structure of the roof of the
mouth-cavity in lizards. The second article, by Dr. H.
Adolphe, is devoted to a discussion of the variation in the
human sternum and vertebral column, more especially as
regards the number of vertebrae which may bear ribs and
which may enter into the composition of the sacrum.
After referring to analogous variations in apes and
monkeys, the author considers that there is no evidence that
any of the earlier mammals had eight cervical vertebrz.
In the third article Mr. W. M. Smallwood records some
observations on the chromosome vesicles developed in the
earlier stages of nudibranch molluscs.
Tue two original articles in Biologisches Centralblatt
of March 15 are devoted to the subject of ants, Mr. E.
Wasmann continuing his account of the origin of slavery
among these insects, while Prof. D. H. Forel figures and
describes the nests and “ fungus-gardens ”’ of certain South
American ants. The photographs and notes on which the
latter account is based were communicated to the author
by Dr. E. Goeldi, director of the museum at Pard. In
the case of Atta sexdens, it appears that the female has
a fungus-garden to herself, in which the eggs are laid;
and while this and other large species of the same genus,
together with certain kinds of Acromyrmex, make their
fungus-gardens in holes in the ground, the smaller Atta
moelleri constructs them in hollow trees, under leaves, and
in such-like situations.
A FuRTHER instalment of the account by Mr. B.
Fedtschenko of his journey in Central Asia is given in
vol. iv., parts vi. and vii., of the Bulletin du Jardin
Imperial Botanique, St. Petersburg. These letters relate
to his wanderings across the Pamir plateau, and he de-
scribes the vertical sequence of plant formations observed
in the unexplored valley of the Mouskol River.
THE present time, when changes are pending in India
in connection with the formation of a department of
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
NATURE
567
commerce and industry, is opportune for considering the
possibility of changes in allied departments. A pertinent
article advocating the establishment of a bureau of forestry
as a complement to the Indian Forest Department appears
in the Indian Forester (January). The duties of the staff
would include the preparation of working plans, the in-
stitution and supervision of experimental investigations,
and the responsibility of regulating the cultivation and
supply of forest products.
A Circular (vol. ii., No. 24) of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Ceylon, by Mr. R. H. Lock, deals with the
varieties of cacao trees existing in the gardens and the
experiment station, Peradeniya, and incidentally supplies
some interesting information on the colour of the seeds.
As a primary division, Criollo varieties having seeds with
a thin shell are distinguished from the Forastero varieties
with a hard shell. Fruits of the old red type of Criollo
were found to contain about 14 per cent. of purple and
80 per cent. of white seeds. Forastero varieties pass from
forms of good quality, having well rounded beans of a
light colour, to those of a poor quality, in which the beans
are flat, purple, and bitter. The proportion of white to
purple seeds in a number of pods of one of the best
Forastero varieties was 35 per cent. to 63 per cent.
Nos. 1 and 2 of the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Gesell-
schaft fiir Erdkunde contain a valuable paper by Dr. S.
Passarge on the Kalahari region and its significance as
a factor in the ethnography of South Africa. The paper
discusses the physical and biological conditions of the
region, and the distribution of the races of mankind. It
is illustrated by a number of excellent maps.
Tue most recent addition to the Abhandlungen of the
Vienna Geographical Society is a paper by Dr. Artur
Gavazzi, forming the first or ‘‘ morphological ’’ part of a
monograph on the lakes of the Karst region. The work
includes measurements of permanent lakes, fresh-water,
brackish, and salt, ‘‘ periodic lakes,’’ and periodically in-
undated “ poljen.’’ Observations of the micro-plankton
and diatoms have been made by Drs. L. Car, A. Forti,
and V. Lurgaiolli. Dr. Gavazzi’s paper forms an im-
portant contribution to our knowledge of an extremely
interesting region.
WE have received the report of the Danish Meteorological
Institute on the state of the ice in the Arctic seas during
1904. The statistics go to show that the winter of 1903-4
was comparatively mild in that part of the Arctic regions
which lies north of the Atlantic Ocean, that during 1904
the East Greenland current supplied the temperate seas
with a smaller quantity of polar ice than in a normal year,
and that the Labrador current carried more than the
average number of icebergs past Newfoundland. It is
expected that during 1905 there will be more ice along the
coast of East Greenland and in Davis Strait than in 1904,
and less off Labrador and Newfoundland.
Tue Meteorological Institute of the Netherlands has
issued a paper, by M. J. P. van der Stok, continuing and
extending M. Phaff’s discussion of tidal observations made
on board the light-ships on the Netherland coasts. The
periodic movements in horizontal and vertical planes, and
the progressive movements of the waters, are dealt with
separately, and the general result is to support the view
set forth by Lord Kelvin in 1878, that the tides of the
North Sea would not be materially affected if the Straits
of Dover were closed. Further observations, especially off
568
the English coasts and in the centre of the North Sea,
are necessary for the complete investigation of the complex
conditions which occur.
AN interesting address was recently delivered to the
Royal Meteorological Society (published in its Journal for
January last) by Mr. C. W. R. Royds, first lieutenant of
the National Antarctic vessel Discovery. As the observ-
ations are now under discussion, he was only able
to give a general account of the meteorological conditions
of the Antarctic, but entered fully into the arduous labours
which were zealously carried out by the whole of the
observing staff. The meteorological instruments were set
up on the ice on April 17, 1902, in lat. 77° 50’ S., and
eye observations were continued until February 15, 1904,
at intervals of two hours; between 8h. a.m. and roh. p.m.
they were taken under the superintendence of Mr. Royds,
and the night observations were divided between the
eleven officers, each taking one night. In addition
there were the self-recording instruments; these were
managed under great difficulties, and their continuous
registration was entirely due to the mechanical skill
of Mr. Skelton, as they were frequently choked by
blizzards. On these occasions the rain gauge would
be buried under three or four feet of snow. The lowest
screen temperature recorded in the winter quarters was
—59°5; on the same day at Cape Armitage (13 miles
distant) it was —64°-6; the coldest day at the latter
Station was —67°-7 (or nearly 100° of frost) on May 16,
1903- The highest black-bulb reading in the sun was
154°, on December 21, 1902. The heaviest gale recorded
was 85 miles per hour, by the Robinson anemometer.
Throughout the stay in the Antarctic Circle no rain was
recorded, and fogs were not nearly so prevalent as is
generally supposed; day after day clear skies and con-
tinuous 24 hours’ sunshine were recorded. Speaking of
the barometer as an instrument of warning of gales, Mr.
Royds states that all faith was lost in it, as they came
on without any appreciable sudden change in the motion
of the mercury.
Tue final report of the Royal Commission on Coal
Supplies was recently réviewed at some length in NaTurE
(February 2, p. 324). The minutes of evidence, the
reports on the various districts, and the appendices, on
which the commissioners’ conclusions were based have
now been issued. The district reports contain much in-
formation of great value, and it is satisfactory to find
that, in order to render them generally accessible, they
are issued separately at moderate prices. The contents
of the various parts are as follows i—part ii., report of
Sir W. T. Lewis on the available coal resources of South
Wales and the south of England; part iii., report of Prof.
Lapworth and Mr. A. Sopwith on the coal resources of
the midlands; part iv., report of Prof. E. Hull, Sir G. J.
Armytage, and Mr. A. Strahan on the coal resources of
North Wales, Lancashire, and Cheshire; part v., report
of Mr. A. Currer Briggs on the coal resources of York-
shire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire ; part vi., report
of Sir Lindsay Wood on the coal resources of Northumber-
land, Durham, and Cumberland ; part vii., report of Mr.
J. S. Dixon on the coal resources of Scotland; part viii.,
report of Prof. E. Hull on the coal resources of Ireland ; |
and part ix., report of the geological committee, consisting
of Prof. E. Hull, Prof. C. Lapworth, Mr. J. J. H. Teall,
and Mr. A. Strahan, on the resources of the concealed and
unproved coalfields of the United Kingdom. Part x.,
which covers 400 pages, contains the minutes of evidence,
and part xi. includes a series of appendices of great
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
NATURE
(APRIL 13, 1905
| interest. Among these are an estimate of the future coal
output of the United Kingdom, calculated at its average
decreasing rate of increase during the last thirty years, by
Mr. R. Price-Williams, a report on the colonial and
foreign coal resources by Mr. Bennett H. Brough, and a
report on deep borings through Secondary rocks by Mr.
W. Whitaker. Lastly, part xii. is a supplement contain-
ing the plans and diagrams referred to in the evidence.
The report on the coal available in concealed unproved
areas at depths less than 4000 feet is certainly the most
important of this valuable series of documents. Without
being over-sanguine, the committee has added 40,000
million tons to the probable coal resources of the kingdom.
The coloured geological map of the United Kingdom, on
the scale of 25 miles to the inch, accompanying this re-
port, is of particular interest.
Tue well known firm of Bausch and Lomb (London
agents, Messrs. A. E. Staley and Co.) has brought
out an admirable instrument in their ‘‘ B.B.P. portable
microscope.’’ The workmanship is excellent, and in spite
of the fact that the stand and accessories are packed away
into a case measuring 11-4X7-8X4-6 inches, the instru-
ment is thoroughly serviceable and convenient for use.
The base of the stand is made of two diverging bars, which
move on the upright column so as to assume a parallel
position when ready for packing; but they are well and
heavily constructed, and are perfectly rigid when open.
The stage is large, and is ingeniously contrived to turn
into the plane of the stand when in the case, and when open
it is firmly held in its place. The objectives are of thé
quality which would be expected from a firm with so high
a reputation, and the cedar oil for the immersion lens is
contained in a metal box, so that there is no danger of
breakage or leakage. We think the instrument quite
justifies the description given of it as a microscope
‘“capable of being taken out and set up in a few seconds
ready for use, giving all the desirable features of the
highest grade bacteriological laboratory instrument.”
In the classical researches of Sainte-Claire Deville on
dissociation much use was made of the ‘‘ hot and cold
tube’ in proving the existence of chemical reactions at
high temperatures, the idea being that by suddenly cool-
ing a gaseous system there would not be time for the re-
combination of the gases, and hence that some clue could
be obtained as to the actual composition of the gaseous
mixture at the high temperature. The properties of fused
quartz have led M. Berthelot to repeat these experiments
under different conditions, and an account of the results
is given in the Comptes rendus for April 3. The sub-
stances under examination were enclosed in hermetically
sealed quartz tubes, heated for about an hour at 1300° C.
to 1400° C., and then suddenly cooled by dropping the
tubes into cold water. The cooling in this way was at
least as sudden as in Sainte-Claire Deville’s experiments,
and the whole contents of the tubes could then be ex-
amined. The observations were too numerous to be given
in detail here, but the whole trend of the results was to
show that no dissociation could be detected in cases where
from the earlier experiments a positive result would be ex-
pected. Oxygen furnished no trace of ozone, and no trace
of hydrocarbon could be formed from carbon, in any of its
states, with hydrogen. The dissociation of carbon mon-
oxide was practically inappreciable, and in a case of special
practical importance, the dissociation of carbon dioxide,
and in which two experiments were made, one with slow
and the other with instantaneous cooling, no trace of dis-
sociation could be detected.
APRIL 13, 1905]
A BOOKLET on “‘ Pattern Making,’’ by Mr. J. E. Danger-
field, has been added by Messrs. Dawbarn and Ward,
Ltd., to their ‘‘ Home Workers’ Series of Practical Hand-
books.’’
A NEw edition of Mr. W. Woods Smyth’s ‘‘ Divine Dual
Government ’’ has been published by Messrs. Horace
Marshall and Son. The present issue has been revised
and illustrated with new matter, some of which has already
appeared in earlier books, now out of print, by the same
author.
Messrs. LoncmMans, GREEN AND Co. have published a
new edition of ‘‘ Telegraphy,’’ by Sir W. H. Preece,
K.C.B:, F.R.S., and Sir J. Sivewright, K.C.M.G. The
book has been revised and enlarged, and now includes
descriptions of recent devices used in telegraphy, in re-
lation to fast-speed recorders, to automatic and translating
apparatus for submarine circuits, to Murray’s improve-
ments in the Wheatstone automatic apparatus, and to the
new telegraph switching system. A chapter on wireless
telegraphy considered: theoretically and in its most recent
application has been added.
Mr. Henry Frowpe has sent us two pages of the ‘‘ New
English Dictionary on Historical Principles,’’ edited by
Dr. J. A. H. Murray, to show how the word refraction
and its congeners are defined and traced. The number
of references to uses of these words is astonishing; and
a vast amount of research must have been necessary to
bring so much material together. We extract a few early
references of historical interest :—REFRACTING, causing re-
fraction, refractive; 1704, Newton, ‘‘ Optics’’ (1721),
4 def. iv., “‘ the perpendicular to the reflecting or refracting
surface at the point of incidence ’’; 1764, Hornsby, in Phil.
Trans., liv., 145, ‘‘ an excellent refracting telescope of
12 feet focus.’’ REFRACTION; 1603, Holland, ‘‘ Plutarch’s
Mor.,’’ 1295, “‘ the rainbow is . . . distinguished by sundry
colours, by the refractior >f our eie-sight against a cloud ’’;
1646, Sir T. Browne, ‘‘ Pseud. Ep.,’’ 347, ‘‘ the colours are
made by refraction of light, and the shadows that limit
that light ’’; Astron.: 1603, Heydon, ‘‘ Jud. Astrol.,’’ 137,
“there lieth a deceipt or fallacie in the refraction of beams,
which cheifly happeneth about the horizon, where the aire
is alwaies thickest ’’?; 1669, Sturmy, Mariner’s Mag., ii.,
118, “‘ the refraction of the sun, moon and stars, causeth
them to appear higher above the horizon than they are.’’
REFRACTIVE; 1673, Flamsteed, in Rigaud’s ‘‘ Corr. Sci.
Men”’ (1841), ii., 168, ‘‘ the refractive air reaches some
height above our heads’’; a 1691, Boyle, ‘‘ Hist. Air”?
(1692), 190, “‘the air... was filled with vapours and
exhalations, that made it much more refractive than
formerly. ”’
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
Comet 1905 a (GracopiNnI).—A further extract from Dr.
Stromgren’s daily ephemeris for comet 1905 a, as pub-
lished in No. 4009 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, is
given below. A set of elements and an ephemeris similar
to those obtained by Dr. Strémgren have been computed
at the U.S. Naval Observatory, from observations made
on March 26, 27, and 28, and are published in the same
journal.
Ephemeris 12h. (Berlin M.T.).
1905 a ry log » log A Bright-
. ieeamne 5S Fahy! ness
Aprili5...7 8 22... +33 47°9 ... 0°0590 ... 9°8855 ... 0°87
D7 LS 24 <-. 1-35. 9800
19... 7 28 42... +37 22°7 ... 0'0638 ... 9°8988 ... 0:80
21...7 39 16... +35 50°8
23-..7 50 6... +40 29°8 ... 0'0699 ... 9°9139 ... 0°73
Brightness at time of discovery (March 26) =1-0.
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
NAT ORE
569
The following magnitudes have heen estimated by
various observers at the times named :—
h. m. mag.
March 28 7 59°6(Geneva M.T.) IIS
29... 8 28'2 (Vienna sce) 130
April 1 9 63(Bamberg ,, ) I1‘O
On the last mentioned date Prof. Hartwig found that
the comet was circular, about 3’ in diameter, and had a
scattered nucleus.
VariaBiLity oF A Mrnor Pranet.—A telegram from
Prof. Pickering, published in No. 4009 of the Astrono-
mische Nachrichten, announces that Prof. Wendell has
discovered a variation of 0-5 magnitude in the brightness
of the minor planet (15) Eunomia.
This is one of the asteroids situated at an intermediate
distance from the sun, and having a revolution period of
1570 days.
VisuaL OBSERVATION OF JUPITER'S SIXTH SATELLITE.—A
further visual observation of Jupiter’s sixth satellite has
been made at the U.S. Naval Observatory with the 26-inch
refractor.
Observing on January 8, Mr. Hammond made a search
for the recently discovered satellite in the position com-
puted from the Lick photographs, and there found a very
faint object, which, from its movement in relation to a
neighbouring star, proved to be the object sought.
Reat PatH oF A Bricgut Mreteor.—From a large number
of observations made in south-west Germany, Herr H.
Rosenberg has calculated the real path of an exceptionally
bright meteor which was seen at 8h. 22m. (central Euro-
pean time) on March. 21, 1904, and emitted about one-
quarter of the light given by the moon at full.
After giving the details of the times and places of the
various observations, he deduces the following values for
the actual path of the object. Length of path 385 km.,
duration of flight about 9 seconds, mean velocity 42-8 km.
per second, mean velocity relative to the earth 41-4 km.
per second. The average absolute height of the path
above the earth’s surface was about 30 km. Other de-
ductions are made concerning the actual size, brightness,
parabolic velocity in space and actual path, and the follow-
ing value is obtained for the radiant point :—long.=23° 8’,
lat.=+9° 10’ (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 4008).
A New 24-INcH REFLEcTOR aT Harvarp.—In No. 93 of
the Harvard College Observatory Circulars Prof. E. C.
Pickering announces that the construction of the new
24-inch reflector—one of the chief acquisitions with the
Anonymous Fund of 1902—is now so far advanced that the
instrument may be used for visual observations. The
mirror was made by Messrs. Alvan Clark and Sons, and
the mounting has been designed and constructed in the
observatory workshop.
Magnitude observations of three of the variable stars
discovered by Miss Leavitt near the Orion nebula have
been made with this instrument, and their variability con-
firmed, by Mr. L. Campbell, and the results are set out in
detail in the Circular.
STARS WITH VARIABLE RapiAt VeELocities.—A list of nine
spectroscopic binaries discovered with the Mills spectro-
graph, in addition to the forty-eight previously announced,
is given in No. 7o of the Lick Observatory Bulletins.
Amongst them we find a Andromedze, which was
announced as a binary by Mr. Slipher in 1904, and which
the Lick spectrograms show to have a negative radial
velocity varying from 2 km. (October 5, 1903) to 36 km.
(November 30, 1903). ¢ Ceti has a small but undoubtedly
real variation, whilst y Geminorum shows a variation from
—17 km. (on October 24, 1899) to —4-7 km. (on January
27, 1904). Twenty-five spectrograms of the brighter com-
ponent of Castor, a* Geminorum, indicate a variation of
about 26 km. in the radial velocity. Applying the values
determined to Prof. Doberck’s orbit of Castor, a_pre-
liminary value of o”-05 is found for the parallax of this
star; but this has not very great weight, owing to the
uncertainty in the elements of the visual system. 7 Boéotis
with a period of several years, & Serpentis with a prob-
ably short period, ¢ Lyra, +r Sagittarii, and 71 Aquilz
are the other stars for which variable radial velocities have
been discovered.
on
“SI
(e)
NORTH AFRICAN PETROGLYPHS.
M. E. F. GAUTIER has published in l’Anthropologie
(xv-, 1904, p- 497) an illustrated account of a recent
find of rock carvings in the ravine of Zenaga, between
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
Oranais petroglyphs represent a ram or goat with a spheroid
on its head, provided with projecting appendages (Fig. 2).
It is suggested that the spheroid is a solar disc flanked on
each side by a snake (uraeus), and this would be a re-
presentation of the great god Ammon, of Thebes. If this be
cng
w&
Fic. 1.—Rock carvings from Zenaga. Dimensions
from the furthest point of the horns to the end of
the body. a, 43.cm.}; 8, 39 cm. ; y, 53 cm.
Figuig and Beni-Ounif, in Sahara. The drawings are in
deep outline and of large size, sometimes life-size, and their
antiquity is established by the patina in the cuts being as
pronounced as that on the surface, and by the fact that
LY 6.
NT.
Fic. 2.—Rock carving from Zenaga.
some of the animals represented, such as the elephant, no
longer exist there, while others, like the buffalo, are now
extinct. In Fig. 1 we have two recognisable portraits of
Bubalus antiquus and one of an elephant. Several South
NO. 1850, VoL. 71 |
Dimension, 1 metre from the head to the tail.
the design left white is carefully polished in the original.
Fic. 3.—Touareg rock carving. Total height of the space occupied by the people.
so, the question arises, did the inspiration of the South
Oranais engraving come from Egypt, or had the god
Ammon a Libyan origin? The goat (Ovis longipes) of
Zenaga differs in some details from those of Bou-Alem, and
the ‘‘solar disc’’ is provided with
rays. The other drawings of this
problematic ‘design were exhibited
at the International Congress of
Anthropology of 1900, and gave rise
to a long discussion.
Rock carvings of a very different
character were discovered by the
author in the Touareg (Tawarek)
country on the first slopes of the
Hoggar (Ahaggar) massif, 200-300
kilometres south of In Salah. Some
are scribblings in which animals and
men are represented diagrammatic-
ally, and with these inscriptions are
associated. M. Flamand some time
ago described entirely similar graffiti
in South Oranais which he identified
as ‘‘ Libyco-berbéres.’’ The greater
part of the figures in this paper illus-
trate engravings of a very different
character, and are far less ancient
than those just referred to, for the
animals represented are forms that
still exist there. The presence of the
camel is very significant, since it is
generally admitted that it was only
introduced, or re-introduced, into
north-west Africa in the first cen-
turies of our era, and appears to
have been abundant there about the
period of Justinian. Other animals
represented are the horse, ass, cattle,
goat, moufflon, gazelle, dog, ostrich,
&c. The engraved portions differ in
their colour markedly from the rest
of the rock, and lack patina. From their appearance,
these petroglyphs may be recent, but it has been denied
that they have any relation with the Touaregs. Direct
evidence is afforded by the representations of men instead
All the part of
APRIL 13, 1905]
NALURE
571
of the square shield, very long spear, and sword of the
present inhabitants. These men are provided (Fig. 3)
with a small round shield and three javelins, thus proving
that they are ‘‘ Libyco-berber ’’ productions. aces
THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF CANADA.
“THE publications of the Geological Survey of Canada have
long been characterised by the want of promptness
of publication. This defect is, however, to a large extent
removed by the new departure made by the section of mines
under the direction of Mr. E. D. Ingall. It consists in
issuing a series of bulletins, giving in condensed and popular
form information regarding the mineral resources of the
Dominion, together with particulars of similar occurrences
in other countries, which may be of use to mining engineers
in Canada. We have received thirteen of these bulletins, and
from the information given it is evident that the mineral
resources of the Dominion are of a most varied character, and
that the mineral industry is in a healthy condition. The
subjects dealt with are platinum, coal, asbestos, infusorial
earth, manganese, salt, zinc, mica, molybdenum and tung-
sten, graphite, peat, apatite, and copper.
So far the production of platinum has been obtained from
placer workings on the Similkameen river in British
Columbia. At Sudbury, Ontario, it is found im situ in com-
bination with arsenic and associated with the nickeliferous
pyrrhotite deposits. The yield of platinum in Canada has
been falling off for some years past and is now insignificant.
The bulletin on coal covers sixty-four pages, and contains
a collection of analyses of typical coals and a valuable
bibliography of the subject. In 1902 the output of coal in
Canada exceeded seven million tons. The principal areas at
present worked are the Nova Scotia coalfields with rocks of
Carboniferous age, and the Cretaceous coalfields of Van-
couver island, and of the Crow’s Nest Pass, British Columbia.
Anthracite is mined in Alberta, and lignite is mined in the
Souris river district, Assiniboia, and in the Yukon district.
The asbestos industry of Canada is of considerable im-
portance, the production having increased from 380 tons in
1880 to 40,000 tons in 1902. Canada now furnishes about
88 per cent. of the world’s supply. The deposits are found
in serpentine. In 1896 the manufacture of asbestic was
begun. This is a finely-ground serpentine in which there is
a small amount of very fine fibre disseminated, and the re-
sulting product is specially adapted for fine plaster for walls
and interior decoration. Its value per ton is low, but as its
preparation involves little extra expense, it is claimed that a
profit results from its manufacture.
Infusorial earth was produced in Canada in 1902 to the
amount of 1000 tons, valued at 3300/. It is mined at Bass
river lake, and St. Ann’s, Nova Scotia, and is sold chiefly in
the United States. The uses to which it is put are varied.
Formerly it was largely used in the manufacture of dynamite,
but it has now been replaced by cheaper absorbents, such as
wood pulp. It is now chiefly used as a polishing material
and as a boiler covering. It can also be used in the manu-
facture of bricks when great lightness is required.
Although Canada has not yet taken a prominent place
among the manganese-producing countries of the world, this
is not due to lack of deposits of the ore. The extent of the
production depends on the development of steel manufacture,
and, as Canada is now making great strides in this direction,
its deposits will probably soon assume greater importance.
The ores represented comprise pyrolusite, manganite, psilo-
melane, and wad, and as some of the Canadian deposits con-
tain a large proportion of the first-named mineral, the ore is
specially adapted for chemical manufacture.
At present Ontario is the only province producing salt, the
output in 1902 having been 64,000 tons. The country’s chief
resources consist of the rock salt beds underlying some 2500
square miles on the eastern shores of Lake Huron. The
amount of salt imported into Canada is at present double the
amount produced in the country, owing to the fact that salt is
produced more cheaply in England, whence the bulk of the
imports come.
In eastern Canada mica occurs in large and important de-
posits, the mining industry being chiefly confined to the
provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The merchantable mica
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
is always associated with intrusive masses and dykes of
pegmatite-granite and pyroxene, which cut the gneiss and
crystalline limestone. The mica produced is chiefly used
for electrical purposes.
Apatite is widely distributed in Canada in deposits in the
crystalline rocks, and in fossiliferous strata of Cambrian age.
In 1889 the province of Ontario produced as much as 3547
tons, but since then, owing to the competition of the cheaply
mined phosphates of Carolina, the output has rapidly de-
creased. Graphite is widely distributed in the gneiss and
crystalline limestones of Canada, the output in 1901 having
been 2210 tons. Zinc ore is produced at one mine in Olden
township, Ontario. The ores of molybdenum and tungsten
are of frequent occurrence in Canada. Copper ores have
been known in eastern Canada for nearly a century, and large
amounts of capital have been expended in developing what
appeared to be promising localities, but little economic suc-
cess has as yet resulted.
The Canadian peat resources are dealt with by Dr. R.
Chalmers in a bulletin of forty pages. The peat bogs in the
eastern provinces are attracting attention in view of the de-
pletion of the forests and the increasing prices of coal, and
attempts are being made, in many cases with poor success,
to utilise them in the production of fuel, coke, and moss-
litter.
In connection with this valuable series of bulletins of the
Geological Survey, reference may be made to a memoir in
the Ottawa Naturalist on the marl deposits in Ontario,
Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, by Dr. R. W.
Ells, the author of most of the bulletins mentioned. The
chief value attributed to this shell-marl was supposed
to be confined to its use as a fertiliser for soils deficient
in calcareous matter. Recently it has been found to be
specially adapted for the manufacture of the best grades of
Portland cement, when mixed with a proper proportion of
clay; and large manufacturing establishments have been
established at several points, more especially in the province
of Ontario.
The latest publication of the Geological Survey of Canada
is an exhaustive report by Dr. A. E. Barlow on the origin,
geological relations, and composition of the immense nickel
and copper ore deposits of Sudbury, Ontario. Details of
the mining, smelting, and refining methods are given, and
reference is made to the character and extent of all the
more important nickel ore deposits in other countries. With
a production of 6253 tons of metallic nickel in 1903, valued
at 5,002,204 dollars, Sudbury is the largest producer of
nickel in the world; and this monograph of 236 pages, with
numerous plates and maps, summarises all the previous
original investigations and supplies the most detailed and
accurate information regarding these important deposits yet
available.
THE ROVAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY+
“THE history of the Royal Horticultural Society has been
chequered to an extent probably exceeding that of
any other society. At one time fashionable, it enjoyed a
fictitious prosperity. We say fictitious, for horticulture,
especially scientific horticulture, was neglected, and, as a
consequence, the wave or waves—for there were several
of prosperity broke on the shores of adversity, with the
result that the gardens were curtailed, the expenditure was
reduced in all directions, the valuable collections were sold
or destroyed, the herbarium and the library were dispersed.
It is, however, not our purpose now to dwell on ancient
history, but rather to point out the satisfactory progress in
recent years of which the journal before us affords evidence.
Some foreshadowings of that progress date back to the year
1866, when an international horticultural exhibition on a
very large scale was held on the ground where the Natural
History Museum now stands. ‘The exhibition itself differed
from others mainly in its extent and in the larger participa-
tion of foreign exhibitors. It was organised and managed,
not by the society, the financial position of which at that time
precluded it from embarking on such an enterprise, but by
a special committee presided over by the late Sir Went-
worth Dilke, to whose organising faculty and strenuous
labour the success obtained was largely due.
1 The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, vol. xxix., parts i., il.,
and iii.
572
NATURE
If this exhibition had been merely a flower-show on a
gigantic scale there would have been little or no need to
advert to it in these columns. But associated with it was
a botanical congress attended by many of the chief
European notabilities, and presided over by the late
Alphonse de Candolle. The results of their discussions
were recorded in a report of proceedings which still forms
a most valuable document. Copies are now rarely met
with, although they were distributed widely among foreign
and British botanical libraries.
We have a special reason for alluding to this nearly
forgotten congress, because it may be looked on as the pro-
genitor of two important events in the modern history of
the Royal Horticultural Society. A large surplus was
eventually derived from the exhibition, and this surplus
was devoted to the publication of the proceedings before
mentioned, to charitable purposes, and to the purchase of
the valuable library of the late Dr. Lindley. This library
was placed in the hands of trustees for the benefit,
primarily, of the fellows of the Royal Horticultural Society,
and, under certain regulations, of the general public also.
In this way the society once more became possessed of an
extensive library, which cannot be alienated if evil days
should again arise. It is now, after various vicissitudes,
fittingly installed, at the expense of Baron Sir Henry
Schroder, in the new building erected for the society in
Vincent Square, Westminster.
Thus has been accomplished one result of the congress of
1866. Another consequence of that meeting was the form-
ation of a scientific committee under the presidency of Sir
Joseph Hooker, which has endeavoured so far as circum-
stances permitted to carry out the objects formulated in
M. de Candolle’s presidential address. The early days of
the committee, when such men as Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr.
Berkeley, Prof. Westwood, Mr. Wilson Saunders, Colonel
Clarke, Mr. Andrew Murray, Sir William, then Mr., Thisel-
ton-Dyer, and other naturalists took part in the discus-
sions, remain as a pleasant memory. The Rev. Prof.
Henslow, who acted as secretary for the last quarter of a
century, has only lately relinquished his office. The com-
mittee still includes a body of experts in many departments
of horticulture and natural history generally.
We have alluded to the new building, to the erection of
which Baron Schréder has magnificently contributed, whilst
others have not been backward. Much, however, remains
to be done, and until the existing debt is cancelled not
much in the way of scientific experiment or research can
be effected. The society has been exceptionally fortunate in
its centenary year. Not only has it secured a fine hall for
exhibition purposes, together with commodious offices and
accommodation for the library, but through the generosity
of Sir Thomas Hanbury it has come into possession of the
late Mr. G. F. Wilson’s interesting garden at Wisley, near
Weybridge.
The old garden at Chiswick, the value of the services of
which in the past is beyond compute, has been abandoned,
soil and climate no longer being propitious for gardening
operations. The cultural trials hitherto carried out at
Chiswick will henceforth be conducted at Wisley, and there
is every reason to hope that in a short time a research
station under a competent director may be established, and
thus a great and pressing need may be supplied.
This is rather a long preface to the notice of the Journal,
but we hope it will not be thought irrelevant. The neces-
sity for a journal to link together all the otherwise separate
departments of the society has always been recognised, but
in the evil days aforementioned the publication was often
spasmodic and irregular. Since the appointment of the
Rey, W. Wilks as secretary, and under the steady impulse
of the president, Sir Trevor Lawrence, a great improvement
all round has been manifested, and in no way more re-
markably then in the contents and regularity of issue of
the journal. So marked is the improvement that it has
become too much for the digestion of some people, and
some of the fellows are crying out, not for more, but for a
more limited supply.
Our notice has extended to such a length that we can
only indicate some of the contents other than those relating
merely to practical cultivation; such are Dr. Cooke’s article
on the fungous pests of the shrubbery, with coloured illus-
trations;
No. 1850, VOL. 71]
[APRIL 13, 1905
Henslow ; gooseberry mildew, by Mr. Salmon; diseases of
Calanthes, by Mr. Bidgood; note on electric heating, by
Mr. Rogers; diseases of the potato, by Mr. Massee; Indian
primulas, by Sir George Watt; and a large number of
other communications which tend to show that the scien-
tific side of horticulture is not neglected. The abstracts
from botanical and horticultural literature which have of
late formed so important a feature of the Journal are
omitted from the present part, possibly because so much
space has, not unnaturally, been devoted to the proceedings
in connection with the centenary celebration and the formal
opening of the new hall by H.M. the King.
The interests of the commercial side of horticulture, how-
ever great their importance, can very well be left to take
care of themselves. Nevertheless, the cultivators may well
look to the society for light and guidance in such matters
as cucumber spot, and the many diseases which so very
seriously affect their business prosperity. Progressive horti-
culture looks to the society to investigate outstanding
problems, open out new paths, and generally to acquire and
diffuse useful knowledge. Even if not immediately useful,
such knowledge is sure eventually to be of advantage even
to the ‘‘ practical man.’’ With a research station at
Wisley, a competent director, a sympathetic scientific com-
mittee to direct and advise, and an energetic secretary, the
society may on entering its second centenary look forward
to being able to advance scientific horticulture in a more
thorough manner than it has ever done before.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Tue Pioneer Mail states that a gentleman of Nagpur
has bequeathed a sum of fifty thousand rupees to the
Central Hindu College, Benares.
At the spring graduation ceremony of the University of
Edinburgh on April 7 the honorary degree of LL.D. was
conferred upon Prof. W. W. Cheyne, C.B., F.R.S., Dr.
J. H. Jackson, F.R.S., Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S., Sir
Frank E. Younghusband, and Prof. G. A. Gibson.
Tue Catholic University of America will receive, says
Science, a bequest of 20,0001. from Miss Helen Tyler
Gardiner. We learn from the same source that Mr.
Andrew Carnegie has agreed to give a 10,000l. library to
the Washington and Lee University on condition that the
university raises an endowment of 10,o00l. for maintain-
ing it.
Tue Glasgow Herald announces that by the will of the
late Mr. Donald the sum of 20,0001. is bequeathed to the
Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, to be
paid on the death of Mrs. Donald. After various other
bequests have been made, the residue of the estate is to
go to the governors of the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College for purposes specified in the trust dis-
position and settlement.
THE committee of the Privy Council has decided to re-
commend the King to grant a Charter incorporating a
university in Sheffield. A large sum of money has already
been given or promised for the endowment of the uni-
versity, and, in addition, the city council has pledged the
city to the gift annually of a sum equal to the proceeds
of a rate of 1d. in the pound (the capitalised value of
which gift is 200,000l.). The draft Charter of the pro-
posed university provides for the establishment of a teach-
ing university with powers to grant degrees in the faculties
of arts, science, technology, and medicine.
Tue articles of agreement under which it is proposed to
combine the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
Harvard University have been made public. Provision is
made for a joint school of industrial science, to be known
under the present name of the Institute of Technology, to
be governed by an executive board of nine members, of
which three shall represent Harvard, and to be maintained
by present institute funds, augmented by the income of all
funds of the Lawrence Scientific School, by three-fifths of
the net income which may accrue from the Gordon McKay
bequest, amounting to several millions, and by the income
of all property which Harvard may hereafter acquire for
on the heredity of acquired characters, by Prof. | the promotion of instruction in industrial science.
APRIL 13, 1905]
Tue new regulations recently issued by the Wuar Office,
under which commissions in the Army may be obtained by
university candidates, provide that commissions shall be
allotted each half-year to the University of London. To
satisfy the requirements of the regulations, the Senate has
appointed a nomination board for military commissions
which will nominate qualified students for commissions, and
arrangements have been made for the instruction of candi-
dates in military subjects. To be eligible for a commission,
a candidate must have graduated as an internal student,
and this involves three years’ study at one or more of the
schools of the university. Before a student can be nomin-
ated for a commission he must, as a rule, have attended
the various courses of instruction in military subjects in
the university, and he must have been attached for two
periods of six weeks, or for one period of twelve weeks, to
a regular unit. Courses of lectures in military subjects
are being given at the University of London by Colonel
H. A. Sawyer, P.S.C., and Lieut.-Colonel F. N. Maude,
P.S.G., late R.E.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, February 23.—‘* Two Cases of Trichromie
Vision.’’ By Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green. Communicated
by Dr. F. W. Mott, F.R.S.
One case (Prof. J. J. Thomson) sees only three colours
in the bright spectrum—red, green, and violet. He can
distinguish nothing of the nature of pure yellow, like the
sensation given him by the sodium flame, in the spectrum.
There is no definite colour to him at the portion of the
spectrum where the normal sighted see pure blue. Reddish-
green would describe the orange and yellow regions and
greenish-violet the blue. A 5950 (orange-yellow) is the
point which differs most from red and green. There was
no shortening of either end of the spectrum.
Difference of Hue Perception.—The author then tested |
him with his apparatus for ascertaining the size of different
parts of the spectrum which appear monochromatic, and
found him defective in distinguishing differences of hue.
Colour Mixtures.—Tested with Rayleigh’s apparatus for
matching spectral yellow by a mixture of red and green,
the mixed colour of his match always appeared green to
the author.
Classification Test.—Only a few colours were selected in
each case. On being asked to pick out all the yellows he
chose those with orange in them. He had considerable
difficulty in matching the colours. In common with the
cases previously observed, the effects of simultaneous
contrast were much more marked than in the normal
sighted. Two wools changed colour to him on being con-
trasted, when no change was evident to the author.
Lantern Test.—He correctly named the red, green, and
violet with and without the neutral glasses, and saw them
at the normal distance. He had difficulty with yellow
and blue. He called pure yellow ‘‘ greenish yellow.’’
The other case is that of Mr. P. S. Barlow, a
research student in the Cavendish Laboratory, and was
similar in most respects to the above.
The author uses the term trichromic as a statement of the
fact that persons having this vision see only three colours
in the bright spectrum, whilst the normal sighted see six,
and may, therefore, be designated hexachromic. It is
probable that the appearance of the bright spectrum to the
trichromic is very similar to that of a spectrum of feeble
luminosity to the normal sighted, in which only three
colours—red, green, and violet—are seen. The defective
difference perception which is found in these cases accounts
for most of the facts. Both these cases are bordering on
the tetrachromic, as the sodium flame appears to give rise
to a distinct sensation.
March 2.—‘* Atmospheric Electricity in High Latitudes.”
By George C. Simpson, B.Sc. Communicated by Arthur
Schuster, F.R.S.
This paper is an account of a year’s work on atmo-
spheric electricity undertaken at Karasjok, Norway, from
October, 1903, to October, 1904, with the results of a
month’s observations on atmospheric radio-activity made
at Hammerfest.
NO. 1850, voL. 71]
NALTORE
5/3
Karasjok is situated well within the Arctic Circle
(69° 17’ N.), and during the winter has a severe Arctic
climate, so that it is well situated for finding the influence
of meteorological elements and the presence or absence of
direct sunlight on the electrical conditions of the atmo-
sphere.
The observations were limited to determinations of the
potential gradient, electrical dissipation, atmospheric
ionisation, and atmospheric radio-activity. A continuous
record of the potential gradient was obtained by means of
a Benndorf self-registering electrometer, and measure-
ments of the dissipation and ionisation were made three
times each day unless the weather made it impossible to
use the instruments. Measurements of the radio-activity
were made between the hours of 10 to 12 a.m., 3 to 5 p.m.,
and 8.30 to 10.30 p.m. on 253 days, and in addition 42
measurements were made between 3 and 5 a.m. The re-
sults of the work are shortly as follows :—
YEARLY VARIATION.—Potential Gradient.—The yearly
course was found to be in accordance with the general
rule for the northern hemisphere—rising rapidly from
October to February, when it reaches a maximum, then
falling more rapidly until the end of May, after which it
remains constant until the winter sets in again during
October. Dissipation—The yearly course is _ exactly
opposite to that of the potential gradient, the curves re-
presenting the two being almost mirror images of one
another. Jonisation—The course of the ionisation consists
of a nearly linear six months’ fall from the beginning of
September to the end of February, followed by a similar
six months’ rise from March to the end of August.
Dairy VarraTion.—Potential Gradient.—The daily course
for the whole year consists of a single period having a
minimum about 5 a.m. and a maximum about 9 p.m.
Dissipation.—For the whole year the dissipation is slightly
higher at midday than earlier in the morning, while the
evening observations show the lowest dissipation of the
three. Ionisation.—The daily period of the ionisation is
not so pronounced as that of the dissipation, but the
ionisation is slightly lower in the evening than in the
morning or at midday during the whole year.
RELATION BETWEEN THE METEOROLOGICAL AND ELECTRICAL
CONDITIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE.—Wind.—As is to be
expected, the dissipation increases greatly with the wind
strength. Temperature.—Both the ionisation and dissipa-
tion become much less as the temperature goes down.
With temperatures between 10° C. and 15° C. the dissipa-
tion is 4-95 per cent. and the ionisation 0-44 per cent., while
with temperatures below —20° C. these become 0-83 per
cent. and 0-17 per cent. respectively. The potential
gradient increases as the temperature falls. Relative
Humidity.—With rising relative humidity the dissipa-
tion falls rapidly, and the ratio of negative to positive
dissipation increases. When the whole year is taken
into account, the same result is found for the ionisation;
but for the winter and summer six months, taken separ-
ately, the effect of the humidity of the air on the ionisa-
tion is not apparent.
INTERRELATION OF ELecTRicaAL Factors.—Both the dissi-
pation and ionisation greatly influence the potential
gradient. Low values of ionisation and dissipation are
accompanied by high values of the potential gradient, and
vice versd. The dissipation increases with the ionisation.
THe AURORA AND THE ELECTRICAL CONDITION OF THE
ATMOSPHERE.—No relation whatever could be detected be-
tween the aurora and the electrical conditions of the
atmosphere. The most careful watching of the electro-
meter needle revealed no variation of the potential gradient
with variations of the aurora.
Rapio-actrvity.—Measurements of the radio-activity were
made by Elster and Geitel’s method, and their arbitrary
unit was used in expressing the results. A most distinct
yearly course of the radio-activity was found, the maxi-
mum, 129 (mean for month), falling in December, and
the minimum, 47, in June. The radio-activity has also
a very pronounced daily course, the maximum, 162 (mean
for year), falling in the early hours of the morning, and
the minimum, 58, about midday.
There is a distinct connection between the radio-activity
and the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere; the
radio-activity increases as the temperature falls, rises as
574
the relative humidity rises, decreases with increasing wind
strength, and is greater with a falling than with a rising
barometer. All these facts support Elster and Geitel’s theory
that the source of the emanation in the atmosphere is the
soil of the ground. Those meteorological conditions which
prevent the air immediately above the ground from ascend-
ing tend to increase the radio-activity ; on the contrary, all
those conditions which cause a rapid circulation of the air
greatly reduce the radio-activity when measured in the
lower atmosphere.
OBSERVATIONS AT HaAMMERFEST.—The mean values of the
radio-activity were found to be lower at Hammerfest on
the coast than at Karasjok inland. The most important
result of the Hammerfest measurements was the great
difference between the radio-activity of the air from the
sea and that from the land. The mean radio-activity with
a wind from the sea was only 6, while with a land breeze
the mean was 72..
March 16.—‘A New _ Radio-active Element, which
Evolves Thorium Emanation.’’ Preliminary _Communi-
cation. By Dr. O. Hahn. Communicated by Sir William
Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. ;
The radio-active preparation was gained from barium
radium bromide, obtained from thorianite from Ceylon,
while fractionating it in order to separate the radium. It
collected along with small traces of iron and other impuri-
ties in the more soluble portions, and was precipitated by
ammonia. From this preparation a quantity of about
10 mg. of a strongly radio-active oxalate was obtained,
giving off a strong emanation and imparting bright
luminosity to sensitive screens. The emanation was found
to be identical with that of thorium; different samples
gave for the half-period of decay from 52 to 55 seconds.
For the half-period of the induced activity somewhat more
than 113 hours was found. The emanation given off by
the 10 mg. of the oxalate, dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
corresponds in intensity to more than that of a kilogram
of thorium in solution; consequently it was more -than
100,000 times stronger than the common thorium eman-
ation when compared weight for weight. Further work
led to the separation of about 20 mg. of a substance
giving nearly 250,000 times more emanation than thorium.
Whether this active substance is the constant radio-
active constituent of thorium preparations, or whether it
is another new radio-active element, remains still un-
decided. It is hoped that an even more strongly radio-
active product may be obtained, and that it may be
possible to describe more in detail the properties of the
substance.
Recent researches would appear to show that the amount
of this substance in soil is comparable with, but still
considerably smaller than, radium.
March 30.—‘‘ The Réle of Diffusion in the Catalysis of
Hydrogen Peroxide by Colloidal Platinum.’’ By Dr.
George Senter. Communicated by Sir William Ramsay,
K-C-B:, ERS:
The deviations from the simple logarithmic formula in
the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by
colloidal platinum are probably due to disturbances caused
by convection currents. When the velocity-constant calcu-
lated on Nernst’s diffusion hypothesis is great compared
with the chemical velocity-constant, increased convection
can produce no appreciable effect on the observed reaction-
velocity.
In the case under consideration, therefore, since in-
creased convection modifies the observed reaction-velocity,
there must be some error in the assumptions which lead
to the conclusion that the diffusion velocity-constant is
great in comparison with the chemical velocity-constant.
This error is probably to be found in the assumption that
the whole surface of the platinum is, under ordinary con-
ditions, active towards hydrogen peroxide.
It cannot be claimed, from the above considerations, that
Nernst’s hypothesis is true for the platinum catalysis, but
only that the diffusion-velocity is not great in comparison
with the chemical velocity. Other considerations, how-
ever, such as the small value of the temperature
coefficient, make it probable that the. above hypo-
thesis does apply to this particular action. Further
support for this view may, perhaps, be found in the fact
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
that the deviations from the simple logarithmic law in
catalysis by platinum have their exact analogy in the
hamase catalysis. On the ‘‘ chemical’’ velocity hypo-
thesis it would seem rather remarkable that two catalysers
of so different origin should show exactly similar behaviour,
but this becomes at once intelligible on Nernst’s hypo-
thesis, according to which the chemical action plays quite
a secondary part in the reaction-velocities in question.
Mineralogical Society, March 15.—Prof. Hl. A. Miers,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Description of the big
diamond recently found at the Premier Mine, Transvaal :
Dr. F. H. Hateh and Dr. G. S. Corstorphine. The
stone weighed more than 1} lb., and its greatest linear
dimension was 4 inches. It was part (probably less than
half) of a distorted octahedral crystal—On some new
mineral localities in Cornwall and Devon: A. E. I. M.
Russell. An account was given of various new finds of
the minerals anatase, scheelite, wolframite, childrenite,
apatite, and connellite-——On a crystal of phenakite from
Africa: L. J. Spencer. This crystal, which was trans-
parent and rich in faces, was brought back together with
crystals of tourmaline, corundum, and amethyst, , by the
Rev. A. North Wood from the Usagara country in
German East Africa.—Notes on various minerals from the
Binnenthal, Switzerland: G. T. Prior and G. F. Herbert
Smith. Further crystallographic and chemical details
were given of the three new red minerals from the
Binnenthal originally described by R. H. Solly, and
named by him Smithite (after G. F. Herbert Smith),
Hutchinsonite (after A. Hutchinson), and Trechmannite
(after C. O. Trechmann). Smithite is a sulpharsenite of
silver having the composition represented by the formula
AgAsS,; it is monoclinic with a: b : c=2-2205 : 1 : 1-9570,
B 78° 40’. A perfect cleavage parallel to 100 distinguishes
it from the other two red -minerals. Hutchinsonite is
rhombic with a:b:c=1-6356:1:0-7540. A prominent
form is 140. Trechmannite is rhombohedral with
c=0-7265. The symmetry is the same as that of quartz.
—On a new oxychloride of copper from Sierra Gorda,
Chili: G. T. Prior and G. F. Herbert Smith. This new
mineral, to which the name paratacamite was given, has
the same chemical composition as atacamite, but begins to
lose its water at a higher temperature than that mineral.
It is pseudorhombohedral with rr’ =83° nearly. Twins
about r are common. It displays optical anomalies, for
minute fragments under the microscope are found to be
biaxial.—On Dundasite from North Wales: G. T. Prior.
The mineral was found by Mr. H. F. Collins in the Welsh
Foxsdale Mine, Trefriw, Caernarvonshire; it occurs in
white silky radiating tufts on cerussite with allophane;
analysis showed it to be identical with Dundasite, hitherto
known only from Dundas, Tasmania. A probable formula
is PbO.Al,O,.2CO,.4H,O or PbH,(CO,),.Al,.OH,.
Zoological Society, March 21.Mr G. A. Boulenger,
F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Exhibits.—Photo-
graph of a wounded Oryx (Oryx beisa) hiding in under-
growth of wood in its native haunts, in order to show the
protective nature of the coloration of the animal: F.
Gillett.—A series of pencil sketches of fishes of the Rio
Negro and its tributaries made by Dr. A. R. Wallace
about fifty years ago: C. Tate Regan.—Radiograph of a
living snake showing the skeletons of two frogs it had
swallowed some hours previously : M. Yearsley.—Skulls of
the fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) and the red deer (Cervus
elaphus) showing arrest of the growth of the antlers due to
complete or partial castration: R. E. Holding.—Papers.—
Effects of castration upon the horns of the prongbuck
(Antilocapra americana): R. I. Pecock. The effects of
the operation were curvature in growth, prevention of
exuviation, and practical suppression of the anterior tyne.
-The mammals and birds of Liberia: Sir Harry
Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B. Although Liberia was not
marked off clearly by any natural features from either
Sierra Leone on the one hand or the Ivory Coast on the
other, it possessed a certain distinctness and a_ slight
degree of peculiarity as regards its flora and fauna. As
regards mammals and birds, Liberia was, to a great
extent, a meeting-place for the forms of northern Guinea
(Sierra Leone to the Gambia) and those of the Gold Coast,
the Niger Delta, and the Cameroons. The species of
APRIL. 13, 1905]
NATURE
323
mammals peculiar to it included the dwarf hippopotamus,
the zebra antelope, Jentink’s duiker, and Biittikofer’s
monkey. The author enumerated eighteen species of
mammals and twenty of birds, specimens of which had been
obtained by various collectors in Liberia.—Abnormal re-
mains of the red deer (Cervus elaphus): M. A. C. Hinton.
The remains consisted of three antlers which were obtained
from different post-Pliocene deposits in the south of
England. They agreed in having all the tynes suppressed
and in being supported upon very long pedicles, thus re-
sembling in form, though much exceeding in size, those
of the pricket. Rudimentary offsets were seen on the most
perfect example, which proved the antler to be the third
in the series. These antlers belonged to individuals who
had suffered testicular injury at an early period of life,
by which the characters of youth were retained for a
longer period than was usual.—On the affinities of Pro-
colophon : Dr. R. Broom. The author believed that
reptiles in Permian times became specialised along two
distinct lines, the one represented by the pareiasaurians,
anomodonts, therocephalians, and theriodonts, and termin-
ating in the mammals, the second giving rise to all the
other reptilian orders. The common ancestor was believed
to have been a true reptile probably belonging to the
order Cotylosauria. Procolophon was held to be an early
member of the branch which led to the rhynchocephalians,
and possibly fairly closely allied to the land ancestor of
Mesosaurus.—Skulls of the fossil reptile Procolophon from
Donnybrook and Fernrocks: Prof. H. G. Seeley. The
author concluded that the main affinities were with the
Anomodontia, chiefly with the Pareiasauria, and in the
teeth with the Theriodontia; but that in a less degree
there were indications of affinity with reptiles classed as
labyrinthodonts. All parts of the skeleton supported the
separation of the Procolophonia as an order of extinct
Reptilia.
Geological Society, March 22.—Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—An experiment in mountain-
building, part ii.: Lord Avebury, P.C., F.R.S. In this
paper some experiments are described, which were con-
ducted by an apparatus by means of which pressures could
be applied in two directions at right angles to one another,
a space of 2 feet square being reduced to one 22 inches
square. In the first series, plastic materials, such as cloth
and thin oilcloth, were used, with layers of sand between
them. Two main folds crossing at right angles were
formed, the upper one shifted over the lower. The use of
two layers of linoleum produced a different type of folding
and the lower layers of the linoleum were broken along
the principal ridges. In the second series, a layer of
plaster was introduced; this was found to be fractured,
tilted up into a ‘‘ writing-desk ’’ form, and forced irregu-
larly into the sandy layers. Overthrusts were thus pro-
duced, so that in some cases a boring would have passed
through two or even four layers of the rigid substance.
In other cases, the edges of the primary fracture broke
off more or less regularly, and the detached pieces were
pushed up, assuming gradually a very steep angle. The
remainder of the edges of the plate of plaster, having now
room, were able to approach each other. Pliable material
above the plaster was thrown into one or a few extensive
folds, while that beneath assumed a greater number of
small folds.—The Rhztic rocks of Monmouthshire: L.
Richardson. The Rhetic rocks occur only in the neigh-
bourhood of Newport, and the present paper describes three
new sections and four new exposures.
MANCHESTER.
Literary and Philosophical Society, February 21.—
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—
Electrically-heated carbon tube furnaces: R. S. Hutton
and W. H. Patterson. These furnaces are intended for
experimental work, and not only enable extremely high
temperatures to be attained, but with them the tempera-
ture, being unter perfect control, can be kept steady at
any value up to the maximum.
February 28.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., presi-
dent, in the chair.—The early history of seed-bearing
plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous flora (Wilde lec-
ture): Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. (see p. 426).
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
F.R.S., president,
March 7.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
in the chair—Two new aldehyde reactions: W. B.
Ramsden.
March 21.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., president,
in the chair.—A new genus Nevillina, of the subfamily
Miliolinine, of the Foraminifera: H. Sidebottom.—On
the temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity of carbon
at low temperatures: H. Morris-Airey and E. D.
Spencer. The method of taking observations at tempera-
tures between the normal temperature and that of boiling
oxygen was described, and the results plotted in the form
of curves. The shape of the curves was discussed in con-
nection with the theory that carbon conductors behave like
loose powders.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, April 3.—M. Troost in the chair.
—On the use of the hot and cold tube in the study of
chemical reactions: M. Berthelot (see p. 568).—Observ-
ations on the new Giacobini comet made at the Observ-
atory of Paris: G. Bigourdan. The observations were
made on March 28 and 31; the positions of the comparison
stars and apparent positions of the comet are given. On
March 28 the comet appeared as a nebulosity of about the
thirteenth magnitude, with a nucleus sensibly brighter than
the rest. On March 31 the size had diminished, and the
apparent brightness increased.—On the relation between
the integrals of the total differentials of the first and
second species of an algebraic surface: smile Picard.—
The variation of the band spectra of carbon with the
pressure and some new band spectra of carbon: H.
Deslandres and M. d’Azambuja. The kathode spectrum
in air having shown peculiar variations with the pressure,
it was thought desirable to study the effect of pressure
upon the carbon spectrum. The negative spectrum of
carbon is a band spectrum which appears at the kathode
in the oxygen and hydrogen compounds of carbon, and is
especially intense in the case of carbon monoxide and
dioxide. Two spectra were photographed simultaneously
on the same plate, one from a Geissler tube containing
the gas at a pressure of about 0-2 mm., and the other
from the kathode of a tube in which the pressure was
capable of being varied up to nearly atmospheric. The
variations noted strongly resemble those already studied
for the negative spectrum of air. Details of a new spec-
trum of carbon dioxide, given by the kathode at a pressure
of 30 cm. of mercury, are given.—On the grains found
attached to Pectopteris Pluckeneti: M. Grand’Eury. In
the search for fronds giving rise to fossil seeds, the author
has found fronds of the above species to which are fixed,
not one or two, but many hundreds of grains, proving
that the fossil ferns of the Coal-measures, other than the
Neuropteridez, are gymnosperms, and must be _ placed
among the Cycadez. Two reproductions of photographs of
the fossils are given.—On the new Giacobini comet: M.
Giacobini. The elements of the comet are given, calcu-
lated from observations made at Nice on March 26, 28, and
30.—The provisional elements of the Giacobini comet
(1905, March 26): E. Maubant. The elements are calcu-
lated from observations made at Nice on March 26, and
by M. Bigourdan at Paris on March 28 and 31.—Abel’s
theorem on algebraic surfaces: Francesco Severi.—On
linear differential equations of the second order with a
periodic solution: Maxime Bécher.—On a_ hyperelliptic
surface: E. Traymard.—On the dynamics of the point
and the invariable body in an energy system:
Eugéne and Francois Cosserat.—On the properties of
tungstic anhydride as a colouring material for porcelain :
Albert Granger. The yellow rene was obtained by
heating with tungstic anhydride at 800° C., using lead
monosilicate as a flux. With the addition of bismuth
oxide this colour withstood firing well. The conditions
under which these colours tend to become opaque have not
been fully worked out, and work is being continued by
the author in this direction.—On the production of the
hyposulphites: M. Billy. The production of sodium hypo-
sulphites by the action of sulphur dioxide on sodium in
presence of a neutral solvent has been claimed by a German
patent, but the author’s experiments have led invariably
to a negative result. In presence of alcohol the reaction
would appear to take place. By the introduction of
sulphur dioxide into magnesium powder in suspension in
6
“J
a
NATURE
[APRIL 13, 1905
absolute alcohol, the metal dissolves, possibly as an acid
hyposulphite. This. solution, left in a. vacuum, deposits
magnesium hyposulphite——On _ acetyl-lactic acid: V.
Auger. Previous. accounts of this. substance being con-
tradictory, the author has attempted to procure it in a
pure state. It can be obtained either by the action of
acetyl chloride on calcium lactate or on lactic acid, or by
using acetic anhydride in the place of the acetyl chloride.
The substance was obtained in a crystalline form in all
three preparations, and its physical and chemical proper-
ties are given.—On the compounds. of aluminium chloride
with hydrocarbons and hydrogen chloride: G. Gustavson.
By the interaction of benzene, isopropyl chloride, and
aluminium chloride, the author has isolated a definite
compound, the action of which, in the Friedel and Crafts
reaction, may be compared to that of a ferment. This
substance can unite both with hydrocarbons and hydrogen
chloride.—On the hydrides of phenanthrene: Pierre
Breteau. Previous work on the hydrogen addition com-
pounds of phenanthrene has been carried out with the aid
of hydriodic acid. The author has applied the Sabatier
and Senderens reaction with reduced nickel, and in the
present communication gives the results obtained with the
hexahydride and octahydride of phenanthrene.—On the re-
trogradation of artificial starch: E. Roux.—The influence
of the ethylene function in an active molecule: J.
Minguin. With the view of throwing further light on the
effect of the ethylene linkage on the rotation, the author
has prepared amyl succinate, maleate, and fumarate, as
well as the corresponding esters of bornyl alcohol, and has
measured the rotatory power.—The constitution of the liga-
mentary ridge and the evolution of the ligament in existing
Acephalz analogous to the Rudiste: R. Anthony.—Dia-
grams showing the ligament in section are given for Unio
Pictorum and Aetheria Caillaudi at two ages.—Hetero-
typical mitosis in the Ascomycetes: René Maire.—
On the possible réle of slipping in metallogeny: L.
De Launay. An application of the idea of charriage to
a study of the continuity of metallic lodes.—On the exist-
ence of schists with graptoliths at Haci-El-Khenig, Central
Sahara: G. B. M. Flamand. Specimens of schists bear-
ing fossils, collected by Captain Cottenest, prove to be
characteristically Silurian, and form the first definite proof
of this system in the Central Sahara.—On the presence of
the Middle and Upper Carboniferous in the Sahara: Emile
Haug.—On an extraordinary halo observed at Paris:
Louis Besson. This halo, which was observed at the
Montsouris Observatory on March 26, besides the ordinary
circle and parhelia of 22°, presented two abnormal coloured
arcs, the angular measurements of which are given.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Apriv 13.
Rovat Society, at 4.30.—On.a New Type of Electric Furnace; witha
Redetermination of the Melting Point of Platinum: Dr. J. A. Harker.—
On Colour Vision by Very Weak Light: Dr. G. J. Burch, F.R.S.—
(1) The Improved Electric Micrometer; (2) The Amplitude of the
Minimum Audible Impulsive Sound: Dr. P. E. Shaw.—The Refractive
Indices of Sulphuric Acid : Dr. V. H. Veley, F.R.S., and J. J. Manley.
—On the Intensity and Direction of the Force of Gravity in India:
Lieut.-Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S.—A Quantitative Study of Carbon
Dioxide Assimilation and Leaf-Temperature in Natural Illumination :
F. F. Blackman and Miss G. Matthaei.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 5.—Synthetic Chemistry: Prof. R. Meldola,
F.R.S.
InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Alternating Cur-
rent Series Motor: F. Creedy.—Discussion of Mr. Bion J. Arnold’s
address to the joint meeting at St. Louis.
INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8.—The Kedabeg Copper
Mines : Gustav Kéller.—Refining Gold Bullion and Cyanide Precipitates
with Oxygen Gas: T. Kirke Rose.—Wood Gas for Power Purposes and
Gas Generator: G. M. Douglas.—Notes on the Prestea District, Gold
Coast Colony: P. Poore.—Notes on the New Dharwar Gold Field of
India: R. O. Ahlers.—The Cause of Border Segregation in some
Igneous Magmas: J. Park.
MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—On Irreducible Jacobians of Degree
Six : P. W. Wood.—On Fermat's Numbers and the Converse of Fer-
mat's Theorem: A. E. Western.—On the Strains that accompany Bend-
ing: Prof. A. E. H. Love.—Ordinary Inner Limiting Sets in the Plane
or Higher Space: Dr. W. H. Young.
FRIDAY, Apri 14.
Rovat INSTITUTION, ato.—The Law of Pressure of Gases below Atmo-
sphere: Lord Rayleigh.
Puysicav Society, at 8.—On Ellipsoidal Lenses : R. J. Sowter.—(1) The
Determination of the Moment of Inertia of the Magnets used in the
NO. 1850, VOL. 71]
Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field: (2)
Exhibition of a Series of Lecture Experiments illustrating the Proper-
ties of the Gaseous Ions produced by Radium and other Sources :
Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S. warGe, 2 Teas
Rovat ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 5.—Value of Meteoric Radiants
Based on Three Paths: W. F. Denning.—Determination of Longitude on
the Planet Jupiter: G. W. Hough.—(r) Revised Elements of UY Cygni ;
(2) Revised Elements of Y Lyrz: A. Stanley Williams.—Further Note
on Instrumental Errors affecting Observations of the Moon ; in reply to
Mr. Cowell's paper of June, 1904: H. H..Turner.—Reply to Prof.
Turner's paper: P. H. Cowell.—Note on the Point Distributions on a
Sphere ; with Remarks on'the Determination of the Apex of ‘the Sun’s
Motion: H. C, Plummer. ; 7
MaLacoLocicaL Society, at 8.—Anatomical and Systematic Notes on
Dorcasia, Trigonephrus, Corilla, Thersites, and Chloritis: Henry A.
Pilsbry.—Some Account of the Anatomy of. Cassidaria rugosa, L.:
Alexander Reynell.—Notes on a small Collection of Shells from the
Victoria Falls, Zambesi River: H. B. Preston —Descriptions of Six
New Species of Land Shells from South Africa: H. Burnup.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—President’s Address.
Conclusion of discussion on Steam-engine Research Report and Prof.
Capper's reply.
SATURDAY, Apri 15..
Reyat INSTITUTION, at 3.—Some Controverted Questions of Optics:
Lord Rayleigh.
MONDAY, APRIL 17.
INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—On the Importance and Practicability
of a Standard Classification of Impaired Lives: Dr. S. W. Carruthers.—
Social Conditions as affecting Widows’ and Orphans’ Pension Funds:
S. J. H. W. Allin.
TUESDAY, Apri 18.
Roya STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Annual General Meeting.
WEDNESDAY, Aprit 19.
GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—The Blea Wyke Rocks and the Dogger in
North-East Yorkshire: R. H. Rastall.—Notes on the Geological Aspect
of Some of the North-Eastern Territories of the Congo Independent
State: G. F. J. Preumont; with Petrographical Notes: J. A. Howe.
Royat MicroscopicaL Society, at 8.—On the Application of the
Undulatory Theory to Optical Problems : A. E. Conrady.
RoyaL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.30.—An Account of the Observa-
tions at Crinan in 1904, and Description of a new Meteorograph for use
with Kites: W. H. Dines.—Rate of Fall of Rain at Seathwaite:
Dr H. R. Mill.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30-—Complex Nitrites of Bismuth: W. C. Ball.
CONTENTS. PAGE
A Doctor's View ofthe East. By T.H.H.. . 553
A Book on\Musenms, By R:..L.)- 2): © sense
Elementary Physiology. By Prof. B. Moore . ... 556
| DerrestrialiMagpnemsm: 7...) See roe ee
Our Book Shelf :— .
Hiscox : ‘* Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Move-
ments and Novelties of Construction” . . .. . . 557
Righi: ‘Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena, 4
Radio-activity, Ions, Electrons” ........ 558
“<The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society”. . 558
Steele: ‘‘Medieval Lore from Bartholomew
Anglicus@ameeme. < . . s csic yeep on ee
Hertwig: ‘‘ Ergebnisse und Probleme der Zeugungs-
und Vererbungs-lehre” Pie cretion toes Fish
Letters to the Editor :—
The Dynamical Theory of Gases.—Lord Rayleigh,
OUMS Geiser. |... een eee
The Physical Cause of The Earth’s Rigidity.—Prof.
{oH EE: SES > > Ceo ces oben artso SRA
The Lyrid Meteors.—John R. Henry ..... 560
Antarctica. (J/i/ustrated.) By L.C. B. ... 560
A New British Marine Expedition . c 562
The Indian Earthquake of April4. . =) eo EOS
Prof. Pietro Tacchini . = See 564
Notes ols 2 Oe Gly Sette co 45
Our Astronomical Column :—
Comet 1905 a (Giacobini) Sc 569
Variability ofa Minor Planet... .. .. 2... 569
Visual Observation of Jupiter's Sixth Satellite. . . .. 569
Real Path ofa Bupht Meteor. «25 \. tbe es 569
A New 24-inch Reflector at Harvard ee, OE: nos
Stars with Variable Radial Velocities ...... . 569
North African Petroglyphs. (J//ustrated.) By
A. '\C.. Ae eee. >. hs aoe, eo
The Mineral Resources of Canada Sy Oe chi eye!
The Royal Horticultural Society Cee es, SYA
University and Educational Intelligenc mete - 572
Societies and Academies ihe 2S
Diary of Societies . eiciee - 576
INERT OK E
as
THURSDAY, APRIL 20, 1905.
MAN AND SCENERY.
Landscape in History and Other Essays. By Sir
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. Pp. vilit+352. (London:
Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1905.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
N this collection of essays Sir Archibald Geilxie
has given us in a connected form some of his
contributions to the study of the effect of geographical
environment and geological changes, not only in
determining the distribution of population and of the
centres of rule and of commerce, but also in in-
fluencing literature and the interpretation of history.
In some of them he treats of the part man has played
in controlling and directing those forces of nature
which tend to produce change on the surface of the
earth, and he has added a few essays dealing with
subjects which arise naturally out of such inquiries.
In this way he has produced a most readable book, the
several parts of which hang well together.
When we have exhausted all the available docu-
ments, sought out the meaning of all the de-
scriptive place-names and gathered the local tradi-
tions, there remains the most trustworthy evidence of
all, namely, the examination of the ground to see
whether the events recorded can have occurred on the
area to which they have been assigned, either under
present conditions or other conditions the former
existence of which we can learn from what we see.
Our author gives as an example the story of the
Battle of Bannockburn, where the army of Edward
was compelled to crowd its attack into a narrow
space because Bruce had rested his left flank on what
the trained eye can see must at that time have been
a morass with impassable bogs and sheets of water,
though it is now dry and richly cultivated.
Estuaries and the rivers which run into them pro-
vided landing places and opened up the inland regions
to the vessels of primeval man, and on their banks
were sites for the settlements of the first comers and
the cities of later more civilised times; while, on
the other hand, mountain ranges and tangled forests
separated tribes and offered an insurmountable barrier
to expansion and intercourse.
Man, by cutting down or burning forests, and by
draining lakes and swamps, has altered the con-
ditions of many extensive tracts of country, changing
the climate, the amount of rainfall, and the rate of
waste of the hill-slopes and valleys.
The south of Scotland and parts of the north of
England were once covered with small shallow pans
of water like Finland, ‘‘ the land of a thousand
lakes.” Most of these have got filled up in the
British Isles, and the process of reclaiming and
cultivating the areas once covered with water has
been hurried on by the advance of agriculture; but
history tells us how the early dwellers in these broken
grounds took advantage of them in their struggles
against the powerful races that from age to age in-
vaded them. The Caledonians met the Romans on
such ground, and the Scotch the English in later
times; and, further south, the Saxons long held their
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
own in the flooded fenlands against William and his
Norman followers.
The mythology of Greece and of northern Europe
is largely influenced by the character of the scenery
in which it took shape. It was recognised that the
plain of Thessaly had once been covered with a sheet
of water, of which the remaining portions formed two
considerable lakes. The opening of the gorge by
which it was drained was attributed to Poseidon, the
God of the Sea, or in later times to Hercules. Here
we seem to have the tradition of an old controversy
as to whether the sea, the natural operation of
water running out of a lake or connected with in-
roads of the sea, or even artificial operations, had
contributed most to bring about the draining of the
area.
The snowy summits of Olympus, rising serenely
above the shifting clouds into the calm, clear, blue
heaven, naturally came to be regarded as the fit
abode of the gods who ruled the world, and soon
Olympus came to be synonymous with heaven itself.
So, also, in the countries of western and northern
Europe the grandeur and ruggedness of the scenery
and the ‘‘ mountain gloom ”’ are faithfully reflected
in the Teutonic myths and superstitions.
Our author gives three examples of typical districts
to show how a knowledge of the causes which have
brought about the varied scenery of each, far from
checking the free play of fancy, enhances the pleasure
derived from their contemplation.
He tales first the little cake of rock which caps
Slieve League in Ireland, and leads the imagination
to recall the time when it extended over all the
surrounding area; but it has been removed over most
of the district, a patch being left here and there to
indicate the wide area over which it once extended.
Then our author tales us to the Isle of Wight, and
showing us the “‘ long backs of the bushless downs,”’
explains how they come to rise as they do from the
waves and run across the island from side to side.
The long story that they tell is a stimulus to the
imagination that greatly heightens the pleasure
derived from the scene.
Again he carries us to the flanks of Slioch and the
shores of Loch Maree, and makes them tell their tale.
He then goes on to describe the influence of scenery
upon our literature. Here he is, of course, dealing
with a later stage of mental development, and what
he gives us is chiefly a sketch of the distinguishing
physical features which inspired the descriptive
passages in the poets of nature.
He tells us of the simple, child-like delight in nature
which was so characteristic of Chaucer. He points
out the placid rural quiet of the Colne Valley,
where Milton dwelt, and which inspired the two finest
lyrics in the English tongue. He describes the
scenery of the Ouse near Olney and Weston, so
thoroughly characteristic of the southern lowlands
which filled Cowper with images of rural peaceful-
ness and gentle beauty.
He points out how the poetry of Thomson ever
showed the impress of his early life in the Scottish
lowlands within sight of the Cheviot and Lammer-
muir Hills.
Ge
578
NATURE
[APRIL 20, 1905
Our author is at his best when he comes to deal
with the genius of Burns, to whom the hills and
woods were not merely enjoyable scenes to be visited
and described, but became part of his very being;
who found in their changeful aspects the counterpart
of his own variable moods, and whose feelings found
vent in an exuberance of appreciation which had
never before been heard in verse.
He touches lightly the descriptive passages in Scott
and Wordsworth, and the ballad singers of the border,
who, though mostly inspired by war-like achieve-
ments, often wove into their tales a thread of tender
affection and romance. In the poems attributed to
Ossian, although Highland scenery is not specially
described, it forms a visible and changing back-
ground.
Our author turns from the consideration of the
influence exerted by the geographical features of a
country upon the development and habits of thought
of its inhabitants to the discussion of the origin of
those features themselves. This is a subject which
has of recent years received much attention both in
this country and in America. Our author describes
the scenic features under several heads. Mountains
and valleys may be considered as correlatives, the
mountains being there because the valleys have been
scooped out between them. Under lakes, we turn
with interest to his views on the glacial erosion of
rock basins, which he holds could be effected by land
ice only. He makes, however, the qualifying remark
that a terrestrial surface of crystalline rock, long ex-
posed to the atmosphere or covered with vegetation
and humus, may be so deeply corroded as for two
or three hundred feet downward to be converted into
loose detritus, and the ice may thus have had much
of its work done for it, and would be mainly employed
in clearing out the corroded débris. Whether, how-
ever, this will explain many of the rock basins of the
British Isles is not very clear.
In another essay he shows what Hutton did by his
theory of the earth to pave the way for the accurate
scientific treatment of all those questions of the
changes which the earth has undergone in attaining
its present configuration. Playfair, Hall, and
others helped on the work. The obvious question
arising out of such speculations is, how long must it
have taken to bring about such great results? and
thus we are taken through the controversies as to
whether uniform change, which we observe, or local
and intermittent catastrophic action, of which we see
proofs everywhere, have done most to bring about
the results in every individual case. The physicists tell
us that from a consideration of the rate at which the
earth parts with its heat, of the limitation of the age
of the sun, of the retardation of the earth’s angular
velocity by tidal friction, they are not prepared to
allow such a vast age as geologists have claimed for
the earth. The geologists, on the other hand, having
regard to the rate at which changes on its surface
are observed to be brought about by existing agents,
and the time demanded for the evolution of living
things, insist upon a much larger estimate of time
than the physicists are prepared to allow. The con-
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
fidence reposed in the accuracy of such inferences
must depend upon the probability or improbability
that the observer has seen enough to justify his
generalisations, and that no contradictory evidence
can be forthcoming.
The geologist and physicist will probably arrive at
a compromise when the one admits that his calcula-
tions, based on the rate of waste, may be entirely
vitiated by earth movements, which will either hurry
on or retard such waste, and that life will change
more rapidly with the changes of environment pro-
duced by earth movements, and when, on the other
hand, the physicist has corrected his estimate of the
rate at which the earth is cooling by taking more
careful account of the variety of conducting material
of which the earth is composed, has estimated the
planetary fuel for ever being thrown into the sun
from space, to say nothing of the new views of radio-
activity, and has re-considered his inferences from
tidal friction, which some of our highest mathe-
maticians admit is still open to doubt.
Such speculations suggest the name of the great
apostle of evolution, and an essay on the life and
work of Charles Darwin follows, while a biographical
sketch of Hugh Miller is fitly introduced among
essays which so largely deal with the influence of a
man’s environment upon his imagination and
writings.
In an age like this, when the relative place and
value of technical and literary training are so strongly
forced upon the attention of the country, an essay
on science in education by one whose experience and
outlook are so wide will be welcomed. Then, to
bring us back to the main subject with which he
commenced, he gives an interesting sketch of the
building up and moulding of the Campagna and the
surrounding country, fitting it for the site of many
an ancient city, and at last for the eternal city so
long the centre of the world.
A MAGNETIC SURVEY OF JAPAN.
A Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch
1895-0 and the Sea Level. Carried out by order of
the Earthquake Investigation Committee, reported
by A. Tanakadate. Pp. xii+347 and plates. (Pub-
lished by the University, Tokyo, Japan, 1904.)
HE completion of the detailed magnetic survey
of a country is a task requiring great skill and
industry. We congratulate Prof. A. Tanakadate and
his colleagues on the successful accomplishment of a
heavy piece of work, which will be welcomed by all
who are interested in the science of terrestrial mag-
netism. The work is the result of the voluntary
cooperation of sixteen observers, of whom seven are
professors or assistant professors of the Imperial
University, Tokyo, the others also occupying re-
sponsible positions. Prof. Tanakadate modestly only
claims for himself the position of a ‘‘ reporter ’? who
has collected the work of the different parties, but we
imagine that we owe to him also the detailed dis-
cussion of the results which forms an essential por-
tion of the volume before us.
APRIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
379
A clear account is given in the initial paragraphs
of the method of observations and the instruments
used, but not too much space is devoted to these
details, so that the reader is soon brought to the
first difficulty which occurred in the working out of
the observations. It was necessary, in order to reduce
them to a common epoch, to take account of secular
variations. This might most easily have been done
by choosing as observing stations the same places
at which the magnetic elements had been determined
in a previous survey, but in attempting to carry this
out it was found that the changes which had taken
place in their surroundings made it impracticable
to observe at most of the old stations. Some
other method of reduction had therefore to be
adopted. Empirical expressions were found for the
magnetic elements in terms of longitude and latitude
similar to those deduced by Prof. Knott for the
previous survey. A comparison of the two ex-
pressions gave the secular variation. The results of
all the observations for each station are given in
the report. The reduction of the observations to
sea level is always to some extent arbitrary. The
process employed in the present case, where use is
made of relations given by the theory of the potential
between the radial variation of the horizontal com-
ponents and the horizontal variation of vertical force,
is an improvement on the more empirical methods
which have sometimes been adopted.
A further application of the potential theory may
serve as an important check on the accuracy of the
observations. If a potential exists, the rate of vari-
ation of the northerly force towards the west must be
equal to the rate of variation of the westerly force
towards the north. If this relation does not hold, the
earth’s magnetism cannot be completely represented
by a potential, and this would mean that vertical
electric currents traverse the earth’s surface. The
authors of the present survey calculate the intensities
of these vertical currents, but rightly do not attach
much importance to them. They are much greater
than observations on atmospheric electricity allow us
to contemplate as possible. We may therefore take
the calculated values of these currents to be indica-
tions of the extent of uncertainty in the observations.
We must refer the reader to the original for the
discussion of local disturbances, but cannot avoid
directing attention to one passage, which seems to
indicate some kind of misapprehension on the part
of the author.
“It is often erroneously believed,’’ he says, ‘‘ that
the expansibility of the earth’s magnetic potential in
negative powers of the radius vector is a proof that
the source of action is inside the earth.”
In a preceding sentence the writer connects his
supposed error with the fact that ‘‘ inasmuch as the
surface integral of the force over the earth vanishes,
the so-called seat of action may be placed either inside
or outside.’’
In this passage the author seems to doubt a well-
established theorem which is quite independent of the
question whether the surface integral of normal force
when taken over the whole surface of the earth has
a finite value or not.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71 |
To put the matter plainly: If the magnetic forces
at all points of the surface of a sphere can be repre-
sented in terms of a potential which is expressed as
a series of spherical harmonics proceeding by negative
powers of the radius vector, then there are no mag-
nets or electric currents outside the sphere. If the
passage quoted is intended to deny the truth of this
proposition, the author is guilty of a heresy which
he does not justify either by his hydrokinetic analogy
or by his reference to one of Lord Kelvin’s papers.
It should be said, however, that in other parts of his
volume the author seems to adopt Gauss’s reasoning
as to the discrimination between outside and inside
effects by spherical harmonic analysis. It may be,
therefore, that the apparent meaning of the passage
is not the one which it was intended to convey. It
is of some importance to avoid misunderstanding on
so important a matter, and it is for this reason that
I feel compelled to direct attention to the only
criticism which can fairly be raised with regard to
a very meritorious and heavy piece of work.
May other countries follow this example of
Japanese enterprise, and may, especially in English
colonies, scientific men receive such help from their
Governments as will enable them to keep pace with
foreign nations in the successful prosecution of
similar work. It is not the enterprise or the know-
ledge which is wanting, but the material assistance and
the official recognition that a certain duty is imposed
on each country to take its share in the working out
of geophysical problems. ARTHUR SCHUSTER.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE VEGETABLE
FIBRES.
The Spinning and Twisting of Long Vegetable Fibres
(Flax, Hemp, Jute, Tow, and Ramie). By Herbert
R. Carter. Pp. xvi+360. (London: Chas. Griffin
and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price ros. net.
\ yas written for the textile industries may be
divided into three classes, viz. descriptive works
of a more or less technical and practical character,
educational works leading students up to an appreci-
ation of the difficulties to be faced, and works which
combine the descriptive and educational but which
too frequently meet the requirements of neither
manager nor student. The work under consideration
meets the requirements of the mill manager or
advanced student in a manner perhaps more than
satisfactory. On the other hand, to place such a
work as this in the hands of the elementary student
would be anything but satisfactory, rather suppress-
ing than developing that genuine interest without
which it is impossible for the student to make true
progress in his studies. In its particular line, how-
ever, we must highly commend the work as repre-
senting up-to-date practice in most of the sections of
the textile industries of which it treats.
The work is really arranged in four sections, the
first three chapters being devoted to general par-
ticulars respecting the fibres in question, chapters iv.
to xv. dealing with the mechanical processes necessary
for the formation of the said materials into satis-
factory yarns, chapters xvi. and xvii. referring to
580
miscellaneous processes, such as the manufacture of
threads, twines, cords, and ropes, while chapters
xviii. to xxi. treat on general mill management,
arrangement, and engineering.
In the first section, very interesting and useful
particulars are supplied respecting the fibres and their
marketing, the only difficulty being the grasping of
the multitude of details here given. Had these de-
tails been represented by maps illustrating (a) area
of growth, (b) area of manufacture, (c) area of distri-
bution and use of the fibres in question, with
graphical illustrations of quantities, &c., the facts pre-
sented would have been vastly more interesting and
useful. This method, we believe, is employed in the
textile museums of certain of our northern technical
colleges.
The author wisely remarks in his preface that were
it not for the similarity in the processes necessary
for the preparation and spinning of many of the
fibres here treated, it would be impossible to bring
the work within reasonable limits. The similarity in
treatment is certainly marked, and practically leads
the author throughout to the employment of the
“comparative method.’’ Thus, in the first prepar-
ation of ramie, the hand and the chemical or
mechanical methods are naturally compared with
reference to quality of result and price, this latter
necessarily involving the question of native hand-
labour versus European machine-labour.
difference between ramie and flax is naturally noted,
and so on.
The comparative method would naturally arrange
itself under some six heads :—(1) methods of deal-
ing with the fibres in the raw state commercially ;
(2) methods of preparing, that is, of cleaning for the
subsequent mechanical operations; (3) ultimate length,
diameter, colour, &c., of the fibres; (4) the conditions
for preparation of the fibres as necessarily deciding the
types of machines required; (5) the types of machines
for each quality of fibre; (6) value of resultant thread
or fabric as revealed by scientific and ‘‘ use ”’ tests.
This is approximately the grouping employed.
The greater proportion of the book is devoted to the
mechanical side, and it must be recognised that this
is just, as in many cases not only has the machine
taken the place of the hand method, but actually does
what would be impossible without mechanical aid.
Perhaps one of the most interesting comparisons in
the book is that afforded by chapters xii. and xiii., in
which dry, semi-dry, and wet methods of spinning
are successively dealt with.
The section dealing with threads, twines, ropes,
&c., is chiefly interesting as introducing machines
which are practically unknown in the ordinary textile
industries. It very often happens that principles de-
veloped in one industry would be of great value in
another were they known; in this way the present
work may indirectly be of considerable use to indus-
tries other than those specially dealt with.
Chapter xviii. deals in an interesting manner with
the mechanical department, including the hackle
NATURE
Then the |
setting, wood turning, fluting, oils, and oiling; this |
is certainly a useful chapter for the ordinary mill
No. 1851, VOL. 71]
[APRIL 20, 1905
manager. Chapters xix., xx., and xxi., however, in
our opinion, are somewhat out of place, it being im-
possible satisfactorily to consider modern mill con-
struction, boilers and engines, steam and water
power, and electric power transmission in the fifty-
six pages devoted to this subject. Mere statement,
usually very excellent, is all that is possible. We
would, however, question the advice given respecting
electric lighting in factories. There is a marked
tendency to revert to incandescent gas lighting, not
only on account of the expense, but also on account
of the light value.
The work is not only to be commended to those
engaged in the particular trades in question, but also
to those engaged in the allied textile industries, as
such questions as the position of the nip of the rollers
in relation to the spindle and with reference to length
of fibre, the varieties of gills employed, Combe’s ex-
pansion pulley and quick change motion in place of
the cones in cone drawing frames, &c., constitute
interesting mechanical arrangements which may be
of marked value in these allied industries.
The work is illustrated by 161 figures, usually of
a most interesting type. The general arrangement is
certainly such as will commend itself to the mill
manager, who will naturally wish to refer to the work
under conditions requiring speed and accuracy.
ALpRED F. BARKER.
ENGLISH ESTATE FORESTRY.
English Estate Forestry. By A. C.
Pp. xi+332. (London: Edward Arnold,
Price 12s. 6d. net. -
S the title suggests, the book is intended for the
A instruction of English foresters. In _ the
preface, the author states that he feels,
Forbes.
1904.)
““ probably in common with many practical foresters,
that English forestry is sufficiently distinct from Con-
tinental, or even Scotch forestry to entitle it to be
regarded as a separate subject.”’
The author further emphasises this point in his
chapter on thinning and pruning, where he seems
to hint that all the mistakes and failures in English
sylviculture, about the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, were due to the bad influence of Scotch
forestry and Scotch foresters, who, according to
Mr. Forbes, were imported into England about
that time, bringing with them their mistaken ideas
of thinning and pruning, to the detriment of English
forestry.
The following extract from the preface gives the
author’s own views regarding the book :—
‘This book is intended to be suggestive rather
than instructive to the practical forester. There is
little in its pages but what he already knows, and
possibly a great deal with which he will not agree.
But as a more or less faithful record of individual
experience it is offered as a small contribution to
forestry literature, which, if it does not enrich, it will
not, it is hoped, disgrace.”’
The concluding paragraph of the preface states
“that this book is not, nor does it make a pretence
of being, a text-book. The intelligent reader, there-
fore, who discovers that it does not contain a planter’s
APRIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
581
guide, nor a reference to more than one work on
German forestry, is requested not to despise it on that
account, nor to conclude prematurely that the author
has written on a subject he knows nothing about.”
The book is a fairly bulky one, and consists of
thirteen chapters and _ twenty-three illustrations,
representing different woodland scenes. The opening
chapter gives an interesting historical account of
English forests and the origin of forestry. The
present conditions, the future prospects and
possibilities of extended afforestation are next dealt
with. The sylvicultural treatment of the commoner
coniferous and .deciduous trees, and the financial
results to be derived therefrom, is a chapter which
will be read with interest by proprietor and forester
alike. Planting and natural regeneration are dealt
with in a satisfactory manner. A chapter on the
measurement of timber and its selling value contains
much information, which will be of the greatest
use to the English estate forester. The home nursery
and forest management receive their due share of
attention. The author has not forgotten the arbori-
cultural aspect of the forester’s profession. His
chapters on landscape forestry and park and avenue
trees are written with much artistic feeling,
and contain many valuable suggestions. The more
important injurious fungi and animals, including
insects, are dealt with in a chapter under the head-
ing ‘‘Enemies of English Woodlands.’’ It deals
with only a few of the outstanding pests which are
of practical importance. There is probably no pest
about which more has been said or written than the
larch canker disease, and we find the author is no
exception to the rule. A great many pages are
devoted to this disease alone. It consists essentially
of a criticism of all the theories that have been
advanced regarding the disease since the introduction
of the larch. Much of what he says is undoubtedly
true, but we must confess we find great difficulty in
following the author through many of his arguments,
especially those which are based upon purely suppo-
sitional grounds.
Regarding the book as a whole, we find a great
deal of historical detail in its pages. Past and
present methods are criticised without reserve. It
will not replace any of the already existing text-books
intended for the instruction of the young forester, but
as an addition to our existing literature on forestry
we may recommend its perusal to those interested in
the subject.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum.
Supplementum secundum, nomina et synonyma
omnium generum et specierum ab initio anni
MDCCCXCVI_ usque ad finem anni MDCCCC
complectens. Ductu et consilio W. T. Thiselton-
Dyer confecerunt herbarii horti regii botanici
Kewensis curatores. Abama-Leucocoryne. Pp.
103. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1904.) Price
12s. net.
Workers at the systematic botany of seed-plants, and
all who are concerned that plants should have their
right names, will welcome the appearance of this latest
No. 1851, vor. 711]
instalment of a well-lknown work of reference. The
original ‘‘ Index Kewensis,’’ the monumental work
owed to Sir Joseph Hooker and Mr. Daydon Jackson,
gives the reference for generic and specific names
published up to 1885. For names published during
the next ten years we have the first supplement, the
work of M. Durand, of Brussels, and Mr. Jackson.
This makes but slow progress, and has now reached
Ph; the last number appeared at the end of November,
1903. Hence, while the present instalment carries us,
for the first half of the alphabet, to the end of last
century, as regards the last ten letters we are twenty
years behind time!
As implied in the heading,
cludes not only new names, but also synonyms,
that is, those names which, in works published
in the interval in question, have been transferred
to other genera or regarded as identical with
names previously published. Thus the eight names
under Eriachne represent old species, chiefly of
Nees, which more recent workers have transferred
to Achneria. The inclusion of synonymy, while un-
doubtedly of value, must add considerably to the
labour of preparation. Moreover, while in some cases
the citation of a mame as a synonym is amply
justified, it is in others merely the expression
of the opinion of one school of botanists, or perhads
only of an individual worker, on a matter about which
perhaps much may be said on both sides. In our
opinion the great use of the “‘ Index ’’ is that implied
in its title; the working botanist wants a list con-
taining every published name, he wants it as soon as
possible after publication, and to get an exhaustive
and up-to-date index he will sacrifice much in the way
of botanical comment, however valuable. Refer him
to the place and date of publication, and you will earn
his lasting gratitude. He should be able to draw his
own conclusions as to the relative value of the names.
The omission of the date from the references is,
we think, matter for regret; it would have involved
but very little additional labour at the time; moreover,
it is given in the first supplement, an improvement
instituted by Messrs. Durand and Jackson. There are
also other omissions which we shall hope to see
rectified in an appendix or addendum. A. B
Birds I have Known. By Arthur H. Beavan. Pp.
256. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1905.) Price 5s.
Tuts little boolk records the author’s ‘* experience of
birds during many years in many lands and on many
seas its sole purpose being to bring to its
readers’ notice the ways and habits of these beautiful
creatures of the Almighty.’’
With such a preface, and after the author’s assur-
ance that he prefers the unquestioning belief of his
little son in the Bible story of Creation to the Dar-
winian theory of evolution, we are a little taken
aback at the author’s treatment of the Creator’s
handiwork.
““T have always loved the birds,’’ he protests.
Unfortunate birds! His earliest manifestation of this
love was, on his own confession, to endeavour to
catch them with the proverbial pinch of salt! Age
brought wisdom, however, and with the judgment of
mature years a piece of pork concealing a fish-hook
was found more efficacious !
In other places he naively describes the patience
he displayed in waylaying with a gun such rare birds
as he happened to discover. Descanting upon the
glories of Cornwall as a happy hunting-ground, he
gives a list of the rarities that may turn up here
during gales, enumerating such species as the golden
oriole, Bohemian waxwing, hoopoe, and spoonbill—
just those, in short, which the true bird-lover is most
anxious to protect. The chance of killing such
the supplement in-
582 NATURE [AvrIL 20, 1905
prizes, he assures us, _ makes the ornithologist LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
despise common bird-life,”’ and look only for [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
rarities !
Concerning the toucan and hornbill, he writes :—
“The Almighty—speaking reverently—seems to have
made certain animals and birds (sic) in a spirit of
fun, or at least in a sportive mood’’!! And this,
too, in spite of a statement on a previous page to the
effect that with ‘‘ an ordinary beak ’’ the toucan would
be unable to procure the fruit on which it feeds, and
that, in consequence, ‘‘ the Almighty, in His wisdom,
has provided it with a ‘ beak-hand’... .’’!
We confess we do not like this book; where it is
not mischievous it is puerile. The illustrations could
not possibly be worse. Wea benee
The Elements of Chemistry. By M. M. Pattison
Muir. Pp. xiv+554. (London: J. and A. Churchill,
1904.) Price 1os, 6d. net.
Ir is somewhat difficult to understand for what class
of reader this book is intended. In style and treat-
ment it is not well adapted to beginners, yet in its
descriptive matter it is quite elementary. Probably it
will prove of greatest service to mature students of
other subjects who wish to gain some acquaintance
with the principles of chemistry without intending to
study the science practically. The author tells us in
his preface that his object has been “‘ to present some
of the fundamental facts, generalisations, principles
and theories of chemistry, lucidly, methodically, and
suggestively.”? In this he has had a certain measure
of success, but the general impression left by the book !
is that in its construction substance has been sacri-
ficed to form. When, for example, the author tells
us (p. 89) that weighed quantities of the basic oxides
BaO, CaO, K,O, Na,O, have been combined with
weighed quantities of the acidic oxides I,O,, N,O,,
P,O., P.O, respectively, and that analysis showed the
resulting products to be Bal,O,, CaN,O,, K,PO,, and
Na,PO,, we are inclined to doubt the statement, and
also to doubt the wisdom of adducing imaginary
experiments in confirmation of a formal rule. On
p. 252 we find the equation
““Na,O+N,O, (heated)=2NaNO,.”
We wonder if the author tried the experiment; the
practical instruction to heat would almost indicate
that he had.
Richard Jefferies: his Life and Ideals. By H. S.
Salt. New edition. Pp. viit+119. (London: A. C.
Fifield, 1905.) Price 1s. 6d. net.
Tue fact of a new (and cheaper) edition of this work
being called for may be taken as an indication of
the hold the writings of the great pioneer of the true
type of nature-study have taken on the popular mind.
In the preface, the author emphasises his opinion that
the real claims of Jefferies to literary immortality are
based on his later works of the type of ‘‘ The Story
of My Heart ’’; but there can be no doubt, as the
author himself is fain to admit, that ‘“‘ The Game-
keeper at Home ”’ and ‘“‘ Round about a Great Estate ”’
are the volumes which have made the name of
Jefferies a household word. Biographers and
eulogists may make what efforts they please to alter
the verdict of the public; but in such cases the old
maxim that the vox populi is vox dei still holds
good. To the great majority of readers Jefferies will
continue to be known solely by his inimitable (if some-
times too realistic) descriptions of rural life and
character. Although in small type, the new edition
of his life is well printed on good paper. R. LE:
No. 1851, VOL. 71]
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Historical Note on Dust, Electrification, and Heat.
Your readers may remember that in July, 1883, I penned
a letter to your columns (vol. xxviii. p. 297) describing
some observations which the late J. W. Clark and myself
had recently made; among others, one to the effect that
a small electrical discharge into a smoke-laden atmosphere
rapidly dissipated the smoke by coagulating the particles.
Some time afterwards we found that the observation had
previously been made by a Mr. Guitard, and printed in the
Mechanic’s Magazine for 1850—a reference to this fact
being actually contained in that great. compendium of
electrical information, Wiedemann’s “* Galvanismus
u.s.w.,’’ so that it must be regarded as fully ‘‘ published.”’
I now write to say that during the labour of indexing, at
the Royal Society, Prof. McLeod has come across a much
earlier instance of the same observation, showing that the
phenomenon was really discovered in 1824. An extract
from Prof. McLeod’s letter runs as follows :—
““In the course of our indexing we have come across
a paper that may interest you, if you do not already know
of it. It is by Hohlfeld, ‘‘ Das Niederschlagen des Rauchs
durch Elektricitat,’’ Kastner, Archiv Naturl., ii., 1824,
205-206. It is very short; he refers to the increase of the
fall of rain and hail after a flash of lightning, and de-
scribes how he filled a globe with smoke and led into it
a pointed wire connected to an electric machine which
caused the smoke to settle.”’
If any importance attaches to the subject, it must de-
pend upon the successful application, in future practice, of
so conspicuous a result. Hitherto the only practical appli-
cation of the same sort of principle has been the
‘“coherer ’’? used in some systems of wireless telegraphy,
of which Prof. Branly’s porphyrised-copper powder-smears
and iron filings-tubes may be regarded as the earliest
examples.
Perhaps, however, I may direct attention to my paper
to the British Association (Report for 1885, pp. 743 et seq.),
in which this electrical action on visible particles is likened
to chemical agglomeration into molecular aggregates, lead-
ing to an electrostatic theory of chemistry, a matter worthy
of, and now receiving, sustained attention.
May I further take the opportunity of amending an over-
sight? Mr. Clark and I came across the fact of the elec-
trical deposition of smoke while we were experimenting
on Tyndall’s dark plane or dust-free space seen near hot
bodies in illuminated air, a matter to which attention had
been directed by a notable investigation of Lord Ray-
leigh’s (see NaTurRE for 1882, vol. xxviii. p. 139). It turned
out afterwards that we were not the only experimenters
on this subject, Lord Rayleigh’s letter having also roused
the: attention of that eminent specialist in dust researches,
Mr. John Aitken, of Edinburgh; and though we pub-
lished our account of dust-free spaces due to heat in the
Philosophical Magazine for March, 1884, his corresponding
investigations and explanations were published a month
or so earlier in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, vol. xxxii. p. 239; and to him accordingly
belongs priority in such parts of this matter as are not
covered by my preliminary letter to Nature of the July
previous, which doubtless includes many things that were
practically anticipated by Lord Rayleigh himself.
I mention this now because I have been rather too apt
to forget it, and have omitted to mention Mr. Aitken’s
name when, if I had had all the circumstances consciously
before me, I should certainly have mentioned it. In par-
ticular, in a history of the coherer principle contained in
my little book on ‘‘ Wireless Signalling,’’ third edition,
p. 75, I speak of the explanation of the dust-free space
round a hot body, due to a molecular bombardment, as
having been first published by ourselves, instead of by
Mr. Aitken, whose name, I regret to say, does not appear ;
this is the oversight I wish to amend.
April 12. Oiver Lopce.
APRIL 20, 1905]
IAT ORE
583
The late Prof. Tacchini.
As a tribute to the memory of the late distinguished
Italian astronomer, of whom an obituary notice appeared
in the columns of Nature last week, may I be permitted
to add a few personal reminiscences? Prof. Tacchini took
part in the eclipse expedition of 1875 to the Nicobar
Islands. He joined our party from India, where he had
been staying from the previous year, having been com-
missioned by his Government to make observations on the
transit of Venus of 1874. The Italian Government sanc-
tioned his remaining in India until the following year in
order that he might make use of the opportunity with the
instruments in his charge for the observation of the forth-
coming total solar eclipse. Of the little band of observers
who assembled on the Island of Camorta in April, 1875,
most are happily. still with us. Vogel, the introducer of
“‘orthochromatic ’’ photography, has passed away, but
Pedler, Waterhouse, and others will remember the pleasant
camaraderie which existed between ourselves and our
Italian colleague. The expedition failed in its object
through a cloudy sky, and we were all more or less the
victims of intermittent malarial fever; but we made the
best of adverse circumstances, and under conditions which,
to many a party of observers similarly placed, would have
been extremely trying, the good understanding which the |
members had arrived at among themselves helped to lighten
the burden of our disappointment. Not the least weighty
factor in the formation of this good fellowship among the
representatives of different mations was the geniality of
Tacchini, with whom we parted on the P. and O. steamer
Baroda on the homeward voyage with every regret.
April 15. R. MeELpora.
Propagation of Earthquake Waves.
Mr. Rupzki, in his letter to Nature of April 6, observes
that ‘‘it is only for perfectly elastic and isotropic bodies
that the separation of the dilatational (normal) from the
tortional (transverse) wave takes place with certainty ’’;
and his conclusion is that “‘it is more than highly im-
probable that the effect of internal friction would neutralise
the effect of aolotropism.’’ If the term ‘‘ internal fric-
tion’’ is intended to refer to the effect of pressure, this
objection was forestalled by Major Dutton by the remark
that ‘‘ towards this» more compact and continuous con-
dition (of a compact mineral substance with a feeble pro-
nounced cleavage), the pressure of great depths in the
earth should, it may seem, tend to bring the material
subject to it.”’
To me it is refreshing to learn that any objection can
be raised to the view that the two speeds of earthquake
waves are respectively condensational and tortional, the
latter being held to prove a high degree of rigidity for
the interior of the earth.
To examine the question whether the interior is to a
considerable depth liquid or solid formed one subject of
my “‘ Physics of the Earth’s Crust,’? and I came to the
conclusion that it is liquid; and, so far as I am aware,
my arguments have never been refuted. On this question
Sir A. Geikie writes (Nature, February 9), ‘the geo-
logical belief rests upon a large body of evidence from
the structure of the terrestrial crust, which it is difficult
or impossible to explain except on the supposition of an
internal mass which, at least in its outer parts, is suffici-
ently liquid to emerge at the surface as molten lava.”
To produce arguments on the opposite side of the ques-
tion is another matter, and that derived from the two
speeds of earthquake propagation is perhaps the strongest.
I was consequently led to inquire whether the same result
could not be obtained on the hypothesis of a liquid magma
holding water gas in solution, subject to Henry’s law
that the same volume of gas can be absorbed by a given
volume of the liquid at all pressures. The result which I
obtained was that two waves would be propagated with
different velocities, the one a condensational wave depend-
ing on the elasticity of the liquid, and the other a wave
depending upon the pressure and the volume of the gas
wines could be held in solution by a given volume of the
iquid.
If e be the elasticity of the liquid and D its density,
NO. (851, VOL. 71]
then Ve/D will be the velocity of the condensational wave.
And if P be the pressure and rV the volume of gas which
can be held in solution by the volume V of the liquid,
then «/P/rD will be the velocity of the gaseous wave.
If we accept Laplace’s law of density, P/D will increase
with the depth, and y will probably decrease, hence the
velocity of the gaseous wave will increase (Proc. Cam-
bridge Phil Soc., vol. xii., part v-, 1903).
Harlton, Cambridge, April 10. O. FIsuHER.
The Ancient Races of the Thebaid.
On my return to Oxford I saw Prof. Pearson’s letter in
your issue of March 30. i
Since Prof. Pearson admits that he is not an anatomist,
it would serve no useful purpose to discuss with him the
anatomical value of the criteria which Mr. Maclver and
I employed in our analysis of the skulls of the ancient
inhabitants of the Theban province of Egypt.
The letter may be regarded as an interesting record of
a method of interpreting percentage values adopted by a
professed statistician. ARTHUR THOMSON.
Oxford, April 8.
TuereE is an old saying that all good science is short-
hand common sense. I am sorry that Prof. Arthur Thom-
son does not think it worth his while in the case of his just
published far-reaching negroid cranial criterion to con-
vert the esoteric methods of the anatomist into simple
language for the benefit of other readers of NaTuRE, if
not for that of the ‘‘ professed statistician.’’ I hope he
will meet me later when I ask him to discuss, as I propose
shortly to do, the mathematico-statistical treatment of his
volume, which is of a somewhat remarkable character.
Meanwhile, in order to expedite those further investigations
by professed craniologists which his discovery is exciting,
it would be of great value if he would tell us to what
negro series he, a priori, applied his criteria, and what
percentages of pure negroid, non-negroid, and intermediate
crania he found in that series. KarRL PEARSON.
Inversions of Temperature on Ben Nevis.
Tue recent letters of Mr. Dines and Mr. Rotch (NaTurE,
February 16 and March 30) have suggested that a note
as to the occurrence of temperature inversions on Ben
Nevis may be of interest. k
During the thirteen years 1891-1903, occasions were not
infrequent when the temperature at the top of the moun-
tain (4406 feet) was higher than that at the base. These
inversions have been grouped according as the summit
temperature was the higher, (1) at one hour at least of
the day; (2) at each of the twenty-four hours of the day ;
(3) on the mean of the twenty-four hours of the day.
The total number of cases in the thirteen years was as
follows :—
Class I. Class II. Class III.
TERETE eo58 cose ice 7 — 5B
February Peeite oS I 5
March ee tee ee), TIT — I
April ... 9 — —
May 7 a —
June ... 8 — =
July 4 = =
August a 4 — —
September 22 —- 3
October 15 — 5
November 29 3 8
December 24 5 8
Year 158 9 33
Thus inversions occurred at all seasons, but inversions
continued throughout the twenty-four hours of the civil
day only in February, November, and December, and those
of Class III. only between September and March. The
average difference of temperature between Ben Nevis and
Fort William ranged from 16°-8 F. in April to 14°-4 in
December, the mean for the whole year being 15°-4. Hence
inversions were at all seasons large departures from the
usual conditions.
584
NATURE
[APRIL 20, 1905
The greatest inversion was recorded during the great
frost of February, 1895, when at 9 a.m. on February 19
the summit was 17°-6 warmer than the base (Ben Nevis
33°-6, Fort William 16°-0). The longest continued in-
version occurred during November 2-5, 1897, when the
summit temperature was the higher for fifty-eight con-
secutive hours, the mean daily temperature on November 4
being 9°-7 higher on Ben Nevis than at Fort William.
The Ben Nevis observations, of course, afford a com-
parison only between the conditions at the summit and
those at the base of the mountain. It is more than prob-
able that on many occasions when the summit temperature
becomes nearly, though not quite, as high as that at the
base, there is an inversion of temperature in part of the
air-column between the summit and sea-level.
ANDREW WarTT.
Scottish Meteorological Society, Edinburgh, April 12.
Stanton Drew.
THE mysteries of this group of circles—the next in
importance to those of Avebury and Stonehenge—are not
yet fully unveiled, even by the very remarkable astro-
nomical discoveries made in them by Sir Norman Lockyer
or by his interesting description of them.
The diameter of the north-east circle is 97 English feet,
or too of an old Mediterranean foot of 11-64 inches. This
is within an inch or two of the diameter of the outer
sarsen ring at Stonehenge, which is in itself a very
significant fact. The diameters of the south-western and
central circles are respectively 150 and 380 of this old
foot, so that the diameters of the circles (within a very
slight working error) are in proportion one to the other
of 5, 72, and 19, the latter being the Metonic cycle number.
The distances between the various parts of the group,
subject to a working error of from } to 2 of 1 per cent.
only, are :—
Centre of cove through great circle to centre of north-
east circle=14 diameters of north-east circle.
Centre of great circle to Hauteville’s Quoit=5 diameters
of the great circle, or 19 diameters of the north-east circle,
the latter being the Metonic cycle number.
Centre of south-west circle through great circle to
Hauteville’s Quoit=7 diameters of the great circle.
Centre of great circle to two stones too far to the west
to be shown on the plan in NatuRE=9 diameters of the
great circle.
With the exception of the last, anyone can test these
proportionate distances by the plan given in Nature, but
who will tell us what was the meaning or object of them?
A. L. Lewis.
ALCOHOL IN INDUSTRY.
THE committee, consisting of Sir Henry Primrose,
K.C.B. (chairman), Sir W. Holland, M.P., Mr.
J. Scott-Montagu, M.P., Sir William Crookes, Mr.
Lothian Nicholson, Dr. Somerville, of the Board of
Agriculture, Dr. Thorpe, the director of the Govern-
ment Laboratories, and Mr. Thomas Tyrer, appointed
last autumn by the Chancellor of the Exchequer to
inquire into the use of duty-free alcohol in the arts
and manufactures have got together their evidence
and published their report with commendable prompti-
tude. The report, we are glad to find, is unanimous,
and this unanimity has doubtless not been without its
influence in accelerating the business of the committee
and the appearance of their report.
The subject, as was to be anticipated, has not been
without its difficulties, for, as the committee state, a
duty that yields more than twenty millions a year is
a public interest that cannot be trifled with; but, as
usual when men are determined to find a solution, it
is remarkable how purely academic difficulties tend
to disappear. Now that the suggestions of the com-
mittee are before us, the wonder is that they should
not have been given effect to a quarter of a century
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
ago. We are afraid the delay does not reflect credit-
ably upon the enterprise, energy, or constructive
ability of the numerous groups of manufacturers who
are interested in obtaining the greatest possible facili-
ties in the use of duty-free alcohol in the arts. This
attitude of laissez-faire is seen, and commented upon
by the committee, in connection with the apathy and
general ignorance of manufacturers with respect to
the provisions of Section 8 of the Finance Act of
1902, Which gave the commissioners of Inland
Revenue large discretionary powers as regards the
use of spirit for industrial purposes. The committee
point out that advantage has not been taken of the
Act to the extent that might have been anticipated,
and they have been surprised to find in examining
the witnesses sent by the various Chambers of Com-
merce, who certainly ought to have had official know-
ledge of its existence, how very inadequate has been
their acquaintance with its provisions.
In view of this general indifference one is tempted
to inquire whether the manufacturers have had any
real grievance, since they have made so little in-
dividual or collective effort to remove it. There is
certainly no evidence that any collective effort has
been made in the past, or, if it had been made, that
the Treasury or the Revenue authorities would not
have sympathised with it. The Exchequer, at all
events since 1855, when the present system of de-
naturing spirit came into existence, may be said to
have disclaimed any idea of collecting a revenue on
alcohol used solely as a raw material and for purely
industrial purposes. If the hitherto existing system
of denaturing and control had proved so irksome that
the development of chemical industry was impossible,
it might have been supposed that Parliament would
have been troubled with the question long ago.
But as an actual fact the languid interest of the
chemical manufacturers needed, apparently, to be
supplemented by the quickening influence of the
internal-combustion engine, and the possible appli-
cations of spirit as a motor-fuel supplied to a jaded
House of Commons engaged in the discussion of a
Finance Bill that stimulus which was necessary to
secure from the Chancellor the promise of the de-
partmental inquiry, which it would seem the great
body of manufacturing chemists was too lukewarm
to ask for.
Great cry has been made in the past that the
hindrances to a free and untrammelled supply of
alcohol have cost us the coal-tar dye industry, which
originated in this country, and at one time flourished
here; but the committee apparently have had little
difficulty in ascertaining how ‘little wool *’ there is
in this cry. They say they are satisfied that the
assertion, as a statement of historical fact, is destitute
of substantial foundation. In their opinion the main
cause which led to the decadence of the industry in
this country is that which we have repeatedly insisted
on in these columns, viz. the failure of those re-
sponsible for the management and for the finance of
the industry here during the years 1860-1880 to
realise the vital importance of its scientific side, and
their consequent omission to provide adequately for
its development on that side.
It is true, however, that after signing the report,
the two Members of Parliament named were induced
to modify their assent to the unanimous finding of
the committee as to the real cause of the decline of
the coal-tar dye industry in this country. It will be
interesting to see from the evidence, when this is
published, what support Sir William Holland and
Mr. John Scott-Montagu are able to find for the
view they express in their letter to the Chancellor.
In reality, ‘alcohol’? plays a very small part in
APKIL 20, 1905 |
NATURE
585
that industry, and of this ‘‘ alcohol’? methyl alcohol
is the most important variety. Large classes
of the coal-tar colours—alizarin, indigo, and by far
the greater number of the azo dyes—require no
spirit at all in their manufacture either directly or
indirectly, and these represent the larger pro-
portion of all the colours produced. It is perfectly
certain that for at least 75 per cent. of the whole out-
put of coal-tar dyes alcohol does not enter into
account even now, and therefore whatever causes may
have hindered the prosecution of the industry in this
country, the question of ‘‘alcohol’’ is not one of
them.
Although it has destroyed some illusions, corrected
many misstatements, and, as in this example of the
coal-tar colour industry, set many matters in their
true perspective, the report is eminently constructive
in character. To what extent the representations of
manufacturers have actually aided the committee in
formulating their main suggestions remains to be
seen, as the evidence has not yet been published.
These recommendations are as follows :—
(1) That an allowance be granted to all industrial
spirit, whether of British or foreign origin, at the
rate from time to time prevailing for the allowance
to British plain spirits on exportation.
(2) That imported methylic alcohol be relieved from
the obligation to pay the surtax imposed by the
proviso to Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902, and
that methylic alcohol be accorded favourable treat-
ment in the matter of denaturing.
(3) That ‘ ordinary,”’ i.e. unmineralised, methylated
spirit should contain only 5 per cent. of wood-naphtha
instead of to per cent. as now.
(4) That no charge should be made on manu-
facturers for the regular attendance of Excise officers
to supervise denaturing operations or the use of de-
natured spirit, in factories taking the benefit of
Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902.
(5) That where spirit is allowed to be denatured
with special agents, such agents should be subject to
official test and approved, and that accounts should
be kept by the user showing receipts of spirit into
store, the issues thereof from store in detail, and the
quantities of the goods produced.
(6) That in the manufacture of fine chemicals and
pharmaceutical products, spirit specially denatured
should be allowed only where the manufacture is kept
entirely separate from the manufacture of tinctures
and other preparations in which spirit remains as
spirit in the finished product.
(7) That the regulations governing the sale by re-
tail of ‘‘ mineralised ? methylated spirit should be
made less stringent and more elastic.
The committee are of opinion that any special cases
not touched by the above recommendations can always
be met under the powers conferred by Section 8 of the
Act of 1g02. This Act provides adequate and entirely
satisfactory machinery for securing that the spirit
may be used in a condition that is suitable and
appropriate to each particular purpose of manufacture.
The machinery is elastic—much more so than is the
corresponding machinery in Germany—and it permits
of every reasonable process of denaturing, or even in
the last resort of the use of spirit in a pure state.
For more than this it would be impossible to ask.
The committee believe that their recommendations,
if adopted, will place the manufacturers of this coun-
try in respect of the use of alcohol in industry on a
footing of equality, in some respects of advantage,
as compared with their competitors abroad. Amongst
the witnesses who appeared before them they found
a very general impression that in Germany, at any
rate—and Germany is always alleged to be our most
No. 1851, VOL. 71]
formidable competitor—spirit could be used in manu-
facture duty-free and pure with scarcely any re-
straint. This, too, is one of the illusions which the
inquiry may serve to dispel. As an actual fact, in
practically all cases, with the exception of that of
smokeless powder, in Germany duty-paid spirit must
be used unless the spirit be subjected to some author-
ised process of denaturing prior to use. As regards
price, and that is the principal factor, the committee
think that the grant of the export allowance would
make the average price of industrial spirit in the
United Kingdom even lower than the average price
in Germany. The price here, exclusive of the cost of
any denaturing, and this denaturing may be what is
called ad hoc—that is, dependent upon the use cf
something which is necessary to the manufacture—
would be about 7d. the proof gallon, or about 119d.
the bulk gallon at 64 over proof—the strength
common in industrial spirit. That is as low as the
minimum price paid by users in Germany in 1902,
when spirit was abnormally cheap, and is much
below the figures of 153d. per proof gallon, or 253d.
per bulk gallon, prevailing in Germany at the pre-
sent time. Further, it is important to remember that
the price of spirit in this country, where all materials
may be freely used, and where none of general use
is subject to taxation, is a stable price. In Germany
the conditions of production are largely artificial and
of very doubtful economic soundness, and they tend
to wide and rapid fluctuations in price.
The main report is supplemented by a valuable re-
port by the chairman, Sir Henry Primrose, and Dr.
Thorpe, the principal of the Government Laboratories,
on the working of the spirit regulations in Germany,
based upon personal inquiry and observation in that
country. So much stress was laid by certain wit
nesses upon the system and regulations established in
Germany in connection with the industrial use of
alcohol that it was thought very desirable to procure
information at first hand upon that subject. This
report may, it is hoped, serve to correct much mis-
apprehension which appears to exist upon the benefits
of State-aided alcohol in Germany. There is ample
proof that the German user of spirit is not greatly
benefited by the policy which the agrarian party has
succeeded in fixing upon him, and is, indeed, at times
greatly injured by it.
In reply to a question asked in the House of
Commons on Tuesday, the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer announced that he has decided to deal with
the subject of the committee’s report in an omnibus
Bill which he will introduce to the House, and not in
the Budget and Finance Bill as originally proposed.
PHB CAPIDAL OF TIBET:
LL who have read in the columns of the Times
about the mission to Lhasa will welcome in a
more concrete form the story as re-told by Mr. Landon
in the two handsome volumes now given to the public.
In an expedition carried out under such conditions as
those which governed Colonel Younghusband’s
mission, the special correspondent becomes a distinct
factor in its success. The working men of the party,
even if they have eyes to see and the rare gift of
recording their impressions faithfully, can but present
such generalisations as may be gathered during the
few intervals hastily snatched from the worries and
anxieties incidental to the routine of an abnormal
state of existence. Usually they see but little, and
that little from the restricted standpoint of their own
idiosyncrasies.
1 ‘* Lhasa; an Account of the Cotntry and People of Central Tibet, &c.”
By Perceval Landon. Vol. i. Pp. xix+4rq4. Vol. ii. Pp. xit+426.
(Lendon: Hurst and Blackett, rqo5.) Price 42s. net.
586
NATURE
[ApriL 20, 1905
There is no lack of literature dealing with Tibet, |
literature dating from the early Jesuit and Capuchin
friars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to
the latter-day expeditions of the native explorers of
the Indian Survey, to whose marvellous performances |
in the field Mr. Landon is about the first writer to do
passing justice; but we have never yet had an in-
telligent and accurate representation of the social
existence of the people, nor a careful exposition of
the weird eccentricities of that extraordinary
anachronism, the Government of Tibet, at all com-
parable to that which Mr. Landon now gives us.
Nor is this all. The enthusiasm of the true explorer
pervades the book; that nameless joy in treading new |
and untouched fields; that absorbing interest in the
aspects of nature, in its lights and shadows, fields
and flowers, outline and colour; aspects which enchain
the imagination everywhere, but acquire fresher value
the Himalayas can fill up the pictures with the grace
of nature’s colouring from Mr. Landon’s description
alone, although here and there his colour notes are
perhaps a little indefinite. What, for instance, are
“lightning greys’’? But where colour reproduction
has not been left to the reader’s imagination, and
has been attempted by some process of block printing,
the results are not so satisfactory. The distances are
hard and obtrusive, and atmosphere has vanished
from the view. Even in Tibetan highlands there is
| a certain amount of atmospheric influence, however
thin it may be, which affects one’s appreciation of
distance.
To the great majority of readers Mr. Landon’s de-
scriptions of the beauty of the Brahmaputra valley to
the south of Lhasa, of the glory of Tibetan sunsets, of
the splendour of the Turquoise Lalse set in the midst
of the flower-strewn plain, of the vast impressiveness
Fic.
t.—Part of the Potala Palace from the buildings at its base.
portion is crimson.
and larger interest the farther they are removed from
the area of the well trodden world. Certainly there
must be many more beautiful landscapes than those
of the southern valleys of Tibet, the beauty of which
exists, so to speak, in scraps—large scraps, perhaps,
but scraps that are separated by wide intervening
spaces of stony desolation and dreary outlook. Yet
many of the best pages of the book are full to the
brim with vivid descriptions of the beauty of Tibetan
scenery Mr. Landon saw it in the basin of the
Brahmaputra River.
The illustrations are excellent, and there is an added
value to them in the notes which are appended in-
dicating the general tones and local colour of each
view. If Mr. Landon has invented this method of
recording the principal charm of Tibetan scenery for
the benefit of those who know not Tibet, he is: much
to be congratulated thereon. All who know and love
NO. 1851, VOL. 77]
as
It is built of granite and whitewashed once a year. The dark central
From Landon's ** Lhasa.”
of the isolated city of mystery itself as it bursts on the
view from a mountain-ringed depression beyond the
Potala—the guardian sanctuary of its western gates—
all these things will be just as new and as surprising
as are the kindly amiability of its half barbarous people
and the friendliness of disposition which they evinced
towards the foreigner. Not that Mr. Landon is un-
duly optimistic. The extraordinary contrasts between
barbarous magnificence and indescribable filth and
squalor are not missed. Where the sweet scent and
brightness of English flowers is noted as a passing
incident there is no lack of intimation to the
nature of the rotting filth from which they spring.
The interior of temples and dwelling houses, described
as often impressive in its magnificence, and always
surprising in the character of its artistic decoration,
involves an approach through knee-deep slush and
mud, terminating in the ascent of a greasy stairway
as
APRIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
foul with the accumulation of rancid butter and
poisonous forms of putrid filth.
Animate nature in Tibet is no better than inanimate.
We will pass by the pigs and the dogs, and refer
only to the people. It was discovered by the medical
staff of the mission who attended to the wounded
warriors of Guru that the natural complexion of the
Tibetan was quite fair—as fair as that of any Euro-
pean, in spite of the fact that no soap is ever used.
But to judge from the aspect of the Tibetan as he
(or she) appears in the ordinary unclean garb of daily
life, the general tint of the skin appears to be that
of a well baked potato picked out from amongst the
charred sticks of a burn-out bonfire. The children
are pretty and remarkably affable, and the general
unloveliness. of their parents is due quite as much to
dirt as to exposure to the rigorous climate.
The story of the advance of the mission through
|
Not the least interesting chapters of Mr. Landon’s
book are those which deal with the superficial aspects
of lamaism, and the relation between the Tibetan
hierarchy and our frontier politics. Tibet affords a
notable example (if one were needed) of the de-
grading, stifling, destroying effects of a dominant
priesthood on a country’s developments. Between the
lamaism of Tibet and the pure faith of early
Buddhism there is indeed a great gulf fixed, and Mr.
Landon is well within the mark when he describes
modern lamaism as ‘‘ sheer animistic devil worship.”’
Yet he is quite ready to recognise the power and the
strength which are gained by the lofty isolation—the
stern aloofness of the head of the Tibetan Church;
and he is probably correct in estimating the Dalai
lama as being still the recognised head of the Tibetan
Church and State wherever he may be, at Urga or at
Lhasa. Nor does he fail to reckon up the im-
Fic. 2.—Nichi-kang-sang (24,000 feet).
barrier between the darker hill ani the icefields of Nichi-kang-sang.
the tangled forests and over the bleak passes of
Sikkim is well told. There is none of the reiteration
of the guide book or of the monotony of the intelli-
gence report in Mr. Landon’s tale. He takes the
reader with him through the narrow and slippery ways
of Chumbi, over the Himalayan backbone (not so for-
midable as the Sikkim-Chumbi passes), down the
gentle slope to Gyantse, with an ever-varied interest
gathered from what is to be seen around him as he
rides. Mountains and stone-strewn slopes, trees
(where there are any), flowers, and the small things
that become great in a land where vegetation barely
exists, all are noted in their turn, w hilst we happily
miss the daily routine of military movement and the
everlasting repetition of marching experiences. Only
when we get to the fighting stage do we hear much
about the little army Sanich formed the escort; and
then there is enough of incident to make a fascin-
ating and lasting record of really great achievement.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
This peak guards the road to Lhasa over the Karo la.
From Landon’s ‘‘ Lhasa.”
The track passes suddenly through the mountain
pressive effect of certain ceremonials, and the really
awe-inspiring aspects of the temple interiors hallowed
by the ever-dominating figures of the great ‘‘ Master.’’
Here we cannot quite follow him, for if his sketch
of the head of the Great ‘‘ Jo ”’ in the holy of holies at
Lhasa is realistic, the original can hardly be im-
pressive.
It will be news to most people that our Queen
Victoria of blessed memory was, and is, a Tibetan
incarnation, and is represented by a bloodthirsty blue
goddess who revels in horrors such as would astonish
even the gifted Kali of the Hindus. Yet she is re-
garded rather as a beneficent and protective goddess
than a malignant one. This is encouraging, for it
shows that something at least of the world-wide vener-
ation that surrounded our ever-loved Queen had
filtered through the almost impenetrable armour of
lamaistic isolation. The Tsar has only recently been
canonised, so to speak, on Dorjieff’s recommendation.
5388
As a recent incarnation, or ‘ last-joined ’’ saint, he
invested the Dalai lama with a complete suit of
bishop’s canonicals. Perhaps this recognition of a
certain analogy between the two Governments is not
quite so inappropriate as it at first appears.
Mr. Landon concludes his delightful book with an
expression of his opinion that the doors of Lhasa are
once again closed to the European. Not again
(according to our author) for many a long year will
any Englishman watch for the flashing cupolas of the
Potala from the banks of the Kyi Chu, or penetrate
into the inner sanctuary of the everlasting Jo. With
this view of the future of Tibet we can hardly agree.
By his own showing there is quite enough of un-
certainty, even in the present political situation, to
warrant the making of a straight road over the
Himalayan passes with as little delay as possible; and
it should not be forgotten that the right of way to
Gyantse is already secured. Ataelelk Wat
THE TREATMENT OF CANCER WITH
RADIUM.
THE discovery of radium was speedily followed by
its use in the treatment of cancer, and it was
hoped that at last a remedy had been found for this
terrible disease. Great interest has been aroused by
a recent report in a contemporary of a case of cancer
which has been successfully treated by this agent.
The case appears to be undoubtedly one of cancer, as
the patient was carefully examined before, during,
and after treatment by competent authorities; but
the report of cure must be accepted with caution.
We are informed that the treatment began in March,
1904, and although the disease has now disappeared,
it is still possible that it may recur.
A very large number of cases of cancer have been
treated by radium in this country, on the Continent,
and in America. Some have improved remarkably,
but in most instances there has been no apparent
benefit, and in no case has sufficient time elapsed to
speak with certainty of cure. No surgeon would feel
justified in reporting a cure of cancer until at least
two years had passed without recurrence, and there
are many instances on record where a longer period
of apparent immunity has been followed by a re-
appearance of the disease.
It must be remembered that the effect of radium
upon a cancerous growth is, so far as we are at
present aware, purely local. The terrible feature of
cancer is the early involvement of the lymphatic
glands, followed by the formation of secondary
tumours in the internal organs. It is impossible to
follow these internal developments by such a remedy
as radium. Only too often a patient is found, on
first seeking medical advice, to have already these
secondary deposits, and treatment by local measures
is purely palliative. That relief may be afforded in
some cases which are beyond operation is recognised,
but nothing has yet been reported which will warrant
a surgeon using radium in a case of cancer where
there is a possibility of complete removal by the
Ixnife.
Radium is applied in small tubes to the surface of
a tumour, and in some cases it has been found
possible to place it in the interior of a growth through
a small incision. The quantities available are so
minute that only a small area can be treated at one
time. In the case of cancer mentioned above, the
quantity which was used was ten milligrams.
Fortunately the radium can be used again and
again, for its energy appears practically to be
inexhaustible.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[APRIL 20, 1905
NOTES.
Since the appearance in Nature of April 6 of an article
on the proposed amalgamation of the Society of Arts and
the London Institution, a meeting of the proprietors of
the London Institution has been held to consider the
managers’ proposals in connection with the amalgamation.
The proposals met with a determined opposition from
some proprietors; and after a somewhat noisy and un-
dignified discussion, it was resolved to defer the further
consideration of .the scheme of amalgamation until after
the annual meeting of the London Institution on April 28.
The result of this meeting is to be regretted, since it
| implies the loss for the present of an excellent opportunity
to accomplish the establishment of an important and
powerful institute designed to develop a popular interest
and regard for scientific work and results. It is to be
hoped that it may prove possible to arrive at some agree-
ment which will lead to the formation of a vigorous
scientific organisation, in which the privileges offered by
the Society of Arts and the London Institution will be
combined.
Tue Paris Geographical Society has awarded its gold
medal to M. Paul Doumer.
Irv is intended, if found practicable, says the Pioneer
Mail, to arrange for daily weather reports from the Anda-
mans by wireless telegraphy.
Tue death is announced of Prof. A. Piccini, professor
of chemistry at the R. Istituto di Studi superiori, Florence,
and author of several works on chemistry.
Tue President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
has appointed a committee to inquire into the nature and
causes of grouse disease, and to report whether any, and,
if so, what, preventive or remedial measures can with
advantage be taken with respect to it.
Tue Paris correspondent of the Times announces the
death of Colonel Renard, the director of the National
Aérostatic Park at Meudon. The investigations and ex-
periments of the Renard brothers have done much to
promote the progress of aérial navigation.
Ir is announced that the Liége International Exhibition
will be opened on Saturday, April 22, and that, unlike
most exhibitions, the buildings will be complete. The
exhibition will be of ‘a very attractive and picturesque
character, and the buildings cover a greater area than at
any previous exhibition, except those of Paris in 1900 and
of St. Louis. During the period of the exhibition several
congresses will be held in Liége, that of mining and
metallurgy, from June 26 to July 1, promising to be the
most largely attended.
Tue Times correspondent at Athens states that at the
last meeting of the Archeological Congress, on April 13, it
was decided that the present executive committee should
continue to exist until the next melee of the congress,
which was fixed to take place at Cairo after a minimum
interval of two years, the Egyptian Government having
signified its willingness, to accept this arrangement.
Press telegrams from Martinique report that Mont
Pelée is again showing volcanic activity. On April 9-10
the escape of vapour was fairly abundant. On April
10-11 a marked recrudescence manifested itself ; numerous
small clouds issued from the vent, and there was a small
flow of lava into the valley of the White River. On April
13-14 frequent rumblings were heard, and it was noticed
that blocks of rock, accompanied by white clouds, were
expelled from the south side of the crater.
APRIL 20, 1905]
Mr. C. H. Hamirton records in Science that the world-
renowned volcano Kilauea, in the Hawaiian Islands, has
again become active, after a rest of thirteen years. Fresh
lava appeared the last week of February, heralded by a
‘slight earthquake. On March 1o the Volcano House re-
ported the existence of a large lake of lava. ‘‘ Heavy
rumblings and explosions indicate that another outbreak
is imminent.’’ Thus there seems to be a restoration of
the old-time activity—such as will cause a large increase
in the number of visitors.
Dr. Davison states in a letter to the Times that a de-
tailed record of the Indian earthquake was given by a hori-
zontal pendulum at Birmingham. The first tremors were
registered at th. 6m. 18s. a.m., and were succeeded at
th. 29m. 2s. by long-period undulations lasting for more
than an hour and a half. The more prominent of these
undulations were in two series, separated by a few
minutes, and little more than two hours later the diagram
showed another double group of waves. The early tremors
took a direct course through the body of the earth; the
first double series travelled along the surface by the shortest
way to Birmingham, while the second double series
followed the longest possible route, through the antipodes,
and back again to Birmingham.
It is announced in Science that Dr. Frank Schlesinger
has been elected director of the New Allegheny Observ-
atory. The observatory has an endowment fund, and a
regular income from the time service, besides owning a
large and valuable property in the City of Allegheny, which
will become a source of income in the near future. Work
has not been suspended on account of lack of funds, and
much has been accomplished toward the instrumental
equipment during the past year. The Keeler memorial
telescope of 30-inch aperture is now ready to be set up,
and the large (Porter) spectroheliograph is almost com-
pleted. The 30-inch objective is well under way, and other
instruments will be installed during the year under the
directorate of Dr. Schlesinger.
Ar the meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute, held on
April 11, Sir Frederick Pollock read a paper on Imperial
Organisation. He deprecated the national faculty of com-
promise, and asked, could we go on trusting to com-
promises and accidents? It is necessary to look, he con-
tinued, for some plan which will avoid elaborate legislature
and formal change in the Constitution. We must be
content for the present with a council of advice which will
have only ‘‘ persuasive authority.’’ A permanent secre-
tary’s office is required, independent of any existing de-
partment, but immediately under the president of the
Imperial council. The best living information ought to
be at the service of this Imperial council through its
secretariat ; and this can be most effectively done, without
ostentation and with very little expense, by the constitution
of a permanent Imperial commission the members of which
will represent all branches of knowledge and research, out-
side the art of war, most likely to be profitable in Imperial
affairs. Not only learned and official persons would be
included in such a body, but men of widespread business,
travellers, ethnologists, comparative students of politics
might all find scope for excellent work. It need not be
paid work. It would be as willingly done without
pecuniary reward as the more formal and laborious work
of Royal Commissions, as to which there has never been
any difficulty. Of the need for some such advisory council
to secure national efficiency there can be no doubt, and it
is earnestly to be desired that hopes and schemes, like
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
NALRORE
589
that of Sir F. Pollock, will soon fructify in accomplished
fact. A select advisory council on which men of science
familiar with the scientific advances of recent years took
a prominent place would assist statesmen to secure national
efficiency more than any other expedient.
Reports of the annual general meeting of the Chemical
Society and of the anniversary dinner are given in the
Proceedings of the society, just issued. The following
extracts from the official account of remarks made at the
dinner by Mr. R. B. Haldane, as to the neglect of science
by the British nation in the past, and the promise of an
improved position in the future, are of interest :—The
problem which lay in front of the British nation was how
to develop what he might call the grey matter of the
executive brain. All the things spoken of that night re-
presented something new in the nation, and not only some-
thing new, but something of which they would have to
see a great deal more if the nation was to hold its own in
these days. Science counted for more than ever it did. The
West had had a rude awakening at the hands of the East.
The controversies which agitated the minds of politicians
were of less importance than the great question of how to
make the permanent element in politics more powerful and
better than it was. There was too little science in the
present day, although one or two things had been done ‘for
which they were very grateful, in connection with the
Navy and the Army and the Defence Committee. If they
turned to the different departments of the Government there
was hardly one which did not require science, if its policy
was to be an effective policy. Wherever they turned science
was needed, and yet there was not sufficient attraction to
a man of high attainments to put himself at the disposition
of the State. Foreign Governments held out careers far in
excess of any rewards and honours which the British
Government could afford. Was it impossible to see an era
in which the head of the Government could have at his
disposition the first intelligence and the best brains which
the nation could command? If we were to hold our own
we must not be behind Berlin, the United States, or the
French nation. Science never stands still, and if science
does not stand still, Governments cannot afford to stand
still in their use of science. These were speculations which,
perhaps, went beyond the moment, but he had a strong
feeling that the time was very nearly, if not quite, ripe
for them. They would see what was the mind of the
nation on this point, and doubtless they would be subjected
to the acute disappointment to which all were usually
subjected when they formed great expectations. He hoped
to see the position of science raised in the next few years,
and he looked to the time when brute force would count
for little, and knowledge for more.
We have received from Messrs. R. Friedlander and
Sons, of Berlin, a priced catalogue of books and papers
dealing with vertebrate anatomy and physiology.
Part xxxi. of the Tyvansactions of the Yorkshire
Naturalists’ Union contains the reports of that body for
the years 1903 and 1904, and also a reprint of the excursion
circulars for the same period. A satisfactory feature in
the work of the union is the care devoted to the collection
of photographs of important geological sections within its
sphere of influence.
Pror. J. S. Kincstey discusses in the February number
of the American Naturalist the current nomenclature and
homology of the component bones of the lower jaw of
reptiles, pointing out that there is still some uncertainty
with regard to the proper determination of one of these
590
elements in crocodiles. The other articles are on natural
and artificial parthenogenesis, by Dr. A. Petrunkevitch;
on the angle of deviation from the vertical at which stems
show the strongest geotropical response, by Miss Haynes;
and on the variation in the ray-flowers of Rudbeckia, by
Dr. R. Pearl.
. ~Iy the April number of Bird Notes and News reference
“is made to certain common misapprehensions in regard to
“the authorities responsible for protective regulations, and it
is pointed out that many of these emanate from county
councils. To the agriculturist and the horticulturist it is,
however, of little consequence whether the alleged over-
protection of birds in his particular district is the work
of the local or of the Imperial Parliament, for the diffi-
culty of getting ordinances repealed appears as difficult
in the one case as in the other. In the statement on p- 61
as to the sale of skins of ‘‘ Argus pheasants from the
Himalayas,’’ it should have been pointed out that ‘* Argus
pheasant ’’’ is the trade name for the peacock ‘pheasants
(Euplocamus) of the Himalaya, the true Argus having a
very different habitat.
Tue following quotation in the February issue of the
American Naturalist from a work by Messrs. Gilbert and
Starks on the fishes of the two sides of the Isthmus of
Panama has a very great interest from the point of view
of distribution in general :—‘‘ The ichthyological evidence
is overwhelmingly in favour of the existence of a former
open communication between the two oceans, which must
have become closed at a period sufficiently remote from the
present to have permitted the specific differentiation of a
very large majority of the forms involved. . . . All evidence
concurs in fixing the date of that connection at some time
prior to the Pleistocene, probably in the early Miocene.’’
This agrees precisely with the conclusions drawn from
the study of the fossil mammalian faunas of North and
South America, which indicate that land communication
between those two continents was interrupted during a
considerable portion of the Tertiary epoch, and only re-
established about the close of the Miocene or early part
of the Pliocene epoch.
THE existence of an entirely distinct second family type
of lancelets (Cephalochordata) is demonstrated by Dr. R.
Goldschmidt in Biol. Centralblatt of April 1. It appears
that in 1889 Dr. A, Giinther described a lancelet obtained
during the Challenger Expedition as a new species, under
the name of Branchiostoma pelagicum, its special
characteristic being the absence of a tentacle-apparatus.
Although on this ground Gill proposed the new generic
name Amphioxides in 1895, while Delage and Hérouard
pointed out that if the character in question was not due
to imperfection the creature indicated a distinct ordinal
type, yet it has generally been allowed to remain in the
type genus, as in Prof. Herdman’s account of the group
in the ‘‘ Cambridge Natural History."’ The examination
of twenty-six entire specimens obtained during the recent
German deep-sea expedition enables Dr. Goldschmidt to
state that A. pelagicus, together with two closely allied
species, .represents a distinct family of Cephalochordata,
which may be distinguished from the typical family as
follows :—Family _ Branchiostomatidae.—A peribranchial
space; the ventrally-opening mouth surrounded by ten-
tacles; gill-canal furnished throughout its diameter with
lateral gill-slits. Family Amphioxididae.—No peribranchial
space; the slit-like mouth opening on the left side; gill-
slits situated in the ventral median linc: gill-canal divided
into a dorsal nutritive and a ventral respiratory half.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
NATURE
{APRIL 20, 1905
Indian Public Health for March (vol. i. No. 8) contains
articles on septic tank installations in Bengal, sewage
disposal in India, Hankin’s views on plague epidemiology,
the Finsen method, &c.
In the Revue scientifique (April 8) M. Calmette, the
director of the Pasteur Institute, Lille, writes on the im-
portant réle played by medical science in the successful
colonisation of tropical countries, instancing such diseases
as cholera, leprosy, plague, and malaria, which can be
robbed of their terrors only by the institution of efficient
sanitary control in the districts in which they occur.
Major Ronatp Ross, F.R.S., in a letter to the Times
(April 7) directs attention to the remarkable diminution
in malarial disease which has accompanied the institution
of anti-mosquito measures at Klang and Port Swetten-
ham in the Federated Malay States. The former, with a
population of 3576, and the latter of about 700, were both
perfect hotbeds of malaria, and in 1901, for the two
towns, 236 sick certificates and 1026 days of leave were
granted. In 1902, after anti-mosquito measures had been
energetically pursued, the figures were 4o and 198, and in
1904 these had further fallen to 14 and 71 respectively.
Dr. Malcolm Watson, district surgeon, from whose re-
port these statistics are taken, sums up by saying :—‘ In
whatever direction one turns, it is plain that the two areas
which were so malarious in 1901 are now practically, if
not absolutely, free from the disease, and that the district
surrounding these two areas remains much as it was.”
These anti-mosquito measures were initiated by the De-
partment for Medical Research, Federated Malay States
(which is affiliated with the London School of Tropical
Medicine), under the direction of Dr. Hamilton Wright.
| In a short paper which appeared in the Botanical
| Gazette (February) Mr. C. H. Chamberlain advances the
opinion that an alternation of generations as understood
by botanists for plants can be recognised in animals. The
egg with the three polar bodies constitutes a generation
comparable with the female gametophyte in plants;
similarly, the primary spermatocyte with the four sperm-
atozoa constitute a generation comparable with the male
gametophyte in plants. All other cells of the animal con-
| stitute a generation comparable with the sporophytic
generation in plants.
Two debated points connected with the problems of
geotropism in plants, i.e. the seat of geotropic sensibility,
and the statolith theory simultaneously advanced by Haber-
landt and Némec, form the subject of a critical review by
Dr. Linsbauer, who writes in Naturwissenschaftliche
Wochenschrift (March, No. 11). The reviewer may be
regarded as an adherent to the statolith theory, and notes
that although the réle of statoliths is generally attributed
to starch grains, in their absence other bodies, such as
crystals of calcium oxalate, or certain bright bodies found
in the rhizoids of Chara, may function similarly.
Tue Bulletin of the American Geographical Society con-
tains an article on the work of the Reclamation Service
of the United States, by Mr. C. J. Blanchard. During
the last three and a half years a sum of nearly twenty-
five million dollars has been realised from the sale of
public lands, and work has been begun on eight irrigation
projects which will make an area of about one million
| acres productive. The National Geographic Magazine for
| March has a short article, with excellent illustrations, on
the same subject.
|
APRIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
39
Messrs. W. Stanrorp AND Co., of Oxford, have sent
us specimens of a number of outline maps of the world, on
Mollweide’s equal-area projection; also a map of the
Atlantic Ocean, on the same projection. The maps are
well drawn and clearly printed; the larger scale maps
should be extremely useful for purposes of research and
teaching, while the smaller maps are well adapted for
museum use. The employment of equal-area maps in re-
presenting distribution cannot be too strongly recom-
mended, and in providing such maps at very moderate
prices Messrs. Stanford have done good service.
In ore-dressing operations and in laboratory work much
confusion is caused by the practice of describing the sieve
‘or screen employed by the number of the mesh. A sieve
of 30 mesh, for example, does not possess an aperture of
one-thirtieth of an inch, nor does it yield a product of
which the largest particles will be one-thirtieth of an
inch in diameter. With coarse sieves the error is not of
great moment, but with fine sieves the wire itself occupies
so much space that the size of the particle passed by the
sieve may vary from a quarter to two-thirds of the size in-
dicated by the word ‘“‘ mesh.’’. Consequently, in ordering
wire screens or in recording results it is desirable to
specify the size of aperture rather than the number of the
mesh. In order to enable this to be done, Mr. G. T.
Holloway has drawn up a valuable series of tables, calcu-
lated on the British Imperial Standard wire gauge,
showing the size of aperture in screen wire cloth of all
the principal sizes in use down to the very finest. The
tables have been duplicated, one series showing the figures
in decimals of an inch, and the other, for the use of
those who still prefer to employ vulgar fractions, in both
decimals and vulgar fractions. The tables, which have
been published in pamphlet form (Bulletin No. 5 of the
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy), have been calcu-
lated with great care, and should do much towards effect-
ing uniformity in the nomenclature of sieve-mesh.
Tue Geological Survey of Western Australia is publish-
ing, in handy octavo form, a valuable series of bulletins,
of which we have received three. One of them, dealing
with the mineral production of the colony up to the end
of 1903, is written by Mr. A. Gibb Maitland and Mr.
Cc. F. V. Jackson. It shows that the total value of the
mineral products was 47,779,0001., gold alone representing
a value of 46,441,000l. Other minerals mined include
copper, tin, lead, silver, iron, antimony and cobalt ores,
coal, graphite, limestone, precious stone, mica, asbestos,
and salt. In the other bulletins Mr. C. G. Gibson deals
with the mineral resources of the Murchison goldfield and
of Southern Cross, Yilgarn goldfield. The reports and
the accompanying coloured maps throw much light on
the geology of the districts, and indicate that the areas
described deserve more attention from the mining pro-
spector than they have hitherto received. The Murchison
goldfield is of some historical interest in that in 1855, when
its economic value was purely prospective, it was officially
stated to have the appearance of being one of the finest
goldfields in the world. Although it has not come up to
these high expectations, it is one of the most important
goldfields in the colony, and contains not only one of the
largest quartz veins mined anywhere, but also the iron
ore deposits of the Weld range, which, though practically
valueless owing to their inaccessibility, are among the
richest in the world.
Mr. V. Kousnetzorr communicated to the Bulletin of
the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences of September last
some useful formule for the determination of the height
NOoMS5 1, VOU gm
of aurora borealis. He also gave tabular and graphical
results of its occurrence at Pavlovsk from January 1,
1878, to the end of 1903. The tables show, generally, an
eleven years’ period, as in the case of sun-spots, but the
details of the two curves do not correspond. The maxima
of the aurorz occurred in 1887 and 1896, and the minima
in 1884 and 1894, but this divergence may be due to the
occurrence of cloud. The annual period is well marked,
the maxima being in March and October, and the minima
in January and July.
In the Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles of
March last M. F. A. Forel summarises his own observ-
ations and those made by others on the occurrence of
Bishop’s Ring, following the great volcanic eruption of
Mont Pelée (Martinique) on May 8, 1902. Bishop’s Ring,
as most of our readers are aware, consists of a solar
corona of great diameter; it appears to be formed of two
parts, a limb of a dazzling silvery hue being immediately
round the sun, and, beyond this, a coppery red ring
of some 20°-25° exterior radius. The ring appears to have
been first observed in the winter of 1902-3, but only
became general towards the end of July, 1903, and was
constantly seen until November of that year. After that
time it became less frequent, and ceased altogether in
July, 1904. The phenomenon is best seen from an elevated
station, and when the sun is high above the horizon. The
intensity of the colours of the ring was less than in that
which followed the Krakatoa eruption in 1883.
Bulletin No. 35 of the United States Department of
Agriculture, Weather Bureau, will be found of great
interest to those who wish to know something about the
present stage of long-range weather forecasting. The first
chapter is written by Prof. Garriott, and presents a verifi-
cation of the work of the most prominent of the so-
called long-range weather forecasters in the United
States. Prof. Garriott considers chapter and verse of the
forecast with the actual facts, and shows conclusively
the fallacy of these predictions. Prof. Woodward, in the
second chapter, devotes his attention to the impossibility
of basing weather predictions on planetary influences, and
at the same time criticises the work of Mr. Tice em-
bodied in a book on the elements of meteorology. Per-
haps the most interesting portions of this Bulletin are the
pages devoted to a discussion by Prof. Garriott of the
subject of long-range forecasting by many of the leading
meteorologists of the world. It may be said to be a brief
review of the literature on the subject, and gives quota-
tions of their opinions regarding the practicability of long-
range work. At the end is given a summary of the re-
marks and opinions expressed and a series of conclusions
based on them, and we refer the reader to the Bulletin
for these conclusions. There is one which may be men-
tioned here, since by recent work in this country it has
been brought prominently forward. ‘‘ Advances in the
period and accuracy of weather forecasts depend upon
a more exact study and understanding of atmospheric
pressure over great areas and a determination of the in-
fluences, probably solar, that are responsible for normal
and abnormal distributions of atmospheric pressure over
the earth’s surface.’’
No. 3 of vol. ii. of Le Radiwm contains useful articles
on uraniferous minerals and their deposits, and on the
methods used in the measurement of the quantity of heat
evolved by radio-active substances.
Pror. McCLetianp has recently shown that the eman-
ation of radio-active substances does not carry an electrical
charge, and the same conclusion is arrived at by means
592
of a different form of apparatus by Prof. Battelli and
F. Maccarrone (Physikalische Zeitschrift, No. 6). It must
be concluded, therefore, contrary to M. Becquerel’s views,
that such emanations consist neither of fragments of atoms
which have lost positive ions nor of the positive ions
themselves.
A NEW method for the preparation of paraffins from
their monohalogen derivatives which is described by M.
Paul Lebeau in the current number of the Comptes
rendus (April 10), is noteworthy on account of the sim-
plicity of the reaction and the purity of the gas obtained.
Sodium is converted into sodium-ammonium by the action
of liquid ammonia, and this, treated with methyl chloride,
gives methane, readily obtained in a pure state by lique-
faction by means of liquid air. Ethyl and propyl iodides
react with the same ease, giving rise to ethane and pro-
pane, the purity of which was verified by combustion
analysis. It is pointed out by M. Lebeau that as these
reactions take place below the boiling point of liquid
ammonia there is small probability of any secondary re-
actions taking place.
THE current number of the Quarterly Review contains
an article by Mr. A. E. Shipley on ‘‘ Pearls and Parasites.””
WE have received from Messrs. Isenthal and Co. a well
illustrated and conveniently arranged catalogue of technical
and laboratory electric measuring
rheostats.
instruments and
Tue issue of the Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute
for April contains a full account of the papers read and
the speeches delivered at the conference on school hygiene
held at the University of London in February last, and
reported in Nature for February 16 (p. 377).
Many characteristic scenes of the western coast and fjords
of Norway are described and illustrated in a pamphlet just
issued by the Albion Steamship Co., Ltd., Newcastle-on-
Tyne, as an itinerary of cruises to be taken this year by
the yachting steamer Midnight Sun.
Messrs. JOHN J. GRIFFIN AND Sons, Ltp., have pub-
lished a ninth edition of their illustrated and descriptive
catalogue dealing with apparatus suitable for the practical
study of sound, light, and heat. An examination of the
contents of the catalogue shows that a great improvement
is taking place in the apparatus employed in the labor-
atories and _ lecture-rooms where physics is taught.
Teachers and others should find this catalogue helpful and
suggestive.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTROPHYSICAL WORK AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
—Prof. Langley’s report of the work performed in the
various departments of the Smithsonian Institution during
the year ending June 30, 1904, contains a report by Mr.
C. G. Abbot of the observations made in connection with
the solar radiation at the astrophysical observatory.
Among many items of interest, the following may be
briefly mentioned :—The bolometer apparatus has now been
improved to such a state of perfection that a duplicate set
for investigating the radiation of stars has been con-
structed. A series of experiments with the improved pyro-
heliometer has shown that this instrument may now be
used with confidence to measure the solar radiation.
The definition of the long focus mirror has been con-
siderably improved by churning the air inside the tube,
by protecting the tube from the direct solar rays with a
covering of canvas, by employing a number of supporting
plates as suggested by Prof. Ritchey in order to preserve
the shapes of the mirrors, and by nullifying the vibrations
due to traffic by placing indiarubber pads behind the
mirrors. Prior to these alterations the solar image was
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| APRIL 20, 1905
ill-defined ; different parts of it came in focus in different
planes, whilst the variation in the focal length of the
instrument often amounted to 10 feet during a single day.
Now the image is much better defined; all parts of it are
focused in the same plane, and the focal length never
varies so much as 12 inches during a day.
Well marked variations, amounting to 10 per cent. of
the total, have been recorded in the value of the solar
radiation, and Mr. Abbot expresses a strong hope that, on
combining the solar radiation and atmospheric transparency
results, long range climate forecasting will ere long be-
come possible.
VALUE OF THE ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTION CONSTANT.—
The third volume of the Publications of the Granducal
Observatory at Heidelberg contains 234 pages devoted to
the discussion of the results obtained by M. L. Courvoisier
in a research undertaken by him for the determination of
the refraction constant.
The instrument employed was a 6-inch Repsold meridian
circle, which, together with its various constants, is de-
scribed at length. Two hundred stars were observed, and
the observations and their peculiar errors are discussed.
The meteorological data for several periods during each
observing day are next given, the observations extending
from June 3, 1899, to July 9, 1901, and this table is
followed by sections dealing with the stellar, latitude, and
declination observations respectively.
The value obtained for the refraction constant is
60"-161 + 0"-037-
Reatity oF Various Features oN Mars.—In No. 4007
of the Astronomische Nachrichten Signor V. Cerulli, of
Teramo, discusses the actual subjectivity of various Martian
phenomena, as seen in the telescope, from a physiological
standpoint. Having observed Mars regularly for ten
years, he appears to have arrived at the conclusion that
the actual existence of these features is as much a subject
for physiological as for astronomical investigation. He
states that the phenomena observed are so near to the
limit of the range of the human eye that in observing
them one really experiences effects accompanying “ the
birth of vision.”” That is to say, the eye sees more and
more as it becomes accustomed, or strained; to the delicate
markings, and thus the joining up of spots to form
“‘canals’’ and the gemination of the latter follow as a
physiological effect, and need not necessarily be subjective
phenomena seen by the accustomed eye.
StronyHuRST COLLEGE OxBsERVATORY.—In addition to the
results of the meteorological and magnetic observations
made during 1904, Father Sidgreaves’s annual report
briefly refers to the solar and stellar spectroscopical work
carried out at Stonyhurst during last year.
Two series of spectrograms of 6 Aurigz and y Cassio-
peiz were commenced, and the results already obtained
are very promising. A short table showing sun-spot areas
and the range of the magnetic declination appears to con-
firm the connection between these two values for the years
1898-1904. The spectra of sun-spots in the green and
violet regions have been photographed with a Rowland
grating spectroscope, and a number of experiments have
been made with the view of photographing the spot spectra
in the red region.
NaturE OF Sun-spots.—In the April number of the
Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France Abbé Th.
Moreux re-discusses his theory concerning the formation
and nature of sun-spots in the light of data more recently
acquired, more especially during the great spot of February
last. He gives numerous drawings of this spot, and
several schematic diagrams showing the possible arrange-
ment of the photospheric clouds in and over the spot, and
arrives at the conclusion that spot areas are analogous to
anti-cyclonic areas in the terrestrial atmosphere.
INSTRUCTIONS TO SOLAR OpsERvERS.—Amateur observers
of solar phenomena will find the instructions to solar
observers, formulated by the ‘‘ commission solaire ’’ of the
Société astronomique de France, of great use and interest.
Chapter vy. is published in the April Bulletin of the society,
and deals with daily spectroscopic observations of the
chromosphere and prominences by the Lockyer-Janssen
method.
APkIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
393
RECENT CHANGES IN THE CRATER OF
STROMBOLI."
GTROMBOLI is the most easterly and northerly of the
Lipari Islands. It is situated north of Sicily, close
to the track of steamers plying between Naples and the
Straits of Messina, and is thus an object familiar to
I
Fic. 1.—Stromboli.
passengers to or from Egypt or the East, though com-
paratively few have landed on its shores. Its almost con-
stant eruptions have gained it the name of the lighthouse
of the Mediterranean. It is almost circular, as its old
name Strongyle indicates, and rises as an irregular cone
out of deep water. On the north-
west side are the crater, and the
Sciara or steep slope down which the
ejecta roll into the sea.
The summit of the mountain,
which is about 3000 feet high, con-
sists of a crescentic ridge, the Serra
di Vancori, open towards the north.
It forms part of an old crater ring,
and thus presents points of similarity
to Somma. Inside the crescentic
ridge, and in places joined to it by
irregular crests of rock, but mainly
separated from it by a valley, ‘A
Fossieiedda,’’ similar to the Atrio del
Cavallo of Vesuvius, is another cres-
centric ridge, connected with the two |
extremities of which, and immedi- |
ately overlooking the sides of the |
crater, are two conspicuous pointed
rocks, the Torrelle, which partly
obstruct the view of the crater when |
viewed from the cliffs overlooking
the Sciara on its north-east and }
south-west respectively. These }
Torrelle, being practically unaltered |
by ordinary eruptions, present good
points of comparison for estimating
the changes that take place, and one is:
or other of them is included in most
of the photographs. Between the
two Torrelle, in the midst of a sort
of amphitheatre formed by them and the crescentic ridge
last mentioned, are the crater and its appurtenances, the
“Apparato Eruttivo ’’ of Italian observers. This amphi-
1 Abridged from a paper by Dr. Tempest Anderson in the Geographical
Journal for February.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
The Sciara from the North-east.
theatre is open to the north-west, and from its open side
beyond the craters the steep slope of the Sciara extends
down into the sea. This slope is bounded on each side by
two steep cliffs, Filo di Sciara and Filo di Baraona, which
are formed, like the Sciara itself, of lava-streams, agglo-
merates, and dykes; in fact, of almost every kind of com~-
pact voleanic material, chiefly of basic composition.
This Sciara, as is well known, is
one of the most peculiar features of
this voleano. It extends at an angle
of about 35°, which is the ‘‘ angle
of repose’’ for the kind of material
of which it is composed, down into
the deep water of the Mediterranean ;
and though the volcano has certainly
been in almost constant eruption
during the whole of the historic
period, and probably much longer, it
has never been able to build up a
talus sufficient to rise to the level of
the sea, much less to that of the lip
of the crater, about which, accord-
ing to the analogy of other vol-
canoes, it might have been expected
to have built up a cone on this side
comparable to the portion on the
south described above. Fig. 1, from
a phctograph’ taken by the author
in 1888 from the ridge overlooking
the north-east side of the Sciara,
and consequently looking south-west,
shows the Sciara extending down to
the right of the picture with the Filo
de Barcuna behind it. The pointed
rock to the left of the picture is the
eastern Torrella, with a gap to the
left of it through which the ejecta
are thrown during the larger erup-
tions, and roll on to the steep slopes
in front and down the Sciara into the sea. The western
Torrella is just visible in the distance beyond the eastern
Torrella. The crater situated between the two was in
1888 a large pit obviously formed by severe explosions.
It contained two small secondary cones.
One, towards its
#
Fic. 2.—Stromboli. The Sciara from the West.
western part, and close to the edge of the Sciara, was
that from which the explosive eruptions took place several
times an hour; the other, towards the eastern part, emitted
only smoke.
1 From ‘‘ Volcanic Studies,” by Tempest Anderson, plate xxi.
594
NATURE
[APRIL 20, 1905
In 1904, when the author took comparison photographs
from nearly the same spot, this large crater was almost
entirely filled up, and the slope of the Sciara was continued
upwards, so that the cone of ejecta overtopped and was
visible behind the eastern Torrellas The activity in this
eastern part of the crater still maintained the same quiet
character as in 1888. The whole area constantly emitted
vapour; there was more than one bocca visible, but they
were quite small and only gave very feeble explosions, and
these with a rhythm quite independent of those at the
western part of the crater.
Fig. 2, taken by the author on April 20, 1904, from a
point to the west of the crater, and consequently in almost
exactly an opposite direction to Fig. 1, shows the condition
of the western part of the crater sixteen years later. The
conspicuous rock to the right of the plate is the western
Torrella, behind which, in 1888, was the great crater
above referred to. The bocca to the left, from which the
explosion is taking place, is shown in some of the earlier
photographs as situated on the edge of the large crater
at its junction with the Sciara. The great crater is now
seen to be filled up by ejecta which prolong the slope of
the Sciara upwards over what was previously its site,
while the bocca itself remains in all probability really in
its former position, though apparently on the slope of the
Sciara instead of on its edge.
It will be interesting to future visitors to see whether
the volcano will continue to prolong the slope of the Sciara
much further upwards, or whether a paroxysmal explosion
will occur which will clear the great crater again.
The paper in the Geographical Journal is illustrated
with twelve photographs and a map showing these and
other points more in detail.
THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS.
THE annual spring meeting of the Institution of Naval
Architects was held last week, commencing on
Wednesday, April 12, and being continued over the two
following days. The president of the institution, the Right
Hon. the Earl of Glasgow, occupied the chair. A very
full programme had been arranged, there being no less
than fifteen papers set down for reading and discussion,
and there was also the presidential address.
The first business after the usual formal proceedings
was the reading by the secretary, Mr. R. W. Dana, of
the report of the council. By this it appeared that the
institution is in a prosperous condition, both in regard to
finance and membership. Reference was made to the pro-
posed foundation of an experimental tank for the purpose
of scientific investigation of problems connected with ship
design. It will be remembered that it was proposed, at
the initiative of Mr. A. F. Yarrow, Dr. Elgar, Sir William
White, and other prominent members of the institution,
that an institution tank should be founded in connection
with the National Physical Laboratory. Such a tank, de-
voted to research of a scientific nature, would be of great
benefit to the ship-building industry, and would do much
to raise naval architecture to a higher plane by the
substitution of scientific principles for those empirical
methods upon which ship designers too largely have to
rely. It is much to be regretted, therefore, and not very
creditable to an important and wealthy industry, that the
appeal made by the council of the institution has met
with so poor a response. Only six thousand pounds out of
the fifteen thousand pounds needed has been underwritten,
so that the project is shelved for the present. In spite of
the enormous preponderance of the ship-building interests
of this country, there are but two experimental tanks in
the kingdom. One is the property of the Government, and
is devoted wholly to the Royal Navy, the other being the
property of a private firm of ship-builders on the Clyde.
Both these tanks are devoted entirely to what is known
as “‘ practical work,”’ that is to say, they attack subjects
piecemeal, and therefore in a more or less empirical
fashion. They have no time for ordered investigation of
fundamental principles, upon a knowledge of which, alone,
can a useful superstructure of applied science be raised.
The tanks are not to blame for this. They were estab-
lished for a definite purpose, which they admirably fulfil.
In the presidential address Lord Glasgow, among other
NO. 1851, VOL. 71 |
subjects, referred to the spread of the steam turbine for
marine propulsion, alluding more particularly to the recent
trials of H.M.S. Amethyst. Some interesting comparisons
were made between the performances of this cruiser, which
is fitted with steam turbines, and the Topaze, a similar
ship in all respects, excepting that she has ordinary crank
and cylinder engines. As is well known, the steam turbine
is less “‘ flexible,’’ to use an expression that has come into
use, than the reciprocating engine; that is to say, its
efficiency falls off rapidly when it is run at lower powers
than that for which it was designed to give maximum
efficiency. This point was well illustrated during the trials
of the Amethyst and the Topaze by the coal consumption,
the figures being given in Lord Glasgow’s address. The
steam turbines of the Amethyst drove her at 23} knots,
5-45 per cent. faster than her sister ships with recipro-
cating engines. At the higher speeds the turbine engines
appeared decidedly more economical; at lower speeds the
reciprocating engines had the advantage. At 10 knots a
ton of coal would carry the Amethyst 7-42 miles, or the
Topase 9:75 miles. From this speed upwards the margin
in favour of the reciprocating engines decreased, until the
consumption curves would cross at a little above 14 knots,
when approximately 63 miles would be steamed on a ton
of coal. At a speed of 20 knots the Amethyst ran 4-22
miles, and the Topaze 2-9 miles, per ton of coal burnt.
At 23-6 knots, a speed the Topaze did not reach, the
Amethyst would steam a little more than 2 miles per ton
of coal. If it may be allowed that about 14 knots is the
lowest speed at which these cruisers could be advan-
tageously run in time of war, the steam turbine has a
marked advantage for warlike purposes; but it might
lead to higher coal consumption in time of peace.
The first paper taken was a contribution by Mr. W. E.
Smith, of the Admiralty, upon the design of the Antarctic
exploration vessel Discovery. This was a single screw
wooden steamer 175 feet long, 34 feet wide, and about
1620 tons displacement. The propeller was so arranged
as to be disconnected from the shaft and lifted ‘into a
well, after the manner adopted in the old steam frigates.
The rudder was also arranged to be readily unshipped.
The scantling of the hull was massive, but in general
plan followed the designs adopted in the days of wooden
construction. The vessel was fully rigged as a barque.
The fitting of a magnetic observatory was one of the
special features of the design. The work done here was
of great magnitude, and the observations taken are now
being analysed by Captain Chetwynd, the Admiralty
superintendent of compasses. No magnetic metal was
allowed within a radius of 30 feet of the observatory.
Main shrouds were of hemp, the lanyards being rove
through wooden dead eyes. Great care was taken to lag
the living part of the ship so as to economise coal. Pro-
fessional details of the design were dealt with at some
length. In the discussion on this paper, Sir Clements
Markham gave some historical details of former Polar
expeditions, and dwelt upon the advantage of having a
ship expressly built for the purpose. Captain Scott, who
was in charge of the expedition, Sir William White, and
Admiral Fitzgerald also spoke. :
The next paper was by Colonel Soliani, of the Royal
Italian Navy, and gave technical details of the Japanese
war vessels Kasuga and Nisshiu, both built in Italy. A
paper by Mr. H. Rowell giving an account of the Russian
Volunteer Fleet followed.
The second day of the meeting opened with a paper by
Prof. J. H. Biles, who gave details of trials made to test
the strength of a torpedo-boat destroyer supplied for the
purpose by the Admiralty. The vessel was placed in dry
dock, being supported on cradles near the ends, so as to
produce sagging stresses, and in the middle in order to
induce hogging. The experiments were part of the in-
vestigation of the Admiralty Destroyer Committee. The
results were set forth at considerable length in the paper
and in the large number of diagrams which accompanied
it. It will be sufficient to say here that the actual results
observed on these practical trials established the usual
methods of calculation as affording a good margin of
safety, the stresses in the observed results being con-
sistently below those calculated by the formulae commonly
used by naval architects.
:
CE
APRIL 20, 1905]
WATORE
595
A paper on a similar subject was read by Mr. F. H.
Alexander.
A long and elaborate paper, illustrated by numerous
diagrams, was next taken. The subject was the structural
arrangements of ships, the author being Mr. J. Bruhn.
Details of tests of frame girders, on the strength of flanged
plates, on intercostal stringers, on the tripping of frames,
and the strength of rivet attachments, were described.
The paper was of considerable professional interest, and
will form a valuable source of information to naval archi-
tects; but without the aid of the numerous illustrations
and diagrams it would be impossible to make the descrip-
tions clear.
At the evening meeting of the same day a paper by
Mr. R. E. Froude on hollow versus straight lines opened
the proceedings. The subject has attracted a good deal of
interest of late, and has already led to some discussion.
A number of naval officers, led by Admiral Fitzgerald,
hold that a great mistake is made by building ships for
the Royal Navy with hollow lines. Sir William White
and the other naval constructors naturally defend their
practice, supporting their arguments by the actual results
obtained at the Haslar tank. The naval men reply that,
even allowing the superiority of hollow lines in the smooth
water, at which all tank experiments were made, the
hollow lines gave a slower vessel amongst waves, and
also a wetter ship. In order to bring the matter to a
practical issue, a number of experiments were made by
Mr. Froude at the Haslar tank, in which artificial waves
were created by a mechanical device. The results were
plotted on diagrams attached to the paper, the general
conclusion arrived at by Mr. Froude being that though
there was a distinct diminution in average effective horse-
power due to straight lines, yet this was insufficient to
annul the greater efficiency of the hollow lines in smooth
water. In the discussion that followed, Admiral Fitz-
gerald joined issue on this point. He held that quite
smooth water was comparatively rarely met with at sea,
and he considered it was a question for naval officers, and
not for naval architects, to decide under which condition
they would prefer the higher efficiency. Moreover, the
straight lines gave greater displacement forward without
extra cost, and the additional buoyancy could be used for
placing heavier guns forward, or in other useful ways.
Prof. Biles also joined in the discussion. He gave the
results of trials on this subject made at the Dumbarton
tank. These results were in contradiction to those given
in Mr. Froude’s paper, and until this discrepancy is ex-
plained the subject must remain unsettled. The need for
an independent tank devoted to experimental investigation
is apparent. Mr. Froude’s experiments are extremely
interesting, as being the first tank trials made in other
than smooth water. When it is remembered how little
smooth water there is at sea, and how widely the con-
ditions of resistance and other qualities are altered by
waves, the advantage of the new departure will be
apparent.
An interesting paper by Mr. A. W. Johns, of the Royal
Corps of Naval Constructors, was also read at this
sitting, the subject being the effect of motion ahead on
the rolling of ships. The subject is one both of interest
and importance, and was worked out by the author with
considerable ingenuity, theoretical results being compared,
with those obtained by experiment. It would appear that
the effect of speed is to reduce rolling, but no doubt further
tests will be made, the actual experimental data up to now
being somewhat meagre.
Mr. Stromeyer also read a paper on the effect of acceler-
ation on ship resistance.
Another paper was down for reading at this sitting,
but unfortunately time did not permit of it being read.
It was by Mr. S. Popper, of Pola, the subject being the
results of model experiments in deep and in shallow
water. The subject is one of considerable practical im-
portance at the present time, when builders of destroyers
in the south find it pays them to send their vessels to the
measured mile on the Clyde, where there is deep water.
They find the Clyde mile permits of a knot more being
made than can be obtained on any of the comparatively
shallow miles of the south.
On Friday, April 14, five papers were taken.
No. 1851, VOL. 71]
Mr.
A. E. Seaton contributed the first, the subject being
margins and factors of safety and their influence on marine
designs. Mr. J. H. Heck followed with some notes on
the variation of angular velocity in the shafting of marine
engines; and Mr. Mallock read a brief paper in which
he described an ingenious device for keeping the two sets
of engines of a twin screw vessel out of step, so as to
prevent vibration. Mr. Attwood also read a paper on the
Admiralty course of study for the training of naval
architects.
Perhaps the most interesting paper of the meeting was
that which came last. It was by Mr. J. B. Millet, of
Boston, Massachusetts, and described a means of sub-
marine signalling by sound, of which more will probably
be heard in the future. Briefly it may be said that the
sides of the ship itself are used as receivers. A tank
filled with a dense liquid is attached to each side of the
ship. In this a transmitter is placed, and the sound
collected is taken by wires to an observer, who may be
in any part of the vessel. If the source of sound is on
the port side the sound will be apparent from the port
transmitter; if on the starboard side the starboard trans-
mitter will be affected; if it is directly ahead it will be
heard equally through both transmitters. When the sound
is astern a different effect is produced. As the result of
practical trials, the positions of passing ships and of sub-
marine bells were accurately defined. When it is remem-
bered how untrustworthy sound signals are when passed
through air, and how unchanging is the density of water,
it will be seen that the new system promises to reduce the
chief dangers of modern navigation, collisions, or strand-
ings through fog. The idea of submarine sound signals,
of course, is not new, but the hitherto insuperable difficulty
in the way has been the confusion of sound through the
overwhelming nature of the noises in the ship itself. Mr.
Millet, however, appears to have overcome this difficulty,
and the testimony as to the value of his invention is very
strong.
The meeting was brought to a conclusion by the usual
votes of thanks.
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN ELECTRICAL
April to Colonel the
ENGINEERING.
ON R. E. Crompton delivered
annual ‘‘ James Forrest’’ lecture of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, an abstract of which is given below.
There are two groups of electrical problems, those which
concern the scientific investigator and those presenting
themselves to engineers. The lecturer dealt with the latter
only. The phenomena of lightning discharges, especially
where they affect the distribution systems of large electric
power plants, require further study. Many failures are due
to causes which the lecturer believes to be static dis-
charges due to gigantic condenser effects set up in systems
of well insulated overhead and underground conductors,
each system acting as a plate of the condenser.
Interesting problems arise out of terrestrial magnetism ;
the present hypotheses are based on scant knowledge. It
is known that the earth’s magnetic field is not symmetrical,
but the work of observing the variations of the earth’s
field at public observatories all over the world may even-
tually enable the earth’s field gradually to be plotted out.
Another problem passing into the domain of engineering
is the etheric transmission of power. What is now required
is a better solution of the problem of producing continuous
trains of Hertzian waves either by mechanical means or by
electrochemical means.
The lecturer dealt rather fully with what he called the
“core and coil’’ problem of electrical machinery, that is
to say, the problems connected with the perfecting of the
cores, hitherto of iron, but which in future may be made
of some of the alloys invented by Dr. Huesler, which
are now under test.
Dealing with the present means of using iron or steel
castings of high permeability, the best methods were dis-
cussed of freeing them from blow-holes or porosity to
ensure that the magnet cores should be of equal density
of mass, and therefore of equal magnetic moment. In this
connection the lecturer alluded to Prof. Barrett’s discovery of
596
adding silicon, thereby increasing the fluidity and reducing
the tendency to form blow-holes; he also gave reasons why
increased permeability might be expected from this, as the
addition of silicon probably acts by reducing the combined |
carbon in the iron, leaving the pure iron with a sponge
or network structural formation calculated to give great
freedom for molecular movement.
On the subject of coil winding, he showed by diagrams
that at present the space occupied by insulation may be
reduced by winding the copper upon the coils in the form
of thin strip on edge, and insulating the portions from one
another by a paint or varnish of sufficient dielectric
strength, high heat conductivity, and power of retaining
its dielectric strength at temperatures of 200° C. The
thinness and fragility of the copper strip, however, demand
that this should be done by a machine which will roll the
copper to the section and curvature just as it is ready to
be wound on. The difficulty was alluded to of designing
the cores and windings of high-speed turbo-generators,
owing to the trouble of resisting mechanical stresses due
to centrifugal forces, and at the same time of subdividing
them sufficiently to prevent the formation of eddy currents.
It was pointed out that although recently the develop-
ments of electrical storage have not been much discussed,
it would be better to go on improving the lead couple
accumulator we now have instead of waiting for the
invention of some new storage couple which we may
never obtain. The combination of the internal combustion
engine driving a generator and worked by suction gas
plant for long hours, thereby charging a battery of accu-
mulators, is, if combined with a small steam plant capable
of taking the peak load, probably the most economical
method of producing energy for the short hours of light-
ing. Portable storage is much required for the modern
automobile, and some progress has been made, but much
still remains to be done. ‘The lecturer did not believe that
much could be gained from Edison’s newly invented
couple.
The utilisation of single phase alternating currents for
railways is already within reach, the choice of systems
lying between the Finzi type of series motors and the
Winter and Eichsberg compensated repulsion motors.
Electric traction can supersede existing steam haulage for
passenger work at the present schedule speeds with
economy and advantage. It is not quite certain that
electric haulage will supersede steam haulage for high-
speed passenger work, as, although undoubtedly electric
haulage can work trains at 100 miles an hour, the steam
locomotive can be improved to work at the same speed
with equal safety. Engineers will not attack the long
distance haulage of goods for years to come, at least not
in our present state of knowledge of the cost of generating
electrical energy. The successful development by elec-
trical means of change speed and torque gear is much
needed by the mechanical engineer, not only for railway
work, but for rolling mills and similar purposes.
The measuring instruments used by electrical engineers
have made great strides towards perfection, but there are
some problems still unsolved, notably the power measure-
ments of alternating currents.
Although there have been recently many attempts to
improve the efficiency of electric lamps, both of the arc
and incandescent type, yet much remains to be done. By
using a beam of violet-blue light of considerable intensity
it is nearly certain that many substances hitherto con-
sidered opaque, but which owe their opacity to the diffused
refraction of the red and yellow rays, will be rendered
transparent.
A problem of great importance will be the discovery of
a direct method of producing cold by electric means, as by
such methods cold storage will be facilitated in the larders
of private houses.
Electric smelting has made great advances, and although
it presents many unsolved problems, much may be hoped
for in this direction.
The problem which is of the greatest interest to the
world in general is the satisfactory development of power
schemes by which the population can be sent back to the
land. The solution is more difficult in this country, where
we have no power supply from natural water power, but |
progress may nevertheless be expected.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
NATURE
| APRIL 20, 1905
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Ar the graduation ceremony of Glasgow University on
| Tuesday, the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon
Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.
Ir is announced by Science that gifts of 20,0001. to
Rochester University for the construction of a scientific
building, and of 10,0001. to Norwich University, Vermont,
half for a library and half for an engineering department,
have been announced. A donation of 50,000l. has been
made to Northwestern University by Mr. Milton H.-
Wilson, a resident of Evanston, and one of the trustees
of the institution.
REPLYING to a discussion on university education in
Ireland which was raised on the Civil Service Estimates
in the House of Commons on April 13, Mr. Balfour gave
it as his opinion that Ireland is not provided for adequately
in respect of university education. The decline in the
number of students in Trinity College he ascribes to the
great revolutions in the system of land tenure, which have
diminished substantially the resources and the numbers of
the class that send students to that institution. There is
also a diminution of attendance at the Queen’s College,
Belfast, which is largely due to the influence which the
Royal University is exercising on education in its higher
forms by substituting a mere system of examination for
a university training. Another reason for the falling off
at the Queen’s College is that the institution is without
the funds necessary for complete equipment.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
‘Royal Society, March 16.—‘‘ On the Absence or Marked
Diminution of Free Hydrochloric Acid in the Gastric Con-
tents in Malignant Disease of Organs other than the
Stomach.’? By Prof. Benjamin Moore, in collaboration
with Dr. W. Alexander, Mr. R. E. Keily, and Mr. H. E.
Roaf.
It has long been known that free hydrochloric acid is
absent or reduced in amount in the great majority of cases
of cancer of the stomach.
The absence of the acid in such cases has been attributed
to local action, to continued irritation of the mucous mem-
brane of the stomach by the presence of the growth, to
retention of the food in the stomach acting as an irritant
and causing gastritis when the growth has narrowed the
pyloric opening, or to alkaline products thrown out at the
seat of the growth and neutralising the acid.
The facts that the acid is not nearly so frequently
absent in gastritis due to causes other than cancer of the
stomach, and that the acid may be absent in cases of
cancer and where there is no marked gastritis, and where
the growth is confined to a small part of the mucous
membrane, the remainder being normal, led to the surmise
that the absence of free hydrochloric acid in the gastric
secretion might not be due to local conditions in the
stomach, but to a general condition of the blood which
rendered it difficult or impossible for the oxyntic cells of
the cardiac glands to secrete the acid.
To test this view, the amount of free hydrochloric acid
in the gastric contents was determined in seventeen cases
of malignant disease in which the growths were situated
in regions remote from the stomach, such as tongue,
cheek, floor of mouth, rectum, prostate, breast, and
uterus.
As a result of the determinations it was found that free
hydrochloric acid was either entirely absent (two-thirds of
the cases) or greatly reduced in quantity. This shows that
the absence of free hydrochloric acid in cancer of the
stomach is not due to local action in that organ, but, on
the other hand, that cancer, wherever occurring, is associ-
ated with diminution or absence of the acid from the
gastric secretion.
| Such a result can only arise by an alteration in the
| blood, which increases the difficulty of separating free
hydrochloric acid by the secreting cells.
It is pointed out in the paper that the most probable
| alteration in the blood plasma increasing the difficulty of
ve
APRIL 20, 1905 |
NATURE
397
secretion of hydrochloric acid by the gastric glands is a
decrease in the concentration of the hydrogen ions.
Blood plasma is alkaline to some indicators and acid
to others, indicating the presence of both hydroxyl ions,
upon which its alkalinity depends, and hydrogen ions,
giving an acid reaction. Any agency which increases the
effective alkalinity of the blood, that is to say, which in-
creases the hydroxyl ions and diminishes the hydrogen
ions, will increase the difficulty of separating a secretion
containing free hydrochloric acid.
In cases where the gastric secretion has its acidity
diminished or reduced to zero, as is found to be the case
in carcinoma, it is hence highly ‘probable that the cor-
centration of the hydrogen ions in blood plasma is re-
duced. The action of the kidney cells in maintaining a
definite degree of alkalinity of the plasma is hence altered,
so that a greater degree of alkalinity is maintained than
in the normal individual.
It has been shown by Loeb that slight increase in
alkalinity of the medium leads in certain instances to a
more rapid cell division and growth, and if this holds
good generally, it is possible that increased alkalinity of
the blood plasma may lead to increased activity in cell
division, and hence be a stimulating cause leading to
formation of new growths.
The acidity was determined by the following methods :—
(a) Total acidity by titration with phenolphthalein as
indicator. This lay very low in the seventeen cancer cases,
being normal in one case only, above o-1 per cent. in four
cases, and in the majority one or two drops of decinormal
alkali sufficed to render neutral.
(b) Giinzberg’s reagent for free hydrochloric acid gave
entire absence in eleven out of seventeen cases, a minute
trace in five cases (0-0036 per cent. to 0-o109 per cent.),
and 0.0365 per cent. was the highest value attained in a
single case only.
(c) Hydrolysis of methyl acetate by the filtered gastric
contents for the determination of the concentration of free
hydrogen ions was carried out in ten cases, and it was
found that the concentration in all these never exceeded
one-fifteenth of the average concentration in three normal
cases tested by the same method.
March 30.—‘ Note on Fluorescence and Absorption.’’
By J. B. Burke. Communicated by Prof. Larmor,
Sec.R.S.
In a paper ‘‘ On the Change of Absorption produced by
Fluorescence ’’* the author gave an account of the experi-
ments by which he found the existence of a very remark-
able difference in the absorption of the fluorescent light of
uranium glass when in the luminous and non-luminous
states. This difference he has attributed* to a temporary
change in structure or chemical composition of the body
when exposed to the influence of the exciting light, and
he has been led to regard this as due to new atomic con-
nections giving rise to mew frequencies during the
period of luminosity, by the formation of unstable aggre-
gates, which radiate intensely, as they disintegrate, the
energy which was stored up in their formation; the
luminosity being thus the visible manifestation of a process
of building up and breaking down of molecules.
Messrs. Nichols and Merritt have found recently* that
the change of absorption depends upon the intensity of the
fluorescence, and that a saturation effect takes place in
the absorption as the intensity of the luminosity increases,
“ec
attaining a maximum with a certain intensity of the fluor- |
escent light. They used, not the fluorescent light from
another similarly excited body, but an acetylene flame as
the source of the transmitted rays.
M. Camichel has encountered some difficulty
ing the change with the light from a flame, and this
appears to have been due to the use of a screen of
uranium glass, 7 cm. in thickness, to cut off the more
refrangible rays from the flame, a precaution which is by
no means necessary, since the effect has been observed
without it. The fluorescence caused by the flame merely
diminishes the apparent absorption. The screen, on the
other hand, must itself fluoresce, and in so doing—if the
in detect-
1 Philosophical Transactions, (A) 1898 ; Nature, July 15, 1897.
2 British Assoc. Report, Belfast, rg02, and PAz/. Mag , 1901.
3 Physical Review, December, 1904.
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
effect sought for occurs—absorb to a considerable extent
the rays the absorption of which it is proposed to measure
on the assumption that they are transmitted by the screen.
For fluorescence of very feeble intensity the effect may
not in any circumstances be perceptible.
Furthermore, the fluorescent spectrum of uranium glass
is composed of several bands, and these in turn the
author regards as discontinuous, and made up of more
finely divided bands or lines.
Thus the use of the screen filters the rays, and only
those which are not absorbed by uranium glass are trans-
mitted. These would not undergo any change of absorp-
tion.
The change of absorption cannot be due to the increased
amplitude if the vibrations are linear, but where new free
periods are produced by the exciting rays, the intensity
and the absorption of the fluorescent light would both
depend upon the number and duration of the periods thus
produced, and it is this which the change of absorption
in fluorescence most distinctly proves.
““The Direct Synthesis of Ammonia.’’ By Dr. E. P.
Perman. Communicated by Principal E. H. Griffiths,
F.R.S.
(1) So far as can be shown by one of the most delicate
tests known to chemists, ammonia cannot be synthesised
by heat (except under special conditions specified below).
The decomposition of ammonia by heat may, therefore, be
regarded as an irreversible reaction. (2) Ammonia may
be synthesised in small quantities from its constituent
elements (a) by heating with many of the metals; (b) by
exploding with oxygen; (c) by sparking. These are re-
versible reactions. (3) It would appear that the synthesis
of ammonia is effected only when the gases are ionised ;
the ionisation would be brought about by sparking, or by
the high temperature of an explosion of hydrogen and
oxygen. The immediate decomposition of the ammonia
formed would be prevented by its sudden cooling. The
metals in the presence of moisture also produce “‘ nascent ”’
or ionised hydrogen. (4) It does not appear that nitrides
of the metals form an intermediate stage in the formation
of ammonia, for it was found that metals readily forming
nitrides, e.g. magnesium, did not produce more ammonia
than the others. (5) There is a close analogy between
ozone and ammonia with regard to their synthesis and
decomposition; both are formed by sparking, and both
are completely decomposed by heat.
“Determination of Vapour-pressure by Air-bubbling.”’
By Dr. E. P. Perman and J. H. Davies. Communicated
by Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.
It was shown recently by one of the authors that the
vapour-pressure of water can be determined with a con-
siderable degree of accuracy by bubbling a current of air
through water in a thermostat, and estimating the amount
of water evaporated by absorbing it in strong sulphuric
acid.
The accuracy of the method has since been questioned,
supersaturation being specially suggested as likely to cause
error. Experiments have therefore been made in order to
discover what error (if any) is introduced by _ super-
saturating the air with moisture before it enters the water
in the thermostat. The effect of dust in the air and of
electrification have also been investigated. In each case
the arrangement of the apparatus was as described in the
previous paper.
Supersaturation.—Before passing into the flasks in the
thermostat, which was maintained at 70°, the air was
bubbled through a large wash-bottle containing water at
about 85°.
Dust in the Air.—A thick smoke was made by burning
pieces of phosphorus near the inlet tube of the apparatus
described in the former paper.
Electrification of the Air.—(1) The air was made to pass
through a large flask in which hydrogen was being rapidly
evolved from zinc and dilute sulphuric acid.
(2) One terminal of an induction-coil, capable of giving
(with the battery power used) a 6-inch spark, was con-
nected with a wire passing into the first (nearest the inlet)
flask in the thermostat; the other terminal was connected
with the bath, so that the silent discharge passed through
the flasks and the air inside.
598
(3) The X-rays from an ordinary focus-tube were allowed
to fall on the flasks in the thermostat, and were specially
directed on to the last (nearest outlet). A wire from one
of the terminals of a Wimshurst machine was passed down
the gauge-tube into the last flask, the other terminal
being connected with the bath.
The last mentioned experiments gave vapour-pressures
237-5 and 238-0, instead of the normal value 234-0. !
The greatest deviation from the normal value obtained
in the other experiments was slightly more than 0-5 per
cent., which is almost exactly the same as that obtained
in the original investigation.
It may safely be concluded, therefore, that no naturally
occurring supersaturation, or dust, or electrification of the
air would have any appreciable effect on the result.
April ——‘ On Endophytic Adaptation — shown by
Erysiphe Graminis DC. under Cultural Conditions. By
E. S. Salmon. Communicated by Prof. H. Marshall
Ward, F.R.S. ;
In recent papers by the author the fact has been pointed
out that certain species of the Erysiphacez are able, under
cultural conditions, to infect their host-plants vigorously
when their conidia or ascospores are sown on the cells of
the internal tissues exposed by means of a wound, although
the fungi in question are confined normally to the external
surface of the epidermal cells. é ;
The author, reviewing the results of the present investi-
gations, points out that they afford proof that E. gramints
is not, as perhaps might have been expected, so highly
specialised as an ectoparasite as to be necessarily restricted
for its food-supply to cells of the epidermis, _but shows
itself capable of immediate adaptation to conditions closely
resembling those obtaining in endophytism. ;
This fact suggests the possibility that in some circum-
stances the mycelial hyphz of species of the Erysiphacez
which are normally ectoparasites may penetrate into the
internal tissues of their host-plants exposed through wounds
caused in nature by the attacks of animals or by physical
agency. It is pointed out, however, that the successful
entry of the hyphae might be prevented, either by the
drying up of the superficial layers of cells, or by the heal-
ing processes shown by many actively growing leaves.
‘“On the Physical Chemistry of the Toxin-Antitoxin Re-
action: with Special Reference to the Neutralisation of
Lysin by Antilysin.’’ By J. A. Craw. Communicated by
Dr. C. J. Martin, F.R.S. : :
Summary of Conclusions.—(1) Megatherium lysin passed
through a gelatin filter, and is diffusible through gelatin.
(2) Megatherium antilysin does not pass through a gelatin
filter, and is not appreciably diffusible through gelatin.
(3) The filtration and diffusion of mixtures show that free
lysin is present in neutral mixtures and in mixtures contain-
ing excess of antilysin. (4) Free antilysin exists in neutral
mixtures, and in mixtures containing excess of lysin.
(5) The reaction is at least partially reversible when excess
of antilysin is present. (6) False equilibria are produced
with greater facility when the lysin is in excess. (7) The
neutralisation equation of Arrhenius and Madsen does not
hold for multiple mixtures. (8) The removal of lysin from
a solution by antilysin is not capable of interpretation as
a purely chemical change, but is more analogous to certain
adsorption phenomena.
Faraday Society, April 4.—Prof. A. K. Huntington in
the chair.—Alloys of copper and bismuth: A. H. Hiorns.
Results of a further research on copper alloys carried out
in a similar manner to that on the copper-arsenic series
published in the Transactions of the society, April, 1904.
Prof. Arnold has investigated the effect of bismuth, from
o-1 per cent. to 0-5 per cent., on copper, and found that
the investing membranes surrounding the grains of copper
appeared to be split down the centre, presenting a definite
plane of cleavage. Dr. Gautier obtained a freezing-point
curve similar to the author’s, but his temperatures are
generally higher. The microscopic evidence mainly con-
firms the records of the freezing-point curves, of which
there are four branches.—Refractory materials for furnace
linings: E. Kilburn Seott. (Discussion.)—Electrically
heated carbon tube furnaces, part i.: R. S. Hutton and
W. H. Patterson. This type of furnace seems to be the
NO. 1851, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
[APRIL 20, 1905
most readily available for the very highest temperatures,
and the authors have been able to get satisfactory results
with a very simple type of construction. The important
points to bear in mind are the end connections (which
must be kept cool), protection of the tube from contact
with air, and heat insulation. Two types of furnace are
described :—(1) graphite tube furnace; (2) agglomerated
carbon tube furnaces.
Anthropological Institute, April 4.—Prof. W. Gowland,
president, in the chair.—The fort and stone-lined pits at
Inyanga contrasted with the Great Zimbabwe: R. N. Hall.
The walls of the fort are built upon a curved plan, and
the fort itself is divided into enclosures for purposes of
defence. The fort has twenty-five entrances pierced
through the walls which are themselves pierced with a
great number of loopholes. The fort is also peculiar for
the employment of banquette walls, which are not met
with except in a few ruins in southern Rhodesia. Another
peculiarity of the building is the absence of buttresses.
The stone-lined pits are very numerous’ throughout
Inyanga, and are usually found in clusters of twos and
threes. Mr. Hall was of opinion that they were not used
as slave-pits, as had been supposed, but as shelters from
the variable temperature. The pits consist of a hole lined
with masonry, and a curved, paved passage used as an
entrance. In almost every case the pits have a drain
running through the rampart, and another peculiarity is
the erection near them of a stone monolith. Mr. Hall
also referred to the hill terraces found in the neighbour-
hood, and in conclusion contrasted the architecture of the
fort and pits with the temple and acropolis at Zimbabwe.
Chemical Society, April 6.—Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.,
president, in the chair.—The kinetics of chemical changes
which are reversible. The decomposition of as-dimethyl-
carbamide: C. E. Fawsitt. This investigation is a con-
tinuation of those already published on carbamide and
methylearbamide, and the ‘same explanation of the decom-
position holds good.—A new formation of acetyleamphor :
M. O. Forster and Miss H. M. Judd. The imine
/CH.CMe:NH
CsHyy< | ,
CO
obtained by the action of magnesium methyl iodide on
a-cyanocamphor, is resolved quantitatively by acids into
acetylcamphor and ammonia.—Preparation and properties
of 1:4: 5-trimethylglyoxaline: H. A. D. Jowett. This
base was prepared in the course of an attempt to obtain
substances having a constitution analogous to that of
pilocarpine. The base and a number of its salts are de-
scribed.—Bromomethyl heptyl ketone: H. A. D. Jowett.
This bromoketone is obtained by the action of bromine in
chloroform solution on methyl heptyl ketone obtained from
oil of rue.—Limonene nitrosocyanides and their derivatives :
F. P. Leach. The a-nitrosocyanide crystallises in prisms
whilst the 8-compound forms fine woolly needles. These
isomerides are regarded as having the cis and trans con-
figurations, since on hydrolysis both give rise to the
normal oxime of dihydrocarvone.—The action’ of carbon
monoxide on ammonia: H. Jackson and D. Northall-
Laurie. The authors find that the main reaction is the
formation of ammonium cyanate, which rapidly changes to
carbamide.—The action of acetylene on aqueous and hydro-
chloric acid solutions of mercuric chloride: J. S. S. Brame.
The first action of acetylene on mercuric chloride is shown
to be one of simple combination, the product being them
decomposed by water forming aldehyde and the sub-
stance C(HgCl),.CHO.—The basic properties of oxygen at
low temperatures. Additive compounds of the halogens
with organic substances containing oxygen: D. Mcintosh.
Crystalline compounds of chlorine and bromine with methyl
and ethyl alcohols, methyl ether, acetone, ethyl acetate,
acetaldehyde, and acetic acid have been obtained.—Note
on the interaction of metallic cyanides and organic
halides: N. V. Sidgwick. A possible explanation of the
formation of both nitriles and isocyanides in this reaction
from the same initial additive compound is given.—The
chemical dynamics of the reactions between sodium thio-
sulphate and organic halogen compounds, part ii., halogen
substituted acetates: A. Stator. The reactions of the
7
7
}
,
2
4
APRIL 20, 1905]
NATURE
aie)
thiosulphate with ethyl iodoacetate and methyl, ethyl and
sodium bromo- and chloro-acetates have been investigated,
and shown in all cases to be bimolecular reactions.—The
tautomerism of acetyl thiocyanate: A. E. Dixon and
J. Hawthorne.—A method of determining the specific
gravity of soluble salts by displacement in their own
mother liquor, and its application in the case of the alkali
halides: J. Y. Buchanan.—The combination of mercap-
tans with unsaturated ketonic compounds: S. Ruhemann.
—The existence of a carbide of magnesium: J. T. Nance.
The yellow residue formed when magnesium is heated with
carbon evolves hydrogen and acetylene when dissolved in
acids, and may contain a carbide.—Isomeric salts of the
type NR,R,H,. A correction, Isomeric forms of d-bromo-
and d-chloro-camphorsulphonic acids: F. S. Kipping.
The further study of the isomeric a and § salts has shown
that the isomerism of these compounds is not due to
difference in the spatial arrangement of the groups attached
to the quinquevalent nitrogen atom, but to the existence
-of cis and trans forms of d-bromo- and d-chloro-camphor-
sulphonic acids.—Isomerism of a-bromo- and a-chloro-
camphor: F. S. Kipping.—tl-Phenylethylamine: F. S.
Kipping and A. E. Hunter.—The influence of the
hydroxyl and alkoxyl groups on the velocity of saponifi-
cation, part i.: A. Findlay and W. E. S. Turner. The
numbers obtained show that the hydroxyl group exercises
an accelerating influence on the velocity of saponification,
but that on replacing the hydrogen of the hydroxyl by an
alkyl group the rate diminishes, and the effect increases
regularly with the mass of the alkyl group.
Linnean Society, April 6.—Mr. A. C. Seward, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair.—Specimens and drawings
of pitchers of Nepenthes, supplemented by slides, pre-
pared by Mr. L. Farmar, to illustrate the various types of
pitchers and their marvellous glandular systems: W.
Botting Hemsley, F.R.S. Mr. Hemsley first exhibited a
new species, Nepenthes Macfarlanei, which differs from all
other known species, except N. Lowii, in the underside
of the lip being thickly beset with stiff bristles, interspersed
with honey-glands. Other species were compared with
N. Macfarlanei. Briefly, all the complex arrangements of
these plants favour the descent of insects and other crea-
tures into the pitchers, and hinder almost all visitors from
getting out again; once in, there is little hope of escape.
A few hybrids were also shown, notably one named ** Sir
William Thiselton-Dyer,’’? which has produced the largest
pitcher known in cultivation, being a pint and three-
quarters in capacity.—The axillary scales of aquatic Mono-
cotyledons: Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson. The author com-
pared the ligule of Selaginella with the scales in question,
and suggested that the latter may be looked upon as
evidence that the Monocotyledons may be regarded as
modern representatives of primitive Angiosperms, and in
turn may have been genetically related to some ancestral
form allied to Isoetes.—A further contribution to the study
of Pelomyxa palustris (Greeff): Mrs. L. J. Veley. After
alluding to her previous memoir in the Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science, n. ser. xxxvi. (1894), pp. 295-306,
the author explained that the ‘‘ rods’’ present in Pelomyxa
palustris (Greeff) are symbiotic bacteria (Cladothrix pelo-
myxae, Veley); they complete their development within
the animal and are then ejected, breaking down into free .
“ee ”
swarmers,’’ which are ingested by other Pelomyxz, and
immediately re-commence the cycle. The ‘‘refringent
bodies’ are proteid in nature, viz. some form of albumin
which is a waste product of the metabolism of Pelomyxa.
They supply the bacteria with a point of attachment
necessary for development, and (probably) also with
nourishment.—Mansoniez, a new tribe of the natural order
Sterculiacee: Dr. D. Prain.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, April 10.—M. Troost in the chair.
—Remarks on the recognition of the solar corona at times
other than during total eclipses: H. Deslandres. A
criticism of the results recently obtained by Hansky, in
which the difficulties introduced by diffused light in the
apparatus do not appear to have been sufficiently taken
into account. The use of a simple concave mirror, as
employed by Huggins in 1883, is decidedly preferable to
NO. 1851, VOL. 71 |
the system of two lenses and a mirror used by Hansky.
Details are given of the method suggested by the author.
—The conclusions to be drawn from the study of homo-
geneous enclosures in petrography: A. Lacroix.—The
plants of the plateau of the Nilghirris: Gaston Bonnier.
The mean temperature of Ootacamund is practically the same
as that of Paris, and a detailed comparison of the flora
of the two places is given. The altitude of the Nilghirris
is not sufficient for the plants to acquire all the character-
istics of alpine plants, but they acquire certain alpine
characters. There are also special modifications induced
by the large difference between the day and night tempera-
ture.—On the Peneideze and Stenopidez collected by the
French and Monaco expeditions in the eastern Atlantic :
E. L. Bouvier.—The conflict between the primary and
accidental images, applied to the theory of inevitable
variability of retinal impressions excited by objects illumin-
ated by sources of light of constant value: A. Chauveau.
The impression produced on the retina by a geometrical
figure is complex, and is a resultant formed by the super-
position of two images, the one objective, the other sub-
jective, and an experiment is described showing how these
may be separated. The effects of colour, intensity of
illumination, motion of the retina, displacement of the
eye or the object, and accommodation are considered
systematically. The case of the n-rays is not actually
taken by the author, but the considerations here put for-
ward clearly suffice to explain many of the phenomena
ascribed to the action of these rays.—The heat of form-
ation of sodium hydride. The acidity of the molecule of
hydrogen: M. de Forcrand.—On the reduction of
oxyhemoglobin: R. Lepine and M. Boulud. The
oxyhemoglobin is reduced with a titrated solution of
ferrous sulphate, and the time of reduction noted, the
colouring matter being considered as reduced when the
two absorption bands fuse together. In normal blood from
the dog the time of reduction is fixed, and is between
eighteen and twenty minutes, and this time is independent
of the dilution. In anzmia, with a quantity of the re-
ducing agent proportional to the amount of hamoglobin,
the time of reduction is much increased. Prolonged in-
halation of ether or chloroform also increases the time
of reduction. Human blood from anemic patients shows
the same characteristics—On Rhabdocarpus, the seeds
and the evolution of the Cordaitee: M. Grand’Eury.—
Report presented in the name of the committee charged
with the scientific control of the geodesic operations at
the equator. The operations have been much delayed by
the unfavourable meteorological conditions and by the ill-
ness of several members of the expedition. A_ short
account is given of the progress made in triangulation,
levelling, and pendulum observations. An astronomical
station has been installed at Cuenca, and another will be
set up near the fourth parallel. On account of the limited
financial resourees of the expedition, it is proposed that a
portion of the original scheme be dropped.—Observations
of the Giacobini comet (1905 a) made at the Observatory
of Algiers with the 31-8 cm. bent equatorial: MM.
Rambaud and Sy. The observations were made on
March 28, 29, and 30, and give the apparent positions of
the comet with the positions of comparison stars. On
March 28, when the atmospheric conditions were excep-
tionally favourable, a nucleus could be clearly made out
of about the thirteenth magnitude.—Actinometric obsery-
ations at the summit of Mont Blanc in 1904: A. Hansky.
The weather conditions were not favourable. The most
probable value of the solar constant from the 1904 observ-
ations is 3-28 calories.—On integral functions: Eugéne
Fabry.—On Monge’s problem: P. Zervos.—On _ the
equilibrium of arches in circular arcs: M. Belzecki.—
On the longitudinal stability of aérostats: L. Torres. A
discussion of a paper on the same subject by M. Renard,
in which, as the result of a theoretical investigation, certain
modifications of the stern are suggested. In the present
paper it is shown that this investigation is not strictly
correct, and that the modifications suggested will not have
the desired effect.—On the diamagnetism of bismuth: A.
Leduc. Bismuth was fused in small spherical flasks and
allowed to solidify in a strong magnetic field (4000 to
5000 C.G.S. units). The sphere of solid bismuth, sus-
pended in the same field, took up the same position as it
600
NATURE
{APRIL 20, 1905
had at the moment of solidification—Contribution to the
study of ionisation in flames: Pierre Massoulier. The
conductivity of an ether flame is considerable. By intro-
ducing increasing proportions of carbon dioxide into this
flame, although the temperature is lowered, the ionisa-
tion, as measured by the current between two electrodes
in the flame, is increased. The results are interpreted by
the author as being due to the dissociation of the carbon
dioxide in the flame.—On the variation of the difference
of contact potential for miscible solutions of electrolytes :
M. Chanoz.—On the dichroism produced by radium in
colourless quartz and on a thermoelectric phenomenon
observed in striated smoky quartz: N. Egoroff. Colour-
less quartz, exposed to the action of radium for a week,
exhibited dichroism identical with that ordinarily observed
with smoky quartz. A plate of smoky quartz, heated to
100° C. and treated with a mixture of sulphur and red
lead, gave a figure reproducing the striations.—An auto-
matic damping arrangement applicable to pendular and
oscillatory movements: V. Crémieu.—On a photograph of
a lightning flash showing the air in incandescence: Em.
Touchet. The persistent glow which is visible in some
cases after a lightning flash is due to the incandescence of
the air. This effect is not physiological, as it is clearly
shown in some photographs taken by the author and by
other experimenters.—The etherification of glycerin:
Marcel P. S. Guédras.—The liquefaction of allene and
allylene: MM. Lespieau and Chavanne. The two gases
were prepared with great care in a pure state and solidified
in liquid air. Allene melts at —146° C., boiling at
—32° C., its critical point being about 121° C. Allylene
melts at —110° C., boils at —23°-5 C., and has a critical
point of 129°-5 C., the temperatures being all measured
by an iron-constantan thermo-couple. The purity of the
gases was determined by a combustion analysis.—On the
hydrogenation of benzonitrile and paratoluonitrile: A.
Frébault. Sabatier and Senderens, who have already
applied their reaction to this case, found that nickel carried
the reduction too far, toluene and ammonia being the only
products, and were obliged to replace the nickel by copper
to obtain benzylamines. Working under
different conditions, the author has obtained
results
somewhat |
with nickel.—Secondary diazoamines: Léo Vignon and A. |
Simonet.—On the hydrates of acetol: André Kling.—
On the use of the metal ammoniums in chemistry: the
preparation of paraffins: Paul Lebeau (see p. 592).—On
isodimorphism: Fred. Waltlerant.—On a new indiarubber
Euphorbia: Henri Jumette. This tree grows in the north-
west of Madagascar, and its indiarubber producing proper-
ties were discovered accidentally by the natives. It appears
to be a new species, and is named Euphorbia elastica.—
The action of ether and chloroform on dried seeds: Paul
Becquerel. The result is due to action of these sub-
stances on the fatty material of the cell, but the effect of
the chloroform is much more energetic.—On the formation
and function of fatty materials in fungi: A. Perrier. It
is shown that the fat acts as a reserve food material for
the plant.—On some points of anatomy of the male organs
of the Edentata, and on their means of fixation: Rémy
Perrier. It is shown that this is not a case of retro-
gression, but that the condition of the male organs corre-
sponds to a primitive form. This view confirms the
palzontological results as to the age of the Edentata.—
The weight of the brain as a function of the body weight
in birds: L. Lapicque and P. Girard. The exponential
formula given by Dubois for expressing the weight of the
brain as a function of the body weight holds for the case
of birds, the index having the same numerical value as in |
mammals (0-56).—On the alternation of eclipses and the
lustre of feebly lighted objects: Th. Lullin.—The spectro-
scopy of the blood and of oxyhawmoglobin: M. Piettre
and A. Vila. The reaction of sodium fluoride upon the
absorption spectrum of blood is a very delicate one, and
can be used to detect traces of fluorides down to 5 parts in
a million. A diagram is given of the relation between the
intensity of the absorption bands of oxyhzmoglobin and
the dilution——On the normal presence of alcohol and
acetone in the liquids and tissues of the organism: F.
Maignon.—Researches on hematogen: MM. Hugounenqg
and Morel.—The influence of the state of liquefaction of
starch on its transformation by diastases: A. Fernbach
NO. 1851, VOL. 71]
and J. Wolff.—Experimental acid dyscrasia: M. Charrin.
—On the age of the granite of the western Alps and the
origin of the crystalline exotic blocks of Klippes: C. G. S.
Sandberg.—On the Lahore earthquake and the variations
of the magnetic needle at Paris: Th. Moureaux. Dis-
turbances of the magnetic records at Paris were observed
on the day of the Lahore earthquake.
GOTTINGEN.
Royal Society of Sciences.—The Nachrichten (physico-
mathematical section), part vi. for 1904, contains the follow-
ing memoirs communicated to the society :—
October 29.—W. Voigt: Remarks on tensor-analysis.
A. Scheenflies: On the geometrical invariants of the
analysis of position. Eduard Riecke: Researches on the
phenomena of discharge in Geissler tubes. F. Bernstein:
On the theory of aggregates.
December 17.—G. Herglotz: On the calculation of re-
tarded potentials.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Aprtt 27.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion: Mr. B. J.
Arnold’s Address to the Joint Meeting at St. Louis on the Problem of the
Alternate Current Motor applied to Traction.—Pafer: The Alternate
Current Series Motor: F. Creedy.
FRIDAY, Aprit 28.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.
CONTENTS.
Man and Scenery . MPPs eck re
A Magnetic Survey of Japan. By Prof. Arthur
PAGE
577
Schuster, F.R.S. oA) cost 2 ni ie
The Technology of the Vegetable Fibres. By Prof.
Aldred ReBarker . . . . «jc or seen oon
English Estate Forestry < ie FSS:
Our Book Shelf :—
“* Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum.”—
A. B. R. AEE Orc ees Fe
Beavan : ‘‘ Birds I have Known.”—W. P. P. a4 Che
Muir: ‘‘ The Elements of Chemistry ” < Sx oeeESeS
Salt : ‘‘ Richard Jefferies : his LifeandIdeals.”—R.L. 582
Letters to the Editor :—
Historical Note on Dust, Electrification, and Heat.—
Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. . . 3, UL SOS
The Late Prof. Tacchinii—Prof. R. Meldola,
FRISSee ee = +) Lael neil ae ane
Propagation of Earthquake Waves.-—Rev. O. Fisher 583
The Ancient Races of the Thebaid.—Prof. Arthur
Thomson ; Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S. 583
Inversions of Temperature on Ben Nevis.—Andrew
Watt . i. - 583
Stanton Drew.—A. L. Lewis . . 584
Alcohol in Industry Pre Sartre
The Capital of Tibet. (///ustrated.) By T. HH. H. . 585
| The Treatment of Cancer with Radium 588
Notes 5. Oe 588
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astrophysical Work at the Smithsonian Institution 592
Value of the Astronomical Refraction Constant . 592
Reality of Various Features on Mars. ... . 592
Stonyhurst College Observatory . 592
Nature of Sun-spots. . ... 592
Instructions to Solar Observers . oy) = Oe
Recent Changes in the Crater of Stromboli. (///us-
trated.) By Dr. Tempest Anderson . Fer e SOS
The Institution of Naval Architects . S8 594
Unsolved Problems in Electrical Engineering . 595
University and Educational Intelligence 596
Societies and Academies . - 596
Diary of Societies 600
NGO Tel:
601
THURSDAY, APRIL 27, 1905.
THREE CAMBRIDGE MATHEMATICAL
WORKS.
The Algebra of Invariants. By J. H. Grace, M.A.,
and A. Young, M.A. Pp. viit+384. (Cambridge :
The University Press, 1903.) Price tos. net.
The Dynamical Theory of Gases. By J. H. Jeans,
M.A. Pp. xvi+352. (Cambridge: The University
Press.) Price 15s. net.
A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and
Rigid Bodies. By E. T. Whittaker, M.A. Pp.
xiiit414. (Cambridge: The University Press,
1904.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
HATEVER opinions may be felt as to the
desirability of University Presses competing
with private firms in swelling the already too large
flood of school geometries or issuing cram books
for compulsory Greek examinations, there can only be
one opinion as to the series of standard treatises on
higher mathematics emanating at the present time
from Cambridge. In a country which, in its lack
of national interest in higher scientific research, par-
ticularly mathematical research, stands far behind
most other important civilised countries, it necessarily
devolves on a University Press to publish advanced
mathematical works. We may take it as certain that
the present volumes will be keenly read in Germany
and America, and will be taken as proofs that England
contains good mathematicians, though Englishmen
as a nation may be unaware of their existence, with the
exception of the senior wrangler of one year, who is
forgotten the next.
For years Salmon’s ‘* Higher Algebra ”’ has been the
treatise which has done most to interest English
students in invariants. At the present time a good
deal more is wanted in order to bring our knowledge
up to date. Méssrs. Grace and Young have en-
deavoured to meet present requirements in a_ well
defined direction. As they state in their preface, the
bool:
** was started as an attempt to meet the need expressed
by Elliott in the preface to‘ The Algebra of Quantics ’
—a whole book which shall present to the English
reader in his own language a worthy exposition of
the method of the great German masters remains a
desideratum.’ ”’
While no book, unless it were written in four
languages, could satisfy the patriotic aspirations of
every native of our country by appealing to him “ in
his own language,’ the production of an English
book on a subject largely developed in Germany meets
a distinet want.
The subject is practically started ab initio. The
treatment does not strike us as very hard to follow,
although it is difficult for a beginner at first to
master the symbolical notation, especially in the
definition of transvectants (chapter iii.). In chapter
vi. the authors introduce Gordan’s theorem, according
to which the number of covariants of a binary form is
always finite, and in the next chapter they employ his
method of proof to obtain the complete irreducible
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
set of covariants of the quintic. A short chapter on
simultaneous systems brings us to Hilbert’s theorem,
with which the algebra of binary forms may be said
to end. Chapters x. and xi. deal with geometrical
interpretations, and in particular with apolarity. The
sections dealing with ternary forms are less complete,
as the authors have considered that ‘‘ with the methods
known up to the present the treatment of ternary forms
is too tedious for a text-book.”
Mr. Grace has previously been associated with th:
production of several mathematical text-books of a
quite elementary character, and the present book bears
many unmistakable traces of his experience as a
writer in making a somewhat difficult subject appear
relatively easy.
We say ‘‘ somewhat ’’ difficult, because the subject
of Mr. Jeans’s new book is incomparably harder than
the ‘‘ Algebra of Invariants.’’ This difficulty arises
largely from the fact that the kinetic theory of gases
is closely associated with the representation of physical
phenomena as they actually exist, and with all the
difficulties connected with irreversibility and the exist-
ence of temperature. It is only by statistical methods
that these phenomena are amenable to the equations
of reversible dynamics, and with every method of
attack some assumption must be made, since if any
motion of a molecular system exists it is equally
conceivable that the opposite motion should exist.
Even Willard Gibbs’s appeal to experience quoted
on p. 167 does not get over the difficulty. If we put
red and blue ink together into a vessel and stir them
up, it is true that if the inks differ in nothing more
than colour the result is a uniform violet ink. But
this is because the inks are viscous liquids the
motions of which are irreversible. If they were perfect
liquids perfect mixing would not take place, and the
effect of stirring would merely be to produce vortex
motions in which the vortex lines always contained
the same particles and remained constant in strength.
If we mix counters in a bag, the motions of the
counters are retarded by friction; if the counters
correctly represented perfectly reversible systems they
would never come to rest.
Mr. Jeans in his preface considers that the dis-
crepancy between theory and experiment in connection
with the ratio of the specific heats of a gas ‘‘is of
greater importance than all the others together,”’ and
he has endeavoured to emphasise the fact that when
account is taken of the interaction between matter
and the ether, theory and experiment harmonise ;
well as could be desired. But as soom as this ether
is taken into account we have a simple means of
obviating the irreversibility difficulty by saddling the
ether with the whole responsibility. So long as
physicists are contented, in solving the differential
equations of wave motion in a medium, to omit the
terms which represent waves converging from an
infinite distance towards a centre of disturbance, so
long will there be an easy way out of the puzzling
contradictions arising out of Boltzmann’s H-theorem.
But there is really no reason why the presence of
a molecule in an indefinitely extended ether which
undoubtedly possesses some energy should not bring
about the convergence of waves coming in from an
DD
602
NATURE
[APRIL 27, 1905
infinite distance in all directions, and gradually in-
creasing in intensity as they approach the molecule.
We do not think such cases exist, but we did not
expect to discover radium a few years ago.
Let us now see how Mr. Jeans attempts to deal
with the difficulties here suggested. In the first
seven chapters he follows fairly closely on conventional
lines, and deduces the Boltzmann-Maxwell law of dis-
tribution, the minimum theorem, the law of partition
of energy, and the isothermal equations according to
the Boyle-Mariotte and van der Waals’s laws. In
chapter viii. the author throws over the principle of
conservation of energy and assumes that his gas is a
dissipative system in which loss of energy occurs by
radiation. On this hypothesis he finds that when the
rate of dissipation has become very slow probability
considerations indicate a tendency to assume a
definite statistical specification different from that
given by the ordinary theory. It further appears
that such a gas has one principal and a number
of subsidiary temperatures, a notion which we be-
lieve has been previously advanced. In chapters
ix. and x. Mr. Jeans considers applications of the
' theory of a non-conservative gas, particularly in con-
nection with rates of dissipation of energy, and ratios
of specific heats.
We thus have a definite attempt to break away from
traditional methods and boldly introduce the notion of
dissipation into the kinetic theory. The idea is
certainly an excellent one. Whether it is free from
objection is a matter which cannot be answered as
the mere result of a critical examination. Often
objections to theories strike the mind of a reader quite
unexpectedly.
In the remaining chapters Mr. Jeans deals with
‘free path phenomena ” such as diffusion, conduction
of heat, viscosity, and the escape of gases from
planetary atmospheres. In this work he is more on
the ordinary lines. We notice as an important
feature the sections dealing with encounters according
to the law of the inverse fifth power. This series of
chapters is of considerable use in affording easy access
to investigations contained in a much longer form in
the original papers of Boltzmann and other writers.
Turning back to the chapter on equipartition of
energy, we are led to the following inference :—
Mr. Jeans leaves it an open question whether the
‘conventional law of distribution with its attendant
consequences of equipartition may represent the
ultimate state of a gas, but concludes that in actual
gases such as we see around us where dissipation of
energy occurs a different distribution holds good.
The second conclusion seems plausible. But the
assumption that equipartition of energy holds even in
a conservative system presents difficulties in connec-
tion with Stefan’s law of radiation in a black cavity.
According to that law the energy of the ether should
vary as the fourth power of that of the molecules.
It might be said that in the ‘‘ conservative system ’’
Stefan’s law would not necessarily hold good, and
that there would be no objection to assuming the
energy of the ether to be then directly proportional
to that of the molecules, or to the temperature. But
the usual thermodynamic investigation—which is more
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
certain to be valid in the case of the conservative
than in that of the dissipative system—would then
give a different form for the radiation pressure—
apparently /= y (log y+ constant)—and this result would
have to be admitted. On the whole it appears more
likely that while distributions satisfying Maxwell’s
law of equipartition are always theoretically possible,
other distributions may exist, and may, indeed,
represent a normal and persistent state of affairs even
in conservative systems.
It is remarkable that physicists strain at gnats
when put down to study kinetic theory or thermo-
dynamics, and yet they swallow camels with com-
placency when they read the subject of Mr. Whittaker’s
book, ‘* Analytical Dynamics.’? Some writers even
go so far as to introduce pages and pages of the
most unreal dynamical problems into what they call
treatises on physics.
“The soluble problems of particle dynamics ”’
mostly represent things which have no existence. It
is impossible for a particle to move on a smooth
curve or surface because, in the first place, there is
no such thing as a particle, and in the second place
there is no such thing as a smooth curve or surface.
What constitutes the chief interest of ‘‘ Analytical
Dynamics ”’ is the possibility of forming clear mental
pictures of its results by imagining bodies capable of
performing the motions discussed.
Mr. Whittaker’s treatment is essentially mathe-
matical and advanced in character. He opens with
sections on the displacements of rigid bodies in which
Klein’s parameters and MHalphen’s theorems on
composition of screws figure near the commencement.
In his chapter on equations of motion physico-
philosophical discursions on force and mass are re-
duced toa minimum. This is as it should be, for there
are plenty of people who can write about such matters,
but few whose knowledge extends to the more
important theorems which follow later. The
Lagrangian equations are reached by § 26, which is
preceded by a definition of holonomic systems. This
distinction might with advantage be put into treatises
in physics, for at present students of that subject are
apt to assume that Lagrange’s equations in their
ordinary form are universally applicable, which is far
from true, Passing on to chapter v., which deals,
inter alia, with moments of inertia, our old friend the
“principle of parallel axes ’’ is treated generally for
a quadratic function of coordinates, velocities and
accelerations, readers being doubtless assumed to
know the proof for simple cases. Chapter vii. deals
with the general theory of vibrations, and the next
chapter with non-holonomic and dissipative systems,
the first of these two chapters consisting mainly of
theory, and the second mainly of examples. The
most important chapters are those which follow, deal-
ing with the principles of Hamilton and Gauss, the
integral invariants of the Hamiltonian system, and the
representation of a dynamical system of equations by
means of contact transformations.
Mr. Whittaker some time ago presented a
valuable report to the British Association on the
problem of three bodies, and he tells us that between
1750 and 1904 more than eight hundred memoirs were
q
APRIL 27, 1905]
published on this problem. Even at the Heidelberg
congress last August further additions were made to
this literature. In his chapter on the subject, which
is very brief, he discusses the reduction of the equa-
tions to a system of the sixth order, thus affording a
useful insight into the main features of this difficult in-
vestigation. Several other interesting chapters follow.
It will thus be seen that Mr. Whittaker’s treatise
collects into book form the outlines of a long
series of researches for which hitherto it has been
necessary to consult English, French, German, and
Italian transactions. In recent years Italy has
played no small part in the development of dynamics,
as may be seen by the number of papers by Levi
Civita and other writers which have from time to
time appeared in the Atti dei Lincei, dealing with
integrals of the equations of motion of holonomic
systems, particular cases of the problem of three bodies,
and allied questions.
The book is thus written mainly for the advanced
mathematician. But an interesting feature is the
large number of examples both in the text and
at the end of the chapters. Of these a good
many really contain the substance of minor papers
that have been published abroad. Others are fol-
lowed by the reference ‘‘ Coll. Exam.,’’? and while
it may be taken for granted that Mr. Whittaker
has made a judicious selection, some of the ques-
tions bearing these references may give foreign
mathematicians a little insight into the unpalatable
nuts which Cambridge students are expected to waste
time in trying to crack for examination purposes.
The antics of insects crawling on epicycloids, or the
vagaries of particles moving along the intersections
of ellipsoids with hyperboloids of one sheet, are of no
scientific interest, and the time spent in ‘‘ getting out ”’
problems of this character might better be employed
in learning something useful. Moreover, Cambridge
college examiners have a habit of endowing bodies
with the most inconsistent properties in the matter of
perfect roughness and perfect smoothness. A per-
fectly rough body placed on a perfectly smooth surface
forms as interesting a subject for speculation as the
well-known irresistible body meeting the impenetrable
obstacle. What the average college don forgets is
that roughness or smoothness are matters which
concern two surfaces, not one body.
In our opinion a great deal of the artificiality of
the more elementary parts of dynamics might be
removed by the more frequent introduction of simple
problems in resisted motion. There are plenty of easy
ones to be found which would be more helpful to the
beginner than problems about ellipsoids rolling on
perfectly smooth surfaces formed by the revolution of
cissoids or witches about their axes. Those who have
the ability to do more difficult work should pass on
to the advanced parts of a book like Mr. Whittaker’s
and learn what foreign mathematicians have been
doing; this is much more useful.
It remains to add that the books are neatly bound;
the printing and paper are somewhat unnecessarily
luxurious in quality, and—most important of all—the
Cambridge printers have not forgotten to cut the pages
with their guillotine. G. H. Bryan.
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATURE 60
Os
REIN’S “ JAPAN.”
Japan nach Reisen und Studien.
Vol. i. Natur und Volk des Mikadoreiches. Second
edition. Pp. xv+749. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engel-
mann, 1905.) Price 24s. net, paper; 26s. net, cloth.
et is the second edition of a book first published
in 1880. The author, now professor of geography
in the University of Bonn, was, in 1874, commissioned
by the Prussian Ministry of Commerce to go to Japan
for the purpose of studying and giving an account
both of the trade of Japan and the special branches
of industry there carried on to so high a degree of
perfection. The writer of this notice had the pleasure
of making the acquaintance of Dr. Rein while in
Japan, and can testify to the German thoroughness
with which Dr. Rein carried out the work for which
he was commissioned. The results of that work were
two volumes which, from the point of view of the
author, have been looked upon as the most scientific
and complete of their kind. Some years after their
appearance in Germany translations were published
in England (Hodder and Stoughton), but both the
German and English editions have for some time been
out of print, and the author has done well to bring
out a new edition, brought up to date in matters both
of history and science. For students of Japan it is
almost unnecessary to review the work of Dr. Rein, as
it has long had an assured position.
The opinion of competent authorities was reflected
by Prof. Chamberlain more than fifteen years ago,
when, in an edition of his well known book ‘“ Things
Japanese,’’ he said :—
““ At the risk of offending innumerable authors, we
now venture to pick out the following works as
probably the best in a general way that are ac-
cessible to English readers: (1) Dr. Rein’s ‘ Japan,’
with its sequel ‘The Industries of Japan.’’’? No
person wishing to study Japan seriously can dis-
pense -with these admirable volumes. Of the two,
By J. Je uke
_that on the “ Industries ’’’ is the better; agriculture,
cattle-raising, forestry, mines, lacquer-work, metal-
work, commerce, &c., everything, in fact, has been
studied with a truly German patience, and is set
forth with a truly German thoroughness. The
other volume is occupied with the physiography of
the country, that is, its geography, fauna, flora, &c.,
with an account of the people, both historical and
ethnographical, and with the topography of the
various provinces.
It is this latter volume which is at present be-
fore us, and although it may not be so interesting,
from the practical point of view, as its sequel, it
is more valuable from a scientific and _ historical
point of view. The book is essentially the same
as the first edition, but the author has had the
assistance of many friends in Japan in bringing it up
to date, both from a scientific and a historical point
of view. It is, however, unnecessary to enter into a
detailed account or criticism of its contents.
The first part of the book is a very complete and
interesting account of the physical geography of
Japan; in fact, it is the only systematic account which
has been published in a European language. When
604
NATURE
[APRIL 27, 1905
Dr. Rein was in Japan he had, for the most part, to
depend on himself for the collection of information
on this part of his subject; but in the interval many
ardent students of science have been trained in Japan,
and they have collaborated with him in bringing the
matter up to date, so we have very valuable chapters
on the geological formation of the country, its physio-
graphy, hydrography, climate, flora and fauna; while
very complete lists of books and papers dealing with
the various departments of the subjects are given
which will be useful to those who wish to study them
thoroughly.
The part relating to the history of the country has
had a section added to it dealing more fully with the
events which have occurred during the past quarter
of a century, and gives a very good outline of the
developments which have taken place. It deals, how-
ever, only with what may be called the natural history
or facts of the subjects involved, and does not attempt
to explain the natural philosophy or dynamics. No
doubt the author would say that that was beyond the
scope of his work; but it is possible to make descrip-
tions much more interesting and intelligent when the
forces at work are at least indicated, and the direc-
tions and amounts of their resultants explained. The
full discussion of this, however, would take us into
details of historical methods about which there is still
considerable difference of opinion.
Under anthropology and ethnology a considerable
amount of new matter has been introduced, in which
are given the results of recent investigations and
speculations. An interesting sketch is given of the
Japanese language and literature and of the manners
and customs of the Japanese. A short account is
given of the Japanese calendar and of the national
festivals. The part dealing with the religious con-
ditions of Japan is too short to allow justice to be done
to it, and it does not give an adequate account of
recent developments. The present war with Russia
has been a revelation of the ‘‘ soul of the people,’”’ a
full explanation of which would require a book for
itself. Still, Dr. Rein might have tried to bring this
section up to date as well as the others. Its full
comprehension, however, requires something more
than what is usually called a scientific mind, and
comparatively few men of science seem capable of
entering on it with understanding. They for the
most part are content to look at a people from the
outside, forgetting the fact that the most powerful
factors in the evolution of a nation are intellectual
and spiritual.
The concluding part of the book deals with the
topography of the country, and is a valuable con-
tribution to the subject. Some useful maps are in-
cluded in the book, and a very complete table of con-
tents renders the various subjects very accessible.
We venture to hope that a new edition of the second
volume on the ‘‘ Industries of Japan ’’ will soon be
forthcoming, for, notwithstanding all the changes
which have taken place, the industrial Japan depicted
by Prof. Rein still, to a very large extent, remains,
and only from it can the real Japan be known.
Henry Dyer.
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
MAKING A PASTURE.
The Agricultural Changes required by these Times,
and Laying down Land to Grass. By R. H. Elliot.
Third edition, Pp. xxiii + 197. (Kelso: Ruther-
ford, 1905.)
R. ELLIOT and “ Elliot’s system ”’ and ‘‘ Elliot’s
mixtures ’? have been not a little before the
agricultural public during the last ten years or so,
but we have not before had the opportunity of read-
ing at length a full account of ‘‘ the system ’’ as set
out by the author.
Indeed, we doubt if we should have been very much
wiser now, so formless and discursive is the book, had
not the publishers been kind enough to provide a
synopsis for the guidance of the reviewer.
To put the matter briefly, Mr. Elliot farms some poor
high-lying land in the neighbourhood of Kelso, and
has found it profitable to adopt a system of laying it
down to grass for periods of four to six years, after
which it will carry two crops of turnips and two ol
cereals, in the last of which it is laid down again to
grass for another period. The essence of the system
is that with the usual grass seeds, or rather with a
grass mixture containing a large proportion of cocks-
foot and the coarse fescues instead of rye grass, a
considerable amount of chicory, burnet, sheep’s
parsley, kidney vetch, and other tap-rooted plants are
sown, although some of these, like the burnet and the
chicory, are regarded as undesirable weeds in many
parts of the country. Mr. Elliot claims that the deep
roots of these plants, by opening up and, on their
decay, aérating the subsoil, act as the most efficient
agents of cultivation and bring about a great ameliora-
tion in the texture of the soil. Further, he obtains a
good turf quickly and at little cost, so that when the
land comes under the plough again he can grow four
crops on the accumulated fertility without the use of
any manure.
It will be seen that the one point which can in any
way be held to distinguish Mr. Elliot’s from other
systems of temporary pastures is the use of chicory,
burnet, and similar plants in the grass mixtures. It
is probably a sound idea to introduce these deep-
rooting plants, though we should infinitely prefer the
equally deep-rooting but far more valuable sainfoin and
lucerne anywhere south of the Trent, yet it leaves us
wondering what all the coil is about. What is there.
so novel or so fundamental about the scheme thaf the
Board of Agriculture should have been expected tr
take up Mr. Elliot’s 1250 acres and by preaching on
that text revolutionise British agriculture? Mr.
Elliot’s system appears to have succeeded on his own
somewhat special soil and climate, but there is little
reason to suppose it would be equally suitable to the
bulk of our farming land. Indeed, we have only
Mr. Elliot’s opinion that it has succeeded in his own
case, for though he writes of the experiments on the
Clifton on Bowmont farm, of experiments in any rigid
sense we see notrace. We never read of comparative
results when one part of a field was sown with Elliot’s
mixtures, the other with an ordinary seedsman’s pre-
scription, nor have we any balance sheet setting out
| the financial returns from two fields, farmed one on
APRIL 27, 1905]
Mr. Elliot’s system, the other in the fashion followed
by any reasonable farmer in the district. In fact, the
book proves nothing more than that Mr. Elliot, by
using good seed and looking carefully after his grass
land, has improved his farm in his own opinion and
in that of various of his visitors ; otherwise the book is a
farrago of irresponsible talk, of hard words for agri-
cultural chemists and science generally, of diatribes
against the Board of Agriculture and everyone else
who does not see eye to eye with Mr. Elliot; it bears
every mark, in fact, of the work of the man with one
idea.
SOCIOLOGY.
Sociological Papers Published for the Sociological
Society. Pp. xviiit292. (London: Macmillan and
Co., Ltd., 1905.) Price ros. 6d.
HESE papers, the Tvansactions of the Sociological
Society, make known to the world what work
the society has done during the first year of its
existence, and explain the aim and scope of the work
it hopes to do in the future.
The first paper recounts the history of the word
sociology. After that we get to the fundamental
question of eugenics, ‘‘ the science which deals with
all the influences that improve the inborn qualities of
the race; also with those that develop them to the
utmost advantage.’’ Mr. Francis Galton, the author
of this paper, would have the principles of eugenics
‘“introduced into the national conscience, like a new
religion,’’ that so a fine race may be bred. The dis-
cussion that followed was very interesting. The
view held by most medical men who have reached
middle age was put without any qualification, the
view that we cannot attempt to deal with ‘‘a mass of
scientific questions affecting heredity,’’ but that we
must concentrate our attention on more practical
questions, such as the feeding of infants. Mr.
Archdall Reid, on the other hand, in a written
communication, brings out with admirable lucidity
the distinction between degeneracy properly so called
and the defective development of the individual.
These questions, both of them urgent, we must face.
“In the first place we must improve the conditions
under which the individual develops, and so make
him a fine animal. In the second place we must
endeavour to restrict as far as possible the marriage of
the physically and mentally unfit.” Mr. Reid might
have gone on to say that the former method without
the latter, the improvement of external conditions
without any check upon the multiplication of the
unfit, would merely hasten degeneration, as any
slackening in the stringency of natural selection must
inevitably do. Mr. Bateson declines to join in
investigations carried on by the ‘‘ actuarial ’’? method,
preferring experimental breeding with its more
definite results. But is it possible to experiment with
human beings?
Prof. Geddes, in his ‘ Civics,’’ recommends to
students a geographical survey of some river basin
in which is displayed the evolutionary process which,
beginning with ‘hunting desolations’’? on the hill-
NO. 1852, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
605
tops, culminates in some great manufacturing city
that darkens the heavens with its smoke. It is doubt-
ful how far this method can afford definitely practical
help in solving the problems of modern industrial:
society. Still, the historical method is capable of
imparting an interest to a science which to not a few
men is dismal, and certainly anything that can make
our great cities interesting is to be welcomed. Dr.
E. Westermarck investigates the position of woman
in early civilisation, showing that she was by no
means, as a rule, a slave and a nonentity, but he
owns that ‘‘ the condition of women or their relative
independence is by no means a safe gauge of the
culture of a nation.”” Mr. P. H. Mann follows with
a paper on “Life in an Agricultural Village in
England,”’ an investigation of the economic condition
of the inhabitants. He follows the method of Mr.
Charles Booth and Mr. Rowntree in the study of
city populations. Prof. Durkheim and Mr. Branford
discuss the relation of sociology to the social sciences
and to philosophy. Prof. Durkheim contends that
sociology is not a mere organisation of more
specialist sciences, but that it is capable of remodelling
them. Historians, for instance, and _ political
economists have already had to “reorient their
studies.”’
In conclusion, we must congratulate the Sociological
Society on its first year’s worl. Beyond the work
which can be definitely gauged there has been the
bringing together of men who hold very different
views, and of men who are attacking the same great
problem from different sides. F. W. H.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
First Report of the Wellcome Research Laboratories
at the Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. By
the Director, Andrew Balfour, M.D., B.Sc., &c.
(Khartoum: Department of Education, Sudan
Government, 1904.)
Tue Wellcome Research Laboratories of the Gordon
College, Khartoum, which were equipped by the
munificence of Mr. Henry S. Wellcome, have certainly
justified their existence, judging by the record of work
done during the year February, 1903, to February,
1904, as detailed in the report of the director, Dr.
Andrew Balfour.
The volume commences with a brief description of
the laboratories, after which follows an account of the
various researches that have been carried out in them.
Any medical director stationed where malaria is en-
demic and mosquitoes plentiful would at once direct
his attention to the distribution of the latter, and in-
stitute measures to diminish their prevalence. This
has been done by Dr. Balfour, and the first article is
devoted to a description of his observations and ad-
ministration in this respect. Of mosquitoes three
species are particularly numerous, C. fatigans, an
anophelina, P. costalis, and Stegomyia fasciata. Mos-
quito brigades have been organised, and anti-malarial
measures conducted on the lines recommended by Ross,
and there appears to be every probability that the
prevalence of mosquitoes will be greatly diminished in
Khartoum in the near future. Collections of mos-
quitoes have been received from various parts of
Egypt, the Sudan, and Abyssinia, and have been ex-
amined and named by Mr. Theobald, who contributes
an article descriptive of the species, many of which
605
NATURE
‘
:
(AvrIL 27, 1905
are new. Experiments were made on the use of an
anilin dye, chrysordine, for the extermination of mos-
suito larvae and pupae. It was found to act satis-
factorily in a dilution of 1 in 30,000, but for practical
purposes its use in this strength would be prohibitive
on account both of cost and of its yellow colour.
Biting and noxious insects other than mosquitoes 1s the
subject of the next article, the most interesting find
being G. morsitans, the tsetse fly which carries
nagana, on the Pongo River, Bahr-el-Ghazal, and a
few pages are devoted to insects and vegetable para-
sites injurious to crops, the most important being an
aphis destructive to the dura crop described by Mr.
Theobald as Aphis sorghi (nov. sp-).. Cyanogenesis,
hydrocyanic production, in the dura (Sorghum vulgare)
is another subject briefly dealt with, and of importance,
since considerable loss of horses and cattle has some-
times been occasioned thereby. The dura contains a
glucoside which yields hydrocyanic acid on decom-
position, the cause of which has been ascribed to abnor-
mal growth, but may be due to the dura aphis as
demonstrated by Dr. Balfour. ;
Lastly, the general routine work, pathological and
chemical, of the laboratories is summarised, some in-
teresting notes are given of the various diseases met
with in the Sudan, and the occurrence of eosinophilia
in Bilharzia disease and dracontiasis is discussed.
We congratulate Dr. Balfour on his first year’s
work contained in this report, which is copiously illus-
trated, some of the coloured plates of mosquitoes and
other insects being beautifully executed.
R. T. HEw_ett.
Till the Sun Grows Cold. By Maurice Grindon.
Pp. 113. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton,
Kent and Co., Ltd., 1904.) Price 2s. 6d. net.
Tuoucu this story is, so far as its main incidents
are concerned, of a familiar kind, it differs from
others in that several of the persons described are
interested in science. For instance, there is a Sir
John Harpur, who ‘was making important alter-
ations in his Observatory; he was an ardent
Astronomer, and F.R.A.S.”; Lady Harpur, again,
“had a love of flowers beyond that of a botanist,
although she was adept in the science’’; and the
hero, Ralph Hillary, at one time of his life had a
workroom ‘fin which he could follow up chemical
-and other researches to his heart’s content.’? More-
over, after Ralph takes as a second wife his early
sweetheart, they engage together in scientific re-
search, and discover a substance of. “ extraordinary
radio-activity’’ to which they give the
Helenium—after Ralph’s sister. We cannot say that
the author has been successful in blending fact and
fiction together so that one can scarcely be distin-
guished from the other; yet this art is essential to
the writer of scientific romance or romantic science.
A Short Introduction to the Theory of Electrolytic
Dissociation. By J. C. Gregory. Pp. 76. (Lon-
don: Longmans and Co., 1905.) Price 1s. 6d.
Turs is a useful little book for those students who,
after taking a course of systematic chemistry, wish
to know something of the behaviour of electrolytic
solutions. The language and mode of presentation
are simple, and although one might take exception to
many points of detail, the book, on the whole, should
prove a trustworthy guide. The headings of the four
chapters into which the book is divided afford a
sufficient indication of its contents :—chapter i., the
condition of dissolved substances; chapter ii., ions
and precipitation; chapter iii., hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions; chapter iv., electrolytic and general consider-
ations.
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
name |
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions
expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTuURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]
Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric.
Some time ago, when considering the assumption that
the ether inside a body is quite stationary when a body is
moved, and that in the application to Maxwell’s ethereal
equations this involves the use of a fixed time differenti-
ation for the ether, and a moving one for the matter, I
argued that the same applied not only to the electric
polarisation, as done by Lorentz and by Larmor, but also
to the magnetic polarisation. I told the late Prof.
FitzGerald that to make the extension seemed to be a sort
of categorical imperative. For it involves no assumption
as to how the magnetic polarisation is produced. At
the time I made the application to plane waves only.
Since then I have extended it to the general case. The
principal interest at present lies in the mechanical activity,
fundamentally involved in the question of the pressure of
radiation, and electromagnetic moving forces in general.
The results confirm the desirability of applying similar
reasoning to the magnetic and to the electric polarisation,
in so far as they are relatively simple, and cast light
upon the subject.
Thus, let M=VDB be the complete quasi-momentum
per unit volume, and M,=VD,B, the ethereal part. Then
if the velocity of the matter is u, and of the ether q, the
motional activity (in the absence of free electrification, or
variation of the electrical constants in space) comes to
Iu(d/at) + ¥(u.u }(M —™M,) + \a(d/dt) + 9(a.4)) My 5
or, in a more developed form,
ujd/dt4uy+Vu+V,. 1} (M —-M))+q{\d/dt+aV+Va+9,-a} Mp. (2)
Here the factor of u is the moving force on the matter, and
that of q the force on the ether. It will be seen that in
the material part we simply deduct that part of the
complete M which does not move with the matter. This
makes a great simplification of ideas. To avoid miscon-
ception, the vin (1) acts upon all that follows, whereas in
(2) the first v acts on the M’s, but the second and third
on the velocities only, as may be seen on comparison
with (1).
It is necessary, however, to point out distinctly the data
involved in the above, as the simplification comes about
in a special way. Divide the displacement D_ into
D,=c,E in the ether, and D,=c,£, in the matter, where
E,=E+e, and e=V(u—q)B,. Similarly, divide the in-
duction B into B),=”,H and B,=y,H,, where H,=H-+h, and
h=VD,(u—q). The electric energy is U,+U,=}&D,+
\E,D,, and the magnetic energy is T,+T,=}HB,+4H,B,.
Also, let there be four zolotropic pressures, of Maxwellian
type, say P,, P, electric, and Q,, Q, magnetic. E.g.
P,=U,—€,.D,, meaning a tension U, parallel to E, com-
bined with equal lateral pressure. The rest are similar.
Finally, the two circuital equations are
Vy(H —h, -h,)=D, V¥(E-e)—e,)=B, (3)
where the motional electric and magnetic forces are de-
fined by h,=VD,q, h,=VD,u, e,=VqB,, e,=VuB,. This
completes the data, and from them may be derived the
equation of activity
-7{\VBEH +q(U)+T)+ Po +Q,) +u(U, +7, + P; +Q))}
=U+T+ (Uplegign (Uyeda + (Ty /Ho) Ho +(Ty/my ey +Foa+Fyu, (4)
where F, and F, are the forces displayed in (2). The
meaning is that the left side of (4) is the convergence of
the flux of energy made up of the Poynting flux, the
convective flux, and the activity of the pressures, whilst
the right side shows the result in increasing the stored
energy and in work done upon the matter and ether, either,
both or neither, according to the size of the two velocities.
The terms involving ¢, &c., in (4) represent residual
activity which may be of different sorts. The commonest
is when the constants vary in space, especially at a
boundary. For example, ¢,=—uv.c, if c, does not vary
(1)
APRIL 27, 1905]
in the moving matter. This means a moving force
—(U,/c,)ve,. But if there is compression, c, probably
always varies intrinsically as well.
It will be found that the omission of the auxiliary: h
has the result of complicating instead of simplifying the
force formule. Similarly the omission of e complicates
them. Now the use of e is founded upon the idea that
the electric polarisation is produced by a separation of
ions under the action of £, for E, is the moving force on
a moving unit electric charge. Analogously h, is the
moving force on a moving unit magnetic charge or
magneton. If there are really no such things, the inter-
pretation must be made equivalent in other terms. But
the categorical imperative is not ‘easily to be overcome.
The application to plane waves I described in a recent
letter (NATURE, March 9) will be found to harmonise with
the above in the special case.
But a correction is needed. In the estimation of the
moving force on “ glass’ receiving radiation, the assump-
tion was made that the electric and magnetic energies in
the transmitted wave were equal. So the result is strictly
limited by that condition. The conditions E=wB and
U=T are not coextensive in general, though satisfied
together in Lorentz’s case. When U not =T, we have
instead of (8), p. 439,
p,y— p,0— pw =w(T, = U,),
and the rate of loss of electromagnetic energy is
2uH,H,u+(w—u)(T,—U,).
Now this is zero when e=o, or the polarisation is pro-
portional to the electric force. The question is raised how
to discriminate, according to the data stated above, between
cases of loss of energy and no loss. ‘To answer this ques-
tion, let e and h in the above be unstated in form; else
ae same. Then, instead of (4), the activity equation
will be
~VWH=U FT + {hE%(dcy/0t) +...} + (fa + £,u) — (eT, +hG,), (5)
where W is as in (4), whilst #, and #, are the forces
derived from the stresses specified (not the same as F, and
F,), and J,, G, are the electric and magnetic polarisation
currents, thus, J,=D,+-Vvh,, &c. It follows that it is
upon e and h that the loss of energy depends in plane
waves, when uw and q are constant. For the stresses
reduce to longitudinal pressures, so that by line integration
along a tube of energy flux we get
3(eJ, +4G,)=3(U +T). (6)
Thus, when a pulse enters moving glass from stationary
ether, the rate of loss of energy is 3(—eJ,). If e is zero,
so is the loss, as in the special case above. There is also
agreement with the calculated loss in the other case.
That the moving force on the glass should be controlled
by e is remarkable, for it is merely the small difference
between the electric force on a fixed and a moving unit
charge. The theory is not final, of course. If the electro-
magnetics of the ether and matter could be made very
simple, it would be a fine thing; but it does not seem
probable. OLIVER HEAVISIDE.
April 5.
The Dynamical Theory of Gases.
In a letter to Nature (April 13) Lord Rayleigh makes a
criticism on my suggested explanation of the well known
difficulty connected with the specific heats of a gas. He
considers a gas bounded by a perfectly reflecting enclosure,
and says ‘‘ the only effect of the appeal to the «ther is to
bring in an infinitude of new modes of vibration, each of
which, according to the law (of equipartition), should have
its full share of the total energy.”’
The apparent difficulty was before my mind when
writing my book. Indeed, as Lord Rayleigh remarks,
something of the kind had already been indicated by Max-
well. (I think the passage to which Lord Rayleigh refers
will be found in the ‘‘ Coll. Works,”’ ii., p. 433 :—‘‘ Boltz-
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATURE
607
mann has suggested that we are to look for the explanation
in the mutual action between the molecules and the
zethereal medium which surrounds them. I am_ afraid,
however, that if we call in the help of this medium, we
shall only increase the calculated specific heat, which is
already too great.’’) It seemed to me, however, that the
difficulty was fully met by the numerical results arrived at
in chapter ix. of my book. ;
Suppose, to make the point at issue as definite as
possible, we take a sample of air from the atmosphere,
say at 15° C. Almost all the energy of this gas will be
assignable to five degrees of freedom—so far as we know,
three of translation and two of rotation. Let us surround
this gas by an imaginary perfectly reflecting boundary.
The total energy of matter and ether inside this enclosure
will remain unaltered through all time, but this total
energy may be divided conveniently into two parts :—
(r The energy of the five degrees of freedom, say A.
i The energy of the remaining degrees of freedom of
the matter plus the energy of the «ther, say B.
As Lord Rayleigh insists, the system is now a con-
servative system, so that according to the law of equi-
partition, the total energy A+B is, in the final state of
the gas, divided in the ratio
A:B=5:0 (1)
whereas observation seems to suggest that the ratio ought
to retain its initial value
A: B=5:0 (2)
This I fully admit, but a further point, which I tried to
bring out in the chapter already mentioned, is that the
transition from the ratio (2) to the ratio (1) is very slow
—if my calculations are accurate, millions of years would
hardly suffice for any perceptible change—so that, although
(1) may be the true final ratio, it is quite impossible to
obtain experimental evidence of it.
If the sample of gas were initially at a much higher
temperature than we have supposed, the transition would
undoubtedly be much more rapid; but even here we could
not hope for experimental verification. For the assumed
boundary, impervious to all forms of energy and itself
possessing none, cannot be realised in practice, and as
soon as the energy of the enclosed ther becomes appreci-
able, the imperfections of our apparatus would become of
paramount importance in determining the sequence of
events. J. H. Jeans.
Growth of a Wave-group when the Group-velocity is
Negative.
Tue following may be of interest in connection with the
recent discussion on the flow of energy in such cases.
Let the energy of an element of a linearly arranged
mechanical system be
\(d2y/dxdl)? +y"\dx/2.
Such a system can be approximately realised by talking
a bicycle chain, loading it so that the radius of gyration
of each link has the same large value, and suspending it
by equal threads attached to each link so that the chain
is horizontal and the axes of the links vertical. By the
principle of least action we immediately find the equation
of motion to be d‘y/dx*dt?=y. A simple harmonic wave
is given by y=sin(pt—x/p). The group velocity is pe,
and is negative. Let such a system, extending from x=o
to x=, be at rest in its position of equilibrium at time
t=o, and then let the point x=o be moved so that its posi-
tion at any subsequent time is given by y=1—cost.
By application of the usual method vid Fourier’s in-
tegral, the motion of the system is found to be given by
either of the equivalent formulz
Y= =X - 1)"(t/4)"* Jon p02 (tx),
or
y= t—cos(t +x) — 1+ 2(—1)"(x/t)"Jon2 J (lx),
where the J’s are Bessel’s functions and the summations -
extend from n=o to n=#. There are some doubtful
608
points in the reasoning, however, and the proof consists
in showing (1) that y satisfies the differential equation,
(2) from the second formula that y=1—cos t when x=o,
(3) from the first formula that y and dy/dt are both zero
when t=o0, (4) from the first formula.that when t¢ is finite
y is small for all large values of x. If, now, x is finite
and t great, the second formula reduces to y=—cos(t+<),
so that the motion now consists entirely of waves pro-
ceeding towards the source of the disturbance—a most re-
markable result. If in the formule for y we change the
sign of x, the J functions are replaced by I functions.
The resulting value of y does not satisfy (4), and cannot
be accepted as a solution of the problem.
: H. C. Pockincton.
The Transposition of Zoological Names.
AmonG the many radical changes in zoological nomen-
‘clature proposed of late years, none appear to me more
open to objection than those where names which have
long been in general use for particular species or groups
are transferred to others on the ground that they were
originally applied to the latter. One of the earliest of such
transpositions was suggested by Prof. Newton, of Cam-
bridge, who urged that Strix is not the proper generic
designation of the barn-owl, and that while this species
‘should be called Aluco flammeus, the tawny owl should
take the generic title Strix, as S. aluco. I find, however,
that this emendation is not accepted in the British Museum
““ Hand-list of Birds,’’ where the barn-owl figures under its
familiar title of Strix flammea. Uniformity is not, there-
fore, attained by this proposal.
Another instance occurs in the case of the walrus, which
was long known as Trichechus rosmarus, until systematists
‘discovered that the generic title refers properly to the
manati, to which animal they transferred the name.
Again, the Simia satyrus of Linnaeus is now stated to be
the chimpanzi, and not the orang-utan, and consequently
Simia is made to stand for the latter instead of for the
former. As a fourth example of this transference of a
familiar generic name may be cited the case of the mar-
mosets of the genus Hapale, to which it is now proposed
to apply the title Chrysothrix, despite its practically
immemorial use as the designation of the titi monkeys.
As an example of the transference of a species name, it
will suffice to take the case of the African antelope com-
monly known as the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx). This
name, it is stated, properly belongs to the Arabian Beatrix
oryx, te which it is accordingly proposed that it should be
transferred, after being so long used for the former animal.
Personally, I am very strongly of opinion that such
transpositions should not on any account be permitted, and
that when a species or genus has been known by a par-
ticular name for a period of, say, fifty years, this should,
ipso facto, give such an indefeasible title to that name
(altogether irrespective of its original application) as to
bar its transference to any other group or species. It
may, indeed, be deemed advisable that, as in the case of
the walrus, the old name should not be retained in the
generally accepted sense, but, if so, it should be altogether
discarded, and not transferred. The practice of trans-
ferring names must, if persisted in, inevitably lead to much
unnecessary confusion without the slightest compensating
advantage. Indeed, it will render such works as Darwin’s
“Origin of Species’? and Wallace’s ‘‘ Geographical Dis-
tribution of Animals,’’ which are certain to live as bio-
logical classics, absolutely misleading to the next gener-
ation unless special explanatory glossaries are supplied.
Advanced systematists urge that those who refuse to
follow their lead in this and other kindred emendations in
nomenclature are not only old-fashioned and behind the
times, but that they are absolutely doing their best to
hinder the progress of zoological science. This, however,
is but the opinion of a comparatively small (and, shall we
say, somewhat prejudiced ?) section. What we really want
is the opinion of all those interested in zoology and
natural history, namely, professional zoologists, palmonto-
logists, geologists, physiologists, anatomists, zoogeo-
graphers, amateur naturalists, and sportsmen. If the
general consensus of opinion of all these were on the side
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATURE
i
[APRIL 27, 1905
of the proposed changes, and of others of a similar
type, then, and then only, I venture to think, could they
be regarded as obligatory.
It may be added that the use of combinations, which
Mr. Stebbing has felicitously designated ‘‘ comicalities in
nomenclature,’’ of the type of Anser anser and asinus
asinus (or, still worse, Asinus asinus asinus, which is a
possible contingency), is rapidly tending to discredit the
common sense of scientific zoologists among matter-of-fact
men of the world. R. LyDEKKER.
A little known Property of the Gyroscope.
To my surprise I have found that the property of the
gyroscope which I am about to describe, although perfectly
elementary, appears to be little known to either physicists
or astronomers. Neither is it mentioned in the text-books
so far as I am aware. That it has a very important bear-
ing on the mechanism of the solar system has been shown
in some of my earlier papers, but the laws which govern
the rotation and the simple facts themselves seem to be so
little understood that I have thought it worth while to
explain them more fully in this place.
If a gyroscope is mounted on gimbals so that it may
shift its plane of rotation freely about an axis passing
through the plane of the revolving disc, we shall find it
is possessed of certain curious properties. To most persons
the notable characteristic of a gyroscope is the resistance
it offers to any force tending to change the plane of its
rotation. This is true of it only, however, in case certain
conditions are complied with. If these conditions are
neglected, it will change its plane with the greatest facility.
If the wheel is properly balanced and mounted as above
described, and we set it spinning, it will continue to
rotate in one plane without change until it stops. Sup-
pose that while it is spinning we set it upon a table, and
cause the stand supporting it to revolve slowly about its
vertical axis. Instantly the wheel will adjust itself so as
to revolve in a plane parallel to the surface of the table.
Furthermore, the direction of rotation of the wheel upon
its axis will be the same as the direction of rotation of
the stand. If we turn the stand in the opposite direction
the wheel will at once shift its plane, and turn over, so
as again to rotate in the same direction as the stand.
Another way of showing the experiment is to hold the
stand supporting the gyroscope at arm’s length. The
observer then slowly revolves upon his heels, first in one
direction and then in the other. Each time the observer
shifts his own direction of motion the gyroscope will shift
its plane, and always in such a manner that its direction
of rotation shall be parallel and in the same direction as
its revolution in its orbit.
It is a well known fact that according to the nebular
hypothesis all the planets should have rotated in a direc-
tion opposite to that of their revolution in their orbits, just
as Neptune does at the present time. This is because by
Kepler’s laws the inner edge of a revolving ring must
necessarily move faster than the outer edge. The fact that
Neptune is the only planet that even approximately fulfils
this condition has always been a source of trouble to the
adherents of the nebular hypothesis. No one has ever
even attempted to explain the anomalous rotation of
Uranus, in a plane practically perpendicular to the plane
of its orbit.
The interesting property of rotating bodies illustrated
above in the case of the gyroscope, and fully explained by
its theory, now at once makes the matter perfectly clear.
In the case of the planetary bodies, the force rotating the
stand of the gyroscope is supplied by the annual tide raised
upon the planets by the sun. In former times, when the
planets were large diffuse bodies, this tidal foree was of
considerable importance. Neptune, however, is so remote
from the sun that the tidal influence upon it has always
been small. The plane of its rotation, therefore, has been
but slightly shifted from that of its orbit—about 35°.
Uranus being nearer the sun has had its plane shifted
nearly half-way over, or through 82°. The plane of rota-
tion of Saturn has been shifted through 153°, while that
of Jupiter has suffered a nearly complete reversal, and the
planet now revolves approximately in the plane of its
‘Saturn, the other from Saturn
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE
609
orbit. The deviation amounts to but 3°, and its plane of
rotation has therefore shifted through 177°.
The explanation of the retrograde rotation of Phcebe is
now also clear. Phoebe, the first-born of Saturn’s
numerous retinue, came into being while the planet itself
still retained its original plane of rotation, that is, while
it was still revolving in a retrograde direction. Before
Iapetus, Saturn’s second satellite, reckoning from without
inwards, was created, the mighty tides acting upon the
planet in its then diffuse condition had shifted its plane of
rotation more than go°. Two forces then acted on the
plane of the orbit of the new satellite, one from the sun
tending to bring the orbit into the plane of the orbit of
tending to bring the orbit
of the satellite into the plane of the equator of its primary.
At first both forces tended to produce the same result,
namely, to diminish the angle of inclination of the plane
of the orbit of the satellite. They are now pulling in
opposite directions, as is the case with our own moon, the
inclination of the orbit of Iapetus, 19°, being less than
that of the equatorial plane of its primary.
The inner satellites of Saturn are more powerfully
affected by the equatorial expansion of the planet than by
the action of the sun, the planes of their orbits, 27°, coin-
ciding nearly with the plane of the planet’s equator.
Witiiam H. PIcKERING.
Harvard Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Have Chemical Compounds a Definite Critical
Temperature and Pressure of Decomposition ?
So far nobody seems to have considered the question
whether to every chemical compound there exists a definite
critical temperature and pressure of decomposition. Yet
I think the following considerations show that such con-
stants probably do exist. Suppose we place a given com-
pound (say CaCO,) in a closed cylinder and subject it to
a continually increasing temperature, keeping the pressure
constant by means of a weighted piston. Then at a
certain definite temperature range the compound will begin
to decompose. Suppose, now, we increase the pressure
sufficiently ; then the decomposition ceases, and the sub-
stance can now bear a higher temperature than before
without decomposition.
Proceeding in this way, it is, I think, obvious from the
finite nature of the mass of the atoms, and from the
limited intensity of the forces holding them together in
the molecule, that ultimately at some definite finite
temperature the external forces tending to drive the atoms
apart will become equal to the maximum internal forces
that the atoms can exert on each other in the molecule.
It therefore follows that above a certain definite tempera-
ture, depending upon the nature of the molecule, no
pressure, however great, can prevent the substance from
completely decomposing. This temperature and pressure,
above which a compound is incapable of existing, we will
call the critical temperature and pressure of decomposition
of the compound. The critical temperature and pressure of
decomposition would therefore be completely analogous to
the critical temperature of liquefaction of a compound—
only in the latter case we are dealing with the temperature
whereat a certain molecular condition of existence dis-
appears, and in the former case with the temperature
whereat a certain atomic condition of existence disappears.
Since atoms are a very much more finely divided form
of matter than molecules, it is clear that the critical
temperature of decomposition of a compound must be a
very much sharper and clear-cut constant than its critical
temperature of liquefaction. The critical temperature and
pressure of even very unstable compounds is usually very
high, provided there exist but a few atoms in the molecule.
For example, AuCl,, ozone, and the oxides of nitrogen,
although very unstable at ordinary temperatures, seem
capable of existing at very high temperatures. In general,
the greater the number of atoms contained in the molecule
the lower the critical temperature of decomposition, as is
evident from the general observation that the more com-
plex a compound is the easier it is to decompose. Many
|
of the very complex carbon compounds—for example, the
NO. 1852, vor. 71]
proteids—have, on account of their complexity, critical
temperatures of decomposition which lie very close to the
normal temperature of the earth’s surface.
If, now, by some means we proceed to add on atoms
to such a molecule so as to make it more and more com-
plex, we would steadily lower its critical temperature of
decomposition, and by adding on a suitable kind and
number of atoms we could reduce the critical temperature
and pressure of the compound until they coincided with
the normal temperatures and pressures which hold upon
the earth’s surface. Such a compound would be possessed
of an extraordinary sensitiveness to external influences on
account of the sharpness of the constants called above the
critical temperature and pressure of the compound. The
slightest increase of temperature or decrease of pressure
would serve to throw it into a condition of rapid chemical
decomposition, whereas a slight increase of pressure and
decrease of temperature would cause it to cease to de-
compose. Even did we maintain the external temperature
and pressure exactly at the critical temperature and
pressure of the compound, nevertheless the external im-
pulses which are continuously pervading all space in the
neighbourhood of the solar system, beating intermittently
upon the sensitive substance, would be sufficient to throw
it into a series of rapidly alternating states of decomposi-
tion and repose.
I suggest that the temperature range of animal life is
probably nothing more or less than the range of the critical
temperatures of decomposition of a series of certain very
complex carbon compounds which are grouped together
under the name ‘‘ protoplasm,’’ the external pressure of
the atmosphere coinciding roughly with their critical
pressures of decomposition. In fact, I suggest that just
as a tuning-fork is set into motion by vibrations of a
certain definite frequency and by no others, so living
matter is so constructed as to respond continuously to the
incessant minute fluctuations in the external conditions
which hold upon the earth, the state of response being
what is known as life. The temperature of animal life
keeps remarkably constant, as it should do on our sup-
position, a temperature too high exceeding the critical
temperature of decomposition of living matter and so
destroying its structure, while a temperature too low causes
it to cease to decompose, and the living matter becomes
inactive. GEOFFREY MartTIN.
University of Kiel, April 4.
[Tue writer of the above will see his ‘‘ suggestion ’’ dis-
cussed in Lockyer’s ‘* Inorganic. Evolution,’’ book iii.—
Ep. Nature.]
Experiment on Pressure due to Waves.
I HAVE seen both in the Physikalische Zeitschrift
(January) and in the Physical Review (February) an
account of an experiment by Prof. R. W. Wood to demon-
strate the pressure due to waves, and which he suggests
as a lecture demonstration of the effect observed by
Lebedeff and by Nichols and Hull. The same experiment
is quoted by Prof. Poynting in his address on this subject
to the Physical Society of London (Phil. Mag., April). I
venture to suggest that the experiment, which consists in
setting a small windmill in motion by means of Leyden
jar discharges maintained by a transformer, will bear a
different explanation. It was shown long ago (1793) by
Kinnersley, of Philadelphia, in his ‘* Electrical Thermo-
meter,’’ that a jar discharge produces in air a violent ex-
plosive effect, which we should now explain by the re-
pulsion between constituents of the current in opposite
phase to one another. The repulsive force may be very
great. I think it is this explosive effect that Prof. Wood
shows in the experiment, and not the pressure due to reflec-
tion of a continuous train of waves. I do not think that
the suggestion is new, but it appears to me that the same
cause may account for the disruption which occurs when
lightning strikes a building, an instance of which is re-
corded in Nature of April 13 (p. 565) in the displacement
of some of the blocks of the small pyramid.
SIDNEY SKINNER.
South-Western Polytechnic, Chelsea, April 15.
610
TANTALUM.
a HE application of electricity to chemical problems
has again borne fruit in the isolation and pre-
paration of tantalum. Dr. Werner von Bolton, of
the firm of Siemens and Halske, published the results
of his very interesting research upon the preparation
of tantalum in the Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochemie
(January 20). Although the existence of tantalum
was pointed out by Hatchett in 1801, it does not
appear up to the present to have been prepared in
the pure condition. Moissan, indeed, in 1902 pre-
pared the metal by reducing tantalic oxide (Ta,O,)
in the electric furnace. But the metal was extremely
hard and brittle, a property which Dr. Bolton now
shows only belongs to the impure product; Moissan’s
metal probably contained some carbide. Dr. Bolton
has succeeded in obtaining the metal by an electrical
and by a chemical method.
The Electrolytic Method.
As is well known, Nernst found that when a thin
rod of magnesia (MgO) is heated to whiteness it
becomes able to conduct the electric current, the
magnesia being split up into its components, mag-
nesium and oxygen; the magnesium, however,
immediately re-combines with oxygen, the process of
electrolysis therefore becoming continuous. Other
metallic oxides, such as zirconium, ytterbium,
thorium, calcium, and aluminium, &c., likewise be-
have in a similar manner.
nesium is strongly heated in vacuum and the electric
current passed through it, the oxygen given off is so
dilute that re-combination does not take place, and
the rod becomes powdered. Dr. Bolton, working
along somewhat similar lines, found that the coloured
or lower oxides of vanadium, niobium (columbium),
and tantalum will conduct the electric current with-
out the necessity of being heated to very high
temperatures. Strange to say, the colourless or
higher oxides have not this property.
In order to prepare tantalum in this manner a
filament of the brown tantalum tetroxide (Ta,O,) was
prepared and fixed into’ an evacuated globe, which
was connected with a vacuum pump, so that if oxygen
was given off, on heating, it could be pumped out.
On passing a current through this filament, at first
the two ends of the filament became white hot, and
then gradually the incandescence travelled along the
filament until the whole of it became incandescent.
A large quantity of oxygen was given out, and the
filament, which at the commencement was brown,
became metallic grey. The tantalum so obtained
showed on analysis a purity of 99 per cent.
The Chemical Method.
Details as to how the chemical method is carried
out are not given. Dr. Bolton simply says that the
metal can be obtained by fusing a mixture of potas-
sium tantalum fluoride with potassium by means of
the electric arc furnace in a vacuum. This method
is a modification of that used by Berzelius in 1824.
Properties of the Metal.
_ One of the most remarkable properties of the metal
1s its extreme ductility combined with extraordinary
hardness. The red-hot metal can readily be rolled
into sheets and foil, and easily drawn into wire.
When the sheet is again heated and hammered it
becomes so extremely hard that it was found im-
possible, by means of a diamond drill, to bore a hole
through a sheet 1 mm. thick. The drill, rotating
5000 times to the minute, was worked day and night
NO. 1852, VOL. 71 |
NATURE
If, now, a rod of mag- |
[APRIL 27, 1905
for three days, and at the end of the time had only
made a depression 0.25 mm. deep, while the diamond
| of the drill was very much worn. This property may
very probably lead to its being used for drills in pface
| of the diamond.
The metal melts between 2250° and 2300°. The
atomic heat agrees with the law of Dulong and Petit,
| being 6.64. The specific gravity is 14.08. When two
electrodes of tantalum are placed in a bath of dilute
sulphuric acid, the tantalum becomes passive, and
even with an E.M.F. of 220 volts at the terminals
no current passes. When placed opposite an electrode
of platinum only one phase of an alternating current
passes; it may thus be used for rectifying an alter-
nating current in the same manner that aluminium
can.
In the form of wire, sheet or ingots, the metal is
unacted upon by sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric
acid, and even by aqua regia.
Hydrofluoric acid reacts very
slowly, unless the metal is in
contact with platinum, for
example, in a platinum dish,
when it dissolves readily with
evolution of hydrogen. Fused
alkalis have no action upon it.
When made the kathode in
an acid electrolyte it absorbs
hydrogen, which is only par-
tially given up, even when
the metal is fused. The metal
may be heated to red heat in
the air without taking fire.
At 400° it turns slightly
yellow, at a low red heat it
turns blue, and finally be-
comes coated with a white
protective coating of the pent-
oxide. It absorbs nitrogen at
a white heat, and unites with
sulphur when melted with it
under fused _ potassium
chloride. Tantalum appar-
ently forms no amalgam with mercury, although it
produces alloys with most other metals. When united
with 1 per cent. of carbon it becomes hard and brittle,
and can no longer be drawn into wire.
As already stated, the original idea in working with
tantalum was to find a new material to be used for
incandescent electric lamps. The first experiments
were tried with the oxides of vanadium and niobium
(columbium); the coloured or lower oxides of these
metals were found to conduct the current and to give
up their oxygen when thus heated in vacuum.
Vanadium so obtained was found to melt at 1680°
and niobium at 1950°; but owing to these compara-
tively low melting points they could not satisfactorily
be employed for electric lighting purposes. Tantalum,
however, which melts between 2250° and 2300°, has
been successfully employed for this purpose by Messrs.
Siemens and Halske.
Filaments of the metallic tantalum are fused into
a globe, which is then evacuated in the usual manner.
The first lamp was made with the usual bow-shaped
filament, and required 0.58 ampere with a pressure
of 9 volts, giving 3 candle-power. It was then found
that in order to produce a 22 candle-power lamp suit-
able to being placed on a r1o-volt circuit more than
20 inches length of filament was required. The diffi-
culty presented was to get this great length of fila-
ment conveniently into the ordinary sized globe. The
illustration (taken from the Electrical Magazine for
March) shows how the difficulty was got over. The
central support is a rod of glass, having a number of
wires radiating from it to act as supports. This
Fic. 1.—View of Tantalum
Lamp. Half-size linear.
evidence of ramparts long
APRIL 27, 1905 |
NATURE
611
lamp gives 22 candle-power with an energy consump-
tion of 1-7 watt per candle-power, or about half that
required by the ordinary incandescent lamp. The
weight of a single filament is 0.022 gram, so that
1 kilogram of metal would be sufficient for. 45,000
such lamps.
Whether it will be possible to obtain sufficient
mineral to produce tantalum on a really large scale
remains to be seen, because if it is possible there
should be hardly an end to the usefulness of this
metal, which possesses the properties ductility and
hardness in such an extraordinary degree, leaving
‘entirely out of question its employment in electric
lamps. - F. Mottwo PERKIN.
PRIMITIVE WATER-SUPPLY.'
{pe mighty earthworks that still crown so many
of our hills fill the archeologist alike with
wonder and despair—wonder that prehistoric man,
with the most primitive tools, was equal to the task
of raising them, and despair
that so little can ever be
known about them, despite
the most laborious and
costly excavation. Plenty of
books, however, of the kind
now under notice would do
much to solve the mystery
and increase our admiration
for Neolithic man, for it is
to the period before bronze
was known in Britain that
the authors assign the stu-
pendous works of Cissbury
and Chanctonbury on the
South Downs.
This is an open-air book
that gives life to the dry
bones of archeology, and
reads like the record of a
well-spent holiday. A keen
eye for country is one of the
qualifications possessed by
one or both the authors, and
since levelled is wrung from
the very daisies as_ they
grow. The construction of
dew-ponds by the early in-
habitants of Britain has
often been glibly asserted,
but few, if any, have fur-
nished such clear and cir-
cumstantial evidence as the
authors of this short treatise. The
for the occupants of our huge prehistoric
has always been somewhat of a mystery, and it
has been suggested that they were only tem-
porary refuges, when the country was “‘up,’’ so
that a permanent supply was not regarded as a
necessity. But the watering of men and animals on
Fic
water-supply
** camps ”’
the scale indicated by the areas enclosed would be a |
|
|
|
|
1.—Cattle-ways leading down to Dew-pond at the North of Cissbury Ring.
formidable task even for a day, and another explana- |
tion must be sought. The late General Pitt-Rivers,
for example, held that the water-level of the combes |
was higher then than now, and streams would have
been plentiful on the slopes; but, feeling the
inadequacy of this view, he also had recourse to the
dew-pond theory. To those familiar with
process, this might seem an obvious expedient, but
the interesting account given of the formation of
1 “Neolithic Dew-ponds and Cattle-ways.”
Hubbard. Pp. x+69; illustrated. (London:
1995.) Price 35. 6d. net.
O. 1852, VOL. 71 |
By A. J. Hubbard and G.
Longmans, Green and Co.,
the |
such reservoirs might make us chary of crediting
prehistoric man with such scientific methods.
An exposed position innocent of springs was
selected, and straw or some other non-conductor of
heat spread over the hollowed surface. This was
next covered with a thick layer of well puddled clay,
which was closely strewn with stones. The pond
would gradually fill, and provide a constant supply
of pure water, due to condensation during the night
of the warm, moist air from the ground on the
surface of the cold clay. Evaporation during the day
is less rapid than this condensation, and the only
danger is that the straw should be sodden by leakage.
It is for this reason that springs or drainage from
higher ground are avoided, as running w ater would
cut into the clay crust.
Some ponds of this kind, no doubt of very early and
perhaps of Neolithic date, may still be seen in w orking
order: others are of modern construction; but to and
from the ancient dew-ponds (or their sites) can some-
times be traced the hillside tracks along which the
From Hubbards
“Neolithic Dew-ponds and Cattle-ways.’
the camp, or
watering-place,
driven, one leading from
hard by, to the
herds were
cattle-enclosure
| another leading back, to avoid confusion on the road.
These and other details as to guard-houses and posts
of observation are brought to our notice in the
description of selected strongholds in Sussex and
Dorset; and verification, if, indeed, such is demanded,
must be sought on the spot by any who have doubts
or rival theories.
The banks, that enclosed pasture-areas
of vast extent, were no doubt stockaded
and beast, and may be compared with
court defences of the Norman burh; but the excavator
of Wansdyke had an alternative theory that such
banks were sometimes erected for driving game.
Incidentally, the authors discountenance the view that
the ‘“‘camps,’’ not fo mention the outworks, were
ever efficiently manned. Their extent would
necessitate for this duty a vast number of fighting
men within call.
sometimes
against man
the base-
612
NATURE
[APRIL 27, 1905
Possibly, in a few instances, the ridges on the
hill-slopes may be due to outcropping strata, and
others might suggest terrace-cultivation; but there
seems ample evidence for the view taken that
Neolithic cattle-tracks have survived to this day
around certain of our most imposing ‘‘ camps.”
Failing large-scale maps, a sketch-plan of the
earthworks noticed would have made the description
even more illuminating ; but the only matters of com-
plaint are that the book is all too short, and that the
paper selected to throw up the detail of the photo-
graphs is as chalky as the Downs they illustrate so
pleasantly.
HENRY BENEDICT VEE DETCOT T= PIR S-
O* April 6 there passed away one of the few
survivors amongst the small body of men who
laid the foundations of Indian geology. Despite
much excellent work, chiefly by non-professional men,
very little was really known of the geology of India,
and especially of Peninsular India, before the middle
of the nineteenth century, and as one _ instance
amongst many, the Vindhyans, now believed to be
Archean, were still classed with Gondwana Permo-
Carboniferous strata, and both were regarded as of
Jurassic age. A comparison of Dr. Carter’s
““Summary of the Geology of India between the
Ganges, the Indus and Cape Comorin,’’ published in
1853, with the ‘“ Manual of the Geology of India,”
issued in 1879, will show the great improvement that
took place in the meantime in our knowledge of the
country.
In this change none had a larger share than Henry
Benedict Medlicott. Born in Loughrea,
county
Galway, he was the second of three sons of the Rey.
Samuel Medlicott, rector of Loughrea, and of Char-
lotte, the daughter of Colonel H. B. Dolphin, C.B.
All three sons were men of great intellectual capacity
and of marked originality. The eldest, J. G. Medli-
cott, became a member of the Geological Survey of
India before his brother joined; he was subsequently
in the Indian Educational Service, and died in 1866.
The third brother, Samuel, was a clergyman, who
has also been dead several years. The subject of the
present memoir was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, and, after taking his degree, was for a short
time on the staff, first of the Irish, then of the
English Geological Survey. In the spring of 1853
he joined the Geological Survey of India under the
late Dr. Thomas Oldham, but was almost immedi-
ately appointed professor of geology at the Roorkee
College of Civil Engineering, an appointment which
he held until 1862, when, on some additions being
made to the staff, he re-joined the Geological Survey
of India, and was made deputy superintendent for
Bengal.
But during his tenure of the
part of the year surveying for the Geological Survey,
and in his first season’s work he and his brother
made a_ primary step towards the elucidation of
Indian geological history by separating the ancient
Vindhyans north of the Son and Nerbudda_ Rivers
from the Indian Coal-measures and their allies to the
southward. In subsequent years, whilst his brother
mapped the last named strata, he surveyed the older
Vindhyans and their associates, and to him we owe
our first recognition of the Bijawur and other ancient
Roorkee post he spent
rocks between the old gneissic formation and the
Vindhyans. In other years he explored the Hima-
layas, and the ranges at their base, between the
Ganges and the Ravi, and he drew up the descrip-
tion of the older unfossiliferous beds of the moun-
tains, and of the Tertiary and other strata fringing
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
their base, which was published in the third volume
of the Indian Memoirs. This contains a sketch of
the history of the Himalayas which has been generally
accepted ever since.
After returning to the survey in 1862 (he always
protested that he really had remained a member of
the staff throughout), he examined in successive years
the greater part of northern India. Various tracts
of the Himalayas from the Punjab to Assam, the
Assam valley and the hill ranges south of it, and, in
the Peninsula, Rajputana, Nimar, the Nerbudda
valley and Satpura ranges, Bundelkhand, South
Rewah, Chhatisgarh and Sambalpur, Chota Nagpore,
Hazaribagh, and Behar were visited and reported
upon in turn. :
Dr. Oldham retired in 1876, and Mr. Medlicott
succeeded him as superintendent, a title subsequently
changed to director of the survey. The first work
undertaken by him as superintendent was a general
account of Indian geology. This had long been
urgent, and would probably have been written by Dr.
Oldham but for failing health. The “* Manual of the
Geology of India’ was published in 1879, and a very
large portion, including the account of the Azoic
rocks from gneiss to Vindhyans (which between
them cover the greater part of the Indian peninsula),
and of the geology of the Himalayas and sub-Hima-
layas, in fact, nearly half the entire work, was
written by Mr. Medlicott himself. In many ways a
great impulse was given to survey work by the Ae
superintendent. As regards publication alone, the
volumes of the Records from 1877 are doubled in
bullk when compared with previous issues, and these
volumes, containing accounts of recent geological
observations, both economical and scientific, represent
the actual field work of ibe soa to a larger extent
an the longer memoirs and palzontologia.
a tes his career as head of the survey Mr.
Medlicott adopted a most liberal policy of pepe
He allowed his staff to report on their own work
freely, and whilst assisting them in every way, both
in the field and in the study, he never took any of
the credit of their work. Not only did he Ace
reports from the geologists of the survey, but he
published, whenever possible, contributions from in
dependent observers. In this manner he secured the
valuable assistance of the late General McMahon, the
whole of whose most important observations on ae
physical history of the Himalayas appeared in the
Records of the Geological Survey of India. ;
Modest and retiring, he was nevertheless a man 0
high courage and independence. One trait of this
was shown in the Indian Mutiny, when, with one
companion, despite the mutiny of the guard ee
should have accompanied them, he saved the lives ve
a Christian family who had fallen into the hands o
the rebels, a most gallant action, the account of which
is due to Colonel Baird Smith, the head of Roorkee
College and the commanding officer. After retiring
from the Indian Survey in 1887, he lived very quietly
at Clifton, devoting himself to philosophical problems.
He published a_ couple of short pamphlets on
““Nonosticism and Faith’’ in 1888, and on ‘‘ The
Evolution of Mind in Man,” but a larger work on
which he was engaged is, it must be feared, incom-
plete. A strain caused by bicycling led to serious
heart symptoms some years ago, and although a par-
tial recovery was made, a relapse about a year since
reduced him so much that it was not surprising to
hear that he passed quietly away on April 6, whilst
seated in his study. 4
Mr. Medlicott became a Fellow of the Geological
Society as long since as 1856, and in 1888, on his
retirement from India, he received the Wollaston
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE 613
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1877. He received the military medal for his
services in the Mutiny. He was also a Fellow of
Calcutta University, and from 1879 to 1881 he was
president of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Were Be
medal.
NOTES.
Tue report on the natural history collections made in thc
Antarctic regions by the Discovery Expedition, to be pub-
lished by the trustees of the British Museum, and edited
by Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., promises to be of
particular interest and importance. The working out of
the collections has been entrusted to nearly fifty naturalists,
each of whom will deal with material in which he is
specially interested. Inquiries concerning the zoological
and botanical collections should be addressed to Mr. F.
Jeffrey Bell, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell
Road, London, S.W.
Tue council of the Institution of Civil Engineers has
made the following awards for papers read and discussed
before the institution during the past session :—Telford
gold medals to Lord Brassey, K.C.B., and Mr. C. S. R.
Palmer; a George Stephenson gold medal to Mr. Lyonel
E. Clark; a Watt gold medal to Mr. J. F. C. Snell;
Telford premiums to Messrs. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt,
R. W. Allen, and Wm. Marriott; a Crampton prize to
Mr. A. Wood-Hill, and the Manby premium to Mr. E. D.
Pain. The presentation of these awards, together with
those for papers which have not been subject to discussion
and will be announced later, will take place at the in-
augural meeting of next session. Sir Alexander Binnie has
been elected president of the institution in succession to Sir
Guilford Molesworth, K.C.I.E.
Mr. W. E. Cooke, Government astronomer for Western
Australia, writes to us from the observatory at Perth to
direct attention to an unusual seismic disturbance in that
place. During March 5 there were three marked earth-
quakes in the space of a few hours, and these reached their
maxima at 16h. 25-8m., 19h. o-1m., and 13h. 42-6m. The
times are given in Greenwich civil time. Each maximum
was preceded by tremors from fifteen to twenty minutes
earlier, and by a large wave from ten to fifteen minutes
before the maximum. It is noteworthy that the transit
circle was displaced considerably in both level and azimuth.
Another earth tremor, the greatest yet registered on the
Milne seismograph at Perth, occurred on March 19. There
were no preliminary tremors; the disturbance proper com-
menced abruptly, and reached a maximum in 19-6m.
Tue workers at the Port Erin Biological Station during
this spring vacation include Prof. B. Moore, Dr. H. E.
Roaf, and Mr. B. Whitley (all from the biochemical de-
partment of the University of Liverpool), Mr. J. A. Dell
and Mr. E. Standing (from the University of Leeds), Prof.
Herdman, Mr. W. Dakin, and Mr. W. A. Gunn (from the
University of Liverpool), and Mr. Chadwick, the curator.
Prof. Moore and his party are investigating the changes
produced in the growth of embryos by alterations in the
constitution of the sea-water and other conditions of the
environment. The other workers are engaged on various
lines of zoological research. The fish-hatching is now
going on rapidly, and more than three millions of plaice
fry have already been turned into the sea this month. The
parent plaice in the spawning pond were evidently about
a fortnight earlier in reproducing this season than last, as
the first fertilised eggs were obtained on February 14, and
in large quantity, as against March 3 in 1904.
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
Ir is proposed to send out a special series of telegraphic
time signals beginning at 11.55 p.m., United States
Eastern Standard Time (mean time of the 75th meridian
west from Greenwich), on May 3, and ending at mid-
night, according to the plan followed daily at noon. These
special time signals will be sent out by request of the
American Railway Association, with the approval of the
Secretary of the Navy, in honour of the International
Railway Congress, which is to meet in the capital of the
United States on the following day. It is hoped that the
principal observatories of the world will make efforts to
receive and time these signals accurately, and reports of
such observations may be made at once, without expense,
through the courtesy of the various telegraph and cable
companies. This was done in the case of the New
Year's Eve time signals from the United States Naval
Observatory, which are reported to have reached the
Toronto Observatory in ooos.; Lick Observatory, 0-05s. ;
City of Mexico, o-11s.; Manila, 0-37s. ; Greenwich, 1-335. ;
Sydney, Australia, 2.25s.; Wellington, N.Z., 4-00s.; and
Cordoba, Argentina, 7-7s. From the rapidity and accuracy
with which these time signals are transmitted over con-
necting land lines, as a result of long experience in trans-
mitting the daily noon signals, it seems very probable, if
the telegraph companies will take especial care in their
transmission and not interpose any secondary clocks or
human relays, that they may serve to give fairly accurate
determinations of longitude at any telegraph station on
the American continent where they can be noted exactly
and compared with accurate local time.
It was decided in the Chancery Division of the High
Court on April 19 that the public has not the right of free
access to Stonehenge. The question of free access was
raised by an action in which the Attorney-General claimed
an order against Sir Edmund Antrobus to remove the
fencing which now encloses Stonehenge, and an injunc-
tion to restrain him from erecting any such fencing. The
claim was based on two grounds:—(1) that Stonehenge
is a national monument of great interest and is subject to
a trust for its free user by the public; (2) that there are
public roads running up to and through Stonehenge, and
that those roads have been blocked by the defendant's
fencing. Mr. Justice Farwell, who heard the action, de-
cided that both these claims were untenable ; and he there-
fore dismissed the action, with costs. In concluding this
judgment, his Lordship is reported by the Times to have
remarked :—‘‘I hold that the access to the circle was
incident only to the permission to visit and inspect the
stones, and was, therefore, permissive only, and, further,
that the tracks to the circle are not thoroughfares, but
lead only to the circle, where the public have no right
without permission, and, therefore, are not public ways.
The action accordingly fails, and ought never to have
been brought. It is plain that the vicinity of the camp
and the consequent increase of visitors compelled the
defendant to protect the stones if they were to be pre-
served; and he has done nothing more. than is necessary
for such protection. I desire to give the relators credit
for wishing only to preserve this unique relic of a former
age for the benefit of the public, but I fail to appreciate
their method of attaining this. The first claim to dis-
possess the defendant of his property is simply extravagant,
so much so that, although not technically abandoned, no
serious argument was addressed to me in support of it.
The rest of the claim—for rights of way over the net-
work of tracks shown on the plaintiff’s plan—if successful
would defeat the relators’ object. If these ways were left
unfenced and heavy traffic passed through the circle, there
614
would be great risk of injury, and even without such
traffic there is great risk from the increased numbers of
passers-by. As Sir Norman Lockyer (whose interesting
application of the orientation theory to Stonehenge has
recently appeared) says in one of his articles :— The real
destructive agent has been man himself—savages could
not have played more havoc with the monument than the
' «English who have visited it at different times for different
purposes.’ I feel no confidence that the majority of
tourists have improved, nay, rather—* Aetas parentum,
pejor avis, tulit Nos nequiores.’ It is only fair to the
defendant to say that he is not acting capriciously, but
on expert advice for the preservation of the stones. If,
on the other hand, the roads are all fenced off, the general
appearance would be ruined, and no human being would
be in any way the better. It is not immaterial to remark
that this is not the action of the district or the county
council to preserve rights of way, but is brought on the
relation of strangers on the score of the public interest in
Stonehenge.”’
Tue death is announced of Prof. A. A. Wright, professor
of geology and zoology at Oberlin College since 1874.
Tue Rome correspondent of the Daily Chronicle reports
that Vesuvius is again in full eruption, and that earth-
quake shocks are frequent in the Vesuvian communes.
Tue French Government, says the British Medical
Journal, has granted a subvention of 4oool. in aid of the
International Congress on Tuberculosis, which is to be held
in Paris next October.
Dr. L. F. Barker, professor of medicine at the Rush
Medical School, Chicago, has been appointed to the chair
of medicine in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, in
succession to Prof. Osler.
A DINNER will be given at the Hotel Cecil on May 10,
under the presidency of Mr. Chamberlain, and with the
support of the present Secretary of State for the Colonies,
in aid of the funds of the London School of Tropical
Medicine.
WE learn from the Times that the twenty-fifth anni-
versary of the return of the Vega from Arctic regions after
accomplishing the north-east passage under Baron
Nordenskjéld was celebrated at Stockholm on April 24.
The King of Sweden and the Crown Prince and the other
members of the Royal Family were present at the com-
memorative meeting, as well as Admiral Palander, Minister
of Marine, who commanded the expedition.
A pisTINcT earthquake shock was felt shortly after
1.30 a.m. on April 23 over a large area in the north of
England, including parts of Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
Nottinghamshire, and Lincolnshire. The shock is reported
to have been unmistakable, and to have lasted several
seconds. There is a want of agreement in the reports as
to whether the movement was from west to east, or vice
versd, and it is not clear if one or two shocks occurred.
A heavy rumbling sound is said to have been heard at
Sheffield, Selby, Worksop, and other places.
On Tuesday next, May 2, Prof. L. C. Miall will deliver
the first of three lectures on the ‘‘ Study of Extinct
Animals,’? on Thursday, May 4, Sir James Dewar will
commence a course of three lectures on ‘‘ Flame,’’ and on
Saturday, May 6, Prof. Marshall Ward will begin a course
of two lectures on ‘‘ Moulds and Mouldiness.’’ The Friday
evening discourse on May 5 will be delivered by Prof.
H. E. Armstrong, the subject being ‘* Problems Under-
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATURE
[APRIL 27, 1905
lying Nutrition,’ on May 12 by Prof. E. Fox Nicholls on
““The Pressure due to Radiation,’’ and on May 19 by Sir
Charles Eliot on ‘‘ The Native Races of the British East
Africa Protectorate.’’
Tue annual meeting and conversazione of the Selborne
Society will be held by kind permission in the theatre and
halls of the Civil Service Commission, Burlington Gardens,
on the evening of May 3. Lord Avebury will give the
annual address, Mrs. Dukinfield Scott will show her
kammatograph pictures of opening flowers, Mr. Fred
Enock will describe the work of a wood-boring wasp with
the help of some moving slides, Mr. Oliver G. Pike will
contribute a short lecture, while Mr. Percival Westell has
promised to give an account of the actions of a young
cuckoo, and to show photographs in illustration of them.
There will also be many exhibits, including microscopes
lent by members of the Royal Microscopical Society and
the Quekett Club. All particulars may be obtained from
the honorary secretary, Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb, 20
Hanover Square, W.
A LARGE portion of the second part of the first volume
of the Proceedings of the Manchester Field Club is taken
up by the beautifully illustrated article on protective re-
semblances in insects, by Mr. M. L. Sykes, which was
summarised in Nature of March 30. In addition to
a number of shorter articles, mostly the reproductions of
addresses delivered at meetings of the club, the volume
contains the reports for the years 1900 and 1901, together
with lists of officers and council.
Tue first article in the Irish Naturalist for April is
devoted to an illustrated description of the Patterson
Museum in the new People’s Palace at Belfast. The
greater portion of this natural history exhibition is con-
tained in a lofty chamber 75 feet in length by 25 feet in
width. The work of planning the cases and obtaining
specimens with which to fill them was entrusted by the
managers of the palace to Mr. R. Patterson, who seems
to have carried out his task with conspicuous success.
Specimens were contributed by a large number of donors,
and Mr. Patterson himself has consented to act as honorary
curator.
From the Bergen Museum we have received copies of
the Aarsberetning and the Aarbog for 1904. The former
contains photographs of three exhibits added during the
year to the vertebrate series. Of these, the groups of
snowy owls and of sea-eagles appear unexceptionable, but
we cannot congratulate the authorities on the plan of
placing a red deer mounted on a quadrangular wooden
stand in front of a background formed by a picture of a
fir-plantation bordering a church. In the Aarbog the
most important communication is one by Mr. R. Hoye
dealing with the methods of curing salt and kippered
fish, and describing the ‘mycetozoa frequently developed
during or after the process.
WE have received a bound copy of the second volume of
‘* Marine Investigations in South Africa,’’ issued at Cape
Town by the Department of Agriculture of Cape Colony.
Although the title-page is dated 1904, the whole of the
eleven papers contained in the volume were published during
1902 and 1903. The subjects include Crustacea, by the
Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing; Mollusca (two papers), by Mr.
G. B. Sowerby; fishes (three papers), by Dr. Gilchrist;
deep-sea fishes, by Mr. Boulenger ; corals, by Mr. Gardiner ;
sponges (two papers), by Mr. Kirkpatrick; and ocean
currents. Several of the articles have been noticed in our
columns as they were issued.
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE
615
To the April number of the Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology Dr. A. Keith contributes a thoughtful article
on the nature of the mammalian diaphragm and pleural
cavity. The pleural cavity he considers to have been formed
by a hernia-like outgrowth from the general body-cavity,
the diaphragm thus being formed by a portion of the
original outer wall of that cavity. Considerable interest
also attaches to a paper by Dr. A. A. Gray on the mem-
branous labyrinth of the internal ear of man and the seal,
in the course of which it is shown that seals possess in
this region large otoliths comparable to those of fishes.
‘Although the precise function of these structures is at
present unknown,-it would appear from their occurrence in
the two groups that they are correlated with an aquatic
existence.
Ix the second of a series of articles on Canadian life,
published in the April number of the Empire Review,
Mr. A. P. Silver, of Halifax, gives a graphic description
of the wild, or “ feral,’’ horses inhabiting in large droves
the storm-swept Sable Island. This island, which lies
about eighty miles to the eastward of Nova Scotia, consists
of an accumulation of loose sand, forming a pair of ridges
united at the two ends and enclosing a shallow lake; tracts
of grass are to be met with in places, as well as pools of
fresh water. The droves of wild horses, or ponies, and
herds of seals appear to be the chief mammalian in-
habitants of the island. It is generally supposed that the
original stock was landed from a Spanish wreck early in
the sixteenth century, although some writers make the
introduction much later. Five-and-twenty years ago the
number of ponies was estimated at between 500 and 600;
at the present day there are less than 200, divided into
five troops. Not more than two-thirds of these are pure-
bred, the remainder being the offspring of mares crossed
with introduced stallions. The introduction of these
foreign stallions (which is to be regretted by the naturalist)
has been a matter of great difficuity, as the strangers
were attacked and wounded by the leaders of the droves.
The author comments on the striking likeness of these wild
ponies to the horses of the Parthenon frieze and to the
now exterminated tarpan of Tartary. They also seem to
resemble the wild horses of Mexico, although their coat
is doubtless longer. These resemblances seem to point to
reversion to the primitive type of the species. All colours
save grey characterise the pure-bred stock; but chestnut,
with a dark streak on the back and on the withers, is the
most common tint, after which come bays and browns.
Pror. H. F. Ossorn has been good enough to send us
a collection of papers published by himself during the past
year, some of which have been already noticed in our
columns. Among the latter is one on a re-classification of
reptiles, from the American Naturalist of February, 1904,
in which it is proposed to divide the class into the brigades
Diapsida and Synapsida. This plan is further elaborated
in part viii. of the first volume of the Memoirs of the
American Museum, which is well illustrated, and gives
the leading characteristics of a number of the chief groups.
The budget also includes three papers from the Bulletin
of the American Museum, one dealing with sauropod
dinosaurs, the second with new Oligocene representatives
of the horse line, and the third with armadillos from the
Bridger Eocene. An interesting feature recorded in the
first of these is the discovery that in some at least of the
sauropod dinosaurs the first digit of the fore-foot was alone
furnished with a claw, or, at all events, with a claw of
large size. The discovery of what are regarded as ances-
tral armadillos (apparently furnished with a leathery skin)
NO; 1852, VOL, 71 |
in the Bridger Eocene is of much interest from a distri-
butional point of view. It is noteworthy that these animals
were described under the name of Metacheiromys, under
the impression that they were allied to the aye-aye
(Chiromys).
IN a communication published in the American Journal
of Science for April, 1904, Prof. Osborn summarises the
palzontological evidence in favour of the theory that
mammalian teeth are derived from a primitive tritubercular
type, and comes to the conclusion that it strongly supports
the theory. Reference may also be made to the preface
to vol. ii. of the Bulletins of the American Museum (1898-
1903), in which Prof. Osborn gives an interesting account
of the explorations and researches carried out by the de-
partment of vertebrate paleontology during that period.
Special endeavours have been devoted to collecting the
dinosaurian remains from the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming
and Colorado.
A CATALOGUE of second-hand books in various branches
of botany, offered for sale by Mr. F. L. Dames, Berlin,
has been received; the sections best represented are the
diatoms and desmids, floras, and the works on anatomy
and physiology.
Aw abridged report on the experiments with seedling and
other canes in the Leeward Isles in 1903-4, forming No. 33
of the pamphlet series of publications of the Imperial
Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, shows a
certain amount of divergence from the results of previous
years in the list of canes arranged according to sugar
production; Dr. F. Watts, the officer in charge, attributes
it to the dryness of the season. In Antigua, Sealy Seed-
ling, a cane of great vegetative vigour, appears first on
the list, while B 208, which still retains its character of
producing the purest juice, drops to the fourth place. A
system of comparing the plants according to the number
of stations in which they figure among the first seven
promises to determine those most suitable for general
planting.
A rLora of the Calcutta district, where the district ex-
tends sixty miles south and forty miles in other directions,
has been compiled by Dr. Prain, and is published as
vol. iii., No. 2, of the Records of the Botanical Survey of
India under the title of the ‘‘ Vegetation of the Districts
of Hughli-Howrah and the 24-Pergunnahs.’’ The larger
part of the district is alluvial rice-country, but a dry area
occurs in the north-west, and the West Sunderbuns in the
south comprise swamp forest and muddy creeks. The flora
is not confined to wild plants, but includes crops and trees
or shrubs of cultivation. The list of crops, with the
original home of each, brings out very clearly the varied
sources from which they are derived; as compared with
fifty native plants, twenty-five are traced to the Mediter-
ranean area, and about twelve each to Africa and America,
besides other Asiatic species.
BEroreE vacating the post of Government mycologist in
Ceylon, Mr. J. B. Carruthers placed on record in the
Circulars (vol. ii., Nos. 28 and 29) of the Royal Botanic
Gardens his observations on two cankers, caused by species
of Nectria, on tea bushes and rubber trees respectively.
The tea canker which has been known in India for some
years was found over a large area of the tea districts,
more especially at the high elevations and on some of the
finest tea plantations ; the fungus spreads in the soft tissues
under the bark, but produces cracks where the spores are
formed. The Nectria on the Para rubber trees is more
616
insidious, as there is generally little or no evidence of the
disease until the bark is peeled. The same remedy, that
of cutting out and around the diseased areas, is recom-
mended in both cases.
Tue Transactions of the Leicester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society (vol. ix., part i.) contain useful notes on
the excursions made by the several sections. The society
seems to have gone far afield in its studies. Thus Mr.
Fox Strangways conducted a highly interesting excursion
to Whitby, and Dr. B. Stracey contributes a sketch of
the igneous rocks of Morven and the Inner Hebrides.
Mr. G. K. GILBert has submitted to the trustees of the
Carnegie Institution (‘‘ Year Book ’’ No. 3, Washington)
a plan for the investigation of subterranean temperature-
gradient by means of a deep boring in plutonic rock. It
is proposed that the boring be carried to a depth of
6000 feet, and that a site be selected in the Lithonia dis-
trict of Georgia. Here a fairly uniform and massive
granite extends about three miles in one direction and ten
miles in another. It is regarded as of early Paleozoic or
older age.
In an article on the pre-Glacial valleys of Northumber-
land and Durham (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., February), Dr.
D. Woolacott points out that while borings have proved
buried valleys in the lower reaches, the higher parts of
the ancient valleys belong to the present drainage. The
Tyne and Tees were the major rivers, and the land stood
at a higher elevation than now. The greatest recorded
thickness of drift is 233 feet, and the maximum depth
below sea-level is 141 feet. The author discusses the
character of the uplift, the distribution of the drift, and its
subsequent erosion.
Tue Nile flood in relation to the variations of atmo-
spheric pressure in north-east Africa has been the sub-
ject of investigation by Captain H. G. Lyons, Director-
General Survey Department of Egypt, and the important
results of the inquiry were recently communicated to the
Royal Society. The paper itself is too lengthy to allow
of even a brief abstract being made in this place, but a
résumé of the conclusions at which Captain Lyons has
arrived may be given here instead. The curve of the
Nile flood on the average varies inversely as the mean
barometric pressure of the summer months, high and low
pressures accompanying low and high floods respectively.
The pressure variations are similar over wide areas from
Beirut to Mauritius, and from Cairo to Hong Kong, and
are generally of the Indian type of curve of the Lockyers
or Bigelow’s “direct ’’ type. Sometimes the pressure at
Beirut and Cairo is in disagreement with that of the rest
of the area, approaching the ‘‘ Cordoba”’ type of pressure
of the Lockyers or the ‘‘ indirect’? type of Bigelow. Con-
sidering monthly means of atmospheric pressure, this
relation is more clearly shown, and pressure above or
below the normal in months of the rainy season of
Abyssinia coincides closely with deficiency or excess of
rainfall. From 1869 to 1903, an accurate prediction of the
flood from month to month could have been made in six
years out of seven. Using the conclusions derived from
the above discussion for the condition of the Nile flow
during the present year, Captain Lyons writes :—‘‘ With
weak summer rains and high pressure conditions in Sep-
tember and the first part of October, no large amount of
water can have been stored up in the soil of Abyssinia,
so that the springs will run off early, and a very low stage
may be expected in 1905.”
No. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATORE
[APRIL 27, 1905
Tue next meeting of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers will be held at Washington in May. Special
attention will be devoted to the discussion of papers re-
lating to the genesis of ore deposits.
Tue gas turbine has been regarded as the logical
successor of the steam turbine, and numerous devices have
been suggested to convert the energy of the confined pro-
ducts of combustion into mechanical power. In a paper
in the current issue of the Engineering Magazine Dr.
C. E. Lucke examines the thermodynamic principles in-
volved in such devices, and shows, as the result of experi-
ments conducted at Columbia University, that this con-
version is not effected by free expansion in simple nozzles.
In short, the pure gas turbine, provided with the simple
nozzles used by steam turbines, is a failure commercially,
and cannot be otherwise until some method has been found
to make results by free expansion more nearly equal to
those obtained in cylinders.
In the Engineering and Mining Journal Mr. J. B. Jaquet
gives particulars of a severe explosion of rock that occurred
in the New Hillgrove Mine, New South Wales, on
December 15, 1904. The shock was felt throughout the
country for a mile or two around, and the area affected was
more than 300 feet long and 100 feet high. These sudden
outbursts have long been a source of anxiety to the miners
of Hillgrove, and there is evidence to show that they are
increasing in violence as greater depths are reached.
Explosive rocks have been described as occurring in many
parts of the world. In the Derbyshire lead mines, for
example, slickensided rocks were described by Mr. A.
Strahan as being liable to burst on being scratched with
a pick. It has been suggested that the bursts are due to
molecular strain, to occluded gases, or to a compression
of the slates upon their being intruded by a mass of
granite. Mr. Jaquet believes that the Hillgrove bursts are
due to the walls being in a condition of strain and to the
fact that the slate will not bend; it only breaks and dis-
integrates into a number of fragments.
On account of their resistance to the action of sea-
water and of their mechanical properties when heated, a
number of special brasses have during the past few years
been applied in naval construction. In view of this, a
paper published by M. L. Guillet in the Bulletin de la
Société d’Encouragement becomes of some general
interest; it deals in detail with the changes in the
mechanical properties and in the microstructure of typical
brasses which are caused by the addition of lead, tin,
aluminium, and manganese. The influence of aluminium
is particularly noteworthy. On adding from o-5 per cent.
to 5-0 per cent. of this metal to a brass containing 60 per
cent. of copper and 4o per cent. of zinc, a deep golden
colour is produced, whilst after adding more than 5 per
cent. of aluminium the alloy becomes superbly rose-
coloured. This effect is at its maximum at 7 per cent., and
with 1o per cent. of aluminium the colour has become a
silvery white. Corresponding with these variations of
colour, striking changes in the internal structure of the
alloy may be traced. It added that aluminium
brasses have been applied in France in the construction of
submarines, but they have not as yet given complete
may be
satisfaction.
THe March number of the Gazzetta contains an interest-
ing paper by Nicola Pappadd on the coagulation of dilute
solutions of silicic acid under the influence of various sub-
stances. Organic compounds such as glucose, saccharose,
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE
617
the alcohols, &c., do not produce coagulation, and the
phenomenon seems to be initiated solely by the presence of
the positive ion of an electrolyte. The negative ion appar-
ently is quite without influence on the rate of coagulation ;
equivalent quantities, for instance, of sodium chloride,
sodium nitrate, and sodium sulphate cause coagulation to
‘occur at exactly the same rate. The nature of the positive
ion, on the other hand, exercises great influence on
coagulation; in the case of the alkali metals the rate
depends on the atomic weight, there being a regular
sequence in the order lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
cesium, the metal of greatest atomic weight bringing
about coagulation. most rapidly. Traces of acids and of
acid salts, however, inhibit coagulation, an abnormal
behaviour of the hydrogen ion being thus indicated, whilst
alkalis always increase the rate of formation of a
coagulum.
Messrs. BurRGoyNE, BuRBIDGES AND Co. have recently
sent us a new edition of their price list of pure chemicals
and reagents manufactured by them. Part ii. of the cata-
logue contains a list of chemical and physical apparatus
for laboratory or lecture purposes.
WE have received the May issue of the Stonyhurst
Magazine, an excellent example of an illustrated college
magazine. The “‘ science notes,’’ which are entirely astro-
nomical, are illustrated by drawings made at Stonyhurst
Observatory of the great sun-spot of February. There is
also a collection of notes on the bird-life of the college
district.
Tue Cambridge University Press has published the first
supplement of the second volume of ‘‘ The Fauna and
Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes,
being the Account of the Work carried on and of the
Collections made by an Expedition during the Years 1899
and 1900,’’ which is being edited by Mr. J. Stanley
Gardiner. An index is in course of preparation, and will
be published shortly.
Pror. J. J. THomson’s work on “ Electricity and
Matter,’’ containing six lectures delivered by the author
at the University of Yale in 1903, has been translated into
Italian by Prof. G. Faé, and published as one of the
Hoepli manuals. In the opening paragraph of a short
introduction to the work, Prof. Faé quotes the remark
made by Sir Oliver Lodge in our columns that the volume
is ‘‘ Altogether a fascinating and most readable book for
students of physics and chemistry.”
WE have received from Messrs. Taylor, Taylor and Hob-
son, Ltd., of Leicester, a very neatly got up catalogue of
their photographic lenses. These, as is well known, are of
many varieties, and the particular features are that they
are composed of three thin glasses, uncemented, and
accurately adjusted to produce with full aperture sharp
definition evenly throughout the plate. The principles of
the action of a lens are clearly described and illustrated
by Mr. William Taylor, and an interesting series of illus-
trations is given showing the manipulation of the glass in
their works from the rough blocks to the finished lenses.
THE 1905 issue of the ‘‘ Statesman’s Year-book’’ has
now been published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
The statistical and other information in the new issue has
been brought up to the latest available date, in some cases
to the end of 1904. Much alteration has been involved by
the Anglo-French Convention of 1904 and by the adminis-
trative re-arrangement of French West African possessions.
The space devoted to Germany as a whole, especially
education, has been increased; Bulgarian statistics have
been much extended; the Philippine Islands have been
treated more fully; and numerous other sections have
NO. 1852, VOL. 71 |
been largely re-written and thoroughly revised. Two
interesting tables are included, one showing the losses
sustained by the Russian and Japanese forces in the pre-
sent war, and the other showing the penetrative power
of the projectiles used. As usual, the maps and diagrams
are numerous, well executed, and of great value—among
them may be mentioned one showing the new naval
distribution scheme, and one illustrating the British meat
imports from abroad. The ‘‘ Statesman’s Year-book”’ is
likely long to retain the high place it has held for many
years among books of reference.
Tue annual report of the Board of Scientific Advice for
India for the year 1903-4 has been received. With the
exception of that part of the report relating to the work
of the Survey of India, it is based upon the departmental
reports for the year under consideration. The information
included is arranged under the following headings :—
trigonometrical survey, topographical survey, forest survey,
cadastral and traverse survey, geographical surveys and
reconnaissances, total outturn, geodetic, marine survey,
astronomical work, meteorology, geology, zoological
survey, veterinary science, botanical survey, applied botany,
and chemistry. It is worthy of note that the report con-
tains no list of names of the men cf science constituting
the Board of Scientific Advice, nor are there reports of
any meetings of the Board. The portion of the report
relating to the work of the Survey of India is based on
the report of that department for 1902-3 published in 1904,
and certain other items embodying information of later
date than the period covered by any of the other reports.
The publication as a whole may be described as a
résumé of individual departmental reports; it contains
scarcely anything in the way of recommendations for the
future guidance of departmental work, and little that is
to be identified as the special function of a Board of Scien-
tific Advice.
? OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN May :—
May 1. Vesta 6° S. of 8 Leonis. ;
» 2. gh. 38m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei). :
5, 2. 6h. Epoch of Aquarid meteoric shower (Radiant
38°-2°).
ro. SD ish. Jupiter in conjunction with the Sun.
», 6. 5h. 28m. to 6h. 30m. Moon occults a Tauri (Alde-
baran).
;, 8. 8h. Mars in opposition to the Sun.
,», 12. 8h. 46m. to gh. 53m. Moon occults A Leonis (mag.
ey bls Venus. Illuminated portion of dise=o'100 ; of Mars
=0°997.
Hy yi olay ees in conjunction with Moon, Mars 5° 19’ S.
,, 20. 23h. Mercury at greatest W. elongation, 25° 26’.
5, 22, Ith. 20m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei).
5524. Saturn, Outer major axis of outer ring = 39°50 ;
minor axis of outer ring=5"°88. :
,, 25. 13h. Saturn in conjunction with Moon, Saturn 1° 39S.
ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIS FOR COMET 1905 @ (GIACOBINI).
—A set of elements and an ephemeris (April 6-30) for comet
1905 a have been communicated, by General Bassot, of
the Nizza Observatory, to No. 4o10 of the Astronomische
Nachrichten. These were computed from observations
made at Nice on March 26, 28, and 30, and the elements
agree closely with two other sets computed at Harvard
and Paris respectively, and published in the same journal.
The elements and an extract from the ephemeris are here
given :—
Elements.
T =1905 April 4°141 (Paris M.T.)
0 =358 180
8=157 71 ; 19050
z= 40 24°8 |
log g =0'04836
618 NALORE
[APRIL 27, 1905
Ephemeris 12h. (M.T. Paris).
a 6
1905 log A Bright-
h. m.s. « ; ness
April 26 ... 8 9 33 +43) 1:0) 9°9079 ... 0°70
27 ie. OMS 2A. +43 38°8
Qos Oo 1 2Tety, +44 14°3
20) ee O27 IG ot A4n4ay 3S
30. Oe 3S0 tl Pe. AS er T SS 9°9247 o'61
Brightness at time of discovery =1-o0.
An observation by Dr. Palisa at Vienna on April 8 gave
a correction of +2s. and +0/’-2.
CHANGES ON Mars.—A telegram from Mr. Lowell, pub-
lished in No. 4go1o of the Astronomische Nachrichten,
announces that colour changes similar to those previously
reported are again taking place in some of the Martian
features. The Mare Erythrazeum, just above Syrtis, has again
changed from a blue-green to a chocolate-brown colour.
This change was first observed by Mr. Lampland on April 4,
and the Martian season now corresponds to our February.
In a communication to No. 4, vol. xiii., of Popular
Astronomy, Prof. W. H. Pickering observes that ice will
probably begin to form at both poles of Mars during the
present month, the north pole being turned towards the
earth at an angle of 10°%-13°. This opposition is particu-
larly favourable for observations of the green colour over
a greater part of the planet’s surface, as Mars will be
more favourably situated than during the preceding or the
following opposition. Its apparent diameter will be from
13” to 17", and the poles should appear either of a pure
white, a light yellow, or a vivid green colour, the first
named being due to hoar-frost or snow, the second to
clouds, and the last named, in part at least, to vegetation.
PHOTOGRAPHY OF PLaNETARY NEBUL2.—In No. 356
of the Observatory Mr. W. S. Franks suggests that
special attention should be paid to the photography of
planetary nebulze by those observatories which possess
long-focus cameras. Whilst using the late Dr. Roberts’s
98-inch ‘‘ Starfield ’’ reflector, Mr. Franks attempted to
photograph these interesting objects both with and with-
out a secondary magnifier, but in the first case the images
obtained were indistinguishable from those of the-surround-
ing stars, whilst in the latter the definition was very un-
satisfactory.
One point which is strongly in favour of anyone enter-
ing this field of research is the fact that the light emitted
by these objects is of a highly actinic character necessi-
tating only short exposures.
Rapa VeLocities oF ‘‘ STANDARD-VELOcITY STARsS.’’—
No. 3, vol. i., of the Mitteilungen of the Nicholas Observ-
atory, Pulkowa, contains a number of results obtained by
Prof. Belopolsky for the values of the radial velocities of
the “* standard-velocity ’ stars. Each of the values was
obtained from the measurement of about fifteen iron lines
on a single plate, and the date, time, and hour-angle is
given in each case. The stars dealt with in the present
publication are a Arietis, a Persei, e¢ Pegasi, and
8 Geminorum, and taking the mean of the several values
given in each case the following respective velocities are
obtained :— —12.30 km., —2-14 km., +5-72 km. (one
plate) and +4-21 km.
MaGnitupE EguaTion IN THE RiGHT ASCENSIONS OF THE
Eros Stars.—In Bulletin No. 72 of the Lick Observatory
Prof. R. H. Tucker discusses the magnitude equation
which enters into the observations of the right ascensions
of the Eros stars as observed at various stations engaged
in the work. Comparing the equations in the first and
secend Eros lists, it is found that there is no marked
similarity between the two sets observed at the same
station ; different instruments, and probably in some cases
different observers, having been employed. At Lick the
effect of magnitude has been measured by screen observ-
ations at three different epochs for the same observer and
instrument. For clock stars the correction obtained was
0.007 second per magnitude, and, assuming it to vary with
declination, this would give 0-010 second and 0.008 second
per magnitude for the first and second lists respectively.
Confirmation of this, in general, is found in the K6nigs-
berg results obtained with a clock-driven micrometer in
which it is assumed that the magnitude equation is
eliminated. Other tables given show the variation of the
error with varying magnitudes.
NO. 1852, vox. 71]
MEMOIRS ON MARINE BIOLOGY.
‘THE study of marine life by the sea-side is not only a
delightful occupation in itself, but is now considered
as an almost essential part of the training of every young
biologist. It is also one of the most fruitful fields of
inquiry for the elucidation of the fundamental problems
of biology. Several marine stations have now been
erected on our coasts, in which a naturalist may gain a
practical knowledge of the rich fauna and flora of the
sea, and where he may apply those modern and often
expensive methods of experiment and research which can
only be carried out in a well equipped laboratory.
Among the most successful of these institutions is that
of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, established
first on Puffin Island in 1887, and subsequently moved to
its present quarters at Port Erin. It is chiefly due, we
believe, to the efforts and enthusiasm of Prof. W. H.
Herdman that this laboratory was founded. To help the
student to make good use of its resources, Prof. Herdman
is now editing a series of small practical monographs
known as the L.M.B.C. Memoirs. Much valuable
time may be wasted, many serious errors may be com-
mitted, and many precious opportunities may be lost in
the practical study of marine biology through the want
of proper guidance, or through the ignorance of the
literature of the subject. Well stocked libraries are rarely
to be found near at hand, and, moreover, it often happens
that the commonest animals and plants are just those
which have been least completely described in readily
accessible works. It is with a view to remedy these
defects that the memoirs are being published. As the
editor tells us in his preface, the series deals with those
types which have hitherto not been adequately described in
English text-books and laboratory manuals.
Some thirty volumes are promised. They range over
almost the whole of marine life—from the diatom to the
sea-weed, from the sponge to the porpoise. Twelve volumes
have already appeared. These are :—(1) Ascidia, by the
editor; (2) Cardium, by J. Johnstone; (3) Echinus, by
H. C. Chadwick; (4) Codium, by R. J. H. Gibson and
Helen Auld; (5) Alcyonium, by S. J. Hickson; (6) Lepeo-
phtheirus and Lernzea, by Andrew Scott; (7) Lineus, by
R. C. Punnett ; (8) Pleuronectes, by F. C. Cole and J. John-
stone; (9) Chondrus, by O. V. Darbishire; (10) Patella,
by J. R. A. Davis and H. J. Fleure; (11) Arenicola, by
J. H. Ashworth; (12) Gammarus, by M. Cussans. Not
only is a detailed and accurate account given of the struc-
ture of each type, but its habits, life-history, and embry-
ology are also dealt with, and its ‘‘ economic ’’ aspects
are not forgotten. A
On the whole, the various monographs seem to us
most trustworthy, and reflect great credit on the work of
the authors, who, indeed, are for the most part specialists
thoroughly familiar with the types they describe. Yet it
must be confessed that the volumes differ considerably in
merit and attractiveness. Some of them contain little
that is either new or original. Among the most interest-
ing of those already published we may mention the excel-
lent volume on the plaice, Pleuronectes, by Messrs. Cole
and Johnstone, which has already been reviewed in NATURE,
also the memoir on Arenicola by Mr. Ashworth. Both
these seem to us models of what such monographs should
be—clear and practical descriptions of the anatomy and
life-history of the animals concerned, with some discussion
of the general problems suggested, and good illustrations.
Naturally enough the embryology is in most cases very
briefly described, and often the accounts provided are
chiefly derived from the works of other authors. We
question, indeed, whether it is really worth while repro-
ducing in such monographs figures illustrating the de-
velopment which can be found in almost any text-book.
While both a table of contents at the beginning, and
an index at the end, may not always be necessary, yet
it is a pity that many of the monographs should be pub-
lished with neither. In some cases, also, the figures are
scarcely clear enough; but considering the very moderate
price at which they are issued, the L.M.B.C. Memoirs are
excellently printed and illustrated. They will doubtless
fully justify the hope of the editor, and will prove most
useful to students of marine biology, who will await with
eagerness the appearance of the remaining volumes.
APRIL 27, 1905] NATURE 619
‘ , ; and the altitude of the central reach became more ex-
THE PHYSICAL ae Oa THE aggerated as time passed. Including the height of the
VICTORIA falls (400 feet), this difference is now about 1ooo feet.
HEN Dr. Livingstone discovered the Victoria Falls in | Of the process by which the river cut back this Grand
1855, he sought to explain their origin by calling Cafion and shaped the falls as they are seen to-day, the
in volcanic agency, and stated that
they were ‘simply caused by a
crack made in the hard basaltic rock
from the right to the left bank of PLAN OF
the Zambezi, and then prolonged
from the left bank away through 30 ee PALLS
or 40 miles of hills.’’ All subsequent
travellers support the same idea; ACTOS Molynewe EG. Ss.
but in his article Mr. Molyneux, in .
the Geographical Journal, claims Scale of Feet
that, as at Niagara, the combination (a J
of canon, gorge, chasm, and falls is Nat.Scale1:25,000 or 2:53 Sealel'25,000 or 2.53 Inches <1 Mile
due to erosion and the constant re-
ducing action of the Zambezi River
(Fig. 1).
In explaining his theory, the
author first refers to present-day con-
ditions of the river, and divides it
into three portions; the coastal,
stretching 360 miles up as far as the
Kebrabasa Range—a portion of the
mountain axis of South Africa—
through which it runs in a gorge
35 to 4o miles in length. The
middle reach is 600 miles long, in
low-lying country, and is divided
from the upper regions of the river
by the high Victoria Falls, 1000
miles from the coast.
The geology of the country around
the falls is then sketched briefly.
During what was probably the
Tertiary period, South Central
Africa was subject to vigorous vol-
canie action, the concrete forms of
which can now be seen in the de-
nuded and exposed lava-flows of the
Limpopo and Zambezi valleys. In
the vicinity of the falls,the Batoka
country, the basalt is interbedded
with the soft forest sandstones, but
the Zambezi River, in draining the
ancient lake regions of Central
Africa, has eaten into the overlying
sediments until it has reached the
hard and almost level igneous sheet
in which the falls occur. This sheet
extends from the end of the cafion,
40 miles east of the falls, to beyond
the Gonye Falls, 120 miles north-
west.
On reaching the top of this sheet,
the erosive action of the river was
checked ; but conditions were more Rough
favourable in the middle regions of
the river, which had no protective
covering, and where the rocks are
unresisting sandstones and Coal-
measures. A difference of level be-
tween the two regions came into
existence—defined by the eastern
edge or fringe of the basalt sheet.
It may be understood that the
eastern edge would be thin, and the
backward erosion of the Zambezi
from its middle reaches would
quickly break into it. But as the
thickness of the basalt increased as
the river receded westwards, the
cutting action became slower, until
the rate of deepening of the middle
reach and Kebrabasa gorge far out- Fic. 1.—Plan of Victoria Falls. From the Geographical Journal.
stripped the slower process of form- :
ing the Grand Cafon of the Victoria Falls. The difference | author states that, as is common to all rocks of this
between the river bed where running on the basalt sheet | nature, it is full of cracks and fissures due to contraction,
lumnar form. These columns can
1 Abstiact of by Mr. A. J. C. Molyneux in the Geographical generally assuming a co :
“Jail Pie TEOE Tae y J uv is seen at low water along the lip of the falls, more or
NO. 1852, vOL. 71]
stony H
coumeiry Hf
620
NATURE
[APRIL 27, 1905
less truncated as the verge is reached, and bearing little
evidence of attrition (Fig. 2). Mr. Molyneux is of
opinion that the cutting back of the falls is due to
the perpetual hammering action of the vast bodies of
water falling into, and down upon, the cracks between
the basalt columns, assisted by the constant vibration of
the rock from the precipitated masses of water, and that
by this constantly exerted force the columns are rent
asunder and fall into the chasm, taking with them huge
and deep flakes of the precipice. At low water heaps of
these blocks, as yet angular and unreduced, may be seen
in the shallower ends of the chasm.
Such is one phase of the erosion of the falls. Another
power is at work below the water line. The blocks that
Fic. 2.—View of Victoria Falls seen through the jaws of the Gorge.
fall into the chasm disappear in the deeper waters at the
jaws of the gorge—yet, impelled by the rush of the current
in the confined walls, they must be grinding down and
perpetually deepening the canon, to emerge at the eastern
end as rounded pebbles and form the shing beds of the
middle reaches.
[he extraordinary zig-zags or acute angles in the
canon have always aroused comment, and the author
thinks that two main causes are responsible for them
the position of islands that probably studded the river (as
now) and also the existence of master joints and fissures
in the basalt. On Boaruka Island this action is ex-
emplified in a striking manner, for a stream can be seen
falling down a crevice, that forms, peculiarly enough,
another acute angle with the chasm.
Granted that the falls are due to the action of moving
NO. 1552, VOL. 71
water, such parts as are protected by islands must be free
from such erosion. To-day there are three important
islands on the lip of the chasm, and more than fourteen
large ones in 4 miles of above the falls. In the
channels between, there must be more prolonged submission
to moving currents, by which the cataracts at the ends
of the chasm are being deepened into sloping by-washes.
The falls have checked the deepening of the Upper
Zambezi, and until they chisel the groove of the Grand
Canon back to the western edge of the basalt sheet, the
upper reaches must continue to run at a high altitude and
amid low-lying hills. This has prevented the Zambezi
becoming a navigable river throughout, and has also had
a marked influence on the geography of South Africa.
>
river
Photo. by Pedrotti, Bulawayo.
Danger Point on the left; the promontory of the ‘* knife edge”’
From the Geographical Journal.
on the right.
SEISMOLOGICAL NOTES.
THE attraction of the moon has always been felt by
earthquake workers, whatever may be its effect on
earthquakes themselves. The latest contributions to this
aspect of seismology are two papers in No. 18 of the
Publications of the Earthquake Investigation Committee
in Japan. Prof. Omori deals with the lunar daily dis-
tribution, finding maxima of frequency between oh. and
5h., and again between 12h. and 13h., reckoning from
the upper culmination. Dr. Imamura, dealing with the
monthly variation in frequency, finds that this
shows an increase at the syzygies and quadratures; the
former is attributed to the combined effects of the attrac-
tion of the sun and the moon, while the latter is explained
by the fact that the time of high water at Tokio then
coincides with that of the diurnal maximum of barometric
synodic
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE
621
pressure. In spite of the ingenuity of this explanation, its
validity seems doubtful, for the stresses involved can at
most be only a subsidiary cause of earthquakes, and con-
sequently any effect due to them would naturally be looked
for at the time when they vary most rapidly in amount
rather than at that of their maximum.
The same publication contains a paper, of some im-
portance in this connection, on daily periodic changes of
level in artesian wells, by K. Honda. It is the account
of a record, obtained by a self-registering instrument, of
the daily changes in level of two artesian wells, 380 metres
and 300 metres depth, in Tokio and Yokohama. Each
of them showed a periodic change of level which is
directly correlated with the tides in the neighbouring sea,
and also a variation due to changes in barometric pressure,
of such amount as to show that one-third of the changes
in the first case, and one-fourth in the second, are absorbed
by the rocks overlying the water-bearing stratum.
The catalogue of earthquakes felt in Austria during the
year 1903, forming No. 26 of the Mitteilungen of the
Austrian Earthquake Commission, is the last of the series
which will be published under the auspices of the Academy
of Sciences. In the introduction to the catalogue it is
announced that from the beginning of 1904 the task of
collecting and publishing the records of all earthquakes,
whether of local or distant origin, observed in Austria, was
taken over by the Zentralanstalt fiir Meteorologie und
Geodynamik. The Earthquake Commission, having pub-
Jished the earthquake registers up to the end of 1903, will
in future confine itself to the encouragement and publi-
cation of purely scientific investigations.
After the collapse of the campanile of St. Mark’s, in
1go2, there was a popular demand, inspired by the idea
that the detonation was likely to precipitate the destruc-
tion of other historic buildings in Venice, for the cessation
of the usual mid-day gun. The idea was, of course, un-
founded, but to allay the alarm Prof. Vicentini was re-
quested to instal one of his microseismographs, and his
report has now been published. The instrument was
attached to the wall of the ducal palace which faces the
lagoon and is directly exposed to the sound waves of the
cannon; it indicated a vertical displacement, in conse-
quence of the report, of 0.012 mm. to o-o14 mm., and
a horizontal displacement of 0-007 mm. to o-o12 mm., being
about one-half of those produced by a person jumping on
the floor of the room in which the instrument was in-
stalled, and one-fifteenth of the displacement caused by
a high wind. From these figures it is evident that the
sound waves of a cannon can have no appreciable effect
on a building, though plaster may be detached where this
has become loosened and separated from the wall by an
air space.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
Lonpon.
Royal Society, February 23.—‘‘ The Colour-physiology of
the Higher Crustacea,’’ Part iii. By F. Keeble and Dr.
F. W. Gamble. Communicated by Prof. Sydney J. Hick-
son, F.R.S.
(1) The chromatophores of Hippolyte and Crangon are
multicellular structures. Their branches show differenti-
ation into a firmer ectoplasm and a more fluid mobile
endoplasm in which the pigment occurs. (2) The form-
ation of the pigments in the larval and post-larval chro-
matophores is described. (3) In addition to pigments, fat,
in the form of colourless globules, occurs in the chromato-
phores of Hippolyte. This fat lies in special cells of the
chromatophore, and exhibits a mobility similar to that of
the pigments of the chromatophore. (4) If fed and kept
in the dark, or if starved and kept in the light, Hippolyte
loses little of its chromatophoric fat. Depletion of fat
occurs, however, in starved, dark-kept animals. These,
when exposed to sunlight for five or six hours, show fat
in their chromatophores. These results show that the
colourless chromatophoric fat is a reserve food material,
and point to the conclusion that in the accumulation of
this reserve fat light plays an important part. (5) At the
time of settling on the weeds of the sea-shore, Hippolyte
varians is a colourless or faintly brown-striped animal.
WO, 1352, VOL! |
At this stage it is extremely sensitive to the light con-
ditions of its environment, assuming the colour of its
surroundings within twenty-four hours. If the environ-
ment be changed, sympathetic change of colour takes place
in three days. Half- and full-grown Hippolyte are less
susceptible. With them sympathetic colour-change occupies
a week or more.
March 30.—‘ On the Distribution of Velocity in a
Viscous Fluid over the Cross-section of a Pipe, and on the
Action at the Critical Velocity.’’ By J. Morrow. Com-
municated by Prof. H. S. Hele-Shaw, F.R.S.
Summary and Conclusion.—(1) The experiments provide
a partial confirmation of the theoretically obtained law of
velocity distribution, but show that this distribution can
only be obtained under very special conditions, of which
absolute, freedom from obstructions and end effects are
important; and hence (2) When the flow is direct and
stream-lines exist, the velocity distribution is not necessarily
exactly that which may be described as characteristic of
““normal’’ flow. (3) At the critical velocity the irrota-
tional straight line motion ceases and is followed by one
in which the paths of the particles of fluid are eddying
and turbulent. The law of distribution of mean linear
velocity parallel to the axis simultaneously changes from
the parabolic (or approximately parabolic) to that typical
of eddying motion. (4) The critical velocity in question
(being that at which eddying motion ceases to be trans-
formed into direct motion, and not that at which a highly
unstable stream-line motion is suddenly disturbed) is not
accompanied by a sudden change in the velocity parallel
to the axis at any point in the cross-section. On the
other hand, as the total flux increases, the experiments
show a gradual transition from one state to the other,
due to the change which has occurred in the law of
velocity distribution. (5) The observations have little bear-
ing on the upper limit of stream-line flow, as observed
by colour bands. They indicate, however, that the un-
stable direct motion would follow an approximately para-
bolic law of velocity distribution (as represented by the
equation obtained for stream-line motion), and that at the
higher critical velocity this distribution would suddenly
change to that represented by the equation given for eddy-
ing motion. In this case, then, instead of a gradual
change of velocity, there would actually be sudden and
large changes in the velocity parallel to the axis at different
points in the cross-section of the pipe. (6) The “‘ Pitot
law’’ (v=72gh) is at least approximately true at ex-
ceedingly low velocities.
April 6.—‘ The Influence of Cobra-venom on the Proteid
Metabolism.’’? By Dr. J. Scott. Communicated by Sir
Thomas R, Fraser, F.R.S.
Conclusions.—(1) Practically no. change in rate of proteid
metabolism was induced by the administration of cobra-
venom, in spite of well marked local reaction. (2) A slight
decrease in the proportion of urea nitrogen, quite insignifi-
cant compared with that produced by diphtheria toxin and
various drugs, was observed. (3) A slight rise in the pro-
portion of ammonia nitrogen occurred. (4) There was a
slight rise in the proportion of nitrogen in purin bodies.
(5) The nitrogen in other compounds showed no constant
change. (6) The P,O, excreted showed no constant change,
but in two experiments there was a slight rise. The change
produced in the proteid metabolism is, therefore, small,
and such as it is, being in the directions of decreased
elaboration of urea and increase in the proportion of
nitrogen excreted as ammonia, it seems to indicate a slight
toxic action on the hepatic metabolism rather than a
general action on the proteid changes, and tends to con-
firm the view that the poison acts chiefly upon the nervous
system.
Entomological Society, April 5.—Mr. F. Merrifield,
president, in the chair—Specimens of a melanic Grammo-
ptera, discovered by Mr. J. C. T. Poole at Enfield, and
apparently quite distinct from any member of the genus
taken in Britain: H. St. J. Donisthorpe. Mr. Gahan,
to whom the species had been referred, considered it to
be a form of G. ruficornis.—A specimen of Megalopus
melipoma, Bates, an insect which so much resembles a
bee that Bates had said they were indistinguishable in
622
nature: M. Jacoby.—Specimens of Papilio macleayana
and Hypocysta metirius captured in Queensland, illus-
trating the use of ‘‘ directive’? markings in the Rhopalo-
cera in influencing their enemies to attack non-vital parts:
A. Bacot.—An example of Ceratopterus stahli, Wast., a
beetle from Australia possessing notable powers of crepi-
tation: G. J. Arrow.—A series of Erebia alecto (glacialis),
var. nicholli, Obth., taken at about 8000 feet at Cam-
piglio, South Tyrol, with specimens of Dasydia tenebraria,
var. wockearia, caught in the company of the Erebias in
the same localities; when upon the wing the two species
were not dissimilar: A. H. Jones and H. Rowland-
Brown. Mr. Jones also exhibited examples of Erebia
melas from the Parnassus Mountains, Greece, for com-
parison, and fine forms of butterflies found at Mendel, near
Botzen.—A series of Morpho adonis from British Guiana,
with the very rare dimorphic black and white female : W. J.
Kaye.—The social web and pupal shells of Eucheira
socialis, Westw., together with specimens of the perfect
insect, being the actual nest from Mexico described and
figured by Westwood in the Transactions for 1836: Dr.
F. A. Dixey. After Dr. Dixey had read a note upon the
habits of this and similar species, the Rev. W. T. Holland,
of Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A., gave his personal experiences
of social silk-cocoon spinning species also from Mexico.
—A note recently received from Mr. S. A. Neave giving
further interesting evidence of the superstitious dread of
larve with terrifying eye-like markings entertained by
South African natives: Prof. E. B. Poulton.—Experi-
ments to ascertain the vitality of pupz subjected to sub-
mersion: F. Merrifield.—Pseudacraea poggei and Limnas
chrysippus ; the numerical proportion of mimic to model :
H. A. Byatt.—A monograph on the genus Ogyris: G.
Bethune-Baker.
Geological Society, April 5.—Dr. J. E. Marr. F.R.S.
president, in the chair.—On the divisions and correlation
of the upper portion of the Coal-measures, with special
reference to their development in the midland counties of
England: R. Kidston. The following classification of
the Coal-measures is proposed by the author :—
Proposed names
(4) Radstockian Series
(3) Staffordian Series
(2) Westphalian Series
(1) Lanarkian Series
Names previously used
Upper Coal-measures.
Transition Series.
Middle Coal-measures.
Lower Coal-measures (in-
cluding the Millstone Grit).
How tl
—On the age and relations of the phosphatic chalk of
Taplow: H. J. O. White and L. Treacher. The rocks
at the locality of Taplow are described in detail, and the
following classification is adopted:—(E) Upper White
Chalk (visible), 16 feet; (D) Upper Brown Chalk, or rich
phosphatic band, about 8 feet; (C) Middle White Chalk,
about 16 feet; (B) Lower Brown Chalk, or rich phosphatic
band, about 4 feet; (A) Lower White Chalk (visible),
17 feet. Fossil-lists are given from each of the above
divisions, and the authors conclude that the Lower White
Chalk belongs to the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum, and
the succeeding beds to that of Marsupites testudinarius ;
while the lower phosphate-band represents the lower part
of the Uintacrinus-band; and the upper one that of the
Marsupites-band of that zone.
Physical Society, April 14.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S.,
past-president, in the chair.—Ellipsoidal lenses: R. J.
Sowter. The paper extends the treatment of thin
ellipsoidal or astigmatic lenses, and gives a simple solution
for complex problems of the following types :—‘‘ To deter-
mine the astigmatic pencil, after refraction of an astig-
matic pencil by an ellipsoidal lens.’’ And ‘to find the
ellipsoidal lens equivalent to two cylindrical lenses placed |
a definite distance apart, with their axes inclined at any
angle.’? The method of treatment can be applied to
crossed ellipsoidal lenses, in contact, or separated, and is
applicable in general to astigmatic pencils.—Determination
of the moment of inertia of the magnets used in the
measurement of the horizontal component of the earth's
field: Dr. W. Watson. One of the constants required
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
NATURE
|
[APRIL 27, 1905
when determining the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field by the ordinary method is the moment of
inertia of the magnet which is used in the vibration ex-
periment. It is usual to determine the moment of inertia
of the cylindrical brass bar supplied with each instrument
by calculation, then by measuring the period of the magnet
alone, and when loaded with this bar to calculate the
moment of inertia of the magnet. This method pre-
supposes that the density of the inertia-bar is uniform
throughout. It is not easy to secure a bar of which the
density is uniform throughout, and further it is difficult
to test whether such uniformity has been secured. The
author thinks that more trustworthy and uniform results
would be obtained by determining once for all, with very
great care, the moment of inertia of a standard bar and
then determining the moment of inertia of the bars sup-
plied with the different magnetometers, by comparing
them with the standard bar experimentally. In the paper
is described an instrument suitable for comparing the
moment of inertia of bars, together with some experiments
made with a view to determine the moment of inertia of
a standard bar, and an investigation of the influence of the
air upon the period.—Exhibition of a series of lecture ex-
periments illustrating the properties of the gaseous ions
produced by radium and other sources: Dr. W. Watson.
Royal Astronomical Society, April1g —Mr. W. H. Maw,
president, in the chair.—Spherical aberration of object
glasses: A. E. Conrady. The paper dealt with the differ-
ence of phase at the focus caused by the spherical aberra-
tion. Two different rigorous solutions, by which such
differences could be conveniently computed, were deduced
and discussed. The paper also dealt with the relation
between these differences of phase and spherical aberration
in the geometrical sense.—(1) A suggested arrangement
for the mounting of a ccelostat; (2) point distributions on
a sphere, with remarks on the determination of the apex
of the sun’s motion: H. C. Plummer.—The four-prism
spectrograph attached to the Newall telescope of the Cam-
bridge Observatory, with remarks on the general design
of spectrographs for equatorials of large aperture, con-
sidered from the point of view of ‘‘ tremor-discs”?: H. F.
Newall.
Royal Meteorological Society, April 19.—Mr. Richard
Bentley, president, in the chair.—An account of the observ-
ations at Crinan in 1904, and description of a new meteor-
ograph for use with kites: W. H. Dimes. These observ-
ations, which are carried out under the direction of a
joint committee of the Royal Meteorological Society and
of the British Association, are made with meteorographs
attached to kites with the object of ascertaining the con-
ditions prevailing in the upper atmosphere. During last
summer the kites were flown from the deck of H.M.S.
Seahorse, which was placed at the disposal of the com-
mittee by the Admiralty. Mr. Dines designed a new and
inexpensive meteorograph, which he now fully described.
The weather conditions of last summer were somewhat .
unusual, there being a decided preponderance of east and
south-east winds. Near the summit of Ben Nevis the air
was often dry, and was on several occasions warmer than
the air at the same level at Crinan. As a rule, however,
the temperature on Ben Nevis is generally much lower
than the temperature in the free air at the same level-
On several occasions temperature inversions were observed
at levels between 3000 feet and 7ooo feet. A fact previously
noticed was again observed, viz. the decrease of strength
of easterly winds with elevation.—Rate of fall of rain at
Seathwaite: Dr. H. R. Mill. This is a discussion of the
records from a Negretti and Zambra self-recording rain
gauge during a period of eighteen months. Seathwaite,
which is in Borrowdale, Cumberland, is in almost the
wettest spot of the British Isles, the average yearly rainfall
being about 137 inches. Dr. Mill’s results seem to show
that the rainfall at Seathwaite in an average year indicates
a tendency to be greater during the hours of darkness than
in daylight, that rather less than half the time during
which rain is falling it continues without intermission for
at least six hours at a time, and that rather more than
| half the total amount of rain is deposited in such long
showers.
APRIL 27, 1905]
NATURE
623
DuBLIN. ,
Royal Dublin Society, March 21.—Sir Howard Grubb,
F.R.S., in the chair.—(a) The temperature of healthy dairy
cattle, (6) the temperature of tuberculous cattle, not
clinically affected: Prof. G. H. Wooldridge. The author
made 520 observations on 63 healthy dairy cattle which
were subsequently submitted to the tuberculin test, and
failing to react were considered free from the disease.
His conclusions are that the temperature may vary between
100°-4 F. and 100°-8 F., with an average mean temperature
of 101°-4 F. Feeding caused an average rise of 0°-3 F.
above the temperature of the same cattle at the same
time on other days, but not feeding. In the afternoon,
between 4 and 5 o'clock, the average temperature was
o°.5 higher than at 8 a.m. Pregnant cows had an average
temperature 0°-3 F. higher than the average of the other
cattle in the same building. Tuberculous cattle numbering
74, apparently perfectly healthy, but subsequently reacting
to tuberculin, were the subjects of 505 observations.
animals had a much wider range of variations. The
average was 101°-7 F. The lowest observed was 100°-4 F.
and the highest 104°-3 F. The widest range of an in-
dividual was from 100°-7 F. to 104°-3 F., with an average
of 102°-2 F. (temperature taken 15 times). Out of 137
apparently healthy dairy cattle, 74 (54 per cent.) reacted to
tuberculin, thus emphasising the advisability of using that
agent in attempts to obtain a dairy free from tuberculosis.
—On the petrological examination of macadam: Prof. J.
Joly, F.R.S. Various specimens of macadam used on
Scottish roads have been examined. The general results
of the investigation are to elucidate the characteristics of
these macadams, as well as apparent abnormalities of
behaviour, and to demonstrate the value of petrological
methods in such cases.—On the construction of fume-
chambers with effective ventilation: Prof. W. N. Hartley,
F.R.S. The results of a series of experiments on ventil-
ation and of practical experience with fume-chambers have
shown the conditions which are necessary for the removal
of noxious fumes from a chemical laboratory with the
greatest efficiency and the least possible trouble and
expense. Measurements were made daily over a period of
six months of the gas burnt, the air extracted, the differ-
ence between inside and outside temperatures, the baro-
metric pressure, the direction of the wind and its strength.
The direction and dimensions of the flues, and the relation
of the passage of air up the flues to the cubic contents
of the chambers, are stated. The average quantity of air
exhausted per minute was 354 cubic feet per chamber of
51 cubic feet, and on an average the air of each chamber
is completely changed every nine seconds. The small
height of the flues, being 25 feet, renders such a means
of ventilation as that described readily adaptable to small
out-buildings, such as school laboratories. Details are
given as to the construction of flues with a descending
draught as fitted to a lecture table and fume-chamber in
a lecture room.—On the structure of water-jets and the
effect of sound upon them, part ii.: Philip E. Belas.
EDINBURGH.
Royal Society, February 20.—Sir John Murray in the
chair.—On the graptolite-bearing rocks of the South
Orkney Islands: Dr. J. Harvey Pirie. The presence of
Silurian sedimentary rocks in these isolated islands in-
dicates a former much greater extension of land in the
area lying to the south-east of Cape Horn. The fossils
Pleurograptus and Discinocaris indicate their age as corre-
sponding to the Caradoc or Lower Llandovery, and the
structure of the rocks suggests that they belong to the
same series as the Silurian rocks of the Argentine.—
Paleontology of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the
Moray Firth area: Dr. R. H. Traquair. The fossils dis-
cussed in this paper, which embodied the research of the
past fourteen years, were almost entirely fish remains,
other remains, in the shape of badly preserved plants and
certain tracks, probably of invertebrate animals, being
rare. Twenty-one species of fish were recorded, of which
only seven were known from the Upper Old Red of this
region when. the author took up the subject. The
character of the fish remains suggested the division of the
strata of the Moray Firth Upper Old Red into three
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
These.
zones, these being, in ascending order, the Nairn, Alves,
and Rosebrae beds. Reference was made to the affinity of
the Rosebrae fish-fauna with that of Dura Den, the yellow
sandstones of which locality constitute the highest member
of the Upper Old Red of Fifeshire. Dr. Traquair specially
desired to acknowledge his great indebtedness to Mr. W.
Taylor, of Lhanbryde, without whose assistance in furnish-
ing material the paper could not have been prepared.—The
constitution of complex salts, i., derivatives of the sesqui-
oxides: A. T. Cameron. Retger’s method of investi-
gating isomorphous mixtures was applied to the blue
chromoxalates of ammonium and potassium, and showed
that they had no definite composition, there being, there-
fore, no conclusive reason for doubling the formule of
these and similar compounds. The striking analogy
between the so-called double fluorides, chlorides, cyanides,
&c., and the complex derivatives of dibasic acids was
pointed out. It was shown that to almost all such com-
pounds, whether derived from monobasic or dibasic acids,
simple constitutions can be assigned by supposing the
hydroxyl radicals of the metallic hydroxide to be replaced
by complex groups.—Theorems relating to a generalisation
of Bessel’s function, ii.: Rev. F. H. Jackson.
March 6.—Lord M’Laren in the chair.—A study of three
vegetarian diets: Drs. Noél Paton and J. C. Dunlop.
Of the three diets described, one was a totally insufficient
diet of bananas, a second was a fairly typical vegetarian
diet showing the difficulty of avoiding an excess of sugary
food, and the third was the far from economical diet of a
vegetarian glutton. These were compared with the diets
of the labouring classes in cities as illustrated by the
author’s own investigations in Edinburgh, and those of
Rowntree, Alswater, and Lumsden respectively in York,
New York, and Dublin, and as regards rural districts by
Wilson Fox’s report. It was shown that these normal
diets more nearly approached the physiological standard
than the vegetarian diets studied—A further contribution
to the fresh-water plankton of the Scottish lochs: W. and
G. S. West. The thirty-six lochs studied were in the
north-west Highlands. There was an abundance of
Desmids, a fact attributed to the geological character of
the country. The Protococcoidez were not abundant, in
marked contrast to what occurs in. Continental Europe.
Diatoms were very abundant, and did not disappear in
May and June. Myxophycee, again, were relatively few.
The Swedish lakes alone approached the Scottish in the
richness of the plankton. The Danish plankton was re-
latively much poorer in Chlorophycez, especially Conju-
gates. This was to be attributed principally to the fact
that the geological formations are mostly of Tertiary age.
—On the Sarcodina of Loch Ness: Dr. E. Penard. Of
a list of nearly fifty species of Rhizopods and Heliozoa
obtained at depths of upwards of 250 feet, several were of
interest on account of their rarity, some being found for
the first time in Europe, others being previously known
only from the Lake of Geneva. The majority of the
Rhizopoda had probably been derived from the shallow
margins of the lake or from the neighbouring peat bogs;
but some half dozen species or varieties were regarded as
peculiar to the abyssal portions of large lakes.—The
Rhizopods and Heliozoa of Loch Ness: J. Murray. In
this paper the list of species given in the previous paper
by Penard was supplemented by a number of species
observed by the Lake Survey, bringing the list of Loch
Ness Sarcodina up to sixty-six species. The difficulty of
accounting for the transmission of peculiar abyssal forms
from one deep lake to another was met by the suggestion
that the abyssal forms originate separately in each lake
and are probably not good permanent species, but modified
forms due to the direct action of the environment on the
growing individual.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, April 17.—M. Troost in the chair.
—Second note on the principle of cellular flotation in
ships: M. Bertin.—Mixed treatment by arsenious acid
and trypan red of infection due to Trypanosoma: A.
Laveran. Fresh experiments on monkeys confirm the
favourable results previously obtained on rats and dogs.—
Observations on the new comet Giacobini (1905, March 26)
made at Toulouse Observatory: F. Rossard.—On the
624
NATURE
[ APRIL 27, 1905
differential equation y’+AA(x)y=o: Max Mason.—On the
relation which exists between the velocity of combustion
of powders and the pressure: R. Liouville.— Optical
properties of iono-plastic iron: L. Houllevigue.—On the
theory and imitation of the motion of sails: A. Bazin.—
On the use of the centrifugal method in the analysis of
cocoa and chocolate: F. Bordas and M. Touplain. It is
necessary, to avoid some practically impossible filtrations,
to use an apparatus capable of nearly 2000 revolutions a
minute.—New method for a quick analysis of milk: F.
Bordas and M. Touplain. By centrifugal means one
avoids much filtration as well as the protracted desiccation
of the casein.—An apparatus for giving warning of the
presence of luminous gas and afterdamp: MM. Hanger
and Pescheux.—The crystalloluminescence of arsenious
acid: M. Guinchant. This appears to be due to a
chemical phenomenon corresponding with the reversible
reaction
As, O, + 6HCI= 3H,O + 2AsCl,.
—On the emission spectrum of the high tension electric
arc: J. de Rowalski and P. Joye.—On a simple method
for the study of oscillating sparks: G. A. Hemsalech.
The method depends on the fact that a current of air
directed on such a spark can separate out the oscillations.
—Apparatus and methods in the medical applications of
statical electricity: L. Benoist. An attempt to systematise
the usage based on the consideration of electric density.
—On the mode of formation of some monosubstituted
derivatives of urethane: F. Bodroux. When small
quantities of ethyl carbonate are dropped into an ether
solution of the magnesium derivative of an aromatic
primary amine, a lively reaction takes place. If aniline
be used, phenylurethane is formed.—On the mineralogical
analysis of arable earths: J. Dumont. The author
describes methods for quantitatively determining the
proportions of sand, mica, felspar, quartz, &c.—On
some Crustacea resulting from the expedition of the
Princess Alice: H. Coutiere. By the use of a net with
a large aperture a considerably more valuable collection
was made.—On the excitation of nerves by a minimum of
energy, and its application to electrodiagnosis: M. Cluzet.
By experiments made on the nerves of human beings, it
has been found through the application of a formula that
the duration of minimum excitation may be 0-00020 second.
—Physiology of the spleen: MM. Charrin and Moussu.
The experiments made tended to elucidate the much dis-
cussed question as to the functional relationship between
the liver and the spleen.—The action of intestinal fluid on
enteric secretion: A. Frouin. Many facts seem to prove
that this exciting action is not due to secretin Researches
on animal lactase: H. Bierry. The experiments show
that lactase is not contained in the pancreatic juice of
suckling puppies——On the production of alcohol and
acetone by muscles: F. Maignan. The author replies in
the affirmative to the question as to whether these sub-
stances, which are normally present in muscle tissue, arise
by alcoholic fermentation of glucose by the agency of proto-
plasm. But while the acetone continues to be formed, the
alcohol is sooner or later destroyed again.
DIARY OF SOCIETIES.
THURSDAY, Apri 27.
INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Discussion: Mr. RB. J.
Arnold's Address to the Joint Meeting at St. Louis on the Problem of the
Alternate Current Motor applied to Traction.—Pafer: The Alternate
Current Series Motor: F. Creedy.
FRIDAY, Apri 28.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOcIETY, at 8.30.
MONDAY, May :.
Roya. INSTITUTION, at 5.—Annual Meeting.
Society or CHEMICAL INbusTRY, at 8.—(1) The Study of the Action of
Hydrogen Peroxide on a Photographic Plate in the Dark; (2) On the
Influence of the Length of the Time of Development on the Degree of
Darkening of the Photographic Plate : Prof. Chiri Otsuki.
Vicrorta INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—The Influence of Physiological Discovery
on Thought : Dr. E. P. Frost.
TUESDAY, May 2.
ZooLoGIcAL Society, at 8.30.—On Leucosolenia contorta, Bowerbank,
lscandra contorta, Haeckel, and Ascetta spinosa, Lendenfeld: Prof
NO. 1852, VOL. 71]
E. A. Minchin.—Some Notes upon the Anatomy of the Ferret-Badger
(Helictis personata): F. KE. Beddard, F.R.S.—Contributions to the
Osteology of Birds, Part vii., Eurylamide, with Remarks on the Sys-
tematic Position of the Group: W. P. Pycraft..
Roya InstTITUTION, at 5.—The Study of Extinct Animals: Prof. L. C.
Miall, F.R.S.
Society or ARTS, at 4.30.—The Monumental Treatment of Bronze: J.
Starkie Gardner. ©
WEDNESDAY, May 3.
ENTomoLoGicat Society, at 8.—The Structure and Life-histcry of Psy- |
choda sexpunctata, Curtis: J. A. Dell.
Society oF PuBLic ANALYSTS, at 8.
Socrety or Arts, at 8.—Recent Excavations in Rome : Mrs. Burton-Brown,
THURSDAY, May 4.
Royat InsTITUTION, at 5.—Flame: Sir James Dewar, F.R.S.
Cuemicat Society, at 8.—The Synthesis of Substances Allied to
Adrenaline : H. D. Dakin.—Methylation of #-Aminobenzoic Acid by
_ Means of Methyl! Sulphate : J. Johnston.—Some Notes on Sodium Alum:
J. N. Wadmore.—Camphoryl--Semicarbazide: M. O. Forster and
H. E. Fierz.
RONTGEN SoOcIETY, at 5, (1) to Medical Members only. Forty-two Cases of
Ureteral Calculus Diagnosis by X-Rays proved by Operation on the
Passage of the Calculi; (2) at 8.15 p.m., to the Genera! Meeting,
Measurement and Technique in Therapeutic Dosage: Dr. C. Lester
Leonard, Philadelphia.
LINNEAN Society, at 8.—(Ecology: its Present Position and Probable
Development: A. G. Tansley.—The Flora of Gough Island: R. N. R.
Brown.
Civit AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SOCIETY, at 7.30.—Annual General
Meeting.—At 8.—Card-Indexing and Filing: J. C. Osborne.
FRIDAY, May 5.
Roya. INSTITUTION, at 9.—Problems underlying Nutrition: Prof. H. E.
Armstrong, F.R.S.
SATURDAY, May 6.
Rovat INSTITUTION, at 3.—Moulds and Mouldiness: Prof. Marsh:
Ward, F.R.S.
CONTENTS. PAGE
Three Cambridge Mathematical Works. By Prof.
G. H. Bryan, F.R_S. a talweste =) .) Gor
Rein’s ‘‘ Japan: jessy Dr. Henry Dyer . . ; . ) 603
Making a Pasture . PMP ook Seo . 604
Sociology. By F. W. H. age as 605
Our Book Shelf :—
Balfour: ‘‘First Report of the Wellcome Research
Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College,
Khartoum.”—Prof. R. T. Hewlett .... . . 605
Grindon: ‘ Till the Sun Grows Cold” . .... . 606
Gregory: ‘*A Short Introduction to the Theory of
Electrolytic Dissociation” ..... B= 606
Letters to the Editor : —
Electromagnetics in a Moving Dielectric.—Oliver
HeavisidenshoR Ss. . |. Qi: oy 0) 5) eee ae OGG)
The Dynamical Theory of Gases.—J. H. Jeans 607
Growth of a Wave-group when the Group-velocity is
Negative.—Dr. H. C. Pocklington GMA G07.
The Transposition cf Zoological Names.—Dr. R.
Lydekker, F.R.S. . A Aen F 608
A little known Property of the Gyroscope.—Prof.
William H. Pickering . i Sune i a. 1608
Have Chemical Compounds a Definite Critical Tem-
peratureand Pressure of Decomposition? —Geoffrey
Martin (ee 5 Ra ces)
Experiment on Pressure due to Waver.—Sidney
Skinner = . . ee : ars : 5) Oo
Tantaium. (J///ustrated.) By Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin 610
Primitive Water-Supply. (///ustrated.) oy ee D
Henry Benedict Medlicott, F.R.S. By W.T.B. . 612
Notes eC Se A A rel LENS,
Our Astronomical Column :—
Astronomical Occurrences in May , ‘2 se ROT.
Elements and Ephemeris fo: Comet 1905 a (Giacobini) 617
Changeson Mars. . 1k Seite. > eames
Photography of Planetary Nebule stots 618
Radial Velocities of ‘‘ Standard-velocity Stars ” 618
Magnitude Equation in the Right Ascensions of the
Eros Stars cy Oe’ : 618
Memoirs on Marine Biology ... . F + i ee OIS
The Physical History of the Victoria Falls. (//dus-
trated ) 2 oe n Beis ce SOUS)
Seismological Notes oho oy OZO
Societies and Academies 2 4 62t
Diary of Societies 624
310
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